Jews and Christians in Their Graeco-Roman Context: Selected Essays on Early Judaism, Samaritanism, Hellenism & Christianity (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 196)

Pieter W. van der Horst

Jews and Christians in Their Graeco-Roman Context Selected Essays on Early Judaism, Samaritanism, Hellenism, and Christianity

Mohr Siebeck

Pieter W. van der Horst, born 1946, studied Classical Philology and received a PhD in Theology (1978); from 1969-2006 he was firstly research assistent, then junior and later senior lecturer, and finally full professor in N e w Testament, Early Christian Literature, and the Jewish and Hellenistic world of Early Christianity at the Faculty of Theology of Utrecht University.

ISBN 3-16-148851-2 ISBN-13 978-3-16-148851-1 ISSN 0 5 1 2 - 1 6 0 4 (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament) Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at http://dnb.ddb.de. © 2 0 0 6 Mohr Siebeck Tubingen. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher's written permission. This applies particularly to repro­ ductions, translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systems. The book was typeset by Martin Fischer in Tubingen, printed by Gulde-Druck in Tubingen on non-aging paper and bound by GroBbuchbinderei Spinner in Ottersweier. Printed in Germany.

Preface T h e a u t h o r w i s h e s to e x p r e s s his sincere t h a n k s to the f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n s : To P r o f e s s o r s M a r t i n H e n g e l a n d J o r g F r e y for their w i l l i n g n e s s to a c c e p t this c o l ­ lection o f e s s a y s for p u b l i c a t i o n in their series W U N T ; to Dr. H e n n i n g Ziebritzki o f M o h r S i e b e c k ' s p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e for his c a r e in s e e i n g t h e b o o k t h r o u g h t h e p r e s s ; to Dr. G e r a r d M u s s i e s a n d P r o f e s s o r M a r t i e n P a r m e n t i e r for their p e r m i s s i o n to h a v e t h e t w o articles o f w h i c h t h e y w e r e c o - a u t h o r s reprinted; a n d e s p e c i a l l y to m y friend Dr. J a m e s N . P a n k h u r s t for his unfailing r e a d i n e s s d u r i n g so m a n y y e a r s to e m e n d t h e E n g l i s h o f a l m o s t all m y e s s a y s . T h e a u t h o r also t h a n k s the f o l l o w i n g p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e s for their p e r m i s s i o n to reprint the e s s a y s in this v o l u m e : B a r Ilan U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Brill A c a d e m i c P u b l i s h e r s , C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , T. & T. C l a r k International ( C o n t i n ­ u u m ) , Librairie D r o z , M o h r S i e b e c k , N e u k i r c h e n e r V e r l a g s h a u s , E d i z i o n i d e l l ' Orso, Oxford University Press, Peeters Publishers, Kluwer Academic Publishers ( S p r i n g e r Verlag), S c h o l a r s P r e s s , a n d Sheffield A c a d e m i c P r e s s . U t r e c h t , Sept. 2 0 0 5

PWvdH

Table of Contents Preface

V

Abbreviations

Introduction

IX

1

The Jews of Ancient Crete

12

The Jews of Ancient Cyprus

28

T h e J e w s o f A n c i e n t Sicily

37

T h e S y n a g o g u e of Sardis a n d its I n s c r i p t i o n s

43

J e w s a n d B l u e s in L a t e A n t i q u i t y

53

A N o t e o n the Evil I n c l i n a t i o n a n d S e x u a l D e s i r e in T a l m u d i c L i t e r a t u r e

59

" H i s D a y s Shall B e O n e H u n d r e d a n d T w e n t y Y e a r s " . G e n e s i s 6:3 in E a r l y J u d a i s m a n d A n c i e n t Christianity

66

Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis. A Review Article

71

H u l d a h ' s T o m b in E a r l y J e w i s h T r a d i t i o n

87

P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s on the Afterlife. A R e j o i n d e r to J o h n C o l l i n s

93

P h i l o ' s In F l a c c u m a n d t h e B o o k o f A c t s

98

C o m m o n P r a y e r in P h i l o ' s In F l a c c u m 1 2 1 - 1 2 4

108

P h i l o a n d t h e R a b b i s on G e n e s i s . S i m i l a r Q u e s t i o n s , Different A n s w e r s . .

114

P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a on t h e W r a t h o f G o d

128

A n t i - S a m a r i t a n P r o p a g a n d a in E a r l y J u d a i s m

134

J a c q u e s B a s n a g e ( 1 6 5 3 - 1 7 2 3 ) on t h e S a m a r i t a n s . Or: H o w m u c h did o n e k n o w a b o u t the S a m a r i t a n s three c e n t u r i e s a g o in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s ? . .

151

O n c e M o r e : T h e T r a n s l a t i o n o f oi 5e in M a t t h e w 2 8 : 1 7

161

A b r a h a m ' s B o s o m , the P l a c e W h e r e H e B e l o n g e d . A S h o r t N o t e o n djievexdrjvai

in L u k e 16:22

164

VIII

Table of

Contents

" S n o r t i n g T h r e a t a n d M u r d e r " . T h e H e l l e n i s t i c B a c k g r o u n d o f A c t s 9:1

167

" O n l y t h e n will all Israel b e s a v e d " . A S h o r t N o t e on t h e M e a n i n g o f xcd oihcog in R o m a n s 11:26

176

M a c a r i u s M a g n e s a n d the U n n a m e d A n t i - C h r i s t i a n P o l e m i c i s t . A r e v i e w article

181

A N e w E a r l y C h r i s t i a n P o e m on the Sacrifice o f Isaac ( P a p . B o d m e r 3 0 )

190

T h e R o l e o f S c r i p t u r e in Cyril o f S c y t h o p o l i s ' L i v e s o f the M o n k s of Palestine

206

T w e n t y - F i v e Q u e s t i o n s to C o r n e r the J e w s . A B y z a n t i n e A n t i - J e w i s h D o c u m e n t from the S e v e n t h C e n t u r y

216

" T h e M o s t S u p e r s t i t i o u s a n d D i s g u s t i n g o f All N a t i o n s " . D i o g e n e s o f O e n o a n d a on the J e w s

227

T h e S h a d o w in H e l l e n i s t i c P o p u l a r B e l i e f

234

T h e First A t h e i s t

242

S u b t r a c t i v e Versus A d d i t i v e C o m p o s i t e N u m e r a l s in A n c i e n t L a n g u a g e s

250

T h e G r e a t M a g i c a l P a p y r u s o f Paris ( P G M I V ) a n d the B i b l e

269

" T h e G o d W h o D r o w n e d the K i n g o f E g y p t " . A S h o r t N o t e o n an Exorcistic Formula

280

Original places of publication

285

B i b l i o g r a p h y o f P i e t e r W. v a n der Horst, 1 9 7 0 - 2 0 0 5

287

Index of passages

321

Index of modern authors

340

I n d e x o f n a m e s a n d subjects

348

Abbreviations ANRW

A u f s t i e g u n d N i e d e r g a n g d e r R o m i s c h e n Welt

ARW

A r c h i v fur R e l i g i o n s w i s s e n s c h a f t

BAGD

B a u e r - A r n d t - G i n g r i c h - D a n k e r , Greek-English of the NT, 2

BDAG

Lexicon

ed.

B a u e r - D a n k e r - A r n d t - G i n g r i c h , Greek-English of the NT, 3

BZ

n d

r d

Lexicon

ed.

B i b l i s c h e Zeitschrift

CBQ

Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CCSG

C o r p u s C h i s t i a n o r u m Series G r a e c a

CIJ

C o r p u s I n s c r i p t i o n u m J u d a i c a r u m (ed. F r e y )

CPJ

C o r p u s P a p y r o r u m J u d a i c a r u m (edd. T c h e r i k o v e r & F u k s )

CSCO

Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium

DDD

D i c t i o n a r y o f D e i t i e s a n d D e m o n s in t h e B i b l e

GLAJJ

G r e e k a n d Latin A u t h o r s on J e w s a n d J u d a i s m (ed. Stern)

GMA

G r e e k M a g i c a l A m u l e t s (ed. K o t a n s k y )

HTR

Harvard Theological Review

HUCA

Hebrew Union College Annual

ICS

Illinois Classical S t u d i e s

IG

Inscriptiones Graecae

IJO

I n s c r i p t i o n e s J u d a i c a e O r i e n t i s (edd. N o y et al.)

JBL

J o u r n a l o f Biblical L i t e r a t u r e

JECS

Journal of Early Christian Studies

JIGRE

Jewish Inscriptions of Graeco-Roman Egypt

JIWE

J e w i s h I n s c r i p t i o n s o f W e s t e r n E u r o p e (ed. N o y )

JJS

Journal of Jewish Studies

(edd. H o r b u r y & N o y )

JNES

Journal of N e a r Eastern Studies

JQR

Jewish Quarterly Review

JSJ

J o u r n a l for the S t u d y o f J u d a i s m

JSNT

J o u r n a l for the S t u d y o f the N e w T e s t a m e n t

JTS

Journal of Theological Studies

LCL

L o e b Classical L i b r a r y

LSJ

L i d d e l l - S c o t t - J o n e s , Greek English

Mnem.

Mnemosyne

Lexicon

X

Abbreviations

NP NT

N e u e Pauly N o v u m Testamentum

NTS

N e w Testament Studies

OLD

O x f o r d Latin D i c t i o n a r y (ed. G l a r e )

OLZ

Orientalistische Literaturzeitung

PG

Patrologia Graeca

PGM

P a p y r i G r a e c a e M a g i c a e (ed. P r e i s e n d a n z )

PL

Patrologia Latina

PW

Pauly-Wissowa

RAC

R e a l l e x i k o n fur A n t i k e u n d C h r i s t e n t u m

RB

Revue biblique

REJ

Revue des etudes juives

SC

Sources chretiennes

TLZ

Theologische Literaturzeitung

TRE

Theologische Realenzyklopadie

TSAJ

Texts a n d S t u d i e s in A n c i e n t J u d a i s m

TUGAL

Texte u n d U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u r G e s c h i c h t e d e r altchristlichen Literatur

VC

Vigiliae C h r i s t i a n a e

ZNW

Zeitschrift fur d i e n e u t e s t a m e n t l i c h e W i s s e n s c h a f t

ZPE

Zeitschrift fur P a p y r o l o g i e u n d E p i g r a p h i k

Introduction T h i s v o l u m e is the ninth, a n d p r o b a b l y the last, in a series o f v o l u m e s w i t h e s s a y s 1

that I h a v e w r i t t e n o v e r t h e y e a r s . It is p u b l i s h e d o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f m y 6 0

t h

b i r t h d a y in m i d 2 0 0 6 , w h i c h h a p p e n s to c o i n c i d e w i t h m y r e t i r e m e n t as a profes­ sor at U t r e c h t University. T h a t r e t i r e m e n t is early, a n d s u d d e n , a n d not w h o l l y v o l u n t a r y ; it is d u e partly to drastic financial m e a s u r e s t a k e n b y the F a c u l t y o f T h e o l o g y a n d partly to the drastic d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f m y e y e s i g h t . E v e n so, it s e e m e d to b e a g o o d o p p o r t u n i t y to collect several o f m y m o s t r e c e n t c o n t r i b u ­ tions ( a n d s o m e o f the earlier o n e s , o n w h i c h s e e m o r e b e l o w ) . A s the subtitle i n d i c a t e s , t h e e s s a y s c o v e r a r a t h e r w i d e r a n g e o f subjects, a n d the r e a d e r is entitled to k n o w w h a t t h e u n d e r l y i n g u n i t y o f all this is, if i n d e e d there is a n y such unity. O n e will find studies o n subjects as far apart as the o r i g i n s o f G r e e k a t h e i s m in 5

t h

century B C E Athens and aspects of rabbinic

a n t h r o p o l o g y in T a l m u d i c s o u r c e s o f a l m o s t a m i l l e n n i u m later. O n e will find a s t u d y o f t h e c u r i o u s p h e n o m e n o n o f s u b t r a c t i v e n u m e r a l s in v a r i o u s a n c i e n t l a n g u a g e s b u t also a c o n t r i b u t i o n o n a n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d early C h r i s t i a n p o e m o n t h e sacrifice o f Isaac. O n e will find a s t u d y o f t h e m e a n i n g o f the G r e e k w o r d s hoi de in M a t t h e w 2 8 : 1 7 b u t also o n e o n the f a m o u s H u g u e n o t J a c q u e s B a s n a g e ' s v i e w o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s . A n d so o n e c o u l d g o o n , b u t w h a t is the focus in this v a r i e t y ? T h e focus is t h e cultural milieu o f early C h r i s t i a n i t y in t h e w i d e s t sense of the word. A s a s t u d e n t o f classical G r e e k a n d R o m a n antiquity in t h e sixties o f the p r e v i o u s century, I d e v e l o p e d a s t r o n g interest in the r e l i g i o u s m e n t a l i t y o f 1

The eight volumes that were published previously are partly in Dutch, partly in English. They are (in chronological order): De onbekende God. Essays over de joodse en hellenistische achtergrond van het vroege Christendom (Utrechtse Theologische Reeks 2), Utrecht 1988; Es­ says on the Jewish World of Early Christianity (Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus 14), Fribourg-Gottingen 1990; (with Gerard Mussies) Studies on the Hellenistic Background of the New Testament (Utrechtse Theologische Reeks 10), Utrecht 1990; Studies over het jodendom in de oudheid, Kampen 1992; Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity. Essays on Their Interaction (Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology 8), Kampen 1994 (a second, much enlarged edition appeared in Leuven in 1998); Mozes, Plato, Jezus. Studies over de wereld van het vroege Christendom, Amsterdam 2000; Japheth in the Tents of Shem. Studies on Jewish Hellenism in Antiquity (Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology 32), Leuven 2002; Joden in de Grieks-Romeinse wereld, Zoetermeer 2003. These volumes contain some 130 essays (160 if those in the present volume are included), which is about half of the articles I have written; those not reprinted are mostly encyclopedia articles and contributions for a wider audience.

2

Introduction

a n c i e n t m e n a n d w o m e n , i n c l u d i n g the early C h r i s t i a n s . S o o n 1 found out that it is not p o s s i b l e to u n d e r s t a n d early Christianity if o n e d o e s not k n o w its J e w i s h h e r i t a g e , so I also b e g a n to s t u d y biblical a n d r a b b i n i c H e b r e w , a n d later on Palestinian a n d B a b y l o n i a n A r a m a i c as w e l l , in o r d e r to e n a b l e m y s e l f to read the H e b r e w B i b l e a n d also the J e w i s h interpretations o f this B i b l e as a n essential part o f that h e r i t a g e . A n d this t u r n e d out to b e a crucial step for the future d i r e c ­ tion o f m y a c a d e m i c career. It w a s in the s u m m e r o f 1968 that I h a p p e n e d to r e a d an article b y W i l l e m C. v a n U n n i k , t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t p r o f e s s o r at U t r e c h t U n i v e r s i t y ( w h o m I did n o t y e t k n o w at that t i m e ) , w h i c h further o p e n e d m y e y e s to the i m p o r t a n c e o f k n o w ­ ing b o t h the a n c i e n t G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d the J e w i s h literature from t h e c e n t u r i e s a r o u n d t h e turn o f the era in o r d e r to e l u c i d a t e difficult p a s s a g e s in the N e w 2

T e s t a m e n t . After that s u m m e r I started to follow a c o u r s e in S y r i a c a n d m u c h to m y p l e a s u r e the t e a c h e r t u r n e d o u t to b e the v e r y s a m e W i l l e m C. v a n U n n i k . S i n c e I w a s the o n l y student in that c o u r s e , w e d e v e l o p e d a close relationship a n d b y t h e e n d o f that a c a d e m i c y e a r h e offered m e a j o b as a r e s e a r c h assistant in his d e p a r t m e n t . It w a s v a n U n n i k w h o e m p h a s i z e d t i m e a n d a g a i n that, h o w e v e r i m p o r t a n t a t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e o f G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e is for t h e u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s in early Christianity, k n o w l e d g e o f J e w i s h c u l t u r e is e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d this n e w r e l i g i o n in its initial p h a s e s . H i s classic dictum

w a s that after his birth, J e s u s w a s not carried a r o u n d

t h e h e a r t h (as w a s t h e R o m a n c u s t o m ) but c i r c u m c i s e d , a n d that a n y o n e w h o forgot that fact w o u l d n e v e r u n d e r s t a n d the N e w T e s t a m e n t . H i s o w n w o r k w a s , a n d still is, an i m p r e s s i v e e x a m p l e o f h o w o n e c a n b r i n g to b e a r a w i d e - r a n g i n g k n o w l e d g e o f the literature a n d religions o f a n t i q u i t y in its b r o a d e s t s e n s e on t h e s t u d y o f early Christianity. I say ' w i d e - r a n g i n g ' k n o w l e d g e b e c a u s e v a n U n n i k also e m p h a s i z e d t h a t it is m y o p i c to confine o n e s e l f to s t u d y o f first-century s o u r c e s ; o n e s h o u l d cast o n e ' s nets as w i d e l y as p o s s i b l e : P l a t o ' s Timaeus

is as

i m p o r t a n t as t h e r a b b i n i c m i d r a s h , a n d the D e a d S e a Scrolls are as i m p o r t a n t as the patristic interpretations o f the B i b l e . H e h i m s e l f r o a m e d w i d e l y in the a n c i e n t w o r l d , a n d e v e n w e n t as far as p u b l i s h i n g studies on m e d i e v a l S y r i a n c h u r c h 3

h i s t o r y . H i s v i e w w a s that a b r o a d k n o w l e d g e o f the cultural s u r r o u n d i n g s o f early C h r i s t i a n i t y w o u l d a l w a y s h a v e , if not a direct, at least an indirect i m p a c t on the w a y o n e v i e w s t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f this r e l i g i o n in its early p h a s e s . Van U n n i k w a s m y g r e a t p a r a g o n a n d h e h a d a f o r m a t i v e influence on m y s u b s e q u e n t

2

The article was '"Den Geist ldschet nicht aus" (1 Thessalonicher V 19),' Novum Testamentum 1 0 ( 1 9 6 8 ) 2 5 5 - 2 6 9 . For bibliographical details see my 'Einleitung des Herausgebers' in Willem Cornells van Unnik, Das Selbstverstdndnis der judischen Diaspora in der hellenistisch-rdmischen Zeit, aus dem NachlaB herausgegeben und bearbeitet von Pieter Willem van der Horst, Leiden 1993, 13-50. 3

3

Introduction

scholarly career. N o w o n d e r that u n d e r his g u i d a n c e I w r o t e a dissertation on a J e w i s h a u t h o r w h o w a s v e r y m u c h at h o m e in the G r e e k w o r l d .

4

A n o t h e r m a j o r i m p e t u s c a m e in the s a m e period, w h e n M a r t i n H e n g e l p u b ­ lished his magisterial Judentum

und Hellenismus

5

in 1 9 6 9 . T h i s w o r k h a d a

d e e p a n d lasting influence o n m a n y w h o w o r k e d in the fields o f early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n studies a n d w a s , o f c o u r s e , ' g e f u n d e n e s F r e s s e n ' for a y o u n g classical p h i l o l o g i s t w h o w a s also e n g a g e d in J e w i s h studies. It inspired m e not o n l y to p u r s u e further t h e line o f r e s e a r c h that v a n U n n i k h a d a l r e a d y p u t m e on b u t also to p a y m u c h c l o s e r attention to t h e m a n y forms o f i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n b e t w e e n the classical w o r l d o f G r e e c e a n d R o m e a n d the J e w i s h (and C h r i s t i a n ) w o r l d a r o u n d the b e g i n n i n g o f the C o m m o n Era. E v e n t u a l l y m y r e s e a r c h in this field (and also m y l o n g - s t a n d i n g friendly r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h M a r t i n H e n g e l ) led to a p u b l i c a t i o n on t h e p o s i t i o n o f G r e e k as a l a n g u a g e s p o k e n b y J e w s in P a l e s t i n e on the o c ­ c a s i o n o f the c e l e b r a t i o n o f the 3 0 the 2 5

t h

t h

a n n i v e r s a r y o f H e n g e l ' s b o o k (or rather, o f 6

a n n i v e r s a r y o f its E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n ) in 1 9 9 9 . H e n g e l ' s insights into

t h e t h o r o u g h h e l l e n i z a t i o n o f J u d a i s m , not o n l y in the D i a s p o r a b u t also in the J e w i s h h o m e l a n d , e v e n in the p r e - C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d , h a s o p e n e d m a n y e y e s to the c o n t r i b u t i o n s Hellenistic c u l t u r e has m a d e to the c h a n g i n g face o f J u d a i s m in this f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d and to t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s this h a s for o u r study o f ' H e l l e n i s t i c e l e m e n t s ' in early Christianity. Van U n n i k p u t m e to w o r k on t h e Corpus

Hellenisticum

Novi

Testamenti

7

p r o j e c t . M a n y o f m y early p u b l i c a t i o n s , for that r e a s o n , focus on t h e H e l l e n i s t i c b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . S o m e 15 o f t h e m h a v e b e e n reprinted in the v o l u m e I p u b l i s h e d in 1990 in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h m y l o n g - t i m e c o l l e a g u e , Dr. G e r a r d M u s s i e s (see n o t e 1). T h e r e a s o n that I h a v e d e c i d e d to reprint here t w o of these e s s a y s is s i m p l y that the b o o k u n f o r t u n a t e l y n e v e r h a d a n y w i d e circulation a n d h a s , therefore, largely b e e n i g n o r e d (it w a s a p u b l i c a t i o n b y the F a c u l t y o f T h e o l o g y in U t r e c h t , but s i n c e this institute h a d n o distribution a p p a r a t u s , the b o o k r e a c h e d v e r y few p e o p l e a n d w a s n e v e r r e v i e w e d a n y w h e r e ) . T h e o n l y t w o s t u d i e s from that v o l u m e w h i c h are r e p r i n t e d h e r e , h o w e v e r , a r e m y v e r y first 8

article, w r i t t e n in 1969 a n d p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 7 0 , a n d t h e r a t h e r p r o v o c a t i v e p i e c e 4

The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, Leiden 1978. Unfortunately, van Unnik died a couple o f months before the public defense of my doctoral thesis in the spring of 1978. Tubingen 1969 and many reprints; English translation (Judaism and Hellenism), London 1974. See also his later books Juden, Griechen und Barbaren. Aspekte der Hellenisierung des Judentums in vorchristlicher Zeit, Stuttgart 1976, and The 'Hellenization 'of Judaea in the First Century after Christ, London 1989. See my 'Greek in Jewish Palestine in Light o f Jewish Epigraphy,' in J.J. Collins & G.E. Sterling (eds.), Hellenism in the Land of Israel, Notre Dame 2 0 0 1 , 1 5 4 - 1 7 4 , reprinted in my Japheth in the Tents of Shem 9 - 2 6 . On the history of this project see my article 'Corpus Hellenisticum' in the Anchor Bible Dictionary 1 (1992) 1 1 5 7 - 1 1 6 1 . It was published in German under the title 'Drohung und Mord schnaubend (Acta IX 1)' in Novum Testamentum 12 (1970) 2 5 7 - 2 6 9 , but is presented here in an English translation. 5

6

7

8

4

Introduction

w r i t t e n b y b o t h M u s s i e s a n d m y s e l f on the s u b t r a c t i v e n u m e r a l s in a n t i q u i t y .

9

In m y o p i n i o n , b o t h articles d e s e r v e a w i d e r circulation t h a n they h a v e r e c e i v e d h i t h e r t o b e c a u s e there is m u c h n e w a n d relevant m a t e r i a l in t h e m . N o w the rel­ e v a n c e o f a s t u d y o f subtractive n u m e r a l s m a y n o t b e r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t , b u t o n c e the r e a d e r realizes that P a u l u s e s s u c h a n u m e r a l in 2 Cor. 11:24 ('forty s t r o k e s less o n e ' ) , t h e i m p o r t a n c e of p u t t i n g this e x p r e s s i o n in as w i d e a linguistic c o n ­ text as p o s s i b l e will b e c o m e clear. M o s t o f t h e o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s are m o r e r e c e n t a n d t h e y reflect m y i n c r e a s e d interest a n d r e s e a r c h in a n c i e n t J u d a i s m . T h e r e is a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f t h e c l o s e l y related q u e s t i o n s w h i c h b o t h P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a a n d t h e r a b b i s a s k e d a b o u t difficult v e r s e s in the b o o k o f G e n e s i s , w h e r e their different a n s w e r s are also p u t into p e r s p e c t i v e .

10

A p a r t from o t h e r Philonica,

on w h i c h m o r e b e l o w ,

t h e r e is a further s t u d y o f r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l s in t h e article on the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n G o d ' s p o s i t i v e c o m m a n d m e n t to p r o c r e a t e {peru u-revu)

in G e n . 1:28 on the

o n e h a n d , a n d the often less t h a n p o s i t i v e v i e w the r a b b i s h a d o f sexual d e s i r e , w h i c h they r e g a r d e d as a manifestation o f the evil inclination (yester humans.

1 1

ha-ra *) in

T h e r e is also a recent c o n t r i b u t i o n o n the subject o f m y dissertation,

the Sentences

o f P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s , in w h i c h I c r o s s s w o r d s w i t h the A m e r i c a n

s c h o l a r J o h n C o l l i n s on this J e w i s h p o e t ' s v i e w s on a f t e r l i f e .

12

A s in the p r e v i ­

o u s v o l u m e s , the r e a d e r will o n c e a g a i n notice that there is also m a t e r i a l on the a n c i e n t S a m a r i t a n s . H e r e a third s c h o l a r is to b e m e n t i o n e d for his influence u p o n m e , A l a n D . C r o w n from S y d n e y . T w e n t y y e a r s a g o , in 1 9 8 5 / 8 6 , h e w a s m y g u e s t at the U t r e c h t F a c u l t y for a c o u p l e o f g u e s t lectures, a n d h e o p e n e d m y e y e s to the d e g r e e to w h i c h the S a m a r i t a n s h a d u n d u l y suffered from n e g l e c t b y s c h o l a r s in J u d a i c r e s e a r c h . T h e S a m a r i t a n s f o r m e d a substantial p a r t o f the J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n o f P a l e s t i n e ( e v e n t h o u g h they w o u l d n e v e r call t h e m s e l v e s ' J e w s ' b u t r a t h e r ' I s r a e l i t e s ' ) a n d also h a d their o w n large d i a s p o r a .

13

It is m a i n l y

d u e to the g r e a t efforts o f A l a n C r o w n that S a m a r i t a n studies h a v e c o m e to flourish o f l a t e

1 4

a n d t h a n k s to h i m I h a v e b e e n i n v o l v e d in t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s ,

albeit on a m o d e s t scale. A g a i n , I focused initially m a i n l y on the interaction b e 9

It was originally published in Illinois Classical Studies 13 (1988) 1 8 3 - 2 0 2 . 'Philo and the Rabbis on Genesis: Similar Questions, Different Answers,' in: A. Volgers & C. Zamagni (eds.), Erotapokriseis. Early Christian Question-and-Answer Literature in Context (Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology 37), Leuven 2 0 0 4 , 5 5 - 7 0 . 'A Note on the Evil Inclination and Sexual Desire in Talmudic Literature,' in U. Mittmann-Richert, F. Avemarie & G.S. Oegema (eds.), Der Mensch vor Gott. Forschungen zum Menschenbild in Bibel, antikem Judentum und Koran (Festschrift fur Hermann Lichtenberger zum 60. Geburtstag), Neukirchen 2 0 0 3 , 9 9 - 1 0 6 . 'Pseudo-Phocylides on the Afterlife: A Rejoinder to John J. Collins,' Journalfor the Study of Judaism 35 (2004) 7 0 - 7 5 . See my 'The Samaritan Diaspora in Antiquity' in my Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity 136-147. See, e. g. A . D . Crown (ed.), The Samaritans, Tubingen 1988, the most extensive reference work to date. 1 0

11

1 2

1 3

1 4

5

Introduction

tween Samaritans and Hellenistic culture,

15

b u t later I w i d e n e d t h e s c o p e o f m y

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s as m a y b e a p p a r e n t from the t w o e s s a y s i n c l u d e d in this v o l u m e . 6

M y r e c e n t b o o k De Samaritanen^

is the l o n g - t e r m result o f this i n v o l v e m e n t in

s a m a r i t a n o l o g i c a l research. A g a i n a n o t h e r s c h o l a r w h o h a s e x e r t e d influence on m y scholarly c a r e e r is D a v i d T. R u n i a o f M e l b o u r n e , o n e o f the g r e a t P h i l o n i c s c h o l a r s o f o u r t i m e . After r e a d i n g his m a g i s t e r i a l 1983 dissertation o n P h i l o ' s c r e a t i v e u s e o f P l a t o ' s Timaeus

1 7

in his biblical e x e g e s i s , 1 b e c a m e m u c h m o r e a w a r e o f the i m p o r t a n c e

o f this p a r a g o n o f J e w i s h H e l l e n i s m from A l e x a n d r i a . R u n i a also m a d e v e r y clear to m e h o w g r e a t the i m p a c t o f P h i l o h a d b e e n o n the t h e o l o g y o f m a n y C h u r c h Fathers.

18

volume,

1 9

S o m e o f the fruits o f m y fascination w i t h P h i l o are to b e found in this a l t h o u g h h a l f o f t h e m are n o m o r e than parerga

m e n t a r y o n P h i l o ' s In Flaccum

to m y r e c e n t c o m ­

w h i c h D a v i d R u n i a a n d G r e g o r y Sterling invited

m e to w r i t e for their n e w P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a C o m m e n t a r y Series ( P A C S ) .

2 0

It w a s t h e w o r k on this c o m m e n t a r y , a n d especially t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e c o m p l i c a t e d b a c k g r o u n d s o f t h e s e r i o u s conflict in A l e x a n d r i a in the y e a r 3 8 C E d e s c r i b e d b y P h i l o that led m e to further r e s e a r c h the situations in w h i c h v a r i o u s J e w i s h d i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s h a d lived. N o t o n l y m y earlier study o n the J e w s o f a n c i e n t C r e t e , b u t also t h e r e c e n t o n e s on the J e w s o f C y p r u s , o f Sicily, a n d o f the city o f Sardis h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d h e r e .

21

T h e y s h o w the great variety in

d e g r e e s o f integration a n d a c c u l t u r a t i o n in t h e s e d i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e h o w difficult it is to say w i t h a n y certainty w h y in s o m e p l a c e s t h e v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s lived in h a r m o n y , or at least n o t in conflict, w h i l e e l s e w h e r e t h i n g s derailed c o m p l e t e l y . A special c a s e is the story o f the conflicts, 15

See my study of the Samaritan diaspora mentioned in note 13 and the one on 'The Samaritan Languages in the pre-Islamic Period,' Journal for the Study of Judaism 32 (2001) 1 7 8 - 1 9 2 , reprinted in my Japheth in the Tents ofShem 2 3 5 - 2 4 9 . See also my 'Samaritans and Hellenism' in my Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity 4 9 - 5 8 . Kampen 2 0 0 4 (the book is in Dutch). Published as Philo of Alexandria and the Timaeus of Plato, Leiden 1986. See his Philo and Early Christian Literature, Assen-Minneapolis 1993. The article on 'Philo o f Alexandria on the Wrath of God' was originally published in Dutch as 'Philo Alexandrinus over de toorn Gods,' in A. de Jong & A. de Jong (eds.), Kleine encyclopedic van de toorn, Utrecht 1993, 7 7 - 8 2 . For the present volume I have translated it into English. See my Philo's Flaccus: The First Pogrom, Leiden 2003. The parerga reprinted here are 'Common Prayer in Philo's In Flaccum 1 2 1 - 1 2 4 , ' Kenishta: Studies of the Synagogue World, ed. J. Tabory, vol. 2, Bar Ilan 2 0 0 3 , 2 1 - 2 8 ; and 'Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts,' in: R. Deines & K.-W. Niebuhr (eds.), Philo und das Neue Testament. Wechselseitige Wahrnehmungen (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 172), Tubingen 2004, 9 5 - 1 0 5 . The study of Cretan Jewry had already been republished in 1990 in my Essays on the Jewish World 1 4 8 - 1 6 5 , but it is included here again - albeit in an abbreviated form - in order to retain the character o f a trilogy on the Jewish communities of the three great islands in the Mediterranean Sea (Crete, Cyprus, Sicily). About the Jews of the great island of Euboia we know next to nothing (see Philo, Legat. 2 8 2 , and IJO I, Ach57). 1 6

1 7

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

Introduction

6

t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d o f the R o m a n a n d early B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , b e t w e e n J e w s a n d G r e e n s , a n o t o r i o u s h o o l i g a n - l i k e c i r c u s faction a c t i v e in the great cities, a n d o f the s e e m i n g l y s t r a n g e alliance b e t w e e n J e w s a n d B l u e s , the o p p o n e n t s o f the G r e e n s . H e r e social p s y c h o l o g y t u r n e d out to b e v e r y helpful in s o l v i n g a n anomaly.

22

All t h e s e studies o f details c o n c e r n i n g d i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s fill in

t h e b a c k g r o u n d a g a i n s t w h i c h w e h a v e to u n d e r s t a n d the lives a n d activities o f the early C h r i s t i a n s w h o , as a minority, h a d to m a i n t a i n their p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n these parties.

23

R e l a t e d to this a r e a o f r e s e a r c h is a n o t h e r field in w h i c h I h a v e d o n e w o r k o v e r t h e p a s t 15 y e a r s , early J e w i s h e p i g r a p h y . In a n a t t e m p t to fill a l a c u n a , I p u b l i s h e d in 1991 an i n t r o d u c t o r y w o r k to the s t u d y o f J e w i s h e p i t a p h s ( w h i c h form the b u l k o f the e p i g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l ) .

24

The book received a very w a r m

w e l c o m e s i n c e t h e r e existed n o s u c h w o r k for s t u d e n t s o f a n c i e n t J u d a i s m .

2 5

W h e n I w a s w r i t i n g t h e b o o k ( d u r i n g a s a b b a t i c a l s p e n t at the H e b r e w U n i v e r ­ sity in J e r u s a l e m ) , I c o u l d n o t foresee h o w q u i c k l y t h e situation in this field o f r e s e a r c h w o u l d c h a n g e in t e r m s o f the availability o f n e w critical editions o f t h e e p i g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l a n d o f i n - d e p t h studies. In a h i g h t e m p o , b e t w e e n 1992 a n d 2 0 0 4 , m o s t o f this m a t e r i a l w a s p u b l i s h e d a g a i n in m u c h better editions t h a n the old a n d o u t d a t e d Corpus

Inscriptionum

Judaicarum

(CIJ) by Frey,

26

upon

w h i c h I still h a d to rely b y a n d large in 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 , a n d v e r y m u c h n e w m a t e r i a l w a s a d d e d in t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s . In a long r e v i e w article o n the three r e c e n t v o l u m e s Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis

( I J O ) , reprinted in this v o l u m e , I sketch

t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d s h o w h o w d r a m a t i c a l l y t h e situation h a s i m p r o v e d . T h e s t u d y o f J e w i s h e p i t a p h s , h o n o r a r y i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d o t h e r e p i g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l is o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e to the s t u d e n t o f early J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y s i n c e t h e s e s o u r c e s quite often p r o v i d e u s w i t h information a b o u t J e w i s h life a n d t h o u g h t that w e d o n o t find in the literary d o c u m e n t s (for i n s t a n c e , d a t a a b o u t a g e at death and onomastics).

2 2

Published as 'Jews and Blues in Late Antiquity,' in D. Accorinti & P. Chuvin (edd.), Des Geants a Dionysos. Melanges de mythologie et de poesie grecques offerts a Francis Vian, Alessandria 2 0 0 3 , 5 6 5 - 5 7 2 . See also I. Levinskaya, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting, vol. 5: Diaspora Setting, Grand Rapids-Carlisle 1996. Diaspora studies have come o f age in recent decades; see John Barclay's Introduction to J.G.M. Barclay (ed.), Negotiating Diaspora. Jewish Strategies in the Roman Empire, London - N e w York 2 0 0 4 , 1-7. Ancient Jewish Epitaphs. An Introductory Survey of a Millennium of Jewish Funerary Epigraphy (300 BCE - 700 CE), Kampen 1991. Even the otherwise excellent book by B.H. McLean, An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy of the Hellenistic and Roman Periods from Alexander the Great down to the Reign of Constantine, Ann Arbor 2 0 0 2 , deals very insufficiently with Jewish material. J.-B. Frey, Corpus Inscriptionum Judaicarum. Recueil des inscriptions juives qui vont du Hie siecle avant Jesus-Christ au Vile siecle de notre ere, 2 vols, Rome 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 5 2 . Vol. I was reprinted in 1975 with an extensive Prolegomenon containing many corrections and additions by Baruch Lifshitz. 2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

7

Introduction

T h e interpretation of biblical texts in a n c i e n t J u d a i s m a n d early C h r i s t i a n i t y is also a field that has b e e n b l o s s o m i n g in t h e past d e c a d e s .

2 7

M y first steps in

this field w e r e t a k e n s o m e 15 y e a r s a g o in an article w r i t t e n for A d a m v a n der W o u d e ' s Festschrift

on t h e w i d e l y d i v e r g i n g interpretations, b y a n c i e n t J e w s

a n d C h r i s t i a n s , o f the e n i g m a t i c w o r d s in E z e k . 2 0 : 2 5 w h e r e G o d s a y s that h e g a v e Israel ' l a w s that w e r e n o t g o o d ! '

2 8

T h e text in E x . 2 2 : 2 8 as r e n d e r e d in

the S e p t u a g i n t , " T h o u shalt n o t revile the g o d s , " also e v o k e d a w i d e variety o f e x e g e s e s in J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n circles, w h i c h I c h a r t e d b r i e f l y .

29

In t h e p r e s e n t

v o l u m e there are t w o further e x a m p l e s , albeit on a m o d e s t scale, n a m e l y , a study o f the w a y in w h i c h t h e limitation o f the h u m a n life span to 120 y e a r s b y G o d in G e n . 6:3 w a s v a r i o u s l y interpreted b y J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s in antiquity, a n d o n e on the w a y J e w i s h interpreters v i e w e d w h a t w a s for t h e m the a m a z i n g activity o f the p r o p h e t e s s H u l d a h in 2 K i n g s 2 2 a n d h o w their v i e w s relate to t h e r a b b i n i c traditions a b o u t the p r e s e n c e o f H u l d a h ' s t o m b in J e r u s a l e m , quite c l o s e to the T e m p l e , o f all p l a c e s . B o t h studies s h o w h o w p a s s a g e s in t h e B i b l e that w e r e r e g a r d e d as p r o b l e m a t i c b y the a n c i e n t r e a d e r s w e r e creatively dealt w i t h . A g a i n a n o t h e r subject that has w i t n e s s e d a n u p s u r g e in scholarly i n t e r e s t

3 0

31

and

h a s fascinated m e intensely since the b e g i n n i n g o f the nineties w a s that o f ancient p r a y e r cultures. It resulted inter alia in a b o o k l e t in D u t c h in w h i c h I p r e s e n t e d an a n n o t a t e d translation of 6 0 a n c i e n t p r a y e r s , 2 0 G r a e c o - R o m a n , 2 0 J e w i s h , a n d 2 0 Christian,

32

and also in an article on the u n c o m m o n a n d s u s p e c t p h e n o m e n o n of

silent p r a y e r ,

33

in a study o f o n e o f the few a n c i e n t t h e m a t i c treatises on prayer,

especially on the question o f w h e t h e r o n e s h o u l d p r a y at all, a n d if so, w h a t for,

2 7

A m o n g the innumerable publications I mention - honoris causa - only James Kugel's magisterial Traditions of the Bible. The Bible as It Was at the Start of the Common Era, Cam­ bridge MA-London 1998. '"I Gave Them Laws That Were Not Good." Ezekiel 20:25 in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity,'in J.N. Bremmer & F. Garcia Martinez (eds.), Sacred History and Sacred Texts in Early Judaism. A Symposium in Honour of A.S. van der Woude, Kampen 1992, 9 4 - 1 1 8 , repr. in my Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity 135-156. '"Thou shalt not revile the gods." The LXX-translation of Ex. 22:28 (27), its background and influence, ' Studia Philonica Annual 5 (1993) 1-8, reprinted in my Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity 125-134. The first study appeared in the new annual Zutot ( 2 0 0 2 , 1 8 - 2 3 ) , the second was published in Dutch in Nederlands Theologisch Tijdschrift 55 (2001) 9 1 - 9 6 , and translated by me into English for the present volume. See, e.g., J.H. Charlesworth, M. Harding & M. Kiley (eds.), The Lord's Prayer and Other Prayer Texts from the Greco-Roman Era, Valley Forge 1993; M. Kiley (ed.), Prayer from Alexander to Constantine, London-New York 1997; J.H. Newman, Praying by the Book. The Scripturalization of Prayer in Second Temple Judaism, Atlanta 1999; H. Lohr, Studien zum fruhchristlichen und fruhjudischen Gebet, Tubingen 2003. Many other works could be mentioned as well. Gebeden uit de antieke wereld, Kampen 1994. 'Silent Prayer in Antiquity,' Numen 41 (1994) 1-25, reprinted in my Hellenism-Judaism - Christianity 2 9 3 - 3 1 6 . 2 8

2 9

3 0

3 1

3 2

3 3

Introduction

8

n a m e l y the fifth oration of M a x i m u s o f T y r e ,

3 4

as well as in an investigation o f

w h e t h e r o r n o t a forgotten p r a y e r text in o n e o f the E g e r t o n p a p y r i is J e w i s h o r Christian.

35

In this v o l u m e , the r e a d e r s will find a short c o n t r i b u t i o n on a r e ­

m a r k a b l e p r a y e r b y t h e J e w s o f A l e x a n d r i a after their p e r s e c u t i o n b y the R o m a n g o v e r n o r F l a c c u s , as r e p o r t e d b y P h i l o in his In

6

Flaccum?

A s far as t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t is c o n c e r n e d , s o m e o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s in this v o l u m e i n t e n d to s h e d light o n l o n g - s t a n d i n g t r a n s l a t i o n p r o b l e m s ( a l t h o u g h often n o t e v e n s e e n as p r o b l e m a t i c ) from i n s i g h t s w o n in classical p h i l o l o g y . T h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e w o r d s 01 6e ebioxaoav

in M a t t . 2 8 : 1 7 m e a n ' b u t t h e y

d o u b t e d ' or 'but some doubted' or 'but others d o u b t e d ' (which m a k e s quite a difference!) is s o l v e d on t h e b a s i s of strictly p h i l o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s : it m e a n s ' b u t s o m e d o u b t e d . ' In a s e c o n d c o n t r i b u t i o n , t h e s a m e k i n d o f p h i l o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , b u t n o w o f a m o r e lexical n a t u r e , lead t o t h e s u g g e s t i o n that in t h e p a r a b l e o f t h e rich m a n a n d t h e p o o r L a z a r u s t h e w o r d s tyevexo be afto0aveiv x o v jtTcoxov x c d cutevexOfi'vai avxov VTIO x w v ayyekwv

eig xov xoXjtov ' A c a d i a d o n o t

j u s t m e a n that t h e p o o r m a n w a s carried a w a y to A b r a h a m ' s b o s o m b u t that h e w a s c a r r i e d to a p l a c e h e d e s e r v e d or w h e r e h e b e l o n g e d , t h e b o s o m o f A b r a h a m (apo-

in c o m p o s i t a often h a s this force). T h e striking e x p r e s s i o n sujrveoov ajteiXfjg

xcd (povov in A c t s 9:1 is s t u d i e d in t h e light o f e x p r e s s i o n s in G r e e k literature that c i r c u m s c r i b e s t r o n g e m o t i o n s or p a s s i o n s w i t h v e r b s o f b r e a t h i n g o r s n o r t i n g .

37

Finally, in a p h i l o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n xcd oikcog jidg 'IapafiA. aoo0r|a£Tai in R o m . 1 1 : 2 6 , 1 a r g u e that t h e w o r d s x c d o i k o ) g in this c o n t e x t d o n o t m e a n ' a n d so [or ' t h u s ' ] all Israel will b e s a v e d , ' b u t 'only

then will all Israel b e s a v e d . '

T h a t x c d oikcog c a n h a v e this s e n s e , a l t h o u g h it is n o t r e g i s t e r e d in t h e s t a n d a r d G r e e k l e x i c o n s , is w e l l - k n o w n a m o n g classical p h i l o l o g i s t s , b u t h a r d l y familiar a m o n g t h e o l o g i a n s (a j u s t l y r e n o w n e d c o m m e n t a t o r e v e n s a y s that a t e m p o r a l m e a n i n g o f this w o r d is never

found in G r e e k ! ) .

3 8

These proposals are not

s h a t t e r i n g i n n o v a t i o n s b u t t h e y d o p r o v e that d e t a i l e d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e c a n h e l p s o l v e N e w T e s t a m e n t e x e g e t i c a l p r o b l e m s , w h i c h s o u n d s like a t r u i s m b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y still n e e d s to b e said o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n . It m a y b e a d d e d h e r e that t h e article o n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p o p u l a r beliefs a b o u t t h e p o w e r o f the s h a d o w 3 4

3 9

w a s u l t i m a t e l y inspired b y t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e N T c o m m e n t a r i e s o n

'Maximus o f Tyre on Prayer. An Annotated Translation o f El 5el ei5xEo0aL (Dissertatio 5),' in H. Cancik, H. Lichtenberger & P. Schafer (eds.), Geschichte - Tradition - Reflexion: Festschrift fur Martin Hengel zum 70. Gehurtstag, 3 vols., Tubingen 1996, Vol. 2: 3 2 3 - 3 3 8 . 'Neglected Greek Evidence for Early Jewish Liturgical Prayer,' Journal for the Study of Judaism 29 (1998) 2 7 8 - 2 9 6 . Originally published as 'Common Prayer in Philo's In Flaccum 1 2 1 - 1 2 4 , ' Kenishta: Studies of the Synagogue World, ed. J. Tabory, vol. 2, Bar Ilan 2 0 0 3 , 2 1 - 2 8 . Since this was my very first publication, written when I was 23, the reader is asked to exercise a certain clemency as regards the woodenness o f the presentation. This note appeared in the Journal of Biblical Literature 119 (2000) 5 2 1 - 5 2 5 . Originally published in German as 'Der Schatten im hellenistischen Volksglauben,' in M. J. Vermaseren (ed.), Studies in Hellenistic Religions, EPRO 78, Leiden 1979, 2 7 - 3 6 . 3 5

3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

9

Introduction

A c t s 5 : 1 5 , w h e r e L u k e s a y s that t h e p e o p l e o f J e r u s a l e m ' e v e n carried out their sick into t h e streets a n d laid t h e m on b e d s a n d pallets, h o p i n g that as Peter c a m e b y at least his s h a d o w m i g h t fall o n s o m e o f t h e m . ' A n d , finally, the s t u d y on P h i l o ' s In Flaccum

and t h e B o o k o f A c t s h i g h l i g h t s the i m p o r t a n c e o f e a c h o f

t h e s e t w o w o r k s for the s t u d y o f the o t h e r .

40

M y early interest in patristic literature m a y b e s e e n in an article o f 1 9 7 1 , not r e p r i n t e d h e r e , o n A u g u s t i n e ' s v i e w o f suicide as c o m p a r e d to that o f his p a g a n contemporary, the philosopher Macrobius.

41

A later s t u d y dealt w i t h the interest­

ing m o t i f o f P l a t o ' s fear o f telling the ( s u p p o s e d l y C h r i s t i a n ) truth in a p o l o g e t i c 42

patristic l i t e r a t u r e . A l t h o u g h n o t at all a patristic s c h o l a r myself, in this v o l u m e I h a v e yet a g a i n i n c l u d e d s o m e studies o f the w o r k s o f C h u r c h F a t h e r s . T h e first is a b y - p r o d u c t o f m y D u t c h b o o k De Woestijnvaders

(The Desert Fathers),

43

in

w h i c h I also translated large parts o f Cyril o f S c y t h o p o l i s ' w o r k o n the Palestin­ ian m o n k s in t h e desert o f J u d a e a . In this chapter, w h i c h w a s originally p r e s e n t e d as a p a p e r at a J e r u s a l e m c o n f e r e n c e a b o u t S a b a s , the f a m o u s f o u n d e r o f the M a r S a b a m o n a s t e r y in the J u d a e a n d e s e r t ,

44

I investigate v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f C y r i l ' s

u s e o f S c r i p t u r e a n d c o m p a r e t h e s e to the o t h e r m o n a s t i c a u t h o r s from t h e 4 6

t h

t h

to

century. A n o t h e r u n d e s e r v e d l y less k n o w n a u t h o r is M a c a r i u s M a g n e s , w h o s e

w o r k Monogenes

(or Apokritikos)

is a long refutation of the attacks on Christian­

ity b y an u n n a m e d o p p o n e n t w h o s e identity h a s a l w a y s b e e n a n object o f m u c h s p e c u l a t i o n ( w a s he P o r p h y r y ? ) . It is a fascinating w o r k w h i c h h a d l o n g a w a i t e d a n e w critical edition. T h e recent o n e by R i c h a r d G o u l e t g a v e m e the o p p o r t u n i t y to d i s c u s s s o m e o f t h e issues in a r e v i e w article that is r e p r i n t e d h e r e . F u r t h e r the r e a d e r will find a study, c o - a u t h o r e d b y m y c o l l e a g u e M a r t i e n P a r m e n t i e r , o n a r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d p a p y r u s , P a p . B o d m e r 3 0 , w h i c h c o n t a i n s a v e r y interesting 4

t h

c e n t u r y p o e m on the sacrifice o f Isaac. T h e article i n c l u d e s the first E n g l i s h

translation o f the G r e e k text a n d a study on b o t h the J e w i s h a n d the Christian b a c k g r o u n d s o f the m a n y n o n - b i b l i c a l e l e m e n t s in this t e x t .

4 0

45

Finally, as far as

'Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts,' in: R. Deines & K.-W. Niebuhr (eds), Philo und das Neue Testament. Wechselseitige Wahrnehmungen (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 172), Tubingen 2004, 9 5 - 1 0 5 . 'A Christian Platonist and a Pagan Platonist on Suicide,' Vigiliae Christianae 25 (1971) 282-288. 'Plato's Fear as a Topic in Early Christian Apologetics,' Journal of Early Christian Stud­ ies 6 (1998) 1-14, repr. In Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity 2 5 7 - 2 6 8 . Amsterdam 1998. 'The Role o f Scripture in Cyril of Scythopolis' Lives of the Monks of Palestine,'' in J. Patrich (ed.), The Sabaite Heritage in the Orthodox Church from the Fifth Century to the Present, Leuven 2001 [published in 2 0 0 2 ] , 1 2 7 - 1 4 5 . Published as 'A N e w Early Christian Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac,' in A. Hurst & J. Rudhardt (eds.), Le Codex des Visions (Recherches et rencontres 18), Geneva 2002, 1 5 5 - 1 7 2 . This batch of papyri contains several more early Christian poems that deserve much more at­ tention from patristic scholars; see A. Hurst & J. Rudhardt (eds), Papyri Bodmer XXX-XXXVII: Codex des Visions, poemes divers, Miinchen 1999. For one of my earlier publications (with 4 1

4 2

4 3

4 4

4 5

10

Introduction

C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s are c o n c e r n e d , w e m o v e to q u i t e a late d o c u m e n t , t h e sev­ e n t h - c e n t u r y 'E^:ajtoQr|Tixd xecpdXaia xaxd xoov 'Iou5aicov, ' A r g u m e n t s t o c o r n e r the J e w s , ' a s h o r t B y z a n t i n e m a n u a l in the form o f 2 5 q u e s t i o n s w h i c h s h o u l d e n a b l e C h r i s t i a n s in their d i s p u t a t i o n s w i t h J e w s to d r i v e t h e m into a c o r n e r from w h i c h t h e y c o u l d n o t e s c a p e ( n o t e ejtajiopTixixd). In this c o n t r i b u t i o n I p r e s e n t the d o c u m e n t in a first E n g l i s h translation a n d a d d s o m e c o m m e n t s to p l a c e the d o c u m e n t in its historical c o n t e x t .

46

A s t o the p a g a n G r a e c o - R o m a n p a r t o f this v o l u m e , I a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d the s t u d i e s o n the s h a d o w in H e l l e n i s t i c folklore a n d the o n e o n s u b t r a c t i v e c o m p o s ­ ite n u m e r a l s . A p a r t from t h e s e , the r e a d e r will find an article o n a r e c e n t l y found n e w f r a g m e n t o f the g r e a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n s c r i p t i o n in t h e city o f O e n o a n d a ( A s i a M i n o r ) , in w h i c h t h e E p i c u r e a n t h i n k e r D i o g e n e s sets o u t his v i e w o f life a c c o r d i n g to E p i c u r u s (the text is from t h e e a r l y 2

n d

century CE). The fragment

a l s o c h i d e s t h e J e w s as ' t h e m o s t s u p e r s t i t i o u s a n d d i s g u s t i n g o f all n a t i o n s , ' a s t a t e m e n t that I try to p u t into the c o n t e x t o f t h e tradition o f a n c i e n t J u d a e o phobia

4 7

a n d o f c o n t e m p o r a r y history. J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s w e r e often c h a r g e d

w i t h a t h e i s m in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d b e c a u s e t h e y did n o t w o r s h i p the g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d g o d s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o atheists in t h e strict s e n s e , a n d t h e r e w e r e v e r y few a t h e i s t s in a n t i q u i t y in g e n e r a l , as far as w e k n o w . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a t h e i s m did o r i g i n a t e in a n c i e n t G r e e c e , b u t w h y a n d w h e n a n d w h e r e ? T h a t is the t o p i c o f a n o t h e r article (originally p u b l i s h e d in D u t c h b u t h e r e p r e s e n t e d in an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n ) in w h i c h I a r g u e that e v e n t h o u g h t h e w e l l - k n o w n D i a g o r a s ( 5

t h

c e n t u r y B C E ) w a s the first o u t s p o k e n atheist, it w a s in all p r o b a b i l i t y C r i t i a s , a n e p h e w o f P l a t o ' s m o t h e r , w h o first i n v e n t e d a t h e o r y that the origin o f r e l i g i o n w a s b a s e d o n a c y n i c a l lust for p o w e r . Finally, t h e r e are t w o p i e c e s o n m a g i c , a n i n t e r d e n o m i n a t i o n a l or s y n c r e t i s t i c p h e n o m e n o n o f w h i c h t h e d o c u m e n t s are often h a r d to c a t e g o r i z e as p a g a n , J e w ­ ish or C h r i s t i a n . H o w difficult it often is to take such a d e c i s i o n (if p o s s i b l e at all) is d e m o n s t r a t e d in the article o n the g r e a t m a g i c a l p a p y r u s in t h e B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e in Paris ( P G M I V ) a n d t h e B i b l e , as well as in t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o n the e x o r c i s t i c f o r m u l a ' t h e G o d w h o d r o w n e d the k i n g o f E g y p t , ' w h i c h is o f c o u r s e o f J e w i s h origin b u t w a s also in u s e a m o n g p a g a n m a g i c i a n s .

4 8

A.H.M. Kessels) on a Bodmer papyrus see 'The Vision o f Dorotheus (Pap. Bodmer 29). Edited with Introduction, Translation and Notes,' Vigiliae Christianae 41 (1987) 3 1 3 - 3 5 9 . Originally published as 'Twenty-Five Questions to Corner the Jews: A Byzantine AntiJewish Document from the Seventh Century,' in E.G. Chazon, D . Satran & R.A. Clements (eds.), Things Revealed. Studies in Early Jewish and Christian Literature in Honor of Michael E. Stone (Supplements to the Journal for the Study o f Judaism 89), Leiden 2004, 2 8 9 - 3 0 2 . See P. Schafer, Judeophobia. Attitudes towards the Jews in the Ancient World, Cambridge MA-London 1997. Originally published as "The God Who Drowned the King o f Egypt.' A Short Note on an Exorcistic Formula,' in: A. Hilhorst & G.H. van Kooten (eds.), The Wisdom of Egypt. Jew­ ish, Early Christian, and Gnostic Studies in Honour of Gerard P. Luttikhuizen, Leiden 2005, 135-140. 4 6

4 7

4 8

11

Introduction

T h e s e b r i e f r e m a r k s hopefully suffice to p u t t h e s e e s s a y s n o t o n l y into the c o n ­ text o f the individual ' W e r d e g a n g ' of a n old-fashioned scholarly recluse, but also into that o f the d e v e l o p m e n t s in b o t h J e w i s h , classical, a n d early C h r i s t i a n stud­ ies in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f the 2 0

t h

century. I h a v e left out o f a c c o u n t m y w o r k on

a n c i e n t J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m , w h i c h w a s o n l y p u b l i s h e d in D u t c h a n d i n t e n d e d for a non-academic audience.

49

I h a d to b e selective, as the subtitle o f this v o l u m e

indicates. E v e n so the a u t h o r h o p e s that t h e s e e s s a y s will inspire in m a n y r e a d e r s a desire to w i d e n their h o r i z o n s a n d try to enjoy t h e fascinating p a n o r a m a s to b e s e e n in the multifaceted w o r l d o f the religions o f late a n t i q u i t y .

4 9

50

E. g., my annotated translation o f 3 Enoch or Sepher Hekhaloth published as Het boek der hemelse paleizen (3 Henoch), een joods mystiek geschrift uit de late oudheid (Joodse Bronnen 2), Kampen 1999. The essays have only slightly been updated, mainly in places where it seemed essential (e. g., references to important new editions o f texts or documents). These updating additions are always put between square brackets [...]. Typographical errors have been removed as much as possible. One essay (the one on Cretan Jewry) has been abridged. 5 0

The Jews of Ancient Crete T h e history o f C r e t a n J e w r y in antiquity is largely u n k n o w n to u s . T h i s is d u e not o n l y to the scarcity o f o u r s o u r c e s , but also to the fact that this history s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a r a t h e r uneventful o n e . T h i s is in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e history o f t h e island itself, for it c a n b e said that from t h e late H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d to the early M i d d l e A g e s C r e t e e n j o y e d a u n i q u e p e r i o d o f p e a c e a n d h a d practically n o ' h i s t o r y ' i n a s m u c h as until the s e v e n t h c e n t u r y C E ' n o t h i n g r e g a r d e d as w o r t h y o f n o t e b y t h e a n c i e n t a u t h o r s h a p p e n e d . " A l t h o u g h the s c a r c e literary a n d 2

e p i g r a p h i c a l d a t a d o n o t g r a n t u s m o r e t h a n o c c a s i o n a l g l i m p s e s o f the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in C r e t e , it is n o n e t h e l e s s w o r t h w i l e a s s e m b l i n g the m a t e r i a l avail­ a b l e in o r d e r to try to m a k e a d o s s i e r as c o m p l e t e as p o s s i b l e , s o m e t h i n g that h a s not b e e n d o n e so far.

3

B e f o r e s u r v e y i n g the e v i d e n c e , let us ask h o w a n d w h e n the C r e t a n d i a s p o r a o r i g i n a t e d . W e c a n o n l y g u e s s at t h e a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n b u t it m a y b e a n e d u c a t e d s u r m i s e . W e k n o w that d u r i n g the M a c c a b a e a n revolt m a n y J e w s fled from P a l e s t i n e to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s like E g y p t a n d Syria. It is not i m p r o b a b l e that s o m e o f t h e m m a y h a v e t a k e n refuge in C r e t e s i n c e that w o u l d tie in v e r y well w i t h a p a s s a g e in 1 Maccabees

to b e d i s c u s s e d presently. S o m e m a y h a v e

c o m e b y w a y o f E g y p t , for an inscription from C r e t e r e v e a l s that P t o l e m y V I 4

P h i l o m e t o r ( 1 8 0 - 1 4 5 B C E ) sent t r o o p s to G o r t y n in C r e t e in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e sixties o f the s e c o n d century B C E , a n d it is well k n o w n from v a r i o u s s o u r c e s that P h i l o m e t o r u s e d a great m a n y J e w s in his military o p e r a t i o n s , often in l e a d i n g 5

p o s i t i o n s . A d m i t t e d l y , this d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e c o m p e l l i n g p r o o f that the C r e t a n

1

I.F. Sanders, Roman Crete. An Archaeological Survey and Gazetteer of Late Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine Crete, Warminster 1982, 1. There are no remains of ancient synagogues in Crete. For incomplete and summary statements on Cretan Jewry see Sanders, Roman Crete 4 3 ; M. Stern, 'The Jewish Diaspora,' in S. Safrai & M. Stern (eds.), The Jewish People in the First Century (CR1NT I 1), Assen 1974, 160; S. Marcus, 'Crete,' Enc. Jud. 5 (1972) 1 0 8 8 - 8 9 ; U. Baumann, Rom und die Juden, Bern & Frankfurt 1983, 240 n. 12; E. Schiirer, G. Vermes, F. Millar and M. Goodman, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ III 1, Edinburgh 1986, 69. M. Guarducci (ed.), Inscriptiones Creticae, 4 vols., Rome 1 9 3 5 - 1 9 5 0 , IV no. 195. Ptolemy probably sent his troops to assist Gortyn in its war against Cnossos. P.M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 vols., Oxford 1972,1 83 with notes in II 1 6 3 - 4 . For other Ptolemaic officials in Crete see ibid. I 66, 101. It is notable that there were also many 2

3

4

5

The Jews of Ancient

13

Crete

d i a s p o r a started in the sixties o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E , b u t it is a h y p o t h e s i s that g a i n s s o m e s u p p o r t from 1 Mace.

15:22-23.

T h i s p a s s a g e i m m e d i a t e l y follows u p o n a letter written in 140 B C E b y L u c i u s , c o n s u l o f R o m e , to P t o l e m y V I I I E u e r g e t e s in w h i c h h e a s k s h i m to refrain from w a g i n g w a r u p o n the J e w s w h o m h e calls ' o u r friends a n d a l l i e s ' ( 1 5 : 1 7 ) . After h a v i n g q u o t e d t h e letter, t h e a u t h o r o f 1 Maccabees

adds:

( 2 2 ) H e wrote the s a m e letter to king D e m e t r i u s and to Attalus, Ariarathus and A r s a c e s , ( 2 3 ) and to all the f o l l o w i n g countries: to S a m p s a m e and the Spartans, D e l o s , M y n d o s , S i c y o n , Caria, S a m o s , Pamphylia, Lycia, Halicarnassus, R h o d o s , Phaselis, C o s , Side, Aradus, Gortyn, Cnidus, Cyprus, and Cyrene.

T h e s e lines form an interesting d o c u m e n t for t h e s p r e a d o f the J e w i s h d i a s p o r a 6

in the m i d d l e o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . F o r o u r p u r p o s e it is r e m a r k a b l e that, w h e r e a s in the c a s e o f o t h e r islands the n a m e o f the w h o l e island is m e n t i o n e d ( D e l o s , S a m o s , R h o d o s , C o s , C y p r u s ) , o n l y in t h e c a s e o f C r e t e is the n a m e o f o n e single city m e n t i o n e d , w h i c h h a p p e n s to b e G o r t y n , w h e r e P t o l e m y V I h a d sent his t r o o p s a q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y before. T h i s a d d s p r o b a b i l i t y to m y h y p o t h ­ esis that t h e m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n o f P h i l o m e t o r m a y h a v e m a r k e d the b e g i n n i n g o f J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t in C r e t e , e s p e c i a l l y in G o r t y n , w h i c h w a s also the b i r t h p l a c e or r e s i d e n c e o f o n e o f the v e r y few C r e t a n J e w s a b o u t w h o m m o r e is k n o w n t h a n j u s t the n a m e , as will b e seen later (see b e l o w on S o p h i a ) .

7

A l t h o u g h w e will r e s e r v e the e p i g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e for C r e t a n J e w r y for the latter part o f this study, it s e e m s a p p r o p r i a t e to deal at this p o i n t w i t h an i n s c r i p ­ tion w h i c h m a y indicate that in a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e p e r i o d t h e r e w e r e also S a m a r i t a n s in C r e t e . It is a r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d inscription from the island o f D e l o s a n d r u n s as f o l l o w s :

8

T h e Israelites o f D e l o s w h o contribute their offerings to the t e m p l e (of) Argarizin (or: to the sacred mountain o f Garizin) c r o w n with a g o l d e n c r o w n Sarapion, the s o n o f Iason, from C n o s s o s , for his benefaction towards them.

Cretans in Ptolemaic service in Egypt (ibid. 66, 70, 8 1 , 8 8 - 9 , 1 0 1 , 1 8 0 , 6 1 4 - 5 ) , which indicates the strong ties between Egypt and Crete. See the commentary on this passage by J.A. Goldstein, / Maccabees, Garden City 1976, 4 9 6 - 5 0 0 . It is obvious that these lines list not just names of allies, but countries and cities where Jews were living and in danger of being attacked. In a private communication, Professor Martin Hengel suggested that Jewish settlement in Crete may have started as early as the third century BCE, in view of the fact that elsewhere in Greece (Attica, Cyprus) there is evidence of Jewish presence from ca. 300 BCE onwards (see the references in his Juden, Griechen und Barbaren, Stuttgart 1976, 121) and that there is also a third century BCE epitaph (in Gaza) of a Cretan officer in Ptolemaic service (SEG 8 , 2 6 9 ; see Hengel's Judentum und Hellenismus, Tubingen 1969, 26 with n. 77), which may be indicative o f contacts between Crete and Jewish Palestine in that period. Ph. Bruneau, 'Les Israelites de Delos et la juiverie delienne,' Bulletin de correspondence hellenique 106 (1982) 4 6 5 - 5 0 4 . At pp. 4 6 8 - 9 Bruneau presents a photo and a transcription with translation of the inscription. 6

7

8

14

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

T h e r e is n o d o u b t that the Israelites w h o p a y their t e m p l e taxes to the 9

Argarizin

hieron

are the religious c o m m u n i t y o f the S a m a r i t a n s , w h o d e s c r i b e t h e m ­

selves as Israelites in o r d e r to distinguish t h e m s e l v e s from t h o s e called w h o h a d their o w n s y n a g o g u e n e a r b y on D e l o s .

1 0

Ioudaioi

These Samaritans honour

S a r a p i o n from C n o s s o s in C r e t e for his b e n e f a c t i o n s to t h e c o m m u n i t y . A n earlier S a m a r i t a n inscription, built into the s a m e w a l l o f w h a t m a y h a v e b e e n a S a m a r i t a n s y n a g o g u e , r e c o r d s the h o n o u r i n g o f a certain M e n i p p u s o f H e r a c l e a for h a v i n g e r e c t e d a n d d e d i c a t e d at his o w n cost a b u i l d i n g , p r o b a b l y for t h e S a m a r i t a n c o m m u n i t y . " W h a t S a r a p i o n ' s gift to the c o m m u n i t y w a s , w e d o n o t k n o w , but the r e l e v a n t p o i n t is that h e w a s m o s t likely a S a m a r i t a n b e l i e v e r from C r e t e , w h e t h e r h e w a s o n l y born in C n o s s o s or still lived there w h e n h e a c t e d as a b e n e f a c t o r to the D e l a n S a m a r i t a n s .

12

That he had a very pagan-sounding

n a m e is n o p r o o f that h e c a n n o t h a v e b e e n a S a m a r i t a n believer. T h e J e w i s h p r o s o p o g r a p h y o f P t o l e m a i c a n d R o m a n E g y p t s h o w s that several J e w s b o r e t h e o p h o r i c n a m e s c o n t a i n i n g the e l e m e n t s T s i s ' a n d ' H o r n s , '

1 3

so a S a m a r i t a n

n a m e w i t h the e l e m e n t ' S a r a p i s ' n e e d not b e surprising. O f c o u r s e , the possibility c a n n e v e r b e ruled o u t that the S a m a r i t a n s h o n o u r e d p a g a n b e n e f a c t o r s , b u t it is m u c h m o r e p r o b a b l e that a religious c o m m u n i t y h o n o u r s a co-religionist. In that c a s e , w e m a y a s s u m e that in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E there w e r e S a m a r i t a n s in C r e t e , w h i c h should c a u s e n o a s t o n i s h m e n t in v i e w o f the extent o f the S a m a r i t a n d i a s p o r a in a n t i q u i t y .

14

S i n c e the editor d a t e s t h e inscription b e t w e e n 150 a n d 5 0

B C E on p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l g r o u n d s , a n d since it w a s m o s t p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n before the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the S a m a r i t a n s a n c t u a r y o n M o u n t G a r i z i m in ca. 110 B C E , it is p l a u s i b l e to s u p p o s e that S a r a p i o n lived in C n o s s o s a r o u n d t h e m i d d l e o f t h e second century B C E . 9

For Argarizin = har Garizim = the mountain of Garizim or mount Garizim, see also Pseudo-Eupolemus, fragm. 1, ap. Eusebius, Praep. Ev. 9.17.5. It is written as one word in Samaritan sources (e. g., argarizim in the Greek translation of the Samaritan Pentateuch). Cf. also the use of Argarizin in Josephus, Bell. 1.63, which derives from a Samaritan source; see R. Egger, Josephus Flavius und die Samaritaner, Fribourg - Gottingen 1986, 2 9 4 - 6 . See further C.R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. 1, Chico 1983, 183 n. 2 1 , and R. Pummer, 'Argarizin: A Criterion for Samaritan Provenance?,' JSJ18 (1987) 1 8 - 2 5 , who fails to discuss Bell. 1.63. Bruneau, 'Les Israelites' 477, refers to TOURGARIZ1N on the Madaba map (tur being Aramaic for 'mountain'). See Bruneau, 'Les Israelites,'passim. See Bruneau, 'Les Israelites' 4 7 1 - 2 . The inscription is damaged so that w e do not know what Menippus built and dedicated. See Bruneau, 'Les Israelites' 4 8 1 : 'Le plus probable est que Sarapion et Menippos soient eux-memes Samaritains.' This is doubted by A.T. Kraabel, ' N e w Evidence of the Samaritan Diaspora Has Been Found on Delos,' Biblical Archaeologist 47 (1984) 4 4 - 6 . See V.A. Tcherikover, A. Fuks & M. Stern (eds.), Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum, vol. 3, Cambridge M A 1964, 1 6 7 - 1 9 6 . See A . D . Crown, 'The Samaritan Diaspora to the End o f the Byzantine Era,' Australian Journal of Biblical Archaeology 2 (\91 All 5) 1 0 7 - 1 2 3 ; and my article 'The Samaritan Diaspora in Antiquity,' in my Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Fribourg - Gottingen 1990,136-147. 1 0

11

1 2

1 3

1 4

The Jews of Ancient

15

Crete

T h e n e x t p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e in c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r dates from m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y a n d a half later. In the early fourties o f the first c e n t u r y C E , the J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a w r o t e his Legatio

ad Gaium w h e r e h e q u o t e s at

l e n g t h a letter from A g r i p p a I to the E m p e r o r C a l i g u l a , in w h i c h the former s a y s that J e r u s a l e m h a s settled c o l o n i e s in a l m o s t e v e r y c o u n t r y o f the w o r l d : A n d not o n l y are the mainlands full o f J e w i s h c o l o n i e s , but also the m o s t highly e s t e e m e d o f the islands: Euboia, Cyprus, and Crete (Legat.

282).

T h e difference from t h e earlier t e s t i m o n i e s is striking. H e r e it is n o l o n g e r a few cities that are m e n t i o n e d , like G o r t y n or C n o s s o s : it is stated that t h e greater is­ lands, C r e t e included, are full of Jewish

settlements.

T h a t the C r e t a n d i a s p o r a h a d

e x p a n d e d c o n s i d e r a b l y in t h e m e a n t i m e is c o n f i r m e d b y a few o t h e r t e s t i m o n i e s from the last q u a r t e r o f t h e first c e n t u r y C E . In o n e o f his m a n y stories a b o u t J e w s w h o h a d b e e n d e c e i v e d b y a n impostor, J o s e p h u s tells a b o u t a J e w i s h fraud w h o p r e t e n d e d to b e the p r i n c e A l e x a n d e r w h o m k i n g H e r o d h a d p u t to d e a t h (Bell.

II 1 0 1 - 1 1 6 ) . T h i s m a n g a v e out that

the e x e c u t i o n e r s sent to kill b o t h h i m a n d A r i s t o b u l u s h a d stolen t h e m a w a y out o f c o m p a s s i o n , substituting in their stead t h e c o r p s e s o f p e r s o n s w h o r e s e m b l e d t h e m . S o , c o n t r a r y to the r u m o u r s , h e w a s still alive. 'With this tale he c o m p l e t e l y d e c e i v e d the J e w s in Crete, and, b e i n g magnificently fur­ nished with supplies, he sailed across to M e l o s (Bell. II 103).

In M e l o s a n d e l s e w h e r e , a n d finally in R o m e , the P s e u d o - A l e x a n d e r s u c c e e d e d in g a t h e r i n g a large f o l l o w i n g a m o n g the J e w s , b u t the E m p e r o r A u g u s t u s u n ­ m a s k e d h i m as an i m p o s t o r .

15

W h e r e a s this history t o o k p l a c e at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e first century, t h e s a m e J o s e p h u s tells u s in his a u t o b i o g r a p h y that in the s e c o n d h a l f o f the s e v e n t i e s h e d i v o r c e d his w i f e a n d t o o k a n o t h e r : Thereafter I married a w o m a n w h o w a s J e w i s h by birth and had settled in Crete. She c a m e o f very distinguished parents, indeed the m o s t illustrious p e o p l e in that country (Vita

All).

T h e s e t w o p a s s a g e s d e m o n s t r a t e that C r e t a n J e w r y h a d not o n l y b e c o m e n u ­ m e r o u s , as P h i l o h a d a l r e a d y s h o w n , b u t also that s o m e o f t h e m w e r e p r o b a b l y w e l l - t o - d o a n d b e l o n g e d to t h e u p p e r class o f the island. C o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h J o s e p h u s ' t e s t i m o n i e s , t w o p a s s a g e s in the N e w Testa­ m e n t , t h o u g h n o t v e r y i l l u m i n a t i n g , n e v e r t h e l e s s offer c o r r o b o r a t i v e e v i d e n c e . In a text c o m p a r a b l e to 1 Mace.

15 a n d P h i l o ' s Legat.

282 (discussed above),

the a u t h o r of A c t s e n u m e r a t e s a large n u m b e r o f c o u n t r i e s from w h i c h d i a s p o r a J e w s w e n t o n p i l g r i m a g e to J e r u s a l e m , w h e r e t h e y w i t n e s s e d t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f the H o l y Spirit. A c t s 2 : 9 - 1 1 : 15

The same story is also found in Josephus, Ant. XVII 3 2 4 - 3 3 8 .

16

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

Parthians and M e d e s and Elamites and residents o f M e s o p o t a m i a , Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and A s i a , ( 1 0 ) Phrygia and Pamphylia, E g y p t and the parts o f Libya b e l o n g i n g to Cyrene, and visitors from R o m e , both J e w s and proselytes, ( 1 1 ) Cretans and Arabs, w e hear t h e m telling in our o w n t o n g u e s the mighty w o r k s o f G o d ( R S V ) .

In spite o f O t t o Eissfeldt's theory that the p l a c i n g o f ' C r e t a n s a n d A r a b s ' after the s u m m a r i z i n g ' J e w s a n d p r o s e l y t e s ' indicates that t h e s e t w o w o r d s s h o u l d n o t b e interpreted literally b u t as a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t m e a n i n g ' ( J e w s a n d p r o s e l y t e s ) 1 6

from W e s t to E a s t , ' 1 still think it legitimate to t a k e the s e n t e n c e at its face v a l u e as m e a n i n g that J e w s lived in C r e t e , t o o . T h i s is w h a t is i m p l i e d in the s e c o n d N e w T e s t a m e n t text, in the p s e u d o - P a u l i n e letter to Titus, w r i t t e n to a C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y in C r e t e , w h e r e w e read in 1 : 1 0 - 1 4 ; There are m a n y insubordinate m e n , e m p t y talkers and d e c e i v e r s , e s p e c i a l l y the circumci­ sion party; ( 1 1 ) they must b e silenced, s i n c e they are upsetting w h o l e families by teaching for base gain w h a t they have n o right to teach. ( 1 2 ) O n e o f t h e m s e l v e s , a prophet o f their o w n , said: 'Cretans are a l w a y s liars, evil beasts, lazy gluttons.' ( 1 3 ) This testimony is true. Therefore, rebuke them sharply, that they m a y be sound in faith ( 1 4 ) instead o f g i v i n g heed to Jewish m y t h s or to c o m m a n d s o f m e n w h o reject the truth ( R S V ) .

A l t h o u g h t h e p a s s a g e c o n c e r n s J e w s w h o h a v e b e c o m e C h r i s t i a n s , it is also an indirect t e s t i m o n y to J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in C r e t e . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e epistle a c ­ c u s e s w h a t h e calls literally ' t h o s e o f the c i r c u m c i s i o n , ' /. e., J e w i s h c o n v e r t s , o f p e r v e r t i n g t h e truth o f t h e g o s p e l b y t a k i n g n o t i c e o f J e w i s h fables or m y t h s a n d h u m a n c o m m a n d m e n t s , a n d h e tries to b l a c k e n t h e m b y a p p l y i n g to t h e m a q u o t e from a p o e m b y E p i m e n i d e s o f C n o s s o s a b o u t the o b j e c t i o n a b l e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e Cretans.

17

T h i s s h o w s that, as in A s i a M i n o r a n d Syria, t e n s i o n s s o m e t i m e s ran

h i g h b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n s o f J e w i s h a n d G e n t i l e origin. F o r t h e p r e s e n t p u r p o s e it is n o t n e c e s s a r y to e n t e r into the details o f this c o n t r o v e r s y . W e s h o u l d , h o w e v e r , r e c o r d t h e a p p e a r a n c e a r o u n d the turn o f the first to the s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E o f t h e first signs that C h r i s t i a n i t y m a d e c o n v e r t s a m o n g C r e t a n J e w s . T h i s is t h e b e g i n ­ n i n g o f a p r o c e s s o f w h i c h w e find the sad a p o g e e in the final literary d o c u m e n t concerning Cretan Jewry. B u t b e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g that last t e s t i m o n y , w e will - b y w a y o f interlude - look at a c u r i o u s text from the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . In the f a m o u s fifth b o o k o f his Historiae,

Tacitus relates the fall o f J e r u s a l e m in 7 0 C E , b u t before

d o i n g so h e m a k e s t h e following r e m a r k : A s I a m n o w to record the final days o f a f a m o u s city, it s e e m s appropriate to inform the reader o f its origins. T h e J e w s are said to have been refugees o f the island o f Crete w h o 1 6

O. Eissfeldt, 'Kreter und hx&ber,'' Kleine Schriften, vol. 3, Tubingen 1966, 2 8 - 3 4 . See also G. Schneider, Die Apostelgeschichte I, Freiburg 1 9 8 0 , 2 5 3 , and R. Pesch, Die Apostelgeschichte I,Neukirchen 1986, 106. On the problem of the attribution of this verse see esp. C. Spicq, Les Epitres Pastorales II, Paris 1 9 6 9 , 6 0 8 - 9 (there lit.), and M. Dibelius & H. Conzelmann, Die Pastoralbriefe, Tubingen 1966,101-3. 17

The Jews of Ancient

17

Crete

settled in the coastal area o f Africa in the stormy days w h e n , according to the story, Saturn w a s dethroned and e x p e l l e d b y the aggression o f Jupiter. This is a deduction from the n a m e Iudaei: that word is to b e regarded as a barbarous lengthening o f Idaei, the n a m e o f the p e o p l e d w e l l i n g around the famous mount Ida in Crete {Hist. V 2 , 1 - 3 ) .

T h i s c u r i o u s p a s s a g e s e e m s to b e the p r o d u c t o f a m i x t u r e o f b l u r r e d historical r e m i n i s c e n c e s , folk e t y m o l o g y , the e q u a t i o n o f S h a b b a t h w i t h t h e d a y o f Saturn u s , and fantasy. T h e r e m i n i s c e n c e s m a y c o n c e r n the very early contacts b e t w e e n Palestine a n d C r e t e in the a g e o f the so-called Sea P e o p l e s (ca. 1200 B C E ) , w h e n m o s t p r o b a b l y the Philistines i n v a d e d P a l e s t i n e from C r e t e . a b l e that the Philistines w e r e e x p e l l e d from C r e t e (Creta

18

It is not i m p r o b ­

insula profugos,

says

Tacitus) a n d that therefore until late antiquity the g o d M a r n a s in the originally Philistine city o f G a z a w a s identified w i t h Zeus Cretagenes

(Zeus who was born

19

in C r e t e ) . T h i s unhistorical identification o f Philistines w i t h ' J u d a e a n s ' i n d u c e d the f o l k - e t y m o l o g i c a l e q u a t i o n o f Iudaei

a n d Idaei,

a well-known type of 'ae-

t i o l o g i c a l ' e t y m o l o g y o f w h i c h a f a m o u s o t h e r b u t similar e x a m p l e is Vergil's d e r i v a t i o n o f lulus from Ilus, the f o u n d e r o f T r o y ( I l i u m ) , w h i c h is m e a n t to link the f o u n d i n g o f R o m e w i t h that o f T r o y .

20

O n the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n S a t u r n u s

a n d t h e J e w s a n d especially the J e w i s h S a b b a t h , the ' d a y o f S a t u r n u s , ' several a n c i e n t a u t h o r s m a k e their c o m m e n t s . S i n c e t h e s e c a n easily b e found in S t e r n ' s 21

GLAJJ,

they n e e d not d e t a i n us h e r e . All t h e s e e l e m e n t s , p e r h a p s w i t h the

a d m i x t u r e o f the story that C r e t a n s - like J e w s - a b s t a i n e d from e a t i n g p o r k ,

22

m a y h a v e c r e a t e d this fanciful t h e o r y o f the C r e t a n origin o f the J e w s . It d o e s not a d d a n y t h i n g to o u r k n o w l e d g e o f J e w i s h h i s t o r y in C r e t e , h o w e v e r . F r o m the p e r i o d b e t w e e n the b e g i n n i n g o f the s e c o n d to that of t h e fifth c e n ­ tury C E w e h a v e n o literary e v i d e n c e on C r e t a n Jewry. R a b b i n i c literature yields n o d a t a n o r d o Christian s o u r c e s . It is p o s s i b l e only to s p e c u l a t e . T h u s a consider­ able influx o f J e w s into C r e t e from C y r e n e (ancient L i b y a ) m a y h a v e o c c u r r e d in the y e a r s 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 C E , w h e n the great r e v o l t erupted t h e r e a n d e l s e w h e r e in N o r t h Africa. T h e r e h a d b e e n c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n C r e t e a n d C y r e n e e v e r s i n c e R o m e united the t w o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y to form o n e p r o v i n c e in t h e sixties o f the first c e n t u r y B C E . It is k n o w n that d u r i n g the revolt m a n y J e w s fled to the islands, a n d it is p r o b a b l e that m a n y o f t h e m w e n t to C r e t e . 1 8

2 3

On this problem see W. Fauth in H. Heubner & W. Fauth, P. Cornelius Tacitus: Die Historien, vol. 5, Heidelberg 1982, 2 0 - 2 (there lit.). On the Sea Peoples E. Noort, Die Seevolker in Paldstina, Kampen 1994. See G. Mussies, 'Marnas, God of Gaza,' ANRW II 18, 4, Berlin & N e w York 1990, 2412-2457. Vergil, Aen. I 2 6 7 - 8 . See A.M.A. Hospers-Jansen, Tacitus over de Joden, Groningen 1949, 112. Other instances in M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism (= GLAJJ;, vol. 2, Jerusalem 1980, 33. See the references in GLAJJ, vol. 3, Jerusalem 1984, 147. See the references in GLAJJ, vol. 1, Jerusalem 1974, 559. See S. Applebaum, Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene, Leiden 1979, 2 9 2 - 3 , and H.Z. (J.W.) Hirschberg, A History of the Jews in North Africa, vol. 1, Leiden 1974, 39. 1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

18

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

N o w w e turn to the final a n d m o s t d r a m a t i c p i e c e o f r e l e v a n t literary e v i d e n c e e x t a n t : the Historia

Ecclesiastica

o f S o c r a t e s , c o m p o s e d in a b o u t 4 4 0 , a w o r k

d e s i g n e d to c o n t i n u e t h e story o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia

Ecclesiastical

and cover­

ing the e v e n t s from the a c c e s s i o n o f C o n s t a n t i n e to the y e a r 4 3 8 / 9 . In o n e o f t h e final c h a p t e r s o f the b o o k (VII 38) h e w r i t e s the f o l l o w i n g :

25

At about the s a m e time, m a n y o f the J e w s in Crete b e c a m e Christians b e c a u s e o f the fol­ l o w i n g incident. A J e w i s h impostor pretended to b e M o s e s . H e said he had b e e n sent from h e a v e n in order to evacuate the J e w s w h o lived on the island by leading t h e m through the sea. For he said he w a s the s a m e person w h o also s a v e d Israel through the R e d S e a l o n g a g o . During a w h o l e year he w e n t around along e v e r y t o w n o f the island, and he tried to persuade the J e w s w h o lived there to b e l i e v e such things. H e exhorted t h e m to l e a v e behind all their m o n e y and p o s s e s s i o n s . For he p r o m i s e d to lead them through the dry sea to the land o f promise. T h o s e w h o let t h e m s e l v e s be cheated with such h o p e s b e g a n to n e g l e c t all their tasks. A n d they also d e s p i s e d what they p o s s e s s e d and let it b e taken a w a y by any c h a n c e person. W h e n the day designated b y the J e w i s h impostor arrived, he h i m s e l f led the w a y and all the others f o l l o w e d with their w i v e s and little children. H e brought t h e m to a promontory that stood as a precipice a b o v e the sea and ordered t h e m to p l u n g e into it. T h o s e w h o first reached the e d g e did s o , and they died straight away, partly b e c a u s e they dashed against the cliffs, partly also b e c a u s e they d r o w n e d in the water. A n d more p e o p l e w o u l d h a v e b e e n killed if not b y G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e s o m e Christian

fishermen

and merchants w o u l d have been there. T h e s e saved s o m e w h o w e r e drowning by dragging t h e m up. O n l y then, w h e n they w e r e suffering so badly, they realized their folly. T h e y kept the others off from throwing t h e m s e l v e s d o w n by telling them about the deaths o f those w h o threw t h e m s e l v e s d o w n before. Then they too realized the fraud and b l a m e d t h e m ­ s e l v e s for their uncritical belief. But w h e n they eagerly w a n t e d to kill the p s e u d o - M o s e s , they c o u l d not lay their hands o n h i m , for he had disappeared. A n d this raised in m a n y the s u s p i c i o n that he had been an a v e n g i n g d e m o n w h o had taken o n human d i s g u i s e in order to outrage their p e o p l e there. B y this incident m a n y o f the J e w s w h o then lived in Crete took l e a v e o f Judaism and embraced the Christian faith (Hist. Eccl. VII 3 8 ) .

Several e l e m e n t s in this p a s s a g e n e e d to b e d i s c u s s e d .

27

2 6

A s r e g a r d s the reliability

o f t h e story, it s h o u l d b e said that, a l t h o u g h o n the o n e h a n d Christian bias m a y

2 4

See G.F. Chesnut, The First Christian Histories, Paris 1977, 1 6 7 - 1 8 9 . The text translated is that from Migne's Patrologia Graeca 67, 8 2 5 - 8 (with minor cor­ rections). Unfortunately, the new edition by P. Perichon for the Sources Chretiennes series, although announced long ago (see his article 'Pour une edition nouvelle de l'historien Socrate: les manuscripts et les versions,' Recherches de science religieuse 53 (1965) 112-120), has not appeared so far. See also the old three-volume edition by R. Hussey, Socratis Scholastici Ecclesiastica Historia, Oxford 1853, text in vol. 2, 8 2 2 - 4 ; Hussey has no annotations to this chapter. [In 2004, finally, Perichon published, in collaboration with P. Maraval, the first volume in the Sources Chretiennes, containing only book 1. Also the new edition by G.C. Hansen and M. Sirinjan, published in 1995 in the GCS series, was not yet available when this article was written. Their new text does not make any difference for the translation.] For Latin versions of the same story see, inter alios, Cassiodorus, Historia tripartita X I I 9 (PL 69, 1210-11 or CSEL 7 1 , 6 7 7 - 8 ) . Several other Latin authors are listed by B. Blumenkranz, Juifs et chretiens dans le monde occidental 430-1096, Paris - La Haye 1960, 2 4 4 n. 139. Very brief discussions of this passage are given by M. Seligsohn in Jew. Enc. 9 (1905) 2 5

2 6

2 7

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

19

b e r e s p o n s i b l e for s o m e e x a g g e r a t i o n ( e . g . , many o f the J e w s f o l l o w i n g the im­ p o s t o r ) , e s p e c i a l l y in the h a p p y e n d i n g (many

o f t h e m b e c o m i n g C h r i s t i a n ) , on

t h e o t h e r h a n d it w a s to b e e x p e c t e d e x a c t l y in this p e r i o d , as w e shall see p r e s ­ ently, that m e s s i a n i c h o p e s w o u l d run high. So t h e r e c a n b e little d o u b t that the kernel o f the story is historical. T h e p e r i o d in q u e s t i o n c a n b e fixed fairly exactly. T h e terminus

ante quern is 4 3 8 / 4 3 9 C E , the final y e a r dealt w i t h b y S o c r a t e s in

this w o r k ; the terminus

a quo is 4 3 1 / 4 3 2 , since the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g story

r e c o u n t s e v e n t s w h i c h took p l a c e d u r i n g the c o n s u l s h i p o f B a s s u s a n d A n t i o c h u s , w h o b e c a m e c o n s u l s in 4 3 1 . S o m o s t p r o b a b l y the t i m e c a n b e p l a c e d in the first h a l f or the m i d d l e of the thirties o f the fifth c e n t u r y C E . Strikingly e n o u g h , this is the first m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t k n o w n since the B a r K o c h b a revolt exactly three c e n t u r i e s before. T h a t m e s s i a n i c risings n o l o n g e r o c c u r r e d after the shattering defeat o f t h e s e c o n d r e v o l t ( 1 3 2 - 5 C E ) is n o t surprising, b u t w h y did they recur, in b o t h pacifistic-quietistic a n d in b e l l i g e r e n t w a y s , from ca. 4 3 0 o n w a r d s ? F o r this m o v e m e n t w a s only t h e first in a long series r a n g i n g from o u r p s e u d o - M o s e s to S h a b b e t a i Z w i .

2 8

T h e r e are clear r e a s o n s for t h e r e s u r g e n c e o f m e s s i a n i c e x p e c t a t i o n s in this p e r i o d . First, e v e r since t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the T e m p l e in 7 0 C E , J e w s h a d p r a y e d for a n d e x p e c t e d the defeat o f R o m e a n d t h e a s c e n d a n c y o f t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e consequent upon it.

29

' I n t h e fifth c e n t u r y t h e s e h o p e s r e a c h e d their fever point.

T h e E m p i r e w a s b r e a k i n g u p ; the l o n g - a n t i c i p a t e d c o l l a p s e w a s a b o u t to take place.'

3 0

T h e city of R o m e h a d b e e n c o n q u e r e d a n d s a c k e d b y the V i s i g o t h s in

4 1 0 . T h e y e a r s following s a w other i n v a s i o n s in Italy a n d e l s e w h e r e . In 4 3 0 N o r t h Africa w a s o v e r r u n b y t h e V a n d a l s . A n d in 4 3 3 A t t i l a ' s rise to p o w e r in the H u n n i s h k i n g d o m w a s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w a n d t r e m e n d o u s threat to the p o w e r o f R o m e . S e c o n d , t h e r e w a s a n e n o r m o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n in the c o n d i t i o n s o f life for t h e J e w s in the first third o f the fifth century. R o m a n , /. e. Christian, o p ­ p r e s s i o n intensified. T h e o d o s i u s II (408^4-50) a b o l i s h e d t h e J e w i s h p a t r i a r c h a t e a n d c l o s e d t h e few r e m a i n i n g r a b b i n i c s c h o o l s . T h i s e m p e r o r , w h o d e p o s e d the patriarch G a m l i e l V I , also forbade t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n e w s y n a g o g u e s a n d o r d e r e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f e x i s t i n g o n e s . In 4 3 8 h e e v e n issued a d e c r e e in w h i c h 64; S.W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, vol. 5, N e w York 1957, 168, 367; B. Blumenkranz, Juifs 244. For a list of messianic movements from the fifth through the twelfth centuries see K.H. Bernhardt, 'Zur Eigenart und Alter der messianisch-eschatologischen Zusatze im Targum Jeruschalmi I,' in Gott und die Gotten FS E. Fascher, Berlin n.d. (1958?), 79. For the same period see further A.H. Silver, A History of Messianic Speculation from the First through the Seventeenth Centuries, Boston 1959 (repr. of the 1927 ed.), 2 5 - 8 0 ; H. Ben Sasson, 'Messianic Movements,' Enc. Jud. 11 (1972) 1 4 2 0 - 2 2 . Both Silver and Ben Sasson wrongly date the ap­ pearance of the Cretan Moses to the middle o f the fifth century. See Silver, History 2 7 - 9 for references. For a general survey of Jewish attitudes toward Rome in antiquity see G. Stemberger, Die romische Herrschaft im Urteil derJuden, Darmstadt 1983. Silver, History 29. 2 8

2 9

3 0

20

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

J e w s , defined as e n e m i e s o f the R o m a n l a w s a n d o f s u p r e m e majesty, w e r e forbidden to h o l d a n y h i g h office. T h u s in the t w e n t i e s a n d thirties o f the fifth century, their civil inferiority a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w e r e legally s a n c t i o n e d . T h i s in itself w o u l d h a v e b e e n a l r e a d y e n o u g h to k i n d l e m e s s i a n i c s e n t i m e n t s .

31

B u t quite apart from t h e s e factors, o l d e r traditions p r e d i c t e d that t h e m e s s i a h w o u l d c o m e s o m e t i m e in the fifth century. A s m a y b e o b s e r v e d in T a l m u d B a v l i (Avoda Zara 9 a - b ; Sanhedrin

9 7 a - b a n d 99a, a n d parallel p a s s a g e s ) , c a l c u l a t i o n s

v a r i e d from 3 6 5 to 4 0 0 (or m o r e ) y e a r s after the d e s t r u c t i o n of the T e m p l e , that is to say, s o m e w h e r e from ca. 4 3 5 o n w a r d s . R a v A s h i , w h o lived in t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the fifth century, e v e n s o u g h t to avert a n y evil c o n s e q u e n c e s w h i c h m i g h t follow u p o n the failure o f this m e s s i a n i c h o p e b y s a y i n g that before the e i g h t y fifth j u b i l e e , i. e. 4 4 0 - 4 9 0 C E , o n e s h o u l d not e x p e c t the m e s s i a h (Sanh.

97b).

3 2

It w a s i n e v i t a b l e that the w o r s e n i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s fertilized t h e s e m e s s i a n i c s p e c u l a t i o n s e x a c t l y in the thirties o f the fifth c e n t u r y C E . N o w o n d e r , t o o , that in an a g e o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ferment s o m e o n e c l a i m i n g to b e a n e w G o d - s e n t M o s e s found a r e a d y a u d i e n c e . T h e n e x t p o i n t to b e n o t e d is that t h e e v e n t d e s c r i b e d follows a pattern w e l l - k n o w n from similar m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t s in t h e first c e n t u r y C E .

3 3

A

c o n s t i t u t i v e e l e m e n t in it is the idea that the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l liberation will b e similar to the e x o d u s from E g y p t . ' J e w i s h p r o p h e c y - a n d particularly J e w i s h e s ­ c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o p h e c y - foresees the future as r e - c r e a t i o n o f the p a s t . '

3 4

Already

the p r o p h e t M i c a h h a d said: ' A s in the d a y s w h e n y o u c a m e out o f the land o f E g y p t , I will s h o w t h e m m a r v e l l o u s t h i n g s ' ( 7 : 1 5 , R S V ) . T h i s ' e x o d u s ' m o t i f in e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n r e c u r s in m o s t m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d a n d later t i m e s , a n d o f c o u r s e the figure o f a n e w M o s e s w a s integral to 3 1

For the text of the imperial decrees see A. Lindcr, The Jews in Roman Imperial Legisla­ tion, Detroit & Jerusalem 1 9 8 7 , 2 9 5 - 3 3 7 . See further J. Juster, Les Juifs dans I 'Empire Romain, 2 vols., Paris 1914,1 162-7, II 101 - 3 ; M. Simon, Verus Israel. A Study of the Relations Between Christians and Jews in the Roman Empire, Oxford 1986, 2 2 4 - 3 3 ; A.M. Rabello, 'Theodosius II,' Enc. Jud. 15 (1972) 1101-2. It should be added that Theodosius' measures sometimes had only regional application or were later mitigated. Silver, History 2 6 - 7 . See on these passages also E.E. Urbach, 'Redemption and Repen­ tance in Talmudic Judaism,' in R.J. Zwi Werblowski & C.J. Bleeker (eds.), Types of Redemp­ tion, Leiden 1970, 1 9 0 - 2 0 6 . P.W. Barnett, 'The Jewish Sign Prophets 4 0 - 7 0 AD: Their Intentions and Origins,' NTS 27 (1980/81) 6 7 9 - 9 7 ; R. A. Horsley, 'Popular Messianic Movements Around the Time of Jesus,' CBQ 46 (1984) 4 7 1 - 9 5 ; idem, 'Popular Prophetic Movements at the Time of Jesus,' JSNT26 (1986) 3 - 2 7 ; M. Hengel, DieZeloten, Leiden 1976 ( 2 ed.),passim. See now also R.A. Horsley and J.S. Hanson, Bandits, Prophets and Messiahs: Popular Movements in the Time of Jesus, N e w York 1986. Horsley's careful distinction between messianic and prophetic movements is relevant for the study of the various first-century charismatic types, but not for our passage from the fifth century. H. Jacobson, 'Visions of the Past: Jews and Greeks,' Judaism 35 (1986) 468; cf. ibid. 479: 'Jews consistently saw themselves, both in large (i.e., the Jewish nation) and in small (individuals), as rc-cxperiencing, re-creating or rc-living the history of earlier Jews.' Jacobson argues that in this respect there is a striking difference between Jews and Greeks. 3 2

3 3

n d

3 4

The Jews of Ancient

this e x p e c t a t i o n .

35

21

Crete

'It w a s perfectly natural that a p e o p l e w h o s e v e r y identity

h a d b e e n forged in the recitation o f the e x o d u s d e l i v e r a n c e s h o u l d treasure the m e m o r y o f M o s e s a n d look for r e s c u e in their o w n p e r i o d s o f crisis in t e r m s o f a repetition o f the e x o d u s e v e n t s . '

3 6

A s e c o n d e l e m e n t that p l a y e d a role h e r e is the

prediction in D e u t . 1 8 : 1 5 - 1 8 of the a p p e a r a n c e o f a p r o p h e t like M o s e s , a l t h o u g h this m o t i f is less explicit in o u r s o u r c e s . Josephus,

3 8

37

If t h e e v i d e n c e is studied, e s p e c i a l l y in

it will b e s e e n that r e c u r r i n g traits o f t h e s e first-century m o v e m e n t s

are the e x o d u s into t h e desert, the u s u a l l y sizeable following, a n d the e x p e c t a t i o n o f m i r a c l e s p r o m i s e d b y t h e m e s s i a n i c pretender. N o w s i n c e t h e r e is n o d e s e r t in C r e t e , the first c o u l d n o t p l a y a part in o u r story. It w a s therefore r e p l a c e d b y the t h e m e o f b e i n g led d r y s h o d t h r o u g h the sea to Palestine. T h e m i r a c l e o f deliver­ a n c e is p r e s e n t in the form o f the e x o d u s m i r a c l e par excellence,

the passage

t h r o u g h the sea. T h e large f o l l o w i n g is also i n c l u d e d . A s t h e s e m o v e m e n t s in the first c e n t u r y a p p e a r e d to r e - e n a c t the g r e a t d i v i n e act o f liberation from biblical history, so o u r p r e t e n d e r a n d his followers a c t e d out this p a t t e r n o f liberation a c ­ c o r d i n g to the historical-eschatological t y p o l o g y a n d t h u s participated in the n e w and anticipated divine action.

39

H e n c e w e see that after four c e n t u r i e s the pattern

is still essentially u n c h a n g e d , t h e o n l y real n e w e l e m e n t b e i n g that the p r e t e n d e r called h i m s e l f M o s e s . A n o t h e r difference is, o f c o u r s e , that the m o v e m e n t did n o t e n d in m a s s a c r e b y the r u l i n g authorities, w h i c h w a s the c o m m o n d i s a s t r o u s e n d i n g o f the first-century m o v e m e n t s a c c o r d i n g to J o s e p h u s . T h e r e c u r r e n c e o f this a n c i e n t pattern in the story u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n s u g g e s t s that the C r e t a n J e w s fostered the old traditions o f their p e o p l e . T h e final q u e s t i o n to b e raised in this c o n n e c t i o n is w h e t h e r the e v e n t r e c o r d e d b y S o c r a t e s i m p l i e d the e n d o f C r e t a n Jewry, as the a u t h o r s e e m s to suggest. A s a m a t t e r o f fact, apart from a n inscription w h i c h m a y d e r i v e from the s a m e p e r i o d a n d w h i c h will b e d i s c u s s e d presently, n o reports w h a t s o e v e r exist o n J e w s or J u d a i s m in C r e t e b e t w e e n t h e first h a l f o f the fifth c e n t u r y a n d the e l e v e n t h c e n ­ tury.

40

F u r t h e r m o r e , reports from ca. 1000 C E o n w a r d s s u g g e s t that C r e t a n J e w s

f o r m e d o n l y a v e r y small g r o u p b y then. W h a t h a d h a p p e n e d in the i n t e r v e n i n g five or six c e n t u r i e s , w e d o not k n o w . T h e o n l y C r e t a n C h u r c h father o f s o m e significance, A n d r e w of C r e t e , w h o w o r k e d in t h e first h a l f o f t h e eight century, m a k e s v e r y n e g a t i v e a n d s c a t h i n g r e m a r k s c o n c e r n i n g the J e w s , but t h e s e are so 3 5

See J. Jeremias, 'Moses,' TWNT 4 (1942) 8 5 2 - 7 8 , esp. 8 6 0 - 8 ; D.L. Tiede, The Charis­ matic Figure as Miracle Worker, Missoula 1972, 1 7 8 - 2 0 7 . Tiede, Charismatic Figure 178-9. Jeremias,'Moses'860-1. E.g., Bell. II 2 5 8 - 2 6 3 ; VI 285; VII 4 3 7 - 4 4 1 ; Ant. XVIII 8 5 - 8 7 ; X X 9 7 - 9 8 , 1 6 7 - 1 7 2 , 188. This formulation is borrowed from Horsley, JSNT 26 (1986) 7 - 8 . For the later Middle A g e s see, e.g., I. L e v i , ' L e s juifs de Candie de 1380 a 1485,' REJ 26 (1893) 1 9 8 - 2 0 8 ; S. Schwarzfuchs, 'Apropos des juifs de Crete et de N e g r e p o n t , ' . K £ / ( 3 ser.) 2 [119] (1961) 1 5 2 - 8 ; L.J. Weinberger, Jewish Poets in Crete, Cincinnati 1985. 3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

rd

The Jews of Ancient

22

Crete

m u c h the stock invectives k n o w n from other Christian w r i t e r s that A n d r e w p r o b ­ ably b o r r o w e d t h e m from his p r e d e c e s s o r s . T h e y c a n n o t b e u s e d to s h e d light o n the situation o f the C r e t a n J e w s o f that t i m e .

41

W h e t h e r or n o t t h e e v e n t s related

b y S o c r a t e s m a r k e d the e n d i n g of a n c i e n t C r e t a n J e w r y , w e h a v e to r e c o r d that it c o n s t i t u t e s the last p i e c e o f e x t a n t e v i d e n c e for a v e r y l o n g period. To turn lastly to the e p i g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l , o n e p i e c e o f inscriptional e v i d e n c e , t h e r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d S a m a r i t a n inscription from D e l o s , h a s a l r e a d y b e e n d i s ­ c u s s e d a b o v e , a n d w e will n o w limit o u r s e l v e s to e v i d e n c e from C r e t e itself. A s e a r c h o f the 1936 edition o f vol. I o f J . - B . F r e y ' s Corpus carum

Inscriptionum

Judai­

y i e l d s n o t h i n g . In the 1975 reprint, h o w e v e r , B a r u c h Lifshitz h a s a d d e d a

P r o l e g o m e n o n w i t h quite a n u m b e r o f n e w inscriptions, three o f w h i c h are from Crete.

4 2

B e f o r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s e , w e first h a v e to d i s c u s s briefly the difficult

p r o b l e m o f h o w to tell a J e w i s h from a n o n - J e w i s h inscription. In his Corpus pyrorum

Judaicarum,

Victor T c h e r i k o v e r lists the f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a :

is J e w i s h (a) if t h e w o r d loudaios

or Hebraios

43

Pa-

a papyrus

o c c u r s in it; (b) if t e c h n i c a l t e r m s

like ' s y n a g o g u e ' or ' s a b b a t h ' a p p e a r in it; (c) if it o r i g i n a t e s from w h a t is k n o w n to h a v e b e e n a p l a c e o f e x c l u s i v e l y J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t ; (d) if it c o n t a i n s J e w i s h n a m e s . N o w , unfortunately, the first three criteria c a n n o t b e applied to a n y C r e t a n inscription, w i t h o n e e x c e p t i o n , a n d in a p p l y i n g t h e fourth criterion w e m o v e on e x t r e m e l y s l i p p e r y g r o u n d . A s R o s s K r a e m e r r e m i n d s u s , there are v e r y few n a m e s ' w h i c h c a n be d e m o n s t r a t e d to h a v e b e e n used o n l y by J e w s , and n e v e r b y 4 4

C h r i s t i a n s or p a g a n s , w h e t h e r in the s a m e or other g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s . ' A s will b e seen, b o t h B a n d y (see n. 4 2 ) a n d Lifshitz d e s i g n a t e inscriptions as J e w i s h o n l y on t h e b a s i s o f a n a m e w h i c h c o u l d as w e l l b e r e g a r d e d as C h r i s t i a n or p a g a n , w h e r e a s t h e y d o not m e n t i o n s o m e inscriptions from the c o r p u s o f Creticae

Inscriptiones

w h i c h o n the s a m e p r i n c i p l e c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d as J e w i s h .

To b e g i n w i t h the first category, B a n d y ' s first ' J e w i s h ' inscription (from t h e fifth c e n t u r y C E ) r u n s as follows (Inscr. Cret. IV n o . 5 0 9 ) : [This burial place b e l o n g s ] to lord Satyros, s o n o f T h e o d o u l o s , a priest, (and) to M o s e s , a ruler w h o (both?) sought salvation with m a n y t o i l s . 4 1

See Andreas Cretensis, Homiliae

45

2 (PG 97: 821C), 3 ( 8 4 5 C - D 0 , 8 (964B), 10 (1024C)

etc. 4 2

In the forty years in between both Margareta Guarducci's Inscriptiones Creticae (4 vols., Rome 1 9 3 5 - 1 9 5 0 ) and Anastasios C. Bandy's Greek Christian Inscriptions from Crete (Athens 1970; with an appendix on Jewish inscriptions) were published. [ N o w w e have D. Noy, A. Panayotov & H. Bloedhorn, Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis I: Eastern Europe, Tubingen 2 0 0 4 , where on pp. 2 4 9 - 2 5 3 three Jewish inscriptions from Crete are published, one of which is a very dubious case.] V.A. Tcherikover & A. Fuks, Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum, vol. 1, Cambridge M A 1957, x v i i - x x . R.S. Kraemer, 'Hellenistic Jewish Women: The Epigraphical Evidence,' SBL Seminar Papers 1986, Atlanta 1986, 191 ( 1 8 3 - 2 0 0 ) . Bandy, Greek Christian Inscriptions 140. I correct his translation where I do not agree with him. 4 3

4 4

4 5

The Jews of Ancient

23

Crete

B a n d y r e g a r d s the inscription as J e w i s h b e c a u s e o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f the n a m e M o s e s a n d the m e n t i o n o f the offices o f priest, hiereus,

a n d ruler, archon,

which

h e s u g g e s t i v e l y translates as ' h e a d o f t h e s y n a g o g u e . ' A s Lifshitz aptly r e m a r k s , h o w e v e r , ' t h e n a m e o f M o s e s is e x t r e m e l y rare in J e w i s h inscriptions a n d v e r y frequent in C h r i s t i a n e p i g r a p h y . '

46

It s h o u l d b e a d d e d that hiereus

title o f a C h r i s t i a n official, a n d that archon, official, m a y b e a secular ruler o f s o m e k i n d .

c o u l d b e the

a l t h o u g h it c a n d e s i g n a t e a J e w i s h 47

T h a t is to say, B a n d y m a y b e right

a n d Lifshitz m a y b e right; w e j u s t d o n o t k n o w .

4 8

C u r i o u s l y e n o u g h , the critical s e n s e that Lifshitz d i s p l a y e d in this c a s e s e e m s to l e a v e h i m in a n o t h e r c a s e . F o r his o w n first inscription, o n a t o m b s t o n e re­ g a r d e d b y h i m as J e w i s h , r u n s as follows (Inscr. Cret. II n o . 8): Sanbathis (set up this stone) for H e r m e s for the sake o f m e m o r y .

49

Lifshitz a s s u m e s that the inscription is J e w i s h b e c a u s e o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e of the n a m e S a n b a t h i s , w h i c h is o n e o f t h e H e l l e n i z e d f o r m s o f the H e b r e w n a m e S h a b b e t a i . H e is certainly right in stating that this n a m e w a s v e r y c o m m o n a m o n g J e w s . B u t h e c o u l d h a v e k n o w n t h e v e r y instructive e x c u r s u s o n ' T h e S a m b a t h i o n s ' b y M e n a c h e m Stern in the Corpus

Papyrorum

Judaicarum^

w h e r e it is p r o v e d b e y o n d a n y d o u b t that, w h e r e a s in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d this n a m e w a s b y a n d large a t y p i c a l l y J e w i s h n a m e , in the R o m a n a n d B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d s a great m a n y n o n - J e w s a d o p t e d it w i t h o u t b e i n g a w a r e o f its original connotations.

51

S t e r n ' s e v i d e n c e is from E g y p t , b u t it is attested from C r e t e as

w e l l that t h e n a m e s S a n b a t h i o n a n d S a n b a t h i s w e r e u s e d b y p a g a n s a n d C h r i s ­ tians.

52

If Lifshitz w o u l d h a v e b e e n as critical in this i n s t a n c e as in t h e c a s e o f

B a n d y ' s first inscription, h e w o u l d h a v e o m i t t e d it, for the inscription is not from t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . H o w e v e r , it s h o u l d b e said o n c e m o r e that t h e r e is n o w a y o f attaining a n y certainty r e g a r d i n g inscriptions w h i c h d o n o t exhibit, in a d d i t i o n to n a m e s , explicitly J e w i s h s y m b o l s like t h e m e n o r a h or Christian 4 6

Prolegomenon to the CIJ reprint, N e w York 1975, 89. See BAGD 114. Except Lifshitz, also B. Nystrom, 'Inscr. Cret. IV 509: An Ancient Christian Priest?,' ZPE 50 (1983) 122, regards this inscription as non-Jewish. [And so does Noy, Inscr. Jud. Ori­ ent. I, 3 4 1 - 3 , where this inscription is relegated to an appendix with material not considered Jewish.] [This inscription is also published by N o y c.s., Inscr. Jud. Orient. I, 343—4, but again regarded as probably Christian.] CPJ III, Cambridge M A 1964, 4 3 - 5 6 . In the Hellenistic period the usual Greek form of the name was Sabbathai/Sabbathaios or Sambathaios; in Imperial times it often became Sambat(h)i6n and Sambathion or Sambathis or Sabbatis (fern.); later hypocoristic forms are Sambas (masc.) and Sabbe (fern.). Details in Stern (see n. 50). E.G., Inscr. Cret. II.xxiv.12. For more evidence of the non-Jewish use o f the names Sambathis etc. see H. Solin, 'Juden und Syrer im westlichen Teil der romischen Welt. Eine ethnisch-demographische Studie mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der sprachlichen Zustande,' ANRWW 2 9 , 2, Berlin & N e w York 1983, 5 8 7 - 7 8 9 , esp. 645 n. 145 and 679. 4 7

4 8

4 9

5 0

5 1

5 2

24

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

s y m b o l s like the cross or a l p h a a n d o m e g a . T h a t is to say, G u a r d u c c i ' s large c o r p u s o f C r e t a n inscriptions m a y w e l l i n c l u d e a n u m b e r o f J e w i s h o n e s w h i c h w e c a n n o t r e c o g n i z e as s u c h . W h a t , for i n s t a n c e , is o n e to say o f graffiti w i t h n a m e s s u c h as Avdias, (Inscr.

w h i c h is a l m o s t certainly t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f O v a d i a

Cret. I I . x x i i i . 2 8 . 3 4 . 5 2 ) ; or o f inscriptions c o n t a i n i n g the n a m e

w h i c h c a n h a r d l y be o t h e r than a scribal v a r i a n t o f Saulos a n d IV 2 2 3 b ) ; or o f inscriptions w i t h n a m e s like Simon

Zaulos,

(Inscr. Cret. II.xii.23

a n d loannes

(Inscr.

Cret.

II.xv.4 a n d 5; I.xxv.8); or o f the n u m e r o u s i n s c r i p t i o n s in w h i c h n a m e s s u c h as Eirena

or Theodoros

or Dositheos

are found (Inscr.

Cret.,

I n d e x s.vv.)? T h e y

m a y b e J e w i s h , b u t s o m e , or all, m a y b e C h r i s t i a n or p a g a n , like the inscriptions w i t h n a m e s s u c h as M o s e s a n d S a n b a t h i s . W e h a v e to r e c o n c i l e o u r s e l v e s to t h e fact that there are n o m e a n s o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n J e w i s h a n d n o n - J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s on the b a s i s o f n a m e s a l o n e , w h e n o t h e r indicators are absent. T h i s sad c o n c l u s i o n l e a v e s u s w i t h o n l y t w o i n s c r i p t i o n s r e g a r d e d as J e w i s h b y b o t h B a n d y a n d Lifshitz a n d b y o t h e r scholars as w e l l .

5 3

T h e first is a t o m b s t o n e a n d is not v e r y r e v e a l i n g . T h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f t h r e e typically J e w i s h n a m e s in three s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s m a k e s it h i g h l y p r o b a b l e that it is a J e w i s h inscription. It runs as follows: Josephus, son o f T h e o d o r u s , (set up this stone) for Judas his s o n as a memorial. ( H e lived) o n e year (Inscr. Cret. I . v . 1 7 ) .

54

T h i s inscription from the third or fourth c e n t u r y C E w a s found in an a r e a at K a s s a n o i called Hebroi cemetery.'

55

(= Hebraioi),

' w h e r e there w a s r e p u t e d to b e a J e w i s h

B u t it is not o n l y this e l e m e n t that m a k e s it p r o b a b l e that w e h a v e

to d o w i t h a J e w i s h inscription. A n a d d i t i o n a l factor is that a l t h o u g h , as w e h a v e seen, ' J e w i s h ' n a m e s n e e d not in t h e m s e l v e s indicate a J e w i s h origin, in this case a J e w i s h o r i g i n is m a d e e x t r e m e l y p r o b a b l e b y t h e fact that the f a t h e r ' s n a m e is r e c o r d e d , w h i c h is an e l e m e n t l a c k i n g in all C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s o f C r e t e .

5 6

A l t h o u g h I a m c o n v i n c e d that this inscription is J e w i s h , it m u s t b e a d m i t t e d that it leaves r o o m for d o u b t to the e x t r e m e sceptic. Fortunately, the final p i e c e o f e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e d o e s not. A g a i n , it is a s e p u l c h r a l inscription, from Kastelli K i s s a m o u , w h i c h w a s d a t e d b y B a n d y to the first or s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , b u t b y t h e great e p i g r a p h e r L o u i s R o b e r t to the fourth or fifth c e n t u r y C E .

5 3

5 7

T h e latter

There is a possibility that Inscr. Cret. IV no. 518 (Bandy's no. 35) is Jewish, but it may be Christian, and the interpretation is highly uncertain because the text is seriously damaged. See Bandy, Greek Christian Inscriptions 142, for a photo of the inscription. Bandy, ibid. Bandy, ibid. This inscription is not included in Inscr. Cret. It was first published by Bandy in Hesperia 32 (1963) 2 2 7 - 9 , and afterwards also in his Greek Christian Inscriptions 143. Jeanne and Louis Robert discussed it in their 'Bulletin epigraphique' in Revue des etudes grecques 11 (1964) 4 1 3 , and Lifshitz in the Prolegomenon to CIJ, at I 88, where the text is printed as no. 73 lc. [It is now no. Cre3 in Inscr. Jud. Orient. I 2 5 2 - 3 . ] 5 4

5 5

5 6

5 7

The Jews of Ancient

25

Crete

d a t i n g is also d e f e n d e d b y Lifshitz a n d b y B e r n a d e t t e B r o o t e n in h e r disserta­ tion.

58

T h e text r u n s as follows :

Sophia o f Gortyn, elder and leader o f the s y n a g o g u e o f K i s s a m o s , lies here. T h e m e m o r y o f the righteous o n e be for ever. A m e n .

5 9

T h e r e is an i l l u m i n a t i n g difference b e t w e e n the interpretation o f this inscrip­ tion b y B a n d y a n d the o n e b y B r o o t e n . B a n d y a d o p t s the traditional t h e o r y that ' e l d e r ' {presbytera)

a n d ' l e a d e r o f the s y n a g o g u e ' (archisynagogissa)

are

' h o n o r a r y t i t l e s ' ( 1 4 3 ) , b e s t o w e d u p o n S o p h i a b e c a u s e h e r h u s b a n d - not she h e r s e l f - h e l d the offices o f e l d e r a n d h e a d o f the s y n a g o g u e . It w a s B r o o t e n w h o w a s the first to b r e a k t h r o u g h this traditional a n d r o c e n t r i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

60

S h e c o n v i n c i n g l y interpreted a w h o l e series o f inscriptions c o n c e r n i n g J e w i s h w o m e n in s u c h a w a y that it b e c a m e o b v i o u s that titles like presbytera archisynagogissa

w e r e n o t h o n o r a r y titles but i n d i c a t e d real f u n c t i o n s .

w r i t e s o n o u r inscription: ' T h e r e is n o internal

and 61

She

r e a s o n for b e l i e v i n g that S o p h i a

o f G o r t y n received the titles t h r o u g h h e r h u s b a n d . If h e r h u s b a n d w e r e the s o u r c e o f h e r titles, w h y is she n o t called S o p h i a t h e wife o f X ? T h e i m a g e o f S o p h i a o f G o r t y n e m e r g i n g from t h e inscription ( . . . ) is o f a v e r y i m p o r t a n t figure in the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f C i s s a m o s . S h e w a s not o n l y an elder, b u t also h e a d o f t h e s y n a g o g u e . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e that she w a s m a r r i e d . ' interpretation o f presbytera

6 2

' I m p o r t a n t for the

is its parallelization w i t h archisynagogissa,

m a k e s it u n l i k e l y that presbytera e l d e r from a S o p h i a the y o u n g e r . '

which

is s i m p l y a t e r m to d i s t i n g u i s h S o p h i a the 6 3

B r o o t e n ' s r e s e a r c h h a s m a d e several t h i n g s

clear. First, a n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s l e a v e n o d o u b t that in s o m e c o m m u n i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e d i a s p o r a , there w e r e f e m a l e elders. T h e y p r o b a b l y h a d finan­ cial, p o s s i b l y also e d u c a t i o n a l responsibilities. S e c o n d , t h e r e are a n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s that m e n t i o n w o m e n as h e a d o f a s y n a g o g u e . In t h e s e , n o h u s b a n d s are m e n t i o n e d ; a n d it is h i g h l y significant that in t h o s e i n s t a n c e s w h e r e w i v e s of ( m a l e ) archisynagogoi

are m e n t i o n e d , they d o not b e a r this title. T h a t is to say,

the traditional t h e o r y that r e g a r d s this title as honorific w h e n a w o m a n is the b e a r e r h a s n o leg to stand o n . Archisynagogissai 5 8

w e r e i n d e e d f e m a l e leaders o f a

B.J. Brooten, Women Leaders in the Ancient Synagogue, Chico 1982, 1 1 - 2 , 4 1 . CI J 73 l c = Inscr. Jud. Or. Cre3. It should be said, however, that in the same year (1982) the late I.F. Sanders adopted the same interpretation of the inscription as Brooten by taking it at face value; see his Roman Crete 43: 'One of these [inscriptions] includes the only evidence for the organization o f the faith, the dead person, Sophia of Gortyna, being an elder and leader of the synagogue at Kissamos.' It is very much to the point when Susanne Heine writes: 'Wer, wie bewuBt oder unbewuBt immer, Frauen in hoheren Amtern und Funktionen nicht wahrhaben will, neigt nicht nur dazu, weibliche Vornamen zu iibersehen, sondem auch dazu, das Amt dann, wenn eine Frau es bekleidet, abzuwerten' (Frauen derfriihen Christenheit, Gottingen 1986, 98). Women Leaders 12. Women Leaders 4 1 . See now also R.S. Kraemer, 'A N e w Inscription from Malta and the Question o f Women Elders in the Diaspora Jewish Communities,' HTR 78 (1985) 4 3 1 - 8 . 5 9

6 0

6 1

6 2

6 3

26

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

s y n a g o g u e . T h e y w e r e p r o b a b l y active in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d e x h o r t a t i o n . ' T h e y c o u l d h a v e w o r k e d in a t e a m o f t w o or three s y n a g o g u e h e a d s , for w e h a v e s e e n that the n u m b e r w a s not n e c e s s a r i l y restricted to o n e . O r p e r h a p s t h e y s e r v e d alone. (...) Sophia of Gortyn, both elder and head of the synagogue, must have b e e n v e r y actively i n v o l v e d in the affairs o f the s y n a g o g u e . W a s it h e r long y e a r s o f w o r k that c o n v i n c e d e v e n t h e m o s t sceptical that a w o m a n w a s c a p a b l e o f filling that office? F a m i l y ties, long y e a r s o f i n v o l v e m e n t , l a r g e s s e - t h e s e h a v e often p l a y e d a role in attaining v a r i o u s offices a n d s e e m as likely in t h e c a s e o f w o m e n as o f m e n . '

6 4

B r o o t e n h a s b e e n q u o t e d at length b e c a u s e h e r c o n c l u s i o n s s h e d a striking light on C r e t a n J e w r y in late antiquity. T h e c o m p a r a b l e inscriptions s h e a d d u c e s m a k e v e r y p r o b a b l e i n d e e d that in d i a s p o r a situations w o m e n c o u l d rise to h i g h p o s i t i o n s a n d e v e n to l e a d e r s h i p in J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s . I n d e p e n d e n t l y from her, m y o w n r e s e a r c h h a s led m e to identical c o n c l u s i o n s a l o n g v e r y different l i n e s .

65

N e e d l e s s to say, it is not p o s s i b l e to d r a w g e n e r a l i z ­

ing c o n c l u s i o n s for the w h o l e o f C r e t e from o n e sepulchral inscription in Kastelli K i s s a m o u , b u t it c a n at least b e asserted that in s o m e q u a r t e r s o f C r e t a n J e w r y in t h e later R o m a n p e r i o d e m a n c i p a t o r y t e n d e n c i e s m a d e t h e m o s t o f their c h a n c e s so that w o m e n w e r e a b l e to attain to p o s i t i o n s o f l e a d e r s h i p . T h a t s u c h w o m e n w e r e at o d d s w i t h strict r a b b i n i c rules is o b v i o u s .

66

S o m e final r e m a r k s . It is self-evident that the m a t e r i a l at o u r d i s p o s a l d o e s not a l l o w for a h i s t o r y o f C r e t a n J e w s in antiquity to b e w r i t t e n . A l t h o u g h it c a n n e v e r b e e x c l u d e d that n e w d o c u m e n t s m a y e m e r g e , it h a s to b e r e c o g n i z e d that the c h a n c e s are s m a l l . N e w literary s o u r c e s c a n h a r d l y b e e x p e c t e d a n d p a p y r o logical e v i d e n c e from C r e t e itself will not b e found; o n l y a few fresh inscriptions (an e p i t a p h o r t w o ) m a y r e a s o n a b l y b e e x p e c t e d . T h e s m a l l c o r p u s o f e v i d e n c e will in c o n s e q u e n c e p r o b a b l y r e m a i n s m a l l a n d n o t a l l o w u s to arrive at g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s . A r e c e n t historian o f C r e t e o b s e r v e s o f t h e J e w s that ' t h e literary r e f e r e n c e s d e p i c t a peaceful, rich c o m m u n i t y , if s o m e w h a t g u l l i b l e , '

67

solely o n

the b a s i s o f t w o p a s s a g e s in J o s e p h u s a n d S o c r a t e s . T h a t is t o o s w e e p i n g a state­ m e n t w h e n in fact all that c a n b e d e d u c e d from t h e s e p a s s a g e s is that in t h e first c e n t u r y there w e r e rich J e w s living in C r e t e a n d that in the first a n d fifth centuries m a n y (?) J e w s p u t their u n t h i n k i n g trust in an impostor. Similarly, t h e inscription 6 4

Brooten, Women Leaders 3 2 - 3 . P.W. van der Horst, 'Images o f Women in the Testament of Job,' in M.A. Knibb & P.W. van der Horst (eds.), Studies on the Testament of Job, Cambridge 1 9 8 9 , 9 3 - 1 1 6 . Idem, 'Portraits o f Biblical Women in Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum,' Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha 5 (1989) 2 9 - 4 6 . See, e.g., L. Swidler, Women in Judaism. The Status of Women in Formative Juda­ ism, Metuchen 1976. M. Kuchler, Schweigen, Schmuck und Schleier. Drei neutestamentliche Vorschriften zur Verdrdngung der Frauen auf dem Hintergrund einerfrauenfeindlichen Exegese des Alten Testaments im antiken Judentum, Freiburg & Gottingen 1986. Sanders, Roman Crete 4 3 . 6 5

6 6

6 7

The Jews of Ancient

27

Crete

o f S o p h i a o f G o r t y n d o e s n o t p e r m i t u s to c o n c l u d e that J e w i s h w o m e n in C r e t e found it e a s y to r e a c h l e a d i n g p o s i t i o n s ; t h e c a s e o f S o p h i a w a s p r o b a b l y e x ­ c e p t i o n a l . W h e n the a f o r e - m e n t i o n e d historian s a y s that t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y w a s peaceful, w e c a n m o r e easily a g r e e w i t h h i m s i n c e t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e to the contrary. T h e fact that w e h a v e n o r e p o r t s on C r e t a n J e w r y b e t w e e n say 100 a n d 4 3 0 C E m a y indicate that in the s e c o n d t h r o u g h fourth c e n t u r i e s the J e w s r e a c h e d a h i g h d e g r e e o f i n t e g r a t i o n in C r e t a n society, a situation that w a s p r o b ­ a b l y o n l y d i s r u p t e d b y t h e legal m e a s u r e s o f T h e o d o s i u s I I .

6 8

A s w a s said in t h e

b e g i n n i n g , t h e e v i d e n c e y i e l d s n o m o r e t h a n o c c a s i o n a l g l i m p s e s o f t h e history o f this c o m m u n i t y , b u t t h e s e are w i t h o u t d o u b t interesting a n d f a s c i n a t i n g .

6 8

69

Compare the situation of several Jewish communities in Asia Minor, e. g. Sardis, on which see A.T. Kraabel, 'Paganism and Judaism: The Sardis Evidence,' in A. Benoit et al. (eds.), Paganisme, Juda'isme, Christianisme. Melanges offerts a Marcel Simon, Paris 1978, 1 3 - 3 3 . This article is the expanded version o f a paper read at the July 1987 meeting of the European Association for Jewish Studies in Berlin. It may be added here that I have left out of account all legendary material from the Christian apocvrypha such as the story that after Jesus' execution, the emperor Tiberius had Annas and Caiaphas arrested and brought to Rome, but on the way Caiaphas died. When they wanted to bury him in Crete, the earth refused to receive his body and they had to cover it with stones; see, e. g., M.R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford 1924, 153. Until the nineteenth century there was near Cnossos a site called 'the tomb o f Caiaphas'; for details see N . A . Bees, Die griechisch-christlichen Inschriften des Peloponnes, Athens 1941, 41 with n. 2. 6 9

The Jews of Ancient Cyprus J e w s lived on the G r e e k islands in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a from as early as the third or s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . B e s t k n o w n are t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o f C r e t e 2

1

and

3

D e l o s , m u c h less k n o w n are t h o s e o f E u b o i a , C o s , R h o d e s , a n d S a m o s . In this c o n t r i b u t i o n I will briefly p r e s e n t the m o s t r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e for J e w i s h p r e s e n c e 4

o n t h e i m p o r t a n t island o f C y p r u s . S c a r c e t h o u g h it m a y b e , this e v i d e n c e d o e s m a k e clear that there w a s i n d e e d a relatively large a n d vital J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o n this a n c i e n t island. I will first d i s c u s s t h e literary e v i d e n c e , thereafter the epigraphic material. T h e earliest e v i d e n c e is a p a s s a g e in 1 Maccabees

15, d e s c r i b i n g S i m o n t h e

M a c c a b e e ' s r u l e , d u r i n g w h i c h h e forged c l o s e c o n t a c t s w i t h the R o m a n s in his s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t the S e l e u c i d s . A b o u t 140 B C E , N u m e n i u s w a s sent as his e n v o y to R o m e a n d c a m e b a c k w i t h "letters to the k i n g s a n d c o u n t r i e s " ( 1 5 : 1 5 ) , in w h i c h the c o n s u l o f R o m e w a r n e d t h e m not to h a r m the J e w s a n y w h e r e . C o p i e s w e r e sent " t o all the c o u n t r i e s ( . . . ) , a n d to the S p a r t a n s , a n d to D e l o s , a n d to M y n d o s , a n d to S i c y o n , a n d to C a r i a , a n d to S a m o s , a n d to P a m p h y l i a , a n d to Lycia, a n d to H a l i c a r n a s s u s , a n d to R h o d e s , a n d to P h a s e l i s , a n d to C o s , a n d to S i d e , a n d to 5

A r a d o s , a n d to G o r t y n a , a n d to C n i d o s a n d C y p r u s a n d C y r e n e " ( 1 5 : 2 3 ) . T h i s list n o d o u b t i m p l i e s that in all t h e s e p l a c e s or r e g i o n s J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e to b e found. F o r C y p r u s this i m p l i e s that the J e w s h a d b e e n r e s i d e n t s there for a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e p r e v i o u s to 140 B C E . In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d w h y t h e rulers o f C y p r u s r e c e i v e d a letter w a r n i n g t h e m n o t to h a r m t h e interests o f the J e w s , o n e

1

P.W. van der Horst, 'The Jews of Ancient Crete,' JJS 39 (1988) 1 8 3 - 2 0 0 , reprinted in my Studies on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Fribourg & Gottingen 1990, 1 4 8 - 1 6 5 [see the previous chapter]. Ph. Bruneau, Recherches sur les cultes de Delos, Paris 1970, 4 8 0 - 4 9 3 , and idem, '"Les Israelites de Delos" et la juiverie delienne,' Bulletin de correspondence hellenique 106 (1982) 465-504. See the survey by Fergus Millar in E. Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, rev. ed. by G. Vermes a. o., vol. III. 1, Edinburgh 1986, 6 8 - 7 2 . Very brief and incomplete surveys are A. Reifenberg, 'Das antike zyprische Judentum und seine Beziehungen zu Palastina,' Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society 1 2 ( 1 9 3 2 ) 2 0 9 - 2 1 5 ; G. Hill, A History of Cyprus, 4 vols., vol. I, Cambridge 1940, 2 4 1 - 2 4 3 ; and T.B. Mitford, 'The Cults of Roman Cyprus,' Aufstieg und Niedergang der Romischen Welt II. 18.3, Berlin - N e w York 1990, 2 2 0 4 - 2 2 0 6 . For the problems relating to this letter (e. g., its displacement in the present text of / Mace.) see J.A. Goldstein, / Maccabees (Anchor Bible 41), Garden City 1976, A92-A9A. 2

3

4

5

The Jews of Ancient

29

Cyprus

m u s t a s s u m e that their n u m b e r s w e r e not insignificant, w h i c h w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e o n l y if the J e w s h a d lived there a l r e a d y for a l o n g e r p e r i o d , p e r h a p s from as early 6

as the third cent. B C E , like o n C r e t e a n d D e l o s . T h a t J e w s w e r e p r e s e n t on the island at least in M a c c a b a e a n t i m e s is indicated also b y the H a s m o n a e a n c o i n s 7

found in P a p h o s . It s h o u l d b e b o r n e in m i n d that C y p r u s w a s attractive from an e c o n o m i c p o i n t o f v i e w s i n c e it w a s " a d m i r a b l y situated for c o m m e r c e b e t w e e n 8

A s i a M i n o r , Syria, J u d a e a a n d G r e e c e . " E s p e c i a l l y b y t h e e n d o f the first cent. B C E , " w h e n H e r o d the G r e a t o b t a i n e d the c o n c e s s i o n o f h a l f t h e C y p r i o t c o p ­ p e r - m i n e s from A u g u s t u s in 12 B . C . E . , t h e c o m m e r c i a l p r o s p e c t s thus o p e n e d u p will h a v e e n c o u r a g e d J e w i s h i m m i g r a t i o n . "

9

T h e i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e r e b e i n g a large a n d significant c o m m u n i t y is cor­ r o b o r a t e d b y an i m p o r t a n t p a s s a g e in J o s e p h u s . In Ant. Jud.

13.284, J o s e p h u s ,

s p e a k i n g a b o u t t h e r e i g n o f P t o l e m y I X S o t e r II ( 1 4 2 - 8 0 B C E ) , s a y s that " a t this t i m e not o n l y w e r e t h e J e w s in J e r u s a l e m a n d in the c o u n t r y - s i d e ( o f J u d a e a ) in a flourishing c o n d i t i o n , b u t also t h o s e w h o lived in A l e x a n d r i a a n d in E g y p t a n d C y p r u s . " H e a d d s , in a q u o t e from S t r a b o ,

10

that P t o l e m y ' s m o t h e r , C l e o p a t r a

III, w h o w a s at w a r w i t h h e r son, sent J e w i s h t r o o p s w i t h C h e l k i a s a n d A n a n i a s as g e n e r a l s to C y p r u s ( 2 8 7 ) .

11

A g a i n , the fact that the J e w s o f C y p r u s are m e n ­

tioned in o n e b r e a t h w i t h t h e large c o m m u n i t i e s in J e r u s a l e m , A l e x a n d r i a , and E g y p t is telling e n o u g h . T h e fact that the E g y p t i a n q u e e n sent J e w i s h t r o o p s to C y p r u s o n l y h e l p s to confirm the i m p r e s s i o n that this island h a d a large J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in the last d e c a d e s o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . In Ant. Jud.

18.131,

J o s e p h u s tells u s that o n e o f H e r o d ' s g r a n d d a u g h t e r s , A l e x a n d r a , m a r r i e d an i m p o r t a n t m a n from C y p r u s called T i m i o s , p r o b a b l y a J e w as w e l l .

1 2

Finally, in

Ant. Jud. 2 0 . 1 4 2 w e r e a d that in the m i d d l e o f t h e fifties o f t h e first c e n t u r y C E , the R o m a n g o v e r n o r o f J u d a e a , Felix, fell in love w i t h A g r i p p a ' s sister, Drusilla. S h e w a s m a r r i e d to A z i z u s , b u t w i t h t h e aid of a J e w i s h m a g i c i a n from C y p r u s called A t o m u s , h e successfully i n d u c e d h e r to m a r r y h i m . H e r e for t h e first t i m e

6

It is not clear to me how Lea Roth can confidently state that the beginning of the third century BCE was "the period at which a Jewish settlement on the island apparently began to develop on a large scale" (L. Roth, 'Cyprus,' Enc. Jud. 5 [1972] 1181), although, o f course, it is not impossible to surmise that "under Ptolemy I there seems to have been a considerable exodus from Palestine of Jews who settled in many places in the Eastern Mediterranean, and Cyprus must have had its share of such settlers" (Hill, History of Cyprus, vol. I, 241 note 4). See D.H. Cox in Numismatic Notes and Monographs 145 (1959) 2 5 - 2 6 (nos. 1 9 1 - 2 0 0 , including Herodian coins [non vidi]); also Reifenberg, 'Das antike zyprische Judentum' 2 1 3 . Sh. Applebaum, 'The Social and Economic Status of the Jews in the Diaspora,' in S. Safrai & M. Stern (eds.), The Jewish People in the First Century, vol. 2, Assen 1976, 711. M. Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule, Leiden 1 9 7 6 , 4 1 2 . The reference for Herod is Josephus, Ant. Jud. 1 6 . 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 . See M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, vol. 1, Jerusalem 1974, 268-270. For the sequel see Ant. Jud. 1 3 . 3 2 4 - 3 3 3 . Though that is not as certain as Lea Roth claims it to be ('Cyprus' 1181). 7

8

9

1 0

11

1 2

30

The Jews of Ancient

Cyprus

w e c o m e a c r o s s the m o t i f of J e w i s h m a g i c i a n s from C y p r u s w h i c h , as w e will p r e s e n t l y s e e , will o c c u r m o r e often. P h i l o is a n o t h e r w i t n e s s to J e w i s h p r e s e n c e o n C y p r u s w h e n a r o u n d 4 0 C E , in Legatio

ad Gaium

2 8 2 , h e h a s k i n g A g r i p p a I list t h e m a n y c o u n t r i e s w h e r e

J e w s h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d ' c o l o n i e s , ' a n d g o e s o n to say that m a n y s u c h c o l o n i e s are also to b e found on " t h e m o s t h i g h l y e s t e e m e d o f t h e islands, E u b o e a , C y p r u s , and Crete." F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e c o m e s from the N e w T e s t a m e n t . T h e B o o k o f A c t s m e n ­ t i o n s several J e w s from C y p r u s .

1 3

First, in A c t s 4 : 3 6 it is said that to the earliest

C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y in J e r u s a l e m , c o n s i s t i n g e x c l u s i v e l y o f J e w s , b e l o n g e d a L e v i t e o f C y p r i o t origin called J o s e p h , w h o m the a p o s t l e s s u r n a m e d B a r n a b a s . T h i s B a r n a b a s is later said to h a v e b e c o m e the m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o m p a n i o n o f t h e a p o s t l e Paul d u r i n g his early m i s s i o n a r y activity. T h i s p a r t n e r s h i p , h o w e v e r , s o o n b r o k e u p : A c t s 15:39 s a y s that in A n t i o c h t h e y b e c a m e so e m b r o i l e d in conflict w i t h e a c h o t h e r that B a r n a b a s sailed a w a y to C y p r u s , a p p a r e n t l y r e t u r n ­ ing to his original h o m e l a n d . B e f o r e that r u p t u r e , h o w e v e r , t h e t w o h a d visited C y p r u s t o g e t h e r a n d p r o c l a i m e d t h e C h r i s t i a n m e s s a g e in S a l a m i s , t h e m a i n city o n t h e east c o a s t o f t h e island, w h e r e there w e r e several s y n a g o g u e s ( 1 3 : 5 s a y s so explicitly). T h e r e a f t e r they travelled to the West, a n d in P a p h o s " t h e y m e t a certain m a g i c i a n , a J e w i s h false p r o p h e t , n a m e d B a r - J e s u s " ( 1 3 : 6 ) , w h o o p p o s e d t h e m a n d tried to turn the p r o c o n s u l , in w h o s e s e r v i c e h e w a s , a w a y from t h e faith, s a y s t h e author. Paul c u r s e d the m a g i c i a n so that h e b e c a m e blind. T h i s is o u r s e c o n d e n c o u n t e r w i t h a J e w i s h m a g i c i a n from C y p r u s . A n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n o f J e w i s h p r e s e n c e at C y p r u s is g i v e n in A c t s 1 1 : 1 9 - 2 0 w h e r e w e are told that, after a p e r s e c u t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n s in J e r u s a l e m (in the m i d d l e o f t h e thirties), s o m e o f the p e r s e c u t e d J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s " t r a v e l l e d as far as P h o e n i c i a , C y p r u s , a n d A n t i o c h , a n d t h e y s p o k e the w o r d to n o o n e e x c e p t J e w s ; b u t a m o n g t h e m w e r e s o m e m e n o f C y p r u s a n d C y r e n e w h o , o n c o m i n g to A n t i o c h , s p o k e to t h e G r e e k s a l s o . " T h i s m i g h t i m p l y that e v e n before P a u l ' s first visit to C y p r u s t h e r e w e r e J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s on that island, b u t it is m o r e p r o b a b l e that the reference is to C y p r i o t J e w s w h o h a d m o v e d to P a l e s t i n e a n d b e c o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e early C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y in J e r u s a l e m . S o e v e n if t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t d o e s n o t t e s ­ tify to the size a n d i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e C y p r i o t J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , its e x i s t e n c e is t a k e n for g r a n t e d . M a y b e o n e c o u l d e v e n s p e c u l a t e that, in v i e w o f P a u l ' s c u s t o m o f p r e a c h i n g first in the s y n a g o g u e s o f the m a j o r d i a s p o r a c e n t r e s , t h e fact t h a t his v e r y first m i s s i o n a r y trip b r i n g s h i m to C y p r u s is an indirect indication o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y t h e r e . F o r t h e p e r i o d after 7 0 w e h a v e little literary e v i d e n c e , b u t the R o m a n h i s ­ torian C a s s i u s D i o ( b e g i n n i n g o f the third cent. C E ) tells u s that at t h e t i m e o f 1 3

A. Nobbs, "Cyprus," in D.W.J. Gill & C. Glempf (eds.), The Book of Acts in Its FirstCentury Setting. Volume 2: The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting, Grand Rapids - C a r l i s l e 1994, 2 7 9 - 2 8 9 .

The Jews of Ancient

31

Cyprus

Trajan, in 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 C E , t h e J e w s o f C y p r u s r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t t h e R o m a n s (and G r e e k s ) u n d e r the l e a d e r s h i p o f a certain A r t e m i o n , a n d m a s s a c r e d 2 4 0 . 0 0 0 n o n - J e w s {Historia

Romana

6 8 . 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g to E u s e b i u s , they e v e n d e s t r o y e d

the w h o l e city o f S a l a m i s a n d m a s s a c r e d all its i n h a b i t a n t s (Chronicon,

Trajan

X I X , p . 2 1 9 ed. K a r s t = p . 164 ed. S c h o e n e = J e r o m e , Chron. p . 196 ed. H e l m ) .

1 4

T h i s r e v o l t w a s part o f a larger J e w i s h u p r i s i n g that started in t h e C y r e n a i c a (i. e., L i b y a ) , w h e r e t h e J e w s a t t a c k e d t h e G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s a n d killed 2 2 0 . 0 0 0 o f t h e m after h a v i n g c o m m i t t e d u n d e s c r i b a b l e atrocities ( s a y s D i o ) , a n d the revolt s p r e a d to n e a r b y E g y p t a n d C y p r u s . are i m p r o b a b l y h i g h ,

1 6

1 5

E v e n t h o u g h t h e s e n u m b e r s o f casualties

t h e y d o indicate that the J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n o f C y p r u s

m u s t h a v e b e e n large. T h e r e is also a n o t i c e in E u s e b i u s to the effect that the C y p r i o t J e w s c a m e to the r e s c u e o f the E g y p t i a n J e w s a n d " c o n t i n u e d to p l u n d e r the c o u n t r y o f E g y p t " {Historia

Ecclesiastica

4.2). T h e w a r was devastating,

a n d the R o m a n s ruthlessly q u e l l e d t h e revolt, a l m o s t totally a n n i h i l a t i n g the Jewry of Egypt and of the Cyrenaica.

17

A b o u t t h e fate o f the C y p r i o t J e w s in the

s u p p r e s s i o n o f the r e v o l t w e k n o w little, b u t , as C a s s i u s D i o r e p o r t s , b e c a u s e o f their role in the w a r " n o J e w m a y set foot on this island [ C y p r u s ] a n y m o r e , b u t if o n e o f t h e m is d r i v e n u p o n its s h o r e s b y a s t o r m , h e is p u t to d e a t h " (Hist.

Rom.

6 8 . 3 2 ) . T h i s a g a i n is an e x a g g e r a t i o n , b u t it d o e s indicate that the m a g i s t r a t e s t o o k e x t r e m e m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t the J e w s t h e r e . T h e fact that the R o m a n s tried to kill as m a n y insurgents as p o s s i b l e a n d w e r e successful in that r e s p e c t i m p l i e s that b y 117 C E C y p r i o t J e w r y w a s at least d e c i m a t e d , if n o t w o r s e .

1 8

It is p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e o f its ( n e a r ) e x t i n c t i o n that the literary s o u r c e s are silent a b o u t this c o m m u n i t y for a l o n g t i m e .

1 9

We h a v e to w a i t till t h e early

s e v e n t h c e n t u r y w h e n S o p h r o n i u s , b i s h o p o f J e r u s a l e m , tells u s a story a b o u t a C h r i s t i a n o n C y p r u s w h o h a d fallen ill b u t w a s h e a l e d b y t w o C h r i s t i a n saints, C y r u s a n d J o h n , w h o found o u t that t h e p o o r m a n h a d b e e n m a d e ill b y a J e w ­ ish m a g i c i a n w h o lived o n t h e island ( h e r e w e m e e t a J e w i s h m a g i c i a n for the

1 4

The same information is repeated by Orosius, Hist. 7.12.8 and Syncellus, Chron. 657. See M. Hengel & A.M. Schwemer, Paul Between Damascus and Antioch, London 1997, 347 note 240. See M. Smallwood, The Jews 389^127, esp. 4 1 2 - 4 1 5 ; Schiirer, History, vol. I, Edinburgh 1973, 5 2 9 - 5 3 4 . Reifenberg, 'Das antike zyprische Judentum' 211: "eine starke Ubertreibung." See J. Meleze-Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, Philadelphia 1995, 1 9 8 - 2 0 5 . Rabbinic literature seems, according to some interpreters ( e . g . S. Krauss in his entry on Cyprus in the Jewish Encyclopedia), to confirm this when in Talmud Yerushalmi, Sukka 5.1, 55b, it is said that the blood of the Jews slaughtered by Trajan flowed into the sea as far as Cyprus (he passage is repeated in Lamentations Rabbah 1.16.45), but here it is rather the Jews o f Egypt or Palestine who are meant. See M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, vol. 2, Jerusalem 1980, 389. I refer here only in passing to the fifth-century Acts of Barnabas (ch. 23) which mentions the synagogue o f Salamis and tells the legendary story of a Jewish uprising against Barnabas' preaching organized by the Jewish magician Bar-Jesus, resulting in the death o f Barnabas. 15

1 6

1 7

1 8

1 9

32

The Jews of Ancient

third t i m e ) .

2 0

Cyprus

S h o r t l y afterwards (in the thirties or fourties o f the s e v e n t h cent.

C E ) , b i s h o p L e o n t i u s o f N e a p o l i s (on C y p r u s ) w r o t e a w o r k Contra

21

Judaeos,

w h i c h w r i t i n g m a y b e t a k e n to p o i n t t o w a r d s a J e w i s h p r e s e n c e on t h e i s l a n d .

22

T h i s is c o n f i r m e d b y t h e report o f E u t y c h i u s A l e x a n d r i n u s (first h a l f o f t h e tenth c e n t u r y ) that d u r i n g the reign o f H e r a c l i u s ( 6 1 0 - 6 4 1 ) , C y p r i o t J e w s j o i n e d their P a l e s t i n i a n c o r e l i g i o n i s t s in a series o f raids o f C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t e r i e s .

23

As we

will see in the n e x t section, e p i g r a p h i c a l s o u r c e s indicate that in t h e c e n t u r i e s after 117 C E the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f C y p r u s s e e m s i n d e e d to h a v e r e c o v e r e d from t h e blow. W e n o w turn to the e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e .

24

T h e earliest p i e c e is an inscription

from the ( p r o b a b l y late) H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d found in K o u r i o n that m e n t i o n s the Jew Onias.

2 5

U n f o r t u n a t e l y it d o e s not yield a n y o t h e r information. F r o m t h e

R o m a n p e r i o d , m o r e specifically from the third a n d fourth c e n t u r i e s C E , d e r i v e the following: F r o m the third c e n t u r y is CIJ736

= DF 8 3 , an inscription o n a col­

u m n from L a p e t h o s that reads: ' E x - v o t o o f rabbi A t t i c u s . '

2 6

T h i s inscription n e e d

n o t i m p l y that as early as the third c e n t u r y C E the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f C y p r u s h a d c o m e u n d e r r a b b i n i c sway, for that w o u l d b e b o t h i m p r o b a b l e a n d e x c e p ­ tional. F r o m the c i r c a 6 0 ' e p i g r a p h i c a l r a b b i s '

2 7

it is v e r y difficult to ascertain in

w h i c h c a s e s t h e w o r d rabbi d e s i g n a t e s an o r d a i n e d R a b b i a n d in w h i c h c a s e s it 2 0

Laudatio sanctorum martyrum Cyri et Johannis 55 (=PG 87/3: 3625). J. Starr, The Jews of the Byzantine Empire, N e w York 1939, 8 5 - 8 6 , mentions medieval sources reporting that a Jewish sorcerer from Salamis was burnt there at the stake ca. 635 CE. PG 9 3 : 1 5 9 7 - 1 6 1 2 . On this treatise see H. Schreckenberg, Die christlichen Adversus-Judaeos-Texte und ihr literarisches und historisches Umfeld (l.-ll. Jh.), Frankfurt 1990, 445. This is, o f course, not necessarily the case. It is also unwarranted to conclude from the fact that Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, wrote a refutation of the ideas of a great number of Jewish (and Christian) groups, that all these groups were represented on Cyprus, in spite of what is suggested by S. Krauss-W. Horbury, The Jewish-Christian Controversy I: History, Tubingen 1 9 9 6 , 4 3 . Annates 2 . 2 2 0 - 2 2 3 (PG 111:1084-5 = CSCO 4 5 : 1 0 1 - 2 ) . See K.L. Noethlichs, DieJuden im christlichen Imperium Romanum (4.-6. Jahrhundert), Berlin 2 0 0 1 , 48 with note 111. Some o f it was collected by J.-B. Frey, Corpus Inscriptionum Judaicarum, vol. 2, Rome 1952, 6 - 7 , and B. Lifshitz, Donateurs et fondateurs dans les synagogues juives, Paris 1967, 7 3 - 7 6 . See also T.B. Mitford, "Some N e w Inscriptions from Early Christian Cyprus," Byzantion 20 (1950) 1 0 5 - 1 7 5 , here esp. 110-116. The corpora of Frey and Lifshitz will be referred to in the main text as CIJ and DF. [For a new edition of the Jewish inscriptions from Cyprus see the Addendum.] T.B. Mitford, The Inscriptions of Kourion, Philadelphia 1971, 1 3 3 - 1 3 4 (no. 70). Another late Hellenistic inscription mentioned as Jewish by Mitford, 'Cults' 2204, is much too fragmen­ tary to warrant his conclusion that it "appears to concern the construction in cedar wood o f the doorway o f a synagogue at Amathus" {ibid.). For a discussion of this inscription see Reifenberg, "Das antike zyprische Judentum" 211-212. S. J. D. Cohen, 'Epigraphical Rabbis,' JQR 72 (1981/82) 1-17. For an addendum see P. W. van der Horst, '"Lord, Help the Rabbi'. The Interpretation of SEG X X X I 1578b," JJS 38 (1987) 1 0 2 - 1 0 6 , now also in my Essays on the Jewish World 1 8 2 - 1 8 6 . 2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

2 7

The Jews of Ancient

33

Cyprus

m e a n s j u s t an individual o f r a n k or an i m p o r t a n t p e r s o n , a w e l l established m e a n ­ ing o f rabbi,

also in r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e .

28

' R a b b i ' w a s n o t a p r o t e c t e d title a n d

there w a s n o central registry o f p e r s o n s w h o w e r e o r d a i n e d R a b b i s . " W h o c o u l d p r e v e n t v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s from b e s t o w i n g t h e title ' r a b b i ' o n their p r o m i n e n t citizens r e g a r d l e s s o f their p r a c t i c e s a n d beliefs? H e n c e it m a k e s n o s e n s e to a s s u m e that all r a b b i s in a n t i q u i t y w e r e T a l m u d i c s c h o l a r s . "

29

O t h e r inscriptions

m a k e clear that t h e real l e a d e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e t h e archontes, archisynagogoi,

t h e gerousiarchai,

etc.

3 0

the

Most of the epigraphical rabbis were

not r a b b i s in o u r s e n s e o f t h e w o r d , a n d m o s t s y n a g o g u e s in b o t h Israel a n d the d i a s p o r a w e r e n o t led b y r a b b i s . N o w h e r e d o the inscriptions s u p p o r t t h e n o t i o n o f r a b b i n i c d o m i n a n c e . E p i g r a p h i c a l r a b b i s " a p p e a r as donors, the s y n a g o g u e s . "

31

n o t a s leaders o f

T h i s is p r o b a b l y w h a t w e see h e r e : t h e m a r b l e c o l u m n m a y

v e r y w e l l h a v e b e e n a gift o f ' r a b b i ' A t t i c u s , w h o o n t h e b a s i s o f a v o w (the text h a s euche

= neder)

d o n a t e d it to his s y n a g o g u e . O f c o u r s e t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t

a s p e c t o f this inscription is that o n e century, or a c e n t u r y a n d a half, after the d e s t r u c t i v e w a r o f 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 w e a g a i n see J e w i s h p r e s e n c e o n C y p r u s a n d e v e n the p r e s e n c e o f s y n a g o g u e b u i l d i n g s . P r o b a b l y also from t h e third c e n t u r y C E is DF 8 5 ,

3 2

a g a i n a n inscription o n a

m a r b l e c o l u m n , from C o n s t a n t i a . It is h e a v i l y d a m a g e d a n d v e r y i n c o m p l e t e , b u t a c c o r d i n g to t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e r e a d i n g it s a y s : " . . . o f [ N N ? ] w h o w a s five t i m e s archisynagogos,

33

t h e son o f A n a n i a s , w h o w a s t w o t i m e s archon,,"

sibility is that A n a n i a s ' s o n w a s five t i m e s archisynagogos

Another pos­

and two times

archon.

T h e s e t w o titles a r e w i d e l y attested a s d e s i g n a t i o n s o f s y n a g o g u e officials in J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s . B o t h w e r e l e a d i n g figures w i t h t a s k s a n d responsibilities that a r e still relatively u n c l e a r b u t n o n e t h e l e s s i m p o r t a n t .

34

Even though the

inscription is n o t v e r y i n f o r m a t i v e in itself, it d o e s a g a i n testify t o J e w i s h p r e s ­ e n c e in C y p r u s after t h e revolt. F r o m t h e fourth c e n t u r y ( b u t p o s s i b l y later) is CIJ 7 3 5 = DF 8 2 , a g a i n an inscription o n a m a r b l e c o l u m n , this t i m e from t h e t o w n o f G o l g o i : " J o s e the elder, son of S y n e s i u s , h a s r e s t o r e d t h e w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s y n a g o g u e . " F o r ' s y n a g o g u e ' t h e inscription h a s hebra'ike,

a v e r y e x c e p t i o n a l t e r m to d e s i g ­

n a t e a s y n a g o g u e b u i l d i n g . A s far a s I k n o w , t h e r e is n o o t h e r i n s t a n c e o f this 2 8

See L. I. Levine, The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity, Jerusalem - N e w York 1989, 15: "In antiquity this title was applied to anyone o f high standing in the community". Cohen, 'Epigraphical Rabbis' 13. See P. W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs, Kampen 1991, 8 5 - 9 8 ; L.I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue, N e w Haven-London 2 0 0 0 , 387^128. Cohen, 'Epigraphical Rabbis' 14 (italics added). It is not in CIJ because Mitford published the inscription only in 1950, after the death o f Frey; see Mitford, ' N e w Inscriptions' 110-116. I here follow Lifshitz's reconstruction with some modifications, not the more speculative one by Mitford. See van der Horst, Epitaphs 8 9 - 9 3 ; Levine, Synagogue 3 9 0 - 4 0 4 (the best discussion). 2 9

3 0

3 1

3 2

3 3

3 4

34

The Jews of Ancient

usage

3 5

Cyprus

(the first further o c c u r r e n c e b e i n g from t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y ) . O b v i o u s l y

its m e a n i n g h e r e is ' t h e p l a c e w h e r e the H e b r e w s g a t h e r . ' T h e d e s i g n a t i o n ' H e ­ b r e w s ' for J e w s is found m o r e often in a n c i e n t i n s c r i p t i o n s .

36

T h e inscription

i m p l i e s that J o s e p a i d for the costs o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e local s y n a g o g u e , so h e m u s t h a v e b e e n well to d o .

3 7

F r o m the fifth or sixth c e n t u r y is an inscription from L a p e t h u s listed b y Lifs­ hitz, b u t I find it a d u b i o u s c a s e .

3 8

DF 8 4 r u n s as follows: " G o d , h e l p (us)! W e ,

E n t o l i o s t h e e l d e r a n d E n k a i r i o s the s o n o f the late Isaak, w h o w a s also called S i n d o u r o s , offer y o u w h a t is y o u r s from w h a t is y o u r s . In the fifth m o n t h o f t h e fifth indiction. L o r d , save (us)!. A m e n . " T h e inscription definitely has a Christian r i n g a b o u t it ( ' w e offer y o u w h a t is y o u r s from w h a t is y o u r s ' ) , b u t Lifshitz a r g u e s that the n a m e s E n t o l i o s ( N . B . : entole

= mitswah)

a n d I s a a c are t y p i c a l l y

J e w i s h a n d h e n c e a s s u m e s that the inscription is o f J e w i s h p r o v e n a n c e . H e h i m ­ self m u s t c o n c e d e , h o w e v e r , that b o t h n a m e s are found also a m o n g C h r i s t i a n s in late antiquity. N a m e s , m o r e v e r , are n e v e r a sure criterion for the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the J e w i s h n e s s o f inscriptions for there are v e r y few n a m e s (if a n y ) " w h i c h c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d to h a v e b e e n u s e d o n l y b y J e w s , a n d n e v e r b y C h r i s t i a n s or p a g a n s , w h e t h e r in t h e s a m e or other g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s . "

3 9

It c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d

that this inscription is J e w i s h , b u t it is o n e o f t h o s e c a s e s w h e r e c e r t a i n t y is i m p o s s i b l e . Finally, t h e o n l y H e b r e w e v i d e n c e w e h a v e is a g e m i n s c r i b e d w i t h t h e n a m e ' B e n a y a h u b e n H u r ' (CIJ 7 3 7 ) , b u t it is h a r d to d a t e .

4 0

It d o e s attest,

h o w e v e r , to J e w i s h p r e s e n c e . W e m a y further p o i n t to J e w i s h oil l a m p s d e c o ­ r a t e d w i t h m e n o r o t from the third - fifth cent. C E . a n d a g l a s s m e d a l i o n w i t h a m e n o r a h , lulav a n d e t h r o g , from the s a m e p e r i o d .

41

W e h a v e o b s e r v e d r e f e r e n c e s to J e w i s h m a g i c i a n s r e c u r r i n g in t h e e v i d e n c e . H e r e it s h o u l d b e k e p t in m i n d that in antiquity quite often t h e w o r d s ' m a g i c i a n ' or ' m a g i c ' w e r e u s e d as t e r m s o f a b u s e a n d r e v e a l to u s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e n e g a t i v e attitude o f the u s e r s o f t h e s e w o r d s t o w a r d s the beliefs a n d p r a c t i c e s o f their o p p o n e n t s o r e n e m i e s . E v e n so it is striking that n o t o n l y C h r i s t i a n b u t also 3 5

See also C. Claufien, Versammlung, Gemeinde, Synagoge. Das hellenistisch-jiidische Umfeld der fruhchristlichen Gemeinde, Gottingen 2 0 0 2 , 145. For instances from Rome, Corinth, and Lydian Philadelphia see van der Horst, Epitaphs 87. Pace S. Krauss, Synagogale Altertiimer, Berlin 1922 = Hildesheim 1966, 307. The first editor thinks it is Christian; see Mitford, ' N e w Inscriptions' 1 4 1 - 1 4 3 . R. S. Kraemer, 'Hellenistic Jewish Women: The Epigraphical Evidence,' SBL 1986 Seminar Papers, Atlanta 1986, 191. Although J. Juster, Les Juifs dans I 'Empire Romain, vol. 1, Paris 1914, 189 note 5, thinks it is 'tres ancien.' Reifenberg, 'Das antike zyprische Judentum' 213 (with photos opposite p. 212). T.B. Mitford, 'Further Contributions to the Epigraphy ofCyprus,' American Journal of Archaeology 65 (1961) 1118-119, publishes the text of a Cypriot horoscope of Flavian date in which one o f the months is given the Jewish name Shebat (if that reading is correct!), but it is hard to draw conclusions from that. 3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

4 1

The Jews of Ancient

35

Cyprus

J e w i s h a u t h o r s (see J o s e p h u s , a b o v e ) s p e a k a b o u t J e w i s h m a g i c i a n s on C y p r u s . In that light it m a y b e interesting to n o t e that in a w e l l n e a r P a p h o s a large c a c h e o f m o r e than t w o h u n d r e d lead tablets w i t h so-called defixiones p e o p l e , i.e.,

( c u r s e s to ' b i n d '

to r e n d e r t h e m i n c a p a b l e o f s p e a k i n g or a c t i n g ) from the early

Christian period was discovered.

42

S e v e r a l e l e m e n t s in t h e s e texts b e t r a y J e w i s h

influence. It is a w e l l - k n o w n fact that J e w s p l a y e d a m a j o r role in the d e v e l o p ­ m e n t a n d p r a c t i c e o f m a g i c in late a n t i q u i t y ,

43

b u t as far as C y p r u s is c o n c e r n e d

it is n o t e w o r t h y that in the first c e n t u r y C E Pliny t h e E l d e r w r i t e s : " T h e r e is y e t a n o t h e r b r a n c h o f m a g i c , d e r i v e d from M o s e s , J a n n e s , L o p a t e s , a n d the J e w s , b u t living m a n y t h o u s a n d y e a r s after Zoroaster. A n d m u c h m o r e r e c e n t is their b r a n c h in C y p r u s " (Naturalis

Historia

30.11 ) .

4 4

U n c l e a r t h o u g h this p a s s a g e m a y

b e , it d o e s s u g g e s t J e w i s h p r o m i n e n c e in circles o f C y p r i o t m a g i c i a n s , n i c e l y dovetailing with the various texts w e have already seen about Cypriot Jewish m a g i c i a n s (in J o s e p h u s , t h e B o o k o f A c t s , S o p h r o n i u s ) . T h e r e c a n b e little d o u b t that m a g i c w a s part a n d p a r c e l o f the J e w i s h religion on C y p r u s , as e l s e w h e r e . Finally a n o t h e r k i n d o f indirect e v i d e n c e h a s to b e m e n t i o n e d briefly, n a m e l y , t h e 2 3 i n s c r i p t i o n s for the Theos Hypsistos

( ' G o d M o s t H i g h ' ) at C y p r u s .

4 5

This

cult, ' a c o n v e n i e n t m e e t i n g g r o u n d for J e w a n d j u d a i z e r , C h r i s t i a n a n d p a g a n , ' w a s certainly a p r o d u c t o f 'cross-fertilization b e t w e e n J e w s a n d p a g a n s , '

4 7

4 6

and

m a y for that r e a s o n b e r e g a r d e d as a sign o f J e w i s h p r e s e n c e , a l t h o u g h that is n o t an u n a v o i d a b l e c o n c l u s i o n . W e h a v e to l e a v e that m a t t e r a s i d e , h o w e v e r . O n t h e b a s i s o f this short s u r v e y w e m a y c o n c l u d e that e v i d e n c e for J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t s o n a n c i e n t C y p r u s exists for six t o w n s a n d villages: S a l a m i s , P a p h o s , Kourion, Golgoi, Constantia, and L a p e t h o s .

4 8

T h e r e w e r e certainly m o r e p l a c e s

w h e r e J e w s lived o f w h i c h w e k n o w n o t h i n g . T h e literary e v i d e n c e c o m b i n e d w i t h the e p i g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l s h o w s that t h r o u g h o u t t h e H e l l e n i s t i c , R o m a n , a n d early B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d s , J e w s lived on C y p r u s . F o r t h e first c e n t u r i e s w e h a v e to r e c k o n w i t h e v e r i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s , a l t h o u g h there is n o w a y o f b e i n g m o r e p r e c i s e . In n o n e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s to t h e C y p r i o t J e w s d u r i n g t h e last t w o c e n t u r i e s B C E a n d the first c e n t u r y C E is there a n y hint o f friction at a n y t i m e b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t h e G r e e k s ( a n d R o m a n s ) o f the island, a n d J o s e p h u s d o e s 4 2

See J.G. Gager, Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World, Oxford 1992, 1 3 2 - 1 3 6 . The more important of these defixiones were published as nos. 1 2 7 - 1 4 2 in Mitford, The Inscriptions of Kourion 2 4 6 - 2 8 3 . See e.g. M. Simon, Verus Israel. A Study of the Relations Between Christians and Jews in the Roman Empire, Oxford 1986, 3 3 9 - 3 6 8 . Stern, Greek and Latin Authors I, 498^199. See the convenient list and the texts in S. Mitchell, 'The Cult of Theos Hypsistos Between Pagans, Jews, and Christians,' in P. Athanassiadi & M. Frede (eds.), Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Oxford 1999, 1 4 4 - 1 4 5 . Mitford, 'Cults' 2207. Mitchel, 'Cult' 114 For their location see Map B VI 18 of the Tiibinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients: Die judische Diaspora bis zum 7. Jahrhundert n. Chr., Wiesbaden 1992. 4 3

4 4

4 5

4 6

4 7

4 8

36

The Jews of Ancient

Cyprus

n o t m e n t i o n a n y a n t i - R o m a n agitation there after 7 0 c o m p a r a b l e to the t r o u b l e in E g y p t a n d C y r e n a i c a at that t i m e .

4 9

F o r r e a s o n s that by a n d large still r e m a i n

u n e x p l a i n e d , that peaceful situation c h a n g e d drastically, h o w e v e r , w h e n in 115 C E " t h e J e w s o f C y p r u s m a d e their sole, a n d fatal, incursion into r e c o r d e d politi­ cal h i s t o r y . "

50

In spite o f the d e v a s t a t i n g b l o w t h e y r e c e i v e d from the R o m a n s ,

it is certain that the J e w s w e r e a b l e to re-establish t h e m s e l v e s on the island after s o m e t i m e (as t h e y did as well in E g y p t a n d the C y r e n a i c a ) . T h e e v i d e n c e from the third t h r o u g h s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s C E leaves n o d o u b t a b o u t that. [Addendum:

T h e collection o f J e w i s h inscriptions from C y p r u s in D . N o y & H .

B l o e d h o r n , Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis,

vol. Ill: Syria and Cyprus,

Tubin­

g e n 2 0 0 4 , 2 1 3 - 2 2 6 , w a s p u b l i s h e d o n l y after the c o m p l e t i o n o f this article. F o r the m i n o r differences b e t w e e n this c o l l e c t i o n a n d m i n e see m y r e v i e w o f this w o r k e l s e w h e r e in this v o l u m e . ]

Smallwood, Jews 4 1 2 - 3 . Smallwood, Jews 4 1 2 .

The Jews of Ancient Sicily T h e e v i d e n c e for a J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in Sicily in antiquity is as s c a r c e as the at­ 1

testation for it is plentiful in the M i d d l e A g e s . U n l i k e t h e o t h e r large islands in 2

the M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea, C r e t e a n d C y p r u s , for J e w s in Sicily w e d o not h a v e a n y literary e v i d e n c e before the late sixth c e n t u r y C E (but see the A p p e n d i x ) . W e d o h a v e , h o w e v e r , s o m e 2 0 J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s from this island, c o n v e n i e n t l y col­ 3

lected by D a v i d N o y , w h i c h m a k e clear that J e w s h a d b e e n p r e s e n t in Sicily well before m e d i e v a l t i m e s . In a d d i t i o n to that, w e h a v e a fascinating d o c u m e n t in the 4

form o f an a n c i e n t J e w i s h a m u l e t , p u b l i s h e d b y R o y K o t a n s k y . C h r o n o l o g i c a l l y this m a t e r i a l (both i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d a m u l e t s ) r a n g e s from the third to the fifth c e n t u r y C E . W h a t c a n w e learn from t h e s e s c a n t t e s t i m o n i e s ? L e t u s b e g i n w i t h a rapid s u r v e y o f the inscriptions. F r o m T a o r m i n a w e h a v e a c u r i o u s G r e e k inscription ( J I W E 143) stating that the d a y o f the s a b b a t h is g o o d or that the s a b b a t h is a g o o d d a y (hemera

agathe,

cf. yom tov). T h e c o n t e x t a n d

p u r p o s e o f this inscription is unclear. F r o m A c i r e a l e w e h a v e a seal w i t h t h e G r e e k n a m e H e u r e s i s a n d a m e n o r a h a n d shofar ( J I W E 144). J I W E 145, from C a t a n i a , is interesting in that the inscription is bilingual: it is an e p i t a p h w i t h the first line in H e b r e w followed b y n i n e lines in Latin. T h e H e b r e w s a y s : 'al Yisra 'el, Amen

Amen.

Shalom

Shalom

Shmu 'el. T h e Latin part s a y s that A u r e l i u s

S a m o h i l ( = S a m u e l ) b o u g h t this t o m b for h i m s e l f a n d his wife L a s s i a Irene, w h o 5

died at the a g e o f 2 3 . H e a d d s the adjuration that n o b o d y s h o u l d o p e n the t o m b a n d ' p u t s o m e o n e e l s e ' s b o d y on t o p o f o u r b o n e s . ' T h i s adjuration is s o l e m n i z e d b y referring to the victories o f t h e rulers, the h o n o u r s o f t h e p a t r i a r c h s (certainly t h e influential J e w i s h l e a d e r s in P a l e s t i n e ) , a n d t h e L a w w h i c h the L o r d g a v e t h e 1

For the Middle A g e s see the massive collection o f documents in S. Simonsohn, The Jews in Sicily, 7 vols., Leiden 1 9 7 7 - 2 0 0 5 . Still valuable is C. Roth, 'Jewish Intellectual Life in Medieval Sicily,' Jewish Quarterly Review Al (1956/57) 3 1 7 - 3 3 5 . See RW. van der Horst, 'The Jews of Ancient Crete,' Journal ofJewish Studies 39 (1988) 1 8 3 - 2 0 0 ; and idem, 'The Jews of Ancient Cyprus,' Zutot: Perspectives on Jewish Culture 2003,110-120. D. Noy, Jewish Inscriptions ojWestern Europe. Vol. I: Italy (excluding the City of Rome), Spain and Gaul, Cambridge 1993, 1 8 4 - 2 2 0 ; henceforth JIWE. R. Kotansky, Greek Magical Amulets. The Inscribed Gold, Silver, Copper, and Bronze Lamellae, vol. 1, Opladen 1994, 1 2 6 - 1 5 4 ; henceforth GMA. A not unusual age at death for a woman; see my Ancient Jewish Epitaphs. An Introductory Survey of a Millennium of Jewish Funerary Epigraphy (300 BCE-700 CE), Kampen 1991, Ch. 5 ('Age at Death'). 2

3

4

5

38

The Jews of Ancicral Sicily

Jews. JIWE 146, again from Catania, is a Greek epitaph for two girls, Leontia who died at the age of 3 and Kalliope who dicd at the agc of 18. Two mcnorahs have been incised on this marble plaque. A menorah is also incised on nr. 147, again a Greek cpitaph from Catcmia, which is almost impossibIc to dcciphcr due to damage. Nr. 148 (Catania) is a marble plaque on which Imnacus, an elder ( y r e s b y ~ s states ) , (in Greek) that he has bought the burial place without offending thc commandment. Since it is unclear what commandment lrenaeus is referring to, tlre Jewishness of the inscription is debated (since sometimes crttole is also used for Jesus' precepts). Also mother marble plaque from Catnnia recording the acquisition of a tomb (JIWE 149, in Greek) says that the owner (again an elder, pmbytems, called Jason) in no way intiingcd the commandment. JIWE 150, again from Catania, statcs that Zosimianus bought this tomb; a menorah is added after the text. From Syracuse there is a Greek epitaph (JIWE 151 ) in which Imnc Nymphc (or: Ircnc thc bridc) says that no one should open the grave where she lies, but the Jewishness of the inscription is again a matter of some debate. Another S y r a c m epitaph in Grcck (JIWE 152) threatens anyone who opens thc tomb with 'the futurc' (to meli2tikon).which most probably rcfers to the final judgement. The Jewish character is ensured by the closing forrnula 'Blcssing to the pious hcre' (eulogiatois lrosiois h d e ) . JIWE 153 is a Samaritan inscription from Syracuse. It is written on a marble column in Samaritan Hebrew and cites the text of Num. 10:35: 'Rise,YHWH, tnay your enemies be scattered,' a text found more oflen in Samaritan inscriptions and on amulcts? JIWE I54 (from Noto Vecchio) contains only menoroth as tomb decoration. Nr. 155 is a Greek cpitaph from Acrilla for 'Jason the child' (with a menorah). JIWE 156 is a Hebrew amirlet on a gold sheet from Comiso. It is heavily damaged but contains twice the line 'He shall save by the name that is in the height and He shall spare the lowly.' The often garblcd Hcbrcw suggcsts that thc copyist did not rally understand what he was writing. From Sofiana we have Gnck epitaphs for Attinis (==Atinius), an elder, with a menorah and for Judas Sabaiias (JIWE 157 and 158).Froin probably the same place there is a bronze sheet with an amulet text in Grcck and transliterated Hebrew containing mostly names of angels, both wellknown and unknown (JIWE 159).' The final itcm.. arc hvo epitaphs in Greek. one on a very damaged stone from Agrigento with the word lorrd[aios] in final position (JIWE 160)?thc othcr (1 6 1, from Tcrmc Imcmc) calling the dcccascd, Gaius Seius Ptolemaeus, a Samat~rcs,the meaning of which is uncertain: Was

R. Pummer, 'Inscriptions.' in A.D. Cmwn (cd.), 7 % ~Samaritans, TQhingen 1989, 192; Pummcr, 'Samaritan Rituals and Customs,'ibid. 652. T l ~ csame cat was published simultaneously as no. 33 in Kobnksky, GMA. Among thc wcll-known nanes we find the four archangels Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel; among thc tnany unknown wc find namcs such as Dclko and Gibiiiba

Thc Jews trf ,4ncic*1rr.Siciir

39

the man a Samaritan (a member of the Samaritan religious community) or a Samarian (an inhabitant of Samarirt)?w The amulet from Acre publislied by Kotansky (GMA 32) is a copper tablet found in the early 19" century and publishcd scvcrnl timcs sincc? It is usually calted 'the phylactery of Moses,' since the arllulet idcntifios itsclf as suclr in the opcning lincs: "A phylactery which Moscs used to protect himself in the 1-Ioly of Holies (and) to lcad him in thc glory of tho divinc." And in lint 8 it says: "A phylactery of Moses (to protect himself) when hc wcnt up on Mount Sinai ... to receive the amulet," and this is rcpcatcd again in line 23. Thc amulct also statcs three times that whoevcr carries it will tiot have to fear sorcerers or birrding spells or evil spirits. The protecting chann itsclf bcgins with ttlc words, "la6 Sabalith AdBnaie Seilam Ablanathanalba, 0 world of the world,1uprotect so-and-so, Abmsax," follo\ved by nomina barbara. This is a familiar mis of Jcwish and Greek elements that onc finds so of'tcn in magical papyri, including thosc of nonJewish origin.]' The surprise comes in lines 19-22, where we find a previously unidentified fragment of Aquila's translation of Dcutcronorny 32: 1-3: "The heaven will be darkened, and I will speak, atrd let the cartlr hcar tiit: words of my mouth, as finc dew upon the grass, and as gentle showcrs upon thc hcrb, because I liave called the name of the Lord."" Tiic text on the tablet is rather commpt but according to the carchl and convincing study by Kohnsky thcrc are seven1 Aquilan clcmcnts in thcsc lincs (inter alia. the reading 'will be darkened'), but for our purposes it is unnecessary to go into these details." The important point is that this particular quotation in thc amulet's text is not without its purpose. AS Kotansky observes, Deutcronotny 32 and 33 prcscrvc the last words of Moscs before his death. Both chapters "contain poetic compositions that cffcctively closc thc wholc of the Mosaic I'cntatcuch" ( 144). In the verses quoted, "n this problem see my 'The Samaritan Disrspora in Antiquity.' in my E s s ~ otr s tire Jt*wb h Ifi~rlrlnfEari'y Chri.vticrrti!\~,Fribourg - GOttingcn 1990. 136147. ' For publication details scc GMA 126. It is unclcar to mc why Noy. who knows this aniulct (see p. 213), did not include this tcxt in JIWE, whcrcas hc did so with (ihltl no. 53. Thc strange phrase kosnre kosnrou i s probably a w d n translation of tile Hcbrew words 'olan~ILS- ' o l m . M. Snrith, '?he Jewish Elements in the Magical Papyri.' in his .Tttltiic~in rhc Ctrlt of Ycrlrwel~.vol. 2. Lxidcn I(N6.242-256. l 2 On Aquila six N. Fcrndndcz Marcos, Tltc .Qpttragint in C'ontcrt. lntmdirctioir to the Gwek 14miorr.t c,Sfhu Bible, Leidcn 2000, 109-122. For tlir sake of co~ilparisonI also give Deut. 32: 1-3 accoding to the NRSV [ranslation of the Masoretic vcrsion: "Give car. 0 hcavcns. and 1 will speak, Ict the earth hcar the words of my mouth. May my tcsching drop like the rain my spccy:lr condense like the dew, like gmtlc rain on grass, likc tlic showcrs on ncw growth. For I will proclninl thc nmlc ofthc Lord."Thc JPS translatiotl runs as follows: *%iuc car. 0 liuvcns. let mc speak; let the earth h a r the words I utter! May my discourse come down like the nin, my spccch distill likc thc Jcw, likc showcrs on young growth, like droplcts on thc grass. For the namc of the Lord I proclaim." l3 Scc for a dolailed study of this Aquilan quote Kotansky, GMA 149- 154.

'

40

The Jews of Ancient

Sicily

" M o s e s sings his s o n g to the w h o l e a s s e m b l y o f Israel, with his o w n w o r d s likened to a divine utterance that e v e n heaven and earth must hear. T h e w o r d s not o n l y represent a distillation o f all M o s e s ' divine teaching as g i v e n o n Sinai, they serve as a sort o f incanta­ tion in t h e m s e l v e s , for the w o r d s appropriately end, 'I will proclaim the n a m e o f the Lord.' That n a m e , and its proclamation, represents the very e s s e n c e o f the m a g i c 'Phylactery o f M o s e s ' - it is the 'Sabaoth' o f the inscribed g o l d e n leaf (line 6), the D i v i n e N a m e s and Tetragrammaton (lines 1 4 - 1 8 , 2 9 f . ) that M o s e s acquires o n his ascent to Sinai" ( 1 4 4 ) .

M u c h m o r e s h o u l d b e said a b o u t this c u r i o u s a m u l e t , but w e leave it h e r e in o r d e r to r e t u r n to o u r m a i n q u e s t i o n : W h a t d o e s all this t e a c h u s a b o u t the J e w s o f a n c i e n t Sicily? To b e g i n w i t h , w e c a n see from the p l a c e s w h e r e t h e m a t e r i a l s w e r e found that in t h e later R o m a n E m p i r e J e w s lived all o v e r Sicily, a l t h o u g h t h e r e s e e m s to b e a certain c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e v i d e n c e in C a t a n i a ( J I W E 1 4 5 - 1 5 0 ) . Further, in c o n t r a s t to C r e t e a n d C y p r u s , all o f the e v i d e n c e is late: W h e r e a s for t h e o t h e r t w o large islands, J e w i s h i n h a b i t a n t s are attested as early as the last c e n t u r i e s B C E , for Sicily they are not attested before the third c e n t u r y C E . T h a t is not to say t h e y w e r e n o t t h e r e before; w e s i m p l y h a v e n o e v i d e n c e , b u t n o e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t i m p l y a b s e n c e . In v i e w o f the fact that m a n y o t h e r islands in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a h a d J e w i s h d i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s from m u c h earlier t i m e s , it is hard to b e l i e v e t h e y did not exist in Sicily, b u t w e will h a v e to w a i t for n e w e v i d e n c e before w e c a n b e sure a b o u t that. Thirdly, n o t surprisingly, the J e w s o f Sicily s p o k e G r e e k , like a l m o s t all other d i a s p o r a J e w s (at least in the W e s t ) . W e s a w t h r e e i n s c r i p t i o n s in H e b r e w , b u t o n e o f t h e m w a s n o m o r e than s o m e stock p h r a s e s o f a liturgical c h a r a c t e r (like shalom

'al Yisra 'el) a n d a g r e e t i n g ;

m o r e o v e r the rest o f this inscription w a s in L a t i n ( J I W E 145). T h e s e c o n d o n e w a s a S a m a r i t a n inscription w i t h a biblical q u o t e in H e b r e w ( J I W E 153), but S a m a r i t a n inscriptions w i t h such q u o t e s t e n d to b e a l w a y s in H e b r e w so that w e c a n n o t u s e s u c h e v i d e n c e for d e t e r m i n i n g the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e - as a m a t t e r o f fact, like t h e J e w s , all d i a s p o r a S a m a r i t a n s s p o k e G r e e k .

1 4

T h e third o n e is a

H e b r e w a m u l e t ( J I W E 156) the text o f w h i c h is in large parts so u n i n t e l l i g i b l e that its first e d i t o r s u g g e s t s that " t h e c o p y i s t did n o t u n d e r s t a n d it a n d c o p i e d it p u r e l y for m a g i c a l p u r p o s e s . "

15

So n o n e o f t h e s e three inscriptions entitles u s

to a s s u m e that Sicilian J e w s k n e w m o r e t h a n m i n i m a l H e b r e w . T h e o n l y Latin inscription ( J I W E 145) is an e x c e p t i o n a n d as such an indication o f an e x c e p t i o n ­ ally h i g h d e g r e e o f integration into R o m a n society; e v e n in the city o f R o m e , Latin i n s c r i p t i o n s b y J e w s are a rarity ( a l t h o u g h i n c r e a s i n g o v e r t i m e ) .

1 6

Finally,

a g a i n n o t surprisingly, J e w s in Sicily t e n d e d to i n d u l g e in m a g i c , as w e also see e l s e w h e r e (for i n s t a n c e in C y p r u s ; see m y article m e n t i o n e d in n o t e 2 ) .

14

See my 'The Samaritan Languages in the Prc-Islamic Period,' in my Japheth in the Tents ofShem. Studies on Jewish Hellenism in Antiquity, Leuven 2 0 0 2 , 2 3 5 - 2 5 0 . Noy, JIWE 208. See L.V. Rutgers, The Jews of Late Ancient Rome, Leiden 1995, 1 7 6 - 7 . 15

1 6

The Jews of Ancient

Sicily

41

N o s y n a g o g u e s h a v e b e e n e x c a v a t e d in Sicily. E v e n so, the e v i d e n c e r e v i e w e d s u g g e s t s that there w e r e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h their o w n o r g a n i z a t i o n s . S o m e o f t h e inscriptions m e n t i o n e l d e r s (presbyteroi),

a well-attested d e s i g n a t i o n for

d i g n i t a r i e s o f J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s ( J I W E 148, 149, 157); t h e y w e r e p r o b a b l y 1

m e m b e r s o f a council o f e l d e r s (gerousia)}

R a b b i s are not m e n t i o n e d at all, but

the r e f e r e n c e to the h o n o r o f the p a t r i a r c h s in J I W E 145 s u g g e s t s that c o n t a c t s w i t h the J e w i s h l e a d e r s h i p in P a l e s t i n e w e r e m a i n t a i n e d . A n d the u s e o f A q u i l a ' s B i b l e translation in the a m u l e t d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ( G M A 3 2 ) is at least an indica­ tion that this r a b b i n i c a l l y inspired G r e e k v e r s i o n h a d influence a n d p r e s t i g e a m o n g ( s o m e ) Sicilian J e w s . A l m o s t the o n l y setting in w h i c h t h e y c o u l d h a v e h e a r d this v e r s i o n is that o f a s y n a g o g u e s e r v i c e , so this is a n o t h e r indication that there m u s t h a v e b e e n J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s in Sicily. In this c o n n e c t i o n it is to b e n o t i c e d that J I W E 143 stresses t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s a b b a t h . A l s o the frequent o c c u r r e n c e o f the m e n o r a h as a J e w i s h s y m b o l is i n d i c a t i v e o f an o u t s p o k e n J e w i s h s e l f - a w a r e n e s s a n d identity. A n o t h e r interesting feature o f the e v i d e n c e is the p r e s e n c e o f S a m a r i t a n s . To b e s u r e , t h e Samareus

o f J I W E 161 n e e d not h a v e b e e n a S a m a r i t a n at all

(see a b o v e ) , but the p r e s e n c e in S y r a c u s e o f a m a r b l e c o l u m n w i t h a S a m a r i t a n inscription ( J I W E 153) c a n n o t b u t indicate that t h e city h a r b o r e d a c o m m u n i t y o f S a m a r i t a n s . W e k n o w from a literary s o u r c e that there w a s i n d e e d a S a m a r i ­ tan c o m m u n i t y in Sicily in t h e sixth c e n t u r y : P o p e G r e g o r y the G r e a t w r o t e to the b i s h o p s o f the islands that the S a m a r i t a n s there s h o u l d not b e a l l o w e d to c i r c u m c i s e their C h r i s t i a n slaves (Epist. r e d e e m e d {Epist.

6.33) a n d that t h e s e slaves s h o u l d b e

8.21).

T h e s a m e G r e g o r y also attests to J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in Sicily b y the e n d o f the sixth c e n t u r y : H e o r d e r e d t h e b i s h o p s to g i v e the J e w s o f P a l e r m o full i n d e m ­ nification for the d a m a g e suffered b y the e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e s y n a g o g u e b y C h r i s t i a n s (Epist.

9.38). A s S a l o W. B a r o n aptly r e m a r k s in this c o n t e x t , " T h i s

p r o t e c t i o n o f J e w i s h religious institutions, w h i l e in k e e p i n g w i t h the a c c e p t e d R o m a n law, w a s particularly significant in Italy in so far as there the conflict b e t w e e n Saint A m b r o s e a n d t h e e m p e r o r o v e r t h e illegal e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f the s y n a g o g u e o f C a l l i n i c u m in 3 8 8 h a d h e l p e d c r e a t e the illusion that the c h u r c h favored such m o b a c t i o n . "

18

B e that as it may, t h e s e p a p a l d o c u m e n t s m a k e clear

that b y the e n d o f antiquity there m u s t h a v e b e e n s i z e a b l e J e w i s h a n d S a m a r i t a n c o m m u n i t i e s in Sicily. A n d this g r o w t h c o n t i n u e d in the M i d d l e A g e s : In the

1 7

See my Ancient Jewish Epitaphs 91; esp. L.I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue. The First Thousand Years, N e w Haven-London 2000, 4 0 7 - 4 0 8 . S.W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, vol. 3, N e w York-Philadelphia 1957, 30. At pp. 2 8 - 3 3 Baron also mentions other letters of pope Gregory concerning things Jewish. 1 8

42

The Jews of Ancient

12

th

Sicily

century, B e n j a m i n o f T u d e l a c o u n t e d n o less t h a n 1500 J e w i s h families in

Palermo.

Appendix:

1 9

Caecilius

of

Calacte

In t h e e n t r y on Sicily in the Encyclopaedia

Judaica

( 1 4 : 1 4 9 3 ) , S.J. Sierra m e n ­

tions t h e first-century C E G r e e k orator C a e c i l i u s o f C a l a c t e (/. e., K a l e A k t e on the n o r t h c o a s t o f Sicily) as the first Sicilian J e w k n o w n to u s , a l t h o u g h h e s p e n t m o s t o f his life in R o m e . T h i s o p i n i o n is also a d h e r e d to b y M a r t i n G o o d m a n in 20

the r e v i s e d E n g l i s h edition o f S c h i i r e r ' s History.

A c t u a l l y the o n l y e v i d e n c e

for C a e c i l i u s ' J e w i s h n e s s is a r e m a r k to that effect in t h e m u d d l e d e n t r y on this o r a t o r in the 1 0

th

c e n t u r y B y z a n t i n e e n c y c l o p e d i a called the Suda. T h i s is v e r y

w e a k e v i d e n c e , the m o r e so s i n c e all o t h e r d a t a a b o u t C a e c i l i u s , to b e found in m u c h earlier a n d therefore m o r e reliable a u t h o r s , d o not g i v e u s t h e slightest hint o f his J e w i s h n e s s . A l s o t h e t o p i c s o f his b o o k s d o not s u g g e s t in the least that t h e w r i t e r w a s a Jew. I w o u l d therefore s u b m i t that, for r e a s o n s o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l strictness, in a s t u d y o f Sicilian J e w s in antiquity C a e c i l i u s o f C a l a c t e s h o u l d b e left o u t o f a c c o u n t . [ N o t e : T h e v o l u m e edited b y N . B u c a r i a , Ebrei e Sicilia

(Palermo 2003), came

to m y n o t i c e o n l y after the c o m p l e t i o n o f this article.]

19

Sefer ha-Massa'ot 108 (p. 78 in Adler's edition). E. Schurer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, vol. 3, Edinburgh 1986, 7 0 1 - 7 0 3 . Cf. also M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, vol. 1, Jerusalem 1974, 3 6 1 - 3 6 3 , 566. 2 0

The Synagogue of Sardis and its Inscriptions Introduction F o r t y y e a r s a g o , in 1962, A m e r i c a n a r c h a e o l o g i s t s u n e a r t h e d the greatest a n c i e n t s y n a g o g u e e v e r in a large-scale e x c a v a t i o n in the city o f Sardis, capital o f ancient 1

L y d i a in A s i a M i n o r . T h e colossal b a s i l i c a - s h a p e d b u i l d i n g m e a s u r e s a l m o s t 2 0 2

x 100 m e t e r s a n d c o u l d a c c o m m o d a t e s o m e 1000 p e o p l e . T h i s richly d e c o r a t e d basilica is an integral part o f a h u g e b a t h - a n d - g y m n a s i u m c o m p l e x in the city c e n t r e a n d as such it is a l s o a m o n u m e n t to t h e integration o f the J e w i s h c o m ­ m u n i t y in this G r a e c o - R o m a n city. T h i s s p e c t a c u l a r d i s c o v e r y p r o v i d e d a s t r o n g s t i m u l u s to s c h o l a r l y r e s e a r c h on the J e w i s h d i a s p o r a in antiquity, e s p e c i a l l y as r e g a r d s p r o b l e m s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n , a s s i m i l a t i o n , a n d identity f o r m a t i o n .

3

The

m o r e t h a n e i g h t y inscriptions that w e r e found inside the s y n a g o g u e are o b v i ­ o u s l y o f the greatest i m p o r t a n c e for t h e s t u d y o f these i s s u e s , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y w e h a v e h a d to w a i t v e r y l o n g for their p u b l i c a t i o n . To b e fair, the greatest e p i g r a p h i s t o f the 2 0

t h

century, t h e F r e n c h s c h o l a r L o u i s R o b e r t , h a d p u b l i s h e d 4

s o m e o f t h e s e inscriptions as early as 1 9 6 4 , b u t that w a s less than 1 0 % o f the m a t e r i a l . A t last w e n o w h a v e t h e l o n g a w a i t e d p u b l i c a t i o n o f this d o s s i e r in the form o f a special issue o f the Harvard

Theological

Review,

in w h i c h J o h n Kroll

5

p r e s e n t s the m a t e r i a l . In this m o d e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n , I first w a n t to briefly say s o m e t h i n g a b o u t w h a t w a s k n o w n a b o u t the J e w s o f S a r d i s b e f o r e t h e d i s c o v e r y

1

A.R. Seager & A.T. Kraabel, 'The Synagogue and the Jewish Community,' in G.M.A. Hanfmann (ed.), Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times, Cambridge ( M A ) 1983, 1 6 9 - 1 7 8 . For a concise survey of the archaeological data see also RR. Trebilco, Jewish Communities in Asia Minor, Cambridge 1991, 4 0 - 4 3 . In the scholarly literature one finds sometimes other measures (e. g., a length of 60 meters) but these are the interior measures o f the basilica, especially o f the great hall in which the meet­ ings took place, and that room is of course considerably smaller than the total complex which encompassed not only the great assembly hall but also the large forecourt with provisions for ritual washings and a number of other rooms. For information about the details of these adjacent rooms the reader is referred to the publications mentioned in note 1. See, e.g., J.M.G. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, Edinburgh 1996. Nouvelles inscriptions de Sardes, Paris 1964, 3 7 - 5 8 . J.H. Kroll, 'The Greek Inscriptions o f the Sardis Synagogue,' HTR 9 4 (2001) 5 - 1 2 7 . Pp. 5 7 - 1 2 7 contain photos of the inscriptions. [After the original publication of this article the inscriptions were published anew by Walter Ameling in Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis II: Kleinasien, Tubingen 2 0 0 4 , 2 0 9 - 2 9 7 . ] 2

3

4

5

44

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

Inscriptions

o f the s y n a g o g u e , a n d t h e n d e v o t e s o m e w o r d s to t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e i n s c r i p ­ tions for o u r k n o w l e d g e o f J u d a i s m in the a n c i e n t d i a s p o r a .

Jews

in

Sardis

It w a s o n l y after t h e m i d d l e o f the third c e n t u r y C E that the great basilica w a s c o n v e r t e d into a s y n a g o g u e ; thereafter it s e r v e d t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y for several c e n t u r i e s until t h e city w a s d e s t r o y e d by the S a s s a n i d s in 6 1 6 C E . J e w s , h o w e v e r , h a d b e e n living in Sardis s o m e c e n t u r i e s before t h e y h a d this s y n a ­ g o g u e . H o w m a n y c e n t u r i e s before is u n c e r t a i n , h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e o f a p r o b l e m in t h e interpretation o f a w o r d in O b a d i a h 2 0 . T h e p r o p h e t s a y s there that t h e exiles o f J e r u s a l e m w h o live in S e p h a r a d will p o s s e s s t h e t o w n s o f the N e g e v . S e p h a r a d (only in later H e b r e w the d e s i g n a t i o n for S p a i n ) is a n a m e that o c c u r s n o w h e r e else in the H e b r e w B i b l e a n d it is u n c e r t a i n w h i c h p l a c e or r e g i o n the 6

p r o p h e t h a s in m i n d h e r e . T h a t u n c e r t a i n t y is also reflected in t h e a n c i e n t ver­ s i o n s : t h e S e p t u a g i n t r e n d e r s it E p h r a t h a (or S e p h r a t h a ) , the V u l g a t e B o s p o r u s , a n d t h e P e s h i t t a a n d the T a r g u m read Spain. A c c o r d i n g to s o m e m o d e r n s c h o l a r s , 7

h o w e v e r , the city o f Sardis is m e a n t h e r e . W h y ? In 1916 an A r a m a i c inscription from the P e r s i a n p e r i o d ( K A I n o . 2 6 0 ) w a s found on t h e a n c i e n t n e c r o p o l i s o f S a r d i s . In that text t h e n a m e S e p h a r a d (in the s a m e s p e l l i n g as in O b a d i a h 2 0 : sprd) is u s e d for the capital o f t h e P e r s i a n s a t r a p y S p a r d a = S a r d i s . A n d fifty y e a r s later, in 1966, a n o t h e r A r a m a i c inscription from the P e r s i a n p e r i o d (ca. 4 5 0 B C E ) w a s p u b l i s h e d from w h i c h it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that in D a s k y l e i o n , n o t 8

far from S a r d i s , a J e w i s h family h a d s e t t l e d . T h a t is to s a y that it is not i m p o s ­ sible that the p r o p h e t i n d e e d d o e s h a v e in m i n d h e r e J e w i s h exiles in t h e L y d i a n capital, S a r d i s . B u t that c a n n o t b e strictly p r o v e d , a n d it is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e that some scholars remain skeptical.

9

T h e J e w i s h historian F l a v i u s J o s e p h u s m e n t i o n s a letter b y t h e S e l e u c i d k i n g A n t i o c h u s III from 2 0 5 B C E in w h i c h this ruler states that h e h a s transferred t w o t h o u s a n d J e w i s h families from M e s o p o t a m i a to t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t cities o f L y d i a a n d P h r y g i a (Antiquitates

6

Judaicae

XII 1 4 8 - 1 5 2 ) . S o there c a n b e little

See the survey in J.D. Wineland, 'Sepharad,' Anchor Bible Dictionary

5 (1992) 1089—

90. 7

See, e.g., E. Lipinski, 'Obadiah 2 0 , ' Vetus Testamentum 23 (1973) 3 6 8 - 3 7 0 ; H.W. Wolff, Dodekapropheton 3: Obadja undJona (BKAT XIV/3), Neukirchen 1977, 4 7 - 4 8 . A l s o Wineland (see n. 6) is inclined to see a reference to Sardis here.. For details the reader is referred to the publications mentioned in the previous note. E.g., Trebilco, Jewish Communities 38; and F. Millar in E. Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, rev. ed. by G. Vermes, F. Millar & M. Goodman, vol. Ill 1, Edinburgh 1986, 2 0 - 2 1 . 8

9

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

Inscriptions

45

doubt that by the end of the third century B C E , Sardis, as capital of Lydia, had Jewish inhabitants.

1 0

Furthermore, J o s e p h u s cites s o m e decrees o f Julius C a e s a r and the R o m a n S e n a t e from t h e m i d d l e o f t h e first c e n t u r y B C E w h i c h s t i p u l a t e t h e r i g h t s o f t h e J e w s in a n u m b e r o f c i t i e s in A s i a M i n o r . T h e R o m a n g o v e r n o r o f A s i a M i n o r h a d in g e n e r a l g r a n t e d t h e J e w s f r e e d o m from m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e as w e l l as p e r ­ m i s s i o n t o live fully in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e J e w i s h a n c e s t r a l l a w s a n d c u s t o m s (Ant.

Jud.

X I V 2 2 3 - 2 2 7 ) , b u t a p a r t from t h a t t h e r e w a s a l s o a s p e c i a l d e c r e e

c o n c e r n i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e J e w s in S a r d i s : L u c i u s A n t o n i u s , s o n o f Marcus, proquaestor and propraetor, to the magistrates, council and p e o p l e o f Sardis, greeting. J e w i s h citizens o f yours h a v e c o m e to m e and pointed out that from the earliest t i m e s they have had an association o f their o w n in accordance with their native l a w s and a place o f their o w n in w h i c h they d e c i d e their affairs and controver­ sies with o n e another.

11

U p o n their request that it b e permitted them to d o these things, I

d e c i d e d that they m a y b e maintained and permitted them s o to d o (Ant. Jud. X I V 2 3 5 ) .

1 2

S l i g h t l y further o n J o s e p h u s q u o t e s a d e c r e e o f t h e p e o p l e o f S a r d i s : T h e f o l l o w i n g decree w a s p a s s e d b y the council and p e o p l e o n the m o t i o n o f the m a g i s ­ trates. Whereas the Jewish citizens living in our city have continually r e c e i v e d many great privileges from the p e o p l e and h a v e n o w c o m e before the council and the p e o p l e and have pleaded that, as their l a w s and freedom h a v e b e e n restored t o t h e m b y the R o m a n senate and p e o p l e , they m a y , in accordance with their accepted c u s t o m s , c o m e together and h a v e a c o m m u n a l life and adjudicate suits a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , and that a place b e g i v e n to t h e m in w h i c h they m a y gather together with their w i v e s and children and offer their ancestral prayers and sacrifices to G o d , it has therefore b e e n decreed b y the council and the p e o p l e that permission shall b e g i v e n them to c o m e together o n stated days to d o these things w h i c h are in accordance with their l a w s , and also that a place shall b e set apart b y the magistrates for them to build and inhabit, such as they m a y consider suitable for this purpose, and that the market officials o f the city shall b e charged with the duty o f having suitable food for t h e m brought in (Ant. Jud. X I V 2 5 9 - 2 6 1 ) . F r o m t h e s e d e c r e e s s e v e r a l t h i n g s b e c o m e clear. T h e p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e J e w s in t h e city d i d n o t c o m e t o t h e m a u t o m a t i c a l l y . T h e y h a d h a d t o s t r u g g l e for it a n d t h e y a p p a r e n t l y h a d sufficient i n f l u e n c e a n d g o o d w i l l t o g e t t h i n g s d o n e a s t h e y w a n t e d . T h e y g o t t h e i r o w n p i e c e o f l a n d for t h e b u i l d i n g o f a s y n a g o g u e (not the one n o w excavated), the right to h a v e their o w n m e e t i n g s a n d to decide o n t h e i r o w n affairs t h e r e , a n d it w a s e v e n t a k e n c a r e o f b y t h e city m a g i s t r a t e s

1 0

There are scholars w h o doubt the authenticity o f the letter o f Antiochus III; see Barclay, Jews 261 with note 8. This almost certainly refers to a synagogue. For the multifunctionality o f ancient syna­ gogues see now esp. L.I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue, N e w Haven 2 0 0 0 , 1 2 4 - 1 3 4 et passim. Translation by Ralph Marcus in LCL VII 575. 11

1 2

46

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

that k o s h e r food w o u l d b e a v a i l a b l e .

13

Inscriptions

We thus get a picture of a Jewish c o m ­

m u n i t y that is k e e n o n the m a i n t e n a n c e o f its o w n identity in the m i d s t o f a p a g a n society, but that is also e n a b l e d by that v e r y s a m e society to d o so w i t h o u t serious p r o b l e m s . W e also h a v e information from o t h e r cities in A s i a M i n o r that m a k e s clear that the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s there w e r e in a relatively safe a n d s e c u r e p o s i ­ tion a n d c o u l d d e v e l o p a h i g h d e g r e e o f integration in city life in s u c h a w a y that they c o u l d also m a i n t a i n their identity, T h e city o f A p h r o d i s i a s , situated in the S o u t h - W e s t e r n part o f A s i a M i n o r , is a fine e x a m p l e o f that k i n d o f integration, as 1 h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e .

The

14

synagogue

T h i s p i c t u r e is n o w c o n f i r m e d in a striking w a y b y the e x c a v a t i o n o f t h e g r e a t s y n a g o g u e in S a r d i s a n d its inscriptions. A s w a s a l r e a d y n o t e d , the s y n a g o g u e w a s an integral part o f a centrally located c o m p l e x c o n s i s t i n g o f a p u b l i c b a t h , a g y m n a s i u m , a n d a s h o p p i n g m a l l . T h e b u i l d i n g is ' o n e o f the m o s t p r o m i n e n t features o f t h e c i t y ' s r u i n e d u r b a n l a n d s c a p e , '

15

as e v e r y m o d e r n visitor c a n n o w

easily see. E v e n apart from the e n o r m o u s size, this p o i n t s to the fact that the J e w ­ ish c o m m u n i t y o f Sardis w a s definitely not a ' q u a n t i t e n e g l i g e a b l e . ' M i n o r i t i e s in a city d o n o t u s u a l l y get h o l d o f a central a n d p r e s t i g i o u s b u i l d i n g if t h e y d o n o t h a v e a n y c l o u t a n d influence there. In m y view, therefore, T h o m a s K r a a b e l is c o m p l e t e l y right w h e n h e s a y s : ' T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f the S a r d i s s y n a g o g u e is s i m p l y that it r e v e a l s a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f far greater w e a l t h , p o w e r , a n d self-confidence than the u s u a l v i e w s o f a n c i e n t J u d a i s m w o u l d g i v e u s a n y right to e x p e c t . '

1 6

T h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in S a r d i s w a s a minority, ' b u t a

p o w e r f u l , e v e n a w e a l t h y o n e , o f great antiquity, in a m a j o r city o f the D i a s p o r a , 1 3

See T. Rajak, 'Jews, Pagans and Christians in Late Antique Sardis: Models o f Interaction,' in her The Jewish Dialogue with Greece and Rome. Studies in Cultural and Social Interaction, Leiden 2 0 0 1 , 447^162, esp. 448. The enigmatic remark that the Jews were also allowed to bring their sacrifices to God in their own communal building must be left out o f account here. Sacrifices to the God of Israel outside the Jerusalem temple were of course strictly forbidden according to the priestly rules, but that does not imply that everyone agreed with and stuck to these rules. It is known that there were other Jewish temples outside of Jerusalem. See, e.g., M. Smith, Palestinian Parties and Politics that Shaped the Old Testament, N e w York 1971, ch. 4, esp. p. 97; M.E. Stone, Scriptures, Sects and Visions. A Profile of Judaism from Ezra to the Jewish Revolts, London 1980, 7 7 - 8 2 . But see also the discussion of the problem by J. Leonhardt, 'Euchai kai thusiai (A 14:260) - Opfer in der jiidischen Synagoge von Sardes?,' in J.U. Kalms (ed.), Internationales Josephus-Kolloquium Amsterdam 2000, Miinster 2 0 0 1 , 1 8 9 - 2 0 3 , who argues that this passage cannot be interpreted as a break with the Jerusalem temple by the Jews o f Sardis. P.W. van der Horst, 'Jews and Christians in Aphrodisias in the Light of Their Relation­ ships in Other Cities o f Asia Minor,' in my Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Fribourg-Gottingen 1990, 1 6 6 - 1 8 1 . Rajak, 'Jews, Pagans and Christians in Sardis' 449. Kraabel in Sardis (n. 1) 178. 1 4

15

1 6

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

47

Inscriptions

c o n t r o l l i n g a h u g e a n d lavishly d e c o r a t e d structure on ' M a i n S t r e e t ' a n d a b l e to retain control o f it as long as t h e city e x i s t e d . '

17

H e r e o n e d o e s n o t find J e w s w h o

k e e p a ' l o w profile' b u t influential a n d s e l f - c o n s c i o u s p e o p l e . T h e inscriptions that h a v e n o w b e e n p u b l i s h e d a d d an extra confirmation to this picture.

The

inscriptions

A p a r t from the G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s there are a handful o f H e b r e w e p i g r a p h i c r e m a i n s , b u t I will l e a v e t h e s e o u t o f a c c o u n t , not o n l y b e c a u s e they h a v e not yet b e e n p u b l i s h e d ,

18

b u t also b e c a u s e t h e s e five or six f r a g m e n t s yield little

m o r e than the w o r d shalom

and the proper names Jochanan and Severus. These

few H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s c a n certainly n o t b e u s e d as p r o o f that the J e w s in Sardis w e r e still a b l e to s p e a k H e b r e w for t h e y p r o v e n o m o r e t h a n that o n e or t w o p e o p l e k n e w the c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e ' s a c r e d l a n g u a g e , ' or o n e or t w o w o r d s in that l a n g u a g e , as a sign o f b e l o n g i n g to t h e h i s t o r y o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e . T h e fact that m o r e t h a n 9 0 % o f the inscriptions are in G r e e k m a k e s a b u n d a n t l y clear that t h e daily l a n g u a g e o f this J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y w a s G r e e k . T h e e i g h t y or so G r e e k inscriptions offer u s an interesting w i n d o w on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f this d i a s p o r a community. To b e g i n w i t h , it s h o u l d b e said that m o s t o f t h e inscriptions in this s y n a g o g u e ' c o m m e m o r a t e m e m b e r s o f the c o n g r e g a t i o n w h o c o n t r i b u t e d t h e m a n y e l e ­ m e n t s o f interior d e c o r a t i o n : t h e m o s a i c s o n t h e floor, the m a r b l i n g o f the w a l l s , a n d a n u m b e r o f architectural a n d ritual f u r n i s h i n g s . '

19

T h a t is a t y p e o f inscrip­

tion that w e also find in o t h e r a n c i e n t s y n a g o g u e s a n d o f w h i c h m o r e than o n e hundred were already k n o w n .

2 0

T h i s c o r p u s is n o w e x p a n d e d c o n s i d e r a b l y b y

t h e s e n e w inscriptions, w h i c h - like t h e o t h e r s o f this t y p e - all date from the period o f c a . 3 0 0 - 6 0 0 CE. It is often m e n t i o n e d that t h e g e n e r o u s d o n o r m a d e his d o n a t i o n ' i n fulfill­ m e n t o f a v o w ' (kat' euchen, euxamenos

hyper

euches,

eplerosa

euchen,

euchen

etelesa,

etc.). O n c e t h e d o n a t i o n w a s m a d e out o f g r a t i t u d e for the health o f

the g i v e r ( 6 3 ) , p o s s i b l y an act o f t h a n k s g i v i n g for r e c o v e r y from a s e r i o u s illness b e c a u s e the d o n a t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f n o t h i n g less t h a n a m o n u m e n t a l m a r b l e Torah shrine (the 'aron ha-qodesh),

h e r e d e s i g n a t e d w i t h a w o r d that h a s not b e e n

p r e v i o u s l y attested w i t h this m e a n i n g , viz. nomophylakion, 17

lit. that in w h i c h the

Kraabel, 'The Diaspora Synagogue: Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence Since Sukenik,' in Aufstieg undNiedergang der Romischen Welt II 19,1, Berlin-New York 1979, 488. F.M. Cross from Harvard University is preparing an edition. [In the meantime Cross has published them in Harvard Theological Review 95 (2002) 3 - 1 9 . ] Kroll, 'Greek Inscriptions' 5. For a (now outdated) collection o f these inscriptions see B. Lifshitz, Donateurs et fondateurs dans les synagogues juives, Paris 1967. At pp. 2 4 - 3 1 Lifshitz deals with the inscrip­ tions from Sardis that had been published by Louis Robert in 1964 (Nouvelles inscriptions de Sardes). 1 8

1 9

2 0

48

The Synagogue

law is g u a r d e d .

21

of Sardis and its

Inscriptions

W i t h d u e piety it is often stated that t h e gift w a s d o n a t e d ' f r o m

t h e gifts o f P r o v i d e n c e ' ( 1 2 , 1 6 - 1 7 , 1 9 - 2 4 , 5 8 , 6 6 ) . It is striking that the G o d o f Israel is d e s i g n a t e d n o less than 11 t i m e s by the n o n - b i b l i c a l t e r m

Pronoia,

s o m e t h i n g that w e k n o w p r i m a r i l y from the w r i t i n g s o f several C h u r c h F a t h e r s . G r a e c o - J e w i s h a u t h o r s s u c h as P h i l o a n d J o s e p h u s , t o o , u s e the t e r m

22

pronoia

d o z e n s o f t i m e s , b u t a l w a y s as an attribute or quality, n e v e r as t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f G o d . In antiquity, pronoia dentia

w a s initially u s e d p r i m a r i l y for the i m p e r s o n a l

provi-

in Stoic p h i l o s o p h y . L a t e r o n this c o n c e p t w a s also e m p l o y e d in a w i d e r

s e n s e in the p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n p e r i o d (think o f the v a r i o u s tractates Peripronoias that this striking u s e of pronoia

2 3

from the I m p e r i a l t i m e ) . It is n o t i m p r o b a b l e as a d e s i g n a t i o n o f G o d in t h e s e i n s c r i p t i o n s w a s

influenced b y the r e l i g i o - p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s a b o u t p r o v i d e n c e in later antiq­ uity. A s w a s the c a s e w i t h P h i l o (albeit in a v e r y different w a y ) , t h e s e H e l l e n i z e d J e w s , t o o , w e r e influenced in their w a y s o f t h i n k i n g a n d s p e a k i n g b y d e b a t e s in c o n t e m p o r a r y p h i l o s o p h y ; n o w o n d e r if o n e realizes h o w m a n y c e n t u r i e s they h a d a l r e a d y lived in the t h o r o u g h l y G r e e k city that S a r d i s w a s . ' T h e y t o o k o v e r a n i m p o r t a n t gentile w o r d in the s a m e w a y that t h e y h a d a p p r o p r i a t e d gentile s c u l p t u r e , h a u l i n g R o m a n e a g l e s a n d L y d i a n lions into their b u i l d i n g to a d o r n it, b o l d l y m a k i n g t h e m J e w i s h in the p r o c e s s . '

2 4

Six t i m e s t h e d o n o r s are called ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' (theosebeis,

8, 9, 2 2 , 5 7 , 5 9 ,

6 6 ) . T h i s is o f i m p o r t a n c e since w e a l m o s t certainly h a v e to d o h e r e w i t h t h e terminus

technicus

the B o o k of A c t s ) .

for n o n - J e w i s h s y m p a t h i z e r s w i t h J u d a i s m (the sebomenoi 2 5

of

It is the great d o n o r inscription from A p h r o d i s i a s that h a d

a l r e a d y m a d e i m p r e s s i v e l y clear that in that C a r i a n city n o n - J e w s h a d c o n t r i b ­ u t e d g e n e r o u s l y ( a n d in great n u m b e r s ) to t h e financing o f a J e w i s h b u i l d i n g (or b u r i a l p l a c e ) , a n d , in a d d i t i o n to that, t h o s e m a n y ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' ( a l m o s t h a l f o f t h e m o r e t h a n 120 d o n o r s b e l o n g e d to that c a t e g o r y o f p a g a n 'affiliates o f s o m e 2 6

s o r t ' ) t u r n e d o u t to b e l o n g to the h i g h e r strata o f s o c i e t y .

27

A l t h o u g h in Sardis

t h e n u m e r i c a l ratio is quite different from that in A p h r o d i s i a s , h e r e a g a i n o n e c a n see u n m i s t a k a b l y that till l o n g after C o n s t a n t i n e p a g a n s o f the h i g h e r e c h e l o n s

2 1

This rare word is used elsewhere in the sense of 'office of the guardian o f the laws.' A.T. Kraabel, 'Pronoia at Sardis,' B. Isaac & A. Oppenheimer (eds.), Studies on the Jewish Diaspora in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods (= Te'uda XII), Tel Aviv 1996, 7 5 - 9 6 . Only inscription no. 29 has the formula 'from the gifts of the Almighty God.' Kraabel, 'Pronoia at Sardis' 8 2 - 8 4 . See esp. M. Dragona-Monachou, 'Divine Providence in the Philosophy o f the Empire,' Aufstieg und Niedergang der Romischen Welt II 36, 7, BerlinN e w York 1994, 4417^1490. Kraabel, 'Pronoia' 95. The most comprehensive and recent study of the phenomenon of 'Godfearers' is B. Wander, Gottesfurchtige und Sympathisanten, Tubingen 1998. Rajak, 'Jews, Pagans and Christians' 449. J. Reynolds & R. Tannenbaum, Jews and Godfearers at Aphrodisias Cambridge 1987. 2 2

2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

2 7

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

49

Inscriptions

t e n d e d to s y m p a t h i z e with J u d a i s m r a t h e r t h a n w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y .

28

O n e of these

' g e n t i l e s y m p a t h i z e r s ' e v e n d o n a t e d the large m e n o r a h to t h e s y n a g o g u e ( 6 6 ) ! W h e n d o n o r s m e n t i o n their o c c u p a t i o n or function, s e c u l a r p r o f e s s i o n s are m e n t i o n e d m u c h m o r e often than religious o n e s . O n l y in t h r e e c a s e s are p o s i ­ tions or functions in t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y m e n t i o n e d , w h e r e a s in n o less than t w e n t y c a s e s secular p r o f e s s i o n s a n d functions are m e n t i o n e d ( a m o n g w h i c h three g o l d s m i t h s ! ) . W h a t is e s p e c i a l l y striking is that n o less t h a n n i n e p e r s o n s are bouleutai,

i.e., m e m b e r s o f the city council (boule),

the h i g h e s t a d m i n i s t r a ­

tive b o d y o f t h e city. H e r e w e s e e J e w s w h o h a v e c l i m b e d u p to the h i g h e s t r u n g on the social ladder, for ' t h e c o u n c i l s o f G r e e k cities u n d e r t h e L a t e E m p i r e w e r e o p e n o n l y to t h e w e a l t h i e r families, w i t h m e m b e r s h i p , o n c e p u r c h a s e d , b e i n g h e r e d i t a r y a n d h e l d for l i f e . '

29

S o d i s t i n g u i s h e d a n d w e l l - t o - d o J e w i s h families

participated in the g o v e r n m e n t o f the city. N o w o n d e r that h e r e , u n l i k e e l s e w h e r e in the fifth a n d sixth century, t h e s y n a g o g u e w a s not e x p r o p r i a t e d b y the C h r i s ­ tians in o r d e r to b e c o n v e r t e d into a c h u r c h b u i l d i n g . T h i s basilica c o u l d h a v e b e e n a magnificent c h u r c h , b u t w h a t h a p p e n e d in fact w a s that d u r i n g the fifth a n d sixth c e n t u r y the C h r i s t i a n s in Sardis h a d to m a k e d o w i t h a m u c h s m a l l e r b u i l d i n g than t h e s y n a g o g u e . A striking difference from the f a m o u s A p h r o d i s i a s inscription, w h i c h also m e n t i o n s n i n e bouleutai,

is that t h e r e t h e city c o u n c i l o r s

are all gentiles w h e r e a s h e r e t h e y are J e w s ! A s far as religious functions are c o n c e r n e d , an elder (presbyteros,

52 and 7 5 )

is m e n t i o n e d t w i c e . E l d e r s are found m o r e often in o t h e r J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e y w e r e m e m b e r s o f the c o u n c i l o f e l d e r s (often called gerousia)

30

w h o formed

t h e g o v e r n i n g b o d y o f the r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , s o m e o n e is called hiereus

kai sophodidaskalos

(4). ' P r i e s t , ' hiereus,

is h e r e a l m o s t certainly not

t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f an official t e m p l e priest, w h i c h s e e m s v e r y u n l i k e l y after the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e in 7 0 C E ( a l t h o u g h it c a n n e v e r b e ruled out c o m p l e t e l y ; think o f the reference to sacrifices b y J e w s in Sardis in Ant. Jud. X I V 2 5 9 - 2 6 1 [quoted a b o v e ] ) . C a s e s like t h e s e m o s t p r o b a b l y c o n c e r n d e s c e n d a n t s o f f o r m e r priestly families w h o ' w e r e a c c o r d e d the p r i v i l e g e o f p r o n o u n c i n g certain b e n e d i c t i o n s d u r i n g s e r v i c e s ' a n d w e r e r e g a r d e d as ' p r e f e r r e d r e a d e r s o f the T o r a h . '

31

T h e prestige o f t h e s e kohanim

w a s still so great, e v e n centuries after

t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the t e m p l e , that in t h e r a b b i n i c c a t a c o m b s o f B e t h S h e ' a r i m (in t h e G a l i l e e ) a special burial c h a m b e r h a d b e e n r e s e r v e d for t h e m . daskalos

Sophodi­

is a t e a c h e r o f w i s d o m . T h e w o r d l o o k s like a v a r i a n t o f the m o r e usual

nomodidaskalos,

2 8

3 2

t e a c h e r o f t h e L a w . S i n c e t h e Torah w a s w i d e l y r e g a r d e d as

See my study 'Jews and Christians in Aphrodisias in the Light of Their Relations in Other Cities of Asia Minor'(n. 14). Kroll, 'Greek Inscriptions' 10. For a list see R W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs, Kampen 1991, 9 1 . Kroll, 'Greek Inscriptions' 18. R W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs 96. 2 9

3 0

3 1

3 2

50

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

Inscriptions

the c o m p e n d i u m o f all d i v i n e w i s d o m in a n c i e n t J u d a i s m ,

3 3

it s e e m s v e r y p r o b ­

a b l e that t h e t e r m is a d e s i g n a t i o n o f a Torah s c h o l a r ( n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a r a b b i ) , s o m e t h i n g t h a t fits in w e l l w i t h t h e priestly d e s c e n t o f t h e m a n . M o s t o f t h e gifts m e n t i o n e d in t h e inscriptions a r e t h e m a r b l e w a l l d e c o r a ­ tions a n d floor m o s a i c s o f t h e s y n a g o g u e , b u t s o m e a r e o f a different n a t u r e . T w o p e r s o n s d o n a t e d e a c h a m e n o r a h ( 6 6 , 6 9 ; in n o . 6 6 t h e m e n o r a h is called heptamyxion,

lit. ' s e v e n b u r n e r ' ) ; a n o t h e r d o n a t e d t h e m a r b l e for the Torah shrine

( 6 3 ) ; a n d S a m o e p o s s i b l y d o n a t e d t h e bima, t h e e l e v a t e d structure from w h i c h the T o r a h w a s r e a d ( 4 ? ) . T h i s S a m o e is o n e o f the v e r y few w i t h a biblical n a m e (it is a r e n d i t i o n o f S h a m u ' a ) ; further w e o n l y find o n e i n s t a n c e o f S a m u e l ( 3 4 , 5 6 ) . A l l o t h e r n a m e s are familiar G r e e k a n d Latin n a m e s , e x c e p t E u l o g i o s ( 9 ) , a n a m e d e r i v e d from eulogia

- berakha,

blessing.

34

This Eulogios happens to be

a ' G o d - f e a r e r , ' a s w e r e his p a r e n t s , w h o g a v e h i m this n a m e a s t h e y p r o b a b l y a l r e a d y felt attracted to J u d a i s m .

The lions and the

Torah

Finally, I will briefly d i s c u s s s o m e inscriptions t h a t a r e interesting for r e a s o n s o t h e r than t h e o n e s m e n t i o n e d so far, to b e g i n w i t h n o . 10. T h e r e w e read t h e f o l l o w i n g text: I, Aurelios O l y m p i o s o f the tribe o f the Leontii, fulfilled a v o w with m y wife and children.

T h e fact that a J e w is n a m e d after t h e G r e e k m o u n t a i n o f the g o d s ( O l y m p u s ) is not s o s t r a n g e in t h e light o f t h e fact that w e k n o w q u i t e a n u m b e r o f n a m e s o f 35

J e w s ( a n d C h r i s t i a n s ) w i t h t h e o p h o r i c e l e m e n t s (till t h e p r e s e n t d a y t h e r e a r e J e w s called I s i d o r e = 'gift o f I s i s ' ) .

36

' L e u r s e n s etait a p p a r a m m e n t oblitere c h e z 37

les Juifs c o m m e c h e z les Chretiens.' O f g r e a t e r interest is t h e fact that A u r e l i u s O l y m p i u s s a y s that h e b e l o n g s to ' t h e tribe o f t h e L e o n t i i . ' L o u i s R o b e r t w a s c o n v i n c e d that this is n o t a tribe o f the city o f S a r d i s b u t o f the J e w i s h c o m m u ­ nity. H e p o i n t s o u t that n o t o n l y d o e s t h e n a m e L e o n t i o s o c c u r m o r e frequently a m o n g J e w s (also in Sardis), b u t that in addition to that t h e lion is u s e d frequently as a s y m b o l i c d e c o r a t i v e e l e m e n t in t h e s y n a g o g a l m o s a i c s a n d r e l i e f s . 3 3

38

F o r that

See, e.g., E.J. Schnabel, Law and Wisdom from Ben Sira to Paul, Tubingen 1985. Robert, Nouvelles inscriptions 4 0 : 'II [ce nom] convient de facon excellente a un Juif, puisqu'il evoque Veulogia, la benediction, cette priere qui figure sur les tombes juives c o m m e dans les synagogues.' For other Jews with the name Eulogios or Eulogia see the indices in J.B. Frey, Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaicarum, 2 vols, Rome 1 9 3 5 - 5 2 , and in D. Noy, Jewish Inscrip­ tions of Western Europe, 2 vols., Cambridge 1 9 9 3 - 9 5 . Think o f Origenes = son o f Horus! On Jewish names with pagan theophoric elements see the fine essay by G. Mussies, 'Jew­ ish Personal N a m e s in Some Non-Literary Sources,' in J.W. van Henten & P.W. van der Horst (eds.), Studies in Early Jewish Epigraphy, Leiden 1994, 2 4 2 - 2 7 6 , esp. 2 4 5 - 2 4 9 . Robert, Nouvelles inscriptions 4 6 n. 2. Robert, Nouvelles inscriptions 4 6 with nn. 6 - 8 . 3 4

3 5

3 6

3 7

3 8

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

51

Inscriptions

r e a s o n h e r e g a r d s the tribe o f the Leontii as ' u n e a d a p t a t i o n h e l l e n i s a n t e ' o f the tribe o f J u d a h . I n d e e d , in J a c o b ' s b l e s s i n g ( G e n . 4 9 : 9 ) J u d a h is called a y o u n g lion a n d this s y m b o l i c d e s i g n a t i o n is still u s e d in A p o c . 5:5 a n d in later J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s . J e w s from the tribe o f J u d a h for that r e a s o n h a d a prefer­ e n c e for the n a m e L e o n t i o s , s a y s R o b e r t . B a r u c h Lifshitz d i s a g r e e s a n d objects that this self-designation w o u l d m a k e little s e n s e since m o s t J e w s

(Ioudaioi)

w e r e d e s c e n d a n t s o f the tribe o f J u d a h ; h e t a k e s the e x p r e s s i o n phyle

Leontion

to m e a n ' t h e family o f t h e L e o n t i i '

3 9

since in the S e p t u a g i n t phyle

to r e n d e r the H e b r e w w o r d for family, mishpachah.

is often u s e d

Kroll, however, agrees with

R o b e r t . H e p o i n t s out that a n o t h e r part o f the wall d e c o r a t i o n to w h i c h A u r e l i o s O l y m p i o s c o n t r i b u t e d w a s d o n a t e d b y G o d - f e a r e r s , or n o n - J e w s . It m a y well b e t h e c a s e that A u r e l i u s O l y m p i u s w a n t e d to d i s t i n g u i s h h i m s e l f as a J e w b y a d v e r t i s i n g h i m s e l f explicitly, a n d n o t w i t h o u t p r i d e , as a m e m b e r o f t h e tribe o f y o u n g lions, the tribe o f J u d a h : h e is a L e o n t i o s a n d h e n c e a real

Ioudaios\

B e s i d e s , it s h o u l d also b e k e p t in m i n d that t h e lion h a d b e e n a favourite t h e m e in the i c o n o g r a p h y o f Sardis from o f old; n o less than 2 2 s t a t u e s o f lions h a v e b e e n found t h e r e . H e n c e T r e b i l c o ' s r e m a r k : ' T h e lion s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p r e s s e d their J e w i s h identity a n d their " b e l o n g i n g n e s s " in S a r d i s . '

4 0

Certainty cannot be

attained in this matter, h o w e v e r , a n d m o r e r e s e a r c h n e e d s to b e d o n e , but the inscription is certainly intriguing. I n t r i g u i n g as w e l l is the inscription o f n o . 6 5 . In a literal translation it says: ' H a v i n g found, h a v i n g b r o k e n , read, o b s e r v e ' (heuron laxon).

klasas

anagndthi

phy-

T h e i m p e r a t i v e s ' r e a d ' a n d ' o b s e r v e ' (or ' k e e p ' ) h a r d l y l e a v e other

interpretations than that r e a d i n g o f the T o r a h is m e a n t h e r e a n d that it is incul­ cated in the m i n d s o f the c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s that t h e y s h o u l d not o n l y read or listen to this h o l y text w i t h its c o m m a n d m e n t s but also live in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h it.

41

P r o b a b l y the p l a q u e t t e w i t h this inscription h a d b e e n a t t a c h e d to the Torah

shrine. It is n o t e a s y to s a y w h a t e x a c t l y ' h a v i n g b r o k e n ' (klasas)

i m p l i e s , but

p r e s u m a b l y it refers to the b r e a k i n g o f seals or u n l o c k i n g o f l o c k s o n the Torah scroll.

42

B e that as it may, it is clear that the central p o s i t i o n o f the Torah w a s

part o f the identity o f this c o m m u n i t y .

43

E v e n t h o u g h , in c u r r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , t h e Torah forbade the m a k i n g o f im­ a g e s , y e t a J e w i s h family n o t o n l y took u p o n t h e m s e l v e s the c o s t s o f the m a r b l e 3 9

Donateurs et fondateurs 2 7 - 2 8 . Jewish Communities 45. Thus also L.H. Feldman, 'Diaspora Synagogues: N e w Light from Inscriptions and Pa­ pyri,' in S. Fine (ed.), Sacred Realm. The Emergence of the Synagogue in the Ancient World, N e w York - Oxford 1996, 6 4 - 6 5 . Thus Trebilco, Jewish Communities 51; his alternative suggestion that what is meant is 'breaking open a text by discussing its meaning' seems far-fetched. See W. Ameling, 'Eine liturgische Inschrift aus der Synagoge von Sardes,' in Klassisches Altertum, Spatantike undfruhes Christentum (FS A. Lippold), Wurzburg 1993, 4 9 5 - 5 0 8 [see now also his brief comments in IJO II 287.] 4 0

4 1

4 2

4 3

52

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

Inscriptions

wall d e c o r a t i o n in the great a s s e m b l y hall o f the s y n a g o g u e ( ' f r o m the gifts o f G o d A l m i g h t y , ' 2 9 ) , b u t also the c o s t s o f the wall p a i n t i n g s (zographia).

These

p a i n t i n g s are l a m e n t a b l y lost b u t in p r i n c i p l e w e c o u l d h a v e found h e r e a fine parallel to the f a m o u s frescoes in the s y n a g o g u e o f Syrian D u r a - E u r o p o s ( m i d d l e o f the third c e n t u r y C E ) . H e r e w i t h I w a n t to c o n c l u d e this s u m m a r y survey. I h o p e to h a v e m a d e clear to r e a d e r s that t h e o l o g i a n s , N e w T e s t a m e n t s c h o l a r s , h i s t o r i a n s o f a n c i e n t religion, a n d J u d a i c scholars can only ignore t h e s e n e w a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s to their d e t r i m e n t , s o m e t h i n g w h i c h unfortunately still h a p p e n s all t o o often in t h e s e fields o f r e s e a r c h . It is p r o p e r to e n d this s u r v e y b y q u o t i n g t h e final s e n t e n c e o f K r o l l ' s edition o f t h e s e inscriptions: ' T h e Sardis d o s s i e r s t a n d s out for its s h e e r r i c h n e s s a n d scale, a n d for the striking vitality o f late R o m a n J u d a i s m that it c o n v e y s , a vitality that a p p e a r s all the m o r e r e m a r k a b l e b e c a u s e o f the g r o w i n g strength o f Christianity at the s a m e p e r i o d in h i s t o r y . '

44

O f c o u r s e it is hard to say

w h e t h e r this p i c t u r e c o u l d b e m a i n t a i n e d if t h e w h o l e o f a n c i e n t Sardis w e r e to b e e x c a v a t e d , for p e r h a p s the fact that o n l y a s m a l l p o r t i o n o f this relatively large city h a s b e e n b r o u g h t to light c o n v e y s a slanted i m p r e s s i o n o f the p r o m i n e n t J e w i s h p r e s e n c e t h e r e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y w e will p r o b a b l y n e v e r k n o w c o m p l e t e l y for s u r e . B u t a c c o r d i n g to o u r p r e s e n t state o f k n o w l e d g e , it is fair to say that in the capital o f a n c i e n t Lydia J e w s p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t role in t h e cultural life o f t h e city d u r i n g at least a m i l l e n n i u m .

4 4

45

Kroll, 'Greek Inscriptions' 48. The British scholar Tessa Rajak is of the opinion that what w e can learn from Sardis is no more than that there Jews 'were both tolerated and tolerant' ('Jews, Pagans and Christians' 452). But although 'a little scepticism will be helpful in considering this glowing portrayal of co-existence' (453) - for even the Jewish bouleutai 'may in fact have had quite a mediocre ranking in the social hierarchy' (455) - her comparison with the situation in pre-war Berlin is misleading rather than elucidating. Her study of the Jews in Sardis is on the one hand a testimony to healthy reserve and restraint, but on the other hand also a proof of an inclination to skepticism in a situation where there is less reason for it than in many other cases. 4 5

Jews and Blues in Late Antiquity F r o m the early imperial p e r i o d till the t i m e o f the C r u s a d e s c i r c u s factions p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t role in the cultural life o f the R o m a n a n d B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e s . T h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s e factions c h a n g e d o v e r the c e n t u r i e s , b u t their c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the w o r l d o f the athletic c o n t e s t s , t h e a r e n a s , e s p e c i a l l y the h i p p o d r o m e s , r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t . H a v i n g b e g u n as p r i v a t e l y run o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f p e r f o r m e r s a n d s u p p o r t e r s , in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e h i s t o r y o f the E m p i r e ( s ) , the authorities g a i n e d m o r e a n d m o r e o f a g r i p o n t h e m . T h e n o w p u b l i c l y m a i n t a i n e d factions w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d b y a m a n a g e r , the factionarius

( w h o s e role a n d function also

c h a n g e d o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s ) . To an i n c r e a s i n g d e g r e e t h e s e s p o r t i n g a s s o c i a t i o n s b e c a m e political p a r t i e s a n d p r e s s u r e g r o u p s , e v e n m i l i t i a s , e s p e c i a l l y in late a n t i q u i t y a n d the early B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d . T h e n a m e s o f t h e four m a i n factions w e r e c o l o u r d e s i g n a t i o n s : t h e G r e e n s (riQdaivoi) a n d B l u e s (Bevexoi) w e r e the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d influential o n e s ; the m i n o r o n e s w e r e the R e d s (TOTJOLOL) 1

a n d t h e W h i t e s (Atuxoi,). T h e h i s t o r y a n d r o l e o f t h e s e factions h a s b e e n e x c e l ­ lently d e s c r i b e d b y A l a n C a m e r o n ( m y s u m m a r y o f the d a t a is b a s e d u p o n his 2

m o n o g r a p h ) . T h i s short n o t e is solely f o c u s s e d o n o n e m i n o r a s p e c t o f this history, n a m e l y , the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e factions a n d t h e J e w s , a b o u t w h i c h w e k n o w little, b u t n o w s o m e w h a t m o r e t h a n 2 5 y e a r s a g o t h a n k s to r e c e n t e p i g r a p h i c d i s c o v e r i e s a n d n e w insights from social p s y c h o l o g y . F r o m the b e g i n n i n g , the B l u e s a n d t h e G r e e n s w e r e g r o u p s that w e r e in c o n ­ flict w i t h e a c h other. T h i s is c l e a r in a l m o s t all the p a g a n , J e w i s h , a n d C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s that m e n t i o n t h e s e factions. T h e r e is a long r e c o r d o f factional riots in the tumultuous history of Blues and Greens. T h e Greens, apparently always m o r e r o w d y a n d n u m e r o u s than t h e B l u e s , w e r e the o n e s w h o u s u a l l y started the riots. T h e y w e r e relatively often from the l o w e r strata o f society, t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r ­ ily s o ; a l s o the B l u e s w e r e n o t a l w a y s from t h e u p p e r c l a s s , far from it. It w o u l d rather s e e m that m o s t or all strata o f society w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d in b o t h factions, a l t h o u g h the s o u r c e s d o g i v e t h e d e c i d e d i m p r e s s i o n t h a t in g e n e r a l t h e B l u e s h a d h i g h e r social s t a n d i n g t h a n t h e G r e e n s . W h e n t h e r e w a s fighting b e t w e e n B l u e s a n d G r e e n s , h o w e v e r , it is u s u a l l y difficult t o find the c a u s e in social or political i s s u e s . G r e e n s h a t e d B l u e s s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e n o t G r e e n s , a n d 1

For the astrological background o f these colour designations see A. Hermann, "Farbe," Reallexikon fur Antike und Christentum 7 (1969) 4 3 0 . A. Cameron, Circus Factions. Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, Oxford 1976. 2

54

Jews and Blues in Late

Antiquity

v i c e versa. A c o m p a r i s o n w i t h m o d e r n s o c c e r s u p p o r t e r g r o u p s or h o o l i g a n s i n e v i t a b l y forces itself u p o n u s . T h e r e is an a n o n y m o u s J e w i s h l e g e n d from t h e early M i d d l e A g e s that hints at this a n t a g o n i s m . In a tale called Solomon's

Throne

and Hippodrome?

we

r e a d that k i n g S o l o m o n w a s seated on his t h r o n e in the J e r u s a l e m h i p p o d r o m e in the style o f a B y z a n t i n e E m p e r o r . S o l o m o n a n d h i s e n t o u r a g e , e s p e c i a l l y the spiritual l e a d e r s , w e r e d r e s s e d in b l u e ; the c o m m o n p e o p l e o f J e r u s a l e m w e r e d r e s s e d in w h i t e ; t h e p e o p l e from o u t s i d e J e r u s a l e m in red; b u t the gentiles in g r e e n . To b e sure, J e w s a n d gentiles are h e r e n o t o p p o s e d en bloc as B l u e s a n d G r e e n s , but it is clear that the r a b b i n i c a u t h o r o f this l e g e n d r e g a r d e d the G r e e n s as a p a r t y that w a s n o t J e w i s h , or n o t p r o - J e w i s h , a n d that r a n k e d low. T h e r e is n e w e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e as w e l l that g i v e s a s t r o n g i m p r e s s i o n o f affinity b e t w e e n J e w s a n d B l u e s . To b e g i n w i t h , t h e r e are s o m e i n s c r i p t i o n s from late a n t i q u e A p h r o d i s i a s that p o i n t in that direction. In this C a r i a n city, a b e n c h in the O d e o n is inscribed w i t h t w o s e a t - m a r k e r s , o n e o f t h e m stating that c

the seats t h e r e b e l o n g to the J e w s (xojtog E|3QBCOV), the o t h e r o n e on the adjacent r o w that t h e s e seats b e l o n g to the elderly J e w i s h B l u e s (TOKOS Bevexoov 'EPQECOV 4

TOW j t c d e i w v ) . All the s u r r o u n d i n g seats are for the B l u e s ! T h i s at least i m p l i e s J e w i s h s u p p o r t for the B l u e s . A l s o in M i l e t u s , a theatre seat is i n s c r i b e d w i t h a n 5

i n t r i g u i n g s e a t - m a r k e r Bsvexcov EIOSEODV. T h e t e r m ' B l u e J e w s ' s u g g e s t s clearly that they w e r e s e e n by o t h e r s , or s a w t h e m s e l v e s , as the e n e m i e s o f t h e G r e e n s . T h e r e is also e p i g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e from t h e h i p p o d r o m e o f late a n t i q u e T y r e i n d i c a t i n g that t h e J e w s h a d their seats in t h e section r e s e r v e d for the B l u e s .

6

T h e q u e s t i o n that arises a u t o m a t i c a l l y is w h e t h e r or n o t it is t h e r e l i g i o u s affiliations o f B l u e s a n d G r e e n s that m a y e x p l a i n the affinity b e t w e e n J e w s 7

a n d B l u e s or the a d v e r s i t y b e t w e e n J e w s a n d G r e e n s . C a m e r o n a r g u e d that t h e traditional a n d firmly e n t r e n c h e d v i e w that in t h e early B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d ( a n d to that p e r i o d t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e b e l o n g s ) the B l u e s w e r e O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s a n d t h e G r e e n s w e r e M o n o p h y s i t e s is totally w r o n g . W h a t c o n c e r n s h i m is " t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n that riots b e t w e e n B l u e s a n d G r e e n s s p r a n g from n o t h ­ ing so s i m p l e as the victory or defeat o f this or that c o l o u r in t h e h i p p o d r o m e ; 3

See the edition in A. Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrasch. Sammlung kleiner Midraschim und vermischter Abhandlungen aus der dltern jiidischen Literatur, vol. 5, Jerusalem 1967 (repr. of the original 1877 ed.), 3 4 - 3 9 . English summary in L. Ginberg, The Legends of the Jews, vol. 4, Philadelphial913, 1 6 0 - 1 6 2 (with note 75 in vol. 6, p. 298). See the study of E. Ville-Patlagean, "Une image de Salomon en Basileus Byzantin," Revue des Etudes Juives 121 (1962) 8 - 3 3 ; the author mainly focusses on the dating of the original text (between the 6th and 10th century). 4

J. Reynolds & R. Tannenbaum, Jews and Godfearers at Aphrodisias, Cambridge 1987, 132. Ch. Roueche, Aphrodisias in Late Antiquity, London 1989, 2 2 0 - 2 2 2 , no. 180 (at pp. 2 1 8 228 Roueche deals with several other inscriptions mentioning Blues and Greens). P. Herrmann, Inschriften von Milet, Teil VI, Bd. 2, Berlin-New York 1998, no. 940h. J.-P. Rey-Coquais, "Tyr, fouilles recentes, ville, hippodrome et necropole: L'apport des inscriptions," Revue Archeologique (1979) 1 6 6 - 1 6 7 . Cameron, Circus Factions 126-153. 5

6

7

Jews and Blues in Late

55

Antiquity

that factional rivalry is a direct reflection of r e l i g i o u s rivalry. ( . . . ) [TJhere is not 8

o n e s c r a p of a n c i e n t e v i d e n c e in its f a v o u r . " H e a r g u e s o n the b a s i s o f a p l e t h o r a o f e v i d e n c e that the G r e e n s w e r e j u s t as o r t h o d o x as the B l u e s , a n d that the fac­ tions did not p l a y a n y role in t h e r e l i g i o u s d i s p u t e s b e c a u s e in g e n e r a l religious m o t i v e s p l a y e d n o part in factional rivalry b e t w e e n B l u e s a n d G r e e n s , let a l o n e that t h e y c o u l d b e e q u a t e d w i t h m o d e r a t e s ( B l u e s ) a n d e x t r e m i s t s ( G r e e n s ) . If this is correct, it b e c o m e s h a r d e r to e x p l a i n the literary e v i d e n c e w e h a v e to the effect that not o n l y did t h e J e w s u s u a l l y side w i t h the B l u e s b u t that t h e G r e e n s often e v e n initiated a n t i - J e w i s h v i o l e n c e . L e t us r e v i e w t h e e v i d e n c e briefly. J o h n M a l a l a s (first h a l f o f t h e sixth century, from S y r i a n A n t i o c h ) h a s several stories that g i v e the d e c i d e d i m p r e s s i o n o f the e x i s t e n c e o f a n t i - J e w i s h resent­ m e n t a m o n g the G r e e n s o f A n t i o c h . T h e first p a s s a g e is a slightly g a r b l e d n o t i c e about the reign of Caligula ( 3 7 - 4 1 CE): From the first year o f Gaius Caesar the Green faction a s s u m e d from h i m l i c e n c e to d o as they c h o s e and rioted in R o m e and in e v e r y other city for three years, till the end o f his reign, for he w a s its supporter. In the third year o f his reign, in A n t i o c h o f Syria, the supporters o f the B l u e faction o f that city chanted in the theatre against the local Greens, "Time raises up and time casts d o w n . T h e Greens are lechers!" Pronoios [read: Petroniusl, the consular governor, w a s w a t c h i n g at the time. There f o l l o w e d a great factional riot and disaster befell the city, for the G r e e k s o f A n t i o c h fought with the J e w s o f the city in a factional brawl, killed m a n y o f them, and burned their s y n a g o g u e s (Chronographia p. 185 e d . T h u r n ) .

10.20,

9

In a n o t h e r p a s s a g e , d e a l i n g w i t h t h e situation in the s a m e city a b o u t 4 9 0 C E , d u r i n g t h e reign o f Z e n o , M a l a l a s w r i t e s : T h o s e o f the Green faction in the city o f A n t i o c h started a stone fight against the B l u e s during a spectacle at the h i p p o d r o m e , w h i l e T h a l a s s i o s , the consular governor, w a s w a t c h i n g . ( . . . ) Six months later the A n t i o c h e n e s o f the Green faction gathered again and, during a riot at the hippodrome, killed m a n y p e o p l e . T h e y burnt the s y n a g o g u e called after A s a b i n o s b e c a u s e the J e w s w e r e supporters o f the B l u e s . T h e y plundered all that w a s in the s y n a g o g u e and those w h o lived there (Chronographia

15.15, p. 3 1 6 ed. T h u r n ) .

10

M a l a l a s a d d s the lurid detail that, w h e n Z e n o w a s i n f o r m e d a b o u t the c r i m e s o f the G r e e n s , h e b e c a m e a n g r y b e c a u s e t h e y h a d o n l y b u r n t the d e a d J e w s w h e r e a s t h e y s h o u l d h a v e b u r n t the living o n e s as w e l l !

11

S o m e w h a t later, in 5 0 7 , G r e e n

h o o l i g a n s also b u r n e d t h e s y n a g o g u e in n e a r b y D a p h n e a n d a g a i n killed m a n y 8

Ibid. 126. J. Thurn (ed.), Ioannis Malalae Chronographia, Berlin-New York 2000. 1 adapt the translation by E. Jeffreys, M. Jeffreys and R. Scott, The Chronicle of John Malalas, Melbourne 1986, 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 . Cf. also M. Williams, The Jews Among the Greeks and Romans: A Diaspora Sourcebook, Baltimore 1998, 115. On this passage see B.J. Brooten, "The Jews of Ancient Antioch," in Chr. Kondoleon (ed.), Antioch. The Lost Ancient City, Princeton 2000, 31. Transl. Jeffreys, ibid. 218; Williams, ibid. 116. 5ia TL xovc, vexQoxig (xovov xarv 'Iou&ouarv exauoav; sxefjv yo-Q avxovq xcd xovc, t, YQd(pea0ai.

2 , c l e a r l y s h o w s that this u s a g e w a s still k n o w n in t h e

I m p e r i a l p e r i o d : xax£tax|3ov xovc, Eoydxag ^LyuQi^ovxag xf|v BeQivfjv (b&r|v, xovc, 6e xdcpov xa>

SLIO) KCXXQL

x a x a o x e u d ^ o v x a g ( T found the labourers while s o m e of

t h e m w e r e s i n g i n g t h e h a r v e s t s o n g a n d o t h e r s w e r e p r e p a r i n g a g r a v e for m y father'). S e v e r a l o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , from H o m e r t o late a n c i e n t t i m e s , a r e q u o t e d in t h e w o r k s m e n t i o n e d in n o t e s 6 - 8 , a b o v e . T h a t this u s a g e is p r o b a b l y n o t w h o l l y u n k n o w n t o t h e o t h e r a u t h o r s o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t m i g h t b e inferred from A c t s 2 . 1 2 - 1 3 : £ | i o x a v x o &E jidvxeg x a i SITIJCOQOUV . . .

(13)

SXEQOI

be biaxkeva^ovxec,

eXeyov . . . T h e w o r d s

EXEQOL 6 E

after

TtdvxEg in v. 1 2 i n d i c a t e that t h e m e a n i n g is that all r e a c t e d t o t h e p h e n o m e n o n d e s c r i b e d in vv. 6 - 1 1 , b u t that t h e r e a c t i o n s w e r e d i v i d e d : s o m e w e r e a m a z e d a n d p e r p l e x e d , o t h e r s h o w e v e r m o c k e d at t h e d i s c i p l e s (classical u s a g e c o u l d have had ol

5E

h e r e ) . Cf. A c t s 1 7 . 1 8 :

XLVEC;

cruv£|3cdXov avxti) xai, xivec, ekeyov

o l &E X T L , w h e r e it is clear that a g a i n t h e r e w e r e different r e a c t i o n s to P a u l ' s preaching.

1 0

All this i m p l i e s that in M t . 2 8 . 1 7 o l 6 E cannot

m e a n all o f t h e d i s c i p l e s , can

m e a n (from a strictly g r a m m a t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w ) o t h e r p e r s o n s t h a n t h e d i s c i ­ p l e s , b u t , s i n c e n o o t h e r p e r s o n s a r e i n v o l v e d h e r e at all, must m e a n p a r t o f t h e d i s c i p l e s . T h i s m o t i f (the d o u b t o f s o m e o f t h e d i s c i p l e s ) is n o t e l a b o r a t e d in t h e M a t t h e a n c o n t e x t , b u t it is w e l l k n o w n in o t h e r p o s t - r e s u r r e c t i o n stories ( L k . 2 4 . 2 2 ff, 3 7 ff; J n . 2 0 . 2 4 f f ) . T h e c o r r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n o f M t . 2 8 . 1 7 is t h e r e f o r e

m o s t p r o b a b l y as f o l l o w s : ' W h e n t h e y s a w h i m , t h e y (or: s o m e o f t h e m ) w o r ­ shipped him, but some of them d o u b t e d . '

1 0

1 1

See also my note on Acts 2 . 1 2 - 3 in m y 'Hellenistic Parallels to the Acts o f the Apostles II,'J5^r25(1985) 49-60. [Postscriptum: In his W B C commentary on Matthew (Dallas 1995), Donald Hagner asserts that in this article I 'overstated' my case since in his view an examination o f the o i be construction in Matthew mainly supports the interpretation that all disciples are referred to here: 'but they doubted' (884). This conclusion is totally unwarranted since in all instances he mentions a change o f subject is unambiguously clear from the context, so all these instances are irrelevant.] 11

Abraham's Bosom, the Place Where He Belonged A

Short Note on dnevexOfivai

in Luke 16:22

In t h e story o f t h e rich m a n a n d t h e p o o r L a z a r u s in L u k e 16, t h e u s u a l translation o f v. 2 2 is: " T h e p o o r m a n d i e d a n d w a s c a r r i e d a w a y b y t h e a n g e l s to b e w i t h A b r a h a m , " o r " h e w a s carried b y t h e a n g e l s to t h e b o s o m o f A b r a h a m " (eyevexo 6e djioGavetv xov

JITCD/OV

xai djr.ev£%Ofyvai avxov i m o xoov dyy^cov eig xov xo)arov

'A|3QadLi). N o n e o f t h e d o z e n s o f e x i s t i n g t r a n s l a t i o n s o f L u k e a n d c o m m e n t a r i e s o n his G o s p e l that h a v e I c o n s u l t e d offer a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n this. T h e r e is n o t h ­ i n g w r o n g w i t h this translation, e x c e p t that t h e v e r b u s e d h e r e for c a r r y i n g a w a y , djtocp£Q8iv, c a n h a v e a s e m a n t i c a s p e c t that is n o t c a p t u r e d in this r e n d e r i n g , an a s p e c t w h i c h I s t r o n g l y s u s p e c t is p r e s e n t h e r e . I s u b m i t as a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e v e r s e t h e f o l l o w i n g free r e n d i t i o n : " T h e p o o r m a n d i e d a n d t h e a n g e l s c a r r i e d h i m a w a y to t h e b o s o m o f A b r a h a m , t h e p l a c e w h e r e h e b e l o n g e d (or: his w e l l d e s e r v e d p l a c e ) . " W h y d o I p r o p o s e this t r a n s l a t i o n ? In c o m p o u n d v e r b s b e g i n n i n g w i t h dito-, this p r e p o s i t i o n often h a s t h e c o n n o ­ tation o f ' b a c k to w h e r e it b e l o n g s , ' or it g i v e s t h e v e r b a n o t i o n o f ' d e s e r v e d n e s s ' o r o f w h a t is d u e . To g i v e a clear e x a m p l e from t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t : T h e v e r b djto&i&ooLu u s u a l l y m e a n s ' t o g i v e a w a y , to g i v e u p , to y i e l d , ' b u t it also often h a s t h e s e m a n t i c a s p e c t s o f ' t o m e e t or fulfill a c o n t r a c t u a l o r o t h e r o b l i g a t i o n , to p a y out, to g i v e b a c k , to r e s t o r e to t h e original p o s s e s s o r , t o r e c o m p e n s e , to r e w a r d . '

1

It is u s e d in this w a y for p a y i n g o u t w a g e s in M a t t . 2 0 . 8 ; for p a y i n g b a c k d e b t s in M a t t . 5.26, L u k e 7.42 a n d e l s e w h e r e ; for g i v i n g d u e r e w a r d in R o m . 2 . 6 ; for m a k i n g ' r e p a y m e n t s ' to o n e ' s p a r e n t s in 1 T i m . 5.4 etc. ( s e e a l s o Rev. 18.6 for a p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d e x a m p l e ) . S o t i m e a n d a g a i n this v e r b is u s e d for g i v i n g p e r s o n s w h a t is d u e to t h e m o r w h a t t h e y are entitled to. A n o t h e r e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s t h e v e r b ditexco: W h e n in M a t t . 6 J e s u s r e p e a t e d l y (vv. 2, 5, 16) s a y s o f ' t h e h y p o c r i t e s ' that t h e y anijovaiv

xov uxoOov atkwv, h e

m e a n s that t h e y h a v e b e e n p a i d h e r e a n d n o w w h a t w a s d u e t o t h e m , s o t h e y c a n ­ n o t c l a i m a n y t h i n g m o r e in t h e hereafter. A s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t l o n g 2

a g o b y A . D e i s s m a n n , in t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g v. 1 t h e a u t h o r s p e a k s o f LILOOOV

s'xeiv w i t h o u t t h e djto-prefix, so there m u s t b e a difference. T h e difference

is t h a t dnsxeiv is a t e c h n i c a l t e r m for g e t t i n g a r e c e i p t b y w h i c h d e b t s a r e settled. 1

BDAG 109-110.

2

Licht vom Osten, Tubingen 1923 (4th ed.), 8 8 - 9 0 .

Abraham s Bosom, the Place Where He

165

Belonged

S o ajTixouaiv x o v uioBov cmxcov m e a n s that t h e y h a v e r e c e i v e d their d u e r e w a r d . N o w t h e s e are v e r y w e l l - k n o w n i n s t a n c e s o f this u s a g e , b u t it is m u c h less w e l l k n o w n that o t h e r c o m p o u n d s w i t h

CCJIO-

can h a v e the s a m e f o r c e .

3

I will d e m o n s t r a t e this w i t h the v e r b djrdya). It u s u a l l y m e a n s ' l e a d a w a y ' or ' c a r r y off.' B u t it c a n also h a v e the s e m a n t i c a s p e c t o f ' b r i n g i n g b a c k , ' ' b r i n g i n g h o m e , ' ' r e t u r n i n g , ' ' r e n d e r i n g w h a t o n e o w e s , ' as a q u i c k g l a n c e in L S J s h o w s . F o r i n s t a n c e , in X e n o p h o n , Anabasis

1.3.14, the soldiers say that t h e y are g o i n g

to c h o o s e o t h e r l e a d e r s as s o o n as p o s s i b l e if C l e a r c h u s is n o t w i l l i n g to them back home

4

( d j t d y e i v ) . O r P l a t o , Phaedo

bring

5 8 b , w h e r e in the o p e n i n g s c e n e

o f the d i a l o g u e the s p e a k e r r e c o u n t s : " T h e A t h e n i a n s say that this is the ship in w h i c h T h e s e u s o n c e sailed to C r e t e w i t h the s e v e n y o u t h s a n d s e v e n m a i d e n s , a n d s a v e d their lives a n d his o w n as well. T h e story g o e s that the A t h e n i a n s m a d e a v o w to A p o l l o that if t h e s e y o u n g p e o p l e ' s lives w e r e s a v e d , t h e y w o u l d s e n d ( d j t d y e i v ) a s o l e m n m i s s i o n e v e r y y e a r to D e l o s , a n d e v e r s i n c e t h e n t h e y h a v e k e p t their v o w to the g o d , e v e n d o w n to the p r e s e n t d a y . " T h i s is a v e r y illustra­ tive e x a m p l e s i n c e it is the e l e m e n t o f the v o w to A p o l l o that m a k e s it a b u n d a n t l y clear that s e n d i n g a y e a r l y m i s s i o n to his s a c r e d island w a s s o m e t h i n g d u e to b e d o n e ; it w a s a m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n . H e n c e d j i d y e i v a n d n o t j u s t d y e i v or jteujteiv or the like is u s e d h e r e . M a n y m o r e e x a m p l e s c o u l d b e g i v e n , b u t a few m o r e i n s t a n c e s o f t h e v e r b u s e d b y L u k e in t h e v e r s e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n (ajtotpegsiv) will suffice. In H e r o d o t u s a n d T h u c y d i d e s o n e finds djtocpeQeiv r e p e a t e d l y u s e d for p a y ­ ing t a x e s d u e to the g o v e r n m e n t or for p a y i n g a m o u n t s o f m o n e y that h a d b e e n stipulated in a treaty (e. g., H d t . , Hist.

1.196.3; 4 . 3 5 . 1 ; 5 . 8 4 . 1 ; T h u c , Hist.

5.31).

In s u c h c a s e s the v e r b u n d o u b t e d l y m e a n s ' b r i n g i n g [the m o n e y ] to t h e p e r s o n s 5

entitled t o it or to t h e b o d i e s w h e r e it b e l o n g s . ' T h e e l e m e n t o f b e l o n g i n g is a l s o a p p a r e n t in t h o s e c a s e s in w h i c h djtocpeoEo-Ocu is u s e d for g o i n g b a c k h o m e or b e i n g b r o u g h t h o m e , as in L y s i a s , Or. 12.18, w h e r e it is said that a m a n w h o h a d d i e d in p r i s o n w a s b r o u g h t b a c k h o m e (xeBvecog ex 6e0uo)xr|Qiot) djrecpeQexo). A n d in Leges

9 1 0 c , P l a t o s a y s that w o r s h i p m a y t a k e p l a c e o n l y in p u b l i c t e m p l e s ; it

is forbidden to h a v e p r i v a t e s h r i n e s . If s o m e o n e is found to p o s s e s s s u c h a p r i v a t e s h r i n e , the g o v e r n o r s s h o u l d o r d e r it to b e ' t r a n s f e r r e d ' (djtocpEQeiv) to a p u b l i c t e m p l e . It is c l e a r w h y the v e r b djtoq)£Qeiv is u s e d for ' t r a n s f e r r i n g ' : the p u b l i c t e m p l e is the o n l y p l a c e w h e r e w o r s h i p is d u e . M o r e i n s t a n c e s c o u l d b e q u o t e d , b u t t h e s e few illustrative e x a m p l e s m a k e suf­ ficiently c l e a r that in the c a s e o f L u k e ' s u s e o f djtevexOfjvcu in 16.22 w e h a v e to t a k e into s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n that h e w a n t e d to c o n v e y the s e n s e o f A b r a h a m ' s 3

Even the new B D A G often does not record this semantic aspect. See for some other in­ stances J.H. Moulton & W.F. Howard, A Grammar of New Testament Greek, vol. 2, Edinburgh 1929 (repr. 1963), 298. S.v. II and III. The lexicon o f LSJ s.v. II 4 also lists as a meaning "to hand over as required." 4

5

166

Abraham s Bosom, the Place

Where He

Belonged

b o s o m as t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e p o o r L a z a r u s b e l o n g e d a n d t h a t h e w a s e n t i t l e d to.

6

T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n fits in e x c e l l e n t l y w i t h L u k e ' s o w n v e r s i o n o f t h e first

b e a t i t u d e in L k . 6 . 2 0 : " B l e s s e d a r e y o u w h o a r e p o o r , for y o u r s is t h e k i n g d o m of G o d . "

6

7

The fact that in other places in the N T djiocpeoeiv usually has the meaning of'carrying off, taking away' does not at all militate against this conclusion. I o w e thanks to my colleagues Professors Tjitze Baarda and Maarten Menken for some critical remarks on the first version o f this short note. 7

The Hellenistic Background of Acts 9:1 "Snorting

Threat

and

Murder"

In this e s s a y a n a t t e m p t will b e m a d e to s h e d s o m e light o n a n e x p r e s s i o n in A c t s 9 : 1 . It is said there o f Saul that h e w a s ELutvecov ajteilfjg x a i cpovou Big xovc, \iaQr\xac, xov

-KVQIOV.

Firstly,the literary b a c k g r o u n d o f this r a t h e r u n u s u a l e x p r e s s i o n will

b e i n v e s t i g a t e d . S e c o n d l y , t h e function o f t h e g e n i t i v e in amikxyz, xaicpovou will h a v e t o b e defined. In his e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y f a s c i n a t i n g study, The Origins

of European

Thought^

R. B . O n i a n s h a s p o i n t e d o u t that in a r c h a i c G r e e k t h o u g h t b r e a t h p l a y s a m u c h g r e a t e r role t h a n in o u r m o d e s o f t h i n k i n g a n d that b r e a t h i n g is c o n n e c t e d t h e r e w i t h all k i n d s o f p s y c h i c f u n c t i o n s , w i t h e m o t i o n s , w i s h i n g , t h i n k i n g , e v e n w i t h 2

p e r c e p t i o n in all its v a r i e t i e s , a n d p r o c r e a t i o n . A l l k i n d s o f G r e e k w o r d s that d e s i g n a t e soul, spirit, m i n d , m o o d , a n d their functions a p p e a r to b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h b r e a t h i n g a n d b l o w i n g . S o tyv%r) is o r i g i n a l l y b r e a t h a n d h a s a n e t y m o l o g i ­ cal c o n n e c t i o n w i t h ipuxstv, to b r e a t h o r to b l o w . A n d a l s o QuLiog ( L a t i n S a n s k r i t dhumah)

fumus,

o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t b r e a t h , v a p o u r o r s m o k e . O n i a n s also c o n ­

v i n c i n g l y d e m o n s t r a t e s that in H o m e r a n d o t h e r early G r e e k w r i t e r s , cpoeveg d o e s n o t m e a n midriff ( d i a p h r a g m a , as in the classical p e r i o d ) , b u t l u n g s , a n d that it 3

d e s i g n a t e s a s s u c h t h e seat o f e m o t i o n s a n d t h o u g h t s . ( A l s o in later a u t h o r s o n e still finds t h e l u n g s , jtXeiiLuov o r jtveuLuov, as t h e seat o f e m o t i o n s . )

4

So H o m e r s a y s for e x a m p l e : 5ixa be acpiv evi cprjeoi 9uu.6g o n t o , (Iliad

21:386),

literally: ' t h e i r b r e a t h in their l u n g s b l e w in t w o d i r e c t i o n s ' , i . e . t h e r e w a s d i s ­ s e n s i o n , strife a m o n g t h e m . O n c e o n e h a s r e a d O n i a n s ' d i s c u s s i o n o f s u c h a n d s i m i l a r p h r a s e s , o n e c a n n o l o n g e r d o u b t that t h e y w e r e m e a n t to b e t a k e n liter-

1

R. B. Onians, The Origins of European Thought about the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World, Time and Fate. New Interpretations of Greek, Roman, and Kindred Evidence, also of some Basic Jewish and Christian Beliefs, Cambridge 1951 (repr. 1988). Op. cit. 13-122. It is well known how great the role was that breathing and air played in early Greek philosophy (Anaximcnes, Diogenes of Apollonia) and also in early Greek medicine. The related qpoovelv, later reserved especially for the intellectual faculties, is still more encompassing in Homer, "covering undifferentiated psychic activity, involving emotion and conation also" (Onians, p. 14). The same applies to ol&a, ibid. 15 f. In early Greek thought, the various psychic and mental functions are not yet differentiated. Examples in Onians, op. cit. 37f. Striking is Hesychius: n\ev[ioviav vooov tf|v eoamxrrv. 2

3

4

168

The Hellenistic

Background

of Acts 9:1

5

ally a n d n o t as m e t a p h o r s or m e r e i m a g e s . A l s o the adjective Tt8:rrvvu.£vog, w h i c h m e a n s 'wise, clever', should be considered to be the participle of the passive perfect o f

JXVEU).

6

W o r d s a n d t h o u g h t s ( w h i c h are not d i s t i n g u i s h e d ) , c o u r a g e a n d

energy, are ' l o c a t e d i n ' t h e (poeveg a n d the 0v\i6c, a n d c o m e o u t o f t h e m as the situation d e m a n d s . N o w , if feelings a n d t h o u g h t s c o m e o u t o f the l u n g s , it also b e c o m e s more understandable h o w and w h y one has developed the notion of i n s p i r a t i o n ( i n - b r e a t h i n g ) . T h e deity b r e a t h e s or b l o w s e m o t i o n s , p o w e r , b u t also p l a n s a n d t h o u g h t s into the l u n g s o f p e o p l e . S e e for e x a m p l e Odyssey w h e r e P e n e l o p e tells a b o u t h e r w i l e : cpdQog uiv uoi &CUU.00V

JTQWTOV

19:138-9

evejtveuaE cpoeaL

/ axr)aau,Evr) u i y a v l a x o v evi u-syaQoiaiv {jcpaiveiv (cf. Iliad

7

1:297). W h e n

in later a u t h o r s t h e s e a r c h a i c f o r m s of t h o u g h t are less c o n s c i o u s or p e r h a p s e v e n n o l o n g e r p l a y a n y r o l e , m a n y e x p r e s s i o n s from this c o n c e p t u a l w o r l d c o n t i n u e to b e u s e d , b u t n o w in a m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e . It is in this f r a m e w o r k that o n e h a s t o see a w h o l e series o f e x p r e s s i o n s in G r e e k literature in w h i c h e m o t i o n s , affections a n d o t h e r p s y c h i c functions are c o n n e c t e d w i t h v e r b s for b r e a t h i n g , 8

s n o r t i n g a n d b l o w i n g . H o w often this o c c u r s is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y the f o l l o w i n g s e l e c t i o n , in w h i c h 1 g o b e y o n d i n s t a n c e s w i t h jxvew a n d its c o m p o s i t a in o r d e r to illustrate t h e p h e n o m e n o n m o r e widely. H o m e r calls t h e G r e e k h e r o e s

UKVECI

jxveiovxeg ' A x a i o i (Iliad

3:8; 11:508;

2 4 : 3 6 4 ) a n d s i m i l a r l y u i v e a jtveiovxsg 'A|3avxeg ( 2 : 5 3 6 ) . H e r e b e l o n g s a l s o Iliad 2 1 : 3 9 5 w h e r e it is said o f the fighting A t h e n a that s h e h a s Qagooq drrxov, s n o r t i n g courage. P s . - H e s i o d , Asp is 2 3 - 5 , s a y s a b o u t m e n w h o are g o i n g to battle: x w 6' d u a ieu.evoi jToA.en.oio xe qxuA.6jti&6g xe Boiooxol jtAri^utJTOi, viteg a a x e c o v Jiveiovxeg ... E03X0VX0.

S a p p h o , fragm. 4 7 L o b e l - P a g e (42 B e r g k , 5 0 D i e h l ) : "Egog 6 exiva^e uoi cpoevag, obg dveu.og x d x o g o g 6QT3OIV Eajtixcov.

A e s c h y l u s , Agamemnon

187, d e s c r i b i n g A g a m e m n o n w h o tries to r e c o n c i l e

h i m s e l f w i t h his b a d fortune, eujtaioig xi>xcaca O V U J I V E C O V . Ibid. 2 1 9 , o n A g a m e m ­ n o n w h o sacrifices his d a u g h t e r , cpgevog jivecov &uoae|3fj xQOJtaiav ( h e b l o w s from his l u n g s a g o d l e s s w i n d that h a d v e e r e d r o u n d ) . Ibid. 3 7 4 - 5 , o n t o o b e l l i c o s e 5

On the question o f whether or not there is metaphorical language in Homer see the series of articles by W. J. Verdenius on archaic forms o f thinking in Lampas 2 ff (1969 ff). 6

Onians, op. cit. 56ff. Contra Onians see H. Kleinknecht, TWNTVl

335 n.l (not convinc­

ing)7

Onians, op. cit. 50ff, 56. Material is also to be found in Kleinknecht, TWNTW 341 ff., who, however, does not mention Onians even once in his long article on pneuma. Onians writes (52): "This association o f the emotion with the breathing may seem strange to us since w e are in the habit o f abstracting the emotion itself from its bodily expressions." How 'strange' e. g. Jackson - Lake found this becomes apparent from their comments on Acts 9:1 (The Beginnings of Christianity IV, London 1933, 99): "The phrase EUJIVEWV djreilfjc; xai qpovou is regular in that e^nveo) takes with it a genitive cause but unusual as having as its objec­ tive what must be understood quite figuratively, though such metaphors occur, esp. in poetry, with the simple TCVEW". 8

The Hellenistic troops, "Aqti

JCVEOVXCOV L I E I ^ O V

of Acts 9:1

169

r\ Sixaicog. Ibid. 1206, C a s s a n d r a o n A p o l l o ' s feel­

ings t o w a r d s her,

ELIOI JTVECOV

dojtov&ov x'

cpiA.oig nvzovoav.

"AQTI

Background

xdgiv. Ibid. 9

1 2 3 5 - 6 , Cassandra on Clytemnestra,

Choephoroi

3 9 1 - 2 , t h e choir, h o p i n g that

C l y t e m n e s t r a a n d A e g i s t h u s will b e p u n i s h e d , s a y s : jtaQoiGsv 6e jiQcopag &QiLU)g dnxaL xga&iag GuLiog,

EVXOXOV

oTuyog (before t h e b o w o f m y h e a r t a fierce w i n d

b l o w s , bitter h a t r e d ) . Ibid. 9 5 2 , o n t h e g o d d e s D i k e , xoxov. Eumenides Athena:

JTVECO

O^EGQIOV

jtveoua'

EV

ExQQolg

8 4 0 , after t h e c h o i r h a s lost t h e lawsuit, it is v e r y a n g r y at

xoi uivog djtavxd xe xoxov. Supplices

2 6 f., t h e D a n a i d e s ask the

land w h e r e t h e y a r r i v e as b a n i s h e d p e r s o n s to a c c e p t t h e m alSoicp jtvEttLtaxi, w i t h respectful b r e a t h i n g . Septem BuLiog dv&Qeiq cpXEycov EJXVEI, S o p h o c l e s , Electra her mother:

52 f., o f w a r r i o r s b e f o r e battle, oi&riQocpQcov ydo XEOVXCOV

cog

" A Q T ) &E6OQX6XCOV.

610, w h e r e the choir says about Electra raging against

uivog jrvEouaav. Antigone

OQCO

so steadfast in h e r o p p o s i t i o n to C r e o n :

9 2 9 f., t h e c h o i r o n A n t i g o n e w h o is

E X I XCOV

auxcov dvELicov avxox tpux'ns Qutai

ovoav

xr|v6£ y'

£X -

E u r i p i d e s , Andromache

1 8 9 - 9 0 , A n d r o m a c h e on the arrogant m e n w h o have

seized her: ol yaq jxveovxeg Lieyd^a xoijg xQEiaooug Xoyoug juxQcog cpsQouoi xcov ekaooovwv

(mo. Ibid. 3 2 6 f., A n d r o m a c h e r e p r o a c h e s M e n e l a o s that h e too easily

b e l i e v e s t h e evil talk o f his d a u g h t e r : ooxig OuyaxQog dvxijr.ai6og EjivEuaag. Iphigeneia

o n e o f t h e F u r i e s a n d calls h e r KVQ nveovoa

10

x a i c p o v o v . Phoenissai

w a n t s to c a l m d o w n h e r b e l l i g e r e n t son: oxdaov 6E Ibid.

E X X.6YCOV

xooovo'

Taur. 2 8 8 , in o n e o f his a t t a c k s o f m a d n e s s , O r e s t e s s e e s

5ELVOV

454, Iocaste

oLiLia xai Guumj jrvodg.

11

8 7 6 , o n O e d i p u s w h o c u r s e s his son: E X 6' EjivEucf aiixoig dfjdg 6£Lvdg.

Bacchae

6 2 0 , o n P e n t h e u s , w h o r a g e s at D i o n y s u s : Guu.6v

l&Qcoxa

EXJXVECOV,

aooLiaxog axd^cov djto. Ibid. 6 4 0 , D i o n y s u s says a b o u t P e n t h e u s : gq&icog yaq oi'oco, xdv dvxr)Qi6a)v

JTVECOV

zKQr\ \iiya. Rhesus

GULIOV

7 8 5 , o n frightened h o r s e s : ai 6'

avxov

EQQEYXOV E ^

j t v E o u o m xdvExaixi^ov cp6(3cp.

T h e r e is n o d o u b t that A r i s t o p h a n e s w a n t s to m a k e a p a r o d y o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f the t r a g e d i a n s , w h e n he w r i t e s in Ranae 1121 oiixool

XQEXEI

xig 'AkpEidv

JTVECOV

1016 jrvsovxag 5 6 Q D xai JuSyxag,

a n

d

dves

(i. e., s n o r t i n g like a r u n n e r at t h e O l y m p i a n

g a m e s [ O l y m p i a is situated at t h e r i v e r A l p h e i o s ] ) . Pindar, Pythian GoaoEiq

S E JTVECOV

Ode xae&iq

1 0 : 4 4 , o n P e r s e u s w h o w e n t to t h e H y p e r b o r a e a n s LI6A.EV

Aavdag

JTOXE

Jiatg. Ibid.

11:29-30: a w o m a n of

standing cannot conceal her lapses, everyone speaks about them immediately: icr/EL

XE

yag oAftog ov LiEiova cpGovov, 6 6 E xaLit|X.d

JTVECOV

dcpavxov

PQELIEI

(Bowra

t r a n s l a t e s : ' F o r bliss m a k e s e n v y as b i g as itself; a n d h e w h o b r e a t h e s t h e d u s t 9

In Agam. 1309, Cassandra says about the palace where the murder has taken place, cpovov &6n.oi jtvEoucnv alfxaTooxaYfi, but that probably means: the palace smells o f blood. It is not certain if passages like Hercules Furens 862 (xeoauvoij t' olaToog cb&Ivac; JTVECOV) and Iphigeneia Aulensis 69 (QTQV jrvoai (ptooiev 'AcpQo&itTic; cpiAai.) belong in this category. ' oxuoov Ou^oo) jivodg could be compared to the Dutch expression 'stoom afblazen' (or the German 'Dampf ablassen'). But these expressions have a different background. 10

1

170

The Hellenistic

Background

w h i s p e r s , b u t is n o t k n o w n ' ) . Nemean i|>E(pr|v6g dvrjQ dAlox' ak\a

of Acts 9:1

Ode 3 : 4 1 - 2 , o n a p e r s o n o f l o w s t a n d i n g :

Jtveoov.

A n t i p h o n , F r a g m . B 4 9 ( D i e l s - K r a n z ) , o n r e l a t i v e s : i'oa qpQovof)vxag I'aa jtveovxag ( D i e l s : g l e i c h g e s i n n t e , g l e i c h g e s t i m m t e M e n s c h e n ) . X e n o p h o n , Hellenica

7 , 5 , 1 2 : t h e e n e m i e s a r e ol JTI5Q jtveovxeg.

H e r o n d a s , Mimiambe

8:58, in t h e m i d d l e o f a l a c u n a , b u t it is c e r t a i n l y a b o u t

a q u a r r e l , . . . ] xd 6eivd Jtveuaai \a% jcaxe [... T h e o c r i t u s 1 8 : 5 4 - 5 says to a loving c o u p l e : eti&ex' eg aXkakwv oxeovov cpiAoxaxa jtveovxeg x a i Jt60ov. Ibid. 2 2 : 8 2 , a b o u t t w o fighters: cpovov dAA,r|A.oiai Jtveovxeg. Anthologia

Palatina

2 : 2 3 3 : a ringfighter ejtveev frvoQer|g. 2 : 4 5 1 : Vergil is

jtveioov evejting. 5 : 2 5 9 : t h e e y e s o f a girl in l o v e are o n ' s songs are

XOLQITOIV

jtvelovxa \iekr\, jtvelovxa 6'

JIOOOV

jxveiovxa. 7:25 A n a c r e -

CQOOXOOV.

9:159: when a wicked

p e r s o n t h r o w s a s t o n e u p o n t h e skull o f a d e c e a s e d m a n , b u t t h e stone j u m p s b a c k a n d hits t h e t h r o w e r ; this s t o n e is called jtveovxa &ixr|g. D i o n y s i u s o f H a l i c a r n a s s u s , Antiquitates

Romanae

7, 5 1 , 3 : w h e n t h e revolt­

ing p e o p l e s e e that t h e y h a v e n o p o w e r a g a i n s t t h e R o m a n s e n a t e , xfjg avGa&eiag f|g jtoA/ug ejtvei xoxe, ucpeTxai vuvi ( C a r y : t h e y n o w a b a t e their a r r o g a n c e w h i c h t h e n b l e w so s t r o n g ) . C h i o n o f H e r a c l e a , Epistula

3 : 3 : O u t r a g e o u s s o l d i e r s w a n t to d e s t r o y t h e city,

b u t a p h i l o s o p h e r c a l m s t h e m d o w n so that t h e y b e c o m e u.n&ev exi exeivou xoi5 d6ixou x a i aQJtaxxoij "Ageog jrveovxag. P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a c o n n e c t s jxveo) w i t h t h e adjectives u.eyag a n d A.au.jt.o6g, b o t h in b o n a m a n d in m a l a m p a r t e m . S e e , for e x a m p l e , Vita Mosis

1:55, M o s e s

rejects w e a l t h s i n c e it h a s s u c h an influence u p o n p e o p l e , x(b jtac/ dvQodmoic; u i y a jtveovxi jrloijxa). Ibid. 2 : 2 4 0 on h a u g h t y p e o p l e : ol \ieya jtveovxeg. De

mutatione

nominum

l:107,on

paideia,

2 1 5 jtveiioavxeg \ieya, said o f successful p e o p l e . De somniis w h i c h is s e v e r e a g a i n s t its a d v e r s a r i e s : \izyaka

jtvexjoaaa. De

Josepho

2 1 : R u b e n s a y s to his b r o t h e r s w h o h a v e sold J o s e p h : xQaxi>xaxoi yag (eaxe) elg O Q Y T I V x a i djtaQaixr)xoi x a i Jtvel A.aujtg6g exi 6 ev exdaxw Oufiog. De

congressu

108, in its original state t h e soul A.aujtQov ejtvei. Quod deus sit immutabilis

174:

E g y p t ' s o r i g i n a l p o w e r a n d g l o r y is g o n e , e'jtveuoe Jioxe Aaujtgov x a i em u,r)xiaxov Aiyunxog, aKK cog vecpog aiixfjg f| ueydAr) JtaQfjABev eimQayla. P s e u d o - C a l l i s t h e n e s , Historia

Alexandra

Magni

12

A 4 6 (ed. W. K r o l l , 1926,

p. 5 9 ) , 6 6e Maxe&cov o u ^ a JtQog aiixov ^r|XT3vag x a i xotig 666vxag xoig 66otlai auvxQi^cov O Q Y T I V dvajtvecov xotov eiJte xov H e l i o d o r u s , Aethiopica

UA36OV.

1,2,1, o n a girl w h o b e h a v e s c o u r a g e o u s l y in v e r y

difficult c i r c u m s t a n c e s : xoig u.ev jiaQoDot jteQiaXyoHoa, qpQovf)[j,axog 6e exi jiveouaa.

12

Josephus does not yield anything of importance for our purpose.

tvyzvovc,

The Hellenistic

A r i s t a e n e t u s , Epistula

171

of Acts 9:1

1:5, o n a h u s b a n d w h o is a n g r y at his w i f e b e c a u s e h e

s u s p e c t s h e r o f adultery- xEXQaycbg N o n n u s , Dionysiaca

Background

SLUX

x a i jtvecov B U L I O D .

1 3

4 8 , 6 5 0 : after t h e w e d d i n g n i g h t a m a n is exi JTVECOV

iJLievaicov.

In o r d e r to d e m o n s t r a t e that this p h e n o m e n o n is n o t limited to G r e e k literature, I m e n t i o n briefly a few i n s t a n c e s from Latin a u t h o r s . C i c e r o , In Catilinam

2:1 s c e l u s i n h e l a n t e m (sc. C a t i l i n a m ) . Ad

Herennium

4 , 5 5 , 6 8 a n h e l a n s ex infimo p e c t o r e c r u d e l i t a t e m . L u c r e t i u s , De rerum natura

5:392 spirantes bellum.

P r o p e r t i u s 1,3,7 m o l l e m s p i r a r e q u i e t e m . H o r a t i u s , Carmen Vergil, Aeneid

4,13,19 quae spirabat amores.

7:510 spirans i m m a n e .

1 4

A s is w e l l k n o w n , in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , t o o , s e v e r a l w o r d s w h i c h a r e u s e d to i n d i c a t e t h e p s y c h e a n d p s y c h i c a l functions, o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t b r e a t h ( i n g ) o r snorting. Nhr: S o n g o f S o n g s 1:6 bene

'immi niharu

bi = the s o n s o f m y m o t h e r w e r e

a n g r y (orig. s n o r t e d ) at m e . Pwh:

E z e k i e l 2 1 : 3 6 ( 3 1 ) be 'esh 'evrati

'aphiah

w i t h t h e fire o f m y w r a t h . P s a l m 2 7 : 1 2 yepheah

'alayikh hamas

= I blow against you = h e b r e a t h e s o u t (or:

s n o r t s ) v i o l e n c e , a s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c e s i n c e h e r e t h e v e r b , like t h e G r e e k an o b j e c t (cf. P r o v e r b s \ 2\\1 yaphiah Nephesh

JTVECO,

has

'emunah).

is o r i g i n a l l y t h e throat, t h e n a l s o b r e a t h ; it d e v e l o p s , like Guuog,

m e a n i n g s w h i c h i n d i c a t e p s y c h i c a l f u n c t i o n s : l o n g i n g , feeling, e m o t i o n s (as does Aramaic Ruah

5

naphsha)}

is t h e w i n d , later a l s o t h e s p i r i t ;

16

t h u s also 'aph, o r i g i n a l l y v e h e m e n t

b r e a t h i n g or s n o r t i n g ( h e n c e t h e m e a n i n g ' n o s e ' ) , later a l s o anger, w r a t h . S e e the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f t h e s e t e r m s in P s a l m 18:16 ( = 2 S a m . 2 2 : 1 6 ) : minishmat appekha

ruah

in P s a l m 18:16 is r e n d e r e d in t h e L X X b y djto ELiJtvsijoEcog jtveijLiaTog

oeyfjg GOV. T h e s a m e e x p r e s s i o n in 2 S a m . 2 2 : 1 6 is r e n d e r e d b y djto jrvofjg jtvEiiLtaxog BuLioij

13

avxov.

H o w much the original concept behind this usage has disappeared in the course o f time is well demonstrated by a passage in Themistius, Oratio 1:7a (on the philanthropia o f the prince): xai Toivuv el Paodecoc; tyvxi] (XT) xufxaivei, \JLT]&E 0v\iov xai ooyfig JivEiifxata ayQia xuxq xe ai)TT)v xai xaQarcei yqfilcog o^iyfis dQxilS Quu^ofxeva, TOT' e^eaxiv ov (iovov e^JioQoig xai vaijxaig aXka xai jtaaiv dvSQOJJtoig TOV |3iov 6Laji^.Hlv dacpaXojc;. T. E. Page ad locum: spirans is an imitation of JTVECOV which is constantly used with acc. or neut. adj. o f excited feeling. See L. Koehler - W. Baumgartner, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, Leiden 1953, 627-8 See F. Baumgartel in TWNTW 357ff. 14

15

1 6

The Hellenistic

172

Background

of Acts 9:1

A l t h o u g h i n d e e d " t h e e m o t i o n o f a n g e r w a s in S e m i t i c p h y s i o l o g y c o n n e c t e d with b r e a t h , "

17

it s h o u l d n o t b e too easily a s s u m e d that L u k e h a s d e r i v e d his

e x p r e s s i o n in A c t s 9:1 from the O l d T e s t a m e n t , i. e. t h e L X X , for t h e lack o f c l o s e v e r b a l p a r a l l e l s m a k e s that v e r y i m p r o b a b l e .

18

Neither are there m a n y parallels

from o t h e r J e w i s h G r e e k literature, a l t h o u g h w e d o find o n e striking i n s t a n c e in Testamentum biaonagagai

Salomonis

D 4:1 eu.dxovxo aXkr\koic, 0uu.oi) jtveovxeg

akhqkovc,

|3ouA.6[Aevoi. B u t , as h a s n o w b e e n s h o w n , t h e r e is o v e r w h e l m i n g l y

rich c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l in p a g a n G r e e k literature. W e a l s o n e e d n o t look for p a r a l l e l s in ' n o n - l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s ' . M o u l t o n a n d Milligan

1 9

m e n t i o n o n l y o n e i n s t a n c e w h i c h is n o t a real parallel: G. K a i b e l ,

Epigrammata

Graeca,

B e r l i n 1 8 7 8 , n o . 5 6 2 , 9 - 1 0 ( 2 n d / 3 r d cent. C E ) , eg 6' oaov

evjtveiei (3iox6v x' ejti r\\ia.Q epiwei / &i>au.oQog avxA/naei JtevBog de^ifhov.

20

Moreover,

t h e w h o l e series o f p a r a l l e l s from G r e e k literature q u o t e d a b o v e d o e s n o t at all g i v e t h e i m p r e s s i o n that o n e h a s to d o h e r e w i t h an e x p r e s s i o n from c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h , b u t r a t h e r w i t h o n e from the h i g h e r literary l a n g u a g e . T h e r e f o r e w e h a v e to c o n c l u d e that in A c t s 9:1 L u k e h a s t a k e n o v e r an e x p r e s s i o n from G r e e k literary tradition. T h i s a g a i n c o n f i r m s t h e s u s p i c i o n o f s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s that L u k e m u s t h a v e h a d a c e r t a i n a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h G r e e k literature. If h e w e r e a G r e e k p h y s i c i a n (as h a s often b e e n c o n c l u d e d from C o l . 4:11 a n d P h i l e m o n 2 4 , w r o n g l y s o ) , that w o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s i n g . B u t it is i m p o s s i b l e to b e m o r e p r e c i s e . S o t h e d e b a t e o v e r w h e t h e r o r n o t L u k e m a y h a v e k n o w n E u r i p i d e s , e s p . his Bacchae,

should

n o t b e r e k i n d l e d h e r e ( t h o s e interested c a n refer to t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s b y N e s t l e , V o g e l i , a n d H a c k e t t , n o n e o f w h i c h , c u r i o u s l y e n o u g h , d r a w s A c t s 9:1 into this discussion).

21

W e c a n n o t g o further t h a n s t a t i n g that L u k e h e r e u s e s an e x p r e s ­

sion that c a n b e said w i t h c e r t a i n t y to s t e m from G r e e k literary tradition. A s w e h a v e s e e n , w h e n t h e v e r b jtveiv is f o l l o w e d b y a n o u n i n d i c a t i n g an e m o ­ tion ( e . g. 0uu.6g, xoxog), this n o u n is a l w a y s p u t in t h e a c c u s a t i v e in t e x t s d a t i n g b e f o r e t h e h e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , b u t in a n d after that p e r i o d often in t h e g e n i t i v e

17

K. Lake and H.J. Cadbury, The Beginnings of Christianity, vol. 4, London 1933, 99. E. Preuschen no doubt is wrong in stating that Luke's source for this expression was LXX Ps. 17 (18): 16 (quoted above in the text); see his Die Apostelgeschichte (HNT), Tubingen 1912, 5 4 - 5 . The only passage in the LXX which is comparable to Acts 9:1, as far as I know, is 2 Maccabees 9:7 where Antiochus Epiphanes is said to have been JTUQ e^jtvEoov xoig Bu^otg em xovc, 'lovbahovq. The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament Illustratedfrom the Papyri and Other Non-Liter­ ary Sources, London 1 9 3 0 , 2 0 7 . They could have better referred to no. 8 1 1 , 7 - 8 where the expression X&QIV ... jrveoig occurs. W. Nestle in Philologus 59 (1900) 4 6 - 5 7 ; A. Vogeli in Theologische Zeitschrift 9 (1953) 415^138; J. Hackett in Irish Theological Quarterly 23 (1956) 2 1 8 - 2 2 7 and 3 5 0 - 3 6 6 . 18

19

2 0

21

The Hellenistic

Background

c a s e . A c t s 9:1 b e l o n g s to this s e c o n d g r o u p .

173

of Acts 9:1 2 2

O n the function o f this g e n i t i v e

several o p i n i o n s are p o s s i b l e . 1. B l a s s - D e b r u n n e r § 174 t a k e the e x p r e s s i o n in A c t s 9:1 to b e c o n s t r u c t e d in a n a l o g y to 6t;£iv, (e|j,)jTvav xivog, ' t o smell o f s o m e t h i n g ' . M a n y s c h o l a r s s h a r e this o p i n i o n , e. g. A . T. R o b e r t s o n in his Grammar in the Light of Historical

Research,

d e l l - S c o t t - J o n e s , s.v. eujtveco I 3 .

of the Greek New

Testament

N e w York 1914, 5 0 7 , a n d the lexicon o f L i d 2 3

H o w t h e n s h o u l d this g e n i t i v e b e c o n s i d e r e d

from a g r a m m a t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w ? K i i h n e r - G e r t h ' s Griechische

Grammatik

(I

3 5 6 ) calls the g e n i t i v e after v e r b s m e a n i n g ' t o s m e l l o f p a r t i t i v e (cf. a l s o W. W. G o o d w i n ' s Greek

Grammar

§ 1102). B u t p e r h a p s o n e s h o u l d prefer H . H.

W e n d t ' s s u g g e s t i o n (in his c o m m e n t a r y o n A c t s ad loc. p . 162) that in this c a s e the g e n i t i v e indicates that w h i c h the action indicated b y the v e r b t a k e s as its p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e . T h e n t h e g e n i t i v e h a s an a b l a t i v e f u n c t i o n . 2. C . F. D . M o u l e , Idiom

Book

of New

Testament

24

Greek,

Cambridge 1953,

3 6 - 7 , t a k e s t h e g e n i t i v e in A c t s 9:1 to b e a partitive g e n i t i v e w h i c h is u s e d w i t h " v e r b s c o n n e c t e d w i t h a p o r t i o n or s h a r e " , as is a l s o the c a s e w i t h e. g. ajxxo^ai, |j,vr|uxyv£ij(jo, ayxiyp\x,o.v, hnixvyyavu). New

Testament

T h u s also the Greek-English

Lexicon

of the

b y G r i m m - T h a y e r ( E d i n b u r g h 1 9 0 1 ) , s.v., w h i c h t r a n s l a t e s

' i n h a l e ' a n d e x p l a i n s : " T h r e a t e n i n g a n d s l a u g h t e r w e r e s o to s p e a k t h e e l e m e n t s from w h i c h h e d r e w his b r e a t h " (thus a l s o J. R. L u m b y , The Acts of the

Apostles,

C a m b r i d g e 1904, 189). T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n w o u l d i m p l y that Saul did not b r e a t h all o f the t h r e a t e n i n g a n d m u r d e r that w a s in h i m b u t o n l y a p a r t o f it (cf. e. g. a l s o Apoc. 2:17

TOO

vixcovxi 6cbato cruxa) xov [i&vva xov

XEXQVH\IEVOV).

3. M o r e attractive, it w o u l d s e e m to m e , is the o p i n i o n that in A c t s 9:1 t h e r e is to b e found a partitive g e n i t i v e , b u t o n e that is to b e u n d e r s t o o d in a n a l o g y to t h e g e n i t i v e after v e r b s m e a n i n g ' t o fill, to b e full', etc. G. B . W i n e r , Grammatik neutestamentlichen

Sprachidioms

des

( L e i p z i g 1867) § 3 0 , 9 c , l o o k s for a s o l u t i o n in

this direction. A l s o E. S c h w e i z e r , in TWNT

V I 4 5 0 , t a k e s ejAJTVEw w i t h g e n i t i v e

to h a v e the m e a n i n g o f ' t o b e filled w i t h ' . T h e i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g a b o u t this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is that w e h a v e from a n t i q u i t y itself t e s t i m o n i e s to the effect that o n e h a s u n d e r s t o o d t h e g e n i t i v e in A c t s 9:1

2 2

Some Katharevousa translations o f the N T into 'modern' Greek turn it again into a clas­ sical construction: jrvecov e u dnedfiv xai epovov. The prefix in £\XKVEEIV should be connected with dg xovq \iaQr\Tac,, meaning: blowing loose on them. LSJ s.v. II 3 lists several of the passages with genitive mentioned by us under the meaning 'to smell of.' Wendt's reference to L X X Joshua 10:40 JIOV e^jivsov t,u>f\c, is also found in several later commentaries, but it is very questionable whether this is really a parallel. Its meaning is clear: every living being (MT: kol ha-neshamah), but the L X X always translates that by nav e(iJtveov. R. Helbing, Die Kasussyntax der Verba bei den Septuaginta, Gottingen 1928, 9 1 - 2 , doubts therefore whether it belongs in the text (with reference to Field's notes on the Hexapla). Preuschen ad locum ( 5 4 - 5 ) remarks that Joshua 10:40 is not comparable since it uses s.[mveov as a substantive. 2 3

2 4

174

The Hellenistic

Background

of Acts 9:1

in this s e n s e . A s c h o l i o n to H o m e r , Iliad 2 : 5 3 6 ( q u o t e d a b o v e ) , r e m a r k s : Qv\iov x a i ovvduecog jtveovxeg, xouxeaxi yeuovxeg.

25

F u r t h e r m o r e , in H e s y c h i u s w e find

the t e r s e n o t e : eu.jt.ver jtejtA.riQCDu.evog (ed. K. L a t t e II 8 1 ) . A n d in o r d e r to p r o v e that o n e h a s u n d e r s t o o d a l s o A c t s 9:1 in this s e n s e , o n e c a n refer to the P e s h i t t a a n d the S a h i d i c a n d B o h a r i c v e r s i o n s o f the N e w T e s t a m e n t ; all t h r e e v e r s i o n s t r a n s l a t e o u r v e r s e b y : " h e w a s full o f t h r e a t e n i n g a n d m u r d e r . " S i n c e all t h r e e v e r s i o n s o r i g i n a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y from o n e another, o n e c a n n o t d e n y t h e m a certain i n t e r p r e t a t i v e v a l u e , t h e m o r e s o w h e n t h e y are v i e w e d in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the H o m e r s c h o l i o n a n d the H e s y c h i u s n o t e . T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n , that (eu.)jtveiv w i t h g e n i t i v e w a s c o n c e i v e d as parallel to v e r b s for ' b e i n g full o f w i t h g e n i t i v e , c a n a l s o b e a p p l i e d to o t h e r p a s s a g e s ( q u o t e d a b o v e ) , w h e r e jtvetv is u s e d w i t h t h e g e n i t i v e . S o this e x p l a n a t i o n s e e m s to h a v e m u c h in its favour. 4 . A n o t h e r theoretical possibility is to e x p l a i n the g e n i t i v e as b e i n g o n e of a i m ­ ing or s t r i v i n g as is u s u a l after v e r b s like umu,dv, ooeyeaBai, (ecp)teaOai, oQu.aaBai, etc. B u t then (eu)jtveiv s h o u l d h a v e an e l e m e n t o f striving or pursuit in it, w h i c h it d o e s not. M o r e o v e r , s u c h an e x p l a n a t i o n w o u l d fit o n l y a few o f o u r i n s t a n c e s . 5. M o r e is to b e said for t h e e x p l a n a t i o n that w e h a v e h e r e a g e n i t i v e w h i c h d e s i g n a t e s " d e n A u s g a n g s p u n k t e i n e r H a n d l u n g bei Verben d e r G e m u t s b e w e gung, des Z o r n e s " .

2 6

T h i s ' g e n i t i v e - a b l a t i v e ' o c c u r s after v e r b s like xoAoiiaGai,

XtoeaGai, u.r|vieiv, GuuovaGai, xoxelv, etc. A c c o r d i n g l y , it s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e to t a k e (eu.)jtv£Lv to m e a n ' r a g i n g , b e i n g w r a t h f u l ' . T h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d i n s t a n c e s from P s - H e s i o d , Aspis 2 3 - 4 , Pindar, Pyth.

10:44, a n d E u r i p i d e s , Andromache

326-7,

p r o v e that that is p o s s i b l e i n d e e d . M o r e o v e r , w e h a v e a v a l u a b l e n o t e in P h o t i u s : jtveiiaag- acpoSgtog ooyiaQzio, (ed. R. P o r s o n II 4 3 5 ) . H o w e v e r , it s h o u l d b e h e l d a g a i n s t this e x p l a n a t i o n that in all c a s e s o f this a b l a t i v e - g e n i t i v e it d e s i g n a t e s t h e e x t e r i o r m o t i v e for the e m o t i o n d e s c r i b e d , e . g . , S o p h o c l e s , Antigone

1177

jtaxoi u/nviaag cpovou = b e i n g wrathful a g a i n s t her father b e c a u s e o f t h e m u r d e r c o m m i t t e d b y h i m . In his Syntaxe

grecque,

H u m b e r t t h e r e f o r e states explicitly

that it is o n l y t h e " c a u s e e x t e r i e u r e " that c a n b e d e s i g n a t e d b y this g e n i t i v e .

27

T h i s o b j e c t i o n is a l s o valid a g a i n s t D i i r i n g ' s a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n t h e g e n i t i v e in "Aoeog Jtveovxag in C h i o 3:3 ( s e e a b o v e ) as c a u s a t i v e .

2 5

28

See H. Ebeling, Lexicon Homericum, Leipzig 1885, II 192. Kiihner-Gerth, Grammatik I 388b. Schwyzer-Debrunner, Grammatik II 133. Blass-Debrunner § 176 state that this ablative-genitive is no longer used in Koine Greek, but that is not an objection against this explanation. J. Humbert, Syntaxe grecque, Paris 1960, 280. Cf. also the instances mentioned in the grammars in the previous note. I. During, Chion of Heraclea. A Novel in Letters, Goteborg 1951, 85: "dojiaxxo-u "Aoeog jtveovxag, a popular flourish, inspired by well-known expressions like nivea nveiovxeg, "Aon jxveovx(Dv (Agam. 3 7 5 , parodied Equit. 4 3 7 ) but here with genitive (ablative), which sometimes implies the sense 'smelling o f , as in Anth. Pal. XI, 2 4 0 iiveiv xodyou, often however is used (as partitive) in the same sense as the causative, Anth. Pal. IX, 159 jtveovxa 6i.xng, II, 415 jtveioov evemng BeoyiAtaog. 2 6

2 7

2 8

The Hellenistic

Background

of Acts 9:1

175

A s o n e can see, m o s t o f t h e a t t e m p t s at e x p l a n a t i o n either opt for the parti­ tive (in v a r i o u s forms, s e e n o s . 1-3) or for the ablative solution. P e r h a p s it is i m p o s s i b l e to reject c o m p l e t e l y a n y o f t h e s e p r o p o s a l s ( e x c e p t the fourth). B u t it w o u l d s e e m to m e that m o s t is to b e said for t h e third alternative s k e t c h e d a b o v e , n a m e l y to u n d e r s t a n d eimvetv with g e n i t i v e as a n a l o g o u s to v e r b s d e n o t i n g ' t o b e full' with (partitive) g e n i t i v e .

2 9

29

I express my gratitude to Professors W. J. Verdenius and W. F. Bakker for several valu­ able hints.

"Only then will all Israel be saved" A Short Note on the Meaning of xai omojq in Romans 11:26

T h e p r o b l e m o f the m e a n i n g a n d translation o f xai oikcog in R o m 1 1 : 2 6 h a s b e e n a m a t t e r o f d e b a t e e v e r since the b e g i n n i n g o f m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h i p . T h e w e l l - k n o w n q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r this e x p r e s s i o n s h o u l d b e t a k e n in a m o d a l s e n s e ( ' a n d so [or ' t h u s ' ] all Israel will b e s a v e d ' ) , w h i c h is the m o s t c u r r e n t translation, or in a t e m p o r a l s e n s e ( ' a n d then [or ' o n l y t h e n ' or ' t h e r e a f t e r ' ] all Israel will b e s a v e d ' ) , w h i c h is a m u c h less c o m m o n interpretation b u t o n e that is n e v e r t h e l e s s d e f e n d e d b y a handful o f c o m m e n t a t o r s a n d translators. In this short c o n t r i b u t i o n to the d e b a t e I h o p e to p r o v e that t h e t e m p o r a l s e n s e is m o r e w i d e s p r e a d t h a n is c o m m o n l y a s s u m e d a n d therefore a m u c h m o r e s e r i o u s al­ t e r n a t i v e to the m o d a l m e a n i n g than m o s t t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d c o m m e n t a r i e s w o u l d have us believe.

1

It is quite u n d e r s t a n d a b l e that m o s t translators a n d c o m m e n t a t o r s t a k e oikcog in the m o d a l s e n s e since it is the m o s t c u r r e n t a n d usual m e a n i n g o f the w o r d ; t h e t e m p o r a l s e n s e is less u s u a l , or at least so m u c h less frequent that several d i c t i o n a r i e s d o n o t e v e n m e n t i o n it. F o r i n s t a n c e , B a u e r ' s Worterbuch

zum Neuen

Testament

w o r d a n d n e i t h e r d o L o u w a n d N i d a in their Greek-English Testament

According

to Semantic

m e a n i n g in their Greek-English

Griechisch-deutsches

d o e s not m e n t i o n this s e m a n t i c a s p e c t o f t h e Domains.

Lexicon,

Lexicon

of the

New

L i d d e l l & Scott d o register this

b u t in s u c h a veiled w a y that it is v e r y

h a r d to n o t i c e , s i n c e s.v. oikcog 1 7 they o n l y say that oiktog is frequently u s e d in an a p o d o s i s after a p r o t a s i s , w i t h o u t i n d i c a t i n g that in several o f t h e i n s t a n c e s listed b y t h e m the m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d is ' ( o n l y ) t h e n ' ( m o r e o v e r t h e y deal o n l y w i t h c a s e s from classical G r e e k ) . S o it m a k e s s e n s e to p r e s e n t a selected n u m b e r o f i n s t a n c e s w h i c h clearly indicate that oikoog can i n d e e d h a v e this m e a n i n g . T h a t this is n o t superfluous is clear if o n e t a k e s a l o o k into m o d e r n c o m m e n ­ taries. T h e r e is, for i n s t a n c e , the r e m a r k in an o t h e r w i s e e x c e l l e n t c o m m e n t a r y on R o m a n s , t h e r e c e n t o n e b y J o s e p h F i t z m y e r , w h o s i m p l y states that " a t e m p o -

1

The Jerusalem Bible is one of the very few translations that render: "And then after this the rest of Israel will be saved as well." The Revised English Biblehas: "Once that has happened the whole of Israel will be saved." Cf. also Das Neue Testament, iibersetzt und kommentiert von U. Wilckens, Hamburg 1970, 542: "Dann wird auch ganz Israel gerettet werden."

A Short Note on the Meaning of xai ovrwq in Romans

ral m e a n i n g o f houtos

177

11:26

2

is n o t o t h e r w i s e found in G r e e k . " D u n n is n o t sure a b o u t

the m a t t e r a n d s u g g e s t s that " s o m e t e m p o r a l w e i g h t c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d from x a i 3

ouxcog (...)> b u t t h e b a s i c s e n s e o f oijtcog is ' t h u s , in this m a n n e r , ' " w i t h o u t g i v ­ ing a r g u m e n t s for his n o n - e x c l u s i o n o f ' t e m p o r a l w e i g h t . ' O t h e r s s i m p l y d e n y the p o s s i b i l i t y that oikcog c o u l d h a v e a t e m p o r a l s e n s e ( e . g . , U. L u z a n d C . E . B . Cranfield)

4

or p o s i t that it d o e s h a v e that s e n s e h e r e , s o m e t i m e s w i t h o u t a n y

r e f e r e n c e s (e. g. T h . Z a h n , O . M i c h e l , C.K. B a r r e t t ) , s o m e t i m e s w i t h r e f e r e n c e to p a s s a g e s s u c h as A c t s 17:33 a n d 20:11 (e. g. E . K a s e m a n n ) . It s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t that t h e r e a r e s o m e p u b l i c a t i o n s b y classical p h i ­ lologists o n t h e t e m p o r a l m e a n i n g o f ( x a i ) oi)xio(g) w h i c h h a v e g o n e u n n o t i c e d b y N T s c h o l a r s . A s early as 1934 K u r t L a t t e briefly d i s c u s s e d this u s a g e a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d that it c a m e to t h e fore m o r e s t r o n g l y in p o s t - c l a s s i c a l G r e e k ,

5

6

a n d in 1961 E . S k a r d m a d e s o m e a d d i t i o n s to L a t t e ' s d o s s i e r . M o r e r e c e n t l y t h e D u t c h classical p h i l o l o g i s t D . H o l w e r d a p o i n t e d o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e 7

o b s e r v a t i o n s b y t h e s e t w o s c h o l a r s for t h e interpretation o f R o m a n s 1 1 : 2 6 . 1 will d i s c u s s s o m e o f their findings a n d a l s o a d d s o m e i m p o r t a n t n e w p a s s a g e s to t h e o n e s t h e y found. First s o m e i n s t a n c e s from p a g a n G r e e k a u t h o r s will b e briefly p r e s e n t e d , thereafter s o m e from J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s . T h u c y d i d e s , Hist.

3.96.2 tells u s that in t h e w a r a g a i n s t the A e t o l i a n s , t h e

c o m m a n d e r o f t h e A t h e n i a n a r m y first w a n t e d to s u b d u e t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s a n d only then to attack t h e O p h i o n i a n s t h e m s e l v e s ( i d aXka xaxaoxQ£i|)du,evog o i k t o g jbtl 'Ocpioveag ... axQaxEuaai); cf. a l s o Hist.

1.37.1. In his Charact.

18,

T h e o p h r a s t u s d e s c r i b e s ' t h e distrustful m a n . ' B e f o r e g o i n g to s l e e p , this m a n a s k s his w i f e w h e t h e r the h o u s e - d o o r h a s b e e n b o l t e d a n d t h e c u p b o a r d sealed etc. a n d , e v e n w h e n s h e h a s said y e s , g e t s o u t of his b e d in o r d e r to c h e c k e v e ­ r y t h i n g a g a i n , x a i olkco u.6)ag vxvov

xvy%aveiv,

' a n d only then h e g o e s t o s l e e p ,

t h o u g h w i t h difficulty.' H e r e it m a y p e r h a p s b e p o s s i b l e to t r a n s l a t e ' e v e n so h e will h a r d l y g o to s l e e p , ' b u t t h e n e x t i n s t a n c e d o e s n o t l e a v e u s t h i s e s c a p e . P l a t o w r i t e s in Prot.

3 1 4 c that S o c r a t e s a n d H i p p o c r a t e s , h a v i n g arrived at

P r o t a g o r a s ' h o u s e , d e c i d e first to finish their d i s c u s s i o n a n d only

then to g o

into t h e h o u s e ( d A l d &iajteQavduevoi oikoog eaioi^iev). Cf. his Gorg. 4 5 7 d , w h e r e 2

Romans ( A B 33), N e w York 1993, 622. Romans_(vVBC 38B), Dallas 1988, 6 8 1 . Cf. also D. Sanger, Die Verkundigung des Gekreuzigten und Israel. Studien zum Verhdltnis von Kirche und Israel bei Paulus und im friihen Christentum, Tubingen 1994, 166: "Zunachst ist negativ festzustellen, daB xai ovxwq keine primar temporale Bedeutung ('und dann' = xai TOTE) in sich tragi." Review o f P. Maas, Epidaurische Hymnen (1933) in Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen 196 (1934) 4 0 5 - 4 1 3 , at 411. 'Zum temporalen Gebrauch von oiitcog,' Symbolae Osloenses 37 (1961) 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 . Skard pays special attention to the frequent occurrence o f the temporal use o f oiitcos in the Homilies of Asterius. D. Holwerda, 'Heel Israel behouden,' in his De Schrift opent een vergezicht, Kampen 1998, 1 6 0 - 1 9 3 . 3

4

5

6

7

178

A Short Note on the Meaning of xai ovrwg in Romans

11:26

S o c r a t e s says that p e o p l e w h o start a d e b a t e often h a v e p r o b l e m s in defining their subject; t h e y first t e a c h a n d instruct e a c h o t h e r a b o u t w h a t t h e y k n o w a n d then (oikcog) b r i n g t h e m e e t i n g to a close (and cf. also Resp.

II 3 6 8 d exeiva jtgcoxov

dvayvovxeg oikcog ejuaxojteiv i d etaxxxco). X e n o p h o n , Anab.

7.1.4, s a y s that at a

certain m o m e n t h e w a n t e d to t a k e leave o f his a r m y b u t that A n a x i b i u s u r g e d h i m first to c r o s s t h e B o s p o r u s w i t h t h e a r m y a n d only then to t a k e l e a v e (ejteixa oikcog djtaAMxEaGai)." In his Cyrop. 2 . 1 . 1 , X e n o p h o n w r i t e s a b o u t t h e P e r s i a n a r m y : " W h e n an e a g l e a p p e a r e d on their right a n d flew o n a h e a d o f t h e m , they p r a y e d to the g o d s a n d h e r o e s w h o w a t c h o v e r the land o f P e r s i a to c o n d u c t t h e m o n w a r d s w i t h g r a c e a n d favour, a n d t h e n (oikco) p r o c e e d e d to c r o s s t h e frontier." In his Poet.

1 4 5 5 M A r i s t o t l e states that a p o e t s h o u l d first simplify his story a n d

r e d u c e it to a u n i v e r s a l form " a n d o n l y t h e n d e v e l o p t h e s e q u e n c e o f e p i s o d e s " (eiB' oikcog EJteiao&ioiiv x a i jxaQaxeiveiv). O n e m i g h t a r g u e that h e r e a n d in s o m e o t h e r i n s t a n c e s the idea o f ' o n l y t h e n / t h e r e a f t e r ' is e x p r e s s e d b y eixa or ejteixa, b u t that is n o t correct: ma/ejteixa d o e s e x p r e s s that w h a t follows is t h e n e x t s t e p , but it is o n l y oikcog that e x p r e s s e s the n e c e s s i t y o f 'first things first' a n d ' o n l y then' what follows.

8

F r o m the post-classical period many examples could be quoted, but two m a y suffice. In t h e Tabula Cebetis

1 9 . 1 , the p r o t a g o n i s t a s k s H e r a c l e s w h y (the

personified) P a i d e i a is s t a n d i n g o u t s i d e the e n c l o s u r e o f t h e d w e l l i n g p l a c e o f the h a p p y , w h e r e u p o n h e a n s w e r s that this h a p p e n s " s o that s h e c a n heal t h e o n e s a r r i v i n g a n d g i v e t h e m purifying p o w e r to drink. F o r o n l y t h e n , after t h e y h a v e b e e n purified, d o e s she lead t h e m to t h e v i r t u e s " (eiB' oxav xaBaQBooaiv, 9

oikcog eiadyei xoikoug jtQog xdg dgexag). Finally a n i n s t a n c e from

Epictetus

2 . 1 5 . 8 : " D o y o u n o t w i s h to m a k e y o u r b e g i n n i n g a n d y o u r f o u n d a t i o n firm, that is, to c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r y o u r d e c i s i o n is s o u n d or u n s o u n d , a n d o n l y then (xai oikcog) p r o c e e d to rear t h e r e o n the structure o f y o u r d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d y o u r firm r e s o l v e ? " M o r e i n s t a n c e s from E p i c t e t u s c o u l d b e q u o t e d .

10

In all t h e s e c a s e s

the e m p h a s i s is o n the n e c e s s i t y o f a certain order: first o t h e r t h i n g s h a v e to b e finished

a n d o n l y then c a n the m a i n t h i n g b e d o n e .

1 1

N o w I will g i v e s o m e e x a m p l e s to d e m o n s t r a t e that this u s a g e w a s not u n ­ k n o w n a m o n g a u t h o r s o f J u d a e o - G r e e k literature. In the Test, of Abraham

(rec.

A ) 7.11 w e find t h e a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l s a y i n g to A b r a h a m that "I h a v e b e e n sent to y o u in o r d e r to tell y o u not to forget d e a t h ; but thereafter (eiB' oikcog) I will

8

Another fine instance is Polybius 5.9.9. The translation by J.T. Fitzgerald and L.M. White {The Tabula of Cebes [Chico 1983] 91) is not correct here. In his Teubner edition of 1916 H. Schenkl lists several instances of this usage from Epictetus in his Index A-, v., e.g., 3 . 2 3 . 1 - 2 : "Good athletes first decide what kind of athletes they want to be, only then (el0' oikcog) they act accordingly." More examples in R. Kiihner & B. Gerth, Ausfuhrliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache II 2, Darmstadt 1966 (= Leipzig 1904), 83. 9

1 0

11

A Short Note on the Meaning of xai oihwq in Romans

return to h i m as h e c o m m a n d e d m e . " in the Vitae prophetarum:

1 2

179

11:26

W e s e e it also in t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e

In the Life of Jeremiah

6 w e read that d u r i n g his stay

in E g y p t , J e r e m i a h c h a s e d a w a y the a s p s from the dry land a n d the c r o c o d i l e s from the N i l e , a n d thereafter (xai oikcog) h e i n t r o d u c e d t h e so-called 'snakefighte r s . ' H e r e it is interesting a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g to see that m o s t o f the m a n u s c r i p t s h a v e xai oikcog, b u t o n e o t h e r h a s x a i T O T E ,

1 3

w h i c h indicates that this m e d i e v a l

B y z a n t i n e scribe k n e w that oikcog h e r e h a s t h e t e m p o r a l s e n s e o f

TOTE

(then).

In t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t w e find, apart from R o m 11:26, s o m e o t h e r p o s s i b l e i n s t a n c e s o f this u s a g e . It is h i g h l y i m p r o b a b l e that, w h e n the a u t h o r o f A c t s has S t e p h e n say that " G o d g a v e A b r a h a m the c o v e n a n t o f c i r c u m c i s i o n , xai oikcog A b r a h a m b e g o t I s a a c " (7:8), it m a k e s s e n s e to translate h e r e ' a n d t h u s ' : L u k e d o e s n o t w a n t to inform his r e a d e r s a b o u t the p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h A b r a ­ h a m b e g o t t h e son that w o u l d b e the heir o f t h e c o v e n a n t , b u t a b o u t t h e fact that this h a p p e n e d only after h e h a d r e c e i v e d the sign o f this c o v e n a n t ! A c t s 20:11 is an e v e n c l e a r e r case, for b y far the m o s t natural translation o f dvafJdg 5E xai xAxxoag T O V dcrtov xai yeuadu.£vog ecp' ixavov T8 6u.ilr|aag dxQi auyfjg, oikcog e^fiA.9£v is " [ P a u l ] w e n t u p s t a i r s , a n d after h e h a d b r o k e n b r e a d a n d eaten, h e c o n t i n u e d to c o n v e r s e w i t h t h e m until d a w n (!); only then h e left." T h e d^Qi a-uyfjg h a r d l y leaves a n o t h e r possibility. A n d it also m a k e s s e n s e to t a k e A c t s 2 7 : 1 7 to m e a n that only after t h e sailors, w h o w e r e afraid o f r u n n i n g o n to t h e s a n d b a n k s , h a d l o w e r e d the g e a r (or: t h r o w n out a s e a - a n c h o r ) , they let the ship drift (xaXdoavTeg TO

oxetjog, oikcog

ECPECKTVTO).

1 T h e s s 4 : 1 6 - 1 7 is a n o t h e r instance: after the d e s c e n t

o f J e s u s C h r i s t from h e a v e n " t h e d e a d in C h r i s t will rise first; thereafter

we who

are alive, w h o are left, will b e c a u g h t u p in the c l o u d s t o g e t h e r with t h e m to m e e t the L o r d in the air; and [only] EV XQIOTCO

dvaoTf|GovTai

then w e will b e w i t h the L o r d f o r e v e r " (oi vexQoi

JTQCOTOV,

eiteiTa rmeig oi t/dvTeg oi JteQiX.£iJt6|iEvoi d^ia ovv

atkolg aQKaynooLieOa ev vEcpeXaig slg djtdvTnaiv xov

XUQIOD

-

eig deQa xai oikcog

jtdvTOTE auv xuoico so-o^eGa.). T h i s translation m a k e s at least as m u c h s e n s e as the traditional o n e ' a n d s o , ' if o n l y b e c a u s e the text so u n a m b i g u o u s l y indicates that the a p o s t l e is s p e a k i n g a b o u t a t e m p o r a l order: first A, therafter B , a n d (but only then) C. A n d there are m o r e N T e x a m p l e s .

finally

1 4

F r o m early C h r i s t i a n literature o u t s i d e t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t I a d d u c e o n l y the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e to r o u n d off the p i c t u r e .

15

I r e n a e u s tells us in Adv.

haer.

1.30.14 that the G n o s t i c sect o f the O p h i t e s say that after his r e s u r r e c t i o n J e s u s t a u g h t his d i s c i p l e s (not for 4 0 d a y s , as t h e N T s a y s , but) for n o less than 18 m o n t h s , a n d only then w a s h e t a k e n u p into h e a v e n : et sic receptus

1 2

est in

caelum.

It is significant in this respect that there are manuscripts that omit eixa here, but none that omit oikcog. See F. Schmidt, Le Testament grec a"Abraham, Tubingen 1986, 118. See A.M. Schwemer, Studien zu den friihjiidischen Prophetenlegenden. Beiheft: Synopse zu den_Vitae Prophetarum, Tubingen 1996, 12*. E.g., 1 Cor 14:25. See Latte, GGA 196 (1934) 4 1 1 ; Holwerda, De Schrift\62. For instances from Asterius I refer to the article by Skard (see note 6). 1 3

1 4

1 5

180

A Short Note on the Meaning of xai oikwg in Romans

11:26

I r e n a e u s ' original G r e e k is lost h e r e , but there c a n b e n o d o u b t at all that the Latin t r a n s l a t i o n (et sic) reflects an original x a i oiktog h e r e .

1 6

It is p o s s i b l y u n d e r

the influence o f this G r e e k u s a g e that in Latin C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s o n e finds this t e m p o r a l u s e o f sic m u c h m o r e frequently t h a n in p a g a n Latin a u t h o r s .

17

Q u i t e apart from the g r a m m a t i c a l a n d lexical possibilities that t h e w o r d oiktog had, it is also the c o n t e x t in R o m a n s 11 that m a k e s it v e r y p r o b a b l e that it w a s the t e m p o r a l m e a n i n g o f oikoog that the a u t h o r had in m i n d here. H i s w h o l e a r g u m e n t is b a s e d u p o n t h e i d e a that it is the p r e c e d e n c e of t h e g e n t i l e s w h i c h r o u s e s Israel to j e a l o u s y . O n l y after the gentiles h a v e fully e n t e r e d t h e c o v e n a n t , will Israel r e - e n t e r it, b e c a u s e it first h a s to b e p r o v o k e d to d o so. It is, h o w e v e r , not the p u r p o s e o f this article to e x c l u d e the possibility that Paul u s e d x a i oikcog in the m o d a l s e n s e in R o m 1 1 : 2 6 .

18

W h a t I d o w a n t to e x c l u d e ,

h o w e v e r , is the u s e o f the false a r g u m e n t that it is i m p o s s i b l e to t a k e oikoog in the t e m p o r a l s e n s e b e c a u s e this is " n o t found o t h e r w i s e in G r e e k " ( F i t z m y e r ) , s i n c e o u r findings confirm w h a t K u r t Latte w r o t e 6 5 y e a r s a g o : " D i e W e n d u n g in d e r hier v o r l i e g e n d e n B e d e u t u n g ' u n d d a n n ' [ist] alles a n d e r e als u n g e w o h n l i c h . "

19

T h i s s e m a n t i c possibility has therefore to b e t a k e n into a c c o u n t m u c h m o r e seri­ o u s l y than h a s hitherto b e e n the c a s e .

1 6

2 0

So Bentlcy Layton's translation, "And so he was taken up into heaven" (The Gnostic Scriptures [Garden City 1987] 180) is wrong, whereas the translation by D.J. Unger, "Then he was assumed into heaven" (St. Irenaeus of Lyons Against the Heresies [ACW 55; N e w York 1992] 102) is correct. For instances see A. Blaise & H. Chirat, Dictionnaire latin-francais des auteurs Chretiens, Turnhout 1954, 758, where A-.v. 3 they quote inter alios Filastrius 127.1: primum erat apud Patrem et sic natus est. Moreover, the modal and the temporal sense are not necessarily mutually exclusive. GGA 1 9 6 ( 1 9 3 4 ) 4 1 1 . 1 o w e thanks to Professor Stephan Radt (Groningen) for his valuable suggestions. 1 7

1 8

19

2 0

Macarius Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian Polemicist A review article'

T h e s t u d y o f the a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l anti-Christian p o l e m i c h a s w i t n e s s e d an u p s u r g e o f interest in the last t w o d e c a d e s . After t h e s k e t c h o f the status

quaes-

2

tionis by S. B e n k o a n d A . M e r e d i t h in 1 9 8 0 , w e h a v e seen the p u b l i c a t i o n of, 3

e. g . , R. W i l k e n , The Christians 1984); R.J. H o f f m a n n , Celsus:

as the Romans

G . B . B o z z o & S. R i z z o , Celso: II discorso 1989); G. R i n a l d i , Biblia gentium peratore:

Contra

Galilaeos

( R o m a 1990); R.J. H o f f m a n n , Porphyry's

( A m h e r s t 1 9 9 4 ) ; G. R i n a l d i , La Bibbia

Polemic

the Christians.

dei pagani

of P o r p h y r y ' s Contra

Christianos

Paganism

Im-

"Against (2 vols.;

The Rise of Early

( N e w York etc. 1999); J.G. C o o k , The Interpretation

in Greco-Roman

(Milano

( R o m a 1989); E. M a s a r a c c h i a , Giuliano

B o l o g n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 ) ; J.W. H a r g i s , Against New Testament

( N e w Y o r k - O x f o r d 1987);

della veritd contro i cristiani

4

the Christians" Christian

Saw Them ( N e w H a v e n - L o n d o n

On the True Doctrine

Antiof the

5

( T u b i n g e n 2 0 0 0 ) ; a n d a n e w edition

b y P.F. B e a t r i c e h a s b e e n a n n o u n c e d for the

6

n e a r f u t u r e . To this list w e c a n n o w h a p p i l y a d d R i c h a r d G o u l e t ' s n e w a n d i m p o r t a n t critical edition, w i t h translation, i n t r o d u c t i o n , a n d e x e g e t i c a l n o t e s , o f M a c a r i u s o f M a g n e s i a ' s r a t h e r n e g l e c t e d treatise Monogenes tikos),

1

(formerly

Apokri-

a large t w o - v o l u m e w o r k o f s o m e 8 3 0 p a g e s in F r e n c h (see n o t e 1).

The work reviewed here is: Macarios dc Magnesie, Le Monogenes, edition critique et traduction francaisc par Richard Goulet, 2 vols. (Textes et traditions 7), Paris: Vrins, 2003; 383+445 pp. ISBN 2-7116-1647-9 (€ 80). Volume 1 contains the Introduction, a bibliography, a 30-page synopsis of the arguments o f the anonymous philosopher and those of Celsus, Por­ phyry and Julian, and an index of Greek words; volume 2 contains the text, translation, and exegetical notes. See their contributions i n / J A W II, 2 3 , 2, Berlin-New York 1980, 1 0 5 5 - 1 1 4 9 . I mention here only a selection o f the most important monographs. This book has a very misleading title since it deals only with the fragments related to the unnamed opponent in Macarius Magnes' work. [ N o w supplemented by his The Interpretation of the Old Testament in Greco-Roman Paganism, Tubingen 2004.] It should be added, though, that Beatrice does not believe that a separate treatise Against the Christians ever existed; he rather opines that the anti-Christian arguments were part o f a larger work by Porphyry to which also his Dephilosophia ex oraculis haurienda belonged. See his entry "Porphyrius" in TRE 27 (1997) 5 4 - 5 9 . 2

3

4

5

6

182

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

T h e subject o f this magnum

Polemicist

opus is an early C h r i s t i a n treatise o f c o n s i d e r ­

a b l e i m p o r t a n c e since it c o n t a i n s substantial q u o t a t i o n s from a w o r k in w h i c h an a n o n y m o u s G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r c o m b a t s C h r i s t i a n i t y w i t h a w i d e r a n g e o f a r g u m e n t s . It is w e l l - k n o w n that A d o l f v o n H a r n a c k , as m a n y before a n d after h i m , r e g a r d e d the u n n a m e d o p p o n e n t as n o n e other than the Platonic p h i l o s o p h e r P o r p h y r y , a n d m o r e than h a l f o f the f r a g m e n t s in H a r n a c k ' s edition o f P o r p h y ­ r y ' s Against

the Christians

7

c o n s i s t o f p a s s a g e s from M a c a r i u s ' Monogenes,

but

this did not g o u n c o n t e s t e d . T h e text o f the treatise p r e t e n d s to b e a v e r b a t i m report o f a five-days p u b l i c d e b a t e b e t w e e n M a c a r i u s a n d an a n t i - C h r i s t i a n p h i ­ l o s o p h e r w h o s e n a m e is not m e n t i o n e d . B o t h the a r g u m e n t s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r , w h o raises s e r i o u s a n d intelligent o b j e c t i o n s to the N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d h a s s h a r p c r i t i c i s m o f b o t h J e s u s a n d P a u l , as w e l l as t h o s e o f his C h r i s t i a n o p p o n e n t are often interesting a n d d e s e r v e c l o s e r attention t h a n h a s b e e n p a i d t h e m so far. S a d l y e n o u g h , t h e o n l y m a n u s c r i p t o f the w o r k , d i s c o v e r e d in 1867 in A t h e n s 8

a n d e d i t e d by C h a r l e s B l o n d e l in 1 8 7 6 , is n o w lost. M o r e o v e r , it is i n c o m p l e t e ; it b e g i n s s o m e w h e r e in the m i d d l e of b o o k 2 a n d e n d s before the c l o s i n g c h a p t e r s o f b o o k 4 ; b o o k 5 is m i s s i n g as w e l l . In a d d i t i o n to that, t h e m a n u s c r i p t is cor­ rupt in m a n y p l a c e s a n d G o u l e t c o n f e s s e s that it h a s b e e n e x t r e m e l y difficult a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y i m p o s s i b l e to r e c o n s t r u c t the original text. S o m a n y riddles r e m a i n , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s G o u l e t h a s d o n e u s an e n o r m o u s service b y p r e p a r i n g this first n e w edition after B l o n d e l . In an instructive ' F o r s c h u n g s g e s c h i c h t e ' ( 1 4 ^ 4 0 ) , G o u l e t first s k e t c h e s t h e r e ­ search on M a c a r i u s M a g n e s before the d i s c o v e r y o f the m a n u s c r i p t , d o n e m a i n l y o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e few citations from the w o r k b y N i c e p h o r u s o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e (9th c e n t ) a n d s o m e o t h e r s . H e h i g h l i g h t s the fact that several o f t h e s e early scholars r e g a r d ' M a c a r i u s ' not as a n a m e but an adjective (blessed) a n d ' M a g n e s ' not as a d e s i g n a t i o n o f his p l a c e o f origin (from M a g n e s i a ) b u t as a p r o p e r n a m e (the b l e s s e d M a g n e s ) , a p o i n t h e will c o m e b a c k to later. After the p u b l i c a t i o n o f the editio princeps

in 1876 o n e sees that the identification o f the a n o n y m o u s

a d v e r s a r y w i t h either H i e r o c l e s (the target o f E u s e b i u s ' Contra

Hieroclem)

or

P o r p h y r y , or a c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h , g a i n s g r o u n d , a l t h o u g h s o m e w h o favour a later d a t e l e a v e o p e n t h e possibility that Julian the A p o s t a t e m a y b e t h e u n n a m e d o p p o n e n t . O t h e r s , s u c h as T h e o d o r Z a h n , identify M a c a r i u s w i t h t h e b i s h o p o f 7

See his 'Porphyrius, "Gegen die Christen,"' in Abhandlungen der Koniglich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Jahrgang 1916, Philosophisch-historische Klasse, Berlin 1916, 3 - 1 1 5 ; and 'Neue Fragmente des Werks des Porphyrius gegen die Christen,' Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1921, Berlin 1921, 2 6 6 - 2 8 4 . It is amazing and also a shame that A. Smith omitted the fragments of Against the Christians from his new Teubner edi­ tion of the fragments of Porphyry's works with the lame argument that they were readily available in the recent (!) edition by Harnack; see his Porphyrius, Fragmenta, Stuttgart-Leipzig 1993. MAKAPIOY MArNHTOZ 'Anoxyitixog r\ Movoyevrig. Macarii Magnetis quae supersunt ex inedito codice edidit C. Blondel, Paris 1876. Actually the book was seen through the press by Paul Foucart after Blondel's untimely death (he died in 1873 at the age of 37). 8

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

183

Polemicist

9

M a g n e s i a (in A s i a M i n o r ) called M a c a r i u s w h o w a s p r e s e n t at the S y n o d o f t h e O a k in 4 0 3 ; Z a h n t h i n k s this b i s h o p w r o t e a refutation o f 3rd a n d 4th c e n t u r y a n t i - C h r i s t i a n p o l e m i c s in g e n e r a l a r o u n d 4 0 0 . T.W. Crafer, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , dates M a c a r i u s a r o u n d 3 0 0 a n d a r g u e s that t h e d e b a t e t o o k p l a c e before the D i o c l e t i a n p e r s e c u t i o n ; the c o m b a t a n t s w e r e H i e r o c l e s a n d M a c a r i u s .

1 0

Harnack

sees in M a c a r i u s the b i s h o p o f M a g n e s i a , w h o w r o t e this w o r k in t h e last q u a r t e r o f the 4th century, but w h o s e target w a s n o o t h e r than P o r p h y r y . S i n c e , h o w e v e r , M a c a r i u s k n e w P o r p h y r y ' s w o r k o n l y in an a n o n y m o u s a n d a b r i d g e d form, h e w a s n o t a w a r e o f t h e identity o f his o p p o n e n t (!). O t h e r s r e m a i n inclined to s e e either J u l i a n or H i e r o c l e s as the a n o n y m o u s o p p o n e n t o r to a s s u m e that the b i s h o p i n d e e d r e a c t e d to a n a n o n y m o u s a n t i - C h r i s t i a n treatise that m a d e u s e of m a n y a r g u m e n t s levelled b y C e l s u s , P o r p h y r y , H i e r o c l e s , a n d Julian. To d a t e t h e r e is n o c o n s e n s u s o n a n y o f t h e s e m a j o r issues. A t the e n d o f this s u r v e y (40) G o u l e t lists a d o z e n o r so p r o b l e m s that still r e m a i n b y a n d large u n s o l v e d . T h e first h e d e a l s w i t h is t h e title. S i n c e the o n l y m a n u s c r i p t is a c e p h a l o u s , w e h a v e to rely o n the tables o f c o n t e n t s o f the b o o k or r e f e r e n c e s to it as w e find t h e m in s o m e o t h e r early d o c u m e n t s ( a b o u t t h e s e s e e further b e l o w ) . T h i s leaves u s w i t h 'Ajtoxomxog JtQog "EAA/nvag or Movoyevrig

JIQOC;

"EAAnvac; or 'Ajtoxoitixog

f| Movoyevrig jiQog "EXkx\vac,. G o u l e t rightly s a y s that the latter d o u b l e title is p r o b a b l y a conflation a n d that o f t h e t w o single titles the easily u n d e r s t a n d a b l e Apokritikos

is m o r e likely to h a v e r e p l a c e d the difficult Monogenes

o t h e r w a y r o u n d . B u t w h a t d o e s Monogenes

pros Hellenas

t h a n the

m e a n a s a b o o k title?

B a s e d u p o n M a c a r i u s ' o w n u s e o f t h e w o r d , it s e e m s m o s t feasible that genes

(sc. logos)

Mono­

here has primarily the sense of "Discours d ' u n genre unique

a d r e s s e a u x H e l l e n e s " but w i t h the double-entendre

o f " D i s c o u r s d u Fils u n i q u e

. . . " T h i s s e e m s r a t h e r o d d , b u t I h a v e n o a l t e r n a t i v e to offer. T h e s e c o n d p r o b l e m is t h e identity o f the author. G o u l e t s u g g e t s that it is m o r e natural to interpret Makarios

Magnes

as ' M a c a r i u s o f M a g n e s i a ' than as ' t h e

b l e s s e d M a g n e s , ' a n d I fully a g r e e . H e also t e n d s to b e l i e v e P h o t i u s ' report that M a c a r i u s , b i s h o p o f M a g n e s i a , a t t e n d e d t h e S y n o d o f t h e O a k in 4 0 3 a n d a r g u e s that n o t h i n g c o n t r a d i c t s the identification o f t h e s e t w o m e n . B u t h e w i s e l y a d d s that it is i m p o s s i b l e to identify t h e m " d e facon i n c o n t e s t a b l e " ( 5 1 ) . E v e n so h e t h i n k s his p o s i t i o n c a n b e s t r e n g t h e n e d b y g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . M a n y details in t h e text s u g g e s t a m u c h greater a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h A s i a M i n o r than w i t h a n y o t h e r g e o g r a p h i c a l area. B u t that is, o f c o u r s e , not in a n y w a y a p r o o f that o u r M a c a r i u s w a s the m a n o f t h e S y n o d o f 4 0 3 . "

9

The Greek Magnes can indeed mean 'living in Magnesia' (see LSJ s.v.). For references to publications by these and other authors I must refer the reader to Goulet's notes. Crafer published the only English translation (though an abridged one) of Macarius'work in 1919. 1 also do not understand how Macarius could have borrowed details from John Malalas (6th cent.!); see p. 52. 1 0

11

184

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

Polemicist

A n o t h e r p r o b l e m is the d a t i n g o f t h e w o r k . H e r e G o u l e t a g a i n c o n c e d e s that c e r t a i n t y m a y b e u n a t t a i n a b l e , b u t h e carefully s u g g e s t s , o n the b a s i s o f his t e n t a t i v e identification o f M a c a r i u s w i t h the h o m o n y m o u s b i s h o p o f M a g n e s i a w h o w a s a c t i v e at the S y n o d o f 4 0 3 , that t h e w o r k m a y h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d in t h e final q u a r t e r of the 4th c e n t u r y r a t h e r than a c e n t u r y earlier. It is - inter

alia

- the c h r i s t o l o g i c a l v i e w s o f the a u t h o r that favour this later d a t e . M o r e o v e r , t w i c e in this treatise t h e a u t h o r refers to e v e n t s that h a v e t a k e n p l a c e m o r e t h a n 3 0 0 y e a r s after e v e n t s in the N e w T e s t a m e n t p e r i o d (4.5.1 a n d 4 . 5 . 2 ) ; a n d o n e h a s to k e e p in m i n d that t h e s e c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e m a r k s are m a d e b y t h e o p p o n e n t (at least a c c o r d i n g to M a c a r i u s ) , i.e.,

before M a c a r i u s w r o t e his refutation.

O n l y a n o v e r l y skeptical p e r s o n c o u l d d e f e n d a n early d a t e a r o u n d 3 0 0 , t h e n ; a d a t e after 3 5 0 is m u c h m o r e r e a s o n a b l e . A l s o the r e f e r e n c e s to t h e r e m a r k a b l e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e m o n a s t i c m o v e m e n t in the E a s t ( 2 . 7 . 1 0 ; 2 . 1 6 . 2 6 - 2 9 ) m a k e s e n s e o n l y b y the final d e c a d e s o f the 4th century, n o t m u c h earlier ( T h e o d o r e t s k e t c h e s its z e n i t as o c c u r r i n g b e t w e e n 3 6 5 a n d 4 4 0 ) .

1 2

T h i s d a t i n g is further

c o n f i r m e d b y M a c a r i u s ' strikingly critical attitude t o w a r d s the l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e i m p e r i a l p o w e r , w h i c h - in the fourth c e n t u r y - is o n l y to b e e x p l a i n e d a g a i n s t the b a c k g r o u n d o f V a l e n s ' v i o l e n t rule ( 3 6 4 - 3 7 8 ) , s a y s G o u l e t , a p o i n t o f v i e w that will p r o b a b l y not g o u n c h a l l e n g e d . G o u l e t rightly r e g a r d s t h e p u b l i c d e b a t e setting as a literary fiction b u t a r g u e s that t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n to a s s u m e that M a c a r i u s did not h i m s e l f invent the o b j e c t i o n s to C h r i s t i a n i t y in o r d e r to easily refute t h e m . It is n o t so m u c h the d i s p a r i t y in style a n d diction b e t w e e n t h e u n n a m e d o p p o n e n t ' s o b j e c t i o n s a n d M a c a r i u s ' r e s p o n s e s that p l e a d s in favour o f his u s e o f a p a g a n s o u r c e (this d i s p a r i t y c o u l d still b e e x p l a i n e d as part o f M a c a r i u s ' t e c h n i q u e ) , b u t it is r a t h e r w h a t G o u l e t calls " l e r a p p o r t d i a l e c t i q u e entre o b j e c t i o n s et r e p o n s e s , " w h i c h h e defines as f o l l o w s : " M a c a r i o s p a s s e s y s t e m a t i q u e m e n t a c o t e d e s o b j e c t i o n s , il n e g l i g e la p o i n t e p h i l o s o p h i q u e d ' a r g u m e n t s attestes p a r ailleurs d a n s la l i ­ t e r a t u r e a n t i c h r e t i e n n e , il laisse s a n s r e p o n s e c e r t a i n s e l e m e n t s d e l ' o b j e c t i o n , t a n d i s q u ' i l se livre a d e s d e v e l o p p e m e n t s q u e n ' a p p e l a i e n t p a s les o b j e c t i o n s d e l ' a d v e r s a i r e " ( 7 1 - 7 2 ) . T h i s leaves n o r o o m for d o u b t : M a c a r i u s u s e d a written s o u r c e . T h i s s o u r c e , h o w e v e r , has o s t e n s i b l y b e e n h e a v i l y e d i t e d by h i m

1 3

so

that o n e c a n n o t s i m p l y u s e the ' q u o t e d ' o b j e c t i o n s o f the p a g a n p h i l o s o p h e r as ' f r a g m e n t s ' (in the s e n s e o f ipsissima

verba)

o f his original text. E v e n so it is

c l e a r that his w o r k c o n s i s t e d p r i m a r i l y o f s u s t a i n e d a t t a c k s on the p e r s o n a n d t e a c h i n g o f b o t h J e s u s C h r i s t a n d t h e apostle Paul (to a lesser d e g r e e P e t e r w a s also his target). S i n c e t h e p h i l o s o p h e r p r e s e n t s C h r i s t i a n s as p e r s o n s w i t h o u t a n y political p o w e r b u t at the s a m e t i m e as c o n s t r u c t o r s o f b i g c h u r c h e s , a t e n t a t i v e

1 2

1 3

89.

See P. Canivet, Le monachisme syrien selon Theodoret de Cyr, Paris 1977. For an elaborate stylistic analysis underpinning this conclusion by Goulet see pp. 7 6 -

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

185

Polemicist

d a t i n g o f his w r i t i n g to the y e a r s a b o u t 3 0 0 s e e m s d e f e n s i b l e . G o u l e t d o e s not deal w i t h the intriguing q u e s t i o n o f w h y it t o o k ( a l m o s t ) a c e n t u r y before this attack on C h r i s t i a n i t y w a s a n s w e r e d (but see b e l o w ) . B e f o r e t a c k l i n g the m a j o r issue o f the identity o f the p a g a n p h i l o s o p h e r , G o u l e t d i s c u s s e s his p e r s o n a l i t y a n d his attitude t o w a r d s Christianity. D u e to the h e a v y r e d a c t i o n a l h a n d o f M a c a r i u s , his p e r s o n a l i t y r e m a i n s v a g u e . W h a t little c a n b e said w i t h certainty, h o w e v e r , is that the p h i l o s o p h e r h a d a heart-felt d i s d a i n for C h r i s t a n d his f o l l o w e r s . J e s u s is neither a s a g e n o r a h e r o , let a l o n e a g o d , h e is a m u d d l e - h e a d e d t e a c h e r ; Paul is a great h y p o c r i t e ; a n d Peter is an erratic personality. T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t testifies to t h e l a m e n t a b l y l o w level o f its a u t h o r s ; m u c h o f w h a t is said in it (e. g., a b o u t the P a r o u s i a ) is irrational a n d a b s u r d : "il s ' e n tient a u c h o c subi p a r 1'esprit cultive d e v a n t le c a r a c t e r e parfois c o n t r a d i c t o i r e , p a r a d o x a l et m e m e brutal de certains p a s s a g e s du N o u v e a u Testa­ ment" (106).

1 4

T h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s historical a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l k n o w l e d g e is far

from e x c e p t i o n a l a n d d o e s n o t s u g g e s t a level c o m p a r a b l e to P o r p h y r y ' s . H i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t a n c e , as far as it is r e c o v e r a b l e , is a k i n d o f g e n e r a l P l a t o n i s m that h a s n o clearly N e o p l a t o n i c e l e m e n t s . After all this, it c o m e s m o r e or less as a surprise that the l o n g c h a p t e r on "Identification d e la s o u r c e pai'enne" ( 1 1 2 - 1 4 9 ) c o m e s to t h e c o n c l u s i o n that the u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r w a s , after all, n o o n e o t h e r than P o r p h y r y . All other possibilities are r e v i e w e d a n d fairly tested b u t all fail to p a s s t h e test. In spite o f several p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r a n d C e l s u s , the latter h a r d l y focuses on t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t d o c u m e n t s a n d - quite u n l i k e the u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r - h e also r e g a r d s C h r i s t i a n i t y as a threat to the e m p i r e a n d the H e l l e n i c tradition. T h e u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r refuted b y L a c t a n t i u s in his Institutiones

c a n n o t b e o u r p h i l o s o p h e r b e c a u s e o f t h e political focus o f the

former a n d t h e lack o f a n y a g r e e m e n t s b e t w e e n w h a t little w e k n o w o f his argu­ m e n t s a n d t h o s e o f M a c a r i u s ' o p p o n e n t . H i e r o c l e s , the a u t h o r o f t h e w h o is often s e e n as a g o o d a l t e r n a t i v e to P o r p h y r y in this r e s p e c t ,

Philalethes 15

is not o u r

u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r s i n c e there are t o o m a n y striking differences b e t w e e n the t o n e a n d a r g u m e n t s o f the t w o a n d " o n n e r e l e v e p a s d e s r a p p r o c h e m e n t s s u f f i s a m m e n t etroits p o u r q u e T o n p u i s s e c o n c l u r e a u n e identification des d e u x a u t e u r s " ( 1 2 6 ) . A s to J u l i a n the E m p e r o r , in spite o f " u n g r a n d n o m b r e d e r a p p r o c h e m e n t s , " w h i c h is to b e e x p e c t e d in v i e w o f " l ' e x i s t e n c e d ' u n m a t e r i e l p o l e m i q u e c o m m u n " ( 1 2 7 ) , there are hardly a n y c l o s e parallels b e t w e e n the texts o f the t w o a u t h o r s . B u t t h e n , there is P o r p h y r y , a n d h e r e w e find " d e s paralleles beaucoup plus proches que ceux que nous avons rencontres j u s q u ' i c i " (127). 1 4

The philosopher focuses almost exclusively on the N e w Testament; he has only 10 refer­ ences to Old Testament passages. The most recent defense of this position is E. DePalma Digeser, 'Porphyry, Julian, or Hierokles? The Anonymous Hellene in Makarios Magnes' Apokritikos^ JTS 53 (2002) 466-502. 15

186

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

Polemicist

A n d i n d e e d , w i t h n o o t h e r a n t i - C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r d o e s o n e find m o r e a n d c l o s e r a g r e e m e n t s t h a n w i t h this Platonist. W h a t w o u l d s e e m to militate a g a i n s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s that o u r u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r is P o r p h y r y is t h e fact that at a certain m o m e n t M a c a r i u s invites his o p p o n e n t to h a v e a look at a p a s s a g e in P o r p h y r y ' s Philosophia

ex oraculis

haurienda

( 3 . 4 2 . 6 ) , w i t h o u t e v e n h i n t i n g at the fact

that this P o r p h y r y is his o p p o n e n t . B u t that is n o s e r i o u s o b j e c t i o n b e c a u s e , in v i e w o f t h e literary fiction that the d e b a t e t o o k p l a c e in t h e r e c e n t p a s t b e t w e e n M a c a r i u s h i m s e l f a n d his adversary, h e s i m p l y c o u l d n o t tell that his o p p o n e n t w a s Porphyry (who had already died almost a century ago). T h e r e r e m a i n p r o b l e m s h e r e , h o w e v e r . If O r i g e n m e n t i o n e d C e l s u s b y n a m e , if E u s e b i u s m e n t i o n e d H i e r o c l e s by n a m e , if M e t h o d i u s as w e l l as E u s e b i u s a n d A p o l l i n a r i s m e n t i o n e d P o r p h y r y b y n a m e , a n d if C y r i l l u s m e n t i o n e d Julian b y n a m e , why, t h e n , w o u l d M a c a r i u s k e e p his o p p o n e n t a n o n y m o u s ? O f c o u r s e , o n e c o u l d say that o n l y in this w a y c o u l d h e p r e s e n t t h e d e b a t e as h a v i n g t a k e n p l a c e r e c e n t l y w i t h h i m s e l f as the d e f e n d e r o f Christianity. B u t it is v e r y h a r d to i m a g i n e that this literary fiction c a r r i e d m o r e w e i g h t w i t h M a c a r i u s t h a n the fact that h e e n g a g e d in a battle w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y ' s m o s t f o r m i d a b l e o p p o n e n t in antiquity, a m a n w h o w r o t e n o less than 15 b o o k s Contra

Christianos.

And why

w o u l d h e e n g a g e in this battle after several others h a d a l r e a d y d o n e so better t h a n h e e v e r c o u l d ? A n d , finally, h o w is it to b e e x p l a i n e d that t h e u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r f o c u s e s a l m o s t entirely on t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , w h e r e a s w e k n o w that P o r p h y r y also dealt critically a n d e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h the O l d T e s t a m e n t ? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n u n a n s w e r e d b y G o u l e t ' s h y p o t h e s i s . A l t h o u g h it is a s u b j e c ­ tive j u d g e m e n t , I for o n e find t o o m u c h in t h e u n n a m e d o p p o n e n t ' s o b j e c t i o n s that l o o k s n o n - P o r p h y r i a n . I therefore v e n t u r e t h e h y p o t h e s i s

16

that M a c a r i u s '

o p p o n e n t n e v e r existed b u t that M a c a r i u s c r e a t e d h i m in o r d e r to e n a b l e h i m s e l f to w r i t e a b o o k that refuted w h a t h e h i m s e l f r e g a r d e d as still t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d t h r e a t e n i n g a r g u m e n t s against Christianity b r o u g h t forward b y its o p p o n e n t s in the p a s t t w o c e n t u r i e s , from C e l s u s to Julian. O f c o u r s e , P o r p h y r y w a s o n e o f t h e m , i n d e e d t h e m o s t i m p r e s s i v e o n e , a n d this e x p l a i n s the c l o s e parallels w i t h P o r p h y r y in a b o u t 5 0 % o f t h e f r a g m e n t s .

17

"Faut-il supposer plutot que

M a c a r i o s o u sa s o u r c e ont c o m p i l e les o b j e c t i o n s d e d i v e r s e s p o l e m i s t e s ? A u c u n i n d i c e n e le s u g g e r e . O n a a u c o n t r a i r e , a la lecture d e s o b j e c t i o n s , 1'impression d ' u n e c r i t i q u e fort h o m o g e n e " ( 1 3 5 ) . Yes, b u t this h o m o g e n e i t y m a y b e e x a c t l y t h e result o f M a c a r i u s ' purposeful selection a n d r e d a c t i o n . A s G o u l e t h i m s e l f s a y s , " C ' e s t lui qui a s e l e c t i o n n e , a g e n c e et e n c h a i n e les t h e m e s d u d i s c o u r s d e l ' A d v e r s a i r e , c ' e s t lui qui les a m i s e n f o r m e " ( 1 3 8 ) . In all fairness, it s h o u l d

1 6

Not unlike the one suggested by Theodor Zahn (see above). It should be said here that Goulet's synoptic presentation of the agreements and disagree­ ments between Porphyry and Macarius' unnamed philosopher (vol. I, 2 6 9 - 2 7 8 ) is immensely helpful. 1 7

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

Polemicist

187

b e said to his credit that G o u l e t is the first to a d m i t that t h e r e is n o c o m p e l l i n g p r o o f o f t h e identity o f the u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r w i t h P o r p h y r y . " F i n a l e m e n t , la q u e s t i o n doit rester o u v e r t e " ( 1 3 5 ; cf. 149). T h e m a i n p r o b l e m is that w e actually k n o w r a t h e r little a b o u t the early a n t i - C h r i s t i a n p o l e m i c i s t s b e c a u s e for t h e m o s t part their w o r k s w e r e d e s t r o y e d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n s . G o u l e t is w e l l a w a r e o f this, since h e s a y s that "il faut r e c o n n a i t r e la possibilite q u e M a c a r i o s ait utilise u n traite g r e c a u j o u r d ' h u i c o m p l e t e m e n t d i s p a r u " ( 1 3 9 ) . T h e largest c h a p t e r o f t h e first v o l u m e is d e v o t e d to a t h o r o u g h s t u d y o f M a c a r i u s as a t h e o l o g i a n a n d a p o l o g i s t . In 8 0 p a g e s ( 1 5 0 - 2 3 1 ) a fine a n d b a l ­ a n c e d sketch is p r e s e n t e d o f the a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f this n e g l e c t e d a u t h o r w h o s e o p p o n e n t has u s u a l l y r e c e i v e d m u c h m o r e attention than h e himself. H e r e G o u l e t w a n t s to d o full j u s t i c e to t h e m a n , a n d so h e d o e s . F o r r e a s o n s o f s p a c e I c a n s u m m a r i z e his findings o n l y v e r y briefly. A s an a p o l o g i s t , M a c a r i u s d o e s not, or at least n o t a l w a y s , rise to t h e level o f his o p p o n e n t - as h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d , h e s o m e t i m e s d o e s n o t e v e n fully c o m p r e h e n d w h a t his o p p o n e n t ' s a r g u m e n t i m p l i e s ( G o u l e t also s p e a k s o f his " i n c a p a c i t e a d i s c e r n e r le c a r a c t e r e p r o p r e et i n c o m m u n i c a b l e d e la foi r e l i g i e u s e ; " p . 1 6 3 ) .

18

B u t h e d o e s k n o w h o w to a p p l y

the t e c h n i q u e s o f a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c . A s a t h e o l o g i a n , M a c a r i u s fares better. H i s s y s t e m o f t h o u g h t is c o h e r e n t a n d c a n b e situated v e r y clearly in p o s t - N i c e n e b u t p r e - C o n s t a n t i n o p o l i t a n t h e o l o g i c a l m i l i e u s , a l t h o u g h his t h e o l o g y a n d christolo g y is not o n a p a r w i t h , say, that o f the great C a p p a d o c i a n F a t h e r s o f this p e r i o d . H e s h o u l d r a t h e r b e s e e n as r e p r e s e n t i n g the m a i n s t r e a m ' p o p u l a r t h e o l o g y ' o f his t i m e . " E n fait, ce d o c u m e n t e x p r i m e tres b i e n ce qui r e p r e s e n t a i t la foi p o u r les h o m m e s d ' a l o r s et il p e r m e t d ' o b s e r v e r les c o r r e l a t i o n s qui existent entre cette foi et les d e s i r s , les c r a i n t e s et les i n t e r r o g a t i o n s d e l ' e p o q u e " ( 2 3 1 ) . W h a t I m i s s e d in this o t h e r w i s e e x c e l l e n t c h a p t e r w a s a d i s c u s s i o n o f M a c a r i u s ' n e g a ­ tive attitude t o w a r d s J e w s a n d J u d a i s m , a t o p i c that certainly d e s e r v e s c l o s e r investigation.

19

T h e final c h a p t e r o f vol. 1 is a b o u t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e text. H e r e G o u l e t d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n e x t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s a n d t h o s e that a r e lost. A s to the latter category, t h e s e are the m a n u s c r i p t r e p o r t e d l y found a n d u s e d b y N i c e p h o r u s in the 9th century, b y J a n o s L a s k a r i s a r o u n d 1500, a n d b y T u r r i a n u s (Torrensis) in the m i d d l e o f t h e 16th century. It is o f c o u r s e e s p e c i a l l y their q u o t e s from the n o w lost p a r t s o f the b o o k that are m o s t v a l u a b l e . To this c a t e g o r y b e l o n g s also t h e m a n u s c r i p t found a n d u s e d b y B l o n d e l for the editio princeps,

once

b e l o n g i n g to the N a t i o n a l L i b r a r y at A t h e n s b u t e n i g m a t i c a l l y lost s i n c e 1876 (it

1 8

Sometimes Macarius bases his defence upon a wrong translation o f the biblical text, as in 2.31. Unfortunately, the word index is not exhaustive (see p. 305) and the word Ioudaios was not included so that it is difficult to find the many places where Macarius speaks about the Jews. 1 9

188

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

Polemicist

d a t e s from t h e 14th—15th cent.). T h e e x t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s are t h o s e m i s c e l l a n e o u s o n e s w h i c h c o n t a i n , inter alia, tables o f c o n t e n t s o f t h e Monogenes,

scholia on

biblical texts w i t h p a s s a g e s from M a c a r i u s , or o t h e r d o c u m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g s u m ­ m a r i e s o f certain p a s s a g e s from his text, for instance in treatises on the Eucharist. O n the b a s i s o f a detailed analysis o f all t h e s e data, G o u l e t tries to r e c o n s t r u c t the c o n t e n t s o f t h e w o r k in its entirety. A t p a g e 2 4 7 w e finally find G o u l e t ' s s t e m m a o f all n o - l o n g e r - e x t a n t c o d i c e s . In this c h a p t e r h e s h o w s his m a s t e r y in t h e field o f m e t i c u l o u s a n a l y s i s o f textual traditions. V o l u m e 2 c o n t a i n s G o u l e t ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the G r e e k text a n d his F r e n c h translation on facing p a g e s . H e presents this material in a v e r y user-friendly m a n ­ ner. F o r i n s t a n c e , n o t o n l y are t h e p a g e n u m b e r s o f B l o n d e l ' s edition a n d t h o s e o f t h e lost m a n u s c r i p t h e u s e d indicated in margine,

the r e a d e r is also h e l p e d b y

b r i e f m a r g i n a l a n n o t a t i o n s i n d i c a t i n g w h e r e M a c a r i u s ' r e s p o n s e to a n objection b y his a d v e r s a r y b e g i n s w h e n t h e r e is a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the t w o (as is often t h e c a s e ) , a n d also the other w a y r o u n d in t h e form o f r e f e r e n c e s b a c k to the p l a c e w h e r e the objection h e r e a n s w e r e d c a n b e found. In t h e m a r g i n o n e also finds the references to the n u m b e r i n g o f the ' f r a g m e n t s ' in H a r n a c k ' s edition o f P o r p h y r y ' s Contra

Christianos.

In v i e w o f the h i g h d e g r e e of c o r r u p t i o n o f the

A t h e n i a n m a n u s c r i p t there are m a n y p l a c e s w h e r e conjectures w e r e u n a v o i d a b l e ; G o u l e t c o n s i s t e n t l y alerts the r e a d e r s to this b y i n d i c a t i n g conjectural r e a d i n g s in t h e text, n o t o n l y in the a p p a r a t u s . T h e r e are several a p p a r a t u s e s : O n t h e left h a n d (often spilling o v e r into t h e right h a n d ) p a g e o n e finds a list o f sigla for the d o c u m e n t s w h e r e t h e text o f (parts of) the p a g e c a n b e found; further there is an apparatus

criticus;

an a d d i t i o n a l a p p a r a t u s o n marginalia

in the A t h e n i a n m s . ;

a n d an a p p a r a t u s o f s o u r c e s ( m a i n l y biblical). O n t h e right h a n d p a g e o n e finds an a p p a r a t u s d i s c u s s i n g textual p r o b l e m s , b u t in the text o f the translation t h e r e a d e r is also referred (by m e a n s o f letters) to t h e scriptural a p p a r a t u s a n d ( b y m e a n s o f a s t e r i s k s ) to the m a n y exegetical n o t e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n r e l e g a t e d to the end of the volume (pp. 3 7 7 ^ 4 3 6 : Appendice exegetique). These exegetical d i s c u s s i o n s s o m e t i m e s a m o u n t to v e r y useful m i n i - e s s a y s (see e. g. p p . 3 8 0 - 3 8 2 o n t h e p r o b l e m o f the d e l a y e d c o m i n g o f s a l v a t i o n , or p p . 4 0 5 ^ 1 0 7 o n o b j e c ­ tions to t h e d o c t r i n e o f the b o d i l y r e s u r r e c t i o n ) . H e r e o n e also finds a w e a l t h o f r e f e r e n c e s to parrallels in early patristic s o u r c e s a n d to s c h o l a r l y literature. T h e t r a n s l a t i o n is fluent, as far as I c a n j u d g e , e v e n t h o u g h G o u l e t k e e p s r a t h e r c l o s e to the original. T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the G r e e k text is a tour de force

on

w h i c h m u c h c o u l d b e said, b u t I prefer to l e a v e that m a t t e r to m o r e c o m p e t e n t c o l l e a g u e s ( a l t h o u g h I w a n t to say that I found G o u l e t ' s conjectures often v e r y ingenious). T o c o n c l u d e : T h i s is a project in w h i c h a n u m b e r o f f o r m i d a b l e o b s t a c l e s h a d to b e o v e r c o m e , as w e h a v e seen. G o u l e t h e r e p r e s e n t s the results o f several d e c a d e s of w r e s t l i n g w i t h t h e s e p r o b l e m s . T h e s e results are i m p r e s s i v e . T h e c a r e w i t h w h i c h G o u l e t h a s dealt with all these often intractable m a t t e r s is e x e m p l a r y .

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

Polemicist

189

N o t o n l y s t u d e n t s o f M a c a r i u s but also t h o s e w h o are interested in the field o f a n t i - C h r i s t i a n critique on t h e p a r t o f p a g a n G r e e k intellectuals o w e h i m a great debt. E v e n if o n e is not c o n v i n c e d b y e v e r y t h i n g G o u l e t p r o p o s e s as a s o l u t i o n (as in the c a s e o f t h e identity o f the u n n a m e d a d v e r s a r y ) , that d o e s not detract in the least from t h e great v a l u e o f his w o r k .

2 0

2 0

A good study of the interpretation of the N T by the unnamed opponent is J.G. Cook, The Interpretation of the New Testament in Greco-Roman Paganism, Tubingen 2 0 0 0 , 1 6 8 - 2 4 9 .

A New Early Christian Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac (Pap. Bodmer 30) Introduction A l m o s t h a l f a c e n t u r y a g o , in 1952, several d o z e n p a p y r i w e r e d i s c o v e r e d n e a r the E g y p t i a n v i l l a g e o f D i s h n a (not far from N a g H a m m a d i , w h e r e the w e l l k n o w n C o p t i c G n o s t i c library w a s found). T h e y w e r e a c q u i r e d b y P h o k i o n T a n o , a C y p r i o t antiquities d e a l e r in C a i r o , w h o sold m o s t o f t h e m to M a r t i n B o d m e r , the S w i s s m a g n a t e a n d scholar w h o founded the f a m o u s B i b l i o t h e c a B o d m e r i a n a in C o l o g n y ( n e a r G e n e v a ) . In a series o f m o n o g r a p h s that a p p e a r e d from the m i d d l e o f t h e fifties, a g r e a t n u m b e r o f t h e s e so-called B o d m e r p a p y r i w e r e p u b l i s h e d (with b o o k s o f t h e S e p t u a g i n t a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , M e n a n d e r , t h e Pastor

Hermae

etc.). T h e

p u b l i c a t i o n o f P a p . B o d m e r 2 9 , s o m e 15 y e a r s a g o , w a s e x c i t i n g n e w s . It c o n ­ t a i n e d a c o m p l e t e l y n e w text, the early C h r i s t i a n Vision of Dorotheus}

T h i s is a

G r e e k p o e m from the fourth c e n t u r y written in H o m e r i c l a n g u a g e a n d style in w h i c h a certain D o r o t h e u s , w h o h a d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y u n k n o w n to u s , tells a b o u t 2

his v i s i o n a r y e x p e r i e n c e s . O n t h e last p h o t o o f the p a p y r u s found in that e d i ­ tion, o n e c a n a l r e a d y see the o p e n i n g lines o f t h e n e x t p o e m , a g a i n in H o m e r i c h e x a m e t r e s , entitled Pros Abra(h)am.

It took 15 y e a r s before the c o m p l e t e text o f

that p o e m w a s p u t at o u r d i s p o s a l , b u t it is a v a i l a b l e n o w , in a beautiful edition, w h i c h also c o n t a i n s the text o f six other early C h r i s t i a n p o e m s from the s a m e 3

c o d e x . W e will p r e s e n t h e r e t h e text in an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n a n d t h e n briefly d i s c u s s t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f its c o n t e n t s .

1

A. Hurst, O. Reverdin & J. Rudhardt, Papyrus Bodmer XXIX: Vision de Dorotheus, Cologny-Geneve 1984. For a revised edition and English translation see A. H. M. Kessels & R W. van der Horst, "The Vision o f Dorotheus (Pap. Bodmer 29). Edited with Introduction, Translation and Notes," VC4\ ( 1 9 8 7 ) 3 1 3 - 3 5 9 . A. Hurst & J. Rudhardt, Papyrus Bodmer XXX-XXXVII: "Codex des Visions. " Poemes divers, Miinchen 1999. It should be remarked here, albeit only in passing, that actually the text of this poem had already been accessible from 1994, but that the publication that made this possible has been intentionally ignored by almost all scholars. The scandal is as follows. The Italian classicist and papyrologist Enrico Livrea was asked in 1993 by Hurst en Rudhardt, who prepared the editio princeps, to give them advice on certain points. He agreed and received 2

3

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T h e p a p y r u s itself dates from the first d e c a d e s o f the fifth century, but the text o f t h e p o e m is certainly older, a l t h o u g h not older t h a n the fourth c e n t u r y as the editors p e r s u a s i v e l y a r g u e in their i n t r o d u c t i o n (their d a t i n g o f the text a n d p a p y r u s o f the Visio Dorothei

4

has met with only marginal criticism ).

T h e i r linguistic a n a l y s i s o f t h e G r e e k m a k e s clear that t h e a u t h o r o f the p o e m Pros Abraam

c a n n o t b e t h e s a m e as D o r o t h e u s , the a u t h o r o f the p r e c e d i n g

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l p o e m . S o it is a n a n o n y m o u s p i e c e . It is a poetical r e n d e r i n g o f the story o f G e n e s i s 2 2 , t h e f a m o u s n a r r a t i v e o f the sacrifice o f Isaac (or the sacrifice o f A b r a h a m , as it is often called), w h i c h , in J e w i s h tradition, is k n o w n as the 'Aqedat

Yitschak

(litt. ' t h e b i n d i n g o f I s a a c ' ) or, m o r e briefly, as ' t h e

A q e d a h . ' T h e editors are not sufficiently a w a r e o f the fact that G e n e s i s 2 2 h a d a v e r y influential ' W i r k u n g s g e s c h i c h t e ' in t h e early c e n t u r i e s o f b o t h J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y (see p p . 3 9 - 4 0 ) , a n d it is for that r e a s o n that t h e y a p p e a l to their c o l l e a g u e s to d o further r e s e a r c h to " l a q u e s t i o n d e s a v o i r s'il existe u n e s o u r c e litteraire qui e x p l i q u e les ecarts p a r r a p p o r t au texte d e l ' A n c i e n T e s t a m e n t ou s'il faut les attribuer a l ' i m a g i n a t i o n d e l ' a u t e u r " (p. 4 3 ) . B u t there is not j u s t o n e ' s o u r c e litteraire' that c a n e x p l a i n the d e v i a t i o n s from t h e text o f the O l d T e s t a m e n t , there are m a n y o f t h e m , as w a s to b e e x p e c t e d . S h o r t t h o u g h it m a y b e ( o n l y 3 0 lines), t h e p o e m has a tripartite structure: Vv. 1-3 are a k i n d o f p r e l u d e ; vv. 4 - 2 7 form an a c r o s t i c h o n , a p o e m in w h i c h the o p e n i n g letters o f the lines form a w o r d , in this c a s e s i m p l y t h e G r e e k a l p h a b e t ; finally an e p i l o g u e in vv. 2 8 - 3 0 . T h i s tripartite structure is v e r y clearly indicated b y t h e c o p y i s t o f the p a p y r u s in that h e p u t s the w o r d hypertheta

('placed above

i t ' ) a b o v e lines 1-3; a b o v e lines 4 - 2 7 the w o r d s kata stoicheion

( ' a c c o r d i n g to

the letters o f t h e a l p h a b e t ' ) ; a n d a b o v e lines 2 8 - 3 0 the w o r d s ta loipa ( ' t h e rest is an a d d i t i o n ' or e p i l o g u e ) .

prostheta

5

a copy of the Greek text and a photo of the papyrus. Shortly afterwards, Livrea himself pub­ lished the papyrus with an Italian translation under the title 'Un poema inedito di Dorotheos: Ad Abramo' in the Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik 100 ( 1 9 9 4 ) 1 7 5 - 1 8 7 . It is understandable that there were furious reactions to this 'acte de piraterie litteraire'; thus, for instance, H.E. Braun, A. Hurst & J. Rudhardt in ZPE 103 (1994) 154 (Braun is the director of the Bibliotheca Bodmeriana). Notably J.N. Bremmer, 'The Vision o f Dorotheus,' in J. den Boeft & A. Hilhorst (eds.), Early Christian Poetry, Leiden 1993, 2 5 3 - 2 6 1 . In the text of the translation square brackets [...] indicate that there is a lacuna in the papyrus, and round brackets (...) that w e have added one or more words for the sake o f clarity. The papyrus has been preserved relatively well; the lacunae are small and especially in the acrostic part at the start o f the lines they can for the most part relatively easily be filled because it is known with which letter of the alphabet each line has to begin. Only lines 1 3 - 1 4 (begin­ ning with the letters kappa and lahda) are completely missing because the bottom part o f the papyrus is destroyed. 4

5

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translation 6

On

Abraham

Prelude ( 1 ) H e w h o put together the w o r l d and the heaven [and the s]ea 7

( 2 ) sent from the ether a swift a n [ g e l ] to Abraham (with the c o m m a n d ) ( 3 ) to sacrifice his o w n b e l o v e d son as a perfect offering.

8

In alphabetical order ( 4 ) A s s o o n as he learnt this, he rejoiced in his w i l l i n g m i [ n d ] , ( 5 ) and he w e n t to s e e whether he c o u l d persuade his illustrious w i [ f e ] : ( 6 ) ' W i f e o f m i n e , the immortal G o d desires that I br[ing] to H i m ( 7 ) the n o b l e Isaac. [He w a s ? ] a great gift o n the t h r e s h o l d ] o f our old a g e , ( 8 ) (this) d e s c e n d a n t .

10

Let h i m e x e c u t e [God's w i l l ] ( ? ) . "

( 9 ) I will bind m y u n [ t o u c h e d ( ? )

12

s o n ] o n the altar as an offering.'

( 1 0 ) W h e n his w i f e heard that, she w a s p r o u d (11) 'Keep cou[rage],

9

14

kappa}

( 1 4 ) {the letter

lambda}

[to say] (these) w i s e words:

m y dear child, for [you] h a v e [been] happy in [this l]ife,

( 1 2 ) Isa[ac, child] of m y w o m b , ( 1 3 ) {the letter

13

1 5

[...]

( 1 5 ) Full of [ s w e e t ] j o y their glorious son s p o k e to them: ( 1 6 ) 'Parents, prepare for m e a luxurious brid[al] chamber! ( 1 7 ) Citizens, braid m y fai[r] hair into l o c k s , 6

1 6

The meaning of the Greek pros in this title may seem unclear at first sight since pros + acc. is usually an indication of direction or of address, but that does not make sense here, unless one assumes that the title refers to the fact that the final three lines ( 2 8 - 3 0 ) are indeed addressed to Abraham. The suggestion by the editors (p. 50) that the expression is comparable to the words le-Dawid, which are often found as a superscript to the Psalms, does not solve anything. Pros here has the sense of 'with regard to' (see W. Bauer - W. F. Arndt - F. W. Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon to the New Testament, Chicago & London 1979, s.v. 5b); hence our translation 'on.' Here for'highest heaven.' The Greek has here hekatombe. 'The threshold of old age' is a well-known Homeric expression and verse-ending. One could read the word ekgenetes (descendant) also as ekgenetes (from his birth). Because o f the lacuna the text and meaning of this line remain uncertain. One could take the word ekgenetes at the beginning of the line to be the subject of the verb so as to get, 'Let (our) descendant fulfill [God's w i l l ] . " The editors here read athikton, but that is far from certain. If correct, it could be a refer­ ence to the demand that a sacrificial animal must be completely without blemish; but it could as well refer to the fact that Isaac is still unmarried (see v. 16), 'untouched' in the sexual sense (athiktos can also mean 'virgin'). Or 'she began' (erxato instead of euxato). This imperative (tharsei) is also often found on tombstones as encouragement for the deceased; see the discussion in P. W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs, Kampen 1991, 120-122. Litt. 'from my limbs.' The second half of this line and the two following verses are lacking due to a large lacuna. The editors suggest that "Isaac fait peut-etre allusion a (...) la flamme du sacrifice, designee c o m m e une chevelure tressee" (53) with reference to Bacchylides 3:56. It would 7

8

9

1 0

11

1 2

1 3

1 4

15

1 6

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Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

( 1 8 ) tha[t] I m a y fulfil a [hol]y task with magnanimity." ( 1 9 ) [At] o n c e able m e n stirred up the f[ire] around the altar. ( 2 0 ) Around the flames [rush]ed the sea that M o s e s ( 2 1 ) w o u l d [split]. A w a v e lifted A b r a h a m ' s s o n (or: A b r a h a m lifted his s o n to a wave?).

1 7

( 2 2 ) T h e father brought h [ i m ] , w h o s m e l l e d o f incense, to the altar, and (the son) re­ joiced. (23) He welcomed ( ? )

1 8

19

him [on top of?] the fire

and he hastened to

( 2 4 ) strike his n e c k with a sharp [ s w o r d ] . But G o d ' s ( 2 5 ) [hand] reached out (towards h i m ) , for nearby a goat a p p e a r e d .

20

2 1

( 2 6 ) L e a v i n g his s o n unscathed Abrafham p l u c k e d / s a n g the praise o f ? ] the fruit in the tree ( 2 7 ) [so that in as]sent he c h o s e to prepare that (goat) as a sacrificial meal (?). [The rest i]s e p i l o g u e ( 2 8 ) [...?] c o u r a g e o u s man, c o u l d y o u receive another mark o f honour for this (?): ( 2 9 ) T h o u s a n d s o f flourishing [children] to m a k e y o u shine (?), ( 3 0 ) e x c e l l e n t [giver] o f gifts, w h o has c l i m b e d the t o w e r .

22

Comments T h e differences b e t w e e n this text a n d t h e biblical story are striking. To m e n t i o n o n l y the m o s t i m p o r t a n t : (1) N o t o n l y A b r a h a m , b u t S a r a a n d I s a a c as w e l l , a s s e n t to G o d ' s c o m m a n d to sacrifice Isaac w i t h o u t a n y h e s i t a t i o n a n d e v e n w i t h e n t h u s i a s m . (2) N o t h i n g is k e p t h i d d e n from Isaac. (3) Isaac c o m p a r e s his i m m i n e n t d e a t h to a w e d d i n g . (4) S a r a is p r e s e n t e d as s p e a k i n g ( w h e r e a s in the

seem more natural, however, to take it as a reference to the usual cosmetic preparation for a wedding. The Greek (Ahraam huia potixunaeireto kuma) is very unclear and the whole scene is confusing in view o f the fact that in the next line it is Abraham himself w h o brings his son to the altar. The exact meaning o f the form didisketo is far from certain. Litt. 'Hephaistos.' The Greek here has melon, which can mean both 'goat' and 'apple.' In view of what fol­ lows (Abraham's 'plucking' of the 'fruit' [if that reading is correct]) the author seems to make a conscious play on this homophony. Both the reading and the meaning o f the word pselen (aorist of psallo) are very uncertain. In Aeschylus, Persae 1062, according to a scholiast, psallein is used in the sense of 'plucking' and that might have inspired our author, but of course the sense o f '(psalm)singing' is much more current. The editors also considered the reading psilon, which in combination with 'son' would yield the following translation: 'Leaving unscathed his only son, Abraham chose the fruit in the tree to prepare as a sacrificial meal.' But it should be borne in mind that the word pselen is conjectural, The final three lines are an echo o f the promise o f numerous offspring in Gen. 22:17, with the special twist that these offspring are the Christians, at least, if the editors are right in suggesting that climbing the tower is here equivalent to founding the church. The tower as a symbol of the church is well-known from the Pastor Hermae, a treatise parts of which were found in the same codex in which the present poem is to be found. 1 7

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

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biblical story she is not e v e n m e n t i o n e d ) . (5) G o d ' s c o m m a n d is h e r e g i v e n via a n a n g e l , b u t (6) t h e biblical a n g e l in G e n . 22:11 h e r e b e c o m e s G o d ' s h a n d . (7) T h e R e d S e a p l a y s an e n i g m a t i c r o l e .

23

M a n y m o r e differences in detail c o u l d

b e m e n t i o n e d , b u t this short e n u m e r a t i o n suffices to s h o w that the biblical story h a s u n d e r g o n e s o m e drastic modifications h e r e . W h a t is t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e s e modifications? It is w e l l - k n o w n that a l r e a d y in the p r e - C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d a n d e v e n m o r e t h e r e ­ after the story o f G e n e s i s 2 2 g a i n e d a s u r p l u s o f m e a n i n g a n d v a l u e in J e w i s h circles ( a n d that n o t o n l y in the m a r t y r o l o g i c a l s p h e r e ) .

24

F o r i n s t a n c e , w e see

that I s a a c ' s sacrifice w a s g i v e n a soteriological significance in the first c e n t u r y C E Liber Antiquitatum

Biblicarum

(LAB) b y P s e u d o - P h i l o . In LAB 18:5 w e r e a d

the f o l l o w i n g u t t e r a n c e o f G o d : " B e c a u s e h e did n o t object, his offering w a s 2 5

a c c e p t a b l e before m e , a n d in return for his b l o o d ( ! ) 1 c h o s e t h e m ( n a m e l y t h e p e o p l e o f I s r a e l ) . " In LAB 4 0 : 2 J e p h t h a ' s d a u g h t e r w a n t s to e m u l a t e Isaac on a s o t e r i o l o g i c a l level a n d s p e a k i n g a b o u t it to h e r father, she r e m a r k s : " O r h a v e y o u forgotten w h a t h a p p e n e d in the d a y s o f o u r fathers, w h e n t h e father p l a c e d the s o n as a b u r n t offering, a n d h e did n o t d i s p u t e w i t h h i m b u t g l a d l y g a v e his c o n s e n t to h i m , a n d t h e o n e b e i n g offered w a s r e a d y a n d the o n e offering w a s rejoicing?"

26

T h i s j o y f u l r e a d i n e s s is m a d e e v e n m o r e explicit in P s e u d o - P h i l o ' s

r e n d e r i n g o f D e b o r a h ' s s o n g , w h e r e h e h a s h e r say (LAB

32:2-3):

(2) Abraham did not dispute, but set out immediately. W h e n he set out, he said to his son, ' B e h o l d now, m y s o n , I am offering y o u as a burnt-offering and am delivering y o u into the hands o f the o n e w h o g a v e y o u to m e . ' (3) T h e son said to the father, 'Hear m e , father. If a lamb o f the flock is accepted as an offering to the Lord as an odour o f s w e e t n e s s and if, for the sins o f m e n , animals are appointed to be killed, but man is d e s i g n e d to inherit the world, h o w is it that y o u do not say to m e , " C o m e and inherit a secure life and time without measure?" What if I had not been born into the world to be offered as a sacrifice to him w h o made m e ? N o w m y blessedness will be a b o v e that o f all m e n , because there will be no other [sacrifice like this]. Through m e nations will be b l e s s e d and through m e the p e o p l e s will understand that the Lord has d e e m e d the soul o f a man worthy to be a sacrifice.'

S i m i l a r r e m a r k s a b o u t I s a a c ' s h e r o i c s t a n c e are found in P s e u d o - P h i l o ' s c o n t e m ­ porary, t h e J e w i s h historian F l a v i u s J o s e p h u s (Antiquitates 2 3

1232: 'Isaac received

The editors are of the opinion (41) that what is meant with the reference to the sea is that Isaac, by being laid upon the altar, undergoes a symbolic baptism. In this connection they refer to Paul's allegory of the passage through the Red Sea in 1 Cor. 10:1-2. This seems somewhat forced at first sight, but it is hard to come up with a more satisfactory explanation (see, however, below in the text). Livrea ( 1 8 4 - 1 8 5 ) sees here a reference to a lustration ritual before sacrifice. The most exhaustive collection of material is now L. Kundert, Die Opferung/Binciting Isaaks, 2 vols., Neukirchen 1998. A l s o some medieval rabbinic midrashim speak of Isaac's blood (or ashes) as if the sacrifice had taken place in reality. See H. Jacobson, A Commentary on Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum, Leiden 1996, vol. I, 583. Translation by Jacobson, A Commentary on Pseudo-Philo 582 (slightly altered). 2 4

2 5

2 6

A New Early Christian

Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

195

t h e s e w o r d s [of h i s father] w i t h j o y ' ) , a n d a l s o in later r a b b i n i c m i d r a s h i m a n d in t h e p a r a p h r a s t i c B i b l e t r a n s l a t i o n s i n t o A r a m a i c , t h e t a r g u m i m . Targum

Pseudo-Jonathan

2 7

For instance,

r e n d e r s G e n . 2 2 : 7 - 1 1 as f o l l o w s :

(7) Isaac s p o k e to h i s father Abraham and said, ' F a t h e r ! ' A n d h e said, 'Here I am, m y s o n . ' H e said, ' B e h o l d the fire and the w o o d ; but where is the lamb for the burnt offering?' ( 8 ) Abraham said, 'The Lord will c h o o s e for h i m s e l f the lamb for the burnt offering, m y s o n . ' A n d the t w o o f them w e n t together with a perfect heart. ( 9 ) T h e y c a m e to the place o f w h i c h the Lord had told him, and there Abraham (re)built the altar w h i c h A d a m had built and w h i c h had been d e m o l i s h e d b y the waters o f the Flood. N o a h rebuilt it, but it w a s d e ­ m o l i s h e d in the generation o f the D i v i s i o n . H e arranged the w o o d upon it and tied Isaac his s o n and placed h i m o n the altar o n top o f the w o o d . ( 1 0 ) Abraham put forth h i s hand and took the knife to slaughter his son. Isaac s p o k e up and said to his father, 'Tie m e w e l l , lest I struggle b e c a u s e o f the anguish o f m y soul, with the result that a b l e m i s h will be found in your offering, and I will b e thrust into the pit o f destruction.' T h e e y e s o f Abraham w e r e l o o k i n g at the e y e s o f Isaac, and the e y e s o f Isaac w e r e l o o k i n g at the a n g e l s o n high. Isaac s a w them but Abraham did not s e e them. T h e a n g e l s o n high e x c l a i m e d , ' C o m e , s e e t w o unique o n e s ; o n e is slaughtering and o n e is b e i n g slaughtered; the o n e w h o slaughters d o e s not hesitate, and the o n e w h o is b e i n g slaughtered stretches forth his n e c k . '

28

It m a y b e c l e a r t h a t t h e m o t i f o f I s a a c ' s j o y f u l w i l l i n g n e s s t o b e a n a c c e p t a b l e sacrifice to t h e L o r d a l r e a d y h a d a l o n g t r a d i t i o n in J u d a i s m b y t h e t i m e o u r a n o n y m o u s author w r o t e his p o e m . T h e s a m e applies also to several other n o n b i b l i c a l m o t i f s in t h e p o e m . F o r i n s t a n c e , G o d ' s hand j u s t in t i m e ( i n s t e a d o f t h e angel

that restrains A b r a h a m

o f t h e L o r d in G e n . 2 2 : 1 1 - 1 2 ) is a m o t i f t h a t

w e k n o w f r o m a n c i e n t J e w i s h art: it is t o b e f o u n d o n t h e w a l l p a i n t i n g s o f t h e D u r a E u r o p u s s y n a g o g u e from t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E , as w e l l as in t h e later floor m o s a i c in t h e s y n a g o g u e o f B e t h A l p h a ( b u t a l s o in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n pictures!).

2 7

2 9

Apart from the recent and all-encompassing work by Kundert (mentioned in note 2 4 ) , much material can also be found in the curious study by S. Spiegel, The Last Trial: On the Legends and Lore of the Command to Abraham to Offer Isaac as a Sacrifice, the Akedah, N e w York 1967 (repr. Woodstock 1993); also in G. Vermes, 'Redemption and Genesis xxii - The Binding o f Isaac and the Sacrifice o f Jesus,' in his Scripture and Tradition in Judaism, Leiden 1973, 1 9 3 - 2 2 7 . See further J. Swetnam, Jesus and Isaac. A Study of the Epistle to the Hebrews in the Light of the Akedah, Rome 1981, 2 3 - 8 0 ; A. F. Segal, 'The Sacrifice o f Isaac in Early Judaism and Christianity,' in his The Other Judaisms of Late Antiquity, Atlanta 1987, 1 0 9 - 1 3 0 ; J. Milgrom, The Binding of Isaac: The Akedah - A Primary Symbol in Jewish Thought and Art, Berkeley 1988. Translation by M. Maher, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Genesis (The Aramaic Bible I B ) , Edinburgh 1992, 7 9 - 8 0 ; discussion in R. Hayward, "The Present State o f Research into the Targumic Account o f the Sacrifice o f Isaac," Journal of Jewish Studies 3 2 (1981) 1 2 7 - 1 5 0 . See C.H. Kraeling, 77z