J
ohnK. Papadopoulos
CERAMICUS REDIVIVUS
I* S. Dow, Prytaneis: A Study ofthe Inscriptions Honoring the Athenian Councillors (1937) 2* 3" 4* 5* 6* 7* 8* 9*
R. S. Young, Late Geometric Graves anda Seventh-Century Wellin theAgora (1939) G. P. Stevens, The Setting of the Periclean Parthenon (1940) H. A. Thompson, The Tholos ofAthens and Its Predecessors (1940) W. B. Dinsmoor, Observations on the Hephaisteion (1941) J. H. Oliver, The Sacred Gerusia (1941) G. R. Davidson and D. B. Thompson, Small Objectsjom the Pnyx: I (1943) Commemorative Studies in Honor of Theodore Leslie Shear (1949)
J. V.A. Fine, Horoi: Studies in Mortgage, Real Security, and Land Tenure in Ancient
Athens (1951) 10" L. Talcott, B. Philippaki, G. R. Edwards, and V. R. Grace, Small Objectsjom the Pnyx: I1 (1956) ll* J. R. McCredie, Fortij?ed Military Camps in Attica (1966) 12* D. J. Geagan, The Athenian Constitution ajer Sulfa (1967) 13 J. H. Oliver, MarcusAurelius:Aspectsof Civic and CulturalPolicy in the East (1970) 14 J. S. Traill, The Political Organization ofAttica (1975) 15 S. V.Tracy, The Lettering of an Athenian Mason (1975) 16 M . K. Langdon, A Sanctuary of Zeus on Mount Hymettos (1976) 17 T. L. Shear Jr., Kallias ofSphettos and the Revolt OfAthens in 268 B c (1978) 18* L. V.Watrous, Lasithi:A History ofsettlement on a Highland Plain in Crete (1982) 19 Studies in Attic Epigraphy, History, and Topography Presented to Eugene iZnderpool (1982) 20 Studies in Athenian Architecture, Scu(pture, and Topography Presented to Homer A. Thompson (1982) 21 J. E. Coleman, Excavations at Pylos in Elis (1986) 22 E. J. Walters, Attic Grave Reliefs That Represent Women in the Dress $Isis (1988) 23 C. Grandjouan, Hellenistic ReliefMoldsjom theAthenian Agora (1989) 24 J . S. Soles, The Prepalatial Cemeteries at Mochlos and Gournia and the House Tombs of Bronze Age Crete (1992) 25 S. I. Rotroff and J. H. Oakley, Debrisjom a Public Dining Place in the Athenian Agora (1992) 26 I . S. Mark, The Sanctuary ofAthena Nike in Athens: Architectural Stages and Chronology (1993) 27 N . A. Winter, ed., Proceedings of the International Conference on Greek Architectural Terracottas ofthe Classicaland Hellenistic Periods, December 12-15, 1991 (1994) 28 D. A. A m p and P. Lawrence, Studies in Archaic Corinthian iZse Painting (1996) 29 R. S. Stroud, The Athenian Grain-Tax Law of374/3 B.C. (1998) 30 J. W. Shaw, A. Van de Moortel, P. M . Day, and V. Kilikoglou, A L M I A Ceramic Kiln in South-Central Crete: Function and Pottery Production (2001)
* Out ofprint
Hesperia Supplement 31
The Early Iron Age Potters' Field in the Area of the ClassicalAthenian Agora
TheAmerican School of Classical Studies at Athens 2003
Copyright O 2003 The American School of Classical Studies at Athens All rights reserved.
To order, contact: (in North America) The David Brown Book Company www.davidbrownbookco.com Tel. 800-791-9354 (outside North America) Oxbow Books www.oxbowbooks.com Tel. +44 (0) 1865-241-249
Out-of-print Hesperia supplements may be purchased from: Swets & Zeitlinger Backsets Department PO. Box 810 2160 S Z Lisse The Netherlands E-mail:
[email protected] Coverphotograph:The City of Theseus, by Petros Moraites, ca. 1865-1870. Courtesy The Getty Research Institute, Gary Edwards Collection (92.R.84)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Papadopoulos, John K., 1958Ceramicus redivivus : the early Iron Age potters' field in the area of the classical Athenian agora /John K. Papadopoulos. p. cm.-(Hesperia Supplement ; 31)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-87661-531-0 (alk. paper)
1.Agora (Athens, Greece) 2. Athens (Greece)-Antiquities. 3. Pottery, Greece-Greece-Athens. 4. Iron age-Greece-Athens. I. Title. 11. Hesperia (Princeton, N.J.). Supplement ; 31.
For my parents,
ANNA,who is no more, and JACK
CONTENTS
ix xvii xix
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION Chapter 2
T H EM A T E R I AALN D I T S C O N T E X T : S E L E C TC A T A L O G OUFEE A R L Y IRON AGE TEST-PIECE AN SD O T H E RP O T T E R S D' E B R I S F R O M T H E A R E AO F T H E C L A S S I C A ALG O R A Chapter3
THEM A T E R I AALN D I T SI N T E R P R E T A T I O N : N O T E SO N T H E P O T T E R SR'E F U S EF R O M T H E A R E AO F T H E C L A S S I C A ALG O R A AND THE FIRING OF ATHENIAN POTTERY
1 91
Chapter 4
T E S T - P I E C EI NS L A T E RP E R I O D S : CATALOGU AN ED D I S C U S S I O N Chapter 5 CERAMICU RE SDIVIVUS A: C O N T R I B U T ITOON T H E T O P O G R A P HS IC TU ADLYO F E A R L Y ATHENS
271
Appendix
E S T I M A T I OON F C E R A M IFCI R I N G TEMPERATURES BY M E A N S O F T H E R M O M E C H AA NNI A C LAYLS I S by Michael R. Schilling
317
ILLUSTRATIONS
The area of the Athenian Agora in 1959 after the reconstruction of the Stoa of Attalos Plan of early Athens showing the Acropolis, the original Kerameikos, including the cemeteries of the Mycenaean and Early Iron Age periods, and the likely location of the Old Agora Section through typical well Plan of the area of the Classical Agora showing deposits with significant Early Iron Age potters' refuse Selection of potters' test-pieces published in Farnsworth 1960, p. 75, pl. 16 Sketch showing method of handling test-piece Selected Corinthian pinakes from Penteskouphia Modern potter's tools: a) poker; b) slice; c) tongs Piccolpasso 1548, folio 34, various potters' tools (vedetta, caccia bragie,forcina, trainello) Piccolpasso 1548, folio 35, the firing of a potter's kiln Piccolpasso 1548, folio 29, the firing of the kiln and the use of the trainello Piccolpasso 1548, folio 50, potter extracting test-piece from the top of the kiln Fragmentary maiolica dish used as a test-piece for lustre firing Two fragmentary test-pieces from Deruta, late 15th century, used to test the second or gloss firing of maiolica Test-piece from Deruta, 16th-17th century, as previous Fragmentary test-piece of a plate from Deruta, early 16th century, used to test the third or lustre firing of maiolica As previous Ancient Chinese test-pieces from Shanxi Province The Kolonos Agoraios and the Athenian Acropolis, ca. 1870
ILLUSTRATIONS
Well N 12:3: 1-3
Pit or well L 11:l: 4-5
Pit or well L 11:l: 6
Pit orwell L 11:l: 7
Pit or well L 11:l: 8-9
Pit or well L 11:l: 10-13
Pit or well L 11:l: 14-17
Pit or well L 11:l: 18-19
Pit or well L 11:l: 20-22
Pit or well L 11:l: 23-25
Pit or well L 11:1: 26-28
P it or well L 11:l: 29
Pit or well L 11:l: 30
Pit or well L 11:l: 31-32
Pit or well L 11:l: 33
Pit or well L 11:l: 34-35
Pit or well L 11:l: 36-39
Pit orwell L 11:l: 40-41
Pit or well L 11:l: 42-44
Pit or well L 11:l: 45-47
Pit or well L 11:l: 48-50
Pit or well L 11:l: 51
Pit or well L 11:l: 52-55
Pit or well L 11:l: 56
Pit or well L 11:l: 57
Pit or well L 11:l: 58-59
Pit or well A 205: 60
Pit or well A 20:s: 61-63
Pit or well A 20:s: 64-66
Plan and section of wells K 12:l and K 12:2
Wells K 12:l and K 12:2 during excavation in 1934
Well K 12:l: 67-69
Well K 12:l: 70
Well K 12:l: 71-72
Well K 12:l: 73
Well H 16-17:l: 74-76
Well H 16-17:l: 77
Well H 16-17:l: 78
ILLUSTRATIONS
Well P 8:3: 79 Well K 12:2: 80 Well L 6:2: 81-82 Well L 6:2: 83 Well L 6:2: 84 Well L 6:2: 85 Well L 6:2: 86 Well L 6:2: 87 Well L 6:2: 88 Well L 6:2: 89 Well M 13:l: 90 Well M 13:l: 91 Well M 13:l: 92 Late Geometric grave N 11:l partly superimposed over well N 11:5 Well N 11:s: 93 Well N 11:s: 95 Well N 11:5: 94,96-99 Well N 11:5: 100 Well N 11:5: 101 Well N 11:s: 102 Deposit G 15:s: 103 The temple on Kolonos Agoraios and the west side of the Classical Agora, ca. 1858 View of the Tholos and general area around it on the west side of the Agora, after excavation and completion of conservation work. View from the southeast, May 3, 1950. Plan showing the remains of 7th-century house, kiln H 12:17, and the Tholos Cemetery in relation to the later Tholos of Athens Plan and section of kiln H 12:17 Sketch plan and section of kiln H 12:17 Kiln H 12:17 and its relationship to Building A Kiln H 12:17 and its relationship to later structures Kiln deposit H 12:17, context a: 104 Kiln deposit H 12:17: 105, 113, 117 Kiln deposit H 12:17: 106,112,116 Kiln deposit H 12:17: 107, 118 Kiln deposit H 12:17: 108 Kiln deposit H 12:17: 109 Kiln deposit H 12:17: 110-111
XI
XI1
ILLUSTRATIONS
2.75. Kiln deposit H 12:17: 114
2.76. Kiln deposit H 12:17: 115
2.77. Deposit S 17:2, cuttings F 1-F 3
2.78. Plan with deposit S 17:2, cutting F 1, and section across n A
(Panathenaic) Way cut 111
2.79. Deposit S 17:2, cutting F 3, cleared to lower layer 2.80. Deposit S 17:2, cutting F 3
2.81. General area of deposit S 17:2 after excavation, showing cuttings
north of Poros Aqueduct
2.82. Deposit S 17:2: 119-122
2.83. Deposit S 17:2: 123-125
2.84. Production discards in deposit S 17:2: 126-127,130,132,135 2.85. Deposit S 17:2: 126
Deposit S 17:2: 127
Deposit S 17:2: 128
Deposit S 17:2: 129
Deposit S 17:2: 130
Deposit S 17:2: 131
Deposit S 17:2: 132-134
Deposit S 17:2: 135
Deposit S 17:2: 136
Deposit S 17:2: 137
Deposit S 17:2: 138
Deposit S 17:2: 139
Deposit S 17:2: 140
Deposit S 17:2: 141
Deposit S 17:2: 142
Deposit S 17:2: 143
Deposit S 17:2: 144
Deposit S 17:2: 145
Deposit S 17:2: 146
Deposit S 17:2: 147
Deposit S 17:2: 148
Deposit S 17:2: 149-150
2.107. Deposit S 17:2: 151-156
2.108. Inventoried terracotta figurines from deposit S 17:2: (i) standing
human figures: T 3623, T 3589, T 3625, T 3620, T 3622, T 3624,
T 3621
2.109. Uninventoried terracotta figurines from deposit S 17:2: (i) standing human figures
ILLUSTRATIONS
2.110. Fragmentary terracotta T 3648, standing human figure, originally
one of several on ring from deposit S 17:2
2.111. Inventoried terracotta figurines from deposit S 17:2: (ii) seated
human figures: T 3627, T 3626, T 3649, T 3628, T 3629
2.112. Uninventoried terracotta figurines from deposit S 17:2: (ii) seated
human figures
2.113. Inventoried terracotta figurines from deposit S 17:2: (iii) chariot
groups:T 3616,T 3617; (iv) animals: T 3618 (horse),T 3619
(ram), T 3651 (couchant quadruped),T 3650 (bird); (v) votive
plaque: T 3615; (vi) votive shield: T 3630
2.114. Uninventoried terracotta figurines from deposit S 17:2:
(iii) chariot groups 2.115. Uninventoried terracotta figurines from deposit S 17:2:
(iv) animals (mostly horses) 2.116. Uninventoried terracotta figurines from deposit S 17:2:
(iv) animals (mostly horses) 2.117. Uninventoried terracotta figurines from deposit S 17:2:
(iv) animals (mostly horses' legs) 2.118. Uninventoried terracotta figurines from deposit S 17:2:
(v) votive plaques; (vi) votive shields; (vii) miscellaneous 2.119. Uninventoried clay objects: possible kiln firing supports(?) from
deposit S 17:2
2.120. Uninventoried lumps of clay from deposit S 17:2: possibly kiln
lining(?)
3.1. Black-glazed sherd with graffito scene of daemons or goblins
in a workshop
3.2. Shoulder of Athenian black-figured hydria depicting a pottery in
operation
3.3. Athenian black-figured skyphos, ca. 500 B.C.
3.4. Boiotian black-figured skyphos from Exarchos
3.5. Corinthian pinax from Penteskouphia
3.6. Detail of Athenian red-figured calyx-krater
3.7. Athenian red-figured hydria known as the "Caputi Hydria"
3.8. Both sides of Corinthian pinax from Penteskouphia
3.9. Terracotta model of a possible potter's kiln
3.10. Plan and section of Early Iron Age kiln, Torone
3.11. Plan and section of Late Minoan IIIC kiln, Kavousi, Vronda
3.12. Plans and sections of Classical kilns 1-3, Sindos
3.13. Reconstructions of typical Greek kilns
3.14. Plan and section of typical Roman kiln
3.15. Late Byzantine or Turkish potter's kiln at Corinth
3.16. Selected material from votive deposit H 17:4 (published in Burr
1933), as displayed in the Agora Museum
XIV
ILLUSTRATIONS
Details of Athenian black-figured lip cup, ca. 550 B.C. Drawings of pivoted multiple brush developed by James Vedder showing two methods of attaching the brushes
A1 A 2 -A5 Fragments of Athenian red-figured test-pieces: A6-A10
A11 A12a and A12b A13 Athenian red-figured test-pieces, Athens, Agora: A14-A20 Athenian red-figured test-pieces, Athens, Agora: A21-A23 Athenian Hellenistic test-pieces from the Pnyx, Athenian Agora: A24-A30 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C1-C3 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C4, C7, C19, C21, C22, C25 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C 4 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C 5 Corinthian test-piece, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C 6 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C 7 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C 8 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C 9 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C10 Corinthian test-piece, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C 1 1 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C12, C14-C16 Corinthian test-piece, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C13 A variety of Corinthian test-pieces and other production discards, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C17-C18, C20, C23, C26 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C19-C20 Corinthian test-piece, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C 2 1 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C24-C27 Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Vrysoula: C28-C32 Potter's test-piece, Thasos, Phari kiln site: M 3 Lucanian red-figured test-pieces, Metaponto: M4-M5 Lucanian red-figured test-pieces, Metaponto: M6-M9 Lucanian red-figured test-piece, Metaponto: M I 1 Lucanian red-figured test-pieces, Metaponto: M12, M16-MI8 Lucanian red-figured test-pieces, Metaponto: M19-M20
ILLUSTRATIONS
Bastoncelli test-pieces, Taranto, Via Leonida, 52: M24
Red-figured kylix, ~ossibletest-piece: M25
Unfinished red-figured pyxis lid
Athenian black-glazed two-handled mug
Paestan red-figured hydria of special shape
Empty pits in bedrock in Sector n@ on the Kolonos Agoraios
The Athenian Acropolis, ca. 1890
"Le Temple de Jupiter Olympien et 1'Acropolis d'Athknes," by
Louis Dupre, 1819
The City ofTheseus, ca. 1865-1870
Plan of Athens with the Piraeus and Phaleron, showing the Long
Walls connecting the city with its harbors
General view of Athens, showing the primary routes in and out
of the city
Athenian Agora horos stones: I 7039, I 5510, I 5675
I5510 in situ
I 7039 in situ
Athenian Agora, detail of the Lithos
Athenian Agora, remains of the Stoa Basileios after excavation
Kerameikos horos stone, Athenian Agora I 5770
Kerameikos horos stone in situ after excavation
Kerameikos horos stone fragments, Athenian Agora I 6835
Schematic plan of Athens showing the location of main clusters
of Early Iron Age tombs around the Athenian Acropolis
The Athenian Acropolis in prehistoric times
The Athenian Acropolis around the time of the Greek War of
Independence
"L'Acropole d'Athknes, vue du Muskon," by Otto Magnus Von
Stackelberg, 1834
The Acropolis of Athens from the southwest. Engraving dated
1687.
View of the Parthenon from the east in 1765, by William Pars
"View of the Parthenon from the Propylaea." Edward Dodwell,
1805.
a) The Parthenon, 1848. Salt print, Rev. George Bridges; b) The
Parthenon, 1842. Photograph Noel-Marie-Paymal Lerebours;
engraving, FrCdCric Martens.
General view of the Athenian Acropolis and the South Slope from
the southwest, ca. 1860
As previous, but ca. 1880, with the soil dumps and Frankish Tower
removed
XV
XVI
Al.
ILLUSTRATIONS
DS and dDS curves for firing and refiring cycles of an 800°C Amaroussi ceramic block T G , D T G , DTA, and E G A curves for modern Kalogreza (a) and Amaroussi (b) clays Schematic diagram of Mettler TMA40 from owner's manual SEM photomicrographs of modern clays: a) unfired Kalogreza; b) Kalogreza fired to 900°C; c) unfired Amaroussi; d) Amaroussi fired to 900°C DS and dDS curves for firing and refiring cycles of blocks of 800°C-fired Amaroussi clay of various sizes and weights DS and dDS curves for firing and refiring cycles of powder Amaroussi clay fired to 800°C Overlays of D S and dDS curves for a block of marble and for powdered marble Overlays of T G and D T G results for a block of marble and for powdered marble DS and dDS curves for Agora test-piece 1 (P 32358) T G , DTG, and E G A (for carbon dioxide) curves for Agora test-piece 1 (P 32358)
All.
DS and dDS curves for Agora test-piece 4 (P 17264)
A12.
T G , D T G , and E G A (for carbon dioxide) curves for Agora test-piece 4 (P 17264)
DS and dDS curves for Athenian Agora test-piece 49 ( P 20481)
T G , DTG, and E G A (for carbon dioxide) curves for Agora
test-piece 49 (P 20481)
SEM images for test-pieces before and after refiring to 900°C for
24 hours: a) 32 before firing and (b) after; c) 35 before firing and
(d) after
C O L O RP L A T E S
following page 3 8
1. Test-pieces from pit or well L 11:l: 4-5,31-32 Test-pieces from pit or well L 11:l (42) and pit or well A 20:s (61-63) 2. Test-pieces from pit or well L 11:l (6-7,9) cut from the same vessel, probably a large amphora Test-pieces from pit or well L 11:l: 18-19 Test-pieces from pit or well L 11:l (14,20,35, SO), well K 12:l (67), and well M 13:l (90)
Test-pieces from deposit S 17:2, cutting F 1: 119-122
TABLES
3.1. Test-Pieces by Firing Stage 3.2. Test-Pieces according to Shape 4.1. Corinthian Test-Pieces according to Shape 4.2. Corinthian Test-Pieces Arranged Chronologically A l . Dilation/Sintering Results for Selected Athenian Agora Test-Pieces
A2. DilatiodSintering and Thermogravimetry Results for Athenian Agora Test-Pieces
FOREWORD
1.See, for example, ~ 1992.
~
Finding a suitable title for this volume has not proved easy. The original subtitle, though cumbersome, accurately conveyed its entire contents: The Early Iron Age Potters' Field in the Area of the Classical Agora, the Firing of Athenian Painted Pottery, and the Topography $Early Athens. In the interests of potential readers and librarians the subtitle has been shortened, but the range of themes covered remains the same. Ceramicus Redivivus comprises both a study of certain aspects of the techniques of Athenian pottery production, and a study of Athenian topography. It begins with an overlooked group of material from a variety of Early Iron Age contexts in the area of the Classical Athenian Agora. This material not only sheds light on contemporary and later pottery firing techniques, it also allows for a reevaluation of the character of various aspects of Athenian topography pertaining to the Kerameikos, the Agora, and the Acropolis, from prehistory into the historic era. This study represents the results of almost a decade of intermittent work in the Athenian Agora. With an interest in various aspects of ancient pottery production, I had begun work, in the late 1980s, on a number of finds from kilns and associated deposits of various periods in the area of the Athenian Ag0ra.l During that time I was invited by the then director of the Agora Excavations,T. Leslie Shear Jr., to work on a general study of potters and pottery production in this area from prehistory through the Ottoman period. It was also during this time that I first met Evelyn Lord Smithson, and was quickly introduced to the handful of Early Iron Age test-pieces on display in the Agora Museum. Following the untimely death of Evelyn Smithson in 1992, I was invited by Homer Thompson to take on the study of the Early Iron Age material from the Athenian Agora that had been originally entrusted to Evelyn. In many ways this volume represents a fusion of my interests in Early Iron Age potters with my new commitment to the material of this period from the Agora. In the process of going through all of the relevant deposits stored in the basement of the Stoa of Attalos, I soon came across numerous uninventoried test-pieces and a wide range of other potters' discards of various ~ periods. ~These ranged d in date from ~ the earliest ~ stages of ~ the Proto-~ geometric period through Late Geometric and into the Protoattic period.
XX
FOREWORD
Indeed, the evidence for Early Iron Age potters' activity in the area of the Classical Athenian Agora was so great that it soon became evident that it warranted its own study, separate from the final publication of all the Early Iron Age material from the Agora. Not only was the material in question of significance in its own right for the information it had to offer on the production, especially the firing, of Athenian pottery, it also contributed to the discussion surrounding a long-standing problem ofAthenian topography, namely the relationship-and confusion-between the Agora and the Kerameikos. A number of literary testimonia pointed to the existence of the Agora in the Kerameikos, and it was clear that this early evidence for potters' activity in the area was of direct relevance to this problem. Following an introduction and catalogue of the material, the ensuing chapters thus deal with both the evidence for early pottery production and the topographical ramifications, which suggest that this area was the original Kerameikos of at hen^.^ M y first debt of gratitude goes to the three past and present directors of the Agora Excavations, each of whom have given freely of his time, wisdom, and energy. To the late Homer Thompson I owe the invitation to take on the study of the Early Iron Age material and, indeed, my thanks for entrusting this most important material to my care. To T. Leslie Shear Jr. I am grateful for permission to work on potters' activity in the Agora and for facilitating my research in the Stoa of Attalos. To John McK. Camp I1 I am grateful for continued assistance, both intellectual and material, particularly with regard to funding the later stages of the drafting work required for this volume. For their encouragement of my work I shall always be grateful. Both Leslie Shear and John Camp have tutored me in the topography of the Classical Agora and have generously shared their thoughts on a wide variety of issues having to do with the history and topogyaphy of Athens. where, in the followyng pages, I have questioned some of their conclusions, I have done so hesitantly and with great reservation. They, along with the names that follow, should not be held in any way responsible for the thoughts expressed in this volume and for any errors or shortcomings. I owe an enormous debt ofgratitude to my collaborators,Anne Hooton, Craig Mauzy, and Michael Schilling. Since 1993 Annie Hooton has devoted herself to drawing the Early Iron Age pottery from the area of the later Athenian Agora, not only all of the material catalogued in this volume, but all of the pottery and other small finds from tombs. She has worked quietly and painstakingly on this material, and it would not be an exaggeration to state that she probably knows Athenian Protogeometric and Geometric pottery as intimately as anyone alive or dead. Her work was made possible only because of a generous grant from the Institute for Aegean Prehistory. I am grateful to the INSTAP committee and to Malcolm Wiener personally for funding this work. To Craig Mauzy I owe a debt of gratitude that goes beyond his skill as the photographer and manager of the Athenian Agora: he has been a loyal and dependable friend for close to two decades. O n account of the large number of previously uninventoried pieces presented in this volume, the task of preparing the photographs was more exacting than normal, not least because of the character of the mate-
2, F,,a published g-reatly expanded in Chapter 5 of the present volume, see Papadopoulos 1996.
FOREWORD
XX I
rial in hand. All of the Agora pieces presented in this study were photographed by Craig Mawy, often with the assistance of Marie Mauzy, and he has graciously overseen the printing of some of the other images from the Archives of the Agora Excavations. In comparison to the often spectacular finds from the more recent excavations in the Agora and the wealth and variety of material studied by others, the small lumps, along with the bits and pieces resented here, must have been a source of amusement for Craig. H e bore all this stoically. I am also grateful to Marie Mauzy for the color photographs presented in Plates 1 and 2. In 1994 I had applied, through the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, to sample a number of the pieces presented in this volume for scientific analysis in the laboratories of the Getty Conservation Institute. For permission to sample this material, I am grateful to the Greek Ministry of Culture and especially to the successive Ephors of the Acropolis, Petros Kalligas and Ismene Triandi. Although the scientific study presented in the Appendix was initiated by myself and David Scott, the various analyses were carried out and prepared for publication by Michael Schilling. His contribution to this volume is an important one. In addition to David Scott, others at the Getty Conservation Institute who have contributed to this endeavor are listed more fully in the Appendix. Among others, I would like to thank in particular Eric Doehne and Bill Ginell. The staff of the Agora Excavations has endured my annual visits and sometime strange requests with customary hospitality and good humor. Jan Jordan and Sylvie Dumont, in particular, have assisted me in ways too numerous to mention here. Their help has always been greatly appreciated. Richard Anderson contributed in a variety of ways, not least by preparing some of the site plans for this volume. Other Agora staff members who have assisted in different ways include Giorgos Dervos, the late William Dinsmoor Jr., Kyriaki Moustaki, Alice Paterakis and her conservation staff, and Maria Stamatou. Among my colleagues in the First Ephoreia I owe thanks to Eleni Foka, Evangelia Koranti, Alkestis Choremi, and Vasso Christopoulou. One of the great privileges and pleasures of working in the Stoa of Attalos is the opportunity to discuss a variety of issues with like-minded devotees ofbroken pots, and over the years the South Workroom has served as something of a cult center for such scholars. For hours of fruitful discussion I am grateful to a number of colleagues and friends who have taught me a great deal: Walter Gauss,John Hayes, Mark Lawall, Kathleen Lynch, and Susan Rotroff. Other regular visitors to the Agora who have assisted me in various ways include Judith Binder, Patricia Butz, Michael Djordjevitch, Kevin Glowacki, Eve Harrison, Lisa Little, Margaret Miles, Ione Mylonas Shear, Deborah Ruscillo, David Scahill, Geoffrey Schmalz, and Barbara Tsakirgis. In addition to those already named, numerous scholars have answered a wide variety of queries on different topics, assisted with obtaining illustrations, and discussed with me, in person or in writing, a range of issues connected with this study. For assistance with regard to matters Early Iron Age (including Protoattic), I am grateful to Richard Catling, Nicolas Coldstream, the late William Coulson, Alan Johnston, Nota Kourou, Susan
XXII
FOREWORD
Langdon, Lila Marangou, Carol Mattusch, Ian Morris, Andreas Nitsche, Axel Rugler, Florian Ruppenstein, Ken Sheedy, and Berit Wells. For assistance on technical aspects of pottery production I am grateful to Eleni Aloupi, Francine Blonde, Richard Jones, George Kacandes, Maria Chiara Monaco, Jacques Perreault,Toby Schreiber,Jim Vedder, and Ian Whitbread. I am especially grateful to Richard Jones for reading an early version of the Appendix and to George Kacandes for providing sizeable samples of clays from Amaroussi and Kalogreza. For help with later Athenian and other Greek pottery, I am grateful to John Boardman, Brigitte Bourgeois, Francesco D'Andria, Susanne Ebbinghaus, Wilfred Geominy, Hans-Rupprecht Goette, Dick Green, Leslie Hammond, Ian Jenkins, Anneliese KossatzDeissmann, Donna Kurtz, Elizabeth Milleker, Heide Mommsen, Mary Moore, John Oakley, Massimo Osanna, Michael Padgett, Stavros Paspalas, Alain Pasquier, Enza Cilia Platamone, Ted Robinson, Demetrios Roubis, Michalis Tiverios, Despoina Tsiafakis, Christiane Tytgat, Effie and Panos Valavanis, and Raimund Wunsche. For the Corinthian material presented here I owe a great deal to Nancy Boohdis and Charles K. Williams 11. For permission to publish the illustrations ofthe Lucanian test-pieces from the Potters' Quarter ofMetaponto I am especially grateful to Francesco D'Andria, who generously provided the original photographs. For initiating me into the mysteries of later glazed wares, I am grateful to Pamela Armstrong, Guy Sanders, and especially Demetra Papanikola-Bakirtzi for Byzantine and post-Byzantine glazed wares. For Italian maiolica, I am most grateful to my friend and colleague Catherine Hess (Department of European Sculpture and Works ofArt at the J. Paul Getty Museum), who, in addition to her direct assistance,pointed me to the good services ofAlan Caiger-Smith (at the Pottery, Aldermaston, Berkshire) and Giulio Busti and Franco Cocchi (at the Museo Regionale della Ceramica in Deruta). The latter have all contributed a good deal of their time and expertise. For teaching me about glass furnaces and metalsmelting installations, I am grateful to Karol Wight and Philip de Barros, respectively.I am also grateful to Claire Lyons for assistance with the Gary Edwards photographs in the Getty Research Institute used in this study, and to Patrick Finnerty for inking some of the illustrations. Special thanks are owed to the staff of the Publications Office of the American School of Classical Studies for the care they bestowed on this volume during its production. Worhng with them has been a privilege and a great pleasure. I am also grateful to the anonymous referees who read this manuscript and whose insightful comments greatly improved it. For discussions on various aspects of the topography of early Athens, I am gateful to a good many friends and colleagues, including many of those already named. In addition to the latter, I would like to thank Manolis Korres, Stephen Miller, Keith Stanley, and the late Antony Raubitschek. There are some final debts of gratitude. To Marion True I owe thanks for granting me time during the summer months to continue my work in the Stoa of Attalos and for her unfailing support of my research. A special debt is owed to my wife, Sarah Morris; she has assisted me in numerous ways and has read and reread various versions of this study. Her encouragement, counsel, and wisdom have been a constant source of inspiration.
FOREWORD
XXIII
As close friends of the late Evelyn Smithson, Eve Harrison and Susan Rotroff have followed the progress of my work with a keen interest; most of all, I am gateful to both for being there when needed. To Evelyn Smithson I owe much more than I can express in words. In many ways this is the first of the volumes on the Early Iron Age from the Athenian Agora, although it includes a great deal of later material well beyond the domain of that originally allotted to Evelyn, and beyond the usual scope ofvolumes in the Athenian Agora series. In the original scheme, Evelyn, on the basis of her unpublished notes, had planned to catalogue only a small quantity of the test-pieces from well L 11:1, but there was little else in her notes to point to any direction the presentation of this material might take. She had certainly never planned a separate study of the potters' material, and how exactly she planned to present this material in her intended volume for the Athenian Agora series will never be known. Evelyn was a perfectionist, and I hope that my decision to present this material in the current volume would have met with her approval. I am happy that the initial stages of this study began while Evelyn was still alive, and enjoyed her blessing. I only regret that she did not live to see the result. -Los Angeles, December 6,1999
CERAMICUS REDIVIVUS
CHAPTER I
One of the chiefproblems confronting the student ofAthenian topography is to reconcile the testimonies of ancient writers with the remains brought to light in the excavations. Too often the evidence at his command is insuficient to give a clearpicture of aparticular section of the city andyet too substantial to be ignored.Any new light, however dim, is welcome, even ifin some cases it merely accentuates the obscurity created by the paucity and irreconcilability of the evidence.'
KERAMEUS, KERAMEIA, KERAMEIKOS, AGORA: S E T T I N G T H E MATERIAL A N D T O P O G R A P H I C STAGE
1. Broneer 1949, p. 47. 2. Paus. 1.3.1; see further Agora 111, pp. 221-224; Vanderpool1974a; cf. Vanderpool1949; Papadopoulos 1996. 3. For a plan of all graves, wells, and other deposits of the period ("Submycenaean" through the 7th century B.c.),see Agora VIII, pl. 45. For the earlier agora, see Agora 111, pp. 224225, no. 731 (with discussion); Agora XIV, p. 19; Oikonomides 1964, passim; Papadopoulos 1996. 4. See Agora XIV, p. 10. 5 . Agora VIII, p. 107, fig. 7; see also Fig. 2.31 (showing wells K 12:l and K 12:2).
It is the aim of this volume to contribute to our knowledge of the Athenian potter (xepap~hq),the art of pottery production (x~papeia),and the location of the Potters' Quarter ( x e p a p ~ ~ x in o ~an ) area that was to become, more than five hundred years later, the Agora of the Classical city of Athens. Some seven decades of excavations in the area of the Athenian Agora (Fig. 1.1), in the district known to Pausanias as Kerameik~s,~ have yielded significant deposits from the Early Iron Age (Fig. l.2).3 In addition to numerous graves of the period, there are more than thirty-five well and other deposits that cover the time conventionally defined as "Submycenaean" through "Late G e ~ m e t r i c . "Recovered ~ from these deposits were a large number of pots and other small finds, the largest single component of which is thought to represent domestic debris deposited at the time the well in question was abandoned: broken pots, organic rubbish, and discarded small finds such as broken tools, damaged items of personal use, and so on. In many, but not all, wells the lowest deposit comprised material dating to the period of use, namely, complete or semicomplete vases used to draw water; such Early Iron Age progenitors of the bucket or pail had been inadvertently dropped by their owners. A schematic section through a typical well (Fig 1.3) was published by Eva Brann;j a typical refuse pit, in this case for potters' debris (deposit S 17:2),is illustrated later in this volume (Figs. 2.77-2.81). Closer scrutiny of the relevant deposits
CHAPTER I
2
--
- .
--
--
-
-
. .
Figure 1.1.The area of the Athenian Agora in 1959 after the reconstruction of the Stoa of Attalos (view from west)
0
GEOMETRIC GRAVES
o
EARLY IRON AGE WELLS
AREOPACOS
Figure 1.2. Plan of early Athens showing the Acropolis, the original Kerameikos, including the cemeteries of the Mycenaean and Early Iron Age periods, and the likely location of the Old Agora. Prepared by Richard Anderson, in part from an earlier plan by John Travlos, with additional information from Agora VIII, Agora XII, Agora XXIII, and Shear 1993
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.3. Section through typical well. Agora VIII, p. 107,fig. 7
indicated that a few of the so-called wells were in fact dug as rubbish pits. Some of the wells and pits also yielded industrial debris, including a small quantity of discarded metalworkers' m01ds.~ Prominent among the industrial debris is a large quantity of potters' refuse.' Among the items clearly discarded by potters are test- or drawpieces, unfinished and unglazed pots-or parts of pots-and obvious waste r ~The . ~ latter are discards that have been intensely affected by high heat, usually to the point that the clay has vitrified or has melted out of shape,9 or where several pots have been fused together.1° In addition to the more obvious wasters, many fragmentary pots and sherds preserve serious cracks, dents, and other flaws that occurred during the process of forming, drying, or firing the vase and would have rendered them likely or possible discards. These nonobvious wasters are best described as "production discards." This material is substantial enough, both quantitatively and qualitatively, to deserve separate treatment in the present volume. 6. Especially in well U 26:4, the socalled Klepsydra Well: see Smithson 1982; Mattusch 1977, p. 341, note 2, B 1621 (cf. B 1622, B 1623); see further discussion under 88; see also Agora XIV, pp. 187-191. 7. This material is briefly noted in Agora XIV, p. 186; see also Thompson 1984, p. 8; Coldstream 1977, p. 311. 8. For wasters generally see Rye
1981, pp. 110-111. 9. See Morgantina 111,pls. 39:b, 40:a-b; Empereur, Kritzas, and Marangou 1991, pp. 488-489, figs. 5 and 7; p. 492, fig. 10; p. 512, fig. 39; p. 513, fig. 42; p. 517, fig. 52. 10. See Morgantina 111,pls. 38:a-b, 39:a; Empereur, Kritzas, and Marangou 1991, p. 489, fig. 7, bottom right.
4
CHAPTER I
5
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.4 (opposite). Plan of the area of the Classical Agora showing depositswithsignificantEar1~Iron Age potters'refuse. Richard Anderson
refuse comes from pit or well The largest single group of L 11:1, the so-called Odeion Well. O f a total yield of 1,972 p'ieces, some 202 fragments (or about 10 percent of the deposit) could be classified as potters' waste with certainty; other pieces might, if complete, display flaws or damage sufficiently serious for them to qualify as discards, and it is not impossible that the entire deposit represents rubbish from a potter's establishment. Similar material was noted in a number of other deposits, although-with the exception of deposits H 12:17 and S 17:2-never in the quantity of deposit L 11:l. Chronologically, these deposits cover all of the discerned phases of the Early Iron Age; their locations are illustrated in Figure 1.4. The well groups and other deposits that have yielded potters' waste include, in chronological order:'' Well N 12:3 Pit or well L 11:l Pit or well A 2 0 5 Well K 12:l Well H 16-1 7: 1 Well P 8:3 Well L 6:2 Well M 13:1 Well N 115 Deposit G 155 Kiln deposit H 12:17 Deposit S 17:2
"Submycenaean"-Early Protogeometric Early-Developed Protogeometric Developed Protogeometric Developed Protogeometric Late Protogeometric/Early Geometric Early Geometric Middle Geometric Middle Geometric Late Geometric Mixed Protogeometric-Late Geometric Late Geometric and Protoattic Protoattic
In addition to the above, there are a number of poorly fired vessels in well K 12:2 (Early Geometric),12 but nothing, with the possible exception of 80 (P 20618), that would qualify as an obvious waster.13 The full publication of the material from these deposits will appear in the forthcoming, long-delayed, volume on the Early Iron Age in the Athenian Agora series. The present study aims to present and discuss, by means of selected material from these deposits, two aspects that the potters' refuse 11. Evelyn Smithson's division of the Early Iron Age into distinct phases is the same as that of Coldstream (1968, pp. 8-28) for the Early and Middle Geometric phases, since the latter followed the system worked out as a result of the study of the finds from the Athenian Agora (see Brann 1961a, p. 95). In her unpublished notes, Smithson did, however, tentatively divide the Protogeometric period into four phases labeled P G I-IV, on the basis of the internal evidence provided by the Agora graves and deposits, particularly the well deposits. Within this four-part division she saw a good deal of chronological overlap between the various discerned phases. For exam-
ple, she considered what is traditionally defined as "Submycenaean" to overlap with the earliest "Protogeometric" (this phase she labeled P G I). Indeed, she found the term "Submycenaean" confusing and of no practical application to domestic deposits: see Smithson 1977; 1982, p. 141, note 5. Smithson's P G 11-111 phases roughly coincide with what is elsewhere defined as earlier and Middle Protogeometric. P G I V represents Late Protogeometric. I n addition to Protogeometric I-IV, she discerned a phase that others would call "Submycenaean," but which she preferred to refer to as "Final Mycenaean." A t the time of her death in 1992 she was happy with the discerned subdivisions of Early and
Middle Geometric, but was still concerned about those of the earlier period, especially the relationship between her P G I and Final Mycenaean. Although the Agora graves of the period are not as numerous as those of the Kerameikos (see Agora XIV, pp. 9-18), the well deposits of the period are unique inasmuch as nonhnerary deposits of this period are exceedingly rare. They provide quantitatively substantial groups of pottery not matched in size by grave groups. 12. Specifically listed as Early Geometric I in Coldstream 1968, p. 10. 13. The deposit is discussed more fully in the catalogue below (pp. 10C101).
6
CHAPTER I
casts some light upon, which cannot be discussed in detail in the final publication. The first aspect is technical and deals with the production of pottery, primarily the firing of Athenian Protogeometric and Geometric pottery. The second considers the topographical implications of these finds, particularly for this area of ancient Athens.
FROM T H E ATHENIAN KERAMEIKOS T O CIPRIANO PICCOLPASSO AND ALEXANDRE BRONGNIART: PROLEGOMENA T O T H E PRODUCTION O F ATHENIAN POTTERY IN T H E EARLY IRON AGE With regard to the firing techniques of Athenian Early Iron Age pottery, special emphasis will be given in this volume to the test-pieces, also referred to as trial or draw-pieces.14These were studied as a group in 1960 by Marie Farnsworth in the first published article fully devoted to these objects, which presented a catalogue of ten test-pieces (Fig. 1.5) found in the excavations of the Athenian Agora,15the Pnyx,16and the Potters' Quarter at Corinth.'' The pieces assembled by Farnsworth range in date from Protogeometric to Hellenistic and fall into four distinct chronological groups: Protogeometric, Protocorinthian, 4th-century Attic (red-figure), and Hellenistic.'' Farnsworth noted that such aids to correct firing were presumably used during almost the entire history of pottery, but due to poor survival and chance recovery, only the evidence from these periods has been identified.19 By focusing her attention on the test-pieces, Farnsworth went on to describe and discuss the three-part firing process for Greek pottery (oxidization, reduction, reoxidization), our understanding of which was first established by Gisela Richter, and is now standard information in all textbooks.20 In 1962 Brann published a handful of Protoattic test-pieces from the Athenian Agora (119-122 be lo^).^' In discussing these she states: "There is evidence that in the Protoattic period, as in the Protogeometric period, there was a special interest in improving paints. The evidence for both periods is alike, namely trial pieces. Such trial pieces were, of course, used 14. Winter 1959, p. 33, fig. 15; Farnsworth 1960;Agora VIII, p. 27; Noble 1988, p. 153. Leach's definition reads: "Small pieces of clay with pigment and glaze upon them which can be withdrawn from a kiln during the firing as a guide to temperature and atmosphere" (1976, p. 282). 15. Farnsworth 1960, pl. 16. Aside from the pieces published by Farnsworth, the material from the Athenian Agora is unpublished, although many of the test-pieces
presented here have been on display for quite some time in the Agora Museum. A number of the Protogeometric test-pieces (see catalogue below) were analyzed by neutronactivation analysis and the results published in Fillieres, Harbottle, and Sayre 1983. 16. Edwards 1956, p. 88, pls. 35: 12,38: 19,45: 71,47: 87,48: 98. 17. Newhall 1931, pp. 8-9, fig. 3; Corintb XV, iii, p. 246, and discussion under numbers 439,542,1025,1206,
1297,1300,1368,1387,1389,1393, 1404,1409,1513,1548,1589,1965. See also Corintb XV, i-ii, passim, for further background. 18. Farnsworth 1960, p. 72. 19. Farnsworth 1960, p. 72. 20. Farnsworth 1960; Richter 1923; see also Winter 1959, 1978; Noble 1988, pp. 148-167; Scheibler 1995, pp. 98-107; Jones 1986, pp. 798-805. 21. Agora VIII, pp. 103-104, pl. 40; Agora XIV, p. 186, pl. 92:b.
INTRODUCTION
7
Figure 1.5. Selection of potters' testpieces published in Farnsworth 1960, p. 75, pl. 16
22. Agora VIII, p. 27. 23. Fiieres, Harbottle, and Sayre 1983.The Protogeometric and Subgeometric potters' debris accounted for only a small portion of this study. 24. See Agora XIII. 25. Mackenzie 1903, esp. p. 165. 26. For Athenian black-glaze see Noble 1988,pp. 79-97; Jones 1986, pp. 798-819. 27.Tonks 1908; 1910. 28. Foster 1910.
at every firing in any period, but it is perhaps not wholly accidental that the large lots from the Agora are of these key period^.'"^ Most of the testpieces assembled by Farnsworth and later by Brann appeared in a larger neutron-activation study of material from the Athenian Agora conducted by Dominique Fillieres and her collaborator^.^^ Although some form of testing the progress of the firing may well have occurred during many periods, it is not accidental that the largest single group of potters' test-pieces is of the Protogeometric period and comes from a district generally referred to as the Kerameikos (see below). In this respect the comparative evidence of the firing of Mycenaean decorated pottery, ofwhich there is no shortage from the is important. It was stated, at least as early as 1903 and evidently first by Duncan Macken~ie:~that the composition of Mycenaean and Attic black glazes was identi~al:~a thesis subsequently established by the analyses of Oliver Tonks2' and W i a m Foster.28Despite this similarity, Mycenaean potters
8
CHAPTER I
do not appear to have had any real preference for black over red.29By early Protogeometric we see a very clear preference for black, at least in Athens. Since one of the most important functions of test-pieces is to check the reduction phase of the three-part firing prior to reoxidization (see Chapter 3), it would seem natural that test-pieces were more commonly used in those periods when the desired result was a good black paint against the natural red of the clay body3' Here was the genesis, the prototype of Indeed, the similarity between the black used on the later dlack-gl~ss.~~ Athenian Protogeometric and much of Geometric pottery, on the one hand, and Archaic and Classical black-gloss, black- and red-figured pottery, on the other, is marked, particularly in the case of later Protogeometric and Early Geometric pottery. It should be noted, however, that, falling between the Geometric and Archaic traditions, the fabric and paint of Protoattic is different from both the earlier and the later pottery. In the words of Brann, Protoattic pottery has a "soft, chalky fabric" and a "light, almost pastel-colored paint which distinguishes Protoattic from Geometric finds."32 The test-pieces that feature prominently in the following pages are scraps of pottery, most often cut from wheel-thrown or partially thrown pots damaged during the process of forming or decorating, with holes cut into them before firing and covered with paint. Many of the vessels from which test-pieces were cut were first decorated canonically, whereas other test-pieces are covered with paint in a manner that bears no relation to 29. Furumark (1972, pp. 13-14) notes that during Late Helladic I the paint of Mycenaean decorated pottery was lustrous, varying from black to red, sometimes thin and brownish; during Late Helladic 11-1IIA:l it continues to be lustrous, varying from black to red, whereas in Late Helladic IIIA:2-IIIB the paint is more often red than black (a phenomenon considered by Furumark to be due to firing at a high temperature). During Late Helladic IIIC, Furumark states, the paint is usually black or brown, sometimes red, and mostly thin and washy. H e adds that in Late Helladic IIIC the paint is often only slightly lustrous or quite dull, but in other cases lustrous. A cursory review of the fired color of the paint on a series of complete Mycenaean vessels, as well as sherds, from the North Slope of the Athenian Acropolis now stored in the Agora ~ u s e u myielded interesting results. A total of 103 whole pots and sherds were examined, of which 12 were not painted (unglazed Mycenaean fine ware; handmade or coarseware pottery was not included). O f the remainder, the paint on about 40 pieces
had fired red or reddish brown; that on 34 pieces was black or dark brown; and in the case of 15 pieces, the paint was either two-toned (redblack), or else one side of the piece was fired fired black and the other red. It is worth stressing that the paint on very few Mycenaean pots ever achieves the good lustrous black of the best Protogeometric and Geometric pottery. The importance of this material lies in the fact that the pottery was, for the most part, produced in Athens. For the excavations of the Mycenaean Fountain, see Broneer 1939; for the excavations and finds from the North Slope, see Broneer 1932,1933,1935,1937, 1938; Morgan 1935; Pease 1935; Hansen 1937; Schweigert 1938; Roebuck 1940. See also Broneer 1956 and Gauss 2000. For intentional and accidental red in later periods, see Richter 1951, 1954; Farnsworth and Wisely 1958; von Bothmer 1958. 30. Controlled reduction firing was well established by the Middle Bronze Age in the Aegean in the case of Minyan pottery, and it is possible that controlled reduction firing may have
already been achieved in the Neolithic. The fired result seen, however, in the prehistoric red and yellow burnished wares, on the one hand, and the gray and black, on the other, is different from that of Protogeometric and later painted pottery in that the surface and the clay body are fired to one color. For the various red and gray or black burnished wares of the Neolithic period, as well as gray and yellow Minyan pottery from the Athenian Agora, see Agora XIII, esp. pp. 4-10,60-61; see further Jones 1986, pp. 411-420. 31. As Jones (1986, pp. 804-805) stresses, the term "black glaze" is incorrect because the silica content is insufficient and the temperature is not high enough for fusion to occur in order to create a true vitreous glaze. After reviewing the manner in which the term has been used, including alternative terms, such as "engobe," "Glanzton layer," and "sinter layer," he states: "Under these circumstances, it is strongly recommended that the more general term 'gloss' be adopted, as was advocated by Bimson (1956)." 32. Agora VIII, p. 20.
INTRODUCTION
9
1959, p. 33,fig.15
decoration. Other test-pieces were fashioned from clay readily available, but damaged pottery nevertheless accounts for the vast majority of the test-pieces from the area of the Classical Athenian Agora. They were placed inside the kiln and withdrawn with hooks through "spy-holes" at intervals during the firing in order to test the progress of the kiln. The manner of handling a generic test-piece with a slightly hooked rod is illustrated by Adam Winter (Fig. 1.6).33The existence of potters' hooks is attested iconographically on the well-known Corinthian pinakes from Pentesk~uphia~~a few of which are assembled in Figure 1.7-which depict potters performing various duties, particularly tending their kilns.35Potters' hooks are most clearly visible on one of the pinakes now in the Louvre and on two in the Staatliche Museen in Berlin (Fig. 1.7:b-d). As Ninina Cuomo di Caprio has shown, the two types of potters' tools most often depicted on the Corinthian pinakes are the hooked sticks and a long rod (Fig. 1.7: a-f), with a round or rectangular plate at one end set at an angle of 90°.36 These tools, particularly the hooks, are not unlike some modern potters' tools, especially the so-called slice (Fig. 1.8:b).37A variety of related
33. Winter 1959, p. 33; with regard to test-pieces, Winter states: "ijber den Zustand der Ware im Ofen konnten allein nur Zugproben Auskunft geben. Das waren kleine, gehenkelte u t ~ d bemalte Dine, Geschirrchen oder auch nur aufstellbare Tonkringel, - wie sie zuweilen heute noch benutzt werden, die man beim Einsetzen so @nstighinstellte, dab, sie der Brenner spater mit einem langen diinnen Haken aus der Glut des laufenden Brandes herausholen konnte. Das geschah im allgemeinen durch ein Loch in der Zumauerung der Einsetzoffnung oder hier beim kaminlosen antiken Ofen durch die 0ffnung des Abzuges." 34. For the pinakes generally, especially those with scenes of laborers, see Payne 1931, pp. 116-117. Although well known and often illustrated, the Penteskouphia pinakes have had an interesting, if dark, history. The most useful introduction to the history of the pinakes is von Raits 1964; Geagan (nCe von Raits) 1970, pp. 31-33. Over a thousand fragments of pinakes were excavated, by persons unknown, in 1879 at a site near Penteskouphia (or Pente Skouphia), a few kilometers to the southwest of Ancient Corinth. The fragments were purchased by the then Antiquarium der Koniglichen Museen in Berlin, although a small number made their way t i Paris. Furtwangler (1885, pp. 47-105, nos. 347-955;
pp. 999-1000, nos. 3920-3924) catalogued many of the Berlin fragments (all those with the prefix F). Pernice (1897) succeeded in making many joins and entered 186 pieces into the inventory (all those with the prefm I); see also Pernice 1898. Frankel published the inscriptions (in I G IV [1902]) as well as drawings of those better preserved (for bibliography see Geagan 1970, p. 32, note 4). I n 1905 a systematic excavation in the same area was sponsored by the American School of Classical Studies under the supervision of 0 . M. Washburn (see Washburn 1906, pp. 19-20). These excavations brought to light about 400 more fragments of pinakes, now in the Corinth Museum (these have the prefix C-63- in the inventory numbers). A few of these, mostly joining with fragments in Berlin and Paris, were published in Geagan 1970, pp. 31-48, but the main group remains, on the whole, unpublished. Geagan (1970, p. 32) also mentions that "in the years since then [1905], archaeologists visiting the site have added another 150 pieces to the collection"; she further notes (p. 32, note 1) that four other fragments are in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Almost forty additional fragments of pinakes are published in Corinth XV, iii, pp. 239245, these found in various areas of the Potters' Quarter at Corinth. The latter
Figure 1.6. Sketch showing method of handling test-piece. After Winter
comprise the bulk of those inventoried and add considerably to the corpus of Corinthian pinakes. As stated by Jack Benson (Corinth XV, iii, p. 239): "Although there is no technical evidence that pinakes were actually made in the Potters' Quarter, the presence of many fragments in various areas of the site must surely furnish a strong presumption that this branch of the ceramic industry was also cultivated there."The majority of the fragments are dated to the Middle Corinthian period on the basis of both style and context (where applicable). One fragment, however, is assigned to the Middle Protocorinthian period (Corinth XV, iii, pp. 239-240, no. 1320, pl. 55) and is considered earlier than any of the Penteskouphia pinakes. Further fragments of pinakes were found at Perachora: see Perachora 11, pp. 234-238, nos. 2267-2276, pls. 79-80. For a useful survey of painted pinakes, see Boardman 1954, esp. pp. 186-195. 35. Many, though not all, of the
pinakes that depict potters are illus-
trated in Cuomo di Caprio 1984,
pp. 78-80, nos. 1-18; of these, the
following show hooks clearly: nos. 2,5,
and 12. For representations of ancient
potters, see Burford 1972, figs. 13-19;
Ziomecki 1975.
36. Cuomo di Caprio 1984, p. 81.
37. See Cox 1938, p. 168.
CHAPTER I
I0
a. Paris, MusCe du Louvre MNB 2856. Photo P.Lebaube
cs %-,
c. Antikensammlung, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, F 802B
d. AntikenSamdung, StaatlicheMuseen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, F 909B. Photo Ingrid Geske
-.
"
- -. -.A
f-'
b. Paris, MusCe du Louvre MNB 2858. Photo M. and P.Chuzeville
3..
> g *
*
-
,..
r2p
,>9 . ~ & 2
-
*
- & - ( '
. ,+
..+*--w"e9&-
" $
r,
-.\7k% . --.
--
--
Figure 4.12. Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C4
.
-
248
CHAPTER
4
interior and exterior
F
Corinth XV, iii, p. 250, no. 1387, pl. 57. p.H. (illustrated frr.): 0.090. Many frr., joining and nonjoining, preserving various parts of body and rim, but nothing of the base. Only main piece illustrated. Possible draw-hole at middle of right side of illustrated fragments. Clear drawhole on one of the nonjoining (not illustrated) fragments (Diam.: 0.012). Paint on some of the edges of the nonillustrated fragments. Clay and surfaces mostly fired gray. Paint peeled in places, cracked elsewhere, fired black. Canonical decoration on exterior. Broad, irregular sweeps of paint, both vertical and diagonal, on interior (noncanonical).
C6 (KP-1428)
Fig. 4.14
Test-piece fragment cut from body of kotyle. Middle Corinthian. Well I. Corinth XV, iii, p. 250, no. 1389, pl. 58. p.H.: 0.058; p.W.: 0.064. Single fi. preserving portion of test-piece, including parts of two edges, more or less painted solid, and about one-half of draw-hole, the preserved edge of which is also painted solid. Almost vertical wall. Clay body and reserved sur-
faces fired close to pink 7.5YR 7/48/4. Paint on interior, exterior, and edges fired red; dark brown approaching black only on small part of lower body on interior. Paint slightly peeled on exterior only. Exterior perhaps originally canonically decorated, or at least partially so, but with test-painted added. Three very thin bands on lower body, in part painted over. Irregularly applied paint above. Interior painted solid. Benson describes a panther on the exterior, which is difficult to make out. C7 (KP-1383)
Figs. 4.11,4.15
Two vitudy complete testpieces cut from rim and upper body of convex pyxis (now joined together). Middle Corinthian. East Deposit. Corinth XV, iii, p. 251, no. 1393, pl. 58; Farnsworth 1960, p. 75, nos. B (reduced) and F (oxidized),pl. 16. p.H.: 0.061; Diam. (draw-holes): 0.011. Two test-pieces cut from the same pyxis and now joined; both virtually complete, with draw-hole at center of each. One of the test-pieces is reduced, the other oxidized; neither is optimally fired. Paint on all visible edges of both pieces.
Figure 4.14. Corinthian test-piece, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C6
TEST-PIECES
I N LATER PERIODS
Figure 4.15. Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C7
Figure 4.16. Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C8 Upper body curving in to knobbed rim, flat on top, with chamfered inside and outside edges. On the reduced test-piece ciav body and reserved surfaces fired gray; paint black to dirty reddish brown. o n the oxidized G ~ t - ~ i e clay c e body and reserved surfaces fired close to pink 7.5YR 7/4; paint mostly red, but in limited parts fired black. Broad, irregular stripes of test-paint on interior and exterior of both pieces. It is clear that the original pyxis was damaged " and then cut into a number of test-pieces, each of which was subsequently individually painted. C8 (KP-1052a, b)
68. KP-1448 and KP-1449 were not separately catalogued in CorinthXV, iii.
Fig. 4.16
At least three test-pieces (probably more), cut from a damaged vessel described as a bowl. Middle Corinthian. Well I. Corintb XV, iii, p. 252, no. 1404, pl. 58. p.H (as reconstructed): 0.090; Diam. (base): 0.087; Diam. (drawholes): 0.013-0.014 and 0.019, respectively. Now reconstructed fiom many joining frr. One complete draw-hole
and another almost complete; possible remains of a third drawhole, only a very small portion of which is preserved. The base plate may have been a separate test-piece altogether. Paint extends over many of the visible breaks/edges, especially on the chipped sections of the underside. Flat disk base, with prominent groove on underside setting off foot. Rounded body, c u ~ n in g to plain rim with chamfered lip. This chamfer is more likely the cut edge of the original vessel, rather than its rim. In describing the shape, Benson writes: "The shape is uncertain. It is not a common bowl type and looks somewhat like the body of a flatbottomed aryballos. If it was, the upper edge must have been trimmed away intentionally. Fragments of three or four flat-bottomed aryballoi which had been used as try-pieces were found in the East Deposit. Of these, KP 1448 and KP 1449 are similarly cross-hatched.n68 Clay body and reserved surfaces mostly fired close to pink 7.5YR 7/4; clay body at base, where thickest, fired light gray. Paint mostly fired black; red for part of one test-piece and very small
CHAPTER
.
4
Figure 4.17. Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C9
-
s
part of another. Exterior, including underside, crosshatched with broad, irregular bands. The separate testpieces (three certainly, a fourth if the base plate was a separate test-piece, as seems likely) were painted after they were cut, as the paint extends over some of the edges and the crosshatching of the various pieces, subsequently joined, does not correspond. Interior reserved. Cf. Robertson 1948, p. 69, no. 359 (from Ithaka), pl. 22. C9 (KP-2394a, b)
Fig. 4.17
Two test-pieces cut from the same (or two virtually identical) small to medium cylindrical o i n o ~ h o e . ~ ~ Late Corinthian 111. From north of stele-shrine A. CorinthXV, iii, p. 253, no. 1409 (not illustrated). Fr. a: p.H.: 0.030; Diam. (shoulder): 0.052; Diam. (neck, at preserved break): 0.017.
Fr. b: p.H.: 0.019; Diam. (base): 0.056; Diam. (draw-hole): 0.0140.015. Fr. a consists of four joining frr. preserving shoulder, small portion of lower neck, which served as the draw-hole, and lower handle. Fr. b is a single fragment preserving complete, or almost complete, test-piece cut from the base. Flat disk base, with outside edge articulated from body and slightly beveled. Tall cylindrical body; sharply carinated shoulder, made separately from the body; neck becoming vertical. Vertical handle, oval in section. Clay body and reserved surfaces on both fragments fired close to pink 7 . m 7/4-814. Paint on both fragments variously fired from black, through reddish brown to red. Paint not thickly applied, only slightly peeled on interior of fr. b. Mostly canonical
69. The upper part of the vessel resembles some lekythoi.
=5'
TEST-PIECES I N LATER PERIODS
Figure 4.18. Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C10
decoration on exterior: thick bands or areas painted solid on body alternating with thinner bands. Strokes or very thin petals on shoulder, emanating from band encircling neck. Five irregular blobs of test-paint on interior of fr. a; three or four similar blobs on interior of fr. b, as well as on underside. Paint on underside very dilute, fired red, almost an orange wash. Blobs of testpaint on interior extend onto the edges of fr. b and some of the edges of fr. a. For the type, see Corinth XV, iii, p. 194, no. 1025 (KP-118), pl. 45; Pemberton 1970,pp. 286-287, no. 40, pl. 69. Cf also Corinth XV, iii, p. 253, no. 1410 (KP-2557), which has a misshapen trefoil mouth and smears on interior and exterior. C10 (KP-257)
Fig. 4.18
Test-pieces (at least two) cut from aryballos. Early Corinthian. Well I. Corinth XV, iii, p. 284, no. 1548, pl. 63. H. (as restored): 0.091. Reconstructed from many joining frr. preserving much of body, but nothing of the neck, mouth, or handle; all missing parts restored in plaster. Vessel clearly cut into at least two test-pieces, indicated by two draw-holes (Diam.: 0.0110.012). Spherical body, with small depression at center of bottom. Exact form of neck, mouth, and handle uncertain. Clay body, visible only at spall on body, which was created by a large
Figure 4.19. Corinthian test-piece, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C11
white inclusion, fired something like pink 7.5YR 7/4. Preserved body painted black. Body divided vertically by incised lines, which end at small depression at center of bottom. Broad added purple stripe on alternate sections (two solid black sections together on one side). The vessel must have been damaged during drying, perhaps with the neck, mouth, and handle breaking away, and was subsequently cut into at least two test-pieces, both of which appear to be optimally fired, or almost so. C l l (KV-1309)
Fig. 4.19
SmaWminiature handleless bowl, used as test-piece. Rectangular South Pit. Corinth XV, iii, p. 331, no. 1965, pl. 72. H.: 0.023; Diam. (base): 0.024; Diam. (rim): 0.044; Diam. (drawhole): 0.009-0.011. Intact, except for minor chip at rim. Draw-hole cut near center of underside. Flat disk base; body carinated, with shallow lower wall; tall, flaring upper wall, tapering toward plain rim with rounded lip. Shape similar to Corinth XV, iii, p. 331, no. 1962 (KV-751), pl. 72. Reserved surfaces fired close to white and very pale brown lOYR 8/2-8/3, almost white 2.SY 812 (classic Corinthian fabric). Paint mostly peeled, but clearly fired black wherever preserved. One side dipped vertically, as shown.
T h e following pieces, some not seen by me, are clearly test-pieces, as can be determined from their published descriptions and illustrations. For hrther details the reader is referred to the individual catalogue entries in Corinth XV, iii. C12 (KP-2266)
Fig. 4.20
Test-piece cut from kotyle; Middle Corinthian. East Deposit. Corinth XV, iii, p. 113, no. 544, pl. 26. Draw-hole cut near center of test-piece.
C13 (KP-182)
Fig. 4.21
Kotyle used as test- or practicepiece. Early Protocorinthian/ Subgeometric. Northwest Angle Deposit. Corinth XV, iii, p. 247, no. 1361, pl. 57; Boardman 1960, p. 88; Papadopoulos, Vedder, and Schreiber 1998,p. 513, fig. 2.
CHAPTER
252
.---
I
F
4
?.
q ~ l ' ~ ~ f [ f [ ~ ! @ ,~ ,\ ~ j ~ : *~ l ' a ~ 1
53,,-\*?? '
h.
,
*
-
,-
*
- &;m:
--+-
C12
Figure 4.20 (ref,). Corinthian testpieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C12, C14-Cl6 Figure 4.21 (helow). Corinthian testpiece, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C13
C14 -*-= Y
Reconstructed from many joining fm.; missing handles and body fn: restored in plaster. The kotyle appears to have been damaged during manufacture and was subsequently used as a practicepiece for the use of a multiple brush. The fact that the vessel was fired indicates that it was also used as a test-piece. C14 (KP-1354)
Fig. 4.20
Test-piece cut from cup. Early Protocorinthian/Subgeometric. Pavement Deposit. Corinth XV, iii, p. 248, no. 1365, p1.57. Part of rim dented. Paint on edge indicates test-piece. C15 (KP-1706)
Fig. 4.20
Probable test-piece cut from aryballos. Early Corinthian. Aryballos Deposit. Corinth XV, iii, p. 249, no. 1374, pl. 57. Noncanonical decoration,which is unfinished, and a probable drawhole cut through the bottom indicate a test-piece. C16 (KP-1431)
Fig. 4.20
Test-piece cut from alabastron. Early Corinthian.
e
Well I.Corinth XV, iii, p. 249, no. 1376, pl. 57. Draw-hole cut through center of test-piece; paint on lower edge. C17 (KP-1430)
Fig. 4.22
Test-piece cut from neck and rim of alabastron. Early Corinthian. Well I. Corinth XV, iii, p. 249, no. 1377, p1.57. Paint on broken edge of rim (cf. Chapter 2,125). C18 (KP-1389a)
Fig. 4.22
Test-piece fragment cut from rim of kotyle. Middle Corinthian. Road Deposit. CorinthXV, iii, p. 249, no. 1381a, pl. 57; Farnsworth 1960, p. 75, no. J, pl. 16. The piece is described by Farnsworth as follows: "This fragment from the potters' quarter at Corinth is different from the others in that it has both black glaze and accessory red. All the round applications are black and all the elongated ones are red. The fabric is pinkish buEV7O In his description Benson notes that there are black spots and short red lines also on the interior (noncanonical decoration), but that these are rougher than those on the exterior.
70. The piece is published by Benson as Middle Corinthian and is not ProtoCorinthian as stated by Farnsworth. *enson the _terior frapent, and worth the interior.
TEST-PIECES
253
I N LATER PERIODS
Figure 4.22. A variety of Corinthian test-pieces and other production discards, Corinth, Potters' Quarter, some of which are catalogued here: C17-C18, C20, C23, C26
Figure 4.23. Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C19-C20
-- *
a
C19 (KP-1339)
Figs. 4.11,4.23
Fragmentary test-piece cut from kotyle. Middle Corinthian. Well I. Corinth XV, iii, p. 250, no. 1383, pl. 57. Noncanonical decoration on interior and exterior and paint on edges indicate test-piece. Broad irregular sweep of paint on interior of nonjoining fragment.
C20 (KP-1342)
-
.--
Figs. 4.22,4.23
Fragmentary test-piece cut from kotyle. Middle Corinthian. Well I. Corinth XV, iii, p. 250, no. 1384, pl. 57. Described as "unfinished." Irregular daubs of paint on interior (noncanonicaldecoration) and on edges indicate test-piece. Likley draw-hole cut in center of fragment.
CHAPTER 4
254
Figure 4.24. Corinthian test-piece, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C21, interior and exterior I
C27
C26 C21 (KP-1356)
Figs. 4.11,4.24
Possible test-piece fragment cut from kotyle. Middle Corinthian. Well I. Corinth XV, iii, p. 250, no. 1386, pl. 57. Benson describes thin vertical strokes and row of dots on the interior (Fig. 4.24); the preserved exterior is canonically decorated. Such noncanonical decoration on the interior establishes the fragment as a test-piece. C22 (KP-1680)
Fig. 4.11
Test-piece cut from base of kotyle. Middle Corinthian. West edge of hi. Corinth XV, iii, p. 250, no. 1390, pl. 58. Virtually complete test-piece, with draw-hole cut in center of base and edges painted over. C23 (KP-2285)
Fig. 4.22
Lid fragments of unfinished pyxis, perhaps used as test-piece. Middle Corinthian. East Deposit. Corinth XV, iii, p. 251, no. 1396, pl. 58. Frr. of pyxis lid, with part of decoration on top unfinished; conceivably used as test-piece, though no draw-hole or any clear edges survive.
Cf. CorinthXV, iii, p. 291, no. 1591,pl. 64. C24 (KP-1427)
Fig. 4.25
Test-piece(s) cut from neck and rim of conical oinochoe. Middle Corinthian. Well I. CorinthXV, iii, p. 251, no. 1397, pl. 58. In describing the piece, Benson writes: "Broken edges of lip and handle painted black. . . Although the broken edges of both lip and handle are painted, they nevertheless fit together. The paint was doubtless used to mend the vase." Although it is highly unlikely that paint was used for mending, the paint on the broken edges would indicate a test-piece or parts of two test-pieces. C25 (KP-2304)
Figs. 4.11,4.25
Likely test-piece cut from neck and rim of round-bodied oinochoe. Middle Corinthian. East Deposit. CorinthXV, iii, pp. 251-252, no. 1398, pl. 58. Neck partially canonically decorated on either side with eye in outline, with circle in center. Irregular vertical and horizontal streaks on exterior would indicate likely test-piece.
Figure 4.25. Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Potters' Quarter: C24-C27
TEST-PIECES
IN LATER PERIODS
C26 (KP-1426)
Figs. 4.22,4.25
Likely test-piece fragment cut from base of round-bodied oinochoe. Middle Corinthian. Well I. Corinth XV, iii, p. 252, no. 1399, pl. 58. Fragment described as follows: "Apparently the vase was discarded before the painting of the rays was complete."The unfinished state of the decoration, coupled with smears, plus the fact that it was fired, indicates that the fragment is most likely from a test-piece.
255
C27 (KP-673)
Fig. 4.25
Fragmentary kotyle used as likely test-piece. Late Corinthian 111. Terracotta Factory. Corinth XV, iii, p. 253, no. 1408, pl. 58. Poorly made, with several smears and adhering bits of clay. Interior painted solid; irregular blobs of paint on rim, and some on body on exterior. The state of this kotyle, coupled with the noncanonical decoration, prompted Benson to suggest that the vessel was perhaps the first attempt of an apprentice. It is much more likely a damaged vessel that was used as a test-piece, probably intended to be withdrawn by its handle(s), now missing.
T h e following pieces, listed as test-pieces by Benson, are not obvious test-pieces: Corinth XV, iii, p. 96, no. 439 (KP-1719), pl. 94. North Dump. Rim and body frr. alabastron. Benson (Corinth XV, iii, p. 96) writes: "The orange-red paint may indicate that the fragment was used as a try-piece." Not an obvious testpiece. In Corinth XV, iii, p. 408, the oinochoe no. 1025 (KP-118) is listed as a "try-piece," although from the published description of the vessel (p. 194, no. 1025) it is clear that it is not a test-piece, but is listed as comparandum for C9 (no. 1409). Corinth XV, iii, p. 222, no. 1206 (KP-1943 + KP-2380), pls. 50, 118. Neck and body frr. uncertain shape (compared to an oinochoe). In describing the piece, Benson writes: "The red interior is puzzling unless the frr. were later used as a trypiece." If the vessel is an oinochoe, as Benson suggests, then it may have been used as test-piece, but it is also likely that the original vessel was not an oinochoe, but an open shape. Corinth XV, iii, p. 235, no. 1297 (KP-1925), pl. 110. Although listed as a "try-piece" in the index to Corinth XV, iii, it is clear from the published description that the fragment was not a test-piece, though other fragments from the same area may have been. Corinth XV, iii, p. 277, no. 1513 (KP-264), pl. 62. Although listed as a "try-piece" in the index to Corinth XV, iii, it is clear from the published description that the fragment was not a test-piece, though an unpublished comparandum was a likely test-piece. Corinth XV, iii, p. 291, no. 1589 (KP-559), pl. 64. Although listed as a "try-piece" in the index to Corinth XV, iii, it is clear from the published description that the fragment was not a test-piece, though a comparandum might have been.
CHAPTER
256
4
Named after a spring located in a ravine descending from Acrocorinth, Vrysoula lies below Anaploga and above the crossroads west of Koklunovrysi, east of the plataeu on which the Potters' Quarter is situated." The majority of the material from this deposit, published in detail by Elizabeth Pemberton, is dated to the third and early fourth quarters of the fifth century B.c.'~The presence of test-pieces, at least one waster, and three molds out of a total of ten terracottas suggests that the deposit was probably created with the discards of a potter's e~tablishment.'~ The deposit is located only a short distance (several hundred meters) north of the excavations at the Potters' Quarter and, indeed, as Pemberton states: "the pottery originally may have been buried at the top of the cliff and through erosion or other causes became dislodged and thrown down the ~lope."'~ Pemberton noted a total of 15 test-pieces, of which she published -only five." The same five pieces are catalogued below, in the order presented by Pemberton. In discussing them, Pemberton states: "The conditions tested by 146 [C28] and 147 [C29] were good, since the glaze is mostly black; 148 [C30] and 149 [C31] show less favorable conditions. No. 150 [C32] with a mottled gray color of the fabric apparently tested the first stage, for the clay did not oxidize nor the glaze inter."'^ C28 (C-64-175)
Fig. 4.26
Test-piece cut from small ovoid lekythos. Pemberton 1970, p. 302, no. 146, pl. 75. p.H. (with handle): 0.051; Diam. (neck): 0.011-0.014; Diam. (body): 0.048-0.049. Test-piece, reconstructed from three joining frr. complete, except for minor chipping at lower edge. Piece could have been withdrawn from the kiln either by the handle or by the opening of the neck. Upper body curving in to narrow vertical neck. Vertical handle attached from shoulder to neck. Clay body and reserved surfaces fired close to pink 7.5YR 8/4. Test-paint well applied and well adhering, fired black, with a good sheen. Thin band on shoulder fired red (part of canonical decoration). Test-paint consists of three irregular vertical strokes on exterior and three on interior, some of which extend onto the lower edge. Small drip of paint at one point on handle. For shape cf. Pemberton 1970, pp. 274-276,287, nos. 6-15,42-46, pls. 67, 70.
C29 (C-64-359)
Fig. 4.26
Test-piece fragments cut from convex broad-bottomed oinochoe. Pemberton 1970, p. 302, no. 147, pl. 75. p.H.: 0.015; est. Diam. (base): 0.050-0.055. Reconstructed from two joining frr. preserving small portion of testpiece, cut from the base and lower body of oinochoe. Paint on underside extends onto chipped surface, which is possibly associated with a drawhole, otherwise not preserved, cut into the center of the underside. Flat disk base; convex body, with lower part faceted. Clay body and reserved surfaces as C28. Paint well applied and well adhering, fired dark reddish brown approaching black. One long stroke and part of another on underside, the longer one extending onto chipped surface. Two preserved irregular vertical strokes on lower body, dribbling onto exterior face of foot. Interior reserved. For shape cf. Pemberton 1970, pp. 283-284, nos. 26-32, pl. 69.
71. Pemberton 1970, pp. 265-266, fig. 1. 72. Pemberton 1970, p. 268. 73. Pemberton 1970, p. 269; the test-pieces are nos. 146-150 in Pemberton's catalogue, the waster no. 151 ( ~ 175). . 74. Pemberton 1970, p. 267. 75. Pemberton 1970, pp. 266-267, note 3. 76. Pemberton 1970, p. 302. The paint of C28 (146) and C30 (148) has fired black; C29 (147) reddish brown and C31 (149) red; only C32 is reduced.
TEST-PIECES IN LATER PERIODS
257
Figure 4.26. Corinthian test-pieces, Corinth, Vrysoula: C284232
C28
C30 (C-64-360)
Fig. 4.26
Test-piece fragment cut from footless vessel. Pemberton 1970, p. 302, no. 148, pl. 75. p.H.: 0.022. Single fr. preserving small portion of test-piece, cut from the base and lower body of flat-bottomed vessel. Flat base; body rising steeply. Fabric as C 2 8 4 2 9 . Paint fired black. Portion of irregular vertical stroke on exterior, extending slightly onto underside. Smaller dribble of paint to left and horizontal stroke to right at upper break. Interior reserved. C31 (C-64-362)
Fig. 4.26
Test-piece fragment cut from base and lower body of skyphos. Pemberton 1970, p. 302, no. 149, pl. 75. p.H.: 0.021; Diam. (base): 0.070. Single fr. preserving small portion of test-piece, cut from base and lower body of skyphos. No drawhole or clear edges preserved.
Ring foot; thin-walled body. Fabric as C28-C30. Paint somewhat peeled, mostly fired red, in some parts approaching dark reddish brown. Portion of one irregular stroke or blob on exterior; parts of two irregular sweeps of paint on interior, as shown (Fig. 4.26). C32 (C-64-363)
Fig. 4.26
Test-piece fragment cut from body and handle of uncertain vessel. Pemberton 1970, p. 302, no. 150, pl. 75. p.H.: 0.032. Single fr. preserving small portion of test-piece cut from the body of an unidentified shape. One edge (top right) partially preserved, fired as reserved surfaces. Vertical wall, slightly curving; small handle, which seems more horizontal than vertical, to judge from the preserved scar. Pemberton states that the shape is an ovoid lekythos, but this seems unlikely. Even though the interior is relatively poorly finished, with striations visible, it is not quite the same as
CHAPTER
258
the interiors of average ovoid lekythoi. Although the ovoid lekythos cannot be ruled out, an open vessel form is possible. Clay body fired gray; reserved surfaces, including possible edge, fired close to pink and light brown
7.5YR 7/4-7/5.
4
Paint on interior mostly ~ e e l e d , leaving a gray shadow. Paint on exterior better adhering, though slightly flaked. Paint fired red to reddish brown. Broad, irregular stroke on exterior set vertically below handle; similar stroke on interior set diagonally.
P e m b e r t o n also publishes a waster o f a possible blisterware vessel: 1970, p. 302, no. 151 (C-64-369), pl. 75.
TABLE 4.1. C O R I N T H I A N T E S T - P I E C E S A C C O R D I N G T O SHAPE Alabastron Aryballos Bowl CUP Kotyle Lekythos (ovoid) Lid Oinochoe Pyxis Skyphos Uncertain
C16, C17 C3, C10, C15 C8; C l l (miniature) C14 C1, C4, C5, C6, (212, C13, C18, C19, (220, (221, C22, C27 C28 C2, C23 C9 (cylindrical); C24 (conical); C25, C26 (roundbodied); C29 (convex) C7 C31 C30. C32
TABLE 4.2. C O R I N T H I A N TEST-PIECES ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY Early Protocorinthian/Subgeometric Late Protocorinthian Early Corinthian Middle Corinthian
Late Corinthian I11 Classical Uncertain
C13, C14 C3 C10, C15, C16, C17 C1, C2, C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, C12, C18, C19, C20, C21, C22, C23, C24, C25, C26 C9, C27 C28, C29, C30, C31, C32 C11
TEST-PIECES
I N LATER PERIODS
MISCELLANEOUS
In 1950 Betty Homann-Wedeking published a kiln site on the lower southeast slope of Monasteriako Kephali, by Knossos, which represents one of the earliest and fullest accounts of any kiln site, and its associated material, in Classical lands." In presenting the pottery, Homann-Wedeking divided it into three broad categories: 1.The pottery from the kiln;
2. The pottery from the kiln surface; 3. The stratified pottery from a nearby cistern. The pottery from the kiln and the surface around it was assigned to the 5th century B.c.,whereas that from the cistern is mainly Hellenistic." In addition to wasters and kiln furniture, including kiln props and stacking rings, at least one test-piece was found.This was recovered from among the material around the kiln surface, and is thus assigned to the late 5th century B.C.In describing the piece, Homann-Wedeking notes that both the edges of the fragment as a whole and the edges of the hole bored though it were covered with glaze.79
M1
77. Homann-Wedeking 1950. 78. Homann-Wedeking 1950, pp. 175-176. With regard to the pottery it is noted (p. 165, note 3): "Mr. Piet de Jong tells me that almost all the pottery has now disappeared." 79. Homann-Wedeking 1950, p. 171. 80. Despoine 1982. 81. Despoine 1982, pp. 62-73, figs. 2-3. 82. Despoine 1982, pp. 74-80, figs. 10-11. 83. Despoine 1982. O n the basis of the evidence recovered from each kiln, it is clear that pottery, along with a variety of terracottas, was fired in kiln 4: Despoine 1982, p. 79; in the case of kilns 1-3, only pottery could be clearly associated with each kiln: Despoine 1982, pp. 68,71,73. 84. Despoine 1982, p. 66, fig. 5, pl. 2:01, pl. 8:a-p.
Not illustrated
Test-piece cut from base and lower body of cup. Knossos, h l n site at SE slope of Monasteriako Kephali. Homann-Wedeking 1950, p. 171, figs. 4:a and 5.
p.H.: ca. 0.050. Virtually complete test-piece cut from the base and lower body of a black-glaze cup (of a type with offset rim); edges covered with paint; draw-hole cut through base and lower body.
The Classical kilns of Sindos, published in meticulous detail by Aikaterina D e ~ p o i n eare ,~~ now among the most fully known from anywhere in Greece. Discovered in 1980 in the industrial zone to the west ofThessalonike, in close proximity to the Archaic and Classical cemetery, the four kilns were excavated in the course of 1981 and the entire site, including the excavated tombs, was subsequently backtilled in 1982 in preparation for the construction of a road. Of the excavated kilns three are of circular or elliptical form (kilns 13),81and one (kiln 4), by far the largest, was r e c t a n g ~ l a rTogether, .~~ these four kilns produced evidence that not only pottery was manufactured at the site, but also terracotta figurines and other terracotta objects, such as loomweights and spindlewhorls, beads, or buttons." Recovered from the various kilns were a good number of pottery wasters and other production discards, as well as a variety of pieces of kiln furniture, including stacking rings and other firing supp~rts,~%nd large, bricklike pieces of rough clay ( x h i v O p ~ ~which ), formed the supported floor of the firing chamber on
CHAPTER
260
4
which the pottery was stacked." Among this debris was at least one certain test-piece, presented below, with fragments of others very likely being test-pieces as well. M2
Not illustrated
Test-piece cut from the base of black-glazed cup. Sindos, kiln 4. Despoine 1982, p. 77, fig. 13, no. 3; pl. 12:y, no. 3. Single fr. preserving possibly complete test-piece, cut from the base of a black-glaze open vessel,
with a relatively large draw-hole cut into the center of the floorhnderside. There are no visible traces of paint on any of the edges or breaks on the lower wall. This test-piece is very similar to some of the earlier Athenian examples presented above, especially
105,119-121,124.
In 1985 the Ephoreia of Kavala in collaboration with the ~ c o l franpise e d'Athenes initiated excavations at the site of Phari, on the southwest coast of Thasos. The first campaign revealed part of a 6th-century B.C.pottery workshop, including the remains of a kiln and parts of several associated structure^.^^ Continued excavations in 1986 and 1987 saw the kiln completely uncovered, and a second, smaller kiln was found less than 5 m to the south.87In the eastern sector of the site, a portion of a rectangular structure was found built over a deposit of Lakonian-type tiles,88and immediately to the south a group of structures, including a cistern and a settling basin, made up a "decantation" complex for the purification or levigation of clay.89 A good deal of both decorated and plain pottery was recovered from the site, including wasters and other production discards, indicating that the workshop was active between the last quarter of the 6th and the first half of the 5th century B.c.~'A very small portion of this pottery has been published in the preliminary reports.91In addition to the pottery, the excavations brought to light a good amount of kiln furniture, including stacking rings, and other h l n firing supports such as clay pads.92There is also mention of a large quantity of rectangular "plaques" with a circular hole at one end, considered to be likely test-pieces, only one of which was illustrated in the first preliminary report.93This is an important addition to the corpus of known test-pieces, as it represents a type that is not common in 85. Despoine 1982, p. 69, fig, 7, p. 76, fig. 12, pls. 1:F-E, 5:a, 7:y, l l : a , y. 86. Peristeri et al. 1985. 87. Peristeri, Blonde, and Perreault 1986, p. 72, fig. 1; see, most recently, Blonde, Perreault, and Peristeri 1992, esp. pp. 11-18, figs. 1-8. 88. Peristeri, Blonde, and Perreault 1986, pp. 75, 80, fig. 4 (cover tile). For the tiles see further Perreault 1990. 89. Peristeri, Blonde, and Perreault 1986, pp. 76-78, figs. 5-7. For the
modern Greek method of cleansing clay, see Schreiber 1999, pp. 6-8, figs. 1.4-1.7. 90. The pottery is most fully published in Blonde, Perreault, and Peristeri 1992; see also Peristeri, Blondt, and Perreault 1986, p. 80. 91. Peristeri et al. 1985, pp. 35-37, figs. 7-11; Peristeri, Blondt, and Perreault 1986, pp. 78-79, figs. 8-10. 92. Peristeri et al. 1985, p. 32, figs. 3 (stacking rings) and 4 (clay pads); these
are further discussed in Papadopoulos 1992. 93. Peristeri et al. 1985, pp. 31-32, fig. 5 (M3).On the analogy of the Chinese test-pieces discussed in Sui 1986, it is conceivable that some of the oqpiypara) stacking rings (~cfih~va from Phari (e.g., Peristeri et al. 1985, p. 32, fig. 3) are test-pieces, if some were partialy covered with paint, such as Sui 1986, p. 312, fig. 22 (Fig. 1.18:a above).
TEST-PIECES
I N LATER PERIODS
261
many other ceramic workshops, including those of Athens and Corinth; details and comparanda are given in the catalogue entry below. The importance of the potter's workshop at Phari for our understanding of ancient pottery production, particularly for the Archaic period, cannot be underestimated, and the fidl publication of the material associated with the workshop will add significantly to our knowledge of the firing process. I t is perhaps worth adding here that the layout of the workshop is not unlike that of the Late Helladic pottery workshop at Berbati in the Argolid."
Figure 4.27. Potter's test-piece, Thasos, Phari kiln site: M3. Courtesy F. Blonde
M3
Fig. 4.27
Terracotta bar used as test-piece. Phari, kiln site, associated with the large kiln. Peristeri et al. 1985, p. 32, fig. 5. Two joining fir. preserving complete test-piece consisting of a rectangular bar. with small circular " hole at one end, covered with paint. Such test-pieces are not common in other production centers
94. For Berbati see Akerstriim 1952;also the discussion in Ziomecki 1964, pp. 24-26, fig. 13. 95. D'Andria 1975. For a brief overview, see Osanna 1996. 96. LCS, passim; D'Andria 1975. 97. See further Denoyelle 1997, esp. pp. 395,404.
in Greece, but an identical type of test-piece, referred to as huozhao, is known from the ancient Chinese kilns in Shanxi Province (Sui 1986, p. 312). Cf. also the related ceramic stick test-pieces, known as lazhu, with one end bent over (Sui 1986, p. 312, fig. 23 [Fig. 1.18:b]), which are very similar to the so-called bastoncelli test-pieces from Taranto discussed below.
The potters' quarter of the ancient city of Metapontion, fully presented in meticulous detail by Francesco D'Andria, is among the most fully documented pottery production sites in southern Italy and The kilns and associated deposits of the Kerameikos of Metaponto have yielded a large quantity of potters' debris, including wasters and other production discards, stacking rings (some inscribed), unfinished vases, and test-pieces. The potters' debris is, for the main part, Classical, though some of the material is Hellenistic. The excavations of the 5th- and 4th-century B.C. kilns, as well as the associated dumps of potters' refuse, have brought to light material attributed to the Amykos, Creusa, Dolon, and Anabates Painters. These vasepainters, none ofwhom is known from a signed work, were all considered by Dale Trendall as "pupils" or "followers" of the Pisticci Painter, the pioneer of Lucanian r e d - f i g ~ r e Consequently, .~~ Trendall's stylistic classifications now have a geographical and contextual realiW7 The deposits associated with the kilns yielded, in addition to pottery, lamps, terracotta figurines, and other clay objects, including several loomweights. Among the many pieces illustrated and published by D'Andria, a good many of the production discards may well have been test-pieces. In the following list, only those pieces that are most clearly
262
CHAPTER 4
test-pieces are included. Many of the Metaponto test-pieces resemble the Athenian red-figured examples in that the draw-holes were cut near the center of the piece, whereas other pieces resemble their Athenian counterparts in the fact that the decoration is unfinished. A number of the more complete test-pieces, however, particularly those cut from the rims of bellhaters, have a draw-hole toward one side, near the edge (see especially M10-M12). These particular test-pieces have the added advantage of allowing, albeit slightly, more of the surface of the test-piece to reach a deeper point in the kiln. In this they resemble the ancient Chinese lazhu test-pieces (Fig. 1.18:b), as well as the bustonceZZi fromTaranto (see below), where the length of the test-piece was important. I t is possible that many of the more fragmentary Athenian red-figured examples had a similar configuration. T h e order of the Metaponto examples follows that of D'Andria.
Test-piece fragment cut from krater(?). D'Andria 1975,pp. 392-393, no. 101, fig. 43. Max. dimensions: 0.059 x 0.036. Fr. preserving small portion of test-piece, including part of drawhole.
D'Andria 1975, pp. 394-395, no. 120, fig. 44. Max. dimensions: 0.080 x 0.054. Two nonjoining fir. preserving small portion of test-piece or portion of body of unfinished krater. Cf. also D'Andria 1975, pp. 394-395, no. 121, fig. 44, which appears to be a fragment of a waster, rather than a test-piece or unfinished vessel.
M5 Metaponto, inv. 29256 Fig. 4.28
M8 Metaponto, inv. 29006 Fig. 4.29
Test-piece cut from body of bellkrater. D'Andria 1975,pp. 393-394, no. 111, fig. 43. Max. dimensions: 0.083 x 0.072. Two joining frr. preserving complete test-piece.with draw-hole cut near the center of the piece and ~ a i nextending t onto the edges.
Test-piece fragments cut from bell-hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 394-395, no. 125, fig. 44. Max. dimensions: 0.086 x 0.050. Two joining frr. preserving portion of test-piece, including about one-quarter of draw-hole.
M4 Metaponto, inv. 29260/1
Fig. 4.28
M6 Metaponto, inv. 29036 Fig. 4.29 Fragment of test-piece or unfinished hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 394-395, no. 119, fig. 44. Max. dimensions: 0.035 x 0.050. Small fr. preserving small portion of test-piece or portion of body of unfinished vessel (krater?). Compared by D'Andria to the work of the Dolon Painter. M7 Metaponto, inv. 29286/1
Fig. 4.29
Fragments of test-piece or unfinished bell-hater.
.
Fragment of test-piece or unfinishid bell-hater.D'Andria 1975, pp. 395,397, no. 126, fig. 44. Max. dimensions: 0.047 x 0.060. Small fr. preserving small portion of test-piece or portion of body of unfinished krater.
MI0 Metaponto, inv. 29084
Not illustrated
Test-piece cut from the rim of a bell-hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 396-397, no. 129, fig. 45.
_
-
I
4
M9 Metaponto, inv. 29037 Fig. 4.29
.,$a,
M5 Figure 4.28. Lucanian red-figured test-pieces, Metaponto: M4-MS. Courtesy F.D'Andria
263
TEST-PIECES I N LATER PERIODS
Figure 4.29. Lucanian red-figured test-pieces, Metaponto: M b M 9 . Courtesy E D'Andria
Max. dimensions: 0.285 x 0.065. Three joining fm. preserving complete test-piece with draw-hole cut near edge of one side.
Single fr. preserving small portion of possible test-piece cut fiom rim of krater or else fragment of an unfinished hater.
M I 1 Metaponto, inv. 29083/1
M14 Metaponto, inv. 29307/2
Fig. 4.30
Test-piece cut fiom the rim of a bell-hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 396-397, no. 130, fig. 45. Max. dimensions: 0.260 x 0.070. Single fr. preserving complete test-piece with draw-hole cut near edge of one side and thickly applied test-paint on edges. M12 Metaponto, inv. 2908312 Figure 4.30. Lucanian red-figured test-piece, Metaponto: M11. Courtesy F. D'Andria
Fig. 4.31
Test-piece cut from the rim of a bell-hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 396-397, no. 131, fig. 45. Max. dimensions: 0.250 x 0.065. Single fr. preserving complete test-piece with draw-hole cut near edge of one side. M13 Metaponto, inv. 29307/1
Not illustrated
Fragment of test-piece or unfinished bell-hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 396-397, no. 132, fig. 45.
Not illustrated
Fragment of test-piece or unfinished bell-hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 396-397, no. 133, fig. 45. Single fr. preserving greater part of test-piece cut from rim of krater or else fragment of an unfinished krater. M I 5 Metaponto, inv. 29307/3
Not illustrated
Fragments of possible test-piece cut from bell-hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 396-397, no. 134, fig. 45. Two joining fir. preserving small portion of possible test-piece. M16 Metaponto, inv. 29308/2
Fig. 4.31
Test-piece fragment cut from rim of bed-hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 396-397, no. 135, fig. - 45. Single fr. preserving portion of test-piece cut from the rim of a bell-hater, including complete drawhole, probably cut near one edge,
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I T "
b
Figure 4.31. Lucanian red-figured test-pieces, Metaponto: M12, M16M18. Courtesy F. D'Andria like M10-M12. Prominent vertical incised line to left of draw-hole. M I 7 Metaponto, inv. 29308/3
Fig. 4.31
Test-piece fragment cut from rim of bell-krater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 396-397, no. 136, fig. 45. Single fr. preserving portion of test-piece cut from the rim of a bellhater, including complete draw-hole. Vertical incised line (cf M16) appears to have been intersected by draw-hole (guidance groove?). M18 Metaponto, inv. 293084
Fig. 4.31
Test-piece fragment cut from rim of bell-hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 396-397, no. 137, fig. 45. Single fi. preserving almost complete test-piece, cut fiom the rim of a bell-hater, including about onehalf of draw-hole cut near the edge on one side (d:MIO-M12); traces of test-paint visible on lower edge. M19 Metaponto, inv. 29005 Fig. 4.32 Fragmentary test-piece cut from calyx-hater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 397-398, no. 142, fig. 46. Max. dimensions: 0.140 x 0.127. Seven joining frr. preserving greater part of large test-piece cut
from the body of a calyx-hater, including most of draw-hole cut near the center and toward the lower edge of the piece. In discussing the style of the piece, D'Andria (1975, p. 397) states: "Cattiva qualiti del disegno su schemi del Pittore di Dolone: LCS, no. 536, Bari."
M20 Metaponto, inv. 29068 Fig. 4.32 Fragmentary test-piece or unfinished fragment of calyx-krater. D'Andria 1975, pp. 397-398, no. 143, fig. 46. Max. dimensions: 0.116 x 0.065. Three joining fir. preserving portion of possible test-piece cut from the body of a calyx-hater, or else body frr. of an unfinished vessel. M21 Metaponto, inv. 29027
Not illustrated
Test-piece fragment cut from skyphos. D'Andria 1975, pp. 403-404, no. 166, fig. 52. Max. dimensions: 0.078 x 0.068. Single fragment preserving portion of test-piece cut from the body of a skyphos, including part of draw-hole at lower break. In discussing the style of the piece, D'Andria (1975, p. 404) states: "Per la resa delle ali cfr. LCS, no. 518, Varsavia, Pittore di Dolone."
Figure 4.32. Lucanian red-figured test-pieces, Metaponto: M19-M20. Courtesy F. D'Andria
TEST-PIECES
M22 Metaponto, inv. 29345
M23 Metaponto, Not illustrated
Fragments of test-piece or unfinished skyphos. D'Andria 1975, pp. 405-406, no. 186, fig. 53. Max. dimensions: 0.087 x 0.050. Two joining frr. preserving portion of test-piece, with possible cut edges, or else body frr. of an unfinished skyphos.
98. See esp. Dell'Aglio 1996, p. 50. 99. Dell'Aglio 1996. 100.For the kilns see Dell'Aglio 1996, pp. 51-67; for the kiln furniture pp. 68-79. 101.Dell'Aglio 1996, pp. 70-71, no. 43.
265
I N LATER PERIODS
inv. 29288
Not illustrated
Fragment of test-piece or unfinished cup. D'Andria 1975, pp. 405-406, no. 191, fig. 53. Max. dimensions: 0.063 x 0.042. Single fr. preserving portion of possible test-piece or else fragment of an unfinished cup.
Excavations in and around Taras have brought to light a great deal of evidence of potters' and coroplasts' activity in the city, particularly in the eastern sector of ancient Taranto, outside the primary zone of h a b i t a t i ~ nA .~~ useful overview of the evidence for pottery and terracotta production was published by Antonietta Dell'Aglio as part of the I Greci in Occidente exhibition in the Duomo ~ f T a r a n t oT. h~e~material includes several kilns and a large variety of luln furniture dating to the later Classical and Hellenistic periods.'OO Among the kiln furniture there is a wide variety of stacking rings (some with dipinti), numerous different types of kiln firing supports, some larger lumps of clay, and molds for terracotta figurines (many inscribed). There is, in addition, among the material excavated in 1988 at the site of Via Leonida, 52, several clay rods referred to as bastoncelli. Some 14 or 15 examples were on display, of which only four were published (under M24).1°' Dated generally to the 5th-4th centuries B.c., the bastoncelli are rods of clay, circular in section, ranging in length from about 6 to 12 cm as preserved. Most are fragmentary, and only three among the some 15 examples on display clearly preserve a terminal, but at only one end of the rod; two of the four examples published by Dell'Aglio preserve the irregularly formed terminal at one end of the preserved rod. Most of the bastoncelli are straight, but two are curved at one end, at which point both are broken, ll of them are covered with paint, the and thus resemble small hooks. A color of which is variously fired. Some are optimally fired, with a good black paint and a reddish-pink clay body visible in the break, others are oxidized (clay body and paint fired red), and a few are victims of reduction firing not properly reoxidized. The paint on the latter is fired a dirty gray/ black, the clay body gray. These bastoncelli are clearly test-pieces that had been pulled from the kiln at various stages of a firing in order to test the firing cycle and subsequently ended up among other debris from the same potter's kiln. Although I know of no similar examples from other Classical sites in Greece and Italy, the Tarantine bastoncelli closely resemble the Chinese lazhu ceramic stick test-pieces published by Sui (Fig. 1.18:b). The Ch'inese examples, which measure 15-20 cm in length and are thus of similar size to those ofTaranto, differ slightly from the Tarantine in that they are equipped with a small elbow at one end, a feature that facilitates their extraction
266
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from the kiln. They are otherwise identical in principle. Related, but somewhat larger, clay rods, along with smaller S-shaped pieces of clay are known from Byzantine workshops in northern Greece, especially at Seres.lo2The four published bastoncelli from Taranto are listed here under M24. M24 Taranto, inv. 196.080-196.083 Fig. 4.33 Bastoncelli. Four examples, all fragmentary. Dell'Aglio 1996,pp. 70-71, no. 43.
Described as follows: "Argilla giallina, vernice nera, nero-bruna, rossastra, grigia; H maximin cm 11.5/6.7.A sezione circolare, con estremita rastremate irregolari, tavolta lievemente ripiegati. In due casi, a sezione. Mutili."
I n her 1923 study h c h t e r listed, in addition to the five test-pieces assembled by Hartwig (Al-AS), two additional examples. One of these, M25, an unfinished kylix in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, is described by Richter as follows:
Figure 4.33. Bastoncelli test-pieces, Taranto, Via Leonida, 52: M24. After Dell'Aglio 1996, pp. 70-71, no. 43 (drawing Patrick Finnerty)
It is not so fragmentary as the pieces in the other museums, being complete except for portions of the rim. The foot is very roughly turned, very different from the average kylix foot, as if it had not been worth while to spend much time on this product. The decoration itself is also quite cursory. This suggests that the piece was merely a "test," such as potters use often nowadays for making trials of their clay body, or their glaze, or their kiln. T h e kylix is, ' as a matter of fact, too soft fired, and the glaze has turned reddish in parts. May we be permitted the guess that this was a trial to test out a new luln?lo3 Although poorly made and not perfectly fired, M25 is a possible but unlikely test-piece. I t does, however, bring to the fore the fact that not all unfinished red-figured vessels are test-pieces (see below). The kylix is different from all other known red-figured test-pieces, primarily because it is so well preserved, rather than the more common scraps of pottery cut from previously damaged vessels. This said, it should be noted that some of the Early Iron Age pieces presented above, especially 33, 42-43, 51, 61, 65, and 91, are almost complete vessels that did serve as test-pieces. What is unclear is whether the rim of M 2 5 was damaged prior to firing, in which case it would qualify as a test-piece, or whether this simply represents postdepositional breakage. Although it is probable that the kylix is a perfectly healthy Campanian red-figured pot-perhaps not the finest example of the South Italian potters' craft, but certainly superior to many of its compatriots-the possibility that it is a test-piece cannot be dismissed. I t is for this reason that it is listed here. M25 New York, Metropolitan Museum, acc. no. 1911.212.9 Fig. 4.34 Fragmentary unfinished kylix; possible test-piece.
Rtchter 1923, p. 43, figs. 47-48; Beazley 1944, p. 121, note 1 (ca. 400 B.c.); Noble 1988,pp. 106-107, figs. - -
182-183. Fragmentary kylix, almost complete except for parts of rim and
102.Papanikola-Bakirtzi 1999, pp. 222-223, figs. 1-2. These rods are thought to have been inserted close together in holes in the walls of the kiln, creating a sort of shelf on which the vases were stacked. A similar method of stacking using rods is known in Islamic workshops: Naumann 1971, esp. figs. 7-9, pl. 56:l. The smaller S-shaped pieces were set between vases in order to prevent them from adhering to the shelves. It is noteworthy that the glazed pottery produced at Serres lack the familiar scars left by tripod stilts, so it seems clear that an alternative method of stacking was employed. 103. Richter 1923,pp. 42-44, with figs. 47-48.
TEST-PIECES I N LATER PERIODS
both handles. No preserved drawholes or handles to assist in extraction fiom the kiln. Decoration at center of interior unfinished: woman sitting on rock. Although the details of her face and
267 garment are neatly rendered, the background was never filled in. Similarly unfinished is the decoration on the exterior, and the foot is poorly made, different fiom the standard kyliu foot.
UNFINISHED RED-FIGURED VASES THAT ARE NOT TEST-PIECES
Figure 4.34. Red-figured kylix, possible test-piece: M25. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1911.212.9. Courtesy Museum
Figure 4.35. Unfinished red-figured pyxis lid. London, British Museum F 504 VA (31), B-3768. @The British Museum
As stated above, not all unfinished red-figured vessels are test-pieces. T h e Campanian kylix, M25, provides a possible example, though in this case, the vessel may conceivably have been broken while being decorated and subsequently served as a test-piece designed as an aid to correct firing.lo4 One should always be careful, however, with Campanian and other late red-figure workshops, since many pieces are poorly made and areas that should have been painted, particularly background areas, were not.lo5This is probably the result of simple forgetfulness on the part of the potter. A classic case in point is a complete Campanian column-hater in S2vres (inv. 6898).lo6T h e obverse of the vase is completely decorated and perfectly normal (for Campanian), as is the reverse, except for the fact that the background to the two youths was never filled in. There is no possibility that this complete h a t e r was ever a test-piece, nor can the reverse be classified as a practice-piece (see below). I t is almost certainly the result of an oversight by the potter. A similar situation involves one side of the earlier Athenian red-figured column-hater by the Painter of Bologna 228, where the three figures-Dionysos and maenads--are outlined in black glaze but the relief lines were omitted.lo7Thepyxis lid in London, also mentioned by Richter, is similarly the probable result of an oversight (Fig. 4.35), particularly as there is no evidence of a draw-hole or any obvious way of extracting the vessel from the kiln. Furthermore, the drawing in this case seems rather too complete for it to qualify as a practice-piece.lo8Another example that can be mentioned in this context are the fragments of a red-figured h a t e r found in the area of the settlement east of the fortress hill at Eleutherai (Gyphtokastro), evidently unfinished as the background had not been filled in.lo9 A closely related phenomenon is that of practice sketches. One of the finest examples of this genre is a black-glaze two-handled mug in Princeton 104. See Noble 1988,pp. 105-107. 105.There are also a number of vessels especially among late red-figure in southern Italy that are decorated in an idiosyncratic abbreviated outline style; see, for example, Trendall 1983, p. 261, no. 4/1030, pl. 30 by the Vitulazio Painter. 106. Massoul 1935,p. 81, pl. 41: no. 10 (obverse),no. 14 (reverse). 107.New York, Metropolitan
Museum 29.131.7;ARV, p. 511; discussed and illustrated in Noble 1988, p. 107, fig. 184. 108. Richter 1923,p. 41, note 3, listed as British Museum, Room of Greek and Roman Life, no. 426. The vessel is briefly noted in an early catalogue of the British Museum, but was not illustrated. 109. Ober 1987,p. 216, no. 11.27, pl. 29.
268
Underside, with unfinished practice sketch
CHAPTER
4
Side view
(Fig. 4.36).'1° o n the broad, flat underside of the pot is an unfinished figure of an Amazon on horseback, ofwhich only the head of the rider was completed in red-figure technique. A few of the remaining contours of the horse and rider were partially drawn in relief lines,"' the remainder visible only as faint preliminary sketch lines.There are also traces of the potter's fingerprints on the underside of the vessel. O n the interior of the mug faint traces of another sketch can be discerned,including a few relief lines. The figure, barely visible in good raking light and virtually impossible to render adequately photographically,may be a dancing satyr next to a calyx-krater, that was subsequently covered over with black glaze.'12 In discussing both sketches, Michael Padgett writes: "Because one design was covered up and the other left unfinished, it is probable that these were practice sketches made to test compositions intended for use elsewhere. The Amazon was not effaced, either from forgetfulness or because the artist wished to see how the completed head would turn out after firing."l13Padgett goes on to list a number of other vases with painted figures on their undersides.lI4 Another red-figured vessel that should be mentioned in this context is the amusing hydria of special shape-perhaps best described as a compartmented pyxis-listed by Trendall under the early vases by the Paestan potter Asteas (Fig. 4.37).'15The body of the hydria was cut right around at a point just above the horizontal handles,'16 with the result that the upper part of the vessel served as a lid.The interior of the lower half of the vessel was then divided into three compartments, one filling half the available space,the other two a quarter each. Each compartment, thus defined, was 110.The vessel is published in Knauer 1992, pp. 382-383, fig. 8; Russell 1994, pp. 40-41, no. 20 (described by Padgett); Padgett 1996, p. 80, fig. 12. 111. For relief lines in red-figure, see esp. Seiterle 1976,1987; Kunisch 1994. 112. Russell 1994,p. 40. I am grateful to Michael Padgett for providing further details about this vessel.
113. In Russell 1994, p. 41. 114. In Russell 1994, p. 41; these include, among others, Attic black- and red-figure, Apulian and Campanian red-figure, a series of small bowls and plastic vases. See, in particular, Greifenhagen 1971;ABc p. 265; Aurigemma 1960,pls. 172,223; 1965,pls. 5,130; RVAp I, p. 417, no. 17,pl. 151:l;Trendall 1983, p. 155, no. 764a (underside
Figure 4.36. Athenian black-glazed two-handled mug. T h e Art Museum, Princeton University, Museum purchase, Classical Purchase Fund (Y1987-70). Courtesy Museum
of lid); Burow 1986,pp. 55-56, pl. 24:l-4. 115.Trendall 1987,pp. 77-78, pl. 37, no. 2/86. The hydria, published by Trendall as "once London Market," is now in Tampa, Museum of Art. 116. Compare the much earlier Athenian Middle Geometric hydria published in Papadopoulos 1998.
TEST-PIECES
Figure 4.37. Paestan red-figured hydria of special shape. Tampa Museum of Art, Museum purchase and Judith R. Blanchard Memorial Fund, inv. 89.98. Courtesy Museum
117.See Trendall 1987,p. 77.
I N LATER PERIODS
269
equipped with a small, flat lid, each with two small holes facilitating its removal. Although the exterior of the hydria was decorated in normal redfigure technique, each of the three internal lids was similarly decorated, but with the background never filled in.The largest of the lids is decorated with a phylax figure, the other two with human heads, one male and one female; the lid with the female head has a matching head on both sides."' Had these lids been found as fragments, they may very well have been labeled test-pieces, which they cannot be.
CHAPTER
5
C E R A M I C URSE D I V I V U S A Contribution t o the Topographical Study of Early Athens
Td 62 xwplov c5 K ~ ~ a p ~ c xTBBp2u q &opa EXEC&nd f p o q Kqdpoo, Aiovciaoo TE ~Ivacxal 'ApidSqs xal ~ o h o kyophvoo. o n&v 6h Emiv Ev &el@ xaAoopPq oroa paot'kcos, EvOa xaOe~cpaoli\Ebq Evcaoolav dipxwv xaAoopdqv p a o k l a v . (Paus. 1.3.1) The district of the Kerameikos takes its namefiom the hero Keramos, the reputed son of Dionysos anddriadne. First on the right is the so-called Stoa Basileios, where the Basileus sits holding the annual ofice of the so-called kingship. This quote, taken from Pausanias' description of Athens, exemplifies some of the contradictions between ancient texts and modern scholarship. I n much of the modern literature concerning the topography of Athens the location of the Stoa Basileios in the Kerameikos would seem odd, even contrary to what has virtually become modern common knowledge. Moreover, the Stoa Basileios is not the only monument that modern topographers would place in the Athenian Agora and that ancient texts specifically locate in the Kerameikos. The list is long, and includes such wellknown and conspicuous Athenian landmarks as the Stoa of Attalos, the Bema, and the statues of Harmodios and Aristogeiton, to mention only a few. Nor does Pausanias stand alone; references to buildings and other monuments that stood in what can be termed the "Agora-in-the-Kerameikos" are found in numerous ancient authors, spanning many centuries. It will emerge that there is a good deal of ambiguity in the extant texts concerning the marketplace within the potters' field. Yet much of this ambiguity rests squarely in the context of modern scholarship. I doubt whether there was ever any confusion in Pausanias' mind about where the Agora or the Kerameikos was located, and even less so to an Athenian of the Archaic or Classical period. Few areas of Classical archaeology have received the continued attention bestowed on the topography of early Athens-ancient and modernand even fewer have remained so controversial. T h e bibliography on the subject is daunting, and one of the results of its sheer quantity is that there has been something of a tendency to argue by response to previous scholarship rather than by a more straightforward assessment of the evidence in
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5
hand. The written word-ancient and modern-has loomed large in this scholarly endeavor, so much so that the material record has often been shaped and defined by the literary evidence.' Rather than privileging written documents over archaeological material, I will begin with the material record, particularly the potters' debris-test-pieces, wasters and other production discards, kiln furniture and the like-presented in this volume. This is material that derives from wells and pits interspersed among one of the heaviest concentrations of burials in the ancient city. Although excavated over the course of decades, this is a single and large body of new material that has a direct bearing on several issues concerning the history and topography of Athens. Using this excavated evidence as the starting point, the study in this chapter aims to move forward in time from prehistory into history. The early history and topography of Athens has fallen victim to a methodology that insists on beginning in the familiar landscape of the 5th century B.C.and from there working back in time, aided by literary testimonia. Here the opposite approach is used, ending rather than beginning in the 5th century B.c., and thereby allowing an earlier period its legacy and influence on the cultural landscape of a later time. The literary evidence will not be eschewed. O n the contrary, it will feature prominently in the following pages, with testimonia being scrutinized both for what their authors said and wished to say, and also for the unarticulated assumptions these writings carry. The literary evidence is not the focus but rather a corollary of archaeology, put to the service of the material record.
PITS, W E L L S , POTTERS' A C T I V I T Y , AND T O M B S The prevalent view that the area that was to become the Classical Athenian Agora was settled in the Early Iron Age was briefly noted in Chapter 1. The existence of pits and wells generally suggested habitation, and the presence of tombs was explained by there being various hamlets, each with its own family burial plot. The scenario is presented most succinctly by John Camp, as follows: To the Dark Ages should be dated the beginning of regular and extensive habitation in what was later to become the Agora. The evidence is indirect but clear that starting in the years around 1000 B.C.and continuing down to 600 B.C.the area was used for houses as well as burials. Later quarrying and leveling of the Agora have removed all trace of actual structures from these early periods, but the shafts of wells sunk in the bedrock remain. The assumption is that each well stood in the courtyard of a private house and that they can be used to indicate the probable location and density of prehistoric houses now lost. Together with the burials they show a pattern of increasing population in this part of Athens from 1000 to 700 B . C . ~
1. See Papadopoulos 1999, esp. pp. 385-386. 2. Camp 1986, p. 33; elsewhere (p. 24) he states: "The wells which reflect the positions of early houses were dug deep into bedrock and give some idea of the density of habitation when the area was being used as a residential district from about 1000600 ~ . c . " T h eassumption of the importance of wells as denoting evidence for habitation is most recently argued by Rhys Townsend. In discussing the history of the area on the east side of the Agora in Agora XXVII, p. 11, Townsend writes: "From the Protogeometric through Late Geometric periods, the Agora came to be used more and more for habitation. Again, no actual structures remain in the section to the east of the Panathenaic Way." In Agora XXVII, p. 12, Townsend notes that the total absence of wells from one very large area "is exceptional and may signal that the land was considered to be not particularly desirable real estate." Although no domestic structures of the Early Iron Age have actually been found in the area, Townsend concludes (Agora XXVII, p. 12): "Nevertheless, for a time in the second half of the 8th century, when the land further west grew increasingly
CERAMICUS REDIVIVUS
273
This scenario has never been seriously questioned, and its acceptance has been equally upheld by prehistorians whose work shows a concern for social issues and by more traditional classical scholar^.^ Among others, Ian Morris writes: "Young wished to believe that this area had been given over entirely to burials after 900 B.c., but this was obviously not so. The settled area north of the Areopagus included small type A plots, scattered along the paths, between houses and well^."^ Such an assumption can no longer be maintained. First of all, the Early Iron Age graves are in fact part of several large cemeteries that dominate the area; in this Rodney Young's belief that the area was largely given over to tombs after 900 B.C.was probably much closer to the truth. There are at least three, and probably four, well-defined burial grounds, most of which begin in the Late Bronze Age and continue throughout the Early Iron Age (Fig. 1.2 [p. 21). One cemetery is located on the north slopes of the Areiopagos, another on the Kolonos Agoraios, and a third along the south bank of the E r i d a n ~ s most , ~ heavily concentrated in the area beneath and around the north end of the later Stoa of Attalos. A fourth cemetery, thus far known only from a few tombs, is currently being excavated on the north side of the E r i d a n ~ sThese . ~ Mycenaean, Protogeometric, and Geometric graves are not arranged in small, discrete plots, but are part of large burial grounds.' Despite considerable destruction of earlier burials by building activity in the Classical period and later, as well as the fact that many earlier tombs are now located, and effectively hidden, beneath later monuments, it is nevertheless remarkable how extensive these cemeteries are. Moreover, a careful study of the excavation notebooks of the Agora Excavations reveals that in many areas where bedrock was exposed numerous destroyed, looted, or damaged burial pits were in fact encountered. One such area was the Kolonos Agoraios (Fig. 5.1); here a large number of empty pits were found cut into bedrock, and these had both a configuration very similar to those of the better-preserved tombs nearby and crowded with houses, habitation necessarily spread eastward. The area did not long remain settled, however; around 700 B.c., a drought closed the wells and forced abandonment of the structures they served, both here and throughout the region of the Agora." For the drought, see Camp 1979. 3. See, among others, Desborough 1952, p. 1; 1972, pp. 261-265,362; Snodgrass 1971, p. 363; 1980, pp. 2934,154-157; Coldstream 1977, p. 315; 1995, p. 393; Morris 1987, pp. 63-69; Whitley 1991, pp. 61-64; see also Kerameikos I. 4. Morris 1987, p. 65; Morris' comments are very closely echoed by James Whitley (1991, pp. 61-64). See, however, Young 1949a, esp. pp. 275-279; cf.
Camp 1986, pp. 24,33;AgoraXIV, pp. 9-18; Agora XXVII, pp. 11-12. 5. For the position of the Eridanos River in relation to the area of the Athenian Agora, see, most recently, Shear 1997, pp. 514-521; for the history of the Eridanos in the area of the German Kerameikos excavations, see Knigge 1991, pp. 56-67. The early contribution by Dorpfeld (1888) is still useful. 6. I had speculated on the existence of this cemetery in Papadopoulos 1996, p. 121; cf. Little and Papadopoulos 1998, p. 376, note 3. The idea of a large cemetery extending, along the Eridanos, from the area of the German excavations in the Athenian Kerameikos to the area of the American
excavations in the Athenian Agora was first suggested by Wilhelm Kraiker in Kerameikos I, pp. 3, 132. For a preliminary report on some of the tombs most recently excavated in the area of the Classical Agora, north of the Eridanos, see Camp 1999, pp. 263-265. 7. For the Late Bronze Age tombs see Agora XIII; for graves of the Early Iron Age see Agora VIII. For later burials see Young 1951b; the existence of the so-called pyre burials intra urbem has been rightly viewed with skepticism (see Agora XIV, p. 16; Knigge and Kovacsovics 1981, p. 388), and most recently rejected in Jordan and Rotroff 1999, p. 147; cf. Shear 1973a, p. 151, note 68. For burials within the city see also the comments in Winter 1982.
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CHAPTER
5 Figure 5.1. Empty pits in bedrockin Sector II@ on the Kolonos Agoraios (nestanding for llhmcla @quchv). Note the proximity of bedrock here to the modem surface.
identical dimension^.^ It is interesting - to note that the same area in and around the so-called Hephaisteionwas used for burials at a much later date.9 Second, not only were many of the various pits and wells in the area, as is outlined in Chapter 2, filled with potters' debris, but it is likely that these wells, including those largely filled with domestic debris, served pottery establishments rather than private dwellings. The importance of a ready water supply to a potter's workshop cannot be stressed enough and any pottery industry in the area of the later Athenian Agora would have been well watered by a combination of the Eridanos, numerous wells, and several natural lines of drainage in what was always a low area of Athens 8. The Early Iron Age cemetery, along with the pits in bedrock representinglooted and destroyed earlier tombs, will be discussed in more detail in the forthcoming volume on the Early Iron Age tombs. 9. Dinsmoor 1941, pp. 6-30, for the medieval and Protestant graves;
burials in the "Theseion" probably ceased soon after the outbreak of the War of Independence (Dinsmoor 1941, p. 30). The earliest burial in this area is the solitary Neolithic grave published in Agora XIII, pp. 92-93. This tomb was originally published in Shear 1936, pp. 20-21, figs. 17-18, as Neolithic.
It was subsequently assigned to the Middle HelIadic period by Sara Immenvahr in Agora XIII, pp. 92-93, and in Immerwahr 1973, p. 4, figs. 3-4, but was later reassigned to the Neolithic period in Immerwahr 1982; the tomb is further discussed in Little and Papadopoulos 1998, p. 382.
CERAMICUS REDIVIVUS
10. For the importance of water supply to a pottery industry, see Cuomo di Caprio 1992; for the procurement of water and the elaborate later waterworks in the area of the Agora see the useful overview in Lang 1968. 11.Thompson 1940. 12. Burr 1933. 13.Thompson 1968, esp. pp. 58-60; 1978. See also Lalonde 1968. 14. See esp.Thompson 1978; Wycherley 1978, esp. pp. 143-200. See also Liston and Papadopoulos, forthcoming. 15. For other inner-city heroa, see, for example, Bruneau 1970; Williams 1981; and further discussion in Papadopoulos 2000a. 16.The bibliography on the Early Iron Age hero and heroa has become extensive. Among numerous other contributions see, in particular, Coldstream 1976; Snodgrass 1988; Morris 1988; Whitley 1988; Antonaccio 1992,1994,1995. Later periods have been less well served, although the work of Susan Alcock is an important exception to this trend; see Alcock 1991. 17.Young 1939. 18. See the plan of wells and burials inAgo?-aVIII, pl. 45; cf. Agora XIIT, p. 10. 19.Note especially discussion of pieces such as 101 (pp. 121-122). 20. Camp 1979. 21. Although the theory is cogently rejected by Ian Morris (1987, pp. 158161).
275
prone to flooding." More significantly, one of the very few structures of the period to have survived the vicissitudes of the later building activity of the area was the kiln near the 1aterTholos (Chapter 2)." Here it is worth stressing that the identification of the solitary "house" of the period, excavated in the 1930s and ~ r o m p t l ypublished by Dorothy Burr,I2 has been correctly debunked and reinterpreted as an early shrine.'' Indeed, the so-called Geometric House has been considered a "hero-shrine," located as it is near earlier burials, including some of the most prominent Mycenaean chamber tombs in Athens, as well as rich Early Iron Age burials, such as that of the so-called Rich Athenian Lady.lThis is one of several inner-city version^'^ of early heroa that are more commonly found in the Early Iron Age and later countryside." When comparing the pattern of distribution, as it is preserved, of the potters' deposits with that of the tombs (Figs. 1.2, 1.4 [p. 4]), it is clear that this was not a random distribution. The deposits containing potters' debris tend to be concentrated in the central portion of the area, essentially between the Kolonos Agoraios, the south bank of the Eridanos, and the Areiopagos north slope cemeteries. This central area, later built over by the Middle Stoa and Odeion, was relatively, if not totally, free of tombs. There are also diachronic factors at play. For example, Protogeometric potters' deposits are rarely sited in close proximity to contemporary burials, but have a tendency to cluster in those areas where there were earlier Mycenaean graves. In a similar vein, the latest burials in the area of the Classical Athenian Agora, including the one clearly defined small burial plot in the area," occupied precisely those areas where there were no earlier tombs or deposits with concentrations of potters' refuse. In fact, the majority of the Late Geometric burials cluster on the west and northwest slopes of the Areiopagos and on the southeast slopes of the Kolonos Agoraios.That is to say, as the earlier burial grounds were filled with tombs over time, later burials occupied what little ground was left. A few isolated Late Geometric graves are scattered elsewhere in the area, but never in places of concentrations of earlier tombs. A number of Early Iron Age wells in the area contain little or no obvious potters' debris. All of these are, however, located in close proximity to wells with potters' material, including the large Protogeometric potters' deposit (L 11:1), the kiln (H 12:17), and the 7th-century potter's dump (S 17:2), and most of these would have served the same pottery establishment^.^^ Moreover, as was stressed in earlier chapters (1 and 2), much of the discarded fragmentary pottery usually interpreted as the result of normal domestic use was, in fact, potters' debris.lYThe interpretation proposed here, that many of the wells were associated not with domestic habitation but with pottery workshops, brings to mind the issue of a drought, explored by Camp.20The latter correctly observed that many wells in the area of the Classical Agora were closed sometime around 700 B.c., that some of these were considerably deeper than normal, and that shortly afterward the number of graves declined rather drastically. O n the basis of this and other evidence, Camp concluded that there was a drought, shortly before 700 B.C.Whatever the reality of the drought theory, widely accepted by many archaeologist^,^^ the pattern seen in the area of the Classical Agora has little to do with population estimates, settlements, or demography, and much to do with potters and their industry.
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T h e pattern of burials and potters' activity seen in the area of the Classical Athenian Agora is not unique. Indeed, the location of pottery workshops, particularly kilns, on the site of an earlier cemetery, or the establishment of a burial ground on the site of earlier potters' activity, is well known at a number of sites in the Greek world, including, among many others, Argos, Sindos, Rhodes, Atalante, Torone, and, of course, the area of the German Excavations in the later Kerameikos of Athens.22T h e primary reason kilns and tombs are so often found in such close proximity is that both are usually sited outside the main area of habitation of any settlement.2Woreover, the term "potters' field" in English tradition has come to mean a public burial place for paupers, unknown persons, and crimithis usage ultimately derives from the passage in Matn a l ~ . Although ~' thew 27:7, which refers to the purchase of a potter's field for use as a graveyard, the association of potters' quarters and burial grounds has a much older ancestry. Here it is worth noting that pottery and death find an appropriate, if coincidental, association in the stele of Keramo, the earliest known Attic inscribed g r a v e s t ~ n e . ~ ~ The extent ofboth the potters'activity and the cemetery grounds northwest of the Acropolis and east of the Kolonos Agoraios was so great in the Early Iron Age that it left essentially no room for any real form of concentrated habitation. In this context it is worth stressing another important diachronic factor, the location of kilns and potters' activity in the so-called Kerameikos in the Archaic and Classical periods. As Richard Wycherley points out, in all extant literary authorities it is always "Kerameikos" or "the Kerameikos"; the convenient terms "Inner Kerameikos" and "Outer Kerameikos" are inventions of modern topographer^.^^ Despite more than a century of excavations in and around Athens, there is, to my knowledge, only minor evidence for potters' workshops of the Archaic and Classical periods within the fortified city of Athens, with the exception of that area just within and around the Dipylon Gate, the area that is universally known as the Kerameikos. T h e evidence for pottery activity in the Archaic and Classical periods was collected by Robert and more recently amplified by John Oakley and Efi Baziotopoulou-Valavani.28T h e latter, in 22. At Argos, Protogeometric kilns, or industrial furnaces not necessarily of potters, were found in close proximity to Submycenaean and Protogeometric tombs: Courbin 1963, pp. 71-72; also noted in Desborough 1964,p. 278. For the kilns of the late Classical period at the site of the Archaic and Classical cemetery at Sindos in Macedonia, see Despoine 1982; for Torone and references to Rhodes, Atalante, and other examples, see Papadopoulos 1989a,p. 13, notes 8-10, pp. 43-44; for Atalante, see further Lambropoulou 1983. For kilns in the area of the German excavations in the Kerameikos, see Cook 1961, kilns GI-G6, H2-H6,
J1-J4; Kerameikos X, pp. 142-143,173175. Many more kilns, particularly of the Late Roman period, have been excavated recently: see Papadopoulos 1989a,p. 13, note 9; see also Zachariadou, Kyriakou, and Baziotopoulou 1992, esp. pp. 54-55, fig. 1, for the association of pottery kilns and tombs. 23. For the location of cemeteries outside areas of habitation, see Kurtz and Boardman 1971,pp. 188-189; Morris 1987,p. 65. 24. Colman 1997, pp. 113-114. 25. See Jeffery 1990,pp. 71,76, no. 8, pl. 2; see also Jeffery 1962,p. 129; Morris 1987, p. 53. 26. So states Wycherley (Agora111,
p. 224).The only ancient reference that I am aware of that alludes to two Kerameikoi (6 yiv Zvdov q "-l
dDS Curve
\
0.00-
Figure A l . DS and dDS curves for firing and refiring cycles of an 800°C Amaroussi ceramic block. DS peak apex and dDS onset tangents are indicated.
18. Freeman 1958. 19. Heimann and Franklin 1979. 20. Tite 1969. 21. Kingery 1974.
Onret 8 4 8 . 4 4 'C
3
02-
0.04
Several sources of error exist in dilatometric estimates of firing temperature; these relate primarily to: (a) firing kinetics; (b) reformation of clay minerals during burial; (c) production of gases during DS measurements. O n a fundamental level, ceramic blocks must be heated very slowly in a dilatometer in order to maintain minimal internal thermal gradients. Otherwise, the furnace temperature may greatly exceed that of the ceramic block, causing the measured sintering temperature to be above the original firing temperature. It is possible to correct for this "temperature overshoot" by using the firing and refiring procedure described above. As mentioned earlier, the shrinkage of ceramics upon firing is dependent upon the heating profile and the time at a given temperature.18 Heimann was able to extend the measurement range of firing temperatures by introducing a new calibration method.19 In replicate studies of a Roman terra sigillata plate, Heimann found the second sintering temperature to be more precise than the first. Therefore, the second sintering temperature was used in a calibration curve versus Te¶ to estimate the firing temperature, which was linear over the range of 700-1200°C. To explain these findings, Heimann reasoned that sintering kinetics are exponentially related to temperature. Thus, the standard correction factor from refiring experiments is the error between the experimentally obtained refiring rate and the ancient rate of firing. This error increases for lower fired ceramics, because the time that is required to attain a state of equilibrium increases greatly at lower temperatures. Adsorption of water by the glassy and amorphous phases leads to a reduction in Teq, because the water is driven off during the measurement cycle.20Additionally, ceramics that were originally fired below the range of 700-800°C may gradually reacquire many of the characteristics of unfired clayz1If these samples are measured in the dilatometer, reactions of the newly formed clay minerals may produce features in the D S curve that overlap with the normal profile of expansion and contraction.
322
APPENDIX
Bloating is caused by the expansion of gases released during heating from organic matter, carbonates, and sulfides, which leads to increased porosity and a large, irreversible expansion.22In fact, for ceramics with very high calcite content, it may be impossible to estimate firing temperatures either from dilatometry or from refiring experiments. Such was the case for an ancient Roman facing brick that was found in Berala, near O~tia.~" In a study of a set of ancient potsherds from Iraq andTurkey, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to examine the internal morphology that developed during firing, the pore structure, and the extent ofvitrificat i ~ nThe . ~ original ~ firing temperatures were estimated by refiring and reexamining the sherds, and heating rates of 200°C per hour and soaking times of one hour at the peak temperature were employed in the refiring experiments. For calcareous clays, it was discovered that if the soaking times were on the order of five minutes, or if the heating rates were 800°C per hour, firing temperature would have to be higher by 50°C to achieve the same extent of vitrification observed in the sherds. Furthermore, if clays were fired in a reducing atmosphere, firing temperatures lower by approximately 50°C would produce an equivalent ~itrification.~'
T H E USE O F OTHER THERMOANALYTIC M E T H O D S FOR TESTING CERAMICS To determine if ceramic specimens contain carbonates or other materials that evolve gases during heating, thermogravimetry (TG) may be used. T G is an extremely useful technique for analyzing clays and clay minerals in which sample weight is monitored as a function of temperature. Accordingly, reactions that lead to weight loss (e.g., evaporation of adsorbed water, dehydroxylation of clay minerals, decarboxylation of calcite) are indicated as weight-loss steps on the T G curve. The magnitude of a weightloss step relates to the percentage of a given component in a sample. It is common to include the first derivative of the T G curve, abbreviated as D T G , along with the T G data because of the ease of comparison to DTA curves. T G may be interfaced with other thermal analysis methods to increase the amount of useful information that can be obtained. For instance, instruments that combine T G and differential thermal analysis (DTA) are quite commonly used for analysis of minerals. And by coupling T G with evolved gas analysis (using a mass spectrometer), it is also possible to identify the type of gas that is evolved during a weight-loss step. This is an important feature in testing ceramics, because the weight-loss steps for dehydroxylation of clays and decarboxylation of calcite may overlap, making it difficult to identifj exactly which of the two reactions is occurring. But when evolved gas analysis (EGA) of clays is performed simultaneously, one can observe separate peaks for water and carbon dioxide, making it possible to assess the precise nature of the weight-loss reaction. Figure A2:a-b illustrates curves for the T G , D T G , DTA, and E G A of two modern clays.
22. Tite 1969; Maggetti and Rossmanith 1981;Johnson et al. 1988. 23, Cole and Crook 1962. 24. Tite and Maniatis 1975. 25. Tite and Maniatis 1975.
THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS
Figure A2. TG, DTG, DTA, and EGA curves for modem Kalogreza (a) and Amaroussi (b) clays
-
,J
Sample: Kalogrera clay, 45.1850 mg
10-
coa 700 000 PO0 'C 30 . 100 100 100 400 LOO 600 I . . . . 8 . ' . " : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ; : : : : : : : : : ; : : : : : '
0
100
30
I . .
0
7
.
8
SILrnple:
h c o u a a i clay, 65.5720 mg
100
9
400
100
600
SO0
CQZ
900
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
90
100
'C
I.ln
THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS A N D DILATOMETRY
F ! e wbaring lol Magnellc
mmplMRllm
Figure A3. Schematic diagram of Mettler TMA40 from owner's manual
A thermomechanical analyzer, or TMA, is a laboratory instrument that functions very much like a dilatometer. The basic design of a dilatometer is modified to construct the TMA, which can then accommodate much smaller samples. For example, the T M A can measure sample pieces ranging in size from tiny, submillimeter chips to blocks up to 1 cm3 in size. Moreover, it is possible to measure powdered samples if they are placed between two rigid, inert discs prior to testing. A schematic representation of the Mettler TMA4O is shown in Figure A3. For DS measurements of ceramics, as little as 20 micrograms of ceramic powder appear to be a sufficient quantity. One important feature of modern T M A equipment is the capability it provides of mathematically manipulating the DS data by computer. For example, a usefbl corollary to DS data is the first derivative of the DS curve, which may be abbreviated as dDS. Interestingly, for some samples
324
APPENDIX
of ancient ceramics with relatively high lime content, the onset of sintering is much more clearly evident in the dDS curve than in the original D S curve. T M A and dilatometry have been used in other studies of ancient earthen materials. Mavroyannakis measured thermal expansion coefficients . ~ ~ in a of ancient Greek potsherds, including some from A m a r o ~ s s iAnd paper by Widemann, Boller, and Bayer, T M A and other thermal analysis techniques were used to study Q n Dynasty terracotta warriors from China." However, a published study that established T M A as a routine tool for estimating firing temperatures was lacking.
O U T L I N E O F STUDY Before analyzing the test-pieces under study here, it was necessary to establish that TMA could be used for determining firing temperature. To this end, test specimens of fired ceramics were prepared in order to test the accuracy and reliability of the method. Samples of modern clays from Amaroussi and Kalogreza were fired at various temperatures (700°, 80O0, 850°, and 900°C) in a small, custom-built electric furnace that was regulated by a platinum-rhodium thermocouple and a CN382 electronic controller, both manufactured by Omega. Following a published protocol,28 heating rates of roughly 80O0C/hour were employed, followed by soaking times of 24 hours at the maximum furnace temperature. Shorter soaking times gave less consistent results, evidently due to the lime content of the clays. D S curves were obtained from block and powder samples of these fired test specimens. Firing temperatures were estimated using the intersection of tangent lines at the peak apex and also, for comparison, from the onset of change in the dDS curves. Next, D S measurements were made on a set of 800°Cblocks ofvarious sizes and weights in order to assess if firing temperature estimates might be affected by sample size. Then for a small number of test-pieces, D S measurements were made on small blocks and the corresponding powder samples in order to determine if blocks and powders of ancient pottery yielded comparable D S curves. Firing temperatures were estimated both from the extrapolated apex and the onset of change in the dDS curves. Additionally, thermogravimetric analyses were performed on a number of samples to check if carbonates or hydroxylated clays were present. Finally, D S curves were measured on a small sample of powder for each test-piece in the set.
Each sample that was tested was examined for color and for the presence of a paint layer. Small blocks approximately 1 mm on a side were cut or fractured from the samples with the aid of a sharp scalpel. To make a block suitable for T M A testing, any major irregularities were abraded with a metal file to produce a pair of roughly parallel faces on the block. Powdered samples were produced by crushing small bits that were made during block preparation. It was quite evident from the sample preparation
26. Mavroyannakis 1981. 27. Widemann, Boller, and Bayer 1988. 28. Heimann and Franklin 1979.
THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS
325
step that none of the pieces had been fired to very high temperatures, because all were relatively easy to cleave, scratch, and abrade. A Mettler TG50 thermobalance with TClOA controller was used to perform thermogravimetric analyses (TG). Also employed in this study was a MettlerTGA851, which simultaneously performed differential thermal analysis (DTA),T G , and evolved gas analysis by a Balzers Thermostar mass spectrometer. Uncovered alumina or platinum crucibles with a nominal capacity of 150 pl were used to contain the samples. T G measurement data recorded for an empty crucible served as a blank, and were subtracted from the sample measurement data. T M A studies were conducted using a Mettler TMA40 thermomechanical analyzer with a Mettler TClOA or TC15 controller. Blocks were placed directly between the T M A fused silica platform and the probe, whereas powders were placed between alumina or fused silica disks. T M A measurement data recorded for two clean alumina or fused silica disks served as a blank analysis for subtraction from measurement data obtained from powder samples. It was found that the expansion curve for two alumina disks is featureless except for a small, constant slope; this produces a slight negative offset in the dDS curve. In most instances, T G and T M A measurement data were recorded between 20" and 100O0C,with heating rates of either 5" or 1O0C/minute. The T G and T M A furnaces were purged with dry air that was set to a nominal flow rate of 100 mllminute.
CONCLUSIONS: RESULTS A N D DISCUSSION
29. Schilling 1990. 30.Johnson et al. 1988.
The TG results for unfired Kalogreza and Amaroussi clays (Fig. A2:a-b) show that approximately 10% of the starting weight was lost over a series of four discrete weight-loss steps upon firing to 1000°C.Evolved gas analysis revealed that (1) water was desorbed during the first weight-loss step; (2) smectitic minerals dehydrated during the second step; (3) dehydroxylation of the silicate lattice occurred during the third step; (4) carbon dioxide was evolved over the fourth step. These findings are in keeping with other thermoanalytic studies of clay minerals.29 However, the two clays differed greatly in their carbonate contents. Between 600°C and 750°C, the carbon dioxide weight losses for Kalogreza and Amaroussi clays were 1.4% and 3.8%, respectively; these values correspond to respective calcite contents of 3.5% and 10% by weight. Thus, the firing process for Amaroussi clay should be more affected by carbonates than would Kalogreza clay. Interestingly, the DTA results for the Amaroussi clay showed an exothermic peak, which was taken as evidence for combustion of a small amount of organic materials. In the light of a study of the retention by fired pottery of organic substance^,^^ this finding suggests that organic material that is naturally present in the raw clay minerals could contaminate potsherds. Regarding the accuracy of the T M A method for estimating firing temperatures, the most consistent firing temperature estimates were obtained for the block samples, whereas the results for the powders were
APPENDIX
326
A
Unfired
1 opm
C
Unfired
10pm
6
Fired at 900 "C
topm
D
Fired at 900 O C
I 0pm
somewhat more variable. For both clay specimens, the firing temperature estimate for each block was within ?2O0Cof the known soaking temperature, which is consistent with the accuracy limits of dilatometrY3lRegarding the powder samples, the results for both clays that were fired to 700°C and 800°C were also within 220°C of the known soaking temperatures, and the same was also true for the 900°C Kalogreza specimen. However, a measured firing temperature of 820°Cwas determined for Amaroussi clay that was fired to 900°C. Evidently, the higher lime content in Amaroussi clay acted as a flux, thus lowering the apparent firing temperature of the powder. SEM was used to examine the fired Kalogreza and Arnaroussi clays to look for evidence of the effects of calcite on vitrification. Figure A4 shows the results for the unfired clay plus the samples fired at 800°C and 900°C. Vitrificationwas not evident for the 800°Csamples of either clay, whereas Amaroussi clay fired to 900°C showed clear evidence of vitrification but Kalogreza clay did not. According to Tite, extensive vitrification in calcareous clays can be achieved at a comparativelylow firing temperature of 850°C.32It appears
Figure A4. SEM photomicrographs ofmodem clays:a) unfiredKdogreza;b) ~d~~~~~ firedto 9 0 ~ ~ ; ,) UnfiredAmaroussi;d) Amaroussi fired to 900°C
31.Tite 1969. 32. Tite 1969.
THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS
F'
327
Sample: BlOC test, ( S x S x 8 1 "33 block, 641 rg, 5 . 2 4 0 0
1
siuaple: 8 1 0 C rest. , z x z x i ~ "33
moct,
1 ru block, 1 5
6 7 ng, 3.1100
w,
l
.
5
*
0
2
h
y
l
Figure AS. DS and dDS curves for firing and refiring cycles of blocks of 800°C-fired Amaroussi clay of various sizes and weights
Sample: 8OOC test, powder 1, 23.8000e-03 mm 2nset 0 0 1 05 'C
O r s e t 8 4 7 . 1 2 'C
Figure A6. DS and dDS curves for firing and refiring cycles of powder Amaroussi clay fired to 800°C. DS peak apex and dDS onset tangents are indicated.
33. Palmiter and Johnston 1988.
as a network of smooth-surfaced glass filaments forming an open or cellular structure over the fracture surface. Interestingly, the same extent of vitrification was observed in calcareous clay fired to 850°C as in refractory clay fired between 950 and 1000°C. Because the SEM images of calcareous ceramics show little variability in the extent of vitrification up to high temperature, a broad firing temperature range of 850-1050°C was reported for these ancient sherds. It has also been reported that SEM is not an ideal tool for determining firing temperature of pottery fired below 800°C, because evidence of vitrification appears only at higher temperature^.^^ Figure A5 shows the D S and dDS results for the set of 800°C Amaroussi ceramic blocks of various sizes that were tested to demonstrate the effects of sample size on the firing temperature measurements. For comparison, Figure A6 gives the same results for the 800°C-fired Amaroussi powder. No significant variation was observed in the measured sintering temperature for the set of samples. This is a somewhat surprising result,
APPENDIX
328
TABLE A l . DILATION/SINTERING RESULTS F O R SELECTED A T H E N I A N AGORA TEST-PIECES Cat. No. (Inv.No.)
% CO,
5 ( P 17265)
0
18 ( P 17263)
4
9 ( P 17262)
3
42 (P 17245)
2
4 ( P 17264)
0
49 ( P 20481)
2
41 ( P 20483)
0
Powder Apex dDS
Block Apex dDS
First heating After refiring to 850°C Corrected firing temperature First heating After refiring to 850°C Corrected firing temperature First heating After refiring to 850°C Corrected firing temperature First heating After refiring to 850°C Corrected firing temperature First heating After refiring to 850°C Corrected firing temperature First heating After refiring to 850°C Corrected firing temperature First heating After refiring to 850°C Corrected firing temperature
Extrapolated apex and dDS onset temperatures for firing and refiring cycles, with corrected firing temperatures (all given in "C). Where no entry appears, the graphical evaluations were inconclusive.
because one might expect sintering kinetics to be quite sensitive to temperature gradients within the sample whereas the linear coefficient of thermal expansion is not dependent on the rate of heating. Essentially, Figure A5 demonstrates that a thermomechanical analyzer can be considered to be a dilatometer in the context of assessing firing temperatures of minute block samples. Table A1 lists the results of the comparison study for block and powder samples from the Agora test-pieces. For a given piece of ceramic, small blocks and powder samples gave nearly identical firing temperatures and, moreover, consistent results were obtained between the evaluation of the extrapolated apex and compared to the dDS curves. The fact that firing temperatures may be ascertained either from extrapolated apex or from dDS measurements is convenient because for some samples the peak apex may be skewed and asymmetrical, making it difficult to accurately orient the tangent lines. The exact cause of this feature is currently unknown, but it may be related to evolution of gases during heating. I t should be stated, however, that apex measurements are comparatively more reliable because the peak maximum is the most prominent feature in most D S curves. However, onset data from dDS curves may
34. Heimann and Franklin 1979.
THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS
t
marbie b l o c k f o r c e r m c s . 3 1 8390
3-11
TG far c s r m c s . 1.1730
S n n p : ~ . xarall pa*dsr
200
100
; ;
i
:
~
~
300
i
i
:
~
:
~
i
.
~
:
i
~
~
~
~
~
;
;
~
i
:
100
f
~
~
mJ
"~
EGA for C 0 2
Figure A7. Overlays of DS and dDS curves for a block of marble and for powdered marble
Sample: marble powder between two quart= dioks, 39.0000e-03 am
1
1
1
Sample: marble block between two quartz dioks, 1.1347 am
Sample; marble powder between two quartz dioks, 39.0000e-03 am
Figure A8. Overlays of TG and DTG results for a block of marble and for powdered marble
provide useful alternatives for more problematic samples, and can be used as a check for consistency in the measurement. Carbonates that are present in ceramics may influence the shape of the D S curves. Overlays of D S curves and T G results for a block of marble and for powdered marble are illustrated in Figures A7 and A8. Because the carbon dioxide weight loss is nearly complete below 700°C, it is apparent that decarboxylation proceeds much more rapidly from the small powder sample. In contrast, for the marble block the weight loss continues well above 900°C and onset of decarboxylation is shifted to higher temperatures. Considering that many ceramics (including the test-pieces listed in Table A l ) are fired below 900°C, decarboxylation may. -present a serious problem for dilatometric analysis of large ceramic blocks, whereas the effects are likely to be less severe for small blocks or powders tested in the TMA. Firing temperature and T G results for a selection of test-pieces are listed in Table A2. Typical D S profiles plus curves for T G , D T G , and
:
i
;
:
;
APPENDIX
330
TABLE A2. DILATION/SINTERING A N D T H E R M O GRAVIMETRY RESULTS FOR A T H E N I A N AGORA TEST-PIECES Cat No./Inv No.
Color
Apex eCorr.) dDS (kCorr.)
EARLY P R O T O G E O M E TPG R I CI1: ( W E L LL 4 (P 17264) 5 (P 17265) 6 (P 20476) 7 (P 17261) 8 (P 17266) 9 (P 17262) 10 (P 32365) 11 (P 32387) 12 (P 32366) 13 (P 20475) 14 (P 20478) 15 (P 32370) 16 (P 32373) 17 (P 32378) 18 (P 17263) 19 (P 17267) 20 (P 20480) 22 (P 32372) 27 (P 32375) 28 (P 32376) 31 (P 17242) 32 (P 20474) 35 (P 20479) 36 (P 32380) 37 (P 32381) 38 (P 32383) 39 (P 32384) 40 (P 20482) 41 (P 20483) 42 (P 17245) 44 (P 32368) 45 (P 32369) 46 (P 32367) 49 (P 20481) 50 (P 20477) 52 (P 20543) 55 (P 32390)
Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Gray-orange Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Gray Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Gray Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Gray Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Gray-orange Orange-red Gray Gray Gray Gray Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Orange-red Gray-orange
770 (-20) 780 (-30) 800 830 760 780 (-10) 730 (-20) 840 730 (-40) 840 820 780 (-20) 740 (-40) 740 (-40) 770 (-20) 780 810 840 820 840 780 (-30) 720 (-40) 760 (-40) 850 850 840 700 (-40) 780 (-20) 750 (-20) 730 (-40) 740 (-50) 770 (-10) 810 770 (-10) 810 840 800
% WL
% CO,
2 2 6 4
0 0 3 2
7
3
2 5 4
0 3 2
4 4 7 5
1 4 3 1
9 6 6
4 2 2
7 3 8
3 0 2
5 4
2 1
II:I)
790 790 760 700 (t60) 790 770 770 750 770 780 (t30) 780 770 (+lo) 760 (to) 790 790 780 740 790 780 (+O) 790 760 (-20) 760 780 780 760 790 770 (t40) 770 (+lo) 780 760 790 (t20) 780 770 760
DEVELOPE PD R O T O G E O M E TPG R I CII/III : ( W E L LA 61 (P 17436) 62 (P 17437) 63 (P 17438)
Gray Gray Gray
640 (-80) 720 (-40) 820
770 750 760
7 5 3
20:s)
2 0 0
THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS
TAB L E A 2 -Continued Cat No./'Inw No.
Color
Apex
fi Corr.)
dDS (2 Corr.)
D E V E L O P PERDO T O G E O M E T R PG I CI11 : ( W E L LK 67 (P 20426) 68 (P 32355) 69 (P 32356)
Gray Orange-red Orange-red
750 750 (-40) 820
740 780
780
% WL
% CO,
12:1)
10
4
3
0
9
0
0
0
LATEP R O T O G E O M E T R I C / E A GR EL OYM E T R I C ( W E L LH 1 6 - I ~ : I )
74 (P 32363) 75 (P 32361) 76 (P 32362) 77 (P 32364) 78 (P 20631)
Orange-red Gray-orange Gray Orange-red Orange-red
760 (-40)
740 (-40) 760 840 700 (-30)
780
760
770
780
M I D D L EG E O M E T R I1/11 C ( W E L LL 6 : 2 ) 81 (P 26132) 82 (P 32349) 83 (P 6413) 85 (P 32354) 85 (P 32354) 87 (P 32352)
Gray Gray "Waster, black" Black layer Red core Orange-red
770 (-30) 840 840 810 750 (-30)
760 790
> 1000 770
770
750
A T T I CB O D YF R A G M E N T S Black-figure Black-figure B F or R F Red-figure Black-gloss Red-figure
Red clay core Red clay core Red clay core Red clay core Red clay core Red clay body
860 820 760 (-20)
840 810 (to)
810 (to)
750
750
770
Firing temperatures from extrapolated apex and dDS onset evaluations are given in "C. Where no firing temperature estimate appears, the graphical evaluations were inconclusive. DS tests that were performed on sample blocks appear in the apex and dDS columns, with correction factors given within parentheses. The firing temperatures that are reported as such have been corrected. Powder samples were tested for all other entries. Total weight loss over the temperature range 30-1000°C and weight loss for carbon dioxide are given in weight percentages.
APPENDIX
332
Sample: P1039, block, no disks, refire BSOC, 1.1663 m
i 10C
100500
200400
f ' , ',
0
'
:I,'
10
, Y , ' ,'
100
600
,'0
,' ,' ' ,'
I'
30
,' !
550
800 $ '
,' ,' '
# '
0
#'
,'Y , , 0
,
700
80001600600600
,
60
0
80
800 50
100
llO rrn
Figure A9. DS and dDS curves for Agora test-piece 1 (P 32358). D S peak apex and dDS onset tangents are indicated.
1 lP323581, 6.7 mg
--&
91-
90-
100
200
300
400
100
LOO
'00
o 100
-
anln^-l
71"
\
-3.4-
-0.8-
100
200
300
600
500
ROO
PO0
Figure A10. TG, DTG, and EGA (for carbon dioxide) curves for Agora test-piece 1 (P 32358)
E G A (for carbon dioxide) are shown in Figures A9-A14. Firing temperatures for the test-pieces varied in the 700-850°C range, regardless of time period, context, or fragment color. This range overlaps with the published findings of 600-800°C for the Asine Protogeometric pottery.35Figure A15 shows SEM images for 32 (gray in color) and 35 (orange-red), before and after refiring to 900°C for 24 hours. Vitrification has increased in both pieces after refiring, which is in keeping with the estimated firing temperatures for both pieces. Also, areas of agglomeration are present in the gray sample that may be due to remineralization. Perhaps the most startling aspect of the measured firing temperatures for the test-pieces is that they overlap with the results for the six later Attic vase fragments of the 6th and 5th centuries B.c., which include examples of black-figured, redfigured, and black-gloss pottery. As discussed in Chapter 3, these results appear to confirm that the firing technology employed by Athenian potters in the Archaic and Classical periods dates back at least as early as the Protogeometric period.
35. Hulthtn and Olsson 1983.
THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS
333
Figure A11.DS and dDS curves for Agora test-piece 4 (P 17264).DS peak apex and dDS onset tangents are indicated.
Figure A12. TG, DTG, and EGA (for carbon dioxide) curves for Agora test-piece 4 (P 17264)
36. Tite 1969. 37. Kingery 1974.
Nearly all of the test-pieces lost from 2% to 5% ofweight between 20" and 200°C, presumably through desorption of moisture and as evidenced by a change in slope in the D S curves for these samples. Studies have shown that moisture desorption has only a slight effect on the first sintering temperature, since the reduction in the first sintering temperature due to the effect of adsorbed moisture is only 10°C for most ceramics.36 None of the samples tested showed any evidence of dehydroxylation, which would appear as a weight-loss step for water at approximately 400500°C. Considering the fact that clays fired below 700-800°C may rehydroxylate during burial13'one may conclude from the TG results alone that the test-pieces were fired somewhat above the range of 700-800°C. Carbon dioxide evolution by the samples at high temperatures was quite prominent and somewhat variable, but the origin of the carbon dioxide is somewhat puzzling. The most likely source appears to be carbonate minerals formed by remineralization of the naturally occurring lime in the clays. Organic materials adsorbed into the pores of the pottery may be
APPENDIX
1
I
Samale: P204B1, black, no disks, reflre 850C. 0 . 6 3 7 0 mm
Figure A13. DS and dDS curves for Athenian Agora test-piece 49 (P 20481). DS peak apex and dDS onset tangents are indicated.
2.9
... :LL
5:)
4Ci
'ii
100
803
3:i
\
0
40
100
nil
*T,.-"-.-
-
.
DTG
.co
2iC
... :L"
4i:
3::
:c>
L n
1 -
SO: J:
O
100
O
O
loo
' '
'
'..
responsible for the small weight losses occurring below 50OoC,which would be consistent with the results for unfired Amaroussi clay (Fig. A2:b). One other intriguing, yet unconfirmed, possibility is that carbonates may have been generated by the reducing gas atmosphere in the kiln formed by reaction of the clay minerals with the gas atmosphere of the kiln during the reduction phase of firing. This could partially explain the agglomerated areas in the gray sample (Fig. A15:a). There is clearly a place for T M A determination of firing temperature in the realm of ancient ceramic studies. Due to the limited variation in the extent ofvitrification for calcareous ceramics, only broad firing ranges may be reported in SEM studies. Moreover, SEM is not an ideal tool for determining firing temperature of pottery fired below 800°C because such samples exhibit little or no evidence ofvitrification. Ultimately, the present study confirms that T M A testing of tiny ceramic blocks is of practical benefit for these two scenarios, which may be problematic for the SEM.
Figure A14. TG, DTG, and EGA (for carbon dioxide) curves for Agora test-piece 49 (P 20481)
THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS
335
d
B
Original Firing (-800 'C)
1 Dpm
C
Original Firing (-800 ' C )
10pm
Fired at 900 ' C
10pm
D
Fired at 900 O C
10pm
Figure A15. SEM images for testpieces before and after refiring to 900°Cfor 24 hours: a) 32 before firing and (b) after; c) 35 before firing and (d) after
As shown by this study, it is quite possible to perform a sintering temperature measurement on ancient potsherds using only a minute fragment taken from a broken edge. And for ceramics with low lime content, only a minute scraping of powder is required, thereby leaving the sherd virtually intact. These findinxs - fully validate the use of T M A as a substitute for dilatometry, obviating the need for removing large quantities of ceramic during sampling.They also demonstrate that firing temperature estimates obtained by T M A are reliable.
Agora = The Athenian Agora: Results ofExcavations Conducted by the American School of Classical Studies atdthens, Princeton I11 = R. E. Wycherley, Literary and Epigraphical Testimonia, 1957. IV = R. H. Howland, Greek Lamps and Their Survivals, 1958. V = H . S. Robinson, Pottery of the Roman Period: Chronology, 1959. VIII = E. T. H. Brann, Late Geometric and Protoattic Pottery, Mid 8th to Late 7th Century B.c.,1962. XI = E. B. Harrison,Archaic and Archaistic Scu(pture, 1965. XI1 = B. A. Sparkes and L. Talcott, Black and Plain Pottery of the 6th, Sth, and 4th Centuries B C , 1970. XI11 = S. A. Immerwahr, The Neolithic and Bronze Ages, 1971. XIV = H . A. Thompson and R. E. Wycherley, TheAgora of Athens: The History, Shape, and Uses ofan Ancient City Center, 1972. XIX = G . V. Lalonde, M . K. Langdon, and M . B. Walbank, Inscriptions: Horoi, Poletai Records, andLeases of Public Lands, 1991. XXII = S. I. Rotroff, Hellenistic Pottery: Athenian and Imported Moldmade Bowls, 1982. XXIII = M . B. Moore and M . 2.Pease Philippides, Attic BlackFigured Pottery, 1986. XXIV = A. Frantz, Late 1988. A n t i g u i t y : ~ .267-700, ~. XXVII = R. F. Townsend, The East Side of the Agora: The Remains beneath the Stoa ofAttafos, 1995.
XXIX = S. I. Rotroff, Hellenistic Pottery: Athenian and Imported Wheelmade Table Ware and Related Material, 1997. XXX = M . B. Moore, Attic RedFigured and White-Ground Pottery, 1997. XXX = M . M . Miles, The City Eleusinion, 1998. Ahlberg, G. 1971. Fighting on Land and Sea in Greek GeometricArt (SkrAth 4".16), Stockholm. ~kerstriim,A. 1952. "En Mykensk krukmakares verkstad fran de Svenska utgravningarna i Grekland aven 1935-1938," in Arkeologiska Forskningar och Fynd: Studier utgivna med anledning av H. M . Konung Gustaf VlAdoCfssjuttioarsdag 11.11.1952, Stockholm, pp. 32-46. Alcock, S. E. 1991. "Tomb Cult and the Post-Classical Polis," AJA 95, pp. 447-467. Alexandre, 0.1968. "Nuxrep~v$ hvctoxacp$ oxayyaro<xara y+jxo< Yfj< 6606 Kp~e
