Wrestling With Angels: A Study of the Relationship Between Angels and Humans in Ancient Jewish Literature and the New Testament (Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums)

Wrestling with Angels A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANGELS AND HUMANS IN ANCIENT JEWISH LITERATURE AND THE NEW TES...

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Wrestling with Angels A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANGELS AND HUMANS IN ANCIENT JEWISH LITERATURE AND THE NEW TESTAMENT

KEVIN P. SULLIVAN

DORE: JACOB AND T H E ANGEL, 19th C. Credit: The Granger Collection, New York

WRESTLING WITH ANGELS

ARBEITEN ZUR GESCHICHTE DES ANTIKEN JUDENTUMS UND DES URCHRISTENTUMS Ancient Judaism, and Early Christianity

h e r a u s g e g e b e n von Martin Hengel (Tübingen), Pieter W. van der Horst (Utrecht), Martin G o o d m a n (Oxford), D a n i e l R . S c h w a r t z ( J e r u s a l e m ) , Cilliers B r e y t e n b a c h (Berlin), Friedrich A v e m a r i e (Marburg), Seth Schwartz (New York)

LV

WRESTLING WITH ANGELS A Study of the Relationship between Angels and Humans in Ancient Jewish Literature and the New 7 estament

BY

K E V I N P.

‫?־‬ 2 En. 22, 3 En), but in some cases, no such transformation occurs (Rev, Apoc. Paul). On this see M. Himmelfarb, "The Experience of the Visionary and Genre in the Ascension of Isaiah 6-11 and the Apocalypse of Paul" Semeia 36 (1986) 97-111. 171 C. Osiek, The Shepherd of Hermas (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999) 55 n. 12. 172 See the discussion on Stephen above (3:12), and cf. 4 Macc. 16:25.

or e q u a l to angels in h e a v e n a n d t h e r e f o r e h a d n o n e e d of t h e h u m a n institution of m a r r i a g e (and copulation). T h e gospel tradition was a p p a r e n t l y e x p a n d e d in the b u r g e o n i n g C h r i s t i a n tradition (martyrs, encratites), w h i c h s e e m e d to indicate the possibility of mimicking the angelic m o d e of existence on e a r t h .

Conclusions T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e d the evidence for angels a p p e a r i n g as h u m a n beings. Eight r e n o w n e d individuals f r o m the H e b r e w Bible, f o u r f r o m the N T , as well as others, w e r e considered. T h e evidence for A d a m , the p r i m o r d i a l m a n , was interesting b u t n o t conclusive. T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n strands of tradition t h a t t h o u g h t of A d a m a n d Eve as h a v i n g h a d a n angelic status b e f o r e the Fall. T h e evidence p e r t a i n ing to Sethel w a s f r o m only o n e text b u t did seem to suggest t h a t he was u n d e r s t o o d to h a v e b e c o m e like a n angel in the afterlife. T h e E n o c h i c literature a p p a r e n t l y b e c a m e m o r e explicit over time about Enoch's angelic transformation a n d even equation with a n a m e d angel, M e t a t r o n (in 3 En.)—seemingly an e x t r a p o l a t i o n u p o n the G e n 5:24 saying t h a t E n o c h was t a k e n to h e a v e n b u t did n o t die. I n two texts, N o a h was described as having a n g e l o m o r p h i c features at his birth, b u t it was n o t clear t h a t h e was ever c o n s i d e r e d a n angel. T h e r e was evidence t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k w a s a n i m p o r t a n t figure in speculations a b o u t the h e a v e n s in S e c o n d T e m p l e writings. H e was certainly t h o u g h t of as a divine figure (‫ )אלהים‬a n d m a y h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t of as a n angel. I n the case of J a c o b , s o m e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u n d e r s t o o d his n a m e c h a n g e to Israel as d e n o t i n g a c h a n g e in his n a t u r e to a n angel. It is m a d e explicit t h a t h e is t h o u g h t of as a n angel in Pr. Jos. T h i s e q u a tion is significant, but it c a n n o t b e pressed too far either. T h e evidence for M o s e s was s o m e w h a t difficult to assess. Certainly, a u t h o r s like Philo deified Moses, even calling h i m θεός, b u t there is little e x t a n t evidence t h a t h e was t h o u g h t to be a n angel. A few texts c o m p a r e d D a v i d to a n angel, yet only Pseudo-Philo gave any h i n t t h a t D a v i d m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t of as angelic; even t h e r e the evidence suggested t h a t his a p p e a r a n c e was c h a n g e d b u t n o t his n a t u r e . S o m e evidence f r o m the p r o p h e t s s e e m e d a m b i g u o u s . Certainly, the role of the p r o p h e t as a m o u t h p i e c e f o r G o d suggests t h a t their f u n c t i o n a n d the f u n c t i o n of angels could be u n d e r s t o o d at some

level as similar. 1 7 3 P e r h a p s t h e m o s t a m b i g u o u s e v i d e n c e w a s t h a t f r o m Malachi. T h a t the term "angel" m a y have been taken to m e a n b o t h h u m a n a n d divine m e s s e n g e r c a n b e seen in its use r e l a t e d t o J o h n t h e B a p t i s t in t h e N T . C l e a r l y , O r i g e n d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t o n e a u t h o r t h o u g h t of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t as a n a n g e l . T h e r e w a s v e r y little e v i d e n c e f o r J e s u s a c t u a l l y b e i n g r e f e r r e d t o as a n angel. T h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n t a l k e d a b o u t J e s u s in a n g e l o m o r p h i c t e r m s , h o w e v e r . T h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s s h o w e d t h a t J e s u s c o u l d b e c o m p a r e d to a n a n g e l b u t t h a t s u c h a c o m p a r i s o n w a s C h r i s t o logically insufficient. T h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e o t h e r N T

figures,

Stephen

a n d P a u l , d i d n o t d e m o n s t r a t e t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d angels. T. Moses c o n t a i n e d a t e x t t h a t s o m e h a v e t h o u g h t m i g h t

have

m e a n t t h e figure T a x o w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a n g e l , b u t this identification w a s unlikely. T h e i n t e r e s t i n g case of t h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b in T. Job saw t h e m u n d e r g o i n g a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c c h a n g e (speaking like angels) w h e n d o n n i n g girdles f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r . It w a s n o t c l e a r t h e c h a n g e w a s p e r m a n e n t , h o w e v e r . T h i s text w a s u n i q u e in t h a t w o m e n , r a t h e r than men, were angelomorphic. T h e f r a g m e n t f r o m H e c a t e u s c o n c e r n i n g t h e a n g e l i c n a t u r e of t h e h i g h priest w a s interesting, b u t t h e c o n t e x t is n o t clear. S i n c e it c a m e to us t h r o u g h v a r i o u s a u t h o r s , t h e r e is n o w a y to b e c e r t a i n

that

t h e original a u t h o r w a s a t all c l e a r a b o u t t h e realities r e l a t i n g to t h e h i g h priest. Lastly, t h e e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o w h a t h a p p e n s to h u m a n s in h e a v e n was considered. It w a s n o t clear that there was a n y late S e c o n d T e m p l e t r a d i t i o n t h a t u n d e r s t o o d h u m a n s as b e c o m i n g a n g e l s in h e a v e n . J . C h a r l e s w o r t h identified t h e m o t i f of s o m e r i g h t e o u s i n d i v i d u a l s b e i n g p o r t r a y e d as angels. 1 7 4 H i s insight s e e m s c o r r e c t — n a m e l y , t h a t t h e m o t i f is m a i n l y , if n o t exclusively, a p p l i e d to r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s ; m o r e o v e r it is a p p l i e d to specific i n d i v i d u a l s a n d n o t l a r g e r b o d i e s of righteous, a t least n o t in die late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d . O t h e r s , h o w e v e r , h a v e seen t h e i d e a e x t e n d i n g b e y o n d select i n d i v i d u a l s to c o r p o r a t e h u m a n i t y . 1 7 5 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s

argued—

against M . M a c h ' s (and others') assertion t h a t representations of h u m a n s t a k i n g o n a n g e l i c existences in this life relate t o a n interest in e s c h a 173

But Isa 6:1-13 seems to show a strong distinction between the seraphim (= angels ?) and the prophet as a "man of unclean lips." 174 J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel," pp. 135-151. 175 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 109-215, and C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 152-186.

tological p o s t m o r t e m e x i s t e n c e — s a y i n g , " I t is j u s t as likely t h a t t h e eschatological, p o s t - m o r t e m angelic life of t h e righteous is a n extension of a belief in, o r s u b l i m a t e d h o p e for, a this-life a n g e l o m o r p h i c i d e n tity.'" 7 6 It m a y b e j u s t as likely, b u t it is n o t c l e a r a n y e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d t r u l y s u p p o r t s s u c h a n assertion. The

e v i d e n c e a n a l y z e d in this c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t ,

although

d i e r e are texts in w h i c h h u m a n beings a r e described in a n g e l o m o r p h i c t e r m s , a distinction a p p e a r s to b e m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. T h e n e x t step in this investigation is t o look a t cases in w h i c h close i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels m i g h t suggest s o m e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h i s is t h e goal of p a r t t w o of this investigation.

176

C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 213.

PART T W O

INTERACTION

PART TWO INTERACTION

Introduction T h e second p a r t of diis investigation e x a m i n e s d1‫־‬e relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels b y l o o k i n g at p o r t r a y a l s of close o r i n t i m a t e intera c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s of b e i n g s o n e a r t h . Specifically, t h e e v i d e n c e of h u m a n - a n g e l c o m m u n i t i e s ( c h a p t e r 4), t h e possibility of h u m a n s p r o v i d i n g hospitality a n d e a t i n g w i t h angels ( c h a p t e r 5), a n d h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g f r o m h u m a n - a n g e l r e l a t i o n s ( c h a p t e r 6) a r e c o n s i d ered. F o r t h e following discussion " I n t e r a c t i o n " will b e t a k e n to m e a n " r e c i p r o c a l a c t i o n o r i n f l u e n c e . ' " T h e p a r t i c u l a r n u a n c e of this c h o i c e of t e r m is t h a t t h e activity c a n p o t e n t i a l l y h a v e a m u t u a l aspect; it is n o t simply a n g e l s a f f e c t i n g h u m a n s . As w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels in p a r t o n e , it is h e l p f u l b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g to survey b r o a d l y t h e v a r i e t y of w a y s in w h i c h angels i n t e r a c t w i t h h u m a n s in t h e w r i t i n g s f r o m this p e r i o d to p r o v i d e t h e c o n t e x t f o r t h e m a t e r i a l to b e e x a m i n e d in p a r t two. T h i s survey is n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e a n e x h a u s t i v e list of a n g e l f u n c tions b u t i n s t e a d to situate this p a r t i c u l a r e v i d e n c e a m o n g t h e variety of a n g e l f u n c t i o n s e v i n c e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m this p e r i o d . 2 A n g e l s , as t h e y a r e m o s t c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d , a r e d e n i z e n s of t h e h e a v e n s . 3 By definition, t h e n , t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h u m a n beings is limited. T h e y a r e m e m b e r s of t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t w o r s h i p p i n g G o d

1

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 709. M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vorrabinischer Zeit (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992) 60-63, provides an exhaustive list of the functions of angels in the Hebrew Bible. In chapter 3, he delineates the additional functions of angels in the extra-Biblical literature, pp. 114-278. 3 Davidson, Maxwell J., Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and the Sectarian WritingsfromQumran, JSPS 11 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992) p. 291; M. Mach, "Angels" in The Encyclopaedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Lawrence Schiffman and James VanderKam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 1:24; D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in Early Christianity, WUNT 2:109 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999) 17; P. Garreil, Jesus and the Angels: Angelology and Christology in the Apocalypse ofJohn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) 14. 2

a n d c a r r y i n g o u t t h e d i v i n e liturgy ( l Q S b 4 : 2 4 4;26‫־‬Q_405f r a g . 20; Luke 2:1314‫ ;״‬H e b

1:6; R e v 4:8; Jub.

3 0 : 1 8 , 3 1 : 1 4 ; T. Le,vi 3:8;

1 En. 6 1 : 1 0 4 . ( 1 2 ‫ ־‬T h e i d e a t h a t angels " s t a n d " b e f o r e G o d is well a t t e s t e d in J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e f r o m t h e p e r i o d a n d a f t e r w a r d s . 5 T e x t s s u c h as t h e SSS a n d N T p a s s a g e s like 1 C o r 11:10 a n d C o l 2 : 1 8 suggest t h a t c o m m u n i t i e s s o u g h t to be p a r t of t h e o n g o i n g h e a v e n l y liturgy of angels. I n h e a v e n l y a s c e n t l i t e r a t u r e , angels o f t e n a c t as g u i d e s f o r h u m a n s w h o h a v e c o m e i n t o t h e h e a v e n s ( D a n 7 - 1 2 ; 1 En. 1 7 - 3 6 ; Ap. 1 0 - 1 8 ; 4 Ezra

Abr.

3 - 1 4 ) . Interestingly, h u m a n s o n s u c h a s c e n t s s o m e -

t i m e s p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e a n g e l i c liturgy (3 En. 1:12; Apoc. Ab. 17, Mart. Ascen. Isa. 7:37; 9:31). A m o n g t h e o t h e r roles angels t a k e o n are: g u a r d i a n s a n d h e l p e r s ( G e n 24:7, 4 8 : 1 6 ; E x o d

14:19, 2 3 : 2 0 - 2 3 , et al.; Ps 34:7; Isa 63:9;

D a n 3:28, 6:22; T o b 5:21; A c t s 5:19, 1 2 : 7 - 1 1 ; 2 M a c c 11:6; T. Jac. 1:10; L.A.B.

5 9 : 4 ; H e r r n . Mand.

6.2.2), a n d c a r r y i n g o u t

God's

v e n g e a n c e ( N u m 22; 2 S a m 2 4 : 1 6 - 1 7 ; 1 C h r 2 1 : 1 2 - 3 0 ; 1 Q S 4:12; Acts 12:23; R e v 16; Sir 4 8 : 2 1 ; 1 M a c c 7:41; Sus 1:55, 59). As f u n c t i o n a r i e s of G o d , angels a r e s o m e t i m e s sent to c a r r y o u t specific tasks o n e a r t h . It is m a i n l y in this c a p a c i t y t h a t t h e y i n t e r a c t w i t h h u m a n s . As t h e i r n a m e implies, t h e i r p r i m a r y task w a s t o a c t as messengers (e.g., G e n

16:7£, 2 2 : 1 1 , 15; J u d g 6 a n d

13; Z e c h

1:9£; M a t t 1 - 2 ; L u k e 1 - 2 ; A c t s 8:26; 4 Ezra 4 - 5 ; et al.). C h a p t e r 4 e x a m i n e s w h a t is p e r h a p s t h e closest c o n t a c t b e t w e e n angels

and

h u m a n s , n a m e l y , the presence of angels in specific h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s .

4 Angels are actually called priests (‫ )כוהן‬in the SSS. For a fuller discussion of angels as priests, see M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) esp. 29-46. 5 See Isa 6:3; Matt 18:10; Luke 1:19, 2:15; 1 Clem. 34:5. J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord{ Tübingen: J . C. B. Möhr, 1985) 55, 120-124, 139-141. Cf. Philo, Sacrifices 89‫־‬.

CHAPTER FOUR " A N G E L S IN O U R H U M AN-ANGEL

MIDST":

COMMUNITIES

I n this c h a p t e r , texts d e s c r i b i n g a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s living t o g e t h e r in c o m m u n i t i e s a r e e x a m i n e d . T h e m a j o r i t y of this e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e d i s c o v e r e d a t Q u m r a n , b u t t w o o t h e r texts t h a t m a y e v i n c e a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s — P a u l ' s epistles to t h e C o r i n t h i a n s a n d t h e so-called H i s t o r y of t h e R e c h a b i t e s — a r e also e x a m ined. A n u m b e r of s c h o l a r s h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m Q u m r a n s e e m s to p r e s e n t a p i c t u r e of a c o m m u n i t y t h a t u n d e r stood itself as h a v i n g angels present, w i t h t h e m o s t r e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n c o m i n g f r o m Fletcher-Louis.5 I n his b o o k , All

the Glory of Adam,

F l e t c h e r - L o u i s seeks t o f o r e -

g r o u n d the p h e n o m e n o n of h u m a n - a n g e l interaction b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g t w o " i n t e r l o c k i n g " theses: (1) the theology of ancient J u d a i s m took for granted the belief that in its original, true, redeemed state humanity is divine ( a n d / o r angelic), and that (2) this belief was conceptually a n d experientially inextricable from temple worship in which ordinary space a n d time, and therefore h u m a n ontology, are transcended because the true temple is a model of the universe which offers its entrants a transfer from earth to heaven, from humanity to divinity and from mortality to immortality. 7 T h e s e theses will b e d e a l t w i t h as specific discussion arises a n d also in t h e c o n c l u s i o n section. A t t h e outset, it is a p p r o p r i a t e to o f f e r a g e n e r a l critique of t h e m . R e g a r d i n g his first thesis, it is p e r h a p s m o r e a c c u r a t e to say simply t h a t h u m a n k i n d in its t r u e f o r m w a s " t h e o m o r p h i c " since A d a m w a s m a d e in t h e i m a g e of G o d . T h i s w o u l d o b v i a t e s o m e of t h e c o n f u s i o n in t h e s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g "angelic" a n d "divine." R e g a r d i n g t h e second diesis, the H o l y of Holies in t h e T e m p l e a n d p e r h a p s t h e liturgical s p a c e of t h e Q u m r a n g r o u p 6 H. Kuhn, Enderwartung und gegenwärtiges Heil (Göttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1966) 66-72; C. Rowland, The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity (New York: Crossroad, 1982) 113-120; M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 159-161; 209-218; 241-254. C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002). 7 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam, p. xii.

m a y i n d e e d h a v e b e e n places w h e r e s o m e J e w s believed t h a t

the

e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e s c o u l d h a v e c o n t a c t , c r e a t i n g a synergy. H o w e v e r , s u c h c o n t a c t did n o t i m p l y a n y p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h a t is t o say, p a r t i c i p a n t s (either t h e h i g h priest o r the Q u m r a n sectarians) m a y h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e t h i n g t r a n s c e n d e n t in s u c h a locus w i t h o u t u n d e r g o i n g a p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n f o r this s t u d y is to w h a t e x t e n t living in a specific c o m m u n i t y m e a n t i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h e a n g e l s t h a t

were

believed to b e p r e s e n t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w e r e t h e s e c o m m u n i t i e s envisioning d i e i r m e m b e r s as b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o p a r t of t h e a n g e l i c c o m m u n i t y ? O r did t h e y simply believe t h a t t h r o u g h a h e i g h t e n e d state of p u r i t y t h e y , as h u m a n s , w e r e c r e a t i n g a s p a c e w h e r e angels c o u l d dwell o n e a r t h ? T h e e v i d e n c e p o i n t s to t h e latter. S i n c e m u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r c o m e s f r o m t h e D e a d Sea Scrolls, a p r e l i m i n a r y issue m u s t b e a d d r e s s e d . T h e scrolls a r e o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Essenes, a J e w i s h s e c t a r i a n g r o u p k n o w n p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e w r i t i n g s of J o s e p h u s a n d Philo. T h e m a n y p a r allels b e t w e e n t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e c a v e s n e a r t h e D e a d Sea a n d t h e a c c o u n t s of t h e Essenes in classical r e p o r t s h a v e b e e n well d o c u m e n t e d . 8 Also, J o s e p h u s [B.J.

2.142) says t h a t t h e E s s e n e

g r o u p w a s " t o p r e s e r v e the b o o k s of t h e sect a n d t h e n a m e s of t h e a n g e l s . " M a n y s c h o l a r s p r o c e e d b y o u t l i n i n g t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s of "sect a r i a n " a n d " n o n s e c t a r i a n " texts, t h e n s p e a k i n g a b o u t

"sectarian"

beliefs. T h i s strategy o f t e n leads to using o n e text to i n t e r p r e t a n o t h e r , e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n s u c h texts is n o t entirely c l e a r , w h i c h c a n u l t i m a t e l y l e a d to a s y n t h e s i z e d a n d artificial p i c t u r e of " s e c t a r i a n " beliefs. S e c t a r i a n p r o v e n a n c e of t h e s e w r i t i n g s d o e s n o t change w h a t information can be gleaned f r o m t h e m about

angel

beliefs. N o r is it c o r r e c t to a s s u m e , e v e n if all t h e texts a r e " s e c t a r i a n , " t h a t all m e m b e r s h e l d t h e s a m e beliefs a t t h e s a m e

time.

E x a m i n i n g texts i n d i v i d u a l l y as e v i d e n c e for w h a t a t least o n e J e w i s h a u t h o r ( a n d likely a u d i e n c e ) f r o m this p e r i o d w a s t h i n k i n g

about

angels is a m o r e s e c u r e f o u n d a t i o n f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F o r t h e foll o w i n g analysis, t h e q u e s t i o n of s e c t a r i a n o r n o n s e c t a r i a n h a s b e e n p u t aside, a n d e a c h p i e c e of e v i d e n c e is c o n s i d e r e d individually. 9 8

See, in particular, T. Beale, Josephus' Description of the Essenes Illustrated by the Dead Sea Scrolls (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), and M. Goodman and G. Vermes, The Essenes According to Classical Sources (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1989). 9 This is the same methodology employed by M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and the Sectarian Writings from Qumran (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994) 138-141.

44

Vie Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice 11Q17, Maslk)

T h e S o n g s of t h e S a b b a t h Sacrifice (SSS),

(4Q400-407,

also s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d

to as " T h e A n g e l i c L i t u r g y , " exists in eight m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d at Q u m r a n in c a v e 4 ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 7 ) , 1 0 o n e f r o m c a v e

11 ( 1 1 Q 1 7 ) ,

a n d o n e f r o m M a s a d a ( M a s l k ) . 1 1 T h e s e f r a g m e n t s s e e m to r e p r e s e n t a liturgical cycle o n a 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r t h a t c o v e r s t h i r t e e n

sab-

b a t h s — t h e first q u a r t e r of t h e y e a r d u r i n g w h i c h h o l o c a u s t sacrifices are offered ( N u m 2 8 : 9 1 0

‫ ־‬,

Ezek 46:4-5). C. N e w s o m p r o d u c e d the

first critical e d i t i o n of all t h e r e l e v a n t f r a g m e n t s in 1985. 1 2 R e c e n t l y , t h e SSS h a v e b e e n c o v e r e d in Discoveries in the Judaean

Desert a n d t h e

Princeton Theological Seminary Dead Sea Scrolls Series.13 T h e r e is n o i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o d a t e t h e

SSS,

n o r is t h e r e l a t i o n of the SSS to o t h e r s e c t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e a firm crit e r i o n . T h e SSS a r e d a t e d p a l e o g r a p h i c a l l y b e t w e e n 100 B C E

and

6 8 C E , a n d s c h o l a r s w i d e l y a g r e e u p o n this dating. 1 4 E v e n if e a r l i e r o r l a t e r d a t e s w e r e to b e established, t h e SSS a r e still a n i m p o r t a n t text in t h e overall discussion of late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n g e l beliefs. O f all t h e texts f r o m t h e D e a d S e a , n o o t h e r w o r k s e e m s to b e as f o c u s e d u p o n t h e i n n e r w o r k i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y s a n c t u a r y

and

t h e b e i n g s t h e r e i n as t h e SSS. J . S t r u g n e l l believed t h a t t h e SSS w e r e " n o a n g e l i c liturgy, n o v i s i o n a r y w o r k w h e r e a sect h e a r s t h e praise of t h e angels, b u t a Maskil's

c o m p o s i t i o n f o r a n e a r t h l y liturgy in

w h i c h t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e a n g e l s is in a sense i n v o k e d . " 1 5 Still, t h e

10 First critical edition of 4Q403 and 4Q405 by J . Strugnell, "The Angelic Liturgy at Qumran—4Q Serek Shirot Olat Hashshabbat" in Supplements to Vetus Testamentum, Congress Volume, ed. G. Andersen et al. (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1960) 318-345. 11 Prefiminary edition by C. Newsom and Y. Yadin, "The Masada Fragment of the Qumran Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" IEJ 34 (1984) 77-88; see also, Y. Yadin, "The Excavations at Masada" IEJ 15 (1965) 105-108, and E. Puech, "Notes sur les manuscrits des Cantiques du Sacrifice du Sabbat trouvé à Masada" RQ 12/48 (1987) 575-583. 12 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition (Atlanta: Harvard Semitic Studies, 1985). 13 C. Newsom, Discoveries in the Judean Desert XI (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998); J . Charlesworth, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and. Greek Texts with English Translations: Vol. 4B Angelic Liturgy: Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (Tübingen: J. C. B. Möhr [Paul Siebeck], 1999). 14 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 1, notes that "the hand of the oldest manuscript, 4Q400, may be dated to ca. 75-50 BCE." See also, J. Charlesworth, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls, p. 4; Stegemann, The library at Qumran, (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998) 99. 15 j . Strugnell, "The Angelic Liturgy at Qumran," p. 320.

similarities b e t w e e n t h e SSS a n d l a t e r a s c e n t o r mystical l i t e r a t u r e as e v i n c e d in l a t e r M e r k a v a h a n d H e k h a l o t s o u r c e s h a s b e e n r e g u larly n o t e d , a n d t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h o s e f o r m s of m y s t i c i s m is still b e i n g e x p l o r e d . 1 6 N e w s o m

sug-

gests t h a t t h e SSS a r e a " q u a s i - m y s t i c a l liturgy d e s i g n e d to e v o k e a sense of b e i n g p r e s e n t in t h e h e a v e n l y T e m p l e . ' " ' W h a t is w i d e l y a c c e p t e d is t h a t t h e SSS r e p r e s e n t s o m e kind of liturgical d o c u m e n t . W h a t is less c l e a r is h o w t h a t d o c u m e n t w o u l d h a v e b e e n

used.

N e w s o m believes t h a t e a c h s o n g b e g a n w i t h ‫ " ( ל מ ש כ י ל‬t o / f o r t h e I n s t r u c t o r " ) 1 8 — a t e r m t h a t a p p e a r s in o t h e r f i n d s f r o m a m o n g t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls a n d s e e m s to r e f e r to a h u m a n l e a d e r of t h e sect. 1 9 T h i s t e r m m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e type of d e d i c a t i o n " t o t h e I n s t r u c t o r " ( s o m e t i m e s suggested to b e t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s ) , o r it m a y r e p r e s e n t a n o t a t i o n t h a t this is " f o r t h e I n s t r u c t o r . " T h e SSS a r e o f t e n f r u s t r a t i n g l y i n c o m p l e t e , full of suggestive term i n o l o g y w h o s e m e a n i n g is o f t e n difficult, if n o t i m p o s s i b l e , to disc e r n . F e w p a s s a g e s a r e of decisive i n t e r p r e t a t i v e v a l u e . J . D a v i l a says, " t h e overall g e n r e of t h e w o r k r e m a i n s elusive, b u t it d o e s s h a r e a n u m b e r of f e a t u r e s w i t h a p o c a l y p s e s c o n t a i n i n g o t h e r w o r l d l y j o u r neys. . . . E v e n t h e v e r y basic p r o b l e m of w h e t h e r t h e s e songs a r e prose or poetry does not have a clear answer."20 M o r e o v e r , regarding t h e a n g e l o l o g y of t h e SSS, N e w s o m states, " B e c a u s e t h e cycle of the S a b b a t h Shirot is a liturgical d o c u m e n t a n d n o t a treatise

on

a n g e l o l o g y , n o t all t h e q u e s t i o n s o n e w o u l d like t o raise c a n

be

a n s w e r e d . " 2 1 A l t h o u g h t h e y a r e o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as t h e

"angelic

l i t u r g y , " t h e SSS d o n o t a c t u a l l y m e n t i o n a n y of t h e w o r d s of t h o s e

16

J. Baumgarten, "The Qumran Sabbath Shirot and Rabbinic Merkabah Traditions" i?£U3 (1988) 199-213; C. Newsom, "Merkabah Exegesis in the Qumran Sabbath Shirot" JJS 38 (1987) 11-30; L. Schiffman, "Merkavah Speculation at Qumran: The 4 Q Serekh Shirot Olat ha-Shabbat," in Mystics, Philosophers, and Politiaans, ed. J. Reinharz and D. Swetschinski (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1982) 15-47; C. Rowland, "The Visions of God in Apocalyptic Literature" JSJ 10 (1979) 137-154; C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 387, 392-393. 17 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 59. 18 C. Newsom, "He Has Established for Himself Priests" in Archaeology and History in the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. L. Schiffman (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1990) 102. The term is found or can be confidently restored in 4Q401 frag. 1; 4Q403 frag. 1 2:18; 4Q405 frag. 20 2:6; 11Q17 frag. 16-18, line 9. 19 Seen elsewhere in 1QS 3:13, 9:12; lQSb 1:1, 3:22, 5:20; CD 12:21, 13:22; 4Q510 4, 4Q511 2 i 1, 8:4; 1QH 20:11. 20 J. Davila, Liturgical Works (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000) 87-88. 21 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 23.

in w o r s h i p . 2 2 T h u s , it s e e m s safest t o c o n c e d e t h a t t h e g e n r e of t h e SSS is u n c e r t a i n . E x a m i n a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r p a s s a g e s is t h e best w a y to g l e a n i n f o r m a t i o n . I n h e r critical e d i t i o n , N e w s o m p r o v i d e s a t h o r o u g h discussion of the various t e r m s d i a t m a y refer to angels in h e r section o n angelology 2 3 a n d also in h e r c o n c o r d a n c e , 2 4 so t h e r e is n o n e e d to r e p e a t s u c h lists in detail here. 2 5 H o w e v e r , it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t N e w s o m ' s p a r a d i g m f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e SSS h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n criticized b y F l e t c h e r - L o u i s . 2 6 H e b e l i e v e s t h a t in h e r initial s t u d y of t h e

SSS

N e w s o m p r o p o u n d e d a dualistic i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p a r a d i g m t h a t

has

p r e v e n t e d a c o r r e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Songs. R a t h e r t h a n seeing a d u a l i s m of e a r t h l y w o r s h i p reflecting t h e h e a v e n l y cult (as N e w s o m does), F l e t c h e r - L o u i s believes t h a t t h e songs r e p r e s e n t a crossing of t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a l m s , s u c h t h a t b y p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e songs, t h e s e c t a r i a n s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o divine b e i n g s w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e a c t u a l h e a v e n l y cult. H e o b s e r v e s t h a t " i n g e n eral w e h a v e b e e n a b l e to distinguish t h e s e h e a v e n l y h u m a n s f r o m angels a n d spiritual b e i n g s w h o a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y associated w i t h t h e physical f e a t u r e s of t h e cultic s t r u c t u r e s . " 2 ‫ ׳‬H o w e v e r , h e t h e n a d d s , " A c o n f i d e n t c l a i m to k n o w j u s t h o w m u c h ' d i v i n e ' l a n g u a g e is given to t h e h u m a n w o r s h i p p e r s is n o t possible." 2 8 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s suggests t h a t this w a y of e n v i s i o n i n g t h e liturgy g a v e t h e s e c t a r i a n s a n altern a t i v e to t h e J e r u s a l e m c u l t t o w h i c h t h e y , n o w living in t h e d e s e r t of Q u m r a n , n o l o n g e r h a d access. Suffice it t o state a t this p o i n t t h a t t h e overall a i m of this s t u d y is to clarify o u r t e r m i n o l o g y a n d to m a k e a case for s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e h e a v e n l y a n d t h e earthly, so t h a t m y findings

largely g o a g a i n s t t h o s e of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s . H o w e v e r , b e f o r e

saying m o r e , w e n e e d t o r e t u r n to o u r e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e texts. In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d the relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels in t h e SSS, it is n e c e s s a r y to a t t e m p t to clarify t h e m e a n i n g of t h e various terms found therein.

22 D. Allison, "The Silence of .Angels: Reflections on the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" RQ 13 (1988) 189-197. 23 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, pp. 23.28‫־‬ 24 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, pp. 389-466. 25 See also M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, pp. 248-253. 26 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 252-394. 27 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 392. 28 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 392.

First, t h e t e r m ‫ מ ל א ך‬itself is r a r e in t h e SSS,

a n d t h e r e a r e 110

n a m e d a r c h a n g e l s . 2 9 P e r h a p s t h e m o s t c o m m o n t e r m in t h e SSS t h a t m a y r e f e r t o angels is • ‫ א ל י‬. T h e t e r m • ‫ א ל י‬is r a r e in t h e H e b r e w Bible (Pss 29:1, 89:7; D a n 11:36) b u t is m o r e c o m m o n in t h e litera t u r e f o u n d a t t h e D e a d S e a (especially 1 Q M a n d

1QH).

A n o t h e r c o m m o n t e r m is • ‫ א ל ו ה י‬. I n t h e H e b r e w Bible, this t e r m is o f t e n used f o r t h e H e b r e w G o d (e.g., G e n

13‫ ;)־‬h o w e v e r , it is

p l u r a l in f o r m , so it c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d to r e f e r to m u l t i p l e "gods 5 ' of o t h e r n a t i o n s (e.g., E x o d 12:12, 18:11, 20:3; 1 K g s 14:9) o r p e r h a p s e v e n to a n g e l s (e.g., Ps 8 2 : 1 , 6; 138:1). 3 0 As N e w s o m

notes,

" m a n y o c c u r r e n c e s of • ‫ א ל ו ה י‬in t h e Shirot a r e a m b i g u o u s a n d m i g h t r e f e r e i t h e r to G o d o r to t h e angels." 3 1 S o m e cases s u c h as • ‫כ ו ל א ל ו ה י‬ m o s t likely r e f e r to s o m e k i n d of divine b e i n g s , n o t to G o d . It s e e m s t h a t h e r e in t h e SSS, t h e • ‫ א ל ו ה י‬a r e m e a n t to s t a n d for s o m e t y p e of d i v i n e b e i n g s s u b o r d i n a t e to G o d . It is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r • ‫ א ל י‬a n d • ‫ א ל ו ה י‬a r e m e a n t to b e t h e s a m e o r q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t beings. C e r t a i n l y , t h e t e r m s a r e c o g n a t e , w i t h • ‫ א ל י‬b e i n g t h e p l u r a l of ‫א ל‬ (God) a n d • ‫( א ל ו ה י‬pl. in f o r m : G o d o r gods). T h a t t h e t w o t e r m s a r e s o m e t i m e s used in t h e s a m e section i m p l i e s s o m e type of distinction b e t w e e n t h e m , b u t equally t h e y m i g h t b e used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y for the same being. O t h e r t e r m s , s u c h as " h o l y o n e s " ( • ‫ ) ק ד ו ש י‬a n d "spirits" (‫)רוחות‬, m a y also r e f e r to a n g e l s / d i v i n e beings. O n e of t h e m o r e u n c o m m o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e SSS a n g e l o l o g y is t h e discussion of a n g e l s as priests (‫)כוהן‬, t h o u g h this is n o t a n i d e a exclusive t o t h e SSS (cf.

T.

Levi 3:4f.). T h e w i d e a r r a y of t e r m s t h a t m a y r e f e r to a n g e l i c b e i n g s m a k e s a n y investigation i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s

and

a n g e l s q u i t e difficult, since t h e m o r e t e r m s t h a t a r e believed to r e f e r to " a n g e l s , " t h e m o r e c o m p l e x t h e discussion b e c o m e s . It s e e m s best, t h e n , t o look f o r a n y e v i d e n c e t h a t h u m a n s a n d a n y

apparently

divine b e i n g s a r e discussed in t h e s a m e unit. T h e r e a r e v e r y few p a s s a g e s in w h i c h h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e disc u s s e d t o g e t h e r . T h e first six lines of 4 Q 4 0 0 f r a g m e n t 2 o f f e r o n e such instance:

29

C. Newsom suggests that Melchizedek may be named in the 4ÇM01, 11, 3 (See The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 37) and perhaps in 4Q401 22, 3. The reconstructions are by no means certain but are plausible. 30 BDB, pp. 43-44. 81 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 24·.

[1] to praise your glory wondrously with ‫ א ל י‬of knowledge and the praises of your kingship a m o n g the [Most ] h o ß y ones]. [2] T h e y are honoured in all the camps of the ‫ אלוהים‬and revered by the assembly of h u m a n s [‫ ]ואנשים‬, wondrously . . . [3] than ‫ אלוהים‬or humans [‫ ]ואנםים‬they declare the majesty of his kingship according to their knowledge and they exalt [ . . .] [4] the heavens of his realm. A n d in all the highest heights wondrous psalms according to all [. . .1 [5] glory of the king of ‫ אלוהים‬they declare in the dwellings their station. .. [6] How shall we be accounted [among] them? And how shall our priesthood (be accounted) in their dwellings? T h e p a s s a g e is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e difficulties f a c e d in t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d the r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels in t h e SSS. A t least t w o w o r d s ( ‫ א ל י ם‬a n d ‫ ) א ל ו ה י ם‬s e e m to r e f e r to divine beings. T h e h u m a n s m e n t i o n e d s e e m to c o n s t i t u t e a s e p a r a t e g r o u p . L i n e 6 suggests, h o w e v e r , t h a t p e r h a p s t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y seeks to b e c o m e p a r t of t h e h e a v e n l y w o r s h i p p i n g c o m m u n i t y . T h i s is e c h o e d in 4 Q 4 0 1 f r a g m e n t 14, c o l u m n 1, line 8, " T h e y a r e h o n o r e d a m o n g all t h e c a m p s of t h e ‫ א ל ו ה י ם‬a n d r [ e v e r e d b y t h e asse]mb1y of h u m a n s [‫]אנשים‬." T h e s e p a s s a g e s d o n o t s e e m to p r e e l u d e t h e possibility t h a t t h e t w o r e a l m s , h u m a n a n d angelic, c a n b e o n e a n d t h e s a m e i n s o m u c h as t h e y exist c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s l y a n d p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s a m e activity, b u t t h e h u m a n s d o n o t necessarily b e c o m e angels. G i v e n t h e lack of specific e v i d e n c e w i t h i n t h e SSS,

discussion of

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s in t h e SSS h a s i n s t e a d f o c u s e d o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e overall f u n c t i o n of t h e text. T h u s , t h a t it is " a q u a s i - m y s t i c a l " liturgical text m i g h t suggest s o m e sort of c o m m u n a l e x p e r i e n c e of t h e divine liturgy. T h e SSS s e e m u n i q u e a m o n g t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e , to t h e e x t e n t t h a t this c a n n o t b e r u l e d

out.

T h i s t y p e of a p p r o a c h t o t h e texts h a s led C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s r e c e n t l y to suggest a " n e w p a r a d i g m " for r e a d i n g t h e SSS. R a t h e r t h a n u n d e r s t a n d all t h e v a r i o u s t e r m i n o l o g y as " a n g e l s , " h e suggests t h a t t h e SSS b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e if o n e applies m a n y of these r e f e r e n c e s to t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y , w h o " n o w h a v e a h e a v e n l y , a n g e l i c a n d divine identity. 3 2 H e calls u p o n his o w n r e c e n t w o r k a n d

52 C. Fletcher-Louis, "Heavenly Ascent or Incarnational Presence? A Revisionist Reading of The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" in SBL 1998 Seminar Papers (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1998) 2:367-399; quote p. 369.

t h a t of C . M o r r a y - J o n e s , w h i c h a r g u e d t h a t in t h e l a t e

Second

T e m p l e p e r i o d r i g h t e o u s i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e w i d e l y believed t o b e c o m e a n g e l o m o r p h i c beings. 3 3 T h i s s t u d y c h a l l e n g e s w h e t h e r such a belief w a s a c t u a l l y held. M o r e o v e r , t h e r e a r e b a s i c issues of t h e

applic-

ability of t o p o i f r o m t h e " Q u m r a n l i t e r a t u r e " as a c o r p u s to t h e SSS—namely,

t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e SSS a n d , for e x a m -

pie, 1 Q H is n o t c l e a r unless o n e a s s u m e s t h e y a r e b o t h w o r k s f r o m t h e s a m e c o m m u n i t y . As i n t e r e s t i n g as his suggestion is, it w o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e o n l y e v i d e n c e f o r a s u s t a i n e d r e f e r e n c e t o h u m a n s as essentially " g o d s " ( ‫ א ל ו ה י ם‬a n d ‫ ) א ל י ם‬. T h a t t h e SSS w o u l d b e u n i q u e a m o n g t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t p r e c l u d e its possibility, b u t it d o e s s e e m to m a k e it less likely. U l t i m a t e l y , s u c h a p a r a d i g m c a n n o t b e p r o v e d a n d c a n n o t e v e n really b e s u s t a i n e d w i t h o u t c o n n e c t i n g t h e SSS

to

o t h e r w o r k s f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls. 3 4 I n s u m m a r y , t h e r e s e e m s little d o u b t t h a t t h e SSS a r e liturgical in s o m e sense. O n e of t h e i r p r i m a r y c o n c e r n s is w o r s h i p in t h e h e a v enly t e m p l e , t h e h i e r a r c h y a n d s t r u c t u r e , a n d so o n . C l e a r l y , t h e SSS s h a r e a n affinity w i t h b o t h c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s a p o c a l y p t i c (visionary) w o r k s a n d also w i t h l a t e r mystical writings. W h a t is m u c h less c l e a r is t h e g e n r e of t h e SSS a n d its f u n c t i o n in its c o m m u n i t y . T h e m a i n h i n t t h a t it w a s m e a n t in s o m e f o r m t o b e r e a d a n d u s e d b y a c o m m u n i t y is t h e o p e n i n g of e a c h song, " t o t h e m a s k i l " ( ‫ ) ל מ ש כ י ל‬. B e y o n d t h a t i n d i c a t o r , t h i n g s b e c o m e m u c h less clear. It is c e r t a i n l y possible t h a t t h e i n t e n t of r e a d i n g such a d o c u m e n t w a s to give die c o m m u n i t y t h e sense t h a t t h e y w e r e p a r t a k i n g in t h e h e a v e n l y liturgy, a n d if so s o m e sort of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m i g h t h a v e b e e n i m p l i e d . It is a t least c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e SSS w e r e i n d e e d m e a n t to p r o v o k e a sense of c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels. It m a y b e t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t i n t e n d e d f o r r e g u l a r liturgical use b u t i n s t e a d f o r use a t a specific t i m e , n a m e l y t h e e s c h a t o n . It c a n n o t b e s u b s t a n t i a t e d t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y itself is t h e r e f e r e n t of t e r m s like ‫ א ל י ם‬a n d ‫ א ל ו ה י ם‬as " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " beings. T h e r e is n o clear i n d i c a t i o n f r o m t h e text itself t h a t angels live a m o n g

33 C. Fletcher-Louis, "Heavenly Ascent," esp. pp. 369-382. See also, J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels" in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism: Profiles and Paradigms, ed. J. Collins and J. Charlesworth (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151. 34 Additionally, Newsom (The S0?1gs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 23) says that the term ‫ אלים‬is used frequently within the Qumran corpus to refer to angels. If the SSS is a sectarian document as Retcher-Louis supposes, then this goes against his paradigm as well.

t h e c o m m u n i t y . It is m o r e likely t h a t , if t h e SSS

a r e m e a n t as a

m e a n s by w h i c h t h e c o m m u n i t y c o u l d p a r t a k e in t h e h e a v e n l y liturgy, t h e n t h e y w o u l d in s o m e sense a s c e n d to t h e h e a v e n s to d o so, b u t t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , if t h e y did, t h e y u n d e r w e n t a n y k i n d of p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n b y d o i n g so. T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e

SSS

is a m b i g u o u s . T h e t e x t d o e s n o t clearly distinguish b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s b u t suggests a u n i q u e c i r c u m s t a n c e in w h i c h h u m a n a n d divine liturgy is in s o m e sense c o m b i n e d o r s h a r e d . It is difficult to d r a w any firm conclusions f r o m the

4.2

SSS.

The War Scroll (1QM

and

4Q491-496)

A m o n g t h e seven l a r g e m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d in c a v e 1 w a s a d o c u m e n t t h a t c o n t a i n e d n i n e t e e n H e b r e w c o l u m n s of w h a t first c a m e to b e k n o w n f r o m Y. Y a d i n ' s s e m i n a l w o r k as t h e Scroll of t h e W a r of t h e S o n s of L i g h t a g a i n s t t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s b u t is n o w m o r e c o m m o n l y k n o w n as t h e W a r Scroll (1Q_M). 35 I n c a v e 4 f r a g m e n t s of a n o t h e r six copies of this w o r k w e r e later discovered ( 4 Q 4 9 1 - 4 9 6 ) . 3 6 A t first g l a n c e , t h e W a r Scroll s e e m s t o b e u n i f i e d in c o n t e n t a n d t h e m e , w h i c h suggests t h a t it c o u l d c o m e f r o m a single

author.

H o w e v e r , closer e x a m i n a t i o n reveals r e p e t i t i o n s (e.g., 1 2 : 8 1 6 ‫־‬

and

19:1^8) a n d o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c i e s in details s u c h as t i m i n g a n d i m p i e m e n t s of w a r , w i t h t h e result t h a t t o d a y it is widely a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e W a r Scroll is a c o m p o s i t e text w i t h v a r i o u s levels of r e d a c t i o n . J . V a n d e r Ploeg first suggested t h a t c o l u m n s 1 a n d 1 5 1 9 ‫ ־‬c o n s t i t u t e d t h e earliest f o r m of t h e text. 3 ' D a v i e s h a s i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e levels of redaction (

2

1

2

‫־‬9, 1 0 ‫ ״ ־‬, and 1 5 1 9

‫ ־‬,

with 1 a n d

1314‫־‬

additions). 3 8 I n m o s t r e c e n t a t t e m p t s to r e c o n s t r u c t t h e literary hist o r y of t h e W a r Scroll, c e r t a i n sections h a v e b e e n r e g u l a r l y r e c o g n i z e d as l i t e r a r y u n i t s : c o l u m n s 2 9,

1 0 - 1 2 (or 14), a n d

15-19.

N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e o r d e r in w h i c h t h e s e w e r e p r o d u c e d o r h o w

35

and

Y. Yadin, The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962). 36 J . VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994). H. Stegeman, The Library of Qumran: The Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus (Grand Rapids, Ml/Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1998) 102, finds'10 mss. of the War Scroll. 37 J . van der Ploeg, "La composition littéraire de la Règle de la Guerre de Qumran" in Sacra Pagina IL, ed. J. Coppens, A. Descamps, and E. Massaux (Gembloux: Duculot) 13-19. 38 P. Davies, 1QM: The War Scroll from Qurman (Rome: Biblical Institute, 1977).

w h y t h e y w e r e fitted t o g e t h e r in t h e i r p r e s e n t f o r m , as well as t h e r e l a t i o n of c o l u m n 1 t o t h e o t h e r s , r e m a i n m a t t e r s of d e b a t e . T h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e issues i n v o l v e d h a s c a u s e d s o m e to c o n t i n u e

to

a s s u m e u n i t y w h e n p e r f o r m i n g exegesis. 3 9 T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e a n y specific set of a n g e l beliefs r e l a t e d to a n y o n e level of r e d a c tional activity, so f o r t h e p u r p o s e of t h e f o l l o w i n g discussion,

the

W a r Scroll will be c o n s i d e r e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e final r e d a c tor, w h o b r o u g h t t h e text i n t o its p r e s e n t f o r m . T h e literary d e p e n d e n c e of t h e W a r Scroll u p o n t h e B o o k of D a n i e l (e.g., 1 Q M 1 a n d D a n 1 1 : 4 0 - 1 2 : 3 ) gives us a terminus a quo of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 160 B C E . 4 0 P a l é o g r a p h i e e v i d e n c e d a t e s 1 Q M to t h e s e c o n d half of t h e first c e n t u r y B C E , t h u s a likely terminus ad quem.iX H o w e v e r , given t h a t t h e scroll w a s d i s c o v e r e d a m o n g t h e finds at t h e

Dead

Sea, Y a d i n posits t h a t t h e latest d a t e f o r t h e c o p y i n g of t h e

War

Scroll e x t a n t to us is 70 C E .

42

M o r e precise d a t e s h a v e b e e n sug-

g e s t e d for t h e t e x t o n t h e basis of c o m p a r i s o n s to c o n t e m p o r a r y military m a n u a l s , b u t t h o s e discussions n e e d n o t c o n c e r n us h e r e . T h e W a r Scroll is firmly w i t h i n t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l b o u n d s of o u r s t u d y . D u e to its eschatological c o m p o n e n t s , t h e W a r Scroll a p p e a r s o f t e n i n d i s c u s s i o n s of a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e f r o m t h e S e c o n d period.

43

Temple

H o w e v e r , it is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d as a rule b o o k , a n d in t h e

s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e it is s o m e t i m e s e v e n r e f e r r e d t o as t h e W a r R u l e . T h e s e " r u l e s " w e r e a p p a r e n t l y a m a p of t h e c o r r e c t c o n d i t i o n s n e e d e d t o c r e a t e a h u m a n - a n g e l a r m y to fight the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l battle. 4 4

39

E.g., M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1992) 213. G. Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 4th ed. (New York: Penguin, 1995) 124. 41 F. Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran, 3rd ed. (New York: Doubleday, 1995) 138. 42 See also, D. Dimant, "Qumran Sectarian Literature" in Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period, ed. Michael Stone (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984) x; H. Stegeman, The library at Qumran, pp. 102-104. 43 The rubric "apocalyptic" should not be overemphasized with regard to the War Scroll, however, since the War Scroll lacks the definitive mark of an apocalypse, i.e., a revelation. C. Rowland states of the evidence regarding the War Scroll, "All this seems to indicate that we are dealing with a text which is related to the apocalypses, but one which hardly justifies the label 'apocalyptic'." The Open Heaven, p. 42. His point is echoed by J . Cotöns, who, more recently, says the War Scroll is "perhaps the most 'apocalyptic' book in the corpus, although its literary form is that of a rule book and not of a revelation." Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls (London: Routledge, 1997) 10. See also, R. Bauckham, 77;« Climax of Prophecy (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993) 212ff. 44 In some sense, the term "utopian" might be appropriate to this situation, insomuch as the War Scroll seems to describe a synergy between humans and angels as the "Sons of Light." w

T h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n is: H o w d o e s s u c h a set of rules f u n c t i o n ? I n c o l u m n 1 w e a r e told t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t is " F o r t h e M [aster, T h e R u l e of] W a r o n t h e u n l e a s h i n g of t h e a t t a c k of t h e sons of light a g a i n s t t h e s o n s of d a r k n e s s , t h e a r m y of Belial: a g a i n s t t h e t r o o p of E d o m , M o a b , t h e sons of A m m o n . " C o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t c o l u m n s a r e specific d i r e c t i o n s o n t h e a s s i g n m e n t of t r o o p s (col. 2), t h e rule for t h e t r u m p e t s (cols. 2 - 3 ) , rules f o r t h e s t a n d a r d s (cols. 3 - 4 ) , inscriptions, p r a y e r s , a n d so o n . T h e detail is e x t r a o r d i n a r y . T h i s specificity w o u l d s e e m to h a v e a d e f i n i t e p u r p o s e . T h e n u m b e r , a n d p e r h a p s e v e n c o m p u l s i v e n a t u r e , of t h e rules s e e m s to i m p l y a n e c e s s a r y state o r c o n d i t i o n m u s t b e o b t a i n e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d f o r t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l w a r to t a k e p l a c e a n d f o r t h e S o n s of L i g h t to b e successful. C o l u m n

16 r e i t e r a t e s t h a t " T h e y shall a c t a c c o r d i n g t o

this e n t i r e r u l e . " T h e W a r Scroll utilizes a t h e m e a l r e a d y p r e s e n t in t h e

Hebrew

Bible: holy w a r — t h e i d e a t h a t a r m e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n o r d a i n e d b y G o d a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o s t a n d ideologically o p p o s e d to t h e c h o s e n p e o p l e of G o d is a n essential c o m p o n e n t in t h e r e o r d e r i n g of history. T h a t angels a r e a n essential c o m p o n e n t of holy w a r f a r e is well attested ( J o s h u a 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 , 1 C h r 2 1 : 1 6 , 2 K g s 19:35, 1 M a c c 7:41 a n d 2 M a c c 15:22fi, N u m 2 2 : 2 2 , 3 M a c c 6 : 1 8 , 4 M a c c 4 : 1 0 S i r a c h 48:21). As B a u c k h a m suggests, " h o l y w a r " t r a d i t i o n s c a n b e d i v i d e d

into

t w o types: (1) t h o s e in w h i c h G o d (alone o r w i t h his h e a v e n l y forces) is v i c t o r i o u s (e.g., E x o d

1 4 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; 2 K g s 1 9 : 3 2 - 3 5 ; et al)

a n d (2)

t h o s e in w h i c h h u m a n s assist in t h e w a r f a r e . 4 5 H e n o t e s t h a t

"the

o n e w o r k — n o t p r e s e r v e d b y C h r i s t i a n s — w h i c h d o e s give us d e t a i l e d e v i d e n c e of ideas a b o u t a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l holy w a r in w h i c h Israelite a r m i e s will fight is t h e W a r Scroll f r o m Q u m r a n ( 1 Q M ) . " 4 6 B a u c k h a m h i g h l i g h t s t h e u n i q u e n e s s of t h e W a r Scroll's h u m a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e h o l y w a r to d e m o n s t r a t e c e r t a i n similarities b e t w e e n 1 Q M

and

t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t h e m e of h o l y w a r in t h e H e b r e w Bible, t h e r e is also a t r a d i t i o n of G o d as w a r r i o r . E x o d 15:3 states, " T h e L o r d is a man of war*1

t h e L o r d is his n a m e " (‫ א י ש מ ל צ מ ה י ה ו ה שמו‬ΓΪΙίΤ).

T h e L X X w a s n o t as c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h calling t h e L o r d a " m a n of w a r " a n d i n s t e a d h a s " t h e L o r d is c r u s h i n g w a r s ; the L o r d is his

45 46 47

R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, pp. 21 Off. R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, p. 212. See also Isa 42:13; Hos 12:6, and cf. josh 5:13.

n a m e " (κύριος σ υ ν τ ρ ι β ώ ν π ο λ έ μ ο υ ς κ ύ ρ ι ο ς δνομα αύτφ). Α . Segal h a s s h o w n t h a t in t h e r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n s , this p a s s a g e b e c a m e o n e of a n u m b e r of s o u r c e s t h a t led to t h e " t w o p o w e r s " c o n t r o v e r s y , since t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e L o r d as a h u m a n w a r r i o r c o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as a n e n t i t y s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e L o r d , especially in light of p a s s a g e s like D a n 7:13. 4 8 F o r t h e p r e s e n t discussion, t h e p a s s a g e is r e l e v a n t i n s o m u c h as a d i v i n e b e i n g is d e s c r i b e d as a

"man."

H o w e v e r , this t h e o p h a n y d o e s n o t tell us m u c h a b o u t a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s . Still, t h e L o r d - a s - w a r r i o r m o t i f likely i n f l u e n c e d p o r t r a y a l s of t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l in 1 Q M a n d R e v e l a t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e . T h e W a r Scroll, t h e n , s e e m s to allow believers to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of G o d ' s o r d e r in history, first t h r o u g h in t h e rules, t h e n a c t u a l l y final

fighting

preparation

side-by‫־‬side w i t h angels in t h e

battle. 4 9

Column

1 states t h a t in t h e final struggle b e t w e e n t h e S o n s of

L i g h t a n d t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s " t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of divine b e i n g s [‫ ]אלים‬a n d t h e a s s e m b l y of m e n [‫ ]אנשים‬, t h e S o n s of L i g h t , a n d t h e lot of d a r k n e s s shall fight e a c h o t h e r " ( w . 10—11). F u r t h e r m o r e , in t h a t b a t t l e t h e r e will b e w a r cries (v. 11) f r o m b o t h t h e ‫א ל י ם‬

and

the ‫( ואנשים‬v. 11). H o w e v e r w e u n d e r s t a n d ‫ א ל י ם‬, it is c l e a r t h a t t h e y a r e s o m e t h i n g qualitatively d i f f e r e n t f r o m ‫ואנשים‬. T h e

"congregation

of divine b e i n g s " ( ‫ ) ע ד ת א ל י ם‬a n d t h e " a s s e m b l y of m e n ‫ו ק ה ל ת א נ ש י ם‬ d o b a t t l e a g a i n s t a single f o r c e , t h e lot of d a r k n e s s (‫)וגורל הושך‬. T h i s lot, called t h e A r m y of Belial in v. 13, also s e e m s to h a v e angels ( ‫ ) מ ל א כ י ם‬a m o n g its f o r c e s (v. 15). S o a distinction is m a d e

between

the t w o g r o u p s of b e i n g s i n v o l v e d , b u t t h e y s e e m to c o n s t i t u t e o n e fighting

force.

C o l u m n 7 : 4 - 6 c o n t a i n s o r d i n a n c e s for p u r i t y specifically b e c a u s e the angels a r e to b e w i t h the host. I t states: [4] . . . Neither lame, nor blind, nor crippled, nor a m a n in whose flesh there is a permanent blemish, nor a m a n stricken by some uncleanliness [5] in the flesh, none of them shall go to battle with them. T h e y shall all be freely enlisted for war, perfect in spirit and in body and prepared for the Day of Vengeance. And [6] no m a n shall go down with them on the day of battle who is impure because of his "fount," for the holy angels [‫ ] מ ל א כ י קודש‬shall be with their hosts [ ‫ ] ע ם צ ב א ו ת ם‬. 48

A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1977) 33-57. My conclusions regarding the nature of the War Scroll are very much like those of C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 395-475. 49

T h e r e s e e m to b e t w o e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r s u c h rules. First, t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p w h o fit t h e s e criteria: b l i n d , d e a f , i n f i r m , a n d so o n ; t h u s t h e c o n c e r n w a s to e x c l u d e s u c h

members

at key m o m e n t s t o e n s u r e t h e possibility of a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e . S e c o n d , t h e r e w e r e n o t necessarily s u c h m e m b e r s , b u t t h e i r h e i g h t e n e d sense of p u r i t y w a s r e l a t e d to p r e p a r i n g for a holy w a r , since t h e s e p r o scriptions a r e v e r y m u c h like t h o s e o u t l i n e d in D e u t 2 3 : 9 1 4

‫־‬

t h o s e e n c a m p e d a g a i n s t t h e i r e n e m i e s . It is n o t possible to k n o w w h i c h of t h e s e is t h e c a s e , o r w h e t h e r it is s o m e of b o t h . Also, t h e a n g e l s a r e s i m p l y said t o b e "with 5 ' (‫ )עם‬t h e host. T h i s d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of e i t h e r p a r t y

but

simply a j o i n i n g of forces. A g a i n in 12:8, t h e a n g e l s a r e said to b e a m o n g t h e m e n ,

"For

t h e L o r d is holy, a n d t h e g l o r i o u s king (is) w i t h us, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e h o l y o n e s [‫[ ]קדושים‬. . .] the h o s t of angels [ ‫ ] צ ב א מ ל א כ י ם‬is a m o n g o u r n u m b e r e d m e n [ ‫ ] ב פ ק ח ־ י נ ו‬. " T h e angels a r e w i t h t h e m e n , b u t t h e r e is n o c l e a r sense t h a t t h e m e n a r e t r a n s f o r m e d , o n l y t h a t t h e y h a v e likely a c h i e v e d a n e c e s s a r y level of p u r i t y to allow t h e angels to b e p r e s e n t . T h e c o m m u n i t y d o e s s e e m t o h a v e a special c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e angels. C o l u m n 10:9—11 states: [9] W h o is like your people Israel which you have chosen for yourself from all the peoples of the lands, [10] the people of the saints of the Covenant, instructed in the laws and learned in wisdom, taught in d i s c e r n [ m e n t . . .]hearers of the glorious voice, and seers of [11] holy angels [ ‫ ] מ ל א כ י ק ו ד ש‬, open of ear, and hearers of profound things . . . T h e r e f e r e n c e to " h e a r e r s of t h e g l o r i o u s v o i c e " m a y m e a n n o m o r e than understanding T o rah, but when combined with the reference to s e e i n g angels, it suggests a m o r e i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h heavenly realm.

50

the

N o n e of this implies t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , h o w e v e r . T h a t

t h e m e m b e r s m a y b e a b l e t o see angels is n o t e x t r a o r d i n a r y in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e W a r Scroll itself, since n u m e r o u s p a s s a g e s s p e a k of angels being present. Lastly, s o m e o t h e r p a s s a g e s also s e e m to i n d i c a t e t h a t angels a r e believed to b e p r e s e n t d u r i n g t h e final battle. T h e a r c h a n g e l s ' n a m e s (Sariel, M i c h a e l , G a b r i e l , a n d R a p h a e l ) a r e i n v o k e d o n shields of t h e 50

C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 116.

for

t o w e r s ( 9 : 1 4 - 1 6 ) . Also, M i c h a e l will b e definitive in t h e victory of the S o n s of L i g h t (17:6): H e has sent an everlasting help to the lot w h o m he has redeemed through the might of the majestic angel. (He will set) the authority of Michael in everlasting light. He will cause the covenant of Israel to shine in joy. Peace and blessing to the lot of God. H e will exalt over all the divine beings the authority of Michael and the dominion of Israel over all the flesh. T h e P r i n c e of L i g h t s m a y b e t h e s a m e b e i n g as M i c h a e l a n d is also said to b e e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e r e s c u e of t h e " S o n s of L i g h t " (13:10). T h e W a r Scroll s h o w s us o n e J e w i s h g r o u p ' s i d e a s a b o u t t h e eschatological w a r t h a t w o u l d r e o r d e r history. T h e rules t h e r e i n p r o v i d e t h e c o m m u n i t y w i t h g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a t t l e t h a t is to t a k e p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e f o r c e s of d a r k n e s s . T h a t angels a r e m e a n t to b e a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of this b a t d e c a n n o t b e d o u b t e d . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e h u m a n believers t o t h e angels is n o t entirely c l e a r , h o w e v e r . T h e p a s s a g e s c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e

repre-

sent a v e r y small p e r c e n t a g e of t h e e n t i r e d o c u m e n t , w h i c h is largely c o n c e r n e d with the actions necessary for the h u m a n

community.

T h e r e is a n a p p a r e n t c o n c e r n to m a i n t a i n a h e i g h t e n e d sense of p u r i t y to allow the a n g e l s to b e a m o n g m e n . T h e c o m b i n e d h u m a n angelic fighting f o r c e — t h e S o n s of L i g h t — w i l l c a r r y o u t G o d ' s p l a n of d e s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s . T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e h u m a n w a r riors is i n t e n d e d , at least b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g t h e final battle. A Related Fragment:

4Q491

O n e o t h e r f r a g m e n t , a t t r i b u t e d to t h e W a r Scroll f a m i l y of texts, is r e l e v a n t to t h e discussion of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s

and

angels: 4 Q 4 9 1 f r a g m e n t 11, col. 1 w a s originally d e e m e d " T h e S o n g of M i c h a e l a n d t h e J u s t " b y M . Baillet. 5 1 O t h e r r e c e n s i o n s of w h a t is n o w b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e s a m e text (or at least a v e r y similar text) a r e : 4 Q 4 7 1 b ; 4 Q 4 2 7 f r a g m e n t 7, a n d p e r h a p s 1 Q H ‫ ־‬col. 26. 5 2 Baillet w a s likely led to die conclusion t h a t t h e speaker w a s die angel M i c h a e l b e c a u s e t h e s p e a k e r in t h e text m a k e s s o m e b o l d claims:

51

M. Baillet, DJD VII (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) 45-49. E. Schuller, "A Hymn from a Cave Four Hodayaot Manuscript: 4Q427 7 i + ii" JBL 112 (1993) 605-628. 52

[12] . . . a powerful throne in the congregation of divine beings [‫]אלים‬, on which all the kings of the East cannot sit, and their nobles [. . .] stand still [13][. . .] my glory. None is exalted besides me, and none comes to me, for I have sat on [. . .] in the heavens. T h e r e is no [14][. . .]jbwm I reckon myself a m o n g the divine beings [ ‫ ] א ל ה י ם‬, and my place (is) in the holy congregation. V e r s e 18 adds, " F o r I a m r e c k o [ n e d ] a m o n g t h e divine b e i n g s [‫]אלים‬, [ a n d ] m y glory is w i t h the k i n g ' s s o n s . " T h e a t t r i b u t i o n of these w o r d s to t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l h a s b e e n c h a l lenged by M . Smith, w h o thinks that Michael would not c o m p a r e himself to s u c h " s m a l l f r y " as e a r t h l y kings ( A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s ) . 5 3 S m i t h sees this as a c l a i m m a d e b y t h e M a s t e r , p e r h a p s t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s , to a h e a v e n l y seat. J . Collins n o t e s t h a t S m i t h ' s position n e e d s s o m e q u a l i f i c a t i o n . S m i t h is c o r r e c t t h a t t h e b e i n g is n o t a n a n g e l , b u t h e is i n c o r r e c t t o say t h a t this text r e p r e s e n t s a n a s c e n t . C o l l i n s suggests t h a t it is c l o s e r t o texts t h a t discuss t h e d e i f i c a t i o n ( e n t h r o n e m e n t ) of M o s e s t h a n m y s t i c a l a s c e n t

texts. 5 4

Collins's q u a l i f i c a t i o n s s e e m t o m a k e m o r e sense of t h e text as it currently stands. H o w e v e r this p a s s a g e is u n d e r s t o o d , it s e e m s c l e a r e n o u g h

that

t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k i n g sees himself to h a v e b e e n e x a l t e d a n d is n o w a m o n g t h e g r o u p called t h e ‫( א ל י ם‬line 14) a n d t h a t this g r o u p c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as a class o r type of angels. 5 5

4.3

The Hodayot

(1QH)

T h e Hodayot, o r T h a n k s g i v i n g Scroll, w a s d i s c o v e r e d in c a v e 1, surviving in t w o originally s e p a r a t e m a n u s c r i p t s as well as s o m e sixtyfive f r a g m e n t s . T h e r e a r e e i g h t e e n c o l u m n s w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y thirty h y m n s e x t a n t . T h e h y m n s likely d a t e t o t h e first c e n t u r y B C E . 5 6 A 53 M. Smith, "Two Ascended to Heaven: Jesus and the Author of 4Q491" in Jesus and the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J . Charlesworth (New York: Doubleday, 1992) 290-301. 54 J. Collins, "A Throne in the Heavens: Apotheosis in pre-Christian Judaism" in Death, Ecstasy and Other Worldly Journeys, ed. J. Collins and M. Fishbane (New York: SUNY, 1995) 43-58. 55 The terms •‫ אלהי‬and ‫ אלים‬do appear elsewhere in the 4 Q material: 4QM1 frag. 1-3, v. 3; frag. 5 - 6 v. 1; frag. 13 v. 1; 4QM5 frag. 2 v. 4; 4QM6 frag. 2 v. 2; 3 v. 5, but they add comparatively little to our overall understanding due to their limited context. 56 D. Dimant, "Qumran Sectarian Literature," p. 107.

f e w s c h o l a r s h a v e e v e n a s s e r t e d t h a t s o m e h y m n s in t h e first p e r s o n m a y h a v e b e e n written by the T e a c h e r of Righteousness. 5 7 Nevertheless, their authorship remains uncertain. H . K u h n ' s w o r k w a s a m o n g t h e first t o suggest the m u n i t y i d e a f o r this text.

58

angel-com-

O t h e r s h a v e n o t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of this

w o r k in u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s as well. 5 9 T h e h y m n s m a k e k n o w n t h e full p o t e n t i a l of t h e believers. C o l u m n 1 1 : 2 0 - 2 2 says: [20] And I know there is hope [21] for someone you fashioned out of clay to be an everlasting community. T h e corrupt spirit you have purified from the great sin so that he can take his place [22] with the host of the holy ones, a n d can enter in communion with the congregation of the sons of heaven [‫ ]בני שמים‬. H e r e t h e t e r m " a n g e l " d o e s n o t a p p e a r explicitly, b u t t h e situation s e e m s relatively clear. T h o s e " f a s h i o n e d o u t of c l a y , " h u m a n b e i n g s ( G e n 2:7) w i t h a " c o r r u p t spirit" ( h u m a n s in a fallen state), h a v e a c h a n c e to t a k e t h e i r p l a c e w i t h t h e " h o l y o n e s , " e n t e r i n g i n t o c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e " s o n s of h e a v e n . " 6 ° T h i s s e e m s t o suggest a r e t u r n to a p u r e r , p e r h a p s p r e - F a l l state (cf. A d a m in 3.1 above). I n this case, h u m a n s b e g i n as s o m e t h i n g d i s t i n c t — t h a t is, " t h o s e f a s h i o n e d o u t of c l a y " w i t h a " c o r r u p t spirit." T h e

righteous

are purified a n d

e n t e r i n t o c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e angels. M e n a n d angels a r e m e n t i o n e d in 1 Q H c o l u m n

14:12—13:

[12] . . . For you have brought [your truth and your] glory [13] to all the men of your council [ ‫ ]אנשי ע צ ת כ ה‬and in the lot, together with the angels of the face [‫ ] מ ל א כ י פנים‬, without there being an interpreter [‫ ]מליץ‬between y [ 0 u r holy o n e s . . . ] T h e t e r m ‫ מ ל א ך‬a p p e a r s in this p a s s a g e a n d s e e m s j u x t a p o s e d w i t h t h e " m e n " of t h e c o u n c i l . T h e e n d of line 13 is suggestive. It says " w i t h o u t t h e r e b e i n g a ‫ מ ל י ץ‬b e t w e e n . " 6 1 T h e text b r e a k s off a f t e r 57

J. Hyatt, "The View of the Man in the Qumran 'Hodayot'," NTS 2 (1955-1956) 276-284; H. Stegemann, Library, p. 107. 58 H. Kuhn, Enderwartung, pp. 66-72. 59 See, C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, pp. 116-118; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 185-188 and All the Glory, pp. 104-112; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 174. 60 H. Kuhn, Enderwartung, pp. 91-92, argues that the "holy ones" should be understood as angels, and this seems correct. 61 Interestingly, in Job 33:23 the term ‫ מליץ‬is used in connection with ‫מלאך‬, and the two terms may even stand in apposition.

this p o i n t . T h a t m e n m a y be t o g e t h e r w i t h " a n g e l s of t h e f a c e " is significant. I t m a y reflect a u n i o n w i t h t h e a n g e l s t h a t n e e d s

no

m e d i a t i o n . T h e s o m e w h a t f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of the text is frustrating, since a c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s c a n n o t b e m a d e . In 1 Q H

1 9 : 1 0 - 1 4 t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a c o n c e r n for p u r i t y so t h a t

m e m b e r s c a n a t t a i n a n e l e v a t e d status: [10] For your glory, you have purified m a n f r o m sin, [11] so that he can make himself holy for you from every impure abomination and blameworthy iniquity, to become united with the sons of your truth and the lot of your holy ones, [12] to raise the worms of the dead from the dust, to an [everlasting] community and from a depraved spirit, to your knowledge, [13] so that he can take his place in your presence with the peipetual host and the [everlasting] spirits, to renew him with everything that will exist, [14] and with those who know in a community of jubilation. A n g e l s a r e n o t explicitly m e n t i o n e d , b u t t h e p e r p e t u a l h o s t suggests t h e a n g e l s w h o c o n s t a n t l y w o r s h i p G o d in t h e h e a v e n l y t e m p l e . T h i s p a s s a g e is n o t u n l i k e c o l u m n 11 a b o v e in t h a t it a p p a r e n t l y speaks of a r e s t o r a t i o n to a sinless state. S u c h a p u r i f i e d state s e e m s to allow t h e m e m b e r s t o b e c o m e p a r t of t h e a n g e l i c host. It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r this w o u l d h a p p e n in t h e i r m o r t a l lives o r a f t e r , b u t it is at least plausible t h a t t h e i n t e n t i o n is f o r a this-life e l e v a t e d state. 5 2 T h e T h a n k s g i v i n g H y m n s a r e suggestive. S o m e passages give t h a n k s for a p u r i f i e d state in w h i c h it s e e m s h u m a n s c o u l d b e in c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e h e a v e n l y host. T h e r e is a c l e a r sense t h a t h u m a n s b e g i n as flesh a n d b l o o d ( f o r m e d o u t of clay) a n d a r e sinful ( a n d in n e e d of purification). O n c e t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m the h u m a n condition,

they

a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d in t h e possibility of b e i n g identified w i t h angels in h e a v e n .

4.4

The Rule of the Community

(1QS,

lQSa,

and

lQSbf

T h e R u l e of the C o m m u n i t y was also discovered in cave 1. C o n t a i n e d o n the s a m e scroll a r e t h r e e w o r k s t h a t a r e n o t c o n t i n u o u s : (1) t h e R u l e of t h e C o m m u n i t y ( 1 Q S ) , (2) t h e R u l e of t h e

Congregation

( l Q S a ) , a n d (3) t h e R u l e of t h e Blessings ( l Q S b ) . All t h r e e w o r k s 62

C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, pp. 117-118. Additionally, there are fragments from cave 4 (4Q255-264) and perhaps cave 5 (5QJ 1) that are part of S. 63

a r e in t h e s a m e h a n d . It is believed to h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d s o m e t i m e a r o u n d 1 5 0 - 1 0 0 B C E . 6 4 T h e Serekh c o n t a i n s g u i d e l i n e s f o r c o m m u n a l living. T h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e w o r k s w r i t t e n o n t h e s a m e scroll suggests t h a t t h e r e m a y b e s o m e relation a m o n g t h e m , b u t this s h o u l d not be automatically assumed. 1 Q S 11:7 8 suggests a f u s i n g of t h e e a r t h l y c o m m u n i t y w i t h t h e heavenly: [7] . . . T o those whom G o d has selected he has given them an everlasting possession; until they inherit t h e m in the lot of [8] the holy ones [‫]קדשים‬. H e joins their assembly to the sons of heaven [‫ ]בני שמים‬in order for the counsel of the Community and a foundation of the building of holiness to be an eternal plantation throughout [9] all future ages. . . T h e r e is n o explicit m e n t i o n of angels i n t h e p a s s a g e itself, b u t if t h e " h o l y o n e s " a r e u n d e r s t o o d as r e f e r r i n g t o t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e " s o n s of h e a v e n " to h e a v e n l y beings, t h e n w e c o u l d p e r h a p s i n f e r a c o m b i n i n g of t h e t w o g r o u p s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e p a s s a g e suggests t h a t t h e t w o g r o u p s a r e distinct a n d will o n l y b e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r a t a specific p o i n t in t i m e . T h e i r j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r d o e s h a v e a p e r m a n e n t effect (lines 8 9 ‫ ) ־‬. C . R o w l a n d suggests h e r e t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as " a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d , " a d d i n g , " G o d h a s , as it w e r e , e x t e n d e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s of h e a v e n to i n c l u d e this h a v e n of holiness." 6 5 l Q S a sets o u t r e g u l a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ( m e n , w o m e n , a n d c h i l d r e n ) . T h e r e a r e o n l y t w o e x t a n t c o l u m n s , b e g i n n i n g , " N o w this is t h e R u l e f o r t h e e n t i r e c o n g r e g a t i o n of Israel, d u r i n g t h e

end

t i m e . " T h e R u l e of die C o n g r e g a t i o n 2 : 5 ~ 9 explicitly m e n t i o n s angels. T h e c o n c e r n h e r e is f o r t h e p u r i t y of t h e m e m b e r s , b e c a u s e

the

angels a r e said to b e " a m o n g t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n . " [5] . . . And everyone who is defiled in his flesh, defiled in his feet or [6] in the hands, lame 01‫ ־‬blind, deaf or d u m b 01‫ ־‬defiled in his flesh with a blemish [7] visible to the eyes, or an old m a n who cannot maintain himself in the congregation; [8] these shall not enter to take their place a m o n g the congregation of the men of name, for angels [8] of holiness are a m o n g their congre [gation] . . . 64 65

D. Dirnant, "Qumran," pp. 497-498; H. Stegemann, Library, p. 107. C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 118.

T h i s text q u i t e clearly states t h a t a n g e l s a r e in t h e m i d s t of d i e c o m m u n i t y (cf. 1 Q M

7:6, 12:8 above). First, it s e e m s t h e r e m a y well

h a v e b e e n m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p w h o fit t h e s e criteria: b l i n d , d e a f , i n f i r m , etc. If this w e r e t r u e , t h e n c e r t a i n l y n o t all m e m b e r s w o u l d be a b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e in a n y c e r e m o n y t h a t m i g h t involve t h e p r è s e n c e of angels. S e c o n d l y , t h a t t h e a n g e l s a r e said to b e p r e s e n t d o e s n o t m e a n m e m b e r s a r e in a n y w a y t r a n s f o r m e d by t h e i r p r e s e n c e . T h e r e is p e r h a p s t h e possibility t h a t t h e p u r e m e m b e r s of the c o m m u n i t y a r e m e a n t to b e in s o m e w a y t r a n s f o r m e d t h r o u g h

their

e x p e r i e n c e , b u t this is b y n o m e a n s necessary. 1 Q S b , T h e R u l e of t h e Blessings, c o l u m n 4 reads: [24] . . . and you [25] like an angel of the face [‫ ] כ מ ל א ך פנים‬in the holy residence for the glory of the G o d of Hosts [.. .] [. . .] you be around, serving in the temple of [26] the kingdom, casting lot with the angels of the face [‫]מלאכי פנים‬ and the Council of the Community . . . T h i s p a s s a g e is e v e n m o r e suggestive of t h e possible angelic status of t h e believers. I n line 2 4 only t h e w o r d ‫ ו א ה ה‬is e x t a n t , b u t m a n y t r a n s l a t o r s suggest r e a d i n g s like " m a y y o u b e like" o r " y o u shall b e like" a n a n g e l of t h e f a c e . T h e s e a r e possible r e a d i n g s , b u t t h e y suggest a p a r t i c u l a r m e a n i n g . 5 6 It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h e ‫ כ‬p r e f i x to ‫ מ ל א ך‬. It m a k e s a c o m p a r i s o n (like o r as), n o t a n e q u a t i o n (cf. G a l 4:14). I n line 26, t h e angels of t h e f a c e a r e a g a i n m e n t i o n e d ,

and

t h e s a m e f o r m ‫ ו א ת ה‬r e c u r s n e a r t h e e n d of line 25. I n line 26 w e also get t h e v e r b ‫ ו מ פ י ל‬. It is n o t entirely c l e a r w h a t this p h r a s e m e a n s (cf. Ps 22:19). 6 7

4.5

Songs of the Sage (4Q511

Fragment

35)

T h e S o n g s of t h e S a g e a r e a n u m b e r of f r a g m e n t s t h a t s e e m t o b e h y m n s against d e m o n s a n d evil spirits. T h e y are written in a H e r o d i a n

66

E.g., J. Charlesworth and L. Stuckenbruck, The Rule of the Community and Related Documents (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994) 127-128; F. Garcia-Martinez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994) 433. 67 C. Fletcher-Louis (All the Glory, pp. 150-161) discusses this text in light of "priestly" anthropomorphism. While his exegesis is interesting, his synthetic approach of tying the priesthood to this text is not one that is accepted here.

script a n d d a t e to a r o u n d d i e t u r n of t h e era. 6 8 O n f r a g m e n t 3 5 n i n e lines a r e e x t a n t , t h o u g h o n l y seven c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h c o n f i d e n c e . T h e first five lines a r e of t h e m o s t interest. L i n e 4 in p a r t i c u l a r c o u l d b e s e e n as e q u a t i n g priests, t h e r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e , G o d ' s a r m y (or host), his servants, a n d t h e a n g e l s t h a t a r e a b l e t o see the ‫ כ ב ו ד‬. A fairly literal t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e first five lines is o f f e r e d : [1] G o d against all flesh, and a j u d g m e n t of vengeance to destroy wickedness, and through the raging [2] anger of God. Some of those who are refined seven times and the holy ones [ [ ‫ו ב ק ד ו ש י ם‬ ary, and purity a m o n g those purified. And they [4] shall be priests [‫]כוהנים‬, his righteous people [ ‫ ] ע ם צ ר ק ו‬, his host [‫ ]צבאו‬and his servants [‫]ומשרתים‬, the angels of his glory [ [ ‫כ ב ו ד ו‬

T h e " h o l y o n e s " of line 2 a r e usually u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y . 6 9 A s s u m i n g this is d i e case, t h e n t h e r e f e r e n t of t h e v a r ious titles of line 4 c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as t h e h u m a n " h o l y o n e s , " in w h i c h c a s e " a n g e l s of his g l o r y " c o u l d b e o n e of t h o s e titles. M . Baillet b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e " h o l y o n e s " w o u l d b e c o m e

"servants"

of t h e angels. T h e final mem. of ‫ ו מ ש ר ת י ם‬i n d i c a t e s o t h e r w i s e , since a construct form would be expected. M . D a v i d s o n sees a b r e a k at "his s e r v a n t s " a n d b e g i n s a n e w sent e n c e w i t h " t h e angels of his glory will praise h i m . " 7 0 T h i s is a p l a u sible t r a n s l a t i o n , in w h i c h case t h e r e w o u l d b e n o e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. As D a v i d s o n himself says, " N o w h e r e else in t h e c o r p u s [of Q u m r a n l i t e r a t u r e ] is t h e r e f o u n d a n e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e sectaries will live in h e a v e n , let a l o n e b e c o m e a n g e l s . " 1 ‫׳‬ C . G i e s c h e n s i m p l y n o t e s line 4 as a n e x a m p l e of a n

equation

b e i n g m a d e b e t w e e n priests a n d angels. 7 2 C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s

goes

m u c h f u r t h e r , r e f u t i n g translations t h a t w o u l d n e g a t e equality b e t w e e n a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s h e r e . 7 3 H e s u p p o r t s this position b y c o n n e c t i n g 68

M. Baillet, DJB VII (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) 215, 219. Hebrew text taken from pp. 237-238, pl. LXII. 69 M. Baillet, DJD VII, pp. 237-238; M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, pp. 282-285; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 190. 70 M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, p. 284. 71 M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, p. 284. 72 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 174. 73 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 189-193. See also C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 293-296.

‫מלאכי‬

t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e w i t h t h e E s s e n e s a n d suggesting t h a t w i t h i n t h e sect w e r e s o m e w h o r e m a i n e d c e l i b a t e b e c a u s e t h e y

deemed

t h e m s e l v e s t o b e living in a "state of T e m p l e p u r i t y , " w h i c h

they

u n d e r s t o o d as e q u i v a l e n t to a n " a n g e l i c existence." 7 4 J o s e p h u s

(B.J.

2 : 1 1 9 - 1 2 1 , 1 6 0 - 1 6 1 ) does r e c o r d drat t h e r e w e r e two types of Essenes, o n e s t h a t led a c e l i b a t e life a n d o t h e r s t h a t m a r r i e d . T h e

problem

in c o n n e c t i n g t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls as a c o r p u s w i t h w h a t J o s e p h u s says a b o u t t h e Essenes is t h a t t h e link b e t w e e n t h e scrolls a n d t h e Essenes is n o t c e r t a i n . It m a y well b e w a r r a n t e d , b u t a n y conclusions b a s e d o n such a c o n n e c t i o n m u s t r e m a i n tentative. T h i s f r a g m e n t in a n d of itself d o e s n o t p r o v i d e m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. A n u m b e r of t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e possible, s o m e of w h i c h w o u l d m e a n t h a t n o e q u a t i o n is i n t e n d e d b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n "holy o n e s " a n d t h e " a n g e l s of glory." Lastly, t h e r e a r e t w o o t h e r pieces of e v i d e n c e b e y o n d t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls t h a t n e e d to b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r possible c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t e n v i s i o n e d t h e m s e l v e s as living t o g e t h e r w i t h angels.

4.6

The Corinthian

Community

P a u l s e e m s to h a v e h a d a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e c o m m u n i t y in C o r i n t h , w r i t i n g a n d visiting t h e m o f t e n . A s n o t e d , t h e

term

άγγελος a p p e a r s o n l y t e n times in t h e seven letters c o n s i d e r e d to b e a u t h e n t i c a l l y P a u l i n e (see 3.13). F o u r of t h o s e t e n o c c u r in 1 C o r , a n o t h e r t w o in 2 C o r . T h e m o s t suggestive p a s s a g e in t e r m s of h u m a n - a n g e l i n t e r a c t i o n is 1 C o r

11. P a u l ' s d i s c u s s i o n

concerns

p r o p e r w o r s h i p (11:2). I n 11:3 h e says, " t h e h e a d of even,‫ ׳‬m a n is C h r i s t , t h e h e a d of a w o m a n is h e r h u s b a n d , a n d t h e h e a d of C h r i s t is G o d " (11:3). I n 11:10 P a u l m a k e s t h e e n i g m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , " T h a t is w h y a w o m a n o u g h t t o h a v e [ έ ξ ο υ σ ί α ν (lit. " a u t h o r i t y , " m o s t t r a n s l a t e as " v e i l " as a s y m b o l of a u t h o r i t y ) ] o n h e r b e c a u s e of t h e a n g e l s [δια τους αγγέλους] ."

75

though head,

T w o issues a r e involved

a n d a r e integrally linked f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e passage: t h e m e a n i n g of t h e έ ξ ο υ σ ί α u p o n t h e w o m a n ' s h e a d a n d t h e m e a n i n g of t h e p h r a s e δ ι α τους αγγέλους.

74

C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 192-195. The word κάλυμμα "veil" appears in several mss. and Patristic sources (Irenaeus, Jerome). It appears to be a gloss meant to explain the difficult term έξουσίαν. See also Tertullian, Virg. Vet. 7:2. 75

M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s suggest t h a t t h e " a u t h o r i t y " o n h e r h e a d is a m a r k of s u b o r d i n a t i o n in k e e p i n g with P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t in 11:3. O t h e r s h a v e suggested t h a t it is simply a veil t h a t is m e a n t t o m a i n t a i n t h e c o r r e c t social m o r e s in k e e p i n g with 11:5: t h a t is, a w o m a n ' s b a r e h e a d is like a s h o r n h e a d - it is n o t socially a c c e p t a b l e . T h i s d o e s n o t explain w h y P a u l t h e n includes the p h r a s e Ôtà τους αγγέλους, h o w e v e r . It h a s b e e n suggested t h a t the sense m a y b e t h a t w i t h o u t

some

sort of c o v e r i n g f o r t h e i r h e a d s as a p r o p h y l a c t i c , t h e w o m e n of t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o n g r e g a t i o n w e r e v u l n e r a b l e t o evil angels s u c h as t h e "sons of G o d " w h o lusted a f t e r w o m e n ( G e n 6:2). 76 T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s o n t h e w h o l e b e e n d i s r e g a r d e d , since it d o e s n o t m a k e sense in the c o n t e x t of P a u l ' s discussion. P a u l h a s n o t said a n y t h i n g t o suggest these angels a r e p r e s e n t o r w o u l d r e p r e s e n t a n y p r o b l e m . 7 7 O t h e r i n t e r p r e t e r s h a v e suggested t h a t t h e a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e m a y b e " g o o d " angels i n t e r e s t e d in t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e o r d e r of c r e a t i o n

and

p r o p e r w o r s h i p . 7 8 I n s u c h a case, t h e w o m e n m u s t b e veiled b e c a u s e t h e y will l e a d t h e a n g e l s to sin. 7 9 J . F i t z m y e r h a s o b s e r v e d t h a t P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t reflects a n i d e a seen in s o m e of t h e t e x t s f r o m t h e D e a d

Sea c o m m u n i t y

considered

a b o v e — n a m e l y , t h a t angels s e e m to dwell a m o n g t h e a c t u a l h u m a n m e m b e r s of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n at specific times. 8 0 I n this case t h e c o n c e r n of P a u l a n d t h e C o r i n t h i a n s is s o m e t h i n g a k i n to w h a t is seen in t h e W a r Scroll (cf. D e u t 32), w h e r e p u r i t y is a n issue in o r d e r for a n g e l s t o b e p r e s e n t . T h e w o m e n n e e d to h a v e t h e i r

"veils"

b e c a u s e t h e i r u n c o v e r e d h e a d s r e p r e s e n t t h e e q u i v a l e n t of a " b o d i l y d e f e c t . " F i t z m y e r s u m m a r i z e s his insights f r o m the Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e : " W e a r e invited b y t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n to u n d e r s t a n d

that

the u n v e i l e d h e a d of a w o m a n is like a b o d i l y d e f e c t w h i c h s h o u l d be e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e a s s e m b l y , ' b e c a u s e h o l y a n g e l s a r e p r e s e n t in

76 B. Reicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1946). 77 M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head: An Examination of I Cor XI. 10" NTS 10 (1964) 412; G. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987) 521. 78 Foerster, TDNT 2:573f.; M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," pp. 412-413. 79 Cf. T. Reu. 5. 80 J . Fitzmyer, "A Feature of Qumran Angelology and the Angels of 1 Cor 11:10" in Paul and Qumran, ed. J . Murphy-O'Connor (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1968) 187-204. See also H. Cadbury, "A Qumran Parallel to Paul" Harvard Theological Review 51 (1958) 1-2.

the c o n g r e g a t i o n . 8 "

‫' י‬

T h e evidence f r o m Q u m r a n

demonstrates

c o n c e r n e q u a l l y for i n f i r m a n d i m p u r e m e n as it is d o e s f o r w o m e n . M . H o o k e r h a s o f f e r e d a slightly d i f f e r e n t exegesis. 8 2 S h e suggests t h a t έ ξ ο υ σ ί α b e t a k e n t o m e a n " a u t h o r i t y " in t h e sense t h a t

the

w o m e n in t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y c a n p r a y a n d p r o p h e s y sideby-side w i t h m e n in t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e r e is n o w a y t o be c e r t a i n of P a u l ' s m e a n i n g h e r e , b u t it is n e c e s s a r y to h a v e a n i d e a of t h e r a n g e of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s since t h e s e a r e integrally r e l a t e d to h o w o n e i n t e r p r e t s δ ι ά τους αγγέλους. F i t z m y e r ' s a n d H o o k e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e n o t m u t u a l l y exclusive, h o w e v e r . 8 3 B o t h suggest t h a t t h e angels a r e p r e s e n t in t h e c o m m u n i t y d u e to a c o n c e r n f o r p r o p e r w o r s h i p . P e r h a p s , r a t h e r t h a n s e e i n g t h e u n v e i l e d h e a d as a " b o d i l y d e f e c t " t h a t r e q u i r e s a veil, it is m o r e n a t u r a l t o t a k e έ ξ ο υ σ ί α as " a u t h o r i t y , " as H o o k e r suggests.

The

" a u t h o r i t y " is a sign t h a t in this n e w c o m m u n i t y w o m e n a r e e m p o w e r e d to p r a y a n d p r o p h e s y as m e n . T h e έ ξ ο υ σ ί α is a sign to t h e a n g e l s t h a t this is c o r r e c t a n d p a r t of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t P a u l o u t l i n e d in 11:3. As w a s t h e case w i t h m u c h of t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m Q u m r a n a n d as will b e t h e case in t h e text b e l o w (4.7), t h e c o n c e r n f o r p u r i t y in o r d e r t h a t a n g e l s c a n dwell w i t h h u m a n s s e e m s to b e i m p o r t a n t , b u t t h e έ ξ ο υ σ ί α m a y also b e a sign t h a t t h r o u g h b a p t i s m i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y a n g e l s c o u l d dwell w i t h w o m e n as well as m e n . 1 Cor

11:10 is n o t t h e o n l y p a s s a g e t h a t suggests t h o s e in t h e

C o r i n d n a n c o m m u n i t y believed in t h e p r e s e n c e of angels. I n 1 C o r 4 : 9 P a u l says, " F o r I t h i n k t h a t G o d

has exhibited us

apostles

[αποστόλους] as last of all, like m e n s e n t e n c e d to d e a t h [έπιθανατίους]; because w e h a v e b e c o m e a spectacle [θέατρον] to the world [τωκόσμφ], to angels a n d to m e n [και άγγέλοις καί ά ν θ ρ ώ π ο ι ς ] . " I n this section, P a u l is d e f e n d i n g his a p o s t l e s h i p . H e w a r n s t h e C o r i n t h i a n s a g a i n s t j u d g i n g a n y p e r s o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y " s e r v a n t s " s u c h as himself o r Apollos, w h o h a v e c o m e to h i m to s p r e a d t h e gospel. I t is n o t entirely c l e a r w h y P a u l b r i n g s a n g e l s i n t o this discussion. It m a y simply b e a w a y of talking a b o u t t h e entire cosmos. 8 4 H o w e v e r , t h e i r inclusion suggests

81

J. Fitzmyer, "A Feature of Qumran Angelology," p. 200. M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," pp. 411-416. 83 In discussion at the Graduate NT Seminar (Oxford, UK on 31 January 2002), Prof. Hooker said she did not see a great difference between hers and J. Fitzmyer's interpretation of the passage. 84 G. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdrnans, 1987) 521. 82

a

t h a t P a u l a n d p e r h a p s his a u d i e n c e b e l i e v e d t h a t a n g e l s t o o k

an

interest in t h e affairs of h u m a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e c a r r y i n g o u t G o d ' s work.85 I n 1 C o r 6:3 P a u l asks, " D o y o u n o t k n o w t h a t w e will j u d g e [κρινοΰμεν] 8 6 angels [αγγέλους]? H o w m u c h m o r e [μήτιγε], m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g to this life!" T h e c o n t e x t is P a u l ' s discussion m e m b e r s of the C o r i n t h i a n c h u r c h w h o a r e b r i n g i n g o n e

regarding another

b e f o r e s e c u l a r a u t h o r i t i e s to solve disputes. I n 6:2 P a u l asks,

"Do

y o u n o t k n o w t h a t t h e saints [oi άγιοι] will j u d g e [κρινοΰσιν] d i e w o r l d [τον κ ό σ μ ο ν ] ? " M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s t a k e t h i s v e r s e t o r e f e r t o

the

C o r i n t h i a n s . T h u s , P a u l s e e m s to b e saying t h a t m e m b e r s of t h e c o m m u n i t i e s h a v e b e e n given a special p o w e r / o b l i g a t i o n to m a k e j u d g m e n t s n o w a b o u t angels. T h i s w o u l d i m p l y a s u p e r i o r i t y of h u m a n s o v e r a n g e l s (cf. H e b 2:5), w h i c h i n t u r n w o u l d c e r t a i n l y suggest a s t r o n g distinction b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. Lastly, P a u l m a y h i n t a t a n angelic a t t r i b u t e for himself in 1 C o r 13:1 w h e n h e says t h a t h e c a n " s p e a k in t h e t o n g u e s of a n g e l s a n d m e n " (Εάν τ α ΐ ς γ λ ώ σ σ α ι ς των α ν θ ρ ώ π ω ν λ α λ ώ κ α ι τών αγγέλων). 8 7 It s e e m s n a t u r a l f r o m t h e c o n t e x t to t a k e this to r e f e r to t h e ecstatic p o w e r of s p e a k i n g in t o n g u e s (spiritual gifts [πνευματικών]), b u t p e r h a p s it m e a n s s o m e t h i n g m o r e in t h e sense of a c t u a l l y s p e a k i n g t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e angels. P a u l d o e s n o t say t h a t h e does, only "if h e w e r e t o " s p e a k as a n angel. T h i s w o u l d b e parallel t o P a u l ' s use of the h y p e r b o l e in G a l 1:8, " B u t e v e n if w e , o r a n a n g e l f r o m h e a v e n , s h o u l d p r e a c h to y o u a g o s p e l c o n t r a r y t o t h a t w h i c h w e p r e a c h e d to y o u , let h i m b e a c c u r s e d . " Still, in light of t h e fact t h a t P a u l uses the t e r m o n t h r e e o t h e r o c c a s i o n s in 1 C o r , it is at least c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t h e uses this a n a l o g y b e c a u s e it is f u n c t i o n a l for t h e C o r i n t h i a n s . T h u s , t h e only p a s s a g e t h a t s e e m s explicitly to r e f e r to t h e p r è s e n c e of a n g e l s is 1 C o r 11:10: " b e c a u s e of t h e a n g e l s . " T h e c u m u lative effect of t h e f o u r C o r i n t h i a n p a s s a g e s m i g h t suggest m o r e t h a n a p a s s i n g i n t e r e s t in t h e p r e s e n c e of a n g e l s in t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t t h e r e is n o w a y to b e c e r t a i n . I n 1 C o r 4 : 9 P a u l s e e m s t o say t h a t angels as well as m e n o b s e r v e h u m a n affairs. 1 C o r 11:10 i n d i c a t e s

85

M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," p. 413. That the verb is future indicative suggests that perhaps Paul is referring to an eschatological setting for this judgment scene. 87 Speaking in the angelic dialect was an aspect at least one other text considered above—in the transformation undergone by the daughters of Job in T. Job 48 when they donned special clothing. In that case both their hearts and mouths were transformed, which is not unlike Paul's overall message in 1 Cor 13. 86

s o m e specific c o n c e r n a b o u t a n g e l s ' p r e s e n c e a t liturgy. T h e

enig-

m a t i c s t a t e m e n t in 1 C o r 6 : 3 p l a c e s h u m a n s in j u d g m e n t of angels, a n d lastly in 1 C o r 13:1 P a u l h i n t s a t t h e possibility of s p e a k i n g in a n a n g e l i c dialect, b u t this m a y simply b e s o m e kind of a n a l o g y . T h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y m a y not have been the only early C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y to h a v e h a d s u c h beliefs. C o l 2:18 says, " L e t n o o n e disqualify y o u , insisting o n s e l f - a b a s e m e n t a n d w o r s h i p of a n g e l s [θρησκεία των αγγέλων], t a k i n g his s t a n d o n visions, p u f f e d u p w i t h o u t r e a s o n b y his s e n s u o u s m i n d . " R o w l a n d a r g u e s p e r s u a s i v e l y for t a k i n g των αγγέλων as a subjective genitive. 8 8 T h i s m e a n s t h a t it is n o t t h e c o m m u n i t y w o r s h i p p i n g angels, b u t i n s t e a d t h e c o m m u nity is c o n c e r n e d f o r t h e w o r s h i p of t h e angels in h e a v e n . T w o r e c e n t studies s h o w t h a t s c h o l a r s h i p is m o v i n g in this direction. 8 9 T h e e v i d e n c e h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o suggest a n y

identification

b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , it s e e m s to m a i n t a i n die distinction. 111 1 C o r 11:10 the έξουσία is n e e d e d δ ι α τους αγγέλους. H u m a n f e m a l e s n e e d s o m e type of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m a r k b e c a u s e of t h e angels. P a u l says h e c o u l d speak in t h e t o n g u e of m e n or angels (13:1). A n g e l s and m e n (not necessarily t o g e t h e r ) o b s e r v e t h e a p o s ties, w h o h a v e b e c o m e a spectacle, a n d h u m a n s j u d g e a n g e l s (4:9). E v e n in 6:3, w h e r e P a u l suggests t h a t h u m a n s m a y j u d g e t h e angels, t h e r e b y giving h u m a n s a s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n , t h e r e is still a distinction b e t w e e n t h e classes of beings. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s suggest t h a t P a u l a n d t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y saw t h e liturgical s p a c e as o n e w h e r e h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c o u l d a n d did i n t e r a c t . B u t at t h e s a m e t i m e the n e c e s s a r y s e p a r a t i o n / d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels is m a i n t a i n e d .

4.7

The Community

of the Rechabites (Hist.

Rech.)

T h e text k n o w n as T h e History of die R e c h a b i t e s (also sometimes called t h e A p o c a l y p s e of Z o s i m u s ) is difficult to d a t e . T h e of t h e text suggested t h a t t h e Hist. 88

first

Rech, c a m e f r o m a

translator fifth-century

C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic Visions and the Exaltation of Christ in the Letter to the Colossians" JSNT 19 (1983) 73-83. See also F. Francis, "Humility and Angelic Veneration in Col 2:18" in Conflict at Cotossae, rev. ed., ed. F. Francis and W. Meeks (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1975) 163-195. 89 J. Dunn, The Epistles to the Colossiatis and U> Philemon (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996) 177-185, and C. Marvin Pate, "The Agony of the Ecstasy" in Communities of the Last Days: The Dead Sea Scrolls, the New Testament, and the Story of Israel (Leicester: Apollos, 2000) 179-195 and 271-275.

C E C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t i c setting. 9 0 M o r e r e c e n t l y , b o t h B. M c N e i l a n d J . C h a r l e s w o r t h h a v e s e e n in it a m o r e a n c i e n t J e w i s h s t r a t u m a n d h a v e a r g u e d f o r its

first-century

C E p r o v e n a n c e . 9 1 T h e p r o b l e m s of

d a t i n g a r e insoluble. S i n c e it is possible t h a t t h e r e is a line of t r a d i t i o n in this text d a t i n g b a c k to t h e p e r i o d of this study, t h e text is e x a m i n e d . T h e R e c h a b i t e s a p p e a r in J e r 35:2, 3, 5, 18. I n J e r e m i a h this relig i o u s g r o u p is said to a b s t a i n f r o m w i n e ; t h e y d o n o t f a r m o r m a k e p e r m a n e n t h o m e s , living in tents. 9 2 T h e Hist. Rech, r e c o u n t s t h e visit of a h o l y m a n n a m e d

Zosimus

to t h e island of t h e p e o p l e k n o w n as " t h e Blessed O n e s . " Z o s i m u s a b s t a i n s f r o m b r e a d a n d w i n e a n d d o e s n o t see o t h e r h u m a n s f o r f o r t y y e a r s . A n a n g e l a p p e a r s to h i m a n d tells h i m t h a t h e will b e g i v e n his wish t o see t h e p e o p l e k n o w n as " t h e Blessed O n e s . " A f t e r a l o n g j o u r n e y , Z o s i m u s arrives o n t h e island, w h e r e

he

m e e t s a n a k e d m a n . H e asks t h e m a n w h y h e is n a k e d , to w h i c h t h e m a n replies t h a t it is Z o s i m u s w h o is a c t u a l l y n a k e d a n d tells h i m t h a t , if h e wishes to see h i m , h e s h o u l d look t o t h e h e a v e n s . As Z o s i m u s d o e s so, h e sees, "his f a c e (to be) like t h e f a c e of a n a n g e l " (cf. S t e p h e n , A c t s 6:15). Z o s i m u s ' s "eyes w e r e d i m m e d f r o m f e a r " a n d h e falls to t h e g r o u n d ( 5 : 4 ) — c o m m o n r e a c t i o n s to a n g e l o p h a n i e s . T h e " m a n " discloses t h a t h e is o n e of the "Blessed O n e s " (6:1). Z o s i m u s is told a b o u t t h e p l a c e a n d t h e "Blessed O n e s . " T h e island is like t h e G a r d e n of E d e n , a n d d i e Blessed O n e s a r e like A d a m a n d E v e b e f o r e t h e y s i n n e d (7:2-3). W h e n m a n y of t h e c o m m u n i t y h e a r t h a t Z o s i m u s h a s c o m e

to

t h e m , t h e y wish to cast h i m o u t , [10] And many noble elders and spiritual youths, who were like angels from heaven, assembled, formed an assembly, and said to me, " O man of sin, go, exit from a m o n g us. W e do not know how you prepared yourself so that you were able to come a m o n g us; [10a] perhaps you 90 M. R. James, "On the Story of Zosimus" in Apocrypha Anecdota, Texts and Studies 2:3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1893) 86-108. 91 B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus" JSJ 9 (1978) 68-82, and J . Charlesworth, OTP 2:443-461; J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels" in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism, ed.J. Collins and G. Nickelsburg (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980). 92 That the Essenes or Qumran community might be the descendants of the Biblical Rechabites has been suggested by some scholars, among them M. Black. This has on the whole been rejected. See C. H. Knights, "The Rechabites of Jeremiah 35: Forerunners of the Essenes?" JSP 10 (1992) 81-87.

wish to deceive us as the Evil O n e deceived our father A d a m . " [11] However, I, miserable, Zosimus, fell upon my face before them, a n d with mournful tears entreated them earnestly and said, " H a v e mercy upon me, Ο Blessed Ones; And forgive m e my offense, earthly angels." (Hist. Rech. 7:10-11) T h e Blessed O n e s a r e c o n c e r n e d for t h e p u r i t y of t h e i r c o m m u n i t y . I n this case t h e i m p u r i t y is sin, b u t t h e sinful b o d y is like a c o r r u p t e d g a r m e n t (5:3). W h a t is m e a n t b y " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " is n o t entirely clear; it suggests s o m e t y p e of liminal existence. H o w e v e r , t h e c o m m u n i t y is explicit t h a t t h e y a r e m o r t a l s (11:2a). T h e " a n g e l s of G o d " a r e said to c o m e a m o n g t h e c o m m u n i t y c o n t i n u o u s l y (12:6). J . C h a r l e s w o r t h says t h a t t h e Blessed O n e s " a r e in a p o s t - e a r t h l y b u t p r e - r e s u r r e c t i o n f o r m ; t h e y a r e in a p l a c e w a i t i n g to b e t a k e n to h e a v e n b y t h e a n g e l s w h o visit t h e m , " 9 3 w h i l e F l e t c h e r - L o u i s c o n e l u d e s t h a t , " i n this text w e h a v e a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a n

angelo-

m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y . . . a c o m m u n i t y w h o s e total lifestyle reflects t h e i r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . " 9 4 I n s o m e sense calling t h e Blessed O n e s

"angelo-

m o r p h i c " is a p p r o p r i a t e , since t h e vision t h a t Z o s i m u s h a s of t h e first m a n he e n c o u n t e r s uses the imagery of angelophanies. Nevertheless, t h e Blessed O n e s a r e m o r t a l (11:2a) a n d a r e clearly d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e h e a v e n l y a n g e l s w h o visit t h e m r e g u l a r l y (12:6). B. M c N e i l h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e Hist. Rech, is a w r i t i n g of t h e J e w i s h ascetic g r o u p k n o w n as t h e T h e r a p u t a e . 9 5 T h e T h e r a p u t a e a r e k n o w n to us only f r o m Philo, w h o discusses t h e m in his treatise, " O n Contemplative Life" (2-3, 1 0 - 4 0 , 64-90).

96

The Theraputae

the

share

a n u m b e r of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h t h e Essenes, w h o , if t h e y a r e t a k e n to b e t h e s a m e g r o u p as t h o s e w h o c o m p o s e d t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls, w o u l d s h a r e a c o m m u n a l lifestyle, etc. 9 ‫ ׳‬P h i l o says t h e y e x e m p l i f y a c o m m u n i t y focused on c o n t e m p l a t i o n a n d mystical vision of the divine: [11] T h e T h e r a p u t a e , a people always taught from the first to use their sight, should desire the vision of the Existent and soar above the sun and our senses and never leave their place in this company which carries them on to perfect happiness. . . [12] but carried away by a heaven-sent passion of love, remain rapt and possessed like bacchanals 93 94 95 96 97

J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels," p. 143. C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 203. B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," pp. 68-82. F. Colson, Philo IX (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941). HJPAJC 11:592-597.

01‫ ־‬corybants until they see the object of their yearning. [13] T h e n such is their longing for the deathless a n d blessed life that thinking their mortal life already ended they abandon their property to their sons and daughters 01‫ ־‬to other kinsfolk, thus voluntarily advancing the time of their inheritance. (11-13) P h i l o e n d s his discussion b y calling t h e T h e r a p u t a e t h o s e w h o h a v e "lived in t h e soul a l o n e , citizens of H e a v e n a n d t h e w o r l d . " (90). T h e r e is n o explicit m e n t i o n of a n g e l s in Contempt. Life. M c N e i l h i m self n o t e s a t the b e g i n n i n g of his a r g u m e n t , "Also significant is t h e lack of a single m e n t i o n of a n g e l s — w e a r e n o t e v e n told t h a t t h e T h e r a p u t a e believe in a n g e l s — w h e r e a s t h e R e c h a b i t e s a r e ' b r e t h r e n of a n g e l s ' . " 9 8 M c N e i l c o n c l u d e s , " B u t if it b e a c c e p t e d t h a t t h a t N a r r a t i o n is a s t a t e m e n t of t h e ideals of a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , t h e n t h e g r o u p w h o s e ideals it fits w i t h m i n i m u m of difficulty is t h e T h e r a p u t a e . " 9 9 T o b e m o r e precise, w h a t M c N e i l s h o u l d say is t h a t it b e s t fits w i t h t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e f r o m a m o n g those g r o u p s a b o u t w h o m m o d e r n schola r s h a v e s o m e k n o w l e d g e . It is equally possible t h a t t h e Hist.

Rech.

r e p r e s e n t s the i d e a s of a g r o u p a b o u t w h i c h w e h a v e n o o t h e r i n f o r mation or perhaps a m u c h later c o m m u n i t y . C . Fletcher-Louis includes the T h e r a p u t a e

in his discussion

of

" A n g e l o m o r p h i c c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h i n Israel." 1 0 0 N o t h i n g explicit in P h i l o ' s a c c o u n t suggests t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y , o r a n y o n e l o o k i n g at t h e m , t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e living a n angelic o r t r a n s f o r m e d life. P h i l o d o e s say t h a t t h e T h e r a p u t a e s o u g h t to h a v e visions of t h e divine. H e also says t h a t t h e y " h a v e lived in t h e soul a l o n e , citizens of H e a v e n a n d t h e w o r l d . " T h e i r ascetic p r a c t i c e s c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n n e c t e d to s o m e belief in angels living a m o n g t h e m , as w e see in Ilist.

Rech, o r p e r h a p s in s o m e of t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e , b u t t h e r e

is n o w a y to be c e r t a i n of this. T h a t t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r of c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t w e r e c o n c e r n e d f o r p u r i t y a n d lived disciplined, ascetic lifestyles c a n n o t b e d o u b t e d , b a s e d on the Q u m r a n evidence, Philo's description of t h e T h e r a p u t a e , a n d t h e p i c t u r e seen in t h e Hist. Rech., as well as p e r h a p s t h e c o m m u n i t y b e h i n d t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s . 1 0 1 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is n o

98 99 100 101

B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," p. 77. B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," p. 81. C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 198-199. See A. DeConick, Seek to See Him: Ascent and Vision Mysticism in the Gospel of

r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t all t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e , n o r t h a t a n y of t h e m specifically believed t h a t b y t h e i r a c t i o n s t h e y w e r e b e c o m i n g angels. T h e r e f o r e , t h e Hist. Rech, m u s t b e u s e d w i t h s o m e c a u t i o n in a n y discussion of late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n g e l beliefs, since its d a t e

and

provenance

the

are by no m e a n s certain. An identification with

T h e r a p u t a e m a y b e c o r r e c t , b u t it is also possible t h a t this g r o u p is t h e best fit f r o m a m o n g t h e g r o u p s a b o u t w h i c h w e h a v e i n f o r m a tion. F u r t h e r , e v e n if this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w e r e c o r r e c t , it a d d s little to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e R e c h a b i t e c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels. Hist.

The

Rech, suggests t h e r e w a s a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y t h a t believed it

w a s d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e R e c h a b i t e s of J e r 3 5 a n d t h a t h a d angels living a m o n g t h e m . T h i s i d e a of e a r t h l y c o m m u n i o n w i t h a n g e l s is n o t u n l i k e w h a t w a s s e e n in s o m e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d

Sea

Scrolls. T h i s g r o u p s e e m s t o h a v e m a i n t a i n e d a p u r e state so t h a t h e a v e n l y a n g e l s c o u l d b e p r e s e n t . T h e t e r m " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " suggests t h e liminal o r t r a n s f o r m e d state of t h e c o m m u n i t y . U l t i m a t e l y , this m a t e r i a l r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s .

Conclusions S e v e n u n i t s of e v i d e n c e w e r e e x a m i n e d in this c h a p t e r . T h e a n a l y sis a i m e d to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n g e l s d w e l l i n g a m o n g a

human

c o m m u n i t y signified o r i m p l i e d a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e

human

c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s into a n angelic status. S o m e of t h e

Qumran

m a t e r i a l clearly s h o w e d a belief t h a t angels w e r e to live a m o n g t h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s , b u t o f t e n p u r i t y laws w e r e laid o u t t h a t s e e m e d to b e a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e . 1 Q H did suggest t h a t h u m a n s , t h o u g h originally distinct f r o m angels, m i g h t b e c o m e p a r t of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of h e a v e n as angels. R e g a r d i n g the evidence f r o m Q u m r a n generally,

Fletcher-Louis

c o n c l u d e s , "this discussion of Q i i m r a n m a t e r i a l , in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h w h a t else is k n o w n of t h e Essenes [ f r o m J o s e p h u s ] , h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y of a n i d e n t i t y t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m t h a t of n o r m a l m o r t a l i t y to t h e angelic life.'" 0 2 T h e e v i d e n c e o n t h e

Thomas (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996) 86-93, who makes a strong case for seeing the Gos. Thorn, as a mystical—rather than Gnostic—text wherein the community sought communion with the divine through an ascetic lifestyle. 102 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 198; bracketed material is my own.

w h o l e d o e s n o t s u p p o r t s u c h a n assertion. M u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e is a m b i g u o u s , a n d if t h e Q u m r a n m a t e r i a l is n o t first s y n t h e s i z e d a n d t h e n m a t e r i a l f r o m J o s e p h u s ( a b o u t t h e Essenes) a d d e d to t h e discussion, s u c h a n assertion s e e m s e v e n less t e n a b l e . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s r e c e n t l y a r t i c u l a t e d this p o s i t i o n m o r e fully. 1 0 3 H e sees t h e locus of h u m a n to a n g e l (divine) t r a n s f o r m a t i o n as t h e T e m p l e , o r in t h e case of Q u m r a n , t h e c o m m u n a l liturgical space. T h e r e a r e t w o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s w i t h this idea. 1 0 4 O n e is seei n g t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m Q u m r a n as a c o r p u s ; t h e o t h e r is seeing t h e d o c u m e n t s as r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i d e a s of t h e c o m m u n i t y a t a n y given t i m e . T h e s e t w o issues d e t r a c t f r o m t h e i m p a c t of a n y exegesis t h a t w o u l d d e r i v e a c o h e r e n t set of beliefs f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y . Still, t h e s e c r i t i q u e s aside, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s p r o v i d e d s c h o l a r s w i t h s o m e useful insights. T h e T e m p l e o r liturgical s p a c e of t h e c o m m u n i t y

may

105

It is

b e u n d e r s t o o d as qualitatively d i f f e r e n t f r o m n o r m a l space.

c e r t a i n l y possible t h a t this specific locus w a s a p l a c e w h e r e a t least s o m e J e w s ( a n d in this case, the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y )

understood

that the earthly and heavenly spheres could have contact a n d some f o r m of t r a n s c e n d e n c e c o u l d o c c u r . T h i s s e e m s to be t h e type of u n d e r s t a n d i n g m a n y J e w s w o u l d h a v e h e l d f o r t h e h i g h priest e n t e r i n g t h e H o l y of H o l i e s o n Y o m K i p p u r . W h e t h e r it e x t e n d e d b e y o n d this locus for m o s t J e w s is u n c l e a r . E v e n if it d i d . h o w e v e r , t h e effect s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t r a n s i e n t . I n s o m u c h as a n y " m y s t i c a l " e x p e r i e n c e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as transf o r m a t i v e , it s e e m s this o n e w o u l d h a v e b e e n as well; h o w e v e r , t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e of t h e e v i d e n c e s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t s u c h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w e r e o n l y g l i m p s e s — p e r h a p s at m o s t a c c u m u l a t i n g steps in the right d i r e c t i o n — t h a t w o u l d n o t h a v e c a u s e d p a r t i c i p a n t s to see o n e a n o t h e r as angels b u t i n s t e a d as r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s

ultimately

seeking to c o m m u n e w i t h (and p e r h a p s t r a n s f o r m into) angels in t h e afterlife. I n so d o i n g , t h e y w o u l d t h u s fulfill t h e u l t i m a t e goal of t h e mystic: to reside w i t h G o d in t h e t h r o n e r o o m . T h i s , I suggest, w a s n o t s i m p l y a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i d e a / h o p e . T h e belief in t h e possibility of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o n the m o d e l of

righteous

i n d i v i d u a l s of t h e p a s t

w a s a f o c u s of t h e m y s t i c in this life. O n e c o u l d n o t s i m p l y believe, "I will t r a n s f o r m i n t o a n a n g e l w h e n I die, a n d t h u s I will o n e d a y

103 104 105

C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory. See my review of All the Glory in CBQ 65 (2003) 256-258. This seems to be similar to what Paul is suggesting in 1 Cor. See 4.6 above.

be w i t h G o d . " O n e h a d to p r e p a r e oneself in this life a n d b e g i n a p r o c e s s t h a t w o u l d ( a n d could) o n l y b e fully realized in t h e afterlife. S e e n in this light, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s assertions a r e v a l u a b l e . T h e first p a r t of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s thesis f r o m All the Glory is t h a t "in its original, t r u e a n d r e d e e m e d state h u m a n i t y is divine ( a n d / o r angelic)." A d a m is said to b e m a d e in t h e i m a g e of G o d a n d t h u s h u m a n i t y is as well. T h i s m e a n s t h a t A d a m a n d h u m a n s a r e t h e o m o r p h i c (or p e r h a p s " d i v i n e " ) , b u t to call t h e m

"angelomorphic"

s e e m s to a d d u n n e c e s s a r y c o n f u s i o n to t h e discussion, so I suggest stressing t h e " t h e o m o r p h i c " c h a r a c t e r of h u m a n i t y i n its o r i g i n a l state. T h e thesis m a y o r m a y n o t b e c o r r e c t , b u t it is n o t n e c e s s a r y as l o n g as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n could o c c u r in t h e afterlife. 1 0 6 T h e s e c o n d , interlocking c o m p o n e n t of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s thesis states that: T h e attainment now, for the redeemed, of this true humanity was conceptually and experientially grounded in their 'temple' worship in which ordinary space and time, a n d therefore h u m a n ontology, are trailscended. T h e y take for granted a cultic mythology which means that those who enter the worship of the community experience a transfer from earth to heaven, from humanity to divinity and from mortality to immortality. 107 T h i s s e e m s possible f o r a v e r y specific set of loci (i.e., t h e T e m p l e o r t h e liturgical s p a c e a t Q u m r a n ) , b u t u l t i m a t e l y it is u n c l e a r t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e scrolls s u p p o r t s s u c h a c l a i m , especially o n a c o r p o r a t e level. As s e e n in c h a p t e r 3, " h u m a n o n t o l o g y " w a s t r a n s c e n d e d o n l y for specific, r i g h t e o u s individuals. H u m a n s a n d angels r e m a i n e d s e p a r a t e , a l t h o u g h it d o e s s e e m t h a t s o m e of t h e Q u m r a n texts (as well as p e r h a p s s o m e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n texts), s a w the liturgical s p a c e as a p l a c e w h e r e t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e s c o u l d h a v e c o n t a c t a n d h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c o u l d i n t e r a c t . T h i s is d i f f e r e n t f r o m saying t h a t t h e s e c t a r i a n s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o " d i v i n e h u m a n i t y . " A n g e l s m e d i a t e b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n s (i.e., t h e y a r e a b l e to cross t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e h e a v e n l y a n d t h e earthly) a n d s t a n d b e f o r e G o d in t h e t h r o n e r o o m . S o m e h u m a n s (especially "mystics") s o u g h t to e x p e r i e n c e G o d . S o it s e e m s logical t h a t t h e s e

humans

w o u l d a s p i r e t o angelic status in o r d e r t o b e c o m e closer to G o d . T h e e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e i r p a s t of h u m a n s w h o h a d a c t u a l l y g o n e t o 106 107

C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, p. 476. C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, p. 476.

h e a v e n a n d a t t a i n e d a n a n g e l i c status m e a n t t h a t t h e y believed t h e potential

existed f o r access t o G o d . T h e early J e w i s h a n d

Christian

mystics likely built u p o n this belief, a n d eventually t h e early C h r i s t i a n s d e v e l o p e d it i n t o the i d e a of t h e αγγελικός βίος. 1 0 8 I n t h e case of t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y , it w a s n o t entirely c l e a r w h a t beliefs t h e y h e l d c o n c e r n i n g angels, b u t 1 C o r 11:10 c e r t a i n l y s e e m e d t o suggest t h e r e w a s s o m e belief in t h e p r e s e n c e of angels d u r i n g t h e liturgy. T h e m e a n i n g of έ ξ ο υ σ ί α ν w a s u n c l e a r also, b u t it s e e m s likely, especially in light of e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n ,

that

w h a t e v e r P a u l m e a n s b y t h e t e r m , it s t e m s f r o m a c o n c e r n f o r m a i n t a i n i n g p u r i t y so t h a t a n g e l s c a n b e p r e s e n t . O n t h e w h o l e ,

only

11:10 s e e m e d t o suggest a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e in t h e c o m m u n i t y . T h e Hist. Rech, p r e s e n t e d insights i n t o w h a t o n e

author/commu-

n i t y e n v i s i o n e d as t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e ascetic c o m m u n i t y of J e r 35. T h e difficulties involved in d a t i n g t h e text m a k e a n y c o n c l u s i o n s t e n tative, b u t e v e n t h e r e t h e Blessed O n e s a r e m o r t a l s . E v e n in this case p u r i t y issues a r e i n v o l v e d in m a i n t a i n i n g a state in w h i c h divine angels c o u l d b e p r e s e n t . T h e status of t h e " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " of t h e community was somewhat ambiguous. It is f a s c i n a t i n g to c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t a n g e l s a r e believed to b e p r e s e n t a m o n g v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t e v e n in cases w h e r e a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s live in c o m m u n i t i e s t o g e t h e r , a distinction is m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o classes of beings. T h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e t w o is cast i n t o h i g h relief by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e o f t e n s e e m to b e serious p u r i t y c o n c e r n s involved w h e n a n g e l s a r e m e a n t to b e p r e s e n t ; h u m a n s m u s t m a i n t a i n a h e i g h t e n e d state of p u r i t y in o r d e r for t h e possibility of angelic p r e s e n c e e v e n to o c c u r .

108

One step along this path might be seen in a passage like 2 Cor 3:18.

CHAPTER FIVE "GUESS WHO'S C O M I N G T O

DINNER":

HOSPITALITY AND EATING WITH

ANGELS

T h i s c h a p t e r will c o n s i d e r h u m a n - a n g e l i n t e r a c t i o n b y

examining

p o r t r a y a l s of h u m a n s o f f e r i n g h o s p i t a l i t y t o a n g e l s o n e a r t h

and

angels a p p e a r i n g to c o n s u m e h u m a n f o o d . T h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t w h e n h u m a n s offer angels hospitality, t h e angels h a v e

almost

always a p p e a r e d in h u m a n f o r m a n d the o n e visited is n o t a w a r e of t h e a n g e l ' s t r u e n a t u r e . I n s o m e i n s t a n c e s angels a p p e a r to eat h u m a n f o o d , b u t late S e c o n d T e m p l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e s e t r a d i tions d e n y t h a t t h e a n g e l ate. F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of t h e discussion in this c h a p t e r , hospitality is u n d e r s t o o d as " t h e f r i e n d l y a n d g e n e r o u s r e c e p t i o n a n d

entertain-

m e n t of guests o r s t r a n g e r s . ' " I n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d t h e t w o m a i n c o m p o n e n t s of this w o u l d likely h a v e b e e n f o o d a n d shelter. E x a m p l e s of t h e practice of hospitality a r e f o u n d in G r a e c o - R o m a n , J e w i s h , a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s f r o m t h e p e r i o d . 2 T h e r e is n o o n e H e b r e w t e r m t h a t directly t r a n s l a t e s as " h o s p i t a l i t y . " I n G r e e k t h e t e r m is φ ι λ ο ξ ε ν ί α . I n t h e J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n A b r a h a m s e e m s to s t a n d as the p a r a d i g m of t h e v i r t u e of hospitality, b a s e d u p o n G e n 18. 3 M o s t of t h e t r a d i tions discussed i n this c h a p t e r a r e b a s e d o n A b r a h a m ' s

encounter

w i t h divine guests (e.g., Gm. Rab. 43:7). E v e n L o t ' s hospitality is likely m o d e l e d o n A b r a h a m ' s . 4 H o s p i t a l i t y is also listed a m o n g t h e virtues of J o b ( J o b 31:32).

1 The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 656. See also J. Koenig, "Hospitality" in ABD 3:299-301. 2 For examples in Graeco-Roman writings, see Ovid, Metamorphoses 628-632, where Zeus and Hermes are guests of the old couple Baucis and Philemon (cf. Acts 14:11-12, Homer, Od. 17:485-487) and the discussion in L. Martin, "Gods or Ambassadors of God? Barnabas and Paul in Lystra" NTS 41 (1995) 152-156. See also G. Stählin, "ξένος" in TDNT 5:1-36, esp.' 17-25; Philo, Mos. 1:58. 3 See JE 8:1030-1033 for a summary of the Jewish evidence regarding hospitality. Cf. T. Zeb. 6:4. 4 T. Desmond Alexander, "Lot's Hospitality: A Clue to His Righteousness" JBL 104 (1985) 289-291.

H o s p i t a l i t y s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t v i r t u e in t h e e a r liest C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s . T h e N T c o n t a i n s a n u m b e r of o t h e r p a s sages t h a t state t h e i m p o r t a n c e of hospitality generally. 5 I n p a r t i c u l a r , J e s u s ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a b o u t t h e k i n g d o m in t h e gospels, t h e G o s p e l of L u k e itself, a n d t h e w r i t i n g s of P a u l s e e m to e v i n c e a c o n c e r n f o r this virtue. 6 T h e s e w r i t i n g s s e e m to h a v e a p r a c t i c a l o r h u m a n i t a r ian basis r a t h e r t h a n overtly suggesting t h a t t h e g u e s t so w e l c o m e d m a y b e a n a n g e l . H e b r e w s 13:2 d o e s s e e m t o suggest t h a t t h e v i r t u e of h o s p i t a l i t y is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e h o s t m a y u n k n o w i n g l y e n t e r t a i n i n g a n g e l s , as s o m e f i g u r e s f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible

be had

d o n e . 7 T h e early c h u r c h f a t h e r s c o n t i n u e d to stress t h e i m p o r t a n c e of hospitality, a n d it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t C h r i s t i a n

hospitality

facilitated t h e s p r e a d of t h e gospel. 8 T h e v i r t u e of hospitality w a s i m p o r t a n t across c u l t u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r o u n d t h e t u m of t h e e r a . A n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t of hospitality is f o o d . T h e q u e s t i o n of whether or not angels require any sustenance has been considered by D . G o o d m a n . 9 H i s article s u r v e y e d t h e J e w i s h m a t e r i a l o n t h e t o p i c f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible t h r o u g h t h e r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e , a s k i n g t h r e e q u e s t i o n s : (1) H o w a r e angels s u s t a i n e d ? (2) Is t h e r e a n y e a t ing o r d r i n k i n g in h e a v e n ? A n d (3) d o angels b e h a v e as m e n w h e n t h e y d e s c e n d to e a r t h ? 1 0 T h e last of his q u e s t i o n s is m o s t r e l e v a n t to t h e p r e s e n t discussion, b u t it is also useful to c o n s i d e r his c o n elusions a b o u t t h e first t w o q u e s t i o n s to give c o n t e x t t o t h e t h i r d . W i t h r e g a r d t o angelic s u s t e n a n c e (1), G o o d m a n b e g i n s his a n a l y sis w i t h Ps 7 8 : 2 3 2 5 ‫ ־‬, w h i c h states, " Y e t h e c o m m a n d e d t h e skies a b o v e , a n d o p e n e d t h e d o o r s of h e a v e n ; a n d h e r a i n e d d o w n

upon

t h e m m a n n a to e a t , a n d g a v e t h e m t h e g r a i n of h e a v e n . M a n

ate

of t h e b r e a d of the m i g h t y [ ‫ ] ל ח ם א ב י ר י ם‬o r as t h e L X X r e a d s , ' b r e a d of t h e a n g e l s '

[αρτον α γ γ έ λ ω ν ] . " 1 1 G o o d m a n

notes that a

certain

5 Rom 12:13; 1 Tim 3:2, 5:10; Tit 1:8; 1 Pet 4:9; Heb 13:2 and cf. Acts 28:7. For more on this idea see C. Pohl, Making Room: Recovering Hospitality as Christian Tradition (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), and A. Malherbe, "Hospitality and Inhospitality in the Church" in Social Aspects of Early Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983) 92-112. 6 J. Koenig, New Testament Hospitality (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985). 7 Heb 13:2 is discussed in more detail below in section 5.7. 8 D. Riddle, "Early Christian Hospitality: A Factor in the Gospel Transmission" JBL 57 (1938) 141-154. Did. 11-13 suggests that such hospitality could be abused, however. !1 D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" JJS 37 (1986) 160-175. 10 D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 160. 11 See also D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 161 n. 5.

a m b i v a l e n c e t o w a r d t h e m a n n a is a l r e a d y e v i n c e d in t h e Bible. E x o d

Hebrew

16:15 states, " W h e n t h e p e o p l e of Israel s a w it, t h e y

said t o o n e a n o t h e r , ' W h a t is it?' F o r t h e y did n o t k n o w w h a t it was. A n d M o s e s said to t h e m , 'It is t h e b r e a d w h i c h the L o r d h a s given y o u t o e a t . ' " Little else is said in t h e H e b r e w Bible r e g a r d ing angelic f o o d . G o o d m a n cites b. Torna 7 5 b , in w h i c h R .

Aqiba

says t h e m i n i s t e r i n g a n g e l s e a t t h e h e a v e n l y b r e a d , b u t R . I s h m a e l rejects R . A q i b a o n t h e basis of D e u t 9:18, w h e r e M o s e s o n Sinai states, " I n e i t h e r a t e b r e a d n o r d r a n k w a t e r . " As f o r e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g in h e a v e n (2), G o o d m a n s h o w s t h a t m u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e focuses u p o n h o w M o s e s w a s s u s t a i n e d d u r i n g his f o r t y d a y s o n S i n a i ( D e u t 9 : 9 , 18; E x o d

24:912.(11‫־‬

To

G o o d m a n , t h e e v i d e n c e suggests t h a t t h e a n c i e n t a u t h o r s believed t h e r e w a s n o f o o d in h e a v e n . H o w e v e r , h u m a n s in mystical a s c e n t c a n survive b y n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m t h e divine ( E x o d 3 4 : 2 8 9 ‫ ־‬, Abr.

Apoc.

13). S u r v e y i n g t h e r a b b i n i c writings, G o o d m a n finds little dis-

cussion of h o w t h e a n g e l s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e s u s t a i n e d , since d u e to t h e i r i n c o r p o r e a l i t y t h e y a p p a r e n t l y did n o t r e q u i r e s u s t e n a n c e . By t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E a t r a d i t i o n s e e m s to h a v e d e v e l o p e d t h a t t h e a n g e l s w e r e s u s t a i n e d by c o n t a c t w i t h t h e S h e k i n a h . As f o r h o w angels b e h a v e o n e a r t h (3), G o o d m a n s u r v e y e d t h e related literature: J u d g 6 a n d

13, in w h i c h f o o d is o f f e r e d to t h e

Angel of t h e L o r d , w h o refuses, b u t t h e f o o d is nevertheless c o n s u m e d by fire; T o b

12, w h e r e t h e a n g e l R a p h a e l a n n o u n c e s t h a t h e o n l y

a p p e a r e d to e a t a n d d r i n k ; a n d L u k e 24, w h e r e t h e r e s u r r e c t e d J e s u s eats fish in f r o n t of t h e disciples as p r o o f h e is n o t a n

apparition.

T h e m a j o r i t y of G o o d m a n ' s analysis is f o c u s e d u p o n A b r a h a m his h e a v e n l y visitors ( G e n

1819

‫־‬

and

a n d r e l a t e d traditions). I t is w i t h

t h e s e s a m e p a s s a g e s a n d o n e o t h e r t h a t this c h a p t e r is c o n c e r n e d . 1 3 G o o d m a n s u m s u p his c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g angelic

sustenance

by r e l a t i n g t h e m to t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of P. S c h ä f e r o n t h e n e g a t i v e r e p o r t s a b o u t angels in m u c h of t h e r a b b i n i c literature: 1 4

12

D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" pp. 162-163; There is also a late tradition that Moses partook of the food of the angels while on Sinai (based on Exod 34:28) in the Samaritan M. Marq. 4.6 (cf. also Philo, Moses 2.69; Josephus, Ant. 3.99). See W. Meeks, "Moses as God and King" in Religions in Antiquity, ed. J. Neusner (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1968) 370 n. 5. 13 To the discussion of angelic sustenance it is illuminating to add the honeycomb in JA, which will be considered below (5.4). 14 P. Schäfer, Rivalität zwischen Engeln und Menschen (New York: de Gruyter, 1975).

T h e earliest stage in the beliefs concerning angelic sustenance seems to be that angels do not eat the same food as m e n but nevertheless partake of some form of nourishment. Subsequent to the mid-second century C E , when negative reports are found about the angels, particularly in the dealings with m a n , interest in the angelic appetite evolves m o r e from a concern for the welfare of m a n when he is in heaven, either during a mystical ascent 01‫ ׳‬at the eschatological time, t h a n from an interest in the angels themselves. 15 T h u s it s e e m s t h a t in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , a n g e l s w e r e believed to h a v e s o m e f o r m of s u s t e n a n c e , b u t it w a s n o t t h e s a m e as t h a t m e a n t f o r h u m a n s (cf. LA.E.

4:2). I n s t e a d , angels in h e a v e n

w e r e s u s t a i n e d b y b e i n g p r e s e n t to G o d . T h e y h a d n o n e e d of sust e n a n c e in t h e s a m e w a y as h u m a n s . G o o d m a n says t h e t r a d i t i o n s based on G e n

1819

angels a n d m e n . ' "

5

‫־‬

suggest "possibly a n equality of status

between

T h i s e q u a l i t y , h o w e v e r , s e e m i n g l y c o m e s in h o w

o n e receives a visitor, b u t it d o e s n o t e x t e n d to t h e r e a l m of i d e n tity. G i v e n t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e G e n 1 8 1 9

‫־‬

story o n s u b s e q u e n t t r a -

ditions a b o u t h o s p i t a l i t y t o a n g e l s , it is a p p r o p r i a t e t o b e g i n

the

e x a m i n a t i o n of e v i d e n c e t h e r e .

5.1

The Book of Genesis

18-19

S e c t i o n 2.1 a b o v e lays o u t t h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e " m e n " of G e n

18-19

b e i n g i n t e r p r e t e d as a n g e l s in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . F r o m t h a t evidence, it s e e m e d p r o b a b l e t h a t m o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s in t h a t p e r i o d u n d e r s t o o d t h e s e " m e n " to b e angels. T h i s b e i n g t h e case, w h a t will b e c o n s i d e r e d in this section is t h e i n t e r e s t i n g n o t i o n t h a t A b r a h a m a n d L o t o f f e r e d hospitality (food, shelter, rest, etc.) t o t h e i r angelic guests. In G e n

18:2 A b r a h a m sees t h e t h r e e " m e n " a p p r o a c h his t e n t ;

h e h u r r i e s o u t to g r e e t t h e m a n d o f f e r t h e m hospitality.

Abraham

b e g s t h e v i s i t o r s — t h o u g h h e a d d r e s s e s t h e " L o r d " in t h e s i n g u l a r , w h o is said to a p p e a r to h i m (v. 1)—to r e m a i n w i t h h i m (v. 3). First, A b r a h a m o r d e r s w a t e r t o b e b r o u g h t so t h e y c a n w a s h t h e i r feet a n d sees t h a t t h e y rest t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r t h e t r e e (v. 4). H e

then

asks w h e t h e r t h e y will r e m a i n f o r s o m e b r e a d t o r e f r e s h t h e m s e l v e s (v. 5). O n c e t h e y a g r e e , A b r a h a m tells S a r a h to p r e p a r e t h r e e c a k e s

15 16

D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 174. D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" pp. 174-175; italics are mine.

of b r e a d (v. 6). H e n e x t selects a t e n d e r calf a n d gives it to his serv a n t t o p r e p a r e (v. 7). T h e e n t i r e m e a l , w h i c h i n c l u d e s c u r d s a n d milk, is p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e travelers. T h e n A b r a h a m s t a n d s by t h e m u n d e r the t r e e " a n d t h e y a t e " (‫ ;ויאכלו‬καί έφάγοσαν) (v. 8). A b r a h a m ' s hospitality is q u i t e g e n e r o u s . F r o m t h e n a r r a t i v e , A b r a h a m d o e s n o t s e e m to k n o w the visitors o r t h e i r divine n a t u r e . H e r e q u e s t s t h a t t h e y r e m a i n , rest t h e m s e l v e s , a n d eat. T h e m e a l h e p r e p a r e s is m o r e t h a n t h e simple b r e a d h e h a s originally o f f e r e d t h e m . T h e text explicitly states t h a t t h e visitors a t e w h a t w a s p r e p a r e d f o r t h e m . I n c h a p t e r 19, L o t g r e e t s t h e visitors, n o w r e f e r r e d to as angels (19:1, 15; t h e y a r e called " m e n " a g a i n i n 19:16), w i t h a n e n t r e a t y to r e m a i n w i t h h i m t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t . H i s w o r d s e c h o t h o s e of A b r a h a m to his t h r e e visitors. T h e visitors a g r e e t o stay w i t h

Lot

a f t e r first s a y i n g t h e y w o u l d r e m a i n in t h e s t r e e t (v. 2). L o t feeds t h e m (v. 3). B e f o r e t h e visitors a r e a b l e to settle in f o r t h e n i g h t , the t o w n s m e n s u r r o u n d Lot's house, d e m a n d i n g the m e n be given to t h e m . T h e visitors a r e o n c e a g a i n r e f e r r e d to as angels in v. 15, w h e n t h e angels w a r n L o t to leave t h e city w i t h his f a m i l y o r b e d e s t r o y e d a l o n g w i t h t h e city. W h a t is p e r t i n e n t for t h e p r e s e n t discussion is t o c o n s i d e r w h a t s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s did w i t h t h e t r a d i tion of angels eating; t h a t is, did they m a i n t a i n , c h a n g e , o r eliminate it? I n Abr. P h i l o m a k e s s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g c o m m e n t s o n A b r a h a m ' s visitors. 1 7 P h i l o says explicitly t h a t " a n g e l s r e c e i v e d hospitality [ξένιων] f r o m m e n " (115 cf. 167). I n s o m e sense, P h i l o i n t e r p r e t s A b r a h a m ' s v e r y hospitality as t h e r e w a r d (άθλόν) for his v i r t u e b u t a d d s t h a t A b r a h a m ' s hospitality w a s only a " b y - p r o d u c t of his g r e a t e r virtue . . . piety [ α ρ ε τ ή ] " (114). 1 8 P h i l o is c l e a r t h a t t h e guests did n o t p a r t a k e of t h e f o o d o f f e r e d to t h e m , s a y i n g t h a t d i e y f e a s t e d " n o t so m u c h o n t h a t p r e p a r e d f o r t h e m as o n t h e g o o d will of t h e i r h o s t " (110). M o r e explicitly, P h i l o says of A b r a h a m ' s visitors, "It is a m a r v e l i n d e e d t h a t t h o u g h t h e y n e i t h e r a t e n o r d r a n k , t h e y g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of b o t h e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g " (118). So for P h i l o , t h e angels received A b r a h a m ' s h o s p i tality a n d r e s p o n d e d b y a p p e a r i n g t o e a t t h e f o o d p r e p a r e d for t h e m w i t h o u t actually e a t i n g it. 17 Unfortunately, Philo's QG end immediately before where the events of Gen 18-19 would likely have been discussed. 18 This same idea is evident in 1 Clem. 10:7: "Because of his faith [πίστιν] and hospitality [φιλοξενίαν] a son was given him in his old age." Lot is saved for his "hospitality [φιλοξενίαν] and piety [εύσέβειαν]" (11:1). (Cf. also 1 Clem. 12:1; Did. 12).

J o s e p h u s in t h e Ant.

1 . 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 p r e s e n t s a similar analysis of t h e

situation. T h e t h r e e m e n a r e a n g e l s (άγγελοι) t h a t A b r a h a m t a k e s t o b e s t r a n g e r s (ξένοι), w h o m h e asks to p a r t a k e of his hospitality (ξενία). A b r a h a m h a s c a k e s m a d e a n d kills a calf. T h e angels, h o w e v e r , o n l y " g a v e t o h i m t h e a p p e a r a n c e of h a v i n g c o n s u m e d " (oi δε δ ό ξ α ν α ύ τ φ π α ρ έ σ χ ο ν έσθιόντων). J o s e p h u s also stresses t h a t L o t e x t e n d e d h o s p i tality to t h e angels, a lesson l e a r n e d f r o m living w i t h A b r a h a m

(Ant.

1.200). Like P h i l o , J o s e p h u s is c l e a r t h a t t h e b e i n g s w e r e a n g e l s w h o only g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g . T h e o n l y o t h e r r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e r e c e p t i o n of this p a s s a g e c o m e s f r o m t h e T a r g u m i m . Tg. Onq. is q u i t e similar to t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e as w e h a v e it in t h e M a s o r e t i c t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e L X X . A c c o r d i n g to 18:8, t h e angels did a p p a r e n t l y e a t w h a t A b r a h a m p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m , a n d a g a i n in 19:3 t h e t w o angels w h o visited L o t a p p e a r to h a v e e a t e n t h e m e a l p u t b e f o r e t h e m . Tg. Neo. says t h a t t h e a n g e l s o n l y " g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g . " Tg. Ps-J. also m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e a n g e l s only a p p e a r e d to p a r t a k e of the f o o d p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m , a d d i n g t h a t t h e hosts d i d this " a c c o r d ing t o t h e m a n n e r (and) c u s t o m of h u m a n b e i n g s . ' " 9 T h i s s e e m s t o h i n t at b o t h t h e c u s t o m of hospitality p r a c t i c e d a m o n g h u m a n b e i n g s as well as t h e simple fact t h a t t h e y w e r e g i v e n f o o d t h a t

humans

n e e d but angels d o not. O v e r a l l , t h e t r a d i t i o n is c l e a r t h a t A b r a h a m w a r m l y o f f e r e d h o s pitality to his (angelic) visitors. I n t h e H e b r e w n a r r a t i v e it a p p e a r s a t least t h a t t h e visitors a t e w h a t w a s p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m . By t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d , i n t e r p r e t e r s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y m a k i n g c l e a r t h a t t h e angels did n o t e a t b u t w o u l d give t h e a p p e a r a n c e of d o i n g so in o r d e r t o c o n c e a l t h e i r i d e n t i t y o r a c c e p t t h e i r h o s t s ' hospitality.

5.2

The Book of Judges

6 and

13

T w i c e in t h e B o o k of J u d g e s , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s

to

h u m a n s . I n e a c h of t h e s e a c c o u n t s t h e o n e visited offers hospitality i n c l u d i n g f o o d to t h e a n g e l , b u t in n e i t h e r case d o e s it a p p e a r t h e f o o d is e a t e n ; i n s t e a d it is a c c e p t e d as a t y p e of sacrificial offering.

19

This reading is seen in the fragmentary Targumim (P and V), which say, "And they appeared as though they were eating and as though they were drinking."

J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 2 4 r e c o r d s d i e visit of t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d to G i d e o n at the time w h e n t h e Israelites h a v e b e e n taken over by the Midianites. J u d g 6:11 says, " N o w t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d c a m e a n d sat u n d e r t h e o a k at O p h r a h , w h i c h b e l o n g e d to J o a s h the A b i e z r i t e , as his son G i d e o n w a s b e a t i n g o u t w h e a t in t h e w i n e press, to h i d e it f r o m t h e M i d i a n i t e s . " G i d e o n is told t h a t h e is to deliver his p e o p l e o u t of t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n (6:14); t h u s t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of t h e visitation s e e m s to b e t h e r e v e l a t i o n of G o d ' s p l a n for G i d e o n . G i d e o n s e e m s u n a w a r e t h a t d i e p e r s o n s p e a k i n g to h i m is t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a n d asks t h e p e r s o n to r e m a i n as h e p r e p a r e s a gift (v. 18). G i d e o n r e t u r n s w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l m e a l of a p r e p a r e d kid, b r o t h , a n d u n l e a v e n e d cakes. T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d tells G i d e o n t o p u t his f o o d o f f e r i n g o n a rock, w h i c h h e d o e s (v. 20). T h e a n g e l t o u c h e s t h e o f f e r i n g w i t h his staff; t h e o f f e r i n g is c o n s u m e d b y fire, a n d a t t h e s a m e m o m e n t the a n g e l v a n i s h e s (v. 21). G i d e o n t h e n d i s c e r n s t h a t his visitor w a s i n d e e d t h e L o r d a n d f e a r s t h a t h e will die, "Alas, Ο L o r d G o d ! F o r n o w I h a v e seen t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d f a c e to face. B u t t h e L o r d said to h i m , ' P e a c e b e to y o u ; d o n o t f e a r , y o u shall n o t d i e . ' " G i d e o n , like J a c o b in G e n 2 8 a n d 32, t h e n e r e c t s a n a l t a r at t h e site of his e p i p h a n y . J o s e p h u s discusses t h e a n g e l o p h a n y [Ant. 5 . 2 1 3 - 2 1 4 ) b u t is silent o n w h e t h e r o r n o t G i d e o n m a d e a n y o f f e r of f o o d . P h i l o d o e s n o t m e n t i o n e i t h e r a n g e l o p h a n y f r o m Judges. 2 0 T h e T a r g u m o n J u d g 6 likewise r e c o r d s t h a t t h e a n g e l did n o t e a t b u t t h a t t h e f o o d p r e p a r e d for h i m w a s c o n s u m e d b y fire as h e d i s a p p e a r e d . I n P s . - P h i l o the consumption

of t h e f o o d a n d w a t e r o c c u r s in r e s p o n s e to a

r e q u e s t f o r a sign b y G i d e o n . M o r e o v e r , o n l y w a t e r is p o u r e d o v e r a rock. As it is p o u r e d o u t , it d i s a p p e a r s as half b l o o d a n d half fire (LA.B.

35:6).

In J u d g 1 3 : 3 - 2 1 , t h e A n g e l of the L o r d a p p e a r s to M a n o a h a n d his wife, a n n o u n c i n g t h e b i r t h of t h e i r son, S a m s o n . M a n o a h asks t h e a n g e l to r e m a i n w i t h h i m so t h a t h e m i g h t f e e d h i m . O n c e a g a i n , t h e issue of h o s p i t a l i t y c o m e s i n t o play. T h e a n g e l says, "If y o u d e t a i n m e , I will n o t eat of y o u r f o o d ; b u t if y o u m a k e r e a d y a b u r n t o f f e r i n g , t h e n o f f e r it t o t h e L o r d " (v. 16a). W e also l e a r n t h a t " M a n o a h did n o t k n o w t h a t h e w a s t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d " (v. 16b).

20

Additionally, 1Q6 fragment 1 contains part of Judg 6:20-22, only retaining one readable letter, ‫מ‬, where ‫ מלאך‬is expected from the Masoretic text (DJD 1:62).

J o s e p h u s , Ant. 5 . 2 8 2 2 8 4 ‫ ־‬, r e c o r d s : [282] . . . and though M a n o a h invited him [the angel] to stay and partake of hospitality [ξενίων], he did not give his consent. However, he was persuaded at his earnest entreaty to remain while some token of hospitality [ξενίων] might be brought to him. [283] So, he killed a kid and bid his wife to cook it. W h e n all was ready, the angel [άγγελος] ordered them to set out the loaves and the meat upon the rock, without the vessels. [284] T h a t done, he touched the meat with the rod which he held and a fire blazing out, it was consumed along with the bread, while the angel [άγγελος], borne on the smoke as on a chariot, was plainly seen by them ascending to heaven. J o s e p h u s v e r y m u c h stresses t h e hospitality of M a n o a h . S i n c e t h e original tale h a s t h e a n g e l r e f u s i n g , J o s e p h u s says t h a t it w a s t h r o u g h M a n o a h ' s p e r s u a s i o n t h a t t h e a n g e l d i d a c c e p t a t o k e n of his h o s pitality, c o n s u m i n g it w i t h fire. I n his retelling of J u d g

14, Ps.-Philo says t h a t M a n o a h a n d his

wife a r e a b l e t o o f f e r b o t h b r e a d a n d gifts to t h e a n g e l , w h o says, "I will n o t e n t e r y o u r h o u s e w i t h y o u , n o r e a t y o u r b r e a d , n o r t a k e y o u r gifts" ( L A . B . 42:8). A f t e r o f f e r i n g v a r i o u s sacrifices o n his n e w l y m a d e altar, M a n o a h puts o u t the m e a t h e h a s cut. T h e angel " r e a c h e d o u t a n d t o u c h e d t h e m w i t h t h e tip of his staff," a n d fire c o m e s f r o m t h e rock a n d c o n s u m e s it. A t t h e e n d of the c h a p t e r w e l e a r n t h a t the a n g e l h a s a n a m e , F a d a h e l . T h e T a r g u m o n J u d g 13 has little expansion b u t m a k e s n o significant c h a n g e s w i t h r e g a r d to t h e a n g e l n o t c o n s u m i n g t h e f o o d . W h i l e t h e offer of hospitality s e e m s to b e t h e c o r r e c t c o u r s e of a c t i o n in b o t h of t h e s e cases in J u d g e s , in n e i t h e r case did t h e o n e visited a p p a r e n t l y k n o w t h a t t h e g u e s t w a s t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d . T h e offer of f o o d is a c c e p t e d , b u t t h e f o o d is n o t e a t e n a n d is i n s t e a d c o n s u m e d b y fire as if a t y p e of sacrificial offering.

5.3

77he Book of Tobit

5-12

I n t h e B o o k of T o b i t , t h e a r c h a n g e l R a p h a e l acts as travel p a n i o n to T o b i a s in c h a p t e r s 5 - 1 2 .

21

R a p h a e l a p p e a r s as a

comman,

a n d n o o n e s e e m s to discern a n y d i f f e r e n c e until, j u s t b e f o r e his d e p a r t u r e , t h e angel p r o c l a i m s , " '1 a m R a p h a e l , o n e of t h e seven 21 For a discussion of the issues regarding the dating and genre of Tobit, see section 2.6 above.

h o l y a n g e l s w h o p r e s e n t t h e p r a y e r s of t h e saints a n d e n t e r i n t o t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e g l o r y of t h e H o l y O n e . ' T h e y w e r e b o t h

alarmed;

a n d t h e y fell u p o n t h e i r faces, for t h e y w e r e a f r a i d " ( 1 2 : 1 5 1 6 ‫ ) ־‬. Interestingly, in T o b 6:5, w h e n R a p h a e l a n d T o b i a s a r e e n c a m p e d o n t h e b a n k s of t h e Tigris, R a p h a e l tells T o b i a s to c a t c h a l a r g e fish, saving t h e g u t s for a h e a l i n g r e m e d y . O n c e h e h a s d o n e this, t h e y " r o a s t e d a n d ate [εφαγον] t h e fish."22 T h i s c u r i o u s p a s s a g e suggests t h a t p e r h a p s R a p h a e l d i d i n d e e d e a t w i t h his h u m a n

companion.

H o w e v e r , a f t e r t h e revelation of his t r u e identity in 1 2 : 1 5 1 6 ‫ ־‬, R a p h a e l t h e n p r o c l a i m s , "All t h e s e d a y s I m e r e l y a p p e a r e d t o y o u a n d d i d n o t e a t o r d r i n k , b u t y o u w e r e s e e i n g a v i s i o n " (12:19). T h i s is a n e a r l y a t t e s t a t i o n of t h e i d e a t h a t angels d o n o t c o n s u m e h u m a n f o o d . T h e parallels of a n a n g e l — h e r e a n a r c h a n g e l — c o m i n g to a h u m a n a n d not being recognized, giving a n i m p o r t a n t revelation,

appear-

i n g to eat, t h e n d e p a r t i n g a r e all i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e of t h e m o t i f in t h e l i t e r a t u r e p r i o r t o t h e first c e n t u r y C E . Hospitality does not

figure

i n t o this c a s e specifically. 2 3 T h e r e is

definitely a n a n g e l , t h e a r c h a n g e l R a p h a e l , w h o s e t r u e n a t u r e is n o t k n o w n until t h e e n d of t h e tale. I n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e story, h e a p p e a r s to eat, b u t it is r e v e a l e d l a t e r t h a t h e did n o t .

5.4

Joseph and Aseneth

15~16

I n section 2 . 1 0 a b o v e w e c o n s i d e r e d t h e e v i d e n c e for t h e visitor to A s e n e t h in c h a p t e r s 1 4 - 1 7 of JA

b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l . I n

this s u b s e c t i o n t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e a n g e l a c c e p t s A s e n e t h ' s h o s p i tality a n d also r e q u e s t s a specific f o o d (a h o n e y c o m b ) is a n a l y z e d . P a r t of t h e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n A s e n e t h a n d t h e a n g e l is as follows: [15:14] And the m a n said to her, "Speak (up)." A n d Aseneth stretched out her right h a n d and put it on his knees and said to him, "I beg you, Lord, sit down a little on this bed, because this bed is pure a n d undefiled, and a m a n or a w o m a n never sat on it. And I will set a table before you, and bring you bread and you will eat, a n d bring

22 Similarly, the (S) version of Tobit reads εφαγεν; and 4Q197 (Aramaic copy of Tobit) reads ‫ואכל‬. The fact that both of these are singular in form suggests that only Tobit ate. 23 But in 4:16 Tobit tells his son before his journey to "Give of your bread to the hungry, and of your clothing to the naked. Give all your surplus to charity, and do not let your eye begrudge the gift when you made it.,‫י‬

you from my storeroom old and good wine, the exhalation of which will go up till heaven, and you will drink from it. [15] And after this you will go out (on) your way." And the man said to her, "Hurry and bring (it) quickly." [16:1] And Aseneth hurried and set a new table before him and went to provide bread for him. And the man said to her, "Bring me also a honeycomb." [2] And Aseneth stood still and was distressed, because she did not have a honeycomb in her storeroom. H e r hospitality includes rest, g o o d food, a n d wine, followed by a d e p a r t u r e after having b e e n refreshed. T h e visitor agrees. H e t h e n requests a h o n e y c o m b . Aseneth is distressed because she does n o t h a v e o n e in h e r stores, b u t she tells h i m t h a t she will send a b o y to fetch one. T h e angel assures h e r t h a t t h e r e will be o n e in h e r stores w h e n she checks, a n d i n d e e d this is the case (v. 8). T h e h o n e y c o m b is n o t a typical one. It is said to give h o n e y t h a t is "like d e w f r o m h e a v e n a n d its exhalation like b r e a t h of life" (v. 9). F u r t h e r , the angel says t h a t it is "full of the spirit of life. A n d the bees of paradise of delight have m a d e this f r o m the d e w of the roses of life t h a t are in the p a r adise of G o d " (v. 14). T h e angel t h e n eats s o m e of the h o n e y c o m b : [16:15] And the man stretched out his right hand and broke a small portion of the comb, and he himself ate and what was left he put with his hand into Asenetli's mouth, and said to her, "Eat." And she ate. [16] And the man said to Aseneth, "Behold, you have eaten bread of life, and drunk a cup of immortality, and been anointed with ointment of incorruptibility." It is clear t h a t die h o n e y c o m b is divine. T h e angel is said to eat it. N o m e n t i o n is m a d e of his eating (or not eating) the food that Asenedi p r e p a r e d , b u t p r e s u m a b l y with the e m p h a s i s o n t h e h o n e y c o m b , the o t h e r f o o d is ignored. M o s t interesting is the fact t h a t A s e n e t h is allowed to p a r t a k e of the h o n e y c o m b . By d o i n g so, she h a s " e a t e n b r e a d of life, a n d d r u n k a c u p of immortality, a n d b e e n a n o i n t e d with o i n t m e n t of incorruptibility." It is u n i q u e a m o n g the passages considered in this c h a p t e r t h a t the h u m a n benefits by e a t i n g angelic food a f t e r offering hospitality a n d h u m a n food to h e r guest. Lastly, it is interesting to n o t e t h a t Aseneth indicates to h e r guest t h a t the b e d u p o n w h i c h she has asked h i m to recline is " p u r e a n d u n d e f i l e d , " with n e i t h e r a m a n n o r w o m a n h a v i n g sat u p o n it. T h i s seems to reflect the s a m e type of purity c o n c e r n s seen in m u c h of the evidence analyzed in c h a p t e r 4.

5.5

The Testament of Abraham.

T h e Testament of Abraham tury GE. T h e

(T. Abr.) likely d a t e s to t h e

first-second

t e x t exists t o d a y in t w o m a i n f o r m s : t h e

cen-

longer,

R e c e n s i o n A ( G r e e k ms., s u p p o r t e d b y a R o m a n i a n version), w h i c h is likely closer to its original f o r m ; a n d t h e s h o r t e r , R e c e n s i o n

Β

( G r e e k ms., s u p p o r t e d b y a S l a v o n i c a n d o t h e r versions); h o w e v e r , t h e precise r e l a t i o n of t h e t w o v e r s i o n s is n o t clear. 2 4 It is i n s t r u c tive to look at t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m b o t h

recensions.

Like o t h e r w r i t i n g s in t h e t e s t a m e n t g e n r e , T. Abr. tells of t h e t i m e n e a r t h e p a t r i a r c h ' s d e a t h . H o w e v e r , A b r a h a m r e f u s e s to a c c e p t t h a t t h e t i m e of his d e a t h h a s c o m e . T h i s text is u n u s u a l in t h e testam e n t g e n r e in t h a t it d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a t e s t a m e n t o r m u c h ethical teaching from Abraham. G o d first s e n d s t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l (αρχιστράτηγος) to

Abraham.

M i c h a e l ' s arrival e c h o e s t h e visitation of t h e angels in G e n 18 19, a n d w i t h i n t h e story it is s u b s e q u e n t l y r e v e a l e d t h a t M i c h a e l

was

i n d e e d o n e of t h e t h r e e visitors to h i m in t h e past at t h e o a k of M a m r e . T h e T. Abr. s e e m s t o e x p a n d o n the i d e a of A b r a h a m ' s hospitality b y u s i n g G e n

18 as a m o d e l f o r h o w A b r a h a m greets a n y

guests. I n R e c e n s i o n A , A b r a h a m is said to b e a r i g h t e o u s m a n w h o w a s v e r y h o s p i t a b l e (1:1). A b r a h a m is in his fields w i t h o t h e r w o r k e r s w h e n t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l is said t o a p p e a r t o h i m as a n

"honored

soldier, b r i g h t as t h e sun a n d m o s t h a n d s o m e , m o r e t h a n all t h e sons of m e n " (2:4); M i c h a e l ' s brilliant a p p e a r a n c e s e e m s to signal his angelic n a t u r e . A b r a h a m g r e e t s M i c h a e l a n d asks h i m to t r a v e l w i t h h i m across his fields (2:7). T h e y arrive a t A b r a h a m ' s t e n t . W h e n I s a a c sees t h e f a c e of t h e a n g e l , h e says to S a r a h , " M y l a d y m o t h e r , b e h o l d : t h e m a n w h o is sitting w i t h m y f a t h e r A b r a h a m is n o son of t h e r a c e w h i c h dwells u p o n t h e e a r t h " (3:5). I s a a c t h e n w o r s h i p s M i c h a e l (v. 6). T h e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e i r g u e s t a r e extensive, i n c l u d i n g b e a u t i f y i n g t h e g u e s t r o o m w i t h p u r p l e c l o t h a n d silk (4:2). M i c h a e l t h e n m a k e s a discreet exit a n d a s c e n d s to h e a v e n .

There

h e says to G o d t h a t h e c a n n o t a n n o u n c e t o A b r a h a m his d e a t h b e c a u s e " I h a v e n o t seen u p o n t h e e a r t h a m a n like h i m — m e r c i f u l ,

24 E. P. Sanders, "The Testament of Abraham" in OTP 1:871; HJPAJC Ill.ii: 761-766.

hospitable, righteous, G o d - f e a r i n g , r e f r a i n i n g f r o m every evil d e e d " (4:6). M i c h a e l is c o m m a n d e d by t h e L o r d , " G o d o w n to m y friend, A b r a h a m , a n d w h a t e v e r h e should say to y o u , this do, a n d w h a t ever he should eat y o u also eat with h i m " (4:7). M i c h a e l clearly finds this c o m m a n d p r o b l e m a t i c , saying in 4:9: Lord, all the heavenly spirits are incorporeal, and they neither eat nor drink. Now he has set before me a table with an abundance of all the good things which are earthly and perishable. And now, Lord, what shall I do? How shall I escape his notice while I am sitting at one table with him? T h e L o r d t h e n says (4:10): Go down to him, and do not be concerned about this. For when you are seated with him I shall send upon you an all-devouring spirit, and, from your hands and through your mouth, it will consume everything which is on the table. Make merry with him in everything. W i t h this c o m m a n d , M i c h a e l r e t u r n s to A b r a h a m . T h e text does n o t say t h a t M i c h a e l ate b u t picks u p the story " a f t e r the s u p p e r was finished" (5:2), so p r e s u m a b l y h e gave the a p p e a r a n c e of eating. S a r a h later recognizes the angel as o n e of the " t h r e e h e a v e n l y m e n w h o stayed as guests in o u r tent beside the oak of M a m r e , " a clear reference to G e n 18 (6:4). It is clear in this recension of the story t h a t M i c h a e l did n o t eat any f o o d p r e p a r e d f o r h i m , b u t instead h e gives the a p p e a r a n c e of eating, while t h e food is c o n s u m e d by a spirit. M i c h a e l does accept A b r a h a m ' s hospitality. T h e r e are s o m e significant differences b e t w e e n recensions A a n d B. I n c h a p t e r 2 of R e c e n s i o n B, w h e n A b r a h a m sees a s t r a n g e r — w h o is actually the angel M i c h a e l , t h o u g h A b r a h a m does n o t k n o w t h i s — h e arises a n d first wishes h i m well on his j o u r n e y . W h e n the angel replies with kind w o r d s , A b r a h a m t h e n offers h i m hospitality (rest a n d food). M i c h a e l asks A b r a h a m his n a m e . W h e n h e learns t h a t h e is A b r a m , r e n a m e d A b r a h a m by the L o r d , M i c h a e l says, " B e a r with m e , m y f a t h e r , m a n w h o h a s b e e n t a k e n t h o u g h t of by G o d , because I a m a stranger, a n d I h e a r d a b o u t y o u w h e n y o u w e n t a p a r t forty stadia a n d took a calf a n d slaughtered it, entertaining angels as guests in y o u r house, so t h a t they m i g h t rest" (v. 10). M i c h a e l returns to h e a v e n to pray. H e tells G o d t h a t he c a n n o t deliver the message of A b r a h a m ' s d e a t h to h i m , saying A b r a h a m is " a righteous m a n , w h o welcomes strangers" (4:10). M i c h a e l is o r d e r e d

to r e t u r n to A b r a h a m , w h e r e h e is to "stay w i t h h i m as a guest. A n d w h a t e v e r y o u see (him) e a t i n g , y o u also e a t . " T h u s , M i c h a e l is to a c c e p t gracefully A b r a h a m ' s hospitality a n d a t least give the a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g . C h a p t e r 5 says t h a t u p o n M i c h a e l ' s r e t u r n ,

"they

ate, d r a n k , a n d m a d e m e r r y " (v. 1). It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r M i c h a e l ate. S i n c e h e is c o m m a n d e d b y G o d to e a t w h a t h e sees A b r a h a m eat, t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is at least t h a t e a t i n g is n o t a n o r m a l activity for h i m , b u t t h e t e x t is n o t as explicit as R e c e n s i o n A in s a y i n g t h a t a spirit c o n s u m e d t h e f o o d f o r h i m . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , a t 6 : 1 0 S a r a h says, " I d e c l a r e a n d say t h a t this is o n e of t h e t h r e e m e n w h o stayed as o u r guests at t h e o a k of M a m r e , " a c l e a r r e f e r e n c e to G e n 18, w h i c h is d i e n q u o t e d (v. 11). A b r a h a m discloses t h a t h e also k n o w s t h e identity of t h e i r visitor ( w .

12-13).

M i c h a e l d o e s n o t b r i n g A b r a h a m to h e a v e n , so D e a t h is s e n t t o h i m . E v e n t h o u g h A b r a h a m fears t h e sight of D e a t h (13:4), h e offers h i m hospitality (13:6). C l e a r l y , A b r a h a m ' s hospitality lies at t h e h e a r t of t h e n a r r a t i v e in this r e c e n s i o n . M i c h a e l is told to eat a n d s e e m s to d o so in 5:1. It is n o t c l e a r , h o w e v e r , since G o d h a s g i v e n h i m leave to e a t , w h e t h e r this is a c a s e of a n a n g e l a c t u a l l y e a t i n g o r simply a p p e a r i n g to eat. The

Gen

1 8 - 1 9 narrative clearly influenced the portrayal

of

A b r a h a m in the T. Abr. T h e angel M i c h a e l , w h o c o m e s to A b r a h a m , is revealed as o n e of t h e angels to h a v e visited h i m a t M a m r e (A-6:4; B-6:10). A b r a h a m is t h e m o d e l of a h o s p i t a b l e h o s t ( A - l : l ; B - 4 : l l ) . T h e angel M i c h a e l is struck by A b r a h a m ' s virtue to t h e e x t e n t t h a t h e c a n n o t c a r r y o u t his d u t y (A-4:6; B-4:12). A f t e r c o n s u l t i n g

God,

M i c h a e l gives t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g so as n o t to o f f e n d A b r a h a m ' s hospitality, b u t t h e f o o d is c o n s u m e d by a spirit, n o t M i c h a e l (A-4:7, 10; B-4:15).

5.6

77le Gospel of Luke

T h e r e a r e s o m e similarities b e t w e e n t h e a n g e l i c visitation in

Gen

1 8 - 1 9 a n d t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e of J e s u s o n t h e E m m a u s r o a d in L u k e 24. 2 5 I n b o t h cases, divine b e i n g s a p p e a r as s t r a n g e r s t o

25 The idea of a divine being or angel as travel companion is seen in Tob 512‫־‬. On this see M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 144-148. See also C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 6263‫־‬.

h u m a n s . T h e h u m a n s a r e u n a w a r e of t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e s t r a n g e r a n d ask h i m to a c c e p t t h e i r hospitality. T h e t w o b r e a k b r e a d w i t h J e s u s (24:30) a n d i m m e d i a t e l y realize w h o h e is. A t t h a t Jesus d i s a p p e a r s (cf. J u d g 6:21 a n d

moment

13:20). T h e t w o disciples w h o

first see J e s u s o n t h e r o a d r e t u r n t o J e r u s a l e m a n d t h e o t h e r discipies (24:33). O n c e t h e r e , t h e y tell t h e o t h e r s w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d t o them (24:34-35). T h e n : [36] As they were saying this, Jesus himself stood a m o n g them. [37] But they were startled a n d frightened, and supposed that they saw a spirit, [πνεύμα, D reads φάντασμα] [38] And he said to them, " W h y are you troubled, a n d why do questionings rise in your hearts? [39] See my hands and my feet, that it is I myself; handle me, and see; for a spirit [πνεύμα] has not flesh [σάρκα] and bones [όστέα] as you see that I have." [41] A n d while they still disbelieved for joy, and wondered, he said to them, " H a v e you anything here to eat?" [42] T h e y gave him a piece of broiled fish, [43] and he took it a n d ate [εφαγεν] before them. 2 6 L u k e (or t h e a u t h o r of this r e s u r r e c t i o n a c c o u n t ) p r o b a b l y d r e w o n t h e t r a d i t i o n s m e n t i o n e d , so J e s u s w o u l d t a k e o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s assoc i a t e d with t h e divine visitors. 2 ' H o w e v e r , the text d o e s r e a d π ν ε ύ μ α , n o t άγγελος, t h o u g h it is g r a n t e d t h a t "spirit" is a t e r m

sometimes

m e a n t to r e f e r to a n y i n c o r p o r e a l o r divine s u p e r n a t u r a l (cf. L u k e 4 : 3 3 , 9:39, 13:11). Is J e s u s m e a n t to b e a n angel? J e s u s offers t w o p r o o f s of his identity. O n e is t h e e a t i n g of t h e

fish—he

is flesh a n d

b l o o d — a n d t h e o t h e r is t h e f u l f i l l m e n t of w o r d s h e s p o k e while alive ( w . 4 4 - 4 8 ) ; it is really t h e s a m e J e s u s . T h e use of e a t i n g as a p r o o f of his h u m a n n e s s implies t h a t e a t i n g is g e n e r a l l y a h u m a n activity, n o t o n e in w h i c h i n c o r p o r e a l b e i n g s p a r t a k e . 2 8 T h e p o i n t is t h a t J e s u s is n o t a n a n g e l o r spirit b u t is m e a n t to b e flesh a n d b l o o d .

26 There is an interesting variant at 24:42: και άπό μελισσίου κηρίου ("and from a honeycomb"). B. Metzger says this is an "obvious interpolation," inserted as a justification for honey being used in celebration of the Eucharist and in the baptismal liturgy; A Textual Commmtary on the New Testament (New York: United Bible Societies, 1994) 161. However, it is interesting that in JA 16 the angel requests a honeycomb from Aseneth, and it turns out to be divine food. 27 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 63, says that Jesus's appearance has the "clear contours of an angelophany" but notes that Luke may see this as a weak Christology. 28 D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 168.

5.7

The Epistle to the Hebrews and Christian

Hospitality

O n e of t h e clearest allusions to G e n 1 8 - 1 9 in t h e N T c o m e s in H e b 13:2: " D o n o t n e g l e c t t o s h o w hospitality [φιλοξενίας] to s t r a n g e r s , f o r t h e r e b y s o m e h a v e e n t e r t a i n e d angels [αγγέλους] u n a w a r e s . " T h i s r e m i n d e r o c c u r s at t h e e n d of t h e epistle in a section of e x h o r t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s . H . A t t r i d g e n o t e s t h a t t h e " s o m e " (τίνες) in this verse m a y refer to a n u m b e r of persons f r o m H e b r e w Bible stories: A b r a h a m a n d S a r a h ( G e n 18:2-15); L o t ( G e n 19: 1 - 1 4 ) , G i d e o n ( J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 1 8 ) , M a n o a h ( J u d g 1 3 : 2 - 2 2 ) , o r T o b i t ( T o b 1 2 : l - 2 0 ) . 2 9 All of t h e passages a r e possible r e f e r e n t s , since t h e issue of h o s p i t a l i t y is involved, b u t t h e a s p e c t of giving hospitality u n a w a r e s s e e m s t o p o i n t t o w a r d G e n e s i s o r T o b i t . W h i c h e v e r t e x t o r texts it is, t h e c o m m a n d of t h e a u t h o r of H e b r e w s s e e m s clear: y o u (first-century a u d i e n c e ) s h o u l d (in y o u r p r e s e n t c o n t e x t ) n o t neglect hospitality, b e c a u s e s o m e (in o u r history) h a v e e n t e r t a i n e d a n g e l s (in t h e i r o w n time). It is a n e x h o r t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t in t h e p r e s e n t , j u s t i f y i n g w h y C h r i s t i a n s s h o u l d always s h o w hospitality to s t r a n g e r s . H o w seriously o n e is t o take s u c h a c o m m a n d is n o t clear. It m i g h t b e a n e x a g g e r a t i o n

meant

to stress a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t . H o w e v e r , in light of t h e p a s s a g e s c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e , t h e a u t h o r m a y t a k e seriously t h e possibility of angelic visitation t o h u m a n s (e.g. G a l 4:14). T e r t u l l i a n , w r i t i n g in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , says in c h a p t e r 2 6 of De Oratione, " Y o u will n o t dismiss a b r o t h e r w h o h a s e n t e r e d y o u r h o u s e w i t h o u t p r a y e r . — ' H a v e y o u seen, 5 says S c r i p t u r e , 'a b r o t h e r ? y o u h a v e seen y o u r L o r d ' ; — e s p e c i a l l y ' a s t r a n g e r , ' lest p e r h a p s h e be ' a n a n g e l ' \angelus\."3°

His c o m m e n t is b a s e d o n H e b 13:2, b u t

his e x h o r t a t i o n is t a r g e t e d t o w a r d his p r e s e n t c o m m u n i t y a n d c o u l d reflect a c o n t i n u i n g belief in a n g e l s visiting h u m a n beings. T h e c o n g e n i a l r e c e p t i o n of s t r a n g e r s e m b o d i e s t h e ideal t h a t J e s u s sets o u t in M a t t 2 5 : 3 5 - 3 6 , " F o r I w a s h u n g r y a n d y o u g a v e

me

f o o d , I w a s thirsty a n d y o u g a v e m e d r i n k , I w a s a s t r a n g e r

and

y o u w e l c o m e d m e , 1 w a s n a k e d a n d y o u c l o t h e d m e , I w a s sick a n d y o u visited m e , I w a s in p r i s o n a n d y o u c a m e t o m e . " T h e s e w o r d s of t h e M a t t h e a n J e s u s idealize t h e v i r t u e of hospitality. I n giving

29 H. Attridge, Hebrews: A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989) 386. 30 Translation from the ANF 3:690.

f o o d a n d d r i n k to t h e lowly, d i e r i g h t e o u s a r e a c t u a l l y g i v i n g it t o the S o n of M a n himself. In M a t t

10:40, J e s u s d e c l a r e s , " H e

who

receives y o u receives m e , a n d h e w h o receives m e receives h i m w h o sent m e " (cf. M a t t 18:10). 31 As n o t e d a b o v e , it is c l e a r t h a t h o s p i tality c o n t i n u e s in t h e early c h u r c h a n d m a y e v e n h a v e b e e n a fact o r in t h e s p r e a d of t h e gospel. T h e possibility exists t h a t a least a p a r t i a l f a c t o r in the p u s h for s t r o n g hospitality w a s t h e belief t h a t divine beings, angels, o r e v e n J e s u s m i g h t visit t h e c o m m u n i t y .

Conclusions T h e e x a m i n a t i o n of e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r s h o w e d t h a t t h e m o t i f of a n g e l s visiting h u m a n s o n e a r t h a n d b e i n g o f f e r e d hospitality w a s p r e s e n t in the l i t e r a t u r e of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . M u c h of it s e e m s to b e b a s e d o n t h e G e n 18 n a r r a t i v e a b o u t A b r a h a m b e i n g h o s p i t a b l e to his t h r e e guests at t h e o a k of M a m r e . T h i s story clearly i n f l u e n c e d t h e p o r t r a y a l of A b r a h a m in t h e T.

Abr.

I n all t h e cases, hospitality w a s o f f e r e d to t h e angels w h i l e t h e h o s t w a s u n a w a r e of t h e a n g e l ' s d i v i n e n a t u r e . N o explicit r e a s o n s w e r e g i v e n — s i m p l y a n u n d e r l y i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t angels did n o t e a t h u m a n f o o d . I n t h e case of JA,

t h e f o o d of t h e a n g e l is a spe-

cial h o n e y c o m b . R e g a r d l e s s of w h e t h e r t h e y a c t u a l l y a t e o r

only

a p p e a r e d t o e a t , t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t hosts s h o u l d d o a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n o f f e r t h e best ( h u m a n ) hospitality to t h e i r guests (angelic o r otherwise), p a r t i c u l a r l y since t h e y c o u l d n o t a l w a y s b e c e r t a i n of their guests' true nature. T h e evidence from the N T showed that G e n

18-19 and

other

H e b r e w Bible passages i n f o r m e d t h e e x h o r t a t i o n in H e b 13:2 b u t also t h e i d e a of C h r i s t i a n hospitality as a w h o l e ; a n g e l s c o u l d visit, so o n e n e e d e d to b e r e a d y to offer t h e m t h e p r o p e r w e l c o m e a t a n y t i m e . E c h o i n g t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of D . G o o d m a n , C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s says t h a t literal r e a d i n g s of texts such as G e n 18 w e r e d e n i e d f r o m early o n , t h u s c o n f i r m i n g " t h a t it w a s a s t a n d a r d a s s u m p t i o n t h a t angels did n o t eat." 3 2 T h i s s e e m s t o b e t h e c a s e f o r t h e S e c o n d

Temple

51 The idea of hospitality may also lie behind the commandment to "Love your neighbor as yourself" in Matt 5:43, 19:19, 22:39; Mark 12:31, 33; Luke 10:27; Rom 13:9; Gal 5:14; Jas 2:8; cf. Rom 13:8, 10. See C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic, the Poor, and the Gospel of Matthew" JTS 45 (1994) 504-518. 82 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 69.

evidence. Angels did n o t eat h u m a n food, p r e s u m a b l y because eating is a h u m a n activity t h a t is u n n e c e s s a r y for t h e m . I n L u k e 24, J e s u s actually goes a b o u t p r o v i n g his c o r p o r e a l n a t u r e by eating. It seems, then, t h a t o n e factor in distinguishing h u m a n s f r o m angels is w h e t h e r they n e e d to eat. Angels, even w h e n o n e a r t h , h a v e n o n e e d to eat, while h u m a n s do. But angels, w h e n offered food, a i m e d n o t to offend their hosts so gave the a p p e a r a n c e of eating.

" T H E Y M I G H T BE

GIANTS":

HUMAN-ANGEL HYBRID

OFFSPRING

T h i s c h a p t e r investigates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p o r t r a y a l s (deriving f r o m G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) of angels h a v i n g sexual r e l a t i o n s w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . I n a n u m b e r of texts t h e s e r e l a t i o n s r e s u l t e d in viable offspring: a n g e l - h u m a n h y b r i d s t h a t c a m e to b e k n o w n as t h e N e p h i l i m , G i b o r i m , o r giants. T h e " t a k i n g of wives" in t h e G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e a n d s u b s e q u e n t interp r e t a t i o n s w a s u n d e r s t o o d as a e u p h e m i s m for s e x u a l relations t h a t led to hybrid offspring. T h e t e r m " h y b r i d " will be u n d e r s t o o d to m e a n , " t h e o f f s p r i n g of t w o a n i m a l s [or beings] of d i f f e r e n t species o r varieties." 1 T h i s t e r m r e g u l a r l y h a s t h e c o n n o t a t i o n t h a t t h e t w o entities involved a r e i n c o n g r u o u s — t h a t is, d o n o t r e g u l a r l y o r n a t u r a l l y j o i n . T h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t a u n i o n b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d n a t u r a l . T h e y w e r e distinct b e i n g s (or species) f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n o n w a r d . T h e a n g e l s ' d e s c e n t to e a r t h w a s a t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d a significant p r o b l e m . It w a s e v e n c o n s i d e r e d b y s o m e i n t e r p r e t e r s to b e

the

s o u r c e of evil in t h e w o r l d .

6.1

Genesis 6:1-4

in the Hebrew

Bible

P r i o r to t h e s h o r t story of t h e " s o n s of G o d " in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 a r e t h e c r e a t i o n (chaps. 12‫)־‬, t h e story of A d a m a n d E v e a n d t h e i r e x p u l sion f r o m t h e g a r d e n of E d e n (chaps. 3 - 4 ) , a n d t h e n a list of t h e g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r A d a m u p to t h e m e n t i o n of N o a h a n d his t h r e e sons ( c h a p . 5). W i t h s e e m i n g l y n o c o n n e c t i o n to t h e p r e c e d i n g m a t e rial, c h a p t e r 6 a b r u p t l y i n t e r j e c t s this s h o r t tale of t h e " s o n s of G o d " a n d t h e d a u g h t e r s of m e n :

1

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 665. The words in brackets are mine.

[1] W h e n m e n [‫ ]האדם‬began to multiply on the face of the ground, and daughters were b o r n to them, [2] the sons of G o d [‫ ]בני־האלהים‬saw that the daughters of m e n [‫ ]בנות האהם‬were fair; and they took to wife [‫ ]ויקחו ל ה ם נשים‬such of them as they chose. [3] T h e n the Lord said, " M y spirit shall not abide in m a n for ever, for he is flesh, but his days shall be a hundred and twenty years." [4] T h e Nephilim [‫ ]הנפלים‬were on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of G o d [‫ ]בני האלהים‬came in to the daughters of men [‫]בנוה האדם‬, a n d they bore children to them, these [‫]המה‬ (were) the mighty men [‫ ]הנכרים‬that were of old, the m e n of renown. I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r this s h o r t a c c o u n t , it is said t h a t t h e L o r d looks u p o n t h e e a r t h , sees t h a t h u m a n s a r e w i c k e d , a n d r e p e n t s of his e r e a t i o n (6:5). T h i s c o n n e c t i o n with t h e evil of t h e a g e a n d t h e

flood

is c e n t r a l in l a t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h e flood n a r r a t i v e s follow, w h e n G o d purifies t h e e a r t h of t h e first, w i c k e d h u m a n s . O n l y t h o s e of N o a h ' s f a m i l y survive (chaps. 6 9 ‫ ) ־‬. So, a l r e a d y in t h e H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n , t h e d e s c e n t to e a r t h a n d t a k i n g of wives b y divine b e i n g s s e e m s to h a v e p r e c i p i t a t e d a j u d g m e n t u p o n t h e e a r t h . A brief o u t l i n e of d i e G e n 6 : 1 - 4 n a r r a t i v e will b e h e l p f u l , since (a) t h e p a s s a g e itself is r a t h e r brief a n d n o t logically well s t r u c t u r e d , a n d (b) s u b s e q u e n t t r a d i t i o n s p i c k u p o n p a r t i c u l a r p a r t s of t h e passage: 1. H u m a n s a r e said to i n c r e a s e in n u m b e r u p o n t h e e a r t h (6:1a). 2. D a u g h t e r s a r e b o r n to t h e h u m a n s (6:1b). T h e " s o n s of G o d " t h e n see t h a t t h e d a u g h t e r s a r e p l e a s i n g to t h e eye (6:2a), a n d t h e y " t a k e w i v e s " f r o m a m o n g t h e h u m a n f e m a l e s (6:2b). 3. T h e n t h e L o r d says t h a t his spirit (‫ )רוח‬will n o t r e m a i n in h u m a n s for l o n g e r t h a n 120 y e a r s (6:3). 2 N o a p p a r e n t r a t i o n a l e is given for t h e s u d d e n l i m i t a t i o n , especially since it is a l r e a d y c l e a r t h a t h u m a n s a r e m o r t a l ( G e n 3:19), n o r f o r t h e specific

maximum

d u r a t i o n of life (120 years). T h i s verse i n t e r r u p t s t h e story, a n d it is s o m e t i m e s o m i t t e d in s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

2

The significance of the term "spirit" here is not entirely clear. It seems to represent the life force (breath) that God gave to humans. However, "spirit" is a term sometimes used to refer to angels, especially in some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. On this see A. Sekki, The Meaning of Ruah at Qumran (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1989) 145-171. If the "sons of God" were to be understood as humans, then this might suggest that God's spirit does not remain in them because of their action. However, virtually all subsequent interpretations seem to suggest that these beings are angels.

4. T h e N e p h i l i m a r e said to exist f r o m this p o i n t in history o n w a r d (6:4a). 3 It is i m p l i e d , b u t n o t explicit, t h a t t h e s e N e p h i l i m a r e t h e offspring of t h e "sons of G o d " a n d t h e d a u g h t e r s of h u m a n s (6:4b). T h e N e p h i l i m a r e also called " t h e m i g h t y m e n of o l d " ( 4 (‫הגברים‬ w h o a r e " m e n of r e n o w n ' 5 (

6

:

4

)(‫ א נ ש יהשם‬c ) .

A t first g l a n c e , G e n 6 : 1 - 4 s e e m s to p r e s e n t t w o distinct aetiologies: m o r t a l i t y (i.e., a finite life s p a n for h u m a n s ) a n d t h e N e p h i l i m ; h o w ever, n o c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o aetiologies is readily a p p a r ent. G. W e s t e r m a n n

a r g u e s t h a t verses

1-2 and 4 make up

the

original p a s s a g e , while v. 3 is a later, i n t e r p r e t i v e gloss t h a t d i s r u p t s t h e How of t h e original n a r r a t i v e . 0 T h i s w o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e t h r u s t of t h e original n a r r a t i v e w a s t h e origin of t h e N e p h i l i m , w h o w e r e t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e " s o n s of G o d " a n d h u m a n w o m e n . T h i s e x p i a n a t i o n s e e m s plausible, b u t t h e originality of v. 3 d o e s n o t necessarily h a v e a n y i m p a c t o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this p a s s a g e w i t h r e g a r d to t h e a n g e l - h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n v. 4 t h e N e p h i l i m a r e said to b e t h e n u p o n t h e face of t h e e a r t h , a f t e r t h e sons of G o d h a d o f f s p r i n g via h u m a n w o m e n , i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e N e p h i l i m

are

t h e s a m e as t h e " m i g h t y m e n of old, t h e m e n of r e n o w n . " As n o t e d , this s h o r t n a r r a t i v e is o f t e n t a k e n b y m o d e m i n t e r p r e t e r s to be s e p a r a t e f r o m the larger n a r r a t i v e s c h e m e of Genesis. R . H e n d e l , h o w e v e r , h a s o f f e r e d a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this p a s s a g e t h a t seeks to u n i t e 6 : 1 - 4 w i t h t h e F l o o d n a r r a t i v e t h a t follows it. 6 H e says, " t h e story of t h e m i n g l i n g of g o d s a n d m o r t a l s a n d t h e p r o c r e a t i o n t h e d e m i g o d s w a s originally c o n n e c t e d to t h e f l o o d n a r r a t i v e

of and

f u n c t i o n e d as its m o t i v a t i o n . " 7 D e m o n s t r a t i n g parallels in o t h e r a n c i e n t c u l t u r e s , H e n d e l suggests t h a t , " T h e P r i m e v a l C y c l e is c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a series of m y t h o l o g i c a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s of b o u n d a r i e s t h a t result in a r a n g e of divine r e s p o n s e s w h i c h slowly b u i l d u p t h e

present

o r d e r of t h e c o s m o s . " T h e t a k i n g of h u m a n wives b y t h e " s o n s of G o d " w a s o n e s u c h t r a n s g r e s s i o n . N o t i n g t h e w o r k of M . D o u g l a s ,

3

Other occurrences of the Nephilim are at Num 13:33 (cf. Deut 2:10-11); Jos 8:25; Judg 20:46; 2 Ki 25:11; Ps 145:14; Jer 39:9; Jer 52:15; Ezek 32:22, 24. See DDD, pp. 1163-1168. 4 The term ‫ הגברים‬appears 20 times in the Hebrew Bible. The beings in Gen 6:1-4 seem to be different from David's fighters in 2 Sam 23:8-39 = 1 Chr 11:10-47. 5 C. Westermann, Genesis (London: SPCK 1985) 363-383. 6 R. Hendel, "Of Demigods and the Deluge: Toward an Interpretation of 6:1-4" JBL 106 (1987) 13-26. 7 R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 16.

h e suggests t h a t s u c h a u n i o n w e n t a g a i n s t t h e " c a t e g o r i e s of e r e a t i o n . " 8 T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s w e r e m e a n t t o b e distinct f r o m e a c h o t h e r : h u m a n a n d divine. T h e f u s i o n of t h e t w o c r e a t e d a n

"imbalance

a n d a c o n f u s i o n in t h e c o s m i c o r d e r , " w h i c h h a d to b e r e d r e s s e d . R. Hendel

sees t h e Flood

as " t h e n a t u r a l c o n c l u s i o n

of

Gen

6 : 1 4 ‫ ־‬. . . t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of h u m a n i t y a n d t h e c o n c o m i t a n t a n n i h i l a tion of t h e d i s o r d e r . " 9 E v e n if o n e d o e s n o t a c c e p t his e n t i r e exegesis, H e n d e l ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t c a t e g o r i e s of p u r i t y a n d c r e a t i o n o r d e r a r e d i s r u p t e d b y t h e a c t i o n s of t h e " s o n s of G o d " is i l l u m i n a t i n g , since it c o n n e c t s t h e story w i t h its i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t r a t h e r t h a n seeing it as a d i s j o i n t e d s e g m e n t . It also s h o w s t h a t t h e m i x i n g of divine a n d h u m a n c o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as p r o b l e m a t i c f r o m t h e earliest p e r i o d . It a p p a r e n t l y c o n t i n u e d to b e a p r o b l e m for s o m e , s u c h as t h e a u t h o r s of Jub.

a n d T.

Naph.

T h u s , this s h o r t n a r r a t i v e in t h e H e b r e w Bible tells of t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g of h u m a n

( d a u g h t e r s of m e n ) a n d d i v i n e (sons of G o d )

b l o o d , w h i c h s e e m s to h a v e led to u n u s u a l offspring. It a p p e a r s t o be s o m e w h a t u n c o n n e c t e d to the s u r r o u n d i n g passages, b u t as H e n d e l suggests, a l r e a d y in this n a r r a t i v e , t h e sin of b o u n d a r y t r a n s g r e s s i o n c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as l e a d i n g to t h e F l o o d . V i r t u a l l y all s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of this p a s s a g e will u n d e r s t a n d t h e "sons of G o d " as angels. T h e earliest of these seems to h a v e b e e n t h e Book of W a t c h e r s .

6.2

1 Enoch 6-11:

The Book of

Watchers

U n t i l t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls, d a t e s f o r 1 E n o c h h a d b e e n p o s i t e d as early as t h e first c e n t u r y B C E to as late as t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E . D i s c o v e r y of A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s of all t h e m a j o r sections of 1 E n o c h — e x c e p t t h e S i m i l i t u d e s ( c h a p t e r s 3 7 - 7 1 ) — h a s led m o s t s c h o l a r s to believe t h a t 1 E n o c h 1 - 3 6 a n d 7 2 - 1 0 8 a r e a t least first c e n t u r y B C E in origin a n d p r o b a b l y as old as t h e t h i r d c e n tury BCE.10 A few scholars h a v e suggested t h a t 1 E n o c h m a y even b e old e n o u g h to h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e B o o k of G e n e s i s itself, b u t this i d e a h a s n o t

8

M. Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966) esp. 53-54; R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 23. « R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 23. 10 G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11" JBL 96 (1977) 389-391. G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2001) 14-15.

w o n m u c h scholarly support. 1 1 T h e n a r r a t i v e in 1 E n o c h is m u c h m o r e e x p a n s i v e t h a n in G e n e s i s a n d clarifies s o m e a m b i g u i t i e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r i o r i t y of t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e will b e a s s u m e d . It will b e seen t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n s in 1 E n o c h , h o w e v e r , did i n f l u e n c e m a n y , if n o t all, s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e fallen a n g e l n a r r a t i v e . T h e t e r m " W a t c h e r s " (‫ )עיר‬c a m e to b e a p p l i e d to t h e divine b e i n g s (angels) w h o left t h e i r p l a c e in h e a v e n . 1 2 I n the H e b r e w Bible t h e t e r m only a p p e a r s in t h e B o o k of D a n i e l as r e f e r r i n g t o h e a v e n l y b e i n g s (4:13, 17, 23); it a p p e a r s in Jub. Apoc.,

3:15, 5:1, C D 2:18, t h e Gen.

a n d several o t h e r late S e c o n d T e m p l e writings. T h e t e r m is

n o t exclusive to t h e fallen angels, since 1 En. 20:1 applies it to t h e f o u r a r c h a n g e l s . J . Collins n o t e s t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e W a t c h e r s o v e r l a p s t h a t of t h e angels b u t t h a t t h e W a t c h e r s w e r e likely c o n c e i v e d of as a distinct class of a n g e l i c beings. 1 3 T h e m o s t r e l e v a n t section of t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s is c h a p t e r s 6 ^ 1 5 , w h e r e t h e n a r r a t i v e of G e n 6 is discussed a n d e x p a n d e d u p o n . T h e r e s e e m to b e t w o s t r a n d s of t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n t h e passage: t h e S h e m a z i a h a n d t h e Azazel. 1 4 C h a p t e r 6 says: [1] 111 those days, when the children of m a n h a d multiplied, it happened that there were b o r n unto them handsome and beautiful daughters. [2] And the angels, the children of heaven, saw them and desired them; and they said to one another, " C o m e , let us choose wives for ourselves from among the daughters of m a n arid beget us children." [3] And Semyaz, being their leader, said unto them, "I fear that perhaps you will not consent that this deed should be done, and I alone will become (responsible) for this great sin." [4] But they all responded to him, "Let us swear an oath and bind everyone a m o n g us by a curse not to abandon this suggestion but to do the deed." T h e n they all swore together and b o u n d one another by (the curse). 15

11

J. MiUk, The Booh of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976) 31, 124-5. M. Barker, The Last Prophet: The Book of Enoch and Its Influence of Christianity (London: SPCK, 1988), but see M. Barker, The Older Testament(London: SPCK," 1987) 12-16. J . Collins, "Watchers" in DDD, pp. 1681-1685. See also J . Fitzmyer, The Geneàs Apocryphon of Qumran Cave I: A Commentary, 2nd ed., Biblica et Orientalia 18a (Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1971) 80-81. 13 J. Collins, "Watchers" p. 1684. 14 D. Dimant, "I Enoch 6-11: A Methodological Perspective" SBLSP (1978) 323-339; G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11," pp. 383-405; HJPAJC IIIi:255. 15 Then the names of these angels are given: "And they were altogether two hundred; and they descended into Ardos, which is the summit of Hermon. And they called the mount Armon, for they swore and bound one another by a curse.

1 En. 6 a p p e a r s to e x p a n d u p o n t h e c o r e n a r r a t i v e f r o m G e n 6. (1) H u m a n s m u l t i p l y o n t h e e a r t h ( G e n 6:1). (2) D i v i n e b e i n g s see t h e b e a u t y of t h e d a u g h t e r s of t h e h u m a n s a n d d e s c e n d to t h e

earth

( G e n 6:2a). A t this p o i n t t h e n a r r a t i v e is e x p a n d e d to i n c l u d e a l o n g discussion b e t w e e n S e m y a z a n d his c o c o n s p i r a t o r s . A s t h e

leader,

S e m y a z d o e s n o t t r u s t t h a t his c o m p a n i o n s will follow t h r o u g h o n t h e i r p l a n to g o to t h e h u m a n w o m e n , b e c a u s e it is a g r e a t sin, so t h e y all s w e a r a n o a t h . W e a r e told t h e n u m b e r of angels, t w o h u n d r e d , a n d w e a r e also told fifteen n a m e s of v a r i o u s l e a d e r s a m o n g t h e angels. O n c e b o u n d b y a n o a t h , t h e y d e s c e n d a n d t a k e wives ( G e n 6:2b). I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e in p a s s i n g t h a t 1 E n o c h d o e s n o t s e e m t o m a k e r e f e r e n c e to G e n 6:3, w h e r e G o d limits t h e life s p a n of h u m a n s . As w a s n o t e d , W e s t e r m a n n

suggested t h a t this verse m a y n o t

be

original. T h a t 1 E n o c h d o e s n o t reflect G e n 6:3 d o e s n o t p r o v e o r e v e n suggest t h a t t h e verse w a s n o t a l r e a d y p r e s e n t , since it possible t h a t t h e a u t h o r of 1 E n o c h h a d p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a t i o n s f o r o m i t ting r e f e r e n c e to t h e verse. A f t e r t h e n a m e s of t h e l e a d i n g a n g e l s a r e g i v e n ( w . 7 8 ‫ ) ־‬, c h a p ter 7 continues: [1] And they took wives unto themselves, and everyone (respectively) chose one w o m a n for himself, and they began to go unto them. And they taught them magical medicine, incantations, the cutting of roots, and taught t h e m (about) plants. [2] A n d the w o m e n became pregnant and gave birth to great giants whose heights were three hundred cubits. [3] These (giants) consumed the produce of all the people until the people detested feeding them. [4] So the giants turned against (the people) in order to eat them. [5] A n d they began to sin against birds, wild beasts, reptiles, and fish. [6] And their flesh was devoured the one by the other, and they drank blood. And then the earth brought an accusation against the oppressors. 16 T h e angels t h e n t e a c h h u m a n b e i n g s a b o u t m e d i c i n e , h e r b a l i s m , a n d m a g i c . T h e w o m e n b e c o m e p r e g n a n t a n d h a v e offspring. 1 E n o c h is explicit t h a t t h e s e o f f s p r i n g w e r e g i a n t s w h o w e r e 3 0 0 c u b i t s h i g h (cf. G e n 6:4). T h e s e h y b r i d c r e a t u r e s b r i n g sin i n t o t h e w o r l d , esped a i l y c a n n i b a l i s m , a n d t h e e a r t h is said to a c c u s e t h e m .

And their names are as follows: Semyaz, the leader of Arakeb, Ramael, Tamel, Rarnel, Danel, Baraqyal, Asel, Baratel, Ananel, Sasomaspweel, Kestarel, Turel, Yamayol, and Arazyal. These are their chiefs of tens and others with them" (1 En. 6:6-8). 16 Translation of all 1 En. passages taken from E. Isaac, OTP 1:15-16.

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of c h a p t e r 8, Azazel 1 7 is said to t e a c h h u m a n s [1] (the art of) making swords and knives, and shields, and breastplates; and he showed to their chosen ones bracelets, decorations (shadowing of the eye) with antimony, ornamentation, the beautifying of the eyelids, all kinds of precious stones, and all coloring tinctures and alchemy. T h e list c o n t i n u e s , w i t h o t h e r s t e a c h i n g i n c a n t a t i o n s a n d astrology, until t h e p e o p l e c r i e d a n d t h e i r voice r e a c h e d h e a v e n (v. 4). A n g e l s t e a c h i n g h u m a n s m a n y skills, m o s t of w h i c h lead o n l y to d e s t r u c t i o n ( w e a p o n s , a r m o r ) o r d a n g e r o u s arts (seduction, astrology), is a n e l a b o r a t i o n u p o n t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e . It m a y b e a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e i d e a in G e n 6:5, " T h e L o r d saw t h a t the wickedness of m a n w a s g r e a t in t h e e a r t h , a n d t h a t e v e r y i m a g i n a t i o n of the t h o u g h t s of his h e a r t w a s o n l y evil c o n t i n u a l l y . " R o w l a n d p o i n t s o u t t h e i r o n y of t h e angelic r e v e l a t i o n a p p e a r i n g in a n a p o c a l y p t i c text: " O n e c a n o n l y a s s u m e t h a t t h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n E n o c h a n d t h e angels is t h e fact t h a t m a n receives t h e h e a v e n l y m y s t e r i e s b y m e a n s of revelation, w h e r e a s angels a r e guilty of e x p o s i n g t h e h e a v e n l y m y s t e r i e s to m a n w i t h o u t G o d ' s p e r m i s s i o n . ' " 8 So, e v e n in die case of t h e angels revealing knowledge, it seems d i a t divine p a r a m e t e r s w e r e transgressed. In chapter 9 the archangels (Michael, Surafel, a n d Gabriel) are o b s e r v i n g t h e e a r t h . T h e y b e s e e c h G o d to d o s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e evil t h a t is u p o n t h e e a r t h , saying: [6] You see what Azazel has done; how he has taught all (forms o f ) oppression u p o n the earth. A n d they revealed eternal secrets which are performed in heaven (and which) m a n learned. [7] (Moreover) Semyaz, to whom you have given power to rule over his companions, co-operating, they went in unto the daughters of the people of the earth; [8] and they lay together with them—with those w o m e n — a n d defiled themselves, and revealed to them every (kind o f ) sin. [9] As for the women, they gave birth to giants to the degree that the whole earth was filled with blood. G o d d e c i d e s t h a t a d e l u g e will be sent to p u r i f y t h e w o r l d , a n d N o a h is w a r n e d (10:13‫)־‬. G o d t h e n s e n d s R a p h a e l to b i n d A z a z e l a n d cast h i m i n t o d a r k n e s s (10:5). R a p h a e l is said t o m a k e a h o l e i n t h e d e s e r t t h a t w a s in D u d a e l a n d cast h i m t h e r e . T h i s is i n t e r e s t i n g i n light of L e v 16, in w h i c h t h e g o a t t h a t is o f f e r e d f o r A z a z e l is sent o u t 17

For other texts re: Azazel see: Lev 16:8, 10, 26; 1 En. 8:1, 9:6, 10:4-8, 13:1, 54:5-6, 55:4, 69:2; Apoc. Abr. 13:6-14, 14:4-6, 20:6-7. 18 C. Rowland, The Open Heaven (New York: Crossroads, 1982) 93-94.

i n t o t h e d e s e r t o n t h e D a y of A t o n e m e n t . G a b r i e l is sent " t o p r o c e e d a g a i n s t t h e b a s t a r d s a n d r e p r o b a t e s a n d a g a i n s t t h e c h i l d r e n of a d u l t e r y . . . a n d expel t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e W a t c h e r s f r o m a m o n g t h e p e o p l e " (10:9). Lastly, M i c h a e l is sent to " M a k e k n o w n to S e m y a z a a n d the others w h o are with h i m , w h o fornicated with the w o m e n , t h a t t h e y will die t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m in t h e i r d e f i l e m e n t " (10:11). Interestingly, in 1 En. 1 2 - 1 3 , E n o c h is called u p o n by the W a t c h e r s to i n t e r c e d e o n t h e i r b e h a l f . T h i s i r o n i c twist h a s a h u m a n in h e a v e n p l e a d i n g o n b e h a l f of angels w h o a r e o n t h e e a r t h . T h e a n g e l s h a v e t r a n s g r e s s e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s a n d left

tiieir

natural position,

while

E n o c h h a s b e e n c h o s e n by G o d a n d b r o u g h t u p i n t o t h e i r a b o d e . A n u m b e r of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f o r t h e

present

state of t h e text. B o t h G . N i c k e l s b u r g a n d P. H a n s o n h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o link t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e fallen W a t c h e r s w i t h Graeco-Roman

myths.19 In particular, Hesiod's

Tlieogony 1 8 5

and

H o m e r ' s Odyssey 7.59 b o t h m e n t i o n t h a t b l o o d f r o m h e a v e n m i n g l e d w i t h t h e e a r t h to c r e a t e giants. T h e s e parallels a r e interesting, b u t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this n a r r a t i v e h a s b e e n p u s h e d f u r t h e r by M . B a r k e r a n d especially D . Suter. 2 0 1). S u t e r locates in 1 E n o c h a c o n c e r n f o r p u r i t y in t h e priestly b l o o d l i n e , w h i c h h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a m y t h a b o u t angels w h o p r o c r e a t e w i t h w o m e n a n d m i x b l o o d . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l u m i n a t i n g f o r t h e p r e s e n t discussion. It is also in k e e p i n g w i t h H e n d e l ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 , in w h i c h t h e m i x i n g of t h e t w o t y p e s of b e i n g s w a s a l r e a d y a f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m a n d c a u s e of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n in t h e F l o o d . H e r e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e sin of t h e a n g e l s is t o g o t o e a r t h a n d c o p ulate w i t h h u m a n w o m e n is m o r e explicit. A n a d d i t i o n a l sin is t o t e a c h h u m a n s v a r i o u s types of h i d d e n k n o w l e d g e . T h u s , t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s is a n early t r a d i t i o n , b u t it d o e s still s e e m to d e p e n d u p o n t h e c o r e n a r r a t i v e in G e n 6. V i r t u a l l y all s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e likely h a d s o m e a w a r e -

19

G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11," pp. 383-405; P. Hanson, "Rebellion in Heaven, Azazel, and Euhermeristic Heroes in 1 Enoch 6-11" JBL 96 (1977) 195-233. See also J . Coffins, "Methodological Issues in the Study of I Enoch: Reflections on the Articles of P. Hanson and G. Nickelsburg" SBLSP (1978) 315-322, with responses in the same volume by Hanson (pp. 307-309) and Nickelsburg (pp. 311-314). 20 M. Barker, The Older Testament (London: SPCK, 1987) 8-80; D. Suter, "Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: The Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch 6-16" HUCA 50 (1979) 115-135.

ness of t h e k i n d s of i d e a s t h a t d e v e l o p e d in 1 E n o c h . I n p a r t i c u l a r , it is m a d e explicit t h a t t h e d i v i n e b e i n g s w h o c a m e t o e a r t h w e r e angels, e v e n n a m e d angels. O n e of t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n s w a s t o h a v e relations w i t h h u m a n w o m e n a n d s p a w n g i a n t h y b r i d offspring, b u t a n o t h e r w a s to t e a c h h u m a n s m a n y secrets. As J . K l a w a n s

points

o u t , " T h e w a t c h e r s e n g a g e in sexually defiling b e h a v i o r w h i c h leads to t h e i r p e r m a n e n t d e g r a d a t i o n a n d t h e i r exile f r o m H e a v e n . " 2 1

6.3

The

Septuagint

It is i m p o r t a n t to see h o w t h e key H e b r e w t e r m s ( ‫; ה נ פ ל י ם ; ב נ י ־ ה א ל ה י ם‬ a n d ‫ ) ה ג ב ר י ם‬of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 w e r e t r a n s l a t e d in t h e L X X to g a i n insight i n t o t h o s e i n t e r p r e t e r s ' i d e a s a b o u t a n g e l s in t h e S e c o n d

Temple

p e r i o d . " S o n s of G o d " ( ‫ ) ב נ י ־ ה א ל ה י ם‬is a r a r e t e r m in t h e

Hebrew

S c r i p t u r e s ; besides its t w o o c c u r r e n c e s in G e n 6, it a p p e a r s only in Job

1:6, 2:1, a n d 38:7 (all t h r e e a r e ‫ ;)בני א ל ה י ם‬Ps 29:1 ( , ( ‫א ל י ם‬

‫כני‬

8 2 : 6 ("gods, a n d sons of t h e M o s t H i g h " ( ‫ ;))וכני ע ל י ו ן א ל ה י ם‬a n d D a n 3:25 ( ‫ ) ל ב ר א ל ה י ן‬. T h e t h r e e cases in J o b a n d o n e in D a n i e l a r e r e n d e r e d w i t h άγγελος, w h i l e t h e o t h e r s a r e r e n d e r e d literally. 111 e a c h c a s e , t h e " s o n s of G o d " s e e m s to r e f e r to divine beings. 2 2 I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in t h e t w o o c c u r r e n c e s in G e n 6:2 a n d 4 t h e text s e e m s to h a v e m a i n t a i n e d this t e r m , using οί υ ι ο ί του θεοΰ to t r a n s l a t e it directly. 2 3 O n e version ( C o d e x A) h a s oi άγγελοι του θεου at v. 2, b u t , as P. A l e x a n d e r p o i n t s o u t , this is n o t likely to h a v e b e e n t h e original r e a d i n g . 2 4 T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this a r e n o t entirely clear. It c o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e translators w e r e n o t a w a r e of the line of tradition, s u c h as in 1 E n o c h , t h a t w a s i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e "sons of G o d " as angels. C o n v e r s e l y , it m a y r e p r e s e n t a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t s u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a d o n . T h i r d l y , it m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e a m b i v a l e n c e t o w a r d t h e question,

21 J. Klawans, Sin and Impurity in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 57. 22 B. Byrne, "Sans of God"—"Seed of Abraham": A Study of the Idea of Sonship of God of All Christians in Paul against the Jewish Background (Rome: Pontifical Institute, 1979) 10-23, provides a good survey of the range of meaning for "son of God" as angelic beings. See also "Son of God" in ABD 6:129, and S. Parker, "Sons of (the) G0d(s)" in DDD, pp. 1499-1510. 23 Symmachus translates "sons of the powerful ones [δύναστευοντων]"; Theodotion "sons of God"; and Aquila "sons of gods [θεών]." 24 P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis of 'Sons of God' in Genesis 6" JJS 23 (1972) 60-71.

so t h a t a literal t r a n s l a t i o n w a s a d o p t e d . T h e q u e s t i o n is likely n o t a n s w e r a b l e , b u t a t least o n e v a r i a n t of t h e L X X d o e s d e m o n s t r a t e t h e r e a d i n g άγγελος, so s u c h a r e a d i n g w a s a t least possible. T h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s b o t h t h e t e r m ‫ ה נ פ ל י ם‬a n d ‫ ה נ כ ר י ם‬as γ ί γ α ν τες, 2 5 d e m o n s t r a t i n g t w o i n t e r p r e t i v e m o v e s . First, t h e N e p h i l i m a n d t h e G i b o r i m a r e e q u a t e d . A l t h o u g h this is t h e likely i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , it is n o t explicit in t h e H e b r e w . S e c o n d , t h e s e b e i n g s w e r e u n d e r s t o o d as " g i a n t s . " N u m

1 3 : 3 2 - 3 3 echoes the same idea

regarding

t h e N e p h i l i m , a g a i n t r a n s l a t i n g t h e i r n a m e s as " g i a n t s " a n d s t a t i n g t h a t t h e y a r e h u m a n s of e n o r m o u s s t a t u r e : [32] So they brought to the people of Israel an evil report of the land which they h a d spied out, saying, " T h e land, through which we have gone, to spy it out, is a land that devours its inhabitants; and all the people that we saw in it are men of great stature. [33] And there we saw the Nephilim [γίγαντας] (the sons of Anak, who come from the Nephilim); a n d we seemed to ourselves like grasshoppers, a n d so we seemed to them." A n o t h e r text hints t h a t gigantic features belong to h y b r i d s . JA

angel-human

2 2 : 7 ~ 8 states of (die h e a v e n l y ) J a c o b :

[7] And Aseneth saw him a n d was amazed at his beauty, because J a c o b was exceedingly beautiful to look at, and his old age (was) like the youth of a handsome (young) man, a n d his head was all white as snow, and the hairs of his head were all exceedingly close and thick like those of an Ethiopian, and his b e a r d (was) white reaching down to his breast, and his eyes (were) flashing and darting (flashes of) lightning, and his sinews and his shoulders a n d his arms were like those of an angel, and his thighs and calves a n d his feet like (those) of a giant. [8] And J a c o b was like a m a n who had wrestled with God. 2 6 T h e parallels h e r e a r e i n t r i g u i n g . B o t h t h e b e i n g s in G e n 6:1 4‫ ־‬a n d J a c o b in this text a r e h y b r i d s , b e i n g b o t h h u m a n a n d divine (in JA explicitly said to b e " a n g e l i c , " a n d in t h e L X X version of G e n

6

this is at least a possible reading). I n b o t h cases, g i g a n t i s m is p a r t of t h e i r h y b r i d n a t u r e . 2 7 25

On the Greek background to this term, see DDD, pp. 649-653. C. Burchard, OTP 2:238. 27 In the Book of Elchasai as recorded in fragments in Hippolytus, Ref. 9.13.2-3 (third century CE), an angel is said to have gigantic features: "It had been communicated by an angel, whose height was 24 schoinoi, which is 96 miles, his breath four schoinoi, and from shoulder to shoulder six schoinoi, and the tracks of his feet in length 3.5 schoinoi, which is 14 miles, and in breadth 1.5 schoinoi, and in height half a schoinos (translation: J. Irmscher in E. Hennecke, New Testament Apocrypha [London: Lutterworth Press, 1965] 747-748). 26

T h u s , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e L X X is u n c l e a r as to w h e t h e r t h e " s o n s of G o d " a r e u n d e r s t o o d specifically as angels in t h e earliest versions. T h e L X X a u t h o r s o p t e d for a literal t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e t e r m . T h e L X X ' s c h o i c e t o m a i n t a i n s o n s of G o d (οί υ ι ο ί του θεου) is i n t e r p r e t a t i v e l y a m b i g u o u s , b u t at least o n e v a r i a n t d o e s s h o w oi άγγελοι του θεοΰ. T h e N e p h i l i m a n d G i b o r i m a r e e q u a t e d b y t h e i r c o m m o n r e n d e r i n g as " g i a n t s " (γίγαντες). T h i s s e e m s t o suggest a n

ongoing

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e o f f s p r i n g as g i a n t s (1 En. a n d L X X ) in t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .

6.4

The Dead Sea Scrolls

A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e n o f r a g m e n t s of G e n 6:1—4 a m o n g t h e e x t a n t D e a d S e a Scrolls, a n u m b e r of texts t a k e t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m t h e G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e : t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n (Gen. Apoc), t h e B o o k of Giants, and some fragments.28 M o s t scholars date the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n ( 1 Q a p G e n a r =

1Q20)

to t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y B C E o r early first c e n t u r y C E . 2 9 T h e g e n r e of t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n is still a m a t t e r of scholarly debate. 3 0 It s e e m s to b e a r e w r i t t e n version of G e n 5 1 5

‫ ־‬.

T h a t t h e text s e e m s

to k n o w G e n 6 a n d especially 1 E n o c h is clear. T h e first e x t a n t colu m n , c o l u m n 2, c o n t a i n s a discussion b e t w e e n L a m e c h a n d his wife B a t e n o s h (cf. Jub.

4:28). T h e first 18 lines state:

[1] Behold, I thought then within my heart that conception was (due) to the Watchers [‫ ]עירים‬a n d the Holy O n e s . . . and to the Giants [‫]ולנפיל‬ [2] and my heart was troubled within m e because of this child. [3] T h e n I, Lamech, approached Bathenosh [my] wife in haste a n d said to her, [4] [ . . . ] by the Most High, the Great Lord, the King of all the universe and Ruler of [5] [. . .]the Sons of Heaven [‫]בנישמים‬, until you tell m e all things truthfully . . . [6] You will and without lies let me know whether this

28 4Q252 col. 1:2-3, however, reflects Gen 6:3 closely, stating, "And God said: 'My spirit will not reside in man for ever. Their days shall be fixed at one hundred and twenty years until the end of the waters of the flood.' " The complete form of this text may well have included the whole of the Gen 6:1-4 narrative, though it cannot be known for certain. 29 N. Avigad and Y. Yadin, A Genesis Apocryphon (Jerusalem: Magnus Press, 1956) 38. 50 See HJPAJC IIIi:318-25.

[7] by the King of the all the universe that you are speaking to me frankly and without lies [8] T h e n Batenosh, my bride, spoke to me veiy harshly, she wept [9] saying. " O h my brother, Ο my Lord, r e m e m b e r my pleasure! [10] [. . .] the time of love, the gasping of my breath in my breast. I [. . .] will tell you everything accurately [11] [ . . . ] and then within m e my heart was very upset [121 W h e n Batenosh, my wife, realized that my countenance h a d altered [13] then she suppressed her anger, speaking to m e and saying to me, " O my lord [14] my pleasure. I swear to you by the Holy Great O n e , the King of [the heavens] . . . [15] that this seed is yours and that [this] conception is f r o m you. This fruit was planted by you . . . [16] a n d by n o s t r a n g e r or W a t c h e r [‫ ]עירים‬or Son of H e a v e n [‫ ]ולא מ כ ל בנישמים‬. . . [17] [Why] is your countenance thus changed and dismayed, and why is your spirit thus distressed . . . [18] I speak to you truthfully." L a m e c h is c o n c e r n e d t h a t his child ( N o a h ) m a y b e the o f f s p r i n g of t h e W a t c h e r s (‫)עיר‬. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e y a r e j u x t a p o s e d w i t h

"Holy

O n e s " in e a c h o c c u r r e n c e j u s t as in t h e B o o k of D a n i e l (4:10, 14, 20). T w o o t h e r tides u s e d in t h e f r a g m e n t a r e n o t e w o r t h y . " S o n s of H e a v e n 5 ' is a n o t i i e r t h a t seems to refer to t h e s a m e beings as W a t c h e r s a n d H o l y O n e s , a n d c o n n e c t s t h e b e i n g s m o r e closely w i t h t h e divine t h a n t h e h u m a n . T h e N e p h i l i m a r e also m e n t i o n e d (v. 1), a n d t h e r e m a y b e s o m e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e e q u i v a l e n t to t h e

Watchers

( H o l y O n e s ) , b u t this is n o t c e r t a i n d u e to t h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of t h e text. T h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g a s p e c t of Gen. Apoc. is t h a t B a t h e n o s h

must

c o n v i n c e h e r h u s b a n d , L a m e c h , t h a t she is p r e g n a n t t h r o u g h

him

a n d n o t a n y s u p e r h u m a n b e i n g . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n of t h e story is t h a t s o m e t h i n g a b o u t N o a h ' s a p p e a r a n c e a t b i r t h h a s led L a m e c h

to

believe h e is a b n o r m a l , p e r h a p s s u p e r h u m a n , a n d to ask w h e t h e r t h e c h i l d is his o w n . T h i s e x p a n s i o n is v e r y m u c h like t h a t seen in 1 En. 106. 3 1 B a t h e n o s h ' s p r o t e s t s a r e explicit, r e m i n d i n g L a m e c h of h e r p l e a s u r e in t h e i r s e x u a l u n i o n . S h e d e n i e s t h a t a n y o n e b u t h i m h a s f a t h e r e d t h e i r s o n , s a y i n g it w a s b y n o " s t r a n g e r , o r W a t c h e r o r son of H e a v e n . "

81

For the discussion of 1 En. 106 on Noah as angebe, see 3.4 above.

Gen. Apoc. i n d i c a t e s t h a t , f o r a t least o n e a u t h o r , a b i r t h t h a t h a d b e e n c o n c e i v e d b y t h e m i x i n g of h u m a n a n d divine stock w a s possible. If Gen. Apoc. picks u p o n t r a d i t i o n s in 1 E n o c h , t h e n w e c a n see t h e t r a d i t i o n r e c o r d e d in m o r e t h a n o n e text. T h e a u t h o r d i d n o t c h o o s e to use t h e t e r m f o r a n g e l ( ‫ ) מ ל א ך‬, as in L X X (A) a n d 1 E n o c h ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e is c e r t a i n l y m e n t i o n of b e i n g s w h o a r e f r o m h e a v e n (of divine origin), w h o s e e m to b e distinct f r o m h u m a n beings b u t w h o a r e still a b l e to a c t b o t h in the h e a v e n s a n d o n e a r t h . T h i s m a y o n l y reflect t h e a u t h o r ' s i d e a s a b o u t e v e n t s in t h e a n t e d i l u v i a n p a s t , b u t it gives us a g l i m p s e i n t o h o w t h e a u t h o r m i g h t h a v e p e r c e i v e d t h e a c t i o n s of h e a v e n l y b e i n g s i n his o w n t i m e . A B o o k of G i a n t s t h a t c i r c u l a t e d a m o n g t h e M a n i c h e a n s ( M a n i , t h i r d c e n t u r y C E ) h a s b e e n k n o w n to s c h o l a r s f o r s o m e time. 3 2 M o r e recendy, a Book of G i a n t s f r o m Q u m r a n h a s b e e n identified ( 1 Q 2 3 - 2 4 , 4 Q 5 3 0 - 5 3 1 , a n d 6 Q 8 , a n d possibly others). 3 3 D a t e s f o r t h e Q u m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s v a r y b u t likely lie s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e late t h i r d a n d m i d d l e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E , so it is a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e f o r this p e r i o d . 3 4 T h e Manichean

r e l a t i o n of t h e Q u m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s to t h e

o n e is u n c l e a r , especially b e c a u s e of t h e

fragmentary

n a t u r e of m o s t of t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e . T h e M a n i c h e a n text m a y d e p e n d o n t h e Q u m r a n text in s o m e w a y , b u t t h e r e is n o w a y t o b e c e r t a i n . T h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e is t h u s t a k e n o n its o w n a n d is n o t s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e M a n i c h e a n texts. 3 5 T h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s r e p r e s e n t a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 similar t o 1 E n o c h . T h e m e r e f a c t t h a t a n e n t i r e b o o k w a s d e d i c a t e d to s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e g i a n t s i n d i c a t e s t h e i m p a c t t h e G e n 6 p a s s a g e h a d o n a t least o n e a u t h o r a n d

community.

T h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of t h e e x t a n t Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e

makes

a n y a s s e s s m e n t of t h e p u r p o s e o r g e n r e of t h e B o o k of G i a n t s at 32 For the Manichean text, see W. Henning, "The Book of Giants" BSOAS 11 (1943-1946) 52-74. 33 J. Milik, The Book of Enoch, pp. 298-339, first identified 13 fragments as belonging to a Qumran Book of Giants. L. Stuckenbruck has put out a critical edition of all the fragments of the Book of Giants from among the Dead Sea Scrolls: The Book of Giants from Qumran (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997). I have based my translations on the text given in the latter. 34 L. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants, p. 31. 35 J. Reeves, Jewish Lore in Manichean Cosmogony: Studies in the Book of Giants Traditions (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1992) 207-209, suggests that Jewish traditions did exert a determinative force on Mani's cosmology. Reeves includes in "Jewish influence" Gen 6, 1 En., and other works. He does not necessarily see any direct influence (contra J. Mlik, Enoch, pp. 298-339).

Q u m r a n difficult, if n o t impossible. T a k e n t o g e t h e r , t h e f r a g m e n t s s h o w a n interest in t h e giants, n a m i n g t h e m (two h a v e B a b y l o n i a n n a m e s ) , a n d in E n o c h as a n i n t e r p r e t e r of d r e a m s , suggesting a story similar to 1 E n o c h b u t o n e t h a t e l a b o r a t e s u p o n the o f f s p r i n g giants. W h a t p u r p o s e s u c h a text w o u l d h a v e s e r v e d r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n . T h r e e f r a g m e n t s a r e of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e v a r i o u s

key

w o r d s (e.g., N e p h i l i m , etc.) a p p e a r in t h e text: 4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t s 7 a n d 8, a n d 4 Q 5 3 1 f r a g m e n t 5. 4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t 7 is s h o r t b u t refers t o A z a z e l , G i b o r i m ,

and

p r o b a b l y t h e W a t c h e r s (which is r e s t o r e d f r o m a n initial ‫ ו ע‬a n d a final

‫ א‬s e e m i n g l y w i t h s p a c e for ( 36 .(‫ירי‬

[6] us [ b u t . . .]h Aza[z]e1 and made h [ i m . . .] [7] the giants [‫ ]גבריא‬and the Wa[tellers]. All [their] c0[mpa11i0ns] will rise up [against. . .] T h i s f r a g m e n t is t o o s h o r t to b e c e r t a i n of its l a r g e r c o n t e x t , b u t the m e n t i o n of A z a z e l , t h e G i b o r i m , a n d the W a t c h e r s s e e m s to situ a t e it w i t h i n t h e s c o p e of G e n 6, 1 E n o c h a n d t h e i r

interpréta-

tions. T h i s m a k e s sense g i v e n t h a t t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t of t h e B o o k of G i a n t s is t h e h y b r i d offspring, giants. T h e n e x t f r a g m e n t ( 4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t 8) is m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l , b u t its e v i d e n c e is still p a r t i a l . It states: [1] [2] [3] [4]

T h e boo[k . . .] vacat A copy of the s[ec0]nd tablet of the 1[etter . . . ] in a writing by the h a n d of Enoch, the scribe of righteousness

[...]

[5] and the Holy O n e to Sheinihazah and to all (his) c o m p a n i o n s . . .] [6] "Let it be known to you t h [ a t . . .]/[. . . ] [7] your deeds a n d those of (your) wives [. . . ] [8] [. . . ] those [. . . ] son[s and] the wives of [. ..] [9] through your fornication on the earth, for it has [. . .] [10] accusing you regarding the deeds of your sons [ . . .] [11] the corruption which you have committed on it [. . .] [12] until the coming of Raphael. Behold d e s t r u c t i o n . . .] [13] those who are in the deserts and those who are in the seas. And the interpretation of [ . . .] [14] evil upon you. So, now, set loose what you hold mh[.. •] [15] and pray. [. . .]

36

L. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants, p. 78.

It is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t this p a s s a g e m e n t i o n s E n o c h as a scribe of righteousness, since in 1 En. 12:4, E n o c h is called u p o n b y t h e W a t c h e r s to i n t e r c e d e o n t h e i r b e h a l f . T h i s m a y suggest a similar c o n t e x t f o r diis f r a g m e n t . T w o angels a r e n a m e d explicitly in this text, S h e m i h a z a h (1 En.) a n d R a p h a e l ( T o b i t , 1 Q M , 1 En., Apoc. Mos.). T h i s very m u c h e c h o e s 1 En.

9

11, w h e r e t h e a r c h a n g e l s i n t e r c e d e o n b e h a l f of

h u m a n s a n d a r e g i v e n tasks by G o d . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n of " f o r n i c a t i o n o n t h e e a r t h " a n d " c o r r u p t i o n " s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t this is t h e case. O n e o t h e r f r a g m e n t ( 4 Q 5 3 1 f r a g m e n t 5) m e n t i o n s t h e giants: .] they defiled themselves [.. .] [1] .] Giants [‫ ]גברין‬and Nephilim []‫ ]ונפלי‬j . . . ] [‫]צ‬ .] they begat. Behold k[. . .]. [3] .] in its blood, and by means of mh[. . . 1 W .] because it was not enough for them and for [. [5] .] and they d e m a n d e d much to eat ml[ · · ] [6] [7] vacat [. . .] [. . .] the Nephilim [‫ ]ונפלץ‬destroyed it [. . .] H e r e t h e N e p h i l i m a r e m e n t i o n e d a l o n g w i t h the G i b o r i m . T h e y s e e m to b e linked w i t h d e f i l e m e n t a n d t h e c o r r u p t i o n of t h e e a r t h , if w e a s s u m e a c o n t e x t similar to t h a t of 1 E n o c h a n d t h e texts a l r e a d y discussed. O v e r a l l , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e B o o k of G i a n t s is q u i t e limited, b u t it d o e s s h o w t h a t a t least o n e c o m m u n i t y w a s greatly e x p a n d ing u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n s of G e n 6 a n d

1 Enoch. T h e r e the

term

" a n g e l ( ‫ " ) מ ל א ך‬d o e s n o t explicitly o c c u r , b u t s o m e n a m e d angels a r e m e n t i o n e d . C e r t a i n l y , t h e i d e a of divine b e i n g s a n d h u m a n s c o p u lating was picked u p a n d

expanded.

T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t ( C D ) w a s first k n o w n to s c h o l a r s f r o m t h e m a n u s c r i p t s f o u n d in t h e C a i r o G e n i z a h a t t h e e n d of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . M a n y f r a g m e n t s of C D w e r e p r e s e n t a t

Qiimran.

4 Q 2 6 7 f r a g m e n t 2 a n d 4 Q 2 7 0 f r a g m e n t 1 discuss the W a t c h e r s w h o fell f r o m h e a v e n . 3 7 T h e y a r e listed in a section t h a t discusses s i n n e r s a n d r i g h t e o u s figures f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible. T h e W a t c h e r s b e g i n a list of figures f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible w h o s u f f e r e d specifically b e c a u s e t h e y did n o t k e e p t h e p r e c e p t s of G o d . C D says of t h e W a t c h e r s :

37

Both fragments are largely reconstructed from the Genizah manuscripts. Cf. DJB XVIII.

[16] . . . For many [17] have failed due to them; mighty warriors [‫ ]ונבורי ציל‬have stumbled due to them, from the earliest times and until today, walking in the stubbornness [18] of their hearts, the Watchers [‫ ]עירי‬of the heavens fell; on account of it they were caught, for they did not follow the precepts of God. [19] And their sons, whose height was like that of cedars and whose bodies were like mountains when they fell. (4Q267 frag. 2) N o t a b l y , h e r e t h e W a t c h e r s fall b e c a u s e t h e y fail to follow t h e p r e c e p t s of G o d , p r e s u m a b l y to m a i n t a i n t h e i r c o r r e c t p l a c e in t h e cosm o s . Also, t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e W a t c h e r s a r e said t o b e of e n o r m o u s s t a t u r e , tall as c e d a r s a n d w i t h b o d i e s like m o u n t a i n s . F u r t h e r , t h e W a t c h e r s a r e sinful in t h e i r a c t i o n s a g a i n s t G o d . Lastly, f r a g m e n t s 4 Q 1 8 0 a n d 4 Q 1 8 1 , also k n o w n as " T h e A g e s of C r e a t i o n , " d a t e to t h e first c e n t u r y C E . 3 8 T h e y d o n o t p r o v i d e m u c h a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n b u t s e e m t o m a k e r e f e r e n c e to

the

1 E n o c h t r a d i t i o n . 4 Q J 8 0 says: [7] [And] the interpretation concerning Azazel [‫ ]עזזאל‬and the angels [‫ ]והמלאכים‬who [8] they bore to them giants [‫]גברים‬. And concerning Azazel [ . . . [10] judgments a n d j u d g m e n t of the congregation . . . A l t h o u g h t h e text is f r a g m e n t a r y , it a d d s to o u r overall collection of e x t a n t texts t h a t s p e c u l a t e a b o u t the e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 . It also m e n t i o n s A z a z e l (discussed a b o v e ) a n d s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t angels a n d h u m a n s h a d viable offspring. S i m i l a r to line 8 of 4 Ç H 8 0 , 4 Q 1 8 1 f r a g m e n t 2 line 2 says, ". . . m a n a n d b o r e to t h e m g i a n t s [‫]נמרים‬. " T o s u m u p , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls is q u i t e v a r ied. Gen. Apoc. is a r e w o r k i n g of G e n e s i s . Its u n i q u e

interpretation

h a s L a m e c h c o n c e r n e d t h a t his son, N o a h , is n o t his o w n b u t t h e son of t h e h e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s d u e to his f a n t a s t i c a p p e a r a n c e a t his b i r t h . F r a g m e n t s f r o m w h a t h a s b e e n identified as a Q i i m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s s h o w t h a t t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g w a s a s u b j e c t w o r t h y of its o w n text. T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t a n d o t h e r f r a g m e n t s s h o w t h a t the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 a n d 1 E n o c h w a s a l r e a d y q u i t e p e r v a sive in t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m Q u m r a n . All of this suggests t h a t 1 E n o c h

38

J. Allegro, DJD V (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968) 77-79.

[‫עזזאל‬

w a s v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l a t Q i i m r a n , a n d it a d d s to t h e p i c t u r e of h o w w i d e s p r e a d t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e o n t h e f a l l e n W a t c h e r s h a d b e c o m e b y t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .

6.5

The Book of Jubilees

T h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s (Jub.) is a t y p e of Biblical m i d r a s h o n t h e B o o k of Genesis. 3 9 I t d a t e s to t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E a n d w a s f o u n d a m o n g t h e w o r k s a t Q u m r a n , so it s e e m s likely t h a t t h e a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s w o u l d h a v e k n o w n t r a d i t i o n s s e e n in 1 E n o c h . T h r e e passages a r e of interest. First, Jub.

4 : 1 5 says:

[15] And in the second week of the tenth jubilee, Mahalalel took for himself a wife, Dinah, the daughter of Barakiel, the daughter of his father's brother, as a wife. And she bore a son for him in the third week of the sixth year. And he called him J a r e d because in his days the angels of the Lord, who were called Watchers, came down upon the earth in order to teach the sons of man, a n d perform j u d g m e n t and uprightness upon the earth. 40 T h i s p a s s a g e says t h a t W a t c h e r s a r e " a n g e l s of t h e L o r d . "

The

W a t c h e r s a r e said t o h a v e c o m e to t h e e a r t h to t e a c h m e n a n d to e x e c u t e j u d g m e n t . T h e t e a c h i n g a s p e c t of t h e i r visit to e a r t h p a r a l lels p a r t of t h e t r a d i t i o n in 1 En. 7 - 8 t h a t is n o t in t h e G e n e s i s passage. M o r e o v e r , as in 1 En. 20, t h e a r c h a n g e l s c a n a p p a r e n t l y also b e r e f e r r e d t o as W a t c h e r s , since t h e y also " p e r f o r m j u d g m e n t a n d u p r i g h t n e s s u p o n t h e e a r t h . " I n 4 : 1 6 t h e b i r t h of E n o c h is r e c o u n t e d . Jub.

4 : 2 2 say t h a t E n o c h [22] . . . wrote eveiything, and bore witness to the Watchers, the ones who sinned with the daughters of m e n because they began to mingle themselves with the daughters of men so they might be polluted. And Enoch bore witness against them.

T h i s m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s w i t h h u m a n k i n d is a t r a n s g r e s s i o n (= sin) t h a t l e a d s to pollution. I n this p a s s a g e , it is n o t explicit t h a t this m i n g l i n g n e e d e v e n p r o d u c e offspring, b u t t h a t t h e i r u n i o n d i d i n d e e d p r o v e v i a b l e is m a d e c l e a r

39

For a discussion of the date and genre of Jubilees see 2.1a above; see also HJPAJC 3i:309. 40 Translations by O. Wintermute, OTP 2:62 and 64.

in c h a p t e r 5. J u b i l e e s s e e m s to b e a w a r e of 1 En.

1 2 1 6 ‫ ־‬, in w h i c h

E n o c h , w h o is in the heavens, actually intercedes o n behalf of the fallen o n e s (1 En. Jub.

1 2 - 1 3 ) b u t says t h a t h e " b o r e witness a g a i n s t t h e m . "

5 : 1 - 2 is t h e p o i n t at w h i c h G e n 6 : 1 - 4 is r e c o u n t e d . 4 1

The

p a s s a g e says: [1] And w h e n the children of men began to multiply on the surface of the earth and daughters were born to them, the angels of the Lord saw in a certain year of that jubilee that they were good to look at. And they took wives for themselves from all those w h o m they chose. And they bore children for them; and they were the giants. [2] And injustice increased upon the earth, and all flesh corrupted its way; m a n and cattle and beasts and birds and everything which walks on the earth. And they all corrupted their way and their ordinances, and they began to eat one another. And injustice grew upon the earth and every imagination of the thoughts of all mankind was thus continually evil. Jub. 5 : 1 2 ‫ ־‬c o n t a i n s t h r e e of t h e f o u r m a i n c o m p o n e n t s of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 , lacking o n l y t h e m e n t i o n of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e h u m a n life s p a n . E a c h of t h e o t h e r a s p e c t s — h u m a n p r o l i f e r a t i o n , angelic lust,

and

u l t i m a t e l y c o r r u p t i o n — i s p r e s e n t . J u b i l e e s d o e s n o t a p p e a r to e x p a n d u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n , b u t it is explicit t h a t a n g e l s l o o k e d u p o n

the

h u m a n f e m a l e s a n d t o o k t h e m as wives. M o r e o v e r , it m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e divine b e i n g s a n d h u m a n f e m a l e s w e r e giants. A c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n is also m a d e b e t w e e n

the

arrival of t h e g i a n t s o n t h e e a r t h a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of injustice in the w o r l d . I n v. 4 G o d says, " I will w i p e o u t m a n a n d all

flesh

w h i c h I h a v e c r e a t e d f r o m u p o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . " N o a h is s p a r e d (v. 5). V e r s e 6 says of G o d , " A n d a g a i n s t his angels w h o m h e h a d sent to t h e e a r t h h e w a s v e r y a n g r y . " T h e a n g e l t h e n says, " A n d h e told us to b i n d t h e m in t h e d e p t h s of t h e e a r t h , " a n d t h e y a r e b o u n d ( w . 6, 10). T h e o f f s p r i n g , n e v e r r e f e r r e d t o as giants, a r e said to kill o n e a n o t h e r b e c a u s e G o d s e n d s o u t his s w o r d

among

t h e m ( w . 7, 9). G o d t h e n s p e a k s o u t a g a i n s t h u m a n i t y , saying (cf. G e n 6:3) t h a t " M y spirit will n o t a b i d e in m a n f o r e v e r ; f o r t h e y a r e flesh,

a n d t h e i r d a y s will b e o n e h u n d r e d t w e n t y y e a r s " (v. 9).

J . v a n R u i t e n h a s e x a m i n e d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 1 2 in Jub. 5 : 1 - 1 9 in detail. 4 2 H e sees J u b i l e e s as b o t h utilizing G e n

6:1-4

41 Jub. 5:1-2 is also evinced in a small fragment from Qumran (11Q12 fragment 5). The text itself is fragmentary and adds little to the discussion of angels, so it has not been given separate consideration. 42 J . van Ruiten, "The Interpretation of Genesis 6:1-12 in Jubilees 5:1-19" in

a n d also a d a p t i n g it as n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e a d a p t a t i o n s , h e says, s e e m " n o t to b e c a u s e d by exegetical p r o b l e m s , b u t b y c u r r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e text." 4 3 H e is q u i t e c o r r e c t . I n p a r t i c u l a r , J u b i l e e s s e e m s to b e well a w a r e of t h e story f r o m t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s (1

En.)

a n d uses this m a t e r i a l freely as well as b e i n g b a s e d in t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e , especially r e g a r d i n g t h e i d e a of t h e a n g e l s b e i n g sent by G o d t o the w o r l d to t e a c h m a n b u t t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m G o d . J u b i l e e s is t h e r e f o r e i n t e r e s t i n g f o r a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s . First, it was present at Q u m r a n

a n d is r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h

both

1 Enoch and the L X X . Jubilees demonstrates dependence on both G e n 6 a n d 1 E n o c h , w h i l e m a k i n g its o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d a d a p tations. T h e b e i n g s w h o c o m e to e a r t h a r e a n g e l s of G o d , c a l l e d W a t c h e r s . T h e y a c t u a l l y s e e m to h a v e originally b e e n sent b y G o d , b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y , b e c a u s e t h e y c o p u l a t e d w i t h h u m a n females, t u r n e d a w a y f r o m G o d a n d p o l l u t e d t h e m s e l v e s . T h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e angels a n d h u m a n s a r e r e f e r r e d to as giants. T h e i r p o l l u t i o n l e a d s to t h e i r b e i n g b o u n d a n d cast a w a y to a w a i t final j u d g m e n t . T h e g i a n t s a r e c o m p e l l e d b y G o d to d e s t r o y o n e a n o t h e r , w h i l e h u m a n i t y , e x c e p t for N o a h , is d e s t r o y e d b y t h e F l o o d .

6.6 In book

1 of t h e Antiquities,

Josephus

and. Philo

J o s e p h u s e x p o u n d s t h e G e n e s i s story.

L e a d i n g u p to discussion of N o a h a n d t h e F l o o d , J o s e p h u s d e s c r i b e s h o w t h e seven g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r S e t h slowly t u r n e d a w a y f r o m G o d . U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e is a m i n g l i n g w i t h angels: [73] For m a n y angels of G o d [άγγελοι θεοΰ] consorted with women and sired sons who were licentious [ΰβριστάς] a n d disdainful of every virtue, such confidence had they in their strength; in fact the deeds that tradition ascribes to them resemble the audacious exploits told by the Greeks [Ελλήνων] of the giants [γιγάντων], J o s e p h u s says t h a t t h e beings w h o c o n s o r t e d w i t h w o m e n w e r e angels of G o d . H e s e e m s to reflect a t r a d i t i o n in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e t y p e of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in 1 E n o c h a n d s o m e of t h e D e a d S e a Scroll e v i d e n c e , w h e r e t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g of angels a n d h u m a n s w e r e violent a n d

Studies in the Book ofJubilees, ed. M. Albani, J. Frey, and A. Longe (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997) 59-75. 43 J . van Ruiten, "The Interpretation of Genesis 6:1-12 in Jubilees 5:1-19," p. 74.

i g n o r a n t of v i r t u e . M o r e o v e r , J o s e p h u s n o t e s t h a t a c c o r d i n g to t r a dition t h e a c t i o n s of t h e s e a n g e l s r e s e m b l e t h o s e of t h e g i a n t s in G r e e k l e g e n d . H e m a k e s this i n t e r p r e t a t i v e m o v e in o r d e r to m a k e the story m o r e accessible to his G r a e c o - R o m a n a u d i e n c e , w h o w e r e likely to b e a w a r e of t h e m y t h s r e g a r d i n g t h e giants. 4 4 J o s e p h u s t h e n j u x t a p o s e s N o a h w i t h t h e ( u n r i g h t e o u s ) h y b r i d sons. N o a h tries t o get t h e m t o c h a n g e t h e i r ways, b u t , realizing h e will b e u n s u c c e s s ful, h e takes his f a m i l y a n d leaves t h e a r e a (74). N o a h a n d his f a m ily a r e s p a r e d f r o m t h e F l o o d , while t h e h y b r i d sons a n d all of w i c k e d h u m a n i t y a r e w i p e d o u t (76). P h i l o h a s m u c h m o r e to say r e g a r d i n g G e n 6. H e d e v o t e s

an

e n t i r e treatise to t h e g i a n t s (Gig.), w h i l e also d e a l i n g w i t h the passage in Questions and Solutions on Genesis (QG Γ). T h e treatise " O n t h e G i a n t s " is a n e x t e n d e d discussion of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 . H o w e v e r , t h e title is s o m e w h a t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of its c o n t e n t . T h e treatise is d i v i d e d by m o d e r n s c h o l a r s i n t o 61 c h a p t e r s . O f these, t h e vast m a j o r i t y ( c h a p t e r s 1 9 - 5 7 ) a r e d e v o t e d t o a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G o d ' s

nature

a n d t h e u n w o r t h i n e s s of flesh. H i s l o n g allegory is a digression f r o m a n y t h i n g really r e l a t e d to t h e giants. I n t h e o t h e r

material—118‫־‬

a n d 5 8 6 1 ‫ — ־‬t h e r e a r e t w o p a s s a g e s r e l e v a n t t o t h e p r e s e n t discussion. As seen in his o t h e r writings, P h i l o uses allegory to i n t e r p r e t angels. I n c h a p t e r 6 h e says t h a t w h a t M o s e s ( T o r a h ) calls angels, the p h i l o s o p h e r s (Greeks) call d e m o n s . [6] "And w h e n the angels of G o d saw the daughters of m e n that they were fair, they took to themselves wives from all, those whom they chose" (Gen 6:2). It is Moses' custom to give the n a m e angels to those whom other philosophers call demons [δαίμονας], souls that is, which fly a n d hover in the air. T h e discussion goes o n to e x p l a i n t h a t s u c h c r e a t u r e s a r e n o t m y t h (9-11). Ultimately, Philo explains t h a t souls (ψυχαί), d e m o n s (δαίμονες), a n d a n g e l s (άγγελοι) a r e d i f f e r e n t n a m e s f o r t h e s a m e

underlying

p h e n o m e n o n , saying, " S o if y o u realize t h a t souls a n d d e m o n s a n d angels a r e b u t d i f f e r e n t n a m e s for t h e s a m e o n e u n d e r l y i n g o b j e c t , 44 The relationship with the giants of Greek mythology seems to be reflected in Sib. Or. 2:227-232, which says: "Then Uriel, the great angel, will break the gigantic bolts, of unyielding and unbreakable steel, of the gates of Hades, not forged of metal; he will throw them wide open and will lead the mournful forms to judgement, especially those of ancient phantoms, Titans and the Giants and such as the Flood destroyed"' (translation by J. J. Coffins, in OTP 1:350-51). Also, one Greek ms. of 1 En. 9:9 reads τιτάνας where most read γίγαντας.

you will cast f r o m y o u t h a t most grievous b u r d e n , the fear of d e m o n s or superstition" (16). M o r e o v e r , Philo says that: [16] T h e common usage of men is to give the name of demon to bad and good demons alike, and the name of soul to good and bad souls. And so, too, you also will not go wrong if you reckon as angels, not only those who are worthy of the name, who are as ambassadors backward and forwards between man and God and are rendered sacred and inviolate by reason of glorious and blameless ministry, but also those who are unholy and unworthy of the title. T h e t e r m s "angels," " d e m o n s , " a n d "spirits" refer to the s a m e beings for Philo. T h e t e r m "angels" c a n a p p l y to b o t h g o o d a n d evil angels. T h i s interpretative m o v e m a y well stem f r o m the r e a d i n g άγγελος in his source text. T h e n o r m a l lot of angels is to be p u r e , w o r s h i p p i n g God. A f t e r his long exposition o n G o d ' s spirit, Philo e m p h a s i z e s t h a t the m e n t i o n of giants in the T o r a h (by Moses) is n o t m y t h b u t c a n be e x p l a i n e d as a n allegory of die origins of various types of m e n . [58] "Now the giants were on the earth in those days." Some may think that the Lawgiver is alluding to the myths of the poets about the giants, but indeed myth-making is a thing most alien to him, and his mind is set on following in the steps of truth and nothing but truth. . . . So, then, it is no myth at all of giants that he sets before us; rather he wishes to show you that some men are earth-born, some heaven-born, and some G o d - b o r n . . . First, Philo denies t h a t the story is m y t h akin to the G r e e k writers a b o u t the giants. His exegesis of G e n 6:4 is a n allegory explaining t h a t t h e r e are t h r e e types of m e n : earthly, heavenly, a n d Godly. T h e giants are considered earthly—lustful a n d hedonistic. T h e e x e m p l a r of these is N i m r o d (Gen 10:8), whose n a m e is said to m e a n "deserter." A b r a m , t u r n e d A b r a h a m , is said to b e the p a r a d i g m of the heavenly m a n w h o cultivates die m i n d a n d is totally focused on G o d . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a l t h o u g h a n allegory, seems to h a r k back to 1 E n o c h , in w h i c h the angels a r e p u n i s h e d for their violence a n d indiscretion. I n the QG 1:92 Philo discusses G e n 6:4 in detail: Why were the giants born from angels and women? T h e poets relate that the giants were earth-born, children of the earth. But he (Moses) uses this name improperly [καταχρηστιής] and frequently when he wishes to indicate excessive size of the body, after the likeness of Haik. And he relates that their creation was a mixture of two things, of angels and of mortal women. But the substance [ουσία] of angels is

spiritual [πνευματική]; however, it often happens that they imitate the forms of m e n a n d for immediate putposes, as in respect of knowing w o m e n for the sake of begetting giants. But if children become zealous emulators of maternal depravity, they will draw away f r o m paternal virtue and depart from it through contempt and arrogance toward the better they are condemned as guilty of wilful wrongdoing. But sometimes he calls the angels "sons of G o d " because they are made incorporeal through no mortal m a n but are spirits without body. But rather does that exhorter, Moses give to good and excellent m e n the n a m e "sons of G o d , " while wicked and evil men, he calls "bodies." 45 Philo is explicit tiiat the giants a r e the offspring of h u m a n s a n d angels. 4 5 H e r e h e says t h a t t h e n a t u r e (ούσία) of angels is spiritual (πνευματική), distinct f r o m e a r t h l y , w h i c h is in k e e p i n g w i t h his u s u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a n g e l s as spiritual b e i n g s a n d e v e n h e a v e n l y λόγοι. P h i l o says t h a t G e n e s i s d e s c r i b e s t h e g i a n t s as t h e o f f s p r i n g of h u m a n f e m a l e s a n d angels, t h o u g h a n g e l s a r e a b l e to t a k e o n v a r i o u s f o r m s as n e c essary (χρεία). H e e q u a t e s d e p r a v i t y w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e a n d

virtue

w i t h t h e m a s c u l i n e . H e d o e s n o t explicitly m e n t i o n t h e g i a n t s as d e p r a v e d , b u t it s e e m s logical to i n f e r t h a t P h i l o is saying t h e g i a n t s , w h o s e only h u m a n c o m p o n e n t w a s f e m a l e , fell into d e p r a v i t y b e c a u s e t h e y i n c l i n e d t o w a r d t h e f e m i n i n e . 4 7 W h a t is c l e a r is t h a t t h e g i a n t s w e r e t h e o f f s p r i n g of h u m a n s (earthly) a n d a n g e l s (spiritual) a n d t h a t t h e y w e r e a s o u r c e of c o r r u p t i o n in t h e w o r l d . P h i l o also n o t e s t h a t M o s e s (the T o r a h ) s o m e t i m e s uses t h e t e r m " s o n s of G o d " to r e f e r to angels. T h u s , P h i l o s e e m s to b e a w a r e of b o t h " s o n s of G o d " a n d " a n g e l s " as t e r m s f o r t h e b e i n g s w h o c a m e d o w n t o e a r t h t o t a k e h u m a n wives. T h e e v i d e n c e of J o s e p h u s a n d P h i l o tells us a n u m b e r of things. First-century Hellenized J e w s were dealing with the G e n 6 passage. I n t h e i r c o n t e x t , it s e e m s t h a t s o m e c o n n e c t i o n w a s m a d e b e t w e e n the g i a n t s of G e n e s i s a n d g i a n t s in G r e e k m y t h s . T h e y b o t h u n d e r stood t h e "sons of G o d " as angels. T h a t angels c o p u l a t e d with w o m e n d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e p r e s e n t e d a n y p r o b l e m . W h e r e t h e r e is m o r e

45 English translation from F. Colson, Philo Supplement I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1958) 60-61. 46 Philo also says that the beings were angels in Deus 1:1, "'And after this,' says Moses, 'when angels of God [οί άγγελοι τοΰ θεοΰ] went in unto the daughters of men [ανθρώπων] and they bore children to them.' " 47 On the issue of how Philo sees the female gender, see D. Sly, Philo's Perception of Women (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1990) 91-110.

discussion is o v e r t h e n a t u r e of t h e offspring. T h e g i a n t s a r e u n d e r stood f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s as d e p r a v e d a n d c o r r u p t . T h i s t y p e of interp r e t a t i o n d o e s n o t c o m e f r o m G e n e s i s b u t a p p e a r s to d e r i v e f r o m texts like 1 E n o c h .

6.7

Other Second Temple

Interpretations

T h r e e o t h e r texts t h a t likely d a t e t o o r n e a r t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a r e w o r t h y of d i s c u s s i o n : T h e t e s t a m e n t s of R e u b e n Naphtali, and 2 Baruch.

48

and

T h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n likely d a t e s

f r o m s o m e t i m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . 4 9 T h e t e s t a m e n t s p u r p o r t to b e s p e e c h e s b y e a c h of t h e twelve s o n s of J a c o b j u s t b e f o r e t h e i r d e a t h . R e u b e n is t h e eldest son ( G e n 35:23). His s p e e c h largely w a r n s a g a i n s t t h e vices of t h e flesh, b u t in p a r t i c u l a r R e u b e n w a r n s of t h e d a n g e r s of w o m e n , b a s e d u p o n his o w n failing w i t h B i l h a h ( G e n 35:22). R e u b e n w a r n s his kin, " D o n o t d e v o t e y o u r a t t e n t i o n to a w o m a n ' s looks, n o r live w i t h a w o m a n w h o is a l r e a d y m a r r i e d , n o r b e c o m e involved in t h e affairs widi w o m e n . " I n c h a p t e r 5 R e u b e n says, " O r d e r y o u r wives a n d y o u r d a u g h t e r s n o t t o a d o r n t h e i r h e a d s a n d t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e s so as to deceive m e n ' s s o u n d m i n d s . " H e t h e n says in v. 6: [6] For it was thus that they [women] charmed the Watchers, who were there before the Hood. As they continued looking at the women, they were filled with desire for them and perpetrated the act in their minds. They were transformed into h u m a n males, and while the women were cohabiting with their husbands they appeared to them. Since the women's minds were filled with lust for these apparitions, they gave birth to giants. For the W'atchers were disclosed to them as being as high as the heavens. T h i s line of t r a d i t i o n is u n i q u e in suggesting t h e r e w a s n o i n t e r c o u r s e b e t w e e n t h e angels a n d h u m a n s . B l a m e f o r t h e fall of t h e angels is placed squarely on the w o m e n w h o c h a r m e d the Watchers.30

The

48 Pseudo-Philo, L.A.B. 3:1-3 also discusses Gen 6:1-4, though there is very littie variation from the Genesis narrative. 49 II. Kee, "Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs" in OTP 1:777. Although there may be some Christian interpolations, it seems that the main body of the text dates from the second century BCE. 50 Some later interpreters share the idea that the women are culpable: Justin Martyr (see below) and Pirqe R. El. 22:15.

angels lusted a f t e r t h e w o m e n a n d so c h a n g e d t h e i r f o r m i n t o h u m a n m a l e s . T h e w o m e n , u p o n s e e i n g t h e m , lusted a f t e r t h e m a n d t h u s g a v e b i r t h to t h e giants. A s h o r t n o t e in T. Naph.

3 : 5 also m e n t i o n s the W a t c h e r s , saying,

"Likewise t h e W a t c h e r s d e p a r t e d f r o m n a t u r e ' s o r d e r ; t h e L o r d p r o n o u n c e d a c u r s e o n t h e m at t h e F l o o d . O n t h e i r a c c o u n t h e o r d e r e d t h a t the e a r t h b e w i t h o u t d w e l l e r o r p r o d u c e . " 5 1 T h i s i n t e r e s t i n g passage r e i n f o r c e s t h e i d e a t h a t t h e fall of t h e angels w a s a t r a n s g r e s sion of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r . L a s d y , 2 B a r u c h , w h i c h exists t o d a y in a S y r i a c c o p y b u t likely c o m e f r o m a G r e e k original, 5 2 is w i d e l y a c c e p t e d , b a s e d

has on

i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e ( 3 2 : 2 4 ‫ ־‬, w h e r e t w o d e s t r u c t i o n s of t h e T e m p l e a r e m e n t i o n e d ) , to b e p o s t - 7 0 C E . T h e w o r k s e e m s to s h a r e a close relat i o n s h i p w i t h 4 E z r a a n d also t h e L.A.B.

of P s e u d o - P h i l o . 2 B a r u c h

m a y possibly b e c i t e d in Ep. Bam. 61:7. T h u s , m o s t s c h o l a r s a c c e p t a d a t e a r o u n d 100 C E for this a p o c a l y p s e . 5 3 T h e w o r k p r e s e n t s itself as a w r i t i n g b y B a r u c h of his revelations d e a l i n g w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e First J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e (c. 5 8 7 B C E ) , b u t , as n o t e d , t h e a u t h o r is p r o b a b l y in f a c t c o m i n g to grips with t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e . C h a p t e r 5 6 is p a r t of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a vision of d a r k c l o u d s a n d w a t e r s t h a t B a r u c h h a s r e c e i v e d in c h a p t e r 53. H u m a n s a r e fallen a n d a r e a d a n g e r n o t only to themselves, b u t to t h e angels. V e r s e s 1 0 1 5

‫־‬

state:

[10] For he who was a danger to himself [humankind] was also a danger to the angels. [11] For they possessed a freedom in that time in which they were created. [12] And some of them came down a n d mingled themselves with women. [13] At that time they who acted like this were tormented in chains. [14] But the rest of the multitude of angels, who have no number, restrained themselves. [15] A n d those living on earth perished together through the waters of the flood. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is like t h a t of t h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n in t h a t h u m a n s a r e c u l p a b l e f o r t h e a n g e l i c sin. It is also like 1 E n o c h a n d o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s t h a t r e c o r d t h a t t h e angels w h o d i d sin w e r e p u n ished f o r t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t a n y o f f s p r i n g were destroyed in the Flood. By t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , t h e m y t h a b o u t t h e s o n s of

51 52 53

H. Kee, OTP 1:812. A. Klijn, OTP 1:615-616. HJPAJC IIIii:752-753; OTP 1:616-617.

G o d a n d t h e g i a n t s m a i n t a i n e d in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 h a d b e e n

elaborated

u p o n c o n s i d e r a b l y . T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e " s o n s of G o d " as angels s e e m s to h a v e b e e n widely r e c o g n i z e d . T h a t t h e s e a n g e l s d i d w r o n g

by

t r a n s g r e s s i n g divine b o u n d a r i e s a n d c o p u l a t i n g w i t h w o m e n is also widely a c c e p t e d , as e v i n c e d in t h e s e texts.

6.8

Early

Christian

Writings

In t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e c o n n e c t t h e a n g e l s ' sin (their t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n h u m a n a n d divine) w i t h evil in t h e w o r l d . O n e r e c e n t article h a s p o s i t e d a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p o r t r a y a l of t h e disciples in t h e G o s p e l of M a r k a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t i n g to t h e W a t c h e r s . 5 4 R . S t r e l a n suggests t h a t " B y d e p i c t i n g t h e disciples in a guise r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e l e g e n d a r y fallen W a t c h e r s , M a r k u r g e s w a t c h f u l n e s s a n d holiness in C h r i s t i a n discipleship." 5 5 H i s assertion d o e s s e e m to p r e s s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s o m e t e r m s in M a r k , s u c h as t h e call to w a t c h f u l n e s s in M a r k 13:37, b u t his i n t r i g u i n g suggestion s h o w s t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e c o u l d h a v e b e e n q u i t e p e r v a s i v e in t h e t h i n k i n g of a n c i e n t a u t h o r s . T h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e is m o r e explicit in t h e Epistle of J u d e . I n J u d e 5 1 0 ‫ ־‬, a n u m b e r of evildoers f r o m the H e b r e w Bible a r e listed. First a m o n g t h e m , t h e a n g e l s (αγγέλους) " t h a t d i d n o t k e e p t h e i r o w n p o s i t i o n b u t left t h e i r p r o p e r d w e l l i n g h a v e b e e n kept by h i m in e t e r n a l c h a i n s in t h e n e t h e r g l o o m until t h e j u d g m e n t of t h e g r e a t d a y " (v. 6). T h e a n g e l s a r e f o l l o w e d in this list by t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h , " w h i c h likewise a c t e d i m m o r a l l y a n d i n d u l g e d in u n n a t u r a l lust [τον δμοιον τρόπον τούτοις έκπορνεύσασαι και ά π ε λ θ ο ΰ σ α ι όπίσω σαρκός ετέρας]." T h e link b e t w e e n t h e t w o (angels a n d i n h a b i t a n t s of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ) is t h a t t h e y h a v e b e e n sexually i m p r o p e r (= pollution). It s e e m s highly p r o b a b l e , especially given t h e r e f e r e n c e to E n o c h as a s o u r c e in v. 15, t h a t J u d e 6 is d e p e n d e n t o n 1 E n o c h as its s o u r c e f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e a n g e l s w h o left t h e i r p l a c e a n d w e r e t h e n b o u n d until a final judgment.56

54

R. Strelan, "The Fallen Watchers and the Disciples in Mark" JSP 20 (1999) 73-92. 55 R. Strelan, "The Fallen Watchers," p. 92. 56 R. Bauckham, 2 Peter, Jude (Waco, TX: Word, 1983) 43-55.

2 P e t e r 2:4 also m e n t i o n s t h e s a m e t r a d i t i o n . It s e e m s to d e p e n d at least partially o n J u d e . 5 7 2 P e t 2:4 (cf. 1 P e t 3 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) states, " G o d did n o t s p a r e t h e angels w h e n t h e y s i n n e d , b u t cast t h e m i n t o hell a n d c o m m i t t e d t h e m to pits of n e t h e r g l o o m to b e k e p t until t h e j u d g m e n t . " T h i s reflects t h e t r a d i t i o n seen in b o t h 1 E n o c h a n d in J u b i l e e s a b o u t the p u n i s h m e n t of t h e fallen W a t c h e r s . Lastly, o n e of t h e early apologists discusses this t r a d i t i o n . J u s t i n M a r t y r ( s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E ) discusses G e n 6 o n t w o

occasions. 5 8

J u s t i n a p p e a r s to m a i n t a i n t h e t y p e of a n g e l t r a d i t i o n w e saw in 1 E n o c h , especially i n his r e f e r e n c e to t h e angels b r i n g i n g h i d d e n k n o w l e d g e to h u m a n i t y . I n his s e c o n d A p o l o g y h e writes: [5] But the angels transgressed this appointment, and were captivated by love of women, and bore children who are those that are called demons [δαίμονας]; a n d besides, they aftetwards subdued the h u m a n race to themselves, partly by magical writings, and partly by fears and the punishments they occasioned, a n d partly by teaching them to offer sacrifices, and incense, and libations, of which things they stood in need after they were enslaved by lustful passions; and a m o n g m e n they sowed murders, wars, adulteries, intemperate deeds, and all wickedness. Whence also the poets and mythologists, not knowing that it was the angels a n d those demons who had been begotten by them that did these things to men, a n d women, a n d cities, and nations, which they related, ascribed them to G o d himself, and to those who were accounted to be his very offspring, a n d to the offspring of those who were called his brother, Neptune and Pluto, and to the children again of these their offspring. For whatever n a m e each of the angels h a d given to himself and his children, by that n a m e they called them. J u s t i n places b l a m e u p o n t h e h u m a n f e m a l e s (cf. T. Reu).

H e cer-

tainly m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e lustful b e i n g s w e r e angels, t h a t t h e y w e r e a b l e t o c o p u l a t e w i t h w o m e n , a n d t h a t o n c e t h e y h a d d o n e so, t h e y r e v e a l e d secret k n o w l e d g e to h u m a n s , w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y leads to sin a n d evil in t h e w o r l d (cf. 1 En).

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , J u s t i n d o e s n o t say

explicitly t h a t t h e offspring w e r e giants b u t instead calls t h e m d e m o n s . T h i s m a y reflect a v a l u e j u d g m e n t o n t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g as e x e m plifying t h e sin of t h e a n g e l s w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . J u s t i n s e e m s t o d e p e n d o n a n u m b e r of t r a d i t i o n s , c e r t a i n l y G e n 6 a n d a n d perhaps others.

57 58

R. Bauckharn, 2 Peter, Jude, pp. 245-257. See also First Apology 5.

1 Enoch

J . V a n d e r K a m h a s s u r v e y e d t h e e v i d e n c e f o r C h r i s t i a n use of t h e W a t c h e r s m y t h in C h r i s t i a n i t y t h r o u g h t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y C E . 5 9 H i s survey s h o w s t h a t t h e m y t h , w h e t h e r directly o r indirectly

depen-

d e n t u p o n E n o c h , w a s w i d e s p r e a d in C h r i s t i a n circles: " C o n s e q u e n t l y , o n e m a y say t h a t C h r i s t i a n e m p l o y m e n t of t h e W a t c h e r m y t h is attested t h r o u g h o u t the R o m a n

6.9

world."60

Later Jewish

Interpretations

T h e p r e d o m i n a n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e " s o n s of G o d " f r o m G e n 6:2 a n d 4 in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d w a s t h a t t h e b e i n g s w e r e angels. N o dissenting voice is h e a r d until R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i in Gen. Rah. 2 6 : 5 states, " R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i called t h e m t h e s o n s of t h e j u d g e s [‫ ;]דייניה‬R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i c u r s e d all w h o called t h e m 'sons of G o d ' . " 6 1 T h i s s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t h e first of a n u m b e r of r e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t b o t h t h e literal r e a d i n g of " s o n s of G o d " a n d also a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e m as angels. 6 2 Tg. Onq. a n d

Tg. Ps.-J

call t h e b e i n g s of G e n 6:2 " s o n s of t h e

g r e a t o n e s [ ‫ ] כ י י ר ב ר ב י ה‬. " Tg. Neo. r e f e r s to t h e b e i n g s as " t h e sons of t h e j u d g e s [‫ ] ב נ י דייניה‬, " w h i l e t h e m a r g i n a l n o t e s t o Tg. Neo. h a v e ‫ מ ל א ב י י א‬. Tg. Onq. a n d Tg. Neo. a t G e n 6:4 call t h e b e i n g s G i b o r i m , b u t interestingly, Tg. Ps.J.

m e n t i o n s t h e angels S h a m a h a z i a n d Azazel

(cf. 1 En. 6 1 1 ‫ ) ־‬as h a v i n g fallen f r o m h e a v e n . 6 3 R e g a r d i n g t h e evid e n c e f r o m t h e T a r g u m i m , P. A l e x a n d e r c o n c l u d e s : 0. and JV. represent an exegesis which originated with the rabbis shortly after the Second Jewish W a r — a n exegesis which reflects the general

59 J. VanderKam, "Early Christian Uses of the Enochic Angel Story" in The Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage in Early Christianity, ed. J . VanderKam and W. Adler (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996) 60-88. 60 J. VanderKam, "Early Christian Uses of the Enochic Angel Story," p. 87. 61 Translation from J. Neuesner, Genesis Rabbah: The Judaic Commentary to the Book of Genesis, A New American Translation, Brown Judaic Studies 104-106 (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1985) 1:282. 62 P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis of 'Sons of God' in Genesis 6" JJS 23 (1972) 60-71. See also J. Bowker, The Targums and Rabbinic Literature: An Introduction to Jewish Interpretati0?1s of Scripture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969) 151-160. 63 P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis," p. 70 calls it "rather puzzling." It seems that Ps.J. is at least aware of traditions like those in 1 En. Alexander suggests that Ps.-J. was changed in light of Tg. Onq.

struggle to wean Jews from beliefs out of keeping with the essence of T o r a h Judaism. Ps-J. (in its original form) and Nmg. represent the old Palestinian T a r g u m , current before the Second Jewish W a r , which the 0. tradition was intended to replace. 64 T h i s suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a n o n g o i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e b e i n g s of G e n 6:2 a n d 4 as angels. S o m e of t h e r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n

seems

to w o r k to dispel s u c h a r e a d i n g , b u t e v e n so, t h a t t r a d i t i o n Neo. m a r g i n a l n o t e s a n d Tg. Ps.-J.)

(Tg.

reflects a n a n g e l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

Conclusions T h e story of divine " s o n s of G o d " w h o c o m e to e a r t h to t a k e h u m a n wives in G e n 6 : 1 4 ‫ ־‬is a n e n i g m a t i c tale t h a t w a s f o u n d a t i o n a l f o r a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of s u b s e q u e n t l i t e r a t u r e in the S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d . F r o m early o n , e n t i r e w o r k s w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o e x p o u n d i n g this tale. T h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s (1 En.

136‫ )־‬seems to

h a v e b e e n a n early i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t m a d e c l e a r t h a t t h e b e i n g s w e r e a n g e l s a n d t h e i r o f f s p r i n g giants. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w a s a p p a r ently i n f l u e n t i a l t h r o u g h o u t t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d . T h e e v i d e n c e of t h e L X X w a s a m b i g u o u s , b u t at least o n e version contained the term "angel." T h e evidence from Q u m r a n

showed

t h a t t h e story w a s c o m m o n a m o n g t h e e x t a n t texts. T h e f r a g m e n t s of a B o o k of G i a n t s also s h o w t h a t t h e r e w a s significant s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t the h y b r i d offspring. M o r e o v e r , o t h e r f r a g m e n t s m a d e r e f e r e n c e to t h e W a t c h e r s . C o p i e s of b o t h 1 E n o c h a n d J u b i l e e s w e r e f o u n d at Q u m r a n , s h o w i n g t h a t t h e story w a s f o u n d in a w i d e v a r i e t y of texts. J u b i l e e s a p p e a r s to be d e p e n d e n t u p o n G e n 6 as a c o r e n a r r a t i v e b u t w a s likely i n f l u e n c e d b y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s s u c h as in 1 E n o c h . O t h e r w o r k s , s u c h as t h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n a n d 2 B a r u c h , s h o w e d j u s t h o w w i d e s p r e a d die tale w a s in S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m . J o s e p h u s said t h e beings w e r e angels a n d t h a t t h e i r offspring, the giants, w e r e n o t v i r t u o u s a n d e v e n violent. P h i l o h a d m o r e t o say, d e d i c a t i n g a n e n t i r e treatise to t h e giants, a l t h o u g h m u c h of it w a s n o t specifically a b o u t t h e W a t c h e r s ' story. E v i d e n c e f r o m t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d early Christianity showed that the continued

64

to b e w i d e s p r e a d .

Later Jewish

narrative

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in

P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis," p. 71.

the

T a r g u m i m a n d t h e r a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s d o w n p l a y e d t h e role t h e angels p l a y e d , b u t e v i d e n c e of t h e a n g e l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n still a p p e a r s . 6 5 F r o m early in t h e t r a d i t i o n , p e r h a p s w i t h i n G e n 6 itself, t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m w i t h t h e " s o n s of G o d " (angels) c o m i n g to e a r t h a n d t a k i n g h u m a n wives is t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e b o u n d a r y set at c r e a t i o n . T h e i r u n i o n w i t h h u m a n w o m e n c r e a t e s a h y b r i d , i n t e r p r e t e d as " g i a n t s , " t h a t w e r e n o t m e a n t to exist. 6 6 It s e e m s , t h e n , t h a t h u m a n s a n d angels w e r e distinct beings. P r o b l e m s only a r o s e w h e n angels t r a n s g r e s s e d p r e d e t e r m i n e d b o u n d a r i e s a n d m a t e d w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . 5 ‫ ׳‬M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r s t o o d this as the v e r y source of evil in t h e w o r l d . V i r t u a l l y all t o o k it as t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e F l o o d a n d r e - c r e a t i o n of t h e w o r l d .

65 This would fit well with M. Mach's suggestion that the rabbis downplayed angel beliefs (Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 330-332). It may also represent one of the precursor's to the rivalry identified between humans and angels in P. Schäfer, Rivalität, pp. 75-218. 66 There is a need for further study of the issues of gender and sexuality in relation to angel betiefs. Much has been made of the idea that angels were celibate (from the passages in the gospels [Matt 22:23-33, Mark 12:18-27, Luke 20:34-40]). However, the gospels are the only texts that mention such an idea in extant Second Temple literature. The large body of literature examined in this chapter suggests that at least one group of angels was not believed to have been celibate. Also, in the vast majority of cases where the physical appearance of angels is described, they appear as men or young males. The only women described as angelomorphic were the daughters of Job in T. Job, and perhaps Aseneth in JA. 67 P. Alexander, "The Demonology of the Dead Sea Scrolls" in The Dead Sea Scrolls after 50 rears, ed. P. Flint and J . VanderKam (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1999) 2:350.

CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSION: LIMPING T O W A R D A BETTER UNDERSTANDING

T h e a i m of this b o o k h a s b e e n to a d d to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e diverse a n g e l beliefs of the late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d b y investigating t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels as d e m o n s t r a t e d in t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s final c h a p t e r seeks to s u m m a r i z e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t c a n b e d r a w n f r o m this investigation a n d to c o n s i d e r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s for c u r r e n t s c h o l a r s h i p in t h e a r e a s of c o s m o l o g y , C h r i s t o l o g y , a n d e a r l y J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mysticism. T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s a r e o f f e r e d w i t h full a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s discussed m a y well r e p r e s e n t o n l y a small p o r t i o n of t h e diverse beliefs a b o u t angels f r o m t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , since the beliefs f o r w h i c h w r i t t e n r e c o r d s r e m a i n likely r e p r e s e n t only a f r a c t i o n of all t h e beliefs t h a t existed in t h e J e w i s h a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c o s m o l o g y . F u r t h e r m o r e , in m a k i n g a n y kind of s u m m a r y it is i m p o r t a n t n o t to o v e r s y n t h e s i z e d i s p a r a t e u n i t s of e v i d e n c e . T h e e v i d e n c e c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e c o m e s f r o m a w i d e r a n g e of d a t e s , p r o v e n a n c e s , a n d social situations, so it is h a n d l e d w i t h d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n for its variety.

7.1

The Relationship

between Humans

and Angels

T h r e e m a i n issues a r e i n v o l v e d in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e

relationship

b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. First, t h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e of t h e t e r m s for a n g e l ( ά γ γ ε λ ο ς a n d ‫ ) מ ל א ך‬allows f o r r e f e r e n c e t o e i t h e r angelic o r h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s . T h i s r a n g e of m e a n i n g d o e s n o t necessarily imply any

fluidity

between angels and h u m a n s , however.

Terms

d e r i v e m e a n i n g f r o m t h e i r c o n t e x t . T h e r e a r e few, if a n y , o c c a s i o n s w h e n the context does n o t supply a clear m e a n i n g for "angel." A n d , w h e r e t h e r e is c o n f u s i o n , it likely r e p r e s e n t s m o r e of a

modern

h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r o b l e m t h a n a n y u n d e r s t o o d fluidity in t h e c a t e g o r y (e.g., M a i 3:1).

N e x t , as n o t e d a b o v e , the physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a h e a v e n l y entity in h u m a n f o r m does n o t necessarily imply its e q u a t i o n with a h u m a n being. T h e f o r m t h a t angels a s s u m e in their initial a p p e a r a n c e to h u m a n s is often a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c (e.g., G e n 18, J o s h 5, et al), b u t this seems to be for the benefit of the seer, since b r i g h t light, fear, a n d even fear of d e a t h are often associated with angelophanies. By taking on a h u m a n f o r m , angels c a n deliver their news w i t h o u t h i n d r a n c e . O f t e n o n c e they d o so, they again assume a n angelic f o r m a n d r e t u r n to h e a v e n (e.g., J u d g 6 a n d 13). P e r h a p s the most interesting a n d challenging material is the a p p e a r ances of h u m a n s as angels. T h e vast m a j o r i t y of the material involves discussion of righteous individuals. M a n y of the individuals e x a m ined a r e in fact described in a n g e l o m o r p h i c terms; t h a t is, they are described in ways often associated with angels. Nevertheless, t h e r e does n o t s e e m to b e good reason to suppose t h a t they w e r e c o n sidered a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n beings. T h e i r a n g e l o m o r p h i c description is a n a l o g o u s to the w a y in w h i c h G o d c a n be described in a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c t e r m s w i t h o u t b e i n g h u m a n . E x a m p l e s in this g r o u p include N o a h , S t e p h e n , a n d T a x o . S o m e cases, h o w e v e r , are m o r e a m b i g u o u s , such as Melchizedek, J o h n the Baptist, a n d Paul. T h e s e individuals are p o r t r a y e d in angelom o r p h i c terms, a n d it seems that some type of identification is implied. Ultimately, h o w e v e r , it r e m a i n s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r they w e r e m e a n t to be u n d e r s t o o d as a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n h u m a n . I n the cases of A d a m a n d Moses, however, their " t h e o m o r p h i c " i m a g e seems to be stressed. F o r the sake of precision in m o d e r n discourse, it m a y b e w o r t h w h i l e to stress this t h e o m o r p h i c c h a r a c t e r over their a n g e l o m o r p h i c c h a r acter. O n l y in the cases of Seth(el), E n o c h , a n d J a c o b / I s r a e l does it seem clear t h a t h u m a n s h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d into angels. Yet in these cases the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is usually u n d e r s t o o d as h a v i n g o c c u r r e d in the heavenly sphere. T h i r d , in those instances w h e n the interaction b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels is particularly close or intimate, t h e r e still does n o t s e e m to be a n y indication t h a t separation b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s is n o t m a i n t a i n e d . T e x t s involving issues of living in c o m m u n i t i e s , eating together, a n d even p r o c r e a t i n g w e r e e x a m i n e d . In a n u m b e r of the cases of a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s , purity issues arose (e.g., W a r Scroll, 1 C o r , Hist. Recli.). If the h u m a n m e m b e r s did n o t m a i n t a i n a h e i g h t e n e d level of purity, t h e n angels could n o t be p r e s e n t in the c o m m u n i t y . T h i s suggests that indeed there was a qualitative difference b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.

I n t h e c a s e of hospitality a n d f o o d , h u m a n s o f t e n o f f e r e d h o s p i tality, i n c l u d i n g a m e a l , to a n g e l i c guests (especially G e n 1 8 1 9

‫ ) ״‬,

it w a s r e g u l a r l y t h e case t h a t t h e y w e r e u n a w a r e of t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e s t r a n g e r s . It s e e m s a c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g in t h e

Second

T e m p l e p e r i o d t h a t a n g e l s did n o t e a t h u m a n f o o d . T h i s f a c t s h o w s a n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s w e r e t h o u g h t to differ. T h e issue of h u m a n s a n d angels c o p u l a t i n g offers p e r h a p s t h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g m a t e r i a l . T r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r b y s o m e angels ( G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) w a s s e e n as e x t r e m e l y p r o b l e m a t i c a n d w a s u n d e r s t o o d by a n u m b e r of i n t e r p r e t e r s as d i e v e r y origin of evil i n t h e w o r l d (7 En.). T h e u n i o n of a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s b r o u g h t f o r t h h y b r i d g i a n t s w h o w e r e usually u n d e r s t o o d t o h a v e b e e n d e s t r o y e d in t h e F l o o d . T h a t angels w e r e n o t believed to h a v e sex o r p r o c r e a t e h i g h l i g h t s a significant d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n h u m a n s o n e a r t h , w h o m u s t p r o c r e ate f o r survival of t h e species, a n d a n g e l s in h e a v e n , w h o d o n o t . T o s u m u p briefly, m y investigation s h o w s t h a t in t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m this p e r i o d t h e r e w a s a w i d e r a n g e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t h o w angels l o o k e d a n d h o w t h e y i n t e r a c t e d w i t h h u m a n s . A significant set of t h e s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s f o c u s e d o n a n g e l s l o o k i n g like h u m a n s a n d , w h e n t h e y did, h a v i n g i n t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e m . D e s p i t e this similarity of appearance a n d closeness of interaction, t h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e w a s a n y b l u r r i n g of categories between angels a n d h u m a n s . W h e n there was an a p p a r e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m the h u m a n to t h e angelic ( E n o c h = M e t a t r o n o r J a c o b - I s r a e l ) , it w a s a o n e - t i m e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t

occurred

b e y o n d t h e e a r t h l y s p h e r e . I n s o m e sense, t h e e v i d e n c e f o r h u m a n s a c h i e v i n g a n g e l i c status is t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t p r o v e s t h e rule. O n l y h u m a n s of e x c e p t i o n a l r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d w h o h a d a special relat i o n s h i p w i t h G o d a p p e a r t o h a v e h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to b e c o m e angels; n o o t h e r h u m a n s e n j o y e d s u c h a special status.

7.2

Cosmology and Angelology

T h i s s t u d y in s o m e sense also r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e g e n e r a l c o s m o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e

and

early C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e a n d , m o r e specifically, t h e p l a c e of angels, a n d to a lesser e x t e n t h u m a n s , in d i a t cosmos. 1 A n g e l s a r e like G o d 1

This is not to suggest that there was a single cosmology (especially across late Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity), but instead these conclusions aim to discuss what can be gleaned broadly from the material.

but

in t h a t t h e y reside in h e a v e n a n d a r e i n c o r p o r e a l , h a v i n g n o n e e d f o r f o o d o r p r o c r e a t i o n . H o w e v e r , a n g e l s a r e like h u m a n s in t h a t t h e y a r e c r e a t e d b y G o d a n d c a n a t t i m e s dwell o n e a r t h , e v e n taki n g o n h u m a n f o r m . A d d i t i o n a l l y , angels travel b e t w e e n t w o s e p a rate s p h e r e s — t h e heavenly a n d the earthly. I n r e s p o n s e to the w o r k of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s o n i d e n t i f y i n g a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y tradition in late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m , J . O ' N e i l l states, " t h e s e c l a i m s t o o n t o l o g i c a l i d e n t i t y a r e s i m p l y

misunder-

s t a n d i n g s of t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e , " a d d i n g , " t h e r e is a c l e a r a n d c o n sistently m a i n t a i n e d d i f f e r e n c e in kind b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n g e l s a n d h u m a n beings."2 M y

findings

strongly support O'Neill's

assertion.

R a t h e r t h a n t h i n k of t h e c a t e g o r i e s as " o p e n a n d fluid" as F l e t c h e r L o u i s does, it is p e r h a p s m o r e v a l u a b l e t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m as fixed b u t n o t absolute. It is n o t a b s o l u t e b e c a u s e w e see t h a t a n g e l s r e g u l a r l y c o m e to e a r t h a n d t a k e o n h u m a n f o r m , a n d o n s o m e v e r y r a r e occasions, h u m a n s c a n a s c e n d t o h e a v e n a n d e v e n b e c o m e like angels. Angels a n d h u m a n s are very different beings, b u t this does n o t m e a n t h a t they n e v e r i n t e r a c t e d — m a n y

texts

d e s c r i b e h o w t h e y did i n t e r a c t . H o w e v e r , in l a r g e p a r t t h e y r e m a i n e d separate from one another. O n t h e n o t i o n of s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n earthly a n d h e a v e n l y denizens, M . H i m m e l f a r b writes: It is not only what G o d reveals to the visionary that is important, but the veiy fact that G o d is willing to bring a h u m a n being near him. U n d e r certain circumstances, according to the apocalypses, h u m a n beings can cross the boundary and join the angels. 3 E l s e w h e r e she w r i t e s r e g a r d i n g !1er analysis of a s c e n t s in v a r i o u s apocalypses, " I n d e e d it t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels a r e n o t v e r y clear. O n e g r o u p of a p o c a l y p s e s offers g r e a t h e r o e s of t h e p a s t as e x a m p l e s of h o w close h u m a n b e i n g s c a n c o m e to G o d . " 4 It n e e d n o t b e t h e c a s e t h a t " t h e b o u n d a r i e s 2

between

J. O'Neill, Review of G. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts in JTS 50 (1999) 225-230. M. Himmelfarb, "Revelation and Rapture: The Transformation of the Visionary in the Ascent Apocalypses" in Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies since the Uppsala Colloquium, ed. J . Collins and J. Charlesworth (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991) 90. 4 M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) 70. For similar ideas about the importance of key individuals, see J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism. (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151, and J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism (Tübingen: J . C. B. Möhr, 1985) 333. 8

h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e n o t v e r y c l e a r . " It n e e d only b e t h e c a s e (as t h e e v i d e n c e b e a r s out) t h a t t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o largely s e p a r a t e r e a l m s (earthly a n d h e a v e n l y ) b e a b l e to b e crossed. D e s p i t e this c r i t i q u e , I v e r y m u c h a g r e e w i t h h e r a s s e s s m e n t t h a t t h e " g r e a t h e r o e s " of t h e p a s t o f f e r e d e x a m p l e s to t h o s e w h o w o u l d seek to c o m m u n e w i t h G o d . S o m e h u m a n s did a c h i e v e a n g e l i c status b u t o n l y in h e a v e n , w h e n t h e y w e r e a l r e a d y n e a r to G o d . H i m m e r l f a r b also sees a n o t h e r s t r e a m of t r a d i t i o n in t h e a p o c a l y p s e s t h a t , "if o r d i nary h u m a n beings are righteous, after death they can take

tiieir

p l a c e in t h e h e a v e n l y h i e r a r c h y . " 5 A g a i n , e v e n if this is p a r t of t h e t r a d i t i o n of a p o c a l y p s e s , h u m a n s a r e n o t a t t a i n i n g a n

"angelomor-

p h i c " life o n e a r t h . S u c h s t a t u s is a t t a i n e d in h e a v e n , w h e n h u m a n s a r e in close p r o x i m i t y t o G o d .

7.3

Christology and Angelology

N e x t , w e c o n s i d e r d i e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this s t u d y f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of early C h r i s t o l o g y . C . G i e s c h e n h a s , I believe, o f f e r e d a p e r s u a sive c a s e f o r s e e i n g a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s of late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m as i n f l u e n c i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of early C h r i s t i a n t y . 6 N e v e r t h e l e s s , I w o u l d o f f e r s o m e c r i t i q u e h e r e of o n e a s p e c t of his case. In his section o n " a n g e l n o m e n c l a t u r e " G i e s c h e n states: Because angels often appear in the form of men, the distinction between what is anthropomorphic and what is angelomorphic is difficult to maintain. W h a t one person may interpret as an anthropomorphism, another could see as a concrete description of an angelomorphic figure.7 W h i l e s o m e texts m a y b e difficult to i n t e r p r e t f o r t h e m o d e r n r e a d e r (e.g., M a i 3:1), a n c i e n t a u t h o r s w e r e n o t a p p a r e n t l y in a n y

way

ambiguous in their presentations or their understandings. Moreover, t h a t l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e r s c o u l d exploit t h e a m b i g u i t y in a t e r m d o e s n o t m e a n a n a m b i g u i t y w a s originally i n t e n d e d . R e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e a n g e l t r a d i t i o n a p p e a r s is t h e key to a v o i d i n g s u c h c o n f u s i o n . Gieschen offered categories u n d e r which h u m a n s might be u n d e r stood as " a n g e l o m o r p h i c . " 8 T h e s e categories were: Patriarchs, Prophets, 5

M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, p. 71. C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997). 7 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 28. 8 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 152-183. 6

Priests, K i n g s , Apostles, a n d Elect O n e s . I n d i v i d u a l s in t h e s e roles o f t e n e n j o y e d a privileged status relative t o G o d a n d in s o m e senses f u n c t i o n e d as m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n h u m a n i t y a n d G o d . E v e n t h o u g h w e m a y c a t e g o r i z e t h e m a t e r i a l in this w a y t o d a y , a n c i e n t a u t h o r s did n o t a p p a r e n t l y think in these t e r m s . T h e results of m y r e s e a r c h indicate t h a t t h e r e was n o t a c o h e r e n t idea of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n ity" in late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m . A t best, s u c h ideas m a y h a v e a p p l i e d to a select f e w individuals. G i e s c h e n states t h a t these c a t e g o r i e s " p u s h t h e r e a d e r to a b r o a d e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t a n a n g e l w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e in first c e n tury J u d a i s m a n d Christianity."9 I would argue that without synthesizing t h e m a t e r i a l into these categories, t h e evidence d o e s n o t s u p p o r t t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e w a s in t h e first c e n t u r y a c o h e r e n t

angelomor-

p h i c h u m a n i t y c o n c e p t t h a t in t u r n c o u l d h a v e b e e n a b u i l d i n g block for early C h r i s t o l o g y . C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s o f f e r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g in his s u m m a r y

of

Jewish angelomorphic traditions: W e submit that an approach to the data . . . which does not impose a rigid dualism, but rather accepts the openness and fluidity of h u m a n , angelic and Divine categories, allows for simplicity of interpretation, a n d does most justice to the texts' own worldviews(s). Accordingly our label 'angelomorphic', has proved heuristically invaluable. 10 W h i l e t h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " m a y b e heuristically v a l u a b l e in m a k i n g sense of a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t e d to C h r i s t o l o g y , it s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n to i m p l y a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of h u m a n s a n d angels. " A n g e l o m o r p h i c " m u s t b e e m p l o y e d w i t h c a u t i o n to discussions of h u m a n ity in g e n e r a l . A rigid d u a l i s m is n o t b e i n g " i m p o s e d " u p o n

the

e v i d e n c e b u t is p r e s e n t in t h e e v i d e n c e . I n s t e a d of s e e i n g " f l u i d i t y " between categories, we should recognize that the evidence

shows

t h e r e w a s s o m e possibility of c r o s s i n g t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n

the

e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e , especially b y a n g e l s a n d o n r a r e o c c a sions by v e r y r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s d r a w n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e rich v a r i e t y of a n g e l beliefs f r o m t h e p e r i o d , especially in the

Qiimran

l i t e r a t u r e . I n his m o r e r e c e n t b o o k , All the Glory of Adam,

Fletcher-

L o u i s sees t h e T e m p l e as t h e locus "in w h i c h o r d i n a r y s p a c e a n d 9

G. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 183. C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology, and Soteriology, WUNT 2.94 (Tubingen: J . C. B. Möhr, 1997) 211. 10

time, a n d therefore h u m a n ontology, are transcended," adding that the worshipping c o m m u n i t y would "experience a transfer f r o m earth to h e a v e n , f r o m h u m a n i t y to divinity a n d f r o m m o r t a l i t y to i m m o r a l ity." 1 1 W h i l e it m a y b e t r u e t h a t J e w s u n d e r s t o o d t h e T e m p l e as a special l o c a t i o n , it is n o t c l e a r f r o m F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s analysis w h e t h e r h e envisions s u c h a c h a n g e as t e m p o r a r y o r p e r m a n e n t a n d in w h a t w a y s p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d . T h i s leaves us with t h e q u e s tion of w h e t h e r o r n o t w e s h o u l d see this as a case of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y " o r simply a " m y s t i c a l " e x p e r i e n c e of t h e T e m p l e o r liturgical s p a c e . I a m i n c l i n e d to t h i n k t h a t t h e T e m p l e w a s a special locus w h e r e

first-century

J e w s believed t h a t t h e y c o u l d c o m m u n e

w i t h G o d , b u t I a m less i n c l i n e d to believe t h a t t h e y

envisioned

t h e m s e l v e s as t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n g e l s (or a n g e l i c h u m a n s ) o n e a r t h d u e to t h e e x p e r i e n c e . T h u s , t h e assertion of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s a n d G i e s c h e n t h a t t h e r e w a s a n identifiable " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y " t r a d i t i o n in late

Second

T e m p l e J u d a i s m is significantly w e a k e n e d , t h o u g h n o t a l t o g e t h e r p r e e l u d e d , b y t h e results of m y investigation. A l t h o u g h m y analysis u n d e r m i n e s t h e case for a n y

"angelomor-

p h i c h u m a n i t y " c o n c e p t b e i n g p r e v a l e n t in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , it d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t a n g e l o m o r p h i c categories did n o t i n f o r m early C h r i s t o l o g i e s — i t s h o u l d b e c l e a r t h a t t h e y did. As C . R o w l a n d h a s persuasively a r g u e d , t h e i m a g e r y o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n g e l o p h a n i e s w a s a p p r o p r i a t e d i n t o early C h r i s t o l o g y . 1 2 I m a g e r y is a m o r e solid f o u n d a t i o n a n d is t h e n likely t h e m o r e fruitful r o u t e f o r f u t u r e studies of t h e a n g e l o m o r p h i c b a c k g r o u n d of e a r l y C h r i s t o l o g i e s . T h e r e c e n t w o r k of R . B a u c k h a r n s e e m s to signal, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e scholarly d e b a t e is f a r f r o m over. I n his b o o k , God Crucified, R . B a u c k h a r n a r g u e s t h a t in t h e cosm o l o g y of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d t h e r e w a s G o d a n d e v e r y t h i n g else. 1 3 H e states, "Jewish m o n o t h e i s m clearly

11 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden: E. J . Brill, 2002) 476. 12 C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen: Daniel 10:6ff. and Jewish Angelology" JÄVT 24 (1985) 99-110. 13 R. Bauckharn, God Crucified: Monothâsm and Christology in the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998). These ideas are also developed in his article, "The Throne of God and the Worship of Jesus" in The Jetvish Roots of Christological Monotheism: Papersfromthe St. Andrews Conference on the Historical Origins of the Worship ofJesus, ed. C. Newman, J. Davila, and G. Lewis (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1999) 43-69.

d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e o n e G o d a n d all o t h e r r e a l i t y . ' " 4 B a u c k h a m stresses t h e i d e a of t h e " d i v i n e i d e n t i t y " o v e r t h e i d e a of " d i v i n e n a t u r e " as the p a r a d i g m t h a t

first-century

J e w s would have used for recogniz-

ing G o d . S o J e w s w o u l d n o t b e c o n c e r n e d so m u c h for w h a t G o d is b u t w h o G o d is. F o l l o w i n g f r o m this, B a u c k h a m a r g u e s t h a t J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e a n y type of s e m i d i v i n e b e i n g , viceroy, subordinate

d e i t y , o r t h e like. I n c o n t r a s t t o

Gieschen,

F l e t c h e r - L o u i s , a n d m o s t n o t a b l y H u r t a d o , B a u c k h a m believes t h a t J e w i s h i n t e r m e d i a r y figures s u c h as p r i n c i p a l angels a n d exalted p a t r i a r c h s t h e r e f o r e did n o t p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t role in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of early C h r i s t o l o g y . 1 5 B a u c k h a m a r g u e s t h a t J e s u s w a s t h e n s u b s u m e d i n t o the u n i q u e divine i d e n t i t y — a m o v e t h a t h e d e s c r i b e s as a " r a d i c a l l y novel develo p m e n t , a l m o s t u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n J e w i s h t h e o l o g y . " 1 6 H e also says t h a t t h e decisive step of i n c l u d i n g J e s u s in t h e divine i d e n t i t y t h r o u g h exegesis of t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s w a s " a s t e p w h i c h , w h e n e v e r it w e r e t a k e n , h a d to b e t a k e n s i m p l y f o r its o w n sake a n d de novo."17 W h a t r e m a i n s u n c l e a r f r o m B a u c k h a m ' s discussion, h o w e v e r , is why the early C h r i s t i a n s w o u l d m a k e s u c h a novel a n d

unprecedented

identification. If G o d w a s truly u n i q u e , t h e n w h y d i d t h e y ever d e c i d e to i n c l u d e J e s u s in t h a t identity? It seems m o r e plausible to m e to suggest t h a t t h e significant a m o u n t of l i t e r a t u r e t h a t talks a b o u t i n t e r m e d i a r i e s w o u l d h a v e i n f l u e n c e d early C h r i s t o l o g y o n s o m e level. T h i s is n o t to say t h a t all C h r i s t i a n s u s e d this line of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r t h a t it w a s m a i n t a i n e d in t h e t r a dition. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it s e e m s t h a t angels, especially in t h e i r f u n c tion as m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , c o u l d h a v e

provided

a n d d i d p r o v i d e t h e earliest C h r i s t i a n s w i t h a n e x a m p l e b y w h i c h J e s u s — a h u m a n b e i n g — c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as a s u p e r h u m a n

or

heavenly being.

14

R. Bauckham, God Crucified, p. 4. R. Bauckham, God Crucified, pp. 4-5, 1622‫־‬. Contra C. Fletcher-Louis, LukeActs; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology•, and L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord. This also goes against the work of others such as C. Rowland and J. Fossum. Just prior to completing the edits to my page proofs, I learned of the release of L. Hurtado's new book Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003). I was not able, therefore, to take it into account in this monograph. I am encouraged, though, to see that his discussion on pp. 27-78 has points of contact with my own work. 16 R. Bauckham, God Crucified, p. 4. 17 R. Bauckham, God Crucified, p. 28. 15

CONCLUSION: LIMPING T O W A R D A BETTER UNDERSTANDING

235

B a u c k h a m says t h a t a "strict J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m " c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e i n t e r m e d i a r y figures. H o w e v e r , t o say t h a t a strict m o n o t h e ism c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e s u c h i n t e r m e d i a r y figures is ver)‫ ׳‬different f r o m saying that these

figures

did n o t exist in J e w i s h

cosmology;

clearly t h e y d i d . T o i g n o r e this fact is to miss a n i m p o r t a n t p i e c e of t h e overall p i c t u r e . T h e d a n g e r h e r e lies in n o t seeing a develo p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y b a s e d u p o n a c o n f l u e n c e of traditions. It s e e m s u n n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l a u s i b l e to suggest t h a t J e s u s w a s i m m e d i a t e l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e divine i d e n t i t y as p a r t of a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d

move

in J e w i s h t h e o l o g y . W h a t s e e m s m o r e p l a u s i b l e to m e is t h a t a variety of t r a d i t i o n s i n f l u e n c e d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t J e s u s a n d t h a t i n t e r m e d i a r y figures s u c h as angels, w h o e n j o y e d a u n i q u e r e l a t i o n s h i p to b o t h h u m a n s a n d G o d , w e r e a logical s t a r t i n g p o i n t for t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s as t h e y p o n d e r e d t h e significance a n d i d e n tity of J e s u s . T o suggest t h a t angelological s u p p o s i t i o n s h a d n o t h i n g to d o w i t h t h e i r earliest s p e c u l a t i o n s a n d t h a t t h e early

Christian

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of J e s u s w i t h G o d w a s n o v e l a n d u n p r e c e d e n t e d s e e m s s o m e w h a t d i s i n g e n u o u s . 1 8 S o w e close h e r e w i t h a w o r d of c a u t i o n from C. Rowland: So recognition of the existence of traditions of this kind [Jewish angelological beliefs] should cause us to pause before we suppose that the Christological developments of early Christianity necessarily indicate an inventiveness and unique creativity which cannot be paralleled in early Judaism. 1 9

7.4

Early Jewish

and Christian Mysticism

and Angelology

Lastly, m y i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s p o t e n t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e s t u d y of early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mysticism. S e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t

traditions

discussed in this s t u d y w o u l d h a v e i n f l u e n c e d these mystics. A l t h o u g h t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y r e a l m s a n d b e i n g s w e r e largely c o n c e i v e d

18 One final note regarding the above critique of Bauckham: his monograph and article are only steps in a direction that he will expound more fully in a forthcoming study, so my comments are only in response to his initial work. Scholars who believe in the importance of angel categories for the development of early Christology will certainly need to engage with his fuller study once it is available. In his article, "The Throne of God" (p. 49), Bauckham notes that his more complete study is provisionally entitled 'Jesus and the Identity of God: Jewish Monotheism and New Testament Christology." 19 C. Rowland, Christian Origins, 2nd ed. (London: SPCK, 2002) 36.

as separate, the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m w a s n o t seen as absolute. T h i s m e a n t t h a t the possibility existed for the mystic to r e a c h b e y o n d the earthly r e a l m to the heavenly. T h e goal of the J e w i s h mystics was to see G o d e n t h r o n e d . T h e only beings regularly able to cross b e t w e e n the two realms a n d also constantly p r e s e n t in the t h r o n e r o o m besides G o d w e r e the angels, so traditions a n d speculation a b o u t t h e m w o u l d likely h a v e b e e n very i m p o r t a n t to a n y o n e trying to get to the t h r o n e r o o m . T h a t s o m e righteous h u m a n s h a d a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n (e.g., E n o c h , Isaiah) m e a n t drat there was a m o d e l for others to follow. Additionally, some h u m a n beings w e r e t h o u g h t to h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d into angels in the afterlife (especially E n o c h ) ; such a c o n v i c t i o n w o u l d h a v e e m b o l d e n e d mystics to believe they m i g h t attain t h e s a m e status. T h e s e n o t a b l e exceptions stood o u t p r o m i n e n t l y as m o d e l s for the early J e w i s h a n d Christian mystics. I n s u m , I find t h a t the evidence s u p p o r t s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the literature of the period t h a t sees the a u t h o r s as envisioning G o d , angels, a n d h u m a n s as beings t h a t for the m o s t p a r t existed in sepa r a t e spheres, the earthly a n d heavenly. Angels m e d i a t e d b e t w e e n these two realms a n d , t h o u g h they often appeared as h u m a n beings a n d regularly interacted with t h e m , they w e r e nevertheless distinct f r o m t h e m . A select few righteous h u m a n s did t r a n s f o r m into angels in h e a v e n . T h e s e exceptional cases acted as a n i m p o r t a n t m o d e l for early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mystics as t h e y sought to c o m m u n e with G o d in the divine t h r o n e r o o m .

SELECT

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