The Special Educator's Tool Kit

The Special Educator’s Tool Kit ii The Special Educator’s Tool Kit The Special Educator’s Tool Kit Sarah J. Barra...

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The Special Educator’s Tool Kit

ii



Sarah J. Barratt Illustrations by Michael Pratley

Copyright © Sarah J. Barratt, 2008

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

First published in 2008 by SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B1/I-1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044, India www.sagepub.in SAGE Publications Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320, USA SAGE Publications Ltd 1 Oliver’s Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP, United Kingdom SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd 33 Pekin Street #02-01 Far East Square Singapore 048763

Published by Vivek Mehra for SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd, typeset in 12/15 pt Minion by Star Compugraphics Private Limited, Delhi and printed at Chaman Enterprises, New Delhi.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available Mathur, U.C., 1938– International marketing management: text and cases/U.C. Mathur. p. cm. Includes index. 1. Export marketing—Management. 2. Export marketing—India—Management. 3. International trade. 4. International trade—India. I. Title. HF1416.M32

658.8'4—dc22

2008

ISBN: 978-81-7829-897-9 (Pb) The SAGE Team: Rekha Natarajan, P. K. Jayanthan, Rajib Chatterjee and Trinankur Banerjee

2008007161

To all those special children and their families whom I have met and had the privilege to work with (they are the inspiration for this book and an inspiration to me). ]^ To my mother Gillie who, in my view, is the world’s best Special Educator and my father Robin who gave me a very special education. ]^ To Nambi who gave me the idea for and instilled confidence in me to write this book. ]^ To my brother Richard, sisters Caroline and Joanna. ]^ To my grandmother Grenga. ]^ And to my teachers Mary Morton, Caroline Pentland and Judith Osborne. ]^

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Contents List of Figures Foreword by Kit Sinclair Preface 1. Special Children

viii ix x 1

2. Tools to Understand Child Development

39

3. Tools for Planning

56

4. Tools to Educate Special Children

72

5. Tools for Learning

89

6. Tools for Handwriting

101

7. Tools for Classroom Activities

123

Glossary Bibliography Index About the Author

156 159 168 172

List of Figures 1.1 1.2

Teaching Children with Special Educational Needs Understanding the Learning Needs of Special Children

2 20

2.1 2.2

Assessment of the Physical Development of Special Children Understanding the Cognitive Development of Special Children

44 55

3.1 3.2

Planning and Designing an Appropriate Curriculum Classroom Management for Special Children

62 70

4.1 4.2

The Importance of Personal and Professional Development of the Special Educator Differentiation of the Curriculum

74 83

5.1 5.2

Meeting the Different Learning Needs of Special Children Enabling Learning for Special Children

92 97

6.1 6.2 6.3

Teaching Handwriting to Special Children Assisting Technology—A Tool to Aid Learning Cycle for Adoption of Assistive Technology

109 116 122

7.1 7.2

Tools for Classroom Activities A Special Educator’s Tool Kit

126 155

Foreword

I

am finding more and more occupational therapists leaving their footprints in different parts of the world, not only in their own countries, but also in countries where resources are often not readily available to meet the particular needs of the local population. One aspect of this occupational therapy outreach is in identifying the needs and then doing something about it. Sarah J. Barratt is one such individual. Sarah gained inspiration for this book while working in South India. She discovered the lack of practical materials which would assist special education teachers to cater to children with special needs. Using her knowledge and skills in occupational therapy, Sarah worked with special education teachers to develop learning and teaching aids that they could use themselves in the classroom. Her efforts paid off and this resource took shape. A coherent and practical resource for special education teachers in rural and city settings, The Special Educator’s Tool Kit gives the how-to and step-by-step guidelines, the tools, not just the theory. It provides the background of problems and issues that might be encountered while working with children with special needs. It reviews approaches to learning and applies them to formulate Individual Education Plans, classroom management, curriculum design and lesson planning, with explanations and examples. It explores classroom activities and offers management tools as well as tools to support or enhance handwriting. It is an informative and easy-to-read book which can be used by teachers and parents to make informed decisions about the path of their children’s education. The principles and practical applications in this book can be translated and applied across cultures. Specific tools are provided with each chapter to support easy application. This book helps raise the reader’s understanding of how an occupational therapist contributes to the field of special education. It also illustrates the importance of collaboration and partnership between professionals to enhance learning and the overall school experience for children with special needs and their families. Kit Sinclair President, World Federation of Occupational Therapists

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Preface Education is not just about helping children to succeed in school, but should be designed to equip them for life.

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he inspiration to write this book was kindled in me after I worked alongside a team of Special Educators at the Spastics Society of Tamil Nadu (SPASTN), Taramani, Chennai, that provided Special Education and Therapy for disabled children in South India. At that time I realized that Special Educators often work with a paucity of resources using traditional teaching methods which may not always suit the children in their classes. The material for this book was generated while working with the Special Educators at the institution. The book takes the form of a tool kit to equip the reader with ideas to make the classroom a place of learning, discovery and fun. The tools given in the book relate to ideas for planning, assessment, learning, class activities and team work. These tools, I hope, will enrich existing teaching programmes. The tools are sandwiched between chapters about special children and their disabilities in order to provide the Special Educator with the medical or clinical reasons which make it necessary for these children to have special education. This book is designed as a working resource manual and should be used to support established lesson plans, existing syllabuses and continual research. I thought it fitting here as the author to share with my readers what it is to be a child with special needs and how my personal experience has helped me in my work as an Occupational Therapist in educational institutions around the world. The thoughts and feelings expressed are a reflection of my own experiences and should be understood as just those. My intention in doing this is to increase the readers’ insight into the problems of and consequent empathy with special children so that their understanding of living with a disability at school is deepened and augmented. I fully realise that one’s experiences of special needs will be different and varied. But my own unique position of being a person with special needs and working as a therapist with special needs have fuelled my desire to write this book. The narrative below is a personal account of my own school life. I was born with a mild form of Cerebral Palsy—Spastic Diplegia—with secondary visual difficulties. The main problems for me were difficulties with mobility and severe

Preface

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short sight. My visual problems brought with them another set of challenges. These included inability to see in three dimensions and deficits in hand–eye co-ordination which meant that performance of all tasks during school life took more time. However, my intelligence was above average and that coupled with only a mild physical disability meant that I was not considered to need a Statement of Educational Need. At that time Individual Education Plans had not been invented. Moreover, the presence of a handicapped child in a mainstream classroom was a rare occurrence when I started schooling in the late seventies. The obstacles I faced started when I went to a new school at the age of eight. I had to adapt to a new much bigger school environment, a new teacher and a larger class. And I had moved into a single sex school with only girls for friends where as I had been used to a greater number of boys around me. As regards my learning, I soon realised that different schools taught lessons in different ways and made different demands about how I should present and produce my work. It was then that I first became aware that I had difficulty in producing my work. This was particularly evident in my writing, reading, copying from the blackboard and the execution of basic mathematical functions. Outside the classroom, my classmates were not willing to involve me in their games or have me sit next to them in lessons and physical education soon became my least favourite subject. Many of these challenges manifested themselves on to me as I battled against my teacher’s determination to change everything that I had previously been taught with regard to reading, writing, copying, drawing and doing arithmetic. I had suddenly to write and form my letters differently and this resulted in my becoming confused between script letters and cursive writing. I was also asked to write in books with no lines which made my writing too large, messy and often crooked. Before long I had changed from being a child accomplished in all these skills to a frustrated, lazy and confused individual who dreaded anything involving writing or mathematics. My teacher would not accept the ways I had been taught as acceptable methods to use in my class work. I had become a victim of changes in learning imposed upon me by the teaching methods of the day, coupled with no formal explanation or statement for my new teacher to understand my learning needs. Consequently, I felt different to all my peers. I could understand and see that I had difficulties with school work but had to live with the endless frustration of not knowing how or if I could ever cure or solve these. It was obvious that my teacher had never seen or taught a child like me before. I stopped seeking help, became withdrawn and angry.

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Class work took me longer and longer and learning became a huge chore to me rather than the pleasure it once was. I was reminded of my ‘Specialness’ by other environmental factors. I had to sit at the front of the class to see the blackboard and was not so affectionately labelled ‘Teacher’s Pet’. When going for swimming lessons from school, I had to walk with the teacher at the front of the line which further emphasised my peers’ new title for me. I was always the last to change for games and swimming, so the teacher always used to come and help me to hurry along. In short, I struggled on and did my best but it was never my personal best. I had lost some of the will to learn and some of the belief that I could succeed. I had moved from the fast lane where I used to feel quite comfortable to the middle of the road, and on occasions I gave up altogether. Two years later, I met my favourite teacher to whom I am eternally indebted for her belief in me as a person and not just as one of her pupils. She helped me recognise afresh my strengths, capabilities and gifts rather than underlining my differences, difficulties and disabilities. She instilled in me a strong belief which I live by to this day. She said ‘Everything matters, no matter how small’. I realised the importance of excellence in our endeavours and also that everyone and everything matters regardless of their needs, capabilities, differences or disabilities. From that day on, I began to excel with a new sense of self-belief. My marks improved, I was given books with lines and squares for Maths and English and granted the option of practising music in place of physical education as my teacher could see that music had more meaning to me than a game of netball. I graduated to secondary school and more adjustments followed. The school campus was massive, my year group had tripled in size and I had a different classroom and different teacher for every subject. The most striking thing about the first part of my secondary school life was the blatant social exclusion I had to live with daily. My peers were busy battling their own sense of self identity and so were unwilling to accommodate or accept mine. My honorary title of ‘Teacher’s Pet’ never left me and undoubtedly contributed to my exclusion from working with others in groups, no matter what the subject area. Loneliness set in and learning again became a chore rather than a pleasure. Class tasks became more complex particularly in the realms of science, maths and geography. I had been excluded from the majority of my school curriculum by my peers.

Preface

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As a result I became remarkably self-sufficient and probably a bit arrogant but was unafraid to work alone to achieve my grades. My teachers were aware of the situation and could see it happening in front of them. They told me it was a normal part of teenage development and said they were powerless to do anything about it. In their defence, I was only the second child to enrol at the school with a physical handicap in the school’s history so the extent and depth of my difficulties and the obvious social exclusion I faced must have been beyond their collective experience. I soon moved to another school which had a number of pupils with special needs— anything from communication difficulties to dyslexia and now Cerebral Palsy! The Head found time for me where some of my teachers felt ill equipped to answer my questions or understand my concerns. At the age of 15, my special needs were finally acknowledged formally. I was granted examination concessions of extra time to make that process easier. I was successful and left school with three A levels and a place to train as an Occupational Therapist at University. I also had a few people I could really call my friends by my final year. I was very pleased to walk out of the gate on my last day at school with the prospect of a university career ahead of me. However, I can put my hand on my heart and tell you that in my case being a child with special needs, meant my school days were far from the best days of my life—they were more like a mission to conquer Mount Everest. My personal experiences in education and the impact my own special needs had on my engagement in it left me with a fervent desire to help children in similar situations get the most out of their school experience. I wanted to ensure that no child suffered the same frustrations I did as my needs were not fully recognised. I also wanted to reach out to their teachers and parents as they were in my view ambassadors who could speak and act for the children in their care. I consider being involved in teaching and learning from children with special needs an immense privilege and a vocation. As a therapist, I have the advantage of my personal experiences combined with the clinical and analytical skills gained from my Occupational Therapy profession. These enable me to understand how disability affects learning at a deeper level. It is all these factors which have influenced the way I practise and indeed the way I interact with the very special children with whom I have had the privilege to work. The foundations of successful and meaningful education are many. Let me start by sharing mine with you.

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RELATE TO THE CORE OF YOUR CHILD’S BEING Very often, teachers I have worked with and spoken to tell me they sometimes feel overwhelmed and ill equipped to address and understand the complex needs of the children they are asked to teach. They focus on the practical and physical challenges the impairments produce to imparting learning as apposed to the needs and desires of the children themselves. I always try to unveil the curtain the condition imposes to reveal to me the window of opportunities and the hopes the child possesses behind it. Metaphorically speaking, building a rapport with a disabled child is like peeling and slicing a piece of fruit. It is always important to peel away the outer skin and dissect the segments to discover the character, interests, likes and dislikes of the individual. The deeper you go, the sooner you reach the core of what makes the child who he or she is. The special needs and the disability are only the skin of the fruit. We rarely keep the peel of any fruit but we have to feel it, touch it and understand its presence before we can reach the fruit itself. It is only when the child himself reveals the core of his identity to me that I know how best to approach learning with them. This is often a subconscious process as the children I work with almost always remark about my own disabilities while sharing theirs with me. They slowly come to realise that I too must know something of their sufferings because though their therapist, I am also one of them. I have found working as a therapist in an educational environment challenging at many levels. The children I have helped appear to accept me and have little difficulty in expressing their needs and concerns to me. Sometimes teachers and other colleagues have resented my insights as it made them feel threatened and undermined. Mostly parents have benefited and taken great comfort that it is possible to succeed at school against difficult odds. Many often carry a ray of hope that their children have a future too after meeting and working with me.

WORK WITH AN ETHOS OF EMPOWERMENT Any child with special needs, whatever their complexity or presentation, has to live in a world of restrictions, barriers and exclusions. As a therapist I always strive to break these barriers in the classroom. I see these not as physical but attitudinal problems

Preface

xv

since it was always the negative or degrading attitudes of others that most affected my ability to learn. The pain I felt still stays with me but I turn it around through daily illustration in my role as an Occupational Therapist and I speak and act for all my children to educate their teachers and parents about how to help them put their learning to practice. I also set out to help teachers and parents to understand the medical and functional reasons behind their children’s difficulties. This is done out of the hope that they can then find ways to highlight the achievements and successes in their classes and stop underlining the age-old pressures of extra time, extra support and complexity of needs. The most rewarding part of my work as a school-based Occupational Therapist has been the joy I find in forging partnerships with parents, teachers and children to achieve common goals. I willingly bask in the rewards it brings when the intervention we plan and carry out produces fruitful outcomes. The very core of my work as an Occupational Therapist in this field enables me to use everyday activities to enhance and facilitate learning. I have found it necessary to unlock the ‘child’ in me to aid this process as it is only then that I have achieved the best outcomes with the children I have met.

EMBRACE CHANGE During the course of my practice as a school-based Occupational Therapist, I have become increasingly aware that the field of Special Education is an evolving one. During my school days, inclusion was a rarity, but as a therapist in the 21st century it is now a working reality. Legislation demands more from teachers now. Parents and therapists like me need to be creative, collaborative and constructive in finding ways to bring learning to life for these very special children. It has always been my aim to equip those children I meet with the courage, conviction and a means of communication to express their needs coherently and clearly so that they can make their own choices in the classroom and indeed for their lives as a whole. I firmly believe that the path to achieving this begins at school. It is my dream that by reading The Special Educator’s Tool Kit, as teachers and parents of very special children you will feel empowered and equipped to do the same.

xvi


Special Children

S

1

pecial children are often named as such because the conditions and associated difficulties they present with mean their learning needs are different from those of an ordinary child. Throughout this book, this term will be used to refer to children with special educational needs. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce readers to the different categories of disabilities that special children and their families live with daily. It is important to remember that children with special needs may present with one or more of the given disabilities. The disabilities discussed include Autism, Visual Impairment, Hearing Impairment, Learning Disability and Multiple Disability. This is because in order to provide positive learning experiences for these children it is necessary to have a working knowledge of how each of these handicaps may affect the child. Application of this knowledge will help the Special Educators effectively to select the learning and teaching strategies to suit the needs and aspirations of the children in their care. It is also important to emphasise the necessity to research these conditions further and to consult with a Paediatrician, Physiotherapist, Occupational Therapist or Speech Therapist for further information and advice as required. This is because it is only possible to give a brief resume of the disabilities listed above including types, clinical features, functional difficulties and the impact they have on a child’s ability to learn.

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Figure 1.1

Teaching Children with Special Educational Needs

It is necessary for the Special Educator to align his knowledge of the disabilities with the aspirations and goals of the child and create a learning experience that is meaningful, purposeful and memorable.

AUTISTIC SPECTRUM DISORDERS The condition of classic Autism was first discovered and defined by Kanner (1943). He described this condition as ‘autistic aloneness’ which greatly affected all aspects of the children’s behaviour. He also identified some children who had what he called ‘islets of ability’ to recall events and sequences with exceptional accuracy. A year later Aspergers described a lesser form of the same condition where children demonstrated significant deficits in language with a limited range of interests. Poor co-ordination and difficulties with Visual Motor Skills were also evident in those children (Seach 1998). Today, the term ‘Autistic Spectrum Disorders’ is collectively used to describe five different conditions within the spectrum of severity. Classic Autism is the most severe and Aspergers Syndrome is the diagnosis given to those children who have higher levels of function. Retts Syndrome is a rare form of Autism. Those children who present with one or two autistic traits have been

Special Children

3

diagnosed with Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (not otherwise specified). Pervasive Developmental Disorder is another less common condition on the autistic spectrum. Roberts (2004) defines Autism as a life-long neurological disability of unknown aetiology. Autism is diagnosed based on a triad of impairment in social interaction, communication and lack of flexibility in thoughts and behaviour. Furthermore, this condition affects four times as many boys as girls and the presence of intellectual impairment in children with this condition is common in 70 per cent of cases.

Characteristics of Autistic Spectrum Disorders The exact cause of Autism still remains unknown. Current evidence in the field indicates that it may be linked with genetics. It has been identified that Autism may occur when a child presents with Fragile X syndrome, Phenylketonuria and maternal rubella (Seach 1998). Autism can also be a secondary handicap for children suffering from other physical or learning disabilities such as Downs Syndrome, Cerebral Palsy and Epilepsy. The prevalence of autism has increased dramatically in the last decade. The reasons for this are the improvements in the diagnosis as well as the increase in the range of conditions of autistic spectrum. Diagnosis of the condition is a skilled process which involves detailed observation and assessment of the behaviour within the triad of impairments. The diagnosis should also be conducted from a multidisciplinary perspective and should include detailed assessments and contributions from therapists, parents and doctors alike. The National Institute for Mental Health in USA (2007) states only 50 per cent of children are diagnosed before they start school. Early signs and symptoms that a child with autistic traits may display are described by the National Institute of Mental Health in USA (2007). They include the fact that the child with autistic traits will not babble, point or execute meaningful gestures. The development of speech is often delayed and children with these disorders may not speak at all. Children on the autistic spectrum will demonstrate poor eye contact and be more reluctant to engage in play activities. They may also indicate a preference for particular

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toys or games. They will also appear not to listen to others talking to them or readily respond to their own name. Howlin (1998) attributes these deficits to a common difficulty that children placed within the autistic spectrum have in ‘making sense’ of the world around them. They are unable to process and ‘balance’ information they receive from their senses effectively. This deficit is likely to result in ritualistic, stereotypical behaviour and resistance to change. In addition, autistic children are slower or sometimes unable to interpret the thoughts and feelings, gestures and facial expressions of others. They also find it hard to regulate their own emotions and this can lead to disruptive behaviours.

Teaching and Learning for Children within the Autistic Spectrum Jones (2002) states that the nature of interventions and educational placements for children with autism is dependent on their age, strengths and weaknesses, the extent of their difficulties associated with their Autistic Syndrome Disorder (ASD) and the presence or absence of additional learning disabilities. It is also surprising that the research evidence to support traditional interventions for these children is limited (Humphrey and Parkinson 2006). Despite this, Charman and Howlin (2001) urge those with an interest and role in educating these children not to forget the underlying desires and assumptions of the benefits of education and what is important and possible to teach these children. In order to aid this process it is important for the Special Educator to recall key characteristics in the autistic child and the way they learn. The current evidence base suggests that these children benefit from programmes which are well structured within an environment that generates consistency, firm boundaries and a good sense of routine (Siegel 2000; TEACCH 2003). The programmes need to be customised to each individual’s needs and early intervention may generate positive outcomes if started two years before the child starts going to school (National Institute for Mental Health 2007). How the learning material is presented to these children is also important. Seach (1998) advocates that these children respond to pictures and symbols more effectively.

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This is because they have great difficulty listening, processing and interpreting the spoken word. Humphrey and Parkinson (2006) identify the use of comprehensive programmes in the education of autistic children. Lord and McGee (2001) say these approaches address a range of developmental components that emphasize early and intense intervention which actively involve families and staff who specialise in ASD. The majority of programnes that have been used to educate children with autism are behavioural in origin and have been developed by Lovaas. The fundamental belief is the focus on learning new behaviours by modification of stimuli. The goal of this Early Intensive Behavioural Intervention is to shape a large number of adaptive behaviours by continual re-enforcement of desired behaviours. This is usually done one-to-one or in very small groups. While being resource-intensive the current evidence illustrates such an approach can produce ‘lasting and meaningful improvements in important domains’ (Green 1996). Other common approaches used to teach children with ASD are Training and Education of Autistic and related Communication-handicapped Children (TEACCH) and Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS). TEACCH manipulates the learning environment so that it provides predictability and routine within a visual setting. Adoption of this approach resulted in significant gains in imitation, perception, Gross Motor Skills, hand–eye co-ordination, cognitive performance and developmental age (Panerai et al. 2002). PECS is based on behavioural principles which teaches children to exchange a picture for something that they want which will ‘open the door’ to social communication with the recipient (Bondy and Frost 1994). This approach is beneficial as it utilises visual pictures and symbols as a means of communication. This view is supported by Charlop-Christy et al. (2002) who found that training in PECS resulted in spontaneous speech, imitation, increased length of utterance, requests and initiations and establishment of joint attention. Autistic Spectrum Disorders are complex in their nature, needs and interventions. It is important for the Special Educator to work within a collaborative framework in the quest to educate these children well. It stands to

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reason that any learning programme is tailored to meet the needs of the individual. However, the contributions and expertise of the parents, therapist and the wishes of the child must be acknowledged throughout the process. Heffin and Simpson (1998) provide a valuable moral on educating children with autism. ‘There is not a single method that should be exclusively used to meet the varied needs of children with autism. The most effective programmes are those that incorporate a variety of best practice.’

Visual Impairment Every human being uses vision to help them interact with objects and people within their environment. Vision is the primary sense that a human being will utilise throughout life. The visual system consists of the optical and perceptual systems of the brain. Vision has two main functions, gather information and monitor movement. The brain processes information received from the eyes and sends messages to the motor cortex which in turn instructs the body to execute the necessary movements. This interaction between the eyes, the brain and the body enables an individual to retrieve an object, avoid danger or make a detailed assessment of a situation. The optical system is responsible for the ‘transmission’ of images to the brain. The perceptual system is responsible for the ‘interpretation’ and ‘organisation’ of these images so that the individual can understand and attach meaning to them. In order for the vision to be effective, both the optical and perceptual systems should be intact. The optical system has many component parts. If one of these components is damaged or malfunctioning, it results in reduced vision. Bishop and Benavides (1996) identify the prerequisites for effective vision as follows: 1. The eyes must be in alignment. 2. The pupils must be able to constrict or dilate to accommodate light.

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3. The lens of the eye must be able to adjust its shape to provide the correct degree of refraction to accommodate the amount of light passing through it. 4. The retina is like the camera of the eye and its photo receptor cells must be intact. 5. The macular area of the retina enables an individual to scrutinise an object. It is the point in the eye which generates the sharpest vision. 6. The shape of the eye ball must also be correct. If not the ability of the individual to focus on a given object will be compromised. 7. The lens and cornea should also be completely transparent. The optical system is responsible for the mechanical parts that make vision possible. However, it needs to work in partnership with the perceptual system which monitors the adjustments made within the optical system. The brain must be able to process and interpret the images it receives from the optical system. If the brain is damaged in any way, this can also cause damage to the optical and visual systems. The result is a Visual Impairment. If an individual is ‘visually impaired’ he has: A medically verified visual impairment accompanied by limited sight that interferes with sequencing of information or interaction with the environment to the extent that special education instruction and related services may be needed. (Minnesota Department of Education 2005)

Visual impairment often presents in combination with other disabilities such as Autism, Cerebral Palsy and Downs Syndrome. This means that it can be harder to detect and diagnose when it is a secondary complication to other conditions. Common Visual Impairments in Children The most common visual impairment in children is Cerebral Visual Impairment (CVI). Good et al. (2001) define this disorder as: A neurological disorder that results in bilateral visual impairment of visual acuity caused by damage to the central nervous system, meaning visual acuity is reduced as a result of non-ocular diseases.

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Cerebral Visual Impairment is caused due to damage to the visual pathways in the brain that supply messages to the macular. Macular is that part of the eye that provides an individual with the ability to focus on objects in detail. Deficits in this ability bring about losses in visual acuity. Visual acuity relates to how effectively an individual can focus on an object in detail. Children with CVI are likely to display other neurological disabilities. Whiting et al. (1985) identified that children with CVI can also present with abnormalities in cognitive development, Cerebral Palsy, microcephaly, hydrocephalus, sensor neural hearing loss and progressive degeneration of the central nervous system. In addition CVI is also associated with ophthalmologic abnormalities such as wasting of the optic nerve, Nystagmus, Strabismus and refractive error (Birch and Bane 1991; Huo et al. 1999). Cerebral Visual Dysfunction Cerebral Visual Dysfunction is caused by a disturbance in visual perception and integration. This disorder can create a multitude of functional difficulties for the child. Visual acuity is not usually affected. Good et al. (2001) identified that children with this condition may experience problems with depth perception and difficulties in recognising faces. Also these children may have difficulty finding their way around the school due to deficits in their topographical awareness. Other aspects of more complex vision such as contour integration may also be affected. In addition, the presence of mechanical problems such as Nystagmus (wobbly eyes), Strabismus (squints) and loss of part of their visual field will also impact their functional vision. Aniridia Aniridia is a condition caused by a congenital lack of or incomplete formation of the iris. It is often accompanied by Nystagmus, Glaucoma, Photophobia and lowered visual acuity. It is a condition of genetic origin that comes about because the gene that is responsible for eye development stops functioning during early development. This means that when the baby with aniridia is born the eye has not completely developed. This condition is very rare.

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Children with this condition need to have their visual needs monitored and managed by an ophthalmologist. They are also likely to need to use low vision aids such as magnifiers, CCTVs and computers to facilitate learning. The use of large print or talking books may also be beneficial to this client group. Photophobia is a very common problem for children with aniridia. Therefore consideration needs to be given to ways that glare and brightness can be reduced within a given environment. This can be accommodated with the use of sunglasses or hats. It is also important that in the classroom the child is seated in such a way that the glare from windows, computer screens and white boards is reduced. Myopia The Royal National Institute for the Blind (2007) defines myopia as: A vision problem resulting from excessively long growth of the eyeball or a steeply curved cornea. Myopia up to 3.0 dioptres is considered mild, 3.0–6.0 is moderate and 6.0 dioptres or over is termed high degree myopia. Myopia can stabilize after the growth process has finished and can be corrected with glasses.

Children with myopia (short-sightedness) are able to focus only on objects which are close to them. This is because the light rays land only on the front of the retina. Thus, attempts to focus on objects at a distance results in blurred images. There is no cure for myopia. The purpose of treatment has been to correct the refractive error by providing the child with glasses or contact lenses. Astigmatism (curvature of the eye) can also be corrected in the same way.

Teaching and Learning for Children with Visual Impairment Good et al. (2001) advocate that children with visual impairment should be encouraged actively to use the vision they have as much as possible. Early assessment, intervention and management are paramount. This is because visual and cognitive developments are very closely linked (Freeman et al. 1991). In addition Cass et al. (1994) warn that failure to do this could result in significant educational delays that could impact on the emotional development of the child.

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It is, therefore, important that the Special Educator works in close collaboration with the children, their parents and health professionals involved in their care to create optimum learning experiences for them. It will be necessary for the Special Educator to obtain an accurate picture of each child’s current developmental level in terms of their functional abilities and learning readiness. This is because Gross Motor Skills that require vision, such as reaching and walking, are often delayed in children with visual impairment. This remains true where visual impairment is the sole disability (Moller 1993). Current evidence indicates that younger children who are still to reach developmental maturity will require specialised learning environments that provide maximum stimulation of residual vision (Cass et al. 1994). Furthermore, Bishop and Benavides (1996) provide some useful strategies that the Special Educator could employ to enhance the results of their interaction, teaching and learning with children with visual impairments. In order to enhance communication with children who are visually impaired it is important to address them by their names while interacting on an individual basis. Also support this with a tactile cue by touching them on the shoulder or arm to indicate the desire to talk specifically with them. Avoid the use of facial expressions as the sole way of indicating undesirable behaviour. Always support these measures with additional verbal statements. Children with visual impairment benefit from teaching and learning strategies that present material in a concrete way. Consideration should be given to the selection and utilisation of multisensory activities and those which encourage interaction with others. It is also important to encourage the children to develop the use of their other senses to support residual vision. Therefore the use of listening skills in common classroom tasks, such as listening for details in a story, or following verbal instructions or directions, should be encouraged and developed. Further, development of touch to identify the form and feel of shapes, objects and textures is also paramount. It is also important to exercise a degree of caution in the methods used to discipline these children. It is wise to guard against the use of isolation as a form of punishment. Children with visual impairment are likely to feel abandoned and unsafe if they are unable to see where they are. It is important to remember that living with visual impairment can ‘set one outside’ of a group at the best of times. Also, if one of these children seems particularly challenging to manage,

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it may be because they have little awareness of the outcomes of their behaviour. It is important to establish their motive for any maladaptive behaviour before making a judgement. Lesson planning, selecting activities and presenting worksheets for these children demands creativity and an ability to ‘think outside the square’. Human beings use their vision for majority of their functional tasks and the world at large is full of visual cues. However, care should be taken while preparing the school curriculum, especially in the subjects that accentuate the use of vision. These include science and geography which demand a great deal of visual observation about how the structures appear or have the capacity to change their state. Exploration of humanities may also demand a high level of reading and use of maps and charts. The common expectation of legible handwriting may be impossible from some of these students. Therefore, the Special Educator may devise methods to differentiate these aspects of the curriculum to maximise the learning opportunities and potential of these children. The concept of differentiation and strategies to bring it about are discussed in the chapter titled ‘Tools for Learning’. Good et al. (2001) provide sound advice to those who are concerned with enabling the learning and overall development of children who have visual impairments. They advocate that the timetable, lesson content and classroom environment for these children should take into consideration the fact that: Children with visual impairment often exhibit inefficient and highly variable visual performance and have a short visual attention span. They typically see better in familiar surroundings and when they are relaxed and well rested.

CONGENITAL MALFORMATION A congenital malformation can be a physical, sensory or systemic disability that has been present in a child since birth. Congenital malformations are sometimes described in the medical literature as ‘congenital deformities’ or ‘congenital anomalies’. Schroeder (2002) provides the following definition: A congenital anomaly can be a physical, metabolic or anatomical deviation from the normal course of development that is present from birth or diagnosed during the first

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year of life. It can come about as a result of an infection, exposure to toxic substances, mendelian genetic disorders or chromosomal abnormalities.

Congenital deformities can affect any part of the human body. These can result in multiple disabilities for the affected children and have a significant impact on their ability to carry out functional tasks. In addition, notable physical disfigurement may lead to social isolation, a feeling of shame for the family within the community and a loss of confidence and reduction in self worth for the child. The World Health Organization (2001) has produced some valuable data which gives details of the common congenital abnormalities that are prevalent in Indian children (Table 1.1). It also highlights the fact that the resulting disfigurement from some of these deformities is not life threatening. However, the stigma that is brought about for these children and their families causes them a ‘tremendous social burden’. Table 1.1

Number of Children with Common Malformations Born Every Year in India

Malformation Neural Tube Defect Talipes Eqinovarus Polydactyly Hydrocephalus Alone Cleft Lip with Cleft Palate Congenital Heart Disease Hypospadias Cleft Palate Alone

Rate Per 10,000

Total Number Per Year

36.3 14.5 11.6 9.5 9.3 7.1 5.0 1.7

88,935 35,525 28,420 23,275 22,785 17,395 12,250 4,145

Source: WHO 2001: 38.

The congenital malformations that are most common among Indian children are Neural Tube defects such as Spina Bifida, Hydrocephalus, Club Foot and Cleft Lip with Cleft Palate. A study by Talukder and Sharma (2006) found that deformities affecting muscles, bones and spinal cords of male babies were the most common. Babies born prematurely have low birth rates and are also found to have congenital anomalies. Other possible causes for congenital deformities in children can be attributed to consanguinity in parents, family history of malformations, illness of the mother during the first trimester of

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pregnancy and past history of abortion and exposure to toxic substances (Talukder and Sharma 2006).

Spina Bifida and Hydrocephalus The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2005) describes Spina Bifida as a defect that affects the neural tube which is caused by a failure in the closure of the spinal cord in the first month of pregnancy. Secondary nerve damage is often present and is permanent. The resulting complications may include a combination paralysis of the lower limbs, loss of bladder and bowel control, cognitive and perceptual problems, loss of sensation below the cleft and Hydrocephalus. There are three types of Spina Bifida. The least severe of these is called Spina Bifida Occulta. This occurs when there is one or more opening evident in the vertebrae or spinal bones. However there is no obvious damage to the spinal cord. Spina Bifida Meningocele is a condition where the meninges (protective covering around the spinal cord) have pushed out through the opening in the vertebrae in a sac which is called the Menigocele. The most severe form of Spina Bifida is the Spina Bifida Mylomeningocele. Here, a portion of the spinal cord is actually visible on examination. The cord has broken all layers of the spine and is exposed to the naked eye. Surrounding tissues and nerves can also be visible. Early management and surgical repair of this deformity is paramount and is usually carried out within the first 24 hours after birth. This is done to protect the surrounding tissues and function of the spinal cord and is also a preventative measure against infection. Spina Bifida is often seen in combination with Hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus means ‘water on the brain’ and occurs when there is excessive build-up of fluid in the brain. This can be managed with the surgical insertion of a shunt which is a device that helps to pump out safely the fluid around the brain and spinal cord. The occurrence of Spina Bifida can be reduced or avoided if the mother takes multivitamins and folic acid on a daily basis prior to conception.

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Cleft Lip with Cleft Palate The Cleft Lip and Palate malformation denotes a condition where there has been an incomplete closure of the roof of the mouth. This cleft can involve just the lip or a combination of the lip and the palate. Collectively, these malformations are described in the medical literature as ‘oral–facial’ or ‘craniofacial’ deformities. The severity of this condition can vary but will always leave some disfigurement around the mouth and face of the child. It is a condition which is more common in children from Asian families. The World Health Organization (2001) identified that the combination of cleft lip and palate was higher in India and more common among certain caste groups in Hindu families. Premature babies were also more frequent in India. Children with this malformation are likely to encounter secondary functional problems including feeding problems, dental problems, ear infections and speech problems. This means that early intervention within a multidisciplinary framework is paramount for success of correction, management and long-term acceptance of the condition. Professionals involved in the care of these children should include a craniofacial surgeon who can repair the deformity besides an audiologist, speech therapist and an ear, nose and throat doctor. The child will need continual management and monitoring throughout their development as the cleft is likely to need revisions as the child grows and changes. A cleft lip is usually repaired when the child reaches three months of age and a cleft palate between six and eighteen months old (American Society of Plastic Surgeons, Cleft Plate Foundation 2008). It is important not to view this condition in isolation but to monitor its impact on the child in terms of their hearing and total communication ability. This problem is described in detail in the chapter titled ‘Hearing Impairment’. Above all it is important to educate the child, his family and the wider community about the origin and cause of this deformity. The main aim of this should be to reduce the stigma surrounding disfigurement within the child’s immediate social circle in the hope that the child will adapt and come to terms with his deformity.

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Club Foot The ‘Club Foot’ is a rigid congenital deformity of the foot which occurs in one to two per thousand live births. It is a deformity that is present in 65 per cent of male babies. Furthermore, 50 per cent of children who present with this deformity are likely to be affected in both legs (Jackson et al. 2003). The medical term for Club Foot is ‘Talipes Equinovarus’. Its presentation is characterised by rigid ankle plantaflexion, inversion of the heel and adduction of the toes. Due to the rigidity of this deformity, it is not possible for the individual to correct the position of the foot through passive movement. Surgical correction and a combination of medical and therapeutic intervention are required to manage the child with this deformity effectively. The cause of this malformation is unknown but possible explanations include a fault in the development of the foetus, birth order and smoking. It is often present in combination with other syndromes, neuromuscular conditions or chromosomal anomalies (Widhe 1997; Berg 1986). Early intervention is paramount to enable children with this deformity to gain maximum mobility and independence and to prevent further contractures. Where possible the children should be referred to an orthopaedic surgeon for serial manipulation and casting. Jackson et al. (2003) highlight the fact that no Club Foot can be fully corrected and leave the child with some degree of stiffness and weakness in the affected limb. In spite of this the aim of surgery and treatment would be to achieve a pain-free limb that is functional so that the child can execute normal gait and wear shoes comfortably when desired.

Collaboration with Parents and Medical Professionals Collaboration with parents of the children and the medical professionals involved with their care and management is of particular importance in the domain of congenital deformity. This is because of the stigma and consequent social burden this condition brings to a family. They may feel a great sense of shame and doubt whether their child is worthy of an education.

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Therefore it is necessary for the Special Educator to address any concerns the child and the family may have with an attitude of sensitivity from an informed perspective. The ability to give an informed perspective means that the Special Educator must liaise with the medical professionals looking after the child. These could include a physiotherapist, occupational therapist, speech and language therapist, a paediatrician or other specialist doctor. It is likely that children with congenital deformities will present with difficulties relating to their psychological well-being so there may also be a psychologist involved at some time during their school career.

Integration of the Child into All Aspects of School Life For children present with one or more anomalies, a multidisciplinary approach will be paramount. It is important for the Special Educator to gather an accurate picture of the type, history and cause of the child’s deformity. This will enable an accurate explanation of the child’s disability to fellow class members and other members of the wider school community if needed. The Special Educator should make use of this wealth of knowledge to create a learning experience that is meaningful, purposeful and productive for the child in their care. The Special Educator should not be alarmed if this vital process takes a long time. The Special Educator should draw on the support of medical professionals to widen understanding of the presenting deformity. In addition, it may be necessary to prepare the other members of the class in advance so that they are not too frightened or overwhelmed by their new peer. On an individual level, the Special Educator should focus on building up trust with the children and instil in them the confidence that their best interests will be met. It will also be necessary to set some firm boundaries so that every member in the class knows how to respect each other and recognise their rights to be listened to, befriended, included and consulted about all aspects of class and school life.

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Teaching and Learning for Children with Congenital Malformation The primary focus of the education of children with congenital deformities needs to be underpinned with an inherent belief that they are very special people who are valued members of the class, school and wider community. In addition, these children need to know that they are accepted and acceptable in the eyes of others. This can be achieved by the Special Educator by building a meaningful rapport with the children and their parents. By doing this the Special Educator will (through genuine interactions with them) develop and demonstrate an ability to ‘look past’ the deformity, ‘pull back the curtain of disfigurement’ and discover the desires and dreams of the child.

Differentiation of the Curriculum Children with congenital deformities are likely to experience difficulties with aspects of their functional task performance. Information about this can be gathered from medical reports from therapists. This information can then be used and incorporated into the child’s Individual Education Plan. Further information about the Individual Education Plan may be found in the chapter entitled ‘Tools for Planning’. Children with Spina Bifida may need more help and practical support to engage in school activities, particularly if they are wheelchair users and have additional perceptual and cognitive deficits. Explanation of these terms can be found in the chapter titled ‘Tools to Understand Child Development’. Children with Cleft Lip and Palate may also have associated communication difficulties. This may result in the need to use alternative methods of communication to express their ideas and demonstrate their understanding of ideas and concepts. Children with Cleft Lip and Palate may also experience associated feeding and swallowing difficulties. Guidance should be sought from parents and a speech and language therapist in order to determine the most effective way to manage snacks and meals at school. These children should be encouraged to feed themselves as independently as possible. It may be necessary to consult

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an Occupational Therapist to identify the appropriate assistive devices that a child could use to facilitate this process. Children with Club Foot deformity may have some mobility difficulties and be less able to participate in outdoor activities. Guidance should be sought from a Physiotherapist to determine the abilities and expectations of these children so that their needs can be met effectively in the classroom. These children may also be repeatedly absent from school if multiple surgical corrections or casting of their affected limb is necessary. Therefore it may be necessary for the Special Educator to liaise with the child’s parents to ensure that work can be completed at home if desired. The three most common forms of congenital deformity have been explored but the range and diversity of other deformities is extensive which warrants the need for each case to be assessed on its individual features in collaboration with parents and medical professionals. It is likely that all children who present with some form of congenital deformity will need some differentiation to in their curriculum and learning. It is important that these needs and adaptations are recorded and reviewed on a regular basis.

Modification of the Classroom The presence of one or more congenital deformities in a child will have an impact on some or all aspects of their daily occupations. In that case, it may be necessary for the Special Educator to consider adaptations to the classroom. These modifications may relate to where the child sits and how they gain access to and from the entrance to the classroom. In addition, the child may need to use a wheelchair on a full- or part-time basis. Wheelchair users need more space to propel around a classroom so additional consideration will have to be given to the location and organisation of classroom activities to enable maximum participation by the affected children. Guidance on possible ways and means to adapt and modify the classroom and to make the school environment wider to facilitate meaningful occupational performance for these children can be sought from an Occupational Therapist. Examples of minor environmental adaptations include ramps up to and down from door thresholds, rails ascending steps and stairs, light switches

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positioned at wheelchair height and modified seat groupings that result in increased turning space in and around the classroom.

Identification and Use of Assistive Devices Children with congenital deformities will experience limitations in their functional abilities in terms of stamina, mobility, self-care, productivity and leisure. In the context of their school based occupations they may have difficulties with toileting, dressing, handwriting, feeding and communicating. In order to enable them to engage in school-based occupations with the maximum level of independence it may be necessary for them to use one or more assistive devices. In order to identify the suitability of given devices, the Special Educator should consult an Occupational Therapist for assessment, advice and intervention. The Occupational Therapist will be able to use a combination of clinical reasoning and activity analysis and conduct a holistic assessment of the child’s abilities which will encompass self-care, productivity and leisure. The Occupational Therapist will then be able to construct some intervention to introduce the child, Special Educator and parents to any equipment that may be of use in class activities. The range of assistive devices is varied and can include wheelchairs, computer switches and joysticks, adapted utensils for feeding, dressing aids, toilet frames and many more. It is important that the Special Educator is familiar with the mechanics, maintenance and safe use of these items of equipment. Each piece of equipment should be prescribed to a given individual and never be duplicated across multiple users. This is because every child is unique and the reasoning behind the use of an assistive device for each one will also be unique. Summary The diversity and complexity of congenital deformities is varied and well documented. Therefore the successful education of children who present with these deformities requires collaboration and effective communication which

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is underpinned by an attitude of sensitivity. The Special Educator should work in partnership with the parents and professionals involved to create an educational experience that makes each child proud of their appearance, their achievements and their identity. Above all, the Special Educator will also need to reflect on their own perception of children with congenital deformities and guard against the danger that any unfavourable views held in the wider community do not ‘colour’ their own judgement and belief in the child’s abilities and dreams. Figure 1.2

Understanding the Learning Needs of Special Children

Educating special children is about matching the education they receive to the needs and abilities they possess.

HEARING IMPAIRMENT Hearing Impairment is a term used to describe a wide range of conditions which affect a child’s ability to listen and respond to auditory stimuli. Keller (2005) provides the following definitions:

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Deafness is ‘a hearing impairment that is so severe that a child is impaired in processing linguistic information, with or without amplification that adversely affects educational performance’. Hard of Hearing is ‘a Hearing Impairment whether permanent or fluctuating which adversely affects a child’s educational performance’.

Children who present with hearing impairments will experience difficulties and delays in the development of their language and social skills. This is because a hearing impairment results in limitations in the child’s ability to access spoken language, auditory experiences within the surrounding environment and difficulties with social interaction and self-esteem (Bhargava 2007). Conductive Hearing Loss can occur as a result of an infection in the middle or outer part of the ear. This means that sound is not transmitted efficiently to the inner ear. The hearing may vary between both ears but can be easily treated through medical or surgical means. Sensorineural Hearing Loss relates to damage to the cochlea. The cochlea is the ‘sensory centre’ of the ear and it receives the auditory stimuli which travel down the auditory nerve to the brain. The cochlea is the ‘microphone’ of a human being. This means that a sensorineural hearing loss results in a reduction in the clarity as well as the quantity of the sound that is heard. In addition to understanding the origins of a hearing loss, it is also possible to categorise the impairment further to understand its functional implications. CMP Medica Australia (2007) provides the following definitions: Unilateral Hearing Loss relates to a hearing impairment where only one ear is affected. Secondary complications include difficulties in differentiating specific sounds against a canopy of background noise. Therefore localising sound is very difficult. This may manifest when listening out for the sound of a car on a busy road or distinguishing the teacher’s voice in a noisy classroom. Bilateral Hearing Loss describes a hearing loss where both ears are affected. Sensorineural hearing loss of this type is likely to result in the loss of sound quality as well as distortion of individual sounds. This means building sounds phonically to make a word in reading or spelling will be very difficult or impossible for some. This hearing loss is usually permanent and cannot be

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cured with medical intervention. The use of hearing aids or cochlea implants is considered for children with this type of hearing impairment. Bhargava (2007), provides further insight into the extent of hearing losses: Fluctuating/Stable Hearing Loss relates to hearing loss that can either improve or deteriorate. Fluctuating hearing loss can be a secondary consequence for children who suffer from recurrent ear infections. Stable hearing losses are those that remain the same over a long period of time. Symmetrical/Asymmetrical Hearing Loss describes the degree and configuration of loss in each or both ears. Symmetrical loss indicates that the same level of hearing loss is reflected in both ears. Asymmetrical hearing loss indicates that there is an uneven balance or increased loss in one ear. Progressive/Sudden Hearing Loss denotes a hearing loss that gradually occurs over time or one that has a rapid onset. The sudden onset could be due to a tumour in the auditory nerve or trauma to the brain.

It may be possible for the Special Educator to detect an unrecognised hearing impairment through observation and recognition of certain behaviours these children may demonstrate. These behaviours may include omission of certain speech sounds at the beginning or end of words. The child with a hearing impairment may also appear to stare at the speaker’s face in an attempt to gather additional visual cues to aid their comprehension of the spoken word. Children with hearing impairments are also more likely to have difficulties in the articulation of certain words. These can include plurals, possessives, comparatives, superlatives and agent endings (University of Iowa 2005). Therefore use of appropriate hearing aids to facilitate the use of any residual hearing should be encouraged as early as possible. Early identification of a hearing impairment is critical if the speech and language development of a child is to progress. It is important to remember that children who present with mild hearing impairments will still be able to utilise cognitive skills, particularly in the absence of other developmental disabilities. The University of Iowa (2005) provides some pertinent principles that should be evident to ensure this occurs. These include diagnosis of the hearing impairment before the child is six months old. In addition, the child should be accessible to a full range of medical professionals and services to

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address and assess the extent of the hearing impairment and intervention for it should commence immediately. Bhargava (2007) supports this view and states that no two children with hearing impairment will behave in the same way. With this in mind, intervention should take account of the full history of the impairment including the origin of onset, the personality and abilities of the student coupled with the quality and type of auditory intervention programmes.

Teaching and Learning for Children with Hearing Impairment Pagliano (2005) states that hearing is one of the most important senses a human being possesses. This is because the ability to hear is a major catalyst in the process of learning as 80 per cent of educational material is received and processed through listening. Therefore it will be necessary for the Special Educator to consider differentiation of the curriculum, modification of the classroom and utilisation of a range of methods to design and present learning materials to these children. In addition it is important for the Special Educator to remember that while hearing impairment is a disability that is unseen, it is still a very real part of the child’s life and should not be forgotten. Collaboration with Parents and Medical Professionals Knowledge of the different types and causes of hearing impairment is only valuable to the Special Educator when the needs of these children have been assessed and identified by a team of dedicated professionals who are specialists in the field. The team of professionals usually involved in the identification and assessment of hearing impairments include an audiologist, paediatrician and a speech and language therapist. Early detection of a hearing impairment coupled with detailed assessment and construction of a therapeutic programme is paramount to facilitate optimum opportunities for language development and social interaction.

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The Social Context of the Child The Special Educator also needs to establish a detailed understanding of the child’s social background which should include an appreciation of the family and their own attitudes and awareness of their child’s hearing impairment. Mohanlal (2002) states that the teaching methods used should account for the children’s linguistic, environmental and social variables. The level of parental care, awareness, preparation and their economic condition should also be understood. It is also important to remember that a hearing impaired child may be exposed to different languages at home and at school. Mohanlal (2002) highlights the possibility that up to eight different linguistic groups could be present in a class of deaf children in India. Differentiation of the Curriculum The overriding aim of education of children with hearing impairment lies in the development of their language and social skills. The ability to communicate and express a need is crucial to human survival and a catalyst to independence. In order for this to occur children with hearing impairment need modern efficient hearing technology, clear expression of speech and minimum background noise. They also need to access a curriculum which lends itself to the use of visual and tactile cues to enhance their comprehension and learning. In broad terms a curriculum for these children should encompass three main strands. The linguistic element of the curriculum should address the development of basic verbal or total communication skills. The sociopsychological aspects of the curriculum should address the moral and civic values of society. The productive element of the curriculum should foster the development of psychomotor activities (Mohanlal 2002). Differentiation is explored in further detail in the chapter titled ‘Tools for Learning’. In addition, it is important to construct a coherent Individual Education Plan which highlights the goals and special provisions a child with hearing impairment will need to succeed in the classroom. This should make reference to their preferred method of communication and the level of support

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they will require such as a scribe or additional assistive technology. This plan should be reviewed annually in collaboration with other medical professionals who are known to the child and his family. Further discussion about the Individual Education Plan is explored in the chapter titled ‘Tools for Planning’. Modification of the Classroom It is important for the Special Educator to remember that although a hearing impairment is an invisible disability, it is still necessary to make reasonable adjustments and modifications to the classroom. This must be done with regard to the physical environment and in terms of the way the children and the lessons are managed and delivered. Further information about classroom management is given in the chapter titled ‘Tools for Planning’. The first consideration the Special Educator must address is the seating position that the child with hearing impairment should occupy. The individual student should be consulted to establish this. The Special Educator needs to know whether the child will lip read, read signs or do a combination of both. Also if an interpreter is needed, he must also be accommodated. It will also be necessary to introduce the interpreter to the rest of the class so that they have time to adjust and accept the additional member of the class. It is advisable to place the student with hearing impairment at the front of a class with a clear view of the Special Educator and interpreter. It is also important to ensure that the classroom is well lit. Attention should also be given to the positioning of the Special Educator when teaching a lesson. The Special Educator should avoid standing in front of windows or light sources as the resultant glare is likely to create a shadow around the face of the speaker which may inhibit the student’s ability to lip read or see what is happening (Keller 2005). Other modifications to the physical design of the classroom may also be necessary to reduce the level and impact of background noise on the child with hearing impairment. Common measures that may be put in place to achieve this could include covering tiled floors with carpet, hanging curtains made from thick material and keeping doors and windows closed when outside noise is audible (Ratcliffe 2004).

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It is also important that the design and layout of a classroom is structured to suit the learning needs of children with hearing impairment. This is because these children have to utilise both their visual and tactile senses to gain the most from their learning experience. Briggle (2005) advocates that the Special Educator should provide a ‘print rich’ environment that is developmentally appropriate. The environment should include written as well as sign labels in the classroom. This is because it will help the child to make a link between sign language and the spoken word.

Approaches to Teaching and Learning Teaching a child with hearing impairment is a multidimensional process. This is because the Special Educator has to place equal emphasis on the methods and approaches as well as the content of the study material. Additional attention must be given to the way the material is presented and the way it is delivered to the class. Gardella and Glatzer (1994) cited in Morimoto and Nakamura (1998) state that it is often difficult to promote the conceptual understanding of the child who is hearing impaired. They advocate the use of visualisation as a means to aid understanding that is based on familiar experiences that are supported by the use of technology. Morimoto and Nakamura (1998) also believes that it is insufficient only to teach these children key skills on an instrumental level but to find ways to help them explore and understand the relationships between ideas and concepts. The Special educator should encourage these children to understand what, how and why they need to do something. The Special Educator needs to give greater consideration to the modes used to deliver a lesson. Children with hearing impairments will rely on their visual and tactile senses to receive and process new information. Therefore the Special Educator needs to tune into these senses to facilitate a meaningful learning experience for these children. Keller (2005) provides a number of useful guidelines to deliver lessons and ensure effective communication with a child who has a hearing impairment. These guidelines include the following:

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Face to Face Contact with the Hearing Impaired Child 1. Ensure that you have the attention of the students before you start talking with them. A tactile cue on their shoulders will aid this process. 2. Always make sure that you are facing the student. They need to be able to read your lips and watch your facial expressions to gain as much information as possible about what is being said. 3. Utilise facial expressions, gestures and other body language to support and clarify verbal messages. 4. Speak naturally and clearly and monitor the speed of delivery. There is no need to over extenuate lip movements or shout. 5. It is important to remember that children with hearing impairment need time to get to know their teacher and interpreter. Therefore it may take more time to establish a reliable and meaningful dialogue for everyone. Equipment Used An overhead projector may be used as an alternative to a blackboard. Then it will not be necessary to turn away from the class to write new information. If the projector is not in use for some time it should be turned off to reduce background noise in the classroom. If a blackboard is the only option available, it is important not to talk to the class while writing on it. This is because the student will have difficulty understanding what is being said if they are unable to lip read. It is also important that the writing on the blackboard is clear and legible. Presentation of Material 1. Maximise the use of visual material to present new ideas to the students. 2. Provide the child and his interpreter with an outline of the lesson in advance so that they can familiarise themselves with key terms that will be covered. The learning outcomes should also be explicit so that the child knows what is expected of him.

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3. Avoid using long sentences in written material and grade the number of complex words in a text so that it is aligned with the level of the child’s understanding. 4. Introduce new concepts one at a time. Keep the language used simple. When a new idea is introduced it should be done in a variety of contexts to aid understanding. 5. Provide the child with opportunities to work individually and in groups. If group work is planned then the class should be seated in a horseshoe layout. The child with hearing impairment should be seated with their better ear facing the group. 6. Discuss the needs of the child with hearing impairment with the rest of the class and encourage them to work alongside their peer as an equal. Teach them a few signs so that they too can see this as a valued method of communication. In conclusion, children with hearing impairment have special needs which must be acknowledged, understood and accommodated by the Special Educator in close collaboration with parents and medical professionals. This view is endorsed by Briggle (2005) and Bhargava (2007) who hold the following belief: Understanding more about students with hearing impairments can improve the quality of their education. This is because the teacher recognises the need to teach explicit, specific skills. The hearing impaired child should also be provided with multiple opportunities to practice these skills and be given more time to master them.

MULTIPLE DISABILITIES Children with severe or multiple disabilities are those who require continuous extensive support in more than one major life activity in order to participate in community life and enjoy the same quality of life as normal children. They frequently have additional disabilities including movement difficulties, sensory losses, behavioural problems and severe or profound mental retardation (NICHCY 2000; Orleve and Sobsey 1996).

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Children who present with multiple disabilities will have a combination of two or more serious disabilities. The severity and impact of these disabilities will mean that the learning and educational provision is complex. These children often present with marked developmental delay or physical abnormalities. Diagnosis of multiple disabilities is a multidimensional process that involves the administration of intelligence tests and tests of adaptive behaviour. However, the results from these tests can be ambiguous due to the nature and range of limitations the children demonstrate. Therefore they need to be supported by interviews from family members, carers, multidisciplinary team members and educators. The areas of occupational performance explored in the assessment include communication, self-care, home living, social skills, self-direction, use of community facilities, safety awareness and functional academics (Husén and Postlethwaite 2007). Common conditions that can result in multiple disabilities include Cerebral Palsy, Downs Syndrome and Congenital Deformity.

Cerebral Palsy Cerebral Palsy is a non-progressive disorder of movement and posture due to a defect or lesion to the immature brain. (Scope 2007)

The exact cause of Cerebral Palsy is unknown though doctors have identified some possible factors that may influence the likelihood of contracting the condition. These are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mother contracting an infection during pregnancy The baby being delivered prematurely Prolonged and/or difficult labour Bleeding in the baby’s brain Genetic disorder

Children who suffer from Cerebral Palsy have difficulties in movements because their muscle tone has been affected. The tone in a muscle is the natural

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sustained tension in a muscle. The inability of these children to maintain symmetrical posture and execute normal movements is because the tension level in their muscles is too high, too low or fluctuating when they try to use their muscles. It is a static condition as it does not worsen as the child grows. However some difficulties may become more noticeable during puberty, excessive fatigue or at times of personal stress. There is no cure for Cerebral Palsy. There are three main types of Cerebral Palsy and these are defined by identifying the level of the individual child’s muscle tone. Spastic Cerebral Palsy Spastic Cerebral Palsy relates to the children who present with stiff tight muscles and as a result have decreased range of movement in their joints. This stiffness is always present even in sleep and therefore it is harder for these children to walk or execute purposeful movements. It is the most common form of Cerebral Palsy and falls into three main categories. Visual problem are common with this group of children. Spastic Diplegia indicates that both lower limbs are involved. Sometimes there can be some increased tone in the upper limbs too. Spastic Hemiplegia indicates that the whole of one side of the body has been affected. The child affected may obviously choose to neglect this side of their body doing everything one handed. Spastic Quadriplegia indicates that all four limbs are involved. Athetoid Cerebral Palsy Children with this condition present with involuntary movements. This is due to the fact that the tone in their muscles is constantly changing from being tight to being very floppy and they have no control over this. These constant writhing movements induce a great deal of fatigue for them. Communication for them is often impaired as their speech is often difficult to understand. This is because constant changes in muscle tone make it hard for them to coordinate and control their breathing and vocal cords. Feeding and swallowing

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problems are also common. Hearing difficulties are also evident in this group of children. Ataxic Cerebral Palsy Ataxic children present with difficulties in maintaining their balance. They often have poor spatial awareness and therefore they will not be able to judge their own position within their surroundings or in relation to other people or objects around them. They often walk with a staggering gait and have tremors in their upper limbs and their speech patterns are not smooth. If children are positioned well and encouraged to play in a way that promotes good posture and normalised muscle tone their development will be enhanced and they will find it easier to engage in activities, interact with others and this will result in a greater self-confidence and higher self-esteem. There are also secondary difficulties associated with all types of Cerebral Palsy. Besides sensory problems already mentioned, these children may also have learning difficulties. These may include the inability to understand the spoken word, difficulty in distinguishing and comparing shapes, sequencing tasks, hand–eye co-ordination and manipulation problems as well as concentration and attention deficits, in addition to recurrent sleeping and toileting problems. Practical ways to address their learning difficulties will be explored further in the chapter titled ‘Tools for Learning’.

Downs Syndrome This is a learning difficulty or mental handicap and those who suffer from it were often called Mongle children. Now-a-days that term has been replaced with Downs Syndrome. Downs Syndrome is named after the British doctor John Langdon Down who first clinically identified the condition in 1886. Its medical definition is: A congenital disorder characterized by a flat skull, stubby fingers, an unusual pattern of skin folds on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, a fissured tongue and severe mental deficiency. (PsychNet-UK 2003a)

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Downs Syndrome is a genetic disorder. It is caused by a third copy of chromosome 21 in addition to the normal pair. The reason for this is currently unknown. The vast majority of cases of Downs Syndrome are not inherited and it is not the fault of the parents that they have a child born with Downs Syndrome. Downs Syndrome is a global condition and it is not specific to race or socio-economic status. Research does make a correlation between the maternal age and states that mothers who bear children over the age of 35 have a higher risk of having children with Downs Syndrome. The physical characteristics of the condition are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Eyes slant upwards and outwards Ears are smaller and set lower Face has flat appearance Muscle tone is lower Weaker reflexes

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Eye slit is short and narrow Limbs are shorter Head is smaller Joints are loser Weaker cry

These physical features carry with them associated medical problems which need regular monitoring. These can include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Under-active thyroid Vision problems Heart problems Breathing problems Fine Motor Skills deficit

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Growth problems Hearing loss Weaker cough Speech and language problems Reduced mobility

Although children with Downs Syndrome have special medical problems, medical advances have improved substantially and the vast majority of children with the condition grow up to be healthy and active. (Stray-Gunderson 1999)

Developmental delay is a factor in children with Downs Syndrome. They take longer to reach their milestones. They do achieve them but they may not start walking before the age of two and independent toileting is often accomplished around the age of five. They will be able to sit by themselves and feed themselves with the aid of a spoon and drink from a cup by the age

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of one. They will also start to copy or imitate others around them. At two, they will start developing dressing skills and will scribble with a crayon. By the age of five they will start to read, make friends and attend school. They may also have difficulty with speaking and reading as 60 per cent of children with Downs Syndrome will have secondary hearing loss. Studies show that early intervention learning to enhance the development and overcome developmental delay pays enormous dividends. It has been shown that children who have been involved in early intervention programmes develop earlier than those who were not. (McConnaughey and Quinn 1999)

Children with this condition will succeed in acquiring life skills but need a holistic approach to their care and education throughout their lives. Therapists can assist parents and Special Educators to address some of the problems listed. A Speech Therapist can advise about language development, the mechanics of feeding and swallowing and learning to talk. An occupational therapist can advise on how to improve Fine Motor Skills in the classroom and in relation to performing activities of daily living as independently as possible. A physiotherapist can address issues of mobility, low muscle tone and joint problems. It is important for the Special Educator to remember that children with Downs Syndrome will succeed but at their own pace. Therefore the classroom should be a stimulating environment where tasks are accomplished with a spirit of patience and love. Collaboration with therapists, parents and medical professionals is essential for success. Children with this condition are likely to have difficulties in learning to read and write. In view of the fact that most children will also present with a degree of hearing loss, a visual approach to learning should be selected. The children should be taught to read using sight recognition of words as apposed to the more conventional phonic methods. While it may appear that these children have a multitude of learning and therapy needs, their biggest strength is their love and affection for anyone who helps them. This makes them one of the most rewarding and special children to treat as once they grasp a concept or skill they will not forget either the skill or the person who taught them the skill.

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Teaching and Learning for Children with Multiple Disabilities Children with multiple disabilities have complex needs which result in a greater level of support to participate in all aspects of their lives including self-care, therapy and education. It is important to remember that while these children have the capacity to learn, their pace is much slower than their able-bodied peers. They also think in a much more concrete way and can have difficulty with recollection and often lack the ability to generalise specific skills across a variety of contexts. This means that the focus of their education needs to match their needs, abilities and aspirations. It has been illustrated that a more interactive functional emphasis needs to be employed as the underlying approach in the quest to teach children with special needs. This philosophy is particularly pertinent with regard to children with multiple disabilities. The complexity and diversity of the children with multiple disabilities and their learning needs warrant a multidisciplinary approach to their education. Advice should be sought from medical professionals, therapists and parents so that an educational programme that meets the needs of each child can be implemented (Rainforth et al. 1992). This is because the child may need additional equipment and access to assistive technology in order to maximise their learning experience and individual potential. A more functional education which emphasises on the acquisition and development of life skills taught within multiple but normalised settings may contribute to a reduction in the problems in generalisation these children can experience. Therefore it is important for the Special Educator to consider the nature of the curriculum and the timetable. The subjects on the curriculum should endeavour to provide the child with a learning experience that encompasses aptitude in self-care, communication and social skills, community skills, organisation and planning as well as the development of individual hobbies and interests. While it is always important to tailor a programme of learning to suit the developmental needs of the child it is also important to teach social skills that match the child’s chronological age (Batshaw 1997). It is also important to address issues relating to the vocational needs of this client group. In addition, it is necessary to adopt a goal directed programme which enables

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the child to work towards their own aims. It is also possible for the Special Educator to measure the child’s progress and evaluate the programme of learning accordingly. The use of an Individual Education Plan can be a useful tool to aid this process. This is explored further in the chapter titled ‘Tools for Planning’. The overriding philosophy that should underpin the education of these children is a desire to enable them to have the confidence and conviction to make their own choices. The nature and extent of their disabilities will mean they require significant support and a great deal of practical help to engage in their daily occupations and participate in school life. In spite of this it is important for the Special Educator to remember that these children are human beings with rights, likes, dislikes and definite preferences which need to be established, considered and implemented. With a child with a multitude of practical needs it can be easy to forget to ask them to chose the clothes they would like to wear, the food or drink they would prefer, where they would like to sit and who they would like to sit next to in class or whether they would like to draw with felt tip pens or crayons. This is because educators and carers can become too focused on meeting practical needs and may make an assumption that they know what is best for a child who cannot readily speak or respond for himself. Also a common reason for denial of this basic human right can arise because of lack of time and insufficient resources. It is important to guard against such an attitude as it is likely to breed ignorance in a school and resentment and frustration in its pupils. A study conducted by Ryan et al. (2004) states that teachers of developmentally delayed children do not generally facilitate a communicative environment which elicits a response from these children. In addition the study found that both students and teachers had richer interaction when the activities used related to daily living within a more structured environment. The dictionary defines a choice thus: Choice consists of the mental process of thinking involved with the process of judging the merits of multiple options and selecting one for action. (Wikipedia 2007)

There are some simple strategies that a Special Educator can use to teach and encourage these children to make their own choices. The ability to make

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a choice gives them a greater sense of independence and control over their own world. First it is necessary to break down the definition given above to consider different ways to introduce the idea of making choices to special children. Thinking is a mental process which enables these children to make sense of their own world. It would be inaccurate to assume they are incapable of independent thought, but more apt to presume they may be unable to think in abstract or complex terms. A central component of thinking is problem solving. From problem solving, a human being is able to make a decision. The process of making a decision comes about as a result of judgement or evaluation of a range of alternatives.

Understand How Your Child Communicates His Needs The most important prerequisite to enable children with multiple disabilities is to understand the methods they use to communicate their needs. Many children with multiple disabilities are likely to experience significant difficulties using language to indicate their desires. This could be on an expressive or a receptive level. Therefore it is necessary for the Special Educator to seek the advice, assessment and intervention of a Speech and Language Therapist to establish a reliable and consistent method of communication that the child can use competently and successfully. This is because language is central to teaching and learning as it is through active participation and interaction with people and the environment that children learn to make sense of their world. Learning through the use of language is an intellectual, social and emotional activity (Martin and Miller 1999). Children with multiple disabilities may need to find alternative ways to communicate their needs and make their own choices. The options available to them may include the use of word books, signs and symbols or some form of augmentative communication device such as a light writer, liberator or cameleon. Further advice as to the right device for the child needs to be sought from a Speech and Language Therapist. If this is not done there is a danger that educational personnel will provide less opportunity for students with severe disabilities to make choices and may fail to respond to choice making behaviours demonstrated by their students (Houghton et al. 1987).

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If the option of assistive technology is not available or inappropriate, then observation of a child’s behaviours when his daily needs are met can yield some clues as to how they indicate their preferences. Sigafoos and Dempsey (1992) in a study that assessed choice making behaviours in children with multiple disabilities identify some key responses they may exhibit. These can include looking at or turning away from an object or displaying an emotional reaction to a given stimulus which is either positive or negative. Also making a gesture towards an object (often supported with a vocalisation) of preference is another common choice behaviour. Problem Solving This is a skill which involves the systematic exploration of a particular problem from different perspectives as well as an evaluation of the outcome of the actions taken. Children with multiple disabilities need to learn the skill of problem solving in relation to situations that they are involved with. It is the duty of the Special Educator to show them the consequences and outcomes of their actions so they can begin to see the options that are available to them in solving the practical and functional problems they may face in everyday life. Present a Range of Alternatives The Special Educator will need to make a conscious effort to introduce the idea of alternatives to these children. This is because many of these children may be more used to having their routines carried out for them, meals fed to them and clothes chosen for them. They have often been given little opportunity to make their responses or indicate their preferences at home. Sigafoos and Dempsey (1992) support this view and recognise that presenting these children with a range of alternatives from which they can choose needs to be done in a structured way. The Special Educator can address this from a functional perspective by providing these children with a range of options from which they can indicate their preferences. This can range from alternatives relating to their seat in the classroom, their mid-morning snack, the group they are working in during class time to where their picture

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appears on the wall. An opportunity to choose from or respond to a range of alternatives leads to the ability to make a judgement. Act on Selections Made The inherent aim of making a choice is to bring about a course of action, satisfy a need or bring about a change in behaviour. Therefore in order to attach meaning to and to respect the choice of the individual child, the Special Educator must act on the choice the child has made. This is done so that the child can see the value and outcome of the choice he has made. The range of situations where a child with multiple disabilities is allowed to make choices should extend across the length and breadth of his curriculum and include all his occupational domains. Therefore the importance of making choices needs to be inherent within the philosophy of the school and not just an individual classroom. Sigafoos and Dempsey (1992) advocate that value and time should be given to teaching children with multiple disabilities ways to make their own choices and be aware of the possibility that their preferences may also change over time. These children need to see and understand that making a choice is a life giving skill that will give them the ability to have greater control to express their preferences, views and choose the people they befriend. But most of all freedom of choice will give them the right and ability to determine the direction and course of their own destinies. Incorporating opportunities for choice making into classroom instructional a routine is one measure of a high quality education for children with severe and multiple disabilities (Meyer et al. 1987 in Sigafoos and Dempsey 1992).

This chapter illustrates that whatever the nature of the disability, the child who suffers from it will have special needs as a result. Therefore it stands to reason that the child’s ability to learn and the way he or she should be educated will be different. Educating special children is about matching the education they receive to the needs and abilities they possess. It is necessary for the special educator to align his knowledge of the disabilities with the aspirations and goals of the child and create a learning experience that is meaningful, purposeful and memorable.

Tools to Understand Child Development

2

T

he purpose of this chapter is to provide the Special Educator with a deeper understanding of child development and how this influences learning. It examines the origins of learning and explains how a child develops core learning skills. The areas covered include Gross and Fine Motor Skills, Perception, Cognition, Life Skills and Social Skills. The purpose of utilising any activity within the classroom environment is to promote learning. To facilitate meaningful learning of special children consideration should be given to the environment, learning approach, lessons plan and conditions. First, consideration must be given to the origins of a child’s learning. A plethora of literature has been produced in the field of child development that directs anyone concerned with children, be they disabled or ablebodied, to only one subject. Any interaction we have with young children will be structured around some form of play. Play has been defined by Leontiev (1981) and Nikolopolou (1993) as: A spontaneous self imitated and self regulated activity of young children which is relatively risk free and not necessarily goal orientated. Play is intrinsically motivated. Normally children have an internal desire to engage in play, they are actively involved in creating their play and are in control of it.

Ravetz (1998) and Northern (2003) make reference to the foundation play forms for a child’s learning by highlighting that children need play as the

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route into learning until at least the age of seven. In addition Ravetz (1998) believes: During play a child expends energy, develops motor and social skills, fantasizes and fulfils dreams, imitates and practices adult skills.

Bloch and Pellegrini (1989) argue that play is the activity that motivates children regardless of their race, beliefs or values. Play serves many vital purposes for children’s development. These include cognitive skills (the use of language and symbolism), role playing, creativity and social advances such as friendships, social competence and emotional maturity. Piaget (1962) demonstrates how play contributes to the development of cognition or thought processes. He argues that there are three stages of play namely Senserimotor Play, Pretend Play and Games Play. Senserimotor Play is functional and practice play where the individual is only focused on perfecting and practicing motor movements. Pretend Play is the play where the child uses his imagination so that his actions are based in an imaginary situation which usually contains some roles or rules and the symbolic use of objects (Leontiev 1981). Games Play can either be played individually or in a group. The acquisition of social skills through play was further explored by Parten (1933) and Rubin et al. (1978) where the social categories of play were developed. These include: Onlooker-Observer role in which the child sits on the sidelines and watches others play but not participate at all; Solitary play where the child plays alone; Parallel play where a child plays alongside another, but engages in his own game (it should be noted that if one of these children is separated from the other it is likely to upset the child); and Group play where children will play together either associatively or co-operatively.

This brief exploration of the way play contributes to a child’s learning suggests that play is indeed the cornerstone to learning. It can be argued that the classroom is just a more structured extension of the play room


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where the stimulus is not toys but the individual subjects on the timetable. That may be so for those children without special needs but for those with additional handicaps the ability to play may be severely compromised or nearly impossible. The classroom may be the first place where these special children have the opportunity to interact with others of their own age. It may become apparent to those around them that they have significant physical and cognitive challenges that will prevent them from learning through playing. Their learning and development will be delayed because of the barriers their disabilities place on them, thus preventing spontaneous exploration of their environment that play represents. What can be done to give special children a head start with their learning if this is so? Caldwell (1986) suggests that: Parents can help their children learn through play by encouraging diversity rather than rigidity emphasizing the social roles as well as the teaching orientated behaviours.

This philosophy should be mirrored by the Special Educator in the classroom too. Many people irrespective of their background are frightened by what they see in a child’s handicaps and forget to look for a way to discover the personality of the child in their class or care. This child longs to be included, his gifts discovered and utilised. He already knows that it is only through the fear of his disability that he is not readily encouraged to do so. For a child with special needs the urge to play is the same. Play is his key to learning about the world. Learning is the path to his future.

So what factors should a Special Educator consider so that the activities used in the classroom will meet the learning needs of the children concerned? The most important factor in activity selection is the Special Educator’s understanding of Normal Child Development. It is only through knowing when a child should reach the given developmental levels that a Special Educator will know if the activities selected will be beneficial to the child concerned. It is widely recognised that children with special needs have delayed milestones.

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Greenstein (1998) states that it is necessary to assess the developmental level and chronological age of the child and select an activity that provides a best fit between the two. It is also paramount to expect appropriate social behaviour. More time should be allowed to master and practice new skills. A recent paper published in Australia entitled ‘Development of Standards and Measurement Tools for Quality Assurance in Australian Children’s Services’ (Taylor 2004) was concerned about providing principles that should underpin activity programmes for children. It advocates that activities selected should support the physical development, promote the development of life skills and support creativity.

MOTOR SKILLS Motor Skills is a phrase given to the movements that human beings have to perform to move parts of their body to explore and interact with people and objects within the physical environment. There are two categories of motor skills namely Gross Motor Skills and Fine Motor Skills. In every human being the development of Motor Skills or movement occurs cephalo cordially (from the head downwards) in a definite sequence. The larger (gross movements) are mastered before the more precise (Fine) Motor Skills. So during the course of normal development a baby will have to master head control before he can roll which in turn will lead to sitting up and maintaining sitting balance. It is only after he can rely on his ability to sit up independently that he will be able to start to reach, grasp or manipulate objects in one and then between both his hands. Gross and Fine Motor Skills develop proximal to distally. This means that first a baby should be able to move his whole leg before he can learn to bend his knee or wiggle his toes. The same is true with the development of Fine Motor Skills where pelvic stability and symmetry has to be established in the form of good sitting balance and good shoulder stability before effective use of the upper limb can occur. Similarly, effective use of the hand relies upon the ability


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to rotate the forearm up to the ceiling and down to the floor as well as some wrist stability to enable effective grasp, release and manipulation of objects. However, for a child with a disability such as Cerebral Palsy, whose ability to move and explore is compromised, the acquisition and development of his Gross and Fine Motor Skills tells a different story. His ability to reach and build on the milestones will be delayed or even impossible. It should be noted that for the purposes of this chapter the author has chosen to segregate the different components of development to make it clearer to the reader. However, when assessing a child’s developmental level a holistic approach should be adopted, as in some areas such as communication or cognition, some children may be ahead of the game. In the previous chapter it has been emphasised that children should be able to take part in activities that are differentiated to meet their needs. This can only be done if the Special Educator has a clear understanding of their current skill level in all areas of their development. Data for this important prerequisite to activity selection can be gathered through observation of the child’s physical ability within the classroom. These observations may include sitting balance, eye contact, ability to initiate physical movement, ability to hold and use objects such as a pen, pencil or building block. Also, liaison with other professionals will increase understanding about what stage the child has reached. The physiotherapist will be able to advise about the Gross Motor Skills and the Occupational Therapist will be able to advise about the Fine Motor Skills such as writing, dressing and feeding. The Speech Therapist will assist with language and feeding if oral motor difficulties are evident. While it is always wise to ensure a child works within his developmental level, he should also be given a chance to try activities that exceed his developmental level in order to incorporate an element of challenge and maintain his interest in the activity. It stands to reason that special children will require more one-on-one time and they should be allowed more time to master physical activities. They will also need more time to practice new skills so that the general pace of learning these should be slower.

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Figure 2.1

Assessment of the Physical Development of Special Children

It is always wise to ensure a child works within his developmental level.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL PERCEPTION Perception is crucial to life and learning. It has many functions described in the following definition: Perception is the way we receive, interpret and organize information from our senses and attach meaning to it based on past experience. The majority of perception occurs through our vision and the human brain must be intact for normal perception to take place. (The author)

This view is supported by Freeman (1983) and Skarda (1999) who believe that Perception is the organization of sensations and the simultaneous construction of meaning. Perceptual processes begin with endogenous self-organized neural activity.


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Perception without meaning is void. Meaning has been defined as: Meaning is uniquely created within ourselves through the actions and choices we make. Meaning develops as the brain creates intentional actions and then changes in accordance with the experiential consequences of those actions. (Iverson and Thelen 1999)

It is evident from these definitions that perception is an innate continual activity for all human beings. It is the means by which our senses stimulate our bodies to respond to a given stimulus. However for perception to be effective the brain needs to be intact. Perceptual skills develop from birth. In the senserimotor stage of play the young baby begins to understand objects. When he moves his hand to shake the rattle it makes a noise. This noise stimulates him to repeat the movement thus attaching personal meaning to playing with the rattle. For special children who often display sensory disabilities secondary to their existing physical ones, their perception will be impaired due to brain damage at birth. Perceptual deficits can be evident in any one of the seven sensory modalities—vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell, balance or proprioception. Most commonly perceptual deficit is present in the sensory modalities of visual perception, proprioception, auditory perception or tactile perception. Visual perception relates to how the brain interprets information received through looking, auditory perception relates to how information is received and interpreted through hearing, tactile perception relates to touching and proprioception is an inbuilt sense that helps us to know where our limbs are and lets us know when we move a limb in space. Proprioception can be defined as: The unconscious perception of movement and spatial orientation arising from stimuli within the body itself. (Pickett 2000)

Perceptual deficit impedes learning. It is a hidden disability that is not obvious to the naked eye. Due to perceptual deficit special children take longer to complete tasks. They take longer to make sense of what task is before them, as well as how to plan and organise their movements to perform the activity in question.

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It is the cause of a great deal of frustration for the child concerned and often can be a barrier to parents and Special Educators as the child does not seem to progress in performing a given activity in spite of concerted efforts to support and help him. Over 80 per cent of any human being’s perception occurs through his vision. Therefore it seems pertinent to explore the different components of visual perception and how they aid task performance. Form Discrimination describes the recognition of any form be it a shape or object. Visual Memory is an individual’s ability to recall a shape or object from amongst others after having studied it on his own previously. Visual Closure describes an individual’s ability to recognise an object when part of its form is hidden or to complete a picture of an incomplete object or form. Figure Ground is the ability to separate out an object from its background. Form Constancy is the ability to recognise an object regardless of its orientation in space or size. This recognition should be consistent without making reference to its functional context. Spatial Awareness is the ability to understand how objects fit together within a given space in terms of their size, shape and orientation. Depth Perception relates to the ability to perceive spatial relationships, especially distances, between objects in three dimensions. Topographical Awareness relates to an individual’s ability to find his way from one place to another or route finding ability. Perceptuo-Motor Skill is the ability to create a design or pattern following a visual model. In special children one or more of the above deficits will be evident making functional task performance more time consuming. Most commonly these deficits manifest themselves when the children concerned have difficulties in dressing and writing. With dressing difficulties may be encountered with putting clothes on the right way round or the right way up and grasping the motor sequences needed to actually wear clothes successfully. Writing is a perceptuo-Motor Skill where they have to form a letter from a visual model. Also forming and sizing letters correctly is often a challenge due to spatial problems. Another common problem in these children is Unilateral Neglect


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where they are aware of only one side of their body. Constructional tasks such as copying block designs will also be problematic as this has a perceptual motor element as well as the need to discern spatial relationships in three dimensions. A more detailed exploration of how to teach writing to reduce the impact of some of these deficits is given later in this chapter. It should also be noted that perceptual deficit can be described as such only if an existing visual dysfunction such as squint or ocular motor disturbance such as scanning or tracking difficulties have been accommodated. The Occupational Therapist will be able to assist in developing strategies to help reduce the impact of these deficits on a child’s ability to learn and carry out functional tasks such as computer access, writing, dressing and feeding.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION The word Cognition encompasses everything to do with the thoughts of human beings. It covers our memory, ability to solve problems, to sequence tasks and to plan and organise our thoughts and actions. It works hand in hand with perception as it is our cognition or thinking that enables us to attach meaning to and make use of the information we receive from the environment. The American Heritage Dictionary defines: Cognition is the mental act of knowing and includes aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning and judgement.

But how do we get to know about the world around us? Our quest for knowledge about the world and how we fit into it begins from birth. The path of development of cognitive skills is given below. The ability to think is the foundation for learning. Furthermore, play and interaction with others of similar age both on individual and group bases is the principal forum for the development of cognitive skills. Pratt and Stevens (1988) support this view and believe that: Play experiences are critical to cognitive development and learning.

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For children with special needs the desire to learn is still the same. However, their disabilities—physical or mental—will restrict their ability to interact with and understand the environment. Therefore the development and application of cognitive skills will take more time. Pratt and Stevens (1988) argue cognitive function is a school readiness factor and state that: A child needs to have acquired a body of knowledge through experience to be able to attach meaning to that experience. Information processing in the areas of auditory language skills, perceptual motor skills and body awareness must have meaning for the child to benefit from formal educational experiences.

What can the Special Educator do to help a child with special needs develop cognitive skills?

Create a Classroom that Stimulates Interest The learning environment should engage a child’s mind so that he can attach meaning to what he is learning. Objects and wall displays that are interesting to the eye will increase observation skills and contribute to the development of memories about what is being taught in the class. Material should be simply presented, colourful and clearly labelled.

Encourage Children to Make Their Own Choices Decision making is a major cognitive skill that is essential to life. Therefore it is important that special children are encouraged to make decisions about how they want their learning to take place. This could be as simple as choosing where to sit in the classroom, what colour mounting paper they want their picture to appear on for a wall display or to choose which other members of the class will help them in a group activity. It is also important to explore with special children the possible consequences of their choices and to talk about them. This is a prerequisite to problem solving. For further discussion of how the Special Educator may facilitate this process, please refer to the section on ‘Teaching and Learning for Children with Multiple Disabilities’ (page 34).


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Adopt a Problem-based Approach to Learning Plan the lessons in such a way that they have a practical bias to them. This will encourage learning through doing. Engaging in activity stimulates questions. Encourage the children to find the answers for themselves either in groups or univocally. It is only through being allowed to find the answers on a practical level will they come to understand the process they had to go through to get there. Also it may be wise to remember that many special children may well have been deprived of the opportunity of problem solving during play for fear that the toy in question may be broken, that they may get hurt or their parents may have assumed they are not able to think for themselves. Therefore the Special Educator must grant these children permission to solve practical problems in their own way at their own pace where possible. Children’s involvement in the learning environment should be active and playful with teachers giving a supportive role in facilitating learning through discovery. (Piaget 1962)

Encourage the Children to Plan and Organise The ability to plan and organise is another crucial cognitive skill. In the classroom this can be encouraged through the use of a class timetable so that the children know which lesson follows another, when and where it will be held and who is teaching the class. This aids the children’s orientation to time, place and person and helps to commit the timetable to their working memory. The use of a bell signal between lessons will also help them know when the lessons start and finish. These children should also be actively involved in organising special events such as class assembly. They should be encouraged to think about and discuss the running order of the assembly and solve the problem of which members of the class should take part in which section of the assembly. If this is done it will generate a feeling of responsibility in them and result in greater ownership of the project. This last aspect is particularly important when dealing with special children as they are rarely asked to contribute to a project, let alone take responsibility for a part of one.

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Help the Children to Learn and Memorise the Correct Sequence to Class Tasks Many special children experience difficulties learning the correct order of carrying out tasks. This makes it impossible for them to complete a task without getting stuck in the middle or just results in confusion as to where they have reached. This results in tasks taking longer to perform. This deficit also impacts learning as they may not remember what to do to form a letter or to tie their shoe laces. Continual practice of each task component as well as talking through the task before carrying it out are necessary. The challenge of tackling this problem creatively is left to the Special Educator. The Occupational Therapist can also help in this regard.

Develop Memory Skills Every human being has a long-term memory and a working memory. Memories are pieces of meaningful information that are stored in the brain and retrieved when needed. We have a bank of information that tells us our name, where we live, how many brothers and sisters do we have, and so on. This is our long-term memory. Our working memory contains facts that we have learned recently. At school these children should be actively encouraged to try and remember what they did in the previous lesson and to share with the rest of the class things they did during the weekend. These activities help to develop memory skills. Examples of memory games are given in the chapter titled ‘Tools for Classroom Activities’.

The Development of Social Behaviour Social behaviour describes the set of skills humans use to express their needs and fulfil them through both language and gestures. Trower et al. (1978) define social skills as: [T]hose skills that are learnt, observable and measurable behaviours that enable people to communicate successfully.


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Social skills have to be learned through instruction, observation and by example. Every human being learns ‘how to behave’ from their parents, siblings and peers. It stands to reason that for the special child, the classroom should not only be a centre of academic excellence but also a place to learn and practice behaviours that are socially acceptable. Bracegirdle (1990a) highlighted that parents and older adults are the key re-enforcers of children’s social behaviour and that siblings and birth order also affect socialisation. Sampson (1965) found that children who were born later on were more outgoing and sympathetic than only children. Therefore it is useful for the Special Educator to know where a child comes in the family order as this may influence his ability to relate to or interact with other members of the class. But what are these social skills and what is the sequence of their development in normal children? Social skills are a part of communication that complement and support the spoken word (Table 2.1). Table 2.1

Non-verbal and Verbal Communication

Non-Verbal Communication

Verbal Communication

Body contact Proximity Orientation Posture Gestures and body movements Facial expression Eye contact Appearance Voice pitch, sound and speed

Instructions and directions Questions Comments, suggestions and information Informal chat or gossip Social routines Expressive emotions or attitudes

Source: Hargie et al. (1981); Trower et al. (1978).

From Table 2.1 it is clear that the ability to demonstrate acceptable social behaviours lies in the successful integration of language and gesture. Most humans initiate conversations by establishing eye contact with the person concerned or register their interest in a subject by giving some attention to the conversation in progress. The ability to interpret non-verbal signals such as facial expressions is paramount as it is these things that give a conversation added meaning and provide the listener with cues as to the most fitting responses.

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For special children who may have physical and cognitive disabilities, their ability to communicate in a manner that is acceptable to the average layman will be impaired. Children with learning disabilities or mental handicap may lack the cognitive abilities necessary for the complex information processing that underlies social skilfulness. (Bracegirdle 1990b)

This could be due to a visual difficulty such as a squint which makes it hard for them to look at the person they are talking to. It could also be due to dysarthric speech which will make it hard for them to speak clearly at the correct pitch or speed. This inability to communicate, even though they may know what they need, should be acknowledged and addressed sensitively by the Special Educator. If not, then frustration will result. For a special child, frustration breeds fear which can result in anger or withdrawal from social situations. Bracegirdle (1990a) gives a pertinent reminder that: The physically impaired child may not be able to produce the smooth sustained and coordinated ocular, oral, fine and gross motor actions required to make eye contact, adjust body posture, proximity and lean and to use gestures and contact effectively.

Many children with special needs (particularly Cerebral Palsy) will have the misfortune of carrying some form of sensory impairment as well as physical or cognitive problem. The inability to see or hear fully make it more difficult to acquire social skills at the same pace or to the same level as their peers. They would not have had the chance to observe how adults interacted or to listen to how they spoke to each other. This means that coming into the classroom may be the first opportunity they have to interact with other people on a social level. It has been argued that social skills are numerous and complex. They are acquired in a logical sequence and mature alongside the development of language. Perhaps the most important asset that social skills provide to any child is the ability to make friends. The desire to have friends and be accepted as a member of a group is just the same for a child with special needs. However, mainstream society is all too quick to reject the possibility that friendships with disabled children are the done thing. It comes out of the fear that if


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they are seen to befriend a handicapped child, their own credibility may be compromised. Now-a-days this attitude is lessening but is still very prevalent in some communities. It is important for the Special Educator to create an environment where children learn to accept and interact with their peers no matter what their disabilities. That said, it is also important to emphasise the element of choice involved in making friends and that it is quite normal to struggle to get along with peers all the time. Peer interaction is important for learning about sex roles and aggression and offers a different range of learning opportunities from those at home. Children tend to conform to group norms established among peers and will imitate each other to gain group membership. (Bracegirdle 1990a)

LIFE SKILLS Life Skills are the functional integration of perceptual cognitive and social skills. The definition is found in the name and the skills encompass activities of daily living. Acquisition of these skills is essential to survival. Some common activities which come under the umbrella of Life Skills are Personal Care, Domestic Activities, Budgeting, Shopping, Planning the Day, Community Orientation, Cooking, Leisure Pursuits and Vocational Training. The implementation of a Life Skills programme for special children is of paramount importance as some of them may not leave school with a string of academic qualifications. Furthermore, these children should not be deprived of opportunities to cook, shop or practise community skills simply because it is too dangerous, they might get hurt or that it would take too long. It is only through doing these things that they will come to understand how their disabilities will affect them in their daily life. A Life Skills programme is a safe forum for them to explore and find solutions to these issues. Improved living skills and social skills lead to increased self esteem and confidence and better integration into the community. (Moss 1990)

Life Skills is best taught within a structured programme in small groups. It should be timetabled into the curriculum as a subject in its own right so the

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children and their parents see it has equal value as mathematics or reading. The programme should cover each of the areas listed earlier and incorporate a variety of different activities both in school and out in the community at large. It is vital to include planning sessions and opportunities for discussions before and after community visits. A problem-based practical approach to the sessions is most effective. Mastery in Life Skills in their entirety or in part unlocks the key to independence for a special child. It also gives them something to be proud of and illustrates that there are things they can do at school, at home and in the community at large. The Special Educator should actively encourage participation in everyday practical activities both in their organisation and practical execution. Parents must be encouraged to continue in this vein at home wherever possible. Thus the concept of Life Skills as a stepping stone to greater independence will become integrated into the child’s thinking. Some ideas for activities relating to the development of Life Skills are given in the chapter titled ‘Tools for Classroom Activities’. This chapter has provided the reader with a deeper knowledge of the components and sequence of Normal Child Development in the physical, social, linguistic and cognitive domains. Consideration has also been given to the way in which a disability can impact the pace of development and learning of each developmental skill. It is hoped that the Special Educator will be able to apply and relate these principles in the assessment, planning, activity selection and teaching methods used to ensure that learning is purposeful, relevant and attainable for the children in their care.


Figure 2.2

Understanding the Cognitive Development of Special Children

Special children will require more one-on-one time and they should also be allowed more time and support to master new skills.

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Tools for Planning

3

The purpose of education for all children is the same. The goals are the same. The help individual children need in progressing towards them will be different. (Warnock Report 1978)

T

he issues relating to the disabilities and resulting needs of special children have been explored in the preceding chapter. However some of the most important decisions have to be made before they start going to school. This is when parents and other professionals have to identify the nature of the children’s disabilities and understand how these in turn will impact their ability to learn. This chapter explores what is involved in planning the education of special children. This process is a lengthy one and often commences before the children concerned reach school age. It is likely that the special children will be under the care of medical professionals and may have access to therapy services of various sorts. If it becomes evident that a child is struggling to meet developmental milestones, it is likely to generate discussions amongst parents and professionals as to what sort of education the child will access and in what setting. It is often a very emotional time for parents of special children as they may fear that their children will struggle unnecessarily and thus be deprived of a positive school experience. It is necessary for the parents and the team involved in the care of the child to start planning for the child’s educational future. For the Special Educators

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planning the education of the children in their care is multidimensional and must occur at each stage of the education process. The stages explored in this chapter include formulation of the Individual Education Plan, Classroom Management, Curriculum Design and Lesson Planning.

FORMULATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION PLAN The first stage in planning education for a child with special needs comes after his first few weeks at the school. It is at this point that the Special Educator and the team of associated professionals such as therapists and his parents need to draw up an Individual Education Plan (IEP). The Individual Education Plan (IEP) is a quasi contractual agreement to guide, orchestrate and document specially designed instruction for each student based on his or her unique academic, social and behavioural needs. (Smith 2000)

The IEP should be devised by a team of people who have the knowledge and skills related to the child’s disability and his racial and cultural background. The student for whom it is intended should also be involved in constructing the plan wherever possible. If the child is nervous about communicating formally to so many people, then information should be gathered from him at a separate venue and a statement of his own perception of his needs should be given to the team. It is important that sufficient time is allowed before this plan is drawn up as the child or student should be given opportunity to demonstrate his current level of aptitude in each subject or skill area. Smith (2000) advocates the need to establish a student’s level of progress and involvement in the general curriculum and how their disability influences this. This can be identified by the Special Educator through the Baseline Learning Needs Assessment as given at the end of the chapter titled ‘Tools to Educate Special Children’. This has been developed by the author in the hope that it will provide a useful framework from which to gather information for a child’s IEP.

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An Individual Education Plan is the cornerstone of Special Education. It describes the Special Educational and related services specifically designed to meet the unique educational needs of a student with a disability. (Küpper 2000)

The Parent Advocacy Coalition for Educational Rights gives some useful recommendations in the formulation of the IEP. It stipulates that the IEP must be a written document formulated by a team of people directly involved in the education of the child. The IEP should be based upon the needs of the child and the student concerned should make a contribution to the process. The IEP should also define what is to be taught and how. The reasons for formulation of the plan should be documented based on a thorough assessment of the student’s present skills. A plan of the child’s programme for learning and any modifications to the class or accommodation or special equipment needed to access the curriculum should also be noted. The IEP should be reviewed annually in conjunction with the statement. Küpper (2000) provides a useful framework for formulating an IEP. He advocates that the IEP should contain goals and objectives based on a student’s current level of educational performance. It should list goals and objectives. Objectives to achieve the goals should be specific so that they can be measured through observation of learning behaviours. The objectives should be sequential so there is a logical, developmental progression in the acquisition of new skills. They should be realistic and reflect the needs and abilities of the student concerned. They should be understandable and be mutually identified. An IEP can be an opportunity for parents and educators to work together as equal participants to identify the student’s needs. It is a commitment in writing of the resources the school agrees to provide. (Smith 2000)

The Ministry of Education in Ontario has developed standards for the development of coherent IEPs. The subheadings include: Name of Student Date of Birth Gender

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ID Number of Student Name of School Name of Principal Medical Conditions Therapy and Health Relevant Assessments Global Goal Goals and Objectives Therapy Goal Key Subjects Skill Areas Gross/Fine Motor Skills Perceptual/Cognitive Life Skills Social Interaction

An IEP has to be drawn up to ensure that a disabled child can access the curriculum with a positive outcome. These two tools also serve as useful stepping stones to aid the Special Educator in understanding the learning needs of the children in the class so they may plan effective lessons for them. It is also important to review the IEP to reflect any changing needs of the child from their functional, therapeutic or learning needs. Please refer to the end of this chapter for an IEP template based on the above framework.

THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM The IEP provides the school and Special Educator with the resources, learning and therapy needs of a special child. However, it is important that the school designs and implements a curriculum that can meet these needs. Ziviani and Muhlenhaupt (2006) define a learning curriculum as: A set course of study which relates to the structures and processes which are part of a school programme.

The nature and structure of a given curriculum is influenced by the school in which it will be implemented as also from a more political perspective. This is evident from the National Curriculum in the United Kingdom. In India

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also there is a National Curriculum which was developed in 1986. The Indian Institute of Cerebral Palsy (ICCP) developed the Curriculum Guidelines for Students with Multiple Disabilities in 1990. In general terms, the rationale for designing and implementing a curriculum lies in the fact that it is a framework used by schools to ensure that teaching and learning is equitable, balanced and consistent. A curriculum should contain programmes of study. These set out what pupils should be taught in each subject and the level of attainment. Each subject on the curriculum should have clearly defined attainment targets. The purpose of these targets is to outline the knowledge, skills and understanding which pupils will have on completion of that programme of study in that year. Teachers can then use the content of these as the backbone to plan and organise lessons. The advantages of designing and implementing a curriculum are many. Dutt (2000) conducted a survey to determine the effectiveness and impact of the Curriculum Guidelines for Students with Multiple Disabilities in India. The findings of the study revealed that implementation of the guidelines had a positive effect on teachers in terms of their teaching, classroom management, assessment and feedback and promoted transparency in learning. A curriculum helps to develop a uniform structured teaching programme throughout an organization, it facilitates the teaching and learning process and can result in a more holistic approach in teaching skills to children with special needs. (Dutt 2000)

Implementation of and adherence to a curriculum can also have a positive effect on Special Educators in terms of assessment and evaluation of their pupils’ progress. The assessment charts included in the curriculum framework for children with multiple disabilities provide a systematic and accurate record system resulting in greater ease in monitoring a student’s progress. Assessment in its broadest sense is a way of gaining an holistic view to a learner’s profile of strengths and needs in different learning contexts. The methods used must be sensitive to both the task demands and the response of the individual to them. (Tilstone and Layton 2004)

Furthermore Dutt (2000) identified an explicit link between use of a curriculum as a positive influence in forming meaningful IEP. She advocates

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that one of the main functions of the curriculum guidelines for children with multiple disabilities is: To provide basic knowledge and guidance to teachers, parents and community educators to help them formulate goals that are both functional and realistic to ensure Individual Education Plans are purposeful and effective. (Dutt 2000)

Resistance to implementation of and adherence to a curriculum can occur due to a number of reasons. One of these may arise from a lack of understanding of the concept and value of a curriculum. This may be the case for Special Educators from rural areas who are more likely to work in isolation with fewer students. The restriction of limited resources can often be a reason why some Special Educators may choose to continue to use their own methods of determining what subjects students with special needs should be taught. This may result in a rather narrow curriculum which is restricted to reading, writing and rhetoric and therefore limit the children’s exposure to subjects such as history, geography, science and physical education. In addition, some may argue that rigid adherence to a set of guidelines, which have been devised from a political standpoint, restrict the freedom of Special Educators in the ways and means they use to educate the children in their care. Further objection may be felt in that structuring the education system in this way will result in greater accountability and force Special Educators to reflect on the quality of the education they provide for special children. However, the curriculum guidelines for children with multiple disabilities have a functional emphasis and encompass many learning domains. These include early learning skills, language and communication, self-care, physical ability training, functional academics and life skills education. So while any change in educating special children can generate a ‘mixed bag of blessings’ it is important to remember that: The curriculum is dynamic and encourages users to be more reflective and innovative giving them freedom to adapt and modify it to meet individual needs. (Dutt 2000)

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Figure 3.1

Planning and Designing an Appropriate Curriculum

The curriculum is dynamic and encourages users to be more reflective and innovative giving them freedom to adapt and modify it to meet individual needs. (Dutt 2000)

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT The next stage of planning (and arguably one of the most important for the Special Educator) relates to the sort of environment to create and provide for the children in their care. It is therefore essential that a Special Educator allocates sufficient time to design and plan the layout and contents of the classroom. The classroom is the principal learning environment a child with special needs will be exposed to throughout the school day. Others may include the playground and therapy gym. Therefore it is important that the environment is accessible, attractive and welcoming to its members. This concept is often referred to as the ‘climate’ of a classroom which is defined as:

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The mood or atmosphere is created in the teacher’s classroom, through the ground rules, the way the teacher interacts with pupils and the way the physical environment is set out. (Frieberg and Stein [1999]; Creemers and Reezigt [1999])

Freiberg and Stein (1999) advocate that classroom climate is a multifaceted concept where the interactions between the teacher and pupils are of prime importance if a constructive classroom atmosphere is to be achieved. Borich (1996) identifies three types of classrooms. These are competitive, cooperative and individualistic. In a competitive classroom, the authority lies solely with the teacher and the pupils adopt a competitive approach to give the right answer or to attain standards. It is widely recognised that an element of competition can be motivating and stimulate achievement. However for those with special needs too much emphasis on competition may result in loss of confidence and reduction in self-esteem. In a co-operative classroom, pupils are encouraged to engage in dialogues amongst themselves and with the teacher to develop their own ideas and relationships. This kind of environment lends itself to group work to a greater extent, thus developing creative, communicative and collaborative pupils. This environment may also fall victim to over-confident participants. Order can be harder to maintain if left for too long without sufficient guidance to focus on ideas and thinking on the part of the teacher. If a classroom climate is individualistic pupils are left to work independently through given tasks and to develop their own answers to problems. The teacher will set the work and make sure that it is completed in an orderly manner. Any ideas generated from group work will be restricted to that particular group and not shared with the class as a whole. The art of co-operation and development of social skills is less likely to occur in such an environment. Furthermore, it is questionable whether such an environment would be suitable for children with special needs. This is because such an atmosphere may not lend itself to supporting those students who may be unable to work alone due to the extent of their physical or cognitive disabilities. Creation and maintenance of a suitable classroom environment is one of the chief responsibilities of the Special Educator. A competent teacher should be able to create and manage a classroom where there is sound learning and discipline. The atmosphere within the classroom should be purposeful and task

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orientated within an ethos that promotes positive and productive relationships. Above all, the pupils should feel safe, secure and confident within an environment that supports learning through well-focused teaching (Department of Education and Employment 1997). In addition to an inviting classroom climate, the Special Educator also needs to give consideration to its layout and design or the ‘FACE’ of the classroom. The way in which a classroom is set up is likely to have a direct influence on the nature and range of teaching and learning strategies that are adopted in it. When reflecting on how a classroom may be designed and constructed it may help to focus on the principles contained in the following mnemonic. The ‘FACE’ of a classroom should be: Functional Attractive Clean Empowering

Kyriacou (1998) advocates that the classroom design and layout should be functional and reflect and serve the teaching and learning that takes place within it. Thought should be given as to whether the pupils will be organised in specific groups according to ability, mixed ability or mixed age composition. For children with special needs, it is likely that a classroom with a more ‘open’ layout would suffice. This is because the greater the amount of space such a layout may provide the more it is likely to enable a more flexible approach to learning. This may be beneficial from a physical, functional and logistical point of view as special children often require additional support staff and special equipment to get the most from their learning experience. This approach can also be transposed to the classroom environment. Optimum conditions to stimulate learning should exist. A safe environment should be created for the children where they know their boundaries and understand the rules under which they work. Children have to feel safe and affirmed before optimum learning can take place. The sights, sounds, smells, tastes and tactile sensations children experience trigger memory. Therefore the classroom should provide stimuli to activate and engage the children as well as sensations to fix the learning in the children’s memories. Ways to achieve this could include changing wall displays regularly,

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as well as making the classroom textured and colourful to provoke the interest of the children. Muijs and Reynolds (2005) make an explicit link between classroom appearance and classroom climate. Bright, colourful classroom displays can stimulate peripheral learning for the pupils. Furthermore, creating wall displays of work the pupils have generated will instill in them a greater sense of pride about the contributions they have made to the class as a whole. The pupils themselves should be actively involved in decisions relating to classroom layout and design in ways that are important to them as this is more likely to make them feel valued and involved. This process is just as important for children with special needs who also take immense pride in their achievements. The processes used by the Special Educator to facilitate expression of their pupils’ choices for the design and layout of their learning environment may be more time consuming. In addition, creative ways to identify these children’s preferences for their classroom need to be identified and implemented. It should not be assumed that children with disabilities are not interested in making such choices just because they may exhibit significant difficulties in doing so.

ESTABLISH A BASE LINE OF EXISTING SKILLS AND LEARNING NEEDS The principal foundation in generating positive learning experiences for special children and thus releasing their own potential lies in preparing for and planning their lessons. In order for lessons to be effective, the Special Educator needs to establish and understand the existing skills and learning needs of the children in their care. Any modifications to the class or accommodation, or special equipment needed to access the curriculum, should also be considered. This aspect of planning could be captured within a Base Line Learning Needs Assessment. This tool also serves as a useful stepping stone to aid the Special Educator in understanding the learning needs of the children in the class so they may plan effective lessons for them. The following pages provide the Special Educator with a Base Line Learning Needs Assessment template to aid planning, identifying and establishing a base line of learning needs for the children in their care.

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The Base Line Learning Needs Assessment should be conducted by a team of people who have knowledge and skills related to the child’s disability or racial or cultural background. The student for whom it is intended should also be involved in constructing the plan wherever possible. If the individual is nervous about communicating formally to so many people then information should be gathered from him/her at a separate venue and a statement of his own perception of his needs should be given to the team. It is important that sufficient time is allowed before this plan is drawn up as the child or student should be given opportunity to demonstrate his current level of aptitude in each subject or skill area. Smith (2000) advocates it is necessary to establish a student’s level of progress and involvement in the general curriculum and how their disability influences this. This can be identified by the Special Educator by carrying out the Base Line Learning Needs Assessment as shown at the end of this chapter. This has been developed by the author as a framework to gather sufficient information to meet the learning needs and objectives of the child. The Assessment of Learning Needs should be a working document and based on a thorough assessment of the student’s present level of educational performance. The Assessment should be reviewed on an annual basis alongside the IEP in conjunction with the child’s parents and other team members involved in his care. The Learning Targets should be clearly identified. Objectives to achieve these goals should be specific so that they can be measured through observation of learning behaviours. The objectives should be sequential so there is a logical, developmental progression in the acquisition of new skills. They should be realistic and reflect the needs and abilities of the student concerned. They should be understandable and be mutually identified. Reference should be made to the curriculum to ensure transparency and clarity in learning for the child, his parents and the Special Educator alike.

LESSON PLANNING There is much more involved in teaching special children than just a few exercise books, a chalk and blackboard and a few work sheets generated on an

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Base Line Learning Assessment

The purpose of this tool is to provide the Special Educator with a picture of the child’s current needs and abilities in all respects. It is designed to aid the Special Educator in understanding the level of ability of the child so that appropriate learning targets may be identified and implemented. Name:

Age:

Summary of Present Condition: Sensory Function/Impairment: Current Level of Mobility: Current Level of Self-Care: Posture:

Speech:

Hand Function: Concentration:

Attention Span:

Social Skills: Current Reading Level: Current Writing Ability: Anticipated Learning Needs: Learning Targets: Therapy Needs: Plan: Review Date:

ad hoc basis during the lesson itself. It is necessary for the Special Educator to unlock his or her own creativity to achieve success. Lessons need to be planned to be successful within a framework that provides a structure yet allows for a degree of flexibility. A useful tool, titled Lesson Plan, is given at the end of this chapter. This can be easily duplicated. Lesson plans should be practical, clear, concise workable documents that aid the teacher’s memory as the direction and structure of the lesson. (Butt 2006)

It is widely recognised that human beings engage in an activity if it is purposeful or holds meaning for them. Likewise, lessons should be purposeful for the children for whom they are designed and taught in such a way that they

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hold meaning for them. Many special children find it hard to ‘pay attention’ in class so are less likely to retain information taught to them very readily. In preparing lessons for them it is necessary to consider their current learning abilities and the purpose or aims of the lesson. These should be defined in the first instance as they will serve as a useful trigger to inspire the Special Educator to focus thinking to a greater degree. It will also aid defining the skeleton of the lesson. The next part is to consider how the aims will be achieved. This is established in the formulation of objectives. Objectives are tools which the educator can use to break down the aims into bite size pieces. Here it is necessary to state exactly what will be achieved at the end of the lesson, under what conditions and to what level of complexity. It should be noted that it is only by setting objectives that the lesson will become purposeful. They also serve as a useful tool for the Special Educator to measure the progress of the children and to evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching and learning approaches he or she has selected. The teacher should have clear objectives for the lesson and activities should engage, motivate and challenge students enabling them to progress. (Tolley et al. 1996)

The material of the lesson should be taught using a variety of activities and teaching mediums. It is always a good idea to use a warm-up activity in order to engage the children and to gain their motivation and trust. This also forms a part of creating the safe environment for learning that is very important. This is particularly important for special children as they often cannot readily define their own social boundaries and behaviours. The warm-up introduces the children to the main body of learning for that lesson. Careful consideration should be given to the main body of the lesson at the planning stage. Most thought should go into this section of the lesson in the planning stage. It is important to have a structure here and list the activities and work that are to be covered. Consider each objective and create an activity around it. Remember that here it is not just about covering the learning concepts required in the syllabus, but lessons must also meet the needs and satisfy the interests of the participants. It is necessary for the Special Educator to remember and consider the physical and social abilities of the children concerned.

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Special children are special because of their needs. They are special because they too have ability to learn. We must remember their ways of doing and being and fit our teaching around them, not demand they adapt to suit us.

It is at the planning stage that the Special Educator must consider the complexity of the activities to be used. Participation is the name of the game— participation to generate a sense of achievement, as isolation for a special child will only lead to frustration. Consider grading the same activity to suit all abilities within the class or adapting the way it is carried out so that all may participate to their levels of ability. Consider using a variety of activities where different sensory modalities come into play to account for the fact that not every child will present with the same learning style. List on the lesson plan the time scales for each activity not forgetting to incorporate a short break. Preparation is also the key to the success of lessons as then the Special Educator reduces the need to think on his or her feet. Thinking on feet is necessary at times when the unexpected occurs and disrupts the flow of the lesson. It helps to maintain the flow of the lesson if the educator knows what is coming next. Therefore in the lesson plan list the activities that require advance preparation, for example worksheets or art activities and allow time to complete this prior to the lesson concerned. Take time to identify the materials and resources required and list them as this also will assist to focus preparation prior to your lesson. Evaluation comes after the Special Educator has completed the lesson. This is an essential part of any Special Educator’s teaching as it is only after evaluation and reflection that the teacher concerned can measure the effectiveness of the lesson. Marlowe and Page (2005) support this view and advocate that evaluation also looks at what parts of the lesson may need to be adapted, changed or developed. This is achieved through self-reflection about lesson delivery, class response to activities used, whether approaches selected produced desired learning outcomes and whether the children retained pertinent facts relating to the subject matter and most of all if they enjoyed themselves. While this exercise could be perceived to demand more time on the part of the Special Educator, it will over time provide a substantial portfolio of activities and learning approaches that they know will work well for the

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children (Butt 2006). It will not be so necessary to think of what to teach. Rather more energy can be devoted to refining how to deliver the material most effectively to special children. This is after all the essence of what Special Education represents. Figure 3.2

Classroom Management for Special Children

The teacher should have clear objectives for the lesson and activities should engage, motivate and challenge students enabling them to progress. (Tolley et al. 1996)

This chapter has illustrated the importance of planning education for special children. It has presented the planning process as a tiered system and examined the contribution of the Individual Education Plan, the Curriculum, the Classroom and the Lesson Plan to this process. Recognition has been given to the fact that adherence to such a system may result in greater need for resources in terms of time, manpower and organisation and may compromise the creativity and autonomy of some. However, it can be argued that the benefits of planning special education within a more focused approach will enhance quality of provision, result in better learning outcomes and increase the reputation of an organisation. But, above all, planning the education of children with special needs is bound to generate a more positive educational experience for them, providing

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structure, clarity and a sense of direction around which they can focus their goals, achievements and ambitions. Special Education is a vocation not just an occupation. We must approach our children with understanding focusing not on what they cannot do, but encouraging them in all that they want to do.

Lesson Plan

Subject: Aim: Learning Objectives: Activities: Preparation before Lesson: Materials/Resources Required: Evaluation:

Class:

Tools to Educate Special Children

T

4

he task of educating special children is an art, not just a science that can be learned on a course, from a text book or by observation. Success comes when the educator is able to identify and understand the needs of the child, assess the current abilities, select a suitable learning approach and provide a timetable of study that generates positive and productive learning experiences which in turn release the potential the child possesses. The purpose of this chapter is to explore the theories of learning and to advocate that every child learns new things in their own unique way. This will be demonstrated by a discussion of the different learning theories and styles children adopt and how a Special Educator can modify lessons to accommodate this. The second part of the chapter will examine specific educational strategies that can be used with children with Multiple Disabilities, Hearing Impairment, Visual Impairment and Autism to aid facilitation of their learning. In order to identify the current learning needs of special children and to discover their character, their history and their interests, it is necessary to build a rapport with them. The first place to gather this information is their parents and other people involved in their care such as therapists, doctors or anyone who holds a significant place in their lives. It is only after discovering the background of the children can one fully understand the roots of the learning they have already done. It will also serve as a useful starting point to build cooperation with parents and other family members


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so that they too can be partners and active participants in the education of their children. It is important to erase any prejudice such as parents may not be able to contribute to the learning process due to lack of understanding of the children’s presenting condition. Moreover in these cases it is necessary for the Special Educator to think creatively about how to practically illustrate the learning goals. Consultation with therapists will increase understanding about how the present disabilities affect the children every day and where the children are likely to experience difficulties in learning or require extra time to grasp some aspects of the given subjects. Disabilities carry with them secondary problems which in turn can impair a child’s ability to learn. These include perceptual deficit and sensory impairments of hearing, vision or touch. Behavioural difficulties such as hyperactivity, concentration deficit and attention problems can also be present. Many children with physical disabilities often suffer from fatigue as the sheer effort involved in mobility can be overwhelming. THEORIES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING It is widely recognised that every child responds to tasks presented to them in their own unique way. Special children are no exception but their learning needs can often be more complex. Therefore it is paramount that the Special Educator has a sound understanding of the learning styles, preferences and approaches human beings adopt, so that the curriculums and lessons they design, plan and deliver will meet the needs of their class members. The quest to understand the origins and reasons behind the ways human beings engage in learning is an evolving science. A working knowledge of the founders of this discipline and their ideas will enable the Special Educator to generate grounded lessons and adopt teaching strategies which are multidimensional, informed, varied and creative. Learning as a concept has been described and defined from a multitude of different angles. From a theoretical perspective, the way an individual learns has been explored in terms of approaches—namely cognitive, behavioural or humanistic. Conversely, learning has also been presented by some as an experimental notion. Other theorists have categorised learning in terms

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Figure 4.1

The Importance of Personal and Professional Development of the Special Educator

It is paramount that the Special Educator has a sound understanding of the learning styles, preferences and approaches human beings adopt, so that the curriculums and lessons they design, plan and deliver will meet the needs of their class members.

of domains. Furthermore, the notion that each individual has his own unique learning style is also well documented. APPROACHES TO LEARNING An Exploration of Cognitive Theories The term cognition describes thinking and the mental processes this involves. Components of cognition include memory, sequencing, ability to solve problems, process information and utilise higher level executive skills. Executive skills involve combined use of memory and problem solving


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to tackle complex functional tasks. Examples of these may be following directions, constructing a model from a set of written instructions and managing money. The rationale behind this learning theory is the belief that while it is not possible to visualise the mind, a greater understanding of how it works will permit the Special Educator to create environments that enable learning. Individuals who approach learning from a cognitive perspective do so in the following ways. Kohler (1970) identified Gestalt theory which advocates that people learn by arranging information in meaningful patterns in an attempt to ‘see the wood from the trees’. This supports the view that if a human being can find meaning in an idea that holds significance for him, it will aid recall and application for them. Lewin (1958) builds on this concept of patterning in the construction of his field theory. Here it is believed that the individual constructs patterns of new knowledge around existing experiences so that new knowledge can be ‘attached to’ something that is already known. According to Bigge and Shermis (2003), the ingredients within an effective recipe of teaching strategies for cognitive learners should include the use of overviews which focus on the ‘fundamentals’ of a given concept or idea. This is said to prevent over processing of information and to allow learners to create a picture in their minds about the material presented to them. Cognitive learners also benefit from activities that promote problem solving and are less inspired by rote learning as problem solving encourages a greater amount of mental processing. They also like to examine tasks and activities from many angles. So lessons should give equal attention to the skills involved in a task as well as its content. Learning environments and teaching strategies that adopt this approach in isolation may be at risk of creating learners who are detached and are too academic in their approach that it fails to accommodate the need for them to demonstrate how the new knowledge they have acquired can be applied to a given situation. Furthermore, this bias towards mental processing and patterning may also result in a lack of ‘emotional attachment’ to the material presented (Snowman and Biehler 2005).

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An Exploration of Behavioural Theories The origins of behavioural learning lie in the belief that a new skill has been learned when the behaviours surrounding it can be observed and measured in the individual concerned. Watson (1913) supported this view in his research which found that learning occurs when a measured observation of modified behaviour is noted as being the response to a previous stimulus. Other key theorists in this field include Pavlov, Skinner and Bandura. Within this framework, teaching need only to focus on the conditions where the learning is to take place. This is how learners’ behaviour can be modified, observed and measured. In the classroom this approach can be applied by creating situations where learners can observe required behaviours. Activities should be broken down into smaller operations and their outcomes generate results that can be easily measured. Furthermore this approach advocates the use of positive and negative re-enforcement in the form of rewards as a means to instil motivation to learn. A common application of this could be the use of star charts for good behaviour, a house point system and prizes for good conduct or high achievement in given subjects or skills. A possible weakness of this approach to learning could lie in its overemphasis in what a learner can accomplish as well as its adherence to the more external elements of learning such as prizes and grades as apposed to the internal drive to learn which is inherent in everyone. It also omits to consider how an individual may process and attach meaning to information presented to him.

An Exploration of Humanist Theories This approach to learning focuses on the individual and what drives him to engage in the learning processes. It recognises the importance and attempts to foster and develop the existing skills and inherent potential of the individual concerned. The philosophy of this approach advocates that learners benefit most from learning experiences when they can ‘invest themselves’ in the


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subject or concept under consideration. It also advocates the idea of selfdirected learning where the learner is less dependent on the teacher for direction. This approach contradicts behavioural ideas as it is more about what a student has gained from participating in a learning activity or a course of study as apposed to the grades or achievements accomplished. A significant weakness of this approach lies in its seemingly automatic assumption that every learner is naturally self-directed and benefits from dialogues about his own feelings about the subject or concept under examination. Furthermore, such a learner-centred approach to study may give learners greater freedom which in turn could create difficulty for the school or institution to measure the effectiveness and efficiency of their learning programmes.

DOMAINS OF LEARNING Bloom (1956) categorised the goals of educational activities into three separate domains. These are contained in his Taxonomy of Learning. These were the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. The cognitive domain relates to the acquisition of knowledge. The affective domain relates to attitudes and feelings evoked by the material under consideration and the psychomotor element is concerned with the acquisition of skills that match a particular task. This taxonomy was originally designed for teachers in Higher Education but can be useful for Special Educators as it may provide them with a balanced framework around which to design classroom activities. Application of the principles within this taxonomy is likely to ensure a more balanced learning experience and outcome. This is because changes in knowledge, skills and attitudes of participants can be provided, measured and assessed. Clark (2007) provides a useful summary of each domain and its sub-skills which may provide a useful focus point when designing curriculums and planning lessons for special children (Tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3). The categories are broken down into degrees of difficulty which means an individual has to master the skills in the order they appear.

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Table 4.1 Category Knowledge: Recall data or information.

The Cognitive Domain Examples and Key Words

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules. Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognises, reproduces, selects, states.

Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one’s own words.

Examples: Rewrite the principles of test writing. Explain in one’s own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.

Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Apply what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the workplace.

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee’s vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test.

Analysis: Separate material or concepts into component parts so that its organisational structure may be understood. Distinguish between facts and inferences.

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognise logical fallacies in reasoning. Gather information from a department and select the required tasks for training.

Synthesis: Build a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.

Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revise and process to improve the outcome.

Evaluation: Make judgements about the value of ideas or materials.

Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.

Source: Clark (2007).

Key Words: Comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalises, gives examples, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarises, translates.

Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.

Key Words: analyses, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.

Key Words: categorises, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organises, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganises, revises, rewrites, summarises, tells, writes.

Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticises, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarises, supports.


Table 4.2 Category

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The Affective Domain Examples and Key Words

Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.

Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.

Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attend and react to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasise compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).

Examples: Participate in class discussions. Give presentations. Question new ideals, concepts, models, etc., in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them.

Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behaviour. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalisation of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner’s overt behaviour and are often identifiable.

Examples: Demonstrate belief in the democratic process. Sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Show the ability to solve problems. Propose a plan to social improvement and follow through with commitment. Inform management on matters that one feels strongly about.

Organisation: Organise values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating a unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating and synthesising values.

Examples: Recognises the need for balance between freedom and responsible behaviour. Accept responsibility for one’s behaviour. Explain the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accept professional ethical standards. Create a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritise time effectively to meet the needs of the organisation, family and self.

Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.

Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.

Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.

Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalises, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organises, prepares, relates, synthesises. Internalising Values (characterisation): Have a value system that controls their behaviour. The behaviour is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student’s general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional). Source: Clark (2007).

Examples: Show self-reliance when working independently. Cooperate in group activities (display teamwork). Use an objective approach in problem solving. Display a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revise judgements and change behaviour in light of new evidence. Value people for what they are, not how they look. Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

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Table 4.3

The Psychomotor Domain

Category Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation through cue selection to translation.

Examples and Key Words Examples: Detect non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjust heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjust the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet. Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.

Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person’s response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).

Examples: Know and act upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognise one’s abilities and limitations. Show desire to learn a new process (motivation). Note: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related to the ‘Responding to phenomena’ subdivision of the Affective Domain. Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.

Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.

Examples: Perform a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follow instructions to build a model. Respond to hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift. Key Words: copies, traces, follows, reacts, reproduces, responds.

Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.

Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car.

Complex Overt Response: The skilful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.

Examples: Manoeuvre a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operate a computer quickly and accurately. Display competence while playing the piano.

Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organises, sketches.

Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organises, sketches. Note: The key words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc. (Table 4.3 continued)


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(Table 4.3 continued) Category

Examples and Key Words

Adaptation: Skills are well developed and Examples: Respond effectively to unexpected the individual can modify movement experiences. Modify instruction to meet the needs patterns to fit special requirements. of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task). Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganises, revises, varies. Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasise creativity based upon highly developed skills.

Examples: Construct a new theory. Develop a new and comprehensive training programming. Create a new gymnastic routine. Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.

Source: Clark (2007).

LEARNING STYLES A learning style is the preferred way an individual processes information or their typical mode of thinking, problem solving or remembering a given task or skill. Munford and Peter (1986) were interested in the ways individuals approach their learning. They identified four different learning styles. They called these the activist, the theorist, the pragmatist and the reflector.

The Activist The activists thrive in an environment where they are given opportunities to take direct action and think on their feet. They welcome new challenges and experiences. They often make themselves the centre of attention and will be willing to try out new ideas and activities. They find it harder to reflect on past experience or to place new knowledge in its wider context. They benefit from variety in lessons and like it best when they are actively involved in activities to facilitate learning.

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The Theorist The theorists like to make links and patterns from the material presented to them. They benefit most when the material they are asked to learn is presented to them in a logical, sequential way. They like to take an analytical approach to material presented to them and welcome a detailed explanation of the wider context of its origins. In short, these learners are intellectual perfectionists.

The Pragmatist The pragmatic learners have a practical bias in the way they approach learning tasks and the material set before them. They respond well to role models they trust and adopt techniques or methods that have been consistently proven to work. They welcome opportunities to practice the skills they have learned and they enjoy solving problems. These learners tend to shy away from a theoretical approach to learning and need practical examples to help develop and consolidate understanding of tasks, ideas and concepts.

The Reflector The reflective learners like to think about things in detail before they take action. This is mirrored in their approach to work when they prefer to make decisions about a course of action or choice in their own time. They tend to ‘take a back seat’ in class utilising their observation and listening skills to a greater extent. They enjoy talking through processes and evaluating the effectiveness of their learning. They enjoy project work and have no difficulty repeating the same piece of work to consolidate or improve their results or knowledge base. In order to educate special children effectively, a Special Educator needs to identify the range of learning styles and approaches that the class members adopt and demonstrate. This knowledge and understanding should then be


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applied when planning and designing lessons to suit them. It is impossible to meet every learning need in every lesson. Therefore a range of activities which match the learning styles of the collective group should be utilised. Further exploration of lesson planning is provided in the chapter titled ‘Tools for Planning’. The following pages explore some strategies a Special Educator can use in the classroom to educate special children, namely reading and numeracy. When consideration is given to the way a Special Educator is going to teach these fundamental skills to children with special needs, it is important to access knowledge of the components of normal child development alongside utilisation of some of the learning theories explored earlier in this chapter. The rationale for this dual approach to teaching lies in the need to establish Figure 4.2 Differentiation of the Curriculum

The sharpest arrow in the Special Educator’s bow is an innate belief that these children have the potential and ability to learn and succeed in the tasks placed before them.

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the level of ‘learning readiness’ a child with special needs exhibits within a particular skill, subject or discipline.

STRATEGIES TO ENABLE SPECIAL CHILDREN TO MASTER THE ART OF NUMERACY Special children are much more likely to experience difficulties in the manipulation, understanding and application of numbers. This can be due to the nature of their hidden disabilities as much as their primary diagnosis. For example, in the case of Cerebral Palsy, the more obvious motor problems may impede on the child’s ability to count on their fingers, manipulate objects or write numbers and order their work in a legible format. These obstacles combined with a sensory handicap in vision or hearing will lead to the need to finding an alternative means to demonstrate and communicate understanding. For those with sensory handicaps, it is important that the Special Educator utilises teaching techniques and activities which match their preferred sensory modality. Westwood (1993) identifies that for children with hearing impairment, a visual representation of number is preferable. This is because comprehension of numerical terms and solving mathematical problems presented in words can be problematic if the terms and concepts are not fully comprehended. The need for these children to transfer the use and application of number principles and practices into real life experience is paramount. This coupled with more time and regular revision should bring about positive results. Furthermore, the developmental sequence of children with special needs is almost certainly disrupted as a result of the impact of their disabilities on their ability to explore and learn from the world around them. This will lead to a limited awareness of basic concept of more basic spatial concepts of number such as ‘greater than’, and ‘smaller than’. Also appreciation of size and quantity and form constancy may be impaired or absent due to deficits in perception or cognition. In addition number terms, concepts and applications are quite complex in origin and therefore demand abstract thought to attain full understanding of their operations.


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It may be necessary for the Special Educator to revisit other more concrete learning skills of the children in their care in order to consolidate understanding of number. A key skill for the mastery of number in this regard is Conservation. This relates to an individual’s ability to recognise that a number remains the same regardless of its presentation. Children with perceptual or learning difficulties often struggle with this idea and can use tallys or fingers to count out to ensure accuracy. Pre-number activities such as sorting and matching activities, playing dominoes and counting games provide the foundations for the mastery of conservation. For those children with learning disabilities such as Downs Syndrome and Autism, this area of learning can pose problems and take more time to master because these children comprehend the world in concrete terms. While children with autism often enjoy the idea of rote learning numbers and facts, the level of their understanding behind their meaning often comes into question. Seach (1998) identifies that autistic children can encounter problems in understanding sequencing of numbers and advocates that the teacher helps them create a visual understanding of the problems under investigation. This should be further supported with a practical application rather than a problem solving approach to number. The Special Educator also needs to give considered thought and time as to how to present number activities to these children in terms of how they should be executed and recorded. Children with visual impairment will require materials that access their tactile sense. These may include match sticks to count with, a number line made from materials they can feel and identify. Use of a computer as a means to record work or practice number skills should never be overlooked. This is because: Students with learning disabilities can gain confidence in creating, editing and publishing their own unique material through a medium which holds their attention and is infinitely patient. (Westwood 2003)

The programme of teaching of numeracy should be carefully sequenced and be delivered in a systematic way. The Special Educator should consider the characteristics of the learners, the variables of the tasks and their own attributes to ensure success.

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STRATEGIES TO ENABLE SPECIAL CHILDREN MASTER THE SKILL OF READING Since the beginning of civilisation as we know it, the ability to read has been regarded as a measure of education, a symbol of respect and a catalyst to independence. Not so long ago, some children with special needs were considered to be ‘educationally subnormal’ and it was assumed that they did not have the capabilities or the desire to read. Today, it is a common belief that every child has the right to an education tailored to meet and accommodate their own needs. The discipline of reading is no exception. But consideration must be given to the way children with special needs are taught this vital skill. Westwood (1993) provides comfort in the fact that there is no one method, medium, approach or philosophy that holds the monopoly on learning to read. He advocates that a teacher should know a range of techniques to help those with problems in this area most effectively. Gillet and Barnard (1989) suggest that a reading programme should be tailored to the needs of the individual for whom it is intended. Developmental principles provide a useful framework that the Special Educator can adopt when teaching reading. Pre-reading activities that can be utilised to introduce these children to books and reading may include story telling, reading them a story at the end of the school day as a ‘wind down’ activity. It is also important to introduce these children to picture books and provide them with opportunities to communicate what they see. This is a leader to matching pictures with words. Reading is a complex activity which demands an appreciation and correct application of what the word or sentence means (semantics) as well as its grammatical context (syntax). But one of the most important skills of any reader is his ability to match the way a word sounds (its phonics) while recognising its appearance. This is because the art of reading demands three component skills. The first is letter recognition, followed by word recognition. The act of reading aloud also involves the sounding and building of words. A thorough assessment of the children’s reading ability is vital for finding the route to help them achieve competence and confidence in reading. This can be achieved by implementing a number of simple measures. The first is to hear the child read aloud. From this it is possible for the Special Educator


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to judge the performance with reference to four domains. Westwood (1993) describes these performance areas to be expression, comprehension, fluency and word attack. Word attack refers to a child’s ability to ‘sound out’ a word. The outcome of this assessment should aid the Special Educators in their diagnosis of the areas of difficulty and devise a reading programme to address them. For children with visual and neurological impairments reading poses a number of significant challenges. These are largely due to the demands that are inherent in reading successfully. The first is the need to consistently recognise patterns and forms. Also the level and experience of language that these children already possess may be limited if they have not been exposed to or are still trying to identify reliable methods of communication. This is particularly true for children with Cerebral Palsy who may also experience difficulties articulating speech sounds or have receptive language difficulties. Some children with significant visual impairment may opt to learn Braille. For those with partial sight, the Special Educator will need to find ways to present material in larger print in colour combinations that promote greater contrast. The use of pastel colours as background can also help reduce glare. These children will also favour a phonic approach to reading. For children who are non-speaking or hearing impaired the use of sign language, makaton or wordbooks can be used to aid their grasp of this essential skill. Seach (1998) advocates children with autism welcome learning activities when they are presented through a visual medium. However, language development and expression of ideas for these children is often very concrete in its content. Therefore it is important for the Special Educator to place any activities such as naming objects in their functional context. This is because an over-reliance on the spoken word can prove detrimental for these children. A structured step-by-step approach is more favourable in this case. The voyage to mastery of reading is a journey unique to each individual. No child with special needs will tackle it or achieve it in the same way. However, motivation is a key factor in this process. The approaches to teaching reading are numerous and include phonics—sounding out the words, look and say (flash cards) and the language-experience method which encourages children to tell stories based on common experiences and then learn to write, spell and read the words that come out of the process.

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There is also some truth in the adage that the level of mastery in any skill depends on the way it is taught. With this in mind Westwood (1993) provides a useful list of attributes that any successful reading teacher should possess. He advocates that reading teachers should adopt an approach that is underpinned by empathy and enthusiasm. They should also strike a balance between encouraging their pupils to read for pleasure in addition to fulfilling the requirements of the curriculum. Reading should be taught alongside handwriting and spelling and extra help in auditory training should be given to children who may need it. Last but by no means the least, the Special Educator must recognise that mastery of such a complex task will take significantly longer for special children so an attitude of persistence coupled with a spirit of patience is essential. Furthermore, the Special Educator must also work in partnership and collaboration with the parents of the children in their care. The importance of placing reading and numeracy in their everyday functional contexts has been illustrated here. Parents like teachers are ambassadors for their children. So it stands to reason that their involvement in the process to mastery of reading and number skills should be acknowledged. Additional advice in the domain of reading may also be sought from a Speech and Language Therapist. They will also be able to advise on the developmental process of reading and give more detailed information about the development of language. An Occupational Therapist can also advise about the perceptual elements of functional skills such as reading and number. Educating special children is indeed a great art which demands its practitioners view the children they teach from a multitude of perspectives. It is necessary to apply the theories of learning and combine these with a working knowledge of normal child development. The tools to educate these very special children consist of an ability to synthesise this knowledge base with a practical understanding of how any given impairment will impact upon a child’s ability to learn. However the sharpest arrow on the Special Educator’s bow is an innate belief that these children have the potential and ability to learn and succeed in the tasks placed before them.

Tools for Learning

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T

he chapter entitled ‘Tools to Educate Special Children’ described how children with special educational needs learn in different ways. It highlighted some of the practical difficulties they may have and offered different approaches the Special Educator could use to present and teach learning material. This chapter is concerned with providing the Special Educator with practical tools to enable the children to understand and apply new skills without frustration. The tools given relate particularly to teaching elementary concepts such as number, shape, time and money values. Some practical aids to reduce the impact of visual difficulties upon reading are also included. An outline of the aims, objectives and rationale for these devices is given along with instructions about how to make them from materials that are low cost and easily available. A blank template has also been included to provide opportunity for the Special Educator to develop his own tools for learning using a similar framework. Within the template there is a section marked ‘Scope for Differentiation’. Differentiation can be defined as: A way of thinking and learning that values the individual that can be translated into the classroom in many ways. (Tomlinson 2000)

As the definition implies there is an inherent need on the part of the Special Educator to know the learning needs and abilities of the children

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being taught. This is so as to reduce their given difficulties in practical ways so that the material may be adapted or made different to maximise the learning potential in the child. It is important to remember that there is no given recipe for differentiation and that it must be tailored around the needs of the individual child. This can be done best by conducting a thorough assessment of a child’s learning needs. A useful framework for this can be found in the chapter entitled ‘Tools for Planning’ earlier in this book. The assessment form is called Base Line Learning Needs Assessment and the use of this enables the Special Educator to build-up a picture of the child’s leaning needs. Students are more successful in learning if the teaching used is responsive to their learning readiness and learning profiles. (Winebrenner 1996)

Assessment is a crucial foundation in successful differentiation because: Assessment is ongoing and tightly linked to instruction where the teacher can glean information relating to student readiness that helps plan the next steps in instruction. (Tomlinson 2000)

Then it is necessary for the Special Educator to turn to the lesson itself and consider how its components may be adjusted or altered to ensure that it responds to the learning readiness and learning profiles of the students it is designed for. This can be done by reflecting upon the following factors. Content What material does the lesson contain, what are the aims and objectives and is it likely that some of the children in the class will struggle to find meaning from the facts presented if done in the conventional way? Learning material should be presented in a way that is meaningful and valuable to everyone. Concept At what cognitive level is this lesson being taught? Is it possible to present the same material on a more concrete and simpler level than just assuming that every child can grasp the principles of the subject matter in an abstract form?

Tools for Learning

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Complexity Is it possible to present the same material in a variety of ways so that those who learn more quickly can work at a faster pace than those who do not? This is important so that everyone remains motivated and learning remains a positive and productive experience irrespective of individual capabilities. The complexity of material can be graded as a child demonstrates aptitude in a given skill. This should be done in a manner that matches his own learning style. Collaboration This relates to the level of assistance a child may need either from a peer or from a classroom assistant to complete a task. It also pertains to the nature of the task, that is, whether it is to be done on an individual basis or as part of a group. It is widely recognised that group work can be motivating where if a child is designated to carry out part of a task successfully he may be encouraged to attempt a more complex component more willingly. Conditions The Special Educator must consider the conditions under which the learning will take place—namely the classroom itself—and the way it is managed and set up. The children should know their way around their class, the general layout of the classroom, and where they sit. There should be an area for quiet work, and perhaps a story corner or place for group discussion or group work. Materials used should accommodate all cultures within the class so that everyone can benefit from the lessons equally. Strategies to facilitate this are explored in further detail in the section entitled ‘Classroom Management’ in the chapter ‘Tools for Planning’. Creativity Creativity is paramount when attempting to differentiate the curriculum for children with special needs. It is often necessary to devise two or three alternatives to explain the same concept. This is also needed to try and

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accommodate different learning perspectives of the children concerned. Working within a creative framework will enable the Special Educator to teach lessons that are relevant to the children concerned. Then the children are more likely to respond with a compliant, co-operative attitude and develop a greater thirst to learn. Figure 5.1

Meeting the Different Learning Needs of Special Children

Students are more successful in learning if the teaching used is responsive to their learning readiness and learning profiles. (Winebrenner 1996)

TOOL FOR LEARNING—COLOURED CLOCK Aim To be a visual aid to help children learn how to tell the time. Objectives For children to understand the different measures of time—one hour, ½ hour, etc. For children to be able to set the correct time using the clock. For children to be able to say what time it is. Rationale The clock is coloured to stimulate children’s interest. The colour combination has been chosen keeping in mind research that shows that these colours are easier for children

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with visual difficulties to process. Those with auditory difficulties will be able to use their visual and tactile senses to learn about time. The size of the clock is such that it can be easily passed around the class for each member to try to set and tell the time. Scope for Differentiation The size of the clock face can be altered to accommodate any visitations in visual ability in the group. The clock face can be made from different materials to stimulate tactile sensation. The clock could be developed into a clock puzzle to help those who are unable to draw one demonstrate their understanding about how to form a clock. Materials Required One dinner plate

One side plate

A piece of stiff yellow card board

One piece of black card

One piece of blue card

Brass paper fastener

Glue

Scissors

Kitchen wrap

Sellotape

Instructions to Make a Coloured Clock Take the dinner plate, place it on the yellow card and draw around it. Cut out the circle you have drawn. This will form the clock face. Fold the clock face into four and mark the centre point. Pierce a hole in the middle. Take the side plate. Place it in the middle of the clock face. Draw around it. This will create a guide line that the hands can follow when they are set to tell the time. Using the folding creases as a guide, mark of the positions for 12, 6, 3 and 9 in pencil. Then write in the remaining numbers in pencil. Draw two clock hands on the black card. Mount them on stiff card (from a cereal packet or similar) and cut them out. Draw and cut out all the numbers from the blue card. These need to be large enough to be easily recognised by the children. Glue them to the clock face. Cover the entire clock face with transparent kitchen wrap and sellotape on the reverse side of clock face to secure. This will protect the clock from sticky or wet fingers! Take the brass paper fastener and the clock hands. Place the fastener through the holes in the hands and the centre of the clock. Secure the back of the paper fastener to the back of the clock. Set the clock to the current time to test and use!!

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TOOLS FOR LEARNING—NUMBER LINE Aim To aid the children’s ability to count. To aid completion of simple addition and subtraction. Objectives Use of this tool will make teaching addition and subtraction easier. Provides a visual aid to support oral explanation of the sequence of numbers. Develops the children’s understanding of the number line from 1 to 10. Rationale A number line can help children gain a better grasp of the correct sequence of number as it provides a visual prompt that numbers get larger and smaller and appear in a given order. It is also a useful tool that children can use to help them complete addition and subtraction by manipulating the moving window forwards or backwards. It is primarily a visual aid with kinaesthetic properties ensuring action orientated learning of simple arithmetic functions. Scope for Differentiation In order to encourage use of the number line it can be made in colours the children chose as tools they ‘make their own’ will be more effective. The length of the number line can be graded according to the extend of numbers known and understood at the time. It is a useful alternative for those who are unable to use their fingers to count on as children can instruct the teacher or helper to move the number window in the desired direction and thus illustrate their current level of counting or mastery of simple arithmetic. Such a tool also helps with teaching children directions so if it is moved to the left the numbers get smaller and to the right they get bigger. Concepts of larger and smaller can be illustrated too. Materials Required Strong cardboard

Scissors

Ruler

Black pen

Instructions to Make a Number Line Take a long ruler (30 cm in length) and some stiff card. Draw round the ruler on the card. This will form the base for the number line. Cut it out around the line you have drawn. Mark out the card number line base into 3 cm sections at the top and the bottom. Join up the dots you have made to form squares. Draw over these lines in thick pen.

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In each square write the numbers from 1 to 10 in a colour that contrasts the colour of the base of the number line. Take a small piece of card and fold it in half and stick it together. Cut a window in the top side of it. This is your moving number window. Cut a slit in one side and thread it onto the number line base. Move it up and down the number line to test that the numbers can be clearly seen through it. Colour the window so that it stands out to the eye. Test and use. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

TOOLS FOR LEARNING—READING WINDOW Aim To aid a child’s ability to read written text. To reduce the likelihood of a child losing their place within the body of text. To reduce the impact of scanning difficulties on reading. Objectives To enable a child to read text without missing or jumping lines. To enable a child to learn to read written text one line at a time. To provide a child with a kinaesthetic prompt to read one line at a time. To provide a visual contrast between the book and the line of text to be read. Rationale A reading window is a very simple device that has two functions. Its main purpose is to aid those with visual motor problems, mainly in the realm of scanning text effectively. Many children with scanning problems will be reluctant to read or do not enjoy reading. This device acts a bit like a book mark but actually isolates the line of text to be read. If the window is made in a different colour to the book then this will also help provide contrast between the book itself and the page. Scope for Differentiation This is a very simple device and quite logical in its application. The only scope for differentiation it has is to make the reading window in the colour of the child’s choosing. It could be made of a material of more tactile nature such as felt or velvet. The size

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of the window can be varied to accommodate the number of lines to be read at any one time or to accommodate the size of the book itself. It is advisable to start with isolating one line at a time but the size of the window can be enlarged once the child can read a few lines at a time without getting lost. If the child has difficulty with fine manipulation of objects, the window can be made from stiffer card and be secured in place with a small paperweight or stone to stop it from moving. Instructions to Make a Reading Window Take the book that the child is currently reading. Measure the width of one of the pages and write it down. This measurement will be the length of your reading window. Measure the height of two or three lines of text together and write it down. This measurement will be the size of the window. Take a piece of stiff card of a different colour from the book to be read. Draw a rectangle of the length and wide enough to cut out the window of the size you have measured before. Cut out the rectangle from the card. Draw a smaller window of the size of your window measurement in the centre of your first rectangle. Make sure there is a good border between the window and the outer part. Cut out the smaller rectangle in the middle so you are left with a window. Place the reading window over the book to be read and move up and down the written text exposing one or two lines at a time. Invite the child concerned to make this reading window their own. Ask them to choose the colour and design pattern on it if they like. Demonstrate the reading window and encourage its use.

TOOLS FOR LEARNING—SHAPE PUZZLE Aim To provide a practical tool to teach and grasp the properties of different shapes. Objectives To help children understand how different shapes are formed. To help children see how different shapes can be built up to form other shapes. To help children identify and build up different shapes for themselves.

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Rationale Children with Cerebral Palsy or other neurological conditions often find it harder to recognise and describe shapes due to visual perceptual difficulties. Shape puzzles are a practical way of exploring different shapes through using a problem solving approach within a kinaesthetic framework encouraging them to use logic and action to understand the properties of different shapes as apposed to just their vision. Doing a puzzle will also enable physical manipulation of the shapes thus encouraging them to feel the number of sides to reinforce the different geometric properties of the shapes. Scope for Differentiation The shape components can be made in different colours thus providing contrast so that the children can discriminate between shapes more easily. It also enables children with known figure ground problems to participate equally. Once the child has demonstrated the ability to complete the puzzles correctly with pieces of differing colours then the complexity of the task may be increased by making pieces of matching colours. The puzzle pieces could also be made from differing textures to increase a child’s tactile awareness. Materials Required Cardboard of differing colours Scissors Black pen Figure 5.2

Small round plate Ruler Clear kitchen wrap

Enabling Learning for Special Children

The goals of curriculum differentiation are to find the closest most comfortable fit between the learner and the curriculum. Varying the process, content or product can help us reach that close fit. (Curry 1999)

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Instructions to Make a Shape Puzzle Take the card board of each colour and draw the outline of a Square

Circle

Rectangle Triangle Ensure that each shape is of a different colour. These will be used to illustrate to the child the different shapes as complete wholes. Make up two triangles (to form a complete square) and two semicircles (to form a complete circle). Make these pieces in contrasting and matching colours and cover in clear kitchen wrap and tape with sticky tape to secure. Test and use!

TOOLS FOR LEARNING—STENCILS Aim To provide a tangible outline from which children can learn to form numbers, letters or shapes. Objectives To help children with spatial problems to learn to form numbers, letters or shapes. To increase their awareness of the correct sizing of numbers, letters or shapes. Rationale A stencil can be a useful tool to provide a child with a tangible means to form letters, numbers and shapes. This is because a stencil provides the child with the correct outline and desired motor sequence to construct the letter, number or shape of their choice. This tool is flexible and can be adapted to suit whatever form (number, letter or shape) is being taught. Use of a stencil gives the child a sense of achievement as with the aid of a stencil the child may be able to produce desired outlines with some accuracy and independence. It also encourages bilateral hand use and creativity if the child is then encouraged to colour their shape or number. It is important to remember that the stencil should be viewed as a stepping stone to forming letters, numbers and shapes independently. Children should gradually be ‘weaned off’ stencils wherever possible. Scope for Differentiation Stencils are a little limited in this respect but the size of the stencil can be varied to accommodate the degree of fine motor function the child exhibits. Different stencils

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can be made for number, shape and letters. It may be advisable to consider making the stencil in a different colour to the paper used to provide contrast for the child using the stencil. This is particularly important if there is a history of visual closure or figure ground deficit. For children with poor bilateral hand use the stencil could be secured to the paper with a paper weight or paper clip. Instructions to Make a Stencil Take a large piece of coloured card board. Decide what sort of stencil you are making—numbers, letters or shapes. Draw out the outlines of for your stencils leaving enough space between each number, letter or shape. Cut out the middle of your letter, number or shape so that only the outline is left to be drawn around. Test with a piece of paper and use!

TOOLS FOR LEARNING—MONEY PUZZLE Aim To aid teaching children coin values. Objectives To increase children’s recognition of different coins. To increase children’s understanding of how different money values are made up. To give children a practical way to demonstrate their understanding of money values. Rationale Children with special needs often encounter difficulties in grasping more abstract concepts like money values. Money Puzzle offers a practical, more kinaesthetic method for the Special Educator to tackle this subject. By making replicas of coins from rubbings and making them into puzzles, the children can learn the components of different money values by putting the puzzle together. For example, two 50 pence coins are equal to one pound, so each 50 pence coin represents one piece of the puzzle. This exercise may also enhance the children’s abilities with respect to shape discrimination, Fine Motor Skills, spatial awareness and hand–eye co-ordination. Scope for Differentiation This activity can be adapted by making the coins larger for those with visual impairments. Cardboard of differing colours can be used to provide some contrast.

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The complexity of the puzzles can be increased by cutting them up into a greater number of pieces of varied shapes so it is harder to complete the puzzles and the number of pieces in the puzzle can also be varied according to the money values it represents, for example, five pieces each of 20 pence value to make up one pound. This activity can be adapted to suit any currency value. Instructions to Make a Money Puzzle Take a piece of plain white paper and a pencil. Select the coins you want to use to make your money puzzle from. Place the coins under the paper and take a rubbing of each one so that you are left with the coins’ images on your paper. Cut out each coin face and put aside. Take some bright coloured card and cut into different segments to make up the puzzle pieces. Ensure that all of these fit together again to make a complete whole. Stick one coin value on each piece, for example, five pieces each with a 10 pence coin will make up a 50 pence piece. Around the border of the completed puzzle write the money value the puzzle represents—for example, five piece puzzle with five 10 pence pieces will make a fifty pence piece. Try and use.

TOOLS FOR LEARNING Aim Objectives Rationale Scope for Differentiation Instructions to Make

Tools for Handwriting

6

T

he purpose of this chapter is to provide the Special Educator with tools to help special children to master the skill of handwriting creatively and successfully. The chapter provides a definition of Handwriting and an explanation of skill components that are needed to master writing. A Handwriting Assessment Tool is also included which can be used to identify and rectify writing problems. General advice is given on the different approaches to teaching this important life skill both for letter and symbol formation as demanded by the native Indian languages. Some activities that can be used to enhance prewriting and writing skills can be found at the end of this chapter. The action of writing is defined in Pickett (2000) as: To form letters, words or symbols on a surface such as paper with an instrument such as a pen.

The ability to write enables an individual to express his ideas, opinions and needs clearly in written form making it a creative past time as well as a means of communication. Furthermore Sarangapani (2003) provides a powerful reminder that: The thumb print is the way to recognize the illiterate man. I say this because if you can learn by heart but you can’t write then there is no measure of you being educated.

Special children should not be deprived of the opportunity and time to learn to write simply on account of the age-old perception that it will be too

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much effort and will take too long for them. In this modern age of technology it may be deemed more efficient for them to use a computer or typewriter if the volume of writing needed is too large. The ability to write or sign their own name will grant them a level of independence and self-respect in later life. Teachers gave a lot of importance to neatness, soft spoken polite speech and good handwriting. There were specific references to school work such as wearing the correct uniform and developing good handwriting. (Sarangapani 2003)

This sentiment is echoed in schools all over the world. It is widely recognised that learning to write takes up the largest proportion of the school day of a primary school child. Cermark (1991) identified that over half of the classbased activities a child in kindergarten engages in during a school day will be using a pencil and paper. Learning to write legibly is a critical skill for children to convey information to their parents, teachers and peers and to accomplish a variety of complicated academic tasks. (Amundson and Weil 1996)

Prior to considering some of the ways to teach handwriting we must first explore the developmental acquisition and skill components that the art of writing demands. Most children learn to scribble on paper before they reach their first birthday. The ability to construct vertical, horizontal and circular marks on paper is achieved by the time they are two. Copying lines and shapes will occur between years three and five and the ability to copy upper and lower case letters and to copy a triangle will be achieved by the time they reach their sixth year. However, the ability to make marks on a paper is only part of what writing demands of a child. The occupation of writing a letter to form a word consists of many activities and tasks. First, the adoption of a reliable sitting posture so that the arm and hand used for writing can be supported sufficiently, coupled with the simultaneous use of the other hand to hold the paper in place. Second, sufficient fine motor control is needed to hold the pen or pencil firmly within a tripod grasp to make legible marks on the paper. Landy and Burridge (1999) state handwriting has many spatial elements to it. These include direction, size, shape, slope and positioning. The ability to accurately reproduce shapes and letters is also paramount and the skills needed to do this are a combination of visual motor integration and motor planning.


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The environment where the writing takes place will also have an impact. In terms of posture, if the child is seated on the floor or at a desk the difference in posture and the surface on which they write may also influence the quality of their writing. The amount and quality of lighting as well as sufficiency of space are also paramount. Lamme (1979) identified some prerequisites that children must have before handwriting instruction can commence. These are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Small muscle development Hand–eye co-ordination The ability to hold utensils and writing tools The capacity to smoothly form strokes such as circles and lines Ability to recognise shapes and letters Ability to notice similarities and differences in letters and shapes Right and left discrimination Orientation to printed language which involves the visual analysis of letters and words

For special children born with Cerebral Palsy or other similar disabilities, the path to mastering handwriting will be a long one. It has been illustrated that writing should be legible and be produced with sufficient fluency and volume to engage in dictation, story writing and copying. However, differences in muscle tone, fatigue, sensory impairment and deficits in fine motor control will all have an impact on such a child’s ability to write successfully. This is before you consider further complications which may be imposed by cognitive or perceptual problems. Students with neurological impairments, learning problems and developmental disabilities often expend an enormous amount of time and energy learning to write in a legible format. (Amundson and Weil 1996)

This suggests that there is a need to master prewriting skills first. This phase is often forgotten in the quest to solve the difficulties special children have in the mastery of writing. After establishing the level of developmental readiness they have reached it may be necessary to take them back a step to practise a few prewriting skills. For example, correct letter formation consists of integration of line direction, size and shape and how these fit together. Therefore more time could be given to explore directions, sizes and shapes

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on a more practical level as a precursor to writing. This can be done through art and craft activities, colouring pictures or with the use of stencils. Refer to the section on Tools for Teaching Handwriting for activity ideas to use. In order to determine the level of ability a special child exhibits with respect to handwriting, the Special Educator needs to carry out an assessment in order to establish a baseline and to identify any areas of difficulty the child may have. Given below is an assessment tool which can be used for this purpose. HANDWRITING ASSESSMENT TOOL This tool is designed to assist the Special Educator to establish the current level of writing ability a child has. Tick the boxes that best describe the current situation and list the main problems when completed. Use the spaces provided to record as much details about your observations of the child and his performance as possible. Possible solutions are given at the end of each section of the assessment to help you develop a handwriting teaching plan. Name:

Disability:

Visual Ability:

Hand Dominance: Left

Current Writing Style:

Age: Script

Right

Undefined

Cursive

Preferred Learning Style: Seating

Posture

Child seated on the floor Child seated on chair Child seated in wheelchair

Child seated with an upright posture Child leans to left/right Child slips forward in chair Child has little or no sitting ability

Selected Writing Tool:

Selected Grasp:

Fat Felt Tip Pen Pencil Adapted writing tool

Holds standard pencil using tripod grip Sustains tripod grip for short periods Holds writing tool with fist grip only

Bilateral Hand Use Writes without thinking to support paper Forgets to support paper with non-writing hand Unable to support paper with non-writing hand at the same time as forming letter or word Supports paper with non-writing hand


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Letter Formation Writes letters in upper and lower case Writes letters in lower case only Mixes upper and lower case letters Unable to form letters Letter Size/Letter Spacing Letters correctly sized and formed Writes words with no spaces between them Letters too small or too large Writes words with too much space between them Writes letter reversals Unable to keep letters on the line Problems Identified List any problems found from the boxes you have ticked here: Solutions to Address Posture and Seating Ensure child can maintain an upright seated posture. If the child is seated on the floor, try seating them at a table. Provide a flat surface on which their arms can rest comfortably. Ensure writing surface is not too high or too low for the child. Make sure the child’s feet are supported on the floor or on a box. Provide an angled adjustable writing board to promote upright posture. Talk to an Occupational Therapist for further advice if needed. Solutions for Problems with Writing Tools Practise a combination of prewriting activities that promote opposition and isolated finger movements to strengthen tripod grasp. Start with a larger writing or painting tool for better control. Use implements that are fatter for easy holding. Use thick pens, pencils or paint brushes so that the child can apply less pressure to draw a solid line. If pencils of different sizes are not available, coil some elastic bands around the bases of the pencils to thicken its surface and provide a ‘non-slip’ grip on the pencil. Solutions to Promote Bilateral Hand Use Position the child in such a way that they can see their supporting hand and check if they are able to place it on the paper or book. Practise prewriting activities that promote the simultaneous use of both hands. Provide a clip board to secure paper in one place.

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Solutions to Aid Letter Formation Practise prewriting activities such as joining the dots, tracing picture outlines and mazes. Ask the child to practise making different letter shape components from plastercine or play dough. Provide dotted outlines of letters for the child to trace over to learn correct letter formation. Solutions to Achieve Better Letter Size Provide dotted outlines of letters for child to trace over to see the different letters and their respective sizes. Dot the outlines within three tramlines to give their centre points, correct heights and lengths. Solutions to Achieve Better Letter Spacing Provide space for the child to copy and practise letters within the tramlines provided. If lines are not sufficient try to use grids to give the child clearer limits within which to form the letters. Solutions Selected List the solutions you have matched to the problems identified here and use them to form the framework for your handwriting teaching plan. Action Plan Review Date:

Signature: © S Barratt 2003

After carrying out the assessment it would be advisable for the Special Educator to consult with an Occupational Therapist to interpret the results and to plan the best approach. Consultation with an Occupational Therapist may also be of benefit both to the child and the Special Educator. However it is worth remembering that: It is the educator’s responsibility to teach handwriting skills. The occupational therapist’s role is to determine the underlying postural, motor, sensory or perceptual deficits that might interfere with the development of legible handwriting. (Pratt and Stevens 1988)

However in the absence of a therapist the Special Educator should analyse the findings and ask the following questions:


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What are the obvious difficulties the child is having? What is their origin—motor, perceptual or cognitive? What developmental level has the child reached within these areas of difficulty? What activities can I adopt to practise the components where the difficulties lie?

SOME STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE THE MASTERY OF HANDWRITING In order to teach the art of writing successfully the Special Educator must first determine what type of writing the child needs to learn—either writing symbols as used in some of the Indian languages or letters if considering the English medium. It should be noted that this chapter provides the reader with general advice and strategies a Special Educator could consider when teaching handwriting. Programmes to facilitate legible handwriting need to be tailored for the individual child according to their own abilities. The cornerstone to the acquisition of good handwriting is a functional posture. Benbow (1990) advocates that the child should be seated with their feet firmly placed on the floor, providing support for weight shifting and postural adjustments while writing. The height of the table should be about 5 centimetres above the flexed elbows when seated. This will allow the writer to maintain a more symmetrical posture and be more stable while writing. Additions like foot rests and adjusting the height of the table can be done to achieve the optimum writing posture. The debate as to how the children should grip their writing tools continues. Traditionally a tripod grip has been taught and used but now the emphasis lies in encouraging the children to adopt a grip they feel comfortable with and have control over to produce lines and letters successfully. For those children who are unable to sustain the traditional dynamic tripod grasp to hold a pen or pencil, other alternatives may be used. If a child is only able to master a power grip with his wrist in a horizontal position, a longer handle could be make for him to hold and the pencil or pen could be placed in a hole drilled through the extension handle. Head wands and mouth sticks can be used to hold writing tools and these can be given alongside angled writing boards to aid a more symmetrical posture during writing. Ziviani (1987) advocates that the grip a child adopts to hold a pencil should only be changed under the following conditions:

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When muscle tension during writing results in fatigue. When pencil grasp seems to have a negative effect on writing proficiency. When the child is unable to make controlled and precise finger and thumb movements to write successfully. When the child holds the pencil with too much pencil point pressure on the paper.

It is advisable to seek advice from an Occupational Therapist if any additional equipment is needed to solve a writing difficulty. This is because the Occupational Therapist will be able to use his or her skills in activity analysis and clinical reasoning and grading and adapting the writing activity to ensure that the child, the task of writing and the classroom environment are aligned to bring about productive results. Additional influences such as posture, muscle tone, pain and fatigue on the writing process will be areas of concern for the Occupational Therapist. Careful assessment, trial and evaluation of these adaptations are always needed to ensure their effectiveness particularly with handwriting, a task central to school life. Stout (2006) advocates the use of larger writing or painting tools to achieve better control but this is challenged by Burton and Dancisak (2000). Their study of 60 boys of primary school age revealed that children with graphomotor performance deficits are not likely to benefit from grip manipulations because such strategies were shown to improve writing that was already good. Stout (2006) provides some useful ideas to consider and use when teaching children to write letters. She identifies that there are three components involved in successful handwriting. These are correct letter formation, uniform letter size and uniform slant. The need to achieve each component in the order given above is also highlighted. The children should be taught to form letters first to be followed later by words. Once letter formation is established, children should practice on paper with wide guidelines in order to learn to control size as well as to develop uniformity in size. Please refer to the end of this chapter to the activity entitled Remedies for Writing Wobbles where the activities of Join the Dots and Grids and Tramlines are given as possible ways to address this issue. When teaching children to write symbols as required by the native Indian languages, a similar approach as listed above should be adopted with


Figure 6.1

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Teaching Handwriting to Special Children

Learning to write legibly is a critical skill for children to convey information to their parents, teachers and peers and to accomplish a gvariety of complicated academic tasks. (Amundson and Weil 1996)

some additions. Due to the complexity of some of the symbol structures it would be advisable for the Special Educator to adopt a guide assist approach where he holds his hand over the hand of the pupil to guide them through the desired movements to form a given symbol. After this has been achieved the child should be given the option to join the dots of a given outline and then work towards copying the given symbol more independently. The use of grids should be adopted to help with sizing and spacing of letters. In addition, pictorial prompts should be given to aid learning of correct letter forms so that the child can see examples of words where letters are used and sound them out correctly at the same time as forming them. Therefore a phonetic approach should be used in combination with a motor learning approach to aid recall of symbols and their correct use within words.

WHICH STYLE OF WRITING? There are two recognised styles of handwriting, namely Manuscipt and Cursive or ‘joined up’ writing. As a general rule, children are taught Manuscript

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writing first and then cursive writing. Manuscript letters are simpler to form and therefore much easier to learn. They are also much easier to recognise. The use of cursive letters enables the writer to generate letters more quickly and one continuous connected line enables the child to form words as units (Amudson and Weil 1996). However, Hagin (1983) reminds us that no research has decisively indicated the superiority of one script style over the other.

WHICH APPROACH TO TAKE The current evidence base to teach handwriting leans towards a motor learning approach which advocates regular structured practice of letters and then word formation. Handwriting practice consists of copying, not creating letters, words and sentences. Stout (2006) suggests that handwriting practice should be timetabled on a daily basis in two shorter daily sessions. Denton et al. (2006) conducted a study to determine the effectiveness of two interventions to help children of primary school age in the USA to learn to write. The approaches studied were therapeutic practice and sensorimotor based treatment. The findings of the study concluded that children receiving therapeutic practice based intervention demonstrated moderately improved handwriting over a five-week period. Children who received sensorimotor intervention improved in some sensorimotor components but also showed a significant decline in handwriting performance.

WORK AT THEIR PACE Chu (1997) believes that education is product orientated whereas therapy is process orientated. When teaching writing which is an activity with many processes, the teaching should be process led. It is necessary to forget the desire to generate results but only to master each step of the process well. Allow the mastery of writing to be child centred as opposed to outcome orientated as this will only pressurise the child. Pressure generates frustration which often results in failure. Stout (2006) advises that the Special Educator should target narrow and specific objectives praising efforts that are well done as well as pointing out


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errors to be corrected. The importance of regular supervised practice is emphasised as progress is found to be more rapid. The use of handwriting workbooks as the sole learning medium is less effective if children are left alone to complete them.

BE CREATIVE Writing lessons are not just about mastering the ability to write a name. Writing lessons should be fun particularly when the effort ratio needed is likely to be huge for some of these children. It is the duty of the Special Educator to make learning to write a positive, creative experience so the child learns to take pride in his own writing. The Special Educator should try to use all the mediums available to him to make the activity of learning to write come to life for the special children concerned. Ideas may include use of arts and crafts as a way to explore prewriting skills. Activities within this realm could include finger painting, writing in sand or on slates before graduating to paper as well as tracing and copying lager letter forms. Making letters from play dough or clay could also be a more practical way of learning correct letter formation.

WORK AS A TEAM Writing is a very versatile activity that can be practised at home and at school. Therefore it is imperative that the Special Educator involves parents in the learning process so that as many people as possible are positive about the child learning to write. It is important for everyone to adopt a constructive attitude at all times and not to place too much pressure on writing itself. It should be viewed always in the context of the whole curriculum. Teachers and parents should guard against passing judgement too harshly on the child concerned and recognise the need to maintain a good standard and pride in writing wherever possible. Bailey (1988) reminds us that: Because of the continual judgment and criticism of their handwriting by educators and others some students with poor handwriting tend to feel inadequate and their self esteem suffers.

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Mastery of the mechanics of handwriting is only one part of the occupation of writing. Writing is seen as a goal-directed activity that demands planning, creativity and expression of thoughts. This aspect coupled with the need for legibility will also pose challenges for the Special Educator in setting realistic expectations for those children with special needs. The mechanical demands of writing speed may not be fast enough to keep up with the child’s thoughts and the mechanical difficulties may affect students’ persistence, motivation and sense of efficacy in the writing process. (Amundson and Weil 1996)

Handwriting is an elementary skill and an individual art which all children should be given the opportunity to master whatever their abilities or disabilities. The ability to sign a name leads that individual to financial independence, a greater sense of self-worth and a stronger personal identity. Care should be taken to identify the best way for a child with special needs to write, be it by hand or through the use of a computer or any other communication device. Through the endeavour of teaching special children to write the Special Educator would do well to remember: Penmanship may come under the umbrella of art in future classrooms with lots of time for children to develop their own artistic hand. (Silverman 2002) TOOLS FOR TEACHING HANDWRITING Name of Activity Remedies for Writing Wobbles Type of Activity Writing Skills Fine Motor Skills Activity Setting The Classroom Developmental Component The remedies listed below are adaptive measures to make writing easier. Please refer to Handwriting Assessment Tool solutions for further details.


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Developmental Aims To develop writing readiness To enhance spatial awareness To practise using writing tools Description of Writing Remedy Clip Board—Use a conventional clip board to hold the paper in place if this is a problem. It also serves as a larger firmer base of support for the non-writing hand. Rubber Band Pencil Grip—This is a simple and cheap way to adapt a conventional pencil or pen to provide a child with a non-slip grip. Twist a number of rubber bands one on top of the other until the child is able to hold the pencil more effectively. Angled Writing Board—An angled writing board addresses postural as well as writing needs as good posture is a prerequisite to good writing. Talk to a Rehabilitation Engineer who will make one. Consider having a clipboard design as well. Weighted Wrist Band—Use of a weighted wrist band will help reduce tremor and create resistance for children with low muscle tone making their pencil marks heavier and clearer to read. These can easily be made from any soft fabric and filled with rice or sand or weighted with magnets. Pencil Tops are fun to have on the top of a pencil and should be encouraged as they are another means to weight a pencil. Fat Writing Tools should be used before—conventionally sized pens and pencils as it is through using these that children can experiment and refine their pencil grips. Follow the Dots Letters—This activity is a follow on from prewriting pictures and a Kinaesthetic way to teach letter formation. Write the letter in ink and dot out a copy next to it for the child to trace over. Grids and Tram Line—Draw up some larger squares on the writing paper and write in letters within these squares for the child to copy. To start with, draw a dotted version within a grid and leave it blank for the child to have a free hand. This helps to teach spatial relationships and correct sizing of letters. Tram lines provide a means to reenforce correct sizing and the space between the lines also gives a start and finish point from which to form the letter. Liaise with an Occupational Therapist for help and advice. Materials/Resources Required Blank A4 size paper Pencil tops Black pen

Pencil grips

Rubber bands

Weighted wrist band

Clip board

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TOOLS FOR TEACHING HANDWRITING Name of Activity Prewriting Pictures Type of Activity Prewriting Skills Fine Motor Skills Activity Setting The Classroom Developmental Component This is a useful activity to introduce and practise the principles involved in writing. It is about creating a picture from a given outline enabling the child to practise forming lines and shapes which will later combine to make letters. The perceptual element is mainly that of spatial awareness where the child has to keep colouring within the outline and trace the patterns of the shapes with his pen or pencil. It encourages the child to be creative in that they are left to choose the colour scheme for the picture. Developmental Aims To develop writing readiness To enhance spatial awareness To practise using writing tools To develop creativity and use of colour Description of Activity Take an A4 size sheet of blank paper and a black pen. Draw the outlines of animals and toys which lend themselves to patterned designs. Some ideas could include: Cat, fish, aeroplane, butterfly, doll, bird, lady bird and snake, to name but a few. Within the outline, draw the beginnings of letter forms, for example wave forms, diagonal lines, circles, squares, straight lines, etc. Leave spaces between these designs to give room for colouring between them. Take copies of all the designs so that the child can choose which design to do. Ask the child to colour the design between all the lines, to trace the patterns and not to colour outside the outline of the picture. Materials/Resources Required Blank A4 size paper Black pen


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TOOLS FOR TEACHING HANDWRITING—STENCILS Aim To provide a tangible outline from which children can learn to form numbers, letters or shapes. Objectives To help children with spatial problems to learn to form numbers, letters or shapes. To increase their awareness of the correct sizing of numbers, letters or shapes. Rationale Stencils are useful tools as they provide children with a starting point from which to learn to form numbers, shapes or letters correctly. This is because a stencil provides the child with the correct outline and desired motor sequence to construct the letter, number or shape of their choice. The tool is flexible and can be adapted to suit whatever form (number, letter or shape) is being taught. Use of a stencil gives the child a sense of achievement as with the aid of a stencil the child may be able to produce desired outlines with some accuracy and independence. It also encourages bilateral hand use and creativity if the child is encouraged to colour their shape or number. It is important to remember that the stencil should be viewed as a stepping stone to forming letters, numbers or shapes independently. Children should be gradually ‘weaned off’ stencils wherever possible. Scope for Differentiation The size of the stencil can be varied to accommodate the degree of Fine Motor function the child exhibits. Different stencils can be made for numbers, shapes and letters. It may be advisable to consider making the stencil in a contrasting colour to the paper used to provide contrast for the child using the stencil. This is particularly important if there is a history of visual closure or figure ground deficit. For children with poor bilateral hand use the stencil could be secured to the paper with a paper weight or paper clip. Instructions to Make a Stencil Take a large piece of coloured cardboard. Decide what sort of stencil you are making—numbers, letters or shapes. Draw out the outlines of your stencils leaving enough space between each number, letter or shape. Cut out the middle of your letter, number or shape so that only the outline is left to be drawn around. Test with a piece of paper and use!

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ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO HANDWRITING The art of handwriting can promote a greater sense of personal identity and the ability to generate a reliable signature is a prerequisite to financial independence. However, for some special children, their physical, sensory or communication difficulties make writing by hand a great difficulty and for some it proves to be impossible. The use of assistive technology as an alternative means to enable children with disabilities to generate their work and enable their learning has been widely documented in recent years. The scope to introduce and utilise technological devices in the classroom is increasing all the time. Computers, digital cameras and recently iPods are becoming increasingly available for use within classrooms today. The concept of virtual learning is commonplace and it is now possible to store and save work electronically or by using a CD Rom. Figure 6.2

Assisting Technology—A Tool to Aid Learning

The mechanical demands of writing speed may not be fast enough to keep up with the child’s thoughts and the mechanical difficulties may affect students’ persistence, motivation and sense of efficacy in the writing process. (Amundson and Weil 1996)


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The challenge when working with children who have special needs is to find a method of access that will enable them to generate their own work in their own way with greater ease and independence. Brodin and Lindstrand (2003) have identified that the current evidence base to support the use of assistive technology for pupils with disabilities is limited. The benefits of assistive technology for children with severe reading and writing difficulties and those with Autism have been the subject of numerous studies. However, the scope that assistive technology may offer children with intellectual impairments appears to have been neglected. This may be based on the assumption that this client group are not viewed as a priority for information communication technology. The scope and range of assistive devices available to assist children in the classroom is wide ranging. It is possible to set up a computer to modify the screen, keyboard functions and mouse to facilitate greater efficiency and speed in the generation and storage of written work. The installation of software which provides on-screen keyboards with word prediction facilities can also speed up the typing process. If that is not possible, voice activation is also possible where the words a child speaks are simultaneously converted into written text on the computer screen. Most computers in the world today utilise Microsoft packages. Many now-a-days are installed with Windows XP and Microsoft Office or Works. The following pages outline how a Special Educator can install and modify some of the accessibility features found within the Microsoft and Windows XP interface.

ACCESSIBILITY OPTIONS IN MICROSOFT SOFTWARE Most special children who need to use a computer to generate their work will almost certainly be working with Microsoft Word. In order to set up a word document for a child to work with, the Special Educator can do the following things. In order to access the Accessibility Options found within the computer the Special Educator needs to follow the sequence illustrated below. The Accessibility Options menu can be found in the Control Panel. To open Accessibility Options, click on the Start button and highlight and select

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Control Panel. The Control Panel screen will appear and invite the user to Pick a Category. Then select Accessibility Options from the list of Categories given. This will bring up a menu which invites the user to Pick a Task. And then the user is asked to make a choice to Adjust the Contrast for Text and Colours on Your Screen or to Run the Accessibility Wizard to Change Settings for Hearing or Mobility Needs.

OPTIONS AVAILABLE UNDER ACCESSIBILITY WIZARD The Screen It is possible to adjust the colour combinations available to alter the appearance of the typeface on the screen. There are a range of choices available to the Special Educator and the child. It is also possible to adjust the size, thickness and appearance of the font. This can be found under Display Colour Settings. By selecting the desired contrast option, the computer will adjust the settings as required. This option can be accessed by ticking the box corresponding to the I am blind or have difficulty seeing the screen menu within the Accessibility Wizard. Other options available when setting up the screen include the following: Scroll Bar Window Border adjusts the thickness of the border around the writing window. Icon Size alters the size of the icons that appear on the desk top.

The Keyboard It is possible to configure the keyboard in a number of ways so that difficulties with typing and keyboard access can be overcome. These include: On Screen Keyboard This facility provides the user with a coloured keyboard that appears on the screen. Users may select the letters they want to type with a standard mouse


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or a joystick. It is also possible to change the size and layout of the letters. The On Screen Keyboard is found under the first screen of the Accessibility Options menu.

Remedies to Solve Typing Difficulties Microsoft Office software offers a number of remedies for people with Fine Motor problems who may not be able to demonstrate sufficient precision to type accurately. These include: Sticky Keys function enables a user to press one key at a time where it is usual to hold down two or three keys at a time. For example, to log on to a network it is often necessary to press Control, Alt and Delete simultaneously. Utilisation of this function enables the user to press each key individually with the same outcome. Filter Keys is a useful function for a user who has a tremor or who exhibits excessive movement during typing. A consequence of this could result in multiple repetitions of the same letters and a great deal of extra time and frustration in correcting errors in spelling. Filter keys ignores repetitive strikes or strokes of the same letter and only types the desired letter once. Key Guard is a plastic guard which fits over a standard keyboard, providing the user with a greater definition between each key. It can also be useful for those who may use head pointers to type as it reduces errors if a desired letter is missed. Letter Stickers are alphabet stickers which can be bought in a variety of colours. These can be stuck over their matching letters on the keyboard and provide those with visual impairment with greater contrast to find and select letters to type.

These options can be accessed by ticking the box corresponding to I have difficulty using the keyboard or mouse within the Accessibility Wizard.

The Mouse Mouse Cursor provides the Special Educator and child with a choice of different cursors that are colourful and larger than the standard cursor. The wizard asks the Special Educator to select the desired cursor. Mouse Cursor Speed function enables the Special Educator to reduce the blinking speed of the cursor so that it is easy for the child to find and locate it on the screen.

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Mouse Keys enable a user to convert the number keypad on the keyboard to a mouse if they are unable to use a standard mouse. The arrows drag the cursor in their respective directions and the number five acts as the select button.

These options can be accessed by ticking the box corresponding to I have difficulty using the keyboard or mouse and I am blind and have difficulty seeing things on screen within the Accessibility Wizard.

PRINCIPLES TO CONSIDER WHEN IMPLEMENTING ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY DEVICES Adoption of any form of assistive technology will result in a change in the child’s ability to generate learning material. On the surface, introduction of a computer, switch, or other alternative method of access may appear to solve one particular problem for a child with special needs. It is also important that the Special Educator ensures the device in question does not hinder a child’s existing ability, occupational performance or subsequent learning. A child or individual with a disability should be able to select, set up, personalise, trouble shoot and use an assistive technology tool independently. (Kintsch and dePaula 2002)

In order to finding a ‘best fit’, the assessment, identification and adoption of an assistive device must be a collaborative process. This is because there are many people who will be involved in the use of the chosen assistive device. The list is likely to include the intended users, their parents or carers, the Special Educator, the Occupational Therapist and the representative supplying the device. Lindstrand (2001) suggests a holistic approach is essential when identifying and providing assistive technology to children with special needs. This is because the selected devices should aim to facilitate communication, play and social interaction. Considering the users’ families as full and equal partners in decisions is also important. This principle is mirrored by Kintsch and dePaula (2002) who describe an adoption process that involves assessment of needs, desires and equipment, training and customisation of the tool and facilitation of its use into daily life.


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Assistive technology devices are versatile but can also create barriers for users, Special Educators and parents alike. Brodin and Linstrand (2003) have found that many teachers find it difficult to define how assistive technology can help them as educators. Nilsson (2001) supports this view and states that teachers are sometimes unable to master the media or devices in question. However, Parrette and Brotherson (1996) conclude that professionals are optimistic about the strength of assistive technology as a means to bring about change in the lives of children with disabilities. Lindstrand (2001) conducted a study which found that parents of children with special needs had high expectations of the computer as a technical aid in the overall development of their children. The findings of the study concluded that use of a computer helped increase self-confidence which contributed to handling their disability and relationships with their friends in a more satisfying way. Furthermore, parents in this study reported an increase in their child’s concentration which was a direct result of computer usage. Parents of children with Autism perceived the computer to be a ‘bridge’ to communication with their children. For children with motor disabilities, the computer was seen as a valuable medium for play. The process of identifying the need for assistive technology for special children should be viewed as a continuous journey which changes according to the needs, choices and aspirations of the children and their families. It can be perceived by some to be costly and time consuming with high maintenance issues. However, if the adoption process is successful then the benefits of such devices to facilitate independence and greater freedom in the execution of learning far outweigh the potential barriers. In conclusion, Kintsch and dePaula (2002) recommend a cyclical approach in the adoption of assistive technology which serves as a tool for the Special Educator to use when addressing these issues (see Figure 6.3).

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Figure 6.3

Cycle for Adoption of Assistive Technology gather feedback Development phase provide training support

use for additional activities Integration phase

research population’s needs & practices

research caregivers’ needs

use in additional environments

re-assessment

assess user’s learning style

user learns to use

caregivers learn to customise Source: Kintsch and dePaula (2002).

Selection phase

Learning phase

caregivers learn to use

assess environment assess tools

trial

expand A.T. tool capabilities caregivers learn to use technology with user in dayto-day activities

assess goals

select

Tools for Classroom Activities

7

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he purpose of this final chapter is to provide the Special Educator with a portfolio of activities to use in the classroom to facilitate and build upon existing learning of the children in their care. The rationale for providing these ideas lies in the belief that engagement in activity is central to each individual as it gives them a sense of purpose, achievement and fulfilment and confirms their unique identity. The use of activity in the classroom is multidimensional and the Special Educator should guard against the view that activities are only valuable as a means to teach, practise and master the core skills of a given subject. Humans are ‘occupational’ beings by their very nature. This means that the use of activity as a teaching medium will stimulate the will to learn in addition to facilitating graded mastery of given skills. This concept is supported by Yerxa (1990) who advocates: Man through the use of his hands willed by mind and body can influence the state of his own health.

The Special Educator must consider the context and setting of the chosen activity. For the most part it will be necessary for the Special Educator to impart knowledge in a group setting, either as the whole class or in smaller groups within the class as a whole. The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines a group as: A number of persons or things belonging or classed together forming a whole.

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A group setting is a valuable catalyst to facilitate learning. This is because the social development of a human being is powerfully shaped by group experiences. The experience of being part of a group helps an individual forge his own sense of identity, learn the art of co-operation with others and adopt roles. It is also an optimum forum for building peer relationships, refining and developing skills. The group also provides opportunity for participants to give and receive support and exchange ideas in a safe environment. Furthermore, groups can provide opportunities for participants to reflect on their behaviour, emotions and relationships (Finlay 1994). Children with special needs may have had limited experience of being part of a group other than their own family prior to starting school. They may not have been able to access play activities with peers of their own age so the idea of adopting acceptable roles within such a context may be alien to them. Therefore, in order to ensure that these children gain optimum learning opportunities within a group setting it is important for the Special Educator to consider how to construct, plan, facilitate and evaluate the group as a forum to promote and develop learning. Borg and Bruce (1991) provide a clear rationale that clearly outlines the purpose of any group. They advocate that groups should provide their members with opportunities to give and receive constructive feedback and experience in an environment that promotes social learning and opportunities. Being part of a group can also provide participants with ways to build other skills relating to physical, cognitive or psychological areas. In addition to understanding the rationale for a group, the Special Educator also needs to consider the structure of the group, its purpose, potential members, size, time, duration, number of sessions, its aims and objectives and the resources needed to carry out the group successfully. Planning a group is essential to ensure that it provides optimum learning opportunities to its members. Planning a group also ensures that the group leaders are united about the focus and direction of the group. Finlay (1994) supports this view and provides useful insights that explain why allocating sufficient time to plan groups is so vital. Finlay advocates that planning groups ensures that the activities within them are purposeful. Planning a group also means that its leaders can provide guidelines for the structure of sessions as well as criteria which can be used to evaluate the


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effectiveness of the group. From the members’ perspective, sufficient planning means that group leaders will be able to motivate and direct participants more effectively and have a clearer understanding about how and when they wish to monitor the progress of the group members. Furthermore, those involved in its leadership also need to be able to evaluate the overall effectiveness of the group (Finlay 1994). The primary concern in planning and constructing a group should be established by a clear identification of its focus and type. There are four categories of groups and Borg and Bruce (1991) describe these as traditional task groups, therapeutic groups and educational and psychotherapy groups. In the context of a classroom, learning is facilitated through children engaging in structured tasks which make up a lesson. Borg and Bruce (1991) advocate that a task group provides opportunity for its participants to work towards achieving a specific ‘end product’. However, the focus of the task group also requires thought and clear definition. For example, if a baking group is chosen it is important to decide what skills participants want to develop. Baking provides opportunities for participants to develop physical skills such as hand–eye co-ordination or Fine Motor Skills. Baking can also be a group activity where participants are encouraged to work together as a team, to communicate and thus develop social skills. The activities selected should be purposeful to the child for whom they are designed. To ensure this, it is necessary to gain a full understanding of the child’s needs, abilities, likes and dislikes. This is because in order to ensure an activity is purposeful to a child, it should also hold some meaning for him. If an activity holds meaning and purpose for a child it will increase the likelihood of that child taking part in the given activity. Purposeful activity has an autonomous or inherent goal beyond the motor function required to perform the task and requires the active participation of the individual. (Pedretti and Early 2001)

Additionally, an analysis of the activity itself should take place to ensure that it is appropriate to meet the needs of the child for whom it is selected. The activity selected should have respect for the choices of the individual and be placed in the individual’s occupational life course (Townsend 2002).

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Borg and Bruce (1991) also underline the need to ensure that the participants in a group can see how the focus of the group activity relates to their own goals. Greater compliance to group activities is achieved when the group matches the participants’ values, provides opportunities for new learning and also meets the current needs of the participants. Utilisation of a group setting to facilitate learning also provides a number of benefits and challenges to the Special Educator. One of the great benefits of group work is the opportunity it provides for joint working. Working alongside another colleague can promote a more flexible and adaptable approach as well as peer support. Addressing learning needs in groups can also be quite an effective use of time. The setting also lends itself to using a wider range of activities to develop specific skills. Figure 7.1


Purposeful activity has an autonomous or inherent goal beyond the motor function required to perform the task and requires the active participation of the individual. (Pedretti and Early 2001)

Groups also provide ample opportunities for parental involvement. This can also result in greater, faster generalisation of skills on the part of the child. This is because parents have a greater chance of transferring the skills learnt


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in the group into the home environment so they become an integral part of the daily life of the child. The principal benefit of the group setting is undoubtedly the forum it provides for its participants to express their ideas and to learn from and interact with their peers. However, while a group environment is often perceived as a more informal learning environment, it can also mean that some participants may be distracted or may not receive sufficient individual attention to accomplish their goals. Groups can also provide a more structured approach to learning but they require a great deal of planning, preparation and evaluation to ensure success. These processes often result in the generation of new ideas and new material which are more naturally inclusive. This is immensely valuable but also time consuming in terms of the collection and collation of the necessary resources. Leading or facilitating a group is a skill that takes practice and time to develop. Activity groups for special children need to promote a child-centred approach where the leaders adopt more of a non-directive focus. This can be achieved by consideration of the style of interaction used to facilitate participation. It is important to initiate conversation and to ask many closed questions and give simple commands. It is also paramount to observe the behaviour or responses of the children involved. Listening and waiting are also extremely important as jumping in too quickly to offer assistance may result in frustration or lack of co-operation from the child especially if the gift of more time would result in a successful outcome. Such an approach is sure to empower the children and may contribute to increasing their functional independence. This achievement will also be of benefit to their self-esteem. It is also important for the Special Educator to devote their attention to and give meaning to the unintentional communication of the children taking part in the group. This can be achieved by using imitation and giving the child their full attention. It is also paramount to ‘follow the child’s lead’. The exception to this rule comes in the case of disruptive or inappropriate behaviour which will impact the outcome of the group and its members. Mirroring and reflecting the child’s responses will also help increase their attention span.

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For these children engagement and participation in activities is often more challenging due to the disabilities they have to live with and the restrictions these place on their ability to live and learn independently. In the chapter titled ‘Tools for Learning’ the concept of differentiation was explored as a means to alter a learning activity to ensure maximum participation. It is a similar process in the realm of activity selection where it is important to consider how the activity can be graded and adapted to ensure that the individuals for whom it is designed can participate to their maximum capacity. Activities selected for therapeutic purposes should be goal directed, have some meaning for the individual to meet individual needs and develop skills to enhance performance in life roles, relate to their interests, be adaptable, gradable and age appropriate. (Pedretti and Early 2001)

Grading an activity involves a conscious alteration of the expectations the activity places on the individual (making it easier or more complex) to address the therapeutic, developmental or learning needs of the individuals concerned. The purpose of grading activity has three main functions. The first is always to try and make a task or activity possible or less complicated for the individual to perform. The second is to set just the right challenge to encourage development and mastery of a given skill. However, the most important goal in the selection and use of any activity is to maintain the maximum function in the individuals concerned for as long as possible. Grading an activity to facilitate participation must occur on three levels to ensure the best outcome. Consideration must be given first to the individuals involved, second, to the task itself and third, to the environment where the activity is taking place. With these principles in mind, the activities given in the following pages have been set out with the intention of providing the Special Educator with a detailed analysis of each one within a structured framework. This has been done to illustrate to the Special Educator how these activities set out to aid engagement in and learning and mastery of the given skills inherent in each activity given. The goal-directed nature of each activity is outlined in the section entitled ‘Activity Aims’. ‘Activity Skill Base’ highlights the developmental skills the activity given serves to address. The ‘Activity Setting’ refers to the environment where the activity should take place. The ‘Description of Activity’


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provides an outline of how the activity should be carried out giving the Special Educator a clear idea of the demands of the activity. It is hoped that from this the Special Educator will be able to apply the principles of grading and adapting these activities for the special children in his care to facilitate their engagement and development and thus enhance their learning outcomes in the given skills either in a group or as an individual. While the value of activity as a learning and developmental medium has been illustrated here, the greatest moral in using activity in educating these very special children is: Activity is a catalyst to enable special children to learn. It is one key to unlock their own innate abilities and feelings and can provide a sense of inclusion and opportunity for interaction, but most importantly, a means to realise their own unique potential.

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Pass the Ball/Beanbag Activity Skill Base Gross Motor Skills Social Skills Activity Setting Indoors or Outdoors Developmental Component This game is multifaceted. It focuses mainly on developing Gross Motor and social skills. The teams could play in square groups, circle groups or in a line to incorporate shape awareness into the game. Activity Aims To develop Gross Motor Skills To develop team work To follow verbal commands

To practice turn taking To learn directions—under, over, up, down To increase proprioceptive awareness

Description of Activity Divide the group into teams of five members each. Ask them to sit in a line one behind the other. Give a ball or beanbag to the leader and ask him to pass it over his head

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to the next person. The last one to receive the ball should come down to the front of the line and start the process again until everyone has had a turn. You can vary the instructions to place the bag on the head or pass under the legs according to the ability of the group members. The object to be passed can be changed to work on different grasps such as a tennis ball, squash ball or beach ball. If a beanbag is used then it could be made from different textures such as felt or corduroy to introduce a tactile element to the game. Materials/Resources Required Balls or beanbags of various sizes and textures. Large space in which to play the game. A list of verbal commands that the children must do with the ball or beanbag. A prize for the winning team.

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Skittle Mania Activity Skill Base Gross Motor Skills Hand–Eye Co-ordination Social Skills Activity Setting Outdoors Developmental Component This game is often quite successful as it promotes an instant sense of achievement if a child knocks over a skittle. Playing the game involves hand–eye co-ordination when throwing and motor planning to execute the correct strength of movement so as not to throw the ball too hard. Depth perception is also needed, so spatial awareness comes into play. Distance judgement can either be simplified or complicated by varying the location of the start line. The type of throw can also be stipulated, for example, over arm or along the ground, to work on specific Gross Motor Skills. Activity Aims To encourage teamwork To develop spatial awareness To have fun

To practise turn taking To develop motor planning


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Description of Activity Make up a number of skittles. This can be done by using plastic water or drink bottles and decorating them in different colours. You will need to weight them with sand or fill them with water in order to make it harder for the skittle to be knocked down. Decide on the distance between the skittles and the start line and set up accordingly. Demonstrate the game to the children and have a score sheet ready. An extra go should be granted if all the skittles are knocked down at once. If no bottles are available use a cardboard box kept on a chair and ask the children to throw the ball into it. Materials/Resources Required Plastic bottles Sand Tennis ball Large space to play Cardboard box and chair if no bottles are available

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Obstacle Course Activity Skill Base Gross Motor Skills Activity Setting Indoors or Outdoors Developmental Component An obstacle course provides a child with multiple ways to perfect Gross Motor Skills. It also provides scope to refine perceptual skills such as spatial awareness, depth perception and heightens tactile awareness. Motor planning is also a key component to this activity. It can generate fun and a sense of achievement when successfully completed. Activity Aims To develop a range of Gross Motor Skills To promote exploration To improve proprioception

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To develop sequencing skills To improve tactile awareness Description of Activity Gather a selection of materials such as rope, carpet squares, large boxes, plastic bottles or cones and create an obstacle course using them. The course should provide opportunities for children (whether wheelchair bound or ambulant) to get in and out, up and down, and up and over objects. Chairs and tables can also be used as obstacles. The course can be tackled on team or individual levels, or against the clock. This activity can also be adapted to incorporate a visual element by hiding objects over the course for the children to find on their way round. Materials/Resources Required Chairs and tables Washing line (to make path to follow) Large plastic bottles weighted if necessary Carpet squares Stopwatch if exercise is time-bound

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Fine Motor Fun and Games Type of Activity Fine Motor Skills Concentration Activity Setting Classroom Developmental Component Fine Motor Fun provides opportunity to practise hand–eye co-ordination combined with some cognitive and perceptual elements. These are all essential prerequisites to effective hand function. There is also a functional element in dressing dilemmas. The activities also focus on different grasps, manipulation and bilateral hand use. Activity Aims To increase hand–eye co-ordination To increase bilateral hand use


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To practise different hand grips To increase hand manipulation skills To increase concentration Description of Activity ‘Putty Play’—Sink some small objects into some therapeutic putty and ask the children to find them and put them on the table. Also get them to make snakes and roll balls. You could also get them to do this with plastasine if putty is not available. ‘String Me Along’ Bead threading—Select beads of different sizes and shapes and ask the children to thread them onto a shoe lace. Add a cognitive component by asking them to select and thread given beads or to copy a design from a card. ‘Puzzle Crazy’—Find a selection of jigsaw puzzles of varying complexity and set these up for children to complete. ‘Copy the Blocks’—Draw a series of block designs on cards (in 3D) and ask the children to construct identical designs using the blocks given. ‘I’ve Lost my Marbles’—For this game you will need a plant pot with a single hole at the bottom. Invert it on top of a large plate and provide some marbles and a spoon. Ask the children to scoop up the marbles using the spoon and put into the hole in the plant pot. They can also do this by picking up the marbles and putting them through the hole without the spoon too. ‘Dressing Dilemmas’—Find some old shirts and coats with different sized buttons and zips and ask the children to practise doing and undoing them. ‘Pegs Gone Mad’—Set up a number of peg boards with pegs of varying thickness and colours and draw out some patterns from which the children can make their designs. ‘Wall Swing Ball’—Hang a ball on a string from a point on a wall. Give the child a plastic bat or stick and see if he can hit it gently. Materials/Resources Required Putty Play — Therapeutic putty of various gradings Plastersine Marbles, plastic counters or other small objects String Me Along — beads of various colours, shapes and sizes Shoe laces of various thickness Cards containing bead designs to copy Puzzle Crazy — A variety of puzzles of different complexities Copy the Blocks — Block designs One inch blocks I’ve Lost My Marbles — Marbles of different colours Plant pot with single hole in middle Large plate and tea spoon

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Pegs Gone Mad

— Peg boards and pegs of various sizes Peg designs to copy — Tennis ball on a string Stick or small lightweight bat

Wall Swing Ball

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Art and Craft Portfolio Activity Skill Base Fine Motor Skills Prewriting Skills Activity Setting The Art Room or Classroom Developmental Component Art and Craft activities are a very useful way of practising some of the Fine Motor Skills already described but in a creative and funny way. Art and Craft lends itself to practice of prewriting skills such as drawing, colouring, copying and scissors skills which teach children to follow a line. The Fine Motor element of this activity manifests itself in manipulation and use of art tools such as brushes, pens and pencils and a perceptual/ cognitive element comes in copying or creating a design within a given space. Activity Aims To foster imagination and creativity To practise Fine Motor Skills To practise prewriting skills Activity Ideas Collage—This relates to creating designs from shapes which are pasted on to a larger piece of paper. It involves drawing and cutting out given shapes and pasting them to create a pattern or design. Use materials of different textures to promote tactile awareness. Papier-mache—This is a way of making bowls or plates using newspaper and then painting or decorating once dry. It involves tearing up newspaper and creating layer upon layer over the top of a container to create a three dimensional shape. Once the papier-mache is dry it can be removed and the resulting bowl or plate can be decorated


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and varnished. A balloon is a useful alternative for this if no appropriate containers are available. Finger Painting—This is a sensory art activity which introduces children to their hands and the patterns they can make using their fingers and hands. Some may not enjoy ‘getting their hands dirty’. However, asking them to create lines and shapes using their fingers is a useful prewriting activity which can be fun. Drawing and Colouring—Children should be encouraged to draw and colour as much as possible. It is through drawing and colouring that they learn to hold writing tools, develop creativity and enhance spatial awareness. It is important to provide lots of opportunity to explore this medium as it is a valid prewriting activity. Materials/Resources Required Paper of various colours and sizes Glue Scissors

Paints Newspaper Pens and pencils A creative spirit

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Rapid Recall Activity Skill Base Cognitive Skills Concentration and Attention Visual Memory Activity Setting Classroom Developmental Component This is a memory game which incorporates object recognition and short term memory skills. It works on recall from the working memory. An element of concentration and attention is also needed. Activity Aims To develop short term memory To enhance attention span To increase concentration skills

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Description of Activity Identify 10 objects used everyday that the children can recognise and name. List them on a piece of paper and keep. Place all the objects in a tray and cover with a cloth. Ask the children to position themselves in a circle and uncover the tray to reveal the objects. Leave the tray with them for a maximum of 10 minutes. After that hand out paper and pens and ask them to write down the objects that they can remember, If they are unable to write then go round each child and ask them to tell you the objects they can remember. When everyone is finished bring the tray back with all the objects in their original places and share the answers. Award a prize to the child who gave the most correct answers. Materials/Resources Required Blank A4 size paper Pens Ten objects used everyday

Tray Cloth

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Brave the Elements Activity Skill Base Short Term Memory Concentration and Attention Listening Skills Activity Setting Classroom Developmental Component This is a memory game which incorporates object recall and short term memory skills. It works on recall from the working memory. An element of concentration and attention is also needed. There is also a need to be able to select names of objects or animals from given categories of earth, air and water. Activity Aims To develop short term memory To enhance attention span


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To increase concentration skills To develop listening skills and turn taking Description of Activity Brave the Elements is a memory game that asks the children to name an object or creature that they know lives on the earth, in the air, or in water (for example, Air = Bird, Earth = Worm, Water = Fish). If the leader shouts FIRE! the child has to throw the ball or cushion back to the leader or he is out of the game. This is because Fire is hot and if you handle Fire you would burn your hand, placing you out of the game. Materials/Resources Required A cushion or ball to throw or pass to the children.

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Granny’s Shopping List Activity Skill Base Short Term Memory Concentration and Attention Listening Skills Sequencing Skills Activity Setting Classroom Developmental Component This is a memory game which incorporates object recall and short term memory skills. It works on recall from the working memory. An element of concentration and attention is also needed. There is also a need to be able to create and remember the contents of a list. Activity Aims To develop short term memory To enhance attention span To increase concentration skills To develop listening skills and turn taking To develop sequencing skills

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Description of Activity Seat the children in a circle and explain that the game is about creating a shopping list for Granny to take to the supermarket. Tell each child to think of an item that Granny needs to buy and be ready to tell it to the group when their turn comes. Tell them that they have to tell their item and the item or items that came before theirs. Demonstrate this to them before the game starts and make sure they understand. Then start the sequence and the person who remembers all the items without a mistake or prompt is the winner. This game can be adapted to help the children to remember the sequences in everyday tasks too. Materials/Resources Required None

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Round Robin Role Play Activity Skill Base Listening Skills Social Skills Sequencing Skills Life Skills Activity Setting Classroom/Life Skills Course Developmental Component Role Play is a medium used to simulate and teach the children to respond appropriately to real life scenarios in a safe environment. It helps them to use their imagination and some can often learn a script to use when they find themselves in the real life situation. Common Role Play scenarios may include: Making a telephone call Buying some sweets at the supermarket Asking for directions Making a doctor’s appointment Booking a ticket for the theatre


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Activity Aims To develop clear and confident verbal communication To practise social skills To simulate real life situations To build confidence Description of Activity Demonstration of the roles will need to take place first using another assistant to play one of the parts. Each child should be given the chance to play each part and ample opportunities to practise. They should then be encouraged to try it out either for real or as part of a structured Life Skills Course. This activity can be adapted for any situation and is a useful exercise to explore social skills such as personal space, voice tone and speed and how to ask and respond to questions. Materials/Resources Required Props to set up the correct environment where the role play is due to happen.

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Supermarket Sweep Activity Skill Base Planning Skills Sequencing Skills Life Skills Activity Setting Classroom/Life Skills Course Developmental Component This activity enables children to practise the essential life skill of planning a trip to the supermarket to shop for food. It introduces the concept of writing a shopping list and costing out the expenses involved. In order to do this they will also have to verbally sequence and work out the ingredients needed to make a pizza. The discussion involved also lends itself to listening and turn taking skills. Activity Aims To develop problem solving skills To develop sequencing skills

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To practise organisational skills and teamwork To introduce budgeting skills Description of Activity Select a simple cooking activity such as making a pizza, and ask the children to think about what ingredients are needed, what time to go to the supermarket, whether it is necessary to book transport, create a shopping list and ask them to consider the costs involved. It may also be necessary to role play paying for the ingredients to reduce any anxieties. One of the children should take responsibility for remembering the shopping list. This framework can be adapted to plan any other activity such as a trip to the cinema, visit to a place of interest or a cooking session. The complexity of the plan can be varied according to what is needed. This may be to ask parents to come on the trip or telephoning the venue for further information. Practice of individual task components such as budgeting, role playing or gathering information is paramount to build confidence. Materials/Resources Required Pens and paper to compile shopping list. Pizza recipe. Some money to revise earlier lessons on what values different coins and notes represent. Shopping list.

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Wheelchair Wizardry Activity Skill Base Wheelchair Mobility Social Interaction Spatial Awareness Awareness of Environment and Safety Activity Setting Indoors or Outdoors


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Developmental Component This is a four-week course which is designed to develop the driving skills of those students who are wheelchair users both in terms of their ability to negotiate obstacles within the environment and to increase their awareness of others. It could be a useful prerequisite to community skills and training in road safety. It can be linked to a Life Skills course. Activity Aims To enable students to practice and refine basic wheelchair skills indoors and outdoors. To increase spatial awareness of obstacles and people within the environment. To promote social interaction and team work. To give students an understanding of sensory and environmental considerations while driving. Description of Activity The aim of the course is to teach the students safe driving skills both indoors and out-doors. This is done through a series of games and then the students are invited to talk about how they felt while taking part in the games. One session invites a class discussion about what daily life is like from the perspective of a wheelchair user. There is also a treasure hunt at the end of the course to enable the students to put all they have learnt into practice. The Rainbow Treasure Hunt could also be linked to this course. Materials/Resources Required Additional staff to ensure safety of all participants. Large space to set up and engage in games. Scope to run some sessions outdoors. Materials as indicated in individual session outlines.

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Beetle Activity Skill Base Sequencing and Counting of Numbers Spatial Relations

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Turn Taking Social Interaction Fine Motor Skills Activity Setting Indoors Developmental Component Beetle is a game that small groups of children or the whole class can play. It combines and applies knowledge of number and different shapes that the groups have to use to make a Beetle. Each shape component of the Beetle has a number score attached to it. 6 = Body 3 = Antennae

5 = Head 4 = Legs

2 = Eyes 1 = Tail

To start the game or a separate turn, each person has to score 6 to get the body of the beetle. This has to be followed by a 5 for the head and 4 for each leg, etc. The game can be played by individual players, in small groups or the whole class. Activity Aims To practise turn taking and teamwork To practise counting backwards from 6 To work as a team with other class members To put together the shape of a beetle in the correct order Description of Activity The aim of the game is to see who can create a complete beetle first. The numbers and parts of the body they represent must be completed in the correct numerical order. Materials/Resources Required A Dice to throw to get the numbers for the game. To make this, draw a net of a cube and stick it together to form a 3D cube shape. Draw on the numbers to each face of the cube. Make up the beetle components—head, body, 6 legs, antennae, eyes and tail. If possible have beetles made from different colour cards if it is to be a team game.

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Famous Faces


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Activity Skill Base Visual Perception Visual Closure Memory Spatial Relations Activity Setting Classroom Developmental Component This activity enables the children to piece together pictures of famous people. It is quite a simple concept and focuses on recognising and completing part-completed pictures thus developing visual closure skills. This skill can be transferred to the functional domain to help children find objects that are partially hidden. There is also an element of memory involved in that the participant has to have some knowledge about the physical features of the famous faces included. The activity could be used to help the children remember historical figures, famous sports people, politicians or story characters. Activity Aims To develop visual closure skills to enable children to recognise and locate objects which are partially hidden. To develop understanding of spatial relationships involved in completing face puzzle. To use memory skills and prior knowledge of famous persons to construct a puzzle. Description of Activity Identify 10 famous people—sports people, historical figures, people in the news, movie stars, etc. Find their pictures from magazines and newspapers. Mount the pictures on to a stiff cardboard and cut round their outlines. Then cut up the pictures into smaller pieces to resemble a puzzle that can be put together to make up the complete face. Repeat this for each famous face you have identified. In order to differentiate this activity you may need to photocopy the complete picture to a larger size. In terms of complexity you could grade the number of pieces and their shapes to suit the ability of individual children. The activity could be adapted for shapes too. Materials/Resources Required Newspapers, magazines Stiff card board Scissors Glue

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TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Memory Madness Activity Skill Base Picture Recognition Concentration and Attention Turn Taking Social Interaction Short Term Memory Skills Scanning Skills Activity Setting Classroom Developmental Component Memory Madness is a card game which asks its participants to match pairs of pictures by locating and remembering where they are in a group of cards placed face down on the table. The person with the greatest number of matched pairs at the end of the game is declared the winner. The game enables participants to practice taking turns and to develop attention and concentration skills. Activity Aims To practice turn taking To develop concentration and attention skills To develop short term memory skills To practice visual discrimination of pictorial objects Description of Activity The aim of the game is to see who can recall and locate matched pairs of picture cards in a group. There is a need to recognise a given image and locate its matching card correctly within a group of given cards. The element of competition can be increased by augmenting the number of players within the game. The size of the card can be enlarged to accommodate those who may have visual impairment. Materials/Resources Required Card on which to draw picture pairs for the game Ideas for about 30 pairs of pictures—objects, animals, people Colour pens to colour pictures Scissors to cut up card Cling film to wrap cards in to protect against wear and tear


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TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Perceptual Puzzle Page Activity Skill Base Visual Perceptual Skills Fine Motor Skills Concentration Attention Activity Setting Classroom Developmental Component This exercise is useful as an activity to encourage a quiet time at the end of the day. It is also quite fun as the activity involves a word search, join the dots puzzle, complete the missing picture and a picture to colour. It should be an individual exercise which builds on existing concentration and attention skills. Each puzzle focuses on using a combination of visual perceptual skills. These include scanning and cancellation, sequencing, visual closure and form constancy. Activity Aims To practise visual perceptual skills To develop concentration and attention skills To complete a given task individually Description of Activity The activity is really a worksheet that includes the activities of a word search, join the dots, an incomplete picture to finish and a picture to colour. The subject for the word search and the pictures could be related to a topic the children are learning about to reenforce their learning/recall of it. Attention should be paid to those with visual impairment who may need handouts in a larger font or size. Complexity can be accommodated by differing the number of words to find or the number of dots to join. Materials/Resources Required Design word searches, join the dot puzzles, incomplete pictures and pictures to colour around various topics being learnt in class. A4 size paper to write work sheets. Access to photocopier/larger paper to make larger handouts as needed.

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TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Rainbow Treasure Hunt Activity Skill Base Colour Recognition and Colour Recall Problem Solving Turn Taking Social Interaction Gross Motor Skills Activity Setting Outdoors Developmental Component The Rainbow Treasure Hunt is a way of instilling in its participants the seven colours of the rainbow. It uses a kinesthetic approach to learning and helps the children develop their problem solving and team work skills in cracking the clues. It has eight clues and can be linked to the subject areas of science, geography or art. The mnemonic or rhythm is Richard Of York Gained Battle In Vain. Each word represents a colour of the rainbow. As teacher it is necessary to create a clue for the children to identify each colour. The clues have to be found within the external environment of the school grounds. You could attach a piece of the respective colours string to a given object. The challenge of the game is to find all seven clues and try to work out the rhythm as a group. There could be a prize for the first team or individual to finish. Activity Aims To practice turn taking and teamwork To recall and identify objects within the environment and their different colours To work as a team with other class members To practise Gross Motor Skills in moving around outdoors To practise problem solving the answers to given clues Description of Activity The aim of the game is to see who or which group can find and identify all seven colours collectively. The group needs to be able to recite and recall the mnemonic of the rainbow consistently.


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Materials/Resources Required Seven different coloured pieces of string for each rainbow colour Seven clues and answers relating to each clue Extra staff to work with each group as needed A prize for the winning team/individual

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Giant Snakes and Ladders Activity Skill Base Sequencing and Counting of Numbers Spatial Relations Turn Taking Social Interaction Gross Motor Skills Activity Setting Indoors or Outdoors Developmental Component Giant Snakes and Ladders is just a larger version of the traditional board game except the participants are the counters and the other class members take turns in rolling the dice and counting out the moves the participants have to make. It uses a kinesthetic approach to consolidating basic number skills and aims to internalise directional concepts of up, down, left and right into the participants and observers. The grid can be graded according to the number knowledge of the group so that parts of the snakes and ladders grid can be added as the number knowledge of the group increases. The idea of observers and participants is there to encourage teamwork and to enable slower learners in the group more time to see how it is done. Activity Aims To practise turn taking and teamwork To practise counting up to one hundred To work as a team with other class members To practise Gross Motor Skills in moving along, up and down To re-enforce directional awareness of left and right

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Description of Activity The aim of the game is to see who can reach square 100 first. If a participant reaches the foot of a ladder they may ascend it, if they reach the mouth of a snake they have to return to the number at the base of its tail. Materials/Resources Required Large carpet squares with grids for numbers. Make up snakes and ladders from stiff card to fit within grids. Make up separate carpet squares which can be added or taken away according to number knowledge of students. Sufficient space for students with limited mobility to play the game.

TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Our Senses and Our Independence Activity Skill Base Life Skills Social Interaction/Communication Group Work Sensory Exploration/Awareness Activity Setting Classroom Developmental Component This is a five-week course which aims to teach the participants about how using our senses assists our independence. It covers the five senses of vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. As the weeks progress the group constructs a wall display to assist their learning and to use as a point of reference and revision. The principal learning medium is through group discussion and engagement in simple activities to experience and understand the use of different senses each week. The newfound knowledge is then applied in the weekly construction of the wall display. Also exploring ways using a given sense can help us in our daily lives. Course Aims To explore how our senses help us to be independent in daily life To identify what our senses are


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To understand what happens if our senses are damaged To promote social interaction To encourage teamwork within the group To construct a wall display about our senses to aid learning of new ideas Description of Activity Week 1—Vision Objectives To introduce the students to the course as an exploration of how our senses help us be independent. For the students to name all five senses and to explore the additional senses of balance and body awareness. To discuss vision, the art of looking and how our eyes help us view the world around us. To explore colour, symbols, size, shape, pictures and signs. To understand that we live in a visual world and use pictures a lot to help us. Materials/Resources Required Make pictures of people, road signs, school signs and find different everyday objects for students to identify. Squares of card of different colours. Blackboard to write ideas up or large paper. Thick pens/chalk. Component parts of wall display, words in coloured card denoting the five senses, face and component parts to add each week, a pair of hands made from card. Description of Activity Warm Up Ask the group to tell you how many senses we have and to name them together. Ask them to point to the parts of the body where our senses are used. Main Body The focus of this session is about our eyes and how they help us live our daily life. Ask if anyone knows the proper name for seeing and looking. Discuss how we use our eyes in daily life and how and what seeing things helps us to do. Create a spider diagram on the blackboard or large paper the students come up with. These may include recognition of objects, people, use of signs to point to the right way to go, symbols and communication. Ask the students to consider what life would be like if you could not see and how you might live your daily life.

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Senses Display Take the component parts of display, the face and the word for VISION. Place the face in the centre and add the eyes and the word for VISION. Week 2—Hearing Objectives To discuss how we hear and how hearing helps us be independent. To practice listening skills and identify everyday sounds and explore silence. Explore conversation, speech, the sound of someone’s voice. Discover how listening helps us gather information, where and how. Materials/Resources Required Collect everyday objects that make different sounds or make a cassette tape of common everyday sounds for students to listen to and name. Make picture cards for students to match with the sounds they hear. Description of Activity Warm Up Recap on last week’s session about sight and how our vision aids our independence. Check that the students can name the five senses and ask them to give you one way our vision helps us in daily life. Main Body The focus of this session is about our hearing and how that helps us live our daily life. Explain that we are going to listen to some common sounds and that the students have to identify them either by saying what they can hear or finding a picture to match the sound to show the class. Discuss how we use our eyes in daily life and how and what hearing or listening to things helps us to do. Create a spider diagram on the blackboard or large paper the students come up with. Ideas may include finding out about our friends, listening to what our teachers say to us, we know where we are by the sounds we hear around us, warning sounds, listening to music. Explore what hearing helps us do when we are out in the Community: Ideas might include hearing people walking in front or behind you, public announcements at stations, recognising birds singing, rain on the windows, sound of traffic on the road before crossing. Ask the students to consider what life would be like if you could not hear and how you might live your daily life. How do they make their feelings known?


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Senses Display Take the component parts of display, the face and the word for HEARING. Stick the ears to the face and link the word for HEARING to the ears to help the students see that we use our ears for hearing. Week 3—Touch Objectives For the students to understand the concept of touch and how we use our hands to access this feeling. To explore how we recognise different textures, shapes and sizes of different objects. To explore how touch can be used to gather information, enhance communication, find out more about a person. Materials/Resources Required A selection of objects of different sizes and shapes, blind fold. Small pet that is alive, warm and soft if you have one. Blackboard to write ideas up or large paper. Thick pens/chalk. Component parts of wall display, words in coloured card denoting TOUCH senses, face and component parts a pair of hands made from card. Description of Activity Warm Up Ask the group to tell you how many senses we have and to name them together. Ask them what senses we have talked about so far. How does listening and hearing help us in our daily lives both at home and school and in the community? Main Body The focus of this session is about our sense of touch and how what we can feel helps us in our daily life. Ask if anyone knows another name for touch (feeling, tactile). Ask if they know what it means if you cannot feel what you are holding (numbness). Discuss how we use touch in daily life and how and what touching things helps us to do. Create a spider diagram on the blackboard or large paper the students come up with. Play an object recognition game with five or six different objects, ask the students to close their eyes if blindfold is not available. Ask the students to consider what life would be like if you could not touch or feel anything and how you might live your daily life. Touch can be relaxing—how does being touched help, massage, hugs, pets. Introduce the pet to the class, explore how we know he is warm, soft, his size and shape.

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Senses Display Take the component parts of display, the word for touch and the pair of hands, place the hands under the face and attach the label TOUCH to remind students we use our hands to touch or feel something. Week 4—Taste Objectives For the students to identify how taste happens and how they know which foods they like and dislike. To understand that good and bad tastes can relate to clothes, house decoration, pop groups, and so on. To test their own sense of taste in class and to learn about bitter, sweet, bland or potent tastes. To explore how our sense of taste helps us in daily living. Materials/Resources Required A selection of foods for the students to taste. A Blackboard to write ideas up or large paper. Thick pens/chalk. Component parts of wall display—words in coloured card denoting TASTE and lips and tongue. Description of Activity Warm Up Ask the group to tell you the number of senses we have and to name them together. Ask them to point to the parts of the body with which the senses we have covered over the past weeks are used. Main Body The focus of this session is about our sense of taste and how it helps us live our daily life. Tasting Game: Provide students with selection of common foods to taste and identify. These could include carrot, orange, lemon, herbs, chocolate biscuit, bread, peppermint and banana. Explore the fact that taste is not just about telling us what food we are eating and if we like it or not. Taste is also about what we like and do not like in terms of pictures, objects, music, etc. Discuss why group members like certain things they own. Senses Display Take the component parts of display, the face and the word for TASTE. Add the lips and tongue to the face and link the TASTE label with the lips so the students know we use our tongue to taste foods and flavours.


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Week 5—Smell Objectives For the students to understand how and where we get our sense of smell To discuss most favourite and least favourite smells in the group To explore how our sense of smell can help us in daily life Materials/Resources Required Provide a selection of different smells for students to identify. These could include perfume, after shave lotion, peppermint, garlic and cheese. Blackboard to write ideas up or large paper. Thick pens/chalk. Component parts of wall display, nose and the word for SMELL. Description of Activity Warm Up Ask the group to tell you how many senses we have and to name them together. Ask them to point to the parts of the body with which our senses are used. Ask them if they know which part of the body we use to smell. Main Body The focus of this session is about our sense of smell and how it can help us in our daily life. Discuss how our sense of smell helps us in our daily life and how and what smelling things helps us to do. Create a spider diagram on the blackboard or large paper the students come up with. These may include helps us to know if food is ok to eat, we can smell if something is burning, smell gas, perfume is different in different types of flowers. Smells Game: Ask students to identify the different smells listed above and discuss which ones they liked and hated and why. Ask the students to consider what life would be like if you could not smell and how you might live your daily life. What happens if you get a really bad cold? Senses Display Take the component parts of display, the nose and the word for SMELL. Place the nose in the centre of the face and link it to the word SMELL to complete the display Talk through the completed wall display with the students and ask them to share with the group their favourite senses and they think all our senses help us in our daily living.

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TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Name of Activity Personal Profiles Activity Skill Base Life Skills Short and Long Term Memory Skills Social Interaction Individual or Group Project Activity Setting Classroom Developmental Component Personal Profiles is an activity which enables children to learn and recall basic facts about themselves. The activity involves constructing a personal profile which may include a photograph, details of their family, hobbies, where they live, where they go to school, favourite food, fears, ambitions, etc. Each member of the group could construct and design a personal profile on a large piece of paper to put up around the class. Alternatively it could be done as a class group to construct a class fact file about each member of the class. At the end of the project individuals should be able to say their name, their address and give some details about their family and interests. Activity Aims To enable children to learn and recall key facts about themselves. To enable children to make choices about what to include in their personal profile. To enable children to find out new things about themselves and other class members. To encourage creativity. Description of Activity This activity aims to help children remember essential facts about themselves that they can impart to others caring for them easily. These may include their name, date of birth, address and other details that are important to them. By using a creative kineathestic medium it is hoped this will aid recall of facts if the process holds more personal meaning for the children involved. Materials/Resources Required Paper Paints Pens

Individual photos Magazines Art materials

Any other materials that the children identify they need to construct their personal profiles.


TOOLS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TEMPLATE Name of Activity Activity Skill Base Activity Setting Developmental Component Developmental Aims Description of Activity Materials/Resources Required

Figure 7.2

A Special Educator’s Tool Kit

Education is not just about helping children to succeed in school, but should be designed to equip them for life.

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Glossary Ataxia An inability to co-ordinate muscle activity causing jerkiness, inco-ordination and inefficiency of voluntary movement, most often due to disorders in the cerebellum or the posterior columns of the spinal cord. May involve limbs, head or trunk. Athetosis Slow writhing involuntary movements of fingers and hands and sometimes the toes and feet. Usually caused by an extra pyramidal lesion. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) A neurologically-based developmental disability estimated to affect 3.5 per cent of the school-age population. No one knows the cause but evidence suggests that it is transmitted genetically (American Psychiatric Association 1994). Behaviour Any response emitted by or elicited from an organism. Parts of a total response pattern. Cerebral Palsy A Neuromuscular disability in which voluntary muscles are poorly controlled or paralysed as a result of brain damage (Marieb 2007). Cursive Script A style of handwriting in which all the letters in a word are connected, making a word one single (complicated) stroke (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursive_ writing). Deficit The result of consuming or losing something faster than it is being replenished or replaced. Differentiation A way of thinking and learning that values the individual that can be translated into the classroom in many ways (Tomlinson 2000). Diplegia Paralysis of both sides of the body. Disability Any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in a manner or within the range considered normal for a human being. An impairment or defect of one or more organs or members.

Glossary

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Downs Syndrome Chromosomal dysgenesis syndrome consisting of a variable constellation of abnormalities caused by translocation of Chromosome 21. Dysarthria A disturbance of speech and language due to emotional stress, to brain injury or paralysis or inco-ordination of the muscles involved in speaking. Environment The aggregate of all the external conditions and influences affecting the life and development of an organism. Genetics The branch of science concerned with the means and consequences of transmission and generation of the components of biological inheritance. Graphomotor The movements a human being has to perform to write or draw. Guide Assist Active help to perform given by placing the hand over the affected hand of the individual and the desired movement initiated and executed by the therapist or helper to demonstrate the required movement. Hand–eye Co-ordination The harmonious working together of the hand and the eye in the execution of complicated movements or tasks. Handicap A physical, mental or emotional condition that interferes with a person’s normal functioning. Reduction in a person’s capacity to fulfil a social role as a consequence of an impairment, inadequate training for that role, or other circumstance. Intellect Relates to intelligence—an individual’s aggregate capacity to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment, especially in solving problems and meeting challenges. Learning Difficulties A disorder in one or more of the basic cognitive and psychological processes involved in understanding or using written or spoken language. Manuscipt A style of writing where the writer forms each letter separately. Motor Learning The process of improving the smoothness and accuracy of movements. Motor Planning The ability to plan and execute movements accurately and smoothly.

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Muscle Tone The tension present in resting muscles. Normal Child Development The process of natural progression of a normal child in physical and psychological maturation from a previous, lower or embryonic stage to a later more complex adult. Orientation The recognition of one’s temporal, spatial and personal relationships and environment. Phonetic Relating to speech or to the voice—sound speech or voice sounds. Physical Relating to the body, as distinguished from the mind. Quadriplegia Paralysis of all four limbs of the body. Sensation A feeling—the translation into the consciousness of the effects of a stimulus exciting any of the sense organs. Sensorimotor Both sensory and motor—denoting a mixed nerve with afferent and efferent fibres. Sensory Relates to sensation. Socialisation The process of learning attitudes and interpersonal and interaction skills which conform to the values of society. Spasticity A state of increased muscular tone with exaggeration of the tendon reflexes. Special Educational Needs Classroom or private instruction involving techniques, exercises, and subject matter designed for students whose learning needs cannot be met by a standard school curriculum (American Heritage Dictionary). Unilateral Neglect Inattention to visual stimuli occurring in the space on the affected side of the body. Visual Motor Integration The ability to synchronise visual information with physical movement to reproduce a shape or form.

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168


Index Accessibility Wizard, 118 activity, definition, 129 affective domain, 79 alternatives, importance of, 37 ASD (Autistic Spectrum Disorders), 2, 3, 5 Aspergers Syndrome, 2 classic autism, 2 Retts Syndrome, 2 teaching children with, 3 assistive devices, identification and use, 19 assistive technology, 116 availability, 117 cycle for adoption, 121 devices, 121 implementation, 120 Autism, definition, 3 autistic traits, signs and symptoms, 3 Base Line Learning Needs Assessment, 65–67, 90–92 behavioural learning, origins, 76 behavioural theories, 76 Cerebral Palsy, 29, 30 Ataxic Cerebral Palsy, 31 Athetoid Cerebral Palsy, 30 learning difficulties, 31 Spastic Cerebral Palsy, 30 Spastic Diplegia, 30 Spastic Hemiplegia, 30 Spastic Quadriplegia, 30 Cerebral Visual Dysfunction, 8 Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, 3 choice, 35, 38 classroom, adaptation, 18

climate, 62, 63 design and layout, 26, 64 FACE of, 64 management, 62 for special children, 70 modifications, 25 types, 63 cleft and palate, secondary functional problems, 14 Cleft Lip, 14 Club Foot, 15, 18 cognition, definition, 47, 74 development, 47, 48 cognitive domain, 78 cognitive learners, teaching strategies, 75 cognitive skills, ability to plan and organise, 49 application, 48 congenital deformities, 12, 19 definition, 11 conservation, 85 craniofacial deformities, 14 curriculum framework, assessment charts, 60 curriculum guidelines, 61 for children with multiple disabilities, 60, 61 curriculum, attainment targets, 60 definition, 59 designing and implementation, 60 differentiation, 24, 83 for hearing impaired children, 24 implementation, 61 CVI (Cerebral Visual Impairment), 7 differentiation, definition, 89 disabilities, secondary problems, 73

Index

Downs Syndrome, 31–33 developmental delay in, 32 medical definition, 31 medical problems, 32 physical characteristics, 32 education, 69 educational activity goals, 77 affective domain, 77 cognitive domain, 77 psychomotor element, 77 Gestalt theory, 75 groups and parental involvement, 126 groups setting, benefits, 126, 127 importance, 124 groups, definition, 123 purposes, 124 handwriting assessment tool, 104–06 handwriting instructions, prerequisites for, 103 handwriting, assistive technology, 116 change of grip, 107 components, 108 functional posture for, 107 handwriting practice, 110 handwriting styles, 109 importance of working as a team, 111 manuscript/cursive writing, 109 strategies to master, 107 writing lessons, 111 hearing impaired children, face to face contact, 27 presentation for, 27 hearing impairment, 20 bilateral hearing loss, 21 cochlea, 21

169

conductive hearing loss, 21 deafness, 21 fluctuating/stable hearing loss, 22 hard of hearing, 21 identification, 22, 23 progressive/sudden hearing loss, 22 sensorineural hearing loss, 21 symmetrical/asymmetrical hearing loss, 22 teaching and learning for children with, 23 unilateral hearing loss, 21 humanist theories, 76 Hydrocephalus, 13 IEP (Individual Education Plan), 57 formulation of, 58 standards for development, 58 learning styles, 81 the activist style, 81 the pragmatist style, 82 the reflector style, 82 learning, definition, 73 problem-based approaches to, 49 to write, importance of, 102 life skills programme for special children, 53 meaning, definition, 45 memory skills, development, 50 memory, definition, 50 Microsoft software, accessibility options, 117 Microsoft Word, 117 Mongle children, 31 Motor Skills, categories, 42 Fine Motor Skills, 42 Gross Motor Skills, 42 mouse key, 119 multiple disabilities, 28, 29 communication by children with, 36 teaching and learning for children with, 34

170


numeracy, teaching, 85 Parent Advocacy Coalition for Educational Rights, 58 parents and medical professionals, collaboration with, 23 participation, 69 facilitation of, 128 PECS (Picture Exchange Communication System, 5 perception skills, development, 45 perception, auditory perception, 45 definition, 44 proprioception, 45 tactile perception, 45 visual perception, 45 Pervasive Developmental Disorder, 3 play, definition, 39 different stages, 40 games play, 40 group play, 40 importance, 40 onlooker-observer role, 40 parallel play, 40 pretend play, 40 senserimotor play, 40 social categories, 40 solitary play, 40 preparation, 69 pre-writing skills, mastering, 103 problem solving, 37 proprioception, definition, 45 psychomotor domain, 80 purposeful activity, 125 reading teacher, attributes, 88 seating position, hearing impaired children, 25 social behaviour, definition, 50

social context of child, 24 special children, 1 and mastering numeracy, 84 and mastering reading, 86–88 building rapport with, 72 classroom management, 70 difficulty in carrying out tasks, 50 preparing lessons by, 68 special education, personal and professional development, 74 Special Educator, responsibility, 16 Spina Bifida, 13, 17 Spina Bifida Meningocele, 13 Spina Bifida Mylomeningocele, 13 Spina Bifida Occulta, 13 Talipes Equinovarus (see Club Foot) task group, 125 Taxonomy of Learning, 77 TEACCH (Training and Education of Autistic and related Communication-handicapped Children), 5 teaching and learning, approaches to, 26 theories, 73 tools for classroom activities, Art and Craft Portfolio, 134–35 Beetle, 141–42 Brave the Elements, 136–37 Famous Faces, 142–43 Fine Motor Fun and Games, 132–34 Giant Snakes and Ladders, 147 Granny’s Shopping List, 137–38 Memory Madness, 144 Obstacle Course, 131–32 Our Senses and Our Independence, 148–53 Pass the Ball/Beanbag, 129–30 Perceptual Puzzle Page, 145 Personal Profiles, 154 Rainbow Treasure Hunt, 146

Index

171

Rapid Recall, 135–36 Round Robin Role Play, 138–39 Skittle Mania, 130–31 Supermarket Sweep, 139–40 template, 155 Wheelchair Wizardry, 140–41 tools for learning, coloured clock, 92–93 money puzzle, 99–100 number line, 94–95 reading window, 95–96 shape puzzle, 96–98 stencils, 98–99 template, 100 tools for teaching handwriting, prewriting pictures, 114 remedies for writing wobbles, 112–13 stencils, 115 typing difficulties, remedies, 119

visual impairment, 6, 7, 10 Aniridia, 8 Cerebral Visual Dysfunction, 8 CVI (Cerebral Visual Impairment), 7 Myopia, 8 teaching and learning with children with, 9 visual perception, components, 46 depth perception, 46 development, 44 Figure Ground, 46 Form Constancy, 46 Form Discrimination, 46 Perceptuo-Motor Skill, 46 Spatial Awareness, 46 Topographical Awareness, 46 Unilateral Neglect, 46 Visual Closure, 46 Visual Memory, 46

vision, functions, 6 prerequisites for, 6

writing action, definition, 101 writing remedy, 113 writing, tasks related to, 102

About the Author Sarah J. Barratt is a qualified Occupational Therapist with over 10 years of clinical experience in physical medicine, paediatrics and community practice. Her practice extends across England, Romania, India and New Zealand. Her interest in Special Education is both professional and personal. She worked as a school-based Occupational Therapist in a residential school in England with children of primary school age with physical disabilities. She has also provided training for staff in Romania and has lectured on courses to train Special Educators in India. On a personal level she has special needs of her own which include mild Cerebral Palsy and some visual impairment. She is currently a Lecturer in Occupational Therapy at Canterbury Christchurch University in Kent. The Special Educator’s Tool Kit has been written to provide teachers, parents and families with a portfolio of resources and ideas to help them make the time that children spend at school enjoyable, memorable and fun.

About the Illustrator Michael Pratley started life as an Architectural Technician. He now uses his drawing experience in his role as a Crown Court Clerk in Lewes Crown Court, England. Pratley draws courtroom cartoons of people and events that unfold before him in between swearing in juries, arranging the court and taking verdicts. Each of his cartoons of ‘scribbles’ (as he affectionately calls them) tells a story, bringing the meaning behind and characters in them to life. A picture speaks a thousand words and the cartoons in this book do just that in a very real, heart-felt and humorous way. Pratley is undertaking the student officer course to become a Police Constable with Sussex police.

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