Kindalee Pfremmer De Long Surprised by God
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Kindalee Pfremmer De Long Surprised by God
Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche
Herausgegeben von
James D. G. Dunn · Carl R. Holladay Hermann Lichtenberger · Jens Schröter Gregory E. Sterling · Michael Wolter
Band 166
≥ Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York
Kindalee Pfremmer De Long
Surprised by God Praise Responses in the Narrative of Luke-Acts
≥ Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York
앝 Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines 앪 of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability.
ISSN 0171-6441 ISBN 978-3-11-022165-7 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. 쑔 Copyright 2009 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in Germany Cover design: Christopher Schneider, Laufen
To Ty, Evan, and Anika De Long ὑμεῖς τὸ φῶς τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν μου
Acknowledgements It is my pleasure to acknowledge and thank the people whose friendship, support, and wisdom contributed to this monograph, which is a revised version of a dissertation written at the University of Notre Dame. Many years ago, Randall Chesnutt, at Pepperdine University, encour‐ aged me to develop a short project on praise of God in the Gospel of Luke as a topic for extended research, providing valuable guidance in the earli‐ est stages of this project. At Notre Dame, I benefited tremendously from the friendship and insights of Jack Conroy, Matt Gordley, Dan Machiela, and Ardea Russo, as well as from conversations with Mary Rose D’Angelo, Hindy Najman, and Jerome H. Neyrey, each of whom contributed much to my thinking about praise of the divine in the ancient world. David Aune, Robin Darling Young, and James VanderKam read more than one version of the text carefully and thoughtfully. Their insightful comments helped shape the project in significant ways. I am especially in‐ debted to Greg Sterling, the director of the original dissertation, who will‐ ingly provided his knowledge, expertise, guidance, and wise critique: one could not hope for a better mentor. The writing and editing of the monograph was supported by fellow‐ ships from the Graduate School at the University of Notre Dame, The Christian Scholarship Foundation, Inc., and the Seaver College Research Council at Pepperdine University. I am grateful also to Tammy Ditmore and Stella Forcehimes for their assistance with proofreading and to Sabina Dabrowski and Carsten Burfeind for their help with the details of prepar‐ ing the manuscript for publication. During this project, I was sustained personally by the warm support of many friends in Indiana and California, and by the affection of my parents and parents‐in‐law, Dale and Cloys Pfremmer and Tom and Clara De Long. My life has been particularly blessed by the love, care, patience, curiosity, and laughter of my husband and two children, to whom this work is dedi‐ cated. Kindalee Pfremmer De Long August 2009 Malibu, California
Contents Acknowledgements .......................................................................................... vii Contents .............................................................................................................. ix Figures ............................................................................................................... xiii Tables ................................................................................................................. xiii Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 A. Scholarship on Praise of God in Luke‐Acts .............................................. 2 1. Observations about Praise of God ...................................................... 2 2. Praise of God in Particular Contexts ..................................................... 4 3. Praise of the Divine Benefactor .............................................................. 6 4. Praise, Joy, and Prayer ............................................................................. 7 B. Praise of God in Narrative .......................................................................... 9 C. Praise and Luke’s Use of Sources ............................................................. 11 D. Approach of the Study .............................................................................. 13 E. Argument .................................................................................................... 14 Part One: Praise of God in Context Introduction to Part One .................................................................................. 17 Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine ....................................................... 19 A. Introduction ................................................................................................ 19 B. Terminology ................................................................................................ 19 C. Praise of God in the Hebrew Scriptures and Dead Sea Scrolls ............ 21 1. Praise and Petition ................................................................................. 22 2. Declarative and Descriptive Praise ...................................................... 23 D. Praise of Deity in Texts in Greek .............................................................. 24 1. The Meaning of Εὐχή (and Related Words) ....................................... 25 2. Praise and Petition in Classical Greek Texts ....................................... 30 3. Praise and Petition in the Septuagint, Josephus, and Philo .............. 36 4. Greek Vocabulary for Praise of God .................................................... 38 E. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 41 Chapter 2: Discourse about Praise of the Divine .......................................... 43 A. B. C. D.
Introduction ................................................................................................ 43 Praise and Righteousness ......................................................................... 44 Praise and Recognition of Divine Providence ........................................ 47 Praise, Divine Intervention, and Transformation .................................. 54
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1. In Isaiah ................................................................................................... 54 2. In Early Jewish Texts in Greek ............................................................. 61 3. In Greek Texts ......................................................................................... 65 E. Praise and Narration of Divine Deeds .................................................... 67 F. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 72 Chapter 3: Praise and Healing in Tobit .......................................................... 75 A. Introduction ................................................................................................ 75 B. The Pattern of Praise in Tobit ................................................................... 77 1. The Plot of Tobit ..................................................................................... 78 2. Praise and Sarah’s Healing ................................................................... 81 3. Praise and Tobit’s Healing .................................................................... 82 4. Praise and Angelic Revelation .............................................................. 85 C. Praise and Tobit’s Characterization ......................................................... 86 1. Tobit’s Lack of Joy and Praise ............................................................... 86 2. Praise and Eschatology in Tobit’s Hymn ................................................ 95 D. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 103 Chapter 4: Praise and Conversion in Joseph And Aseneth ........................... 105 A. Introduction .............................................................................................. 105 B. The Pattern of Praise in Joseph and Aseneth ........................................... 107 1. The Plot of Joseph and Aseneth ............................................................. 109 2. Joy, Praise, and Aseneth’s Rejection of Joseph (chs. 3‐4) ................. 110 3. Joy, Praise, and Joseph’s Rejection of Aseneth (chs. 7‐9) ................. 113 4. Joyous Praise and Angelic Revelation of Aseneth’s Acceptance by God (chs. 10‐15) ................................................... 116 5. Communal Praise and Aseneth’s New Identity (chs. 18‐21) .......... 121 6. Aseneth’s Praise and Divine Rescue (chs. 22‐27) ............................. 122 C. Praise and Aseneth’s Characterization .................................................. 123 D. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 127 Part Two: Praise Responses in Luke‐Acts Introduction to Part Two ................................................................................ 131 Chapter 5: Praise and Revelation: Jesus’ Birth ............................................ 135 A. Introduction .............................................................................................. 135 B. The Pattern of Praise in the Infancy Narrative ..................................... 138 1. Angelic Revelation of Joy .................................................................... 139 2. Responses of Joyous Praise ................................................................. 142 2.1 To Jesus’ Conception (Lk 1:39‒56; Section Three) ...................... 143 2.2 To John’s Birth (Lk 1:57‒80; Section Four) ................................... 147 2.3 To Jesus’ Birth (Lk 2:1‒21; 2:22‒40; Sections Five and Six) ........ 148 3. The Structure of Anticipation and Response .................................... 148 4. Praise and Recognition ........................................................................ 149
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C. Praise as Interpretation of the Divine Visitation .................................. 152 1. Praise and the Restoration of Israel ................................................... 153 2. Praise and the Consolation of Jerusalem .......................................... 156 3. Praise and a Light for Glory and Revelation .................................... 162 4. Praise and Characterization in the Infancy Narrative ..................... 166 4.1 Elizabeth and Mary ........................................................................ 167 4.2 Zechariah ......................................................................................... 174 D. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 178 Chapter 6: Praise and Healing in Luke‐Acts ............................................... 181 A. Introduction .............................................................................................. 181 B. The Pattern of Praise in Healing Stories (Lk 5‒Acts 4) ........................ 181 1. Man with Paralysis Lowered through a Roof (Lk 5:17‒26) ............ 183 2. Woman Made Straight (Lk 13:11‒17) ................................................ 188 3. Ten Men with Leprosy (Lk 17:11‒19) ................................................ 189 4. Man Born Blind at Jericho (Lk 18:35‒42) ........................................... 190 5. Man with Paralysis at the Temple Gate (Acts 3:1‒4:22) .................. 192 6. Summary ............................................................................................... 196 C. Praise and Healing in the Rest of Acts (chs. 5‒28) ............................... 198 D. Praise and Characterization in Healing Stories ................................... 200 1. Woman Made Straight ......................................................................... 201 2. Samaritan Leper ................................................................................... 203 3. Leaping Lame Man .............................................................................. 205 4. Healings as Signs ................................................................................. 207 E. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 210 Chapter 7: Praise and Revelation: Jesus’ Identity as Messiah, Son, King, and Risen Lord ............................................................................... 213 A. Introduction .............................................................................................. 213 B. Praise and Jesus’ Identity as Messiah, Son, and King ......................... 214 1. Jesus’ Praise: Revelation to the Disciples (Lk 10:20‒23) .................. 214 1.1 Exhortation to Rejoice (Lk 10:20) .................................................. 214 1.2 Praise Speech (Lk 10:21‒22) .......................................................... 215 1.3 Blessing (Lk 10:23‒24) .................................................................... 219 2. The Disciples’ Praise: Recognition of Jesus (Lk 19:37‒38) ............... 222 2.1 Praise of God as Jesus Approaches Jerusalem ............................ 223 2.2 Internal Echoes: Angels, Shepherds, and Jesus .......................... 226 2.3 External Echoes: Prophetic Exhortations to Rejoice ................... 228 C. Silence and Rejection in Jerusalem ........................................................ 231 1. The Pharisees’ Desire for Silence (Lk 19:39‒40) ................................ 232 2. Jesus’ Apostrophe to Jerusalem (Lk 19:41‒44) .................................. 233 3. Voices of Opposition ............................................................................ 234 D. Praise and Jesus’ Identity as Risen Lord ............................................... 235
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1. Jesus’ Praise: Berakot for His Death (Lk 22:17‒20) ............................ 236 2. The Centurion’s Praise: Recognition of Jesus’ Identity (Lk 23:47) ........................................................................................ 239 3. The Disciples’ Praise: Recognition of Jesus’ Identity (Lk 24:41‒53) .................................................................................. 242 4. The People’s Praise: Recognition of Jesus’ Identity (Acts 2:46‒47) ................................................................................. 246 E. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 248 Chapter 8: Praise and Conversion of the Gentiles in Acts ......................... 251 A. Introduction .............................................................................................. 251 B. Praise and Peter’s Ministry ..................................................................... 252 1. Praise Response: Gentiles in Caesarea (Acts 10:45‒46) ................... 252 2. Narrative Tension: Resistance in Jerusalem (Acts 11:2‒3) .............. 254 3. Resolution of Tension: Praise by Jerusalem’s Leaders (Acts 11:18) ..................................................................................... 255 C. Praise and Paul’s Ministry ...................................................................... 256 1. Praise Response: Gentiles in Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13:46‒48) ............................................................................... 257 2. Narrative Tension: Resistance in Jerusalem (Acts 15:1‒30) ............ 259 3. Resolution of Tension: Praise by Jerusalem’s Leaders (Acts 21:18‒20) ............................................................................... 264 4. Paul’s Praise (Acts 27:35; 28:15) .......................................................... 265 D. Healings, Conversions, and Praise ........................................................ 265 E. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 268 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 271 A. Summary of Argument .......................................................................... 271 1. Praise of God in Context .................................................................... 271 2. Praise Responses in Luke‐Acts .......................................................... 273 B. Implications ............................................................................................. 279 Appendix 1 ...................................................................................................... 284 Bibliography .................................................................................................... 287 Index of Ancient Sources ............................................................................... 303 Index of Modern Authors ............................................................................... 323 Index of Subjects .............................................................................................. 327
Figures Figure 1: The Plot(s) of Tobit ............................................................................ 80 Figure 2: Movement of Joy through the Plot of Lk 1:28‒56 ........................ 143 Figure 3: The Pattern of Praise in the Infancy Narrative ............................ 149 Figure 4: Grammar of Divine Visitation (Mark Coleridge) ........................ 150
Tables Table 1: Εὐχή and Related Words in Hellenistic‐Jewish Literature ............ 27 Table 2: Comparative Praise Vocabulary ....................................................... 41 Table 3: Praise and Narration in the Psalms .................................................. 68 Table 4: The Praise Motif in Tobit .................................................................... 77 Table 5: Parallels in the Petitions of Tobit and Sarah .................................... 87 Table 6: Transformation, Sight, Light, and Joyous Praise in Tobit’s Hymn ....................................................................................................... 97 Table 7: The Praise Motif in Joseph and Aseneth, with Joy Notices ............. 108 Table 8: From Castigation to Healing/Mercy in Deut 32:39, Isa 19:22, Jos. Asen. 11:18, and Tob 13:2 .............................................. 130 Table 9: Praise of God in Four Contexts in Luke‐Acts ............................... 133 Table 10: Joy and Praise in Lk 1‒2 ................................................................. 137 Table 11: Comparison of LXX Ps 97:1‒3 and Mary’s Praise ....................... 160 Table 12: Comparison of LXX Ps 97:2‒3 and Simeon’s Praise ................... 165 Table 13: Pattern of Praise in Six Healing Stories in Luke‐Acts ................ 182 Table 14: Comparison of LXX Isa 51 and Lk 13:11‒17 ................................ 203 Table 15: Praise Following Healings and Conversions in Luke‐Acts ....... 266 Table 16: The Praise Motif in Luke‐Acts ...................................................... 274
Introduction The plan of God plays a central role in the narrative of Luke‐Acts. Guiding the action of the story, the divine plan proceeds according to scriptural ex‐ pectations, yet it also surprises the characters. Divine salvation has long been anticipated, but because it arrives in unexpected ways, characters’ responses are crucial to the narrative. From a position of surprise, charac‐ ters must recognize divine merciful action and then accept it. Certain key responses indicate the movement of characters from surprise to acceptance, including faith, repentance, and conversion. This study explores another significant human response to the divine plan in Luke‐Acts: praise of God. Episodes featuring praise of God appear throughout the two‐volume work, in which characters praise God twenty‐eight times. These instances of praise do not appear randomly in Luke‐Acts but rather occur at crucial moments in the story. Clustering around particular literary contexts, they guide the reader through the narrative’s complex plot, communicating thematic content. Praise of God thus represents an important literary motif in Luke‐Acts, one that has been noticed previously by scholars but never investigated. The motif of praise of God begins in the infancy narrative with loud expressions of human and heavenly praise in response to divine revelation. Praise continues in the context of healing miracles as Jesus journeys through Galilee and toward Jerusalem, building to a climax as Jesus ap‐ proaches Jerusalem. However, the moment Jesus enters the city, praise falls silent. In Jerusalem, lack of praise contributes to narrative tension in the dark center of the story. But upon Jesus’ death, praise responses resume, again in response to revelation, building to another climax in the events of Acts 2‒4. From chapter five onward, characters continue to respond to di‐ vine action with praise, but the literary context for praise shifts from heal‐ ing miracles to the conversions of Gentiles. In the end, as Paul approaches Rome, he praises God. Praise in Jerusalem opens the Gospel of Luke, while the book of Acts closes shortly after Paul’s praise on the outskirts of the capital city. As the motif of praise unfolds in the narrative, it responds to the visita‐ tion of God, identifying characters who recognize and accept narrative events as this visitation. Suspensions of praise at key moments—including but not limited to the Passion Narrative—create narrative tensions, remind‐ ing the reader that acceptance of God’s surprising work is not assured. Praise also serves to connect physical healings early in the narrative with
2
Introduction
conversions (spiritual healings) later in the story, creating an overarching parallel within the narrative structure that aligns closely with the two pri‐ mary effects of the divine visitation, as anticipated in the infancy narrative: glory for Israel and revelation to the Gentiles. To this point, researchers of Luke‐Acts have repeatedly noticed the mo‐ tif of praise of God, and some studies have examined it in an isolated way, but no investigation has focused on praise of God in either Luke or Acts or throughout the two‐volume work. This monograph fills this lacuna by ex‐ amining the motif of praise of God as it unfolds in the whole Lukan narra‐ tive, seeking to understand its interaction with the narrative’s structure, plot, and characterization and exploring its contribution to the story’s meaning. As a contextual foundation for this narrative analysis, the study will also overview ancient discourse on praise of the divine and explore praise of God as a literary motif in two other narratives: Tobit and Joseph and Aseneth.
A. Scholarship on Praise of God in Luke‐Acts Numerous writers have noted the presence of praise of God in Luke and Acts, but no scholar has studied the motif as a whole, either in an article or monograph. Previous attention to the praise motif in Luke‐Acts falls into four general areas: (1) passing comments about the importance of praise of God without sustained attention; (2) exploration of the topic in one particu‐ lar context without attention to the whole narrative (e.g., hymns of the in‐ fancy narrative, acclamation following miracles); (3) anthropological analy‐ ses of praise of God in relation to benefaction and/or patronage; and (4) treatment of the motif of praise as a subcategory of a related Lukan theme (i.e., joy or prayer).
1. Observations about Praise of God In his classic study, Henry Cadbury remarks occasionally about praise of God in Luke‐Acts.1 Similarly Joseph Fitzmyer, in his two‐volume commen‐ tary on the Gospel, makes frequent note of the motif of praise of God. He observes, for example, that praise of God following a miracle is “a charac‐ teristic reaction of persons in Luke’s Gospel.”2 Commenting on the shep‐ 1 2
Cadbury, Henry Joel. The Making of Luke‐Acts. New York: Macmillan, 1927. Repr., Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1999, 192, 268. J. A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke (AB 28; Garden City: Doubleday, 1981‒85), 1:586. He references three of five miracles with praise responses and the
Scholarship on Praise of God in Luke‐Acts
3
herds’ praise, Raymond Brown states in a footnote that “it is standard pro‐ cedure in Luke/Acts for bystanders to glorify and praise God for what they have seen and heard.”3 Luke Timothy Johnson’s two commentary volumes often note the importance of praise responses in the narrative.4 Similarly, I. Howard Marshall observes, “One of the most conspicuous Lucan features of the Gospel is the way in which the various scenes often culminate in an expression of praise or glory to God on the part of the people involved and the spectators.” His two pages on the motif offer perhaps the most thor‐ ough treatment of praise of God in Luke‐Acts to date.5 In tracing an over‐ arching “architectonic pattern” in Luke‐Acts, Charles Talbert identifies praise of God as one of the ways in which scenes in Acts reflect scenes in Luke, but he does not investigate this point further.6 John Squires fre‐ quently points out that praise serves as a proper response to the plan of God.7 In several articles on particular miracle stories in Luke and Acts, Den‐ nis Hamm offers periodic reflection on the implications of praise of God as a narrative feature of Luke‐Acts. He identifies “glorifying God” as thematic in the Gospel, to the extent that it becomes something like a musical refrain in Luke‐Acts. He connects praise in the miracle scenes with the larger theme of praise in the narrative: the praise of the healed person achieves a delicate balance between the action of God and the agency of Jesus, and the praise of the crowd creates a progressively intensified pattern of choral responses, which peaks at the crucifixion and extends into Acts.8 In a later 3
4 5
6 7 8
centurion’s praise. Later in the commentary, he remarks that “glorification of God” is typically Lukan, 658. R. E. Brown, The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke (New updated ed.; ABRL; New York: Doubleday, 1993), 429, n.69. Brown goes on to cite some but not all of the instances of the praise motif in Luke‐Acts. Cf. R. E. Brown, The Death of the Messiah: From Gethsemane to the Grave : A Commentary on the Passion Narratives in the Four Gospels (2 vols.; ABRL; New York: Doubleday, 1994), 1162, who writes that “’glorifying God’ has been a standard reac‐ tion to seeing Jesus manifest divine power.” L. T. Johnson, The Gospel of Luke (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1991), passim; L. T. Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1992), passim. I. H. Marshall, Luke: Historian and Theologian (Contemporary Evangelical Perspec‐ tives; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1976), 203‒4. Marshall is the only scholar who to my knowledge notes the connection between praise of God in contexts of healing and conversions, although he only mentions this point. He notes the correspondence between praise in Lk 19:37 and Acts 21:17‒20a, C. H. Talbert, Literary Patterns, Theological Themes, and the Genre of Luke‐Acts (SBLMS 20; Missoula, MT: Scholars, 1975), 20. J. T. Squires, The Plan of God in Luke‐Acts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 25, n.39; 28; 31; 55; 69, n.163; 94, n.85; 151, n.171. M. D. Hamm, “The Freeing of the Bent Woman and the Restoration of Israel: Luke 13:10‒17 as Narrative Theology,” JSNT 31 (1987): 23‒44, 43‒44.
4
Introduction
article, he remarks that instances of narrated praise serve the implied au‐ thor’s “larger theme of Christian discipleship as worship.” 9
2. Praise of God in Particular Contexts Other scholars have focused attention on praise of God in particular liter‐ ary contexts in Luke‐Acts, particularly the infancy narrative and miracle stories. The hymns at the beginning of Luke have generated tremendous interest and study.10 However, the infancy narrative contains not simply these four famous hymns but other instances of praise as well. To my knowledge, no scholar has focused attention upon the overall pattern of praise in the infancy narrative (hymns along with other instances of praise). A number of studies of miracles in the Synoptic Gospels or in Luke have paused at points to focus on praise responses by the healed individu‐ als and crowds. Strongly influenced by the methods and presuppositions of form criticism, such studies categorize praise as a traditional conclusion to miracle stories, falling within the category of acclamation, wonder, or choral response.11 Rudolph Bultmann, referencing Lk 5:17‒25, identifies the “impression upon spectators” as part of the miracle story form.12 In addi‐ 9
Idem, “The Tamid Service in Luke‐Acts: The Cultic Background Behind Lukeʹs The‐ ology of Worship (Luke 1:5‒25; 18:9‒14; 24:50‒53; Acts 3:1; 10:3, 30),” CBQ 65 (2003): 215‒31, 231. In an extended narrative fashion, Luke‐Acts develops a theme similar to that expressed in one sentence by Paul: “I appeal to you therefore, brothers and sis‐ ters, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and ac‐ ceptable to God, which is your spiritual worship” (Rom 12:1). 10 Monographs include Brown, Birth, 235‒495; S. Farris, The Hymns of Lukeʹs Infancy Narratives: Their Origin, Meaning and Significance (JSNTSup 9; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1985); E. D. Freed, The Stories of Jesusʹ Birth: A Critical Introduction (Biblical Seminar 72; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2001), 155‒70; P. Minear, “Lukeʹs Use of the Birth Stories,” in Studies in Luke‐Acts: Essays Presented in Honor of Paul Schubert (eds. Lean‐ der E. Keck and J. Louis Martyn; Nashville: Abingdon, 1966), 111‒30. 11 E.g., R. K. Bultmann, The History of the Synoptic Tradition (rev. ed; New York: Harper & Row, 1968), 205‒15, 225‒6; M. Dibelius, From Tradition to Gospel (New York: Scrib‐ ner, 1965), 57‒59, 71, 75‒76; G. Theissen, The Miracle Stories of the Early Christian Tradi‐ tion (trans. John Kenneth Riches. Studies of the New Testament and Its World; Phila‐ delphia: Fortress, 1983), 71‒72, 152‒73. See also R. W. Funk, “The Form of the New Testament Healing Miracle Story,” Semeia 12 (1978): 57‒96; A. C. Wire, “The Structure of the Gospel Miracle Stories and Their Tellers,” Semeia 11 (1978): 83‒111. 12 Bultmann, Synoptic Tradition, 213, 225‒6. Commenting on the reaction of spectators in the healing of the blind man (Mk 8:22‒27a, par. Luk 18:35‒43), he asserts that “Luke’s reproduction makes no significant contribution for our purposes.” He notes too that πίστις involves the acknowledgment of Jesus (“a trust in the miracle worker which is his proper due”). Theissen similarly finds that in Luke‐Acts “acclamation [of Jesus as miracle worker] and gratitude are regarded as the essence of faith,” Miracle Stories, 139. But beyond whatever responses healed individuals make toward Jesus, in Luke, praise responses are particularly directed toward God, a point that is
Scholarship on Praise of God in Luke‐Acts
5
tion, he asserts that certain words of acclamation derive from a Jewish‐ Christian background, but he does not comment on the fact that such praise occurs primarily in Luke‐Acts, nor does he note that praise of God in miracle stories comprises part of the narrative’s overall interest in praise of God.13 Like Bultmann, Martin Dibelius groups together wonder and praise in the gospels generally as comprising choral endings to miracle stories. Such acclamations, in his view, represent a traditional feature of miracle tales, meant for missionary purposes.14 Dibelius does not distinguish be‐ tween acclamation of the miracle worker and of God. By contrast, in his study of the Synoptic miracle stories, Gerd Theissen divides the category of choral ending into two separate but associated mo‐ tifs that make up miracle stories: “wonder” and “acclamation” (within which category he includes praise of God). Theissen defines acclamations as cheers, often rhythmically phrased and uttered in chorus, expressed by a crowd to communicate either praise and congratulation or rebuke and de‐ mand. Acclamations implicitly or explicitly comment upon the miracle or miracle‐worker, normally concluding a miracle story. He categorizes ac‐ clamations as either titular or non‐titular and as spoken either by individu‐ als or groups. Although Theissen primarily treats the gospel miracle stories as a group, he makes certain observations that begin to identify the distinctive‐ ness of the Lukan depiction of acclamation and praise of God. He notes, for example, that Lukan acclamations integrate especially well into the narra‐ tive (rather than appearing to stand by themselves as the crowd’s response to the recital of a miracle story, as in a cultic Sitz im Leben).15 When offering New Testament examples of titular acclamations and acclamations by indi‐ viduals, Theissen cites only Luke and Acts. He notes also that Acts ulti‐ mately calls into question titular acclamations, which sometimes errone‐ not taken up by these scholars. For example, Bultmann’s discussion of the story of the healing of ten lepers (Lk 17:11‒19) focuses on how the scene contrasts the man’s gratitude toward Jesus with the ingratitude of the other nine. But in Luke, the ques‐ tion is really about praise of God. Bultmann concludes that “not until John is there any interest in the consequences of a miracle in its setting in the story of Jesus,” 220. However, the Lukan emphasis on praise of God in response to healing miracles (and other miraculous events) calls this statement into question. 13 Bultmann, Synoptic Tradition, 226. The “Jewish‐Christian” words are δοξάζω (Mk 2:1‒12, par. Lk 5:17‒26; Mt 15:31; Lk 18:43), διδόναι αἶνον (Lk 18:43; Acts 3:9), and χαίρω (Lk 13:17; Acts 8:9). Bultmann and other form critics often draw upon or react to the work of E. Peterson, Εις Θεος: Epigraphische, Formgeschichtliche und Religions‐ geschichtliche Untersuchungen (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1926), 193‒5. Pe‐ terson argues that because the New Testament lacks acclamations like those found in later Christian and pagan miracle stories, such acclamations were introduced into the later miracle stories from Egypt. 14 Dibelius, Tradition to Gospel, 57‒59. 15 Theissen, Miracle Stories, 166.
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Introduction
ously praise the miracle worker instead of God.16 While Theissen seems to recognize the distinctive Lukan emphasis on praise, he does not associate praise in the miracle stories with praise in the infancy hymns or elsewhere in Luke‐Acts.17 These form critics helpfully elucidate some of the tradi‐ tional aspects of praise in response to miracles, but because these scholars focus only on a single literary context (miracles), Luke’s larger narrative emphasis on praise of God falls from view.18
3. Praise of the Divine Benefactor Additional work on praise of God in Luke occurs in anthropological analy‐ ses of benefaction in the ancient Mediterranean world. In his study of the semantic field of “benefactor,” for example, Fredrick Danker argues that praise following miracles expresses the gratitude appropriately due a bene‐ factor.19 For example, healed persons offer praise to the healer in aretalo‐ gies, acclamations, inscriptions, and votive offerings to commemorate benefaction.20 Similarly, Jerome Neyrey looks at praise in the Gospels and 16 Acts includes three such scenes. In Acts 8:10, the people listen to the magician Simon and say, “This man is the power of God that is called Great.” In Acts 14:12, people acclaim Barnabas and Paul as Zeus and Hermes. In Acts 28:6, after Paul’s snakebite, the islanders say that he is a god. Theissen posits a connection between praise of God in response to Jesus’ miracles in Luke and these later problematic acclamations in Acts. By making acclamation praise of God rather than of Jesus, Theissen argues, Luke “may be making a deliberate effort to stress the distinction between Christian thanksgiving and the pagan apotheosis of human miracle‐workers,” Miracle Stories, 168. A recent article argues similarly that praise of God points witnesses of miracles away from the miracle‐worker and toward God, J. B. Green, “Jesus and a Daughter of Abraham (Luke 13:10‒17): Test Case for a Lucan Perspective on Jesusʹ Miracles,” CBQ 51 (1989): 643‒54. 17 Theissen notes that “acclamations” may include joy, praise, thanksgiving, and con‐ fession, but all the examples he quotes are from Luke‐Acts. Should we then consider these activities only as subcategories of acclamation (i.e., a commonplace in the tra‐ dition) or would it be better to think of them as part of the crafting of the Lukan nar‐ rative? Form critics in general tend to view praise following miracles as deriving from cultic responses integrated into the traditional narrative frames around miracle stories. But as we shall see, praise responses to miracles closely correspond with praise responses in other narrative contexts in Luke‐Acts. If praise of God was pre‐ sent in the tradition, then the author of Luke‐Acts appears to have developed this re‐ ceived motif so that it permeates the entire narrative structure. 18 Green, “Jesus,” 643‒4. 19 F. W. Danker, Benefactor: Epigraphic Study of a Graeco‐Roman and New Testament Seman‐ tic Field (St. Louis, Mo.: Clayton, 1982), 36. 20 On aretalogies as public thanks to deities for their benefaction, see ibid., 176‒85, 192‒6. On ex‐voto offerings, see E. Edelstein and L. Edelstein, Asclepius: A Collection and Interpretation of the Testimonies (2 vols; Publications of the Institute of the History of Medicine, the Johns Hopkins University, Second Series, Texts and Documents 2; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1945), 2:215‒6.
Scholarship on Praise of God in Luke‐Acts
7
Acts through the lens of benefaction and other social‐science models. He argues that the Gospels depict Jesus as a broker of divine power but God as the giver of all good gifts. Brokers were owed something for their services, so Jesus appropriately receives acclamation (honor) as a prophet, while God receives praise as divine Patron/Benefactor.21 Elsewhere, Neyrey de‐ scribes Greco‐Roman and Jewish expectations about how humans should praise God or gods, helpfully illuminating aspects of the symbolic world that informs Luke‐Acts.22
4. Praise, Joy, and Prayer Other studies highlight the close connection between joy and praise in Luke‐Acts. The Lukan narrative employs a wide vocabulary for joy, a theme that occurs repeatedly through both volumes.23 An unpublished dis‐ sertation by Christopher Conver catalogues all expressions of joy and praise in the gospel, without extending the discussion into Acts and or en‐ gaging in comparative research.24 In a chapter in his monograph on Lukan theology, Robert O’Toole explores a theological category he calls “joy, won‐ der, blessing, and praise.”25 Within this broader category, he argues that praise of God evidences the proper response to God’s saving will, and he traces the presence of allusions to salvation in scenes of praise. O’Toole’s attention to joy helpfully highlights the extent to which general expressions of gladness may function as implicit praise of God in Luke‐Acts. For exam‐ ple, Jesus, after speaking the beatitudes, urges listeners to “rejoice in that day” and “leap for joy” (6:20‒23). After the return of the seventy, they ex‐ press joy that the spirits obey them, whereas Jesus exhorts them to rejoice
21 For example, in Lk 7:16‒17, God as Patron receives “glory” but Jesus as Broker ac‐ quires the honor of being acclaimed “prophet” as well as an expanding reputation. 22 J. H. Neyrey, Render to God: New Testament Understandings of the Divine (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2004), 4‒9, 65, 132, 155‒8. However, Neyrey describes praise notices in Luke‐Acts as “passing remarks” rather than as a sustained motif, 29. He refers to Lk 7:16, Mt 8:17, and Mk 7:37 as examples. 23 The narrative depicts joy or offers discourse about joy in the following verses: Lk 1:14, 28, 47, 58; 2:10; 6:23; 8:13; 10:17, 20f; 12:19; 13:17; 15:5, 6, 9, 10, 23, 24, 29, 32; 16:19; 19:6, 37; 22:5; 23:8; 24:41, 52; Acts 2:26, 28; 5:41; 7:41; 8:8, 39; 11:23; 12:14; 13:48, 52; 14:17; 15:3, 31; and 16:34. Words used for joy in Luke‐Acts include χαρά, ἀγαλλιάω, συγχαίρω, χαίρω, εὐφραίνω, εὐφροσύνη. 24 C. C. Conver, “The Portrayal of Joy in the Gospel of Luke” (Ph.D. diss., Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1985). 25 R. F. OʹToole, The Unity of Lukeʹs Theology: An Analysis of Luke‐Acts (GNS 9; Wilming‐ ton, DE: M. Glazier, 1984), 225‒60. Earlier explorations of joy as a theological theme can be found in P. J. Bernadicou, “The Lucan Theology of Joy,” ScEs 25 (1973): 75‒88 and idem, “The Lucan Theology of Joy Revisited,” ScEs 30 (1978): 57‒80.
8
Introduction
in their own salvation. Then, he rejoices and offers a prayer of thanksgiving to God (10:17‒23). With regard to both of these instances, O’Toole notes how Luke has added or strengthened the element of rejoicing in his use of the double tra‐ dition, in comparison with Matthew’s. In Lk 15, Jesus’ teaching about the lost sheep, the lost coin, and the return of the prodigal uses language for rejoicing at least ten times. In Acts 2:25‒8, Peter quotes Ps 15, in which David expresses joy because of the Lord’s presence, which O’Toole charac‐ terizes as praise of Jesus (akin to praise of God elsewhere in Luke‐Acts). O’Toole demonstrates affinities among the four themes he explores and convincingly shows the link between joy and praise of God in Luke‐Acts. Joy frequently implies praise of God.26 But the Lukan narrative does not completely equate joy and praise.27 In some cases, joy and praise appear together. However on other occasions, characters express joy in response to events in the story, but they do not explicitly praise God (or, they praise God but do not express joy). The stud‐ ies by Conver and O’Toole suggest that it will be useful to think of joy and praise together, but the narrative link between them is not automatic. In several cases, joy and praise of God signify the same narrative act (joyful praise), but in others, joy does not represent a positive response to God. In the last thirty‐five years, a number of studies have also focused on prayer as an important feature of the New Testament or of Luke‐Acts spe‐ cifically.28 Following Hans Conzelmann, several studies of prayer argue that Luke presents Jesus’ prayer as paradigmatic for the church or that
26 O’Toole’s treatment of the link between wonder and praise of God is less convincing. In certain cases, the narrative connects wonder with the work of God (e.g., 9:43), but in others, people wonder without perceiving the work of God (or praising God). 27 For example, in the parable of the seeds sown on various types of ground, Jesus interprets joy as a positive response to God but one that may not last through testing (Lk 8:13). In the Passion Narrative, a few characters actually express joy (χαίρω) be‐ cause of their successful opposition to God’s work (Lk 22:5, 23:8). And at the end of the Gospel, joy appears to cause the disciples’ disbelief (Lk 24:41), Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1576. A bit later in the same scene, the disciples move from disbelief to understand‐ ing, followed by joy and praise (Lk 24:45, 53). 28 D. M. Crump, Jesus the Intercessor: Prayer and Christology in Luke‐Acts (WUNT 2:49; Tübingen: Mohr, 1992), passim; O. G. Harris, “Prayer in Luke‐Acts: A Study of the Theology of Luke” (Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1966); R. J. Karris, Prayer and the New Testament (Companions to the New Testament; New York: Crossroad, 2000), 40‒48; B. W. Longenecker, ed., Into Godʹs Presence: Prayer in the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2001), 91‒202.; P. T. OʹBrien, “Prayer in Luke‐Acts,” TynBul 24 (1973): 111‒27; W. Ott, Gebet und Heil: Die Bedeutung der Gebetsparänese in der Lukanischen Theologie (München: Kösel‐Verlag, 1965), passm; S. F. Plymale, The Prayer Texts of Luke‐Acts (New York: P. Lang, 1991); A. A. Trites, “The Prayer Motif in Luke‐ Acts,” in Perspectives on Luke‐Acts (ed. Charles H. Talbert; PRSt Special Series 5; Dan‐ ville, VA: Association of Baptist Professors of Religion, 1978), 168‒86.
Praise of God in Narrative
9
prayer signals key moments in salvation history.29 These treatments focus on instruction about prayer, notations of Jesus’ prayers, and/or the content of Jesus’ prayers. The most recent study, by David Crump, investigates the intersection of prayer and Christology, arguing that Luke‐Acts presents Jesus as the pray‐er par excellence, whose intercession with the Father brings salvation and redemption in various manifestations, such as spiritual heal‐ ing. Crump offers a useful section on praise in his discussion of Jesus’ praise in Lk 10:21‒24, but he does not seek to illuminate the wider narra‐ tive role of praise in Luke‐Acts. While these studies set out to investigate prayer (defined generically) in Luke or Luke‐Acts, in fact they focus almost entirely on petition and thus lack a sustained consideration of praise.30 This disregard of praise within studies of prayer in Luke‐Acts points to larger questions. What is the relationship, in ancient texts, among praise of God, joy, and prayer? What is the vocabulary of praise? Is praise of the divine a phenomenon distinct from petition? And if so, how do ancient writers view praise, and what role does praise play in narrative texts that feature it? Such questions are taken up in the chapters below.
B. Praise of God in Narrative Most of the studies cited above view praise as a subcategory of other ele‐ ments of the Lukan narrative, such as miracle stories, joy, or prayer. The current study, by contrast, examines praise of God—in various contexts in Luke‐Acts—as a particular narrative motif distinct from petitionary prayer, expressions of amazement, or acclamations of the miracle worker. As a nar‐ rative motif, praise may appear in one of four ways. The narrative may provide the direct speech of the person who offers praise; it may describe praise through indirect speech; it may simply narrate the action of praise without providing content; or it may present discourse about praise. These four modes of narrated praise are illustrated below:
29 For a survey of the interpretation of prayer in Luke‐Acts, see Crump, Intercessor, 2‒10. 30 For example, Ott’s monograph argues that Luke emphasizes unceasing prayer as a means for Christians to endure the long‐in‐coming parousia. Thus despite the title Gebet und Heil, he focuses almost exclusively on petition with only scant attention to praise. He comments briefly on Anna’s praise, praise speech related to food and drink, the disciples’ praise in Acts 2, and Paul’s praise as he approaches Rome, 94‒95, 124‒9, 130, 132. Similarly, Trites observes the frequency of praise of God in Luke‐ Acts but does not study it, “Prayer Motif,” 185.
10
Introduction
1)
Direct speech:
Simeon took him in his arms and praised God, saying, “Master, now you are dismissing your servant in peace, according to your word . . . ” (Lk 2:28‒29)
2)
Indirect speech:
All of them praised God for what had happened. (Acts 4:21)
3)
Praise notice:
When he laid his hands on her, immediately she stood up straight and began praising God. (Lk 2:20)
4)
Praise discourse:
It is not fitting for a God‐worshipping man, who blesses the Living God with his mouth . . . to kiss a strange woman who blesses with her mouth dead and dumb idols. (Jos. Asen. 8:5)
The first example combines narrated praise (“and praised God”) with di‐ rect speech of praise. The second narrates praise but does not present direct speech, although it implies that praise retells what God has done in the immediate narrative context. The third example illustrates simple narrated praise, without direct or indirect speech. In the current study, instances of such praise will be called “praise notices.”31 The fourth example is distinct from the other three in that it does not depict praise as a narrative event but rather as a concept within the narrative.32 Any given instance of praise in a narrative may involve a combination of these four modes of the praise motif; different combinations achieve varying degrees of narrative empha‐ sis on praise. Besides combining these modes, a narrator may augment praise notices by means of adjectives, adverbs, or prepositional phrases.33 Indirect speech without explicit praise verbs constitutes the faintest form of the motif.34 31 I use the phrase “praise notices” on analogy with the terminology “prayer notices,” developed by interpreters of Lukan prayer. 32 Discourse about praise appears in Tobit and Joseph and Aseneth, but not in Luke‐Acts, with the possible, faint exception of Lk 11:1‒2, where Jesus’ disciples ask to be taught how to “pray” (προεύχομαι). In response, Jesus offers speech to God that includes an introductory moment of praise (ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου) followed by petition. However, the discourse of the disciples is brief and is not specifically about praise. Difficulties related to the concept of prayer (understood inclusively) will be dis‐ cussed in detail in the following chapter. 33 E.g., “when he saw that he was healed, turned back, praising God with a loud voice” (Lk 17:15). 34 E.g., after learning of her pregnancy Elizabeth says that “so the Lord has done for me in these days when he looked upon me to take away my disgrace among people” (Lk 1:25), which could be considered indirect speech of praise.
Praise and Luke’s Use of Sources
11
Because expressions of praise in a narrative almost always respond to divine intervention in the story, they identify, emphasize, or re‐narrate these events as the work of God or the gods. Thus, most narrated praise is de facto declarative praise: it marks the events of the narrative as divine be‐ neficence. This point is particularly true for praise notices, the content of which is not supplied but implied in the mind of the reader from the sur‐ rounding narrative.35 The praise motif also contributes to characterization, for it involves both characters’ actions (what they do) and speech (what they say). Praise notices represent the former; praise quotations or indirect speech, the latter. Thus, in the analysis to follow it will be important to explore moments in the story in which explicit praise vocabulary depicts characters directing laudatory words to God, as well as instances of discourse about praise ex‐ pressed by characters or the narrator; investigate the correspondence be‐ tween praise and characterization; and consider the surrounding literary context when analyzing the praise motif.
C. Praise and Luke’s Use of Sources In the Lukan narrative, the praise motif occurs twenty‐eight times, narrated with seven verbs, along with two related nouns and an adjective.36 Nine‐ teen instances of praise occur in Luke and nine in Acts, listed as they ap‐ pear in Appendix One. With regard to Luke, praise as a narrative motif is not unique among the Synoptic Gospels, but it is distinctive. By compari‐ son, Mark contains four scenes of narrated praise of God: one following the healing of the paralyzed man lowered through the roof (Mk 2:1) and three in meal blessings spoken by Jesus (Mk 6:41; 8:7; 14:22‒23).37 Matthew in‐ cludes these same four instances of praise and adds two more: Jesus’
35 Declarative and descriptive praise are discussed on p. 23 below. The primary excep‐ tion to this point occurs when praise opens a character’s petition, e.g., Tob 3:11. In such cases, praise may not be responding to divine action in the story. 36 This vocabulary is δοξάζω, δόξα, εὐλογέω, αἰνέω, αἶνος, εὐχαριστέω, μεγαλύνω, ἀνθομολογέω, and ἐξομολογέω. With an accusative object, ἐξομολογέω means to confess or acknowledge but with a dative object, to praise or extol, e.g., LXX Ps 6:6. See Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:871, and Philo, Plant. 135, where Philo interprets the praise κυρίῳ ἐξομολόγησις as equivalent in meaning to blessing God (εὐλογέω) or offering God thankful hymnody (εὐχαρίστους ὑμνῳδίας). 37 All three Synoptic Gospels contain the story of the paralytic lowered through the roof and include the crowd’s responsive glorification of God (Mt 9:8; Mk 2:12; Lk 5:26). All four gospels depict Jesus blessing (εὐλογέω) or offering thanks (εὐχαριστέω) for food, with God implied but not specified as the object of praise (Mt 14:19, 15:36; 26:26‒27; Lk 9:16; 22:17‒19; Jn 6:11, 23).
12
Introduction
thanksgiving from the double tradition (Mt 11:27) and praise following a summary statement of Jesus’ healings (Mt 15:30‒31).38 Of the sixteen scenes of praise in Luke, four can be examined for redac‐ tion of sources. In each case, Luke’s editing either heightens praise already present in his source (one scene from Mark; one from Q) or inserts praise into a scene from his source (two scenes from Mark). 1)
2)
3)
4)
Luke’s redaction of the story of the paralytic lowered through the roof augments the motif of praise of God by narrating not only the crowd’s glorification of God (Lk 5:26, par. Mk 2:12) but also the healed man’s praise (Lk 5:25). In the story of a blind man who receives his sight and follows Jesus, Luke’s version specifies that in response to the healing, both the man and the people who witness the miracle glorify God, but in Mark, no such praise occurs (Lk 18:43, par. Mk 10:52).39 Similarly, in the scene of Jesus’ approach to Jerusalem, Luke heightens the sense of praise in three ways. First, only in Luke’s version do char‐ acters praise God (Lk 19:37‒38): the disciples “rejoice and praise God with a loud voice for all the mighty works that they had seen” (Lk 19:37). In Mark’s narrative (followed by Matthew) the characters sim‐ ply “cry out” (Mt 21:9, par. Mk 11:9‒10; cf. Jn 12:13). Second, Luke adds the phrase “peace in heaven” and substitutes “glory” for “Hosanna,” changes which create a strong verbal link between this scene of praise and the angelic praise of God in Lk 2:14. 40 Third, when Pharisees offer a challenge to the people’s praise, Jesus replies that if his followers were silent, the stones themselves would cry out (19:39‒40). The Lukan redactor uniquely emphasizes the necessity of praise in this scene. In the introduction to the logion of Jesus’ thanksgiving (10:21), likely drawn from Q, Luke strengthens the depiction of praise with the phrase “he rejoiced in his Spirit” (ἠγαλλιάσατο ἐν τῷ πνεύματι τῷ ἁγίῳ).
38 Matthew alone depicts the crowd glorifying God in a summary statement of Jesus’ miracles prior to the feeding of the crowd of four thousand people (Mt 15:30‒31, cf. Mk 7:32). Jesus’ thanksgiving appears also in Lk 15:21. John includes a canonically unique scene in which Jesus praises God following a miracle (11:41). In John, no characters other than Jesus praise God. 39 In the scene of the healing of the boy with seizures, Luke includes a description of the crowd’s astonishment at the majesty of God (9:43). While this response by the crowd is not praise per se, it may be significant for this project that the narrator speci‐ fies the majesty of God as the source of their amazement. 40 Many scholars comment on the link between the two passages, e.g., Brown, Birth, 427; Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1251.
Approach of the Study
13
D. Approach of the Study This study of praise of God in Luke‐Acts is oriented toward practical criti‐ cism of a narrative text, in other words, toward a close reading of praise as a narrative motif. However, literary analysis ought also to consider the cul‐ tural milieu of a narrative, so the first part of this study (chapters one to four) provides a contextual foundation for studying praise in Luke‐Acts. The first chapter broadly surveys classical Hebrew and classical and Helle‐ nistic Greek literature to define the phenomenon of praise of God vis‐à‐vis prayer and hymnody and to establish the vocabulary of praise. The second chapter explores ancient discourse about praise of the divine, focusing on four prevalent themes that offer insight into how praise functions in narra‐ tive. Chapters three and four investigate the praise motif in the narratives of Tobit and Joseph and Aseneth, which have been selected for comparison because praise appears in these texts as an important narrative feature, as it does in Luke‐Acts. Such comparative study will contribute to an informed reading of Luke‐Acts as an ancient text, while illuminating the common features of the praise motif across the three narratives, as well as the dis‐ tinctiveness of the praise motif within each text. It will also afford the op‐ portunity to investigate how themes that reoccur in ancient discourse about praise (chapter two) manifest in narrative depictions of praise. Within each of the three narrative analyses (chapters three through eight), the investigation of praise relies on the premise that the meaning of a narrative inheres not simply in the elements of a story (mythos) but in the way these elements are narrated (dianoia).41 The language and structure of a particular text produce its unique perspective and value. With regard to the narrative motif of praise, the goal is to understand how praise of God un‐ folds sequentially within each of the narratives studied.42 This requires 41 In other words, the analysis will consider the plot of Luke‐Acts. Plot is generally defined as the actions and speech of characters lived out in time and space and typi‐ cally involves some sort of conflict or tension. On plot, see E. M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1927 repr. 1993), 20; K. Ireland, The Sequen‐ tial Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (London: Associated Uni‐ versity Presses, 2001), 26; E. Miner, Comparative Poetics: An Intercultural Essay on Theories of Literature (Princeton: Princeton University, 1990), 149‒55; R. Wellek and A. Warren, Theory of Literature (3rd ed; New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977), 216‒17. For a helpful bibliography and detailed summary of narrative theory, see W. H. Shepherd, Jr., The Narrative Function of the Holy Spirit as a Character in Luke‐Acts (SBLDS; Atlanta: Scholars, 1988), 88. 42 William Freedman offers the following definition of a narrative motif: “A motif, then, is a recurrent theme, character, or verbal pattern, but it may also be a family or asso‐ ciational cluster of literal or figurative references to a given class of concepts or ob‐ jects, whether it be animals, machines, circles, music, or whatever. It is generally symbolic—that is, it can be seen to carry a meaning beyond the literal one immedi‐ ately apparent; it represents on the verbal level something characteristic of the struc‐ ture of the work, the events, the characters, the emotional effects or the moral or
14
Introduction
close readings of episodes that feature praise, looking at characters’ motiva‐ tions for praise and the literary contexts in which praise appears (the cir‐ cumstance to which praise responds). It also requires looking at the overall plots of the three narratives, seeking to discover whether moments of praise comprise larger patterns, and if so, what meaning these patterns convey.43 In seeking to analyze these narratives holistically, the study takes into consideration both traditional and distinctive material as part of the narrative fabric, but it also draws on classical methods in biblical scholar‐ ship, such as historical and redaction criticism, when applicable, viewing these approaches as complementary.44 For example, redactional study en‐ hances narrative analysis, revealing more distinctly “features of the literary landscape which should be noticeable nonetheless in their own terms.”45
E. Argument Combining comparative analysis and close reading, the argument offered below will make the case that praise appears as a distinctive phenomenon in ancient texts, described with a particular set of vocabulary and recogniz‐ able independent of the form in which it appears. Praise is important, for both Jewish and pagan writers, because it is a key indicator of righteous‐ ness or virtue, closely related to one’s perspective on and ability to recog‐ nize divine providence. Some texts indicate that certain types of oppression (physical or spiritual) inhibit this ability (and so silence praise); thus the cognitive content. It is presented both as an object of description and, more often, as part of the narrator’s imagery and descriptive vocabulary. And it indispensably re‐ quires a certain minimal frequency of recurrence and improbability of appearance in order both to make itself at least subconsciously felt and to indicate its purposive‐ ness. Finally, the motif achieves its power by an appropriate regulation of that fre‐ quency and improbability, by its appearance in significant contexts, by the degree to which the individual instances work together toward a common end or ends and, when it is symbolic, by its appropriateness to the symbolic purpose or purposes it serves,” “The Literary Motif: A Definition and Evaluation,” Novel: A Forum on Fiction 4 (1970): 123‒31, 127‒28. This article was located from a citation in R. J. Karris, Luke, Artist and Theologian: Lukeʹs Passion Account as Literature (Theological Inquiries; New York: Paulist Press, 1985), 3. 43 See R. L. Brawley, Centering on God: Method and Message in Luke‐Acts (Literary Cur‐ rents in Biblical Interpretation; Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1990), 34‒57. 44 Some recent studies of Luke‐Acts have similarly combined close, intrinsic reading informed by extrinsic study, e.g., Crump, Intercessor, 11‒14; G. D. Nave, The Role and Function of Repentance in Luke‐Acts (SBLABib 4; Boston: Brill, 2002), 7‒38; T. C. Pen‐ ner, In Praise of Christian Origins: Stephen and the Hellenists in Lukan Apologetic Histori‐ ography (Emory Studies in Early Christianity; New York: T & T Clark International, 2004), 85‒103. 45 Crump, Intercessor, 12.
Argument
15
experience of divine salvation inspires a concurrent movement from silence (lack of praise) to praise. Praise also corresponds closely with narrative, because it retells what has happened for the purpose of glorifying deity. In the narrative analyses, the study will argue that in Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐Acts alike, the praise motif creates and resolves narra‐ tive tensions, functions symbolically, marks key moments in the plots, and clusters around three primary contexts: divine revelation, healing, and conversion. In Tobit, the praise motif appears in the contexts of healing and revelation, marking the climaxes of two subplots and then the climax of the narrative’s overall plot, when Tobit comes to a full recognition of divine beneficence. In Joseph and Aseneth, praise responds to revelation and con‐ version. Creating tension in the early part of the plot, the praise motif sub‐ sequently marks Aseneth’s movement from silence (lack of proper praise) to praise, indicating her acceptability to God and thus her suitability to marry Joseph. In Luke‐Acts, the praise motif clusters in all three contexts: revelation, healing, and conversion. These contexts appear in four overlapping sec‐ tions of the story: (1) revelation about Jesus’ birth, (2) miraculous healings, (3) revelation about Jesus’ identity as Messiah, son, king, and risen Lord, and (4) the conversion of the Gentiles. The analysis of the praise motif will show that despite a complex, two‐volume plot, praise occurs consistently in concert with the unfolding of the eschatological divine visitation, which is announced in the infancy narrative (Lk 1:68, 78) and appears explicitly three additional times in the Lukan narrative (Lk 7:16; 19:44; Acts 15:14). As we will see, these four references to the visitation align with the four con‐ texts of the praise motif. Thus, the overall pattern of praise in Luke‐Acts depicts a response to the divine visitation through Jesus, as revealed by God, unfolding first in healings and then in conversions. Throughout the work, periodic absences of praise create narrative tensions that highlight rejection of the visitation by some characters and acceptance of it by others. Thus, in the course of the narrative, praise (and its absence) fulfills the pro‐ phetic speech of Simeon, who proclaims that the arrival of the infant Mes‐ siah will be a light of revelation to the Gentiles and of glory to Israel (Lk 2:32) but who also describes him as a sign that will be opposed (Lk 2:34). By investigating the correspondence between praise and characteriza‐ tion, the analysis will also demonstrate that praise of individual characters in the three narratives represents, to varying degrees, the praise of their communities. More specifically, these stories narrate divine salvation by describing the subjective experiences of individuals—Tobit, Aseneth, and a variety of characters in Luke‐Acts—with imagery of personal transforma‐ tion: movements from such conditions as blindness to sight, illness to health, or (metaphorical) death to life. In so doing, they draw language from earlier texts, especially Isaiah, which anticipates praise in response both to personal transformation and to divine eschatological restoration.
16
Introduction
The praise motif is thus intertextual: the praise of characters in these stories either points toward (Tobit and Joseph and Aseneth) or fulfills (Luke‐Acts) early Jewish expectations that both the Jewish people and Gentiles would voice loud, joyous praise in response to eschatological restoration.
Part One
Praise of God in Context Introduction to Part One The introduction to this study has argued that the narrative motif of praise of God in Luke‐Acts is important and worthy of sustained exploration. To provide a contextual foundation for understanding praise of God in Luke‐ Acts, the first part of the monograph examines comparative material. While it may seem obvious that praise and petition are two distinct modes of communication with God, this point is sometimes obscured in secondary literature. Thus, chapter one seeks to define praise vis‐à‐vis prayer and hymnody. Chapter two looks at ancient discourse about praise, seeking to understand how ancient writers view the phenomenon of praise. Chapters three and four engage in close readings of the motif of praise of God in the narratives of Tobit and Joseph and Aseneth, examining how the motif func‐ tions within the two plots and how praise contributes to characterization.
Chapter 1
Defining Praise of the Divine A. Introduction For the purpose of surveying praise of the divine in the ancient Mediterra‐ nean world, it would be helpful to turn to a monograph on the subject. But surprisingly, given the ubiquity of praise in ancient texts, none exists. Stud‐ ies that do include attention to praise tend to analyze it under the catego‐ ries of worship, prayer (defined inclusively), or hymnody.1 Thus to set the stage for our investigation of praise of the divine in ancient narratives, we must begin broadly, seeking to determine whether praise is a distinct phe‐ nomenon in the ancient religious landscape—regardless of the form in which it appears—and if so, how we might recognize it. In response to these questions, the following necessarily brief survey of ancient Jewish texts in Hebrew and Greek, as well as of classical Greek lit‐ erature, will demonstrate that when ancient writers describe human com‐ munication with the divine, they tend neither to place praise within the category of prayer (defined inclusively) nor to link it precisely with hymns or psalms. While form is certainly a concern, they nevertheless describe praise and petition as related and distinct modes of verbal exchange with the divine, recognizable whether sung or spoken or narrated.
B. Terminology At the outset of this survey, it is important to call attention to two difficul‐ ties related to the word prayer as it appears in secondary literature. First, the word prayer may signify: (1) a category (communication with deity in 1
As detailed in the previous chapter, scholars of Luke‐Acts have investigated the hymns of praise in the infancy narrative and other scenes of praise within broader treatments of prayer, but they have not focused on praise of God itself. Similarly, a scholar investigating prayer in Tobit identifies six “prayers” in the book, but he does not include all instances of praise among these six prayers, A. A. Di Lella, “Two Ma‐ jor Prayers in the Book of Tobit,” in Prayer from Tobit to Qumran: Inaugural Conference of the ISDCL at Salzburg, Austria, 5‒9 July 2003 (eds. Jeremy Corley and Renate Egger‐ Wenzel; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2004), 95‒116, 94.
20
Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
general), (2) a particular type of content (petition directed to deity), or (3) a particular form (plain‐speech directed to deity).2 The first two of these meanings inhere in the English word itself, which has both an inclusive meaning (communication with deity) and an exclusive one (petition).3 The third meaning appears in academic studies of Jewish and Greek hymnody, in which the word prayer may signify plain‐speech communication with deity, in contrast to psalms or hymns.4 In some cases, scholars writing about prayer shift confusingly among all three meanings. Second, prayer in the inclusive sense is not easy to define, a point that may be illustrated by comparing two recent studies. The first, by J. New‐ man, defines early Jewish prayer as “address to God that is initiated by humans; it is not conversational in nature; and it includes address to God in the second person, although it can include third person description of God.”5 The second, by M. Kiley, defines ancient Jewish and pagan prayer as “an address to or celebration of a deity.”6 Both definitions include third‐ 2
3
4
5 6
For example, writing about Qumran studies, E. Schuller observes: “In Qumran stud‐ ies, some scholars have tended to use ‘prayer’ broadly as a generic term to include any address to God or any praise of God. For other scholars, ‘prayer’ is limited to compositions in prose (not poetry), or to compositions where the content is petition (not praise). Similarly terms like ‘psalm,’ ‘hymn,’ ‘liturgy’ are used loosely,” “Prayer at Qumran,” in Prayer from Tobit to Qumran: Inaugural Conference of the ISDCL at Salz‐ burg, Austria, 5‒9 July 2003 (ed. Jeremy Corley and Renate Egger‐Wenzel; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2004), 411‒428, 415. The primary dictionary definition of the word prayer is inclusive, involving most modes and forms of communication with deity: “a solemn and humble approach to Divinity in word or thought usually involving beseeching, petition, confession, praise, or thanksgiving.” But the second dictionary definition is exclusive, defining prayer as supplication: “an earnest request to someone for something,” Webster’s New International Dictionary, 3d. ed., s.v. “prayer,” first and second definitions. The terms inclusive and exclusive come from H. W. M. van Grol, “Psalm, Psalter, and Prayer,” in Prayer from Tobit to Qumran: Inaugural Conference of the ISDCL at Salzburg, Austria, 5‒9 July 2003 (eds. Jeremy Corley and Renate Egger‐Wenzel; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2004), 41‒70, 45. He adopts these terms after noting the ambiguity of the word prayer in English, making the same point about Gebet in German and gebed in Dutch. The phenomenological study of F. Heiler approached prayer inclusively, ex‐ erting significant influence on subsequent research, Prayer: A Study in the History and Psychology of Religion (trans. Samuel McComb; repr. ed; New York: Oxford Univer‐ sity Press, 1958). Such scholars seek to distinguish among various forms of communication with deity. Is it spoken or sung? Is it plain speech or does it have a heightened level of artistry (e.g., meter)? Is it a hymn? With regard to the New Testament, see the formal analy‐ sis of R. Deichgräber, Gotteshymnus und Christushymnus in der Frühen Christenheit (SUNT 5; Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 1967), passim. J. H. Newman, Praying by the Book: The Scripturalization of Prayer in Second Temple Judaism (Early Judaism and Its Literature 14; Atlanta: Scholars, 1999), 6‒7. M. C. Kiley, Prayer from Alexander to Constantine: A Critical Anthology (New York: Routledge, 1997), 1. Both definitions are inclusive (comprising petition and praise), but Newman’s definition excludes narrative conversation with deity (e.g., Cain’s conversation with God in Gen 4:13‒14), whereas Kiley’s appears to include it. New‐
Praise of God in the Hebrew Scriptures and Dead Sea Scrolls
21
person celebration of God, which permeates Jewish praise (e.g., “Great is our Lord”), but Newman’s might exclude celebration of God consisting wholly of calls to praise.7 Kiley’s phrase “celebration of God” could include nonverbal praise, such as dancing or leaping. While it is difficult to think of leaping as prayer, it may be easier to consider such actions a kind of praise.8 Of particular relevance to the current study, Newman’s definition would appear to exclude praise offered by characters in narrative, when neither direct nor indirect speech is provided (i.e., “praise notices”). Yet some such instances ought clearly to be considered prayer in the inclusive sense (e.g., Tob 10:13). Further, as this study will argue, praise in early Jew‐ ish narrative most often responds directly to divine activity, so Newman’s phrase “initiated by humans” might not apply as readily to prayers of praise as to prayers of petition. Because of such difficulties related to the word prayer, this study will seek to avoid unqualified use of this word. Rather, it will employ the more specific words “petition” and “praise,” along with such phrases as “prayer in the inclusive sense” or “non‐hymnic speech to deity.” Instead of trying to define prayer or to determine the relationship of praise to prayer or hymnody, our analysis will seek to understand praise as a whole.
C. Praise of God in the Hebrew Scriptures and Dead Sea Scrolls In the Jewish scriptures and Dead Sea Scrolls, petition and praise are two poles on a continuum comprising human communication with God. Peti‐ tion seeks something from God, and praise responds joyously to God’s per‐ son or activity.
7
8
man also seeks to exclude third‐person blessings of one human by another, whereas Philo, for example, describes these as εὐχή: petitions to God for blessings. The latter canonical psalms involve mostly imperative (or jussive) calls to praise (e.g., “Praise the Lord”), interspersed with a few lines of “celebration of God” (Kiley’s definition) or “third person description of God” (Newman’s definition). Psalm 150 is composed entirely of such calls to praise. From a social‐science perspective, B. Malina offers a detailed typology of prayer based on content and purpose, “What is Prayer?,” 333. Praise of God would fall into Malina’s categories of informative and imaginative prayer, J. Neyrey, “Prayer, in Other Words: New Testament Prayers in Social Science Perspective,” in Social Scien‐ tific Models for Interpreting the Bible: Essays by the Context Group in Honor of Bruce J. Malina (ed. John J. Pilch; BibInt 53; Boston: Leiden, 2001), 349‒80, 349‒51.
22
Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
1. Praise and Petition The distinctive characteristics of these two related phenomena come clearly into focus through attention to the vocabulary of primary texts and to the findings of important secondary studies of Jewish psalms. In the Masoretic Text, vocabulary clearly distinguishes petition from praise. For example, J. Hermann’s TDNT article identifies four distinct words for petition and eight for praise, with no overlap.9 In a more recent study, H. van Grol con‐ curs: “Biblical Hebrew has no word that embodies praise as well as petition and fits into the inclusive definition” of prayer.10 While translators often render תפלה and תחנהas prayer, these words in fact denote petition (lament), whereas תהלהand תודהdepict praise. He concludes, “I find that praying in the inclusive sense is not, or is hardly, a lexical reality in Biblical Hebrew. Both directions that prayer can take, supplication and praise, are denominated by different words.”11 In their work on the canonical psalms, C. Westermann and P. Miller highlight the same distinction. Focusing on the motivation and situation of the worshipper, rather than the cultic Sitz‐im‐Leben, Westermann argues that the entire Psalter, indeed all articulated speech directed toward God in the Hebrew scriptures, occurs in two poles—plea (petition and lament) and praise—which encompass the range of human interaction with God.12 P. Miller’s summary of Westermann’s work emphasizes the relationship between the two distinct modes: The psalms of praise are genuinely response and reflect one pole of the contin‐ uum on which human address to God in the psalms is to be placed. That con‐ tinuum is a movement between supplication and praise, and the basic modes of prayer are to be discerned in the polarity of petition and praise, which in Westermann’s analysis are two sides of a single coin. . . . There is a fundamental
9
J. Hermann, εὔχομαι, εὐχή, TDNT 2:775‒806, 785‒90. Words for petition include פלל, שׁאל, עתר, and הנן while other vocabulary communicates praise, including ידע, ידה, שׁיר, ברְך, רום, גדל, נגד, and הלל. He also identifies praise by its close association with expressions of joy and music. For example, the word song ()שׁיר “almost always
has the character of joy or praise or thanksgiving,” but the Psalter rarely associates lament or petition with music. The exceptions are Ps 7:1 and 2 Chr 35:25. 10 Van Grol, “Psalm, Psalter, and Prayer,” 46. 11 Ibid., 47. 12 He writes that “the literary categories of Psalms of lament and Psalms of praise are not only two distinct categories among others, but that they are the literary forms which characterize the Psalter as a whole, related as they are as polar opposites. Thus juxtaposed, they tend to encompass the whole of human existence, its devel‐ opment from birth and its movement toward death. Praise of God gives voice to the joy of existence; lamentation gives voice to sorrow. As the language of joy and the language of suffering, praise and lament belong together as expressions of human existence before God. As such praise of God and lament alike run through the entire Old Testament, from primordial history to apocalyptic,” Preface to the 1977 German edition, in C. Westermann, Praise and Lament in the Psalms (trans. Keith R. Crim and Richard N. Soulen.; Atlanta, Ga.: Knox, 1981), 11.
Praise of God in the Hebrew Scriptures and Dead Sea Scrolls
23
apprehension in this analysis that is on target and consistent in a large way with the data from the Psalms. . . . When Israel, whether corporate or individual, ad‐ dressed God, the primary mode was either plea for help or praise for God’s glory.13
The word “continuum” connotes distinction and relationship. The wor‐ shipper expresses trust in God along this continuum by articulating pleas for help and by expressing joyous shouts of praise over the experience of God’s grace and goodness. In her analysis of praise and petition in the Dead Sea Scrolls, E. Schuller observes a similar distinction between the two modes of communication with God.14 The studies of these scholars clarify that praise of God appears as a distinct phenomenon in ancient texts in Hebrew.
2. Declarative and Descriptive Praise Before turning to Jewish texts in Greek, we should observe that Wester‐ mann’s work on Hebrew psalms identifies two types of praise: descriptive (beschreibend) and declarative (berichtend).15 He argues that the categories of “hymn” (form) and “song of thanksgiving” (content) offered by Gunkel hinder appreciation of biblical praise. Focusing not on form but content, Westermann observes that the difference between hymns and songs of thanksgiving: lies in the fact that the so‐called hymn praises God for his actions and his being as a whole (descriptive praise), while the so‐called song of thanks praises God for a specific deed, which the one who has been delivered recounts or reports in his song (declarative praise; it could also be called confessional praise).16
God may be praised for general characteristics (e.g., one who has created) or for particular events (e.g., one who has delivered). In contrast with de‐ clarative praise, descriptive praise: does not praise a unique act of God that has just occurred, but summarizes [God’s] activity in its fullness and praises God in the totality of [God’s] dealings with [humanity] and of [God’s] being. It does not have, like declarative praise, a specific, unique occasion; it is not a confession of the one saved, but it looks at the mighty God’s great deeds in all times and in all places and praises [God] for them all.
The difference for Westermann is located not so much in specificity as in the chronological and existential closeness of the one who praises to the content of the praise. Celebration of divine deliverance from Egypt voiced by Miriam would clearly constitute declarative praise. However, would 13 14 15 16
P. D. Miller, Interpreting the Psalms (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), 64‒65. Schuller, “Prayer at Qumran,” 411‒28. Westermann, Praise and Lament, 22. Ibid., 31.
24
Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
Westermann categorize the same words as descriptive praise when spoken by a later generation? Such a question highlights the fact that the labels “declarative” and “descriptive” represent a chronological continuum rather than clearly separated categories, and as he points out briefly, the two kinds of praise sometimes merge and overlap. 17 Miller takes this point a step further, demonstrating that in a number of examples, praise of God as creator (descriptive) and as intervening in his‐ tory (declarative) interweave so that one discerns Israel’s conviction that creation, while it was the first of God’s great acts for which praise is due, is not simply a past event but continues in God’s preservation of the creating and sustaining of the world and its inhabitants, providing at every moment the matrix and conditions for existence. It must be recognized, therefore, that the distinction between God as creator and God as Lord of history is more a convenience for the sake of systematizing our theo‐ logical categories than it is a real distinction.18
As part of his critique of Gunkel’s category of “song of thanksgiving,” Westermann makes the additional point that thanksgiving is really a type of praise and cannot truly be distinguished from it, with regard to its func‐ tion.19
D. Praise of Deity in Texts in Greek Moving from texts written in Hebrew to those in Greek, we find the same distinction between praise and petition. However, because there is no scholar equivalent to Westermann, who identifies praise through the lens of content rather than form, we will first clarify a basic point about Greek vocabulary: with only a handful of exceptions, εὐχή and related words in‐ dicate petition (vow, supplication, request, etc.) rather than prayer (defined inclusively). Once this point is clearly in view, it will become evident that Greek texts also depict praise and petition as distinct phenomena, inde‐ pendent of the forms in which they appear. 17 Ibid., 114‒17. 18 Miller, Interpreting the Psalms, 74. 19 He writes, “In the Psalms, as in the O.T. generally, giving thanks is surrounded by praise, is contained within praise, that therefore instead of our contrast of thanks and petition, there stands in the Psalms the contrast of praise and lament (supplica‐ tion).” Thus, declarative psalms “cannot unambiguously be reproduced with our word ‘thank’,” Preface to the Second German Edition, Westermann, Praise and La‐ ment, 9. Miller concurs, writing that thanksgiving and praise “have come together so thoroughly in the Old Testament that one cannot really sift out one from the other as a legitimately separate theological subject,” Interpreting the Psalms, 70. This view of thanks as a special category of declarative praise parallels the findings of at least one scholar studying praise in the Greek tradition, as detailed below.
Praise of Deity in Texts in Greek
25
1. The Meaning of Εὐχή (and Related Words) Words in the εὐχή family normally mean petition, not prayer in the inclu‐ sive sense. At first glance, lexical entries seem to suggest that εὐχή may connote either a genus (prayer inclusively defined with praise and petition as species) or the more precise notion of petition. For example, LSJ defines εὐχή as “prayer or vow,” with the subcategories “wish or aspiration” and “curse.” While the entry never specifies what is meant by “prayer,” it pro‐ vides no examples of praise. By contrast, Greeven’s article in TDNT specifi‐ cally defines εὐχή inclusively as a “general invocation of God.”20 In support of this inclusive definition, Greeven offers a few examples of εὐχή as praise, but an investigation of these examples reveals only one as germane (Philo, Spec., 1.224‒226).21 Greeven’s article seems to be more concerned with the idea of prayer (Gebet) rather than the Greek word εὐχή.22 Closer analysis of the lexical entries points their readers toward the meaning of supplication. Are there other examples of the εὐχή word family used inclusively (for praise and petition or for praise alone) in ancient Greek texts? Including the one offered by Greeven, my investigation has yielded a total of twenty‐ three such possible uses of the word in classical Greek literature and in early Jewish and Christian texts.23 Three examples appear in classical Greek
20 LSJ s.v. εὐχή, εὔχομαι, προσευχή, προσεύχομαι; Greeven, TDNT 2:776. 21 Greeven, TDNT, 2:783‒4. The article offers three types of examples in which εὐχή means praise. First, Greeven points to “varied accounts of healing and thanksgiv‐ ings” at the shrines of Asclepius. He provides no specific references but points to the collection by H. Kleinknecht, Πάνθειον: Religiöse Texte d. Griechentums (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1929), 64ff. The worship of Asclepius certainly involved praise for healing, but whether this praise is depicted with the εὐχή word family requires more investigation. Second, Greeven offers as evidence texts involving praise in mystery religions, citing (a) Poimandres, but the εὐχή word family does not occur there, and (b) Apuleius, Metam. 11.2, 25, but this text is preserved in Latin and cannot offer evi‐ dence for the word family εὐχή (e.g., in 11.25, deprecor refers to a hymn of praise). Third, Greeven provides two examples in Philo. One depicts “thankful supplication” (ἱκέτης εὐχάριστος) but without using the word εὐχή (Mut. 220, 222). The other is a true instance of εὐχή as praise, as detailed below. 22 For example, Greeven writes that Josephus depicts daily prayer in Ant. 4.212, but here Josephus actually portrays praise (εὐχαριστία) and the word εὐχή does not oc‐ cur in the context, TDNT 2:801. 23 The scope of the project has not allowed for a complete survey of ancient Greek texts and inscriptions. For the classical period, I have investigated examples offered in: J. M. Bremer, “Greek Hymns,” in Faith, Hope and Worship: Aspects of Religious Mentality in the Ancient World (ed. H. S. Versnel; Leiden: Brill, 1981), 193‒215; W. D. Furley and J. M. Bremer, Greek Hymns: Selected Cult Songs from the Archaic to the Hellenistic Period (2 vols.; Studien und Texte zu Antike und Christentum 9; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001); S. Pulleyn, Prayer in Greek Religion (Oxford Classical Monographs; Oxford: Ox‐ ford University Press, 1997); W. H. Race, “Aspects of Rhetoric and Form in Greek Hymns,” GRBS 23 (1982): 5‒14; H. S. Versnel, “Religious Mentality in Ancient Prayer,” in Faith, Hope and Worship: Aspects of Religious Mentality in the Ancient World (ed. Hendrik S. Versnel; Leiden: Brill, 1981), 42‒62. The sample of early Jewish and
26
Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
literature, an extremely small percentage among thousands of occurrences of the εὐχή word family.24 These examples appear to be the exceptions that prove the rule: εὐχή in classical Greek literature normally means supplica‐ tion (petition or vow).25 Early Jewish and Christian literature demonstrates the same pattern, as summarized in Table 1.
Christian literature investigated includes the LXX, the works of Philo and Josephus, and the New Testament. With regard to Philo, the conclusions rely on my own in‐ vestigation of Philo’s works, as well as my analysis of examples offered in two sec‐ ondary studies on Philo: J. Leonhardt, Jewish Worship in Philo of Alexandria (Tübin‐ gen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001), 14‒17, 101‒2, S. Dowd, “The Theological Function of Petitionary Prayer in the Thought of Philo,” PRSt 10 (1983): 241‒54. Both writers ar‐ gue that the word group εὐχή in Philo does not normally describe prayer in the in‐ clusive sense but rather refers specifically to petition (request, supplication, vow, or wish). In making this case, they admit a number of exceptions, but I have eliminated some from consideration, as the notes will make clear. The results related to Josephus, the LXX, and the NT derive from my analysis of the sources. My search for exceptions has been thorough but is best considered a sampling of classical and Hel‐ lenistic Greek literature rather than an exhaustive study of these sources. 24 These three examples of εὐχή with an inclusive meaning (praise or praise alongside petition) appear in two Greek tragedies: 1) The title character of Euripides’ Electra, anticipating the delight of Agamem‐ non’s former servant upon hearing that Orestes is alive, says “he will be glad, and will offer prayers (προσεύχομαι) to the gods, when he hears that the child, whom he once saved, is alive” (line 415; cited in Pulleyn, Prayer, 39). Interest‐ ingly, when the old man actually offers an εὐχή, it consists of a petition (line 563), but Pulleyn does not observe this point. Translations of Euripides are from Coleridge. 2) Later in the same play, a messenger brings good news to Electra, saying, “I re‐ port to all his friends that Orestes has conquered, and Aegisthus, the murderer of Agamemnon, lies on the ground; but we must offer prayers (εὔχομαι) to the gods” (line 764; cited in Pulleyn, Prayer, 39 and Versnel, “Mentality,” 51). As Pulleyn observes, the εὐχή referred to in line 764 appears in direct speech be‐ ginning in line 771: “O gods, and all‐seeing justice, at last you have come.” It should also be noted that later in the play, the chorus calls Electra to offer more substantial praise with different vocabulary: “set your step to the dance, my dear, like a fawn leaping high up to heaven with joy. Your brother is victorious and has accomplished the wearing of a crown . . . beside the streams of Al‐ pheus. Come sing a glorious victory ode, to my dance” (lines 859‒65). 3) In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, προσεύχομαι refers to a hymn comprising praise for help received, invocation, and a short petition (line 317; cited in Versnel, “Men‐ tality,” 51). (On the tripartite structure of hymns, see p. 32 below.) 25 So Pulleyn concludes, but in light of these exceptions, he allows that Greeks could offer “prayers of thanksgiving” in order to praise the gods for answered supplica‐ tions, ibid. By “prayers,” Pulleyn means plain‐speech communication with deity, as opposed to hymns.
27
Praise of Deity in Texts in Greek
Table 1
Εὐχή and Related Words in Hellenistic‐Jewish Literature
Total Occurrences of Εὐχή Word Family
LXX
427
Philo
206
Exceptions (Not Exclusively Supplication) As Total As Praise Exceptions Praise and Petition 6 1 5 3
Estimated Percentage of Exceptions26 1.41%
0
3
1.46% 1.14%
Josephus
175
2
0
2
NT
126
1
8
9
7.14%
Totals
934
7
13
20
2.14%
As this table illustrates, in the LXX, in the works of Philo and Josephus, and in the New Testament, εὐχή and related words occasionally denote praise combined with petition and less frequently, praise alone. Five times in the LXX, the words προσευχή or προσεύχομαι introduce direct speech of peti‐ tion opened by praise, and one time they describe praise specifically.27 In Philo’s works, all three examples appear in lists of cultic activity and could carry the meaning of sacrificial vow rather than verbal praise.28 One of the 26 These estimates do not take into consideration duplicated passages or multiple uses of a word in one sentence. 27 In five passages, these words προσευχή or προσεύχομαι introduce speech to God that involves both praise and petition (2 Chron 7:1; Hab 3:1; Azar 1:1‒2; 1 Macc 4:30‒33; Tob 13:1). In Sirach 39:6, the noun denotes praise (ἐν προσευχῇ ἐξομολογήσεται κυρίῳ). Elsewhere, the word προσευχή occurs in close relationship with praise but the inclusive meaning is not sure, 1 Kgs 8:33, 35; 2 Chr 6:24, 26; Sir 50:18‒19; 51:12‒13; and Bar 3:4‒7. 28 The three instances from Philo’s works listed on Table 1 describe cultic praise: (1) Philo lists prayer‐sacrifices with hymns and benedictions (ὕμνοις τε καὶ εὐδαιμονισμοῖ καὶ εὐχαῖς θυσίαις) under the category of the praise offering (αἴνεσις), Spec. 1.224‒226; cited in TDNT 2:801 and Leonhardt, Worship in Philo, 137‒8; (2) later in the same passage, he describes the high priest offering thanks to God on behalf of the nation through the holiest prayers and purest sacrifices (εὐχαριστίας ἐν ταῖς ἱερωτάταις εὐχαῖς καὶ ἐν ταῖς εὐαγεστάταις θυσίαις), Spec. 1.229; and (3) Philo depicts Moses offering sacrifices and prayers (εὐχαί) in thanks to God for military victory over Amalek, Mos. 1.219. Because these three examples occur in contexts of cultic praise, εὐχή may not have the meaning of prayer (i.e., speech) in these passages but of “vow,” i.e., the second part of a sacrificial vow, offered in thanks for divine re‐ sponse to the first part of the vow, which comprised the worshipper’s request, Spec. 2.12, cf. Somn. 1.252; 2.72; Spec. 2.38, 115. On the two parts of the vow, see Pulleyn, Prayer, 41. Besides the three examples listed in Table 1, there are numerous passages in which Philo describes εὐχαί offered in cultic contexts. In eleven such instances, Philo uses the phrase “prayer and sacrifice” (εὐχή καὶ θυσία), four of which are cited by Leonhardt as evidence of εὐχή used in an inclusive sense. However, an examina‐
28
Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
two occurrences in Josephus could also be understood as a sacrificial vow. 29 (If so, then four of the examples listed in Table 1 would not constitute true exceptions to the basic meaning of εὐχή as petition.) With regard to the NT, six possible instances of προσευχή or προσεύχομαι used generally occur in letters attributed to Paul, while three appear in Mark and Luke.30 (An in‐ tion of all eleven occurrences of this phrase reveals that in seven cases, the literary context identifies the εὐχαί as petitions, e.g., requests for divine forgiveness of sin, Ebr. 1.79; Somn. 2.299; Mos. 2.147; Spec. 1.97, 113, 193; 2.17. Although Philo does not reveal the content of the εὐχαί in the remaining four passages, we may reasonably assume that here he also has petition in mind, Ebr. 1.66; Somn. 1.215; Mos. 2.174; De‐ cal. 158. Leonhardt also offers examples of εὐχή with an inclusive meaning in two other lists of cultic activities, Mos. 2.133‒134; Spec. 2.167. But in both cases, the prayers are petitions. My own search identified several cases in which Philo lists the cultic activity of prayer alongside hymns and songs, Spec. 1.148, 193; 2.199. However, in none of these cases does he specify the contents of the εὐχαί (whether petition or praise), except in Spec. 1.224‒229, where the list is described as a “praise offering” (αἴνεσις). Dowd offers two additional instances of εὐχή as praise, but these are not convincing, “Prayer in Philo,” 252, n.7. She writes that in Mos. 1.278‒294, εὔχομαι is synonymous with εὐλογέω. It is true that Balak’s εὐχαί in this scene include the word εὐλογία (1.283, 291) and that εὐχή appears in juxtaposition with curse (μήτε ἀρὰς τίθεσο μήτ᾽εὐχὰς ποιου) (1.285). However, in terms of content, Balak’s εὐχαί do not voice praise but rather petitions (requests to God for blessing upon the He‐ brews), 1.280, 292. Dowd also points to Praem. 79, but here εὐχή refers to blessings that in the LXX are requests for divine beneficence, some in the subjunctive mood, e.g. “May the Lord hand over your enemies,” Deut 28:7. In both examples then εὐλογία denotes requests. As Dowd notes, blessings by one biblical character to an‐ other “expect a response from God” and are therefore petitions, according to Philo, but she does not apply this observation to these two particular examples, 242. On εὐλογία as request in Philo, see also p. 38 below. Finally, my research has identified one additional example, but it is inconclusive. Philo describes Jews who do not have access to their normal houses of prayer (προσευχή) standing in an open space to cry out (ἀναβαόω) to God, Flac. 1.122. Not only does the narrative context suggest peti‐ tion, but the content of the people’s cry is a plea for help that opens with praise. However, the word προσευχή refers not to the speech of the crowd but to their nor‐ mal place of worship. 29 Josephus depicts Moses offering an εὐχή, along with sacrifice, following the rain of quail, a context that suggests praise, Ant. 3.25. Josephus also uses εὐχή and related verbs to describe priests praising God (γεραίρω) before and after meals, J.W. 2.131. In other places, the content of the εὐχή is neither known nor implied, e.g., Ant. 6.22, 24, 102; 10.253, 255; 14.260; 18.15. 30 In the Gospels, προσεύχομαι refers to Jesus’ exemplary speech to God, combining praise and petition (Mt 6:9; par. Lk 11:2) and to a Pharisee’s praise speech (Lk 18:10‒11). In NT letters attributed to Paul, προσευχή and προσεύχομαι six times seem to denote prayer inclusively (petition and praise), Col 1:3, 4:2; 1 Thess 1:2; 5:16‒18; Phlm 1:4; and Eph 1:16. Besides the nine examples listed in Table 1, the εὐχή word family in the NT either clearly denotes petition or the content of the εὐχή is unspecified. On the εὐχή word family in NT, see B. Thurston, “Prayer in the New Testament,” in Prayer from Alexander to Constantine: A Critical Anthology (ed. Mark Christopher Kiley; New York: Routledge, 1997), 207‒10, 207‒08. Thurston does not specifically investigate in which cases the εὐχή word family denotes praise and/or petition.
Praise of Deity in Texts in Greek
29
conclusive example in Acts has not been included in the table.31) The New Testament reflects a significantly higher rate of the εὐχή word family used inclusively than do the other texts, although this distinctiveness is limited to the Pauline corpus.32 The προσευχή form has an inclusive meaning more often than does εὐχή.33 Overall, based on the paucity of these exceptions, we may conclude that while the εὐχή word family could occasionally mean prayer in an inclusive sense—involving praise in addition to petition—its most natural meaning was petition. Two secondary studies of ancient Greek prayer agree that εὐχή means petition. Simon Pulleyn argues that the εὐχή word family generally denotes “articulate requests directed towards the gods” and that other vocabulary (such as ἀράομαι, λίσσομαι, and ἱκετεύω) represent subcategories within this umbrella term for petition.34 H. S. Versnel uses the English term prayer in an inclusive sense but nevertheless treats “prayers that express wishes” separately from “prayers of gratitude.”35 Plato’s definitions of εὐχή offer additional evidence that the word means petition. In Euthyphro, Socrates asks, “Is it then the case that sacrific‐ ing is making a gift to the gods and praying is making a request of them?” (οὐκοῦν τὸ θύειν δωρεῖσθαί ἐστι τοῖς θεοῖς, τὸ δ’ εὔχεσθαι αἰτεῖν τοὺς 31 Acts 16:25 states that Paul and Silas, praying, were hymning God (προσευχόμενοι ὕμνουν τὸν θεόν). Certainly, προσεύχομαι refers to a hymn, but the literary context does not explicitly indicate the content of the hymn (whether petition or praise). On the word “hymn” as a formal category rather than a designation of content, see p. 33 below. 32 If the Pauline corpus is considered independently of the rest of the NT, the rate of exceptions is strikingly high (six exceptions in thirty‐four occurrences, equaling 17.65 percent), whereas the rate of exceptions for the remaining books in the NT comes to 3.25 percent (three exceptions in ninety‐two occurrences). Paul may use the words προσευχή and προσεύχομαι in a distinctive way, or perhaps these passages ought to be revisited. Phlm 1:4, for example, could be understood to mean some‐ thing like, “I always thank God for you, remembering you [also] in my petitions, hearing of your love and faith, which you have toward Christ Jesus and all the saints, [I ask] that the sharing of your faith might become effective,” cf. Eph 1:16. In 1 Cor 14:15, Paul may be contrasting praise (ψάλλω) and petition (προσεύχομαι) (cf. Jam 5:13), while in Phil 4:6, he may be exhorting his readers to include praise along with their petitions and pleas (τῇ προσευχῇ καὶ τῇ δεήσει μετὰ εὐχαριστίας τὰ αἰτήματα ὑμῶν γνωριζέσθω πρὸς τὸν θεόν). 33 The words προσευχή and προσεύχομαι comprise sixteen of the twenty‐three exam‐ ples listed in the table. This same point could be made in reference to the classical texts examined in the succeeding paragraphs. 34 Pulleyn, Prayer, 6‒7. Pulleyn writes that εὐχή is the “general term for prayer,” but he makes this point in a context in which he has already defined prayer as request, so he is not arguing that εὐχή functions as an umbrella term for all kinds of address to de‐ ity (as in the inclusive sense of prayer in English). Rather, he means that it is the gen‐ eral word for all kinds of petitions. Pulleyn supports this point with numerous ex‐ amples throughout his monograph. 35 Versnel, “Mentality,” 48.
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Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
θεούς).36 Euthyphro responds in the affirmative. A similar definition ap‐ pears in Politicus.37 Given such definitions, along with the numerical data presented above and the findings of Pulleyn and Versnel, it is reasonable to proceed under the assumption that εὐχή and related words mean petition, lacking evidence to the contrary.
2. Praise and Petition in Classical Greek Texts With this point of vocabulary clarified, it becomes clear that just as petition and praise comprise two poles of human interaction with the gods in He‐ brew texts, so too in Greek texts. Petition requests divine favor or mercy, while praise lauds a god generally or responds to a specific instance of di‐ vine beneficence. A survey of the research of classicists on Greek prayer and hymnody provides ample evidence of this point, once these scholars’ concerns about form have been distinguished from the evidence they offer about the content and function of Greek communication with deity. We begin with Pulleyn’s monograph on Greek prayer, which makes the case that two activities—offerings (sacrifice, libation, and hymns) and prayer (εὐχή, i.e., petition)—work together in Greek cults. Praise (in the form of hymns) builds χάρις with deity, while petition directs χάρις toward the worshippers’ “needs and desires.”38 When a god answers a petition 36 Plato, Euthyphr. 14c. Translations of Plato are from Bury, et al, LCL. 37 A character asks whether it is true about priests that they are on the one hand skilled at presenting gods with gifts and “on the other, by means of prayers, at asking for good things for us” (παρὰ δὲ ἐκείνων ἡμῖν εὐχαῖς κτήσιν ἀγαθῶν αἰτήσασθαι) (290c‒d). Philo echoes these definitions, writing that εὐχή is a request for good things (e.g., ἔστι δὲ εὐχὴ μὲν αἴτησις ἀγαθῶν παρὰ θεοῦ), Deus 87, cf. Agr. 99, Sacr. 53. These passages are treated in Dowd, “Prayer in Philo,” 242 and Leonhardt, Worship in Philo, 111. Often, scholars quote the examples from Politicus and Philo to illustrate the philosophical position that one should only pray for “the good,” but these cita‐ tions also demonstrate that εὐχή was thought of principally as a request. For Philo, the best petitions are for likeness to God, understanding, or the divine word, Decal. 73; Migr. 101; Leg. 3.104. For a different view of prayer as a request for good things, see Josephus, C. Ap. 2.196‒197. 38 When making this point, Pulleyn actually uses the word prayer, not petition, but he has already defined this word as petition, Prayer, 7‒15, 43‒55. In this argument, Pul‐ leyn draws out the reciprocity inherent in Greek worship. In his view, plain‐speech petition (εὐχή) relies upon χάρις with deity, built up by means of cultic activities that bestow honor (τιμή) upon the god: sacrifice (θυσία), libation, and/or hymnic praise (ὕμνος). Pulleyn allows that some “free prayer” (that is, petition apart from sacrifice) exists, but it is based on the understanding that χάρις has already been established or will be in the future, 13. Such petition apart from sacrifice assumes that the god remembers a previous gift and thus feels “well disposed” for requests, and in certain emergency situations, individuals must simply throw themselves upon the mercy of the gods. But for the most part, petitions link the χάρις of a sacrifice or hymn with a request (specific or general), e.g., Herodotus, Hist. 6.3.2.
Praise of Deity in Texts in Greek
31
(εὐχή), praise constitutes “recompense in return for [a god’s] help.” In this context, praise forms a verbal counterpart to private ex voto offerings or community sacrifices of thanksgiving, called χαριστήρια or εὐαγγελία.39 Pulleyn’s monograph, which draws on numerous examples in classical Greek texts, clearly demonstrates a distinction between what he terms prayer (εὐχή, i.e., petition) and praise in Greek worship, in terms of content and function. But Pulleyn embeds these observations within an argument about form: he seeks to show that praise corresponds with the poetic form (ὕμνος), while petition (which he calls prayer) corresponds with the plain‐ speech form (εὐχή).40 In making this point about form, he disagrees with J. Bremer and W. D. Furley, who consider hymns “sung prayer,” based on instances in which ancient writers define hymns (ὕμνοι) as prayers (εὐχαί).41 This disagreement derives, at least in part, from differing and inconsis‐ tent uses of the English word “prayer.” Pulleyn rejects the notion of hymns
39 Pulleyn, Prayer, 39. 40 Pulleyn makes a formal distinction between ὕμνος and εὐχή. The former is character‐ ized by poetic speech, comprising largely praise (with limited petition), while the lat‐ ter is characterized by plain speech, comprising primarily petition, with only a few exceptions of plain‐speech praise, i.e., εὐχή as praise, 44‒49. As poetic speech, hymns confer χάρις in a way “that a simple prayer [i.e., plain speech] seems not to have done.” In his view, the “fulsome language” of hymnic praise builds χάρις in the same way that an offering (ἄγαλμα) does: its formal rehearsal of the attributes and exploits of a god increases divine favor toward the hymn‐singer and the community he or she represents. Because of this functional similarity between sacrifice and hymns, Hellenistic poets come to view praise as “smokeless sacrifice,” but they do not, Pulleyn asserts, equate hymns with sacrifice. It is through the lens of this formal distinction between plain‐speech εὐχή and poetic ὕμνος that he interprets exceptions to the basic rule that εὐχή means petition—the two examples from Electra discussed above—calling these examples “prayers of thanksgiving,” i.e., plain‐speech expres‐ sions of praise that do not build χάρις as do hymns, Prayers, 40. Similarly, he allows that hymns may contain “the element of prayer” on a sliding scale, from minor to absent. Some hymns end with “embedded prayers,” but praise as the primary ele‐ ment of the hymn prepares the deity to be well favored toward the prayer (i.e., peti‐ tion), Pulleyn, Prayer, 46, 49, cf. Versnel, “Mentality,” 45. Pulleyn’s terminology cre‐ ates confusion. How can there be “prayers of thanksgiving,” when prayer has been defined as “articulate requests?” How can a hymn contain an “element of prayer,” when prayer is considered plain speech? On the shifting use of the English word prayer in secondary literature, see n.43 below. 41 In Plato’s Laws, the Athenian stranger describes proper distinctions among different types of music upheld in the past but lost in the present, saying, “Among us, at that time, music was divided into various classes and styles: one class of song was that of prayers to the gods, which bore the name of ‘hymns’ (διῃρημένη γὰρ δὴ τότε ἦν ἡμῖν ἡ μουσικὴ κατὰ εἴδη τε ἑαυτῆς ἄττα καὶ σχήματα, καί τι ἦν εἶδος ᾠδῆς εὐχαὶ πρὸς θεούς, ὄνομα δὲ ὕμνοι ἐπεκαλοῦντο), Leg. 700b, cited in Bremer, “Greek Hymns,” 193. In a later work, Bremer and co‐author Furley argue directly against Pulleyn on this point, Greek Hymns, 2:55.
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Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
as “sung prayer,” because he defines prayer as plain‐speech petition.42 Bremer and Furley use the word prayer inclusively (meaning all reverent communication with the divine), so for them the notion of a hymn as “sung prayer” simply means musical communication with deity.43 But when content and function are viewed apart from discussions about form (and when varying uses of the word prayer are sorted out) these secondary studies reveal a clear distinction between praise and peti‐ tion. Pulleyn demonstrates that the word εὐχή almost always indicates pe‐ tition—when the phenomenon of petition is not tied to a particular form— and shows that praise and petition function differently in Greek cults with regard to χάρις. Similarly, Bremer and W. Furley lay out the distinct content and function of praise and petition, which they identify as the second and third parts of the tripartite form of Greek hymns.44 W. Race concurs, ob‐ serving: 42 Pulleyn has in mind a definition of εὐχή based both on content and form. When he objects that a prayer does not build χάρις as does a hymn, he must mean that plain speech does not build χάρις as does poetic speech. However, when he admits that hymns contain prayer to varying degrees, he must mean that hymns may contain pe‐ tition. At one point, asserting that some hymns contain no petition at all, he writes that Homeric Hymn 9 to Artemis “consists entirely of glorification of Artemis and Apollo. There is no request; nothing that could count as prayerful,” Prayer, 47. By “nothing that could count as prayerful,” Pulleyn must mean that there is no petition. 43 Bremer uses the word prayer inclusively. He means simply that hymns address deity (prayer) and are marked by their musicality (“sung”). Even within the studies of these authors, the word prayer appears with varied meanings, which creates confu‐ sion when seeking to understand Greek praise vis‐à‐vis petition. For example, Pul‐ leyn refers to expressions of gratitude as “prayers of gratitude” despite having pre‐ viously defined prayer as request. He must mean gratitude offered in plain speech. As one reviewer notes, Pulleyn “varies between the technical use of the word ‘prayer’ and the more common modern definition,” F. Hickson Hahn, review of Simon Pulleyn, Prayer in Greek Religion, AJP 120 (1999): 632‒6, 633. For their part, Furley and Bremer state that (1) hymns are a form of prayer; (2) hymns can be distin‐ guished from prayer by formal criteria; and (3) hymns may contain prayer, Furley and Bremer, Hymns, 1:1, 3, 60. In each of these instances, the word prayer functions dif‐ ferently, denoting (1) all communication with deity; (2) plain‐speech communication with deity; and (3) petition specifically. 44 Furley and Bremer highlight the tripartite division of hymns (invocation, praise, and petition). They title these “invocation, praise, and prayer,” but for clarity, I have listed the third part as “petition” instead of “prayer,” Greek Hymns, 51. Race, by con‐ trast, labels the three parts of the hymn ἀρχή, χάρις, and request, “Aspects of Rheto‐ ric,ʺ 6‒10. By whatever name, the latter part of the three‐part form often comprises an extensive and detailed petition, which Furley and Bremer claim functions, rhet‐ orically as the “point of the hymn as a whole.” In a hymn, praise (often termed εὐφημία) consists of “auspicious and seemly” language including predication of powers, anaphoric addresses, reminders, descriptions, and narratives. This language describes “the deity [as] a being of grace and favour in every way qualified to grant what is required,” Hymns, 56‒57. Ultimately, the hymn form leads to a request: “the prayer is the climax, the point of the hymn as a whole,” Hymns, 60. Of course, by prayer here they mean petition. Furley and Bremer’s view of reciprocity in Greek praise is more nuanced than Pulleyn’s. The χάρις of praise, as they see it, does not
Praise of Deity in Texts in Greek
33
The rhetorical τέλος of a hymn is, then, to secure the god’s pleasure by a ‘pleas‐ ing’ choice of names and titles . . . and by the ‘proper’ narration of [his or her] powers and exploits. And after finding a fitting ἀρχή and giving a ‘pleasing’ ac‐ count of the god’s powers, the hymnist is prepared to make [a] petition. 45
In a hymn, he argues, the worshipper’s praise prepares for a petition. Bremer, Furley, and Race agree that hymns combine praise and petition to varying degrees. With this conclusion in mind, we may revisit the idea of “sung prayer,” which is based on a passage in Plato’s Laws that describes hymns as a cer‐ tain class of song comprising εὐχαί to gods (καί τι ἦν εἶδος ᾠδῆς εὐχαὶ πρὸς θεούς, ὄνομα δὲ ὕμνοι ἐπεκαλοῦντο).46 If εὐχή almost always indicates peti‐ tion—as Pulleyn demonstrates—and if praise in hymns often supports a petitionary τέλος—as Furley, Bremer, and Race argue—then it would seem best to set aside the confusing word prayer and translate the word εὐχή here as petition. In this passage, Plato’s Athenian stranger defines hymns as petitions offered to deity in the form of song, in keeping with other ancient sources. 47 Of course, ancient writers also describe hymns as praise.48 It is simply build spiritual currency with deity. Rather, it “expresses both the attitude of grateful adoration but also the grace and favour gained by the adoration,” Hymns, 61, italics mine. In making this case, they are arguing, against Pulleyn, that differences in content—petition or praise—do not translate into distinctions in form. They seek to distinguish hymns from “normal speech” or what they call “plain prayer” by means of formal criteria (rather than criteria based on content). These factors include a hymn’s performance in unison with musical accompaniment or dance; its repeti‐ tion from occasion to occasion; or the presence of melody and/or meter/rhythm. To qualify as hymns, songs must address a god directly or indirectly. 45 Race, “Greek Hymns,” 10. Race, like Pulleyn, finds a distinction in form between “prayers” and hymns, but in less strict terms. He argues that the formal differences “between cultic hymns and prayers mainly involves a question of emphasis.” When addresses contain “elements normally found in hymnal invocation” but “the em‐ phasis clearly falls on the request,” Race categorizes them as “prayers” rather than hymns. Such a criterion for distinguishing prayer from hymn appears rather circu‐ lar, as Race himself notes, writing that “in practice the two forms merge.” Ultimately, citing Menander Rhetor, he concludes that the “Greeks themselves seemed to make no firm distinction between [the form of hymns and prayers]” with regard to con‐ tent, ibid., 104, n.50. Race never defines prayer in his study, but by prayer he seems to mean petition, Style and Rhetoric in Pindarʹs Odes (American Philological Associa‐ tion American Classical Studies; Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1990), 16‒20, 78‒83, 118‒140. 46 Leg. 700b. See p. 31, n.41 above. 47 In Aeschylus’ Choefori, for example, the chorus describes its ὕμνος with the word εὔχομαι, which in context clearly means petition, Cho. 463‒479. Similarly, in Plu‐ tarch’s Moralia, a speaker who introduces a quotation offers the view that hymns contain petition (προσεύχομαι), saying “we too are imploring her favor, I suppose, when we say in the hymns of gods . . . ” (ἀλλὰ καὶ προσευχόμεθα δήπουθεν αὐτῇ λέγοντες ἐν τοῖς τῶν θεῶν ὕμνοις). The hymnic line provided expresses a petition: “Our old‐age postpone, fair Aphrodite,” Quaest. conv. 654c. Elsewhere, Plutarch seems to place εὐχαί in the same category as hymns and paeans (ἔτι δ᾽ ὕμνους θεῶν
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Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
best to conclude that the ὕμνος word family designates a particular form but indicates neither praise nor petition necessarily. Rather, Greek hymns typically combine praise and petition, with the emphasis falling in some cases on praise and in others, on petition. One ancient definition of a hymn, albeit a late one, makes this point explicitly. The definition of ὕμνος offered in Etym. Gud. 540.46, states that a hymn “is discourse directed to a god with reverence and with petition mixed with praise” (ἔστιν ὁ μετὰ προσκυνήσεως καὶ εὐχῆς κεκραμένης ἐπαινῷ λόγος εἰς θεόν).49 Significantly, this definition sets εὐχή apart from ἔπαινος while also recognizing that both modes of address occur within hymns, in correspondence with modern assessments of the tripartite form of Greek hymns as involving invocation, praise, and request (petition).50 In sum, we conclude that praise and petition are distinct, recognizable phenomena in Greek communication with deity, regardless of the forms in which they appear. When thinking of the plain‐speech form (in distinction from hymns), it is best to avoid the problematic term prayer. We might think of communication with deity as taking two possible forms: musical (having meter and often melody) or nonmusical (having neither).51 Either 48
49 50
51
εὐχὰς παιᾶνας ἐν μέτροις ἐποιοῦντο καὶ μέλεσιν), Pyth. orac. 406c. Translations of Plu‐ tarch are from Perrin et al, LCL. In various places, Plato describes ὕμνος or ὑμνέω with the words ἐγκώμιον or ἔπαινος. Hymns with divine subjects appear as praise in Symp. 177b (ἐγκώμιον, ἔπαινος) and Resp. 607a (where ὕμνους θεοῖς seems to parallel ἐγκώμια τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς). With human subjects, hymns are depicted as praise in Leg. 947b (ἔπαινος). The verb ὑμνέω appears as praise in Theaet. 174e (ἔπαινος). Similarly, Pindar identifies a ὕμνος as ἐγκώμιον, Pindar, Pyth. 10.53. In Euripides, the chorus identifies praise as a proper focus for a ὕμνος, Euripides, Herc. fur. 689‒700. Aristides’ prose hymn to Athena be‐ gins with a petition that the goddess assist the present speech and then asserts that the discourse will be a “mixture of petition and hymn [as praise]” (ὅδε σοὶ λόγος ἔσται μικτὸς εὐχῆς τε καὶ ὕμνου τὰ νῦν) so that visions might appear and be con‐ firmed, Aristides, Or. 9.6. Most translations render εὐχή as prayer, but it describes the orator’s petitions, while ὕμνος designates his praise. In Hellenistic literature, Josephus describes the hymns of the Israelites following their rescue at the Red Sea as praise of God (ἐγκώμιον and εὐχαριστία), Ant. 2.346. Similarly, ὕμνος and ὑμνέω appear repeatedly in descriptions of praise of God in Philo’s works. Cited by Furley and Bremer, Hymns, 9; my translation. In addition, in Leg. 801e, Plato writes: ὕμνοι θεῶν καὶ ἐγκώμια κεκοινωνημένα εὐχαῖς. Pulleyn translates the phrase as “hymns to the gods and encomia joined to prayers,” arguing that Plato here views hymns, encomia, and prayers as three “different things,” Prayer, 45. However, as Pulleyn observes in a footnote, καί may not mean “and” here but rather “that is,” ibid., 46, n.19. If so, then we might translate Plato’s phrase as “hymns to the gods, that is, encomia together with petitions.” (Such a meaning for καί is, of course, quite common, Smyth § 2869.) Translated this way, Plato’s phrase corresponds rather well with the later definition of ὕμνος offered in Etym. Gud. 540.46. The terminology of musical and nonmusical is adopted from G. Nagy, Platoʹs Rhap‐ sody and Homerʹs Music: The Poetics of the Panathenaic Festival in Classical Athens (Hel‐ lenic Studies 1; Washington, D.C.: Center for Hellenic Studies, 2002), 36‒69. Nagy
Praise of Deity in Texts in Greek
35
form may contain varying levels of petition and praise.52 When divine help is received, praise functions as a verbal ex voto offering (εὐχαριστία).53 Thus, thanksgiving may be considered a subcategory within the larger phenomenon of praise.54 We turn now to a closer examination of praise and petition in Hellenistic Greek texts. demonstrates that in ancient Greece, μουσική was distinguished by identifiable me‐ ter but not necessarily by melody; it could be spoken (chanted) in addition to being sung. The τέκνη of the Muses, was μουσική performed by singers (accompanied by cithara or aolos) but also by unaccompanied rhapsodes, who chant metrical composi‐ tions without melody. Nagy argues that in the fifth century B.C.E., music did not technically include the work of dramatists but that such distinctions became blurred in the early third century B.C.E.. The musical form would include various subcate‐ gories (such as hymns, paeans, etc.). The word ὕμνος also varies in meaning, as Fur‐ ley and Bremer point out, referring sometimes to a specific musical form they call “cultic hymn” or more broadly the entire genus of musical address to deity, serving as an umbrella term for all types of such songs, Furley and Bremer, Hymns, 8‒14. 52 With regard to the musical form (specifically, cultic hymns), classicists dispute con‐ tent (petition or praise) but as we have seen, this discussion is largely one of empha‐ sis. For Furley and Bremer, everything in the cultic hymn prepares for the petition, while Pulleyn and Race emphasize praise within hymns. For our purposes, their ar‐ guments are not so far apart, as any particular hymn might emphasize petition over praise or vice versa (or it could consist entirely of petition or praise). With regard to the nonmusical form, the same point may be made. Pulleyn wants to demonstrate that it consists primarily of petition, but Furley and Bremer provide counterexam‐ ples that comprise entirely praise. They also offer one example of a musical petition, one that seeks healing from Asclepius in “a metrical and hymnic form,” ibid., 4, n.5. Notably, this finding—that classical Greek texts exhibit a clear distinction between petition and praise (regardless of form)—corresponds with the conclusions of Westermann and Miller, who focus on the Hebrew tradition. With regard to func‐ tion, Greek texts emphasize reciprocity: petition and praise represent polarities on a continuum of χάρις. The former seeks and requests, while the latter flatters, lauds, and proclaims. Prior to a request, praise builds χάρις in support of a request. 53 For examples of praise in the form of a ὕμνος following a vow (functioning as peti‐ tion), see Aristides, Or. 43.1‒11; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Ant. Rom. 3.32.4. 54 A number of classicists have claimed that verbal expressions of thanksgiving did not appear in ancient Greece but only later. However, like Westermann, Versnel, focus‐ ing on content rather than form, argues that thanksgiving functioned as a subcate‐ gory within the larger phenomenon of Greek praise, Versnel, “Mentality,” 42‒62.~ He makes the case that scholars have conceived of thanksgiving too narrowly, in keeping only with the word χάρις . But in his view, χάρις and τιμή did not signify two different things but rather a “single concept in two manners.” In the classical pe‐ riod—in both religious and secular contexts—gratitude was expressed not through words in the χάρις family but with words translated as praise, especially (ἔπ)αινος and ἐπαινέω, ibid., 50. By this conclusion, Versnel does not mean to suggest that (ἔπ)αινος meant thanks (semantically), but rather that it functioned as thanks (practi‐ cally). When ancient Greeks praised a god or human for benefaction, they were in essence expressing thanks. Versnel argues that if one looks for verbal thanksgiving freed from dependence on the χάρις word family, examples abound, and he provides several, e.g., Aristophanes, Plut. 745; Xenophon, Symp. 4.49; and in Latin, Livy 7.36.7; 27.13.2. These examples demonstrate that such phrases as ἐπαινοῦμεν τοὺς θεοὺς ἀξίαν χάριν ἀποδίδοντες functioned as standard ways of expressing gratitude to the gods. Versnel goes on to argue that in the Hellenistic period, the impulse to praise
36
Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
3. Praise and Petition in the Septuagint, Josephus, and Philo We have argued that both Hebrew and Greek texts treat petition and praise as distinct phenomena regardless of form. It is not surprising then that early Jewish texts in Greek—influenced by both traditions—maintain a similar distinction. For example, the Septuagint, like the Hebrew Bible, uses distinct vocabulary for petition and praise.55 Likewise, Josephus main‐ tains a nearly complete distinction between the vocabulary of petition and praise, consistently using the εὔχομαι word group to denote request.56 (as a way of giving thanks) developed into public proclamation of the great deeds of the god, eventually “aretalogy,” using the words εὐχαριστέω or εὐλογέω. This later praise, he argues, functioned like sacrifice to give honor (τιμή) to a god. In the same volume, H. W. Pleket argues that the use of εὐλογέω and εὐλογία to describe praise of deity arose in Hellenistic Greek—particularly in the context of mystery relig‐ ions—independently of its use in Jewish texts to translate ברְך. He posits that the common link is the willingness (inherent in the word εὐλογέω itself) to assume a subservient attitude toward the deity, “Religious History as the History of Mental‐ ity: The ʹBelieverʹ as Servant of the Deity in the Greek World,” in Faith, Hope and Wor‐ ship: Aspects of Religious Mentality in the Ancient World (ed. H. S. Versnel; Leiden: Brill, 1981), 183‒8, 183‒9. J. H. Quincey has demonstrated an analogous dynamic in Latin. In regard to the word family gratia, the phrase laudes gratesque was an “expressive doublet in which the central part is played not by the concept of ‘thanks’ but by that of ‘praise,’” “Greek Expressions of Thanks,” JHS 86 (1966): 133‒58. 55 In 4 Macc 4:11‒12, προσεύχομαι narrates petition, while ὑμνέω portrays praise. Simi‐ larly, Sir 17:25‒29 depicts praise with the words αἰνέω, ἀνθομολόγησις, and ἐξομολόγησις but petition with δέομαι. This point could be illustrated by many more examples. The six exceptions appear on p. 27 above. 56 In Against Apion, Josephus defines εὔχομαι as petition, “And for our duty at the sacri‐ fices themselves, we ought, in the first place, to pray (εὔχομαι) for the common wel‐ fare of all, and after that for our own; for we are made for fellowship one with an‐ other; and he who prefers the common good before what is peculiar to himself, is above all acceptable to God. And let our supplication (δέησις) be made humbly to God, not [so much] that he would give us what is good, (for he has already given that of his own accord, and has proposed the same publicly to all,) as that we may duly receive it, and when we have received it, may preserve it,” C. Ap. 2.196‒197. All translations of Josephus are from Feldman, et al, LCL. Italics indicate my modifica‐ tion of the LCL translation. In another text, when Josephus narrates the actions of praise and petition, he uses the words εὔχομαι, ἱκετεύω, and δέομαι for petition but εὐλογέω and εὐχαριστέω for praise, Ant. 8.108‒120. Both actions comprise worship (προσκυνέω). In three passages, the words εὔχομαι or εὐχή appear near verbs denot‐ ing praise of God, but in all cases, εὔχομαι and εὐχή signify acts of verbal petition distinct from praise of God, Ant 7.380‒381 (εὐλογέω), 9:10‒12 (εὐχαριστέω, ὑμνέω), 12:312‒314 (ὑμνέω). In each case, the narrative context clarifies whether the action is petition or praise. (The two exceptions to εὐχή as supplication appear on p. 27 above.) This point is also borne out by T. Jonquière, “Prayer in Josephus,” in Prayer from Tobit to Qumran: Inaugural Conference of the ISDCL at Salzburg, Austria, 5‒9 July 2003 (ed. Jeremy Corley and Renate Egger‐Wenzel; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2004), 429‒37. Jonquière defines prayer inclusively: a non‐conversational address to God, initiated by humans, in the second or sometimes third person, 429. He identifies (but does not list) 134 prayers in Josephus’ works as a whole and 121 prayers in Antiqui‐ ties. Of the 32 he explores in the article, all are petitions. But individuals also praise
Praise of Deity in Texts in Greek
37
Philo similarly depicts petition and praise as distinct phenomena.57 The εὐχή word family (when referring to communication with God) normally denotes petition.58 In some passages, Philo describes petition and praise as two complementary activities comprising communication with God; in others, he contrasts petition and praise, identifying praise as the better of the two activities.59 On occasion, Philo uses the εὐχή word group in relation to songs (ᾄσμα, ὕμνος) but only when he understands these songs as peti‐ tions.60 Other times, Philo correlates the words εὔχομαι and blessing
57
58
59
60
God in Josephus’ works, and it is unclear whether Jonquière includes such praise in his count of 134 “prayers.” Praise of God appears in Antiquities in: 1:181, 2:346, 3:64; 4:241; 7:95, 305, 389‒391; 8:53, 110, 173, 176; 9:11‒15, 269; 11:80, 157; 12:312, 323, 349. Philo uses a different set of vocabulary for petition and praise. Leonhardt, after demonstrating this distinction in detail, treats petition and praise separately, Worship in Philo, 101‒89. Other studies that treat prayer in Philo include P. Borgen, “Two Philonic Prayers and Their Contexts: An Analysis of Who Is the Heir of Divine Things (Her) 24‒29 and Against Flaccus (Flac) 170‒75,” NTS 45 (1999): 291‒309; J. LaPorte, Eucharistia in Philo (Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity 3; New York: E. Mellen Press, 1983); C. W. Larson, “Prayer of Petition in Philo,” JBL 65, no. 2 (1946): 185‒203; R. J. Ledogar, Acknowledgment: Praise in the Early Greek Anaphora (Roma: Herder, 1968), 94‒98; G. E. Sterling, “Philo of Alexandria: Two Prayers,” in Prayer from Alexander to Constantine: A Critical Anthology (ed. Mark Christopher Kiley; New York: Routledge, 1997), 99‒107; H. A. Wolfson, Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (2 vols.; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948), 2:237‒41. As detailed on p. 27 above, there are only two exceptions out of 206 occurrences. In other cases, the meaning of εὐχή as supplication is made clear by the presence of such verbs as ἱκετεύω and αἰτέω or by the content of the εὐχή (request). Philo uses εὐχή to describe the petitions of the characters he depicts, such as the true king, the lover of virtue, the Therapeutae, and various biblical figures, e.g., Noah (Sobr. 53, 59, 61, 62, 66); Isaac (Prob. 57); Jacob (Sobr. 12, Plant. 90); and Moses (Prob. 156‒157; Agr. 44, 94‒95, 99; Plant. 46‒47, 49, 52). Εὐχή may also describe various kinds of vows or intense wishes, in keeping with general Greek usage. On wishes and vows, see Leonhardt, Worship in Philo, 104‒5, 117‒24. Philo offers a definition of εὐχή as vow in Somn. 1.252. Despite the fact that the εὐχή word family denotes petition repeatedly in Philo’s works, scholars have historically sought to downplay the emphasis on pe‐ titionary prayer in Philo’s thought. On this point, see Dowd, “Prayer in Philo,” 241; Leonhardt, Worship in Philo, 16. In Leg. 1.81‒84, interpreting the “ruby and sapphire” stones of Exod 28:17, Philo juxtaposes the two. Judah (the red stone) represents a man inclined to praise God (ἐξομολογέω), which demonstrates his recognition of God as author of everything and his progression beyond body and matter. By contrast, Issachar (the green stone) signifies a man still in formation, who labors at good deeds yet fears that he might not obtain a result corresponding with his petition (καὶ διὰ δέος τοῦ μὴ τυχεῖν ἂν ἴσως τοῦ κατ’ εὐχὴν τέλους). In Philo’s interpretation of the two stones, praise is su‐ perior to petition. E.g., Plant. 46‒49 in reference to Exod 15:17‒19, understood as a petition, and Conf. 39 in reference to LXX Ps 30:19, a request. Here again, vocabulary suggests that the form of address to God is a matter separate from its content (petition or praise). When the content of a hymn is clearly petition, Philo uses the word εὐχή, but in most cases in Philo, “hymns sung to God are hymns of praise,” Leonhardt, Worship in Philo, 160.
38
Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
(εὐλογέω or εὐλογητός) but he does so only when blessing is directed to a human being and thus functions as a petition to God.61 By contrast, when εὐλογέω appears with God as its object, Philo describes this action as praise (εὐχάριστος, αἰνετός).62 In early Jewish literature in Greek—as in classical Hebrew and Greek texts—petition and praise represent distinct modes of communication with God designated by distinct vocabulary. The εὐχή word family almost al‐ ways indicates petition, while praise occurs as a different phenomenon associated with different vocabulary.
4. Greek Vocabulary for Praise of God If such words as εὔχομαι, δέομαι, αἰτέω, ἀράομαι, λίσσομαι, and ἱκετεύω denote petition, what vocabulary describes praise? In the analysis above, it is evident that classical Greek uses epideictic vocabulary to describe praise of the gods (e.g., ἐπαινέω, ἐγκωμιάζω) and that ὑμνέω in reference to deity indicates a form of a speech rather than praise necessarily. But the narra‐ tives that will be analyzed in this study (Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐Acts) use Septuagintal language to describe praise of God. Thus, it is useful to examine praise vocabulary in the LXX. A monograph by R. Ledogar provides useful data related to praise vo‐ cabulary. With regard to the portion of the Septuagint corresponding with the MT, Ledogar identifies five words that function interchangeably to communicate praise of God: αἰνέω, ὑμνέω, ἐξομολογέω, εὐλογέω, and δοξάζω. In his view, these words, which are “practically synonymous” when used in the context of public speech directed to God, converge to convey praise as “acknowledgement” of God.63 Drawing on the categories This usage underscores the point made above that hymns cannot be identified by content (petition or praise). 61 In such cases, he views the action of one person blessing another as a petition (εὐχή) for divine blessing. For example, Philo writes that Moses’ blessing “procures (περιποιέω) the good for others,” Mut. 125, 127. See also: Mut. 41, 129, 210; Praem. 79, 126, Congr. 99, Migr. 101, Sobr. 12, cited in Leonhardt, Worship in Philo, 103, 114‒17. Translations of Philo are from Colson and Whitaker, LCL, unless otherwise noted. 62 Plant. 135. 63 Ledogar argues that these five words may take on diverse meanings in other con‐ texts, but when used for God in public speech, they mean essentially the same thing: praise as acknowledgement of God. To demonstrate this interchangeability, he pro‐ vides a chart showing how they appear in synonymous parallelism with each other,^Acknowledgment, 63‒65. As Ledogar points out, these five words function syn‐ onymously in part because of a similar interchangeability among Hebrew words for praise, a point also made by Hermann in reference to שׁבח, נבע, גדל, נגד, רום, ברְך הלל, תודה, and שׁיר, TDNT 2:785‒90. But beyond the issue of translation, Ledogar argues that this interchangeable praise vocabulary represents the translators’ use of Greek itself and not just a one‐to‐one correspondence of Greek words with Hebrew,
Praise of Deity in Texts in Greek
39
of descriptive and declarative praise from the work of Westermann, he demonstrates the proclamatory nature of praise in the Septuagint: All our words share the character of a public proclamation. They signify some‐ thing which takes place before an audience. They impart to this audience, at least indirectly, some knowledge or realization. . . . The kind of praise which all of them signify, therefore, is that of joyous public proclamation. This may be ei‐ ther of God’s qualities (“descriptive praise”) or of [God’s] saving activity (“nar‐ rative praise”) or both. The point is that it is not just intended for the “ears” of God. It is meant for the ears of those present as well.64
But in contrast with Westermann, Ledogar does not associate particular vocabulary with the two primary types of praise (descriptive and declara‐ tive).65 He finds that praise in the Septuagint functions differently than does praise in Greek religion: The final purpose of the praise thus offered is not to ‘mollify’ or ‘flatter’ God, nor is it to transmit to [God] some cultic ‘force.’ It is to increase [God’s] ‘glory’ in the very direct way of causing others present to recognize [God’s] qualities. This may come about either by imparting some new knowledge of a divine interven‐ tion or by causing those present to recall some salvific event of the past [which may even be that of creation itself] or some divine quality.
Praise in the LXX does not build χάρις but rather publicly recognizes who God is (descriptive praise) and responds to what God has done (declarative praise). Beyond the MT portions of the Septuagint, Ledogar finds that in early Jewish texts in Greek, the same five words express praise of God, along with the additional word εὐχαριστέω.66 In these texts, εὐχαριστέω does not denote thanksgiving per se but functions interchangeably with the other five praise verbs.67 The same six words also appear in the works of
64 65
66
67
demonstrating this point with a close analysis of the use of vocabulary by transla‐ tors. In Luke‐Acts, the vocabulary of praise comprises these same five words identi‐ fied by Ledogar, along with μεγαλύνω and εὐχαριστέω. Ibid., 65. Westermann associates descriptive praise with הללand declarative praise with ידה (hiphil). But Miller argues that the two terms sometimes function interchangeably, Interpreting the Psalms, 69‒70. Ledogar’s analysis of Greek vocabulary aligns more with Miller than with Westermann. He observes that while ἐξομολογέω often trans‐ lates ידה (hiphil), it also translates הלל in some passages, while translators some‐ times select other words to render ידה, such as αἰνέω, ὑμνέω, and εὐλογέω, Ledogar, Acknowledgment, 73. The Septuagint does not support a clear differentiation in vo‐ cabulary between declarative and descriptive praise. Ledogar argues that the word εὐχαριστέω—which is closely related to the notion of χάρις in Greek religion—denotes the internal disposition of thankfulness in early Greek texts but later comes to mean the expression of thanks. Eventually, it takes on a religious character, denoting praise of deity, particularly in papyri and inscriptions, ibid., 93. The word is notably absent from the portion of the LXX that parallels the MT. By the first century B.C.E., when it first appears in the “most Hellenized” Jewish texts, via koine Greek, its religious character has already taken hold,^Ledogar, Ac‐ knowledgment, 105, e.g., Wis 18:2; Add Esth 8:12d; 2 Macc 1:11, 10:7; 12:31; 3 Macc 7:16. Like Versnel, Ledogar argues that as far as the outward expression of thanksgiving is concerned, to thank publicly (εὐχαριστέω) “means de facto to praise,”
40
Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
Philo, used interchangeably to describe praise of God, along with ἀείδω/ ᾠδή/ᾆσμα and somewhat less frequently, ἐπαινέω/ἔπαινος, γεραίρω, and ἐγκώμιον.68 Table 2 below compares praise vocabulary in the LXX and the works of Philo and Josephus with the three texts on which this study centers. As this table demonstrates, because Philo and Josephus use praise verbs associated with epideictic rhetoric, their praise words align with the praise vocabulary both in the Septuagint and in Greek literature more generally. By contrast, Luke‐Acts, Tobit, and Joseph and Aseneth correspond more closely with the Septuagint.
Acknowledgment, 100. This analysis corresponds with Westermann’s argument about thanksgiving as a subcategory of Hebrew praise. All three agree that thanksgiving is not connected with particular vocabulary. 68 In one text, ἐπαινέω occurs alongside εὐλογέω, ὕμνος, and ᾠδή, Sobr. 58. In another, εὐχαριστέω corresponds with ἀείδω, ὕμνος, and ἔπαινος, Plant. 127‒129, see also Con‐ templ. 87. (For other examples of association between εὐχαριστία and ὕμνος, see LaPorte, Eucharistia in Philo, 27.) In a third, ἐξομολόγησις, αἰνετός, ὕμνος, εὐλογέω, and εὐχάριστος unite in a description of praise, Plant. 134‒135. Philo too employs this wide vocabulary interchangeably. Leonhardt notes a similar interchangeability of vocabulary in Philo but about words for singing, Worship in Philo, 157. In addition to spoken and sung praise, Philo describes written praise of God, which is composed (ποιέω) and studied (μελετάω) prior to its public expression, Contempl. 29, 80‒84.
41
Conclusion
Table 2 Comparative Praise Vocabulary Vocabulary
Joseph and Aseneth
LXX
Philo
Josephus
Tobit
Luke‐Acts
ἀείδω
X
X
X
αἰνέω*
X
X
X
[X]69
X
ἀνθομολογέω
X
X
γεραίρω
X
X
δοξάζω*
X
X
X
X
ἐγκωμιάζω
X
X
ἐξομολογέω*
X
X
X
X
X
ἐπαινέω
X
X
X
εὐλογέω*
X
X
X
X
εὐχαριστέω
X
X
X
μεγαλύνω
X
X
ὑμνέω*
X
X
X
X
X
[X]70
ὑψόω
X
X
X
X
X
Notes: Asterisks indicate the five main praise verbs identified by Ledogar. The ἀείδω and ὑμνέω word families do not necessarily denote praise but rather musical speech to deity. However, in many cases, the context identifies them as indicating praise. For the sake of simplicity, verb forms in this table stand in for entire word families. In some cases, other forms of the word are used. For example, Josephus uses ἐγκώμιον but not ἐγκωμιάζω, e.g. Ant. 2:346.
E. Conclusion In Hebrew and Greek texts alike, praise of the divine appears as a human activity related to but distinct from petition. This point is sometimes ob‐ scured in secondary literature by inconsistent use of the word prayer or by discussions of form, but when these difficulties are worked out, it becomes clear that while ancient writers occasionally refer to prayer in the inclusive sense, they most often write about petition and praise as two different modes of communication with deity. Petition seeks (in various manners and forms), while praise lauds and extols. In the Greek tradition, praise 69 The verb αἰνέω appears at the end of Joseph and Aseneth in only one manuscript. 70 The verb ὑμνέω appears in Acts 16:25, which states that “Paul and Barnabas, who were praying, were hymning God” (Παῦλος καὶ Σιλᾶς προσευχόμενοι ὕμνουν τὸν θεόν). Immediately following this hymn, a miraculous earthquake frees them from prison. While the narrative flow implies that Paul and Barnabas’ hymn offers a peti‐ tion that results in divine beneficence, the content of the hymn is not specified. Be‐ cause praise of God in Acts 16:25 is indeterminate, this scene has not been included in my analysis of Luke‐Acts below.
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Chapter 1: Defining Praise of the Divine
occurs either in union with sacrifice or independent of it, building χάρις and functioning as thanksgiving for help received. In the Hebrew tradition, the building of χάρις is less important, and praise responds to divine activ‐ ity on a sliding scale of temporality for the purpose of acknowledging God. As a distinctive human activity, praise is narrated by an interchangeable set of vocabulary. Jewish texts in Greek tend to use praise vocabulary akin to that found in the Septuagint. What are the implications of these findings about petition and praise for the present study? It is reasonable to conclude that ancient readers of Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐Acts would make a similar distinction between praise and petition. If so, then such readers, when confronted with characters engaged in communication with deity, would not think of them as offering prayer (in the inclusive sense) but rather as offering either praise or petition (or in the case of hymns, as possibly combining both modes of address). When confronted with words in the εὐχή family, read‐ ers would think of vow or petition, with perhaps a few exceptions particu‐ larly related to the προσευχή form. By contrast, they would recognize praise of deity not by formal categories (e.g., a hymn) but rather through the praise vocabulary discussed above and/or through the celebratory con‐ tent of praise speech itself. This identification of praise as a distinct phe‐ nomenon recognizable through vocabulary or content will undergird our investigation of praise of God in the narratives of Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐Acts, beginning in chapter three.
Chapter 2
Discourse about Praise of the Divine A. Introduction One relatively recent theological treatment of praise opens with this state‐ ment: When the importance of praise becomes clear, there is likely to be, as with many other significant discoveries, a sense of obviousness, an ‘of course’. If God is God, then of course, praise of God is central. Of course it should be the tone of the whole of life, and of course Christian tradition has always said so. But what does this involve?1
An adapted version of this question serves as the focus of this chapter. If, as argued in the previous chapter, praise is central in early Jewish and Greco‐ Roman religious traditions, what does this praise involve? How do ancient writers characterize praise? What events or ideas elicit praise? Do writers consider some experiences appropriate for producing praise while viewing others as inappropriate? What does praise reveal about people who voice praise and about their understanding of deity? To begin answering such questions, this chapter analyzes ancient dis‐ course on praise, investigating four reoccurring themes related to praise that will in turn inform our study of praise in Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐Acts. First, in ancient discourse, praise of God serves as a visible sign of piety and divinely‐inspired righteousness or wisdom. Second, praise acknowledges divine providence; people who properly “see” divine activ‐ ity offer praise. Third, because hardship (such as oppression or illness) may inhibit the recognition of divine blessing, it may also silence praise. Thus when God intervenes to save, divine beneficence transforms not simply an individual’s existential condition but also his or her ability to offer praise.2 1
2
D. Ford and D. W. Hardy, Living in Praise: Worshipping and Knowing God (rev. and updated ed; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2004), 8. Ford and Hardy devote a chapter each surveying in the Hebrew Bible and New Testament, in service of a broader theological argument. As will become clear in the argument below, I use the words transform or transforma‐ tion to mean significant, positive, holistic change in the quality of human life, such as movement from illness to health, impurity to cleanness, or oppression to freedom. While such movements could be termed reversal and indeed in Luke‐Acts are de‐ picted as part of what some interpreters call the “Great Reversal,” envisioned in the
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Chapter 2: Discourse about Praise of the Divine
In other words, praise is an essential response to the experience of being saved by God. Fourth, praise is closely associated with narrative, for when people acknowledge God in praise they do so by retelling and memorializ‐ ing historical events as the actions of God. Although these four themes overlap in significant ways, the discussion below will treat each in succes‐ sion.
B. Praise and Righteousness In both Jewish and Greek texts, praise of the divine marks the righteous, pious, virtuous, and/or wise person. For example, Ps 33:1 exhorts the righteous person to sing ()רנן to the Lord, for praise ()תהלה is fitting for an upright person. Similarly, Ps 64:11 states that the righteous and upright, upon seeing God’s saving works, will rejoice ()שׂמח and praise ()הלל God.3 Later Jewish texts develop these images from the Psalms, depicting praise of God as a key characteristic of the pious person and a mark of wisdom. Ben Sira describes the maturity of the wise with an agricultural metaphor drawn from Isa 35:1‒2: they will blossom like lilies, naturally sending out the fragrance of praise (39:14‒15).4 Similarly, the fourth Sibyl‐ line Oracle describes those who are happy among humankind (i.e., the pi‐ ous) as demonstrating their piety by blessing God (εὐλογέω) before meals (26‒27).5 Later, the oracle hangs the fate of the whole world upon praise (167‒176).6
3 4
5
prophets, I prefer the word transformation because it encompasses both exterior and interior change. Divine intervention not only reverses circumstances but also trans‐ forms human responses and perspectives. In these texts, people who have been saved by God move from despair to joy, from misunderstanding to recognition of God’s mercy, or from silence to praise. Other examples include 32:11, 97:12, and 119:7. Cf. Prov 29:6. In the LXX, see Pr Azar 3:86; Tob 13:13. Many of these passages combine praise with rejoicing. Ben Sira uses five praise words to describe this fragrant praise of God, telling his readers: “praise in song, / bless the Lord for all [God’s] works, / give magnificence to his name, / and acknowledge him in praise, / in songs on [your] lips and with lyres” (αἰνέσατε ᾆσμα, / εὐλογήσατε κύριον ἐπὶ πᾶσιν τοῖς ἔργοις, / δότε τῷ ὀνόματι αὐτοῦ μεγαλωσύνην / καὶ ἐξομολογήσασθε ἐν αἰνέσει αὐτοῦ / ἐν ᾠδαῖς χειλέων καὶ ἐν κινύραις) (Sir 39:14‒15). This passage, which uses multiple word families to describe praise, demonstrates Ledogar’s point about interchangeable praise vocabulary. These word families include: αἰνέω/αἴνεσις, εὐλογέω, ἐξομολογέω/ἐξομολόγησις, μεγαλωσύνη, and ᾠδή. On the praise metaphor drawn from Isa 35:1‒10, see p. 58 be‐ low. Cf. Sir 15:9‒10. Praise before meals seems to serve as a substitute for cultic worship, which is re‐ jected by the text, 28‒30. On praise associated with meals in both Joseph and Aseneth and Luke‐Acts, see the discussions beginning on p. 116 and p. 236 respectively. On the provenance of the fourth Sibylline Oracle, John Collins concludes that a core Hel‐ lenistic political oracle—originally ending with Macedonia (49‒101) but updated to include Rome (102‒151)—is bracketed by a frame of later material that serves to
Praise and Righteousness
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Philo offers a similar perspective, describing in detail how the piety of the Therapeutae manifests in their praise.7 Like Ben Sira, Philo associates praise with the sage. In De Sobrietate, he asserts that the free man, who has entered into a filial relationship with God, naturally produces praise, re‐ quiting his benefactor with words and songs and hymns (λόγοις καὶ ᾠδαῖς καὶ ὕμνοις τὸν εὐεργέτην ἀμείβεσθαι) that bless and praise (εὐλογεῖν καὶ ἐπαινεῖν) God.8 Praise as the natural response of the wise person also ap‐ pears in De Plantatione, where Philo also uses a metaphor of agricultural fertility, describing praise as the fruit of the wise soul properly cultivated by instruction.9 Drawing on Lev 19:24, he asserts that such fruit, compris‐ ing praise (αἰνετός) and thanksgiving (εὐχαριστία), is chief among the holy virtues, the one work incumbent upon the wise.10 adapt the original oracle(s) for Jewish religious purposes (1‒48, 152‒172), OTP 1:381. He asserts that there is “no trace of Christian redaction.” References to praise of God occur only in the Jewish frame identified by Collins. 6 In this oracle, praise of God also functions as a means of repentance, Sib. Or. 4.162‒178. On this point, see p. 64 below. Along with praise, morality is also a mark of piety, Sib. Or. 4.30‒34, 167‒176. 7 Philo, Contempl. 81, cf. 66; Spec. 4.99. 8 Sobr. 58. Philo’s argument relies on the description of Shem in Genesis. The passage (51‒58) opens with a quotation from Gen 9:26, which aligns with the LXX (εὐλογητὸς κύριος ὁ θεὸς Σήμ). Philo argues that people represented by Shem have God for their heritage (κύριος ὁ θεὸς Σήμ), which means that they have been blessed (εὐλογητὸς) by God with true, lasting good. That is, God has cared for them in the same way that God cares for the earth, and they have entered into a relationship with God as father, in the position of adopted son, Sobr. 51‒54. He concludes the passage by quoting Gen 9:26 again, but with a slight change, substituting εὐλογημένος for εὐλογητός. His point is that blessing from God naturally produces blessing of God. Cf. Plant. 130. 9 Philo, Plant. 93‒138. 10 In this passage, Philo interprets Lev 19:23‒24. He begins with v. 23: “When you come into the land and plant all kinds of trees for food” (NRSV). The land represents the path of wisdom, which produces trees (such as the trees of friendship or education), which when properly cultivated bear fruit, Plant. 93‒109. With regard to the fruit of the tree of education, Philo draws upon Lev 19:24: “But in the fourth year,’ it says, ‘all its fruit will be holy, a praise to the Lord’” (“τῷ δὲ ἔτει” φησίλέγω “τῷ τετάρτῳ ἔσται πᾶς ὁ καρπὸς αὐτοῦ ἅγιος, αἰνετὸς τῷ κυρίῳ”), Plant. 117. The first three years represent eternity (past, present, and future), and the fourth, praise, Plant. 110‒117. Continuing, Philo argues that praise (αἰνετός) and thanksgiving (εὐχαριστία) are the holiest fruit of education, better even than offerings and sacrifices, Plant. 121. Of‐ fered through praises and hymns (δι᾽ἐπαίνων καὶ ὕμνων), expressed not so much with the voice as with the pure mind, thanksgiving is the natural response to the di‐ vine work of creation, Plant. 127‒131. Indeed it is the one work required of the wise and the “most perfect of all created things” (ὁ δὲ τελειότατοστέλεος τῶν γεγονότων), Plant. 131. Thus, Philo exhorts his readers: “Let us practice thanksgiving, continually and everywhere, through voice and pleasing letter. Let us never fail to compose prose encomia or poetry, so that—whether in harmonious melody or without and according to either type of voice in which one might choose to speak or sing—both the creator of the world and the created world might be praised” (τοῦτο ἀεὶαἰεί καὶ πανταχοῦ μελετῶμεν διὰ φωνῆς καὶ διὰ γραμμάτων ἀστείων καὶ μηδέποτε
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As this passage continues, Philo describes praise with another meta‐ phor: human rather than agricultural fertility. While praise may be thought of as agricultural fruit born of a tree, it is better to think of praise as fruit born of a woman, Leah. Because Leah represents people with rational and virtuous natures, her children signify various virtues. In Gen 30:35, scrip‐ ture states that after giving birth to her fourth and fifth sons—Judah and Issachar—Leah ceases bearing. Since Judah means praise of God (κυρίῳ ἐξομολόγησις) and Issachar means reward (μισθός), the passage demon‐ strates for Philo that the most perfect, culminating fruit (γέννημα) of the virtuous life is praise of God, which is its own reward.11 This depiction of praise as fruit may explain how praise took on the character of sacrifice in early Judaism.12 If in Jewish texts, praise is the natural fruit of a wise or virtuous life, in Plato, the opposite is also true: praise produces virtue. He asserts, for exam‐ ple, that proper praise results in virtue, while improper praise threatens civil society.13 Thus praise ought to be regulated. Conversely, older and wiser citizens ought to model proper praise, helping the young attain vir‐ tue (through praise). To a certain extent, knowledge (the right understand‐ ing of celestial deities) produces proper praise of the gods.14 In sum, Jewish texts depict praise of God as an important mark of righteousness and an outward sign of divinely‐inspired wisdom (Psalms,
11
12
13 14
ἐπιλείπωμεν μήτε λόγους ἐγκωμιαστικοὺς μήτε ποιήματα συντιθέντες, ἵνα καὶ ἐμμελῶς καὶ χωρὶς μέλους καὶ καθ᾽ἑκατέραν φωνῆς ἰδέαν, ᾗ τὸ λέγειν καὶ τὸ ᾄδεινᾄδω ἀποκεκλήρωται , ὅ τε κοσμοποιὸς καὶ ὁ κόσμος γεραίρηται), Plant. 131, my transla‐ tion. Note that Philo here identifies the phenomenon of praise itself (and not a par‐ ticular type of praise, such as a hymn) as the wise person’s most important work; this passage supports the conclusion reached above about praise as a distinct and significant phenomenon regardless of the form in which it appears. Elsewhere, Philo prioritizes musical praise over nonmusical praise. See p. 48, n.22 below. Plant. 134‒135, cf. Leg. 1.79‒84; 2.95‒96; Mut. 136; Somn. 1.37. Philo describes praise as blessing (εὐλογέω) God and offering thankful hymnody (εὐχαρίστους ὑμνῳδίας) without ceasing. About this passage, Ledogar writes that “εὐχαριστία is a dedication of one’s whole being. It thus signifies very much more than just ‘praise.’ It is the ho‐ liest of all virtues, the one work ‘among all that have to do with showing honor to God’, that is incumbent on us. Its excellence comes from the fact that it is an ac‐ knowledgment of God as source of all and of man’s (sic) fundamental incapacity to claim anything for himself,” Acknowledgment, 96, citing Leg. 2.93, Plant. 126; Mut. 220ff; Spec. 2.180; Sobr. 58. Ledogar notes the influence of Stoicism and Pythagorean‐ ism in this emphasis on praise, citing Epictetus. On Stoic praise, see p. 49 below. Ledogar, Acknowledgment, 112, see 1QS IX, 3‒5, 26; X, 5‒9, 22‒23; 1QHa IX[I], 27‒34; Pss. Sol. 15.2‒3; and Heb 13:15. Ledogar suggests that the expression “fruit of the lips” reflects an impetus around the turn of the era “to give praise the value of an of‐ fering.” On praise as sacrifice, see also p. 31, n.40 above and E. G. Chazon and M. J. Bernstein, “An Introduction to Prayer at Qumran,” in Prayer from Alexander to Con‐ stantine: A Critical Anthology (ed. Mark Christopher Kiley; New York: Routledge, 1997), 9‒17, 9‒10. Leg. 653e‒674, 812c. Leg. 821a‒822c. This view is developed more fully in [Epin.] 922d.
Praise and Recognition of Divine Providence
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Sirach). The pious, righteous, just, and wise produce the fruit of praise or‐ ganically, from pure souls connected with God (Philo). Praise for meals demonstrates this kind of piety to the extent that praise can substitute for sacrifice (Sibylline Oracle 4, Philo). Praise indicates the pleasing and accept‐ able inner state of one who sees the beneficial work of God and credits God for this blessing. Conversely, in Plato, praise produces virtue.
C. Praise and Recognition of Divine Providence A second theme appears frequently in ancient discourse about praise: praise acknowledges providential blessing. This second theme is closely related to the first, because before one is able to acknowledge blessing, one must recognize it, and wisdom enables recognition of divine providence. In early Jewish literature, the Letter of Aristeas offers a good example of the interconnection between the two themes. In the banquet scene, the tenth and final guest identifies “honoring God” (τὸ τιμᾶν τὸν θεόν) as the highest form of glory, for the one who properly honors God does so not by out‐ ward gifts or sacrifices but “by purity of heart and grasp of divine law, how everything is ordained by God and ordered according to his will.”15 Wis‐ dom (“grasp of divine law”) results in appreciation of providence, which in turn leads a person to honor God. Elsewhere in the letter, the narrator simi‐ larly describes Jewish worship as focused on divine providence.16 The Letter of Aristeas associates worship and honoring God with recog‐ nition of divine providence, but it does not focus specifically on verbal praise of God. Numerous other texts make this link clear. For example, Ben Sira’s model hymn of the sage, which mostly retells God’s mighty works, opens with instruction about praise: “thus in praise you will speak / about all the works of the Lord, that they are very good / and all his commands will be [done] in time” (Sir 39:15b‒16).17 The hymn closes similarly (Sir 39:33‒34).18 This frame identifies human appreciation of divine beneficence
15 ψυχῆς καθαρότητι καὶ διαλήψεως ὁσίας, καθὼς ὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ πάντα κατασκευάζεται καὶ διοικεῖται κατὰ τὴν αὐτοῦ βούλησιν, Let. Aris. 234. 16 In a context of explaining Jewish dietary laws, he states that Jews worship the only God omnipotent over all creation (τὸν μόνον θεὸν καὶ δυνατὸν σεβόμενοι παρ᾽ ὅλην τὴν πᾶσαν κτίσιν), Let. Aris. 139. Throughout their lives, “their main objective is con‐ cerned with the sovereignty of God” (περὶ δὲ τῆς τοῦ θεοῦ δυναστείας . . . ἡ σκέψις αὐτοῖς ἐστιν), Let. Aris. 141. 17 καὶ οὕτως ἐρεῖτε ἐν ἐξομολογήσει / Τὰ ἔργα κυρίου πάντα ὅτι καλὰ σφόδρα / καὶ πᾶν πρόσταγμα ἐν καιρῷ αὐτοῦ ἔσται, my translation. On Sir 39:13‒15, see fn 4 on p. 44 above. 18 It concludes: “All the works of the Lord are good, / and every need he will supply in time. . . . / And now sing praise with all your heart and voice, / and bless the name of the Lord” (τὰ ἔργα κυρίου πάντα ἀγαθὰ / καὶ πᾶσαν χρείαν ἐν ὥρᾳ αὐτῆς χορηγήσει . . . / καὶ νῦν ἐν πάσῃ καρδίᾳ καὶ στόματι ὑμνήσατε / καὶ εὐλογήσατε τὸ ὄνομα
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as the source of wise praise.19 In turn, the middle portion declares the providential acts of God (Sir 39:17‒32). While Ben Sira’s model hymn connects praise with the idea of provi‐ dence (the “works of the Lord”), the word πρόνοια does not occur. Josephus, however, links πρόνοια explicitly with praise. In Ant 8.108‒124, when Solomon dedicates the temple, he offers a speech that he says will make known the power and providence (πρόνοιαν) of God to the crowd. Following the speech, which lays out how divine promises have been ful‐ filled in the building of the temple, Solomon specifies praise (εὐλογέω) as the only proper response.20 The king then exemplifies his point with a long speech of praise and a declaration that all humanity ought to praise God (εὐλογέω) for divine beneficence.21 Philo also explicitly connects praise with the recognition of God’s providence. In Leg. 1.79‒84, Philo identifies praise (ἐξομολόγησις) as supe‐ rior to petition (εὐχή) because through praise the sage demonstrates his recognition of God as author of everything.22 Those who understand divine
19 20
21
22
κυρίου) (Sir 39:33‒35). A similar thought is expressed in T. Naph. 7.2: “Offer praise to the Lord who provides good and beneficial things for all [hu]mankind,” even when it appears that others prosper more than oneself. The praise vocabulary includes ἐξομολόγησις, ὑμνέω, and εὐλογέω. Ant. 8.110. Solomon states that because the people have seen God accomplish what had been promised, they ought to bless (εὐλογέω) God. He goes on to assert that even though human praise can never repay divine beneficence, humans—in contrast with animals—are by nature made to bless (εὐλογέω) God and return thanks (εὐχαριστέω) (8.111). The view of humans as created to praise God as appears also in Sirach, discussed on p. 63 below. Ant. 8.111‒117. Although not called a ὕμνος in the text, this composition reflects the tripartite form of Greek hymns, as outlined on p. 31 above. It begins with an invoca‐ tion about the need to return χάρις to God by the best medium (the voice), as well as the inability adequately to do so, for God’s benefactions are great and God “stands in need of nothing, and is above any such requital.” About specific benefits, he states that it is required (ἀνάγκη) that the Hebrew people in particular thank God (εὐχαριστέω) for their special gifts, which he then briefly recounts. The hymn con‐ cludes with petitions that God would descend upon the temple and hear the prayers of all who come there to seek forgiveness for their sins, Ant. 8.112‒115. When fire rushes onto the altar to consume the sacrifice, answering the first part of the prayer, Solomon and the people respond with additional praise (εὐλογέω) and petition (εὔχομαι), Ant. 8.119. Later, at the very end of the scene, when Solomon dismisses the crowd to their homes, they give thanks (εὐχαριστέω) to the king and petition (εὔχομαι) God for the king’s preservation. They go with joy (χαρά) and childlike merriment (παιδία), singing hymns to God (ὕμνους εἰς τὸν θεὸν ᾄδοντες), Ant. 8.124. This passage further illustrates the division in vocabulary between petition and praise. This point is made in Leonhardt, Worship in Philo, 161. Leonhardt also connects this passage with the previously discussed passage in Josephus (Ant. 8.108‒124), as does W. C. Van Unnik, “Eine werkwürdige liturgische Aussage bei Josephus,” in Josephus‐ Studien: Untersuchungen zu Josephus, dem antiken Judentum und dem Neuen Testament, Otto Michel zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet (eds. Martin Hengel, Otto Betz, and Klaus Haacker; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1974), 362‒9, 364. But against Un‐
Praise and Recognition of Divine Providence
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providence properly, recognizing God as both creator and sustainer, will petition God for good things, followed by praise for blessings received.23 Among those who fail to praise, Philo identifies three types: people who have forgotten to be grateful, who think they have earned their own bless‐ ings, and worst of all, who “through overweening pride think that they themselves have caused the good things which have fallen to them.”24 Fail‐ ure to praise reveals forgetfulness of divine providence or an “arrogant independence that does not recognize the rule of divine providence in hu‐ man affairs.”25 Conversely, praise (along with petition) demonstrates the absolute dependence of the righteous person on God “as the source of all good and the governor of the world.”26 In some non‐Jewish Greek texts, praise similarly demonstrates a per‐ son’s understanding and recognition of divine providence. Plato asserts that improper praise—not only of the gods but even of people—may result in wrong views of providence. When evil people are wrongly hymned (ὑμνέω) in music or discourse, those who believe the gods exist are forced to hold wrongly that they “scorn and neglect human affairs.” 27 Stoic philosophy, in particular, emphasizes the link between praise and providence: praise demonstrates a person’s recognition of and submission to the universal providence of god.28 For example, Epictetus’ first‐century Discourses strongly develops this theme. Epictetus writes that it is easy to praise divine providence (ῥᾴδιόν ἐστιν ἐγκωμιάσαι τὴν πρόνοιαν) if only one sees (ὁράω) and understands (παρακολουθέω) properly the things that happen.29 Misunderstanding occurs when people praise (εὐχαριστέω) god for material blessings instead of praising god for the fruit produced in the human mind.30 Divine truth about how to live well is the best evidence of πρόνοια, and recognition of it will produce praise.31 Epictetus, like Philo, identifies obstacles to such praise. People who are shameless or have deadened souls lack understanding, and thus they fail to
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
nik, she argues that music is the key factor for Philo, making his view of praise dif‐ ferent than Josephus’. Praise through song (hymns and psalms) “is even more desir‐ able thanks for God the benefactor, because it involves the gift of the whole person in the singing of the mind and body.” She remarks also that this emphasis on praise reflects Stoic thought, referencing the Hymn of Cleanthes, 161‒2. e.g., Migr. 121‒124; Dowd, “Prayer in Philo,” 249. Sacr. 2. Ibid. Dowd, “Prayer in Philo,” 254. Leg. 899d‒900c. On the Stoic emphasis on providence, see Plutarch, Stoic. rep. 1050A‒B. Ibid., 1.6.1‒13. Translations of Epictetus are from A. A. Long, ed., Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). Ibid., 1.4.32. Epictetus, Diatr. 1.4.30‒32.
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see and fail to praise.32 For others, suffering inhibits understanding of providence and silences praise; they respond to trials with grief (πενθέω) or lament (στενάζω).33 But Epictetus exhorts his readers not to respond to trials with lament. Even when broken or oppressed, those who are humble (αἰδήμων) and thankful (εὐχάριστος) can recognize (αἰσθάνομαι) the works of providence, and in turn, offer praise to god.34 Epictetus’ perspective on praise is best illustrated by a passage at the end of discourse sixteen. Having shown how humans ought to recognize providence in its various manifestations, Epictetus concludes that this rec‐ ognition will result ultimately in praise of god Ταῦτα μόνα ἐστὶν ἔργα ἐφ’ ἡμῶν τῆς προνοίας; καὶ τίς ἐξαρκεῖ λόγος ὁμοίως αὐτὰ ἐπαινέσαι ἢ παραστῆσαι; εἰ γὰρ νοῦν εἴχομεν, ἄλλο τι ἔδει ἡμᾶς ποιεῖν καὶ κοινῇ καὶ ἰδίᾳ ἢ ὑμνεῖν τὸ θεῖον καὶ εὐφημεῖν καὶ ἐπεξέρχεσθαι τὰς χάριτας; οὐκ ἔδει καὶ σκάπτοντας καὶ ἀροῦντας καὶ ἐσθίοντας ᾄδειν τὸν ὕμνον τὸν εἰς τὸν θεόν; ‘μέγας ὁ θεὸς, ὅτι ἡμῖν παρέσχεν ὄργανα ταῦτα δι’ ὧν τὴν γῆν ἐργασόμεθα· μέγας ὁ θεός, ὅτι χεῖρας δέδωκεν, ὅτι κατάποσιν, ὅτι κοιλίαν, ὅτι αὔξεσθαι λεληθότως, ὅτι καθεύδοντας ἀναπνεῖν.’ ταῦτα ἐφ’ ἑκάστου ἐφυμνεῖν ἔδει καὶ τὸν μέγιστον καὶ θειότατον ὕμνον ἐφυμνεῖν, ὅτι τὴν δύναμιν ἔδωκεν τὴν παρακολουθητικὴν τούτοις καὶ ὁδῷ χρηστικήν.35 Are these the only works of providence in our case? Hardly. Indeed, what lan‐ guage is adequate to praise them or present them fairly? For if we had any sense, is there anything else we ought to be doing both in public and private than singing and praising god, and rehearsing his benefits? Should we not sing a hymn to god while digging and ploughing and eating? ‘Great is god, that he has given us these instruments with which we work the earth. Great is god, that he has given us hands, and a gullet, and belly, and ability to grow uncon‐ sciously, and to breathe while asleep.’ This is what we ought to sing on every occasion, and especially the greatest and divinist hymn, that he has given us the power to understand these things and use them methodically.
When humans properly understand events in the world—even things so common and overlooked as involuntary biological functions—they recog‐
32 Ibid., 1.5.3‒5, 6.42. In the latter reference, addressing those who fail to praise, Epic‐ tetus writes, “Instead, you sit moaning and complaining, some of you blinded to‐ ward the giver, not acknowledging your benefactor (μηδ’ ἐπιγινώσκοντες τὸν εὐεργέτην); others directing accusations and complaints against god from sheer meanness of spirit.” The phrase μηδ’ ἐπιγινώσκοντες has a function similar to that of μὴ ἐπιγνῶναι in Lk 24:16. 33 For other obstacles to praise in Epictetus, see the section below on praise for divine intervention. A similar perspective about grief appears in the Aeneid, a text that ex‐ hibits Stoic influence. After her death, Creusa appears as a ghost to Aeneas and says, “What’s to be gained by giving way to grief / So madly, my sweet husband? Nothing here / Has come to pass except as heaven willed. / You may not take Creusa with you now; / It was not so ordained, nor does the lord / Of high Olympus give you leave,” Virgil, Aen. 107‒112, translation from Fitzgerald. 34 Epictetus, Diatr. 1.16.7. 35 Ibid., 1.16.15‒18.
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nize providence, which leads to praise.36 In other words, praise marks the proper Stoic acceptance of fate.37 There is an important difference between Epictetus and Philo, with re‐ gard to how they link praise and providence. Philo admits praise for spe‐ cial benefaction, but Epictetus argues that praise ought not be offered for an instance of special help. It should instead be expressed at all times (ἐφ’ ἑκάστου) for general benefaction, for whether working or eating, humans benefit from god’s providence. Epictetus continues τί οὖν; ἐπεὶ οἱ πολλοὶ ἀποτετύφλωσθε, οὐκ ἔδει τινὰ εἶναι τὸν ταύτην ἐκπληροῦντα τὴν χώραν καὶ ὑπὲρ πάντων ᾄδοντα τὸν ὕμνον τὸν εἰς τὸν θεόν; τί γὰρ ἄλλο δύναμαι γέρων χωλὸς εἰ μὴ ὑμνεῖν τὸν θεόν; εἰ γοῦν ἀηδὼν ἤμην, ἐποίουν τὰ τῆς ἀηδόνος, εἰ κύκνος, τὰ τοῦ κύκνου. νῦν δὲ λογικός εἰμι· ὑμνεῖν με δεῖ τὸν θεόν. τοῦτό μου τὸ ἔργον ἐστίν, ποιῶ αὐτὸ οὐδ’ ἐγκαταλείψω τὴν τάξιν ταύτην, ἐφ’ ὅσον ἂν διδῶται, καὶ ὑμᾶς ἐπὶ τὴν αὐτὴν ταύτην ᾠδὴν παρακαλῶ. Well then, since most of you are blind, shouldn’t there be someone who fills this office, and on behalf of the rest of you, sings the hymn of praise to god? What else am I, a lame old man, capable of doing but singing a hymn of praise to god? If I were a nightingale, I would do the duty of a nightingale, if a swan, that of a swan. But as it is, I am a rational being, and I must praise god. That is my task, I do it, and will not desert the post, so long as it is given me to occupy. And I invite you to join me in this same song. (19‒21).
Again, Epictetus highlights the role of vision. Blindness—a lack of recogni‐ tion of divine benefaction all around—results in a lack of praise.38 Thus, Epictetus himself takes on the task. As a rational being (λογικός), he must offer praise: despite his own trials (lameness and old age) a song to god flows out of him as naturally as do the songs of swans or nightingales.39
36 His praise vocabulary includes ὑμνέω, εὐφημέω, and ἀείδω ὕμνον. 37 Elsewhere Epictetus writes, “Wherever we place the good, for that we thank the gods” (ἐκεῖ γὰρ καὶ θεοῖς εὐχαριστοῦμεν, ὅπου τὸ ἀγαθὸν τιθέμεθα), ibid., 1.19.25. 38 Epictetus repeatedly uses disability as a metaphor for lack of understanding, e.g., blindness, deafness, lameness, inability to speak, 1.18, 28; 2.20, 23, 24; 3.22, 26; 4.8. 39 His description of himself as old and lame may refer back to 1.4.22‒27, where he contrasts two old men. One laments, like a character in a tragedy, “Poor me, an old man, did I keep my grey hairs for this?” The other (Socrates) accepts his fate as the will of the gods. Epictetus, though old and lame, similarly recognizes providence and praises god because he has renounced externals to attend to his moral character, 1.4.18. Likewise, in book two, he explains Socrates’ praise in prison as a mark of his proper acceptance of providence. He writes, “We shall then become imitators of Soc‐ rates, when, even in a prison, we are able to write hymns of praise (παιᾶνας γράφειν); but as we now are, consider whether we could even bear to have another say to us in prison, ‘Shall I read you a hymn of praise?’ ‘Why do you trouble me; do you not know my sad situation? In such circumstances, am I able to hear hymns?’ What circumstances? ‘I am going to die.’ And are all other men to be immortal?”, ibid 2.6.27.
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Concluding his discourse on providence, he calls students to open their eyes, recognize divine beneficence, and join the song.40 The Stoic view of praise of the divine appears also at the end of Clean‐ thes’ “Hymn to Zeus”: δὸς δὲ κυρῆσαι γνώμης, ᾗ πίσυνος σὺ δίκης μέτα πάντα κυβερνᾶς, ὄφρ’ ἂν τιμηθέντες ἀμειβώμεσθά σε τιμῇ, ὑμνοῦντες τὰ σὰ ἔργα διηνεκές, ὡς ἐπέοικε θνητὸν ἐόντ’, ἐπεὶ οὔτε βροτοῖς γέρας ἄλλο τι μεῖζον, οὔτε θεοῖς, ἢ κοινὸν ἀεὶ νόμον ἐν δίκῃ ὑμνεῖν. Grant that we may gain the power of judgment in which you trust to guide all things in justice, so that honored (by you) we may honor you in return by continually singing your works, as is fitting for a mortal. For there is no greater privilege, either for mortals or for the gods, than to sing praise to the universal law in righteousness for‐ ever.41
Petition ought not to request intervention but rather the power of judg‐ ment, by which one receives honor (and recognizes divine benefaction). Recognition of constant (general) beneficence results in continual praise, the greatest privilege of all. It is interesting to note that on the other side of the debate about provi‐ dence, the Epicurean philosopher Lucretius similarly connects providence with praise. Human praise (laudare) of the handiwork of the gods, he ar‐ gues, is not fitting but foolish because it derives from the wrong belief that the gods have created the world and are involved in it.42 Rather, human gratitude (gratia) cannot offer the blessed gods benefit, “that they should undertake any task on our behalf.”43 Even by one who opposes the Stoic understanding of providence, praise is understood to signal recognition and acceptance of divine will. These passages demonstrate that praise (and its counterpart, petition) not only mark a person’s recognition of divine beneficence but also a per‐ son’s understanding of providence. Perspectives on providence comprise a continuum with determinism on one end and immanent involvement in human affairs on the other. On one end, the belief that deity works actively 40 On joining the song of praise, he writes similarly that “God has no need of a fault‐ finding spectator. He needs those, rather, who join in the festival and the dance, to applaud the gathering, and celebrate it with hymns of praise,” 4.1.108‒9. 41 Lines 34‒39, translation from G. E. Sterling and P. W. Van Der Horst, eds., Prayers from the Ancient World: Greco‐Roman, Jewish, & Christian Prayers (Notre Dame: Uni‐ versity of Notre Dame Press, forthcoming). See also J. C. Thom, Cleanthesʹ Hymn to Zeus: Text, Translation, and Commentary (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005). The vocabu‐ lary here is ὕμνος but the context indicates praise. 42 Lucretius 5.156‒161. 43 Ibid., 5.165‒167, translation from Lucretius, On the Nature of the Universe (rev. ed.; Penguin Classics; New York: Penguin Books, 1994).
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in the world results in petition for divine benefaction and praise in re‐ sponse to specific blessings received, as in Jewish scripture and some clas‐ sical Greek texts. Praise blossoms organically out of the soul of the wise person, for wisdom enables recognition of divine beneficence. Jewish writ‐ ers maintain a balanced view of providence, which serves as a theological support for petition and praise offered both for general and specific bless‐ ings, including both material and spiritual gifts, with some emphasis on the latter.44 On the other end of the continuum, a deterministic understanding of providence, as in Stoicism, results in limited petition (or no petition) and praise in response only to general benefaction.45 Thus, Epictetus offers praise for automatic biological functions and recommends that those suf‐ fering hardship endure without lament. As Greeven writes, “there can be no true petition in Stoic prayer.”46 Seneca takes the Stoic perspective on petition to its natural end, asserting that it is foolish to offer a petition for something (such as a right disposition) that a person can attain oneself.47
44 As detailed above, the guest at the banquet in the Letter of Aristeas asserts that honor of God grows out of pure hearts that recognize everything as ordained by God and ordered according to his will. The sage, similarly, offers praise recognizing that all divine works are good and God will supply every need in its time (Sirach), while Josephus’ Solomon urges all humanity to praise God for general and specific bless‐ ings and the people of Israel, for the specific beneficence they have received. Philo prefers requests for spiritual benefits but allows petition for material things, while emphasizing that for those farther along the spiritual path, praise is more appropri‐ ate than petition. On the balance or tension achieved between transcendence and immanence in Hellenistic Jewish writers who treat divine providence, see P. Frick, Divine Providence in Philo of Alexandria (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999), 1‒88. 45 The connection between the human response of praise and views of divine provi‐ dence is clear when one compares Philo’s perspective on praise with that of Epic‐ tetus. Philo, synthesizing Jewish and Greek perspectives, urges that praise be offered for specific blessings received from God, but the Stoic Epictetus insists that praise ought not be offered for special blessings but only for general benefaction (and at all times and in all circumstances). Both writers recognize that people’s praise is inextri‐ cably bound up with their ability to recognize providence, which is in turn related to their humility with respect to deity and to their assumptions about how God works in the world. Specific praise aligns with a view that God intercedes in history to help. By contrast, the belief that thanksgiving ought to be limited to general praise (and a corresponding denial of the legitimacy of petition) corresponds with a high level of determinism (e.g., praise of god in Stoicism). 46 Greeven, TDNT 2:782. While some Stoic authors allow requests for health of the soul, liberation from desire, or divine gifts (but not material), Greeven interprets these petitions as mere statements of ideals not real requests. 47 Seneca, Ep 10.4.
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D. Praise, Divine Intervention, and Transformation If praise of God grows organically out of proper piety and righteousness, and it is closely aligned with one’s understanding of providence, then the absence of praise marks a spiritual problem requiring a divine solution. Some such problems—arrogance, impiety, forgetfulness, and “blindness” (lack of recognition of providence)—have already appeared in the discus‐ sion above. This section will investigate Jewish texts that depict another type of problem: oppression. It will argue that oppression—whether politi‐ cal, spiritual, or physical—similarly impedes people’s ability to express praise. In many texts, these kinds of difficulties must be reversed by God before the oppressed can voice praise.48 When God intervenes, those who are transformed—saved, healed, forgiven, or restored to wholeness—are able once again to fulfill their created purpose: voicing praise to God. To illustrate this theme, the discussion below will focus on Isaiah and then turn to early Jewish texts from around the turn of the era. The end of this section will examine the same theme in a few Greco‐Roman texts.
1. In Isaiah For the purpose of organization, this discussion of praise of God in Isaiah will follow the diachronic progression outlined by J. Blenkinsopp: first Isaiah (1‒39), second Isaiah (40‒55), Isa 34‒35, and Third Isaiah (56‒66).49 First Isaiah includes some praise, but in second and Third Isaiah, praise 48 However, other Jewish texts advocate praise despite such problems. In Habakkuk, for example, the prophet offers praise in response to God’s mighty works even “though the fig tree does not bud and no yield is on the vine”(3:17‒18). Here, disease and in‐ fertility do not need to be reversed for people to voice praise. 49 Scholars of Isaiah identify three historically distinct sections—Isa 1‒39, 40‒55, and 56‒66—composed in the order in which they appear in scripture and commonly re‐ ferred to as first, second, and Third Isaiah. Third Isaiah comments on and expands second Isaiah by means of “a cumulative and incremental process of textual reinter‐ pretation,” J. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40‒55: A New Translation with Introduction and Com‐ mentary (AB; New York: Doubleday, 2002), 41‒42. Thus, one may trace how a theme or motif in second Isaiah is reinterpreted in Third Isaiah. The relationship between first and second Isaiah, however, is less clear. Because the language and rhetorical style of second Isaiah have so little in common with first Isaiah, Blenkinsopp and others conclude that there is no sustained historical relationship between these two sections of Isaiah, other than the fact that they have been placed together in an edito‐ rial process. However, there are exceptions to this rule. Isa 34‒35, unlike the rest of first Isaiah, shares numerous affinities with second Isaiah. Options for explaining this relationship rest largely on two theories: either it was once part of Isa 56‒66 but became separated in the process of redaction or it was composed as a redactional bridge between first and second Isaiah. In either case, it appears to comment on and develop motifs and themes from first and second Isaiah.
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becomes a key feature of the anticipated divine restoration of Israel, voiced not only by transformed people but also by personified Jerusalem and her children. In first Isaiah, loud praise and joy respond to national renewal and per‐ sonal healing, described metaphorically as a “way” through the sea, as childbirth, or as resurrection. For example, the first major section of first Isaiah concludes with a description of the coming day of the Lord (11:1‒16), when God will restore Israel by means of regathering and unit‐ ing exiles from the “four corners of the earth” (11:10‒13), particularly As‐ syria. Envisioned metaphorically as a passageway or path through the Red Sea (11:15‒16), this restoration will result in vigorous, glorious praise, an‐ ticipated in a six‐verse hymn that follows the description of the day of the Lord (Isa 12:1‒16).50 Citing excerpts from the Song of the Sea, the hymn uses praise from the past to anticipate future praise, when Israel will again travel a salvific path and in response, voice loud praise in Zion.51 Second 50 The passage describes praise with diverse vocabulary: “You shall say: ‘I give thanks to You, O LORD!’” (ידה/εὐλογέω) (Isa 12:1) and “Praise the LORD!” (ידה/ὑμνέω) (Isa 12:4). This praise is accompanied by joy, described as giving thanks (ידה/ὑμνέω), singing hymns (זמר/ὑμνέω), shouting (צהל/ἀγαλλιάω), and exulting (רנן/εὐφραίνω) (12:4‒6). This joy is like water “from the wells of salvation” (12:3). The hymn also states that by making known (ידע/ἀναγγέλλω) God’s deeds among the peoples, such praise will exalt God’s name (12:4). On the proclamatory nature of praise, see p. 67 below. 51 With a verbatim citation of the Song of the Sea, the hymn implies that just as the Hebrews once traveled along a miraculous highway out of Egypt through the sea, so too a renewed, regathered Israel will travel along a salvific highway toward future restoration (Exod 15:2; Isa 12:5). The hymn concludes with shouts of joy heard in Zion (Isa 12:6). The image of a highway appears in Isa 11:16, the verse that leads into the hymn. The vocabulary is מסלה in the MT and δίοδος in the LXX. (More typically, “path” appears as דרך and ὁδός.). While the word “path” does not appear in the Exodus account of the parting of the sea, in other texts, it describes the dry ground between the divided waters, particularly in Isaiah (Isa 11:15‒16, 43:16, 51:10; cf. MT Ps 77:20 [LXX Ps 76:20]; Wis. 19:7). Both Philo and Josephus write about the way (ὁδὸς) in the sea cleared by God, Philo, Mos. 1:177; 2:253; Josephus, Ant. 2:338; 3:18, 86. In addition to the quotation from Exod 15:2, the hymn alludes to at least eight Psalms, Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1‒39, 270. If at the Red Sea, the people of God responded to deliverance with loud, joyous praise, so too will future recipients of divine salva‐ tion. The conclusion of the hymn locates this praise within Zion:
יוֹשׁ ֶבת ִציּוֹן ֶ ַצ ֲה ִלי וָ ר ִֹנּי י־גדוֹל ְבּ ִק ְר ֵבְּך ְקדוֹשׁ יִ ְשׂ ָר ֵאל ָ ִכּ Oh, shout for joy, You who dwell in Zion! For great in your midst Is the Holy One of Israel (Isa 12:6).
The phrase יושׁבת ציון introduces some ambiguity. In the NJPS translation, the prophet exhorts the residents of Zion (presumably, people regathered by God and returned to Jerusalem) to rejoice, although neither the hymn itself nor the descrip‐ tion of the day of the Lord before it mention Jerusalem as a locus for reunification. Alternatively, the second singular suffix in the second line— “in your midst”(—)בקרבךsuggests a metaphorical reading of Zion (city as woman). Under‐
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Isaiah echoes the motif of a “new exodus followed by hymns of praise and thanksgiving” (Isa 42:10‒13; 44:23; 49:13), and both second and Third Isaiah build upon the image of joyous praise in Zion, as we will see.52 In Isa 26:17‒19, joy follows divine intervention described figuratively as birth and resurrection. The prophet likens God’s people, afflicted with divine punishment, to a laboring woman who fails to bring forth life upon the earth, giving birth only to wind (26:17‒18). A vocative to the dead fol‐ lows this simile: “Oh, let Your dead revive! Let corpses arise!” (26:19).53 Then, merging the two metaphors, the prophet anticipates that the resur‐ rection of “those who dwell in dust” will complete the woman’s long labor by birthing the dead. Birth and resurrection serve as metaphors for God’s future restoration of the people, which will be greeted with shouts of joy ()רנן (26:19).54 In second Isaiah, where joyous praise also responds to national re‐ newal, the figure of personified Jerusalem takes center stage. In three apos‐ trophes and other statements of Zion’s comfort, the prophet anticipates that joyous praise—voiced either by lady Zion or the children gathered to her— will greet Jerusalem’s divinely‐empowered transformation from a desolate, standing יושׁבת as an adjective (“royal”), the NRSV translates: “Shout aloud and sing for joy, O royal Zion, for great in your midst is the Holy One of Israel.” Understood this way, the verse either exhorts personified Zion to join the regathered people in praise or equates the praise of the people and lady Zion. If יושׁבת ציון is personified Zion, then Isa 12:6 introduces a theme that appears strongly in second and Third Isaiah (praise of the lady Zion), described in more detail below. 52 Ibid. The Song of Sea serves as a paradigm for praise of God in response to salvation not just in Isaiah but throughout Jewish history, e.g., Philo, Mos. 1:180. The Song of the Sea was used in the Second Temple liturgy during the Sabbath sacrifice, and the Hallel—the singing of Psalms 113‒118 at Passover and other festivals—was consid‐ ered a reenactment of the Song of the Sea, Weitzman, Song and Story, 74‒75. Today, the Blessing of Redemption of the daily liturgy reenacts the Song of the Sea. 53 On some pronominal difficulties in this verse, see Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1‒39, 367. 54 By contrast, “death”—understood here as the chastised people’s metaphorical death—creates an absence of praise. Silenced praise during the experience of judg‐ ment appears elsewhere in first Isaiah. In Isa 16:10, the prophet depicts God’s judg‐ ment as an absence of joy or praise. In Isa 24, the prophet censures the people’s pre‐ mature or empty praise. Certain people “exult more loudly than the sea” (24:14‒16), but the prophet cannot join their praise because of his knowledge of coming destruc‐ tion (24:8, 11, 16‒23). Blenkinsopp compares the death/life imagery in Isa 26:17‒19 with two Psalms that use “the impossibility of praising God in the postmortem state . . . to motivate the Deity to maintain the supplicant in life (Pss 6:5; 30:10[9]),” Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 1‒39, 370. Ledogar reads these references rather as asserting that “truth and justice simply demand that [God] be recognized” for who God is, Ledogar, Acknowledgment, 66. While Blenkinsopp’s observation may be true about the Psalms cited, resurrection imagery in Isaiah serves as a metaphor for the people’s restoration rather than as a means of motivating God to act. It functions like the vi‐ sion in Ezek 37:1‒14, where dry bones restored to life serve as an image for the re‐ gathering of the “whole house of Israel.”
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divorced, barren woman to a married mother of many.55 The section opens with a divine call for the prophet to speak tender words to Jerusalem, her‐ alding not only her own joy but that of God’s people (Isa 41:16), as well as the heavens and earth (Isa 40:2, 9; 41:16, 27; 44:23; 49:13).56 Isaiah 51:3 de‐ picts Zion’s comfort by means of agricultural fertility: her desert will be‐ come a garden. As this transformation occurs, “joy and gladness will be found in her, thanksgiving and the voice of song.”57 In the second address to Zion (51:17‒52:10), the prophet describes divine redemption as Zion 55 The three apostrophes spoken to Zion/Jerusalem are in Isa 49:14‒50:3, 51:17‒52:10, and 54:1‒17. These three speeches form the nucleus of the latter half of second Isaiah (49‒55), Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40‒55, 60, 114‒15. 56 While the word ‘Jerusalem’ clearly stands in for ‘the people’ (40:1), the verse also evokes the figure of Jerusalem as a woman not only with the use of feminine singu‐ lar but also the phrase דברו על־לב, an idiom that suggests speech to a woman. Elsewhere in the Bible, the phrase דברו על־לבoccurs most frequently in the context of a man speaking to a woman with whom he shares a close relationship, Gen 34:3; Judg 19:3; Ruth 2:13; Hos 2:16. Hosea 2:16 uses the phrase to describe God speaking tenderly to Hosea’s metaphorical straying wife in the process of her restoration. Pesiqta de Rab Kahana presents an ancient interpretation that in Isa 40:2, God addresses Jerusalem as a woman (piska 16). This message of restoration and joy goes on to specify that Jerusalem will be rebuilt and inhabited (44:26‒28) and that God will bring salvation ()תשׁועה to Zion (46:13) and redemption ()גאל to the people (Isa 44:23; 49:13). About the word group גאל, Blenkinsopp observes that although it “had acquired a broader and more general scope by the time of writing, the redemption from Egypt (Exod 6:6; 15:12; Ps 74:2) was still the paradigmatic instance of what God does when he acts on behalf of his people (e.g., Isa 51:10), and it achieved a new relevance with the theme of return from exile (Isa 48:20; 51:10; 52:3),” Isaiah 1‒39, 236. As in Isa 11:15‒12:6, the Song of the Sea provides the model for praise in response to divine salvation. 57 The joy and praise vocabulary includes: שׂשׂון (εὐφροσύνη), שׂמחה (ἀγαλίαμα), תודה (ἐξομολόγησις), and זמרה (αἴνεσις). This metaphor of agricultural fertility resonates with the metaphors of human fertility used to depict national restoration in other passages (Isa 26:17‒19; 40:1‒9; 41:27; 42:10‒12). In all cases, renewed fertility (na‐ tional restoration) evokes joyous praise. All the apostrophes to Zion share the theme of joy, a motif that Blenkinsopp sees developed extensively in Third Isaiah. Blenkin‐ sopp identifies the presence of joy in second Isaiah (49:13; 51:11; 54:1) and in Third Isaiah (60:5, 20; 61:10‒11; 65:13‒14, 18‒19; 66:5, 10‒11). The earliest passages (second Isaiah) summon the people to rejoice at the prospect of restoration. The core section of Third Isaiah then reflects on and interprets this call. In turn, later oracles in Third Isaiah interpret and expand the earlier summons to rejoice. In many cases, praise of God occurs alongside joy or is implied by the motif of joy. In other words, we might say that the passages depict joyful praise, rather than joy alone. This theme of joyous praise following the restoration of personified Zion appears in other biblical texts. In MT Jer 30:12‒21 (LXX Jer 37:12‒21), God promises to heal Zion’s incurable wound by rebuilding the city, resulting in praise (תודה/ᾄδω) and dancing. Addressing “virgin Israel,” Jer 31:4‒14, describes her future joy (31[38]:4) and the regathering of a vast throng (31[38]:8) to which the people of Israel will respond with praise (הלל/αἰνέω) (31[38]:7) and singing (רנן/εὐφραίνω) (31:[38]:12) because their mourning will be turned to joy (31[38]:13). Cf. MT Jer 33:1‒12 (LXX Jer 40:1‒12), in which praise fol‐ lows Zion’s restoration, described with metaphors of healing.
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awakening, dressing in robes of majesty, and rising up.58 In response, her sentinels and ruins respond with shouts of joy (רנן/ εὐφραίνω) (52:8‒9). The third apostrophe (54:1‒17) again promises renewed fertility, exhorting bar‐ ren Zion to rejoice: “Shout, O barren one, / You who bore no child! / Shout aloud for joy / You who did not travail! / For the children of the wife for‐ lorn / Shall outnumber those of the espoused” (54:1).59 God’s comfort of Jerusalem, a new divine act, will elicit a new song with wide geographic distribution, ringing to the ends of the earth (Isa 42:10‒12).60 In later texts, Isaiah’s new song becomes an eschatological hymn of praise, to be sung in response to Israel’s future redemption.61 Isaiah 35:1‒10 similarly depicts eschatological salvation followed by praise.62 Combining the fertility metaphor (Isa 11) with highway imagery (second Isaiah), the oracle incorporates another motif: healing. As the de‐ 58 In the first (49:14‒50:3), Zion laments her forsaken state, and God responds that she has not been forgotten, but in the future, she will adorn herself again as a bride, with her fertility restored. She who was barren will again bear many children. In the metaphor of the passage, infertility ()שׁכולה וגלמודה serves as the vehicle with exile ()גלה שׂסורה as its tenor (49:21). Conversely, the birth of new children depicts the regathering of exiles (49:22). However, the theme of praise does not appear in this apostrophe. 59 The joy vocabulary consists of רנן (εὐφραίνω) and פצחי רנה וצהלי (βοάω). In Isaiah, agricultural and human fertility are metaphors for national restoration, resulting in praise. Ben Sira and Philo adapt these metaphors for their purposes, depicting praise as the fruit of wisdom. (On how Ben Sira draws upon Isa 35:1‒2, see p. 44 above.) 60 In Isa 42, the new song responds to God’s new acts described with childbirth im‐ agery (42:14) and as God leading the blind along the way (42:16). Similar imagery occurs in 43:19‒21, where God makes a way in the wilderness and brings forth water in the desert, forming a people with the purpose that they will declare praise. In ad‐ dition to Isa 42:10, the phrase “new song” appears in the ΜΤ in Pss 33:3; 40:4; 96:1; 98:1; 144:9; 149:1. In the LXX and NT, it occurs in Jdt 16:13; Pss. Sol. 3.1; 15.3; and Rev 5:9; 14:3. In the MT, the phrase is always שׁיר חדשׁ. The Greek vocabulary for “song” varies among ᾄσμα, ψαλμός, ὕμνος, and ᾠδή while καινός stays constant. 61 This expectation of a new song later develops into a Rabbinic tradition of ten songs, nine of which are sung in biblical history and a tenth which will be sung in the es‐ chatological future. J. Goldin, “This Song,” in Studies in Midrash and Related Literature (ed. Judah Goldin, Jeffrey H. Tigay, and Barry L. Eichler; Philadelphia: Jewish Publi‐ cation Society, 1988) and J. L. Kugel, “Is There but One Song?,” Bib 63 (1982): 329‒50. Goldin argues that the ten‐song tradition grew out of the fact that there are ten in‐ stances of שׁירה (feminine) in scripture and that the last song for the new age, the eleventh, would be masculine ()שיר. He posits that this initial reasoning was quickly lost, resulting in a varying list of nine songs (not coinciding with appearances of שׁירה in scripture) plus a tenth in the new age. His article demonstrates that texts re‐ flecting the ten‐song tradition consistently associate Isa 42:10 with the new song that will be heard in the age to come. Other examples of eschatological praise include 1 En. 27.3‒4; 61.11‒12; Midr. Ps. 48; Cant. Rab. 1.9; Eccl. Rab. 1.9; 1QM XIV, 1 (the hymn of return), cited in S. Weitzman, Song and Story in Biblical Narrative: The History of a Literary Convention in Ancient Israel (Indiana Studies in Biblical Literature; Blooming‐ ton: Indiana University Press, 1997), 73, 174, nn.62, 64. 62 One of the verbal and thematic links between Isa 35 and second Isaiah is the theme of Zion’s restoration followed by joy and praise, Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40‒55, 44.
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sert blooms (35:1‒2), God restores the blind, fainthearted, lame, and mute to health and strength (35:3‒6). In response to their experiences of trans‐ formation, land and people alike voice joyous, loud praise (35:2, 6): the de‐ sert rejoices, the lame leap, and the mute sing.63 This praise sets the scene for regathered exiles, walking along a divinely‐prepared “holy way” in the desert, who similarly offer joyous, everlasting praise, because sorrow and pain have passed away (35:8‒10). By setting in parallel three sets of trans‐ formations followed by joyous praise (renewed agricultural fertility, heal‐ ing, and national renewal), the passage creates a metaphor in which bloom‐ ing land and healed people serve as vehicles for the tenor of national renewal.64 As will be argued in the chapters to follow, this metaphorical link in Isaiah—between praise that responds to healing and praise that re‐ sponds to national restoration—is taken up in Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐Acts. In the core section of Third Isaiah, chapters 60‒62, additional apostro‐ phes to woman Zion continue to depict joyous praise following transfor‐ mation.65 When her sons and daughters return, Zion will rejoice and the nations will praise God (Isa 60:5‒6).66 Upon Zion’s own transformation from an object of derision to a person of pride and joy (60:15), her gates will be renamed “praise” (60:18).67 The anticipated year of the Lord’s favor will 63 Words for praise and joy in 35:1‒6 in the MT include רנן, גיל, and שׁושׁ and in the LXX εὐφραίνω and ἀγαλλιάω. As will be argued below, the anticipation in Isa 35:6 that the “lame shall leap like a deer” is reflected in Acts 3‒4. 64 About this passage, one scholar observes that the metaphorical language of the poem describes divine salvation in terms of transformation: “the poem speaks clearly and eloquently of transformation of a changed world order, of healing, of abundant growth, and of homecoming,” M. Howell, “A Closer Look: Isaiah 35:1‒10,” in Imagery and Imagination in Biblical Literature: Essays in Honor of Aloysius Fitzgerald, F.S.C. (eds. Lawrence Boadt and Mark S. Smith; Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 2001), 72‒80, 80. Howell wonders about the relationship be‐ tween transformation (especially healing from blindness and deafness) and joyous praise in the book of Isaiah, calling for scholars to attend more fully to the theme of transformation in the book. 65 On chs. 60‒62 as the earliest core of Third Isaiah, see J. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56‒66: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB; New York: Doubleday, 2005), 207‒11. Blenkinsopp notes that two addresses to Zion (chs. 60, 62) bracket a middle section, in keeping with a‐b‐a constructions in second Isaiah. Chapters 60‒62 thus may be read as a unit focusing on “God’s decisive intervention on behalf of Jerusa‐ lem,” 211. 66 Zion’s heart will rejoice (פחד, ἐξίστημι) and people from Sheba will offer praise (תהלה, but in LXX σωτήριος) (Isa 60:5‒6). This depiction of praise following the gathering of Zion’s children from the nations is similar to Ps 98:6‒8 (=LXX Ps 97:6‒8), which offers a model of eschatological joyous praise. This Psalm plays a role in the hymns of Zechariah, Mary, and Simeon in Lk 1‒2, as detailed on pp. 160‒161 and 164‒165 above. The regathering of Zion’s children also echoes Isa 49. 67 In Isa 60:15, joy is described with the word משׂושׂ (ἀγαλίαμα). In Isa 60:18, praise is clear in the MT, which uses the word תהלה (but in the LXX, it is γλύμμα). Zion’s transformation also results in everlasting peace and righteousness.
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bring good news to the oppressed, bind up the brokenhearted, and pro‐ claim liberty to the captives and release to the prisoners. Correspondingly, these transformed people will also move from mourning to gladness and from apathy to praise (61:1‒3).68 So too, when Zion becomes a bride once more, she will experience renewed fertility, resulting in her eschatological joy (61:10‒11).69 Moreover, God will rejoice over her, making her “praise” in the earth and calling both her and her people “joy” (62:4‒7; 65:17‒19).70 Meanwhile, the sorrow of God’s regathered people will turn to joy, as they sing gladly to the Lord while feasting on divinely‐provided new grain and new wine (Isa 62:6‒9; 65:13‒14, 17‒19).71 But these passages also strike a note of warning: some people will not offer praise but will reject divine restoration (65:11‒14).72 Instead of feasting, they will hunger. They will not be described as praise but as shame. Rather than singing joyous praise, they will voice cries of despair. By incorrectly perceiving God’s involvement in the world, they will fail to see or hear God’s restoration and so also fail to praise. This passage highlights the sub‐ jective component of divine restoration: it must not only occur but also be recognized (seen and heard). Praise will mark recognition, but silence (lack of praise) will signify misunderstanding and rejection. Some of the passages discussed above, particularly Isa 61:1‒2, play a significant role in defining Jesus’ ministry in the Gospel of Luke, as is well 68 Gladness is שׁשׁון (εὐφροσύνη) and praise is תהלה (δόξα). 69 The joy vocabulary includes שׁושׁ (εὐφραίνω) and גיל (ἀγαλλιάω). While the MT only implies that Zion speaks the hymn, the Targum explicitly identifies Jerusalem as the speaker, Tg. Isa. 61:10. Blenkinsopp summarizes arguments related to the inclusion of verse eleven in the hymn, Isaiah 56‒66, 230‒231. 70 In Isa 62:6‒7, the word שׁושׁ (εὐφραίνω) describes divine joy, while in Isa 65:19, the vocabulary is גיל (ἀγαλλιάω). In Isa 62:6, the divine description of Jerusalem as “praise” ()תהלה is clear in the MT but less so in the LXX (ἀγαυρίαμα). In Isa 65:17‒19, restored Jerusalem as joy is clear in both MT and LXX: God describes her as גילה (ἀγαλίαμα) and her people as משׂושׂ (εὐφροσύνη). 71 In Isa 62:8‒9, those who harvest grain in Zion will praise God (הלל, αἰνέω). In Isa 65:13‒14, the restored servants of God will eat, drink, and rejoice (שׂמח, εὐφραίνω), shouting with joy (רנן, ἀγαλλιάω). (The eschatological feast and praise also appear together in Joel 2:23‒32, which asserts that when God restores the children of Zion, they will be glad and rejoice in their vindication, offering praise (הלל, αἰνέω) while eating with satisfaction. The end of the Joel passage figures prominently in Acts 2.) In Isa 65:19, God declares, in the MT, that the regathered people ought to be glad ()שׁושׁ and rejoice ()גיל over Jerusalem’s transformation, but the LXX version more closely links the city’s own transformation from sorrow to joy of people within Jeru‐ salem: “but they will find joy and gladness within her because, look, I am making Je‐ rusalem a glad thing and my people a joy” (ἀλλ᾽εὐφροσύνην καὶ ἀγαλλίαμα εὑρήσουσιν ἐν αὐτῇ ὅτι ἰδοὺ ἐγὼ ποιῶ Ιερουσαλημ ἀγαλλίαμα καὶ τὸν λαόν μου εὐφροσύνην), my translation. 72 The text describes people who dine with luck (גד, δαίμων) and fate (מני, τύχη). They will fail both to hear and to respond (65:11‒12) and so, will not feast but hunger. Rather than rejoicing, they will experience shame (בושׁ, αἰσχύνω) (65:13). In place of shouts of joy they will express cries of anguish (65:14).
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known. What is not normally observed, however, is that in Isaiah’s view, when God’s people, along with personified Zion, experience future divine favor, their outward transformation will be matched by transformed re‐ sponse. Isaiah anticipates that they will move not only from barrenness to fecundity, blindness to sight, or captivity to redemption, but also from sor‐ row to joyous praise. The chapters below will argue that this pattern (di‐ vine transformation, recognition, joyous praise) shapes the narratives of Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐Acts. In these three narratives, praise marks for the reader characters’ experience of divine restoration, while si‐ lence (lack of praise) signifies either their failure to recognize the redemp‐ tive work of God (metaphorical blindness) or their arrogant resistance to the divine will as it is revealed in the stories. In addition, as we will see, the divinely‐empowered transformations of individuals in these narratives (i.e., healing and conversion) parallel God’s transformation of their corre‐ sponding communities.
2. In Early Jewish Texts in Greek Isaiah’s theme of joyous praise in response to individual and national trans‐ formation is echoed and interpreted in early Jewish texts preserved in Greek. Baruch 4:24‒5:9 anticipates joy in response to personified Zion’s transformation from widow to queen and the regathering of her children (4:22, 23, 29, 36, 37; 5:5, 9). Similarly, the testament of Dan, drawing upon imagery from Isaiah, looks forward to a time of divine salvation, marked by the joy of the righteous:73 καὶ ἀναπαύσονται ἐν Ἐδὲμ ἅγιοι, καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς νέας Ἱερουσαλὴμ εὐφρανθήσονται δίκαιοι, ἥτις ἔσται εἰς δόξασμα Θεοῦ ἕως τοῦ αἰῶνος. Καὶ οὐκέτι ὑπομένει Ἱερουσαλὴμ ἐρήμωσιν, οὐδὲ αἰχμαλωτίζεται Ἰσραήλ, ὅτι Κύριος ἔσται ἐμμέσῳ αὐτῆς, τοῖς ἀνθρώποις συναναστρεφόμενος, And the saints shall refresh themselves in Eden;74 The righteous shall rejoice over the renewed Jerusalem75
73 The text describes a future time when the “Lord’s salvation” will rise from the tribe of Judah and Levi, T. Jud. 5.10. After defeating Beliar and releasing captive souls of the saints, this person will “turn the hearts of the disobedient ones to the Lord” (5.12) and grant eternal peace to those who call on him (5.13). 74 Unless otherwise noted, all English translations of the texts commonly included within the Pseudepigrapha—however problematic that label may be—are from OTP. The italics in the translation indicate my revision of the OTP translation, which reads “the righteous shall rejoice in the New Jerusalem, which shall be eternally for the glorification of God.” 75 I understand ἐπί with a genitive noun here to designate the source of joy (renewed Jerusalem). In the LXX, there are many examples in which ἐπί with the dative or ac‐ cusative signifies the source of joy (εὐφραίνω) (e.g., Pss 30:8 dat.; 31:11, acc.;
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who will be God’s glory forever76 And Jerusalem shall no longer undergo desolation Nor shall Israel be led into captivity Because the Lord will be in her midst [living among human beings]77 (5.12‒13)
The joy of God’s people greets the restoration (and transformation) of per‐ sonified Zion to a newly glorious state.78 Like Isaiah, the Wisdom of Solomon looks back at praise on the banks of the Red Sea as a model for praise following transformation. The author states that the Israelites sang hymns (ὑμνέω) to the Lord and praised (αἰνέω) with one accord the Lord’s defending hand (10:20). The passage specifies the transforming agency behind the people’s praise as Wisdom, which heals the people’s (metaphorical) inability to speak, opening “the mouths of those who were mute” and causing the “the tongues of infants to speak clearly” (10:21).79 In this passage, physical transformation—
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77 78 79
39:17 dat.; 1 Macc 14:21 dat.). I have found only one such example with the genitive case: “He who loves his son will whip him often, so that he may rejoice at the way he turns out” (ἐπ̉ ἐσκάτων αὐτοῦ) (Sir 30:1), which would serve as an analogy for the translation proposed here. In one instance, the writer of Testament of Levi designates the cause of joy (εὐφραίνω) by means of ἐπί followed by the dative (18.13). Earlier in this same passage (18.9), ἐπί with the genitive (but with a different governing verb) seems to be used in the way I am suggesting: “because of his priesthood (ἐπὶ τῆς ἱερωσύνης αὐτοῦ), the nations will be multiplied.” The word νέος can mean youthful (new in time) or fresh (new in quality), whereas the phrase for “new Jerusalem” in Revelation is τῆς καινῆς Ἰερουσαλήμ. For νέος as “young,” see T. Dan 9.10 and T. Sim. 12.2. By contrast, T. Levi 8.14 uses both καινός and νέος as “new” in the same sen‐ tence. For νέος as young in the LXX, see Deut 1:39, Ps 68:31, Song 7:13, Zech 9:9, and 1 Macc 11:57. For νέος as new, see 1 Cor 5:7 and possibly, Heb 12:24. Hebrews else‐ where employs καινός to describe the new covenant, Heb 8:8, 9:15. Harold Attridge, citing J. Behm, states that the two terms had lost their distinctiveness (new in time vs. new in quality) by the first century, The Epistle to the Hebrews: A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989), 376‒7; J. Behm, νέος, TDNT 4:896‒899. Ἔσται ἔις in the LXX generally means, simply, “will be” or “will become,” often translating היה ל (e.g., Jer 31:26). The word δόξασμα appears only twice in the LXX, both times translating תפארת in descriptions of personified Zion. In Isa 46:13, God says, “I bring near my deliverance, it is not far off, and my salvation will not tarry; I will put salvation in Zion, for Israel my glory ()תפארת.” In Lam 2:1, this glory has been taken away: “How the Lord in his anger has humiliated daughter Zion! He has thrown down from heaven to earth the splendor ()תפארת of Israel.” (Elsewhere, the LXX normally translates תפארת with δόξα.) Moreover, the description of the renewal of Jerusalem’s glory in T. Dan. 5.16 includes the phrase εἰς δόξασμα, which may re‐ flect LXX Isa 46:13, where the same phrase occurs. The text in brackets has been identified as a Christian interpolation. The image of the Lord “in the midst” of personified Zion appears in Isa 12:6, as well as other prophetic texts. See p. 56, n.52 above. This motif is found also in the opening praise of the Gospel of Luke, as detailed on p. 156 below. Peter Enns argues that the phrase “one accord” reflects an exegetical impulse to solve the problem in Exod 15:1 of a singular verb (“sing”) with plural subject (“Moses and Israel”), “A Retelling of the Song of the Sea in Wis 10, 20‒21,” Bib 76 (1995): 1‒24. James Kugel similarly identifies the phrase “one accord” with ancient
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healing from muteness—functions as a metaphor for release from oppres‐ sion. Together, the parallel experiences (healing and release) are marked by praise.80 Similarly, Sir 17:6‒29 asserts that praise—which was God’s original purpose for humanity—has been silenced by sin, but the passage also of‐ fers the hope that praise will again be voiced by those who experience di‐ vine mercy.81 God created humans with understanding, tongues, eyes, ears, wisdom, and knowledge for the very purpose that they might see divine works and recount them in praise (Sir 17:6‒10).82 Sin damaged this original intent (Sir 17:18‒21), but those who repent (μετανοέω) and petition (δέομαι) interpretations that sought to clarify how “Moses and the Israelites could spontane‐ ously all sing the same song,” The Bible as It Was (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1997), 347. So, we might understand that Wisdom’s di‐ vine empowerment not only enabled the Israelites to sing praise but also to praise God in a miraculous way (i.e., together without rehearsal). Cf. Wis 19:7‒9; Weitzman, Song and Story, 71. 80 Cf. Sir 51:22. In this passage, God gives a tongue to the sage, who in turn offers praise: “The Lord gave me a tongue as my reward, and I will praise (αἰνέω) him with it.” 81 Sirach 17:1‒18:14 is generally thought of as comprising two related poems, A. A. Di Lella and P. W. Skehan, The Wisdom of Ben Sira (AB; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987), 280‒83. Praise as the purpose of creation appears in the first poem (17:1‒24), while the renewal of praise is implied in the second poem (17:25‒18:14). 82 Verses 6‒10 describe God’s creation of humanity: διαβούλιον καὶ γλῶσσαν καὶ ὀφθαλμούς, ὦτα καὶ καρδίαν ἔδωκεν διανοεῖσθαι αὐτοῖς. ἐπιστήμην συνέσεως ἐνέπλησεν αὐτοὺς καὶ ἀγαθὰ καὶ κακὰ ὑπέδειξεν αὐτοῖς. ἔθηκεν τὸν ὀφθαλμὸν αὐτοῦ ἐπὶ τὰς καρδίας αὐτῶν δεῖξαι αὐτοῖς τὸ μεγαλεῖον τῶν ἔργων αὐτοῦ, καὶ ὄνομα ἁγιασμοῦ αἰνέσουσιν, ἵνα διηγῶνται τὰ μεγαλεῖα τῶν ἔργων αὐτοῦ. (Sir 17:6‒10) Discretion, with tongues and eyes and ears, and an understanding heart he gave them. With wisdom and knowledge he fills them; good and evil he showed them. He put into their hearts the fear of him, showing them the grandeur of his works, And they will praise his holy name In order that they might recount the grandeur of his works.
God’s creation of humankind and other divine works should result in praise of God’s holy name (καὶ ὄνομα ἁγιασμοῦ αἰνέσουσιν). The end of the passage offers textual difficulties, and in solving these, translators often obscure the idea that praise re‐ counts God’s works. For example, Di Lella and Skehan write that either δεῖξαι αὐτοῖς or ἵνα διηγῶνται of GI “overweights the text” and so drop the latter, Ben Sira, 279. However, the theme of praise as a means of recounting God’s works occurs not just here but throughout Jewish texts about praise of God, as will be explored in more detail below. Septuagint quotations are from A. Rahlfs, Septuaginta (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung, 1935). English translation is from Di Lella and Skehan, Ben Sira, 277, with my changes in italics.
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may return to God, experiencing divine mercy (17:25‒26, 29). These state‐ ments of hope for mercy surround two verses in which Ben Sira associates silence (lack of praise) with death but praise with life: ὑψίστῳ τίς αἰνέσει ἐν ᾅδου ἀντὶ ζώντων καὶ διδόντων ἀνθομολόγησιν; ἀπὸ νεκροῦ ὡς μηδὲ ὄντος ἀπόλλυται ἐξομολόγησις· ζῶν καὶ ὑγιὴς αἰνέσει τὸν κύριον. (Sir 17:27‒28) Who will praise the Most High in Hades in place of the living who offer praise? From the dead, as from one who does not exist, thanksgiving has ceased; those who are alive and healthy praise the Lord.
Drawing upon Isa 38:16‒20, these two verses contrast the dead with those who are both alive and healthy (ζῶν καὶ ὑγιής).83 This contrast suggests that Ben Sira has in mind not simply living people but also whole people. When Ben Sira inserts this equation (of death with silenced praise but life/wholeness with praise) into a discussion of iniquity and mercy, he im‐ plies a metaphor: iniquity (ἀδικία) is a lifeless condition marked by absence of praise, but repentance and mercy lead to wholeness (renewed life), re‐ sulting in praise. This praise, in turn, reclaims God’s original intent for hu‐ manity.84 Divinely‐empowered transformation from a condition of iniquity to one of mercy (metaphorically, a movement from death to life) is matched by transformed response: silence to praise. In the fourth Sibylline Oracle, praise similarly accompanies transforma‐ tion, specifically from impiety to repentance to piety. The Sibyl exhorts the impious to return (μετατίθημι) to piety by means of ethical change, a proc‐ ess in which praise plays a role (lines 164‒170).85 She urges, “By means of a 83 In LXX Isa 38:16‒20, Hezekiah, describing his return to health, links praise with life/healing: “You have revived my breath. Comforted, I live. . . . You have thrown all my sins behind me. For those in Hades will not praise (αἰνέω) you, nor will the dead bless (εὐλογέω) you, nor will those in Hades hope for your mercy. But the living will bless you (εὐλογέω), as I do. For from this day, I will produce children who will pro‐ claim your righteousness, O God of my salvation. And all the days of my life, I will not cease blessing you with a stringed instrument in front of the house of God,” my translation. On the correspondences of life with praise and of death with silenced praise in the Jewish scriptures, see G. von Rad, Old Testament Theology (2 vols.; trans. D. M. G. Stalker; New York: Harper, 1962), 1:169‒70. 84 GII makes the metaphorical use of death and life imagery explicit, including this line: “For he it is who leads out of darkness into the light of life,” Di Lella and Ske‐ han, Ben Sira, 280, 284. The one who moves from death to life (darkness to life, iniq‐ uity to mercy) responds with praise. This understanding resonates with all three narratives studied below, which feature praise in response to transformation from darkness to light and death to life: Lk 1:79; Tob 5:10; 11:8, 13; Jos. Asen. 8:9; 15:11‒12. Cf. Tob 14:10, but this transformation does not occur in an immediate context of praise. The critical edition of Sirach is J. Ziegler, Sapientia Iesu Filii Sirach (Vetus Tes‐ tamentum Graecum 12.2; Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht: Göttingen 1965). 85 This change is specified as cleansing in “perennial rivers,” petition (αἰτέω), and con‐ fession of sin.
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blessing / expiate bitter impiety; God will give repentance / and will not destroy” (εὐλογίαις ἀσέβειαν / πικρὰν ἱλάσκεσθε θεὸς δώσει μετάνοιαν / οὐδ’ ὀλέσει) (lines 167‒169).86 Praise marks and appears to facilitate the res‐ toration of the soul to God, coinciding with repentance and halting divine wrath.87 These early Jewish texts, along with some of the passages in Isaiah in‐ vestigated above, assert that to live is to sing God’s praises.88 The character Esther sums up this view when she says that the enemies of the Jews per‐ secute them in order “to obliterate the mouth[s] of those who offer praise” (ἐμφράξαι στόμα αἰνούντων) (Add Esth 4:17.15). So she petitions God: “Be gracious to your chosen people, and turn our mourning to feasting so that living, we might hymn (ὑμνέω) your name, O Lord. Do not destroy [the] mouth[s] of those who offer praise (αἰνέω) to you.”89 While Esther associ‐ ates praise with literal life and silenced praise with literal death, Isaiah and Sirach, as we have seen, link praise with figurative life (health, fertility, pi‐ ety, return to God, light), while connecting silenced praise with figurative death (disability, barrenness, impiety, estrangement from God, darkness). As will be argued below, this metaphorical use of dualistic life and death imagery informs the narrative depictions of praise in Tobit, Joseph and Ase‐ neth, and Luke‐Acts. When God intervenes to restore life (by bringing heal‐ ing, conversion, and/or salvation), the proper response is praise.
3. In Greek Texts While more prevalent in early Jewish texts, the association of praise with transformation appears in the Greek tradition as well. For example, in Pali‐ node for Smyrna, the orator Aristides responds to the city’s restoration (fol‐ lowing its destruction) by writing that he cannot remain silent (σιωπάω) now that his petitions have been answered.90 The content of the composi‐ tion itself contrasts Aristides’ former lament over the destruction of Smyrna 86 My translation. 87 Similarly, in Baruch, praise of God has the effect that God will remember Israel in exile, Bar 2:32; 3:6. 88 As G. von Rad observes about the Jewish scriptures, “Praise is [humankind’s] most characteristic mode of existence: praising and not praising stand over against one another like life and death: praise becomes the most elementary ‘token of being alive’ that exists,” Theology, 1:169‒70. 89 ἱλάσθητι τῷ κλήρῳ σου καὶ στρέψον τὸ πένθος ἡμῶν εἰς εὐωχίαν ἵνα ζῶντες ὑμνῶμέν σου τὸ ὄνομα κύριε καὶ μὴ ἀφανίσῃς στόμα αἰνούντων σοι, Add Esth 4.17.8, my trans‐ lation. 90 He writes that it is “not now [the time] to remain silent about the answer to my prayers after I had sung about things which I did not wish” (μὴ τότε ἀβούλητα ᾄδοντα τἀκ τῶν εὐχῶν νυνὶ σιωπῆσαι), Aristides, Or. 264.7. Translations of Aristides are from The Complete Works (trans. Charles Allison Behr; Leiden: Brill, 1981).
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with the praise (εὐφημία) he now offers upon its restoration.91 From his per‐ spective, praise is the proper response to the experience of salvation; si‐ lence would be wrong. Like Isaiah, he depicts this salvation in terms of transformation, describing the city’s metaphorical death and rebirth as its having been raised up (ἀνεγείρω), restored (ἀνίστημι), transformed (μεταβάλλω), rejuvenated (ἀναφύω), and resurrected (ἀναβιώσκομαι).92 The city’s resurrection is marked not simply by the orator’s praise; he writes that the city’s own mourning has turned to praise, much as does Zion’s in Isaiah.93 The motif of praise following divine intervention to transform also occurs in Hellenistic texts related to mystery religions, such as Apuleius’ Metamorphoses.94 In summary, the theme of praise following divine intervention occurs frequently in the Hebrew Bible and other early Jewish texts, with the Song of the Sea offering a key model for such praise. These texts envision the experience of salvation as movements from oppression to release, darkness to light, barrenness to fecundity, muteness to speech, disability to whole‐ ness, illness to health, iniquity to righteousness, or death to life. Rhetori‐ cally, these subjective experiences of divinely‐empowered reversal have a tendency to overlap, with some serving as metaphors for others. Such transformations also result in parallel movements from silence (lack of praise) to praise (and from mourning to joy). By reversing circumstances, divine intervention returns people to spiritual health, renewing their dead‐ ened ability to praise God joyfully. Stoic writers, as we have seen, advocate general praise in celebration of the unchangeable divine will. Stoic praise does not respond to salvation, restoration, transformation, or any other kind of change because reality is already as it should be. Jewish texts, by contrast, emphasize the importance of recognizing divine intervention. People must understand their transfor‐ mative experiences as the particular saving acts of God. Thus, this third theme resonates with the first theme explored above (praise grows out of wisdom), as well as the second (people who are wise recognize God’s providential intervention in the world and so offer praise). Transformation 91 He writes, “But what then I lauded in grief, now I shall laud in joy, offering praise free from lamentation,” (ἐγὼ δὲ ἃ τηνικαῦτα ἐκόσμουν ὀδυρόμενος, ταῦτα νῦν ἐπὶ τοῦ γεγηθέναι κοσμήσω, καθαρὰν ὀδυρμοῦ τὴν εὐφημίαν παρεχόμενος), Or. 264.10‒12. Later, praise signifies a transformation on the part of the people from sor‐ row to joy that accompanies the restoration of the city: “Has not every sorrow and every individual’s memory of private and public misfortune been erased by these acts, has there not come instead high spirits and joyful praise and the desire to live with good hope for the future, now, if ever, and a sense of gratitude properly owing to the gods,” along with human actors in city’s renewal. 92 Ibid., 264.25, 268.16, 23‒27. 93 Ibid., 268.22, 269.6‒8. A similar depiction of a city’s lament turned to praise occurs in 3 Macc 6:32. 94 Book 11.
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only results in praise when the one who experiences it correctly under‐ stands providence and recognizes divine beneficence.95 Praise marks not only the experience of reversal but recognition of its divine source.
E. Praise and Narration of Divine Deeds Finally, many ancient Jewish and Greek texts associate praise with narra‐ tive, describing praise with such words as διήγησις or ἀπαγγέλλω, which normally denote narration or retelling.96 These writers assume or assert that a deity may be properly praised through a clear and accurate retelling of divine actions. Whether such praise is voiced in the second or third per‐ son, it reaches the ears of two audiences: one divine, the other human. For the human audience, praise as narration serves as a joyous recreation of divine saving actions in the distant or recent past. At the same time, such laudation contributes to divine glory.97 To illuminate the close connection— even interchangeability—between verbs of praise and narration, we begin with data from the Psalms, presented in Table 3 below.
95 Recognition sometimes comes via revelation, and praise frequently responds to di‐ vine revelation, e.g. 1 En. 36.3; Corp. herm. 1:30‒31, to cite just two examples. In Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐Acts, characters praise God for revelation. 96 We have already touched on this theme of praise as narration in some of the argu‐ ments above. For example, declarative praise is marked, in Westermann’s typology, as a retelling of divine acts. Ledogar makes a similar point about praise and narra‐ tion, citing LXX Pss 29:10; 78:13; 95:2; 105:1; 144:4; Isa 42:12, Acknowledgment, 66. 97 Based on evidence from the Hodayot, Ledogar observes little change in this view of praise across the centuries (with the exception of a certain internalizing of praise in Philo), concluding that “at the dawn of the Christian era the basic words in the He‐ brew vocabulary of praise still retained the significance of a public act, an act of ac‐ knowledgment before a community of God’s qualities and saving deeds,” ibid., 110. He adds evidence from 5 Apoc. Syr. Pss. 2, which declares that wisdom has been given to humanity to announce the Lord’s salvation and recount God’s deeds through praise.
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Table 3 Praise and Narration in the Psalms Psalm Reference MT 9:13‒14 LXX 9:14‒15
Praise
Narration
Translation of MT (JPS) Have mercy on me, O LORD . . . You who lift me from the gates of death, so that in the gates of Fair Zion I might tell all Your praise, I might exult in Your deliverance.
ְתּ ִה ָלּה
ָס ַפר
αἴνεσις
ἐξαγγέλλω
MT 26:6‒7 LXX 25:6‒7
תּוֹדה ָ
ָס ַפר
αἴνεσις
διηγέομαι
MT 71:14‒15 LXX 70:14‒15
ְתּ ִה ָלּה
ָס ַפר
αἴνεσις
ἐξαγγέλλω
ΜΤ 78:4 LXX 77:4
ְתּ ִה ָלּה
ָס ַפר
αἴνεσις
ἀπαγγέλλω
telling the coming generation the praises of the LORD and His might,98 and the wonders He performed.
MT 106:22 LXX 107:22
תּוֹדה ָ
ָס ַפר
αἴνεσις
ἐξαγγέλλω
Let them offer thanksgiving sacrifices, and tell His deeds in joyful song.
I wash my hands in innocence, and walk around Your altar, O LORD, raising my voice in thanksgiving, and telling all Your wonders. As for me, I will hope always, and add to the many praises of You. My mouth tells of Your beneficence, of Your deliverance all day long, though I know not how to tell it.
ִרנָּ ה ἀγαλλίασις
The LXX translation of a phrase in MT Ps 73:28 further illustrates this inter‐ changeability:
כוֹתיָך ֶ ל־מ ְל ֲא ַ ְל ַס ֵפּר ָכּ τοῦ ἐξαγγεῖλαι πάσας τὰς αἰνέσεις σου
While the MT has the Psalmist narrating God’s works, the Greek translator renders this same action as narrating God’s praises. The same connection between narration and praise appears in the Dead Sea Scrolls.99 This close correspondence between praise and narration continues in later Jewish texts. In Sir 17:9‒10, a passage discussed above, after God 98 The NRSV translators seem to struggle with the concept that praises are narrated, translating תהלה as “deeds”: “we will tell to the coming generation the glorious deeds of the LORD.” 99 E.g., 1QHa IX[I], 29‒31; XI[II], 23; XVII[IX], 14‒15.
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demonstrates (δείκνυμι) his mighty works, people praise (αἰνέω) God’s holy name for the express purpose of recounting (διηγέομαι) God’s mighty works.100 Similarly, in Pseudo‐Philo, Deborah’s hymn consists of a lengthy recounting of the mighty deeds of God through history, which concludes: “So we will not cease singing praise, nor will our mouth be silent in telling his wonders, because he has remembered both his recent and ancient promises and shown his saving power to us.”101 Before leaving the theme of praise as narration, it should be noted that this concept also inheres in the Greek tradition, which similarly empha‐ sizes storytelling as a means of praising deity. Greek hymns often display a three‐part structure: a formal introduction, a main body, and a concluding request.102 Classicists agree that the middle part of the hymn consists of praise. In many cases, the praise section comprises primarily διήγησις: nar‐ ration of the god’s great and beneficial deeds.103 Ancient rhetorical instruction about how to praise the divine also em‐ phasizes narration. Quintilian writes that epideictic rhetoric in praise of a god ought to employ the species probationis, providing a historical narrative as proof (dicat in argumentum) of the deity’s powers or deeds (acta).104 When describing such praise (laus), Quintilian uses not only the verb laudo but also such verbs as affero, ostendo, and commemoro, all of which bear the meaning of reporting, making known, telling, or declaring, with the latter
100 The text is provided on p. 63 , n.82 above. 101 L.A.B. 32.12. The hymn also connects praise of God with trust in providence: “And now from this day on let it be known that, whatever God has said to me, he will do; these things he will do, even if man delays in praising God,” L.A.B. 32.13. 102 Furley and Bremer, Hymns, 51. 103 Norden refers to the middle section as εὐλογία, while Furley and Bremer find the label εὐλογία too narrow and use instead “praise,” Hymns, 56‒57. They write that “Greek hymns [tend] to emphasize the dynamic ability of gods without dwelling on the essential character of the god” out of which grows the Hellenistic form known to modern scholars as an aretalogy. Furley and Bremer also identify other types of praise in the middle section of hymns, noting that other scholars offer longer lists. We might say that the middle section of a hymn consists both of declarative praise (epithets, etc.) and descriptive praise (διήγησις, ὑπόμνησις, etc.). Race distinguishes between a cultic and rhapsodic hymn. While the former prepares for and leads up to a petition, the latter simply offers a διήγησις of the god’s character and acts, for the purpose of celebrating the deity (and displaying the skill of the writer and rhap‐ sode). The rhapsodic hymn then would consist entirely of narration as praise, corre‐ sponding to declarative praise in Westermann’s terminology, W. H. Race, “How Greek Poems Begin,” Yale Classical Studies 29 (1992): 13‒39, 28; M. E. Gordley, The Co‐ lossian Hymn in Context: An Exegesis in Light of Jewish and Greco‐Roman Hymnic and Epistolary Conventions (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007), 128‒9. 104 Quintilian, Inst. 3.7.1‒9. This instruction is the first extant example of a method for praising the gods, but it likely derives from tradition, H. W. Taylor, “Book 3 of Quin‐ tilianʹs Institutio Oratoria” (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 1970), 326‒8.
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also having the sense of preserving a memory.105 Similarly, the second‐ century B.C.E. rhetor Alexander Numenius focuses on the narrative ele‐ ment involved in praising (ἐπαινέω) gods, encouraging the rhetor to nar‐ rate a god’s ἀρετή, δύναμις, and ἔργον.106 Perhaps in keeping with such views, Epictetus writes about presenting (παρίστημι) the works of provi‐ dence in hymns of praise.107 By contrast, Aristotle, in Eth. nic. 1.12.1‒8, seems to reject narrative as proper praise of divinity, but in so doing, he reveals that his own opinion is contrary to widespread practice.108 Plato, in conflict with the Sophists of his day, argues in the Symposium that narration of the “simple truth” is the best way to praise the gods. In the dialogue, Socrates censures the genre of encomium, particularly if used in praise of the gods.109 Tongue in cheek, he asserts that he should not have agreed to offer an encomium that evening because
105 Lewis and Short, s.v. Translations of the passage in Quintilian typically render the first two words as “praise” and “extol.” 106 But the orator should not recount a god’s πρᾶξις, for the latter is reserved for an ἐγκώμιον of a human being, L. v. Spengel, Rhetores Graeci (Lipsiae: Teubner, 1854), 4, lines 1‒7, 14‒15; qtd. and trans. in Gordley, Colossian Hymn, 117‒8. 107 Diatr. 1.16.15‒18, qtd. above on p. 50. 108 Cf. Rhet. 1.9. Aristotle groups into two categories words that typically describe praise of the gods: (1) ἔπαινος and ἐγκώμιον and (2) τιμάω, μακαρίζω, and εὐδαιμονίζω. Ar‐ istotle rejects the first category as inappropriate when directed to the gods because it involves praising ἀρετή, ἔργον, and πρᾶξις, forcing the speaker to refer a god to something else (divine virtue, works, or deeds). The first category of praise (ἔπαινος/ἐγκώμιον) belongs to that which is relative and therefore—by nature—not to the Good. But the second group of words are appropriate for speaking well about God and the Good (τὸν θεὸν καὶ τὰγαθόν), being nonreferential in nature (γὰρ καὶ τᾶλλα ἀναφέρεσθαι). In contrast with Alexander Numenius, Aristotle identifies ἔπαινος with πρᾶξις and ἐγκώμιον with ἔργον, 1.9.33. In 1.9.34, he parenthetically identifies praise and encomium as subcategories of εὐδαιμονισμός. This latter re‐ mark, however, has been identified as an interpolation, Aristotle, On Rhetoric: A The‐ ory of Civic Discourse (trans. George A. Kennedy; New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 85, n.177. 109 In this section, Plato offers a three‐pronged critique of encomia, A. W. Nightingale, “The Folly of Praise: Platoʹs Critique of Encomiastic Discourse in the Lysis and Sym‐ posium,” CQ 43 (1993): 112‒30, 112. Nightingale writes, “First, he illustrates and comments on the vices that inhere in the encomiastic genre. Second, he juxtaposes Socrates’ ironic ‘praises’ of his interlocutors with traditional encomiastic discourse, thus inviting the reader to explore the relation between Socratic irony and the rheto‐ ric of eulogy (and censure). And third, the Symposium exhibits two untraditional ‘en‐ comia’—Socrates’ eulogy for Eros and Alcibiades’ for Socrates—that illustrate and interrogate the false ontology underlying the rhetoric of praise.” Before offering the first untraditional encomia (to the god Eros), Socrates criticizes others’ praises of Eros for their agonistic character, polished style that calls attention to the speaker’s artistry, and lack of adherence to truth, ibid., 116‒8.
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ἐγὼ μὲν γὰρ ὑπ’ ἀβελτερίας ᾤμην δεῖν τἀληθῆ λέγειν περὶ ἑκάστου τοῦ ἐγκωμιαζομένου, καὶ τοῦτο μὲν ὑπάρχειν, ἐξ αὐτῶν δὲ τούτων τὰ κάλλιστα ἐκλεγομένους ὡς εὐπρεπέστατα τιθέναι110 I was naïve enough to suppose that one should speak the truth about whatever it was that was being praised, and that from this raw material one should select the most telling points, and arrange them as pleasingly as possible.
Socrates’ subsequent speech describes the truth about Eros: he is not truly a god but somewhere between human and divine.111 For Plato, real honor (even for deity) inheres in the plain truth. This perspective also appears in the Timaeus. As Critias begins his re‐ telling of Solon’s story of the defeat of Atlantis by Athens, he states that he offers the story (which has already been described by Socrates with the verb διηγέομαι) as “a tribute of praise, chanted as it were duly and truly, in honor of the goddess on this her day of Festival” (καὶ τὴν θεὸν ἅμα ἐν τῇ πανηγύρει δικαίως τε καὶ ἀληθῶς οἷόνπερ ὑμνοῦντας ἐγκωμιάζειν).112 In 26e, Socrates, after hearing the origin of the story, declares that its telling will be “admirably suited to the festival of the goddess” not only because it in‐ volves Athena but also because “it is no invented fable (μῦθος) but genuine history (ἀληθινὸς λόγος).” History offered as praise continues in the Critias, where Critias says that he must not rely solely on Zeus and the Muses for inspiration in telling the story but on Memory (Μνημοσύνη) in order to remember the details of the story and report it accurately.113 Later Greco‐Roman texts similarly link narration and praise of deity. In the section in Epictetus on praise of god (explored above), the philosopher describes praise as the rehearsal (ἐπεξέρχομαι) of divine benefits.114 Like‐ wise, in the Aeneid, when King Evander leads the men of Troy in a feast in honor of Hercules, the worshippers praise Hercules, celebrating in hymns his glorious acts (qui carmine laudes et facta ferunt).115 This praise narrates the exploits of Hercules and near the end, the narrator summarizes, “so they did celebrate his deeds in their hymns” (talia carminibus celebrant). The pin‐
110 Plato, Symp. 198d, translation from Griffith. He goes on to say that he will tell the truth in his own way using whatever language and forms of speech that come natu‐ rally. 111 The speech itself tears down neat dichotomies such as divine and human. As Night‐ ingale points out, what Socrates offers, in the end, is not praise of the divine but something more complex (and messier): an insistence on the “existence of absolute goodness and on the impossibility of the perfect instantiation of this goodness in the human world. This is an ontology which challenges the binary logic of praise and blame,” Nightingale, “Folly of Praise,” 130. 112 Plato, Tim. 21a. In 23d, the Egyptian priest who first relates the story to Solon also says that he tells it for the sake of the goddess. 113 Plato, Crit. 108c‒d. 114 Epictetus, Diatr. 1.16.15. 115 Virgil, Aen. 8.285‒288.
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nacle of this praise is the retelling of Hercules’ defeat of the cave monster, the story most central to the local celebration.116 Philo’s works demonstrate a convergence of Greek and Jewish streams of tradition related to praise and narration. Recalling imagery from Plato, Philo in De plantatione retells an ancient fiction, possibly from Hesiod’s Theogony about the birth of the muses from Memory (Μνημοσύνη). In this story, the Creator asks a subordinate if anything is lacking in creation, re‐ ceiving the response that all is complete, but he seeks the word that will praise everything created (τὸν ἐπαινέτην αὐτῶν λόγον). Or rather, he seeks not a word to praise but to announce (ἐξαγγέλλω), τὰς γὰρ διηγήσεις τῶν τοῦ θεοῦ ἔργων αὐταρκέστατον ἐκείνων ἔπαινον εἶναι, προσθήκης οὐδεμιᾶς ἔξωθεν εἰς κόσμον δεομένων, ἀλλὰ τὸ ἀψευδὲς τῆς ἀληθείας τελειότατον ἐχόντων ἐγκώμιον.117 for the mere recounting of the works of God was in itself their all‐sufficient praise, for they needed the embellishment of no extraneous additions, but pos‐ sessed in the reality that could not lie their most perfect encomium.
Like Plato, Philo focuses on the accurate and plain retelling of divine deeds as praise. The author of the universe concurs, and before long, the family of the Muses and hymnody are born from Μνημοσύνη. Philo approves of this myth because “the work most appropriate to God is conferring boons (εὐεργετέω), that most fitting to creation is giving thanks” (εὐχαριστέω).118 Philo goes on to exhort his readers to practice hymnody that recounts the works of God.119 As the above analysis has shown, praise of God is closely related to narrative for it acknowledges, retells, and memorializes historical events as the actions of God. Through narration, praise of God interprets history, often setting the distant past in parallel with the recent events. Plato, ech‐ oed by Philo, makes the case that true history, because it recounts accu‐ rately what has happened, is the best form of praise offered to God.
F. Conclusion The preceding examination of ancient discourse about praise of God high‐ lights four recurring, interrelated themes. With regard to praise in early Judaism, they may be combined into the following brief description. 116 117 118 119
Ibid., 803‒806. Philo, Plant. 128‒129. Ibid., 130. “Let us always and everywhere make this [showing honor to God] our study, using voice and skilful pen. Let us never tire of composing eulogies in prose and poetry, to the end that . . . high honour may be given both to the world and to the Creator of the world,” ibid., 131.
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Righteous and wise people of God, who experience and recognize divine be‐ neficence, properly respond with joyous praise. By acknowledging and narrat‐ ing God’s saving deeds, people who praise fulfill humanity’s created purpose. However, arrogance, improper recognition of providence, rejection of God, or a lack of wholeness (various kinds of oppression) may silence praise, thus pre‐ venting the fulfillment of this purpose. Divine salvation, by restoring wholeness and/or reorienting a human being or a community toward God, renews si‐ lenced praise. Thus, individuals who experience restoration—transformation from blindness to sight, barrenness to fecundity, iniquity to mercy, or meta‐ phorical death to life—respond with a renewal of praise. In the same way, when Israel’s anticipated national salvation occurs, an outburst of vigorous, joyous praise will be heard to the ends of the earth.
Many, but not all, of these aspects of praise appear also in Greco‐Roman discourse on praise. The description of praise gained from analysis of ancient discourse about praise resonates with how praise appears in the three narratives that comprise the focus of the remainder of this study. For example, characters in Tobit associate praise with piety, while in Joseph and Aseneth, Aseneth’s impious praise, offered to foreign gods, makes her impure and unaccept‐ able for the pious Joseph. In the Gospel of Luke, the praise of Jewish char‐ acters (especially in the infancy narrative) marks them as upright, while later, the Gentiles’ praise confirms that they are as acceptable to God as are Jews. Conversely, the righteousness of various characters is called into question by their silence or improper praise. In the three narratives, as we will see, praise grows out of characters’ views of providence. In Luke‐Acts and Tobit, “blindness” serves as a meta‐ phor for characters’ inability to recognize the work of God in the story, while praise reveals that characters have come to see divine providence in specific events. Arrogance inhibits praise in Luke‐Acts and Joseph and Ase‐ neth. Tobit resists the deterministic perspective of Stoicism, asserting that despite suffering, God’s saving intervention in the past portends divine special beneficence in the future. Praise resulting from transformation will prove likewise to be central in the study to follow. In all three stories, when God intervenes to change the circumstances of characters, this change is marked by responses of praise. We shall see that the transformations of Tobit and Aseneth, while different in kind, are similarly envisioned as movements from darkness to light, castigation to mercy, oppression to release, and death to life. For both characters, these transformations parallel their movements from silence (inability to praise God) to joyous praise. Similarly, in Luke‐Acts, various characters who experience diverse transformations (e.g., movements from barrenness to fecundity, blindness to sight, or impurity to cleanness) re‐ spond with praise. By linking diverse experiences of divine salvation, these common praise responses create narrative unity. In Luke‐Acts, as well as in Tobit and Joseph and Aseneth, the pattern of transformation‐followed‐by‐
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praise is narrated using language drawn from early‐Jewish texts that an‐ ticipate eschatological praise in response to national restoration. Finally, the theme of praise‐through‐narration may help to explain the importance of narrated praise in these texts. In the Greco‐Roman tradition, the narrative impulse inherent in praise develops into aretalogy. But the same impulse in early Judaism (and emerging Christianity) produces at least three narratives in which narrated praise serves an important purpose within these stories. When characters in Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐Acts respond to narrative events with praise—particularly when the content of the praise is not provided—their voices identify, interpret, and laud the surrounding narrative events as the work of God. If in a hymn, a short, accurate διήγησις of divine acts functions as praise, so too in a longer διήγησις, frequent praise notices give the story the quality of declarative praise. In other words, numerous praise notices infuse a narrative with acknowledgement of divine saving acts so that the narrative itself takes on an epideictic quality, declaring praise of God.
Chapter 3
Praise and Healing in Tobit A. Introduction It has been argued in the previous chapters that praise of the divine repre‐ sents a distinctive phenomenon in the ancient world, one worthy of inde‐ pendent study. It marks the righteous person, grows out of recognition of divine providence, responds to the transformative experience of God’s sav‐ ing intervention, and serves to interpret and retell events as the work of God. With this foundation in mind, we turn to an investigation of praise of God as a narrative motif, beginning with the book of Tobit. A short, single‐volume work composed most likely in Aramaic be‐ tween 225‒175 B.C.E., Tobit tells the story of the intertwined lives of an old man, Tobit, and a young woman, Sarah. These characters live in the Meso‐ potamian Diaspora of the eighth to seventh centuries B.C.E., a setting that predates the book’s composition by at least 500 years.1
1
Most scholars of Tobit consider Aramaic to be the language of composition. The oldest comprehensive texts for Tobit are in Latin (Old Latin, Vulgate) and Greek. In regard to the latter, there are two recensions: a longer one found in Codex Sinaiticus (referred to as GII) and a shorter one in Codex Alexandrinus (GI). Some fragments from Tobit have been identified among the scrolls of Cave 4 at Qumran, in both Aramaic (three fragments) and Hebrew (one fragment). Various later witnesses are preserved in Arabic, Armenian, Coptic (Sahidic), Ethiopic, Syriac, medieval Aramaic, and medieval Hebrew. Qumran fragments have been dated paleographically to be‐ tween 100 B.C.E. to 25 C.E., but most scholars consider the work to have been writ‐ ten or redacted prior to the Seleucid persecution (175‒164 B.C.E.). The critical edition is R. Hanhart, Tobit (Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum 8.5; Göttingen: Van‐ denhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983), but this volume has been criticized. While GI occasion‐ ally matches the Qumran fragments, GII corresponds with them far more often. Thus, GII is typically preferred. For this reason, my analysis of praise focuses pri‐ marily on GII, with reference to the Aramaic and/or Hebrew fragments from Qum‐ ran, when available and germane. A cursory examination of GI shows that it lacks numerous occurrences of the praise motif in comparison with GII. A synopsis of witnesses is provided in L. T. Stuckenbruck, S. J. Gathercole, and S. Weeks, The Book of Tobit: Texts from the Principal Ancient and Medieval Traditions: With Synopsis, Concor‐ dances, and Annotated Texts in Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Syriac (Fontes et Sub‐ sidia ad Bibliam Pertinentes 3; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2004).
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The plot focuses tightly upon divine rescue Tobit and Sarah, a charac‐ teristic that identifies Tobit as an early Jewish novel.2 Within this plot, the motif of praise of God figures prominently, occurring sixteen times within the temporal framework of the narrative. While numerous commentators on Tobit have noted the presence of praise in the book and three studies have investigated prayer, little attention has been paid to the narrative function of praise of God.3 The motif of praise of God appears in both nar‐ rated praise and in characters’ discourse about praise. Narrated praise ap‐ pears more frequently, mainly by means of short direct speech and praise notices, but also via one long hymn written or voiced by Tobit at the end of the story. To investigate praise in the narrative, the following analysis will look first at the pattern of praise in Tobit, seeking to understand where the motif appears relative to the plot and how it functions in its surrounding context. It will then turn to how the praise motif affects the characterization of Tobit. This analysis will argue that the praise motif punctuates important moments in the plot of Tobit, in particular marking the parallel healings of Tobit and Sarah, as well as the climactic moment of revelation by the angel to Tobit. It also serves to link Tobit’s physical transformation (blindness to sight) with his spiritual transformation (despair to recognition of divine mercy on his behalf). Finally, the praise motif connects Tobit’s individual experience of healing in the story with the communal experience expected in the eschatological consolation of Jerusalem, so that his own transforma‐ tion in the present becomes a metaphor for the transformation expected for his people in the future. (See Table 4 for the sixteen occurrences of the praise motif in Tobit.)
2
3
L. M. Wills, The Jewish Novel in the Ancient World (Myth and Poetics; Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), 68‒92. Scholars traditionally identify at least two folk‐story sources in Tobit, combined and surrounded by a later editorial frame (1:1‒15; 13‒14), but if so, evidence from Qumran shows that elements of this frame were part of the book at an early date. Fitzmyer argues that when the frame was added to the core story, it placed the “adventures and misadventures of a family” in the wider context of the history of Israel and added a Jerusalemite perspective “that was not integral to the original story of Tobit,” J. A. Fitzmyer, “The Judaism of the Book of Tobit,” in The Book of Tobit: Text, Tradition, Theology: Papers of the First International Conference on the Deuterocanonical Books, Pápa, Hungary, 20‐21 May, 2004 (eds. Géza G. Xeravits and József Zsengellér; JSJSup 98; Leiden: Brill, 2005), 24‒40, 25. S. v. d. Eynde, “Prayer as Part of Characterisation and Plot: An Analysis of Its Narra‐ tive Function in Tobit 3,” in Analyse Narrative et Bible: Deuxième Colloque Internationale Dʹanalyse Narrative des Textes de la Bible, Louvain‐la‐Neuve, Avril 2004 (eds. André Wé‐ nin and Camille Focant; BETL 191; Leuven: Peeters, 2005), 527‒36; Di Lella, “Prayers,” passim; P. J. Griffin, “The Theology and Function of Prayer in the Book of Tobit” (Ph.D. diss., Catholic University of America, 1984).
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Table 4 The Praise Motif in Tobit Character Sarah Tobiah Raguel and Edna
Reference
Vocabulary
3:11 8:5‒6 8:15‒17
Praise Related to Sarah’s Healing εὐλογητός Direct speech εὐλογητός, εὐλογέω Direct speech εὐλογητός, εὐλογέω Direct speech
Gabael Tobiah Tobit Tobiah Tobit
9:6 10:13 11:14 11:15 11:16‒17a
Communal
11:17c‒18
Raphael
12:6‒7, 17‒18, 20 12:22
Type of Praise
Praise Related to Tobit’s Healing εὐλογητός Direct speech χαίρω, εὐλογέω Praise notice εὐλογητός, εὐλογέω, Direct speech χαίρω, εὐλογέω Praise notice χαίρω, εὐλογέω, Praise notice; direct speech ἐξομολογέω, εὐλογητός γίνομαι χαρά; χαίρω Joy notice Praise Related to the Angelic Revelation
Tobit and Tobiah Tobit Tobit
4:19 13:1‒18
Tobit Tobit Tobiah
14:2 14:8‒9 14:15
εὐλογέω (4x), ἐξομολογέω (2x), ὑμνέω (2x) εὐλογέω, ὑμνέω, ἐξομολογέω
Exhortation to praise Praise notice
Praise Related to Tobit’s Characterization εὐλογέω Exhortation to praise εὐλογητός, ἐξομολογέω Direct speech (4x), ὑψόω (3x), εὐλογέω (2x), ἀγαλλιάω, εὐφραίνω εὐλογέω, ἐξομολογέω Praise notice εὐλογέω Exhortation to praise εὐλογέω, χαίρω Praise notice
B. The Pattern of Praise in Tobit The motif of praise of God tracks closely the plot of Tobit, associated first with each of the two healings and then with Tobit’s and Tobiah’s full recog‐ nition of God’s merciful acts. In the concluding section, Tobit connects his individual divinely‐empowered transformation with the eschatological transformation of the community, likewise marked by praise.
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1. The Plot of Tobit The narrative of Tobit may be viewed as having three major sections: the parallel plights of Tobit and Sarah (1:1‒3:17); the portrayal of God’s activity to heal them (4:1‒12:11), and a concluding hymn, farewell address, and summary statement (13:1‒14:15). Parallel stories centered on Tobit and Sarah converge in one climax, while an overarching irony introduces ques‐ tions of divine providence and theodicy, tensions that are not fully resolved until the climax of the plot toward the end of the second section. The opening section of Tobit sets in parallel the tragic plights of Tobit and Sarah, with a focus on the former (1:1‒3:17). In a first‐person summary, Tobit narrates his shifting fortunes before and during exile in Nineveh. He depicts himself as unusually righteous, particularly in his efforts to bury the bodies of Israelites slain and left exposed by Assyrians.4 Tobit’s humani‐ tarian activity elicits his neighbors’ taunts, eventually endangering his life and leading to the loss of his wealth. At 2:1, this narration slows down to focus on a Shavuot evening, when after burying another corpse under the cover of darkness, Tobit sleeps outside. During the night, bird droppings fall into his eyes, ultimately resulting in blindness. This tragedy throws the family into extreme poverty, triggering domestic conflict. When Tobit wrongly accuses his wife of stealing, she retorts, “And where are your alms? Where are your righteous deeds? Look, the things about you are well known!” At her indictment, Tobit plunges into despair (3:1), and out of this pain, he petitions God to end his life (3:2‒6). Tobit’s first‐person narration concludes with this petition, and the nar‐ rative shifts to a brief third‐person presentation of Sarah’s plight, which carefully links her story with Tobit’s.5 The narrator’s introduction to her story temporally connects her with Tobit: “on the same day, in Ecbatana.” Young Sarah is in the midst of her own tragedy caused by a demon who has killed her seven husbands on the eve of their weddings. Sarah’s situa‐ tion sparks a parallel scene of domestic conflict, in which she strikes her maid, earning a rebuke similar to that spoken by Tobit’s wife: “You are the one who kills your husbands! Look, you have already been given to seven husbands, but you have borne the name of not one of them!” (3:8). Like Tobit, she descends into hopelessness, and out of this despair, she too, peti‐ tions God to end her life (3:11‒15). As numerous commentators have ob‐ served, Sarah’s prayer closely echoes that of Tobit, further associating their 4 5
At first, he openly buries his countrymen, but as tensions increase between his peo‐ ple and the Assyrians, his humanitarian missions become dangerous, and Tobit must bury the bodies surreptitiously. On the parallel presentation of these two characters, and their prayers, see G. W. E. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah: A Historical and Liter‐ ary Introduction (2nd ed; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005), 30.
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stories. This focus, in the narrative’s first section, on the physical, social, and psychological suffering of two virtuous characters—along with the taunts of Hannah and the maidservant—raises pointed questions of theodicy and divine providence.6 As their prayers conclude, the narrator brings the stories of these two characters into temporal convergence: their petitions are “heard in the glo‐ rious presence of God,” and at precisely the same instant, the two charac‐ ters leave their places of prayer and return to the main part of their homes (3:16‒17). At this point, God enters the plot actively, responding to both petitions by sending the angel Raphael with parallel cures, in the text quoted above (Tob 3:17).7 Entrance of divine mercy marks the end of the first section and the beginning of the next, shifting the reader’s attention from the plights of the two characters to divine efforts to heal them. The plot weaves together the two healings promised in Tob 3:17, the details of which take up the rest of the narrative’s middle section (4:1‒12:22). Sarah experiences healing first (4:1‒8:21) followed by Tobit (9:1‒11:19), while the pro‐active character of Tobiah (motivated throughout by Raphael) serves as a bridge between the parallel plots. It is important to observe that the middle section of Tobit is governed by an overarching irony introduced at 3:17, the moment when God hears the simultaneous petitions and intervenes dramatically to heal both characters.8 From this point to the end of Tob 12, the reader realizes that every action in the plot grows out of divine saving activity, personified in Raphael. However, when the angel actually appears in the story, he is disguised as a human being: καὶ ἐξῆλθεν καὶ εὗρεν Ραφαηλ τὸν ἄγγελον ἑστηκότα ἀπέναντι αὐτοῦ καὶ οὐκ ἔγνω ὅτι ἄγγελος τοῦ θεοῦ ἐστιν (Tob 5:4) And [Tobiah] went out and found the angel Raphael standing before him But he did not know that he was an angel of God
Through the device of disguise, the narrative reveals to readers how God’s mercy will unfold but simultaneously withholds this knowledge from the characters until almost the very end of the story when Raphael finally re‐ veals himself to Tobit and Tobiah (12:12‒15). Thus, if the tension in the plot shifts at 3:17 from the question of whether God will act to how God will heal the two characters, then at 5:4, it 6
7 8
Scholars disagree over the extent to which suffering and theodicy are thematic in Tobit, but the presence of these issues in the narrative is not disputed. “The narrator makes it painfully evident that a person, like Sarah, can be free of sin and yet suffer, and that a righteous person, like Tobit, can unintentionally bring undeserved suffer‐ ing upon himself through a charitable act,” C. A. Moore, Tobit: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 40a; New York: Doubleday, 1996), 32. God has already appeared in Tobit’s summary statement of his life, as the rescuer of Jerusalem (1:18) and the providential provider of Tobit’s personal successes (1:12‒13). But at 3:16‒17, God enters the story as an active character. I. Nowell, “Irony in the Book of Tobit,” TBT 33 (1995): 79‒83.
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shifts again to how Tobit and Tobiah will come to recognize divine mercy on their behalf. Without the ironic tension, the parallel plots would climax in the two healings, but with this ironic tension, the healings of Sarah and Tobit become subplots of a larger narrative arc that climaxes at Raphael’s revelation (12:12‒15), as depicted in Figure 1 below. Figure 1: The Plot(s) of Tobit Raphael’s
revelation (12:12‐15) God Heals Tobit (11:10‐15) God Heals Sarah (8:2‐3) Hymn, Summary, Raphael Enters in Disguise (5:4) Farewell, Conclusion (13:1‐14:15) Parallel Plights (1:1‐3:15) God Sends Raphael (3:16‐17) The dotted lines on this diagram indicate the climactic points in the parallel plots as if there were no overarching irony in the narrative; the solid lines depict the plot as it is. Given the irony, the two healings constitute impor‐ tant moments in the rising action of the plot but not its climax, which oc‐ curs when Raphael reveals the full extent of divine intervention. The ex‐ perience of healing is important to the story, but the recognition of God’s providential care is most important.9 Following this recognition, in the dénouement (13:1‒14:15), Tobit speaks a hymn of praise and goes on to live a long and happy life.10 Right before he dies, he offers a farewell speech urging Tobiah to leave Assyria, in an‐ ticipation of the destruction of Nineveh. The narrative concludes with a summary statement of the long life and eventual death of Tobiah. Within the plot described above, praise of God appears in four primary contexts: the healing of Sarah, the healing of Tobit, the revelation by the angel, and Tobit’s hymn. It marks important moments in the rising action, reaching an apex in the climax and in the resolution of ironic tension to‐ 9 Moore, Tobit, 265. 10 The identification of Tobit’s hymn as part of the dénouement depends upon whether GI preserves the better reading (Τωβιτ ἔγραψεν προσευχὴν εἰς ἀγαλλίασιν καὶ εἶπεν), which seems to be the case, given 4Q200 (4QTobe) 7, 4 [13:1]: וכתוב תהלה בתשבוחת. A written hymn indicates a “studied composition of learned psalmography” com‐ pleted some time after the angel’s ascent, Griffin, “Prayer,” 235. As such, it comprises part of the dénouement. A hymn spoken immediately, in response to the angel’s ascent (as in GII), might rather be considered part of the falling action of the plot.
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ward the end. In the dénouement, Tobit’s hymn of praise points forward to an even fuller resolution, the restoration of Jerusalem, which will occur outside narrative time.
2. Praise and Sarah’s Healing In the context of Sarah’s healing, the praise motif occurs three times. First, Sarah’s petition, which initiates her healing, opens with a standard, but thorough and specific, expression of praise:11 εὐλογητὸς εἶ θεὲ ἐλεήμων καὶ εὐλογητὸν τὸ ὄνομά σου εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας καὶ εὐλογησάτωσάν σε πάντα τὰ ἔργα σου εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα (Tob 3:11) Blessed are you, O merciful God And blessed is your name forever And let all your works bless you forever
In addition, Tobiah and Sarah seek divine mercy and salvation (ἔλεος καὶ σωτηρία) on their wedding night (8:4).12 Their petition opens with similar praise expressed in a similar structure:13 εὐλογητὸς εἶ ὁ θεὸς τῶν πατέρων ἡμῶν καὶ εὐλογητὸν τὸ ὄνομά σου εἰς πάντας τοὺς αἰῶνας τῆς γενεᾶς εὐλογησάτωσάν σε οἱ οὐρανοὶ καὶ πᾶσα ἡ κτίσις σου εἰς πάντας τοὺς αἰῶνας (Tob 8:5) Blessed are you, God of our fathers And blessed is your name forever by [our] people14 Let the heavens and all your creation bless you forever
This berakah opens a petition for healing that has already been accom‐ plished (8:2‒3), although the characters do not know it yet. For the charac‐ ters, it is descriptive praise, but for the reader, it also marks the moment of healing.15 Finally, when Sarah’s parents discover that Tobiah has survived 11 Moore calls this a “characteristic doxological opening” (as in Tob 8:5, 15; Jdt 3:17), Tobit, 150. Fitzmyer likewise describes these lines as a “traditional beginning of Jew‐ ish prayers” and provides a list of comparable doxologies that open petitions, Tobit (CEJL; Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003), 154. 12 The plural forms in 8:4‒5a and Sarah’s “Amen” in 8:8 indicate that the narrative de‐ picts Sarah praying along with Tobiah. On this point, see Griffin, “Prayer,” 172‒3. 13 Both of these expressions of praise involve two instances of the adjective εὐλογητός in reference to God then the divine name and then a third person imperative of εὐλογέω. As detailed below, the pattern reoccurs in 11:14, with a slight variation (a participle rather than imperative). 14 The definite singular τῆς γενεᾶς here is often translated as a plural (e.g., NRSV) or not translated (e.g., NAB), yet normally means a specific “generation” or “race/people.” In the LXX, it is usually the latter. See Jer 8:3; Dan 9:1; 1 Esd 5:5, but cf. Ps 11:8. 15 On descriptive and declarative praise, see p. 23 above.
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the wedding night, Raguel and Edna respond to their daughter’s transfor‐ mation with praise of God: εὐλογητὸς εἶ θεέ ἐν πάσῃ εὐλογίᾳ καθαρᾷ εὐλογείτωσάν σε εἰς πάντας τοὺς αἰῶνας καὶ εὐλογητὸς εἶ ὅτι εὔφρανάς με καὶ οὐκ ἐγένετο καθὼς ὑπενόουν ἀλλὰ κατὰ τὸ πολὺ ἔλεός σου ἐποίησας μεθ᾽ ἡμῶν καὶ εὐλογητὸς εἶ ὅτι ἠλέησας δύο μονογενεῖς (Tob 8:15‒17) Blessed are you, O God, in every pure blessing Let them bless you forever And blessed are you because you have brought me joy And it has not happened as I anticipated But you have done to us according to your great mercy Blessed are you because you showed mercy to two only children
The first two lines of this praise compare with the previous berakot of Sarah and Tobiah (Tob 3:11; 8:5), which blessed God generally (descriptive praise). But beginning in the third line, two ὅτι clauses mark Raguel and Edna’s speech as declarative praise responding to specific divine activity in the narrative. Their blessing of God acknowledges both Sarah’s healing and their own movement from sorrow and reproach to joy.16 From this point on, the praise motif is primarily declarative in effect.
3. Praise and Tobit’s Healing The narrative similarly associates praise of God with Tobit’s experience of healing. In three scenes, eight expressions of declarative praise foreshadow and then respond to Tobit’s transformation by God. First, upon seeing To‐ biah for the first time, the praise of Gabael, Tobit’s cousin, points toward the reunion of Tobit and Tobiah, which in turn leads to Tobit’s healing: “Blessed is God because I see in him [Tobiah] an image so like my cousin Tobit” (εὐλογητὸς ὁ θεὸς ὅτι εἶδον Τωβιν τὸν ἀνεψιόν μου ὅμοιον αὐτῷ) (9:6). The motif of “seeing Tobiah” links Gabael’s praise speech directly to Tobit’s eventual healing. Tobit has promised his wife that she will again see (ὁράω) Tobiah when he returns from the journey (5:21), and a short time after Gabael’s praise, Tobiah asks to return home because he fears that his parents have lost hope of ever seeing (ὁράω) him again (10:8). Upon his return, Hannah greets Tobiah saying, “Now that I have seen (ὁράω) you, my child, I am ready to die” (11:9), and when Tobit’s eyesight is restored, the narrative emphasizes Tobit’s seeing of Tobiah, repeating it three times (11:13‒14).17 16 On Sarah’s parents’ previous state of sorrow and reproach, see Tob 7:16 and 8:10. 17 In one case, Tobit says, “I see (ὁράω) you, my son, the light of my eyes!” This decla‐ ration connects his seeing of Tobiah back to the healing promised in 3:17, in which
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Second, as Tobiah and Sarah leave Sarah’s family, Tobiah offers declara‐ tive praise that also points forward to his father’s healing: καὶ ἀπῆλθεν Τωβιας ἀπὸ Ραγουηλ ὑγιαίνων καὶ χαίρων καὶ εὐλογῶν τῷ κυρίῳ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καὶ τῆς γῆς τῷ βασιλεῖ τῶν πάντων ὅτι εὐόδωκεν τὴν ὁδὸν αὐτοῦ (Tob 10:13) And Tobiah went out from Raguel healthy and rejoicing and praising the Lord of heaven and earth, the king of the universe, because [the Lord] prospered his way
In this praise of God’s providence, Tobiah echoes the language of his father Tobit, who without knowing fully the truth of his statement, declared ear‐ lier to Hannah that a good angel would go with Tobiah and would prosper his way and return him healthy (ἄγγελος γὰρ ἀγαθὸς συνελεύσεται αὐτῷ καὶ εὐοδωθήσεται ἡ ὁδὸς αὐτοῦ καὶ ὑποστρέψει ὑγιαίνων) (5:22). Likewise, Raguel petitioned God for Tobiah’s prosperous return journey to his father (ὁ θεὸς τοῦ οὐρανοῦ εὐοδώσαι ὑμῖν εἰρήνην) (7:13). The desire for well being (ὑγιαίνω) similarly anticipates his reunion with his father and Tobit’s con‐ sequent healing.18 Third, Tobit himself expresses praise four different times in re‐ sponse to his experience of healing and to the related events of his reunion with his son and the arrival of Sarah. This individual praise moves from the private to the public sphere and ultimately becomes communal, echoed in the praise of Tobiah and the joy of his nephews and “all the Jews.” Im‐ mediately upon the healing of his eyes, Tobit responds with direct speech of praise: εὐλογητὸς ὁ θεός καὶ εὐλογητὸν τὸ ὄνομα τὸ μέγα αὐτοῦ καὶ εὐλογημένοι πάντες οἱ ἄγγελοι οἱ ἅγιοι αὐτοῦ γένοιτο τὸ ὄνομα τὸ μέγα αὐτοῦ ἐφ᾽ ἡμᾶς καὶ εὐλογητοὶ πάντες οἱ ἄγγελοι εἰς πάντας τοὺς αἰῶνας ὅτι αὐτὸς ἐμαστίγωσέν με καὶ ἰδοὺ βλέπω Τωβιαν τὸν υἱόν μου (Tob 11:14‒15) Blessed is God And blessed is God’s great name
the narrator assures readers that Tobit’s eyes will again “see God’s light” (11:13). The implication is that Tobiah represents God’s light. Tobit’s hope all along has been his son (who is so much like him) but Tobit has been blinded to this future until God opens his eyes. The editorial process seems to recognize the parallel between Tobiah and light: in Tob 11:8 in GII, the angel promises Tobiah that his father will be healed and will “see the light” (ὄψεται τὸ φῶς), whereas in GI, the angel says “he will see you [Tobiah]” (ὄψεταί σε). 18 The angel has previously promised that fish gall can restore the health (ὑγιαίνω) of blind eyes (6:9). And frequently, ὑγιαίνω refers to Tobiahʹs return to his father (5:17, 21‒22; 7:12; 8:21; 10:6, 11; 12:3).
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And blessed are all God’s holy angels May God’s great name be upon us And blessed are all God’s holy angels forever Because God has castigated me But look! I see my son Tobiah
Tobit’s praise, like the praise of Sarah and Tobiah, begins with a three line berakah, which in its third and fifth lines, responds (ironically and un‐ knowingly) to angelic activity in the narrative.19 The ὅτι clause praises God for Tobit’s experience of reversal, acknowledging his transformation from castigation to healing.20 The narrative amplifies this praise with a vigorous echo by his son Tobiah, who enters his parents’ home “rejoicing and prais‐ ing God with his whole mouth” (χαίρων καὶ εὐλογῶν τὸν θεὸν ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ στόματι αὐτοῦ) (11:15).21 As Tobit moves from his home toward the gate of Nineveh, where Sarah waits with the angel, his praise continues, shifting spatially from the private to the public sphere.22 As Tobit proceeds through Nineveh, his praise builds intensity, narrated first by praise notices, then by indirect speech, and finally by direct speech of praise as Tobit greets Sarah. In 11:16‒17a, participial phrases set Tobit’s physical healing in parallel with his praise: as he heads toward the gate of Nineveh, Tobit is “walking and striding along in full strength and not being led by anyone” (πορευόμενον 19 On the inclusion of angels in praise, see B. Nitzan, “Benedictions and Instructions for the Eschatological Community,” RevQ 16 (1993): 77‒90, 80. 20 Tobit’s praise has an air of verisimilitude in its breathless, extemporaneous quality, evident in repetition of the line about angels and uneven juxtaposition of divine cas‐ tigation and healing. The shorter Greek version smoothes out these extemporaneous qualities, removing the repetitive line about angels and creating a balanced reversal clause (ὅτι ἐμαστίγωσας καὶ ἠλέησάς με). The word ἐλεέω in GI strengthens the link between this praise by Tobit and his later hymn of praise, which includes the same reversal motif (castigation to mercy) three times (13:2, 5, 10). The words ἔλεος and ἐλεέω appear in only three contexts in Tobit: Sarah’s healing (6:18; 7:12; 8:4, 7, 16‒17), Tobit’s healing (11:16), and God’s consolation of Jerusalem/restoration of Israel (13:5; 14:5). The combination of castigation and mercy appears elsewhere in contexts of na‐ tional restoration, Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 32, 350 n73. Nickelsburg points to Ps 89:32‒34; Wis 12:22; Pss. Sol. 7.8‒10; 10.1‒14; 18.4‒7. 21 Some commentators take the word τωβίας here to be a mistake for what should actually read τωβίθ, a point of view reflected in standard translations (e.g., NAB, NRSV). But, as Fitzmyer observes, GI clearly does not interpret the line this way (εἰσῆλθεν ὁ υἱὸς αὐτοῦ χαίρων). The pattern of praise would support either reading but offers no compelling reason to reject Tobiah as the one offering praise. In fact, if Tobiah offers praise, then the text presents a pattern of praise that alternates among four characters and between two kinds of praise: direct speech of praise (by Gabael, Tobit) and praise notices (by Tobiah, “all the Jews”/Tobit’s nephews). In addition, if Tobiah offers praise here then his character praises God three times: in relation to Sarah’s healing, to Tobit’s healing, and to the angelic revelation. Thus, his praise (like his character) bridges the two subplots. 22 Tobit’s praise in this scene represents the first instance of the praise motif in the pub‐ lic sphere. Prior to this point, the praise of characters has been expressed either in isolation or within the hearing of family members only.
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καὶ διαβαίνοντα αὐτὸν πάσῃ τῇ ἰσχύι αὐτοῦ καὶ ὑπὸ μηδενὸς χειραγωγούμενον) but also “rejoicing and blessing God” (χαίρων καὶ εὐλογῶν τὸν θεὸν). People in Nineveh witness the evidence of his healing while concurrently hearing his praise, which declares the work of God (Τωβιθ ἐξωμολογεῖτο ἐναντίον αὐτῶν) (11:16‒17a). Indirect speech reveals the content of this declarative praise: God has shown him mercy and opened his eyes (ὅτι ἠλέησεν αὐτὸν ὁ θεὸς καὶ ὅτι ἤνοιξεν τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς αὐτοῦ) (11:17a). In the public sphere, Tobit’s praise functions to proclaim God’s mercy and healing to the Assyrians.23 This intensification of praise culminates at the gate of Nineveh, where Tobit lauds God again with direct speech, greeting Sarah, “Blessed is your God, who led you to us, daughter” (εὐλογητὸς ὁ θεός σου ὃς ἤγαγέν σε πρὸς ἡμᾶς θύγατερ) (11:17b). His arrival at the gate corresponds with the expanding content of his praise, which now encompasses not merely his own healing but the restoration of the whole family through the person of Sarah (whose fertility offers hope for the future). By responding to Sarah’s healing, Tobit’s praise at the gate marks the convergence of the parallel subplots, and the narrative immediately amplifies it in communal re‐ sponses of joy (χαίρω) by “all the Jews” and Tobit’s extended family (11:17c‒18).
4. Praise and Angelic Revelation This convergence of the two subplots at the gate of Nineveh constitutes an important moment in the rising action of the larger (ironic) plot, which it‐ self climaxes with the self‐revelation of the angel, an event that facilitates Tobit and Tobiah’s recognition of the full extent of God’s mercy on their behalf. Praise marks the climax of this larger plot. When Raphael reveals his angelic identity to Tobit and Tobiah, father and son first respond by falling down in fear (12:16), but when the angel ascends, their fear turns to praise: καὶ ηὐλόγουν καὶ ὕμνουν τὸν θεὸν καὶ ἐξωμολογοῦντο αὐτῷ ἐπὶ τὰ ἔργα αὐτοῦ τὰ μεγάλα ταῦτα ὡς ὤφθη αὐτοῖς ἄγγελος θεοῦ (Tob 12:22) And they were blessing and hymning God And praising him for these great works of his How God’s angel appeared among them.24
From the new vantage point of having seen the angel, the praise of Tobit and Tobiah looks back over the entire narrative, with newfound acknowl‐
23 The verb ἐξομολογέω is especially suited to declarative praise that acknowledges and narrates God’s good works publicly. 24 The translation of ὡς as “how” relies on איכה נראה in 4Q200 (4QTobe) 7, 2‒3.
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edgement of the great works done by God. The praise verbs exactly match those used by the angel in an earlier exhortation to praise God (12:6, 17‒18, 20), a parallel that emphasizes the element of obedience in their praise. More specifically, the imperfect tenses of the verbs show that father and son now praise God continually, as they have been commanded (εἰς πάντα τὸν αἰῶνα; κατὰ πάσας τὰς ἡμέρας) (12:17‒18). This climactic, ongoing, obedient response of praise peaks in the hymn of Tobit (13:1‒18), the de‐ tails of which will be explored in the section on Tobit’s characterization below.
C. Praise and Tobit’s Characterization We have seen that Tobit first offers praise in response to his healing and his subsequent expressions of praise intensify, reaching a peak in his hymn. His hymn also marks the climax of the plot of the narrative. But as this sec‐ tion will argue, Tobit’s praise represents a dramatic shift not only of his circumstance (plot) but of his response to God (character). It signifies not only his physical but also his spiritual healing, depicted in the narrative as a movement from sorrow to joy (and figuratively from death to life). The narrative sets up this transformation in Tobit’s characterization first by em‐ phasizing Tobit’s sorrow, lack of hope, and inability to rejoice or offer praise. Then, in discourse about praise, it subtly critiques his state of ex‐ treme despair as a failure to praise. By means of this initial characterization, Tobit’s effusive praise—and especially his hymn—marks a significant and appropriate shift in his view of divine providence. Ultimately, the narrative uses Tobit’s physical and spiritual transformation as a metaphor that brings the community’s hope for the future (the restoration of Israel) into the nar‐ rative present.25
1. Tobit’s Lack of Joy and Praise To explore the absence of praise in Tobit’s characterization, we begin with his prayer in 3:1‒6. The careful parallel characterization of Tobit and Sarah, 25 The term “Israel” in Tobit refers not to the northern kingdom but to all Israel (north‐ ern and southern kingdoms). Samaria indicates the northern kingdom, while Jerusa‐ lem, the southern, J. Zsengellér, “Topography as Theology: Theological Premises of the Geographical References in the Book of Tobit,” in The Book of Tobit: Text, Tradition, Theology: Papers of the First International Conference on the Deuterocanonical Books, Pápa, Hungary, 20‐21 May, 2004 (eds. Géza G. Xeravits and József Zsengellér; JSJSup 98; Leiden: Brill, 2005), 179‒92, 181.
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noted above, invites the reader to compare their prayers, which overlap significantly in content, as demonstrated in Table 5.
Table 5 Parallels in the Petitions of Tobit and Sarah
Tobit’s Petition (3:1‒6)
Sarah’s Petition (3:10‒15)
Anguish of heart, weeping
3:1 περίλυπος γενόμενος τῇ ψυχῇ καὶ στενάξας ἔκλαυσα καὶ ἠρξάμην προσεύχεσθαι μετὰ στεναγμῶν
3:10 ἐλυπήθη ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ καὶ ἔκλαυσεν
Life in exile
3:4 καὶ ἔδωκας ἡμᾶς εἰς ἁρπαγὴν καὶ αἰχμαλωσίαν καὶ θάνατον
3:15 καὶ οὐχὶ ἐμόλυνά μου τὸ ὄνομα καὶ οὐδὲ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ πατρός μου ἐν τῇ γῇ τῆς αἰχμαλωσίας μου
Suffering re‐ proach
3:6 ὅτι ὀνειδισμοὺς ψευδεῖς ἤκουσα (also 3:5 εἰς παραβολὴν καὶ λάλημα καὶ ὀνειδισμὸν)
3:13 καὶ μὴ ἀκούειν με μηκέτι ὀνειδισμούς (also 3:15 κύριε νῦν εἰσάκουσον ὀνειδισμόν μου)
Preference for death
3:6 διὸ λυσιτελεῖ μοι ἀποθανεῖν μᾶλλον ἢ ζῆν
3:15 καὶ ἵνα τί μοί ἐστιν ἔτι ζῆν
Desire for release from the earth
3:6 ἐπίταξον ἀναλαβεῖν τὸ πνεῦμά μου ἐξ ἐμοῦ ὅπως ἀπολυθῶ ἀπὸ προσώπου τῆς γῆς καὶ γένωμαι γῆ
3:13 εἰπὸν ἀπολυθῆναί με ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς
Acquiescence to divine will
3:6 καὶ νῦν κατὰ τὸ ἀρεστόν σου ποίησον μετ᾽ ἐμοῦ
3:15 καὶ εἰ μή σοι δοκεῖ . . .
Both prayers include anguish of heart, weeping, experience of life in exile, suffering from reproach, preference for death, desire for release from the earth, and acquiescence to divine will. Because of this commonality, differences become important for understanding each of the characters. A telling point of divergence lies in the greater sense of hopelessness in To‐ bit’s prayer. The narrator’s introductions describe Tobit’s despair much more vividly vis‐à‐vis Sarah’s (3:1, 10).26 Within the content of the prayers themselves, Sarah professes her innocence in exile (3:14‒15), but Tobit links his own sin with the communal tragedy of exile (3:3). Thus Tobit more gen‐ erally laments the despondency of exilic existence, in contrast with Sarah’s more hopeful concern to maintain the reputation of her father (in exile). 26 Moore, Tobit, 114. In 3:1, the description of Tobit’s despair is more detailed than Sarah’s in 3:10. In addition, his despair reappears in the words of his prayer (3:6), while Sarah’s does not.
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Tobit asks God to remember him, look upon him, and not turn away from him (3:3, 6)—requests that might suggest some sense of hope—but in con‐ text these requests seek divine assistance not for healing but for quick death.27 By contrast, Sarah turns her own face toward God (3:12) and while similarly desiring death, admits the possibility of divine salvation (καὶ εἰ μή σοι δοκεῖ ἀποκτεῖναί με κύριε νῦν εἰσάκουσον ὀνειδισμόν μου) (3:15). Given the many parallels in these two prayers, Tobit’s resignation stands out. It seems significant then that while Sarah’s prayer opens with a berakah, Tobit’s does not. This absence becomes even more striking in com‐ parison with the other petition in the story—the wedding night prayer of Tobiah and Sarah. Like Sarah’s earlier petition, it also opens with a berakah, as detailed above. In fact, every instance of direct speech toward God in the book of Tobit—every prayer in the inclusive sense—begins clearly with a berakah except Tobit’s petition. By contrast, the opening to Tobit’s speech directed to God contains no explicit praise verbs and offers a form of praise rather different than praise elsewhere in the narrative: δίκαιος εἶ κύριε καὶ πάντα τὰ ἔργα σου δίκαια καὶ πᾶσαι αἱ ὁδοί σου ἐλεημοσύνη καὶ ἀλήθεια σὺ κρίνεις τὸν αἰῶνα (Tob 3:2) Righteous are you O Lord And all your works are righteous And all your ways are charity and truth You judge the world
This praise that introduces Tobit’s petition is similar to language that oc‐ curs in other hymns and prayers of the period.28 But the second and the third lines of this opening ascribe to God the qualities of charity and truth, which elsewhere in the book demonstrate human loyalty to God. This praise as a whole closely matches Tobit’s earlier description of himself: ἐγὼ Τωβιτ ὁδοῖς ἀληθείας ἐπορευόμην καὶ δικαιοσύνης πάσας τὰς ἡμέρας τῆς ζωῆς μου καὶ ἐλεημοσύνας πολλὰς ἐποίησα τοῖς ἀδελφοῖς μου (Tob 1:3) And I, Tobit, walked the ways of truth And of righteousness all the days of my life And I did many acts of charity for my brothers
27 Cf. P. Deselaers, Das Buch Tobit: Studien zu Seiner Entstehung, Komposition und Theologie (OBO 43; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1982), 82, who finds in these petitions a hint of hope. 28 D. E. Aune, Revelation (3 vols.; WBC 52a‒52c; Dallas, Tex.: Word Books, 1997), 3:885‒886 and bibliography there. Termed a “judgment doxology” or “eschatological vindication formula” this kind of language typically appears in declarative praise speech, lauding God’s righteousness in enacting divine judgment, whether upon one’s enemies or oneself. In the latter case, it typically involves confession, as does Tobit’s prayer in 3:5. Cf. Josh 7:19‒21; Neh 9:33; Dan 9:14; Pr Azar 4; 3 Macc 2:3. In the book of Tobit, however, δίκαιος elsewhere refers to human beings, Tob 7:6, 9:6, 13:15.
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Tobit then praises God for qualities he sees in himself (righteousness, truth, and charity). In the context of the narrative, we may then ask, should the beginning of Tobit’s prayer be considered praise at all?29 Are these lines perhaps arrogant praise, in which Tobit betrays an anthropomorphic view of God based on his own self‐righteous image?30 Or might they possibly constitute Tobit’s veiled critique of God based on a mechanistic view of justice? The narrative does not provide a clear answer. At the very least, the opening of the prayer contrasts sharply with the straightforward berakot of Tobiah and Sarah, as well as with the praise expressed by Tobit himself following his experience of healing. It is best then to think of these lines as subdued, ironic praise.31 If the opening of Tobit’s petition hints at an absence of praise, then two additional scenes depict Tobit unmistakably as lamenting instead of rejoic‐ ing before God.32 The first such scene occurs before the petition. Having rushed from his lavish Shavuot meal to hide a murdered body, Tobit returns in sorrow, recalling a couplet from Amos 8:10: ἐπιστρέψας οὖν ἐλουσάμην καὶ ἤσθιον τὸν ἄρτον μετὰ πένθους καὶ ἐμνήσθην τοῦ ῥήματος τοῦ προφήτου, ὅσα ἐλάλησεν Αμως ἐπὶ Βαιθηλ λέγων Στραφήσονται ὑμῶν αἱ ἑορταὶ εἰς πένθος καὶ πᾶσαι αἱ ᾠδαὶ [ὁδοί] ὑμῶν εἰς θρῆνον33 καὶ ἔκλαυσα. (Tob 2:5‒7) Then when I returned, I bathed and ate my food in sorrow. I recalled the saying of the prophet,
29 Cf. Fitzmyer, who makes the point that Tobit “praises God for the good that has come to him despite his blindness,” Fitzmyer, Tobit, 46. Although he does not cite a reference, he must have in mind Tob 3:2. 30 Gruen, exploring comic elements in Tobit, argues that Tobit is characterized as par‐ ticularly arrogant, “pompously sanctimonious,” and ridiculous, E. S. Gruen, Dias‐ pora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002), 151‒5. He also interprets all three petitions as subtly farcical, “driven by wounded egos or amour propre,” 158. He does not deal with whether Tobit experi‐ ences a change of heart in the narrative. Commenting on Gruen’s interpretation of Tobit as arrogant, Nickelsburg points to Jesus’ parable of the arrogant Pharisee in Lk 18, Jewish Literature, 32‒33. Interestingly, in Luke, the Pharisee’s arrogance leads simi‐ larly to a failure to praise (properly), as discussed on p. 187 below. In general, humil‐ ity is a key indicator of the human ability to offer praise, in both the Jewish and Greek traditions. 31 Moore seems to accept Tob 3:2 as praise, yet he observes as well that “given Tobit’s present circumstances, it is a most ironic doxology,” Tobit, 138. Given this conclusion, this instance of praise could have been included in Table 3, but as there is no explicit praise vocabulary, it is not listed there. 32 On the point that it is strange for a private petition to open without a berakah in the Talmud, see J. Heinemann, Prayer in the Talmud: Forms and Patterns (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1977), 188‒9. 33 Hanhart has πᾶσαι αἱ ᾠδαί, correcting GII, which reads ὁδοί, Fitzmyer, Tobit, 135; Stuckenbruck, Gathercole, and Weeks, Tobit, 96. GI reads εὐφροσύνη, and all other witnesses include some form of praise or joy here.
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how Amos spoke out against Bethel saying, “Your feasts shall be turned into mourning, and all your songs [paths] into lamentation” And I wept.
On the one hand, because joy is integral to the feast of Shavuot, the narra‐ tor’s description of Tobit’s sorrow communicates a tragic reversal from joy to lament, even without the quotation from Amos.34 So what does the quo‐ tation contribute? In Amos 8, these lines are addressed to merchants in Is‐ rael who rush through their festivals selfishly, abusing the poor; divine punishment will turn their vacuous festivals to mourning. Paradoxically, in Tobit, the main character righteously engages in charity, seeking guests with whom to share his feast and burying his slain comrades. Yet he suffers a fate similar to the evil merchants of Amos’ day. Thus, many commenta‐ tors understand the quotation to intensify the issue of theodicy in the nar‐ rative.35 But it should be noted as well that the quotation augments the picture of Tobit’s utter hopelessness. In Amos 8, the praise‐to‐lament motif appears in a literary context utterly devoid of hope: the prophet declares that apos‐ tasy and injustice will bring Israel to its end, envisioned as the death of an only son.36 The quotation in question comprises a funerary dirge mourning 34 See N. S. Jacobs, “ʹYou Did Not Hesitate to Get up and Leave the Dinner:ʹ Food and Eating in the Narrative of Tobit with Some Attention to Tobitʹs Shavuot Meal,” in The Book of Tobit: Text, Tradition, Theology: Papers of the First International Conference on the Deuterocanonical Books, Pápa, Hungary, 20‐21 May, 2004 (eds. Géza G. Xeravits and József Zsengellér; JSJSup 98; Leiden: Brill, 2005), 121‒38, 136. In the description of Shavuot in Deut 16:11, Israel is told to rejoice (εὐφραίνω/)שׂמח. On the formal aspects of praise, lament, and petition in Tob 3:4‒6, see H. Löhr, Studien zum Frühchristlichen und Frühjüdischen Gebet: Untersuchungen zu 1 Clem 59 Bis 61 in seinem literarischen, historischen und theologischen Kontext (WUNT 160; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003), 460. 35 E.g., Fitzmyer, Tobit, 135; Moore, Tobit, 129. 36 It is legitimate to consider the literary context of this quotation because the narrator’s mention of Bethel (Tob 2:5) indicates that Tobit has more of Amos in mind than just this one verse. In Amos, the nearest reference to Bethel occurs in 7:13. On the hope‐ lessness of Amos 8, see H. W. Wolff, Joel and Amos: A Commentary on the Books of the Prophets Joel and Amos (trans. Waldemar Janzen, Jr. McBride, S. Dean, and Charles A. Muenchow. Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977), 329‒30. Beyond chapter 8, Amos as a whole offers only glimmers of hope. Modern scholars understand Amos to contain multiple redactional layers: 1) 8th‐century oracles that are utterly hopeless; 2) a Josianic redaction functioning as an apologia for the destruction of the altar at Bethel (1 Kgs 13; 2 Kgs 23:17); 3) a Deuteronomistic layer applying Amos’ condemnation of Israel to Judah; 4) a post‐exilic oracle of hope for the rebuilding of the tent of David and the resto‐ ration of Israel (Amos 9:11‒15), Wolff, Joel and Amos, 107‒113. According to Wolff, the addition of the fourth, somewhat hopeful layer results nev‐ ertheless in a final form of the book that is uniquely somber, with only a few hints “that [YHWH’s] sentence of death is not [the] last word,” 113.
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the death of Israel.37 Moreover, Amos specifically associates this sorrow with the image of corpses lying exposed: וְ ֵה ִילילוּ ִשׁירוֹת ֵה ָיכל ַבּיּוֹם ַההוּא נְ ֻאם ֲאד ֹנָ י יְ הוִ ה ַרב ַה ֶפּגֶ ר ל־מקוֹם ִה ְשׁ ִליְך ָהס ָ ( ְבּ ָכAmos 8:3) “The songs of the temple shall become wailings in that day,” says the Lord GOD; “the dead bodies shall be many, cast out in every place. Be silent!” (NRSV)
On the day of Israel’s death, praise falls silent and dirges lament the slain corpses ()פגר scattered unnaturally above ground. The quotation of Amos 8:10 thus aptly encapsulates Tobit’s point of view. In exile, death— represented by exposed bodies—silences praise and removes joy.38 So Tobit cannot rejoice, and instead voices the dirge anticipated by Amos. Although Tobit has not yet become physically blind, he is blind to hope. The second scene of lament instead of joy occurs after Tobit’s physical blindness and petition. In chapter five, Tobit specifically describes himself as unable to rejoice. As the scene opens, the angel, disguised as a human being, arrives at Tobit’s house; their dialogue sets Tobit’s despair explicitly in contrast with rejoicing. Tobit greets (χαιρετίζω) the angel, who responds in kind with a “standard wish of good will,” saying, “May there be much joy for you” (χαίρειν σοι πολλὰ γένοιτο).39 Surprisingly, Tobit responds to this normal greeting with great emotion:
37 This text depicts lament over the northern kingdom; see also Amos 5:1, 16; Mic 1:8. Lament related to national tragedy is more common in regard to the Babylonian ex‐ ile, as in the book of Lamentations. To offer hope, prophets reverse the motif. In Jeremiah, the Lord declares, “I will turn their mourning to joy,” anticipating divine ransom of Jacob/Israel and the return of the exiles to the land, (MT Jer 31:13 [LXX Jer 38:13]). Later texts bring both sides of the joy/sorrow motif together, e.g., Bar 4:23. (On this passage in Baruch, see also p. 61 above.) 38 The link between the slain corpses that appear in Amos 8:3 and the slain corpses in Tobit seems obvious, although I have not come across a commentator who mentions it. The noun פגר, interestingly, is translated with a participle of πίπτω in the LXX, and the Greek translations of Tob 2:3 similarly use the verb πίπτω to describe the body found by Tobiah (ἔππιπται ἐν τῇ ἀγορᾷ) while other passages use νεκρός, e.g., 2:8; 12:12‒13. Various Medieval Hebrew and Aramaic translations of Tobit use the word פגר for corpse in 1:17‒18; 2:3; 12:13, Stuckenbruck, Gathercole, and Weeks, To‐ bit, 677, 728. 39 Fitzmyer, Tobit, 190.
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καὶ ἀποκριθεὶς Τωβιθ εἶπεν αὐτῷ τί μοι ἔτι ὑπάρχει χαίρειν καὶ ἐγὼ ἄνθρωπος ἀδύνατος τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς καὶ οὐ βλέπω τὸ φῶς τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἀλλ᾽ἐν τῷ σκότει κεῖμαι ὥσπερ οἱ νεκροὶ οἱ μηκέτι θεωροῦντες τὸ φῶς ζῶν ἐγὼ ἐν νεκροῖς εἰμι φωνὴν ἀνθρώπων ἀκούω καὶ αὐτοὺς οὐ βλέπω (Tob 5:10) But Tobit answered, What now is there for me in which to rejoice? I am a man lacking the power of my eyes, Unable to see the light of heaven. But in darkness, I lie Like the dead who no longer see the light. Living, I am among the dead. I hear the voice of human beings, But I do not see them. (Tob 5:10)
Tobit’s rebuttal draws out a note of joy buried in the verb χαιρετίζω in or‐ der to reject it: Tobit cannot rejoice. Moreover, he associates this inability with the imagery of death that has already entered his characterization.40 Previously, in his petition, Tobit has pleaded that his spirit be taken from him so that he might “be released from the face of the earth and become earth” (ἀπολυθῶ ἀπὸ προσώπου τῆς γῆς καὶ γένωμαι γῆ) (3:6). Now in Tob 5, he describes himself as already dead and as lying in darkness like the dead. In the two speeches together, Tobit essentially likens himself to the corpses he has charitably buried: dead yet unnaturally still above ground.41 This self‐assessment sheds light on his inability to rejoice, for it is a common motif in early Jewish literature that the dead cannot express joy‐ ous praise to God.42 Tobit’s surprising outburst to the angel also functions to increase the irony underlying the middle section of the plot, for the reader recognizes that the very person who says “May there be much joy to you” will in fact bring true joy to Tobit. The angel himself declares this eventuality, replying, “Take courage. Your healing by God is near. Take courage” (θάρσει ἐγγὺς παρὰ τῷ θεῷ ἰάσασθαί σε θάρσει) (5:10). But to these hopeful words, Tobit does not respond. Blind Tobit, who considers himself dead, cannot see di‐ vine healing personified in the hidden angel with whom he speaks. By 40 In the beginning of the story, Tobit buries the dead and escapes death himself by fleeing Nineveh (1:19). But by the time he voices his prayer, his perspective has changed; he no longer seeks to avoid death, but wishes for it (3:6). 41 Thus, by seeking death in his prayer, he only asks from God what he himself has done for others. If God would allow him to die in actuality, then he could return to the ground, where he belongs, rather than lying unnaturally upon it. 42 On the recurring motif that the dead do not praise God, see the discussion beginning on p. 63 above.
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ironically juxtaposing Tobit’s despair with the true joy hidden in the angel’s greeting, this artful scene shines a spotlight on Tobit’s inability to rejoice. Yet Tobit’s inability to offer joyous praise contrasts sharply with his own rhetoric about praise. In chapter four, expecting that God will allow him to die, Tobit offers a farewell speech to his son, advising, “At all times, praise the Lord” (καὶ ἐν παντὶ καιρῷ εὐλόγει κύριον τὸν θεὸν) (4:19).43 At the end of the story, the angel echoes and validates this exhortation, telling Tobit and Tobiah: τὸν θεὸν εὐλογεῖτε καὶ αὐτῷ ἐξομολογεῖσθε ἐνώπιον πάντων τῶν ζώντων ἃ ἐποίησεν μεθ᾽ ὑμῶν ἀγαθά τοῦ εὐλογεῖν καὶ ὑμνεῖν τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ τοὺς λόγους τοῦ θεοῦ ὑποδείκνυτε πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις ἐντίμως καὶ μὴ ὀκνεῖτε ἐξομολογεῖσθαι αὐτῷ (12:6) Bless God and praise him before all the living For the good things he has done for you By blessing and hymning his name With honor, make known to all people the deeds of God And do not hesitate to praise him
The angel directs father and son to voice unhesitating, public praise, and in the same discourse, having revealed his angelic nature, he twice urges un‐ ceasing praise (τὸν θεὸν εὐλογεῖτε εἰς πάντα τὸν αἰῶνα . . . αὐτὸν εὐλογεῖτε κατὰ πάσας τὰς ἡμέρας αὐτῷ ὑμνεῖτε) (12:17‒18). As observed above, the narrative emphasizes the obedience of Tobit and Tobiah to these instruc‐ tions; they live out the rest of their lives praising God continually.44 Finally, in Tobit’s concluding, farewell speech, he exhorts his descendents to “bless [the] name [of God] at all times with sincerity and with all their strength” (εὐλογῶσιν τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ ἐν παντὶ καιρῷ ἐν ἀληθείᾳ καὶ ὅλῃ τῇ ἰσχύι αὐτῶν) (14:8). At the end of the narrative, looking back on Tobit’s earlier lack of joy and praise, we find that Tobit gives the right advice to his son: praise God at all times. While Tobiah seems able to follow this advice, Tobit’s own spiritual despair prevents him from either rejoicing or praising God. Thus, Tobit’s expression of effusive joy and praise at the end of the story marks both physical and spiritual transformation. In the narrative’s own terms, this change involves a movement from blindness to sight, darkness to light, sorrow to joy, despair to praise, and death to life. And the physical and spiritual aspects of Tobit’s healing, which intertwine and become indistin‐ guishable, are both met with joyous praise.
43 The Greek quoted here is drawn from GI, as this verse falls within the first of two scribal omissions in GII (Codex Sinaiticus) (4:7‒19; 13:6‒10), Stuckenbruck, Gather‐ cole, and Weeks, Tobit, 13. 44 See also Tob 14:2.
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When we turn attention to the content of Tobit’s hymn, we find that Tobit praises God precisely for this kind of thoroughgoing transformation. Tobit’s declarative praise is evident in the opening lines of the hymn: εὐλογητὸς ὁ θεὸς ὁ ζῶν εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα καὶ ἡ βασιλεία αὐτοῦ ὅτι αὐτὸς μαστιγοῖ καὶ ἐλεᾷ κατάγει ἕως ᾅδου κατωτάτω τῆς γῆς καὶ αὐτὸς ἀνάγει ἐκ τῆς ἀπωλείας τῆς μεγάλης καὶ οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδέν ὃ ἐκφεύξεται τὴν χεῖρα αὐτοῦ (Tob 13:1) Praise be to God who lives forever, And his kingdom Because he castigates and shows mercy Brings down to Hades below the earth And he brings back from the great abyss. There is nothing that will escape his hand.
While the first two lines offer general praise, the word ὅτι in line three in‐ dicates that Tobit responds to and praises God for his own experience.45 The two reversals mentioned by Tobit—from castigation to mercy and from death to life—correspond to his story of physical and spiritual healing.46 Tobit’s hymn makes the point that divine transformation has enabled him to offer praise even during his exile, as he was once unable to do: “I—in the land of my captivity—praise him and make known his strength and maj‐ esty to a nation of sinners” (ἐγὼ ἐν τῇ γῇ τῆς αἰχμαλωσίας μου ἐξομολογοῦμαι αὐτῷ καὶ δεικνύω τὴν ἰσχὺν καὶ τὴν μεγαλωσύνην αὐτοῦ ἔθνει ἁμαρτωλῶν) (13:7).47 This line appears to reference Tobit’s public praise in Nineveh, which responds to his healing. Previously unable to rejoice in exile, but restored to health in the fullest sense, Tobit can now fulfill his own exhortation (echoed by the angel) to proclaim God via praise.48 Tobit’s restored ability 45 Whether the hymn actually reflects Tobit’s experience in the story is an issue of de‐ bate. Fitzmyer claims that Tobit “praises and thanks God for what He has done for him” but does not provide details, Tobit, 304. Moore writes that the hymn “says nothing about the characters or events in the Tobit story,” Tobit, 282, but then later observes that “the psalm’s assertion, which is expressed three times (i.e., that God scourges but then has mercy [vv 2, 5, 9]), was affirmed earlier when Tobit recovered his sight,” 284. 46 As noted above, Tobit has earlier used the language of castigation to describe his blindness (11:14), and the two healings in the story have been referred to several times as the receipt of mercy (8:5, 17; 11:17). Twice before, Tobit has likened his hopelessness to death (3:4; 5:10). Both his former lament and now his praise echo Deut 32:39, which places divine castigation and healing in parallel with death and life. (God says: “I deal death and give life; I wounded and I will heal: None can de‐ liver from My hand,” NJPS). On allusions to Deut 31‒32 in Tobit, see S. Weitzman, “Allusions, Artifice, and Exile in the Hymn of Tobit,” JBL 115 (1996): 49‒61, 51. 47 The Greek is from GI. In GII, a scribal error has omitted the middle part of the hymn (13:6‒10). 4Q196 (4QToba) 15 II, 1‐10 includes it. 48 In 14:1‒2, the text emphasizes Tobit’s changed perspective with the word ἔτι: he “now continually praises God” (ἔτι προσέθετο εὐλογεῖν τὸν θεόν).
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to praise recalls the third praise theme described in chapter two above: praise of God depends on well being and therefore sometimes requires restoration to health.49 Like death, oppression (whether by illness or exile) can silence joyous praise, but divine healing, by restoring “life,” breaks this silence. It empowers proclamatory praise that in turn brings international honor to God. In keeping with this traditional understanding of praise, Tobit’s newfound voice of praise dramatically punctuates his experience of divine healing.
2. Praise and Eschatology in Tobit’s Hymn As the hymn continues, Tobit’s experience (transformation followed by praise) becomes paradigmatic for the community, for he links his personal experience with the eschatological transformation he expects for the people of Israel and for personified Jerusalem herself. This paradigmatic role for Tobit is a point widely recognized.50 Moore’s comments are representative: Tobit’s certainty in chapter 13 that Jerusalem would have a glorious recovery was dependent upon the restoration of his sight and Tobiah’s newly acquired wealth. If God had done all that for Tobit and his family, how much more, con‐ cludes Tobit, will God do for his people and his Holy City?51
But some interpreters find this paradigmatic role incompatible with the “folktale” portion of the story. For example, Fitzmyer recognizes the link between Tobit and the future of Israel in the hymn but argues that this in‐ terpretation is “not required by the core story.” Rather, the hymn repre‐ sents a broader perspective imposed upon the narrative.52 While it would certainly be difficult to argue that the core story requires the character of Tobit to function paradigmatically, this way of framing the issue does not get at the heart of the matter, at least from a narrative perspective. Rather, the narrative question is the reverse: does the characterization of Tobit previous to the hymn support his paradigmatic self‐assessment? In other words, when he offers his own experience as a model for the future of Israel, is Tobit’s rhetoric consonant or dissonant with the narrative? Does
49 See p. 63 and following, above. 50 For example, B. Ego argues that the character of Tobit serves as a paradigm for the future of the people of God and that his praise witnesses the mercy of God to the Gentiles, “Vom Lob als Existenzerschließung: Aspekte der Doxologie in der Tobi‐ terzählung,” BL 77 (2004): 20‒27, 23. 51 Moore, Tobit, 84. 52 Fitzmyer, “Judaism,” 29. Fitzmyer’s use of the word “imposed” suggests incongru‐ ity.
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the hymn create tension, or does it build logically upon the narrative’s pre‐ vious characterization of Tobit?53 When the question is framed this way, the answer must be “yes”: the parallels drawn in the hymn between Tobit and the community (the people of Israel and Jerusalem) logically build upon the narrative (both the plot and Tobit’s characterization).54 For example, Tobit’s movement from casti‐ gation to mercy (11:14; 13:2) parallels the same experience anticipated both for the regathered people (13:5) and for rebuilt Jerusalem (13:10). The blind Tobit has been described as wretched (ταλαίπωρος) (7:6), a word that de‐ scribes Jerusalem’s state of destruction in the prayer (13:10). In the narra‐ tive, Tobit’s healing represents God’s face turning to him in response to his petition (3:6), so too in the future God will turn to the community “and hide his face . . . no longer” (ἐπιστρέψει πρὸς ὑμᾶς καὶ οὐ μὴ κρύψῃ τὸ πρόσωπον αὐτοῦ ἀφ᾽ ὑμῶν οὐκέτι) (13:6). When we add the motif of praise of God to this mix, the parallels be‐ tween the experiences of Tobit and Israel/Jerusalem come into even sharper focus. To make this point, it will be useful to examine the motif of praise within the hymn, a complex picture most easily depicted visually, as in Table 6.
53 This way of asking the question assumes little about the development of the text, wondering only whether the hymn draws upon aspects of Tobit’s characterization that lend themselves to paradigmatic use, regardless of how this characterization came to be (i.e., folktale, etc.). One could rephrase this question in reverse: Has the narrative prepared for the paradigmatic use of Tobit’s experience by characterizing him in a way that progresses naturally (if not inevitably) toward his representative function? Such a way of stating the question involves more assumptions about au‐ thorial or redactional intent to develop a character whose experience represents the community’s future. 54 In other words, Tobit’s characterization in the narrative corresponds with the repre‐ sentative function of his experience in the hymn. This point is analogous to Weitz‐ man’s observations about allusions to Deuteronomy, both in the hymn and in the previous narrative: “the hymn—at least as it appears in its present narrative con‐ text—is inextricably related to the poetics and ideology of Tobit as a whole,” Weitzman, “Allusions,” 51.
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Table 6 Transformation, Sight, Light, and Joyous Praise in Tobit’s Hymn Past (Narrative) Tobit: castigation to healing/mercy (11:15; 13:2)
Present
Future (Restoration) Transformation Israelites, Jerusalem: castigation to mercy/glory (13:5, 14)
Sight/Light Tobit urges the peo‐ A light will shine in/from Jerusalem ple to see what God (13:11); Tobit hopes his offspring may has done for them see Jerusalem’s transformation (13:16) (13:7) Joy/Praise by Tobit (11:16‒17a): by Tobit (13:1): χαίρω, εὐλογέω, εὐλογητός ἐξομολογέω, exhortation to Israelites (13:3‒5): εὐλογητός ἐξομολογέω, ὑψόω, by Jews in Nineveh & Tobit’s family εὐλογέω (11:17c): by Tobit (13:6‒7): χαρά, χαίρω ἐξομολογέω, ὑψόω, ἀγαλλιάω exhortation to chosen ones (13:8): ἐξομολογέω exhortation to Jerusalem (13:10): ἐξομολογέω, εὐλογέω, χαρά, εὐφραίνω by regathered people & “many nations” (13:11): ἀγαλλίαμα exhortation to Jerusalem (13:13a): ἀγαλλιάω by children of the righteous (13:13b): εὐλογέω by Tobit (13:15): εὐλογέω by a remnant of Tobit’s offspring (13:16): ἐξομολογέω by the gates, houses, and “blessed” of Jerusalem (13:18): ᾠδή, ἀγαλλίαμα, ἁλληλουϊά, εὐλογέω, εὐλογητός Tobit: restored sight (=movement from darkness to light) (5:10; 11:8, 13)
This table shows how the praise motif in Tobit’s hymn sets in parallel (1) Tobit’s transformation and praise in the narrative (past); (2) current praise responses in exile (present); and (3) eschatological praise marking the trans‐ formation of Jerusalem and the gathering within her of exiles and the na‐
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tions (future). Tobit’s transformation (physical and spiritual healing), his recognition of it (sight), and his praise response are paradigmatic for the community, in both the present (13:1‒8) and in the future (13:9‒18). While in the present (first half of the hymn), Tobit’s experience is exemplary, in the future, his life serves as a metaphor representing eschatological hope (second half of the hymn). In the first half of the hymn, Tobit urges the people to praise God just as he has done. This exhortation uses identical vocabulary to describe both Tobit’s praise and the praise urged upon the community. It also alternates expressions of individual praise with exhortations to communal praise. Tobit’s exhortations emphasize praise during exile: the people ought to praise God loudly and publicly in “the nations where they have been scat‐ tered.” This is precisely the kind of proclamatory praise Tobit has ex‐ pressed in the narrative itself following his healing (11:16‒17). In contributing to Tobit’s characterization, the hymn demonstrates To‐ bit’s new vantage point (sight) following both the experience of healing and his recognition of divine mercy (via the angelic revelation): he has learned that God works to bring mercy, whether God’s people realize it or not. It is this changed viewpoint that legitimizes his exhortation. He essentially urges the people to avoid his own mistake—a despondent failure to rejoice and praise—and to recognize God’s mercy in the present state of exile. Such recognition will produce continual praise (13:6, 18). This exemplary exhortation to praise in exile is a wonderfully fitting dénouement to the ironic plot of the narrative, which has cast a long shadow across the narrative, clouding distinctions between blessing and tragedy and creating confusion about lament and praise.55 Ultimately, the source of Tobit’s inability to rejoice and praise earlier in the narrative is not a lack of divine mercy but Tobit’s inability to recognize this mercy. In the end, To‐ bit’s rhetoric about praise derives from the same perspective that the reader has been privy to almost from the beginning of the story: God’s providen‐ tial mercy works toward healing even when people cannot see it. From this point of view, Tobit’s hymn nicely unravels the irony of the story by advo‐ 55 The irony in the plot makes it difficult for characters to determine whether any event is a blessing or curse. For example, the attack by the fish—which first appears nega‐ tive—has in fact been orchestrated by the angel in the service of divine healing. The loss of Tobit’s access to his money in Media seems to be one more tragic result of ex‐ ile, but in reality, this loss leads to the journey that becomes the primary conduit for divine mercy. In the opening section, divine intervention to save Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s siege (positive) produces anger vented upon Israelites in Nineveh (negative). Ultimately, even Tobit’s blindness can be perceived as blessing, for its re‐ versal enables him finally to see God’s providence. As a narrative device, the dis‐ guise of the angel communicates that divine mercy is not always easily perceived, even when directly present. This ambiguity created by the limited human capacity to recognize divine mercy in turn calls into question responses of lament and praise.
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cating continual praise based on confidence that God is acting to save (whether perceived or not). With his own eyes now open, Tobit assures his people (and readers) that they too can come to see God’s mercy and heal‐ ing—even during exile—resulting in the sort of praise that proclaims God among the nations. In essence, Tobit’s conclusions about praise reverse the picture of continual mourning depicted in Ps 137:1‒5: By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat, sat and wept, as we thought of Zion. There on the poplars we hung up our lyres, for our captors asked us there for songs, our tormentors, for amusement, “Sing us one of the songs of Zion.” How can we sing a song of the LORD on alien soil? If I forget you, O Jerusalem, let my right hand wither; let my tongue stick to my palate if I cease to think of you, if I do not keep Jerusalem in memory even at my happiest hour. (NJPS)
Tobit’s story and his praise hymn resist such despair, insisting that exiles can praise God on alien soil, because God is at work to heal even when it seems otherwise.56 And as if in illustration of this point, Tobit’s hymn trans‐ forms into a “song of Zion.”57 In the second half of the hymn, Tobit asserts that joy and praise will greet the future transformation of the people of Israel and of Jerusalem.58 Three distinct voices will be raised in eschatological praise: the voices of Jerusalem herself, the people of Israel regathered within her, and the na‐ tions drawn to her. Addressing Jerusalem directly, Tobit exhorts her joy‐ fully to praise God upon her restoration (ὑψόω, εὐλογέω) (13:10).59 He ex‐ pects as well that when she is renewed, her gates will sing out hymns of joy, her houses will cry “Hallelujah, blessed be the God of Israel!”, and her
56 Thus the emphasis on continual praise in Tobit moves slightly toward the Stoic per‐ spective on praise evident in Epictetus, as described on p. 49 above. But a key differ‐ ence in Tobit lies in the fact that God acts to bring mercy. Continual praise in Tobit results from trust that God will deliver, even when divine mercy is difficult to see, but at the same time, the perspective in Tobit accepts both petition and divine inter‐ vention. For Epictetus, by contrast, continual praise lauds god for everything as it is, precisely in opposition to the idea of special beneficence. On praise in exile, see Bar 2:32. 57 On Tobit’s hymn as an early example of an eschatological psalm, see D. Flusser, “Psalms, Hymns and Prayers,” in Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, Qumran, Sectarian Writ‐ ings, Philo, Josephus (ed. Michael E. Stone; JWSTP 2; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 551‒71, 556. 58 On the anachronistic nature of the hymn’s emphasis on the consolation of Jerusalem, see Fitzmyer, “Judaism,” 312. 59 Like Tobit and the community, Jerusalem herself has been afflicted (μαστιγόω) (13:10) but will be rebuilt in glory (δόξα) (13:16‒17), resulting in her praise (13:10). The hymn suggests that Jerusalem’s praise is instrumental in her restoration. Praise God, he says to Jerusalem, so that your tabernacle might be built with joy again within you (13:10). In GII, the causality is implied: ὑψώσατε τὸν βασιλέα τῶν αἰώνων . . . [lacuna] . . . καὶ πάλιν ἡ σκηνή σου οἰκοδομηθήσεταί σοι μετὰ χαρᾶς but in GI (as in Old Latin and the Vulgate) it is explicit: εὐλόγει τὸν βασιλέα τῶν αἰώνων ἵνα πάλιν ἡ σκηνὴ αὐτοῦ οἰκοδομηθῇ σοι μετὰ χαρᾶς.
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blessed will bless God forever (13:18).60 Jerusalem’s transformation, in turn, will enable the regathering of her children—the scattered captives— causing them also joyfully to praise the Lord for restoring the peace and glory of Jerusalem (13:10, 13, 14). Finally, this restoration will serve as a beacon drawing all nations to her (13:11).61 Later, in his farewell speech, Tobit depicts these international entrants to Jerusalem turning to true wor‐ ship and joining with the restored community of Israel in praise of God (14:6‒7).62 In this vision of future praise in the second half of the hymn, Tobit’s paradigmatic role extends and develops. More than just exemplar, Tobit’s physical and spiritual transformation in the narrative present represents the transformation of Israel and Jerusalem in the hoped‐for future. Just as he has responded with praise to the movement from castigation to heal‐ ing/mercy, so will the people of Israel and Jerusalem. Just as Tobit has seen God’s light and offered praise, so Jerusalem will similarly be enlightened, resulting in her praise and in the praise of those drawn to her, including Tobit’s own descendents. This part of the hymn—like the first half— alternates between anticipations of eschatological praise and Tobit’s own expressions or exhortations of praise. The vocabulary used to describe fu‐ ture praise matches the description of Tobit’s own praise. The praise of‐ fered and urged by Tobit in the present parallels the eschatological praise that will be offered to God in the future, upon the divine restoration of des‐ titute Jerusalem.63 The temporal connections move in reverse, as well, for
60 καὶ αἱ θύραι Ιερουσαλημ ᾠδὰς ἀγαλλιάματος ἐροῦσιν καὶ πᾶσαι αἱ οἰκίαι αὐτῆς ἐροῦσιν αλληλουια εὐλογητὸς ὁ θεὸς τοῦ Ισραηλ καὶ εὐλογητοὶ εὐλογήσουσιν τὸ ὄνομα τὸ ἅγιον εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα καὶ ἔτι. 61 There is a suggestion in the hymn that the praise of Jews is itself the bright light that will shine “unto all the ends of the earth” (13:11). 62 Terence L. Donaldson categorizes the universalism of Tobit’s hymn as “eschatologi‐ cal participation”: the envisioning of the Gentiles “as beneficiaries of the end‐time redemption of Israel—that is, as coming in pilgrimage to worship God in Jerusalem, as abandoning their idols and turning to Israel’s God or, more generally, as having a share in the blessings of the age to come,” Judaism and the Gentiles: Jewish Patterns of Universalism (to 135 CE) (Waco, Tex.: Baylor University Press, 2007), 11, 42‒45. The joy/praise response of the Gentiles is an important aspect of their “eschatological participation,” which Donaldson sees as indicating that they will not simply observe but also “receive some of the benefits of the age of salvation, 43. Such eschatological praise serves as a point of commonality among Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐ Acts, as will be argued below. 63 Zsengellér’s exploration of the geography in Tobit recognizes similar parallels among Tobit, the Israelite exiles, and Jerusalem/Judea. Tobit has existential problems in Assyria (Nineveh) that are solved in Media/Persia (Rages/Ecbatana), so too the Is‐ raelite exiles “were deported to Assyria (existential problem) and found their re‐ deemer Cyrus in Media. Moreover, the great action of ‘liberation of the exiles’ living in Niniveh (sic)—as a theological or better to say a heilsgeschichtliche kerygma of the main, talelike portion—is widened by the ‘frame’ to the liberation of the whole terri‐ tory oppressed by the Assyrians before,” Zsengellér, “Topography,” 187.
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Jerusalem’s eschatological transformation provides an impetus for Tobit’s praise in the present (ἡ ψυχή μου εὐλόγει τὸν κύριον τὸν βασιλέα τὸν μέγαν ὅτι Ιερουσαλημ οἰκοδομηθήσεται τῇ πόλει οἶκος αὐτοῦ εἰς πάντας τοὺς αἰῶνας) (13:15). Through these parallels, Tobit’s experience—healing fol‐ lowed by praise—both foreshadows and makes (partially) present the community’s anticipated eschatological transformation. The divine trans‐ formations of Tobit (past) and Jerusalem (future) provide parallel expres‐ sions of joyous praise that infuse the exile (present) with hope, inspiring continual praise. 64 In short, Tobit’s individual experience (healing and praise) represents the future experience of the community (healing and praise). Tobit’s story is not simply an allegory; it has its own narrative integrity apart from its representative role. Instead, his story is an extended metaphor—or perhaps a living parable—of hope for the community. Like Tobit, the oppressed community will experience divine healing, transforming the grief of exile into unceasing joy and praise. It should be noted that this understanding is somewhat different from arguments that the exile itself serves as a meta‐ phor for human suffering in Tobit. As A. J. Levine puts it, “In exile, dead bodies lie in the streets and those who inter them are punished; demons fall in love with women and kill their husbands; even righteousness is no guarantee of stability, as both Tobit and his nephew Ahikar (cf. 14:10) real‐ ize.”65 But Fitzmyer sharply critiques this view, making the point that mis‐ fortunes in the narrative are not “attributable to the situation of exile in any distinctive way.”66 Tobit, he argues, is subject to the whim of absolute rul‐ ers—which could also happen in Israel—and his blindness stems from the “simple discretion” of sleeping outside, which could have occurred any‐ where.67 The misery of these characters depicts instead the “arbitrary suf‐ fering of innocent people.” These opposing views recognize important aspects of the relationship between individual and communal suffering in the narrative, but in my view, neither exactly captures it. Fitzmyer accurately observes that suffer‐ ing does not derive from the experience of exile per se, yet Levine helpfully draws out the narrative link between the misery of individual characters 64 Tobit “becomes a model that the rest of Israel should imitate in his faithful praise of the Lord,” Fitzmyer, Tobit, 311. 65 A.‐J. Levine, “Diaspora as Metaphor: Bodies and Boundaries in the Book of Tobit,” in Diaspora Jews and Judaism: Essays in Honor of, and in Dialogue with, A. Thomas Kraabel (ed. J. Andrew Overman and Robert S. MacLennan; SFSHJ 41; Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1992), 105‒117, 105. See also W. Soll, “Misfortune and Exile in Tobit: The Junc‐ ture of a Fairy Tale Source and Deuteronomic Theology,” CBQ 51 (1989): 209‒231, 222 . 66 Fitzmyer, “Judaism,” 27. 67 He points out likewise that the narrative never links Sarah’s demon possession to her location in exile.
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and the collective suffering of Israel. In response, it is useful to observe a point evident in the argument above: the connection between suffering and exile derives almost entirely from Tobit’s own perspective. It is expressed in his lament and retracted in his hymn of praise.68 This narrative cue sug‐ gests that the symbolic quality lies not in exile generally but in Tobit’s ex‐ perience of exile. As the vehicle for an extended metaphor, Tobit’s story—his blindness, transformation, recognition of divine mercy, and praise— conveys a tenor illuminated in the hymn: the future (eschatological) trans‐ formation and praise of his community. As a whole, this metaphor depicts for the reader the timeless and utterly reliable mercy of God, toward both individual and community, offering hope so sure that eschatological praise breaks into the narrative present, on the lips of transformed Tobit. Finally, Tobit’s transformation is linked specifically to the fact that a di‐ vine being has been sent by God to release him from oppression, transform‐ ing blindness to sight. This depiction of divine intervention shares a num‐ ber of points of contact with the way in which Jesus describes himself in the programmatic opening of his ministry in Lk 4:18‒19: he has been sent by God to affect release and restore sight to blind eyes.69 In Luke, Jesus is quoting Isaiah’s restoration oracles (Isa 58:6; 61:1‒2), in which healing from blindness serves as one among several signs of the restoration of Is‐ rael/consolation of Jerusalem. In Isaiah, healed people respond with joyous praise; so too in Luke‐Acts, as we shall see. Tobit’s hymn similarly evokes Isaiah’s restoration passages in its depiction of Jerusalem’s future transfor‐ mation.70 It will be argued below that praise following healing in Luke represents the eschatological praise expected in response to healing at the time of divine restoration; might Tobit’s description of release and restored sight be inspired by the same expectation? If so, such allusions are not loud, nor does Tobit explicitly link his heal‐ ing from blindness with eschatological expectations. But if we might as‐ sume for a moment that the narrative seeks verisimilitude, reticence in use of Isaiah is to be expected. As a verisimilar character living in the late eighth or early seventh century B.C.E., Tobit would have a limited selection of scriptural texts from which to draw hope for the community’s future, for many of the great passages of restoration (e.g., Isaiah) would not yet be available to him. However, the two prophets explicitly quoted in Tobit (Amos and Nahum) would be available to him, which suggests the narra‐ tive’s concern for verisimilitude on this issue. The quotation of Nahum 68 As argued above, Sarah does not link her suffering with the experience of exile. There is, nevertheless, much about Sarah’s characterization that may indicate her representative function, a point that deserves consideration. 69 The two passages closely correspond in meaning but share only some vocabulary. They are printed in parallel on p. 208 below. 70 This point is agreed upon widely by scholars.
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predicts Nineveh’s destruction, thus prompting Tobit’s advice to Tobiah to leave Nineveh and resettle in Media. The Amos passage, as we have seen, fittingly comments upon Tobit’s loss of hope. The book of Amos is largely despondent, but it does offer two avenues for hope: piety (Amos 5:14‒15) and the divine restoration envisioned as the gathering of exiles within the risen tent of David (Amos 9:11‒15). These are precisely the two aspects of hope envisioned in Tobit. The first hope, piety, is a central thematic element of the narrative of Tobit, and although the suffering of pious Tobit calls piety into question, the ironic plot ultimately confirms the pursuit of piety as trustworthy and hopeful, for God is watch‐ ing over Tobit and Sarah in exile. The second hope—the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s tent—appears clearly in Tobit’s hymn (13:11).71 Other images in the hymn of the rebuilding of Jerusalem may reflect Isaiah or Baruch (and thus could be labeled anachro‐ nistic), but these expand upon a basic element of Amos’ prophetic hope already available to the character of Tobit.72 In other words, although the character of Tobit could not know historically of the fall of Jerusalem, he could with verisimilitude echo Amos’ prophetic anticipation of this event and the prophet’s hope for its reversal.
D. Conclusion To preserve verisimilitude, the narrative of Tobit cannot refer directly to Isaiah, and thus cannot quote the restoration oracles of Isaiah. Instead, it depicts its main character as living them out. Tobit experiences the very reversals from sorrow to joy, blindness to sight, and death to life antici‐ pated in Isaiah’s texts of eschatological hope. Through Tobit’s story, the nar‐ rative hints at the great restoration passages without quoting them and then brings these hints to fruition in the concluding hymn. By evoking res‐ toration imagery, Tobit’s narrative depiction of divine mercy manifest in healing followed by praise makes present the community’s hope for the future. The praise motif in Tobit centers on the experience of divine healing. Both Sarah and Tobit are healed by God and respond with praise of God, while witnesses to their healings join in this praise. This praise recognizes and acknowledges the parallel healings as moments of special divine be‐ 71 Fitzmyer, 312. On Amos 9:11 in Luke‐Acts, see p. 261 below. The image of Jerusa‐ lem’s eschatological praise in Tobit’s hymn, however, is not found in Amos; it must derive from other restoration texts, such as Isaiah or Baruch 4. 72 Modern scholarship, finding layers of tradition in Amos, identifies these oracles of hope as later interpolations, but presumably that would not be the perspective of the author of Tobit.
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neficence. But the narrative depicts not simply these characters’ experience of healing. Through an ironic plot, it emphasizes that the despondent Tobit must also recognize the full extent of God’s merciful activity in the story. When he does, through a climactic angelic revelation, praise again marks this moment. Tobit’s hymn, in turn, brings together these experiences of healing and revelation. His physical healing (transformation from blind‐ ness to sight) mirrors the opening of his eyes spiritually (described in the text as transformation from despair to praise, darkness to light, sorrow to joy, despair to praise, and death to life). Moreover, Tobit’s hymn uses the praise motif to set Tobit’s experience of healing, recognition, and praise in parallel with his people’s plight in exile (in the present) and with the eschatological transformation expected for Jerusalem (in the future). Tobit’s story shows that God is working to heal (save) even when divine mercy seems absent, so the people ought to praise continually, even in exile. But Tobit’s praise in response to healing also serves as a metaphor of hope for the future, when Jerusalem will be restored and respond similarly with praise. This analysis of the praise motif in Tobit intersects in many ways with how praise functions as a literary motif in Luke‐Acts, as will be detailed in part two of this study. For the moment, we observe that in Luke‐Acts, as in Tobit, praise of God occurs when characters recognize divine salvation in the story. More specifically, in six scenes in Luke‐Acts, characters respond to healings with praise in much the same way as in Tobit: first the healed person praises God, and then witnesses to the healings echo this praise. Luke‐Acts also shares Tobit’s interest in characters’ recognition of the full extent of the divine plan. The Lukan narrative consistently reveals to readers that God is intervening dramatically in history to accomplish the long‐expected visitation that will bring glory to Israel and revelation to the nations. Like the book of Tobit, Luke‐Acts associates healing with the es‐ chatological restoration of Israel and Jerusalem: healings are signs of the divine visitation. While some characters recognize these healings as the work of God (and others do not), all the characters ultimately fail to recog‐ nize divine mercy in the dark and surprising events surrounding Jesus’ death. Thus, although Luke‐Acts is not governed by the kind of obvious irony found in Tobit (a disguised angel) there is a more subtle irony in the plot of the Gospel: readers understand what characters do not. As in Tobit, this irony is finally resolved (for those characters who believe) through revela‐ tion by a divine agent, the risen Lord. And as in Tobit, characters who ac‐ cept Jesus’ revelation—and thus come to recognize the full extent of God’s saving action—respond with joyous praise.
Chapter 4
Praise and Conversion in Joseph and Aseneth A. Introduction Praise of God in the narrative of Joseph and Aseneth (JA) responds not to healing, as in Tobit, but to conversion. Nevertheless, analysis of JA will bring to light a number of parallels between the roles played by the praise motif in the two narratives. In Tobit, praise responds to the experience of healing (depicted as transformation) and to angelic revelation about heal‐ ing; similarly in JA, it responds to conversion (depicted as transformation) and to angelic revelation about conversion. In both texts, praise responses are voiced both by the individuals who experience transformation (heal‐ ing/conversion) and by witnesses to their experience. In JA as in Tobit, characters’ praise of the God of Israel resolves narra‐ tive tensions. Such tensions arise in JA not from an underlying irony, as in Tobit, but because of the impurity of Aseneth’s mouth (which offers praise to foreign gods) and questions about her acceptability to God. In the end, Aseneth’s praise, like Tobit’s, interprets her experience of conversion in such terms as movement from castigation to mercy and from death to life; Aseneth’s transformation, like Tobit’s, comes to symbolize a hopeful future for the group of people whom she represents. Before looking at praise in JA, we begin with some introductory obser‐ vations. Composed in Greek, JA seems to fit best within the diverse group of narratives that comprise the category of Hellenistic novel or romance.1 At one point in recent scholarship, a broad consensus identified the work as Jewish, written some time within the first centuries B.C.E. and C.E., most likely in Egypt.2 In the last decade, however, this consensus has deterio‐ 1
2
M. Philonenko, Joseph et Aséneth: Introduction, Texte Critique, Traduction et Notes (StPB 13; Leiden: Brill, 1968), 43‒48; S. West, “Joseph and Aseneth: A Neglected Greek Ro‐ mance,” Classical Quarterly 24 (1974): 70‒81; Wills, Jewish Novel, 158‒84. R. D. Chesnutt, From Death to Life: Conversion in Joseph and Aseneth (JSPSup 16; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 85. But Chesnutt cautions that JA “needs to be read on its own terms rather than having its interpretation governed by the supposed ge‐ netic kinship with a literary genre which itself is very heterogeneous and is of uncer‐ tain origin and function,” Death to Life, 91. Chesnutt, Death to Life, 76‒85.
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rated.3 One recent monograph argues for a date in the third or fourth cen‐ tury B.C.E. and neither Jewish authorship nor Egyptian provenance neces‐ sarily, while another locates the writing of JA in the second century C.E., with the specific purpose of apologia for the Jewish temple at Heliopolis.4 Investigation into the text of Joseph and Aseneth is complex and ongo‐ ing, involving at least 91 witnesses in a variety of languages, four textual families, and a fundamental point of disagreement between JA’s two fore‐ most textual critics, C. Burchard and M. Philonenko.5 The dispute centers on whether the longer or shorter version of the text is more original, with many, but not all, specialists currently siding with Burchard and the longer 3
4
5
For example, in the second edition of Jewish Literature Between the Bible and the Mish‐ nah, G. W. E. Nickelsburg considers JA a text of “disputed provenance,” Jewish Litera‐ ture between the Bible and the Mishnah: A Historical and Literary Introduction (2nd ed.; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005). Building on the work of R. Kraft, J. R. Davila ar‐ gues that lacking evidence to the contrary, we should assume a Christian provenance for JA, J. R. Davila, The Provenance of the Pseudepigrapha: Jewish, Christian, or Other? (Boston: Brill, 2005), 74‒75, 195; R. A. Kraft, “Setting the Stage and Framing Some Central Questions,” JSJ 32 (2001): 371‐95, 389. By contrast, other recent contributions to the discussion find it Jewish in character, E. S. Gruen, Heritage and Hellenism: The Reinvention of Jewish Tradition (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1998), 92; J. J. Collins, “Joseph and Aseneth: Jewish or Christian?,” JSP 14 (2005): 97‐112. I ap‐ preciate the bibliographic assistance of Randall Chesnutt on this point. R. S. Kraemer argues for a later date for JA, When Aseneth Met Joseph: A Late Antique Tale of the Biblical Patriarch and His Egyptian Wife, Reconsidered (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 225‒44. By contrast, G. Bohak sets the narrative in the time of Onias IV, Joseph and Aseneth and the Jewish Temple in Heliopolis (10. Early Judaism and Its Literature; Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1996), passim. These interpretations rely upon different textual reconstructions, the shorter and the longer, respectively. The initial publications of these two scholars categorize the textual witnesses into four families (a, b, c, and d). Philonenko’s edition, published first, is based on the shorter recension (family d), M. Philonenko, Joseph et Aséneth, passim. Burchard’s version, based on family b, has appeared in stages, beginning with arguments about the textual history of JA and a sample Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth (Tübin‐ gen: Mohr Siebeck, 1965). followed by a preliminary edition in 1979 (upon which he based his translations in JSHRZ and OTP), “Ein Vorläufiger Griechischer Text von Jo‐ seph und Aseneth,” Dielheimer Blätter zum Alten Testament 14 (1979): 2‒53 reprinted as “Ein Vorläufiger Griechischer Text von Joseph und Aseneth,” in Gesammelte Studien zu Joseph und Aseneth (eds. Christoph Burchard and Carsten Burfeind; SVTP 13; Leiden: Brill, 1996), 161‒209, and only recently, as a full critical edition, C. Burchard, U. B. Fink, and C. Burfeind, Joseph und Aseneth (PVTG 5; Boston: Brill, 2003). In compari‐ son with Burchard’s edition, along with minor differences, Philonenko’s text omits 11:1x‒18, most of chs. 18 & 19, 21:10‒21, and 22:6b‒9a, Chesnutt, Death to Life, 43, 65. In the almost forty years since the dialogue began, Philonenko has ceased to publish on the topic, and Burchard’s view has changed; in a 2005 article, he asserts that an exact Urtext of JA is likely unrecoverable, and he no longer considers family b a true family, but from its disintegration, identifies a new family (f), “The Text of Joseph and Aseneth Reconsidered,” JSP 14, no. 2 (2005): 83‒96, 88, 94‒95. Burchard’s English translation of his longer text appears in OTP II, and D. Cook’s English translation of Philonenko’s shorter text has been published in AOT.
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version.6 The issue remains unsettled. While recent analyses have shown the value of studying both recensions, practical considerations require that for the purposes of this study, one of the two must be favored. The analysis to follow relies on Burchard’s recently published critical edition of the longer recension because it is still favored by most scholars as the more original text.7
B. The Pattern of Praise in Joseph and Aseneth The praise motif is important to the plot of Joseph and Aseneth, as to Tobit, as the following analysis will show. The plot of JA involves two stories joined together, the first centering on the marriage of Joseph and Aseneth (chs. 1‒21), and the second, on a scheme by Pharaoh’s son to undo this marriage (chs. 22‒29). A long interpretive hymn of praise by Aseneth serves as the bridge between these two stories (21:10‒21). In the first story, the motif of praise of God helps establish the narrative tensions, frames the plot, and marks the story’s climax. In the second story, while it is not as crucial, praise also marks the climactic moment of the plot. Within this pattern, praise interprets events in the narrative as the work of God, and through praise, characters demonstrate their recognition of divine mercy. Finally, Aseneth, like Tobit, serves as a representative character in the narrative, and her praise is suggestive of her symbolic qualities. An overview of the praise motif (along with joy notices) in JA is provided in Table 7. 6
7
Chesnutt, Death to Life, 65‒69. Standhartinger makes the case that the shorter text cannot be understood as a redaction of the longer but rather that the longer version demonstrates intentional redaction of the shorter, imposing a conventional Frauen‐ bild onto an originally more independent Aseneth, Das Frauenbild im Judentum der Hellenistischen Zeit: Ein Beitrag Anhand von Joseph und Aseneth (New York: E.J. Brill, 1995), 219‒25. Along with her challenge to the consensus on date and provenance, Kraemer builds upon Standhartinger’s argument for the originality of the shorter text, When Aseneth, 50‒88. In response to both monographs, Burchard remains strongly in favor of the longer text, “JA Reconsidered,” passim. From a narrative perspective, E. M. Humphrey critiques the arguments made by Standhartinger and Kraemer in favor of the shorter text, presenting evidence for the greater narrative in‐ tegrity of the longer text, Joseph and Aseneth (Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepi‐ grapha; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 19‒26. Interestingly, the praise motif occurs far less frequently in the shorter text, which does not include the following instances of joy/praise (listed in Table 7 below): Ase‐ neth’s discourse about praise (11:8), the blessedness of the bread, cup, and oil (15:5), the laughing of Metanoia (15:8), her attempt to praise the angel (15:12x), the second expression of joy by Aseneth’s family (20:8), Aseneth’s praise upon seeing her trans‐ formed face (20:7‒8), the joy of Aseneth’s family upon her transformation (20:8), Pharaoh’s joy (21:3), and Aseneth’s hymn (21:10‒21).
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Table 7 The Praise Motif in Joseph and Aseneth, with Joy Notices Character
Ref.
Vocabulary
Type of Joy or Praise
Aseneth’s Rejection of Joseph Pentephres
3:3
χαίρω, χαρά μεγάλη, εὐλογητός
Praise & joy notices (with indirect speech)
Aseneth
3:5
χαίρω
Joy notice [not praise of God]
Parents
4:1
χαίρω
Joy notice [foreshadows real praise later]
Aseneth
4:2
χαίρω
Joy notice [not praise of God]
Joseph’s Rejection of Aseneth Joseph
7:8
χαίρω
Joseph
8:5
εὐλογέω
Discourse about praise
Joseph
8:8
No praise verbs
Direct speech of praise
Aseneth
9:1
χαρά, χαίρω,
Joy notice [mixed]
Joy notice
Aseneth’s Acceptance by God Aseneth
11:8
εὐλογέω
Discourse about praise
Aseneth
12:1‒2
No praise verbs
Direct speech of praise
Angel
15:5
εὐλογέω
Discourse about praise
Angel
15:8
γελάω
Discourse about joy [as praise]
Angel
15:9, 10
χαίρω
Discourse about joy [as praise]
Aseneth
15:11‒12
χαίρω, χαρά μεγάλη, εὐλογέω
Joy notice Direct speech of praise
Aseneth
[15:12x]
ὑμνέω, δοξάζω
Discourse about praise
Aseneth’s New Identity Aseneth
18:10
χαίρω, χαρά μεγάλη
Joy notice [as praise]
Family
20:6
χαίρω, διδόναι δόξαν
Joy & praise notice
Corporate
20:8
εὐφραίνω
Joy notice
Pharaoh
21:4, 6
χαίρω, χαρά μεγάλη
Joy notice [as praise]
Aseneth
21:10
ἐξομολογέω, χαίρω
Joy & praise notice
Divine Rescue Pharaoh’s son
24:19
χαίρω
Joy notice [wrong joy]
Aseneth
27:10
No praise verbs
Direct speech of praise
Joseph
29:9
δοξάζω, αἰνέω
Praise notice [in ms B only]
NOTES: In 20:8, corporate praise includes Aseneth’s family and possibly Joseph. In 21:4, Mss P and Q include praise of God (εὐλογητός ὁ θεός). In 21:10, there are textual vari‐ ances related to praise vocabulary: Possible alternatives include ὕμνος, προσευχή, and εὐχαριστέω, Burchard, Fink, and Burfeind, Joseph und Aseneth, 264‒5.
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1. The Plot of Joseph and Aseneth The narrative of JA opens with a focus on setting and character, describing Aseneth’s home in Heliopolis and her life there in seclusion, attended by seven virgins (chs. 1‒2). A beautiful, unusual, and aloof young woman, Aseneth is paradoxically both pure (a committed virgin) and polluted (a devout worshipper of idols). Following this opening section, the narrative introduces the subject of the first story: the rocky road to marriage between Aseneth and Joseph (chs. 3‒4). Joseph’s pending arrival at Aseneth’s home brings her parents (Pentephres and her unnamed mother) rushing back to the city from their agricultural property to meet him. Pentephres tells Ase‐ neth of his plan to propose her marriage to Joseph, and this suggestion in‐ troduces into the plot a first narrative tension: Aseneth angrily resists, de‐ claring Joseph her social inferior. But this tension is quickly resolved when Joseph appears on the scene (chs. 5‒6). At first sight of him, Aseneth reverses her opinion entirely, deeply regretting her previous response and wishing that they might yet marry. Their first meeting introduces the second, primary narrative tension (chs. 7‒8): while Joseph accepts Aseneth’s identity as virgin, he rejects inti‐ macy with her because of her worship of Egyptian gods, a resistance epitomized in his unwillingness to kiss her. Aseneth retreats in distress to her room, and Joseph leaves Pentephres’ house (ch. 9). The narrative then turns to focus on Aseneth’s actions of repentance (ch. 10), her inner turmoil and address to God (chs. 11‒13), and her interaction with a heavenly man who appears in her room (chs. 14‒17). In the scenes with the heavenly man, Aseneth moves (metaphorically) from death to life. Her spiritual transformation in these scenes makes her a daughter of God and a worthy partner for Joseph, a change that resolves the narrative tension created by Joseph’s initial rejection. Following the man’s departure, Aseneth experiences an outer (physical) transformation that mirrors her inner (spiritual) change (ch. 18). When Joseph returns, he accepts her, and after conversing about their revelatory experiences, they kiss and finally marry (chs. 19‒20). Following the birth of her children, Aseneth interprets her experience with a hymn of praise (ch. 21). The nar‐ rative then turns to the second primary plot line: a plan by Pharaoh’s son to take Aseneth for himself by force (chs. 22‒29). Within the plot of Joseph and Aseneth, the praise motif appears in a vari‐ ety of ways: through praise and joy notices, direct speech of praise, indirect speech of praise, and discourse about praise. Praise and joy permeate the first story (chs. 1‒21) but appear far less frequently in the second (chs. 22‒29). Overall, the praise/joy motif clusters around five aspects of the plot, as will be explored in detail below. They are as follows: 1)
In the dialogue between Aseneth and her parents early in the story, expressions of praise and joy establish the first narrative tension (Ase‐
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2)
3)
4)
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neth’s rejection of Joseph) and anticipate the marriage of Aseneth to Jo‐ seph (3:3, 5; 4:1, 3). In the first scenes of interaction between Aseneth and Joseph, expres‐ sions of joy and dialogue about praise establish the second, primary narrative tension (Joseph’s rejection of Aseneth) and anticipate Ase‐ neth’s transformation (7:8; 8:5, 8; 9:1). In the scenes between Aseneth and the heavenly man, discourse about joy and praise and Aseneth’s pivotal expression of joyous praise to God give evidence of Aseneth’s transformation, resolving the primary ten‐ sion in the plot of the first story and enabling her marriage to Joseph (11:8, 12:1‒2; 14:1; 15:5; 15:8‒12). In the falling action and dénouement of the first story, joyous praise con‐ firms and responds to both the transformation of Aseneth and her marriage to Joseph, while Aseneth’s praise interprets her experience and serves as a bridge to the second story (18:10; 20:7‒8; 21:3, 10). In the second story, through direct speech of praise, Aseneth again in‐ terprets her experience, linking the narrative’s two stories and marking the climactic moment in the plot of the second story (27:10).
2. Joy, Praise, and Aseneth’s Rejection of Joseph (chs. 3‒4) In the first clustering of praise, the appearance of Joseph in Aseneth’s home initiates a series of scenes focused on Aseneth and her parents. Their inter‐ action, which introduces the first narrative tension in the plot, involves four expressions of praise and joy that alternate between the two parties. Pentephres, upon learning of Joseph’s imminent visit, rejoices and offers praise to God, in the form of a berakah (3:3). καὶ ἤκουσε ταῦτα Πεντεφρῆς καὶ ἐχάρη χαρὰν μεγάλην σφόδρα καὶ εἶπεν »εὐλογητὸς ὁ θεὸς τοῦ Ἰωσὴφ ὅτι ἂξιόν με ἡγήσατο ὁ κύριός μου Ἰωσὴφ ἔρχεσθαι πρὸς ἡμᾶς« (3:3) And Pentephres heard this and rejoiced exceedingly with great joy and said, “Blessed is the Lord God of Joseph because my Lord Joseph considered me worthy to come to us.”
Joseph’s visit prompts Pentephres and his wife to return home from their property outside the city, and Aseneth responds to their return with joy (χαίρω) (3:5). When Aseneth dons special clothing and rushes downstairs to greet her parents, Pentephres and his wife again express great joy:
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καὶ ἐχάρησαν Πεντεφρῆς καὶ ἡ γυνὴ αὐτοῦ ἐπὶ τῇ θυγατρὶ αὐτῶν Ἀσενὲθ χαρὰν μεγάλην διότι αὐτὴν κεκοσμημένην ὡς νύμφην θεοῦ (4:1) And Pentephres and his wife rejoiced with great joy over their daughter Ase‐ neth, because [they were seeing] her adorned like a bride of God.8
Aseneth in turn echoes this joy when she sees the gifts her parents bring: καὶ ἐχάρη ἐπὶ πᾶσι τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς Ἀσενὲθ ἐπί τε τῇ ὀπώρᾳ καὶ τῇ σταφυλῇ καὶ τοῖς φοίνιξι καὶ ταῖς περιστεραῖς καὶ ταῖς ῥοαῖς καὶ τοῖς σύκοις διότι ἤσαν πάντα ὡραῖα καὶ καλὰ τῇ γεύσει And Aseneth rejoiced over all the good things, over the fruit, grapes, dates, doves, pomegranates, and figs, because they were all beautiful and good to taste.
On one level, these four moments of joy (and one explicit expression of praise of God) anticipate the coming marriage of Aseneth and Joseph. The joy and praise of Aseneth’s parents is first associated with the pending arri‐ val of Joseph (3:3) and then with the evocative simile of Aseneth dressed as a bride (4:1), an image that will become reality later in the story (18:3). Ase‐ neth’s first expression of joy relates indirectly to the announcement of Jo‐ seph’s visit (which in turn triggers her reunion with her parents), while her second expression of joy responds to the rich imagery of abundant, good, beautiful, and tasty fruit, recalling the agricultural fertility of the primeval garden in Gen 2:9.9 These two adjectives describe Joseph in Gen 39:6, as well, and when Aseneth first sees Joseph, he is covered in fruit (καρπός) (5:5).10 The gift of Aseneth’s parents then suggests her future source of joy and praise: marriage to Joseph and the fruit it will produce (Manasseh and Ephraim). In keeping with our focus on praise of God, it must be noted that only one of these four responses is clearly an expression of praise of God. What of the other three? It could be argued that the joy of the characters in this scene, via shared vocabulary, links back to Pentephres’ opening berakah (3:3), which clearly represents praise of God, albeit directed not to his own God but to the God of Joseph. However, after this initial narrative link be‐ tween joy and praise, praise drops from the scene, leaving only the more 8
This description is similar to the depiction of the heavenly Jerusalem in Rev 21:9: καὶ τὴν πόλιν τὴν ἁγίαν Ἰερουσαλὴμ καινὴν εἶδον καταβαίνουσαν ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἀπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ ἡτοιμασμένην ὡς νύμφην κεκοσμημένην τῷ ἀνδρὶ αὐτῆς. Cf. Isa 61:10. On bridal adornment as a topos in Jewish and Greek literature, see Aune, Revelation, 3:1121‒22. 9 The item “doves” (περιστεραῖς) is out of sync with the rest of the list, although the manuscripts offer no alternative, Burchard, Fink, and Burfeind, Joseph und Aseneth, 91. Burchard raises the possibility of a corruption from ταῖς περσικαῖς (peaches) or τοίς πιστακιοῖς (pistachios). 10 As Burchard notes, Joseph’s beauty “was proverbial.” Although he is never de‐ scribed in JA precisely with the two adjectives from Gen 39:6, his beauty appears in 6:4 and 7:3 (both κάλλος). Aseneth herself is first introduced as ὡραῖα and καλή (1:5). Throughout the text, Aseneth and Joseph share numerous attributes in common, Chesnutt, Death to Life, 110‒11.
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ambiguous expressions of joy. It seems legitimate to think of Pentephres’ second expression of joy as continued praise (4:1), but his daughter’s joy in this section (3:5; 4:2)—despite the way it subtly foreshadows her later joy‐ ous praise of God—certainly cannot yet be considered praise of the God of Joseph. This point becomes clear in her extreme rejection of both Joseph and his faith in the next scene. So on another level, through the ambiguity of Aseneth’s joy, the narra‐ tive artfully introduces the first tension in the story, setting up the reader to be surprised by Aseneth’s intense rejection of Joseph. As we have seen, the intermingled joy of parents and daughter connects Aseneth’s joy to Joseph’s visit and to images evoking her future marriage (adornment as a bride, good and beautiful fruit). It also creates the impression of familial cohe‐ siveness, leading the reader to expect that Aseneth will share her parents’ positive evaluation of Joseph, described by her father as a ruler and savior who worships God and mirrors Aseneth’s moral purity (4:7). But the story quickly reverses this expectation. At the news of her father’s intent to pur‐ sue her marriage to Joseph, Aseneth’s joy dissolves into intense anger, and she offers a passionate counter description of Joseph as a captive, alien, fugitive former slave with a sketchy moral past who interprets dreams as if he were an old Egyptian woman (5:9‒12). In light of Aseneth’s extreme emotional shift from joy to red‐faced, sweating anger, the reader realizes that Aseneth differs from her parents, who accept and praise Joseph and his God. This surprise forces reevalu‐ ation of her character. Unlike Pentephres and his wife, the arrogant Ase‐ neth despises Joseph (and by extension, his God). Her physical purity, al‐ though it shares surface similarities with Joseph’s moral demeanor, serves idolatry.11 If she is like a “bride of God,” the word θεός cannot—at least on the primary layer of the plot—point toward her orientation to the God of Joseph but rather some other god among the many whose names adorn her (3:6). This reassessment suggests to the reader that despite certain parallels between the two main characters, Aseneth is spiritually unfit for Joseph, as will be made clear in the second clustering of joy and praise.
11 In addition, in her flash of anger, Aseneth reveals that her rejection of suitors has not been motivated by a commitment to virginity but rather by her intent to hold out for the king’s son (4:11), who in turn wishes to marry her, as well (1:7). But Pharaoh has already declared the match socially beneath his son (1:8). These two details about the potential relationship between Pharaoh’s son and Aseneth set up the intrigue of the second major section of the narrative, in which Pharaoh’s son seeks to break up the marriage of Joseph and Aseneth. Pharaoh’s rejection of Aseneth as socially inferior matches Aseneth’s initial rejection of Joseph.
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3. Joy, Praise, and Joseph’s Rejection of Aseneth (chs. 7‒9) The second clustering of joy and praise, which introduces the second narra‐ tive tension, centers on interaction between Aseneth and Joseph and in‐ volves two joy notices (7:8; 9:1) that bracket discourse about praise (8:5) and direct speech of praise without explicit praise verbs (8:8). The first joy notice occurs right before Joseph and Aseneth first meet. Aseneth, having reversed her opinion of Joseph, has now petitioned God that they be mar‐ ried (6:7‒8).12 Seeking to convince Joseph to meet Aseneth personally, her father emphasizes her commitment to virginity, news to which Joseph re‐ sponds with an amplified expression of joy: καὶ ἐχάρη Ἰωσὴφ χαρὰν μεγάλην σφόδρα διότι εἶπε Πεντεφρῆς ὅτι »παρθένος ἐστὶ μισοῦσα πάντα ἄνδρα« And Joseph rejoiced exceedingly with great joy because Pentephres had said, “She is a virgin hating every man.”
While Joseph’s joy is not directed explicitly to God, the phrase ἐχάρη χαρὰν μεγάλην σφόδρα links it back to the berakah of Pentephres (3:3). As in the previous scenes, this joy response leads the reader to expect that despite Joseph’s initial resistance, he may with this new knowledge accept the vir‐ ginal Aseneth. But again, the narrative quickly reverses this expectation, offering another mild surprise to the reader: Joseph keeps Aseneth (liter‐ ally) at arm’s length, refusing to kiss her. This refusal of intimacy, as noted above, introduces the second, primary tension in the plot. Joseph justifies his rejection of Aseneth through discourse about praise of God. He asserts that Aseneth’s unsuitability derives precisely from her lack of praise offered to the true God and from incorrect praise offered to idols:
12 Aseneth’s petition voices this request in terms of slavery, “and now, let my father give me to Joseph to be a maidservant and slave,” a desire, as Burchard observes, akin to the prodigal son’s hope as he decides to return to his father in Lk 15:19. In both JA and Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son, those who return are greeted with joy, both human (Lk 15:39; Jos. Asen. 20:6, 8) and heavenly (Lk 15:7, 10; possibly, Jos. Asen. 15:8, the laughter of heavenly Metanoia). Burchard notes the latter connection.
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οὐκ ἔστι προσῆκον ἀνδρὶ θεοσεβεῖ, ὃς εὐλογεῖ τῷ στόματι αὐτοῦ τὸν θεὸν τὸν ζῶντα καὶ ἐσθίει ἄρτον εὐλογημένον ζωῆς καὶ πίνει ποτήριον εὐλογημένον ἀθανασίας καὶ χρίεται χρίσματι εὐλογημένῳ ἀφθαρσίας, φιλῆσαι γυναῖκα ἀλλοτρίαν ἥτις εὐλογεῖ τῷ στόματι αὐτῆς εἴδωλα νεκρὰ καὶ κωφὰ καὶ ἐσθίει ἐκ τῆς τραπέζης αὐτῶν ἄρτον ἀγχόνης καὶ πίνει ἐκ τῆς σπονδῆς αὐτῶν ποτήριον ἐνέδρας καὶ χρίεται χρίσματι ἀπωλείας· ἀλλ’ ἀνὴρ θεοσεβὴς φιλήσει τὴν μητέρα αὐτοῦ καὶ τὴν ἀδελφὴν τὴν ἐκ τῆς φυλῆς αὐτοῦ καὶ τῆς συγγενείας αὐτοῦ καὶ τὴν γυναῖκα τὴν σύγκοιτον αὐτοῦ αἵτινες εὐλογοῦσι τῷ στόματι αὐτῶν τὸν θεὸν τὸν ζῶντα (8:5‒6) It is not fitting for a God‐worshipping man, who blesses the Living God with his mouth and eats blessed bread of life and drinks a blessed cup of immortality and anoints himself with blessed oil of incorruptibility, to kiss a strange woman, who blesses with her mouth dead and dumb idols and eats from their table bread of strangulation and drinks from their libation a cup of treachery and anoints herself with the oil of destruction. But a God‐worshipping man will kiss his mother and his sister of his tribe and his family and his wife who shares his bed, all of whom bless the Living God with their mouths.
While bread, wine, and oil suggest a variety of interesting metaphorical possibilities, Joseph focuses on the blessedness of these three things: praise of the Living God (presumably in the form of a berakah) imbues them with efficacy to bring life, immortality, and incorruptibility.13 Conversely, idola‐ trous “blessing” of the same three items endows them with deathly quali‐ ties. Joseph claims that by wrong praise, Aseneth pollutes her mouth and imbues herself with death. Her mouth then is entirely unsuitable for inti‐ macy with his own, which voices berakot and imbues Joseph with life. Jo‐ seph’s rejection points to Aseneth’s identity as the primary obstacle in the plot, tying it to the presence or absence of praise of God. His speech also establishes the transformation required to overcome the tension related to
13 This statement should not be taken to imply that these items are literally trans‐ formed through praise but rather that their life‐giving significance derives from their intimate association with proper berakot, and by extension, with God. See also R. D. Chesnutt, “Perceptions of Oil in Early Judaism and the Meal Formula in Joseph and Aseneth” JSP 14 (2005): 113‒32, who demonstrates the importance of proper use of oil in a variety of ancient Jewish sources and relates these findings to Aseneth’s trans‐ formation.
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identity: Aseneth’s abandonment of idolatry and the purification of her mouth by means of proper berakot to the Living God.14 In a petition that opens with praise of God, Joseph looks forward to this change in Aseneth. Seeing Aseneth’s distress at his rejection, he merci‐ fully seeks God’s blessing for her. Like the characters in Tobit, Joseph intro‐ duces his request with six lines of praise: 15 Κύριε ὁ θεὸς τοῦ πατρός μου Ἰσραήλ, ὁ ὕψιστος, ὁ δυνατὸς τοῦ Ἰακὼβ ὁ ζωοποιήσας τὰ πάντα καὶ καλέσας ἀπὸ τοῦ σκότους εἰς τὸ φῶς καὶ ἀπὸ τῆς πλάνης εἰς τὴν ἀλήθειαν καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ θανάτου εἰς τὴν ζωήν (8:9) Lord God of my father Israel, the Most High, the Powerful One of Jacob who gave life to all things and called them from the darkness to the light and from the error to the truth and from the death to the life . . .
In lauding God as creator and re‐creator, Joseph’s praise at first appears to be descriptive in nature. However, because it points forward to divine work in Aseneth’s transformation, it functions in the narrative as proleptic declarative praise.16 God (as creator) brings people from death to life, which is precisely what will happen to Aseneth.17 It is worth noting that in 14 The association of praise with religious identity corresponds with what we have seen in Tobit and in the survey of discourse on praise beginning on p. 44. Praise of God is an identifying mark of the righteous person, who is in relationship with God. Thus, the absence of praise signals a spiritual deficit. For Tobit, this deficit is arro‐ gance, despair, and blindness (both physical and spiritual). For Aseneth, it is arro‐ gance, idolatrous praise, and a polluted mouth. (Aseneth’s arrogance will be ad‐ dressed below.) Both characters require transformation by God. Arrogance also silences praise (or produces wrong praise) in Luke‐Acts, as we shall see. 15 Philonenko’s text adds a seventh line of praise: σὺ αὐτὸς κύριε ζωοποίησον. 16 Despite the fact that this instance of the motif involves no explicit praise vocabulary, the content of the quotation nevertheless indicates praise. As outlined on p. 9 above, praise of God may be narrated in a variety of ways, one of which is direct speech without explicit praise verbs, either in the narration or quotation. This praise speech by Joseph and two by Aseneth (12:1‒2; 27:10), all introducing petition, are the only clear examples of such praise in the three narratives studied, with the possible addi‐ tions of Lk 1:25 and Tob 3:2. The former cannot be absolutely identified as praise, while the latter may be ironic in nature, although notably, it introduces petition. In general, in Tobit, petitions that open with praise begin with berakot (with the excep‐ tion of Tob 3:2), whereas in JA, they open with these participial and predicative statements about God that lack explicit praise vocabulary. 17 Movement from death to life will serve as an important reoccurring metaphor for her conversion (8:9; 12:1‒2; 15:5, 12; 20:7; 27:10), Chesnutt, Death to Life, 145‒9. Chesnutt argues that Aseneth’s movement from death to life constitutes a change “of status, not of essential nature,” 148. She moves from idolatry to worship of the true God and the contrast between these two states “is so radical that it is best expressed with the language of re‐creation,” 149. However, “to read more into the language of
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all but one of these instances, the death‐to‐life metaphor is expressed through praise, a point upon which we will elaborate below. Finally, in direct response to Joseph’s speech of praise and petition on her behalf, Aseneth rejoices (χαίρω). As before, this scene associates Ase‐ neth’s joy with the praise of another character (Joseph), but here—as op‐ posed to her joy in chapters three to four—the ambiguous quality of her response is clear from the start, for it is mixed with fear, distress, trembling, and sweating (9:1). This mixed response reinforces her isolation in the nar‐ rative, within which state she takes the important first step of conversion: a rejection of idolatry.18 But in the transformation scenes, to which we turn next, the initial ambiguity of her joy response will fall away and Aseneth will ultimately express a clear, joyous berakah.
4. Joyous Praise and Angelic Revelation of Aseneth’s Acceptance by God (chs. 10‒15) In the complex scenes of Aseneth’s transformation, as the reader sees her move (metaphorically) from death to life, Aseneth’s spiritual change is mir‐ rored in her responses of joy and praise. These responses progress from mixed joy (9:1, discussed above) to praise speech (12:1‒2) to clear joy in response to divine activity (14:1) and finally to the climactic moment of her berakah, accompanied by amplified joy, which signals her recognition of divine mercy and her worthiness to marry Joseph, resolving the major ten‐ sion of the plot. Along the way, both she and the angel make repeated as‐ sertions about joy and praise, emphasizing for the reader the importance of Aseneth’s new ability to open her mouth in praise of God.19 Aseneth’s movement toward praise involves scenes of intense prepara‐ tion, including seven days of mourning (10:8‒17) and disposal of her idols and deathly food of idolatry (10:12‒13). On the eighth day, she begins a creation and construe it in terms of a ritual act or process which effects some sort of psychological or ontological transformation is to introduce ideas into Joseph and Ase‐ neth for which there is no warrant in the text,” 149. 18 In chapter 9, while Aseneth in this state of mixed response returns to the solitude of her room and commits herself to abandon idolatry, Joseph leaves her house. The scene thus serves as a bridge between the plot‐centered opening narrative section (chs. 1‒9) and the transformation‐centered middle section (chs. 10‒18). It involves elements of both. 19 Humphrey observes the encomiastic character of the transformation scenes (chs. 10‒17). “Reference to ‘blessing’ and to what is ‘blessed’ because of contact with God permeate the epiphany; the joy of Aseneth at the messenger’s words (15:11) is recip‐ rocated by the messenger, who appreciates her ability to receive these mysteries so gladly and with such awe (16:12‒14). This rhetorical mode of celebration fits well with the mystery of chs. 14‒17, for the biblical pattern joins revelation with fear, then praise,” Joseph and Aseneth, 99.
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series of three soliloquies. In the first two, she ruminates silently on her humiliation before God, twice trying to summon the courage to address Joseph’s deity in a spoken petition (11:10‒14; 11:18). These first two solilo‐ quies reiterate Joseph’s discourse about praise. In each, Aseneth links her estrangement from God with her improper praise of idols and refers to her mouth as defiled (11:8‒9, 16).20 In fact, it is precisely because of her wrong praise in the past (directed toward Egyptian gods) that she fears to call on God’s holy name in the present (11:17). Aseneth feels utterly rejected by God, and the narrative will show interest in narrating her eventual recogni‐ tion of divine mercy. In her third soliloquy, Aseneth finds the courage to open her mouth to God, speaking direct speech of praise (12:1‒2).21 Much of Aseneth’s praise acknowledges God’s creative power, and like Joseph’s earlier praise speech, it focuses on the divine ability to bring life: Κύριε ὁ θεὸς τῶν αἰώνων ὁ κτίσας τὰ πάντα καὶ ζωοποιήσας ὁ δοὺς πνοὴν ζωῆς πάσῃ τῇ κτίσει σου . . . ὅτι σὺ κύριε ἐλάλησας καὶ ἐξωογονήθησαν ὅτι ὁ λόγος σου κύριε ζωή ἐστι πάντων τῶν κτισμάτων σου Lord God of the ages, who created and brought life to all things who gave breath of life to your whole creation . . . because you, Lord, spoke and they were brought to life, because your word, Lord, is life for all your creatures.
Aseneth’s praise speech points forward to her transformation (from death to life), and it also suggests that her defiled mouth is changing, for she suc‐ ceeds in voicing praise to God, albeit not the berakah that Joseph has re‐ quired (8:5‒6). 20 In the first instance, she declares that God hates her because she blessed (εὐλογέω) dead and dumb idols (11:8), but in the second, she says, “my mouth is defiled . . . from the blessings (εὐλογιῶν) of the gods of the Egyptians” (11:16). Burchard ob‐ serves that the word εὐλογία in the latter case “means ‘blessed gifts,’ rather than ‘words of blessing’.” However, εὐλογία certainly may refer to epideictic speech in standard Greek, LSJ s.v., e.g. Rom 16:18. And in some Jewish texts, the word does mean a spoken blessing directed to God, e.g., Tob 8:15; Neh 9:15, cf. Rev 5:12‒13; 7:12. James 3:9‒10 is especially close to the context in JA: “With [the tongue] we bless (εὐλογέω) the Lord and Father, and with it we curse those who are made in the like‐ ness of God. From the same mouth come blessing (εὐλογία) and cursing. My broth‐ ers and sisters, this ought not to be so.” In JA, the parallel between 11:8 and 11:16 strongly suggests that εὐλογία refers to spoken praise. Yet this distinction may not be necessary, for in berakot related to meals, spoken praise imbues the meal with a blessed quality (that is, a quality of praise for gifts received) so that the gift received and praise expressed merge as one εὐλογία, H. Beyer, εὐλογέω, εὐλογητός, εὐλογία, ἐνευλογέω, TDNT 2:754‒65, 760‒1. In JA, food and blessing are similarly bound to‐ gether. 21 Like Joseph’s direct speech of praise in chapter 8, no explicit praise vocabulary is used.
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On the level of the plot, Aseneth’s speech to God is also effective, for when she finishes praising the Lord (ὡς ἐπαύσατο Ἀσενὲθ ἐξομολογουμένη τῷ κυρίῳ), the morning star rises out of heaven in the east, portending the arrival of the heavenly man.22 She greets this turn of events with joy (χαίρω), recognizing in it God’s answer to her prayer (14:1). Because Ase‐ neth’s joy here responds positively and directly to divine activity, it should probably be considered a moment of implicit praise. Much of chapter 15 consists of speech by the heavenly man, who re‐ sponds to her petition by revealing divine love and mercy and predicting Joseph’s acceptance. He declares that from that day forward, Aseneth will be made alive again (15:5), eat blessed bread, et. al. (15:5‒6), be given to Joseph as a bride (15:6; 10), be renamed City of Refuge (15:7‒8), be loved by the heavenly Metanoia, and finally, be accepted by Joseph (15:9‒10). Joy and praise infuse this rhetoric. The blessed bread, cup, and oil recall Jo‐ seph’s speech about blessing God (15:5).23 Metanoia is described as “always laughing” (γελῶσα πάντοτε) (15:8).24 And at the very end of his speech, the heavenly man twice depicts Joseph’s acceptance of Aseneth with imagery of joy: when he sees her, Joseph will rejoice (χαίρω) over Aseneth (15:9‒10). This anticipation of Joseph’s joy, which concludes the speech, marks the climax of the plot of the first story, because it relieves the tension that began with Joseph’s rejection of Aseneth.25 The heavenly man (who presumably must be trusted) has assured Aseneth of her acceptance by God and de‐ clared the end of Joseph’s rejection: by divine intervention, Joseph will no longer keep Aseneth at arm’s length but will rejoice over her, welcoming her as a bride. As in Tobit, this climactic moment is greeted with praise. To the speech, Aseneth responds with a joyous berakah: ἐχάρη Ἀσενὲθ χαρὰν μεγάλην ἐπὶ πᾶσι τοῖς ῥήμασιν αὐτοῦ . . . καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ εὐλογημένος κὺριος ὁ θεός σου ὁ ὕψιστος ὅς ἐξαπεστειλέ σε τοῦ ῥύσασθαί με ἐκ τοῦ σκότους
22 The man appears in response to her petition, just as in Tobit the angel arrives on the scene in response to the petitions of Tobit and Sarah. But in JA, this connection is not as explicit. Cf. Dan 9:20‒23. While the man is never referred to as an angel, that is the implication. 23 As argued above, the expressions of praise are implicit in the blessed bread, cup, and oil. 24 Occasionally in the LXX and NT, laughter connotes joy (χαρά), e.g., Gen 21:6; Jam 4:9. In one case, it parallels praise (ἐξομολόγησις), Job 8:21. Burchard notes the affin‐ ity of joyful Metanoia with the Lukan depiction of joy in heaven over sinners who repent, Lk 15:7, 10. 25 The remaining transformation scenes (chs. 16‒18) are falling action: they confirm and reinforce the implications of her (unseen) change by means of visual imagery. The end of the first story (chs. 19‒21) comprises the dénouement, unraveling the plot by showing responses to Aseneth’s change and by narrating the marriage.
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καὶ ἀναγαγεῖν με ἀπὸ τῶν θεμελίων τῆς ἀβύσσου καὶ εὐλογημένον τὸ ὄνομά σου εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα (15:11‒12) Aseneth rejoiced with great joy for all his words . . . and she said to him Blessed be the Lord your God the Most High who sent you out to rescue me from the darkness and to bring me up from the foundations of the abyss, and blessed be your name forever.
Aseneth’s praise interprets her experience as a rescue by God through the agency of the heavenly man, which recalls plot elements discussed in the study of Tobit above.26 It is significant that Aseneth, in her praise, credits God with her transformation. She has not only converted (repented, given away the elements of idolatry, lamented, petitioned, and praised) but God has done something to her through the divine agent(s). Aseneth has been rescued from darkness and brought up from the abyss. She also seeks to praise the heavenly man, but he resists this impulse (15:12x).27 In regard to narrative structure, Aseneth’s joyful berakah closely corresponds to Pentephres’ blessing of God, which began the plot line focused on the un‐ ion of Joseph and Aseneth; Pharaoh’s similar joyful response will close it. Thus the praise motif (with joy) marks not only the climax but also the outer ends of the plot. It is important to observe the relationship between this praise speech of Aseneth and the resolution of narrative tension that immediately precedes it. As observed above, Joseph’s rejection singled out Aseneth’s wrong praise (idolatrous blessing and related food, drink, and oil) as the key impedi‐ ment to intimacy with her, contrasting her with acceptable women who “bless with their mouths the Living God” (7:7). Now, in response to divine mercy, Aseneth blesses the Most High as the one who has brought her up from the abyss (which normally symbolizes death). In other words, when 26 In his hymn, Tobit praises God as one who “leads down to Hades in the lowest re‐ gions of the earth, and he brings up from the great abyss” (κατάγει ἕως ᾅδου κατωτάτω τῆς γῆς καὶ αὐτὸς ἀνάγει ἐκ τῆς ἀπωλείας τῆς μεγάλης) (13:2). The narra‐ tor of Tobit describes Raphael as being sent (ἀποστέλλω) so that Tobit might see God’s light with his eyes (ἵνα ἴδῃ τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς τὸ φῶς τοῦ θεοῦ) (3:17). 27 The same dynamic seems to occur in Tobit. When Raphael reveals himself, Tobit falls on his face before him and the angel replies, “Bless God forevermore . . . when I was with you I was not acting by my own will but by the will of God. . . . Bless him each and every day; sing his praises” (NRSV) (12:16‒18). So too, in Luke, the Samaritan leper falls at Jesus’ feet. While Jesus does not correct him, he does focus on praise di‐ rected to God rather than to himself (see 191 below). In Acts, Cornelius seeks to wor‐ ship the human mediator of his conversion, in language very close to that in JA (10:25). Scenes featuring praise misdirected to the apostles occur frequently, creating problems in Acts. See p. 6, n.16 above. In regard to Joseph and Aseneth, Humphrey finds the heavenly man’s resistance to Aseneth’s praise and the refusal to provide his name to be highly significant: the “undivulged innermost mystery.” She argues that his resistance to Aseneth’s praise provides evidence against Kraemer’s argument that he is a figure akin to Metatron, Joseph and Aseneth, 57‒61.
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Aseneth blesses the God who gives life to the dead, she does the very thing necessary to demonstrate her worthiness for marriage to Joseph.28 This berakah by Aseneth then confirms her new identity (death to life) by show‐ ing that she has heard and recognized the revelation of divine acceptance.29 Aseneth’s praise also provides evidence that her mouth has been trans‐ formed. Thus, if it is legitimate to seek a single pivotal moment in the com‐ plex scenes of her transformation, analysis of plot points to this berakah.30 One major issue in interpretation of these revelatory scenes is whether they represent a kind of Merkavah mysticism, in which esoteric revelatory experience results in Aseneth’s transformation, or whether these scenes merely confirm Aseneth’s conversion, which essentially takes place before the heavenly man appears.31 Humphrey seeks to find a mean between these two options, arguing on the one hand that finding theurgic practices in JA goes too far (e.g., the divine figure is neither named nor praised, as in Mer‐ kavah literature) but on the other hand that the narrative depicts Aseneth’s revelatory experience as constitutive of her transformation.32 A comparison with Tobit supports this attempt to find a balance be‐ tween the two views. Tobit’s revelatory experience with the angel is cer‐ tainly not theurgic in nature, yet it does transform him: the narrative makes it clear that Tobit must not simply experience divine healing without revela‐ tion but must also recognize the full extent of divine mercy. This recogni‐ 28 By extension, if Aseneth can bless God, she will be able to eat blessed food, drink a blessed cup, and be anointed with blessed oil, as the heavenly man confirms a bit later, in the scene with the honeycomb (16:16). 29 E. M. Humphrey takes a different approach to the structure of the plot of the first story, The Ladies and the Cities: Transformation and Apocalyptic Identity in Joseph and Aseneth, 4 Ezra, the Apocalypse and the Shepherd of Hermas (JSPSup 17; Sheffield: Shef‐ field Academic Press, 1995), 40‒51; idem, Joseph and Aseneth, 104‒6. Yet she similarly concludes that these two verses (15:11‒12) serve as its center. She identifies two nested chiasms governing the structure of the first story. The first, larger pattern places the vision sequence (chs. 14‒17) at the center of the chiasm. The second, smaller structure—within the vision sequence itself—centers on 15:11‒12. If one ac‐ cepts her structural analysis, then Aseneth’s praise comprises the center of the struc‐ ture of the narrative’s first story. 30 But such an observation still allows that Aseneth’s change unfolds in a long process leading up to and following this moment. This process includes both independent activity (ridding herself of idols and associated items, acts of repentance, internal conflict, summoning the courage to address God, speech of praise and petition) and revelatory experiences (changing clothes at the direction of the heavenly man, being renamed, eating the honeycomb, experiencing the vision of the bees, and gaining supernatural beauty). For an anthropological analysis of three stages of conversion in these scenes, see R. C. Douglas, “Liminality and Conversion in Joseph and Ase‐ neth,” JSP 3 (1988): 31‒42. 31 On the former perspective, see H. C. Kee, “The Socio‐Cultural Setting of Joseph and Aseneth,” NTS 29 (1983): 394‒413, Kraemer, When Aseneth, 110‒55. On the latter, see Chesnutt, Death to Life, 211‒4. 32 Humphrey, Joseph and Aseneth, 57‒58.
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tion—a transformation of perspective and a movement from spiritual blindness to sight—occurs precisely as a result of the angelic revelation. So too Aseneth’s berakah (signaling her worthiness to marry Joseph) responds precisely to the angelic revelation that God is intervening to reverse Jo‐ seph’s rejection of her. While she has already abandoned idolatry, she does not, until the angel’s revelation, know of God’s mercy toward her (or the related point of Joseph’s acceptance).33 Recognition—which is crucial in both narratives, and in Luke‐Acts, as we will see—is bound up with inter‐ nal and external change in response to revelatory experience. In these texts, experience with the divine agent engenders transformation yet without the theurgical qualities of mysticism.
5. Communal Praise and Aseneth’s New Identity (chs. 18‒21) In the final scenes of the first story, four responses of individual and com‐ munal joy and praise signal the importance of recognizing divine mercy, confirming and interpreting Aseneth’s outer (physical) transformation and celebrating her marriage as the work of God. First, when Aseneth looks in a mirror and finds her face transformed with supernatural beauty, she “re‐ joices with great joy” (ἐχάρη χαρὰν μεγάλην) (18:10). This response is ech‐ oed communally by her family who, amazed at Aseneth’s beauty, joyously praise the change in her: καὶ ἐχάρησαν καὶ ἔδωκαν δόξαν τῷ θεῷ ζωοποιοῦντι τοὺς νεκροὺς καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα ἔφαγον καὶ ἔπιον καὶ εὐφράνθησαν (20:7‒8) And they rejoiced and gave glory to God, who enlivens the dead. And after these things, they ate, drank, and rejoiced.
This communal praise—by her family and possibly Joseph as well— demonstrates their acceptance of her conversion and their recognition that Aseneth’s change has resulted from divine mercy (again framed in terms of life from death). Aseneth’s “great joy” is finally echoed by that of Pharaoh, in response to Joseph’s request to marry Aseneth (ἐχάρη Φαραὼ χαρὰν μεγάλην) (21:3). These linked expressions of joy and praise lead up to Aseneth’s con‐ cluding hymn, offered following the birth of her children, a long section of direct speech that the narrative introduces as an expression of praise 33 The narrative emphasis on recognition in both stories seems to derive as much from theological concerns as from psychological, but the interiority of the characters is part of the story, as is typical of novels, Wills, Jewish Novel, 184. In Tobit, recognition makes the point that God is at work at all times, even when circumstances suggest otherwise, and that God intervenes to heal. In JA, it drives home that God accepts the penitent (regardless of gender, ethnicity, or previous impurity) and that God is the true force at work in conversion.
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(21:10).34 This long hymn looks back over the events of the narrative and interprets her experience for the reader (21:10).35 Aseneth’s praise speech describes her story as not just a transfer of allegiance (from idolatry) but also as a movement from arrogance and self‐absorption (21:12, 16‒19) to marriage, humility, and capture by divine wisdom (21:20‒21). Aseneth has been “wholly changed.”36 Moreover, she credits this change to God through the agency of Joseph.37 Humphrey writes, “The primary actor be‐ comes not Aseneth, nor simply Joseph, but God, who has sent [Joseph] (and his messenger double) to transform the heroine.”38 Thus, in JA, as in Tobit, the praise motif serves to draw the reader’s attention to divine action in the plot (providence): God has intervened by sending divine agents to rescue and heal.39
6. Aseneth’s Praise and Divine Rescue (chs. 22‒27) In the second story, the tone—with regard to joy and praise—changes. Joy, when it appears, is not positive, and there is only one clear instance of 34 The content of the hymn is primarily confession, but it does praise God at the end, and most textual witnesses to JA include a narrative introduction labeling the hymn as praise, although Burchard speculates that the various introductions arose as mar‐ ginal notes, Burchard, Fink, and Burfeind, Joseph und Aseneth, 264‒5; OTP 2.236. Bur‐ chard selects manuscript E which reads: Καὶ τότε ἤρξατο Ἀσενὲθ ἐξομολογεῖσθαι κυρίῳ τῷ θεῷ καὶ δεομένη ἐπι πᾶσιν οἷς ἠξίωται ἀγαθοῖς παρὰ κυρίου. In translating, Burchard understands ἐχαρίτωσε as a mangled form of the verb εὐχαριστέω [εὐχαριστήσε(ν)?]: “And then Aseneth began to confess to the Lord God and gave thanks, praying, for all the good (things) of which she was deemed worthy by the Lord.” A petition seems out of place, with respect both to the sentence itself and the content of the hymn to follow, as is evident from Burchard’s circumlocution “pray.” If ἐχαρίτωσε were rather understood as the verb χαριτόω (indicative, aorist, active, third, singular), as in Eph 1:6 and T. Jos. 1.6, then the sentence might be trans‐ lated this way: “And then Aseneth began to praise the Lord God, namely that he fa‐ vored [her] with all good things for which she had asked, begging, from the Lord.” (On the use of καί in this way, see Smyth §2869.) This understanding of the sentence makes better sense of its imagery of petition, although δέομαι is still a bit out of place and the meaning of ἐπί is stretched. Interestingly, this sentence corresponds with the depiction of Mary in Lk 1. She interacts with an angel, is said to be favored (χαριτόω), and responds with a hymn of praise (1:28). Still, several other witnesses in Greek have εὐχαριστέω (but without δέομαι or ἀξιόω). 35 Humphrey, Joseph and Aseneth, 66. “By virtue of its position, the psalmic epilogue has the final interpreting word and provides an exegesis of the first tale.” Tobit’s praise functions in a similar way. 36 Ibid., 65. 37 As Humphrey puts it, the hymn interprets “the first tale in terms of what has hap‐ pened to Aseneth, not in terms of what she herself has done,” Ibid., 66. 38 Ibid. 39 Aseneth describes her experience as a movement from castigation to healing (ιἄομαι) in 11:18.
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praise. The sole instance of joy is incorrect joy: Pharaoh’s son rejoices when he hears of the plan of Dan and Gad (24:19).40 Nevertheless, at the climactic moment of the plot, when Bilhah and Zilpah approach Aseneth with bloody swords drawn, praise is heard again (27:7‒10).41 Here Aseneth, fear‐ ing for her life, opens a short petition (“rescue me from the hands of these wicked men”) with three lines of praise: Κύριος ὁ θεός μου ὁ ἀναζωοποιήσας με καὶ ῥυσάμενός με ἐκ τῶν εἰδώλων καὶ τῆς φθορᾶς τοῦ θανάτου ὁ εἰπών μοι ὅτι ›εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα ζήσεται ἡ ψυχή σου‹ (27:7‒10) Lord my God who made me alive again and rescued me from the idols and the corruption of death who said to me, “Your soul will live forever”
Again, Aseneth interprets her experience of reversal in the narrative: rescue from evil idols and from death to life. In this context, her previous experi‐ ence of divine mercy serves as a fitting preamble for her current request: rescue from what appears to be certain death at the hands of evil men.42 Structurally, praise is again associated with the climax of the plot. Whereas in the first story, Aseneth’s praise responded to the climax of the plot, in the second story, her praise (followed by petition) immediately produces it: God hears Aseneth’s voice, and the brothers’ swords fall to the ground in ashes (27:11).43
C. Praise and Aseneth’s Characterization As we have seen, the character of Tobit functions on two levels in the story. On the primary narrative level, he is a verisimilar character involved in a realistic plot. But on a more symbolic level—linked particularly with his praise—his experience of healing by God is representative of the hopes of the community. Tobit’s individual transformation followed by praise serves as a metaphor for the eschatological transformation of Zion. As we turn to Aseneth’s characterization, we find a similar dynamic at work in the narra‐ tive. Aseneth, in fact, is a character even more overtly symbolic than is To‐ bit, functioning both as verisimilar narrative character and symbol. So, we 40 Wrong joy appears in Luke, as well, see p. 235 below. 41 On 27:7 as the climax of the second story, see Humphrey, Joseph and Aseneth, 110‒11. 42 Her earlier petition asks God to rescue her from persecutors (12:7) and from the father of the Egyptian gods (12:10), while her berakah following the announcement of Joseph’s joy praises God for rescuing her from the darkness (15:12). 43 In addition, in manuscript B, the praise of Joseph concludes the narrative: Joseph reigned as king in Egypt “glorifying and praising God” (δοξάζων καὶ αἰνῶν τὸν θεόν), followed by a short doxology.
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raise the same question with regard to Aseneth. To what extent does her praise contribute to her representative characterization? To answer this question, we will first briefly overview Aseneth’s symbolic qualities and then look at how her praise shapes her characterization. The symbolic quality of Aseneth’s characterization is most clearly evi‐ dent in the speech of the heavenly man, who tells her that she will be re‐ named City of Refuge, under whose wings people from many nations who trust in the Lord will be sheltered, in the name of heavenly Metanoia (15:7). Later, he declares again that Aseneth will be “like a walled mother‐city of all who take refuge in the name of the Lord God, the king of the ages” (16:16). This heavenly interpretation of her character is later reiterated by both Aseneth and Joseph, who each repeat these images, adding the infor‐ mation that God will reign in this city as king over many nations forever (19:5, 8), that her “adamantine walls of life” will be founded in the highest (19:8), and that she will provide a home for the sons of the living God. Ase‐ neth’s bridal dress and physical change in appearance provide visual an‐ chors for this symbolic interpretation of her character (18:1‒11). This obviously symbolic language has inspired much speculation about Aseneth’s representative quality, resulting in a variety of conclusions. At issue is whether the symbolic nature of her characterization derives only from these explicit descriptions (15:7; 16:16; 19:5, 8) or from other, more subtle aspects of her presentation in the narrative. The work of Pierre Batif‐ fol represents the latter approach, concluding that Aseneth personifies early Christian understandings of virginity.44 Philonenko argues that Ase‐ neth—beyond serving as a model proselyte—allegorically represents Gnos‐ tic understandings of Neith, Selene, and Logos/Sophia.45 Obviously, such interpretations are closely related to conclusions about the work’s prove‐ nance. Others regard such explorations as too speculative. Burchard, who has been a key advocate for minimizing the metaphorical nature of Aseneth’s characterization, writes, “It remains to be shown that the author . . . in‐ tended Joseph and Aseneth to be more than human figures entangled in the vicissitudes of human love and conversion.”46 Rather, Aseneth’s repre‐ sentative quality derives specifically from the descriptions of her as “City of Refuge”: she is the archetypical proselyte (“das gottewollte Urbild”).47
44 Aseneth, personifying virginity (“la Virginité”), represents the Church or a sort of generalized orantes, P. Batiffol, “Le Livre de la Prière d’Aseneth,” in Studia Patristica: Études d’ancienne littérature chrétienne (1‐2; Paris: Leroux, 1889‒90), 1‒115, 29. 45 Philonenko, Joseph et Aséneth, 53‒89. 46 OTP 2:189. 47 Burchard, Untersuchungen, 117.
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Others share his view.48 Nickelsburg offers a succinct statement of the indi‐ vidual‐communal dynamic from this perspective: Aseneth, who sought refuge, will be a city of refuge (13:12; 15:7). The first proselyte is the prototype of future proselytes. She is both woman and city, proselyte and congregation of proselytes. The immortality she has gained is promised to all who follow her example and thereby become citizens of her city.49
The explicit symbolism (“City of Refuge”) connotes communality, so the individual character Aseneth, at the very least, must represent a commu‐ nity of some sort (even if the nature of that community is debated). This overt symbolism is layered with intertextuality.50 Even Burchard admits that prophetic passages anticipating the restoration of Zion personi‐ fied as a woman likely undergird these pronouncements to Aseneth.51 More generally, Bohak, who argues for the strong influence of Isa 19:18‒25 on JA, summarizes the intertextual relationship with Isaiah as follows: The description of Aseneth as a future “City of Refuge” for “many nations,” for “many peoples who trust in the Lord God,” for “those who attach themselves to the Most High God in the name of Repentance,” and for “the sons of the living God,” is deeply influenced by biblical passages relating to the status of the es‐ chatological Jerusalem.52
So too, Humphrey speculates about eschatological hopes in the text: Does the story conceive of a future time when “all who turn to the Most High, 48 As Chesnutt observed in 1995, the trend up until that point (since Burchard) was in favor of seeing only those symbolic or allegorical elements that are “straightforward and explicit in the narrative of Aseneth’s conversion rather than those supposed to be encoded deep within it,” Death to Life, 45. For an early argument that Aseneth symbolizes the conversion of pagans to Judaism, see V. Aptowitzer, “Aseneth, the Wife of Joseph: A Haggadic Literary‐Historical Study,” HUCA 1 (1924): 239‒306, 286‒99. 49 Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 261. 50 From the previous quotation, Nickelsburg goes on to make the point that the allu‐ sive language of JA exudes polyvalence: it is a “rich, colorful, multi‐faceted, and fi‐ nally elusive text.” 51 He points to LXX Zech 2:15 (“many nations shall flee for refuge to the Lord in that day”) as a possible direct influence on Jos. Asen. 15:7a. He calls the allusive charac‐ terization of Aseneth “metonymy not allegory,” ibid. Other studies have explored wisdom imagery in the narrative’s descriptions of Aseneth, Humphrey, Joseph and Aseneth, 72‒73, 86‒90, When Aseneth, 22‒30. Kraemer points out that the Samaritan community traced their lineage to Aseneth’s children, suggesting that she may be representative of that community, Kraemer, When Aseneth, 184, n.161. Bohak argues that Aseneth’s characterization—particularly the scenes of her interaction with the heavenly man—are meant to evoke the image of the restored temple at Heliopolis. Aseneth’s transformation represents the conversion of a place of pagan worship in Heliopolis into a Jewish temple, which offers a “City of Refuge” for Onias and other Jews living in Egypt. Her story then serves as an apologia for its establishment, Bohak, Jewish Temple, 89‒90, et passim. 52 Ibid., 86.
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whether penitent Jew, of the lost tribes, or transformed Gentiles, will dwell in a place of refuge and peace?”53 More specifically, Kraemer pursues the connection between Aseneth and prophetic passages about daughter Zion or daughter Jerusalem in slightly more detail. She suggests that Aseneth’s portrayal has been in‐ spired by Isaiah’s imagery of haughty Zion turned penitent (Isa 3:16‒26) and of fasting Zion met by a dawning light and restored (Isa 58:1‒14). The scholars cited above argue for different purposes and even time periods for JA, yet they agree that Aseneth calls to mind prophetic restora‐ tion passages, perhaps specifically those depicting Jerusalem personified as a woman. To these previous arguments may be added several more. In Aseneth’s first silent lament (11:3‒14), she describes herself desolate, aban‐ doned, and hated (ἔρημος καὶ ἐγκαταλελειμμένη καὶ μεμισημένη), words that evoke the portraits of personified Jerusalem/Zion in Isaiah.54 In the second petition, she talks about herself as being “in lawlessness” (ἐν ταῖς ἀνομίαις μου) (11:18), a phrase that seems clearly to envision communal sin.55 In both petitions, she refers to herself as one who is in a state of ταπείνωσις, which alongside these other possible allusions, is suggestive.56 As noted above, the statement about Aseneth’s bridal dress also suggests the bride Jerusalem. When these details are added to others already observed, the allusions to Jerusalem/Zion appear relatively “loud.” If so, then here is another similarity with Tobit, who as argued above, represents his community’s eschatological future, a future similarly imaged as the restoration of Jerusalem personified as a woman (Tob 13:10‒18). That Aseneth represents communal hopes in language drawn from prophetic depictions of Jerusalem’s eschatological future seems clear. What is less evident—given the murky understanding of JA’s historical context—is what this hope may have represented in the real world of the implied read‐ ers of JA.57 At the very least, it seems safe to say that Aseneth’s individual 53 Humphrey, Joseph and Aseneth, 104. 54 The three words appear together to describe the woman Zion in Isa 54:1‒6. The first two together describe the city personified in Isa 62:4 and Bar 4:19, while the last two appear together only in reference to Jerusalem as a woman, Isa 54:6; 60:15. Ἔρημος is almost a code word for the woman Zion/Jerusalem in Isa 51:3; 52:9; 54:1; 58:12; 62:4; 64:9. 55 Although the phrase can refer to individual sin (1 Chr 10:13), it more often denotes Israelʹs condition of rebellion, either the rebellion that has led to captivity (1 Chr 9:1; Ezr 9:7; LXX Ps 105:43; Jer 16:18; Ezek 20:30; 22:5; 36:31; 43:8; Pss. Sol. 9.2) or the re‐ bellion of marrying foreign wives (1 Esd 8:87). Perhaps JA, like Ruth, would speak against the latter perspective. 56 On the link between this word and traditions about Zion/Jerusalem as a woman, in relation to Mary’s praise at the beginning of Luke, see p. 158 below. 57 Bohak writes, “the transfer to a Heliopolitan maiden of images and phrases nor‐ mally reserved for the eschatological Jerusalem makes little sense within this inter‐ pretative model [Aseneth as paradigm for future generations of converts], for why would anyone not use the real Jerusalem for this purpose, unless his relations with
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change from polytheist to daughter of the Living God—which includes both her internal conversion and her external transformation—represents a future community of people (“many nations”) who, by attaching them‐ selves to God through repentance, will also experience reversal, moving like Aseneth from death to life, darkness to light, and castigation to mercy. While the narrative does not say so explicitly, readers might expect as well that these people—following the lead of Aseneth, her heavenly double Metanoia, and Isaiah’s lady Jerusalem—will respond to their own divinely‐ empowered transformations with joyous praise.58 One scholar concludes that Joseph and Aseneth communicates to readers that “membership in the people of God according to this author is not de‐ termined by ethnic descent but by acknowledgement of the true God and is characterized by ‘proper’ conduct.”59 The current study agrees with this assessment, but draws out the point of the word “acknowledgement.” A key aspect of Aseneth’s acceptance lies in her ability to praise God. Like Tobit, Aseneth is brought from death to life by God so that she can praise God. Her praise, in turn, is effective—making her suitable for Joseph and in the end, calling upon God to overcome the evil plots against her. Moreover, the narrative focuses on Aseneth’s recognition of the divine role in her transformation, a recognition signaled by praise. And finally, the narrative hints at the eschatological praise of a transformed community, represented by her individual experience in the text.
D. Conclusion The above analysis demonstrates that praise of God is an integral element of the story of Aseneth’s conversion. Joy and praise first function to set up two narrative tensions: Aseneth’s rejection of Joseph and Joseph’s rejection of Aseneth. This first tension is resolved quickly, but the second governs the plot of the first story. It is grounded in Aseneth’s identity as a worship‐ per of foreign gods, and specifically, in her unclean mouth, polluted by praise of these gods, which makes her an unsuitable partner for Joseph; Aseneth’s lack of praise for the God of Israel functions as the central ten‐ sion in the story. that city were at the very root of the problem?,” Jewish Temple, 90‒91. But it seems that the author of Tobit has done something similar, albeit less explicitly and not di‐ rected at converts. 58 If Bohak’s argument is correct, then this praise implicitly expected for a restored community would be the praise voiced in the Heliopolis temple. On the praise and joy of restored Jerusalem/Zion (and her people), see pp. 57 to 61 above. 59 Chesnutt, Death to Life, 264.
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The scenes of Aseneth’s conversion (her rejection of idolatry, repen‐ tance, and turning to God) and her dialogue with the angel gradually re‐ solve this tension. In keeping with this resolution, her response proceeds from mixed joy to praise speech to clear joy in response to divine activity, and finally to the climactic moment of her joyous berakah, which reverses her previous inability to bless the Lord, indicates her worthiness to marry Joseph, and confirms her conversion. When we turn to Luke‐Acts, we shall see that silenced praise similarly creates narrative tension, which finally resolves (but only partially) in expressions of exuberant praise. Joseph and Aseneth (like the book of Tobit) depicts not only Aseneth’s experience of divine transformation but also her recognition of divine mercy and her new acceptability to God. Her climactic berakah marks this moment as well, and it is echoed in the confirmatory praise of witnesses to Ase‐ neth’s conversion. The depiction of her transformation from idolatry to praise of God offers a paradigm for future converts, who like her, will turn to God and respond with praise. This exploration of the motif of praise of God in JA and Tobit brings to light some of their parallel narrative strategies. In both stories, praise of God (as well as lack of praise) plays an important role in the plot. The for‐ mer marks climactic moments of special divine beneficence and revelation, while the latter signals an underlying spiritual difficulty to be overcome. On the surface, Aseneth’s primary problem (idolatry) is not the same as Tobit’s (blindness), yet even so their experiences and characterization in the two stories share much in common.60 Both are presented as meticulously righteous in one particular area yet separated from God (Aseneth by her unclean idolatry; Tobit by his despair) and unable to praise.61 In a state of despair, both voice petitions to God seeking rescue or deliverance, and God 60 In the same way, Tobit and Sarah do not share the same outer problem, yet clearly the book of Tobit sets their experiences in parallel. Both are healed by an agent sent by God and both respond with praise. The parallels between Aseneth and Sarah are also interesting. Aseneth’s hymn interprets her overzealous commitment to virginity as a block to marriage (and by extension, fertility). In this sense, she is like Sarah in that she is a virgin who fails to marry and bear children. In Aseneth’s case, the im‐ pediment is internal (pride), while the obstacle for Sarah is external (demon). Yet both women are “healed” from prolonged virginity (a sort of barrenness, although this word is never used of them) by divinely engineered marriages to particular men, with the subsequent bearing of important children. This high view of marriage and fertility seems quite removed from texts such as the Acts of Thecla or the writings of Origen and Augustine. From this perspective, it perhaps indicates an earlier date for JA, pace Kraemer, When Aseneth, 225‒244. But it is also true that marriage orches‐ trated by divine will is thematic in ancient romances, albeit with little interest in childbearing, J. Perkins, The Suffering Self: Pain and Narrative Representation in Early Christian Era (New York: Routledge, 1995), 63‒73; Kraemer, When Aseneth, 199‒206. 61 This inability to praise corresponds with their descriptions of themselves as ‘dead’ (prior to transformation), and the dead do not praise God; only the living do, recall‐ ing the third theme in the discussion above of early Jewish texts (chapter two).
Conclusion
129
responds (immediately) to these requests by sending an agent to help them. Revelation by these divine agents brings transformation for both characters, not just of the primary, visible problem (blindness/idolatry) but by overturning their spiritual despair. In light of divine revelation, Tobit comes to see the full extent of God’s merciful acts, praising God continu‐ ally, while Aseneth recognizes her acceptance by God, voicing the praise that signals her suitability to marry Joseph. In their praise speech—particularly in their concluding hymns—both characters interpret their experiences (healing/conversion and revelation) as movements from darkness to light, punishment to mercy, castigation to healing, and death to life. Such language sets their physical difficulties in parallel with their spiritual problems. For Tobit, real blindness symbolizes his inability to recognize divine beneficence (spiritual blindness), while for Aseneth, her idolatry produces spiritual uncleanness (symbolized by a pol‐ luted mouth). When divine agents enter the story, they focus on healing the characters’ spiritual problems by means of revelation.62 Finally, the various descriptions of transformation in the praise of the two characters echoes reversal language found in prophetic expectations, particularly in Isaiah, where such transformations comprise aspects of Is‐ rael’s restoration. This point is more obvious with regard to Tobit, but evi‐ dence of it has also been presented above for Aseneth. Table 8 below sum‐ marizes how this parallel language of divine reversal, which appears to derive from Deut 32:39 and/or Isa 19:22 (a key reference in Bohak’s investi‐ gation). As this table shows, Aseneth speaks of herself as potentially struck by God (πατάσσω) but healed (ἰάομαι) (11:18), a word pair that occurs in both LXX Deut 32:39 and Isa 19:22. In a line of poetic parallelism, she ech‐ oes this reversal language with vocabulary not found in LXX Deut 32:39, describing God as one who strikes (μαστιγάω) and shows mercy (ἐλεάω) (Jos. Asen. 11:18). So too, Tobit praises God as one who strikes (μαστιγάω) and shows mercy (ἐλεάω) and who brings people down to Hades and lifts them from the abyss (Tob 13:2). Tobit does not use the same vocabulary as in LXX Deut 32:39, but his words reflect the same two reversals described there (death to life and striking to healing/mercy). Interestingly, his vocabu‐ lary matches Aseneth’s echo of the striking/healing reversal in poetic paral‐ lelism. Perhaps this shared vocabulary derives from common use of an al‐ ternate translation of LXX Deut 32:39. However the commonality may have come about historically, this parallel, along with others offered above, gives evidence of how both characters describe their personal experiences in 62 In Tobit, of course, the divine agent also solves the physical problems, but the ironic plot ultimately focuses on Tobit’s coming to recognize divine beneficence. In JA, Aseneth throws out her idols and repents on her own. Thus the entire focus once the angel enters the story is her spiritual transformation (recognition of her acceptance by God, her crucial berakah, and the other transformations she experiences).
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Chapter 4: Praise and Conversion in Joseph and Aseneth
terms of reversals anticipated by Israel’s prophets (including Moses). As argued above, such allusions in both narratives contribute to representative characterization: the transformative experiences of Tobit and Aseneth come to symbolize corporate restoration or salvation expected in the future.
Table 8 From Castigation to Healing/Mercy in Deut 32:39, Isa 19:22, Jos. Asen. 11:18, and Tob 13:2 Concepts
Deut 32:39
Isa 19:22
Jos. Asen. 11:18
Tob 13:2
Striking to πατάξω κἀγὼ healing ἰάσομαι καὶ οὐκ ἔστιν ὃς ἐξελεῖται ἐκ τῶν χειρῶν μου
καὶ πατάξει κύριος τοὺς Αἰγυπτίους πληγῇ μεγάλῃ καὶ ἰάσεται αὐτοὺς ἰάσει καὶ ἐπιστραφήσονται πρὸς κύριον καὶ εἰσακούσεται αὐτῶν καὶ ἰάσεται αὐτούς
καὶ εἰ θυμῷ κύριος πατάξει με αὐτὸς πάλιν ἱάσεταί με καί ἐὰν παιδεύσῃ με ἐν ταῖς
Striking to mercy
μάστιξιν αὐτοῦ αὐτὸς ὅτι αὐτὸς ἐπιβλέψει ἐπ’ ἐμοὶ μαστιγοῖ καὶ ἐλεᾷ πάλιν ἐν τῷ ἐλέει αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐάν θυμωθῇ ἐν ταῖς ἁμαρτίαις μου πάλιν διαλλαγήσεταί μοι καὶ ἀφήσει μοι πᾶσαν ἁμαρτίαν
Death to life
ἐγὼ ἀποκτενῶ καὶ ζῆν ποιήσω
κατάγει εἰς ᾅδην καὶ ἀνάγει
Before turning to part two of the study, which investigates the praise motif in Luke‐Acts, we note that praise of God in the Lukan narrative shares af‐ finities with its use in these two Jewish novels. Praise in Luke‐Acts re‐ sponds both to healings (in Luke and the beginning of Acts) and to conver‐ sions (in Acts 10‒28). These experiences in turn are connected with the eschatological restoration expected by Israel’s prophets. Praise also re‐ sponds to revelation: by angels about Jesus’ birth, by God about Jesus’ identity, and by the risen Jesus about the meaning of his death and resur‐ rection.
Part Two
Praise Responses in Luke‐Acts Introduction to Part Two Part two of this study investigates the motif of praise of God in Luke‐Acts. As has been shown initially by the overview of Luke’s redaction of Mark in the introduction to this study, praise of God is important to the narrative. The consistent, steady reappearance of praise throughout the two‐volume work also suggests its significance. The investigation of the praise motif in the four chapters to follow will proceed in much the same manner as in the analyses of Tobit and Joseph and Aseneth, looking at the pattern of praise in the plot, at the contexts in which praise occurs, and at how praise contrib‐ utes to the characterization of people who speak praise in the narrative. However, because Luke‐Acts is much longer and the praise motif is more complex, this analysis will be broken into four sections, correspond‐ ing to the four contexts in which praise clusters in the narrative. One of the results of the analysis of praise presented in detail below is the recognition that these four praise contexts in Luke‐Acts correspond rather closely with four references in the narrative to the visitation of God. Thus before turn‐ ing to the praise motif, it will be helpful to provide an overview of the theme of the divine visitation in Luke‐Acts. As is well known, Luke‐Acts opens with exuberant, joyous praise in re‐ sponse to the births of John and Jesus, with emphasis on the latter. In one of these expressions of praise, the Benedictus, Zechariah twice declares that the divine visitation (ἐπισκέπτομαι) has occurred (Lk 1:68, 78). In the first of these references, Zechariah describes this divine visitation as the long‐ awaited restoration of Israel (λύτρωσιν τῷ λαῷ αὐτοῦ) (Lk 1:68) and in the second, as the arrival of a Messianic dawn from on high (ἀνατολὴ ἐξ ὕψους) (Lk 1:78).1 He goes on to specify that this dawn will enlighten those sitting in darkness and death. 1
In the LXX the visitation of God may refer to divine punishment or help, either of individuals or the nation as a whole. In the latter case, the visitation of God is a dou‐ ble‐edged sword: to help Israel, God must defeat Israel’s enemies. Ἐπισκέπτομαι, usually translating פקד, refers to God’s help in texts such as Gen 50:25, Exod 3:16, Ruth 1:6, and Jdt 8:33. The word “visitation” appears repeatedly in descriptions of
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Part Two: Praise Responses in Luke‐Acts
A bit later in the infancy narrative, another character, Simeon, takes up again the imagery of light, also in an expression of praise. Holding the in‐ fant Jesus in his arms, he describes him as a light with two purposes: reve‐ lation to the nations and glory for Israel (φῶς εἰς ἀποκάλυψιν ἐθνῶν καὶ δόξαν λαοῦ σου Ἰσραήλ) (Lk 2:29). The praise of Zechariah and Simeon in‐ terprets Jesus’ birth as the fulfillment of Israel’s expectations for a saving visitation by God bringing (a) a Messianic light that that will (b) bring about the recognition of God by the Gentiles and (c) restore glory to Israel. Simeon’s interpretation of the divine visitation epitomizes the plot of Luke‐Acts, which centers on two major subplots: the restoration of Israel’s glory (the Gospel and the beginning of Acts) and the conversion of the Gentiles (in the latter part of Acts).2 What unites these two strands in terms of plot is the person of Jesus and his identity as Messiah, particularly re‐ lated to his death and resurrection. The theme of the divine visitation appears only three additional times in the narrative: 1) 2) 3)
in praise following a healing miracle (Lk 7:16); near praise for Jesus’ identity, as he approaches Jerusalem (Lk 19:44); and in reference to the conversion of Gentiles (Acts 15:14), with a possible allusion back to Simeon’s praise.
Through these four references to the visitation, the narrative identifies four major contexts in which divine salvation appears in the plot of Luke‐Acts: Jesus’ birth, his healing ministry, his approach to Jerusalem (involving is‐ sues related to Jesus’ identity), and conversions of the Gentiles. In the proc‐ ess of investigating the motif of praise of God in Luke‐Acts, it has become clear that the praise motif is associated with these same four narrative con‐ texts, as indicated in Table 9.
2
the eschatological renewal of God’s people. The divine visitation as an eschatological event appears in numerous texts, including LXX Ps 105:4, Jer 29:10‒14; Zeph 2:7; and Zech 10:3‒7, and in the first and last of these listed, it results in exuberant praise. Brown points out that פקד describes the renewal of God’s people in the Damascus Document, e.g., 4Q266 (4QDa) 2, I, 11; Birth, 384. Johnson, Luke, 57.
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Introduction to Part Two
Table 9 Praise of God in Four Contexts in Luke‐Acts Four Contexts
Ref. to Visitation
Count
Direct Speech
Praise Notices
Individual Praise
Communal Praise
Jesus’ Birth and Identity as “Light”
Lk 1:68, 78
6
4
2
4
2
Healings
Lk 7:16
9
3
6
5
4
Jesus’ Iden‐ tity as the King Who Comes in the Name of the Lord
Lk 19:44
7
4
3
4
3
Conversions3
Acts 15:14
6
0
6
2
4
TOTALS
28
11
17
15
13
The numbers listed in this table include only praise directed to God nar‐ rated with explicit praise verbs (as identified in chapter one of this study); they account for every instance of praise in Luke‐Acts. Although joy re‐ sponses are not included in these counts, they will be considered in the analysis to follow.4 Given the correspondences described above, part two of this study ar‐ gues that the motif of praise of God responds to and marks for the reader key moments in the divine visitation, which unfolds according to the plot synopsis offered by Simeon. Jesus’ birth initiates the divine visitation and is greeted with loud expressions of joyous praise. His healing ministry, which symbolizes the restoration of glory to Israel, similarly inspires praise: those who experience healing praise God, echoed by witnesses to their healings. Later, the same pattern appears in relation to conversion of the Gentiles. Jesus’ death and resurrection—which also draws praise—provide the link between these two contexts because they accomplish both, glorifying Israel and saving the Gentiles. Thus Jesus’ identity—revealed especially in his death and resurrection in Jerusalem—are the center of the praise contexts in the narrative: praise for healings proceeds toward this center, climaxing in praise as Jesus approaches the city, and praise is heard again in response to Jesus’ resurrection, to the end of the Gospel. 3 4
As will be detailed below, the conversion context includes four instances of praise directly responding to conversion and two scenes of Paul’s praise in his journey to‐ ward Rome. There is also an instance of praise of the name of the Lord Jesus, which will be dis‐ cussed in the section on healing (Acts 19:7).
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Part Two: Praise Responses in Luke‐Acts
Yet the response of praise is not automatic in Luke‐Acts. Through the praise motif, as we shall see, the narrative introduces tension related to recognition. In various ways, the unfolding of the divine visitation—while long expected—surprises characters. And the greatest surprise is Jesus’ death in Jerusalem. Not even his disciples can understand this dark mo‐ ment in the plot until divine revelation brings recognition through the res‐ urrection. In keeping with other moments of tension in the narrative, this time of blame and misunderstanding in Jerusalem is characterized by an utter absence of praise. Thus praise responses mark not just the divine visitation itself (God’s saving intervention) but also characters’ recognition that events within the narrative—however surprising they may be—constitute the restoration anticipated by Israel’s prophets, fulfilling the expectation of Israel’s restora‐ tion texts that praise will greet the divine visitation. By contrast, silence and blame indicate characters’ failure to recognize and participate in the fulfillment of these hopes. The narrative tensions resulting from delayed and/or failed recognition of God’s salvation begin to divide the characters in the story into two groups: (1) those who experience or witness divine transformation, recog‐ nize the surprising events of the narrative as the work of God and respond accordingly with faith expressed in praise and (2) those who fail to see or resist the work of God and respond with silence or words of blame. This division fulfills another of Simeon’s predictions, that Jesus is destined to be “for the fall and rise of many in Israel and for a sign to be opposed” (Lk 2:34). This division of characters—via recognition and praise—ultimately creates a restored community centered in Jerusalem but moving outward, to the ends of the earth. In the Lukan narrative, the praise of this new community forcefully fulfills the long‐held eschatological expectation that when God breaks into history to restore and save, this divine visitation would be greeted with numerous and diverse expressions of joyous praise. In the praise of Luke’s characters from beginning to end, the reader hears this eschatological praise.
Chapter 5
Praise and Revelation: Jesus’ Birth A. Introduction Luke‐Acts, a work of historiography composed between 60 and 100 C.E., narrates a lengthy and complex story of divine activity centered on Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection, and the subsequent development of a new community.1 Following the preface (Lk 1:1‒4), the infancy narrative fa‐ mously introduces the story with scenes full of joy and praise. Numerous studies have investigated direct speech of praise in the infancy narrative (i.e., the four embedded hymns).2 But the larger pattern of joy and praise has received less attention.3 This pattern comprises not only praise speech (direct quotation) but also angelic announcements of joy and narrated re‐
1
2 3
Scholars of Luke and Acts have proposed a variety of genres for Luke, Acts, or the two‐volume work. A succinct review of recent scholarship on the genre of Acts, with some attention to Luke, is provided in T. E. Phillips, “The Genre of Acts: Moving to‐ ward a Consensus?,” Currents in Biblical Research 4 (2006): 365‒96, passim. The ques‐ tion of genre is important, but for the purpose of analyzing praise as a narrative fea‐ ture, it is not necessary to identify the genre of Luke‐Acts beyond the broad category of “story,” as proposed and illustrated in L. T. Johnson, The Literary Function of Pos‐ sessions in Luke‐Acts (SBLDS 39; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1977), 21‒22. For bibliography, see p. 4, n.10 above. Most contemporary scholars argue that these hymns have been drawn from pre‐Lukan sources and inserted either by the author or a later editor or editors. To my knowledge, no study focuses either on (a) joy and praise as part of the plot of the infancy narrative or (b) joy and praise in the hymns and within the narration. In the process of his narrative reading of Lk 1‒2, M. Coleridge identifies praise of God as part of the expected human response in a “grammar of divine visitation” (see p. 149 below), but he does not examine the pattern of praise of God nor the relationship between joy and of praise, which the infancy narrative explicitly unites as parallel responses to divine action in the plot (Lk 1:46‒47), The Birth of the Lukan Narrative: Narrative as Christology in Luke 1‐2 (JSNTSup 88; Sheffield, England: JSOT Press, 1993), passim. In the opening chapters of Luke, as in many of the Jewish texts stud‐ ied in chapter two, joy and verbal praise together comprise praise of God. However, as the narrative of Luke‐Acts proceeds, joy emerges as a possibly ambiguous re‐ sponse, while praise is more clearly positive. On this point, see p. 8 above.
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sponses of joy and praise. Together, these three modes of praise make up more than a quarter of Luke’s infancy narrative.4 The plot of the infancy narrative involves two overlapping stories fo‐ cused on John and Jesus. These two stories unfold in a series of seven major narrative sections, each opened by a time notation and closed by an indica‐ tor of location, as shown in the left three columns of Table 10.5 The far right column of this table provides a broad overview of how angelic anticipa‐ tions of joy and human responses of joy and praise infuse the first six of these narrative sections.
4
5
This statistic relies upon verse designations as a rough measure of content. Thirty‐ seven of 132 verses anticipate, narrate, or quote characters’ praise or joy. In narration (apart from direct speech) explicit joy/praise vocabulary occurs in the responses of John (1:44; ἀγαλλίασις); Elizabeth (1:58; συγχαίρω); Zechariah (1:64; εὐλογέω); the heavenly host (2:13; αἰνέω); the shepherds (2:20; αἰνέω, δοξάζω); Simeon (2:28; εὐλογέω); and Anna (2:38; ἀνθομολογέω). In the case of Mary’s praise, explicit praise/joy vocabulary occurs only in direct speech (in the Magnificat, 1:46‒47: ἀγαλλιάω; μεγαλύνω) but not in the surrounding narrative. All four hymns are in‐ troduced by generic inquit formulae: in the cases of Mary and Simeon, the third‐ person aorist of λέγω; of Zechariah and the heavenly host, the present participle of λέγω. These closing geographic indicators depict the movement of characters from one place to another, with the exception of 1:80, which alludes to John’s future move‐ ment out of the desert. The structure depicted in this table, which relies consistently on narrative cues of time and place, corresponds exactly with the structure identified in M. Coleridge, The Birth of the Lukan Narrative: Narrative as Christology in Luke 1‒2 (JSNTSup 88; Sheffield, England: JSOT Press, 1993), passim. Brown also recognizes seven episodes, Birth, 250. Within this seven‐part structure, scholars struggle to un‐ derstand the parallelism between John and Jesus, which is obvious but uneven. Brown provides a summary of various proposals including his own on several help‐ ful tables, Birth, 248‒9, 297, 409. His investigation takes a diachronic approach and argues that in the process of composition, an initially balanced parallelism between two diptychs, focused on John and Jesus, has been upset by inserted hymns, which are “structurally awkward,” ibid., 50‒52. My synchronic analysis of the pattern of announcement and response finds three relatively balanced movements of joy/praise—one focused on John, one on Jesus’ conception, and one on Jesus’ birth— with the first two of these movements arranged chiastically, as will be argued in the following pages.
137
Introduction
Table 10 Joy and Praise in Lk 1‒2 Temporal Opening
Section
Closing Indicator of Location
Praise/Joy Motif
1) Announcement about John’s birth (1:5‒25)
“In the days of king Herod . . .”
“he departed to his home” (1:23)
Angelic anticipation (1:14)
2) Announcement about Jesus’ conception (1:26‒38)
“In the sixth month . . .”
“and the angel departed from her” (1:38)
Angelic anticipation (1:28)
3) Responses of Mary and John to Jesus’ concep‐ tion (1:39‒56)
“In those days . . .”
“and she returned to her home” (1:56)
Narrated responses (1:41, 44) Direct speech by Mary (1:46‒55)
4) John’s birth and responses (1:57‒80)
“And the time was fulfilled . . .”
“and he was in the wilderness until the day he ap‐ peared publicly to Israel” (1:80)
Narrated responses (1:58, 64) Direct speech by Zechariah (1:68‒79)
5) Jesus’ birth, announcement, and responses (2:1‒21)
“In those days . . .”
“and the shep‐ herds returned” (2:21)
Angelic anticipation (2:10) Narrated responses (2:13, 20) Direct speech by the host of heaven (2:14)
6) Responses of Simeon and Anna to Jesus’ birth (2:22‒40)
“When the day was fulfilled . . .”
“and they re‐ turned . . . to Naz‐ areth” (2:39)
Narrated responses (2:29, 38) Direct speech by Simeon (2:30‒32)
7) Jesus as a young boy (2:41‒52)
“Each year his parents went . . .”
“and he went down to Nazareth with them . . .” (2:51)
None
The analysis to follow will examine closely this pattern of joyous praise, arguing that it involves three angelic announcements (sections 1, 2, and 5 in Table 10), which anticipate four responses of joy: two by individuals (Zechariah and Mary) and two by groups (“many” and “all the people”). The angelic exhortations to rejoice are in turn fulfilled in eight responses of praise: one by Zechariah, one by Mary, and six by other characters (John,
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Elizabeth, heavenly host, shepherds, Simeon, and Anna), who comprise the group praise response (sections 3, 4, 5, and 6 in Table 10).6 This structure of anticipation and response establishes a two‐fold purpose for praise in the narrative: praise responses indicate that characters (a) believe in revelation about divine salvation and (b) accept and recognize God’s visitation despite its surprising character. Through intertextuality, praise in the infancy narrative also interprets the events in the plot as the long‐awaited, eschatological visitation of God. Through many echoes of Israel’s restoration texts, it establishes that this visitation comprises the restoration of Israel and consolation of Jerusalem. Such communal expectations are also reflected in the individual experi‐ ences of the characters Mary and Elizabeth, who in their praise speech de‐ scribe themselves in language that echoes expectations about Jerusalem’s eschatological restoration. Through such evocative language, Mary and Elizabeth take on a subtly representative quality in the narrative: in their praise, the reader hears the first strains of the praise song expected at the divinely‐enabled transformation of Jerusalem.
B. The Pattern of Praise in the Infancy Narrative The pattern of praise depicted in Table 10 above involves three successive movements from anticipation of joy to fulfillment in praise, centered on (1) John’s birth; (2) Jesus’ conception; and (3) Jesus’ birth. The latter two of these progressions in the plot proceed smoothly, but in the first, Zechariah’s initial response of disbelief and silence delays his response of praise, creat‐ ing tension in the narrative, which is ultimately resolved in Zechariah’s divine healing and immediate response of praise. Narrative tension in Zechariah’s story introduces the issue of recognition: before a character can praise God, he or she must recognize events as the work of God and/or believe revelation about them. In each of the three progressions, tracing the motif of praise of God reveals a four‐stage pattern of response for the char‐ acters: anticipation, divine action, recognition, and joyous praise. Initially, joy responses predominate, but in Mary’s hymn, joy unites with praise of God and then gives way completely to praise.
6
Joy appears at 1:14, 28, 41, 44, 47, 58; 2:10, and praise at 1:46, 64, 68‒79; 2:13‒14, 20, 28‒32, and 38. Of these praise expressions, five are offered by individuals (John, Mary, Zechariah, Simeon, Anna) and three by groups (Elizabeth and her friends and relatives, heavenly host, shepherds).
The Pattern of Praise in the Infancy Narrative
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1. Angelic Revelation of Joy Angels speak three times in the infancy narrative, and each time, they re‐ veal and anticipate joy. In Gabriel’s first announcement to Zechariah, the angel predicts a two‐fold expression of joy in response to the future birth of John (1:14). First, Zechariah himself will respond with joy (χαρά) and glad‐ ness (ἀγαλλίασις) and second, many will rejoice (χαίρω) because of John’s birth.7 Through this expectation of joy, the angel defines the birth of John as a saving event on two levels: individual (ἔσται χαρά σοι) and communal (πολλοὶ ἐπὶ τῇ γενέσει αὐτοῦ χαρήσονται). Zechariah will receive the child for whom he has prayed (1:13), but also, John will turn the people back toward God, making them ready for the Lord (1:16‒17). In his second announcement, Gabriel again anticipates joy, greeting Mary with the word χαῖρε. The assertion that Gabriel’s announcement in‐ cludes a note of joy requires defense, for while the expression χαῖρε can be translated as an exhortation to rejoice, it can also serve simply as a greeting in classical and Koine Greek.8 Deciding between these two options, in fact, has been a matter of some debate.9 Scholars who argue for the meaning “Rejoice!” make the case that Luke’s greetings elsewhere differ, and they see in the angel’s greeting allusions to prophetic passages in the LXX.10 But Brown, among others, argues that readers ought to view this word as noth‐ ing more than a common greeting. He writes Chaire is not always salvific in the LXX . . . and Luke’s readers would hear it used every day of their lives with the meaning “Hail, hello.” If a modern Eng‐ lish writer used “Goodbye” in a farewell without any interpretative comment, would his readers recognize that he was giving it its ancient religious value as “God be with you?11
The latter phrase ἐπὶ τῇ γενέσει αὐτοῦ is often translated “at his birth” (NRSV, NAS, NKJ), which limits the angelic expectation of joy to the immediate setting of John’s birth. “Because of his birth” (NIV) better captures the way this construction typically appears in Luke‐Acts. When a definite, dative noun follows the preposition ἐπί, it tends to indicate that an act or word—most often of God or Jesus—produces a hu‐ man response, e.g., Lk 1:29, 47; 2:47; 4:22, 32; 5:9; 9:43; 20:26; Acts 13:12; 15:31; 20:38. The expression indicates that joy results from the birth but does not limit it to the scene of John’s birth. It allows for the possibility that the angel predicts joy in re‐ sponse to the entirety of divine activity related to the birth of John but continuing into the rest of the story. This expanded context makes better sense of the subject πολλοί. 8 In ancient Greek literature as a whole, the imperative form of χαίρω functions pri‐ marily but not exclusively as a standard greeting, LSJ s.v. A summary of arguments and bibliography about the translation of the imperative in this verse is provided by Brown, Birth, 322‒5. 9 The NRSV, NIV, and NAS choose the former; the NKJ and NJB, the latter. 10 They point to such texts as Zech 9:9, Joel 2:21‒23, and Zeph 3:14, Brown, Birth, 319‒27. Such arguments are usually in the service of interpreting Mary as the Daughter of Zion. This line of interpretation is discussed beginning on p. 156 below. 11 Ibid., 324. 7
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Does χαῖρε express joy in Lk 1:28? Two comparisons offer help in answer‐ ing this question. Looking first at the Septuagint, we may question Brown’s assertion that χαῖρε “is not always salvific in the LXX,” for this conclusion does not tell the whole story. The expression χαῖρε or χαίρετε occurs eleven times in the Septuagint. Once, it serves as a greeting (Tob 7:1), and ten times it functions as the exhortation “Rejoice!” In nine of these ten in‐ stances, the exhortation responds to divine action related to Israel (either help or judgment). Six occurrences exhort joy in response to future divine restoration (Isa 66:10; Joel 2:21, 23; Zeph 3:14; Zech 9:9; Tob 13:15), while three other passages simply reverse this context: χαῖρε issues the command not to rejoice (or in one case, ironically to rejoice) in expectation of God’s judgment (Hos 9:1; Lam 4:21; Ezek 7:12). The remaining single occurrence of χαῖρε appears in a wisdom exhortation to rejoice at the birth of a child (Prov 24:19)! Thus in the LXX, with one exception, χαῖρε always means “rejoice” in response to one of two events—either the acts of God in history (related specifically to the fate of Israel) or to childbirth; obviously, both contexts align closely with the story in Lk 1. Looking beyond the infancy narrative to Luke‐Acts as a whole, we see that the second‐person imperative form of χαίρω mirrors this Septuagintal use. Appearing twice (other than Lk 1:28), it means “rejoice” in response to divine salvation (Lk 6:23, 10:20).12 To summarize, in all of the LXX and Luke‐Acts, the imperative form of χαίρω appears as a greeting only twice: Tob 7:1 and Lk 1:28. While the general ubiquity of χαῖρε as an address cannot be denied, neither can it be consid‐ ered a “standard greeting” in the world of the Lukan narrative or its near‐ est antecedent. Second, several other Greek texts demonstrate that χαῖρε may both function as a greeting and retain its underlying sense of “rejoice.” In Eurip‐ ides’ Alcestis, for example, the character Admetus, in a state of mourning, greets Heracles: χαῖρ᾿, ὦ Διός. The god responds in kind, to which Admetus replies, “Might I [have such joy]” (θέλοιμ᾽ ἄν). This exchange plays upon the meaning of joy inherent in the χαῖρε greeting in order to highlight Ad‐ metus’ state of mourning.13 Similarly, in Tobit, as we have seen, an angel greets the title character, “Χαίρειν σοι πολλὰ γένοιτο” (5:10). But the blind Tobit objects, “What might cause me now to rejoice?” (Τί μοι ἔτι ὑπάρχει χαίρειν;). Tobit’s rebuttal introduces a brief lament describing his woes. Like the exchange in Alcestis, the scene in Tobit contrasts the old man’s mourning with the angel’s joyful greeting. Both narratives infuse the “stan‐ 12 The greeting, “Hail, King of the Jews” from Mk 15:18 (par. Mt 27:29) does not appear in Luke. Matthew includes two χαῖρε greetings that do not appear in Mark (Mt 26:49; 28:9). The infinitive used as an epistolary formula (χαίρειν) appears in Acts 15:23; 23:26. 13 Alc. 509‒511. A similar exchange occurs in Hec. 426‒427.
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dard” Greek greeting with ironic meaning and show that despite its com‐ mon use, χαῖρε retains the underlying meaning “rejoice,” a sense that au‐ thors may exploit for larger literary purposes. These scenes from Euripides and Tobit counter Brown’s view that the ubiquity of χαῖρε would obscure any deeper meaning for the implied reader.14 On analogy with these texts, it seems best to understand the angel’s address to Mary as playing upon the dual sense of χαῖρε: it serves as a greeting (albeit an unusual one in the narrative world of Luke‐Acts) but also imparts an underlying meaning of joy. At least two elements within the infancy narrative itself offer support for this understanding. First, Mary’s immediate response to the speech of the angel recognizes χαῖρε as a greeting (ἀσπασμός) but calls attention to its strangeness. In contrast with Zechariah and the shepherds, who react with fear to the sight of the angels, Mary wonders about Gabriel’s speech, or more precisely, the angelic greet‐ ing (διελογίζετο ποταπὸς εἴη ὁ ἀσπασμὸς οὗτος). The most natural referent for the word ἀσπασμός is χαῖρε: Mary puzzles not about Gabriel’s words as a whole but about the word χαῖρε in particular.15 Her perplexity over this ἀσπασμός signals to the reader that the angelic greeting is not a standard means of address in her (narrative) world. Moreover, the infancy narrative contains three angelic announcements (1:13‒17, 19‒20; 1:28, 30‒33, 35‒37; and 2:10‒12).16 The first announcement clearly anticipates joy, while the third proclaims “good news of great joy.” This narrative context alerts us to hear a concordant note of joy in the χαῖρε 14 Brown allows for the possibility that “there may well be an element of religious rejoicing” in the use of the word χαῖρε, but then he cautions against those who hear joy in the greeting because of parallels with the Hebrew scriptures. Brown writes that any possible note of joy in χαῖρε “comes from the context of the annunciation, and not because chaire should be given an unusual translation which evokes an OT pas‐ sage,” 324. I agree and make the case here that the immediate literary context of the infancy narrative serves as the strongest reason to understand χαῖρε in a dual sense (greeting and joy). If such a dual sense is recognized, a translation ought to capture it; English translations of Alcestis and Tobit offer possible models. Further, if the nar‐ rative context alerts the reader to hear a note of joy in χαῖρε, then the entirely sepa‐ rate question of allusion may be raised anew. In my opinion, numerous narrative elements within Lk 1‒2 make an allusion to prophetic χαῖρε exhortations probable, as will be argued below. 15 On the word ἀσπασμός in reference to χαῖρε, see Mk 15:18; Cassius Dio, Rom. Hist. 60.33.4; Euripides, Orest. 475‒476; Epictetus, Diatr. 2.18.22; Herm., Vis. 1.4; 2.2; 23.2. Fitzmyer also sees ἀσπασμός as referring to χαῖρε but suggests that Mary finds the angelic greeting puzzling because as a woman, she would not expect such respect; but nothing in the narrative suggests gender as a concern, Luke, 346. Even though ἀσπασμός most naturally points to the word χαῖρε, another possibility is that it re‐ fers to the first two words of the angel’s greeting, χαῖρε, κεχαριτωμένη. Origen, for example, understands it this way, Hom. Luc. 6.37. 16 The speech of the πλῆθος στρατιᾶς οὐρανίου in 2:14 might be considered a fourth angelic announcement, but from the phrase ἐξαίφνης ἐγένετο σὺν τῷ ἀγγέλῳ (2:13), it seems rather to be a response to the third angelic anticipation of joy (2:10‒12).
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greeting of the second announcement and to recognize that the three an‐ gelic announcements work together to strike a triadic chord of joy opening the Lukan narrative (1:14; 1:28; 2:10). In short, angels speak three times, and three times, they anticipate joy. A translation along the lines of “Joyous greetings” or “May you have joy” preserves the play on words in the an‐ gelic greeting.17 Gabriel both hails Mary and exhorts her, personally, to re‐ joice. Turning now to the third angelic announcement, addressed to the shepherds, we find a final anticipation of joy. This third announcement widens the circle of anticipated joy over Jesus’ birth from that of Mary her‐ self (individual) to all the people (communal): εὐαγγελίζομαι ὑμῖν χαρὰν μεγάλην ἥτις ἔσται παντὶ τῷ λαῷ. This amplification of joy from individual to communal matches the two‐fold expectation of joy (individual and communal) announced by Gabriel to Zechariah. Together, the three announcements declare the significance of the births of John and Jesus. Not only is God intervening in the story to pro‐ duce fertility, which will result in the personal joy of new parents (1:14, 28), but more notably, the births will result in corporate joy (“many,” 1:14; “all the people,” 2:10). This expansion of anticipated joy from private to public infuses the birth announcements with significance beyond the immediate setting. The angels make it clear that the anticipated joy will respond spe‐ cifically to the saving work of God.18
2. Responses of Joyous Praise Together, the angelic announcements of joy anticipate two matched sets of joyous response: (1) Zechariah’s personal joy followed by the joy of “many” in relation to John’s birth (1:14) and (2) Mary’s own joy related to the con‐ ception of Jesus (1:28) followed by the joy of “all the people” (2:10) in re‐ sponse to his birth. As the infancy narrative unfolds, we see characters ful‐ fill these expectations by interwoven responses of joy and praise. To observe this structure more closely, we will examine characters’ joy and praise responses in each of these four sections.
17 From a rhetorical perspective, this play on words is paronomasia that relies not upon homonymy but upon polysemy. 18 Joy will occur because many people will turn to God, with changed and prepared hearts (1:16); God will show favor to and will be with Mary (1:28); a king will sit on the throne of David (1:28, 31‒32); and God will bring about the birth of a savior, who is Messiah and Lord (2:10‒11).
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2.1 To Jesus’ Conception (Lk 1:39‒56; Section Three) Following the angelic χαῖρε, John and Mary respond with joy, and the plot links their responses back to Gabriel’s exhortation through a causal chain of events. In this chain, joy moves rapidly from the angel to Mary to John to Elizabeth and back to Mary, culminating in the Magnificat, as sketched in Figure 2. 1:28 Gabriel’s joyous greeting (to Mary)
Â
1:40 Mary’s greeting (to Eliza‐ beth)
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1:41 John’s response (leaps; joy is made explicit by Elizabeth)
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1:42‒44 Elizabeth’s response (recognizes John’s re‐ sponse as joy and connects it with Mary’s greeting)
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1:45‒56 Mary’s response (voices joy and praise)
Figure 2: Movement of Joy through the Plot of Lk 1:28‒56 The words “greeting” and “joy,” along with temporal cues, connect these events. Mary, in response to the angelic greeting (ἀσπασμός), journeys with haste (μετὰ σπουδῆς) and offers her own greeting to Elizabeth (ἀσπάζομαι) (1:39‒44). In the description of their meeting, the narrator repeats the words ἀσπασμός and ἀσπάζομαι three times, creating a strong link be‐ tween this scene and the previous (1:29, 40, 41, 44); one greeting leads to another. Although the narrative does not provide the content of Mary’s ἀσπασμός, it connects Mary’s greeting to John’s leaping and to Elizabeth’s inspiration: καὶ ἐγένετο ὡς ἤκουσεν τὸν ἀσπασμὸν τῆς Μαρίας ἡ Ἐλισάβετ, ἐσκίρτησεν τὸ βρέφος ἐν τῆ κοιλίᾳ αὐτῆς (1:41) When Elizabeth heard Mary’s greeting, the infant in her womb leaped.
The temporal link established by the phrase καὶ ἐγένετο ὡς implies— without making absolutely clear—that Mary’s greeting incites John’s leap‐ ing and Elizabeth’s inspiration.19 But Elizabeth’s interpretation of the event cements the implicit causality:
19 When followed by a verb, the phrase ἐγένετο ὡς (which occurs throughout the Sep‐ tuagint) depicts temporality (“when x happened, y happened”). In some cases, the phrase simply establishes temporal progression without suggesting causality: one event simply follows another, as in 1 Sam 24:2 and 1 King 8:54. In other cases, the phrase establishes an almost simultaneous connection between two events and is
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καὶ πόθεν μοι τοῦτο ἵνα ἔλθῃ ἡ μήτηρ τοῦ κυρίου μου πρὸς ἐμέ; ἰδοὺ γὰρ ὡς ἐγένετο ἡ φωνὴ τοῦ ἀσπασμοῦ σου εἰς τὰ ὦτά μου, ἐσκίρτησεν ἐν ἀγαλλιάσει τὸ βρέφος ἐν τῇ κοιλίᾳ μου (1:43‒44) Why has this happened to me? Why has the mother of my Lord come to me? For, look, just when the sound of your greeting reached my ears, the baby in my womb leaped for joy!
Through inspiration (1:41), Elizabeth not only miraculously recognizes Mary’s blessed state (1:42‒43) but interprets John’s actions, drawing out the cause and effect suggested in 1:41: John leaps because of Mary’s greeting (1:44).20 Elizabeth’s speech further identifies John’s leaping as a response of joy (1:42‒44). Directly responding to Elizabeth’s inspired speech, Mary ful‐ fills the angelic exhortation to rejoice by voicing her hymn.21 In this connected series of joyous responses, the narrative reveals John’s rejoicing in two stages: John’s Action (1:41)
Elizabeth’s Interpretation (1:44)
ἐσκίρτησεν τὸ βρέφος ἐν τῇ κοιλίᾳ αὐτῆς
ἐσκίρτησεν ἐν ἀγαλλιάσει τὸ βρέφος ἐν τῇ κοιλίᾳ μου
Elizabeth’s interpretation of the event repeats the narrator’s description of John’s action word for word (changing only the perspective from third to first person) but adds the phrase ἐν ἀγαλλιάσει, thus revealing to the reader (and Mary) that John’s leaping is an act of joy. Elizabeth’s words bear sig‐ nificance for understanding the motif of praise of God in Lk 1‒2. By itself, the unborn child’s leaping would not obviously signify joy, for the verb σκιρτάω—in both its literal and metaphorical meanings—only infrequently connotes rejoicing.22 To a reader familiar with the scriptures of Israel, the best translated “just as x happened, y happened,” as in Gen 27:30, 39:13; Deut 5:23; and 1 Sam 13:10. Close temporal links, in turn, may suggest causality; a reader un‐ derstands that two events occur almost simultaneously because the first event pro‐ duces the second, e.g., Josh 5:1; 2 Chron 34:19; Neh 13:3. 20 Origen recognizes the causality in Lk 1:40, which he takes to mean that Jesus has made John a prophet: Καὶ τοῦτο δῆλον ἐκ τοῦ μὴ σκιρτᾶν μὲν τὸν Ἰωάννην, πρὶν ἔλθῃ Μαριὰμ καὶ τὴν Ἐλισάβετ ἀσπάσηται, ἅμα δὲ τῷ λόγῳ τοῦ ἀσπασμοῦ Μαρίας, ὃν ὑπέβαλεν ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ ὁ Χριστός, ἤκουσεν ὁ πρόδρομος τῇ ἐνεργείᾳ τοῦ ἁγίου πνεύματος κινούμενος τὸν ἀσπασμὸν τῆς Μαρίας καὶ ‹ἐσκίρτησεν ἐν ἀγαλλιάσει τὸ βρέφος ἐν τῇ κοιλίᾳ›, καὶ οἱονεὶ ἤρξατο ἔκτοτε προφήτην αὐτὸν ποιεῖν ὁ Ἰησοῦς (From the detail that John did not leap before Mary came and greeted Elizabeth but rather at the same time as the word of Mary’s greeting—which the ‘word’ of God, the Christ, provided—this point is clear: the forerunner, when he moved, actually heard the greeting of Mary by the power of the Holy Spirit, and so we read that ‘the baby leaped for joy in the womb.’ Thus, from the beginning [of the story], as well as later, Jesus made John a prophet.), Hom. Luc., 7.41‒42. 21 According to many literary theorists, plots consist of chains of causation. Here, the plot depicts inspired joy moving from the angel to Mary to John (interpreted by Elizabeth) and back to Mary. 22 Relatively uncommon in the LXX, σκιρτάω occasionally serves as a metaphor for joy. Joyful leaping appears in the description of the terrible day of the Lord in LXX Mal 3:19‒23, a portion of which has already appeared in Gabriel’s announcement to
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leaping of an unborn child in 1:41 would most likely recall Gen 25:22, which describes the movement of Rebecca’s unborn twins (ἐσκίρτων δὲ τὰ παιδία ἐν αὐτῇ). Genesis depicts Rebecca, like Elizabeth, as a barren woman (στεῖρα) who conceives by means of divine response to her hus‐ band’s prayer (Gen 25:21; Lk 1:7, 13). The in utero movement of Rebecca’s twins requires explanation, which Rebecca seeks and receives from God: it portends strife between the two brothers and their descendents (Gen 25:23‒24). So too, in Luke, the leaping of the unborn John needs interpreta‐ tion, and this explanation comes through the power of the Holy Spirit, voiced by Elizabeth. But in Luke, Elizabeth’s interpretation reverses any negative expectation created by the echo of Genesis; the child’s movement does not foreshadow conflict between Jesus and John but expresses joy. By means of the echo of Genesis and its reshaping through inspired speech, the narrative emphasizes the significance of John’s leaping; he is the first character to fulfill Gabriel’s anticipation of joy in response to Jesus’ concep‐ tion. In terms of the expectations set up by Gabriel, John’s response offers the reader a mild surprise, for two reasons. First, we expect to hear the joy of Zechariah and “many” in response to John’s birth but conversely witness the joy of John himself at the conception of Jesus. Second, we anticipate Mary’s response of joy but first see joy move from the angelic greeting to Mary to John and Elizabeth and back to Mary, resulting finally in the Mag‐ nificat, in which Mary fulfills Gabriel’s exhortation to rejoice (1:28).23 This movement of joy has the effect of binding together the events of the two Zechariah about John (Lk 1:17). In Mal 3:20, those who fear the Lordʹs name will go forth and “bound (σκιρτάω) as young calves let loose from bonds,” and the prophet Elijah will reappear to “turn again the heart of the father to the son” (Mal 3:23). Al‐ though rejoicing is not specified in this passage, the metaphor of a calf bounding af‐ ter being set free suggests joy. It functions similarly in LXX Jer 27:11 but does not suggest joy in Gen 25:22, Joel 1:17, or Wis 17:18. In LXX Ps 114:4, 6, it describes mountains skipping in the presence of the Lord, but this response is not specified as joyous. Meaning “dance” and “leap” or “gallop” (often with a hooved animal as subject), σκιρτάω tends to translate רקדor פוש, but this correspondence is not consistent. In Luke‐Acts, by contrast, σκιρτάω consistently indicates joy (1:41, 44; 6:23). The image of leaping (σκιρτάω) for joy in praise of a god also appears in classical Greek literature, e.g., Aristophanes, Plut. 761. 23 Brown, by contrast, considers the placement of the Magnificat strange, since it fol‐ lows neither the annunciation or the birth, and he argues from this basis that the hymn was inserted later, upsetting a balanced diptych, Birth 355. Bovon, similarly, writes that despite many points of connection between the content of the hymn and the surrounding narrative, it is superfluous to the narrative, F. Bovon, H. Koester, and C. M. Thomas, Luke 1: A Commentary on the Gospel of Luke 1:1‒9:50 (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2002), 56. My examination of the praise motif identifies a structure centered on angelic announcement and responses of joy and praise within which the placement of the Magnificat not only makes sense but achieves particular narrative effects.
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diptychs while bringing praise for Jesus’ conception to the center.24 It also links the joy of John and Mary specifically to divine action (the angelic greeting); they rejoice not simply over the birth of a child but respond to God’s saving action. Before turning to the joy surrounding John’s birth, we should observe that the Magnificat sets in parallel joy and praise directed to God. Mary’s hymn opens: μεγαλύνει ἡ ψυχή μου τὸν κύριον, καὶ ἠγαλλίασεν τὸ πνεῦμά μου ἐπὶ τῷ θεῷ τῷ σωτῆρί μου, (1:46‒47) My soul magnifies the Lord And my spirit rejoices in God my savior
These two lines associate the words ἠγαλλίασεν . . . ἐπὶ τῷ θεῷ with μεγαλύνει . . . τὸν κύριον. The latter expression serves as the first instance of explicit, verbal praise of God in Luke‐Acts. Through parallelism, the hymn closely associates this new response (praise of God) with the response of joy that has already occurred. In so doing, it reflects a tendency in Jewish texts to interrelate these two responses.25 The appearance of the word μεγαλύνω as a descriptor of Mary’s praise only strengthens this connection, for wherever μεγαλύνω conveys praise of God in the LXX, it shares the stage with joy.26 The joy‐praise relationship signaled to the reader through parallelism has three primary effects on the plot. First, it establishes that joy in re‐ sponse to God’s work may function implicitly as praise of God, and con‐ 24 Many studies have illuminated how the infancy narrative creates parallels between the stories of John and Jesus while at the same time emphasizing Jesus. The motif of joy/praise contributes to this effect. Of the three angelic announcements, two relate to Jesus and one relates to John. Of the eight expressions of joy/praise, six respond to Jesus’ conception and birth, while two respond to John’s birth. The use of explicit joy/praise vocabulary is another means of emphasizing Jesus. Responses to Jesus in‐ volve eight different explicit praise words, while those to John use only two. Direct speech is also a means of amplification, because it slows down the pace of the narra‐ tive. In response to Jesus, characters voice 150 words of direct speech praising God (Mary 104, heavenly host 11, Simeon 35) but to John, they voice 126 words (Zecha‐ riah 112, Elizabeth 14). This difference is not great, but it should be noted that 28 of Zechariah’s words actually refer to Jesus, which yields a count of 178 for Jesus and 98 for John. 25 On the connection between joy and praise in Jewish literature, see pp. 22, 39, 55‒59, and 66‒68 above. 26 Μεγαλύνω appears frequently with ἀγαλλιάω in the Psalms, LXX Pss 19:6‒8; 34:27; 39:17; 69:5; 91:5‒6; 125:2‒3. Beyond these passages, μεγαλύνω (when it means praise of God) appears in only three other places in the LXX, all psalms. In two of these in‐ stances, magnification of God results in joy (εὐφραίνω) (LXX Pss 33:3‒4; 68:31‒33). In a last instance, μεγαλύνω conveys praise of God (LXX Ps 103:1), and joy appears in the Psalm but not in near context (LXX Ps 103:24). Interestingly, the verb μεγαλύνω is associated with the anawim in two of these texts (LXX Pss 33:3‒4; 68:31‒33). The translation of ענוים into Greek varies: πτωχοί in 68:33 and πραεῖς in 33:3. On the link between praise and the anawim, see Brown, Birth, 350‒55.
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versely, it imbues praise of God with the quality of joy. 27 In the infancy nar‐ rative, joy in response to God’s saving action is praise, and praise of God is joyous. Second, this joy‐praise connection means that we should recognize responses of (implicitly joyous) praise as fulfilling the angelic anticipations of joy. Third, the introduction of praise of God marks a shift in the infancy narrative. While joy responses are characteristic of the first chapter of Luke, after 1:58, they disappear, and (joyous) praise of God takes over as the pri‐ mary positive response to divine salvation in the second chapter.28 This shift extends into the rest of Luke‐Acts, where responses of praise are more frequent than responses of joy.29 However, joy as a stand‐alone response (without concurrent praise) appears now and again.30 A modern interpreter cannot know for certain why the writer of Luke‐ Acts prefers praise over joy as a positive response to the work of God, but the analysis presented here suggests a number of options. The response of joy alone may be too ambiguous, not clearly enough directed toward God (as noted in footnote 23 on page 7). If the angelic announcements of joy are a received tradition, then perhaps the author of Luke‐Acts has interpreted them as a call to praise and narrated the characters’ responses accordingly. In addition, it is likely that the author understands joyful praise to mark the fulfillment of prophetic restoration passages, with joy implied in the phenomenon of praise, even when not explicitly narrated.
2.2 To John’s Birth (Lk 1:57‒80; Section Four) In section four, two expressions of joy and praise fulfill Gabriel’s expecta‐ tion of joy surrounding John’s birth. First, neighbors and relatives rejoice (συγχαίρω) with Elizabeth, realizing Gabriel’s anticipation of communal 27 While the importance of joy in the infancy narrative is noted by numerous commen‐ tators, they tend not to investigate how it functions in the plot of the infancy narra‐ tive. Few note the link between joy and praise of God. The joy‐praise connection is already implicit in the narrative through its Septuagintal style, for joy in response to God’s work is understood as praise of God in the LXX. In the Magnificat, the joy‐ praise connection becomes explicit. 28 Fitzmyer writes that an atmosphere of joy “pervades the Lukan infancy narrative,” Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:325. This observation is accurate, but only when one recognizes that praise responses are also expressions of joy, whether explicitly described as joy‐ ous or not. 29 In five passages, responses of joy and praise of God merge, as in Mary’s hymn (Lk 10:21; 13:17; 19:37; 24:52; and Acts 13:48). 30 In Luke, joy (without praise of God) appears in a series of three parables (15:5‒6, 9, 23‒24, 32) and in the story of Zacchaeus (19:6). In Acts, Samaritans rejoice in re‐ sponse to healings in their city (8:8), the eunuch rejoices after his interaction with Phillip (8:39), various Jewish characters rejoice over the conversions of “Hellenists” and Gentiles (11:23; 15:3; 16:34), and Gentiles respond joyously to the letter from Je‐ rusalem leaders (15:31).
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joy in relation to John’s birth (1:58). Second, as soon as Zechariah can speak again, the narrator describes him as blessing God (εὐλογέω), a form of praise (1:64). A few verses later, his hymn of praise begins with the words εὐλογητὸς κύριος ὁ θεός (1:68). Zechariah’s (implicitly joyous) praise finally fulfills Gabriel’s expectation that Zechariah would rejoice over his son’s birth.
2.3 To Jesus’ Birth (Lk 2:1‒21; 2:22‒40; Sections Five and Six) In sections five and six of the infancy narrative, praise responses unfold in a pattern similar to that of Lk 1. A third angelic announcement has antici‐ pated communal joy (“all the people”) in relation to Jesus’ birth. In re‐ sponse, four characters or groups of characters offer praise to God. The host of heaven offers direct speech glorifying God (δόξα ἐν ὑψίστοις θεῷ), which the narrator identifies specifically as praise of God (αἰνέω) (2:13‒14). Similarly, the narrator describes the shepherds as glorifying (δοξάζω) and praising (αἰνέω) God (2:20). When Jesus’ parents arrive at the temple, the aged priest Simeon offers direct speech of praise, an action the narrator describes as blessing God (εὐλογέω) (2:28). Finally, the narrator tells us, that in this setting, the widow Anna also praises God (ἀνθομολογέω) (2:38).
3. The Structure of Anticipation and Response Figure 3 summarizes the argument above, showing visually how the pat‐ tern of praise in Luke’s infancy narrative involves three angelic announce‐ ments (labeled 1‒3 in the figure) that together anticipate joy four times (la‐ beled A‒D): (1) in response to John’s birth, individual (A, Zechariah) and communal (B, many) joy; (2) in response to Jesus’ conception, individual joy (C, Mary); and (3) in response to Jesus’ birth, communal joy (D, all the people).31 The complex structure simultaneously depicts three movements from angelic anticipation to expressions of joyous praise and parallel pat‐ terns of individual and communal joy/praise responses centered on John (A, B) and Jesus (C, D). The joy and praise responses labeled A1 through D1 fulfill these anticipations. The movement of the joy/praise motif down and across the columns shows how joy merges with and eventually gives way to praise as the primary response to God’s work. 31 In his analysis of the hymns of the infancy narrative, Farris identifies a similar struc‐ ture: “there is a consistent movement through the narrative—promise/fulfill‐ ment/praise,” which includes “three such progressions culminating in the three hymns,” that is the Magnificat, Benedictus, and Nunc Dimittis. However, Farris does not trace how joy and praise are anticipated in the three angelic announcements.
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Anticipations of Joy
Responses of Joy
Responses of Praise
1) To John’s birth A by Zechariah (1:14) B by “many” (1:14)
2) To Jesus’ conception C by Mary (1:28)
To Jesus’ conception C1 by John (1:41, 44) C2 by Mary (1:47)
To Jesus’ conception (C2) by Mary (1:46)
To John’s birth (B1) by Elizabeth, et. al. (1:58)
To John’s Birth (A1) by Zechariah (1:64, 68)
To Jesus’ birth (D1) by the host of heaven (2:13) (D2) by shepherds (2:20) (D3) by Simeon (2:29) (D4) by Anna (2:38)
3) To Jesus’ birth D by all the people (2:10)
Figure 3: The Pattern of Praise in the Infancy Narrative Three anticipations of joy in the first half of chapter one (A‒C) are fulfilled by three expressions of joy/praise in the second half of the chapter (C1‒A1) but in reverse order. This pattern splits apart the first movement of an‐ nouncement and response (related to John’s birth, A and B), nestling within it the second movement of announcement and response (related to Jesus’ conception, C). The chiastic structure has the effect of linking and inter‐ weaving the stories of Elizabeth and Mary, thus encouraging the reader to see them as mutually interpretive. It also foregrounds Mary’s response (the Magnificat), by bringing it to the center of the action, placing it closer in narrative time to Gabriel’s an‐ nouncement, and positioning it as the culmination of a chain of events ini‐ tiated by the angel’s greeting. But on Zechariah’s praise, the chiastic struc‐ ture has the opposite effect, creating a lengthy gap in narrative time between its announcement and fulfillment. This gap creates tension in the plot, a point we will return to in the discussion of Zechariah’s characteriza‐ tion, below. By contrast, the pattern of praise in chapter two unfolds in a more straightforward manner: the third angelic anticipation of the joy of “all the people” (D) finds immediate and forceful fulfillment in four ex‐ pressions of praise (D1‒4).
4. Praise and Recognition In a close reading of the infancy narrative, Mark Coleridge identifies a pat‐ tern of divine initiative and human response, which illuminates the impor‐
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tant theme of recognition in the narrative. Coleridge argues that before characters can respond properly to the events of the narrative they must first recognize the connection between anticipated and narrated events in the plot. To restate his point in relation to the motif of praise of God, char‐ acters must first understand the action of the narrative as God’s saving in‐ tervention before they can respond with praise of God. Mark Coleridge labels this pattern “a grammar of the divine visitation and right recognition of it,” summarized in Figure 4. 32 He argues that in the infancy narrative angels proclaim promises, heard by characters, and the action of the narrative fulfills these promises, producing signs seen by characters. The narrative establishes the expectation that characters ought to have faith in the promises they hear, which will result in praise, and that this faith, producing proper interpretation (via scripture) of the signs they see, will result in proclamation. Figure 4 below illustrates this grammar of divine visitation. The primary movement in the plot, from Coleridge’s per‐ spective, occurs down the columns, with Mary exemplifying the left col‐ umn while Elizabeth epitomizes the right. But the two columns also meet, in the scene between Elizabeth and Mary, and converge, in Zechariah’s hymn, which the narrator identifies as both praise and prophecy (procla‐ mation). Promise È Hearing È Faith È Praise
Æ Æ Æ Æ
Fulfillment È Seeing È Interpretation È Proclamation
Figure 4: Grammar of Divine Visitation (Mark Coleridge) In general, Coleridge’s grammar of God’s visitation and human response corresponds closely with the pattern of praise of God that I have outlined above.33 In both, praise represents the fruit of recognizing God’s work. This 32 Coleridge, Birth, 227‒9. Coleridge identifies the visitation of God (ἐπισκέπτομαι) as a key element in the plot of the Gospel of Luke. 33 Based on my understanding of how praise of God functions in the plot, I might quibble with aspects of Coleridge’s conclusions, such as whether Mary’s praise represents a response of faith but not of interpretation. Certainly, her hymn of praise, as Coleridge recognizes, interprets events in the narrative through scriptural lenses. Yet Coleridge sees prophecy/proclamation as linked with the Holy Spirit, and Mary’s hymn, in his view, is not directly inspired; it thus represents praise rather than proc‐ lamation, ibid., 87. But, as I have argued above, the plot links her praise with a rapid movement of joy through the plot, in close association with inspiration and divine
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pattern establishes God as the primary actor in the story, who not only an‐ nounces and enacts salvation but anticipates and energizes human re‐ sponses of praise to these works.34 In analyzing the process of recognition, Coleridge identifies an impor‐ tant tension in the plot of the infancy narrative: God’s work occurs in a manner that surprises characters in the story. Thus, recognition of divine activity is not always smooth. While the divine visitation itself has long been expected, the surprising method of this visitation (e.g., a baby in a manger, the pregnancy of an unmarried woman) creates tension between the what (fulfillment of promise) and the how (unexpected means).35 By means of this tension, the infancy narrative introduces an important ques‐ tion: who will recognize the coherence between the promise and the unex‐ pected method by which it has been fulfilled? Combining Coleridge’s ob‐ servation about the intermediary step of recognition (between divine initiative and the human response) with the pattern of praise identified above, we arrive at a four‐fold scheme in the infancy narrative: (a) anticipa‐ tion (of divine action and human response), (b) divine action (events in the initiative (the angelic greeting). Coleridge recognizes a similar movement of joy through the plot, but only from Elizabeth to Mary, Birth, 88, n.1. He writes that in a sense “Elizabeth triggers the Magnificat” but finds her joy to be qualitatively differ‐ ent than Mary’s, for Elizabeth responds to Mary rather than God. However, if it is legitimate to trace the chain reaction of joy back to the angelic greeting, as I have done, then John’s joy (the rejoicing is really John’s not Elizabeth’s) does respond to divine initiative. In this line of reasoning, it is the angelic greeting (and the angel’s announcing about Elizabeth, prompting Mary’s visit) that triggers the Magnificat. I see greater convergence between the columns than Coleridge allows but otherwise, essentially agree with the pattern he identifies. 34 Divine empowerment through the Holy Spirit is associated with four of the eight praise responses (1:15, 41, 67; 2:25‒27; John, Mary, Zechariah, and Simeon) and also by implication with Anna, identified as a prophet (2:36). The praise of the heavenly host and the angels is initiated by an angelic announcement. The Holy Spirit linked with praise of God and with joy reappears in Acts (10:44‒48; 11:17‒18, 23‒24; 13:52). Coleridge describes the first phase of the infancy narrative (1:5‒2:40) as theocentric. Luke, unlike other gospels, begins not with Jesus but with God. But at the end of the infancy narrative, Jesus comes to the fore as the only one who can truly interpret the strange signs of fulfillment presented in the plot, Coleridge, Birth, 229. 35 God visits his people in surprising ways, but not so surprising that they cannot be recognized. God’s visitation can be recognized by following “Jesus through the Gos‐ pel narrative as in word and action he interprets himself as the one in whom God visits his people” (233). The word ἀσφάλεια in the preface to Luke operates at level of “how,” both divine visitation and human recognition of it, and suggests that Christology and narrative are inseparable: only by following Luke’s “ordering” do we see Luke’s ἀσφάλεια. By the end of the infancy narrative, Coleridge argues, hu‐ man responses shift from reacting to what God says and does to what Jesus says and does. Coleridge does not trace the implications of this point forward into Luke. But if one does so, it is interesting to note that all expressions of explicit praise to God in Luke respond to the actions or speech of Jesus (with the exception of cases in which Jesus himself praises God).
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narrative), (c) recognition of these events as the divine visitation, and (d) proper human responses. In his study, Coleridge asks an additional question about proper hu‐ man response: what enables characters to achieve the recognition that they evidence through their praise? In answer to this question, he demonstrates that characters’ memories of the past (scripture properly interpreted) act as a lens by which they recognize within current events the presence of divine salvation, even when those events surprise.36 His point is that interpreta‐ tion enables characters to recognize divine activity and properly respond. To Coleridge’s observations, I add two points. First, while other posi‐ tive responses (faith, hearing, etc.) play a role in the narrative, the decisive positive response to the work of God in the infancy narrative is joyous praise. Second, these responses of praise are particularly eschatological in nature and as such, they not only result from interpretation (as Coleridge argues) but serve as interpretation, directing readers toward their own rec‐ ognition of the events in the plot as the eschatological restoration of Israel. It is to this latter point that we now turn.
C. Praise as Interpretation of the Divine Visitation In our examination of praise of God within the structure of the plot, we have argued that angels anticipate joy, God acts, characters recognize this action as the divine visitation, and they respond with expressions of joy and praise that fulfill the angelic expectations. In this section, our thesis is that praise of God in Lk 1‒2 is precisely eschatological praise. Both the con‐ tent and narration of characters’ praise communicate its eschatological character, by means of consistent allusions to certain eschatological expec‐ tations.37 Thus, the motif of praise fulfills prophetic promises that the resto‐ 36 Mary, through the scriptural pastiche of her hymn, serves as an ideal model of this kind of proper interpretive memory. By contrast, Zechariah first neglects scripture, leading to doubt, but later he properly uses scripture to recognize God’s salvation (Benedictus). The divergent responses of Mary and Zechariah raise the specter that characters may struggle to recognize God’s work. We will return to the characteriza‐ tion of Mary and Zechariah below. 37 Allusions may be determined through at least two criteria proposed by Richard Hays: availability and volume. Clearly, the Septuagint (or something corresponding to it) is available to both the narrator and the characters in the infancy narrative. As for volume, the observation of R. Brawley with regard to Luke‐Acts is important: “For Hays, volume has to do with how precisely the new text corresponds verbally with its precursor. His criterion, however, measures volume only on the phrase‐ ological plane and overlooks reiteration on other levels. In particular, allusions may also replicate the form, genre, setting, and plot of their precursor,” Text to Text Pours Forth Speech: Voices of Scripture in Luke‐Acts (Indiana Studies in Biblical Literature; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), 13. My perspective on allusion is simi‐
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ration of Israel (often envisaged as the consolation of Zion) will be accom‐ panied by joy and praise, a point argued below. In turn, it also interprets the events of the narrative precisely as this long‐expected visitation by God, providing readers with a concise, selective description of the visitation’s key components.38 The function of the praise motif as both fulfillment and interpretation is evident in each of the three progressions from announce‐ ments of joy to expressions of joyous praise.
1. Praise and the Restoration of Israel In the first progression of praise, Gabriel’s announcement anticipates joy not simply over the birth of a child but because the restoration of Israel has begun. Many will rejoice, he says, because with the spirit and power of Elijah, John will turn many of the people of Israel to the Lord and the hearts of fathers to their children and will make ready a people prepared for the Lord (Lk 1:16‒17).39 Almost all commentators agree that this lan‐ guage alludes to LXX Mal 3:1, 22‒23, perhaps mediated through Sir 48:10, since both texts anticipate the appearance of Elijah before the glorious day of restoration.40 Responses of joy match the eschatological character of these angelic announcements. Elizabeth, her relatives, and neighbors express joy follow‐ ing John’s birth not simply because of the gift of a child but because the Lord has magnified mercy to Elizabeth (1:58). Following this expression of joy, the restoration of Zechariah’s speech leads to his immediate expression of praise (1:64). Both of these responses are linked to eschatological expec‐ tations—and back to Gabriel’s announcement—via an allusion to LXX Ps 125:2. Depicting the praise of people responding to the consolation of Zion, this Psalm opens, “When the Lord reversed the captivity of Zion we be‐ came like ones comforted” (125:1).41 In the next verse, joy and gladness re‐ sult, described in terms echoed in the praise motif in Lk 1: 38 39 40 41
lar, as will be evident in the analysis to follow. I use the terms echo and allusion in‐ terchangeably. Allusions to the Jewish scriptures appear throughout the infancy narrative; Creed identifies around forty of them, J. M. Creed, The Gospel According to St. Luke: The Greek Text with Introduction, Notes, and Indices (London: Macmillan, 1930), 303‒7. A clause beginning with γάρ (1:15) gives the reasons for joy surrounding Johnʹs birth, listing them in a series of four phrases each beginning with καί (1:15‒17). Elements from LXX Mal 3:20 may appear elsewhere in the infancy narrative, such as the sun of righteousness rising (ἀνατελλεῖ . . . ἥλιος δικαιοσύνης) (akin to the light rising in Lk 1:78) and eschatological leaping (σκιρτάω) (as in Lk 1:41, 44). In verses 1‒3, LXX Ps 125 confusingly mixes the aorist and future tenses, while in verses 4‒6, the Psalm shifts temporally from past to future tense. The poet draws from the experience of previous restoration, resulting in joy, to cry out for a future, more complete transformation of sorrow into joy. Although shifting verb tenses cre‐
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LXX Ps 125:2
Lk 1:14, 58, 64
Then our mouth was filled with joy and our tongue with rejoicing.
Announcement to Zechariah (Lk 1:14): You will have joy (χαρά) and gladness (ἀγαλλίασις) and many will rejoice because of his birth.
τότε ἐπλήσθη χαρᾶς τὸ στόμα ἡμῶν καὶ ἡ γλῶσσα ἡμῶν ἀγαλλιάσεως.
Zechariah’s praise (Lk 1:64): Immediately his mouth (στόμα) was opened and his tongue (γλῶσσα) [loosed], and he began to speak, bless‐ ing God.
Then they will say among the nations The Lord has done great things among them.
Praise of Elizabeth and neighbors (Lk 1:58): Her neighbors and relatives heard that the Lord had shown his great mercy to her (ὅτι ἐμεγάλυνεν κύριος τὸ ἔλεος αὐτοῦ μετ’ αὐτῆς), and they re‐ joiced with her.
τότε ἐροῦσιν ἐν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν Ἐμεγάλυνεν κύριος τοῦ ποιῆσαι μετ’ αὐτῶν.
In the LXX, the words χαρά and ἀγαλλίασις appear in close relationship only in Ps 125:2, while στόμα and γλῶσσα occur together in only two other places in contexts of praise.42 Moreover, Lk 1:64 and Ps 125:2 both evidence zeugma with regard to στόμα and γλῶσσα. The phrase ἐμεγάλυνεν κύριος followed by μετά with a pronoun occurs only in Ps 125:2‒3 in the Septua‐ gint.43 These same details occur in the Lukan praise for John’s birth. ate some interpretational difficulty, the first half of the Psalm expresses joyous, con‐ fident faith while the second half of the Psalm recognizes the current restoration as incomplete and thus requests a full restoration in the future. Most interpretations date the Psalm to the early post‐exilic period; the psalmist rejoices because of the re‐ turn from Babylon in 538 B.C.E., but also recognizes that this restoration is incom‐ plete and calls to God for complete salvation. Walter Beyerlin, by contrast, dates the Psalm to the exilic period, arguing that “the interplay of perfect and imperfect” em‐ bodies the tension between present joy and confidence (via “dreaming,” i.e., charis‐ matic foreshadowing of divine salvation) and the actual experience of exile, in which restoration lies in the future, We Are Like Dreamers: Studies in Psalm 126 (trans. Dinah Livingstone; Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1982), 22‒23. In this interpretation, the Psalm embodies a “salvation which is already real [through faith] but still hidden in God,” 55. Beyerlin also argues that MT Ps 126 develops MT Joel 2:19‒3:5 (LXX Joel 2:19‒32); on Joel, see p. 156, n.48 below. Interestingly, this same passage from Joel is also al‐ luded to in Lk 1‒2, as argued beginning on p. 156 below, and its continuation is fa‐ mously quoted at the beginning of Acts. The Psalm also shares similarities with Isaiah’s prophetic anticipations of the eschatological restoration of Zion. 42 The other instances are LXX Ps 65:17 and Wis 10:21. 43 The phrase ἐμεγάλυνεν κύριος τοῦ ποιῆσαι appears in Joel 2:21; on the relationship between MT Ps 126 and LXX Ps 125 see p. 156, n.48 below. In general, μεγαλύνω in the LXX most frequently describes God’s magnification of a human being. A recur‐ ring motif in 1 Samuel through 2 Kings, God’s magnification of David fulfills the di‐ vine promise to Abraham, e.g., Gen 12:2; 1 Sam 12:24; 2 Sam 5:10; 22:51; 1 Kgs 1:37, 47. As a praise verb, μεγαλύνω is similarly associated with David. God’s magnifica‐
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Through an allusion to Ps 125, the Lukan narrative interprets the joy sur‐ rounding John’s birth as the expected transformation from sorrow to glad‐ ness at the time of Zion’s comfort. Following the opening of Zechariah’s mouth, he offers direct speech of eschatological praise, in the form of a hymn. The Benedictus specifically lauds the Lord’s saving acts, both in the first half of the hymn (1:68‒75), which looks back on the birth of John as a sign of the certainty of Israel’s restoration through the Messiah, and the second half, which interprets the future careers of John (1:76‒77) and Jesus (1:78‒79).44 It acknowledges that God has looked upon and redeemed the people (1:68); visited them (1:68, 78); raised up a savior to deliver the people from their enemies (1:69‒71); shown mercy in keeping with covenant (1:72‒73); rescued the people (1:74); sent John to give knowledge of salvation by forgiveness (1:75‒77); and will send the “dawn from on high” to give light in darkness and bring peace (1:79). These images are drawn from restoration texts. We have already de‐ scribed above how the image of the “divine visitation” is drawn from pro‐ phetic expectations of Israel’s restoration. Zechariah’s description of re‐ demption also draws on language associated in Isaiah with restoration of Israel/consolation of Zion (Lk 1:68).45 Likewise, Israel’s deliverance from enemies and the renewal of righteousness are key images of eschatological redemption (Lk 1:74).46 Finally, Zechariah’s description of Jesus as an tion of the chosen people (imaged particularly in the life of David), in turn magnifies God, a point given expression in David’s hymns, e.g. 2 Sam 7:21‒26; LXX Pss 17:47‒51; 46:11; 103:1, 24. The connection between divinely bestowed human mag‐ nificence and magnification of God is explicitly developed in Sir 43:28‒44:15, the preamble to the sage’s praise of great men. Ben Sira makes the point that the divine magnificence (μεγαλωσύνη) (44:2) given to these figures from the past provides evi‐ dence of God’s work (ἔργον) (43:32). In turn, human praise of honored men (44:1) serves to magnify (μεγαλύνω) God (43:31). In the infancy narrative, the verb μεγαλύνω ties Mary’s joy and praise (1:47‒48) to Elizabeth’s joy (1:58). 44 Farris, Hymns, 134. In the second half, Zechariah prophesies that the prophet John will bring salvation through forgiveness of sins, while the Messiah Jesus will shine light to those in darkness, providing a way toward peace. 45 Zechariah says, καὶ ἐποίησεν λύτρωσιν τῷ λαῷ αὐτοῦ. The word λύτρωσις and its cognates communicate eschatological restoration in Isa 35:9‒10; 44:21‒26; 51:9‒11; 62:11‒12; LXX Jer 38:10‒14; Zeph 3:14‒17; and Mic 4:10‒14. The link with praise of God is strong in these texts; in all but one (Micah), joyful praise responds to divine redemption. On the image of redemption in Anna’s praise, see p. 166. 46 On deliverance from enemies, see Farris, Hymns, 137‒8. As he points out, Lk 1:74 links back to verse 1:71, which speaks of salvation as national redemption. While this image may include political restoration (deliverance from Roman domination), it also involves rescue from anything that prevents the people from serving God with holiness and righteousness (Lk 1:75). The restoration of Israel to righteousness ap‐ pears in numerous eschatological passages. For example, in Isa 54:10‒14, Zionʹs fer‐ tility is restored, she bears children, and rebuilt in righteousness, she no longer ex‐ periences fear. In Isa 58:6‒8, Israelʹs renewed righteousness (helping the hungry,
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ἀνατολή visiting from on high and giving light to those who sit in darkness and deathly shadow (ἐπισκέψεται ἡμᾶς ἀνατολὴ ἐξ ὕψους, ἐπιφᾶναι τοῖς ἐν σκότει καὶ σκιᾷ θανάτου καθημένοις) reflects eschatological expectations, particularly Mal 3:20, which in turn ties the hymn back to the angelic an‐ nouncement of Zechariah’s joy (which itself echoes the same text, Mal 3:22‒23).47 The imagery of Zechariah’s hymn marks it as eschatological praise; such praise in turn interprets the events of the infancy narrative as the divine visitation, defined as the long expected arrival of salvation, mercy, rescue, and peace.
2. Praise and the Consolation of Jerusalem In the second progression of praise, the angel speaks to Mary a word of greeting that concurrently exhorts joy in response to divine initiative in her life: “Joyous greetings, favored woman! The Lord is with you” (Lk 1:28). These words resemble four prophetic exhortations, urging personified Zion or her children to rejoice and to offer praise upon divine reversal of her reproach: 1)
In Joel 2:19‒27, the prophet urges the land and the children of Zion to rejoice (χαῖρε in 2:21; χαίρετε in 2:23) and take courage in expectation of a future time of renewed fertility when Israel will no longer be a re‐ proach (ὀνειδισμός) or ashamed (καταίσχυνω) because the northern enemy will be defeated and the land revived. In response, the people who have been filled (ἐμπίπλημι) will praise (αἰνέω) the name of the Lord because God has done great things and is in the midst of Israel (ἐν μέσῳ τοῦ Ἰσραήλ) (2:26‒27).48 poor, and naked) is a light (φώς) leading to restoration. And in Isa 62:1, the new righteousness of Zion shines as a light of salvation (σωτήριον) to the nations, whose kings will see Zionʹs glory (δόξα). Three of these correlative themes (lack of fear, light, and salvation) appear alongside redemption in the Benedictus, while Simeon offers praise for a light to the nations and Israel’s glory. Tobitʹs hymn, as we have seen, also connects a renewal of righteousness with the time of divine restoration, accompanied and marked by praise of God (14:6‒7). 47 On light generally as an eschatological image, see the previous footnote and Brown, Birth, 388‒91. The image of light appears numerous times throughout the eschato‐ logical hopes of Isaiah, including Isa 30:26; 42:16; 58:8, 10; 60:1, 3, 19, 20. Brown dis‐ cusses connections between Zechariah’s hymn and LXX Mal 3:20 (MT Mal 4:2) and the messianic connotations of ἀνατολή, 390‒91. 48 This passage is contiguous with MT Joel 2:28‒32 (LXX Joel 3:1‒5), which figures prominently in the beginning of Acts. It is also related to MT Ps 126:2‒3, which as we have seen, is alluded to in the joy/praise related to John’s birth (see p. 153 above). Arguing for an intertextual relationship between Ps 126 and Joel, Beyerlin identifies nine points of correspondence between the two texts, demonstrating how MT Ps 126 develops the thought of Joel, Dreamers, 43‒54. The prophet’s pre‐exilic prophecy of national salvation becomes in the Psalm an exilic expectation of the restoration of
2)
In Zephaniah 3, the prophet assures the city of Jerusalem that one day, all who call on the name of the Lord—a remnant of people humble and lowly (ταπεινός)—shall fear the name of the Lord and experience rest (3:5‒13). The city’s afflicted ones will be gathered and her captivity overturned, reversing her oppression and rejection (3:15‒20). Thus, the daughter of Zion is called to rejoice (χαῖρε) for the Lord is in her midst (ἐν μέσῳ σου) (3:14‒15). In Zech 9:9‒10, the prophet tells the daughter of Zion to rejoice (χαῖρε) because her king comes to her as a meek savior, riding on the foal of an ass, bringing peace and establishing his rule to the ends of the earth.49 In Isa 66:7‒11, the prophet envisions the future of Zion metaphorically as a woman who will give birth before the onset of labor.50 In response, Jerusalem and all who love her ought to rejoice (χάρητε) (66:10).
3)
4)
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Strikingly, in all of these passages, God’s representative addresses Zion or her children, calling them to rejoice and offer praise in response to eschato‐ logical salvation, resulting in Zion’s transformation from reproach to fertil‐ ity, emptiness to fullness, and oppression to salvation. So too, in Luke, a divine representative exhorts a woman to rejoice about her own transfor‐ mation. It is not surprising then that numerous scholars have argued that Lk 1:28 echoes one or more of these passages. Most who follow this line of Zion, ibid. 50. Joel anticipates salvation unfolding in stages: (1) joy and recognition, (2) dreaming (prophecy), and (3) the Day of the Lord/destruction of Gentile enemies. The Psalm, by expressing the joy predicted by Joel and by interpreting the dreaming (non‐literally) as the present faith of the people of Zion, declares that the first two stages have begun already, ibid. 54. The Psalm also adapts expectations about the last stage: while Joel expects the destruction of Gentile enemies (4:1‒21), the Psalm anticipates instead that because the nations will recognize Zion’s restoration, they will offer praise, saying that “the Lord has done great things for them,” ibid. 52‒53. The Psalmist is not interested in vengeance but in the removal of Zion’s shame, by which means the Gentiles will recognize the greatness of divine action. One might accept Beyerlin’s argument for a relationship between these texts without accepting his dating of Joel as pre‐exilic and the Psalm as exilic. On arguments for a later date for Joel, see J. L. Crenshaw, Joel (AB 24C; New York: Doubleday, 1995), 21‒29; Wolff, Joel and Amos, 4‒6. 49 In Lk 19:37‒38, characters praise God in keeping with this passage. See p. 229 below. Another passage related to both Zeph 3:15 and Zech 9:9 appears in Zech 2:14; God says, “Be glad and rejoice, O Daughter Jerusalem, for I come and live in your midst” (ἐν μέσῳ σου). 50 This description of Zion’s miraculous childbearing draws upon the image of Zion “as a mother whose children return from far away (60:4, 9) and who rejoices in hav‐ ing a new family (62:4‒5),” as well as the reassurances to Zion of her numerous chil‐ dren in the future and the summons to Zion to rejoice at the prospect of a renewed family (49:14‒26; 54:1‒8), Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56‒66, 305. Blenkinsopp notes that the prophetic exhortation to Zion (Isa 66:7‒14) “reproduces many of the key themes and vocabulary of Isa 54:1‒8: rejoicing, labor pains, numerous children, abundant land, and well‐being,” ibid.
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reasoning conclude that Luke is characterizing Mary as the daughter of Zion in some special sense.51 Exegetes who reject the allusions listed above do so in opposition to this point about Mary. 52 Given the overall pattern of praise in the infancy narrative, however, it seems more probable that this angelic announcement to Mary—like the first and third announcement— alludes to prophetic exhortations to Zion or her children in order to depict eschatological joy and praise (rather than to make a theological point about Mary personally). The angelic χαῖρε brings to the reader’s mind the story of personified Zion, who in her time of reproach, will experience the Lord in her midst, resulting in renewed fertility (Joel, Isaiah) and the reversal of her shame (Joel) and lowliness (Zephaniah).53 Because of this experience of reversal, Zion and/or her children will respond with exuberant joy and praise. By alluding to Zion’s story, the angelic χαῖρε establishes the expecta‐ tion that Mary—when she joyously praises—will exemplify the response expected by Zion or her children at the time of her consolation. Indeed, in the Magnificat, Mary praises her experience of divine trans‐ formation in precisely this way, echoing prophetic descriptions of Zion’s reversal of circumstance and praising God specifically for the eschatologi‐ cal restoration of Israel. As observed above, the plot ties the Magnificat back to the angel’s greeting through a chain of linked events; it thus responds directly to divine initiative. In her highly theocentric hymn, Mary praises God for an experience of divine reversal precisely like that anticipated for Zion. Her declaration that God has transformed her personally from a state of lowliness (ταπείνωσις) to blessedness (1:48‒49), mirrors the description of Zion’s reversal of circumstance in Joel and Zephaniah.54 Mary’s own re‐ 51 See S. Lyonnet, “Chaire Kecharitōmenē,” Bib 20 (1939): 131‒41, which pursues this line of interpretation and discusses the first three of the passages listed above. For a summary of arguments and history of scholarship, see Brown, Birth, 321‒4. For an example of a pastoral treatment of Mary that relies on this interpretation, see J. C. Ratzinger, Daughter Zion: Meditations on the Churchʹs Marian Belief (San Francisco: Ig‐ natius Press, 1983), 42‒43. 52 Brown is representative. He wonders, if Luke intended to recall passages about the consolation of the daughter of Zion, why did he not choose the verb εὐφραίνω, as found in LXX Isa 54:1, which occurs in the more parallel context of childbirth, Brown, Birth, 324? It should be noted in response that the joy verb in all four of the passages listed above is χαίρω not εὐφραίνω. And in regard to Isa 54, Justin Martyr quotes this verse with the verb χαίρω rather than εὐφραίνω, as Brown himself notes, ibid. 324, n.80; see Dial. 65.1. My point here is that the echoes of Zion’s consolation are not precisely linked to a single passage or word but to Zion’s story: all the pas‐ sages of Zion’s restoration share the common narrative thread that in her time of consolation by God, Zion (or her children) will experience reversal and respond with joyous praise, as detailed in regard to Isaiah and Baruch on pp. 55‒62 above. 53 The use of the word λύτρωσις in the Benedictus—which follows its appearance here—keeps Zion’s story before the reader. On the redemption of Jerusalem in Anna’s praise, see p. 166. 54 In Zephaniah, the redemption of personified Zion/Jerusalem results in the reversal of her shame (3:18‒19) and the gathering of a lowly (ταπεινός) remnant within her
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versal encapsulates the transformation of all the lowly who are lifted up at the time of divine favor (1:52). Additional reversal imagery in the hymn depicts the arrival of divine mercy (1:50) as the scattering of the proud (1:51) and the filling of the hungry (1:53). The latter two descriptions of reversal appear also in prophetic exhortations to Zion in Joel and Zepha‐ niah.55 In addition, in 1:48, Mary praises the Lord for doing great things for her (ἐποιησέν μοι μεγάλα ὁ δυνατός); in Joel 2:26, following the prophetic exhortation to rejoice, this same kind of praise is anticipated by the chil‐ dren of Zion in response to reversal of circumstance (αἰνέσετε τὸ ὄνομα κυρίου τοῦ θεοῦ ὑμῶν ἃ ἐποίησεν μεθ᾿ ὑμῶν εἰς θαυμάσια).56 Thus if a reader recognizes the angelic χαῖρε as urging the joyous praise expected in re‐ sponse to Zion’s consolation, then Mary’s hymn responds in kind. Additional allusions reinforce this effect.57 For instance, the hymn’s de‐ scriptions of God’s strong arm (1:51) and of Israel as servant (1:54) appear in passages that offer hope for Israel’s restoration.58 In its description of the divine promise to Abraham (1:55), the hymn alludes to Mic 7:20, a passage anticipating Israel’s redemption.59 While more could be said about each of
55 56
57 58
59
(3:12‒13). In Joel, Zion’s reproach (ὀνειδισμός) and shame (καταίσκυνω) are replaced by abundant fertility (2:24‒26). First Maccabees describes the desecration of Jerusa‐ lem by Antiochus IV with similar language: Jerusalem has become a stranger to her children and a reproach (ὀνειδισμός). Her exaltation has become mourning (πένθος) (1:37‒40). In Zephaniah, Zion is urged to rejoice because God will remove her contemptible pride (περιελῶ ἀπὸ σοῦ τὰ φαυλίσματα τῆς ὕβρεώς σου) (3:11), while in Joel, because her hunger will be filled (ἐμπίπλημι) (2:26). The expression “he has done great things” occurs throughout the Hebrew scriptures to describe God’s saving actions. In Hebrew, the vocabulary used to express this thought varies. On a few occasions, it is communicated via עשה and גדול (Deut 10:21; 11:7; Jud 2:7; Pss 71:19; 106:21). In the LXX, these expressions are consistently trans‐ lated with the words ποιέω and μέγας or a cognate (as in the Magnificat). Far more often, however, the concept of God doing great things appears via the verb עשה with a cognate of ;פלא vocabulary consistently translated with ποιέω and θαυμαστός or a cognate. This latter expression is grounded in the narration of the plagues (Ex 3:20), deliverance from Egypt (Ex 15:11), and the establishment of the Mosaic covenant (Ex 34:10). It also appears in Josh 3:5; 1 Chron 16:12; Pss 72:18; 86:10; 98:1; 105:5; 136:4; Isa 25:1; Joel 2:26. But the two forms of the phrase are fluid, sometimes sharing vo‐ cabulary (as evidenced in MT Deut 34:12; Pss 76:12‒15; 106:21‒22; 136:4). Either μέγας or θαυμαστός may translate פלא. Various forms of the phrase appear in ex‐ pressions of praise. The hymn is commonly understood as a scriptural pastiche. Brown provides a use‐ ful list of antecedents, Birth, 358‒60 (Table XII). Divine display of might (βραχίων) often refers back to the deliverance from Egypt; it is employed as an image of hope for restoration in Isa 51:5, 9‒11; 52:10; 59:16; Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:367‒8; Farris, Hymns, 120. The first of these passages depicts per‐ sonified Zion’s consolation. The image of Israel as “servant” underscores the trust‐ worthiness of divine election and promise as an image of hope for restoration, Isa 41:8‒9; 44:1; 45:5. Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:368.
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these examples, as a whole they create the impression that Mary, looking back on her experience of miraculous fertility, recognizes in it the eschato‐ logical restoration of Israel, in keeping with the promise made to Abra‐ ham.60 In addition, Mary’s hymn resembles LXX Ps 97, an eschatological hymn traditionally understood to serve as the joyful culmination of a series of ten songs marking various moments in God’s saving intervention in Israel’s history and anticipated to be sung at the advent of the messianic era.61 The themes shared in the two hymns, listed in Table 11, include the greatness of divine deeds, the strength of God’s arm, divine salvation and remembrance of mercy, and the covenant with Israel’s ancestors as a guarantee of restora‐ tion.
Table 11 Comparison of LXX Ps 97:1‒3 and Mary’s Praise Themes
LXX Ps 97:1‒3
Magnificat
God’s great deeds
1a ὅτι θαυμαστὰ ἐποίησεν κύριος
ὅτι ἐποίησέν μοι μεγάλα ὁ δυνατός (1:49)
God’s strong arm
1b ἔσωσεν αὐτῷ ἡ δεξιὰ αὐτοῦ καὶ ὁ βραχίων ὁ ἅγιος αὐτοῦ
Ἐποίησεν κράτος ἐν βραχίονι αὐτοῦ (1:51)
Divine salvation
2 ἐγνώρισεν κύριος τὸ σωτήριον αὐτοῦ
καὶ ἠγαλλίασεν τὸ πνεῦμά μου ἐπὶ τῷ θεῷ τῷ σωτῆρί μου (1:47)
God remembers mercy
3a ἐμνήσθη τοῦ ἐλέους αὐτοῦ τῷ Ιακωβ
ἀντελάβετο Ἰσραὴλ παιδὸς αὐτοῦ, μνησθῆναι ἐλέους (1:54)
Covenant with an‐ cestors as guarantee of restoration
3 ἐμνήσθη τοῦ ἐλέους αὐτοῦ τῷ Ιακωβ καὶ τῆς ἀληθείας αὐτοῦ τῷ οἴκῳ Ισραηλ
μνησθῆναι ἐλέους, καθὼς ἐλάλησεν πρὸς τοὺς πατέρας ἡμῶν, τῷ Ἀβραὰμ καὶ τῷ σπέρματι αὐτοῦ (1:55)
Noting these parallels, we may look again at the Benedictus and observe that it also shares themes with LXX Ps 97, including the coming of salva‐ tion (σωτηρία) (Lk 1:69, 77; Ps 97:2) and the declaration that God has shown mercy and remembered the covenant to Abraham (Lk 1:72‒73; Ps 97:3).62 Both songs then not only draw imagery from passages that antici‐ pate the eschatological restoration of Israel but also resemble the very sort 60 Farris writes that Mary celebrates a particular event seen as “decisive help to Israel which fulfills the promise inherent in the nation’s history.” This decisive help seems to be the coming of Jesus Christ, Farris, Hymns, 115. 61 Tanḥ., 10. 62 Farris, Hymns, 84.
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of hymns that readers familiar with LXX Ps 97 might expect would accom‐ pany this renewal. In particular, Mary’s praise fulfills prophetic expecta‐ tions of joyous praise upon the restoration. Conversely, the content of her praise interprets the events of the infancy narrative as this restoration. Before leaving the Magnificat, we should note that the interpretation above derives from reading the aorist verbs in the hymn as functioning in the most obvious way (pointing to past events) and as referring back to events within narrative time. However, this is only one among many op‐ tions, as summarized succinctly by F. Bovon: For exegesis, much depends on the interpretation of the aorists. Are they ordi‐ nary observations of past history, or gnomic attestations of God’s usual con‐ duct? Are they ingressive aorists, signaling the beginning of eschatological events? Or are they influenced by the prophetic perfect in Hebrew, and thus pictures of the future? In sum, is this hymn a genuine praise to God for help granted, or a hidden prophecy of hoped‐for salvation?63
From these options, some interpreters view the hymn as pointing not to the immediate past but to future redemption, while others locate the historical referents for the hymn prior to narrative time.64 If we consider the narrative context, we find at least four indicators that these aorists point to the im‐ mediate past (events in the plot). First, as we have seen, the plot links Mary’s hymn with the second an‐ gelic announcement; this announcement in turn anticipates immediate di‐ vine activity—the conception of Jesus—fulfilled in the narrative before Mary’s praise. The hymn’s placement as the culmination of a chain of joy beginning with the angel, as well as its content, suggests that it fulfills this angelic expectation of joy in response to these immediate events of divine salvation (Mary’s experience between the coming of the angel and the voic‐ ing of her hymn). Second, this position is supported by the fact that Mary 63 Bovon, Koester, and Thomas, Luke 1, 57. 64 As Bovon summarizes, scholars have argued that the aorists in the Magnificat derive from the pre‐Lukan existence of the hymns, but this perspective does not explain how the aorists function within the literary context of the infancy narrative. Writers of this period certainly felt free to change tenses in order to adapt source material to suit their context; one must assume that if Luke inserted pre‐existing hymns, he could have edited them as he saw fit. To interpret the hymn in context, other schol‐ ars have proposed reading the aorists as prophetic perfects, pointing to deliverance in the eschatological future (e.g., Gunkel) or in the lifetime of Jesus (e.g., Farris). Al‐ ternatively, the verbs have been understood to point to the pre‐narrative past, to the Lord’s past saving actions on behalf of Israel or to some more specific event, such as the birth of Samuel. For the former interpretation, see Bovon, Koester, and Thomas, Luke 1, 56. For the latter, see D. Ravens, Luke and the Restoration of Israel (JSNTSup 119; Sheffield, Eng.: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 36. Ravens nevertheless finds temporal ambivalence in the hymn. For him, the content and form point back to Sam‐ uel and more generally, to God’s help of Israel in the past (Isa 41:8‒9), while the con‐ text points to the present: Israel’s new prophet and judge is about to be born, who will “fulfil the promises to Abraham and hence show God’s constancy towards his people,” 36.
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praises God for personal transformation using the first person; she offers praise for what has already happened to her. Third, the hymn represents only one in a series of praise responses, all of which laud God for divine activity that has already occurred within the plot. There is no compelling reason to exempt the Magnificat from this pattern.65 Fourth, the eschatologi‐ cal imagery in the hymn suggests an urgency logically placed only in the immediate events of the story. Thus, in its narrative context Mary’s praise responds to her own experience of transformation, in which she recognizes the advent of God’s restoration of Israel.
3. Praise and a Light for Glory and Revelation The third angelic announcement anticipates that joy will result from es‐ chatological salvation: the birth of a savior, who is Messiah and Lord, will produce “great joy for the all people” (2:11).66 Reference to a messiah obvi‐ ously links the joy predicted by the angel with Israel’s restoration. When characters fulfill this expectation by offering praise, their responses have a decidedly eschatological tone, evident in both direct speech (the hymns of the angels and Simeon) and praise notices (narrated praise of the shep‐ herds and Anna). The first hymn in this section (voiced by a multitude of angels) pro‐ claims the advent of peace on earth, which as numerous commentators observe, “is an essential characteristic of the Messianic kingdom.”67 In addi‐ tion, it is possible to understand this notoriously difficult short hymn as praising God as originator of the events in the narrative. The text reads: 65 I will argue that ongoing praise in the narrative of Luke‐Acts signals to the reader that the unfolding restoration of Israel is a process. While the aorists in the infancy narrative mark one completed moment in this process, other expressions of praise will mark other completed moments. The process of restoration reaches a narrative climax (but not a final conclusion) in the formation of a restored community in Acts 1‒4. 66 The joy of “all the people” suggests but does not verbally allude to the praise of regathered Israel, as found in Isaiah. The corporate joy of ὁ λαός appears in a few places in the Septuagint marking important moments in Israel’s history. For example, in Exodus, when Aaron first introduces the people (ὁ λαός) to Moses, they believe and rejoice (χαίρω) “because the Lord visited (ἐπισκέπτομαι) the children of Israel and because he saw their affliction” (4:31). The joy of all the people also accompanies Solomonʹs dedication of the temple (1 Kgs 8:66) and the restoration of Joash (2 Kgs 11:14, 20). 67 Farris, Hymns, 147, see Ps 72:7; Zech 8:12; Isa 9:6. On eschatological peace, see also Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:224‒5, W. Foerster, εἰρήνη, TDNT 2:400‒17, 412‒3, and pp. 59 and 61 above (on Isa 60:18 and Bar 5:13). In Luke‐Acts, the motif of peace reoccurs re‐ peatedly in or near contexts of praise (Lk 2:29; 10:5‒6; 19:38, 42; 24:36; Acts 10:35; 15:33; 16:36).
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δόξα ἐν ὑψίστοις θεῷ καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς εἰρήνη ἐν ἀνθρώποις εὐδοκίας (Lk 2:14)
The word εὐδοκίας is best understood as divine favor rather than human goodwill.68 If so, there are two grammatical options for the function of the genitive. On the one hand, it could qualify the noun ἄνθρωπος: “and on earth peace among people of divine favor.” In LXX Pss 5:13 and 68:14, the genitive of εὐδοκία functions this way (genitive of quality), and the phrase בני רצונוin the scrolls supports this understanding.69 But a genitive of qual‐ ity typically limits the noun it qualifies, so does this translation indicate that divine favor rests only on a subset of humanity? Such an understand‐ ing of the phrase would be difficult to reconcile with the emphasis in Luke‐ Acts on universal salvation, unless perhaps it means that divine fa‐ vor/peace is only experienced by those who recognize and accept it as di‐ vine favor.70 But on the other hand, εὐδοκίας could be a genitive of origin modifying either εἰρήνη (functioning like a verbal noun) or the verb absent from the sentence: “and on earth peace among people by divine favor.”71 If εὐδοκίας is a subjective genitive of origin qualifying the implied verb, then the paral‐ lelism in the hymn could be understood as follows: [There is] glory to God on high And upon earth peace among people by divine good pleasure72
This reading of the hymn establishes God as the source of peace and of the events in the surrounding narrative. This latter option coheres with the narrative’s overall theocentric emphasis, contributing to the theme of the divine plan. It aligns also with eschatological expectations. In LXX Ps 50:20, the divine εὐδοκία ()רצון is the source of Zion’s restoration, and in LXX Ps 105:4, divine favor marks the advent of Israel’s salvation, designated—as in Luke‐Acts—as divine visitation (ἐπισκέπτομαι). In the latter text, divine favor/visitation results in joy (εὐφραίνω) and praise (αἴνεσις) (105:5, 47). In Luke, the narrator uses the same verb to describe the praise voiced by the multitude of the host of heaven (αἰνούντων τὸν θεόν) (2:13).
68 The best manuscripts read εὐδοκίας (genitive), e.g., א, A, B, D; it is usually preferred as the lectio difficilior, B. M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testa‐ ment: A Companion Volume to the United Bible Societiesʹ Greek New Testament (3rd ed; New York: United Bible Societies, 1975), 133. Fitzmyer provides five reasons for un‐ derstanding it as divine rather than human favor, Luke, 1:411. 69 E.g., 4Q440 (4QHa) IV, 32‒33 (ed. prin.). 70 Jesus’ speech about peace could support this view: “If you, even you, had only rec‐ ognized on this day the things that make for peace!” (Lk 19:42, NRSV). 71 In the Septuagint, Ps 144:16 and Sir 15:15 offer analogies for such a translation. 72 This kind of parallelism would invite comparison between heavenly praise and earthly peace: just as divine εὐδοκία is the origin of glory directed to God by angels in the highest places, the same divine εὐδοκία moves the angels to proclaim the ad‐ vent of peace on earth among humans. Conversely, later in the narrative, peace and glory in heaven will be the source of praise on earth (Lk 19:37‒38).
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The second hymn in this section also fulfills expectations about es‐ chatological praise. With the infant Jesus in his arms, Simeon voices a hymn that employs restoration imagery, as discussed above (salvation, light, and peace). The praise of the Nunc Dimittis also adds universality to this mix, because Simeon foresees divine salvation (σωτήριον) for all peo‐ ple (2:30‒31), both “revelation for the Gentiles and glory for Israel” (2:32).73 This assertion combines motifs of particular and universal salvation scat‐ tered throughout restoration oracles in Deutero‐Isaiah, where Zion’s trans‐ formation from shame to glory results not only in the regathering of her children (Isa 46:13; 60:1, 19) but also shines a light to the Gentiles so that divine salvation may reach to the end of the earth (Isa 42:6; 49:6; 51:4).74 Moreover, Simeon’s praise—like Zechariah’s and Mary’s—aligns with LXX Ps 97, as illustrated in Table 12, in which the parallels are indicated by varied types of underlining. Psalm 97 provides a model of eschatological praise, and the three hymns together (Mary’s, Zechariah’s, and Simeon’s) declare this praise.75 Strikingly, the end of LXX Ps 97:3 declares that all the ends of the earth have seen the salvation of God (εἴδοσαν πάντα τὰ πέρατα τῆς γῆς τὸ σωτήριον τοῦ θεοῦ ἡμῶν), resulting in an outburst of thunder‐ ous joy and praise expressed by God’s people, the nations, and all of crea‐ tion (97:4‒9).76 Similarly, Isa 60:1‒4 brings together the metaphors of a dawning light (which appears in Zechariah’s praise) and these images from the Nunc Dimittis: when personified Zion is consoled, she becomes radiant with light from God, and the glory (δόξα) of the Lord rises (ἀνατέλλω) on her. So enlightened, she serves as a beacon for nations living in darkness, who are drawn to her light and gather around as her children (60:15, 18).77
73 On the rather unusual word σωτήριον, see the discussion in D. Rusam, Das Alte Testament bei Lukas (New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2003), 80‒81. He points to Isa 40:5 and LXX Ps 97:2‒3 as possible antecedents. 74 There is wide acceptance in secondary literature that Isaiah is the source of the two images, Brown, Birth, 456‒60; Farris, Hymns, 150; Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:428. But it is not regularly observed that praise accompanies reversal in both texts. On the Isaiah texts, see pp. 57 to 61 above. 75 On the redemption of Jerusalem, see the discussion of Anna’s praise below. 76 The Psalm “makes rejoicing a key to ‘righteous judgment.’ This joyous praise in‐ volves both the congregation of the faithful and its individual members,” S. L. Ter‐ rien, The Psalms: Strophic Structure and Theological Commentary (Eerdmans Critical Commentary; Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Pub., 2003), 682‒3 com‐ menting on MT Ps 98. He observes also the similarity between the Psalm’s depiction of the nations’ acceptance of universal salvation (through their praise) and the “many islands” tradition in Isaiah, in which the outlying islands (i.e., the ends of the earth) respond to God’s visitation with joy and praise (Isa 40:5; 42:10; 51:3; 55:12). See also Isa 52:8‒10. 77 The description of Zion’s restored glory includes joy and praise (60:15, 18).
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Table 12 Comparison of LXX Ps 97:2‒3 and Simeon’s Praise Ps 97:2‒3
Lk 2:30, 32
ἐγνώρισεν κύριος τὸ σωτήριον αὐτοῦ
εἶδον οἱ ὀφθαλμοί μου τὸ σωτήριόν σου ὃ ἡτοίμασας κατὰ πρόσωπον πάντων τῶν λαῶν, φῶς εἰς ἀποκάλυψιν ἐθνῶν
ἐναντίον τῶν ἐθνῶν ἀπεκάλυψεν τὴν δικαιοσύνην αὐτοῦ ἐμνήσθη τοῦ ἐλέους αὐτοῦ τῷ Ιακωβ καὶ τῆς ἀληθείας αὐτοῦ τῷ οἴκῳ Ισραηλ εἴδοσαν πάντα τὰ πέρατα τῆς γῆς τὸ σωτήριον τοῦ θεοῦ ἡμῶν The Lord made known his salvation. Before the nations he revealed his righteousness in remembrance of his mercy to Jacob and his commitment to the house of Israel. All the ends of the earth have seen the salvation of our God.
καὶ δόξαν λαοῦ σου Ἰσραήλ.
My eyes have seen your salvation, which you have prepared before all the peoples, a light for revelation for the nations and for glory for your people Israel.
Together these passages give evidence of a traditional expectation that the restoration of Israel would extend to the Gentiles, marked by the praise of individuals and groups, resounding “to the ends of the earth.” So too, in the plot of Luke‐Acts, the divine visitation moves outward from the re‐ stored community in Jerusalem to the “ends of the earth,” and in keeping with eschatological expectations, both Jews and Gentiles will greet this ex‐ panding salvation with joyous praise of God.78 Alongside the hymns, praise notices similarly interpret the events of the story as eschatological redemption. The shepherds glorify and praise God (δοξάζοντες καὶ αἰνοῦντες τὸν θεὸν) “because of what they have seen and heard.”79 The latter phrase points to the heavenly announcement about 78 For example, in Acts 13:47‒48, Paul and Barnabas quote Isa 49:6 to show that God’s mercy extends to the “ends of the earth;” this declaration of universal salvation is greeted with immediate praise of God voiced by Gentiles, as discussed on p. 257 be‐ low. 79 The narrator’s description of the shepherds’ praise introduces the important Lukan phrase δοξάζειν τὸν θεόν (in this case separated by the verb αἰνέω) which appears ten additional times in Luke‐Acts to narrate active, verbal praise of the God of Israel (Lk 5:25, 26; 7:16; 13:13; 17:15; 18:43; 23:47; Acts 4:21; 11:18; 21:20). The distinctiveness of this particular way of expressing the praise motif is obvious in comparison with the rest of the NT and the LXX, where the phrase occurs only fourteen times, and in only nine of these cases refers to active, verbal praise of God or the lack thereof (Pr Azar
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Jesus as Messiah and to the divine sign of his birth in a manger (2:20).80 They praise God specifically for a Messiah. So too, the narrator explicitly links Anna’s praise to Jerusalem’s restoration: “she was praising God and speaking about him to all who anticipated Jerusalem’s redemption” (ἀνθωμολογεῖτο τῷ θεῷ καὶ ἐλάλει περὶ αὐτοῦ πᾶσιν τοῖς προσδεχομένοις λύτρωσιν Ἰερουσαλήμ) (2:38). Whatever the precise content of her praise, it springs from recognition of the λύτρωσιν Ἰερουσαλήμ; Anna’s praise—like Mary’s—fulfills the expectation that Zion’s redemption will be greeted with praise.81
4. Praise and Characterization in the Infancy Narrative Within the plot of Lk 1‒2, we have identified a pattern of three progres‐ sions that each move from angelic announcement to responses of eschato‐ logical, joyous praise. This praise both fulfills expectations about the divine visitation long expected by the people of God and interprets the events of the narrative as this visitation. But praise—because it is speech—also con‐ tributes to characterization, so we turn now to an investigation of how the praise motif intersects with the portrayal of characters in the infancy narra‐ 1:28; Mk 2:12; Mt 9:8; 15:31; Gal 1:23; Rom 1:21 (without article); 15:6, 9; 1 Pet 2:12; 4:16). But the concept of praising the Lord or the Lord’s name using the verb δοξάζω (without the precise phrase δοξάζειν τὸν θεόν) appears more frequently, such as in praise responding to the Exodus (Exo 15:2), the eschatological restoration of Israel (Isa 25:1), and protection from Nebuchadnezzar’s fire (Pr Azar 1:3). 80 The praise of 2:20 points back to two previous verses. In 2:15, the shepherds propose to go to Bethlehem to see an event that has already occurred (τὸ ῥῆμα τοῦτο τὸ γεγονός), which the Lord has revealed through the angelic announcement, i.e., the sign of a child wrapped in cloth and lying in a manger (2:12). In 2:17, having seen this predicted sign, they make known to others “what they have been told about this event, that is this child” (περὶ τοῦ ῥήματος τοῦ λαληθέντος αὐτοῖς περὶ τοῦ παιδίου τούτου). For a detailed argument on this line of interpretation, which investigates the dual quality of ῥῆμα as something both seen and heard and how it points to the child as a sign verifying the angelic words (and the saving acts of God), see C. Bur‐ chard, “A Note on Rhema in JosAs 17:1f, Luke 2:15,17, Acts 10:37,” NovT 27 (1985): 281‒95, 286‒7. As Burchard notes, the shepherds go on to praise God both for the announcement and the verification (sign) of divine saving action. Interestingly, Bur‐ chard identifies analogous uses of the word ῥῆμα in Acts 10:37, a text also involving praise of God, and in Jos. Asen. 17:1. 81 On the λύτρωσις of personified Zion specifically, see Isa 51:9‒11; 62:11‒12; Zeph 3:14‒17. In the first and last of these references, her redemption produces praise. In Isa 52:2‒10, Jerusalem is told to rise up, shake off the dust, retake her throne, and loose her bonds (52:2‒3) for she will be redeemed (λυτρόω), resulting in joy and praise (52:8‒9) and in the ends of the earth witnessing the victory of God (52:10). On this picture of Zion rising up and praising God, with reference to a scene later in Luke, see the discussion of the straightened woman on p. 201 below. Similarly, the prophet Micah looks forward to the day that the daughter of Zion will be redeemed (λυτρόω) (Mic 4:10).
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tive, focusing specifically on Mary, Elizabeth, and Zechariah. This section concludes with observations about the overall characterization of those who voice praise in the infancy narrative.
4.1 Elizabeth and Mary As argued above, the plot of Lk 1 takes care to weave together the charac‐ ters of Elizabeth and Mary, encouraging the reader to understand their sto‐ ries as mutually interpretive. While the two women differ in important ways, their praise speech similarly acknowledges divinely‐empowered reversals, declaring that God has transformed their experiences of shame and lowliness into divine mercy and favor as a result of miraculous fertil‐ ity. Mary offers praise in response to an experience of reversal, a move‐ ment from lowliness (ταπείνωσις) to blessedness through divine mercy (ἔλεος).82 Elizabeth acclaims God for a similar experience of reversal: her movement from disgrace (ὄνειδος) to the receipt of divine mercy (ἔλεος).83 Modern readers have struggled with how Mary, as a virgin, can be consid‐ ered to be in a state of ταπείνωσις. But the intended audience lived in a culture in which virginity was valued primarily for its potential (that is, for the future fertility of a young woman). From this perspective, an ancient reader might more easily consider a virgin and a barren woman in parallel 82 Mary speaks praise “because God has looked upon the lowliness of God’s servant” (ὅτι ἐπέβλεψεν ἐπὶ τὴν ταπείνωσιν τῆς δούλης αὐτοῦ) (1:48) and brought her bless‐ ing. She goes on to place her experience within the context of divine mercy experi‐ enced by all who fear God (καὶ τὸ ἔλεος αὐτοῦ εἰς γενεὰς καὶ γενεὰς τοῖς φοβουμένοις αὐτόν) (1:50). 83 Elizabeth says “because so the Lord has done for me in these days when he looked upon me to take away my disgrace among people” (ὅτι οὕτως μοι πεποίηκεν κύριος ἐν ἡμέραις αἶς ἐπεῖδεν ἀφελεῖν ὄνειδός μου ἐν ἀνθρώποις) (1:25). The ὅτι construction suggests praise language (e.g., 1:48), and Elizabeth acknowledges God’s mercy, so perhaps her speech should be understood as praise, even if it is not explicitly de‐ scribed as such. Later, she and her neighbors rejoice because God has shown mercy (ἔλεος) to her (1:58). In the Septuagint, the word ὄνειδος appears often in descriptions of the disgrace of women, either because of violation or infertility, (e.g., Gen 30:23; 34:14; Lev 20:17; Tob 3:10; Jdt 9:2); of the similarly imaged disgrace of cities or the people in them (e.g. of Jerusalem or Judea in Neh 2:17, Jdt 8:22; 1 Macc 4:45; of Ecbatana in Jdt 1:14); and of the disgrace of exile generally (e.g., LXX Ps 43:14; Pr Azar 1:10). The related word ὀνειδισμός is used even more frequently in such con‐ texts, and both Greek words tend to translate the single Hebrew word ח ְר ָפּה. ֶ With the word ὄνειδος, the character Elizabeth regards her own situation along the lines of an interpretive tradition that understands barrenness as a reproach rather than in keeping with an alternative tradition that considers barrenness to be indicative of appropriate spiritual humility (e.g., Philo). Mary Callaway details these two distinct ways of interpreting barrenness in Sing, O Barren One: A Study in Comparative Midrash (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986), 91‒100.
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situations: Mary is in a state of ταπείνωσις in the sense that she “has no husband,” while Elizabeth is ὄνειδος because of her barrenness. Both are empty vessels waiting to be filled with life. By linking the women, the nar‐ rative depicts both barrenness and virginity as “low estates” and portrays the two women as experiencing parallel instances of elevation by God via miraculous fertility.84 So too, both women respond with praise to their ex‐ periences of reversal.85 These corresponding praise responses not only strengthen the sense of parallel characterization of Elizabeth and Mary but also function to set these characters in the context of barren women in scripture, particularly Leah, Rachel, and Hannah, as follows: Leah (Gen 29:32) Διότι εἶδέν μου κύριος τὴν ταπείνωσιν Hannah (1 Sam 1:11) ἐὰν ἐπιβλέπων ἐπιβλέψης ἐπὶ τὴν ταπείνωσιν τῆς δούλης
Mary (Lk 1:48) ὅτι ἐπέβλεψεν ἐπὶ τὴν ταπείνωσιν τῆς δούλης αὐτοῦ.
Rachel (Gen 30:22‒23) Ἐμνήσθη δὲ ὁ θεὸς τῆς Ραχηλ . . . εἴπεν δέ Ραχηλ ἀφεῖλεν ὁ θεός μου τὸ ὄνειδος86
Elizabeth (Lk 1:25) ὅτι οὕτως μοι πεποίηκεν κύριος ἐν ἡμέραις αἶς ἐπεῖδεν ἀφελεῖν ὄνειδός μου ἐν ἀνθρώποις
Hannah (1 Sam 2:7‒8) κύριος πτωχίζει καὶ πλουτίζει, ταπεινοῖ καὶ ἀνυψοῖ. ἀνιστᾷ ἀπὸ γῆς πένητα καὶ ἀπὸ κοπρίας ἐγείρει πτωχὸν καθίσαι μετὰ δυναστῶν λαῶν καὶ θρόνον δόξης κατακληρονομῶν αὐτοῖς.
Elizabeth (Lk 1:52‒53) καθεῖλεν δυνάστας ἀπὸ θρόνων καὶ ὕψωσεν ταπεινούς, πεινῶντας ἐνέπλησεν ἀγαθῶν καὶ πλουτοῦντας ἐξαπέστειλεν κενούς.
Through their words of praise, the narrative connects Mary and Elizabeth with each other and with Leah, Rachel, and Hannah. God has looked upon (ἐπιβλέπω, ὁράω, ἐφοράω) or remembered (μιμνήσκω) all five women re‐ sulting in the reversal of their shame (ὄνειδος) or lowliness (ταπεινός) through miraculous fertility.87 These experiences of reversal parallel the 84 Ibid., 102. Callaway notes that through this characterization, both women represent the anawim, the poor who are exalted by the Lord (and in turn praise God, see n.26 above). 85 While setting the women in parallel, the narrative clearly emphasizes Mary. One way that it achieves this emphasis is through Mary’s praise response, which is obvi‐ ously much more developed and plays a more important role in the narrative. 86 These parallel expressions are widely recognized by commentators. 87 Divinely‐accomplished reversal appears not only in the infancy narrative but throughout Luke‐Acts. Reversal in the narrative can be thought of along the lines of Aristotle’s περιπέτεια, but there it is a change of circumstance or perspective (good to bad) that also represents the climax of the plot in tragedy. In historiography περιπέτεια can be a sudden reversal in the other direction, as when “an imminent, undesirable event is thwarted by a sudden, often unexpected intervention,” occur‐ ring, for example, in Josephus’ works, G. M. Paul, “The Presentation of Titus in the
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anticipated reversal to be experienced by Zion in the time of her consola‐ tion.88 Thus both women offer praise in terms that suggest the restoration of Jerusalem. So when Mary says that God “has raised up the lowly” (1:53), we ought to think most immediately of the two women transformed by God in the narrative who interpret their experiences as divine reversal; they are the poor ones whom God has filled (1:53). Why do the two women in their praise speech characterize themselves this way? Part of the answer to this question lies in the fact that these allu‐ sions to the characters of Leah, Rachel, and Hannah are part of a larger group of echoes of scriptural stories of miraculous births. This point is commonly accepted by scholars, who have identified in the infancy narra‐ tive references to the births of Isaac, Esau, Jacob, Reuben, Asher, Joseph, Samson, and Samuel. While opinions diverge about the interpretation of these allusions, most interpreters regard them as contributing to the char‐ acterization of John and Jesus as future leaders of Israel.89 But the paradigm of a hero’s birth does not adequately account for this group of allusions. It
Jewish War of Josephus: Two Aspects,” Phoenix 47 (1993): 56‒66, 58. The reversal de‐ scribed by Mary could be considered περιπέτεια in the sense that it points toward the entire experience of divine intervention to save from illness and oppression throughout the narrative. Aspects of the plot of Tobit might also be considered a περιπέτεια, particularly his ἀναγνώρισις, in ch. 12. In Luke‐Acts, the disciples’ rec‐ ognition of the divine plan in Jesus’ death and resurrection in Lk 24 might be consid‐ ered a περιπέτεια. From an anthropological perspective, John York identifies seven explicit instances of bipolar reversal (lifting up and bringing down) in the Gospel of Luke: Mary’s hymn, the beatitudes and woes, the rich man and Lazarus, the publi‐ can and the Pharisee, and three of Jesus sayings (about the humble exalted, first be‐ ing last, and saving by losing), as well as seven additional implicit instances, The Last Shall Be First: The Rhetoric of Reversal in Luke (JSNTSup 46; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990), passim. York draws upon understandings of honor and shame in the Mediter‐ ranean world, and he understands reversals to be proleptic, in the sense that they look forward to eschatological reversal. Reversal passages identified by Elisabeth Johnson include Lk 14:11, 15‒24; 16:25; 18:14; 20:19‒20; Acts 9:1‒30; 12:20‒24. She ar‐ gues briefly that healings in Luke are depicted as reversals of this sort, acting as signs of the Messianic age, E. A. Johnson, “Barrenness, Birth, and Biblical Allusions in Luke 1‒2” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton Theological Seminary, 2000), 240‒42. We will take up this point below. 88 Both ὄνειδος and ταπείνωσις are used to describe the reversal of the disgrace of Zion. The former word, used by Elizabeth, occurs in the context of Zion’s renewed fertility in Isa 54:4 and of the eschatological restoration of Israel in Joel 2:17, a passage ech‐ oed in the Lukan infancy narrative. See p. 158 above. 89 Some argue that they function in a very general way: as Septuagintal imitation, link‐ ing the story of Jesus and the church with the story of Israel, or as showing the con‐ tinued faithfulness of God to divine promises. Kenneth Litwak observes, for exam‐ ple, that allusions to Samson and Samuel frame the discourse of Lk 1‒2, telling “readers to interpret these annunciations as their predecessor accounts would be in‐ terpreted,” Echoes of Scripture in Luke‐Acts: Telling the History of Godʹs People Intertex‐ tually (JSNTSup 282; London: T&T Clark International, 2005), 71. They communicate that “God is showing his faithfulness . . . once again as he did in the Scriptures of Is‐ rael to bring deliverance and salvation to his people.”
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is difficult to see, for example, how references to the births of Jacob and Esau or of Asher characterize Jesus or John.90 Moreover, Lk 1 peppers both birth stories with allusions to Samuel’s birth, yet it is strange to think of Samuel as a model for John and Jesus.91 The stories of the sons do not offer consistently useful ways of understanding these allusions. However, if we shift the perspective from the sons to the mothers, a clearer pattern emerges: the infancy narrative echoes the story of every bar‐ ren woman in scripture, including personified Zion/Jerusalem, as follows: 1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Sarah: Allusions to Sarah’s story appear in the angelic announcement to Zechariah (Lk 1:13; Gen 17:19), his objection to it (Lk 1:18; Gen 15:18), and Elizabeth’s joy (Lk 1:58; Gen 21:6).92 Rebecca: Zechariah’s prayer for Elizabeth’s barrenness recalls Isaac’s prayer for Rebecca (Lk 1:13; Gen 25:21), while the leaping of the un‐ born child evokes the leaping of Rebecca’s twins (Lk 1:41; Gen 25:22). Leah: Mary’s declaration in the Magnificat that God has “looked upon the lowliness of his servant” mimics Leah’s very similar assertion fol‐ lowing the birth of Reuben (Lk 1:48; Gen 29:32). Elizabeth’s acclama‐ tion of Mary as blessed and Mary’s similar praise resemble Leah’s ex‐ clamation following the birth of Asher (Lk 1:45, 48; Gen 30:13).93 Rachel: Elizabeth’s affirmation that God “has taken way my disgrace” quotes almost verbatim Rachel’s words celebrating the reversal of her long experience of barrenness (Lk 1:25; Gen 30:23). Samson’s Mother: The angelic announcement about John’s future dis‐ tinctive behavior echoes the angelic description to Hazelponi about Samson.94 Hannah: Details from Hannah’s story appear in the narrator’s descrip‐ tion of Zechariah’s return home (Lk 1:23‒24; 1 Sam 1:19‒20); the Nazarite elements of John’s story (1 Sam 1:11); the angel’s description of Mary as one who has found favor (Lk 1:28; 1 Sam 1:18); and the re‐ versal motifs in the Magnificat, which reflect Hannah’s song (1 Sam 2:6‒8) and vow (1 Sam 1:11). Zion: In scripture, Zion appears as a barren woman whose consolation by God will result in fertility and joyous praise. This picture of Zion is
90 If heroic birth is the primary force at play, surely Moses offers a better antecedent (as in the Gospel of Matthew) than does Esau or Asher. 91 The description of Zechariah’s return home and Elizabeth’s conception (Lk 1:23‒24) recalls a similar narrative element in 1 Sam 1:19‒20, Brown, Birth, 281. 92 After giving birth, Sarah declares that others will rejoice with her (συγχαίρω), the same, rather unusual, word used by the narrator to describe Elizabeth’s praise (1:58). 93 In Mal 3:12, the “sons of Jacob” are similarly called blessed upon the eschatological renewal of the land’s fertility. 94 For brevity, I use the traditional name of Samson’s mother. In Judg 13‒16, she is un‐ named. On additional parallels between Hazelponi’s story and the infancy narrative, see Litwak, Echoes, 70‒81.
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intertextually present in the infancy narrative (see pages 153‒155 and 158‒161 above). Mary and Elizabeth both experience divine reversal resulting in their joyous praise. Moreover, as argued by Mary Calla‐ way, the link between virgin and barren woman is embedded in the figure of personified Zion, who is described in both ways.95 Precisely the same seven women appear together in Rabbinic texts, where they serve as symbols of hope for Jerusalem’s eschatological restoration.96 In these texts, various passages of scripture coalesce around the word “bar‐ ren” ( )עקרהand writers assume that stories of barren women in biblical narratives offer hope for the future transformation of Zion.97 Because God looked up and remembered these barren women in the past, God can be counted on in the future to resurrect, forgive, and save. By setting Elizabeth and Mary within the tradition of barren women, the infancy narrative “richly brings together all the traditions developed around the barren ma‐ triarchs and Jerusalem as mother.”98
95 Callaway, Sing, 65‒70, 105‒7. Callaway argues that second Isaiah brought together the images of Jerusalem as virgin and mother in a new way. 96 In these exegetical traditions, five of the women are linked through the five instances in which the word עקרה occurs in scriptural narratives: Sarah (Gen 11:30), Rebekah (Gen 25:21), Rachel (Gen 29:31), Hazelponi (Jud 13:2‒3), and Hannah (1 Sam 2:5). Zion enters the picture via Isa 54:1, which uses the word עקרה. The homilists base the inclusion of Leah (never described as )עקרה on Gen 29:31: “the LORD saw that Leah was unloved and he opened her womb.” 97 The seven women appear in Pesiqta de Rab Kahana and ’Aggadat Bereshit, two related homilies for Sabbaths of consolation following the ninth of Ab. In Pesiq. Rab Kah. 20.1, the homilist reflects on each of the seven women through the lens of Ps 113:9, finding a common movement from barrenness to joy through the birth of children. The eschatological praise of Zion—who will have so many children that she will ex‐ pand to heaven to hold them—culminates the series (Isa 49:21; 54:1). Similarly, Ag. Ber. 53c connects Hannah’s story with future communal restoration, concluding that just as God looked upon ()ראה the barren Hannah and remembered ()זכר her, so too God will not forget Zion. This link between Hannah and Zion leads the homilist to introduce the same seven series of barren women, each of whom corresponds with a day of creation. Other Rabbinic texts offer the stories of Sarah, Rachel, and Hannah as representing future hope for Zion’s restoration (without listing all six women), as detailed by Johnson, “Barrenness,” 64‒8. For instance, Pesiq. Rab Kah. 32 responds to pessimists who see no hope for the future, arguing that whenever scripture says “there is not” the opposite becomes possible. Barrenness represents hope because it provides an opportunity for divine reversal. The homilist draws on the transforma‐ tions of Sarah and Hannah to illustrate this point, showing that Zion’s affliction ()ענו will be overturned when a redeemer comes to her (Isa 54:11; 59:20). 98 Callaway, Sing, 106. Callaway observes the narrative link in Luke with the barren woman tradition (including Zion) but does not observe that Lk 1 alludes to all seven women. Callaway’s insight has been expanded in an unpublished dissertation, Johnson, “Barrenness,” passim. Johnson examines numerous points of connection among the barren woman tradition in scripture, Midrashim, and the narrative of Luke‐Acts.
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The Rabbinic homilies cannot, of course, give certain insight into exe‐ getical impulses at the turn of the era, but Paul’s argument in Gal 4:21‒31 relies on similar connections between Sarah and Zion. Similarly, Hannah’s song in Pseudo‐Philo’s retelling of 1 Sam 2 brings together the stories of Hannah and Zion: it interpolates Isa 51:4, a passage that associates the “light for peoples” with Zion’s comfort and her response of praise.99 These early texts—such as the Rabbinic passages and likely Luke—assume an understanding of the connection between these seven barren women in biblical narratives and prophetic expectations about the renewal of Zion’s fertility.100 On the one hand, Luke may offer evidence of a developed seven‐ barren‐women exegetical tradition well before its appearance in Pesiqta de Rab Kahana.101 But on the other hand, these various barren‐women texts (Rabbinic, Pseudo‐Philo, Paul, Luke) could each draw independently upon depictions of restored Zion in Isaiah. Isaiah links personified Zion with 99 L.A.B. 51.4‒6. Interestingly, this text amplifies the element of praise and rejoicing in Hannah’s hymn, as well as in the narrative surrounding it. 100 The connection between Sarah and Zion begins as early as second Isaiah, Callaway, Sing, 59‒72. 101 Since scripture never describes Leah as עקרה, the fact that Lk 1 echoes Leah’s story offers the strongest evidence that the infancy narrative may draw upon an existing exegetical trope of seven barren women. In addition, Lk 1 shares key terms and mo‐ tifs that occur frequently in barren woman texts. In the Rabbinic texts, the three verbs ראה (translated in the LXX as ἐπιβλέπω, ὁράω, or ἐφοράω), זכר (μιμνήσκω), and ( פקדἐπισκέπτομαι) serve as important connecting points for linking God’s mercy to barren women and to Zion (or more generally, Israel), Johnson, “Barren‐ ness,” 207‒15. In Lk 1, these same three verbs (in translation) describe God’s mercy upon Elizabeth (1:25), Mary (1:48), and Israel (1:54, 68, 72, 78). Further, the images of divine glory for Zion/Israel and a “light to the nations”—found in expressions of praise in Lk 1‒2—figure also in the barren woman exegetical tradition. Finally, the Magnificat draws upon three instances of scriptural praise (Pss 98 [=LXX Ps 97]; 113:7‒8 [=LXX 112:7‒8]; Hab 3:18) that also appear as expressions of praise in the Rabbinic barren‐women texts. 1) The Magnificat quotes precisely those verses within Hannah’s song (1 Sam 2:7‒8) that parallel Ps 113:7‒8, which itself expresses joy in response to divine reversal of barrenness. Ps 113:9 in turn plays a crucial role in Pesiq. Rab Kah. 20.1 and Pesiq. Rab. 43.4, where it serves as an expression of Zion’s praise. On the association between 1 Sam 2:7‒8 and MT Ps 113:7‒8, see Weitzman, Song and Story, 115‒7. As he points out, certain Rabbis understood Ps 113 as the song for celebrating miraculous births (e.g., to barren women), 115. 2) Mary’s hymn opens (1:47) with an echo of Hab 3:18, which appears in Rabbinic barren‐women texts as praise voiced (either by Abraham or Sarah) upon the divine reversal of Sarah’s barrenness. In Pesiq. Rab. 42.5, Hab 3:18 is voiced by Abraham, while in Gen. Rab. 53.3, by Sarah. This line of interpretation involves understanding the imagery of agricultural and animal infertility in Hab 3:17 as pointing to Sarah’s infertility. Thus the praise that follows in Hab 3:18 responds to the reversal of this infertility. See Johnson, “Barrenness,” 76. 3) Genesis Rabbah interprets MT Ps 98:3 as an expression of divine remembrance akin to God’s remembering of Rachel (Gen 30:22), while the Magnificat mirrors the themes of this same Psalm, as argued above.
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Sarah and pictures Zion’s future experience of reversal as movement from barrenness, shame, and lowliness to fertility.102 Thus, as Johnson argues, Luke and these traditions may rely upon a common exegetical tradition or their interpretations may have developed along parallel but historically unrelated paths, through the magnetizing of texts around עקרה/στεῖρα. Returning now to our primary focus—the praise motif—we may sum‐ marize that Zion’s joyous praise is a central feature of the passage from Isaiah in which the word עקרה appears (Isa 54:1‒11), and praise of God figures prominently throughout prophetic descriptions of the consolation of Jerusalem.103 Like Zion, Elizabeth and Mary experience transformation from shame (ὄνειδος) and lowliness (ταπείνωσις) to mercy and blessing, through miraculous fertility. Their praise speech responds to this transfor‐ mation and alludes both to the responses of barren women in scriptural narrative, as well as the eschatological praise expected of Zion. In this way, allusive characterization in Lk 1—much like the allusive characterization we have explored in Tobit and in Joseph and Aseneth—connects the reversals experienced by Elizabeth and Mary (in the present) with those experienced by Israel’s matriarchs (in the past) and with the eschatological transforma‐ tion expected for Zion. Thus, the characterization of Mary and Elizabeth aligns with expecta‐ tions in Joel 2:21‒26, where the prophet declares: ὅτι ἐμεγάλυνεν τὰ ἔργα αὐτοῦ θάρσει, γῆ, χαῖρε καὶ εὐφραίνου ὅτι ἐμεγάλυνεν κύριος τοῦ ποιῆσαι . . . καὶ τὰ τέκνα Σιων, χαίρετε καὶ εὐφραίνεσθε ἐπὶ τῷ κυρίῳ θεῷ ὑμῶν . . . καὶ φάγεσθε ἐσθίοντες καὶ ἐμπλησθήσεσθε καὶ αἰνέσετε τὸ ὄνομα κυρίου τοῦ θεοῦ ὑμῶν ἃ ἐποίησεν μεθ᾿ ὑμῶν εἰς θαυμάσια (LXX Joel 2:20‒1, 23, 26) For [the Lord] has magnified his works, Take courage, O Land, be glad and rejoice, For the Lord has magnified what he has done . . . So, O children of Zion, be glad and rejoice in the Lord, your God . . . And you will eat abundantly and be satisfied And you will praise the name of the Lord, your God Who has done among you what is wondrous
102 As Blenkinsopp points out, the miraculous fertility of Sarah informs the description of transformed Zion in Isaiah, especially in the prophetic χαῖρε exhortation in Isa 66:7‒14. He notes that “Sarah’s story is of a woman who, after complaining that ‘YHVH has closed my womb’ [Isa 66:9] . . . preventing me giving birth [Isa 66:7 par. Gen 16:2], miraculously conceived and gave birth to a son. God promised it and brought it about without human agency. Life is elicited from the dead womb of Sarah . . . thus demonstrating that nothing is too wonderful for YHVH,” Isaiah 56‒66, 350‒56. 103 See p. 55 and following above.
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In this passage, the joy and praise of the children of Zion spring from the fact that God has magnified divine works and done great things. So too in Luke, Mary is exhorted to rejoice (χαῖρε) and offers praise because God has done great things (ὅτι ἐποίησέν μοι μεγάλα ὁ δυνατός) (1:49), while Eliza‐ beth rejoices because the Lord has magnified mercy to her (ὅτι ἐμεγάλυνεν κύριος τὸ ἕλεος αὐτοῦ μετ᾿ αὐτῆς) (1:58). As pious and upright children of Zion, the two women experience divine renewal within themselves and respond very much in keeping with the expectations of the prophet Joel. In Joel, this passage about the joy and praise of Zion’s children leads directly into Joel 2:28‒32 (LXX/MT Joel 3:1‒5), quoted by Peter in Acts 2, where it provides the foundation for a number of themes developed in the ensuing narrative. If Lk 1 also echoes Joel 2, then we might understand that the opening of the Gospel introduces Luke’s first volume as the restoration of Zion praised by her children (Joel 2:21‒26) while the second volume opens with reference to those events that follow this restoration (καὶ ἔσται μετὰ ταῦτα) (Joel 2:28): the arrival of the Spirit, the salvation of all who call upon the name of the Lord, and the gathering (salvation) of the Gentiles (Joel 2:28‒3:2; LXX/MT Joel 3:1‒4:2).
4.2 Zechariah The allusive characterization of Mary and Elizabeth—located particularly in their praise—evokes expectations related to their community. And as we turn to the character of Zechariah, we find the same dynamic at work. Like Mary and Elizabeth, Zechariah is characterized through his praise (and the lack thereof) in a way that connects him with expectations about Israel’s eschatological restoration. On its primary level, the narrative characterizes Zechariah in an incon‐ gruous way, as explicated by Coleridge.104 On the one hand, the narrator emphasizes Zechariah’s piety, as well as his role as a priest (Lk 1:6, 8‒9). Visited by Gabriel in the inner sanctuary of the temple (1:10), Zechariah responds rightly with fear, which indicates to the reader that he under‐ stands what he sees (1:11). Moreover, we learn through Gabriel’s speech that the priest has been praying for a child, and Zechariah himself re‐ sponds to the angel’s announcement with almost the very words that the faithful Abraham used in a similar situation, “By what shall I know this?”105 104 The following description of the incongruous characterization of Zechariah is sum‐ marized from Coleridge, Birth, 37‒48. 105 Zechariah asks, κατὰ τί γνώσομαι τοῦτο; (Lk 1:18), while Abraham asks, κατὰ τί γνώσομαι ὅτι κληρονομήσω αὐτήν; (Gen 15:8). The echo of Abraham’s question is recognized by numerous commentators.
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But on the other hand, the narrative calls into question Zechariah’s re‐ sponse, for on Zechariah’s lips, Abraham’s words are contradictory and strange. The allusion to Abraham signals to the reader that this pious priest standing in the inner sanctuary knows the precedent of Abraham yet fails to accept or recognize the significance this story may hold for his own life: he asks for the very sign that he already possesses.106 If the reader misses the contradictory nature of Zechariah’s reply, the angel’s reaction makes it plain: Zechariah lacks faith. This incongruous characterization places em‐ phasis on the important role that recognition plays in the infancy narra‐ tive.107 Proper response is not guaranteed—even for those who know scrip‐ ture—for it requires not only experiencing but also recognizing the advent of divine mercy, occurring as it does in a surprising way. Coleridge’s analysis of Zechariah’s failure to recognize divine salvation converges with the pattern of praise identified above, for during the period of Zechariah’s doubt, his praise is explicitly silenced. At the beginning of Zechariah’s story, as we have seen, an angel establishes the expectation for the reader that Zechariah will respond to the events of the story with joy (1:14). But Zechariah’s doubt (and structurally, the chiastic pattern of the praise motif described above) delays this anticipated response of joy through most of the first chapter. Instead of a joyful father (1:14), Zechariah becomes conversely κωφός (1:22) and only much later in the story does he express joyous praise (1:64). The setting only amplifies the priest’s silence, for he stands in the temple where praise of God is the norm. The text also emphasizes his silence through the reaction of the shocked people awaiting his blessing.108 This narrative gap between the angelic announcement of joy and Zechariah’s fulfillment of it through praise creates a tension that can be relieved only by divine intervention. Only divine healing will reverse Zechariah’s silence and allow him to respond with joy/praise. Moreover, when this divine healing occurs, it results directly in the anticipated praise: ἀνεῴχθη δὲ τὸ στόμα αὐτοῦ παραχρῆμα καὶ ἡ γλῶσσα αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἐλάλει εὐλογῶν τὸν θεόν (Lk 1:64) And immediately his mouth was opened and his tongue [loosed] and he spoke, blessing God
The very first words out of Zechariah’s mouth, when God restores his speech, are words of praise that ensue directly from his experience of heal‐ 106 Coleridge, Birth, 37‒39. 107 See pp. 149 to 152 above. 108 If Zechariah is offering incense for the afternoon Tamid service, the people waiting outside expect a spoken blessing, Hamm, “Tamid Service,” 221‒2.
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ing.109 Because these words of praise fulfill the angelic expectation from the beginning of the story (1:14) and emerge directly from Zechariah’s healing, they suggest a kind of pent‐up praise awaiting release. For the reader, they also relieve a narrative tension related to Zechariah’s characterization that has spanned most of chapter one.110 In short, on the primary level of the plot, Zechariah—like Mary and Elizabeth—experiences transformation marked by praise. In the cases of Mary and Elizabeth, the pattern of transformation fol‐ lowed by praise takes on a representative quality, achieved by allusive characterization. Is the characterization of Zechariah similarly allusive? Clues in the narrative suggest that it is: Zechariah’s movement from κωφός to one who speaks praise reflects prophetic expectations about eschatologi‐ cal healing. To make this point, it is important to observe a detail in Zecha‐ riah’s characterization: his divinely imposed disability is not simply the lack of speech but of hearing as well. Because of Zechariah’s disbelief, Gabriel tells him that he will be silent (σιωπάω) and unable to speak (λαλέω) (1:20), but the narrator describes him as κωφός (1:22), a word that can mean mute and/or deaf. Later, however, the narrator clearly depicts Zechariah as unable to hear (1:62). Zechariah is healed of both muteness and deafness by God. This healing of Zechariah aligns with Isa 35:5‒6, which anticipates that on the day of Israel’s restoration, the “the ears of the deaf will hear” (ὦτα κωφῶν ἀκούσονται). Isaiah 35:5‒6 in turn serves a foundational role in Luke in the interpretation of Jesus’ ministry in Lk 7:22 (par. Mt 11:5). In Isa 35:5‒6, the list of those healed by God includes the blind (τυφλός), deaf (κωφός), lame (χωλός), and mute (μογιλάλος). Lk 7:22, by contrast, lists the 109 While commentators do not typically speak of Zechariah’s transformation as a heal‐ ing, it seems reasonable to do so. Certainly, Zechariah’s changed state functions as a sign, but this is true of other healings in the Lukan narrative, as well. The point of healings as signs is made explicit in the healing of the paralyzed man at the Beauti‐ ful Gate. See p. 192 below. 110 My argument here relates to a gap of praise in narrated time, creating a tension not for the characters in the story but for the reader. This gap is created by the angelic expectation of praise, Zechariah’s presence in the temple (the place of praise), and the urgency of Zechariah’s bottled up praise when finally released. By contrast, be‐ cause Elizabeth’s joy is not specifically announced, it cannot be considered delayed. The contrast between Zechariah’s silence and Elizabeth’s speech about God (1:25) and finally her joy (1:58), as well as the joy of the unborn John (1:41, 44) and Zecha‐ riah’s relatives and neighbors (1:58), only heightens the tension created by the priest’s silenced praise. Coleridge identifies a corresponding gap within the story time (fabula), observing that Zechariah’s delay within the temple alerts the people waiting outside that something unusual has occurred. But this gap does not create tension for the reader, who already knows why Zechariah has been delayed. For the characters, tension related to Zechariah’s silence lies in its mysterious nature; for the readers, it rests in his inability to respond with joy/praise to divine mercy.
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blind and lame and deaf but not the mute.111 On the primary level of the plot, the detail of Zechariah’s deafness is superfluous but on the symbolic level (in which healing serves as a sign of divine restoration), it neatly con‐ nects Zechariah’s experience of transformation with Isa 35:5‒6, as summa‐ rized in Lk 7:22.112 It should be observed that the various transformations in Isa 35:1‒10 climax with exuberant joy and praise, as does the Lukan characterization of Zechariah.113 Moreover, his praise speech echoes LXX Ps 125:2, itself a pro‐ phetic depiction of Zion’s restoration.114 Thus, just as Elizabeth and Mary experience the reversal anticipated in the consolation of Zion (divinely‐ initiated fertility), so Zechariah lives out part of the reversal expected to accompany Israel’s restoration (healing from deafness).115 Together, the
111 Luke 7:22 states καὶ κωφοὶ ἀκούουσιν. While the word κωφός may mean either mute or deaf, in this context, it clearly means deaf, as in Isa 35:5‒6. Luke 7:22 also lists the leprous, dead, and poor, drawing perhaps on a particular interpretation of Isa 61:1, which speaks of good news to the poor, healing for the brokenhearted, liberty to captives. Isa 61:1 in turn appears in Lk 4:18 to interpret Jesus’ ministry. 112 In the primary story line, Zechariah moves from muteness to speech to praise; the detail of his deafness plays no role whatsoever on the primary narrative level. Brown, writing of Lk 7:22, states that by chapter seven of Luke, the narrative “has not yet reported the cure of a deaf person,” Luke, 688. However, Luke has reported such a cure: the divine healing of Zechariahʹs deafness. Oddly, Brown also observes that the cure of cripples is “not related to any promises of the OT” when in fact, the leaping of the lame appears alongside the healing of the blind, deaf, and mute in Isa 35:5; surely the lame cannot leap without first being cured. In Acts 3, Peter’s cure of the lame man echoes this very verse, as argued below. As for lepers, no biblical es‐ chatological hopes specifically anticipate their healing, as Brown points out, but see p. 267 below on narrative affinities between the cleansing of leprosy and the clean‐ sing of the Gentiles. 113 In Isa 35:1‒10, once they are healed, the redeemed will walk on a holy way (ὀδὸς ἅγιος), returning to Zion with joy, gladness, and praise (εὐφροσύνη, αἴνεσις, and ἀγαλλίαμα). See p. 58 above for a more detailed examination of joyous praise in Isa 35:1‒10. A similar pattern appears in Isa 29:18‒19, where the prophet describes a coming day when the deaf (κωφός) will hear the words of a book, while the poor will rejoice (ἀγαλλιάω) and those lacking hope will be filled with joy (εὐφροσύνη). Joy follows similar transformations in Isa 61:1‒11. In LXX Ps 125:2, echoed in the de‐ scription of Zechariah’s praise, the tongue and mouth are filled with joy through God’s saving intervention. Similarly, Wis 10:21 describes movement from muteness (κωφός) to praise through God’s power, in the context of retelling the Exodus, see p. 62 above. 114 See p. 153 above. 115 Some readers have been hesitant to see a real transformation in Zechariah’s situation. Ravens, for example, argues that Zechariah’s dumbness is “only a narrative device” but to what purpose? Narrative devices typically serve some function in the narra‐ tive, but for Ravens the spirit‐filled characters of the infancy narrative have no need of repentance or atonement, Luke and the Restoration of Israel, 27‒28. I would argue by contrast that they do need transformation. Zechariah—despite his having kept the law blamelessly—requires a reversal of disbelief, muteness, and deafness. If we take the words of Elizabeth and Mary seriously, we have to admit that they also experi‐ ence transformation, even if their state of oppression has resulted from no faults of
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three characters voice the sort of joy and praise expected to result from this kind of eschatological transformation.
D. Conclusion The infancy narrative presents the reader with three progressions from angelic expectation of joy to individual and communal praise responses that fulfill these expectations. These moments of praise—comprising both direct speech (hymns) and praise notices—respond directly to divine action in the plot. The characters who voice this praise are broadly representative of Israel. Male and female, young and old, they are humble, pious, and righteous Jews, upright but low in station: they are exactly the sort of peo‐ ple expected to greet the divine visitation with their praise.116 Because such individuals constitute reliable characters, their praise speech ought to be accepted as an accurate introduction to the narrative that follows.117 This point has important implications for interpreting the narrative of Luke‐Acts, for if we may trust John, Mary, Elizabeth, Zechariah, the host of heaven, the shepherds, Simeon, and Anna, we ought to read the rest of the story through the lens of their praise.118 Before turning to the next three their own. The world of the infancy narrative is one in which even the very best hu‐ man beings require the visitation of God. 116 On the connection between the upright and praise in biblical and early Jewish texts, see the discussion beginning on p. 44 above. 117 Not only does the infancy narrative characterize the speakers of praise as reliable, but as we have seen, their praise speech fulfills angelic expectations and in some cases, uses the language of scripture, responds directly to divinely‐initiated rever‐ sals, and is empowered by the Holy Spirit. The infancy narrative sets up the reader to expect that the narrative will align with their words of praise. 118 In his narrative analysis, R. C. Tannehill accepts the reliability of the characters in the infancy narrative, yet he argues that the characters arouse “expectations that are not fulfilled in the following narrative” Luke (Abingdon New Testament Commentaries; Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996), 41, emphasis mine. In his view, the restoration does not occur, dashing the hopes expressed in the infancy narrative and creating unresolved tension through the ultimately tragic turn of events, The Narrative Unity of Luke‐Acts: A Literary Interpretation (1: The Gospel of Luke; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986), 69‒85. Coleridge’s narrative reading, by contrast, suggests that the restoration of Israel does unfold in the plot of Luke‐Acts but not in ways the characters expect. In his view, tension in the plot derives from the surprising nature of divine visitation but not from its failure. Similarly, in a study of the motif of the plan of God in Luke‐Acts, J. Squires argues that the infancy narrative establishes the presence of a divine plan in the story, which subsequently unfolds without disappointment. In his view, this divine activity is somewhat muted in the Gospel but comes to the fore in Acts, Squires, Plan, 31. In contrast to Tannehill but in keeping with Coleridge and Squires, I understand that the divine visitation (which could be considered a specific mani‐ festation of the “plan of God”) is acknowledged first in the praise of the infancy nar‐ rative and then unfolds within narrative time, first to Israel (primarily in Luke) and then to the Gentiles (primarily in Acts), as anticipated by Simeon (Lk 2:32). Praise re‐
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contexts in which the praise motif appears in Luke‐Acts, it important to observe that the praise speech of these reliable characters introduces four elements of the praise motif that will consistently reappear in the rest of the narrative. First, praise in the infancy narrative asserts that the divine visitation has begun. With regard to content, the four hymns in Lk 1‒2 respond di‐ rectly to the restoration of Israel/consolation of Jerusalem and (in the case of Simeon) to the related image of universal salvation, while the three longer hymns express the eschatological praise anticipated in LXX Ps 97.119 Yet with regard to form, the hymns are declarative praise.120 Thus, while the hymns share the eschatological themes of a hymn like LXX Ps 97, they function like the Song of the Sea, lauding God for what has already hap‐ pened (or more precisely, what has begun to happen). If Ps 97 provides a prophetic preview of praise expected when God decisively accomplishes national renewal, then the hymns in Luke fulfill this expectation in the form of declarative praise. In other words, they are the anticipated eschato‐ logical hymns.121 The aorist verbs in the hymns demand that the reader accept—despite appearances to the contrary—that God has somehow al‐ ready begun this salvation in a decisive way.122 Praise notices, because they absorb the content of the surrounding hymns, serve as shorthand versions of the hymns and function similarly. Together, hymns and praise notices in
119
120 121
122
sponses connect these two aspects of the visitation and also link them with the activ‐ ity of Jesus (his birth, life, passion, and resurrection). The plot involves no sense of tragedy related to the visitation itself; rather, praise responses show that it proceeds as planned, despite the fact that some characters resist it. Praise marks the visitation of God in Jesus, which realizes the restoration of the people of Israel within narrative time (Acts 1‒4). The restored community in turn facilitates the Gentile mission. In addition, the narrative looks forward to the restoration of all things (χρόνων ἀποκαταστάσεως πάντων), which is yet to come (outside narrative time) (Acts 3:21). Through characters’ praise in the infancy narrative, the reader learns that the visita‐ tion of God is an act of mercy upon Israel, by divine good pleasure, which delivers the nation from its enemies, accomplishes reversal for the lowly, and brings about redemption of Jerusalem (or the consolation of Zion) in keeping with the promises to Abraham and to David. John, a prophet spiritually like Elijah, prepares the people for divine visitation by offering salvation through forgiveness of sins. At the center of the visitation is the Davidic messiah, a dawning light of salvation to all people, who will establish peace on earth, and shine as revelation to the Gentiles and as glory to Israel, resulting in joyous praise of God. Obviously, the last four verses of the Benedictus represent an exception to this point. As argued above, the hymns of the infancy narrative are eschatological in three senses. First, they fulfill scriptural expectations that the divine renewal of Israel will engender enthusiastic praise of God. Second, by alluding to scriptural descriptions of the restoration, they interpret the narrative, urging the reader to join its characters in recognizing the events in the plot as the eschatological visitation, despite the sur‐ prising way in which it occurs. Third, they describe the restoration itself, via language culled from scriptural expectations. Brown makes the same observation, Birth, 350.
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the infancy narrative create an expectation for the reader that when praise occurs later in Luke‐Acts, it will similarly greet moments in the unfolding eschatological visitation. Second, the pattern of praise in Lk 1‒2 establishes that praise responds to divinely‐initiated transformation, in which personal salvation mirrors corporate restoration. As argued above, individual and corporate identities merge in the characterization of Zechariah and Mary, and to a lesser extent Elizabeth.123 A similar dynamic will reoccur in later scenes of praise in Luke‐Acts. Third, narrative tension related to Zechariah’s silenced praise intro‐ duces the possibility that people may initially resist the divine visitation (or revelation about it) and respond not with praise but with a lack of praise. As the narrative progresses, it will become clear that this silence may go two ways. In some cases, it will turn to praise (as in the story of Zechariah), resolving narrative tension. But in other cases, silence will turn to blame, signaling a rejection of the divine visitation. In the plot of Luke‐Acts, as we shall see, tensions related to silence and rejection intensify as the story un‐ folds, ultimately dividing characters into two groups: those who recognize and accept the surprising visitation of God (responding with praise) and those who reject it (responding with silence or blame). We should observe that the infancy narrative foreshadows this division in the words of Simeon: οὗτος κεῖται εἰς πτῶσιν καὶ ἀνάστασιν πολλῶν ἐν τῷ Ἰσραὴλ καὶ εἰς σημεῖον ἀντιλεγόμενον . . . ὅπως ἂν ἀποκαλυφθῶσιν ἐκ πολλῶν καρδιῶν διαλογισμοί (Lk 2:34‐35) this [child] is destined for the falling and rising of many in Israel and as a sign [to be] opposed . . . so that the inner thoughts of many hearts might be revealed
The theme of division will gradually form a community composed of indi‐ viduals who, in the inner thoughts of their hearts, recognize the surprising events of the story as the long‐expected divine visitation, giving voice to this recognition through praise. Fourth, in the pattern of praise in the infancy narrative, individual praise is followed by communal praise. Zechariah and Mary offer praise in response to their personal experiences of transformation (healing and mi‐ raculous fertility), which is echoed by “many” and “all the people.” In each of the successive contexts for praise in Luke‐Acts, we will see a similar movement from individual praise to communal praise. 123 Just as Mary moves from a state of ταπείνωσις to praise and Zechariah from κωφός to praise, so Elizabeth moves from ὄνειδος to praise, but the narrative places far less emphasis on Elizabeth’s praise response. By contrast, it highlights the praise re‐ sponses of Zechariah and Mary both by anticipating them through angelic an‐ nouncement and by their expressions of large blocks of direct praise speech (“hymns”). The characters’ individual experiences of transformation (as described in their praise) mirror the restoration now happening for Israel/Jerusalem.
Chapter 6
Praise and Healing in Luke‐Acts A. Introduction As one reads through Luke‐Acts, the first instance of praise beyond the infancy narrative occurs in response to a healing miracle. This response initiates the second major context for the praise motif in Luke‐Acts: praise of God following healing. Six such scenes appear in Luke‐Acts: two during Jesus’ ministry in Galilee, three on his way to Jerusalem, and one early in Acts. This section will examine the pattern of praise in each of these stories, as well as how praise contributes to the characterization of the people healed. This chapter argues that as in the infancy narrative, so too in this sec‐ ond context for praise in Luke‐Acts, characters respond with praise to their experience of individual transformation (healing in this case) with praise, and this praise is echoed by witnesses.1 In addition, in keeping with Zecha‐ riah’s story, many of these healing scenes involve narrative tension pro‐ duced by delayed praise and at least partially resolved by praise responses. And as in the infancy stories, the healing stories describe some of the healed persons in language evocative of the restoration of Israel, suggest‐ ing that their praise in response to healing represents the restoration of glory to God’s people. Depiction of individual healings as metaphors for corporate restoration is consistent with Luke’s presentation of reversal (in‐ cluding healing) as a sign of eschatological salvation.
B. The Pattern of Praise in Healing Stories (Lk 5‒Acts 4) In six stories of healing, Luke‐Acts develops a pattern in which individuals express praise following their transformation, echoed in turn by a larger group of witnesses, as illustrated in Table 13. As this table shows, the pat‐ 1
If we consider Elizabeth and Zechariah to be healed by God, then Luke‐Acts in‐ volves a total of eight scenes in which praise of God follows healings: two in the in‐ fancy narrative, five in Jesus’ ministry, and one in Acts. Later in Acts there are two general summaries of healing followed by joy or praise (8:8; 19:17).
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tern of healing followed by individual and communal praise is not entirely consistent, occurring most clearly in scenes one, five, and six. In scene two, individual praise is absent. The third scene suggests communal praise in the vocabulary of its direct speech of acclamation (χαίρω, ἔνδοξος) but does not explicitly offer praise, while in the fourth story, communal praise is explicitly absent.
Table 13 Pattern of Praise in Six Healing Stories in Luke‐Acts
Reference Scene
Individual praise
Communal praise
1)
Lk 5:17‒26
Paralyzed man lowered through the roof
The healed man glorifies God (δοξάζω)
The crowd glorifies God (δοξάζω)
2)
Lk 7:11‒17
Widow’s son at Nain
The crowd glorifies God (δοξάζω)
3)
Lk 13:11‒17
Straightened woman
The healed woman glorifies God (δοξάζω)
[The crowd rejoices (χαίρω) at the wonderful things (ἔνδοξος) Jesus is doing]
4)
Lk 17:11‒19
Ten men with leprosy
One healed man returns, praising God (δοξάζω) in a loud voice
[Nine men fail to give praise (οὐχ εὑρέθησαν . . . δοῦναι δόξαν)]
5)
Lk 18:35‒43
Man born blind The healed man at Jericho glorifies God (δοξάζω)
The crowd gives praise to God (πᾶς ὁ λαὸς ἰδὼν ἔδωκεν αἶνον τῷ θεῷ)
6)
Acts 3:8‒4:21
Paralyzed man at the Beautiful Gate
The crowd glorifies God (δοξάζω)
The healed man praises God (αἰνέω)
In the first two of these healing scenes, the narrative provides direct speech of communal praise: ὅτι εἴδομεν παράδοξα σήμερον (Lk 5:26) We have seen surprising things today ὅτι προφήτης μέγας ἠγέρθη ἐν ἡμῖν ὅτι ἐπεσκέψατο ὁ θεὸς τὸν λαὸν αὐτοῦ (Lk 7:16) A great prophet has risen among us God has looked favorably on God’s people
But in the remaining four stories, praise responses consist simply of praise notices. In the infancy narrative, we have seen that both direct speech of
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praise (hymns) and praise notices—both by individuals and groups—fulfill the angelic predictions of joyous praise, meeting the expectation that “many”—indeed “all the people”—will respond to the eschatological visi‐ tation of God with joy and will thereby acknowledge the events of the sur‐ rounding narrative as the work of God. Having established this function of praise, the narrative shifts the context for praise from John’s and Jesus’ births to Jesus’ life and specifically, his healing ministry. As the motif of praise reappears in these six healing stories, the reader hears this praise via expectations established in the infancy narrative. But the narrative does not leave it entirely to the reader to make this connection. Rather, it explicitly links the two contexts of praise (birth and healing) by tying both to the unfolding of the divine visitation within the plot. In the story of the widow’s son, direct speech of communal praise de‐ clares that “God has visited” (ἐπισκέπτομαι) God’s people (7:17), while Zechariah has already twice offered praise for the visitation of God (1:68, 78). By echoing Zechariah’s praise, the people’s praise in chapter seven makes it clear that the divine visitation (centered in the person of Jesus) now unfolds in his healing ministry generally (and more precisely in this story of the resurrection of a widow’s only son). To state this point another way, the visitation begun in the infancy narrative continues in this healing. In both contexts (birth and healing), praise celebrates the divine visitation and marks characters’ positive responses to it. Thus, in each of these six healing scenes, as characters offer praise, their voices join a song of praise already begun in response to the divine visitation, amplifying fulfillment of the infancy narrative’s angelic anticipations of eschatological praise. With regard to narrative structure, five of the six scenes of healing fol‐ lowed by praise involve narrative tensions analogous to the silence of Zechariah in the infancy narrative.2 The Lukan narrative represents such negative responses through silence (the absence of praise) or words of blame (the opposite of praise), as detailed in the paragraphs below.3
1. Man with Paralysis Lowered through a Roof (Lk 5:17‒26) Narrative tension in the story of the paralyzed man lowered through the roof derives from two obstacles in the plot: one physical and the other theo‐ logical. The physical obstacle is created by a seated crowd that blocks ac‐ cess to Jesus (5:19). Luke’s version of the story identifies this crowd specifi‐ 2 3
Such tensions appear in all six stories except the healing of the widow’s son. On Zechariah’s silence and the tension it creates, see p. 175 above. Narrative tensions occur in five of the six stories, all but the raising of the widow’s son, which as we have seen, connects back to the infancy narrative via the motif of visitation.
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cally as a group of Pharisees and legal teachers who represent “every vil‐ lage of Galilee, Judah, and Jerusalem.”4 As the story opens, Luke parallels Mark in depicting Jesus teaching this crowd. But Luke adds that even as Jesus teaches, he has the power to heal (5:17), this detail about healing fore‐ shadows the transformation that will follow, focusing the reader’s atten‐ tion—even before the paralyzed man appears on the scene—on the fact that the crowd impedes the path to healing.5 Luke amplifies the narrative tension created by this physical obstacle with a detailed description of the quest to gain access to Jesus. Luke speci‐ fies that the paralyzed man’s friends seek (ζητέω) but initially do not find (εὑρίσκω) a way to lay the man before Jesus (5:18‒19), and he details their dismantling of the roof.6 The narrative relieves this first tension in Lk 5:20: the friends succeed, and Jesus identifies their efforts as faith (πίστις).7 But almost in the same breath, Jesus speaks surprising and controver‐ sial words that give rise to the story’s second obstacle: theological objection to Jesus’ declaration of forgiveness. Luke describes the people who voice this objection as “the scribes and the Pharisees” (5:21), whom the reader must understand as the same people already sitting in the house in 5:17.8 Thus, Luke’s story—much more than Mark’s—merges the two obstacles in the narrative: the Pharisees and legal teachers/scribes literally block the man’s path to physical healing while at the same time theologically 4 5
6
7
8
By contrast, the crowd in Mark consists simply of “many” who have gathered to hear Jesus teach (2:1). From a classic form‐critical perspective, the Markan narrative combines a healing and a pronouncement story, Bultmann, History of the Synoptic Tradition, 66. If Luke draws from Mark, then Luke shifts the emphasis within this inherited combined story to the experience of healing, pace Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:578. In Luke’s version, dia‐ logue with the Pharisees and scribes functions not as the centerpiece of the story but as an obstacle to divine transformation. Healing is the center of the story, empha‐ sized through narrative tension and amplified responses of praise. These details represent Lukan additions to Mark, as noted by many scholars, e.g., Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:578. The dual motif of seeking and finding reappears frequently in Luke‐Acts, as in Lk 2:48‒49; 11:9‒10, 24; 13:6‒8; 15:8‒9; 19:47‒48; 24:3‒5; Acts 17:5‒6; 27. In the stories in Lk 15, successful seeking and finding result in joy, just as here they produce praise. Luke concludes the story of the friends’ creative quest with the words “and let him down with his bed through the tiles into the midst before Jesus,” leading straight into Jesus’ response: “And when he saw their faith.” This structure identifies more directly the friends’ creative solution (seeking and finding) as the evidence of their faith much more than does Mark’s version, which concludes, “they let down the pal‐ let on which the paralytic lay,” leading to a similar response by Jesus but directed specifically to the paralyzed man. Mark’s storytelling focuses more on the man on the pallet (καὶ ἰδὼν ὁ Ἰησοῦς τὴν πίστιν αὐτῶν λέγει τῷ παραλυτικῷ· τέκνον . . .), while Luke’s centers on the creative faithfulness of the friends to the man’s benefit (καὶ ἰδὼν τὴν πίστιν αὐτῶν εἶπεν· ἄνθρωπε. . .). On the correspondence between “scribes” in Lk 5:21 and “legal teachers” in Lk 5:17, see Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:583. Mark describes the objecting group only as “some of the scribes” (2:6), while the people blocking the way are simply “many” (πολλοί).
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threaten his way to spiritual healing. In Luke’s version of the story, these two merged obstacles artfully match Jesus’ response, which brings together physical and spiritual wellbeing (5:22‒25). Jesus’ subsequent healing of the man resolves—with respect to the paralyzed man himself—the second tension in the story, a resolution marked by the man’s praise of God: 9 καὶ παραχρῆμα ἀναστὰς ἐνώπιον αὐτῶν, ἄρας ἐφ᾽ὃ κατέκειτο, ἀπῆλθεν εἰς τὸν οἶκον αὐτοῦ δοξάζων τὸν θεόν (5:25) And immediately, rising up before them, taking up that on which he had lain he went away to his house, glorifying God.
Interestingly, the temporal adverb παραχρῆμα marks five occasions of praise following healing in Luke‐Acts, a pattern that connects this praise back to Zechariah’s praise and forward to three additional scenes: Lk 1:64
ἀνεῴχθη δὲ τὸ στόμα αὐτοῦ παραχρῆμα καὶ ἡ γλῶσσα αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἐλάλει εὐλογῶν τὸν θεόν
Lk 5:25
καὶ παραχρῆμα ἀναστὰς ἐνώπιον αὐτῶν, ἄρας ἐφ᾽ὃ κατέκειτο, ἀπῆλθεν εἰς τὸν οἶκον αὐτοῦ δοξάζων τὸν θεόν.
Lk 13:13
καὶ ἐπέθηκεν αὐτῇ τὰς χεῖρας· καὶ παραχρῆμα ἀνωρθώθη καὶ ἐδόξαζεν τὸν θεόν
Lk 18:43
καὶ παραχρῆμα ἀνέβλεψεν καὶ ἠκολούθει αὐτῷ δοξάζων τὸν θεόν.
Acts 3:7‒8
παραχρῆμα δὲ ἐστερεώθησαν αἱ βάσεις αὐτοῦ καὶ τὰ σφυδρά, καὶ ἐξαλλόμενος ἔστη καὶ περιεπάτει καὶ εἰσῆλθεν σὺν αὐτοῖς εἰς τὸ ἱερὸν περιπατῶν καὶ ἁλλόμενος καὶ αἰνῶν τὸν θεόν.
In each case above, παραχρῆμα indicates miraculous transformations (heal‐ ings) that resolve narrative tensions followed by individual praise of God.10 9
As noted in chapter one, Luke’s addition of individual praise to this scene augments communal praise present in Mark. Luke’s redaction brings this story into alignment with the pattern of praise evident in the infancy narrative: both individual and communal praise respond to divine transformation. 10 Παραχρῆμα is a favorite word of Luke’s (often replacing Mark’s εὐθύς). The word occurs sixteen times in Luke‐Acts, and besides these instances, only in Mt 19:20‒21 in the New Testament, Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:381. It could therefore be argued that this pattern has emerged in Luke‐Acts through a convergence of two unrelated redac‐ tional tendencies (παραχρῆμα and praise of God). But whatever the origin of the correspondence, this narrative pattern connects, for the reader, scenes in which im‐ mediate transformation is met with individual praise. It should be noted that παραχρῆμα itself appears primarily in contexts of miraculous transformation and/or responses to the work of God. For example, in addition to the five passages listed
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But in the story of the paralyzed man lowered through the roof, the immediate healing and individual praise response do not fully resolve the narrative tension produced by the objection of the religious representatives of all Palestine. The question still remains, what is their response to the healing? Interestingly, in Luke’s version of the story, the tension of response by the religious authorities is resolved in communal praise: καὶ ἔκστασις ἔλαβεν ἅπαντας καὶ ἐδόξαζον τὸν θεὸν καὶ ἐπλήσθησαν φόβου λέγοντες ὅτι εἴδομεν παράδοξα σήμερον (5:26) And astonishment seized them all, and they glorified God, and they were filled with awe saying “We have seen surprising things today.”
Luke here adapts the direct object (ἅπας) from Mark’s πᾶς, but in the Lu‐ kan context the referent for the word “all” has changed. In Mark, the “all” who offer praise may include both the “many who were gathered together” (Mk 2:1) and the few objecting scribes (2:6), or the word may function hy‐ perbolically. But in Luke, because no people other than the religious au‐ thorities and the man’s friends have been mentioned, it must refer to the crowd of Pharisees and legal teachers/scribes (possibly along with the few “seekers” who brought the paralyzed man to Jesus). Thus, the crowd that responds with praise is the same group that previously created the physi‐ cal and theological blocks to Jesus’ healing/forgiving power. Now, like Zechariah, these people—who include representatives of the religious elite of all Palestine—move from doubt to praise of God. They appear in this story to recognize the surprising event of Jesus’ healing/forgiveness as the work of God. Their direct speech of praise further reinforces the sense of resolved tension in the narrative. They say, “We have seen surprising things (παράδοξα) today” (5:26).11 As noted above, the story emphasizes Jesus’ power to heal even before the paralyzed man enters the story. The narrative sets up the reader to expect healing, but instead Jesus forgives and heals. Thus in this scene, Jesus surprises readers and characters alike, and when the religious authorities voice praise for παράδοξα, they acknowledge the divine origin of these unexpected words and actions of Jesus. In another way, this praise by the religious authorities may also relate back to the prolepsis about Jesus’ power to heal, explaining a crux interpre‐ tum related to this verse (Lk 5:17). Manuscripts C, D, and θ, as well as the Koine text tradition, witness to a plural direct object: καὶ δύναμις κυρίου ἦν above, παραχρῆμα describes healing in Lk 4:39; 8:44, 47, 55. In four texts it narrates divine judgment upon those who respond improperly to God’s kingdom (Lk 22:60; Acts 5:10; 12:23; 13:11), while in Lk 19:11, it relates to anticipation of the kingdom. In the latter part of Acts, it describes the miraculous release from prison (16:26), as well as the jailorʹs spiritual transformation and joyous response (16:33). 11 By contrast, the praise speech in Mark does not emphasize surprise but newness: Οὐδέποτε οὕτως εἴδομεν (2:12).
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εἰς τὸ ἰᾶσθαι αὐτούς. Other manuscripts read αὐτόν. But the plural form, often preferred as the lectio difficilior, troubles interpreters. As Fitzmyer puts it, αὐτούς “must refer to unnamed people; it cannot mean the Phari‐ sees and teachers.” But why not? If the communal praise response in 5:26 narrates the movement of this crowd of Pharisees and teachers from doubt to praise, then perhaps the narrator does mean to say that “the power of the Lord was for their healing.” By such a remark, the narrator would be tying together the themes of physical and spiritual healing already present in the story, creating an ironic contrast between those who in 5:17 sit in the pres‐ ence of Jesus’ healing power (but do not realize they need it) and the man who seeks so desperately to get past them because he does recognize this need. In fact, the very next scene in the narrative depicts the Pharisees’ need for spiritual healing. When some Pharisees ask why Jesus dines with tax collectors and sinners, he wryly replies: “Those who are well (ὑγιαίνοντες) have no need of a physician, but those who are sick; I have not come to call the righteous (δικαίους) but sinners (ἁμαρτωλούς) to repentance” (5:31). The implication, of course, is that these Pharisees need the spiritual healing Jesus has to offer. Later in the narrative, Jesus echoes this language, in a parable that explicitly contrasts the wrong praise spoken by a falsely right‐ eous (δίκαιος) Pharisee with the humble petition for mercy expressed by a sinful tax collector (ἁμαρτωλός) (18:9‒14).12 This parable of the Pharisee’s praise is the only instance in the Gospel of Luke of empty or incorrect praise of God. The problem lies in a lack of humility: the Pharisee errs by disregarding his own need for God’s help, while the tax collector correctly calls out for mercy. Together, these three passages (Lk 5:17‒26, 29‒32; 18:9‒14) contrast certain Pharisees, unaware of their true condition, with other characters, such as the paralyzed man and the “sinful” tax collectors, who see their need for God’s mercy/healing. Praise in Luke‐Acts responds to the experi‐ ence of being lowly (ταπεινόω) and lifted up by God (ὑψόω) (18:14). Char‐ acters who experience or witness such transformation offer meaningful praise.13 12 In Lk 18:9, the narrator states that Jesus directs this parable to people who had been persuaded by the sound of their own voices saying “I am righteous” and so were despising everyone else (εἶπεν δὲ καὶ πρός τινας τοὺς πεποιθότας ἐφ᾽ ἑαυτοῖς ὅτι εἰσὶν δίκαιοι καὶ ἐξουθενοῦντας τοὺς λοιποὺς τὴν παραβολὴν ταύτην). This introduction identifies the Pharisee in the parable as one who considers himself δίκαιος. By con‐ trast, the tax collector begs for mercy and is made righteous (δικαιόω). In healing stories before and after this parable, people cry out for mercy, experience healing, and respond with praise (17:11‒19; 18:35‒43), as detailed below. 13 Mary experiences precisely the same experience of reversal, praising God with the same word pair (καθεῖλεν δυνάστας ἀπὸ θρόνων, καὶ ὕψωσεν ταπεινούς) (1:54). Mary’s praise looks back on her transformation (but the narrative does not describe
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Thus, the Pharisees’ communal praise in Lk 5:26 only partially resolves the tension related to their response. While in 5:26 they praise God’s work on behalf of the paralyzed man (what they have witnessed), the next scene indicates that the Pharisees as a character group do not yet fully accept it for themselves, and this point is made again in Lk 18. As the Gospel of Luke progresses, Pharisees will repeatedly raise objections, increasing the narrative tension related to their response. Their praise in 5:26 raises the possibility that they might accept the work of God for themselves, but their continued resistance suggests the opposite, conveying the theme of divided response introduced by Simeon.14
2. Woman Made Straight (Lk 13:11‒17) As Jesus turns toward Jerusalem, Luke narrates the story of the straight‐ ened woman, in which tension arises again because of an objection by wit‐ nesses. Early in the scene, Jesus meets and heals a woman suffering from a bent‐over back, who responds with praise of God: καὶ παραχρῆμα ἀνωρθώθη καὶ ἐδόξαζεν τὸν θεόν (13:11‒13). By this point in Luke, the it). Conversely, in Jesus’ parable, the reader is presented only with the tax collector’s need for transformation (but neither the divine response to this need nor his praise response). But in the healing stories, we see the complete cycle: “lowly” characters cry out for mercy, experience divine transformation, and in response, offer praise. 14 Luke‐Acts repeatedly returns to the theme of the Pharisee’s uneven response, clearly a matter of some importance in the narrative. Secondary literature sometimes argues that Lk 7:30 depicts the Pharisees’ wholesale rejection of τὴν βουλὴν τοῦ θεοῦ and that the Gospel presents Pharisees negatively while Acts depicts them positively. But in Lk 7:30, the narrator describes the Pharisees who resist the plan of God with the attributive participial phrase μὴ βαπτισθέντες ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ. If this phrase is understood to qualify the subject of the sentence, then it ascribes rejection only to Pharisees who have already resisted John’s baptism and not to the character group of Pharisees as a whole. In fact, six verses later, one Pharisee invites Jesus to dine (7:36), which begins a strand of somewhat positive characterization in which some of the Pharisees eat re‐ peatedly with Jesus—thus suggesting their openness to positive response. Jesus in turn urges them to accept God’s plan by rejoicing (Lk 15:1‒29). From a literary per‐ spective, why would Jesus urge such a response if the narrative has already depicted the Pharisees’ wholesale rejection of the plan of God? Perhaps the Gospel takes care to depict the possibility of their positive response, a potentiality then developed more fully in Acts. By contrast, the scribes always respond negatively, eventually joining other leaders in Jerusalem in the opposition that leads to Jesus’ death (the only ex‐ ception would be their possible communal praise in 5:22, according to my argument offered above). The Gospel of Luke never includes the Pharisees within this more in‐ tense opposition; the last scene of objection by Pharisees occurs as Jesus approaches Jerusalem in Lk 19. For a narrative analysis of the Pharisees, see D. B. Gowler, Host, Guest, Enemy, and Friend: Portraits of the Pharisees in Luke and Acts (Emory Studies in Early Christianity 2; New York: P. Lang, 1991), passim. A critique of this approach is offered by J. A. Darr, review of David B. Gowler, Host, Guest, Enemy, and Friend: Por‐ traits of the Pharisees in Luke and Acts, JBL 112 (1993): 152‒4.
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reader has been conditioned to expect a communal response of praise (Lk 1:14; 2:10; 5:26; 7:17), but instead, the ruler of the synagogue, indignant that Jesus has healed on the Sabbath day, speaks words of blame, trying to con‐ vince the crowd (ὄχλος) of Jesus’ error (13:14). His speech elicits a response in which Jesus shifts the focus of the dispute from himself (his work in healing on the Sabbath) to the identity and value of the woman (13:15‒16). Jesus describes her as a “daughter of Abraham” who is worthy of being set free, an experience appropriate to the Sabbath. Jesus’ riposte creates two distinct responses: the synagogue ruler and others present—who have sought to shame Jesus—in turn experience shame (κατῃσχύνοντο πάντες οἱ ἀντικείμενοι αὐτῷ), and the narrative contrasts their shame with the com‐ munal joy of the crowd (ὄχλος) in response to the glorious things Jesus has done (13:17). The words χαίρω and ἔνδοξος suggest that this response could be thought of as communal praise.15 If so, then again, praise partially resolves narrative tension: some peo‐ ple recognize the work of God in Jesus’ surprising action of healing on the Sabbath. But the shamed silence of Jesus’ humiliated opponents—and the tension it represents—lingers at the end of the story. This implicit lingering silence, apparent only by contrast with the crowd’s joy, becomes explicit in the following, complementary miracle story. In this scene, Jesus takes the offensive, asking the Pharisees and lawyers if it is legal to heal on the Sab‐ bath (14:1‒3). In the ensuing dialogue, the narrator describes the religious authorities as twice responding only with silence: οἱ δὲ ἡσύχασαν . . . καὶ οὐκ ἴσχυσαν ἀνταποκριθῆναι αὐτῷ (14:4, 6). In these matched stories, Luke uses the rhetoric of praise, blame, and silence to further augment the ten‐ sion of divided response.
3. Ten Men with Leprosy (Lk 17:11‒19) By contrast, tension in the story of the healing of ten men arises not from opposition but from the possibility that healed persons themselves might not respond appropriately to an experience of divinely empowered trans‐ formation. In this story, as Jesus passes through Samaria and Galilee, ten men with leprosy approach him. Standing at a distance (οἳ ἔστησαν πόρρωθεν), they call out for mercy (ἐλέησον ἡμᾶς), just as the humble tax collector in Jesus’ parable also petitions God for mercy from a distance (μακρόθεν ἑστὼς . . . λέγων· ὁ θεός, ἱλάσθητί μοι) (17:12‒13; 18:13). Jesus 15 In his narrative interpretation of this story, Dennis Hamm notes that several divine passives emphasize God as the source of the woman’s healing, which the narrative carefully balances with descriptions of Jesus’ initiative, “Bent Woman,” 29. He con‐ cludes that in the same way, praise is here directed to God for divine actions mani‐ fest through Jesus.
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instructs the ten men to go to the temple; they obey and are healed on the way (17:14). But one Samaritan man—who sees that he has been healed— turns back, praising God with a loud voice (μετὰ φωνῆς μεγάλης δοξάζων τὸν θεόν) (17:15). Falling at Jesus’ feet, he thanks him (εὐχαριστῶν αὐτῷ) (17:16), but the real point is his praise of God. Comparison with the other praise‐following‐healing stories suggests that the motif of praise of God is important , while this particular story dis‐ tinctly amplifies the man’s praise (μετὰ φωνῆς μεγάλης). If the reader has any doubt, Jesus’ reply makes plain that praise of God is the issue: “Was none of them found,” he asks, “to return and give praise to God except this foreigner (17:18)?” Tension in this story derives from a failure to praise God, rather than a failure to thank Jesus.16 The silence of nine men—their lack of praise—hangs in the air at the end of the scene without resolution. As numerous commentators note, the one man who praises God first sees that he is healed (ἰδὼν ὅτι ἰάθη) (17:15). Again, a praise response indicates recognition of divine mercy in the story, creating a distinction between those who see and accept God’s work and those who either do not see or do not accept.17
4. Man Born Blind at Jericho (Lk 18:35‒42) As Jesus approaches Jericho, a blind man who sits begging calls out to be healed. In this scene, narrative tensions grow out of (1) a physical impedi‐ ment blocking access to Jesus and (2) an issue of identity. As the crowd around Jesus approaches, the man’s blindness causes him to inquire what is happening. Members of the crowd reply that Jesus is passing by (παρέρχομαι). This word signals the first obstacle in the story: can the im‐ mobile blind man attract Jesus’ attention before Jesus passes him by? The man’s cry for mercy (ἐλέησόν με) represents his attempts to overcome this obstacle, and it echoes similar pleas voiced by the ten men with leprosy and the humble tax collector in near narrative context (17:12‒13; 18:13, 38). But then a second tension arises when members of the crowd rebuke him to silence (ἐπετίμων αὐτῷ ἵνα σιγήσῃ) (18:39). As in other stories, silence is not the right response to the divine visitation. The man persists, ignoring the rebuke and crying even more loudly for mercy. As in the story of the 16 Nevertheless, the point of the story is often thought to be the importance of grati‐ tude. To be sure, by setting the man’s thanks to Jesus in parallel with praise of God, the narrative makes a point about Jesus himself as God’s agent, but the narrative ten‐ sion derives from a lack of praise directed to God, not the lack of thanks directed to Jesus. 17 It seems probable that the narrator intends the reader to understand that the other nine men fail to see their own experience of cleansing.
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paralyzed man let down through the roof, persistence pays off, resolving the first narrative tension: Jesus stops his movement along the road (ἵστημι), demanding that the man be led to him.18 Immediately, upon his miraculous ability to see again, the man follows Jesus, praising God (παραχρῆμα ἀνέβλεψεν καὶ ἠκολούθει αὐτῷ δοξάζων τὸν θεόν) (18:43). This individual praise response is echoed quickly in a communal praise re‐ sponse by all the people, who when they see, praise God (πᾶς ὁ λαὸς ἰδὼν ἔδωκεν αἶνον τῷ θεῷ) (18:43). As noted in the introduction to this study, Lukan redaction has added both individual and communal praise to this scene, where there is none in Mark, but another redactional touch is also revealing. Mark describes the people who attempt to silence the man simply as “many” (πολλοί) (Mk 10:48), but Luke describes them as “those at the front” (οἱ προάγοντες) (Lk 18:39). In Mark, the same word appears in the following scene, to describe the crowd that acclaims Jesus as he approaches Jerusalem: “those who went ahead and those who went behind cried out” (οἱ προάγοντες καὶ οἱ ἀκολουθοῦντες ἔκραζον) (Mk 11:9). So it seems that Luke has relocated part of Mark’s description of this crowd one scene earlier, into the story of the blind man in Jericho. Strangely, instead of crying out (κράζω) to acclaim Jesus, as the προάγοντες do in Mark, these people in Luke rebuke and si‐ lence a man who is himself crying out (βοάω, κράζω) for Jesus’ mercy.19 On one level, Luke’s distinctive way of describing those who rebuke the man simply identifies them as the active and assertive part of the crowd who reach the blind man first. But given Luke’s redaction, might this word also function to describe the social location of these people? Perhaps the reader is meant to recognize these leaders of the crowd as people who are socially distinguished or preferred.20 If so, Luke’s version of the story creates a sharp contrast between the immobile, dependent blind man and the mobile, assertive, privileged indi‐ viduals who lead the procession as it approaches Jericho. This group not 18 In another parallel with the story of the paralyzed man, Jesus identifies the man’s persistence as faith (18:42). Luke‐Acts repeatedly associates faith with the quest for healing (Lk 5:20, 7:9, 50; 8:48; 18:42; Acts 3:16; 14:9). In many of these scenes, faith re‐ sponses precede praise responses. But in the story of the ten men with leprosy, faith coincides with a praise response; praise shows faith, while both faith and praise rep‐ resent the recognition of healing (17:19). In 18:8, Jesus’ words about faith introduce his parable contrasting the proud praise of the Pharisee with the plea of the tax collector, thus also associating faith with a humble request for mercy (18:9‒14). By contrast, in 8:24, the disciples approach Jesus in the midst of a crisis (the storm on the sea) but do not ask for help or mercy; Jesus critiques them for their lack of faith. 19 The word προάγω occurs five times in Mark, all in passages paralleled in Luke (Mk 6:45; 10:32; 11:9; 14:28; 16:7). Luke eliminates the word in all cases, but uses it here in Lk 18:39. 20 LSJ s.v., cf. 2 John 1:9 for a use of the word that suggests going ahead or beyond one’s position.
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only promotes itself to the front of the crowd but also assumes the role of speaking for Jesus by rebuking the blind man as he cries out for mercy.21 By contrasting the προάγοντες and the blind man, the narrative creates the impression that the command to silence derives from a perception by the προάγοντες of the man’s lack of social worth. The tension in this story, like that in the story of the bent woman, centers on an issue of identity: is this blind man worthy of Jesus’ healing attention? By recognizing and healing the man, Jesus relieves this tension, at the same time countering the per‐ spective of the προάγοντες. In response, “all the people” (πᾶς ὁ λαός) re‐ spond with praise, which links this scene back to the communal joy/praise response anticipated in the infancy narrative.22 The reader may understand the phrase πᾶς ὁ λαός as hyperbole, but it is also possible that in Jesus’ in‐ teraction with the blind man, even the presumptuous leaders of the crowd see the saving work of God.
5. Man with Paralysis at the Temple Gate (Acts 3:1‒4:22) After this series of five stories in which praise follows healing, the context for praise in Luke shifts to revelation about Jesus’ identity, including inter‐ pretation of his death and resurrection (analyzed in chapter seven). But following this interlude, another praise‐following‐healing story occurs early in Acts: the disciples heal a man with paralysis at the temple gate. Like the stories discussed above, this scene presents a pattern of transfor‐ mation, tension, and praise response. If in the Gospel, such conflict in heal‐ ing stories creates brief suspensions of praise resolved quickly, then in Acts, this tension intensifies and stretches out, spanning more of narrative time. The scene opens in front of the temple gate, where a man lame from birth is lain daily to ask for alms from those entering to worship (ἐτίθουν καθ᾽ ἡμέραν πρὸς τὴν θύραν τοῦ ἱεροῦ . . . τοῦ αἰτεῖν ἐλεημοσύνην παρὰ τῶν εἰσπορευομένων εἰς τὸ ἱερόν) (3:1‒11). The phrase ἐτίθουν . . . πρὸς τὴν θύραν subtly connects the description of this man with the lame man whose friends sought to lay him before Jesus (θεῖναι [αὐτὸν] ἐνώπιον αὐτοῦ), and his request for ἐλεημοσύνη may call to mind other characters who have cried out for mercy (Lk 17:13; 18:13, 38‒39). Just as the lame man in Lk 5 seeks healing and receives forgiveness, here the lame man seeks 21 Early in Luke, Jesus is the one who issues rebukes, often with the purpose of silenc‐ ing opposition (Lk 4:35, 39, 41; 8:24; 9:21, 42, 56). In 17:3, Jesus gives this authority to his disciples, but they seem to misunderstand, for shortly thereafter, they wrongly rebuke children for approaching Jesus (Lk 18:15). So too, the προάγοντες try to si‐ lence the very sort of person Jesus has already declared he has come to heal. 22 The phrase πᾶς ὁ λαός matches the angelic prediction of joy in 2:14 (εὐαγγελίζομαι ὑμῖν χαρὰν μεγάλην ἥτις ἔσται παντὶ τῷ λαῷ).
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alms and receives healing.23 Directly upon this healing, the man’s miracu‐ lously straightened legs allow him to jump up (ἐξάλλομαι), and he enters the temple walking and leaping and praising God (περιπατῶν καὶ ἁλλόμενος καὶ αἰνῶν τὸν θεόν) (3:8). A description of the man’s praise is re‐ peated in the next verse: περιπατοῦντα καὶ αἰνοῦντα τὸν θεόν (3:9). By repetition and visual detail, the narrator amplifies the individual praise response in this story; the reader is meant not to miss it. Following the man’s praise, the narrative introduces two kinds of ten‐ sion: suspension of praise and opposition by temple authorities. The first tension, suspension of praise, grows out of the pattern of praise already established in the narrative, in which communal praise often follows indi‐ vidual praise, and out of the narrator’s comment that “all the people” see (ὁράω) the man’s healing and his praise.24 The latter subtly sets up the reader to expect “all the people” to praise God for the man’s healing. But instead, witnesses respond with surprise: they express amazement (θάμβος), bewilderment (ἔκστασις), and astonishment (ἔκθαμβος) (3:10‒11). Peter’s direct speech interprets this response for the reader: τί θαυμάζετε ἐπὶ τούτῳ ἢ ἡμῖν τί ἀτενίζετε ὡς ἰδίᾳ δυνάμει ἢ εὐσεβείᾳ πεποιηκόσιν τοῦ περιπατεῖν αὐτόν; Why are you amazed by this? Why do you gaze upon us, as if [our] own power or piety has caused him to walk? (3:12)
The people wrongly focus their awe on human beings, and the remainder of Peter’s lengthy interpretive speech redirects their attention to God (3:13‒26), much as in Luke, Jesus’ speeches following healings similarly redirect opposition. The unusual word ἀτενίζω deserves attention, for it recalls Peter’s gaze at the lame man prior to healing him (3:4). Rick Strelan, who has examined this verb in Luke‐Acts—as well as in comparative Jewish, Greco‐Roman, and early Christian literature—concludes that in Acts: 23 Dennis Hamm identifies a double entendre in the word ἐλεημοσύνη, which certainly means “alms” but in the LXX often refers to divine mercy. This latter sense is always its meaning in Isaiah and the Psalms, two of Luke’s favorite intertexts “Acts 3:1‒10: The Healing of the Temple Beggar as Lucan Theology,” Bib 67 (1986): 305‒19, 316. As Hamm puts it, “the beggar has sought eleēmoshnē, in the sense of mere ‘alms’, and he receives quite another kind of eleēmoshnē, ‘mercy’ from his saving God (ala LXX Ps 23:5 and Isa 1:27).” One wonders too if the story is countering a mechanistic equa‐ tion of alms and salvation (e.g., possibly LXX Prov 15:27, Tob 14:10), for Peter’s direct speech sets two possible meanings of ἐλεημοσύνη—“silver and gold” and “salva‐ tion”—in stark contrast with each other (3:6; 4:9). In Luke‐Acts, almsgiving is a mark of piety (Lk 12:33; Acts 9:36; 10:2, 4, 31), yet Jesus implicitly warns against empty almsgiving (Lk 11:41), and those who devoutly give alms still need divine salvation (i.e., Tabitha and Cornelius). 24 In the story of the ten men with leprosy, when the one man “sees” his healing, he praises God. On the joy/praise of “all the people,” see Lk 2:10; 7:16; 18:43.
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those who stare [ἀτενίζω] are at prayer, in ecstasy, or experiencing transported vision (7:55; 10:4; 11:6); they are ‘full of the Holy Spirit’ and inspired with intui‐ tion or penetrative insight which gives them the ability to see ‘into’ people (3:4; 13:9; 14:9; 23:1); [or] they have a vision which breaks into the heavenly world (1:10; 7:55). Such dynamic sight makes them, in turn, the object of reverent, awe‐inspired stares (3:12; 6:15).25
If Strelan is correct, then Peter’s gaze at the man signals his divinely‐ inspired insight into the man’s soul, which facilitates healing (3:4).26 In turn, the people gaze at Peter and John as if they are gods. This exchange of gazes harkens back to a scene late in Luke, in which a young woman gazes at Peter, intuiting (correctly) his relationship with Je‐ sus, which Peter (incorrectly) denies (Lk 22:56‒57). Conversely, here in Acts, as the people gaze at Peter, they recognize his connection with divine power but (incorrectly) identify Peter as its source. Peter in turn (correctly) redirects their attention to Jesus (3:13‒14). Just as Peter once denied (ἀρνέομαι) Jesus, so too the “men of Israel” have denied (ἀρνέομαι) Jesus, handing him over to Pilate (Lk 22:57; Acts 3:13) and now risk denying Jesus again by gazing upon men as if they were gods. As Strelan observes, this scene bears a resemblance to one in Josephus’ Antiquities, in which Herod Agrippa appears in a silver garment, which shines so wondrously (θαυμάσιος) that those who gaze (ἀτενίζω) upon him are awestruck. Flatterers call him a God and praise (ὁμολογέω) him as be‐ yond mortal nature.27 But Agrippa improperly accepts this honor and so suffers death. Acts 12:21‒23 narrates the same episode, and while it does not use the verb ἀτενίζω, the scene explicitly reverses the narrative’s praise motif: ac‐ claimed as divine, Herod dies precisely because he fails to give praise God 25 R. Strelan, “Strange Stares: Atenizein in Acts,” NovT 41 (1999): 235‒55, 255. Strelan observes that most commentators either overlook this distinctive verb in Luke‐Acts, where it occurs twelve times, or they follow Cadbury and Lake in viewing this look as directed with powerful efficacy toward the person healed, H. J. Cadbury and K. Lake, English Translation and Commentary (4. The Beginnings of Christianity: Part I, Acts of the Apostles; London: Macmillan, 1922‒33), 33. However, Strelan’s survey of comparative literature finds no evidence of a “magician’s stare.” Rather, the word occurs most often—when used figuratively—in the related contexts of epiphany and healing, Strelen, “Strange Stares,” 248. In the Gospel of Luke, it occurs twice, in both cases for insightful gazes: the people gaze intently upon Jesus in the synagogue in Lk 4—gaining insight into his true nature—and a young woman gazes insightfully at Peter in 22:56. (Here and in Acts 3:4, Codex D substitutes other verbs for ἀτενίζω, as noted by Strelan.) 26 On the connection between an insightful gaze into a person’s soul and healing, see R. Strelan, “Recognizing the Gods (Acts 14.8‒10),” NTS 46 (2000): 488‒503, 489; A. B. Kolenkow, “Relationships between Miracle and Prophecy in the Greco‐Roman World and Early Christianity,” in ANRW 2.23.2 (eds. Wolfgang Haase, Joseph Vogt, and Hildegard Temporini; New York: W. de Gruyter, 1980), 1470‒1506, 1480. 27 Josephus, Ant., 19.344‒345.
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(ἀνθ᾽ ὧν οὐκ ἔδωκεν τὴν δόξαν τῷ θεῶ) (12:23).28 The arrogance of Herod recalls the self‐righteousness of those who look down on others, against whom Jesus speaks the parable of the Pharisee’s empty praise (Lk 18:9‒14). In Luke‐Acts, hybris leads to silence, denial, or dangerously, to self‐ aggrandizement, but humility leads to praise of God. Peter’s response at‐ tempts to overcome this tension rhetorically. Unlike Herod, who wrongly accepts such praise, he tries to redirect their attention to God and to Jesus, through whose name the paralyzed man has been healed (3:6, 13; 4:10).29 Thus, Peter’s rebuke of the gazing crowd underscores the implicit ten‐ sion created by the people’s lack of praise in response to this healing. He tells the “men of Israel” that they have already denied Jesus but now have another opportunity to respond properly, having seen the work of God (the healing). Their focus on human beings, however, threatens to extend their resistance (thus silencing their praise of God). In 4:4, some of this tension is relieved when the reader learns that five thousand of these people respond with faith (4:4). Yet the story still lacks a response of communal praise. At 4:1, Peter’s speech is interrupted by opposition from temple authori‐ ties, introducing a second tension into the story (4:1‒3, 5‒7, 13‒18, 21). By depicting this opposition just before narrating the faith response of the people, the narrative sets up a contrast between the people and their lead‐ ers (4:1‒4). Both groups respond with amazement (θαμβάζω) (3:12; 4:13). But the leaders, while they cannot deny (ἀρνέομαι) the sign of healing, nev‐ ertheless seek impotently to silence the report of it (4:17‒20), whereas the people move from rejection of Jesus to faith (3:13; 4:4). Simeon’s theme of divided response for Israel peaks in this scene, as Peter makes clear in his speech following the miracle. Speaking of Jesus as the prophet predicted by Moses, he says, “Any soul who does not listen to that prophet will be ut‐ terly rooted out of the people” (Acts 3:23). Finally, after delaying the communal praise response for thirty‐nine verses, the narrator reveals at the very end of the story that “all the peo‐ ple,” in contrast with their leaders, were praising God for the man’s healing. In fact, the authorities cannot punish Peter and John because of the people’s ongoing praise: μηδὲν εὑρίσκοντες τὸ πῶς κολάσωνται αὐτούς, διὰ τὸν λαόν, ὅτι πάντες ἐδόξαζον τὸν θεὸν ἐπὶ τῷ γεγονότι (4:21). The people’s praise not only relieves the narrative tension built by its delay but plays an important role in the plot, preventing the disciples’ punishment. The obsta‐ cles in the story are reversed: if human authority and words of blame at first appear to hinder praise, then in the end, praise speech overpowers those who would speak in the place of God (4:19). 28 Jesus uses this language when asking about the missing praise of God in the story of the ten men with leprosy (Lk 17:18). 29 Earlier in the chapter (12:4), Herod seizes (πιάζω) Peter with the intent of bringing him before the people, cf. 3:7, where Peter seizes the man to lift him up.
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From a narrative perspective, the imperfect tense of δοξάζω implies that this praise is ongoing, having been first voiced by the people upon their recognition of this healing as God’s work; the narrator has simply withheld this information from the reader until the end of the scene.30 Through this artful delay, the narrative creates a final juxtaposition be‐ tween the people who praise and those who blame. The priestly leaders admit that they cannot object to the sign of healing, yet still they fail to rec‐ ognize this surprising event as the work of God and therefore do not add their voices to the chorus of praise in the narrative. The tension in this scene keeps open the question that has been before the reader since the infancy narrative: who will recognize and accept the surprising visitation of God?
6. Summary Five of these six stories create a pattern of narrative tensions relieved (fully or partially) by characters’ responses of praise, as summarized below: 1)
Paralyzed man lowered through the roof (Lk 5:17‒26) Tension #1: Access to Jesus (5:18‒19) Tension #2: Religious objection; redefined as Jesus’ identity/authority (5:21‒24a) Healing (5:24b) Individual and communal praise responses (5:25‒26)
2)
Widow’s son at Nain (Lk 7:11‒17) Raising (no tension) (7:11‒15) Communal praise response (7:16)
3) Woman made straight (Lk 13:11‒17) Healing (13:11‒13) Individual praise response (13:13)
30 The imperfect tense suggests ongoing praise, which logically stretches back to the moment when “all the people” either saw the man’s healing (3:9) or had faith in Pe‐ ter’s word (4:4), probably the latter. This delayed revelation of the people’s praise represents an example of internal analepsis, an event narrated out of chronological order that occurs within narrative time (within the fabula). Readers often do not no‐ tice internal analepses until they are filled in, S. Rimmon‐Kenan, Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics (New Accents; New York: Methuen, 1983), 48, following G. Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1980), 35‒83. But in this case, the narrator has provided some clues that com‐ munal praise ought to be expected. Thus its absence may be sensed by the reader even before the narrator finally reveals the people’s praise in 4:21.
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Tension: Religious objection; redefined as woman’s identity/worth (13:14‒16) Communal response of joy (13:17) 4) Ten men with leprosy (Lk 17:11‒19) Healing (17:11‒14) Individual praise response (amplified) (17:15) Tension: Failure of nine to see and respond with praise (17:17‒18) Communal praise response explicitly absent 5) Man born blind at Jericho (Lk 18:35‒43) Tension #1: Access to Jesus (18:35‒37) Tension #2: The man’s identity/worth (18:38‒39) Healing (18:40‒43a) Individual and communal praise responses (18:43b) 6) Paralyzed man at the Beautiful Gate (Acts 3:1‒4:21) Healing (3:1‒7) Individual praise response (amplified) (3:8‒9) Tension #1: Misdirected gaze—redirected to God/Jesus (3:11‒26) Tension #2: Religious objection—source of power (4:1‒21a) Communal praise response (4:21b) In the first, third, and fifth stories, conflict occurs over identity (either Jesus’ identity or that of the healed person), with religious propriety also at issue in stories one, three, and six.31 Access to Jesus produces tension in stories one and five, while in stories four and six, tension arises over the human response to God: who will offer praise? Through these various tensions, the stories emphasize the importance of response not only by the healed per‐ son but also by those who witness the healing. When characters both ex‐ perience and see divine salvation (healing), they respond with praise. In this way, individuals and groups who offer praise become visible in the narrative as people who recognize and accept Jesus’ healing actions as the powerful work of the God of Israel. Conversely, the fact that some characters do not offer praise or speak words of blame indicates that they fail to see the divine visitation in the surprising actions of Jesus. In these individual healing stories, praise re‐ sponses resolve some or all of these tensions, as we have seen. But as the larger narrative unfolds, certain tensions remain unresolved, as foreshad‐ owed by Simeon. Repeated tensions related to divided response raise the possibility that praise in response to the surprising divine visitation is by no means automatic. People who gaze incorrectly (whether at themselves 31 Story number four also involves an issue of identity because the foreign character alone voices praise to God.
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or other human beings) may fail to see God’s surprising work when it oc‐ curs. Or they may presumptuously attempt to block the access of others to divine healing power. The reader begins to suspect that some characters will never add their voices to the Lukan choral response of praise.
C. Praise and Healing in the Rest of Acts (chs. 5‒28) In the story of the healing of the paralyzed man at the temple gate, as we have seen, narrative tension increases and extends farther across narrative time. Mistaken gazes introduce the potential that praise following healings might be offered wrongly to humans rather than to God. This increased tension resulting from the possibility of misdirected praise signals a per‐ manent shift in the praise motif in Luke‐Acts. In Acts 8:8, a summary statement of Peter’s healings is met with a response of joy, but after that point, characters never again respond to healing with praise of God. In‐ stead, the context for the praise motif shifts to conversions of Gentiles, a context considered in chapter eight. Moreover, as the narrative ventures farther into the Gentile world, healings sometimes generate violence and produce praise wrongly directed to human beings as gods.32 But toward the end of Acts, one last instance of praise following a heal‐ ing deserves exploration. In this scene, the narrator summarizes healings and exorcisms: “God was accomplishing uncommon acts of power by the hand of Paul” (δυνάμεις τε οὐ τὰς τυχούσας ἐποίει ὁ θεὸς διὰ τῶν χειρῶν Παύλου) (19:11). Tension arises when the seven sons of a Jewish high priest attempt an exorcism in the name of Jesus but find themselves attacked and humiliated by the demonic spirit (19:14‒16). Observing this dichotomy be‐ tween divine healing and its counterfeit, all the Jewish and Greek inhabi‐ tants of Ephesus respond with praise: the name of the Lord Jesus is magni‐ fied (ἐμεγαλύνετο τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ κυρίου Ἰησοῦ) (19:17). This last instance of praise following healing creates a link (through Jesus’ name) back to the healing of the lame man in chapter three.33 But notably, in this story, people direct their praise not to God but to Jesus’ name, and the narrative offers no critique.34 32 Acts 14:8‒19; 16:16‒23; but cf. 28:8‒11. 33 Three scenes of healing/exorcism in Acts involve the name of Jesus (3:6, 13; 4:10; 16:18; 19:13, 17). 34 It has been argued that the phrase κύριος Ἰησοῦς functions narratively to link the pre‐ and post‐resurrection depictions of Jesus, as well as the two volumes of Luke‐ Acts, B. W. Longenecker, “Lukan Aversion to Humps and Hollows: The Case of Acts 11.27‒12.25,” NTS 50 (2004): 185‒204, 188; C. K. Rowe, Early Narrative Christology: The Lord in the Gospel of Luke (BZNW 139; New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2006), 182‒6. Rowe also offers a useful section on the status quaestionis related to κύριος in Luke, as
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Does this shift in the narrative from praise of God to praise of the Lord Jesus also represent a Christological development? Larry Hurtado argues that simply the use of Jesus’ name in Acts is significant for understanding early Christian views of Jesus: in Acts 2:21, Peter quotes Joel, saying that “everyone who calls upon the name of the Lord will be saved,” and then the narrator of Acts describes believers as those who “call upon the name of Jesus” (7:59; 9:14, 21; 22:16). In this way, Acts associates the name of Jesus with name of the Lord God of Israel.35 The use of Jesus’ name in healing is consistent with this perspective, offering evidence that early Christians—in contrast with widespread magical practices—viewed it as exclusively effi‐ cacious and used it in “devotional practice.”36 Hurtado concludes that the use of Jesus’ name in Acts indicates that: Christians saw Jesus as the uniquely significant agent of the one God, and in their piety they extended the exclusivity of the one God to take in God’s uniquely important representative, while stoutly refusing to extend this exclu‐ sivity to any other figures.37
As a whole, the narrative pattern of praise in response to healing in Luke‐ Acts generally supports this perspective.38 Repeated praise of God follow‐ ing healings acknowledges the divine source of healing power. In the in‐ fancy narrative, God heals Zechariah directly, but in the rest of the narra‐ tive, healings and exorcisms are always accomplished through the agency of either the earthly Jesus (Luke) or Jesus’ name (Acts). Whereas Acts criti‐ cizes acclamation of human healers, in 19:17, the narrative seems to accept the people’s praise of Jesus’ name.39 While the praise motif in the context of 35 36 37 38
39
well as his own narrative analysis, in which he argues that κύριος functions as a Leitwort in the Gospel. L. W. Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Grand Rap‐ ids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans, 2003), 203‒6. This last point relies upon Hurtado’s view that healing is a devotional practice. Ibid., 204. Rowe makes a similar point about the narrative pattern related to κύριος. He writes that the “visitation or coming of the God of Israel is thus so concentrated in the fig‐ ure of Jesus that they can share an identity as κύριος. Yet . . . θεός and Ἰησοῦς are never vermischt. . . . Rather, the sense is that of a narrative Verbindung, a coherent pat‐ tern of characterization that binds God and Jesus together through the word κύριος such that they finally cannot be separated or abstracted from one another in the story,” Narrative Christology, 201. The only exception to the point that Acts always offers a critique when human heal‐ ers are praised appears in Acts 5:13, where people acclaim the apostles: ἀλλ᾽ ἐμεγάλυνεν αὐτοὺς ὁ λαός. The narrative seems to accept this praise. In 5:13, the use of the verb μεγαλύνω directed toward a human being calls into question my argu‐ ment that praise of Jesus in Acts 19:17 corresponds to praise of God in the rest of the narrative. It should also be noted that in 19:17, μεγαλύνω appears in the passive voice (cf. μεγαλύνω in the active voice to describe praise of God in Lk 1:46 and Acts 10:46), and praise of God is never narrated with the passive voice in Luke‐Acts. If 19:17 portrays people praising Jesus’ name in the same way that other characters in the narrative have praised God, then the praise language is indirect. Or, perhaps the
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healing in Luke‐Acts insists that praise due to God should never be trans‐ ferred to humans (whether Peter, Paul, or Herod), in the end, it accepts that praise may be directed to the name of the risen Lord.40
D. Praise and Characterization in Healing Stories The pattern of praise observed in the healing miracles conveys the impor‐ tance of not only experiencing but also recognizing God’s surprising work through Jesus. It thus continues the pattern established by Zechariah’s de‐ layed praise in the infancy narrative. In addition, divided responses in the healing stories—praise, silence, or blame—fulfill Simeon’s expectation that Jesus will cause the “falling and the rising of many in Israel” and be a sign that generates opposition (Lk 2:34). This section will offer the argument that healing stories further parallel the infancy narrative in their use of rep‐ resentative characterization. The Gospel of Luke depicts healing stories as broadly representative of the glory the divine visitation brings to God’s people. More particularly, the six praise‐following‐healing stories narrate the eschatological healing anticipated by Isaiah. These points will be devel‐ oped in a section on “healings as signs” below. But first, it is important to observe that in three of these stories, the narrative uses intertextuality to underscore this more general sense of representative characterization. Thus, we turn first to these three stories: the straightened woman, the ten lepers, and the man with paralysis at the Beautiful Gate.
passive voice indicates reticence on the part of the narrator to depict praise directed actively to Jesus (as to God). There are also two additional options for understanding the verse. (1) Because the verb μεγαλύνω elsewhere in Luke‐Acts narrates divine lift‐ ing up of a human (Lk 1:58), in Acts 19:17 the verb may function similarly, along the lines of a divine passive: God’s healing power (accomplished through Jesus’ name) in turn magnifies Jesus’ name. Such an understanding would correspond well with the narrative’s attribution of these works of power to God (19:11). (2) Alternatively— but less likely given the repeated significance of “Jesus’ name” in the narrative— Acts 19:17 may simply connote ordinary praise of a human being, as in Acts 5:13. In support of this view, we observe that in Lk 4:15, Jesus is praised as a human being (δοξαζόμενος ὑπὸ πάντων) and this constitutes the only other use of a praise verb in the passive voice in Luke‐Acts. This fickle praise of Jesus (as a human) quickly changes into violent opposition (4:29). 40 Hamm identifies five other scenes in which Luke’s storytelling connotes a high Christology, three of which involve the praise motif (Lk 7:16; 17:16; 24:52‒53), “What the Samaritan Leper Sees: The Narrative Christology of Luke 17:11‒19,” CBQ 56 (1994): 273‒87, 286.
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1. Woman Made Straight Several narrative details related to the story of the straightened woman have inspired much reflection, both ancient and modern, on her the repre‐ sentative characterization.41 First, the woman’s healing is framed by par‐ ables about growth that parallel each other thematically and structurally. Before the story of the straightened woman (13:6‒9), Jesus tells the story of a man who finds that his fig tree has not borne fruit for three years and orders his gardener to cut it down. The man’s gardener protests, suggesting that he first fertilize the tree for a year and destroy it only if it proves fruit‐ less after such care. Following the woman’s story (13:18‒21), twin parables of the mustard seed and of leaven liken the kingdom of God to something small and inscrutable that will grow large. These framing parables inter‐ pret the woman’s experience as a similarly generative moment within the reign of God.42 Second, the narrator uses evocative verbs of liberation and restoration to describe the woman’s healing (ἀπολύω, ἀνορθόω, λύω ἀπὸ τοῦ δεσμοῦ τούτου). Within Luke, this picture of release fulfills Jesus’ programmatic statement about his ministry in chapter four, a point long observed.43 Moreover, the depiction of the woman’s ailment and release alludes to the restoration of Israel. Dennis Hamm has observed that the word ἀνορθόω, which describes the woman’s straightening in 13:13, almost always refers to divine communal restoration in the Septuagint, and it appears in Acts in the same context.44 He concludes that Luke uses this word to describe both 41 Ancient authors tended to interpret the story allegorically. Two recent studies have focused on the story as figurative (but not allegorical), Hamm, “Bent Woman,” whose points are expanded upon by D. M. May, “The Straightened Woman (Luke 13:10‒17): Paradise Lost and Regained,” PRSt 24 (1997): 245‒58. 42 Hamm, “Bent Woman,” 28. The word οὔν explicitly links the kingdom parables (13:18‒21) with the story of the woman’s healing. Hamm argues that the parable‐ healing‐parable structure is part of a larger four‐part chiasm extending from 12:49‒13:31, with the woman’s healing at the center surrounded by Luke’s artful or‐ ganization of Q material. Scholars have pointed out as well that all three stories oc‐ cur in the same synagogue setting. The parables also interpret the divided responses (praise and shame) in the scene of the woman’s healing, R. F. OʹToole, “Some Exe‐ getical Reflections on Luke 13:10‒17,” Bib 73 (1992): 84‒107, 103. 43 In Lk 4:18, Jesus reads the words of Isaiah declaring the release (ἄφεσις) of the cap‐ tives and oppressed; in Lk 13:16, the woman is set free (λύω) by Jesus from bondage. Robert O’Toole similarly draws out this connection, concluding that “Jesus’ freeing of the woman bent double actualizes the kingdom,” “Luke 13:10‒17,” 91‒93. The story is a “metaphor of the kingdom of God,” ibid., 106. 44 Hamm, “Bent Woman,” 33. In Acts, the word ἀνορθόω appears in James’ speech about accepting the Gentiles (15:16). There, James quotes Amos 9:11 but includes the word ἀνορθόω, not present in extant copies of the Greek scriptures, to describe the end‐time restoration of David’s house. The Lukan narrative depicts this restora‐ tion—in the view of Hamm, who follows Jervell—as accomplished in the formation
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the woman’s restoration and the “end‐time restoration of Israel.”45 Simi‐ larly, he observes that the description of the woman before her healing as unable to stand up straight (μὴ δυναμένη ἀνακύψαι εἰς τὸ παντελές) fore‐ shadows Jesus’ description of an “eschatological posture” in his apocalyp‐ tic discourse (Lk 21:28).46 Jesus’ description of her as a “daughter of Abra‐ ham” adds to the sense that the woman is emblematic of the restored community.47 Robert O’Toole likewise finds the woman to represent an im‐ age of the kingdom, “a model for everyone who responds correctly to Je‐ sus.”48 Similarly, David May draws out a number of parallels between the woman’s description and the Zion poem in Isa 51, as indicated in Table 14.49
45 46 47
48 49
of the Jerusalem Christian community and then expanded outward to the Gentiles from this restored center. Ibid. Jesus says, “Now when these things begin to take place, stand up and raise your heads (ἀνακύπτω), because your redemption is drawing near.” Hamm offers a wide array of evidence for the point,+“Bent Woman,” 35. He notes also that Luke‐Acts links the new age with fulfillment of the covenant with Abraham (Lk 1:55, 73; 19:9; Acts 3:25), 34. Although he does not observe this point, all of these references to the Abrahamic covenant occur in contexts of praise of God. (Zacchaeus responds with joy, 19:6). Hamm also observes that Jesus’ speech connects the woman’s experience with the Sabbath: her healing is not only appropriate but neces‐ sary (δεῖ) on Sabbath, 26‒27. The word δεῖ alludes to the divine plan in Luke‐Acts, ibid., 33. On this point see also Squires, Plan, 166‒78. In response to the woman’s healing, the people rejoice at all the glorious things done by Jesus (ἐπὶ πᾶσιν τοῖς ἐνδόξοις); the word ἔνδοξος describes God’s mighty deeds in Ex 34:10 and Deut 10:21, Hamm, “Bent Woman,” 27. The shame of those who sought to shame Jesus recalls Isa 45:16, a point widely accepted by commentators. Such allusive language has long inspired allegorical readings of the passage, as summarized by OʹToole, “Luke 13:10‒17,” 95. Modern interpreters tend to see the woman’s characterization as rep‐ resentative rather than allegorical. OʹToole, “Luke 13:10‒17,” 99. May also links the description of the woman set free with Isa 51:14, where the prophet describes the release of the oppressed. This point, however, must be made with caution, because the image of oppression does not appear as clearly in the Sep‐ tuagint, which reads instead, “for in saving you he will neither stand still nor delay” (ἐν γὰρ τῷ σῴζεσθαί σε οὐ στήσεται οὐδὲ χρονιεῖ) (51:14). Similarly, May finds a par‐ allel between Jesus’ overcoming of Satan (who has bound the woman) and God’s crushing of the sea monster Rahab (Isa 51:9), but the image of the dragon does not appear in the Septuagint. Of course, one can never be precisely sure what sort of Greek text was available to the writer of Luke.
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Table 14 Comparison of LXX Isa 51 and Lk 13:11‒17 Isa 51
Lk 13:11‒17
51:2 The prophet tells his audience, “Look to Abraham your father, and to Sarah who gave birth to you in pain”
13:16 Jesus describes the woman as a “daughter of Abraham”
51:3 God’s comfort of Zion will result in her praise: joy and gladness will be found in her, thanksgiving and the voice of song.50
13:13, 17 The woman and the crowd praise God
51:17 In expectation of divine mercy, the prophet exhorts the woman Zion to “stand up”
13:13 The woman stands up straight when healed by Jesus
51:23 The Lord says to the woman Zion that God will visit the 13:11 The woman is bent wrath that she has suffered upon her tormentors who have over and cannot commanded her to bend her back so that they could walk straighten up upon it
In Isa 51, the people of God—represented by Zion personified as a woman—are the children of Abraham bent over by oppression, but when comforted by God, they/she will stand erect and respond with praise.51 This anticipation of Zion’s straightening followed by her praise bears a striking resemblance to the characterization of the straightened woman in Luke. Allusive language in this healing story suggests that the woman’s transformation represents the eschatological visitation of divine mercy upon Israel, marked by praise of God, as anticipated by Isaiah.52
50 I would add to May’s discussion of praise that in Isaiah there is both individual praise (voiced by Zion) and the praise of the redeemed who cross through the sea to return to her (51:10‒11). 51 Eusebius compares the woman with Jerusalem called again to life, Comm. Isa. 2.40.75‐84, from Eusebius, Eusebius Werke: (trans. J. Ziegler. GCS 9; Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1902). 52 The Zion poem in Isa 51 envisions the “people of God” through the metaphor of the woman Zion, and the praise responses are both individual (Zion’s praise) and com‐ munal (the praise of the people who return to her). This dual praise response matches the praise responses in the Lukan story of the straightened woman. O’Toole observes that the woman’s praise and its echo by the crowd “may be intended by Luke as an indication of the presence of the kingdom of God,” “Luke 13:10‒17,” 99. He draws connections to praise in the infancy narrative, the triumphal approach to Jerusalem, and the healing of the blind beggar through the verb δοξάζω.
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2. Samaritan Leper Like the scene of the bent woman, the story of the cleansing of the ten lep‐ ers also invites reading on a deeper level, for it focuses more on the charac‐ ters’ responses to Jesus’ miracle than on the miracle itself. As observed above, the scene focuses not on the healing itself but on the man’s recogni‐ tion of it and on a transformation of his thinking (his shift from initial focus on miracle working to faith in God), marked by praise.53 The man’s identity as a Samaritan suggests a representative quality in his characterization, for the return of the Samaritans constitutes part of the restoration of Israel in the end time, and Samaritan response to the good news becomes important in the geographic scheme of Acts.54 The man’s praise of God occurs not at the temple (where presumably the other nine men are heading) but at the feet of Jesus, which corresponds with a wider redefinition of “temple” in Luke‐Acts: worship in the temple aligns with the person of Jesus, fore‐ shadowing the function of Jerusalem in the narrative as a locus for mission outward to the nations.55 Finally, Jesus’ identification of the man as a for‐ eigner (ἀλλογενής), points toward the eventual mission to the Gentiles, which will also be greeted with praise of God.56 53 Betz calls this transformation “conversion” and offers it as an intriguing example of the rise of “orthodox Christianity,” in which the author of this apophthegm is not comfortable with the perspective presented in other healing miracles in Luke‐Acts, i.e., that “the experience of a Christian miracle is identical to the experience of Chris‐ tian salvation,” H. D. Betz, “Cleansing of the Ten Lepers,” JBL 90 (1971): 314‒28, 324‒6. Rather, this story represents a polemical response to the indiscriminate identi‐ fication of healing and conversion, ultimately choosing the latter as the most impor‐ tant experience. As he puts it, “the ‘seeing’ not the healing, is decisive.” By contrast, I see this story not as opposed to the other healing scenes but rather as developing the ongoing narrative link between healing and salvation, which will peak in the healing in Acts 3‒4, where the narrator confirms that healings in the narrative have been “signs” of the divine visitation. But I agree with Betz that the story in Lk 17 high‐ lights the importance of recognizing this divine work. Later in the narrative, when Gentiles recognize the divine visitation and experience salvation (conversion), they will respond similarly with praise. 54 Samaritans comprise part of the group that recognizes the visitation of God and greets it with praise, Hamm, “Samaritan Leper,” 281; J. Jervell, Luke and the People of God: A New Look at Luke‐Acts (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg, 1972), 113‒32. The Sa‐ maritans are not Gentiles, yet neither are they Jews in Luke‐Acts, as Jesus’ use of the word ἀλλογενής indicates. In Acts 8, they represent a new point in the movement of the message about Jesus out from Jerusalem to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8), in which Samaritans are invited into “a full participation in the restored people of God,” Johnson, Acts, 155. 55 Hamm, “Samaritan Leper,” 286‒7. 56 Hamm notes the importance of praise in the Samaritan’s representative characteriza‐ tion, observing that throughout Luke‐Acts “people who glorify God for what they have seen are responding to nothing less than the inbreaking of the reign of God,” ibid., 283.
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3. Leaping Lame Man Finally, the story of the man healed of paralysis in Acts 3‒4 similarly evi‐ dences representative characterization. As noted above, the formerly lame man (χωλός) not only offers praise (αἰνέω) in response to his experience of transformation but leaps repeatedly (ἐξάλλομαι, ἅλλομαι) (3:7‒8). These verbs of leaping have eschatological import, the latter recalling Isa 35:3‒6, where the prophet declares that when God comes to save (σῴζω), weak knees will be made strong and the “the lame man will leap like a hart” (ἁλεῖται ὡς ἔλαφος ὁ χωλός).57 In Isa 35, the leaping of the lame serves implicitly as a sign of the es‐ chatological salvation of all the people, but this sense becomes explicit in the Targumic expansion of this verse, which interprets this phrase with reference to the restored community as a whole: “the exiles of Israel gath‐ ered together and going up to their land—behold!—like light‐footed deer.”58 The Targum shows that in the second temple period, the leaping man “was an image of Israel saved, just as the infirm person of Isa 1,5‒6 (similarly generalized in the Targum) is an image of Israel lost.”59 So too, Peter’s speech in Acts, which interprets the lame man’s healing, employs the word σῴζω (Isa 35:9) in a way that links the man’s individual salvation (physical healing) with Peter’s view that all the men of Israel need salvation (4:12). The communal need for salvation draws out the symbolic charac‐ terization of the man: his experience is a sign of eschatological salvation (4:22).60 The word σῴζω marks both physical and spiritual restoration.61 57 H. Conzelmann, Die Apostelgeschichte (2nd ed.; HNT 7; Tübingen: Mohr, 1972), 39; J. A. Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles (AB; New York: Doubleday, 1998), 279; E. Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles: A Commentary (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971), 200; and Johnson, Acts, 66. Johnson and Fitzmyer draw on the extensive analysis of Hamm, “Acts 3:1‒10,” passim. See also, M. D. Hamm, “This Sign of Heal‐ ing, Acts 3:1‒10: A Study in Lucan Theology” (Ph.D. diss., Saint Louis University, 1975). As we have seen, the parallel miracle in Lk 5:17‒26 similarly connects the physical healing of an individual with a crowd of religious leaders’ unrecognized need for spiritual healing. This scene parallels the story of the healing of the lame man in Lk 5:17‒26 in a number of ways, including tension over the issue of authority, Johnson, Acts, 71. 58 Tg. Isa. 35:6. The Targum substitutes this phrase for the “lame” ()פּסח. 59 Hamm, “Acts 3:1‒10,” 313. 60 Ibid., 306‒7. If so, then this scene marks a shift in the use of the word. While σῴζω has consistently described moments of healing up to this point (Lk 6:9; 7:50; 8:36, 48, 50; 13:23; 17:19; 18:42), following the healing of the lame man, it will be used primar‐ ily to narrate conversion or exhortation to conversion (Acts 11:14; 15:1, 11; 16:30‒31). As will be argued in chapter eight, the context for praise follows this shift in the plot, moving from scenes of healing to scenes of conversion. An exception is the story of the healing of a paralyzed man by Paul in Lystra (14:4‒19), in many ways a parallel story to the one in Acts 3. Paul fixes his gaze on the man, the man responds by leap‐ ing, and the word σῴζω describes his healing. However, the communal response represents a dangerous reversal of the praise motif: the people praise not the God of
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Hamm also observes that the other word for leaping in the passage (ἐξάλλομαι) alludes to LXX Mic 2:13, where it describes the remnant of Is‐ rael leaping or rushing through the gate (πύλη), while Acts also associates the lame man with a gate (Acts 3:10). Finally, Peter says that he has restored the man’s soundness (ὁλοκληρία) (3:16), a possible allusion to LXX Isa 1:6, where rebellious Israel is described as being wounded, sick, and weak, lacking soundness (ὁλοκληρία).62 For our purposes, it is important to observe the story’s depiction of to‐ tal transformation: physical, spatial, and spiritual. The man moves from immobility to leaping, from a location outside the temple to one inside, and from begging to praising. Further, the man responds to this complete metamorphosis with praise (αἰνέω), which serves as an important clue to his symbolic function, linking him with the “men of Israel” who ultimately accept the risen Jesus as Messiah and offer praise themselves (4:21). As Johnson notes about this passage, “the goal of healing is restoration to a people that praises God.”63 In Isa 35, the leaping, formerly lame person joins a group of other people who have been transformed by God. Together these previously lame, blind, deaf, and mute people, now redeemed (λελυτρωμένοι) by God, walk on a holy way (ὁδὸς ἁγία) toward Zion with joy and praise (εὐφροσύνη, ἀγαλλίαμα, αἴνεσις) (35:8‒10).64 So too in Luke‐Acts, joyous praise of God accompanies the initiation of a divine “way” (Lk 1:76, 79) in the infancy narrative. As Jesus journeys through Galilee and Judea, eventu‐ ally heading along a “way” toward Jerusalem, those who voice praise in response to Jesus’ healing recall the people in Isa 35 who respond with praise to divine restoration: a man healed of paralysis, a bent woman straightened, a Samaritan leper, and a blind man, along with witnesses to these transformations and to the resurrection of a widow’s son.65 This pro‐ 61
62 63 64
65
Israel but Paul and Barnabas as divine (despite their loud objections) leading to a violent attack. Hamm’s study of the passage identifies seven other evidences of symbolic meaning in the story, lending additional support to the representative nature of the man’s characterization, ibid., 307‒19. His points include the temporal setting of the ninth hour, movement from outside to inside the temple, emphasis on looking/gazing, ref‐ erence to silver and gold, tension between passivity and activity, and double enten‐ dres related to the words ἐλεημοσύνη (alms/divine mercy) and ὡραῖος (beautiful/a time that is ripe or pregnant). As Hamm points out, this phrase translates the MT but is not present in some LXX manuscripts. Johnson, Acts, 66. The “way” along which the restored community journeys to Jerusalem/Zion ap‐ pears repeatedly in Deutero‐Isaiah, e.g., Isa 42:16; 43:16, 19; 45:13; 49:11; 51:10; 57:14; 62:10. Many of these descriptions of the restoration community traveling along the way include their joyous praise of God. With such a procession in mind, it is interesting to note that in the book of Baruch, the woman Jerusalem appears as a widow bereaved of her only children (4:12‒16)
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cession of praise culminates first at the entrance to Jerusalem (Lk 19:37‒40), a scene analyzed in chapter seven, and then again at the very gate of the temple where, as if from the pages of Isaiah, a lame man leaps, enters the sanctuary, and offers praise to God. As a representative character, the lame man—whose healing the narrator explicitly labels a sign—fittingly con‐ cludes this series of six evocative healings “on the way,” each acknowl‐ edged by praise of God.66 Later in Acts, “the Way” describes the believing community, which expands to include those Gentiles who recognize and accept the divine visitation. As will be argued in chapter eight, the narra‐ tive depicts these new members of the community joining the song of praise to God.
4. Healings as Signs If the six praise‐following‐healing stories represent the restoration of Is‐ rael’s glory, as argued above, then they contribute to the Lukan theme that healings indicate divine visitation enacted through Jesus. In Lk 4:18‒19, the paradigmatic scene opening Jesus’ ministry, Jesus quotes Isa 61:1‒2 and 58:6, speaking of himself as an agent of God who is Spirit‐filled, anointed, and sent (ἀποστέλλω) to accomplish divine transformations, including the restoration of sight and release (ἄφεσις) of those bound and oppressed.67 So whom the prophet calls to rise up (ἀνίστημι) and witness her children returning from every direction, rejoicing (χαίρω) and carried in glory (δόξα) by God on a lev‐ eled path, lit by divine mercy (ἐλεημοσύνη) and righteousness (Bar 5:5‒7). The word ὅδος does not occur in Bar 5:7, but it is implied in the imagery of a leveled path de‐ scribed in terms that echo Isa 40:4, cf. Lk 3:3‒4. 66 As Hamm notes, the narrative describes this healing as a sign and focuses great in‐ terpretive attention upon it (3:12‒4:22). In the following scene, the disciples’ prayer‐ ful response to the healing triggers their reception of the Holy Spirit (4:24‒30). 67 On early Jewish use of Isa 61:1, see J. A. Sanders, “From Isaiah 61 to Luke 4,” in Christianity, Judaism, and Other Greco‐Roman Cults: Studies for Morton Smith at Sixty 1 (ed. Morton Smith and Jacob Neusner; SJLA 12; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975). In some manuscripts of Luke, the word healing (ἰάομαι) appears in this verse, as in LXX Isa 61:1. The issue of blindness in Isa 61:1 is famously unclear, as detailed by Sanders. In the MT, Isa 61:1 does not clearly indicate movement from blindness to sight (ח־קוֹח ַ סוּרים ְפּ ַק ִ ;)וְ ַל ֲא it could mean release from imprisoned darkness with eyes open, and is so translated by NJPS: “liberation to the imprisoned.” The LXX translates the phrase as “sight restored for the blind” (τυφλοῖς ἀνάβλεψιν). Interestingly the Tar‐ gum, which reflects more closely the MT, corresponds with Tob 3:17 by including the image of light explicitly: תגלוֹ ְל ֵניהוֹר ְ דא ִס ִירין ִא ֲ וְ ִל (“[to proclaim] to prisoners, ‘Come out into the light.’”), Sanders, “From Isaiah 61 to Luke 4,” 85. The word נהור is the same word that describes God’s intention to cure Tobit in the Aramaic text of Tobit 3:17, corresponding to φῶς above, 4Q196 (Toba ar) 7, 2. Also like Isa 61:1, Tob 3:17 depicts movement into the light as release (ἀπολύω). (Both Tobit and Sarah are healed and both are “released.”) The Targum elsewhere interprets the restoration of
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too, just after the people respond to the raising of the widow’s son by prais‐ ing the divine visitation (7:16), men sent by John the Baptist ask Jesus if he is the “one who is to come.” Jesus responds by describing his healing min‐ istry. The men ought to relay back to John, he says, what they have seen and heard: τυφλοὶ ἀναβλέπουσιν, χωλοὶ περιπατοῦσιν, λεπροὶ καθαρίζονται καὶ κωφοὶ ἀκούουσιν, νεκροὶ ἐγείρονται, πτωχοὶ εὐαγγελίζονται (Lk 7:22) The blind see, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, the dead are raised, the poor receive the good news
Healings are part and parcel of the divine visitation, symbolizing the resto‐ ration of glory to Israel. As noted briefly in the treatment of Tobit in chapter three, Jesus’ para‐ digmatic statement about his healing ministry in Lk 4 shares a number of thematic elements and some direct parallels with the scene in Tobit when Raphael enters the story: Tob 3:17 68
καὶ ἀπεστάλη Ραφαηλ ἰάσασθαι τοὺς δύο Τωβιν ἀπολῦσαι τὰ λευκώματα ἀπὸ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν αὐτοῦ ἵνα ἴδῃ τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς τὸ φῶς τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ Σαρραν τὴν Ραγουηλ δοῦναι αὐτὴν Τωβια τῷ υἱῷ Τωβιθ γυναῖκα καὶ λῦσαι Ασμοδαιον τὸ δαιμόνιον τὸ πονηρὸν ἀπ᾽αὐτῆς
Lk 4:18‒19 πνεῦμα κυρίου ἐπ᾽ ἐμὲ οὗ εἵνεκεν ἔχρισέν με εὐαγγελίσασθαι πτωχοῖς, ἀπέσταλκέν με, κηρύξαι αἰχμαλώτοις ἄφεσιν καὶ τυφλοῖς ἀνάβλεψιν,
ἀποστεῖλαι τεθραυσμένους ἐν ἀφέσει, κηρύξαι ἐνιαυτὸν κυρίου δεκτόν.
sight in this verse in a metaphorical and communal way: as opening the eyes of the house of Israel, which is blind to the law (Tg. Isa. 35.5; 42.7). 68 The underlined words in bold represent exact parallels, while those underlined in regular font represent thematic parallels.
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The Spirit of the Lord is upon me on ac‐ count of which he has anointed me to speak good news to the poor [and] So Raphael was sent [by God] to heal the has sent me two of them: Tobit by releasing the white films from to proclaim release to the captives his eyes so that God’s light might be and restored sight to the blind seen by his eyes; and Sarah, daughter of Raguel, by giving her as a wife to To‐ and to send out the oppressed bias son of Tobit, by releasing them and to proclaim and by releasing her from the wicked demon Asmodeus. the acceptable year of the Lord
In both scenes, an agent of God is sent to bring release, which includes the restoration of sight. The ideas overlap, but the correspondence in vocabu‐ lary is not exact, which precludes a conclusion that Luke here depends on a Greek translation of Tobit. Rather, the points of contact between the two paradigmatic passages of divine activity suggest that they both echo an‐ other text (or group of texts). Jesus in Luke quotes Isa 61:1‒2 and 58:6, so perhaps Tobit relies on the same passages or on other depictions of divine healing in Isaiah. As ob‐ served in chapter two, many of Deutero‐Isaiah’s oracles of hope unite (1) divinely enabled transformation, including healing, release from oppres‐ sion, and restoration of sight; (2) God’s consolation of Jerusalem (or restora‐ tion of Israel); and (3) joyous praise in response to both. Perhaps similarly reflecting such oracles of hope, both Luke‐Acts and Tobit associate healing with release from oppression, and they both depict healed characters offer‐ ing praise, a response which is in turn representative of their communities’ eschatological praise either in the present (Luke‐Acts) or future (Tobit). But it is important to recognize that while Tobit and the healed people in Luke represent their communities, they are not simply metaphors; rather, they function on two levels in their respective narratives. (The same point could be made about the representative characterization of Aseneth.) On one level, because these characters appear in realistic narrative, their ex‐ periences matter, both to them personally, as characters, and to the plot. It is important, on a narrative level, that Mary gives birth to the promised child; that the bent woman straightens up; that Tobit regains his sight and his recognition of divine mercy; or that Aseneth becomes a worshipper of the God of Israel. These experiences of divine mercy are central to the three plots. But on another level, these individual transformations function as metaphors depicting communal salvation. Tobit and Aseneth represent communal transformation hoped for in the future, as we have seen. But in Luke‐Acts, representative characters depict the fulfillment of such hopes in
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the eschatological visitation unfolding in the plot, in which God opens the mouth of the deaf and mute (Zechariah); reverses the shame of Zion by restoring her fertility (Elizabeth and Mary); and in six stories enacts the eschatological healing anticipated by Isaiah, three of which allude to the straightening up of Jerusalem, the restoration of paralyzed Israel, and the return of the Samaritans to appropriate worship. In Luke‐Acts, as in Tobit and JA, characters’ praise responses convey this representative characteri‐ zation, for their praise embodies the praise expected in response to the di‐ vine transformation of the communities they represent. In other words, in the praise of Luke’s characters, the reader hears the praise expected upon God’s restoration of Israel’s glory. In its representative function then the praise motif aligns closely with the first major half of Luke’s plot as laid out in Simeon’s praise (“a light for glory to Israel”). In the story of the healed Samaritan, praise foreshadows the second major part of the plot (“a light . . . for revelation to the Gentiles”), which will similarly be greeted with eschatological praise, as detailed in chapter eight.
E. Conclusion This investigation of praise‐following‐healing stories in Luke‐Acts has ar‐ gued that the narrative presents a repeated pattern, in which the praise of healed individuals is echoed by the praise of witnesses to the healings. However, as in the infancy narrative, the response of praise is not inevita‐ ble because certain aspects of the divine visitation surprise. Why does Jesus heal on the Sabbath? Why does he forgive sins? Why does he allow certain marginalized people access to himself? The praise‐following‐healing sto‐ ries highlight such surprises by means of narrative tensions: blocked access to Jesus (physical obstacles and religious objections), issues of identity (the worth of the healed person), and recognition of divine beneficence. In sev‐ eral scenes, Jesus’ ripostes to his opponents redirect attention away from issues of religious propriety and toward the value of the person being healed.69 Jesus also directs attention to his own identity.70 In Acts, Peter and John, like Jesus, redirect misdirected gazes and religious objections toward the healing/saving power God, made present in Jesus’ name (Acts 3‒4). In this longer scene, narrative tension stretches out, spanning more of the story. In all these stories, praise responses resolve narrative tensions, ac‐ knowledging the divine visitation manifest in Jesus’ healing activity and thus also recognizing the worth of the people healed. However, because 69 If an ox may be released on Sabbath so should a daughter of Abraham (Lk 13). A paralyzed man and a blind man deserve Jesus’ attention and access to healing (Lk 5, 18). 70 If Jesus can heal, he also has the authority to forgive sins (Lk 5).
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some characters respond not with praise but with silence or blame, a por‐ tion of narrative tension remains unresolved, building a growing sense of divided response as the story proceeds. The plot of Luke‐Acts involves two major sections outlined in broad terms by Simeon’s praise: glory to Israel (Lk 1‒Acts 7) and revelation to the Gentiles (Acts 8‒28). Within these two major sections, the divine visitation unfolds sequentially in four contexts: Jesus’ birth (Lk 1:68, 78), his healing ministry (Lk 7:16), his time in Jerusalem (Lk 19:44), and the conversion of Gentiles (Acts 15:14). Thus far, our analysis has found the praise motif to align closely with this plot on the level of structure and with regard to im‐ portant themes. In the first context (Jesus’ birth), the praise of Mary and Zechariah responds to personal transformations that are representative of reversals anticipated at the time of Israel’s restoration. These praise re‐ sponses and others in the infancy narrative also declare the divine visita‐ tion as manifest in Jesus, who will restore glory to Israel (Lk 1‒2). In the second context (healings accomplished by Jesus or in his name), praise re‐ sponds to the divine visitation, which results also in transformation (resto‐ ration of wholeness) for various representatives of God’s people. In these scenes, responses of praise declare glory to God and describe Jesus’ healings as glorious.71 Moreover, Jesus in Luke identifies these evi‐ dences of divine glory as the eschatological reversals anticipated by Isaiah (Lk 4:18‒19; 7:22).72 The point that healings are eschatological signs has been long noted by readers of Luke, but what is not commonly observed is that Isaiah consistently links eschatological healing with joyous praise (as detailed in chapter two above). Luke in turn narrates six scenes in which praise responds directly to such reversals (explicitly part of the divine visi‐ tation) and at least three of these scenes describe the main characters in ways that allude to Israel’s restoration. Such allusions strengthen a meta‐ phor implicit in all six scenes: these stories of healing followed by praise represent the divine visitation made present in Jesus’ healing ministry, elic‐ iting praise, and restoring glory to Israel.73 To state this observation another way, Luke’s motif of praise (in the context of healing) produces a narrative procession of restored, praising people, which culminates at the temple
71 While the praise vocabulary in Luke‐Acts varies, praise in all six praise‐following‐ healing stories is narrated with the verb δοξάζω (Lk 5:25‒26; 7:16; 13:13; 17:15; 18:43; Acts 4:21). In Lk 13:17, the crowd rejoices (χαίρω), acclaiming Jesus’ straightening of the bent woman (along with other healings) as glorious (ἔνδοξος). 72 I. H. Marshall, The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978), 292. 73 As noted above, on one level, this restoration is literal (wholeness for a human be‐ ing). On another, it is metaphorical (symbolizing wholeness for the people of God).
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gate in Acts 3‒4, a scene that plays a pivotal role in the first major section of Luke’s plot focusing on glory to God’s people Israel.74
74 On the role this scene plays in the plot, L. T. Johnson writes, “the people have been restored within Jerusalem [Acts 1‒2], but what is the legitimate leadership over Is‐ rael? Is it the leadership of the Sanhedrin that first rejected the prophet, or is it the leadership of the Twelve who are Jesus’ prophetic successors? Will Jesus’ prophecy that they were to ‘rule over the twelve tribes of Israel’ (Lk 22:30) be fulfilled within the narrative? Luke will show us in this sequence [Acts 3‒4] how the apostles be‐ come the true leaders of the faithful Israel,” Acts, 80.
Chapter 7
Praise and Revelation: Jesus’ Identity as Messiah, Son, King, and Risen Lord A. Introduction Having seen how praise responds to revelation about Jesus’ identity at his birth and to Jesus’ healing miracles, we turn now to an investigation of the third context of praise in the narrative: revelation about Jesus’ identity as he approaches and enters Jerusalem. This context for praise centers on the disciples’ recognition of who Jesus is and how the surprising events of the Passion Narrative can be understood to comprise the divine visitation. In the Gospel of Luke, recognition of Jesus occurs in stages. As we have seen, the first stage (beyond the infancy narrative) involves characters’ rec‐ ognition that Jesus’ healing miracles are the work of God, accomplishing the expected eschatological visitation. Such recognition produces praise. But as Jesus begins his journey toward Jerusalem, the narrative makes it clear that the disciples must move beyond this initial understanding of Je‐ sus’ identity (level‐one recognition), and when they do, as we shall see, they similarly respond with praise. Additional revelation about Jesus’ identity unfolds in two cycles, each initiated by Jesus’ praise and finally echoed in the praise of the disciples and all who believe. In the first cycle, the disciples move to a new recogni‐ tion of Jesus’ identity as Messiah, son, and king, and they respond with praise at the gates of Jerusalem (level‐two recognition). In the second cycle, the disciples come to understand Jesus’ identity fully when the risen Lord reveals the necessity of his death and resurrection within the plan of God (level‐three recognition). Again, they demonstrate their new understanding by responding with praise, which concludes the Gospel of Luke and is ech‐ oed early in Acts by members of the new community forming around Je‐ sus’ name. However, between these two cycles of recognition and praise, the narrative again introduces tension by emphasizing the lack of praise within the city of Jerusalem during the dark days surrounding Jesus’ death.
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B. Praise and Jesus’ Identity as Messiah, Son, and King In two passages (Lk 10:20‒23; 19:37‒38), the narrative associates the praise motif with the disciples’ transition to second‐level of recognition in the story: Jesus’ identity as Messiah, son, and king. First, at the beginning of the journey narrative, when the seventy (two) disciples return from their mission with joy, Jesus exhorts them to rejoice for the right reason: not acts of power per se but what these signify: the disciples’ connection with God.1 Then he models this kind of joy by expressing joyous praise over how his identity has been divinely revealed to the disciples. Second, at the end of the travel narrative as Jesus approaches Jerusalem, the disciples respond to Jesus’ exhortation by expressing joyous praise precisely about Jesus’ iden‐ tity as Messiah and king.
1. Jesus’ Praise: Revelation to the Disciples (Lk 10:20‒23) In Lk 10:20‒23 Jesus’ praise is preceded by his exhortation to the disciples to rejoice (10:21) and is followed by his blessing of them (10:24).2 Jesus’ praise comes in the midst of the Gospel’s five praise‐following‐healing sto‐ ries, just at the transition point between the Galilean section (which in‐ cludes two of these healing stories) and the travel narrative (which includes three). After turning his face to Jerusalem (9:51), Jesus sends the seventy (two) disciples through towns ahead of him (Lk 10:1‒16), and they return “with joy” (μετὰ χαρᾶς) (10:18). Jesus responds to their joyful return with discourse about joy, direct speech of praise, and a blessing. With regard to the plot of Luke, this response by Jesus marks the beginning of the travel narrative, an important transition in the story. Moreover, Jesus’ exhortation and blessing provide commentary on the motif of joyous praise in response to miraculous events, while his own praise, which responds to a trans‐ formed perspective among his disciples, exemplifies the proper praise re‐ sponse in Luke‐Acts.
1.1 Exhortation to Rejoice (Lk 10:20) As commentary on the significance of healing miracles in the narrative, Jesus’ discourse about joy encourages the disciples (and Luke’s readers) to 1 2
The terminology “seventy (two)” reflects the unresolved textual tension between such mss. as A, C, and K (“seventy”) and P75, B, L (“seventy‐two”). The secondary literature on Lk 10:21‒24 (par. Mt 11:25‒30) is voluminous. A useful history of interpretation is provided in Crump, Intercessor, 49‒66.
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shift attention from αἱ δυνάμεις to the significance of these powerful acts. The seventy (two) disciples, sent to heal and proclaim the kingdom (10:9), have just returned from their mission “with joy” because of their success over the forces of evil (ὑπέστρεψαν δὲ οἱ ἑβδομήκοντα [δύο] μετὰ χαρᾶς λέγοντες· κύριε, καὶ τὰ δαιμόνια ὑποτάσσεται ἡμῖν ἐν τῷ ὀνόματί σου) (10:17).3 Jesus confirms their success (10:18‒19), but he then urges them: πλὴν ἐν τούτῳ μὴ χαίρετε ὅτι τὰ πνεύματα ὑμῖν ὑποτάσσεται, χαίρετε δὲ ὅτι τὰ ὀνόματα ὑμῶν ἐγγέγραπται ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς (10:20) Nevertheless, do not rejoice because of this— that the spirits submit to you— but rejoice because your names are written in the heavens
Jesus exhorts them to rejoice for a particular reason. Their joy should re‐ spond not simply to impressive acts of power (10:13, 19) but to what these works of power reveal: the disciples’ connection with the powerful God.4
1.2 Praise Speech (Lk 10:21‒22) Second, following this exhortation, Jesus speaks words of joyous praise, which like the praise in the healing stories and in the infancy narrative, exemplify the proper response to the divine visitation, located in him.5 To begin investigating this scene, it is important to observe that Luke’s empha‐ sis on praise of God comes into particular focus in comparison with Mat‐ thew’s version of the scene:
3
4 5
The success of the mission is distinctively Lukan (Lk 10:17‒19) and not paralleled in Matthew, a feature of Luke that is sometimes missed, as noted in ibid., 49‒50, n.5. The seventy (two) includes the twelve because later Jesus reminds the twelve of their having been sent without purse, bag, or sandals (Lk 22:35), a reference to the mission of the seventy (two) (Lk 10:4) rather than the previous mission (Lk 9:3), Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:843. On the connection between healing and power over spirits, see Hamm, “Bent Woman,” 32. This same association appears in Tobit, as we have seen. This analysis investigates 10:1‒24 as a unified narrative, which is not to deny that the logia therein may have had lives of their own in oral tradition and/or Q. Luke’s re‐ daction has created a logical whole out of various parts.
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Lk 10:21‒22
Mt 11:25‒26
Ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ ὥρᾳ 6 ἠγαλλιάσατο [ἐν] τῷ πνεύματι τῷ ἁγίῳ καὶ εἶπεν· ἐξομολογοῦμαί σοι, πάτερ, κύριε τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καὶ τῆς γῆς, ὅτι ἀπέκρυψας ταῦτα ἀπὸ σοφῶν καὶ συνετῶν καὶ ἀπεκάλυψας αὐτὰ νηπίοις· ναὶ ὁ πατήρ, ὅτι οὕτως εὐδοκία ἐγένετο ἔμπροσθέν σου
Ἐν ἐκείνῳ τῷ καιρῷ ἀποκριθεὶς ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν· ἐξομολογοῦμαί σοι, πάτερ, κύριε τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καὶ τῆς γῆς, ὅτι ἔκρυψας ταῦτα ἀπὸ σοφῶν καὶ συνετῶν καὶ ἀπεκάλυψας αὐτὰ νηπίοις· ναὶ ὁ πατήρ, ὅτι οὕτως εὐδοκία ἐγένετο ἔμπροσθέν σου
Jesus’ speech itself, which opens with the praise verb ἐξομολογέω, is nearly identical in both gospels, with the exception of ἀποκρύπτω in Luke and κρύπτω in Matthew. But the two narrative introductions to Jesus’ speech diverge. Beyond the differences in temporal indicators, Luke’s use of ἀγαλλιάω introduces joy into the scene, augmenting the direct speech of praise.7 Luke further highlights praise by linking Jesus’ words with the ac‐ tivity of the Holy Spirit, creating a connection with inspired joy and praise elsewhere in the narrative.8 6
7
8
The phrase αὐτῇ τῇ ὥρᾳ is a favorite of Luke’s, but appears nowhere else in the NT, Lk. 2:38; 10:21; 12:12; 13:31; 14:17; 20:19; 24:33; Acts 16:18; 22:13. In Luke‐Acts it often signals divine activity occurring at significant moments in time. The phrase also ap‐ pears in biblical literature in 1 Esd 8:62; Dan 5:5; Dan (Th) 3:6, 15; 4:33; 5:5. By the same token, the phrase ἐν ἐκείνῳ τῷ καιρῷ occurs elsewhere in Matthew (12:1; 14:1), but nowhere else in the NT. In Matthew, this phrase is one among a series of tempo‐ ral phrases that seems to have been inserted as a means of structuring the narrative, 11:25; 12:1; 13:1; 14:1. It could be that in both Matthew and Luke, these phrases are redactional. The word ἀγαλλιάω should also be understood as indicating joyous praise, on anal‐ ogy with other inquit formulae introducing direct speech of praise in Luke‐Acts, which are Lk 1:64 (καὶ ἐλάλει εὐλογῶν τὸν θεόν); 2:13 (αἰνούντων τὸν θεὸν καὶ λεγόντων); 2:28 (εὐλόγησεν τὸν θεὸν καὶ εἶπεν); 5:26 (ἐδόξαζον τὸν θεὸν καὶ ἐπλήσθησαν φόβου λέγοντες); 7:16 (ἐδόξαζον τὸν θεὸν λέγοντες); and Acts 11:18 (ἐδόξασαν τὸν θεὸν λέγοντες). Cf. also Acts 21:20, where narration carefully distin‐ guishes narrated praise from speech directed to a human (ἐδόξαζον τὸν θεὸν εἶπόν τε αὐτῶ). The use of ἀγαλλιάω in Lk 10:21 alongside praise corresponds with its ap‐ pearance in the Psalms as praise (e.g., LXX Pss 9:3; 12:6; 32:1; 97:4) and with its use in the Magnificat (Lk 1:47). On ἀγαλλιάω and ἀγαλλίασις as indicating praise in re‐ sponse to answered petitions, see Crump, Intercessor, 60‒66. In Isaiah, ἀγαλλιάω is a key word signaling the fulfillment of eschatological expectations, 12:6; 25:9, 19; 35:1, 2; 41:16; 49:13; 61:10; 65:14, 19; R. Bultmann, ἀγαλλιάομαι, ἀγαλλίασις, TDNT 1:19‒21. As we have seen, it also figures into the restoration hopes of Tobit’s hymn, particularly in association with Jerusalem, Tob 13:9, 15. Bultmann suggests that it in‐ dicates sung praise, TDNT 1:19‒21. Other scenes of inspired joy or praise include the joy of John before his birth (Lk 1:41, 47); Mary’s praise (1:35, 46); Zechariah’s praise (Lk 1:67); Simeon’s praise (Lk 2:27‒28). Looking ahead to Acts, inspired praise appears in the praise of Cornelius
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Jesus’ speech indicates that he offers praise precisely because his disci‐ ples recognize the divine visitation in his healing miracles. Jesus’ praise opens by lauding God as “Lord of heaven and earth” and addressing God as “Father.” Then, two ὅτι clauses provide the reason for Jesus’ praise: ὅτι ἀπέκρυψας ταῦτα ἀπὸ σοφῶν καὶ συνετῶν καὶ ἀπεκάλυψας αὐτὰ νηπίοις· ναὶ ὁ πατήρ, ὅτι οὕτως εὐδοκία ἐγένετο ἔμπροσθέν σου. (Lk 10:21) because you have hidden these things from the wise and intelligent and you have revealed them to little children and, Father, because in such [hiding and revealing] your divine pleasure is evi‐ dent.
A straightforward reading of the synthetic parallelism in the first ὅτι clause finds Jesus praising God for both revealing and hiding, a picture consistent with divine activity as portrayed not only in the Hebrew Bible but also in Luke‐Acts.9 The second ὅτι clause of his praise restates this point by indi‐ cating that the divine plan governs both activities. It seems relatively clear that νηπίοις refers to those who see what has been long anticipated (10:24)—most obviously the disciples who have just returned—while the phrase ἀπὸ σοφῶν καὶ συνετῶν indicates those who because of their social position might be expected to recognize the divine visitation but fail to do so. To what then does ταῦτα refer? Interpreters must answer this question in order to know the content of the revelation praised by Jesus. Theories abound, but in narrative context, ταῦτα most logically refers back to the activity of the seventy (two) disciples, described immediately prior to Jesus’ praise, which is itself elicited by their return (10:1‒17).10 The activity of the and his associates (Acts 10:44‒46) and in the joy of Paul and Barnabas in their mis‐ sion (despite opposition) (Acts 13:52). 9 However, the inclusion of divine hiding as part of the reason for Jesus’ praise results in a theological determinism traditionally resisted by interpreters, who appeal to logical—rather than formal—hypotaxis in order to subordinate the first clause (ἀπέκρυψας ταῦτα ἀπὸ σοφῶν καὶ συνετῶν) to the second (ἀπεκάλυψας αὐτὰ νηπίοις). For example, E. Norden concludes that “Grammatisch ausgedrückt: die formale Parataxe von b und c ist logisch eine Hypotaxe, in der b dem c untergeordnet ist,” Agnostos Theos: 286, n.1. D. M. Crump overviews the history of interpretation of this passage, dating back to the second century. Many interpreters have argued that “Jesus rejoices over God’s revealing activity, but not his hiding.” Yet others, including Crump, have observed that such an approach “allows arbitrary theological presuppositions to muffle the text,” and in fact, that “the paratactic con‐ struction suggests that both lines are governed by Jesus’ thanksgiving.” Thus, “Jesus is shown rejoicing over both God’s hiding and revealing activities, each of which are the expression of God’s ‘good pleasure’,” Crump, Intercessor, 53. On divine hiding and revealing, see Isa 29:10‒14; Lk 9:45; 18:34; 24:16, Crump, Intercessor, 53, 96‒97. 10 Crump identifies fourteen distinct proposals, Intercessor, 56‒57. He observes that interpreters normally “begin their search by looking to the prior events in the mis‐ sion of the seventy (two),” but that there is “no clear antecedent” to ταῦτα in this approach, 56. See also Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:872.
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seventy (two) includes both the visible acts they have done—deeds of power (αἱ δυνάμεις) consisting of healing and victory over evil (10:9, 13, 17‒19)—and the audible words they have proclaimed—peace to people (10:5) and the arrival of the kingdom (10:9, 11). That these words and deeds are the referents for ταῦτα is supported by the fact that in the previous verse (Lk 10:20), Jesus refers to one part of the activity of the seventy (two)—their power over evil—also by means of a neuter demonstrative pronoun (πλὴν ἐν τούτῳ μὴ χαίρετε), as argued above. Thus, one reasonable interpretation of Jesus’ praise is that he extols God for the powerful acts and proclamation of the mission of the seventy (two) and by extension, his own ministry. However, it is important to ob‐ serve that his praise derives not from “these things” per se but from God’s revealing and hiding of their significance. The content of the revelation is not the events but their meaning: namely, that the divine visitation is pre‐ sent in the person of Jesus, the Messiah.11 This way of understanding Jesus’ joyous praise is consonant with his exhortation to rejoice, which immedi‐ ately precedes it, for he now models exactly what he has urged upon his disciples: joy not in response to success (power and proclamation) but to what this success signifies: their connection to God through the divine εὐδοκία. It also corresponds with the remainder of his praise, which locates divine revelation in himself, the son (ὁ υἱός) (10:22). This interpretation requires additional words when translating Jesus’ praise into English: “you have hidden the meaning of these things from the wise and intelligent and have revealed their meaning to little children.” A comparison with Lk 9:45, a similar verse, lends support to this reading. There, using a divine passive, the narrator states that Jesus’ utterance (τὸ ῥῆμα τοῦτο) has been concealed from the disciples (ἦν παρακεκαλυμμένον ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν). But in fact, God has not concealed the utterance itself—for Je‐ sus has just spoken τὸ ῥῆμα τοῦτο aloud—but rather its meaning, as is normally recognized.12 Understanding Lk 10:22 as referring to revelation (and hiding) of the significance of powerful events in the narrative would also be consistent with the depiction of miracles and proclamation throughout Luke‐Acts. Miracles, when truly seen, serve as signs of the di‐ vine visitation, intended to produce repentance (e.g., Lk 4:15‒21; 10:13;
11 Fitzmyer writes that “these things” in the Lukan context “refers to the hidden mean‐ ing of what the disciples have seen and heard in the ministry and teaching of Jesus and to their relation to him,” as well as to “the knowledge of the Son about the Fa‐ ther and the knowledge that only he can transmit to his followers” (10:22), Luke, 2:869. 12 For example, the NRSV translates Lk 9:45, “but they did not understand this saying; [its meaning] was concealed from them” (brackets mine).
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19:37; Acts 4:16, 22). Proclamation similarly points beyond itself: its mean‐ ing must be truly heard.13 Jesus’ praise for “hiding and revealing” thus continues the theme of division evident in the infancy narrative and the series of six healings ex‐ plored in the previous chapters.14 Some characters will see the divine visita‐ tion and offer praise while others will not.15 In Lk 10:21, as in the previous two contexts for praise, recognition (seeing) of God’s work (by children) produces praise (by Jesus), yet Jesus offers this praise right after his critique of the disciples’ incorrect joy (10:20). Thus while Jesus’ praise implies that his disciples are the “children” who will see, his words are proleptic: the disciples are not yet the children who see (Lk 18:34) nor have they yet of‐ fered (proper) praise.
1.3 Blessing (Lk 10:23‒24) The theme of division continues in Jesus’ blessing of his disciples, which follows immediately upon his praise and corresponds with it. The parallels between this blessing (10:23b‒24) and the praise that precedes it (10:21) are worth observing in detail:
13 On seeing and hearing in Luke‐Acts, see Lk 2:20; 7:22; 9:9; 10:24; 23:8; Acts 4:20; 22:14‒15; 28:26‒28. 14 As argued in chapter four, the theme of division is introduced in the infancy narra‐ tive (in the context of praise speech) and is sustained in the Galilean section and journey narrative through the varied responses to Jesus’ healing miracles (including praise, lack of praise, and blame). It is only partially resolved in these stories, creat‐ ing a sense of divided response to the divine visitation. 15 The theme of division also appears throughout the description of the mission of the seventy (two) (10:1‒17). Following the rejection of some disciples in a Samaritan vil‐ lage (9:52‒53), Jesus speaks about the possibility of varied responses in households (10:5‒7) and cities (10:8‒12) visited by the seventy (two), leading into woes directed against Galilean cities that have rejected him (10:13‒15). This discourse concludes with a clear statement of division: some will listen (ἀκούω) and others will reject (ἀθετέω) the disciples, Jesus, and ultimately, God (10:16).
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Lk 10:21 ἐξομολογοῦμαί σοι, πάτερ, κύριε τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καὶ τῆς γῆς, ὅτι ἀπέκρυψας ταῦτα ἀπὸ σοφῶν καὶ συνετῶν καὶ ἀπεκάλυψας αὐτὰ νηπίοις ναὶ ὁ πατήρ, ὅτι οὕτως εὐδοκία ἐγένετο ἔμπροσθέν σου.
Lk 10:23b‒24 μακάριοι οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ οἱ βλέποντες ἃ βλέπετε. λέγω γὰρ ὑμῖν ὅτι πολλοὶ προφῆται καὶ βασιλεῖς ἠθέλησαν ἰδεῖν ἃ ὑμεῖς βλέπετε καὶ οὐκ εἶδαν, καὶ ἀκοῦσαι ἃ ἀκούετε καὶ οὐκ ἤκουσαν.
I praise you, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, because you have hidden these things from the wise and the intelligent and have revealed them to little children yes, Father, because in such [hiding and revealing] your divine pleasure is evident.
Blessed are the eyes that see what you see. For I say to you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, but did not see it, and to hear what you hear, but did not hear it.
Crump makes a convincing argument for two primary points of correlation between these two instances of direct speech by Jesus (indicated by solid and broken underlining above), concluding: The result is not so much an identification of the wise and learned with the prophets and kings, or the little children with the disciples, as it is a comparison of the parallel activities of hiding and revealing. Just as the wise and learned had these things hidden from them, so many prophets and kings ‘wanted to see but could not see, and wanted to hear but could not hear.’ And just as the little children had ‘these things’ revealed to them, so the disciples have ‘seen and heard.’16
The precise parallel lies not in the identity of the human parties who either see what is revealed or do not see what is hidden.17 Rather, the correspon‐ 16 Crump, Intercessor, 55. 17 In other words, they are not necessarily the same people. The disciples (“you”) cor‐ respond with the “little children,” but the phrase “wise and intelligent” (which points to people who inhabit the narrative present) does not correspond precisely with the phrase “prophets and kings” (which points most likely to people who in‐ habit the extra‐narrative past). However, some characters in Luke’s narrative, such as John the Baptist, Herod Antipas, and Herod Agrippa, may be representative of the latter group within narrative time, e.g., Lk 9:7‒9; 23:8; Acts 12:19‒22; see ibid., 70‒74. The parallelism is located in the fact that both groups—the “wise and intelligent” and “prophets and kings”—are socially important people who fail to see. Jesus use of the word νήπιος, which often translates פתי, recalls biblical descriptions of the simple who experience divine revelation, MT Pss 19:8; 116:6; 119:130; cf. 1QHa II[X], 9; 11Q5 (11QPsa) XVIII, 3‒4; Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:873. Such a characterization of the twelve reappears in Acts 4:13, where the high priest refers to Peter and John as ἄνθρωποι ἀγράμματοί . . . καὶ ἰδιῶται. Jesus’ juxtaposition of “children” with the powerful/wise perhaps recalls his earlier contrast of the healthy, who have no need for a physician, with the sick, who come to Jesus for healing and in response (5:31). It may also recall the reversal depicted in Mary’s praise. Those who understand their low condition (e.g., the sick, hungry, young) will see and thus will offer praise. The connection between humility and praise has been noted throughout this study. See pp. 49, 122, 146 (n.26), 187, and 194.
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dence inheres in the theme of division, described first in reference to divine action (praise) and then in reference human action (beatitude): in keeping with divine will (εὐδοκία), God reveals or hides, while humans see or do not see.18 Interestingly, the word εὐδοκία in Jesus’ praise creates yet another link back to praise in the infancy narrative, for the praise speech of the heavenly host similarly lauds divine good pleasure (εὐδοκία) as the source of the events in the narrative (Lk 2:14). Together, Jesus’ exhortation to rejoice, his praise speech, and its corre‐ sponding blessing of the disciples (10:21‒24) make explicit what the six praise‐following‐healing stories imply: αἱ δυνάμεις are signs pointing to the visitation of God through Jesus the Messiah. But because they surprise, characters must not only experience healings but recognize their source and meaning, a recognition signaled by praise (in contrast with the silence or blame of Jesus’ opponents). Correspondingly, Jesus’ own praise now alerts the reader that the disciples have moved to another level of recogni‐ tion. They have seen in αἱ δυνάμεις not only the divine visitation but also Jesus’ distinctive connection to the Father. This recognition by the disciples marks a change in their perspective, a point that becomes clearer upon review of their characterization through‐ out chapters nine and ten. At the beginning of chapter nine, Jesus sends out the twelve into the towns of Galilee to heal and proclaim the Good News (9:1‒6). Upon their successful return, they experience a miraculously abun‐ dant meal (9:10‒17), leading to their pivotal recognition of Jesus as Messiah (9:18‒20) and the witnessing by three of them of Jesus’ transfiguration (9:28‒36).19 Nevertheless, Jesus critiques their failure to cast out a demon (9:37‒43), and the narrator emphasizes that the meaning of Jesus’ words about death and resurrection remains hidden from them (9:22‒27, 43‒45; cf. 18:31‒34). At this point, Jesus turns toward Jerusalem (9:51), sending sev‐ enty (two) representatives ahead of him. When the disciples return after this mission, the reader learns that they now are able to cast out demons and to comprehend that Jesus’ power (10:18‒19) signifies his distinctive connection to the Father (10:21‒24). Thus, Jesus’ blessing of them marks not only a structural transition in the story, as noted above, but also a (partial) transformation of the disciples’ thinking. It responds to their new insight, gained via divine revelation, which is also an important turning point in the characterization of the twelve.20 18 “The result is a parallelism . . . which affirms God’s sovereignty over the disposition of his revelation,” ibid. 19 Luke connects Jesus’ praise for food (Lk 9:16) with his identity as Messiah (Lk 9:18‒19). His praise in Lk 9:16 foreshadows similar praise in Lk 22. 20 Nevertheless, they do not yet understand about Jesus’ death and resurrection, nor will they until the end of the Gospel, where their new insight will also be marked by praise. Interestingly, Crump argues that Jesus’ praise in Lk 10:21‒22 is offered pre‐ cisely because Jesus’ earlier petitions in Lk 9:18 and 9:28—which ask that the disci‐
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2. The Disciples’ Praise: Recognition of Jesus (Lk 19:37‒38) As we turn to an examination of praise voiced by the disciples as Jesus ap‐ proaches Jerusalem, it will be useful to review our findings about the praise motif in the Gospel of Luke thus far. In the infancy narrative, praise of God responds to and interprets the birth of Jesus, the Messiah, as the eschatological visitation of God. This visitation has been long expected, but because it unfolds in a surprising manner, recognition of it is not assured; there is an element of surprise. Only those who see God at work in the events of the narrative respond in the proper way. One key indicator of recognition and right response is joyous praise. Following the infancy narrative, five healing stories feature praise re‐ sponses that echo the eschatological praise of the first two chapters. Within these stories, Jesus’ words and actions again surprise, creating tension over responses to him and repeatedly raising questions. Who will recognize these healings as the divine visitation and praise God? Who will not recog‐ nize them and thus remain silent or speak words of blame? Varied re‐ sponses begin to divide Israel, as predicted by Simeon. Those who lift their voices in praise to God form a steady chorus, throughout the Galilean sec‐ tion and travel narrative, of people who “see and hear” the divine visita‐ tion. In the midst of this praise, Jesus himself praises God for revealing an‐ other level of significance in his powerful deeds (his identity as Messiah, son, and king) to the disciples, mere νήπιοι who have been enlightened by God. In addition, we have argued that the Lukan characterizations of some people who offer praise (Zechariah, Mary, Elizabeth, the straightened woman, the cleansed Samaritan, and the leaping lame man) evoke pro‐ phetic depictions of Zion and her oppressed children—barren, reproached, lame, blind, deaf, mute, and bent people—who are expected to respond with eschatological joy and praise to the long‐awaited restoration of Israel. In the joyous praise of these characters, the reader of Luke‐Acts sees Jesus bringing δόξαν λαοῦ . . . Ἰσραήλ, in fulfillment of both prophetic expecta‐ tions and Simeon’s praise (Isa 35:1‒10; Lk 2:32). The praise of healed indi‐ viduals becomes a metaphor in Luke‐Acts for ὁ λαός. Freed from the op‐ ples would come to know who he is—have been answered, Crump, Intercessor, 22‒31, 42‒44, 60‒66. “They have been chosen as the recipients of a divinely bestowed insight into the character and nature of Jesus, by virtue of his electing prayers,” 67. Crump’s argument is complex and cannot be reproduced here, but his conclusions align with other moments of petition and praise in Luke‐Acts, as he notes, citing the examples of Zechariah, Anna, and Simeon. One could add to this list the conversion of Cornelius, which occurs in response to petition (10:4, 9, 30, 31; 11:5) and is met with praise. We have also briefly considered the praise‐following‐healing stories along the lines of petition and praise: characters cry out (e.g., for mercy), are healed, and offer praise.
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pression of disease, with legs, backs, eyes, ears, and mouths restored to health, Zion’s children offer joyful praise along the road to Jerusalem, just as prophetic literature has anticipated they would.21 It is thus entirely ap‐ propriate that this procession of restored, praising people, which has been building momentum along the way, reaches a high point as Jesus ap‐ proaches the gates of Jerusalem, the scene to which we now turn. This scene of praise upon Jesus’ arrival to Jerusalem occurs in all four gospels. The other three do not specify exactly who shouts out in this scene: either the crowd traveling with Jesus (Mark and Matthew) or people coming out of Jerusalem to greet him (John). But Luke makes it clear that Jesus’ disciples shout out. Distinctively, Luke depicts these shouts as loud, climactic praise of God, explicitly echoing the praise of the infancy narra‐ tive, as will be detailed below. In this scene, Luke for the first time explic‐ itly depicts the μαθηταί joining the chorus of praise begun in the infancy narrative and continued in response to healings.22 Moreover, as we shall see, this praise by the disciples precisely fulfills Jesus’ earlier exhortation to them to rejoice (Lk 10:20), in keeping with the model praise and blessing he offers in the same context (Lk 10:21‒23).
2.1 Praise of God as Jesus Approaches Jerusalem Luke’s redaction emphasizes that the shouts that accompany Jesus’ ap‐ proach to Jerusalem are praise of God. It does so in three ways, evident in comparison with Mark. For ease of discussion, both passages are repro‐ duced below, in synopsis form:
21 As detailed in chapter two above, in Isaiah’s restoration passages, the healed people offer joyous praise as they proceed along “the way” in their return to Zion. This pro‐ cession of praise culminates in praise located within the city of Jerusalem itself, as well as in the personified city’s own praise. As argued in chapters three and four, expectations about restoration and praise appear in Tobit’s hymn of praise and fig‐ ure in to Aseneth’s characterization, as well. 22 The disciples presumably are among the witnesses who respond with praise in ear‐ lier scenes of healing, but they are not explicitly described as offering praise.
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Mk 11:9‒10 καὶ οἱ προάγοντες καὶ οἱ ἀκολουθοῦντες ἔκραζον· ὡσαννά· εὐλογημένος ὁ ἐρχόμενος ἐν ὀνόματι κυρίου· εὐλογημένη ἡ ἐρχομένη βασιλεία τοῦ πατρὸς ἡμῶν Δαυίδ· ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις.
Lk 19:37‒38 ἠγγίζοντος δὲ αὐτοῦ ἤδη πρὸς τῇ καταβάσει τοῦ ὄρους τῶν ἐλαιῶν ἤρξαντο ἅπαν τὸ πλῆθος τῶν μαθητῶν χαίροντες αἰνεῖν τὸν θεὸν φωνῇ μεγάλῃ περὶ πασῶν ὧν εἶδον δυνάμεων, λέγοντες· εὐλογημένος ὁ ἐρχόμενος, ὁ βασιλεὺς ἐν ὀνόματι κυρίου·
ἐν οὐρανῷ εἰρήνη καὶ δόξα ἐν ὑψίστοις. Now as he drew near [Jerusalem], reaching the descent down the Mount of Olives, And the people going ahead and the all the multitude of disciples began, people following were shouting, rejoicing, to praise God with a “Hosanna! loud voice for all the powerful deeds they had seen, saying, Blessed is he who comes “Blessed is he who comes, the king, in the name of the Lord! in the name of the Lord! Blessed is it that comes, the kingdom of our ancestor David! Hosanna in the heights!” Peace in heaven, and glory on high!’
Luke augments the praise motif in the scene with the inclusion of an ex‐ plicit praise verb. In Mark (as well as in Matthew and John) people shout out “hosanna” and a blessing to the “one who comes in the name of the Lord,” but only in Luke is this speech described as praise of God (αἰνεῖν τὸν θεὸν). Luke’s introduction is significant, because direct speech in the scene (Mk 11:9‒10; Mt 21:9; Jn 12:13), a modified quotation of MT Ps 118:25, is ambiguous. On the one hand, it could be interpreted as petition rather than praise.23 The word ὡσαννά appears to transliterate the Aramaic expression —השע נאon analogy with יעה נָּ א ָ הוֹשׁ ִ in the MT—which is clearly a cry for salvation.24 With Aramaic in mind, the first ὡσαννά (in Mark and John) could be translated: “the people were shouting ‘Save us! Blessed be . . .’.”25 The second ὡσαννά (in Mark and Matthew) is more difficult to understand as a plea but still might be translated as something like: “Save us, [You who
23 This clarification of the pericope aligns with Luke’s tendency to explain the meaning of parables through similar narrative introductions, e.g., Lk 15:1‒2, 18:1. 24 J. A. Fitzmyer, “Aramaic Evidence Affecting the Interpretation of Hosanna in the New Testament,” in Tradition and Interpretation in the New Testament: Essays in Honor of E. Earle Ellis for His 60th Birthday (eds. Gerald F. Hawthorne and Otto Betz; Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1987), 110‒18. 25 The first ὡσαννά in Matthew would be translated: “the crowds were shouting, ‘Save us!’ to the Son of David.”
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are] in the heights!”26 The shouted blessings for the “one who comes” could similarly indicate petitions for divine blessing upon Jesus.27 But on the other hand, other portions of Ps 118 clearly declare praise, and the Psalm culminates the Hallel sung on Passover and other important holidays. Thus over time, the word ὡσαννά came to refer to the liturgy of Sukkot and the festive wreath of the procession, while even Sukkot itself transformed from a holiday of petition to one of praise.28 Luke’s introduction of the speech with the verb αἰνέω resolves this ambiguity in favor of praise. In addition, the uncertain word ὡσαννά does not appear in Luke. With the second ὡσαννά clause in Mark, Luke shares only the words ἐν and ὑψίστοις, and has instead the additional phrase “peace in heaven,” δόξα in place of ὡσαννά, and an indefinite form of ὑψίστοις, resulting in “Peace in heaven! Glory on high,” a phrase that is more clearly praise than ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις, in the other Synoptic Gospels.29 (This praise also echoes the praise speech of the heavenly host, as will be detailed below.) Luke also increases the sense of praise in the scene by narrating the disciples’ joy (χαίροντες) and the loudness of their praise (φωνῇ μεγάλῃ). It can be argued that this scene involves the second “loudest” expression of the praise motif thus far in the Gospel (after the infancy narrative), for it involves not only explicit praise and joy vocabulary with adverbial aug‐ mentation but also direct speech of praise. This emphatic praise marks an important transition in the plot (the conclusion of the travel narrative and the beginning of Jesus’ time in Jerusalem) and along with praise in the in‐ fancy narrative, it frames Jesus’ life (outside Jerusalem). Finally, Luke further underscores praise in the scene by uniquely de‐ picting its necessity at this important moment in the story. Following the disciples’ shouts of praise, the Pharisees order Jesus to rebuke his disciples (19:39). Jesus replies that if they were silent (σιωπάω), the stones them‐ selves would cry out (οἱ λίθοι κεκράξονται) (19:40). This dialogue brings into the narrative foreground the theme of silence (σιωπάω), which has already implicitly characterized the wrong response to the divine visita‐
26 In John, there is no second ὡσαννά. Few English translations take the approach of translating ὡσαννά as petition, but see CJB. 27 On the blessing of one human by another understood as a petition directed to God, see p. 38, n.61 above. 28 Jastrow, s.v.; W. D. Davies and D. C. Allison, Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew (3 vols.; ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1988), 3.125, write that it is thus “reasonable to infer that in the first century ‘hosanna’ could mean ‘praise’.” Commentators point to the more modern analogy of ‘God save the king,’ which evolved from petition to acclamation, ibid., n.86; Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1251. 29 These differences are also in keeping with Luke’s overall tendency to avoid Aramaic words and phrases.
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tion, in contrast with praise, the right response (Lk 1:20; 13:11‒17; 14:1‒6).30 Now Jesus’ discourse—identifying silence as wrong and praise as both right and necessary—makes this contrast explicit. The exuberant praise response of the disciples, which lauds God because the Messiah and king approaches Jerusalem, is so elemental that it must be expressed. Silence at this point would mean rejection of the divine visitation that began with Jesus’ birth and now approaches Jerusalem.
2.2 Internal Echoes: Angels, Shepherds, and Jesus In addition to emphasizing the praise motif in the scene of Jesus’ approach to Jerusalem, the narrative links this climactic praise back to three previous moments of praise in the Lukan narrative.31 First, the disciples’ praise in Lk 19 echoes the angelic praise in Lk 2. The narrative introductions to the two scenes of praise evidence rather precise parallels: ἐγένετο . . . πλῆθος στρατιᾶς οὐρανίου αἰνούντων τὸν θεὸν καὶ λεγόντων· (Lk 2:13)
ἤρξαντο ἅπαν τὸ πλῆθος τῶν μαθητῶν χαίροντες αἰνεῖν τὸν θεὸν . . . λέγοντες (Lk 19:37)
Luke’s unique depiction of praise by a multitude (πλῆθος) of disciples evokes the praise voiced by the multitude (πλῆθος) of angels. The word αἰνέω, which appears in both passages, appears only one other time in Luke’s Gospel, in the praise voiced by the shepherds (which in turn re‐ sponds to the angels and shares its own connection to Lk 19:37‒38, as will be explored below). The correspondence continues in the direct speech of praise: δόξα ἐν ὑψίστοις θεῷ καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς εἰρήνη ἐν ἀνθρώποις εὐδοκίας (Lk 2:14)
ἐν οὐρανῷ εἰρήνη καὶ δόξα ἐν ὑψίστοις (Lk 19:38)
This internal echo employs chiasm. Whereas in Lk 2:14, divine beings laud God for “peace on earth,” in Lk 19:38, earthly beings exalt God for “peace in heaven.”32 In Luke’s hands, the praise as Jesus approaches Jerusalem becomes an earthly counterpart to the heavenly praise of the angels at his 30 On the response of silence in the infancy narrative and healing stories, see pp. 175 and 187 above. Silence in contrast with praise will reappear in Acts; see p. 255, n.13 below. 31 As the praise motif unfolds in Luke‐Acts, it begins to generate echoes within the narrative. As we have seen, praise in the story of the raising of the widow’s son in Lk 7 connects back to praise in the infancy narrative. In Lk 19, vocabulary choices similarly link praise back to the infancy narrative. These inner resonances of the praise motif will increase as the narrative proceeds. 32 Numerous scholars observe this chiastic echo, e.g., Brown, Birth, 427; Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1251, Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 715. However, few notice the parallel descriptions of the two multitudes of those who praise.
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birth.33 This pair of complementary praise responses frames Jesus’ life in the Gospel: the first praise response following his birth (angels) and the last praise response (by someone other than Jesus) prior to his death (disciples). Second, the disciples offer praise in response to all the powerful deeds they have seen (περὶ πασῶν ὧν εἶδον δυνάμεων) (Lk 19:37). This phrase re‐ calls another praise response from the infancy narrative: the praise of the shepherds, who praise God for “all that they have seen and heard” (ἐπὶ πᾶσιν οἷς ἤκουσαν καὶ εἶδον).34 Is it significant that the disciples—in con‐ trast with the shepherds—offer praise only for what they have seen? In Lk 2, what the shepherds have seen and heard involves τὸ ῥῆμα τοῦτο τὸ γεγονός (Lk 2:15) that is, the heavenly announcement about Jesus’ identity as Messiah (what was heard) and the corresponding divine sign of his birth in a manger (what was seen). Like the shepherds, the disciples praise God for what they have seen: they recognize Jesus’ identity as Messiah, who connects heaven and earth. Like the shepherds, they receive a special reve‐ lation: Jesus’ predictions about his death and resurrection, which ought to move them to a new level of understanding about his identity (Lk 9:44; 18:31‐33). However, the disciples have not truly heard these words, as noted both by Jesus and the narrator (Lk 9:45; 18:34).35 The disciples’ own actions in the Passion Narrative will confirm this critique. Thus in Lk 19:37, the disciples praise God for what they have seen (Jesus as Messiah), but it is unclear whether they will also praise God for what they have heard, a ques‐ tion the narrative leaves open until Lk 24:53.36 Third, in the disciples’ praise, the reader sees them obey Jesus’ earlier exhortation to rejoice in recognition of who he is, as argued above. Now, in
33 On arguments about understanding ἐν οὐρανῷ εἰρήνη καὶ δόξα ἐν ὑψίστοις as praise of God, see Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 715‒6. The connection between earthly and heavenly praise is suggested even in Mark’s version (ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις) (Mk 11:10; Mt 21:9), which is why, in later Christian liturgy, Mt 21:9 becomes associated with the praise of the Seraphim in Isa 6:3, Davies and Allison, Matthew, 3.126. Luke similarly unites earthly and heavenly praise by linking Lk 19:38 and 2:14. 34 Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 715. On seeing and offering praise elsewhere in Luke‐Acts, see Lk 5:26; 18:43; 23:47; Acts 11:23; cf. Acts 14:11. 35 In Lk 18:34, the narrator says that “they comprehended none of these things, and this matter was being hidden from them, and they were not understanding his words” (καὶ αὐτοὶ οὐδὲν τούτων συνῆκαν καὶ ἦν τὸ ῥῆμα τοῦτο κεκρυμμένον ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν καὶ οὐκ ἐγίνωσκον τὰ λεγόμενα). Cf. Mk 10:32‒34, which lacks this narrative comment. The interplay here between verbs related to sight (κρύπτω) and to really hearing (συνίημι, γινώσκω) suggests that in Luke, one can be “blind” to the meaning of speech. On the flexibility of the word ῥῆμα in this regard, see p. 166, n.80 above. Directly following this narratorial critique, Jesus heals the blind man on the road to Jericho (Lk 18:35‒43). When he sees, he praises God, along with all the people who see his healing. 36 In the end, the disciples will truly see Jesus (24:31) and fully hear the revelation about his death and resurrection (24:45), and they will respond with continuous, joy‐ ful praise of God (24:52‒53). On this scene, see p. 242 below.
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Lk 19:37‒38, not just the twelve but all the multitude of his disciples (ἅπαν τὸ πλῆθος τῶν μαθητῶν χαίροντες) rejoice and praise precisely because of “all the powerful deeds they have seen” (περὶ πασῶν ὧν εἶδον δυνάμεων). In Lk 10, Jesus critiqued them for rejoicing about power, but their praise speech here reveals the correct focus: not power but Jesus’ identity as Mes‐ siah and king, who comes in the name of the Lord (ὁ ἐρχόμενος, ὁ βασιλεὺς ἐν ὀνόματι κυρίου).37 This content reveals that—just as Jesus has directed them—the disciples see not only his power but what it reveals: his identity. Thus their praise fulfills Jesus’ exhortation in Lk 10 to rejoice over the meaning of what they have seen.38
2.3 External Echoes: Prophetic Exhortations to Rejoice The narrative’s linking of these two scenes (Lk 10:20‒23; 19:37‒38) creates a pattern: exhortation to rejoice by a representative of God followed by the joyous praise of human beings in obedience to this command. This dy‐ namic corresponds with the pattern of praise observed in the infancy narra‐ 37 On this blessing (from MT Ps 118) as an acclamation of Jesus as Messiah, scholars point to Zech 9:9 and Gen 49:1, which they see alluded to in the narrative, e.g., Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 710, 712, 714. But some dispute this interpretation, e.g., Fitzmyer, Luke, 2.1245‒9. Fitzmyer seems not to see a reference to Zech 9:9 at all in Lk 19: “We are confronted in the use of Zech 9:9 (explicitly) in Matthew and John (but only possibly in Mark) with a Christian interpretation of the OT,” Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1245. In his view, Luke essentially has no allusion to Zechariah and depicts Jesus’ arrival not as an eschatological event but as the approach of “a pilgrim who is hailed as king,” preparing for his exodus to the Father, ibid. 2:1246, 2:1249. However, as argued on p. 229 below, the depiction of exuberant, joyous praise in response to Jesus’ approach to Jerusalem creates a strong link with Zech 9:9‒10, as well as other prophetic exhortations to rejoice. The messianic implications of the Markan scene are thus retained in Luke. On the depiction of Jesus as king, a standard observation in secondary literature is that the disciples’ speech in Luke identifies Jesus as king, rather than as the one who brings the kingdom (which is clear in Mark and implicit in Matthew). 38 Jesus directs a large number of his disciples to rejoice (χαίρετε) (10:20) for a specific reason: not because of the power through Jesus’ name (ἐν τῷ ὀνόματί σου) but rather because of what this power reveals, that their own names are written in heaven (ὅτι τὰ ὀνόματα ὑμῶν ἐγγέγραπται ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς). His own joyous praise extols God for revealing to the disciples the meaning of this power: his identity as Messiah and Son (10:22‒24). The implication is that their relationship with God (10:20) comes via Jesus’ relationship with the Father (10:22). The repeated word ὄνομα links these scenes as well. The word ὄνομα (other than the simple narrative reference to a proper name) is relatively rare in Luke. Besides these two passages (and omitting narration of proper names and the parallel quotation of Ps 118 in Lk 13:35), ὄνομα in the Gospel refers to the holiness of the divine name (1:49; 11:2), the power/authority of Jesus’ name (9:48‒49; 21:8, 12, 17; 24:47), and the denigration of the disciples’ names (6:22). The disciples also praise God for peace in heaven (οὐρανός), a word that occurs three times in 10:18‒21, but this is a rather common word in Luke.
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tive, where the angel exhorts Mary to rejoice and she responds with joyous praise.39 So too, Jesus exhorts his disciples to rejoice (χαίρετε) (10:20) be‐ cause of their connection with God (their names are written in heaven, and they are blessed with special revelation), an exhortation fulfilled in the dis‐ ciples’ response of joyous praise (Lk 19:37‒38).40 In chapter five, it was argued that Gabriel’s exhortation to Mary echoes similar exhortations in the Hebrew Bible, in which a representative of God addresses Zion or her children, calling them to rejoice and offer praise in response to eschatological restoration, which is depicted as Zion’s trans‐ formation from reproach to fertility, emptiness to fullness, and oppression to salvation (Joel 2:19‒27; Zeph 3:14‒15; Zech 9:9‒10; Isa 66:7‒10). The con‐ tent of Mary’s praise response reflects just such a transformation. Is it pos‐ sible then that Jesus’ exhortation to the disciples similarly evokes this motif from the prophets? Some aspects of Luke’s narrative suggest that this is so. For example, in two of these exhortation‐to‐joy passages, joy responds precisely to the arrival of Israel’s king (Zeph 3:15; Zech 9:9).41 In Lk 19:37‒38, Jesus arrives distinctly as a king. Moreover, in Zechariah, joy is urged in response to the king’s arrival on a young donkey, in keeping with the Lukan narrative.42 Similarly, in Joel 2:19‒27, the prophet exhorts Zion and her children to rejoice (2:21, 23) because of restoration, described in terms of an overflow‐ ing harvest (2:19, 23‒25) and an abundant meal that will fully satisfy (φάγεσθε ἐσθίοντες καὶ ἐμπλησθήσεσθε) (2:26). In response, they will praise the name of the Lord for the great things he has done (καὶ αἰνέσετε τὸ ὄνομα κυρίου τοῦ θεοῦ ὑμῶν ἃ ἐποίησεν μεθ᾽ ὑμῶν εἰς θαυμάσια). If we look 39 The angel’s joyous greeting (χαῖρε) to Mary (1:28) also suggests an exhortation to rejoice because of her special connection with God (she is favored and the Lord is with her), fulfilled in Mary’s response of joyous praise. There is yet a third joy exhor‐ tation, spoken by Jesus in Lk 6:45, followed much later in the narrative with the obe‐ dient joy response of the disciples in Acts 5:41. More subtly, the same dynamic oc‐ curs in Tobit. 40 Moreover, as argued above, Lk 19:37‒38 recalls the praise responses of the heavenly host and shepherds in the infancy narrative (Lk 2:10, 13), which for their part also fulfill anticipations of joy. The praise of the infancy narrative is echoed in a variety of ways in Lk 19:37‒38. 41 In Zech 9:9, βασιλεύς σου ἔρχεταί σοι δίκαιος καὶ σῴζων αὐτός πραῢς καὶ ἐπιβεβηκὼς ἐπὶ ὑποζύγιον καὶ πῶλον νέον. So too in Zeph 3:15, the exhortation to rejoice is in re‐ sponse to the arrival of Israel’s divine king: βασιλεὺς Ισραηλ κύριος ἐν μέσῳ σου. It is interesting to note that three of the prophetic exhortation‐to‐rejoice passages share the motif that on the day of restoration, God will be “in the midst” of Zion (ἐν μέσῳ σου) (Joel 2:27; Zeph 3:15; LXX Zech 2:14), while in Luke‐Acts, Jesus is said repeat‐ edly to be “in the midst” of the people (Lk 22:27; 24:36; Acts 2:22). 42 The fact that Zech 9:9 depicts joy in response to the arrival of the king on a colt is typically not noted in secondary literature. Luke’s depiction of the people’s joy in Lk 19:37 could be a means of increasing the intertextual connection with Zech 9:9 al‐ ready present in Mark, pace Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1245.
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more widely at Luke’s Gospel, it narrates a similar story. The Galilean min‐ istry concludes with a miraculously abundant meal in which all are satis‐ fied (καὶ ἔφαγον καὶ ἐχορτάσθησαν πάντες) (9:17).43 Everyone is then as‐ tounded at the great things done by God through Jesus (πάντων δὲ θαυμαζόντων ἐπὶ πᾶσιν οἷς ἐποίει) (9:43). Shortly thereafter, as the travel narrative opens, Jesus sends workers to the harvest (10:2), and when they return, he exhorts them to rejoice (10:20). When this joy is finally narrated, the disciples respond in a way that coheres with Joel 2:26, praising God (αἰνεῖν τὸν θεὸν) because of the powerful deeds (περὶ πασῶν . . . δυνάμεων) God has done through Jesus (19:37). Finally, in each of the prophetic exhortations to offer joyous praise, the response is expected to be loud, and as noted above, this is the loudest praise speech in Luke, excepting the infancy narrative. All of these reso‐ nances suggest that Luke is telling Jesus’ story in light of prophetic expecta‐ tions about the joyful praise that will accompany the restoration of Israel through the Messiah. Proclaiming the year of the Lord’s favor by enacting divine reversal in the lives of Israel’s people, Jesus gathers around him a harvest of restored people, who joyfully praise God as they make their way steadily to Jerusalem. Approaching the city, the disciples’ response peaks in a loud outburst of joyous praise to God, fulfilling Jesus’ previous exhorta‐ tion to rejoice and showing the reader that they indeed have seen what God has revealed. Their praise also fulfills the prophetic exhortations to Jerusalem/Zion to shout out loud, joyful praise upon the eschatological arrival to her of Israel’s messianic king, identified as one who rides on a young donkey, does mighty acts, and comes into their midst in the name of the Lord. Before leaving the climactic praise response that concludes the travel narrative, it is important to observe that Luke’s redaction is characteristi‐ cally careful to draw out a particular geographic point far less evident in Mark: this joyful praise response does not occur within Jerusalem, but rather outside the city, as Jesus approaches it.44 This point of geography is of central importance because in the prophetic apostrophes to Zion, as well as other restoration passages, not only the redeemed people but the city herself is expected to praise the arrival of the messianic king into her midst. If we hear these expectations in the background of the disciples’ praise, then as the choir approaches the city, we expect to hear joyous praise con‐ tinue as Jesus moves within the walls of Zion. The narrative creates an ex‐ pectation that Jerusalem herself will respond to the divine visitation as
43 Joel has ἐμπίπλημι for שׂבעin the MT, but Lk 9:17 narrates satiety with χορτάζω. However, the two words appear in parallel in the Septuagint, e.g., LXX Pss 16:14; 106:9. 44 Cf. Jn 12:12‒13, where the people inside Jerusalem come out of the city to speak the blessing upon Jesus.
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have all the other characters in the Gospel, whose praise now arrives at her very gates. This expectation is further heightened by Lukan foreshadowing in 13:33‒35, which anticipates the approach to Jerusalem.45 There, Jesus sug‐ gests a violent role for Jerusalem in the story, identifying it as a city that kills prophets. In the manner of Isaiah, he then directs an apostrophe to the city, personified as a woman, stating his desire to gather her children to‐ gether as a hen gathers her brood under her wings. Jesus goes on to de‐ clare, however, that Jerusalem is unwilling, resulting in the judgment that her house is left to her. Yet the conclusion of this oracle offers hope, for Je‐ sus anticipates that at some point, Jerusalem will truly see Jesus and will offer the very words that appear in the disciples’ praise in Lk 19:37‒38: “blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord” (εὐλογημένος ὁ ἐρχόμενος ἐν ὀνόματι κυρίου) (Lk 13:35). The reader expects that at some point recalcitrant Jerusalem will ultimately respond positively to Jesus, greeting him with festival praise. Thus when the disciples call out almost identical words as the Messi‐ anic king approaches the city, the reader may reasonably expect that Jeru‐ salem will now respond positively, offering words of blessing as antici‐ pated both by the prophets and by Jesus. But if so, the Lukan narrative immediately reverses this expectation, for precisely the opposite occurs. Jerusalem heeds neither the prophetic exhortations nor Jesus’ warning in Lk 13, nor does she respond with praise. It is to this failure that we now turn.
C. Silence and Rejection in Jerusalem Responses of praise open the Gospel of Luke, resound in the healing mira‐ cles and in Jesus’ praise, and reach an apex in the disciples’ praise as Jesus descends the Mount of Olives. A reader expects this recurring praise motif to continue, with Jerusalem greeting Jesus’ arrival by offering joyous praise of God. Strikingly, however, once Jesus actually sets foot in the city, the Gospel’s chorus of praise falls silent. In the Passion Narrative, permeated with opposition, not a single voice extols God, with the exception of Jesus’ own. This sudden suspension of the praise motif produces a dramatic, ten‐ sive silence that stretches from 19:39 to 23:47, where it is finally broken by the praise speech of a centurion who witnesses Jesus’ death. This long ten‐ sion, like the shorter tensions in the praise‐following‐healing stories, raises again the central question: who will recognize the divine visitation in the 45 For additional texts that anticipate the joy and praise of Zion/Jerusalem upon her restoration, see pp. 57 to 61 above.
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surprising events of the story, particularly the unsettling account of the Passion Narrative?46 As will be detailed below, beyond the absence of praise responses to Je‐ sus in the Passion Narrative, Luke heightens the sense of silenced praise in Lk 19:39‒23:47 in three ways: (1) jarringly, some Pharisees protest the cli‐ mactic praise response at Jerusalem’s gate, seeking to silence it; (2) an apos‐ trophe to Jerusalem by Jesus condemns the city precisely for her failure to see (and praise); and (3) voices of opposition pierce the silenced praise, temporarily overpowering it.
1. The Pharisees’ Desire for Silence (Lk 19:39‒40) As mentioned above, some Pharisees attempt to silence the disciples’ praise in Lk 19. Since the disciples praise here fulfills prophetic and narrative ex‐ pectations at this climactic moment in the plot, the Pharisees’ objection in‐ troduces a jarring note of narrative tension, reminding the reader of previ‐ ous potential roadblocks to praise in the narrative. Their call to silence, for example, echoes the tension created when the προάγοντες attempt to si‐ lence the blind man’s pleas for mercy on the road to Jericho, threatening his healing and thus also his subsequent praise response (Lk 18:35‒43). Be‐ cause the objection comes from Pharisees, it also brings to mind previous objections by religious authorities, who have similarly threatened to silence praise (Lk 5:17‒26; 13:11‒17), as well as the Pharisees’ own moments of si‐ lence (e.g., Lk 14:4, 6).47 And the contrast between the praising disciples and non‐praising, silencing Pharisees evokes previous failures to praise, such as Zechariah’s silence and the nine healed but non‐praising lepers (Lk 17:11‒19). On one level, Jesus diminishes this tension by insisting on the inevitability of praise, and the Pharisees disappear as antagonists.48 But on 46 The plot of the Passion Narrative surprises the characters, but it should not surprise the reader, for Jesus’ death in Jerusalem has been foreshadowed numerous times. In the transfiguration, Moses and Elijah speak about Jesus’ glorious exodus in Jerusa‐ lem (9:30). Jesus predicts his death and then immediately sets his face on Jerusalem (9:45, 51). He then later specifies that his death will take place in relation to the city (18:31). He tells a parable about rejection of a king in relation to Jerusalem (19:11, 27‒28). What may be surprising (or disconcerting) to readers is how his death takes place, particularly the complicity of Jerusalem (as represented by her leaders). The narrative wrestles with this troubling turn of events in terms of the βουλῇ τοῦ θεοῦ, e.g. Acts 2:23. 47 It also points forward to the silence of other opponents in Lk 20:26 and to the tension in Acts 3:1‒4:21, where religious authorities again attempt to command silence. 48 Interestingly, after Jesus’ response to them, the Pharisees disappear from Luke, only to re‐emerge in Acts as characters who either are sympathetic to the Way or ulti‐ mately accept Jesus (Acts 5:34; 15:5; 23:6‒9; 26:5). (It is rather the chief priests who demand his death.) Does Luke imply that in Jesus’ response in 19:36 (and the events
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another level, at the apex of praise for Jesus, the resistance of these Phari‐ sees brings in again the theme of division: not every character will respond with praise to the divine visitation manifest in Jesus. This impression only increases in the next scene.
2. Jesus’ Apostrophe to Jerusalem (Lk 19:41‒44) Following the climactic praise response of the disciples and the attempt to silence it (19:37‒40), the narrative immediately revisits the theme of Jerusa‐ lem’s rejection of Jesus. Upon seeing the city, Jesus weeps at Jerusalem’s lack of recognition (19:41). Addressing Jerusalem directly in an apostrophe, Jesus declares that the city has failed to recognize the arrival of peace, pres‐ ently hidden from her eyes (τὰ πρὸς εἰρήνην· νῦν δὲ ἐκρύβη ἀπὸ ὀφθαλμῶν σου) (19:42). Following a summary of the dire consequences of this lack of sight (19:43‒44a), he concludes by restating her failure: she does not know the time of her visitation (οὐκ ἔγνως τὸν καιρὸν τῆς ἐπισκοπῆς σου) (19:44b). This second apostrophe to Jerusalem echoes his first (Lk 13:33‒35), but while his first apostrophe retains the possibility that Jerusalem might join in the praise of the disciples, the second apostrophe dashes this hope. Jesus’ description of the things that bring peace as “hidden from the eyes” of Jerusalem (ἐκρύβη ἀπὸ ὀφθαλμῶν) (19:42) also recalls the narra‐ tor’s earlier description of the meaning of Jesus’ death and resurrection, which remains hidden from the disciples.49 Jesus’ words to Jerusalem— along with the city’s lack of praise—shows that the personified city, like those who oppose Jesus in the healing stories, fails to recognize in him the saving work of God and thus has not moved to the first level of recognition in the narrative. Further, Jesus’ words about peace addressed to Jerusalem recall and reverse Isaiah’s apostrophes of eschatological restoration. For example, in Isa 54:11, God promises to rebuild and comfort Jerusalem, speaking words of peace: “All your sons will be taught by God and your children will [have] much peace” (πάντας τοὺς υἱούς σου διδακτοὺς θεοῦ καὶ ἐν πολλῇ εἰρήνῃ τὰ τέκνα σου).50 Similarly, in the exhortation to Zion to rejoice in Isa 66:10‒14, she is to rejoice because God will turn to her children like a river of peace (ἐγὼ ἐκκλίνω εἰς αὐτοὺς ὡς ποταμὸς εἰρήνης) (66:12). So too in an‐ that transpire between 19:36 and 5:34) the Pharisees begin to truly see him? On this point, see p. 188, n.14 above. 49 ἦν παρακεκαλυμμένον ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν (Lk 9:45). ἦν τὸ ῥῆμα τοῦτο κεκρυμμένον ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν (Lk 18:34). So too, the things that bring peace are hidden from the eyes of Jerusalem (ἐκρύβη ἀπὸ ὀφθαλμῶν) (19:42). 50 In each of these contexts, Zion/Jerusalem is expected to voice joyous praise in re‐ sponse to her peace‐bringing visitation by God. See also pp. 57 to 61 above.
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other apostrophe, Zion is promised a “visitation of peace” () ְפ ֻק ָדּ ֵתְך ָשׁלוֹם, a phrase that unites the two images framing Jesus’ apostrophe to the city in Lk 19 (Isa 60:17).51 By contrast, in Luke, Jesus anticipates that because of Jerusalem’s failure to recognize the divine visitation that brings peace, she and her children will suffer from the violence of war. By placing this logion directly following the disciples’ praise (which in turn fulfills Jesus’ exhortation to praise in Lk 10:20) and by foreshadowing it with Jesus’ previous apostrophe (13:33‒35), Luke juxtaposes the recogni‐ tion and praise of the disciples with Jerusalem’s failure to see and lack of praise. Again, the narrative does not leave it to the reader to intuit the con‐ nections among the various contexts for praise in the narrative but links them with the word ἐπισκοπή, connecting the disciples’ praise (in contrast with Jerusalem’s lack of praise) back to the crowd’s praise following Jesus’ raising of the widow’s son (7:16) and Zechariah’s praise (1:68, 78). All three passages depict praise as the correct response to the divine visitation. While numerous characters up to this point in the story have recognized the visitation and responded accordingly with praise, strangely Jerusalem, the πόλις most expected to express joyous praise in response to the divine visitation, does not.
3. Voices of Opposition A third way that the Lukan narrative depicts the “silence” of Jerusalem is through the insistent voices of the city’s representatives, the leaders of the πόλις, which include the chief priests, scribes, Sadducees, elders, leaders of the people, and temple guard (19:47; 20:20; 22:1‒4) along with Herod and Pilate. These leaders—representatives of Jerusalem—consistently instigate Jesus’ arrest and call for his execution.52 In Luke, the rejection of Jesus is accomplished by Judean, Gentile, and Idumean political power centered in Jerusalem, joining forces with supernatural evil: Satan working through the person of Judas (22:2‒3; 23:12).53 While the author may have had any num‐ ber of reasons for this portrayal of Jerusalem’s leadership, one effect for the
51 The LXX and Targum translate ְפּ ֻק ָדּה as “leader(s),” but in a logion of Jesus, perhaps an independent understanding of Hebrew is possible, LXX Isa 60:17; Tg. Isa. 60.17; cf. Isa 52:7. 52 For the most part, there is no general mob demanding Jesus’ death, but see Lk 23:13, 18. 53 Still, Luke does not present this political and supernatural opposition as entirely unexpected; the time in which darkness rules (22:53) is part of the plan of God (22:22, 37), and three times, Jesus describes rejection by Jerusalem’s leadership as necessary (Lk 9:22; 17:25; 20:17).
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reader is that the city itself—in its political identity—completely opposes him.54 On the one hand, these leaders—like Jerusalem personified and other characters who have previously opposed Jesus—respond to him with si‐ lence (rather than praise) (σιγάω) (Lk 20:26). But on the other hand, their voices, lifted in accusation, resonate through the Passion Narrative. These voices confront, repeatedly engaging in verbal challenge and riposte with Jesus (20:1‒9, 21‒38).55 They rejoice, but wrongly, at the success of their plans (22:5).56 They accuse (23:2, 10, 14, 16‒20) and ridicule (23:35). Their shouts of blame— in sharp dissonance with shouts of praise by the νήπιοι in Lk 19:37‒38 and everywhere else—dominate the Passion Narrative. Whereas the disciples have joyously praised God in a loud voice as Jesus approaches Jerusalem (χαίροντες αἰνεῖν τὸν θεὸν φωνῇ μεγάλῃ), once he is inside the city, its leaders persistently seek his execution in a loud voice (ἐπέκειντο φωναῖς μεγάλαις αἰτούμενοι) (23:23).57 The shouts of praise that open the Passion Narrative give way to shouts of condemnation, and the latter prove decisive: in the narrator’s words, “their voices triumph” (κατίσχυον αἱ φωναὶ αὐτῶν) (23:23). These vehement voices of blame ring out in Jerusalem much like voices of praise rang out earlier in the narrative, and this contrast creates tremendous narrative tension. Not only does the city that is most expected to offer praise upon the divine visitation fail to do so, but the plot leads steadily toward Jesus’ death, an event that even Jesus’ closest disciples are unable to recognize as part of the divine plan. The hopelessness of these chapters is almost complete.
D. Praise and Jesus’ Identity as Risen Lord We have argued that the motif of praise of God in Luke builds to a climac‐ tic moment at the gates of Jerusalem when the disciples’ praise acknowl‐ edges Jesus as Messiah and king, but then silence and blame in Jerusalem 54 In Acts 4:27, Peter asserts that the πόλις as a whole was united against Jesus. But it should be noted that Jerusalem is not the only πόλις that fails to recognize the divine visitation, cf. Lk 4:29; 9:5; 10:10‒15; Acts 13:50‒51; 14:4‒6, 19; 16:22‒24, 39; 17:13‒14; 19:29‒40; 20:23. 55 Jesus condemns them as seeking their own honor while ignoring mercy (20:46‒47). In the context of the great reversal depicted in Luke, they come across as the mighty in Mary’s praise speech who will be brought low. Similarly, in response to a descrip‐ tion of the Temple as grand, Jesus predicts its destruction (21:5‒6). 56 Herod also rejoices because he had hoped to see Jesus perform a sign (23:8). The desire to see a miracle in Luke‐Acts indicates an improper response, so Herod’s joy represents an instance of wrong joy in the Passion Narrative. 57 Despite the fact that these verses are somewhat distant from each other in the narra‐ tive, it is hard to avoid the impression of a play on words between αἰνέω and αἰτέω (praise and petition) in these contrasting shouts.
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forces upon the reader the realization that no characters (not even the dis‐ ciples) understand the meaning of this time when darkness rules. This ten‐ sion stretches almost four chapters, raising the question: who will recog‐ nize the seemingly tragic death of Jesus as the saving visitation of God? As in previous instances of narrative tension, the silence of Jerusalem is re‐ solved through expressions of praise, of which there are three. Partial me‐ diations of narrative tension occur in Jesus’ praise at the Passover meal with his disciples and in the centurion’s praise upon Jesus’ death. But the real resolution comes when Jesus’ eleven apostles finally really hear (and see) the revelation that they have previously not understood: the meaning of Jesus’ death and resurrection.58 When they do, the praise motif reap‐ pears, closing Luke’s first volume the way it opened, with faithful Jews recognizing the divine visitation and praising God in the temple in Jerusa‐ lem.
1. Jesus’ Praise: Berakot for His Death (Lk 22:17‒20) In the midst of Jerusalem’s lack of praise and words of blame, including the silence and denial of his disciples, Jesus himself expresses praise three times, narrated by praise notices, during the Passover meal with his disci‐ ples on the night of his arrest (Lk 22:17‒20). Luke’s rendition of the scene departs from Mark’s in two significant ways. First, in Mark, Jesus offers praise for the bread (εὐλογέω) and then the cup (εὐχαριστέω) (Mk 14:22‒24). But in Luke, Jesus offers praise in reverse order, for a cup fol‐ lowed by bread (both εὐχαριστέω) (22:17‒19), and he then repeats this praise for another cup after the meal (καὶ τὸ ποτήριον ὡσαύτως μετὰ τὸ δειπνῆσαι) (22:20).59 These three moments of praise are meal berakot in keeping with early Jewish custom.60 58 By the phrase the “meaning of Jesus’ death,” I have in mind the important, revela‐ tory insight in Luke‐Acts that it was necessary for the Messiah to suffer and be raised (Lk 24:26; Acts 2:29‒32; 3:18; 17:2‒3; 26:22‒23). In other words, the disciples and others must come to understand that the surprising events of Jesus’ death and resurrection have always been part of the plan of God, necessary in order to shine light upon both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 26:22‐23). 59 The word ὡσαύτως indicates that Jesus offers a third expression of praise, for there are no other actions in the scene to which it can refer. On the complex textual issue related to the cup after the meal, see Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1387‒8. The current consensus favors retaining it, as reflected in NA27. However, should the tide shift against 19cd‒20, the interpretation offered here would not be substantially affected, except that Jesus’ praise in relation to his death would be offered once (in the berakah for the bread) rather than twice. 60 Luke emphasizes the Passover context strongly in comparison not only with Mark but with Matthew and John as well. Some argue that Luke depicts the meal explic‐ itly as a Passover seder, as summarized in Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1378, 1388‒94. In the
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Interestingly, in comparison with Mark, Luke eliminates the singing of a concluding hymn, which could be considered an instance of praise (Mk 14:26).61 This difference is significant, for assuming that Luke has used Mark as a source, it means that he has edited out a potential occurrence of the praise motif.62 Moreover, Luke provides instead the disciples’ argument about who is greatest (Lk 22:24). Thus, in the place of a hymn (likely un‐ course of such an argument, G. J. Bahr offers a helpful synthesis of berakot in festival meals in general and Passover in particular, gleaned from the earliest sources, “Seder of Passover and the Eucharistic Words,” NovT 12 (1970): 181‒202, 192‐3, 195, 197‐9. In such texts, praise as part of the seder includes berakot spoken individually for the first cup and offered as a group for the second and third cups, the latter of which serves as the benediction for the meal. (On the benediction that concludes the meal proper, spoken over the third cup, see also L. Finkelstein, “The Birkat Ha‐Mazon,” JQR 19 (1928‐29): 223‒33.) Howevever, because Pes. 10 and the Haggadah are later than the first century, it is not certain that the practices they depict reflect domestic celebra‐ tion of Passover at the time of Jesus, which may have changed dramatically after the destruction of the temple in 70 C.E. Baruch Bokser has argued that because the sacri‐ ficial animal constituted the center of the pesach celebration while the temple stood, its absence created an urgent need for a fresh interpretation of Passover, a renewal accomplished by Pes. 10, The Origins of the Seder: The Passover Rite and Early Rabbinic Judaism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 14‐28. He contends that Pes. 10 overcomes the loss of the sacrifice by a subtle literary technique: portraying a brand new seder ritual as if the practices described have had a long history of use and discussion. Bokser’s argument for the newness of the ritual relies upon the lack of attestation in pre‐70 texts to a domestic ritual meal. It is nevertheless possible that some kind of ritual meal existed contemporaneously with the festival’s central pesach sacrifice while the temple still stood. 61 In Mark, following Jesus’ statement that he will not drink the cup again, the group sings a hymn and returns to the Mount of Olives (καὶ ὑμνήσαντες ἐξῆλθον εἰς τὸ ὄρος τῶν Ἐλαιῶν) (Mk 14:26). Matthew is identical on this point (26:30), but in Luke, no singing occurs, and the cup is followed by Jesus’ prediction of his betrayal and an argument by the disciples. Numerous commentators view the concluding hymn in Mark and Matthew as the Passover Hallel (Pss 113‒118). When the temple still stood, these psalms would have been sung publicly, and we cannot know whether the Hal‐ lel was introduced into the domestic seder—particularly in Jerusalem—prior to 70 C.E., G. Stemberger, “Pesachhaggada und Abendmahlsberichte des Neuen Testa‐ ments,” Kairos: Zeitschrift für Religionswissenschaft und Theologie 29 (1987): 147‐158, 154‐5. Like Mark, Philo mentions the singing of a hymn following a domestic Pass‐ over meal but offers no clue as to its content, Spec. 2.148. As R. Brown concludes, “instead of identifying the hymnein of Mark/Matt with Passover hymnology (or other variants) and of developing a theology or eschatology based on the identification, one should recognize more simply and surely that hymnein indicates a prayerful con‐ text as the meal closed. Mark’s first readers/hearers (even as readers today) would have thought of hymn(s)‐singing familiar to them without reflecting about the his‐ torical situation many years before,” Death, 123. Thus, it seems reasonable to think of the hymn in Mark as indicating not only a “prayerful context” but also a context of praise. 62 Or perhaps we might think of him as shifting the notion of Passover praise from a location within Jerusalem to the disciples’ shouts as Jesus approaches the city (Lk 19:37‒38). In either case, Luke has eliminated an instance of praise within Jerusalem that is likely present in Mark.
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derstood as praise, which the narrative has already linked with humility in several places) we see the disciples’ desire for prestige. Redaction criticism here confirms the narrative analysis presented above: Luke depicts a com‐ plete lack of praise in Jerusalem by anyone but Jesus.63 The point should also be made that Jesus’ berakot praise God for more than the provision of bread and wine. Through his direct speech interpret‐ ing the elements of the meal, his praise responds precisely to his coming death. Jesus’ first berakah (for the second cup of the meal) is introduced by his longing to celebrate the Passover meal before he dies (πρὸ τοῦ με παθεῖν) (22:15‒17).64 Breaking the bread, Jesus praises God for food that he has described as his body, given for them (22:19). Distributing the third cup of the meal, he offers a third expression of praise for wine identified with the new covenant in his blood (22:20). Research on Jesus’ words at in the Synoptics’ scene of the Last Supper has been extensive.65 But for the present purpose of analyzing praise in Luke‐Acts, it suffices to make a simple ob‐ servation: at this meal, Jesus praises God for his own impending death, which is exactly the central, surprising event in the narrative that no other character recognizes as part of τὴν βουλὴν τοῦ θεοῦ. Thus, consistent with the other contexts of the praise motif, praise in Lk 22 again marks the unfolding of the divine visitation. The verb πάσχω in particular links Jesus’ praise about his death to the important theme of the Messiah’s suffering and resurrection, a Christological perspective un‐ veiled progressively in the narrative. Prior to this point in the story, Jesus has spoken words—understood by no one—about the necessary suffering and death of the “Son of Man” (Lk 9:21‒22, 44‒45; 17:25; 18:31‒34). But af‐ ter his resurrection, Jesus reveals the necessity, prophetic anticipation, and saving efficacy of a suffering Messiah (Lk 24:26, 46). As we shall see, when 63 The reader might presume that the disciples say amen to Jesus’ berakot, but their agreement with his praise is not narrated. 64 This same speech anticipates the fulfillment of pesach in the Kingdom of God (οὐ μὴ φάγω αὐτὸ ἕως ὅτου πληρωθῇ ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τοῦ θεοῦ). Jesus then blesses the cup, repeating this expectation about the Kingdom (οὐ μὴ πίω ἀπὸ τοῦ νῦν ἀπὸ τοῦ γενήματος τῆς ἀμπέλου ἕως οὗ ἡ βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ ἔλθῃ). 65 This scene appears in all four gospels, and treatments of it abound in secondary literature. In historical Jesus scholarship, the issue of whether the Last Supper was a Passover meal has been strongly debated, particularly given the well‐known differ‐ ences between the Synoptic accounts and Gospel of John, G. Theissen and A. Merz, The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide (trans. John Bowden; Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1998), 424‒31. The influential study by J. Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus (trans. Norman Perrin; 2nd ed.; New York: Scribner, 1966), 68‒71 ar‐ gues for numerous points of alignment between the Synoptic accounts and the Pass‐ over seder as recorded in Pesachim 10. See also Bahr, “Seder of Passover,ʺ 181‒202, passim. But it is not certain that the domestic seder described in Pes. 10 and the Hag‐ gadah predates the destruction of the temple in 70 C.E., Stemberger, “Pesachhag‐ gada,ʺ passim.
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this revelation has finally been comprehended—by means of revelation by the risen Lord—it will be greeted by the disciples’ praise.66 But at this point, revelation remains incomprehensible (Lk 9:45; 18:34). The narrative reiterates this point immediately following Jesus’ praise, by describing the disciples’ dispute over who among them is the greatest (ἐγένετο δὲ καὶ φιλονεικία ἐν αὐτοῖς, τὸ τίς αὐτῶν δοκεῖ εἶναι μείζων) (Lk 22:24).67 This scene recalls a similar argument at the end of the Galilean section (είσῆλθεν δὲ διαλογισμὸς ἐν αὐτοῖς, τὸ τίς ἂν εἴη μείζων αὐτῶν) (Lk 9:46).68 In both passages, the disciples’ argument follows immediately upon Jesus’ words about his death, which the disciples’ explicitly do not under‐ stand (Lk 9:46; 22:25‒28). These parallel passages contrast Jesus’ praise and the disciples’ silence: they cannot join him in this (surprising) praise for his impending death until they understand the unexpected but inevitable fact that the Messiah must suffer and be raised. It is not certain that a first‐ century reader would have expected to hear praise at the end of the meal, but if so, the absence of praise is all the more clear. Jesus’ praise provides a narrative contrast with the silence of the disci‐ ples. But at the same time, Jesus’ praise models and anticipates the disci‐ ples’ later praise in response to his resurrection and the ensuing revelation about his death. At the end of the Gospel, the disciples will finally recog‐ nize the identity of Jesus as risen Lord and in turn come to understand that the Messiah’s suffering comprises a necessary part of the visitation. When they do, they will echo Jesus’ exemplary praise at Passover, joyously bless‐ ing God.
2. The Centurion’s Praise: Recognition of Jesus’ Identity (Lk 23:47) But another expression of praise comes between the praise of Jesus in rela‐ tion to his death and resurrection and the praise of his disciples in recogni‐ tion of its meaning. A centurion witnesses the death of Jesus and glorifies God (ἐδόξαζεν τὸν θεόν), declaring Jesus an innocent man (ὄντως ὁ
66 On that praise, see p. 242 below. The theme of the suffering and raised Messiah will become central to the disciples’ proclamation in the second volume (Acts 3:18; 17:3; 26:23). 67 And if the reader expects praise, their dispute stands out even more. In any case, their lack of humility in contrast with Jesus’ words about his sacrificial death on their behalf is enough of a contrast to communicate their continued lack of understand‐ ing. 68 The internal echo inheres in the close wording and grammatical construction, but perhaps the word καί in the latter instance explicitly references the previous dispute (“but there was another quarrel among them . . . ”) (Lk 22:24).
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ἄνθρωπος οὗτος δίκαιος ἦν) (23:47).69 This praise marks the first positive response to Jesus’ death in the narrative, in contrast with the disciples, who remain silent throughout the Passion Narrative.70 It is significant that the man’s praise results from seeing what has hap‐ pened (ἰδὼν δὲ ὁ ἑκατοντάρχης τὸ γενόμενον).71 This narrative detail links the centurion back to other characters who have voiced praise upon recog‐ nizing the significance of miraculous events in the narrative, in particular the disciples as Jesus approaches Jerusalem.72 As in these other scenes, the Roman man’s praise responds not simply to the signs themselves but to what they reveal: Jesus’ innocence, at the very least, and possibly also Jesus’ connection with God (the same thing recognized by the disciples in their praise in 19:37‒38).73 The centurion’s praise thus creates an inclusio with Lk 19:37‒38 around the events in Jerusalem, partially relieving the tension of suspended praise that spans almost four chapters.74 69 On the centurion’s declaration of Jesus’ innocence, see G. E. Sterling, “Mors Philoso‐ phi: The Death of Jesus in Luke,” HTR 94 (2001): 383‒402, 398‒9. 70 The intentionality of this instance of the praise motif can be seen in Luke’s redaction of Mark, as detailed on p. 12 above. 71 In Mark, the centurion sees specifically how Jesus has given up his spirit (ἰδὼν δὲ ὁ κεντυρίων . . . ὅτι οὕτως ἐξέπνευσεν) (15:39). But in Luke, the phrase ἰδὼν . . . τὸ γενόμενον is in comparison with Mark, more inclusive, embracing all the events pre‐ viously described (Jesus’ interaction with the two criminals; the miraculous events of the earthquake, darkness, and rending of the veil; and Jesus’ giving up of his spirit), pace Brown, Death, 2:1162. 72 On how the disciples’ praise in Lk 19:37‒38 responds to miraculous events, see p. 227 above. Other characters who praise God upon seeing events in the narrative include the shepherds (αἰνέω and δοξάζω), the subjects and witnesses of various healing miracles (δοξάζω), the disciples (αἰνέω), and now the centurion (δοξάζω). Perhaps the narration of the shepherds’ praise with the same two verbs—αἰνέω and δοξάζω—is not accidental but evidence of the author’s artistry in anticipating later moments of praise. The four healing stories in which praise responds explicitly to what is seen are Lk 5:26; 17:15; 18:43; Acts 3:9; 4:21. Later in the story, praise will re‐ spond to what is heard (Acts 11:18; 13:48; 21:20). Both seeing and hearing is antici‐ pated in the shepherds’ praise. On hearing and offering praise, see 3 Macc 5:35. 73 Fitzmyer writes that the centurion’s praise demonstrates his recognition of “the meaning of the innocent death in God’s plan,” Luke, 2:1515. As he points out, the question of what δίκαιος signifies on the “lips of the historical centurion” (probably “innocent”) is a different question than what the word might connote on the level of the Lukan narrative. He suggests that in the narrative context, it may indicate the centurion’s recognition of Jesus as the ʺRighteous Oneʺ of God (Acts 3:14; 7:52; 22:14), ibid., 2:1520. 74 Some recent arguments have suggested that the crucifixion occurred on the Mount of Olives. If this were true, and known to readers, then the sense of an inclusio would be even stronger. Praise would be understood to greet Jesus’ arrival on the Mount of Olives and then mark the departure of his spirit from the same place. On the Mount of Olives theory, see E. L. Martin, Secrets of Golgotha: The Lost History of Christʹs Cruci‐ fixion (2nd ed; Portland, OR: ASK Publications, 1996), passim, but see also the cri‐ tique in Brown, Death, 2.938‒40. One interesting point in the Lukan narrative, related to this discussion, is that in ch. 19 Jesus sees Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives and speaks about the city’s inability to recognize him, while conversely in ch. 22 the cen‐
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The centurion’s proper praise for Jesus as innocent (δίκαιος) contrasts with the boastful Pharisee who speaks empty praise in Jesus’ parable ad‐ dressed “to some who are self‐assured that they are ‘righteous’ (δίκαιος) and look down on others” (πρός τινας τοὺς πεποιθότας ἐφ᾽ ἑαυτοῖς ὅτι εἰσὶν δίκαιοι καὶ ἐξουθενοῦντας τοὺς λοιποὺς ) (Lk 18:9). The Pharisee in the par‐ able (and by implication, Jesus’ opponents) presumes to laud God on ac‐ count of his own presumed righteousness; by contrast, the centurion sees the righteousness/innocence of Jesus and praises God. The centurion’s praise also foreshadows the positive response of Gen‐ tiles, an essential aspect of the plot of Acts.75 In the praise in the infancy narrative, Simeon anticipates a “revelation to the Gentiles” (ἀποκάλυψιν ἐθνῶν). Now, in the praise of a Gentile centurion—who “sees” the signifi‐ cance of Jesus’ identity in the events surrounding his death—we hear an early note of the fulfillment Simeon’s prediction, which will arrive fully in Acts.76 Significantly, when the plot of Acts turns to the theme of revelation to the Gentiles, those who experience revelation (the first of whom is a cen‐ turion) will respond with similar expressions of praise, as we will see. Through the praise motif then, the narrator creates verbal links among four contexts for praise, which in turn mark a four‐part sequential unfolding of the divine visitation in the plot: Jesus’ birth; his healing miracles; his iden‐ tity, death, and resurrection; and revelation to the Gentiles. The centurion’s praise also begins a series of responses to Jesus’ death by sympathetic characters, which anticipate characteristic responses in the narrative. These responses are narrated in rapid succession: the crowd’s mourning (23:48), the disciples’ silence (23:49), and Joseph of Arimathea’s mercy (23:50‒54). The first and last of these responses represent two differ‐ ent Jewish responses to Jesus’ death. The crowd that mourns witnesses the same events as the centurion (θεωρήσαντες τὰ γενόμενα), but unlike the centurion, these mourners recognize only the darkness of tragedy (23:48). Their portrayal anticipates potentially sympathetic Jewish characters in Acts who ultimately fail to see anything positive in Jesus’ death.77 By con‐ turion sees a miraculous event in Jerusalem (the splitting of the veil) and recognizes in Jesus what Jerusalem did not. The outer veil of the temple would be visible from the Mount of Olives but not from the traditional site, Davies and Allison, Matthew, 631‒2. Nevertheless, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher has a better and more ancient claim. 75 Brown, Death, 1162; Johnson, Luke, 384. 76 In Lk 10, Jesus praises God for “revealing” the truth about his identity to the disci‐ ples, who in Lk 24 “see” and praise God. Simeon’s praise predicts that the Gentiles will similarly experience revelation through Jesus (ἀποκάλυψιν ἐθνῶν). Here, a Gen‐ tile sees and praises God. Later in the narrative, Gentiles will fully see and praise God. On sight and revelation as complementary human and divine activities, see p. 220 above. 77 Their lament also hearkens back to the women’s lament a few verses earlier and Jesus’ rebuttal of it, in which he anticipates the destruction of Jerusalem (23:27‒31).
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trast, Joseph of Arimathea, like the centurion, responds positively to Jesus’ death (23:50‒54). Although he does not voice praise, he offers the mercy of a righteous Jew.78 These bookended responses by a praising Gentile and a righteous Jew anticipate the positive responses to Jesus by both Jews and Gentiles in Acts. But among these anticipatory responses remains the silence of the dis‐ ciples, who unlike the centurion neither offer praise (which indicates that they do not yet see anything positive in Jesus’ death, despite the miracu‐ lous signs) nor take merciful action (like Joseph of Arimathea). Through this contrast, the narrative renews the tension related to recognition of Je‐ sus’ death. It is only partially mitigated by the praise of the centurion. While the response of the centurion anticipates an important turn in the plot (Gentile conversions), that plot element itself depends on the crucial response of the disciples. How will they come to see what has been hidden from them?79 The centurion’s praise is thus a pivot point, upon which the “time of darkness” (with its accompanying tension) begins to move toward resolution in the full revelation of the meaning of Jesus’ death. This revela‐ tion arrives for the disciples only after the resurrection, as Luke’s first vol‐ ume concludes.
3. The Disciples’ Praise: Recognition of Jesus’ Identity (Lk 24:41‒53) Since Jesus’ first announcement of his death in Lk 9:44, the plot has main‐ tained a subtle irony related to the disciples’ inability to understand. In the final scenes of the Gospel of Luke, in which the risen Jesus reveals to his disciples the meaning of his death and resurrection, this irony comes to the fore and creates narrative tension. As this tension resolves gradually, it Perhaps the mourning crowd also represents those who will suffer and mourn when Jerusalem faces its own destruction. The narrative contrasts the crowd’s mourning with their leaders’ words of blame (Lk 23:37). 78 Joseph is a good and righteous man (ἀγαθὸς καὶ δίκαιος) who has been expecting the Kingdom of God (προσεδέχετο τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ); cf. the description of Simeon, which is nearly identical (ὁ ἄνθρωπος οὗτος δίκαιος καὶ εὐλαβὴς προσδεχόμενος παράκλησιν τοῦ Ἰσραήλ). Interestingly, the narrator stresses that Jo‐ seph, a member of the Sanhedrin who has not participated in opposition to Jesus, is not a Jerusalemite, thus continuing the theme of wholesale rejection of Jesus by Jeru‐ salem’s leadership. Joseph’s concern for the slain body of a countryman calls to mind the righteous behavior of Tobit. 79 From the preface (Lk 1:1‒14) we assume that the implied reader already knows that the disciples will ultimately come to understand Jesus’ death. The tension in the story for the implied reader then must be either how the disciples come to under‐ stand this surprising aspect of the divine visitation or why Jesus’ death can be under‐ stood this way.
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leads to the crucial moment when the disciples finally recognize what has been hidden from them for most of the story. Initially, female disciples hear about Jesus’ resurrection and believe. Then, two male disciples see him but do not recognize him until a moment of revelation—coinciding with the sound of Jesus’ praise of God—when their eyes are opened. Yet they still do not understand. At the very end of the Gospel, the disciples as a whole finally come to understand the identity of Jesus, including the meaning of his death and resurrection, and believe (level‐three recognition): this pivotal moment of recognition and belief is marked by praise of God. This progressive revelation begins almost immediately following the narration of Jesus’ burial, when two angelic figures announce to the female disciples that Jesus is not dead but living (24:3‒7). Remembering Jesus’ words about his death and resurrection, the women respond positively and announce these events to the male disciples (24:8‒10), most of whom reject it as nonsense (24:11).80 The narrator creates irony in this scene by revealing Jesus’ resurrection to the female characters and to readers but hiding it from the male disciples, because of their disbelief. In the next scene, two male disciples talk with Jesus on the road to Emmaus, unaware of his identity (24:13‒31). The narrator intensifies the ironic tension with an explicit reference to their inability truly to see Jesus: “their eyes were kept from recognizing him” (οἱ δὲ ὀφθαλμοὶ αὐτῶν ἐκρατοῦντο τοῦ μὴ ἐπιγνῶναι αὐτόν) (24:16). As they engage in conversion with him, the irony deepens, for they declare their despondence (σκυθρωποί) over the death of the prophet who they hoped would redeem Israel (λυτροῦσθαι τὸν Ἰσραήλ). They know of the women’s report of his resurrection but assert that they themselves have not seen him (αὐτὸν δὲ οὐκ εἶδον) (24:21‒24). Jesus’ response augments the acute irony of this last statement: he criticizes their lack of faith and exegetes scripture to prove that it has always been the divine plan for the Messiah to both die and be raised (24:25‒27).81 Despite the fact that his speech echoes his previous words, spoken at the Passover meal (and perhaps his berakot there), the two disciples still do not see.82 The scene maintains the ironic tension until the very moment when Jesus echoes his Passover berakot when sharing a meal 80 Peter, however, runs to the tomb, finds the empty burial cloths, and is amazed (θαυμάζω) (24:12). The other disciples are similarly astounded (ἐξίστημι) (24:22). Amazement in Luke‐Acts signals that a divinely‐empowered event has been wit‐ nessed but not necessarily truly seen, i.e., recognized as part of the work of God. When such events are truly recognized as the work of God, characters voice praise. 81 Jesus says, “Is it not necessary for the Messiah to suffer these things and then enter his glory?” (οὐχὶ ταῦτα ἔδει παθεῖν τὸν χριστὸν καὶ εἰσελθεῖν εἰς τὴν δόξαν αὐτοῦ;) (24:26). 82 The word πάσχω in 24:26 appears also in Jesus’ description of his death at the Pass‐ over meal in 22:15.
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with the two men (λαβὼν τὸν ἄρτον εὐλόγησεν καὶ κλάσας ἐπεδίδου αὐτοῖς) (24:30). At precisely this moment of his praise, God opens the two disciples’ eyes, and they recognize him (αὐτῶν δὲ διηνοίχθησαν οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ καὶ ἐπέγνωσαν αὐτόν) (24:31).83 The narrative thus links the disciples’ rec‐ ognition of the resurrected Jesus with his earlier praise for his death (Lk 22:17‒20). But although the disciples see him they do not yet understand. That moment will come in the final scene. Before leaving the scene set on the road to Emmaus, we should observe that its irony is strikingly similar to irony in the book of Tobit. In both sto‐ ries, the divine representative is present and active but disguised from the characters. In both, this irony directs the readers’ attention to the moment of revelation, when characters recognize the work of God. In both, charac‐ ters ironically mourn apparent tragedy and misfortune in speech directed to the very individual who represents its reversal. Characters in both sto‐ ries feel hopeless, even though God is already intervening to save, and they finally “see” divine salvation within the apparently tragic events only when revelation opens their eyes. In Tobit, the old man’s experience of revelation is described as a movement from blindness to sight so that his physical transformation (described as the opening and closing of his eyes) serves as a metaphor for his spiritual transformation, accomplished via angelic revelation. In Lk 24, the scene of the disciples’ inability to recognize Jesus is framed by a similar metaphor. The vehicle of closed and opened eyes (24:16, 31) conveys the tenor of their movement from inability to see Jesus to recognition, accomplished through divine revelation (“their eyes were opened”). And particularly germane to our topic, when revelation occurs, both the divine revealers and the human characters who see voice praise of God.84 At the end of Luke, full recognition of the meaning of Jesus’ death fi‐ nally comes upon the disciples. The two men excitedly return to Jerusalem, bringing the news of their experience on the road. Jesus suddenly appears among the disciples, but they remain unsure (24:33‒38).85 The disciples see Jesus, even touch his hands and feet, but their response is mixed: joy and 83 When retelling the story, they specify that God reveals to them Jesus’ identity in the breaking of the bread (Lk 24:35). 84 In Tobit, the angel praises God then reveals his identity; Tobit responds to the an‐ gelic revelation by praising God. In Lk 24, the disciples recognize Jesus as he praises God, then in the next scene, when their minds are opened, praise God. 85 Jesus questions the disciples about their inner thoughts (διὰ τί διαλογισμοὶ ἀναβαίνουσιν ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ ὑμῶν;) (Lk 24:38). This language recalls Simeon’s declara‐ tion at the beginning of Luke that Jesus will reveal the inner thoughts of people (ὅπως ἂν ἀποκαλυφθῶσιν ἐκ πολλῶν καρδιῶν διαλογισμοί) (Lk 2:35). In the narra‐ tive, Jesus’ queries about inner thoughts usually reveal something negative, such as opposition (Lk 5:22; 6:8) or self interest (Lk 9:46‒47). Jesus’ probe about their inner thoughts thus continues the narrative tension related to their understanding: even upon seeing Jesus standing among them, they doubt.
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amazement but also disbelief (24:38). Full acceptance of divine revelation comes only when the risen Jesus opens also their minds so that they are able to understand what they hear: his exegesis of scripture indicating the necessity of the Messiah’s suffering, death, and resurrection on the third day (ὅτι οὕτως γέγραπται παθεῖν τὸν χριστὸν καὶ ἀναστῆναι ἐκ νεκρῶν τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾳ) (24:45‒46). Because Jesus has opened their minds, the disci‐ ples now really hear what they did not before: Jesus’ surprising death and resurrection are part of the saving plan of God (level‐three recognition). Moreover, this plan will bring to all nations repentance leading to re‐ lease/forgiveness from sin (μετάνοιαν εἰς ἄφεσιν ἁμαρτιοῶν) (24:47). Following this revelation, Jesus blesses the disciples, and they respond with worship of Jesus and praise of God: καὶ αὐτοὶ προσκυνήσαντες αὐτὸν ὑπέστρεψαν εἰς Ἰερουσαλὴμ μετὰ χαρᾶς μεγάλης καὶ ἦσαν διὰ παντὸς ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ εὐλογοῦντες τὸν θεόν (Lk 24:52‐53) And worshiping him, they returned to Jerusalem with great joy and they were always in the temple praising God
Previously, a response of joy mixed with amazement and disbelief signals that the disciples have recognized the risen Jesus (seeing) (24:38). Now, this worship and praise marks a climactic transformation in perspective, result‐ ing from their understanding of divine revelation (hearing). At the end of the Gospel, praise of God fully resolves the tension related to their failure to understand divine revelation, introduced in Lk 9:43‒45 and heightened in the last three scenes of the Gospel.86 The death and resurrection of the Messiah are such surprising events that only repeated and ultimately mi‐ raculous revelation by the risen Jesus produces understanding.87 But now, with minds open, the disciples can finally echo Jesus’ berakot at Passover and praise God for Jesus’ identity not only as Messiah, but as one who has died and been raised. Significantly, in this instance of the praise motif, the disciples also worship Jesus himself. Because the narrative has previously established that worship is reserved for God, this scene signals to the reader that this new level of recognition involves affirmation of Jesus as Lord (Lk 4:8). But while this praise at the end of Luke emphatically resolves narrative tension related to the disciples’ recognition of Jesus, it leaves another impor‐ tant narrative tension unresolved. We have argued above that the praise 86 Upon this climactic revelation, the narrative reminds the reader again of the fourth movement of the divine visitation: revelation to the Gentiles (καὶ κηρυχθῆναι ἐπὶ τῷ ὀνόματι αὐτοῦ μετάνοιαν εἰς ἄφεσιν ἁμαρτιῶν εἰς πάντα τὰ ἔθνη ἀρξάμενοι ἀπὸ Ἰερουσαλήμ) (24:47). 87 It should be noted, however, that all the surprises in the narrative are startling only from the human perspective. From the divine perspective, Luke‐Acts depicts them as occurring according to the plan of God and in keeping with scriptural expectations.
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motif in the infancy narrative and six healing stories depicts a communal praise response that moves with Jesus as he makes his way through Galilee and then intentionally toward Jerusalem. Through intertextuality, this praise creates a picture of the restored people of Israel moving joyously along with the Messiah on the road to Zion, a journey that culminates in vibrant praise by Jesus’ disciples almost at the city’s gate. But Jerusalem’s failure to recognize the time of her visitation interrupts this procession of praise resulting in four chapters of silence and blame centered on Jesus’ death. At the end of the Gospel, the disciples understand and praise Jesus’ death and resurrection, but what of Jerusalem and her children, God’s peo‐ ple?88 How will they respond? Will the expectations of the infancy narra‐ tive be fulfilled for the community as a whole? Will Jerusalem and her people experience transformation and respond with praise, or does the silence and blame of the “time when darkness rules” mean that their op‐ portunity for restoration has passed? This tension remains.
4. The People’s Praise: Recognition of Jesus’ Identity (Acts 2:46‒47) The beginning of Acts brings this tension to resolution by narrating the restoration of Israel, albeit not in the sense of political rule as some charac‐ ters have expected (Lk 24:21; Acts 1:6‒7). Restoration results rather in a repentant, forgiven people centered in Jerusalem (Acts 2:17‒21), empow‐ ered by the Holy Spirit (2:1‒4, 41), and led by twelve apostles representing the center of a restored community (1:21‒26). From this restored center, revelation about the significance of Jesus begins to move outward. Peter speaks to a crowd of Jews from both Jerusalem and around the world about Jesus’ death, resurrection, and exaltation (2:22‒24, 32‒35). Urging them to be saved out of a corrupt generation by accepting his words, he exhorts them to be baptized and receive forgiveness and the Holy Spirit (2:37‒41). Like the disciples in Lk 24, these people react initially to divine power (miraculous speech) with the ambiguous response of amazement (2:5‒12). But thousands of them, those who truly hear divine revelation about Jesus’ death and resurrection, join the restored community, and when they do, they respond with praise. 89 Thus praise in Acts 2 can be considered an expansion of the praise heard in Lk 24.90 Just as recognition of Jesus’ identity—including the mean‐ 88 As argued above, the praise of the infancy narrative asserts that the birth of Jesus initiates the λύτρωσιν Ἰερουσαλήμ and the λύτρωσιν τῷ λαῷ αὐτοῦ. 89 The theme of divided response also continues. While some are amazed and aston‐ ished, others ridicule (2:13). 90 R. Deichgräber similarly observes the connection between praise in Lk 24 and in Acts 2:47 to make the point that praise is characteristic of early Christianity: “So erscheint
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ing of his death and resurrection—by his original disciples produces praise at the end of the Gospel, so too recognition of Jesus’ identity—including the meaning of Jesus’ death, resurrection, and exaltation—by new disciples produces praise: καθ᾽ ἡμέραν τε προσκαρτεροῦντες ὁμοθυμαδὸν ἐν τῷ ἱερῷ, κλῶντές τε κατ᾽ οἶκον ἄρτον, μετελάμβανον τροφῆς ἐν ἀγαλλιάσει καὶ ἀφελότητι καρδίας αἰνοῦντες τὸν θεὸν καὶ ἔχοντες χάριν πρὸς ὅλον τὸν λαόν (Acts 2:46‒47) Each day spending time together with one mind in the temple, As well as breaking bread in each home, They were sharing food with a joyful and humble heart Praising God and having favor before the whole people.
At the end of Luke, the disciples recognize Jesus at the moment of his praise for food, experience amazement, come to understand his identity more fully, including the meaning of his death and resurrection, and finally respond with joyous praise in the temple. Now, this larger group of new believers move from amazement (Acts 2:12) to belief in Jesus’ identity by hearing a message about the meaning of Jesus’ death, resurrection, and exaltation (2:22‒35). In response, they share food joyously and constantly voice praise, both in the temple and at home (2:46). The narrative depicts this praise as growing each day (2:47). Moreover, Peter’s speech links joy in Ps 15 with anticipation of Jesus’ resurrection (LXX Ps 15:8‒11; Acts 2:25‒31). Thus joyful praise by members of the expanding restoration community— which follows shortly thereafter—is presented in the narrative as echoing a prophetic psalm (Acts 2:42‒47).91 Simeon’s praise in the infancy narrative anticipated that Jesus would restore glory to Israel (δόξαν λαοῦ σου Ἰσραήλ). If in the Gospel’s infancy narrative and healing stories, the praise motif marks the initial stages of this restoration, then praise here responds to its realization. The eschato‐ logical praise expected upon the λύτρωσιν Ἰερουσαλήμ is finally heard on the lips of a restored people who recognize Jesus’ identity and respond with joy and praise of God in the temple and private homes of Jerusalem. The story of the leaping lame man follows immediately upon this praise (Acts 3‒4). As argued above, the narrative depicts this man’s exuber‐ ant, joyous praise in the temple as representing the joyous response ex‐ pected by Isaiah at the time of Israel’s restoration. Together, the man’s praise—representing restored Israel—and the praise of the new commu‐ das Loben immer wieder als wesentliches Charakteristikum der Christen. Schon das erste Summarium der Apostelgeschichte über das Leben der Christen spricht davon, daß sie Gott loben (Ag 2,47), nachdem bereits der Schluß des Lukasevangeliums (24,53) diese Perspektive eröffnet hatte,” Gotteshymnus, 212. See also Ott, Gebet und Heil, 124. 91 Peter’s quotation of the Psalm uses the verb ἀγαλλιάω (Acts 2:26), while the narra‐ tive employs the noun ἀγαλλίασις (Acts 2:46). The same verb is echoed again in the scene of joy following the jailer’s conversion (Acts 16:34).
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nity unite the second and third contexts of praise (healing and revelation about Jesus), marking the fulfillment of prophetic hopes for Israel’s es‐ chatological transformation.92 But once again, the divine visitation surprises, for although it has been long expected, it unfolds in an unforeseen way. Some people within glori‐ fied Israel praise God, but other characters resist. As we have seen, Acts 3‒4 contrasts the recognition and praise of the people (ὁ λαός) with the failure of Jerusalem’s political leaders (ἄρχοντες τοῦ λαοῦ καὶ πρεσβύτεροι τοῦ Ἰσραήλ) to understand Jesus’ identity through revelation about the mean‐ ing of his death and resurrection, even with the sign of the leaping lame man before them.93 As the restored community multiplies, the theme of divided response will continue to the very end of Acts.
E. Conclusion The analysis above has identified two cycles within which the praise motif unfolds: as the disciples respond to revelation about Jesus’ identity, they move from simple awareness that the divine visitation is present in Jesus (level‒one recognition) to two additional levels of recognition. The first cycle focuses on recognition of Jesus’ identity as Messiah, son, and king (level‒two recognition), in which Jesus offers a berakah for food associated with his identity as Messiah (Lk 9:16). He exhorts the disciples to rejoice over their connection with God (Lk 10:20) and then models joyous praise for divine revelation about his own unique connection with God (Lk 10:21‒22). Later, as Jesus approaches Jerusalem, the disciples respond with joyous praise, which lauds God for the arrival of the Messiah, son, and king, demonstrating that they have moved to a new level in their recogni‐ tion of Jesus’ identity (Lk 19:37‒38). The second cycle centers on revelation about Jesus’ death and resurrec‐ tion, a paired set of events that offers such a surprise to characters that no one can understand its purpose until the very end of Luke, in the revela‐ 92 The people’s praise in Acts 2—along with the disciples’ praise in Lk 24—recognizes the visitation of God not only in Jesus’ resurrection but also in his death. Jesus’ statements in Luke about the necessity of the Messiah’s suffering make it clear that his death comprises an integral part of the saving visitation of God, but it is not salvific in the sense of the “ransom for many” in Mark, as E. Käsemann has pointed out, “Ministry and Community in the New Testament,” in Essays on New Testament Themes (London: SCM, 1964), 63‒94, 92. Scot McKnight summarizes the place of Je‐ sus’ death in Luke‐Acts this way: “The grace of the Lord Jesus Messiah is effected by both death and resurrection in a single comprehensive event that may also be seen as his exaltation,” Jesus and His Death: Historiography, the Historical Jesus, and Atonement Theory (Waco, Tx: Baylor University Press, 2005), 362. 93 Acts 3:9, 11‒12; 4:1‒2, 9‒10, 16, 22. This failure results in a dire warning from Peter (Acts 3:23).
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tion of the risen Lord. Jesus offers berakot for food associated with his death (Lk 22:17‒20), but the disciples do not understand, and following his death a centurion responds with praise of God (23:47) for Jesus’ innocence, fore‐ shadowing the revelation to the Gentiles, the final context for praise in Luke‐Acts. Yet the meaning of Jesus’ death remains hidden from all the characters until the very end of Luke, where in revelation by the risen Je‐ sus, the disciples finally recognize that Jesus’ suffering and resurrection comprise the visitation of God, and they respond with praise (Lk 24:41‒53). Then in Acts, recognition about the meaning of Jesus’ resurrection results in the praise of a new community of people saved through Jesus (Acts 2:46‒47). But in the midst of these two cycles, the narrative portrays a time of dark silence in Jerusalem. As Jesus approaches the city, the praising proces‐ sion made up of people healed and witnesses of their healings, peaks with joyous praise acknowledging that Jesus is the “king who comes.” From the beginning—in the angelic exhortation to Mary, in her transformation and praise, in the straightening of the bent woman, in Jesus’ first apostrophe to Jerusalem, and in allusions to Zech 9:9—the narrative has subtly reminded the reader that the arrival of Jerusalem’s king into her midst should result in her joyous praise. By establishing this expectation and then reversing it, the narrative creates its central and most sustained tension: Jerusalem’s failure to recognize the divine visitation. Jesus states this tension succinctly in his apostrophe to the personified city: “you did not recognize the time of your visitation.” From the moment Jesus enters the city, no praise is heard in Jerusalem except his own; other voices remain silent or are united in blame. But Jesus’ post‐resurrection revelation and the events of Pentecost par‐ tially resolve the tension of Jerusalem’s rejection of the visitation. While the πόλις of Jerusalem (symbolized in its leaders) continues to resist, the λαός in Jerusalem repent, turn to God, experience salvation, and respond with praise. The healing of the lame man and Peter’s interpretation of it (Acts 3‒4) underscore that the previous events (belief and praise in Acts 2) repre‐ sent the climax of the first major section of Luke’s plot, centered on δόξαν λαοῦ Ἰσραήλ: in the man’s story the reader sees Israel restored (healed), leaping and joyously glorifying God in Jerusalem’s temple. Nevertheless, the narrative does not fully resolve the tension of divided response: some characters will continue to resist the divine visitation, resulting in a theme of division that will be sustained to the end of the narrative.
Chapter 8
Praise and Conversion of the Gentiles in Acts A. Introduction Having depicted the praise of Israel restored, Luke‐Acts concludes the subplot focused on the first purpose of the Messianic light as delineated by Simeon (φῶς εἰς . . . δόξαν λαοῦ σου Ἰσραήλ) and turns to the second: divine revelation to the Gentiles (φῶς εἰς ἀποκάλυψιν ἐθνῶν).1 From the center of a restored, saved, praising people in Jerusalem, the divine revelation about Jesus moves outward in a widening circumference to the ends of the earth.2 With this turn in the plot, a new context for narrated praise in Luke‐Acts emerges: praise in response to the conversions of Gentiles. Healings con‐ tinue to occur, but they are no longer focal points in the narrative, nor are they marked by praise of God.3 Instead, people respond with praise of God to the fourth stage in the divine visitation, the entry of Gentiles into re‐ stored Israel. In this fourth context, the pattern of praise unfolds in a manner strik‐ ingly similar to the pattern of praise we have seen in the six healing miracle stories. The praise response is two‐fold, offered first by the subjects of the story—the persons saved through conversion—and then by witnesses in Jerusalem. As these witnesses move from amazement to praise, the narra‐ 1
2 3
Although the plot turns to focus on its second major section (revelation to the Gen‐ tiles), restored Jerusalem/Israel continues to play an active role in the narrative. The restored community embraces not only Gentiles who turn to the Lord but also Jews “who are being saved” to the very end of Acts. (Paul typically proclaims the message first in synagogues in the various cities to which he travels.) The theme of divided response runs through the entire narrative, but it is not a division between Gentile and Jew (as has been argued by some) but rather a division within both the Gentiles and the Jews. Lk 24:47; Acts 1:8; 10:35; 13:47; 15:17; 26:20. This shift in the praise motif is consistent with the plot. Healings continue to testify to divine power through Jesus’ name, but they no longer represent λύτρωσιν τῷ λαῷ θεοῦ, as in earlier portions of the story, for the restoration has already been nar‐ rated. Praise now responds primarily to proclamation (of what has been revealed), a change that coheres with the transition in narrative focus from what is seen to what is heard. On the problematic nature of healings in the later parts of Acts, see p. 6, n.16 above.
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tive generates tension related to religious objection and/or the identity of the person experiencing transformation (conversion).4 The praise of wit‐ nesses is important to the story of conversion of the Gentiles in Acts, be‐ cause it indicates that the leaders of the restored λαός in Jerusalem recog‐ nize and accept Gentile conversions as part of the eschatological visitation by God, despite the surprising nature of these events. Acts contains two examples of this pattern of praise in response to conversion of Gentiles: in Peter’s ministry (Acts 10‒11) and in Paul’s (Acts 13‒21). It concludes with Paul’s praise as he travels to and finally reaches Rome (Acts 27‒28).
B. Praise and Peter’s Ministry The first example of the pattern of praise related to the salvation of Gentiles is found in the story of the conversion of Cornelius and his associates. After depicting the movement of the restored community beyond Jerusalem, Acts 10‒11 portrays the pivotal expansion of the divine visitation to non‐ Jews.5 In this story, as will be detailed below, Cornelius and his associates— like the six people healed in Luke and Acts—respond to their experience of transformation (σῴζω) by praising God. Tension arises when believers in Jerusalem object, and when this tension is resolved—by their acceptance of these conversions—it is marked by the witnesses’ praise of God.
1. Praise Response: Gentiles in Caesarea (Acts 10:45‒46) The story begins with dual visions to Peter and the centurion Cornelius (10:1‒32), after which a group of Gentiles gather at Cornelius’ house to hear Peter proclaim the message given to him by God (10:33). At the conclusion of this speech, the Holy Spirit falls upon all who hear it (10:44). This mo‐ ment of inspiration represents a key turning point in the plot: the begin‐ ning of the repentance of the Gentiles and their acceptance by God (10:45;
4
5
Conversion in Acts falls within the category of “transformation,” as defined at the beginning of this study, because it is depicted in the narrative as salvation, cleansing (impurity to purity), healing (sickness to health), and enlightenment (darkness to light). In addition, the inspiration that comes with conversion affects a visible (or rather audible) change upon those converted. The importance of Acts 10:1‒11:18 has been widely discussed, Haenchen, Acts, 355‒61. It “officially inaugurates the mission to the Gentiles,” Fitzmyer, Acts, 447. From a narrative perspective, the “episode is crucial,” E. M. Humphrey, “Collision of Modes?—Vision and Determining Argument in Acts 10:1‒11:18,” Semeia 71 (1995): 65‒84, 70.
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11:17).6 But this pivotal moment is also marked by the Gentiles’ expression of praise to God: καὶ ἐξέστησαν οἱ ἐκ περιτομῆς πιστοὶ ὅσοι συνῆλθαν τῷ Πέτρῳ, ὅτι καὶ ἐπὶ τὰ ἔθνη ἡ δωρεὰ τοῦ ἁγίου πνεύματος ἐκκέχυται· ἤκουον γὰρ αὐτῶν λαλούντων γλώσσαις καὶ μεγαλυνόντων τὸν θεόν. (Lk 10:45‒46a) And the circumcised believers who had came with Peter were astounded that that the gift of the Holy Spirit had been poured out on the Gentiles as well for they were hearing them speak in tongues and praise God.
Like the praise of healed people in Luke‐Acts, the praise of the Gentiles responds directly to their experience of divinely‐empowered transforma‐ tion, indicating their salvation by God and receipt of the Holy Spirit.7 But also in keeping with the healing miracle stories, the story of Corne‐ lius’ conversion shows an interest not only in the response of the person saved/healed but of the witnesses to this transformation. This narrative interest is so strong, in fact, that the praise response of the Gentiles (along with their inspiration and speaking in tongues) is told not from the narra‐ tor’s perspective but from the point of view of Peter’s companions (Jewish believers in Jesus from Jerusalem). In this way, the amazement of witnesses corresponds directly in narrative time with the moment of the Gentiles’ praise (ἐξέστησαν . . . ἤκουον γὰρ αὐτῶν . . . μεγαλυνόντων τὸν θεόν) (10:45‒46a). A somewhat similar dynamic appears in the story of the healed, leaping man, in which witnesses are amazed by the man’s exuber‐ ant praise of God (εἶδεν πᾶς ὁ λαὸς αὐτὸν περιπατοῦντα καὶ αἰνοῦντα τὸν θεόν . . . καὶ ἐπλήσθησαν θάμβους καὶ ἐκστάσεως ἐπὶ τῷ συμβεβηκότι αὐτῷ) (Acts 3:9‐10).8 The amazement of witnesses offers another link be‐ tween this conversion and healings earlier in the narrative, a connection strengthened by Peter’s reference to Jesus’ acts of healing in his speech to Cornelius (Acts 10:38).9 6
7 8
9
The boundary‐crossing arrival of an angel into the house of Cornelius facilitates this climactic moment in the plot (Acts 10:3; 11:13). So too, the entry of an angel into Aseneth’s chamber initiates the pivotal scene of Aseneth’s conversion (Jos. Asen. 14:5‒8; 6:2). On these parallels, see Humphrey, “Collision,” 78. Humphrey does not observe the similarity in response: in both scenes, the characters who experience conversion respond with praise of God. Their acceptance by God is described as salvation in Acts 11:14. On praise associated with inspiration elsewhere in the narrative, see p. 216, as well as n.8 there. But even though their amazement responds to the man’s praise, it is not as tempo‐ rally connected as in Acts 10:45‒46a. This comparison also shows the narrative shift from seeing to hearing that happens as the first plot concludes (restoration of Israel) and the second plot begins (revelation to the Gentiles). The people in Acts 3 see the man’s praise (and his leaping), but in Acts 10, the witnesses hear the Gentiles’ praise (and their speaking in tongues). Peter’s speech calls to the reader’s mind Jesus’ assertions about his healing ministry (Lk 4:18‒19; 7:20‒22), which in turn echo passages of eschatological healing in Isaiah
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By narrating the Gentiles’ praise through the eyes of the six “circum‐ cised believers” (οἱ ἐκ περιτομῆς πιστοί) who witness this moment, the nar‐ rator directs the reader’s attention to them as they leave Peter with Corne‐ lius and return to Jerusalem. Peter’s subsequent actions (baptizing and staying with Cornelius) demonstrate his full acceptance of the Gentiles’ salvation, but with regard to the witnesses, the reader knows only that they are amazed. And as the narrative has shown repeatedly, the ambiguous response of amazement can lead in positive or negative directions.
2. Narrative Tension: Resistance in Jerusalem (Acts 11:2‒3) In this case, by the time Peter returns to Jerusalem, the amazement of οἱ ἐκ περιτομῆς has turned to blame: they criticize Peter’s actions in staying and eating with Cornelius (ἀκροβυστίαν ἔχοντας εἰσῆλθες, καὶ συνέφαγες αὐτοῖς) (11:2‒3). Here the story of Cornelius again imitates stories about Jesus’ healings, which elicited objections about propriety by representatives of Israel’s religious leaders. Now, an objection about propriety by represen‐ tatives of the restored community introduces similar narrative tension. As in the healing stories, the events in the narrative surprise its characters; what happens is not immediately recognizable as the work of God. The objection thus introduces an important question into the narrative: will the restored community in Jerusalem accept this new and surprising direction in the divine visitation?10 The narrative sustains this tension for fourteen verses, as Peter re‐ sponds to his critics by rehearsing point by point what has occurred (11:4‒17).11 In the story of the woman made straight, as we have seen, Jesus’ response to his opponents redirects their focus from an issue of religious propriety to the worth (identity) of the person being healed. So too Peter’s speech redirects the objection to the Gentiles as ἀκροβυστίαν to a focus on them as people who by believing have received from God the same gift as (e.g., Isa 61:1‒3). In both Isaiah and Luke‐Acts, healing results in joyous praise. On healing as salvation in Luke‐Acts, see p. 268 below. 10 E. Haenchen, among others, has argued that Luke narrates his story with such ele‐ ments as angels and visions so as to rule out genuine human decision, a tendency particularly evident in this story, Acts, 362‒3. However, narrative tensions created by silence and resistance argue against such a view: in Luke‐Acts, faith is not fully de‐ termined by event. Rather, as Humphrey argues, the “visions [of Acts 10‒11] do not present a fait accompli but are artfully presented and combined to lead the hearers within the story, and the readers of the story, to certain conclusions,” and this art‐ istry is one of “cooperation rather than coercion, disclosure rather than determina‐ tion,” “Collision,” 82. 11 Again, this pattern matches the pattern in the story of the healed, leaping man in Acts 3‒4, where objections by authorities introduce tension sustained from 4:8 to 4:20 while Peter speaks.
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have Jews within the restored community (εἰ οὖν τὴν ἴσην δωρεὰν ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς ὁ θεὸς ὡς καὶ ἡμῖν πιστεύσασιν ἐπὶ τὸν κύριον Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν) (Acts 11:17).12 As he speaks, the reader waits for the response of his accusers, which comes as soon as Peter concludes: hearing these things, they were silent (ἀκούσαντες δὲ ταῦτα ἡσύχασαν) (Acts 11:18). For a fleeting moment, the silence of the accusers suggests a negative response. Will they follow the lead of Jesus’ opponents in the Gospel, who have raised similar objections and responded to Jesus’ ripostes with (unbelieving) silence?13 Notably, resistance in the story of Cornelius links back not only to Je‐ sus’ healing ministry but to the opening scenes of Luke. In Acts 10:31, Cor‐ nelius states that the angel told him, “Your petition has been heard” (εἰσηκούσθη σου ἡ προσευχὴ). Similarly, in the opening scene of Luke, Gabriel tells Zechariah, “Your entreaty has been heard” (εἰσηκούσθη ἡ δέησίς σου) (Lk 1:13). The two movements of the visitation—glory to Israel and revelation to the Gentiles—begin with parallel angelic revelation and generate similar resistance. While Zechariah’s initial resistance results in temporary silence, literally, the resistance of Peter’s critics in Jerusalem re‐ sults also in temporary silence, implied through narrative tension. By con‐ trast, their explicit silence is fleeting in the narrative (Acts 11:18).
3. Resolution of Tension: Praise by Jerusalem’s Leaders (Acts 11:18) But whereas the silence of opposition hangs over Jesus’ healing ministry, this brief moment of doubt is quickly resolved, for the narrator moves promptly to show the opponents’ acceptance of the Gentiles’ conversion through their response of praise: ἀκούσαντες δὲ ταῦτα ἡσύχασαν καὶ ἐδόξασαν τὸν θεὸν λέγοντες ἄρα καὶ τοῖς ἔθνεσιν ὁ θεὸς τὴν μετάνοιαν εἰς ζωὴν ἔδωκεν (11:18) Hearing these things, they were silent and praised God saying “Then also to the Gentiles God has given repentance [leading] to life.”
Those of the circumsion party (οἱ ἐκ περιτομῆς) in Jerusalem accept the sal‐ vation of the Gentiles in Caesarea as the work of God and—like the wit‐ 12 It is interesting to note that the story of Cornelius uses animal imagery (from a vi‐ sion) to communicate divine acceptance of the Gentiles, while Jesus also uses animal imagery (from scripture) to communicate God’s acceptance of the woman’s healing on the Sabbath. 13 In one instance, religious authorities object to Jesusʹ healing on the Sabbath. Follow‐ ing Jesusʹ riposte, they are silent (οἱ δὲ ἡσύχασαν) (Lk 14:4). The Pharisees demand silence instead of praise (Lk 19:39). And in Jerusalem, unable to trap Jesus rhetori‐ cally, his opponents fall silent (ἐσίγησαν) (Lk 20:26). Given these narrative prece‐ dents, one might imagine an oral storyteller pausing after the word ἡσύχασαν to draw out the suspense of the moment.
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nesses in the healing stories—they signal their acceptance of this new mo‐ ment in the process of divine salvation through praise. Through the now familiar pattern of tension and resolution in praise, the narrative shows that despite initial resistance, the new leaders in Jerusalem (unlike Jerusa‐ lem’s resistant political leadership) accept and recognize this surprising event as comprising the visitation of God.14 The scene of Cornelius’ belief is revelatory not only to the Gentiles but also to the new community, which must come to see that the extension of the visitation to Gentiles will de‐ mand a transformation of their own perspective. That this realization ar‐ rives in the context of shared food is significant, for shared meals have set the scene for revelation (and praise) throughout the story. Before turning to the second sequence of praise by converted Gentiles, followed by narrative tension, and then resolution by praise of witnesses, the representative quality of Cornelius’ characterization should be ob‐ served.15 Like the healed characters studied above, Cornelius experiences a transformation that serves as a shorthand depiction of the movement of the divine visitation to a new group. He represents Gentile God‐fearers, who although not circumcised, nevertheless live very much like Jews, fearing God (10:2, 35), engaging in daily petitions (10:2, 30), giving alms (10:2, 31), and seeking to live righteously (10:2, 35).16 In fact, his petitions are effective in the story, setting in motion his meeting with Peter (10:36).17 Because Cor‐ nelius is the first true Gentile convert, his story initiates the second move‐ ment of the divine visitation (revelation to the Gentiles). It seems reason‐ able to conclude then that the praise of Cornelius and his associates is also representative. In their praise, the reader begins to hear the response sug‐ gested in the infancy narrative’s allusions to LXX Ps 97, namely that the arrival of divine salvation to the ends of the earth will result in joy and praise expressed not only by God’s people but also by the Gentiles (Ps 97:3‒9).18
C. Praise and Paul’s Ministry With Paul’s ministry, divine salvation moves deeper into Gentile lands, ac‐ companied again by the praise of converted Gentiles (Acts 13). When Pe‐ 14 This praise is somewhat echoed in Barnabas’ response of joy to the Gentile mission in Syrian Antioch (11:23). 15 Fitzmyer, Acts, 453. 16 On the specifically Roman nature of Cornelius, as well as the Roman context of Acts 10:1‒11:18, see C. K. Rowe, “Luke‐Acts and the Imperial Cult: A Way through the Conundrum?,” JSNT 27 (2005): 279‒300, 289‒94. 17 This moment in Luke‐Acts resembles the arrival of the angel in the book of Tobit in response to the petitions of the main characters, which are heard by God. 18 See pp. 160‐161 and 164‐165.
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ter’s critics praise God in Acts 11:18, their positive response seems to re‐ lieve the narrative tension of resistance within the restored community to the plan of God. But this tension reemerges in the context of Paul’s ministry and culminates in a meeting of leaders in Jerusalem (Acts 15). While that meeting eases the narrative tension somewhat, it is not fully resolved until later in the narrative, when the leaders in Jerusalem mark their full accep‐ tance of the Gentiles through praise of God (Acts 21). In the chapters de‐ voted to Paul’s ministry, the narrative concludes its sweeping story with a now familiar pattern: surprising transformation, praise of God, narrative tension generated by resistance, and resolution marked by additional praise.
1. Praise Response: Gentiles in Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13:46‒48) In Acts 13, the narrative famously shifts its attention to Paul’s journeys around the Mediterranean. Following success on the island of Cyprus, Paul and Barnabas arrive in Asia Minor proper, finally reaching Pisidian An‐ tioch. In the synagogue there, Paul makes two speeches proclaiming to Is‐ raelites and God‐fearers the meaning of Jesus’ death and resurrection as interpreted in Israel’s scriptures (13:13‒47). He declares that despite the surprising manner in which it is unfolding (13:41), this “light to the Gen‐ tiles” has long been expected (13:47).19 Initially, both groups respond posi‐ tively to Paul’s message, but then the theme of divided response enters the story. In this town, Jews resist Paul’s message out of jealousy for his popu‐ larity (13:35), so Paul focuses on the Gentiles there. The positive response of the Gentiles to Paul’s exegetical revelation is joy and praise: ἀκούοντα δὲ τὰ ἔθνη ἔχαιρον καὶ ἐδόξαζον τὸν λόγον τοῦ κυρίου διεφέρετο δὲ ὁ λόγος τοῦ κυρίου δι᾽ ὅλης τῆς χώρας But hearing the Gentiles rejoiced and praised the word of the Lord. So spread the word of the Lord through the whole region (Acts 13:48).
This instance of the praise motif combines joy with praise of the “word of the Lord.” The combination of joy and praise is familiar, but the phrase τὸν
19 Paul quotes Hab 1:5 and Isa 49:6. On the difficulties of the latter, see Fitzmyer, Acts, 521. Despite how this verse is specifically understood, it functions to ground the sec‐ ond major aspect of the plot (a light for revelation to the Gentiles) in the eschatologi‐ cal expectations of Isaiah. Although certain characters might be surprised by this turn in the story (just as some have been surprised by healings or by the death and resurrection of Jesus), Paul claims that the fact of the Gentiles’ salvation has been long expected. It is the manner in which they are saved that surprises characters in Acts.
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λόγον τοῦ κυρίου is unique as the object of a praise verb in Luke‐Acts.20 In the thirteen other instances of δοξάζω in the narrative, the word refers to praise of God, with only one exception.21 For this reason, we might con‐ sider associating the accusative τὸν λόγον τοῦ κυρίου with the participle ἀκούοντα, translating this phrase: “But hearing the word of the Lord, the Gentiles rejoiced and praised [God].”22 But this understanding would per‐ haps stretch the syntax of the sentence too far.23 Given the combination of joy with the verb δοξάζω, it seems best to understand τὸν λόγον τοῦ κυρίου on analogy with other examples of praise in the narrative: it praises God for what God has done. For example, in Lk 7:16, the narrator describes peo‐ ple as glorifying (δοξάζω) God, but their direct speech says, “a great prophet has risen among us.” This quotation is praise of God because God is the source of the great prophet. Similarly, the centurion “glorifies God” but actually says, “Surely this man was innocent.” Although the direct speech of these characters contains no explicit praise, the narrator inter‐ prets their speech as praise because they recognize divine activity in the events surrounding the death of Jesus. Here in Acts we find an abbreviated form of the same principle: the Gentiles glorify God (implicitly) because God is the source of the saving word proclaimed in Paul’s exegetical revela‐ tion. In context, this word is the message of release from sins (13:38) leading to eternal life (τῆς αἰωνίου ζωῆς) not only for Jews but also for them (13:46), in keeping with Isaiah’s anticipation of the Gentiles’ enlightenment and
20 The phrase ὁ λόγος τοῦ κυρίου appears frequently in Acts to describe what is pro‐ claimed and received, Acts 8:25; 13:44, 48, 49; 15:35‒36; 16:32; 19:10; 20:35. The phrase ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ is used similarly, Acts 4:31; 6:2, 7; 8:14; 11:1; 12:24; 13:5, 7, 46; 17:13; 18:11. 21 The verb occurs thirteen other times. On twelve occasions, it refers to praise of God, Lk 2:20; 5:25, 26; 7:16; 13:13; 17:15; 18:43; 23:47; Acts 3:13; 4:21; 11:18; 21:20. Once, it describes honor directed to Jesus, Lk 4:15. Besides Acts 13:48, δοξάζω never appears in Luke‐Acts with an inanimate noun (such as λόγος) as the accusative object. 22 In support of this understanding, we note that “hearing the word” is a recurring expression in Luke‐Acts, Lk 5:1; 6:47; 8:13, 15, 21; 10:39; 16:2; Acts 2:22, 4:4; 5:5, 24; 10:44; 11:22; 13:7, 44, 48; 15:7; 19:10. More specifically, “hearing the word of the Lord” occurs four times, once in close context, Lk 10:39; Acts 13:44; 19:10. 23 Although this translation is arguable, grammatically, I have been unable to find any other example in Luke‐Acts in which the accusative object of a participle is separated from it by an indicative verb. Moreover, the glorification of the “word of the Lord” appears in 2 Thess 3:1 in a context that may similarly indicate the spreading of the word (ἵνα ὁ λόγος τοῦ κυρίου τρέχῃ καὶ δοξάζηται), but for another interpretation of the Pauline verse, see A. J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians: A New Transla‐ tion with Introduction and Commentary (AB 32b; New York: Doubleday, 2000), 444. In Acts 13:48, the unexpected word order could be explained if τὸν λόγον τοῦ κυρίου were epexegetical. Another option is to think of the phrase as serving a dual purpose in the sentence: the people hear the word of the Lord and respond to it with joy and praise that is implicitly directed to God, and this acclamation in turn gives honor to the “word of the Lord” by extending it through the region.
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salvation (εἰς φῶς ἐθνῶν τοῦ εἶναί σε εἰς σωτηρίαν) (13:47). The Gentiles’ joy and implicit praise responds to their receipt of the revelation (and their belief in it) as declared by Simeon and anticipated by Isaiah, now conveyed through τὸν λόγον τοῦ κυρίου (13:47). Despite hardship, Paul and Barnabas echo this joy a few verses later (13:52).24
2. Narrative Tension: Resistance in Jerusalem (Acts 15:1‒30) In this episode in Pisidian Antioch, Jewish resistance in the city to the “word of the Lord” reprises the theme of divided response. But the narra‐ tive seems unconcerned about the tension of divided response in Gentile cities. Such division has been anticipated by Jesus, and Paul responds in keeping with Jesus’ words about the subject. The really problematic narra‐ tive tension is resistance from within the restored community in Jerusalem. These problematic objections appear when Paul and Barnabas return to their home base in Syrian Antioch, finding that Jesus‐following Pharisees in Jerusalem have stirred up opposition to their ministry by insisting that Gentile converts be circumcised (15:1‒2, 5). The objection of the Pharisees creates a serious problem in the narra‐ tive, requiring that the two disciples return to the story’s geographic center. As they travel, they carry with them the news of the turning of the Gentiles (ἐπιστροφὴν τῶν ἐθνῶν), a report greeted with great joy (χαρὰν μεγάλην) by all the believers in Phoenicia and Samaria (15:3). Paul arrives in Jerusa‐ lem and, like Peter in Acts 11, reports what God has done (ὅσα ὁ θεὸς ἐποίησεν) (15:4). But instead of the praise voiced in response to Peter’s re‐ port (11:18), Paul’s opponents respond with direct speech reiterating their objection (15:5). This contrast—along with the narrative’s juxtaposition of joy in outlying areas with blame in the heart of restored Israel—heightens the narrative tension in the scene.25 This tension is further augmented by the description of Paul’s oppo‐ nents as Pharisees, a detail that recalls the Pharisee’s opposition to Jesus in 24 As Paul and Barnabas leave town, they are filled with joy and the Holy Spirit, even as they shake the dust off their feet while going, Acts 13:51‒52. This inspired joy of disciples (μαθηταί), as the narrator describes Paul and Barnabas, has strong links back to the mission of the seventy (two) and to Jesus’ inspired joyous praise response to it, Lk 10:1‒22. Along with the inspired joy of these disciples—which might be con‐ sidered a later fulfillment of Jesus’ exhortation to rejoice in Lk 10:20—the connec‐ tions include similarities in near context: mission efforts, being filled with the Holy Spirit, and the metaphor of shaking a disbelieving town’s dust off one’s feet, Lk 10:11; Acts 13:51. 25 Because opposition to the Gentile mission is centered in Jerusalem, the scene may also recall the rejection that Jesus experienced in Jerusalem.
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Luke.26 As we have seen, in Luke, Pharisees—among other authority fig‐ ures who object to Jesus’ healing—create narrative tension by delaying con‐ firmatory praise responses in various stories. Here in Acts, Pharisees play a similar role in the longer narrative arc that spans Acts 13 to 21, in stark con‐ trast with the Gentiles who respond to Paul’s message by praising God (Acts 13:48). These Pharisees object that it is necessary to circumcise these Gentiles (δεῖ περιτέμνειν αὐτοὺς) (Acts 15:5). This language (δεῖ) signals to the reader that Paul’s opponents resist the plan of God.27 If we look back for a moment at the story of the bent woman, we find that the synagogue leader objects to her healing on a Sabbath in a strikingly similar way, saying that there are six days in which “it is necessary to work” (δεῖ ἐργάζεσθαι) (Lk 13:14). Jesus ripostes by reminding his hearers about their willingness to loose oxen on Sabbath. Noting that the woman has been bound by Satan for eighteen years, he concludes with his own reference to divine necessity: “Is it not necessary that she be loosed from this bond on the Sabbath day?” (οὐκ ἔδει λυθῆναι ἀπὸ τοῦ δεσμοῦ τούτου τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τοῦ σαββάτου;) (Lk 13:16). So too, in Acts, Paul describes the salvation of Gentiles as “release from sins” (ἄφεσις ἁμαρτιῶν). A pattern appears in both volumes: healing or conversion (i.e., salvation), acknowledgement in praise (by those saved), resistance by critical observers, narrative tension, and acceptance of salva‐ tion as the work of God through praise (by witnesses). Resistance to God’s plan in Acts comes from the heart of the restored community, raising a question similar to that raised in Luke: will believers in Jerusalem accept the surprising path of the plan of God? As in Acts 3‒4 and 10‒11, the narrative sustains this tension through chapter fifteen, as leaders in Jerusalem call a meeting (15:6) that includes three speeches: by Peter (15:7‒11), Paul and Barnabas (15:12), and James (15:13‒21).28 In the end, the assembled leaders agree to James’ proposal, namely that a letter ought to be sent from Jerusalem to Antioch and other locales, setting stan‐ dards of righteousness without requiring circumcision. Notably, this com‐ munication elicits the joy of its recipients (χαίρω) (15:22‒30), marking the resolution of conflict in Antioch. But the letter does not fully resolve the tension of resistance to Paul’s ministry by leaders in Jerusalem. For one thing, in the text of the letter, the 26 Johnson, Acts, 260. For a thorough treatment of the oft‐discussed issue of Paul‐Jesus parallels, see D. R. Moessner, “The Christ Must Suffer: New Light on the Jesus— Peter, Stephen, Paul Parallels in Luke‐Acts,” NovT 28 (1986): 220‒56, 220‒25, 247‒56. 27 On δεῖ in Luke‐Acts as a reference to the plan of God, see p. 202, n.47 above. 28 The first and third speeches are provided through direct speech, but the second only in narration. The first two of these speeches are met with silence (σιγάω) (15:12). Al‐ though silence in this scene likely indicates a respectful audience, it may also recall for the reader the silence of Jesus’ opponents, as discussed above. If so, then this si‐ lence augments the narrative tension created by delayed response.
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leaders of the community carefully distance themselves from Paul’s oppo‐ nents, identifying them as “some among us . . . whom we did not com‐ mand” (τινὲς ἐξ ἡμῶν . . . οἷς οὐ διεστειλάμεθα) (15:24). This wording leaves open the question of whether these opponents now agree with Paul. Will they continue to stir up trouble? For another, in Acts 11, the Jerusalem community, after hearing Peter’s testimony about Cornelius, responded by praising God, but in Acts 15 it does not. At the end of Acts 15, the Jerusa‐ lem witnesses have not echoed the praise of the Gentiles in response to Paul’s ministry, nor have they confirmed their own acceptance of it in praise. These details leave open for the reader the question of whether the whole community in Jerusalem will approve of Paul’s ministry and wel‐ come the Gentiles he converts into restored Israel. Before leaving this episode, we should observe that James’ speech in support of Paul and Barnabas, much like Paul’s speech in Pisidian Antioch, affirms that the turning of the Gentiles has long been expected to accom‐ pany the divine visitation: Συμεὼν ἐξηγήσατο καθὼς πρῶτον ὁ θεὸς ἐπεσκέψατο λαβεῖν ἐξ ἐθνῶν λαὸν τῷ ὀνόματι αὐτοῦ (Acts 15:14) Simeon related [how] just as from the first God visited to take from the nations a people for his name
Here James explicitly mentions the divine visitation, asserting that with regard to it, God’s intention has been καθὼς πρῶτον to attract Gentiles. James goes on to quote Amos 9:11‒12 in support of the two‐part visitation described by Simeon in Lk 2.29 The prophet has anticipated that God will first lift up the fallen tent of David (i.e., restore Israel’s glory) which will in turn draw the nations to the Lord (i.e., revelation to the Gentiles) (15:13‒21). James’ speech—explicitly linking the divine visitation with the conversion of Gentiles—marks the fourth and final direct reference to the divine visitation in Luke‐Acts.30 These four instances of the divine visita‐ 29 On the use of Amos in Acts 15, as well as in Stephen’s speech in Acts 7, including attention to the textual issues, see E. Richard, “The Creative Use of Amos by the Au‐ thor of Acts,” NovT 24 (1982): 37‒53, passim. The reference to Simeon raises the ques‐ tion of the named person’s identity. Some commentators point to Simeon Niger from Acts 13:1, but most think (Simon) Peter is intended here. As Johnson writes, “the logic of the entire narrative demands that we take it as referring to Peter and not some other character,” Acts, 264. Johnson suggests that the difference in spelling de‐ rives from “Luke’s love of archaizing.” One might also argue that the name Simeon reflects a Semitic speech pattern in keeping with the character James, although else‐ where in Luke‐Acts, Jewish characters refer to Peter by the name Simon (Jesus in Lk 7:40; 22:31; the disciples in Lk 24:34; and Peter, in reference to himself, in Acts 11:13). Peter is always referred to as “Simon” and never “Simeon” in the narrative. It could also be argued that the Semitic form of Peter’s name alludes to the elder Simeon’s two‐fold description of the light to Israel and the Gentiles in Lk 2:32, an echo that would well suit the context. 30 This instance of the divine visitation (ἐπισκέπτομαι) in Acts 15:14 harkens back to earlier appearances of this leitmotif in Luke‐Acts, showing that “Godʹs gracious visi‐
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tion align with the four major contexts for praise in the two volumes: (1) Jesus’ birth (Lk 1:68, 78), (2) his healing ministry (Lk 7:16), (3) his identity and the meaning of his death and resurrection (Lk 19:44), and (4) the salva‐ tion of the Gentiles (Acts 15:14). The verse that James quotes from Amos—used to argue that eschato‐ logical salvation involves the restoration of Israel leading to conversion of Gentiles—appears in a similar way in Tobit’s hymn, as discussed above.31 Tobit anticipates not only a light shining to the ends of the earth (τὰ πέρατα τῆς γῆς) but that this light will result in the eschatological praise of the Gentiles (Tob 14:6‒7). Praise of the Gentiles does not appear in Amos so must be drawn from texts that expect the praise of the Gentiles to accom‐ pany eschatological salvation or to result in praise stretching to the ends of the earth.32 Similarly, Acts associates the restoration of the fallen tent of David with positive response by Gentiles (15:16) who in turn praise God. In Acts, as in Tobit, this expansion of salvation to Gentiles is described as the divine message reaching the “ends of the earth” (ἐσχάτου τῆς γῆς) (1:8; 13:47).33 Luke’s narrative portrayal may subtly echo Tobit’s hymn, or this correspondence may suggest a shared exegetical tradition, which expects the praise of Gentiles (or praise heard to the ends of the earth) to accom‐
tation of Israel has been extended to the Gentile nations as well,” H. van de Sandt, “An Explanation of Acts 15.6‒21 in the Light of Deuteronomy 4.29‒35 (LXX),” JSNT 46 (1992): 73‒97, 90. 31 See p. 103 above. In his hymn, Tobit urges, “Praise (ἐξομολογέω) the Lord and bless (εὐλογέω) the king of the ages, so that again his tent may be built among you with joy (χαρά)” (Tob 13:11). Following the restoration of the tent of David, a “bright light will shine to the ends of the earth” drawing the nations to Jerusalem, where they will voice joyful praise of God (Tob 13:12). Less explicitly, the “praise of Gentiles” theme also appears in Joseph and Aseneth, where Aseneth serves as a model for future Gentile converts. Presumably, her transformed ability to praise the God of Israel would point forward to the future praise of converted Gentiles. 32 Several such texts have been explored above. Isaiah’s “new song” of praise is sung from the end of the earth (ἄκρου τῆς γῆς) (Isa 42:10), and the ruins of Jerusalem break forth into singing when the Lord redeems Jerusalem and when the ends of the earth (τά ἄκρα τῆς γῆς) see the salvation of God (52:9‒10). In Zech 9:9, the prophet exhorts the daughter of Zion to rejoice because her king comes to her as a meek sav‐ ior, riding on the foal of an ass, bringing peace and establishing his rule to the ends of the earth. It should be noted, however, that the phrase “ends of the earth” is clear in the MT but not the LXX (διεκβολἀς γῆς). The eschatological praise in LXX Ps 97 declares that all the ends of the earth have seen the salvation of God (εἴδοσαν πάντα τὰ πέρατα τῆς γῆς τὸ σωτήριον τοῦ θεοῦ ἡμῶν), resulting in loud joy and praise ex‐ pressed by God’s people, the nations, and all of creation (97:3‒9). Similar imagery appears in other texts, such as LXX Ps 21, which anticipates all the ends of the earth (πάντα τὰ πέρατα τῆς γῆς) turning to the Lord and all families of the nations wor‐ shipping him (LXX Ps 21:27). 33 Luke’s precise phrase (ἐσχάτου τῆς γῆς) appears in contexts that describe praise for redemption in LXX Isa 45:22‒23, 48:20; 62:9‒11.
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pany the arrival of divine mercy.34 Paul appears to rely on such a tradition in Romans, where he strings together four citations related to the Gentiles’ praise: For I tell you that Christ has become a servant of the circumcised on behalf of the truth of God in order that he might confirm the promises given to the patri‐ archs, and in order that the Gentiles might glorify (δοξάζω) God for his mercy. As it is written, “Therefore I will praise (ἐξομολογέω) you among the Gentiles, and sing praises (ψάλλω) to your name”; and again he says, “Rejoice (εὐφραίνω), O Gentiles, with his people”; and again, “Praise (αἰνέω) the Lord, all you Gentiles, and let all the peoples praise (ἐπαινέω) him”; and again Isaiah says, “The root of Jesse shall come, the one who rises to rule the Gentiles; in him the Gentiles shall hope.” (Rom 15:8‒12, NRSV, my change in italics)35
In Luke‐Acts, as in this Pauline passage, Jesus first serves the circumcised (restoring Israel) and then through proclamation in Jesus’ name, represen‐ tatives of restored Israel bring mercy and salvation to the Gentiles, who respond with joyous praise.36 Praise related to the conversion of Gentiles fulfills early Jewish expectations about eschatological praise. Thus in the last context for praise in Luke‐Acts, as in the previous three, the praise mo‐ 34 The strongest link to this tradition in Luke‐Acts comes by means of the phrase “ends of the earth” in Acts 1 and 13, along with parallels in the Magnificat, Benedictus, and Nunc Dimittis with LXX Ps 97, which depicts eschatological praise extending to the “ends of the earth,” voiced by all nations (97:3‒9). On Ps 97 in the hymns of the in‐ fancy narrative, see pp. 160‒161 and 164‒165 above. 35 Paul cites LXX Ps 17:50; Deut 32:43; LXX Ps 116:1; and Isa 11:10, in that order. On the syntactical difficulties of vss. 8b‒9a, see J. Lambrecht, “Syntactical and Logical Re‐ marks on Romans 15:8‒9a,” NovT 42 (2000): 257‒61; and J. R. Wagner, “The Christ, Servant of Jew and Gentile: A Fresh Approach to Romans 15:8‒9,” JBL 116 (1997): 473‒95, 473‒4. Wagner provides a detailed review of previous solutions to the grammatical problem of these verses, 476‒81. These authors appear to have worked independently of each other. 36 Both Wagner’s and Lambrecht’s solutions to the grammatical difficulties of 8b‒9a argue against the common acceptance of parallelism between 8b and 9a, which is re‐ flected in the NRSV translation above. Lambrecht finds instead that divine attention to Jews (truthfulness and fulfillment of promise) in verse eight and to Gentiles (mercy) in verse nine are related but distinct activities. He paraphrases his under‐ standing of the two verses this way: “For, I tell you, it is true that Christ became a servant of the Jews to show Godʹs truthfulness, but in order to show his mercy Christ received the Gentiles so that they, too, may glorify God,” “Syntactical,” 260. Wagner identifies the same two distinct actions, but he argues that the objective in‐ finitive “Christ has become a servant” governs both vss. 8 and 9a. Thus he translates: “For I say that the Christ has become a servant of the circumcision on behalf of the truthfulness of God, in order to confirm the promises made to the patriarchs, and [a servant] with respect to the Gentiles on behalf of the mercy [of God] in order to glo‐ rify God,” “Christ Servant,” 481‒2. On links between the glorification of God and the salvation of the Gentiles elsewhere in Romans, see ibid., 493. In Wagner’s view, the subject of the verb δοξάζω is Christ—not the Gentiles—which coheres with the first citation (15:9b). Even so, the remaining citations “summon the Gentiles to join with Israel in praising God,” ibid., 476. With regard to this passage, R. Deichgräber de‐ scribes praise as the “fruit” (frucht) of the Gentile mission according to Paul, Gotteshymnus, 211.
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tif demonstrates to readers how the divine visitation depicted in the narra‐ tive aligns with long‐held eschatological hopes.
3. Resolution of Tension: Praise by Jerusalem’s Leaders (Acts 21:18‒20) For about six chapters, Paul journeys again, to Macedonia, Thessalonica, Beroea, Athens, Corinth, and Ephesus, among other places. The reader learns of numerous conversions and some healings, but none of these scenes are marked by praise of God.37 Finally, Paul, like Jesus, sets a course for Jerusalem, despite much ominous foreshadowing. When he arrives in the city, the narrative in one sense circles back around to the scene of the Jerusalem council (Acts 15), for again, Paul stands before the community’s leadership, telling them about “all the things God had done among the Gentiles through his ministry” (ὧν ἐποίησεν ὁ θεὸς ἐν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν διὰ τῆς διακονίας αὐτου) (21:19).38 If the pattern of praise has raised expectations about confirmatory praise in Jerusalem, the narrative now provides it, as Jerusalem leaders respond to Paul’s testimony about divine salvation of the Gentiles with praise directed to God: “hearing, they were praising God” (οἱ δὲ ἀκούσαντες ἐδόξαζον τὸν θεόν) (21:20). Finally, the praise of the saved Gen‐ tiles in Pisidian Antioch is echoed by the important witnesses of the Jerusa‐ lem leadership, who—as in Acts 11 and in the healing miracle stories— validate Paul’s ministry and demonstrate their recognition and acceptance of the divine visitation to the Gentile people who have responded to his message.39 Praise then opens and closes Paul’s ministry to the Gentiles (with a postscript comprising his journey to Rome), just as praise opened and closed Jesus’ healing ministry. Whereas the Gospel depicts Jerusalem’s rejection of the divine visitation, in Acts, Jerusalem accepts it with praise.
37 There is one joy notice, a celebratory meal in response to the conversion of the jailor (Acts 16:34). There is also a praise notice related not to God but to Jesus in response to Paul’s healings and exorcisms in Ephesus (see p. 198 above). 38 Compare Acts 15:4 (ὅσα ὁ θεὸς ἐποίησεν μετ᾽ αὐτῶν) and 15:12 (ὅσα ἐποίησεν ὁ θεὸς σημεῖα καὶ τέρατα ἐν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν δι᾽ αὐτῶν). 39 While some scholars of Acts characterize the meeting in Acts 15 as decisively settling the issue of Paul’s Gentile mission, others observe that Acts presents the reader with “a dynamic interaction of episodes wherein the Gentile mission is treated in a series of incomplete, complementary narratives,” Richard, “Creative,” 51. My conclusions about the fourth context for praise support this latter perspective: by means of praise responses, the narrative extends its interest in the Gentile mission to the end of Acts. However, the question of whether leaders in Jerusalem will accept the visitation to the Gentiles seems settled by their praise in Acts 21.
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4. Paul’s Praise (Acts 27:35; 28:15) Upon the praise directed to God by the Jerusalem community for Paul’s ministry, the narrative turns toward its last section, Paul’s adventurous journey to Rome. When he finally arrives, the famously open‒ended “con‐ clusion” of the work raises more questions than it answers. On the way, Paul offers two expressions of praise. The first is a berakah over food with Roman soldiers who drift helplessly with Paul on a ship without tackle: εἴπας δὲ ταῦτα καὶ λαβὼν ἄρτον εὐχαρίστησεν τῷ θεῷ ἐνώπιον πάντων καὶ κλάσας ἤρξατο ἐσθίειν. (Acts 27:35) Having said these things and having taken bread he praised God before them all and having broken it, he began to eat.
This praise echoes Jesus’ berakot during his meals with his disciples before his death and after his resurrection, also in what seemed to be hopeless situations. As in the latter instance of Jesus’ praise, Paul’s berakah is effec‐ tive, for it encourages the soldiers, who have not eaten for many days, to join him in this meal. At the end of Acts, Paul arrives in Rome to find that there are believers already there, which elicits his praise of God: κἀκεῖθεν οἱ ἀδελφοὶ ἀκούσαντες τὰ περὶ ἡμῶν ἦλθαν εἰς ἀπάντησιν ἡμῖν . . ., οὓς ἰδὼν ὁ Παῦλος εὐχαριστήσας τῷ θεῷ ἔλαβε θάρσος (Acts 28:15) And the brothers from there [Rome], having heard the [reports] concerning us came to meet us. . . . Upon seeing them, Paul—praising God—took courage.
Just as Paul’s praise encouraged the Roman officers, so now the sight of these believers, encourages Paul, so that as he arrives in Rome, he voices praise. In this way, the two‒volume work frames the entire story (from Je‐ rusalem to Rome) with expressions of praise.
D. Healings, Conversions, and Praise The pattern of praise introduced in the healing stories and repeated in these conversion cycles creates a narrative link between the two major kinds of transformation depicted in the narrative (healing of Jews and con‐ version of Gentiles). Table 15 summarizes the structural parallels between scenes in which praise responds to healings and conversions.
Table 15 Praise Following Healings and Conversions in Luke‐Acts
Paralyzed Man (Lk 5:17‐26)
Straightened Ten Lepers Woman (Lk 17:11‐19) (Lk 13:11‐17)
Blind Man (Lk 18:35‐43)
Paralyzed Gentiles in Man Caesarea (Acts 3:8‐4:21) (Acts 10‐11)
Gentiles Elsewhere (Acts 13‐21) ἔχαιρον καὶ ἐδόξαζον τὸν λόγον τοῦ κυρίου (13:48)
Praise (subject)
δοξάζων τὸν θεόν (5:25)
ἐδόξαζεν τὸν θεόν (13:13)
μετὰ φωνῆς μεγάλης δοξάζων τὸν θεόν (17:15)
δοξάζων τὸν θεόν (18:43)
αἰνοῦντα τὸν θεόν (3:9)
Tension
• Religious objection
None
• Religious objection • Identity
• Failure to praise
• Access to Jesus • Identity
• Misdirected • Religious gaze objection • Religious • Identity objection
• Religious objection
δόξαζον τὸν θεὸν λέγοντες ὅτι προφήτης μέγας ἠγέρθη ἐν ἡμῖν καὶ ὅτι ἐπεσκέψατο ὁ θεὸς τὸν λαὸν αὐτοῦ (7:16)
πᾶς ὁ ὄχλος ἔχαιρεν (13:17)
πᾶς ὁ λαὸς ἰδὼν ἔδωκεν αἶνον τῷ θεῷ (18:43)
πάντες ἐδόξαζον τὸν θεόν (4:21)
ἐδόξαζον τὸν θεόν (21:20)
Praise [ἅπας] (witnesses) ἐδόξαζον τὸν θεὸν… λέγοντες ὅτι εἴδομεν παράδοξα σήμερον (5:26)
Widow’s Son (Lk 7:11‐17)
μεγαλυνόντων τὸν θεόν (10:46)
ἐδόξασαν τὸν θεὸν λέγοντες· ἄρα καὶ τοῖς ἔθνεσιν ὁ θεὸς τὴν μετάνοιαν εἰς ζωὴν ἔδωκεν (11:18)
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The parallel structures presented in this table are mirrored in other narra‐ tive connections between healing and conversion. The following para‐ graphs offer a few examples, but others could be added to this list. The imagery of cleansing offers one link between healing and conversion. In Acts, the Gentiles are described as cleansed by God (καθαρίζω). In the first narrative, before Peter arrives at Cornelius’ house, a vision reveals to him that God has cleansed (καθαρίζω) the Gentiles (10:15).40 Several chapters later, in defense of Paul’s ministry, Peter repeats this imagery of the clean‐ sing (καθαρίζω) by God of the Gentiles (Acts 15:9). So too in Luke, the word καθαρίζω appears in reference to healing, in particular the cleansing of lepers, by both Elisha and Jesus (Lk 4:27; 5:12‒13; 7:22; 17:11‒18). In fact, in Lk 7:22, Jesus lists the cleansing of lepers among the eschatological heal‐ ings of his ministry, drawn from Isaiah, although the healing of leprosy is not present in the prophetic text.41 In both volumes, cleansing is met with praise. The imagery of “release” similarly connects healing and conversion stories. Peter’s first speech to the Jerusalem leaders in Acts 10 describes the healing ministry of Jesus in terms of release for all those oppressed by the adversary (ἰώμενος πάντας τοὺς καταδυναστευομένους ὑπὸ τοῦ διαβόλου) (10:38). The concept of release is implicit in these words but it becomes ex‐ plicit a few verses later, when Peter explains that following Jesusʹ resurrec‐ tion, all those who trust in Jesus will receive release from sins (ἄφεσιν ἁμαρτιῶν λαβεῖν διὰ τοῦ ὀνόματος αὐτοῦ πάντα τὸν πιστεύοντα εἰς αὐτόν) (10:43). This same connection between release from sin and healing (under‐ stood as release from oppression) appears in Luke. For example, Jesus de‐ fines his ministry as bringing “freedom for the imprisoned and renewed sight for the blind, to release (ἄφεσις) those who have been crushed” (Lk 4:18). In the same way, the healing of Peter’s mother‐in‐law is described as a “release” (Lk 4:39), and in the story of the paralytic lowered through the roof, healing is narrated in parallel with release from sin (Lk 5:20‒24). With different vocabulary, the story of the straightened woman describes healing as release (λύω) from oppression (Lk 13:15‒16).42 In both volumes, the ex‐ perience of divinely‐empowered release (whether from the oppression of evil or sin) produces praise. Other shared images create additional connections between healing and conversion: 40 The vision actually refers to animals that have been made clean, but Peter interprets it as pointing symbolically to the Gentiles (Acts 10:28; 11:9‒17). 41 See p. 176 above. 42 The promise of divine “release from sin” through Jesus also opens and closes the Gospel (Lk 1:77; 24:47), with the latter instance pointing forward to the proclamation of apostles following Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18).
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Chapter 8: Praise and Conversion of the Gentiles in Acts
In his speech to Cornelius, Peter interprets the peace brought by Jesus to the “sons of Israel” as indicating the impartiality of God toward the Gentiles (the acceptance of all who fear God and do what is right) (10:35‒36). In Luke, Jesus’ healings bring peace.43 In Acts, the narrator describes Paul’s recounting of his ministry as the narration of “signs and wonders” (σημεῖα καὶ τέρατα) done by God among the Gentiles (15:12). In context, the phrase “signs and wonders” describes the receipt of the Holy Spirit (15:7) in conversions in Acts, but elsewhere in Acts it refers to healings (Acts 2:22; 4:30), albeit not exclusively. When Cornelius first sees Peter, he falls at the apostle’s feet in rever‐ ence (πεσὼν ἐπὶ τοὺς πόδας προσεκύνησεν) (Acts 10:25); so too do characters in healing stories.44 In conversion stories, Gentiles believe; so too do characters in healing stories.45 Both healings and conversions are described as “salvation.”46 Finally, and perhaps most significantly, the entire work concludes with a speech by Paul that describes turning to God as healing (ἰάομαι) for Jews and the arrival of salvation (σωτήριον) for Gentiles (28:27‒28).
E. Conclusion In this section, we have seen that the pattern of praise in response to con‐ version in Acts mirrors the pattern of praise found in the six healing stories earlier in the narrative. The Gentiles experience conversion (transforma‐ tion) and respond with praise of God. Witnesses to their conversions ex‐ press amazement, but then religious objections introduce tension into the narrative, finally relieved by witnesses’ responses of praise. Notably, a similar pattern of praise also appears in Tobit (related to healing) and in Joseph and Aseneth (related to conversion). While the various tensions are not identical, their resolutions are alike marked by praise. The tension related to Tobit’s healing centers on recognition: will he come to understand the full extent of divine mercy? In Acts, this question is raised 43 Lk 7:50; 8:48; 10:5‒9. 44 The synagogue president falls at Jesus’ feet when seeking healing for his daughter (Lk 8:41), and the cleansed leper falls at Jesus’ feet in gratitude, praising God (Lk 17:16). 45 On faith related to healing, see Lk 5:20; 7:9, 50; 8:48, 50; 17:19; 18:42; Acts 3:16. In regard to the conversion of Gentiles, see Acts 10:43; 11:17, 21, 24; 13:39; chs. 10‒21 throughout. 46 On salvation in healing stories, see Lk 6:9; 7:50; 8:36, 48, 50; 17:19; 18:42; Acts 4:9; 14:9. On salvation related to the conversions of Gentiles, see Acts 11:14; 15:11; 16:30‒31.
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for witnesses to the conversion of the Gentiles (described as “healing”): will these potential critics recognize that divine mercy reaches to “the ends of the earth?” In JA, tensions relate to the impurity of Aseneth’s mouth and intimacy with Joseph (related to her acceptability to God); so too in Acts, objections are raised about the Gentiles’ impurity and acceptability to God, particularly related to intimacy with Jews (meals). In both narratives, as we have seen, it is precisely the praise of the converted person(s) that resolves this tension, albeit for different reasons. The parallel between healing and conversion aligns closely with the plot of Luke‐Acts, which involves two major sections as declared by Simeon: glory to Israel and revelation to the Gentiles. Within this two‐fold plot, the divine visitation unfolds in four movements that parallel the four contexts within which the praise motif clusters: Jesus’ birth, his healings, Jesus’ identity revealed in his death and resurrection, and conversions of the Gentiles. In Acts 15, James’ speech, which explicitly links the visitation with conversion of Gentiles, also lays out a sequence of events anticipated by Amos: the rebuilt tent of David precedes the seeking of the Lord by non‐ Jews (Acts 15:14‒17). Restating James’ point in terms of the plot of Luke‐ Acts, we might say that the divine visitation must first restore glory to Is‐ rael and then move outward, revealing salvation to the Gentiles. As we have seen, the series of praise‐following‐healing stories represent the resto‐ ration of glory to Israel, culminating in the symbolic image of a healed, leaping, praising, formerly lame man in Acts 3‒4. From this point, as the divine visitation moves outward from a restored people in Jerusalem, the plot begins to turn toward its second major section: revelation of salvation to the Gentiles. As argued in this chapter, the praise motif tracks this turn in the plot, shifting from healings to conversions, while uniting these two contexts by means of shared vocabulary and similar patterns of praise. In other words, in the complex narrative of Luke‐Acts, the praise motif binds together the two major plot sections—glory to Israel (healing) and revela‐ tion to the Gentiles (conversion)—while also linking them with the infancy narrative (revelation about Jesus’ birth) and with Jesus’ death and resurrec‐ tion (revelation about Jesus’ identity).
Conclusions A. Summary of Argument This study began with the observation that scenes involving praise of God occur repeatedly in the narrative of Luke‐Acts, coinciding with crucial moments in its plot. The pervasiveness of praise in the Lukan narrative has been noted but never studied. Intending to study this narrative motif from both a comparative perspective and through intrinsic literary analysis, the analysis presented above first offers a broad overview of praise of deity in classical Hebrew and classical and Hellenistic Greek texts and then turns to close readings of the motif of praise in Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐ Acts.
1. Praise of God in Context Chapters one and two define praise of God in the ancient world and exam‐ ine its characteristics. This part of the study opens with an important but sometimes overlooked point: both the Jewish and Greek traditions distin‐ guish relatively carefully between petition and praise as two related but different modes of communication with God, while paying little attention to prayer in the inclusive sense. Recognizing praise as a distinct phenome‐ non brings it out from under the umbrella concepts of prayer or hymnody, as a subject of study in its own right. With regard to praise of deity in classical Greek and Jewish Hellenistic texts, the inquiry finds a strong interest in praise among these writers. In the Greek tradition, praise builds χάρις and responds to general or special beneficence. In early Judaism, people tend to praise God for beneficence in the distant past (God as creator) or for saving intervention in the recent past (God as redeemer), corresponding to the modern scholarly categories of descriptive and declarative praise. Praise is thus significant for both Jew‐ ish and Greek religious thinkers because it provides evidence of a person’s righteousness and wisdom (in Jewish texts) and/or produces virtue (in Greek texts). Moreover, these texts closely associate praise of the divine with a per‐ son’s perspective on providence: belief that deity intervenes in a special way to save results in praise for special benefits, but belief in only general beneficence (as in Stoicism) limits praise to general benefaction (air, breath,
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etc.). In Epictetus’ work, blindness to divine providence (lack of recognition of God’s beneficence) silences praise, while conversely, among some Jewish writers, physical suffering and illness may produce metaphorical “death,” also silencing praise. In Isaiah’s restoration oracles, the line between real and metaphorical illness (e.g., blindness and spiritual blindness) becomes blurred with respect to praise because both despair and physical oppres‐ sion can result in a death‐like silence, and in both cases, praise marks a re‐ turn to “life.” Finally, we have seen that praise narrates or retells divine deeds, a point that once noticed is ubiquitous in early Jewish literature that features praise. Praise as narration is explicit in the Greek tradition as well, even to the extent that Plato argues that the best way to praise the divine is simply to relate what has really happened, for the plain truth bestows the greatest honor on deity. Building on this foundation, chapters three and four engage in intrinsic literary analysis of the motif of praise of God in Tobit and Joseph and Ase‐ neth, showing that in both narratives the motif serves as an important structuring device. The pattern of praise guides the reader through signifi‐ cant moments in the plot, introducing and resolving tensions and marking climaxes.1 Both stories involve movements of praise from individual (healed/converted person) to confirmatory praise by witnesses. As re‐ sponses to divine providence (special benefaction which is narrated in the story), characters’ praise emphasizes the need to recognize God’s work, which comes about in part through angelic revelation. In the ironic plot of Tobit, tension related to recognition is central, resolved at the end of the story when Tobit moves from despair to recognition of divine beneficence. When he finally understands (sees) the full extent of God’s mercy, he voices praise, and his hymn acknowledges and interprets God’s actions in the nar‐ rative. The narrative of Joseph and Aseneth focuses on Aseneth’s movement from impurity to acceptability, but recognition also plays a role, for she too moves from despair to realization of her acceptance by God. These move‐ ments from “death to life” mirror the characters’ physical transformations in the narrative. Ultimately, both narratives use the individual stories of the two characters to offer hope for their respective communities. Tobit’s trans‐ formation serves as an example for his people and a metaphor of Israel’s future restoration, which will be met with praise. Aseneth’s transformation is paradigmatic for Gentiles who turn to God; they too will experience mercy and acceptance, and with mouths made clean, voice proper praise. 1
On this point, Freedman writes, “A motif that appears at most or all of the climactic points of a work, particularly if the symbolized referent of the motif is in the fore at these points, has greater effect than one that occurs only in less central passages, par‐ ticularly if these passages do not overtly concern the tenor of the motif,” “Literary Motif,” 126‒7.
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273
2. Praise Responses in Luke‐Acts The second part of the study combines the insights offered in part one with a close reading of the praise motif in Luke‐Acts. This analysis makes the point that in Luke‐Acts, as in the two other narratives, praise of God serves the purposes of the plot. Specifically, praise of God responds to and identi‐ fies for the reader the unfolding divine visitation. Explicit reference to this visitation appears four times: first in praise in the infancy narrative (Lk 1:68, 78); second in praise following healing (Lk 7:16); third near praise as Jesus approaches Jerusalem (Lk 19:44); and fourth in James’ interpretation of the Gentile mission (Acts 15:14). Similarly, the motif of praise of God clusters in four contexts in the narrative: (1) Jesus’ identity in the infancy narrative; (2) healings in Luke and the beginning of Acts; (3) Jesus’ identity as the Messiah, son, and king, who must die and be raised; and (4) conver‐ sions that expand the community to include Gentiles. As argued above and depicted on Table 16, these four references to the visitation (section A) align quite closely with the four contexts for praise (columns 1‒4). In other words, Luke‐Acts depicts the divine visitation un‐ folding in four movements, each marked by praise that clusters in contexts that match this movement. Moreover, these four contexts/movements, cor‐ respond closely with Simeon’s plot summary (section B), in which he speaks of the infant in his arms (Jesus’ birth) as divine salvation and light (Jesus’ identity) bringing glory to Israel (healing/restoration) and revelation to the Gentiles (conversion/expansion). As the story proceeds, characters express praise precisely in response to the four‐fold divine visitation. Thus, by means of the praise motif, the narrative focuses the reader’s attention on key moments in a complex but highly organized plot.
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Conclusions
Table 16 The Praise Motif in Luke‐Acts Revelation (Jesus’ Birth)
Revelation (Jesus’ Identity as Messiah, Son, King, and Risen Lord)
Healings
Conversions
A. The Divine Visitation Zechariah’s praise: visitation is re‐ demption and light (1:68, 78)
Praise after a healing miracle: “God has visited his people” (7:16)
As Jesus enters Jerusalem: visitation not recognized by Jerusalem (but implicitly, by disciples, through praise) (Lk 19:44)
James asserts that the visita‐ tion includes conversion of the Gentiles (Acts 15:14)
B. Simeon’s Praise (Lk 2:28‒32) καὶ αὐτὸς ἐδέξατο αὐτὸ εἰς τὰς ἀγκάλας . . .
εἰς . . . δόξαν λαοῦ σου Ἰσραήλ
εἶδον οἱ ὀφθαλμοί μου τὸ σωτήριόν σου φῶς . . .
. . . εἰς ἀποκάλυψιν ἐθνῶν
C. Pattern of Praise Four anticipations of joy: • Three angelic speeches (Lk 1:14; 1:28; 2:10) Eight responses of joy and praise: • Mary (Lk 1:46‒55) • Zechariah (Lk 1:64, 68‒79) • Six other indi‐ viduals or groups (Lk 1:41‒44, 58, 2:13‒14, 20, 29‒32, 38)
Six healing sto‐ I: Identity as Messiah, Son, ries: King: • Paralyzed • Jesus speaks a berakah for man, raised food related to his identity son, straight‐ as Messiah (Lk 9:16) ened woman, • Jesus exhorts joy (Lk 10:20) cleansed • Jesus speaks praise for di‐ leper, blind vine revelation of his iden‐ man, leaping tity (Lk 10:21‒22) man • Disciples praise God for the • Five healed Messiah, Son, and King (Lk individuals 19:37‒38) respond with II: Identity as Risen Lord: • Jesus speaks berakot for praise (Lk food related to his death 5:25; 13:13; (Lk 22:15‒20) 17:15; 18:43; • Centurion responds to Je‐ Αcts 3:9) sus with praise (Lk 23:47) • Echoed in • Disciples respond with corporate praise to post‐resurrection praise (Lk revelation (Lk 24:41‐53) 5:26; 7:16; • People’s praise responds to 13:17; 18:43; Jesus’ identity, particularly Acts 4:21) as revealed in his death and resurrection (Acts 2:36‐47)
Two cycles of conversion: • Peter’s minis‐ try and Paul’s ministry • People con‐ verted re‐ spond with praise (Acts 10:45‐46; 13:46‐48) • Echoed even‐ tually in cor‐ porate praise in Jerusalem (Acts 11:18; 21:18‐20) • Paul’s praise on the way to Rome (Acts 27:35; 28:15)
Summary of Argument
275
Table 16 (Continued) Revelation (Jesus’ Birth) Zechariah’s disbelief and silence
Praise by Zecha‐ riah following restoration of sight (Lk 1:64)
Praise interprets births as initiat‐ ing the eschato‐ logical restora‐ tion of Israel
Revelation (Jesus’ Identity as Messiah, Son, King, and Risen Lord) D. Narrative Tensions Religious objec‐ I: The disciples cannot tions by Jesus’ understand Jesus’ death opponents (Lk 9:45; 18:34) II: Jerusalem does not rec‐ ognize her visitation (Lk 19:44) E. Resolution (*=partial) Praise by wit‐ I: Praise by disciples fol‐ nesses following lowing revelation (Lk healings* 24:41‒53)* II: Praise by the people of Israel for salvation in Je‐ rusalem (Acts 2:36‒47)* Healings
F. Eschatological Salvation Healings are I: A king comes in the signs of Israel’s name of the Lord (Lk restoration (Lk 19:37‒38). 4:18‒20; 7:20‒22; II: Messiah had to suffer Acts 4:16, 22) and be raised (Lk 24:26, 46); Salvation has ar‐ rived for all who call on the name of the Lord (Acts 2:16‒20)
Conversions
Religious objec‐ tions by believ‐ ers in Jerusalem (Acts 11:2‒3; 15:1‒30)
Praise by be‐ lievers in Jeru‐ salem following Gentile conver‐ sions (Acts 11:17‒18; 21:18‒20)* Gentile conver‐ sions fulfill Isaiahʹs eschato‐ logical expecta‐ tions (Acts 13:47) and have been long ex‐ pected to ac‐ company resto‐ ration of Israel (Acts 15:14‒17)
In each of the four contexts, the pattern of praise (section C) exhibits dis‐ tinctive characteristics, yet there are parallels among them. For example, the patterns of praise in contexts one and three, while not identical, corre‐ spond in a number of ways. In the infancy narrative (context one), praise moves through three progressions of angelic revelation of joy and of Jesus’ identity, which each produce responses of joyous praise. This praise in turn interprets the birth of Jesus as the dawn of eschatological salvation. Con‐ text three similarly associates praise with revelation about Jesus, which unfolds in two cycles. In the first cycle, Jesus praises God for food related to his Messianic identity and for revelation to the disciples about his unique connection to God. Like the angel, he also exhorts them to rejoice. In apparent response to this exhortation and exemplary praise, the disci‐ ples voice a loud outburst of joyous praise as Jesus approaches Jerusalem. Like the characters in the infancy narrative, they show that they accept di‐
276
Conclusions
vine revelation and recognize Jesus not only as Messiah but also as son and king. In the second cycle, Jesus offers berakot again for food, this time repre‐ senting his death. While a centurion’s praise marks the moment of Jesus’ death, this surprising event is not fully understood until the disciples’ minds are opened to the full extent of Jesus’ identity through revelation by the risen Lord at the very end of the Gospel: they respond with continual, joyous praise in the temple. Praise in the temple thus opens and closes the Gospel, and when the story resumes, the disciples’ praise in response to a new understanding of Jesus’ identity finds an echo in the people’s praise in Jerusalem following belief, repentance, and salvation. The parallels in the pattern of praise between contexts two (healing) and four (conversion) are even closer. In healing stories, characters recog‐ nize their healings through Jesus (and later, through Peter and John) as the saving work of God, acknowledging this recognition through praise, which witnesses echo. Similarly, in conversion stories, believing Gentiles respond with inspired praise, which serves as a sign of their acceptability to God, and their responses are eventually echoed in the praise of the community’s Jewish leadership in Jerusalem. The pattern of praise in both contexts also involves religious objections that threaten the expression of praise, creating narrative tension related to silence. These tensions resolve through com‐ munal praise responses, but some characters express blame or remain si‐ lent. Throughout the narrative, the four contexts for praise overlap by means of internal echoes. In the infancy narrative (context one), Zechariah’s praise responds to an experience of healing (the restoration of his speech and hearing), pointing forward to context two. The story of the raising of the widow’s son (context two), may foreshadow Jesus’ resurrection (context three): both engender responses of praise. Similarly, the story of Jesus’ heal‐ ing of the Samaritan leper and his praise response (context two) anticipates Gentile conversions (context four), while a centurion’s response to Jesus’ death (context three) also foreshadows praise by Gentiles, initiated by the curiosity of a God‐fearing centurion (context four). Analysis of the praise motif also reveals numerous verbal correspondences among scenes of praise, which further bind the praise motif together across its various con‐ texts. Through such techniques, the narrative depicts the story of the visita‐ tion as planned and overseen by God, proceeding through time in a pur‐ poseful and ordered way, and consistently met with the same response: joyous praise. These four contexts work together to show how the visitation, initiated through angelic revelation to Zechariah in Jerusalem, moves outward from this geographic center all the way to Rome, the place from which a reader might expect the praise response to extend to the ends of the earth. As the visitation unfolds sequentially in the narrative, praise responds first to Je‐
Summary of Argument
277
sus’ birth and then to his healing ministry to the people of Israel, along with one Samaritan. These “surprising things”—wrought by God through Jesus as he moves through Galilee and then turns toward Jerusalem—build a communal response of praise that climaxes in joyful shouts of praise by the disciples almost at the city’s gates. But once Jesus enters the city, this procession of praise falls silent (except for Jesus’ own praise). Praise responses resume immediately upon Jesus’ death, building again to a climax in Jerusalem, when the saved community offers continual praise in the temple. At this point, the restoration of Israel has been nar‐ rated, but the visitation of God continues to move through the story as the restored community draws into it both Jews and Gentiles, but the praise motif clusters around Gentile response, the final surprising turn within the plot. Finally, we see the visitation reach Rome, marked by the praise of Paul, which—with Mary’s hymn—creates an inclusio of praise around the entire two‐volume work. The dramatic four‐chapter silencing of praise in Jerusalem is the most intense example of an ongoing narrative tension created by resistance to the divine visitation (silence, misunderstanding, objections, and blame) (section D). This ongoing tension results in a theme of division that spans the entire narrative (Lk 2:35; Acts 28:25‒28). Divided response in turn de‐ rives from the key paradox of the divine visitation in Luke‐Acts: although it happens completely according to God’s plan, as already revealed in scripture, it offers such a surprise that recognition of it is not automatic. The arrogance and (metaphorical) blindness of some characters threatens to block recognition of divine beneficence and thus silence praise. But other characters recognize God’s saving actions (healings and conversions) and acknowledge divine beneficence in praise. Divine revelation—by an angel in the infancy narrative and by Jesus toward the middle of Luke—expands this recognition to include awareness of Jesus’ identity as Messiah, son, and king. But the real paradox of the divine visitation lies in the surprise of Je‐ sus’ death and resurrection, about which understanding comes only through revelation by the risen Lord. A final surprise manifests in the ex‐ pansion of the visitation to Gentiles (without their first becoming Jews). Divided response ultimately creates a new community of people praising God for their experience of salvation through Jesus, which expands to in‐ clude some Gentiles. In contrast, lack of praise depicts a divided response to the visitation by both Jewish and non‐Jewish character groups. Finally, in each of the four contexts, the narrative presents the praise of characters as fulfilling prophetic expectations that joyous praise (by both Jews and Gentiles) would accompany the time of eschatological salvation (section E). 1)
Praise in the infancy narrative, by means of numerous allusions to es‐ chatological expectations, interprets the two births as initiating Israel’s
278
2)
3)
4)
Conclusions
redemption. Moreover, the praise itself resembles the kind of eschato‐ logical praise expected to be heard on that day, particularly LXX Ps 97. Healing in Luke‐Acts shows fulfillment of Isaiah’s expectations about divine restoration, including the anticipated response of praise, and some of the praise‐following‐healing stories allude to specific pro‐ phetic descriptions of Israel’s restoration. Particularly evocative is the story of the formerly lame man’s leaping, exuberant praise in the tem‐ ple, as Peter makes clear in his interpretation of this event. As Jesus approaches Jerusalem, the disciples’ praise in response to rec‐ ognition of Jesus’ identity echoes expectations about the eschatological coming of Israel’s king. Later, Jesus and Peter both interpret Jesus’ death and resurrection as fulfilling prophetic expectations (Lk 24:46; Acts 2:25‒31), and both of these dual revelations are greeted by joyous praise (Lk 24:52‒53; Acts 2:46‒47). Moreover, Peter connects David’s prophetic anticipation of the Messiah’s resurrection with joy, which be‐ comes a precursor to the joyous praise of the restored community (LXX Ps 15:8‒11; Acts 2:25‒31, 46‒47). In Acts, Paul (Acts 13) and James (Acts 15) identify the conversion of Gentiles as an expected movement within the eschatological visitation. Both of their statements are also greeted with expressions of praise and joy, expressed by Gentile converts. Given the narrative’s close associa‐ tion of the praise motif with eschatological praise, it is likely that these expressions of praise, along with the praise of Cornelius and his household, fulfill prophetic expectations that the praise of the Gentiles will ring out when divine salvation extends to the “ends of the earth.”
A narrative motif, to be considered such, must function symbolically. So it is important to ask what praise of God symbolizes in Luke‐Acts. We have shown above that praise clusters around the notion of the divine visitation unfolding in four movements in the plot. When characters in Luke‐Acts respond with praise to their personal experiences of divine salvation (mi‐ raculous fertility; restored sight, hearing, and/or speech; straightening; cleansing; healing; revelation; salvation; and conversion), they acknowl‐ edge the divine visitation. Thus on one level, praise symbolizes the move‐ ment of eschatological divine visitation through the narrative. But as we have also seen, the narrative also associates characters’ praise with expecta‐ tions of eschatological praise; so on another level, it is reasonable to con‐ clude that the motif of praise depicts the fulfillment of these expectations: characters’ responses of praise symbolize the eschatological glorification of God anticipated upon the day of salvation. In short, the motif of praise of God in Luke‐Acts not only acknowledges the divine realization of prom‐ ises made long before but it also fulfills them.
Implications
279
B. Implications A number of implications may be drawn from the analysis, presented above, of praise of God in three ancient narrative texts. First, with regard to Luke‐Acts, the study has shed light on a neglected narrative motif, noticed but not studied. By paying close attention to the narrative effect of praise of God, looking at the contexts in which praise occurs, the motivations for characters’ praise, the role played by praise in the plot, and how praise con‐ tributes to characterization, this investigation has shown that the motif of praise figures quite prominently in the structure and purposes of Luke‐ Acts, used by the author in service of a complex and purposeful plot. Praise in the infancy narrative provides the “thesis” for how the divine visitation will unfold in the plot; four references to the divine visitation correspond with four contexts for praise; the visitation unfolds in two pri‐ mary ways (restoration/universal salvation) surrounding a centerpiece fo‐ cused on Jesus’ experiences in Jerusalem; and the praise motif throughout this complex structure creates a consistent pattern of divine action and revelation resulting in human resistance or recognition, marked by re‐ sponses of silence/blame or praise. As a whole, the analysis of praise in Luke‐Acts brings to the fore an often‐noticed, little appreciated, yet highly significant motif used by the writer in the service of structure and plot to convey meaning as the story unfolds for the reader. Because these findings show consistent and careful use of the motif across both the Gospel and Acts, they contribute evidence in support of Luke‐Acts as a single work in two volumes. Second, the praise motif conveys the important point that while God has not yet restored all things (Acts 3:21), the restoration of Israel occurs successfully within narrative time in Luke‐Acts, through the agency of the Messiah and resulting in a new community of Jews joined with Gentiles who offer ongoing (and growing) praise of God. It is true that the contrast of silence/blame and praise creates an ongoing tension in the story, felt most strongly in the dark days in Jerusalem, which the narrator empha‐ sizes by silencing the praise motif. Still, praise of God encircles this silent center of the plot (Lk 19:37‒38; 23:47), and elsewhere, praise of God perme‐ ates the two volumes, identifying, celebrating, and linking together a vari‐ ety of joy‐filled, successful moments within the divine visitation. In other words, the praise motif—with the exception of the dark days in Jerusa‐ lem—lends an epideictic tone to the narrative, which suggests that Luke‐ Acts is not a tragedy.2 2
Pace R. C. Tannehill, “Israel in Luke‐Acts: A Tragic Story,” JBL 104 (1985): 69‒85, 78‒81.
280
Conclusions
The tension created by Jerusalem’s resistance to the visitation is pro‐ found, but like other, smaller narrative tensions related to divided re‐ sponse, it is not final. Praise responses begin to resolve this tension as soon as Jesus dies (the centurion’s praise), and resolution comes more fully in the joyous praise response of his disciples, followed by thousands of Jews in Jerusalem (Lk 24; Acts 2‒4). The narrative does not shy away from the tragic part of the story (the rejection of the divine visitation by the πόλις of Jerusalem) but it also surrounds this part of the story with a larger celebra‐ tion (the acceptance of the divine visitation by the λαός within Jerusalem and their resulting praise). In Luke‐Acts, the effects of Jerusalem’s rejection are tragic politically (Lk 19:44), but that is only part of the story. Through the praise motif, the narrative shows that joy, which opens the narrative, ulti‐ mately does not turn to mourning. Rather, joyous praise consistently greets the divine plan to the story’s very end. Third, the study demonstrates that the praise motif in Luke‐Acts shares affinities with praise in Tobit and Joseph and Aseneth. These two texts were initially chosen for comparative analysis simply because they are relatively contemporaneous narratives that feature praise of God as a recurring mo‐ tif. But as has become clear in the course of study, praise clusters in the same contexts in all three narratives. In Tobit, praise centers on healings and angelic revelation; in JA, on conversion and angelic revelation; and in Luke‐Acts on healings, conversions, and divine revelation (by an angel and Jesus). As we have seen, characters’ praise responses in all three narratives mark key moments and climaxes in the plots; engender and resolve narra‐ tive tensions; unite various parts of the story; create parallels between characters (such as between Tobit and Sarah or between healed and con‐ verted people); acknowledge and interpret divine saving action, bringing God more explicitly onto the surface of the narrative; while also contribut‐ ing theological meaning to the stories (theodicy, acceptance before God, salvation/transformation, and eschatology). Further, through the praise motif, the three narratives link individual and communal transformation, so that the experience of salvation by indi‐ viduals (healing, conversion) represents that of their communities (restora‐ tion, wide‐ranging salvation). Chapter two of this monograph identifies a basis for this commonality: in the oracles of Isaiah, praise responds both to personal transformation and to national restoration. As we have seen, Philo and Ben Sira adapt Isaiah’s praise imagery for their own purposes, focusing on the individual, particularly the sage. In a different way, Tobit, Joseph and Aseneth, and Luke‐Acts weave Isaiah’s expectations about praise into their stories while linking its individual and communal components. Characters in the three narratives experience divine reversal resulting in personal transformation, and they respond with praise, which in turn anticipates
Implications
281
communal praise in response to eschatological restoration (Tobit and JA) or show these expectations as being fulfilled (Luke‐Acts).3 By tracing the praise motif in these narratives, we have found evidence of a wide‐ranging expectation that Isaiah’s new song would serve as important indicator of divine restoration/salvation. This conclusion in turn supports the notion that Luke‐Acts shares a common worldview with these texts, with regard to Jewish expectations about praise. Fourth, the conclusions about praise offered for each of the three texts derive from close readings of praise as a narrative feature; they could not have resulted, for example, from a purely philological analysis of praise vocabulary or from a study of the forms of praise in these texts without attention to narrative dynamics. Analyses that focus on diachronic ques‐ tions have contributed much to historians’ understandings of ancient cul‐ ture, history, and religion and will continue to do so, but it is also worth‐ while to investigate ancient narratives as narratives. The fact that previous studies have not focused on the motif of praise—revealed in this study as a significant element within the plots of these three ancient narratives— suggests that synchronic analysis contributes something distinctive to the academic quest to understand ancient texts, their audiences, and the people who wrote them. But at the same time, the broader study of praise of deity that opened this study (chapters one and two) laid the groundwork for narrative analysis of the praise motif—informing each of the three narra‐ tive analyses and offering an explanation for the commonalities among them—which shows that synchronic study ought not be divorced from relevant extrinsic research (a point particularly true with regard to ancient texts). Fifth, across the three narratives, we have found that the motif of praise emphasizes the dynamic role played by God, who intervenes to save and heal, sending agents to overturn oppression. Those who recognize divine agency acknowledge it by offering praise for special beneficence. Our analysis of the praise motif in Tobit has shown that in this story God or‐ chestrates and cares about not only Tobit and Sarah’s healings but about Tobit’s perspective on divine providence: Tobit must come to recognize God’s constant merciful intervention on behalf of God’s people. In JA, the praise motif (alongside angelic revelation) conveys the importance of God’s role in Aseneth’s conversion, which involves not simply the human side (repentance, rejection of idolatry) but also the divine (acceptance, confirma‐ tion). As noted previously, divine activity spans a spectrum: determinism on one end and special benefaction on the other. Two of the stories, Luke‐Acts 3
My analysis of JA concludes that Aseneth’s transformation represents communal hopes and alludes to prophetic depictions of Jerusalem’s eschatological future, but the precise community she represents is less clear.
282
Conclusions
and Tobit, narrate a view of God that holds the two in tension. Events un‐ fold in complete accordance with the divine plan, but God also intervenes to help individuals (in response to petitions), reversing their circumstances. For the most part, praise responds to divinely empowered reversals. Thus ongoing, continual praise in these narratives cannot be considered praise‐ for‐everything‐as‐it‐is, as in Stoicism, but rather confidence about contin‐ ued special divine beneficence anchored in past experiences of God’s saving intervention. Joseph and Aseneth has less to say about the plan of God, but Aseneth—like Tobit and characters in Luke‐Acts—receives special benefi‐ cence and responds with praise. With regard to divine activity in Luke‐Acts, a comparison with Epic‐ tetus’ perspective on praise is informative. In his discourse about praise, Epictetus says: “It is easy to praise divine providence (ῥᾴδιόν ἐστιν ἐγκωμιάσαι τὴν πρόνοιαν) if only one sees (ὁράω) and understands (παρακολουθέω) properly the things that happen.” Perhaps it is no acci‐ dent that the relatively well‐educated author of Luke similarly asserts that his narrative, based on eyewitness accounts (αὐτόπται), depicts not only what has happened but what has been “followed closely” or possibly, properly understood (παρακολουθέω) (Lk 1:1‒4). For Luke as for Epictetus, proper understanding of divine providence produces praise, but unlike the Stoic philosopher, the people who offer praise in Luke’s narrative recognize God’s special, saving intervention into human affairs. Their praise re‐ sponses bind together the four movements of the divine visitation, ac‐ knowledging each of them as comprising God’s providential plan. Atten‐ tion to the praise motif thus sheds light on the theocentric quality of the narrative, contributing to a better understanding of Luke’s portrayal of God, which as N. Dahl pointed out some years ago, constitutes a some‐ times overlooked topic in New Testament studies.4 So too, scenes in which Jesus accepts praise otherwise directed to God or in which people praise Jesus’ name ought to be considered in investigations of Luke’s Christology. Sixth, this study of praise in the three narratives points to a number of areas for future research. On the one hand, because of the surprising pau‐ city of secondary studies devoted to the topic of ancient praise, the research presented in chapters one and two sought to define praise and to overview ancient discourse on praise, for the purpose of providing contextual sup‐ port for the narrative analyses that followed. These chapters offered a brief tour of ancient praise but also pointed toward a larger body of evidence, which merits more extensive investigation. On the other hand, the realization that praise of God functions as a sig‐ nificant narrative device not just in Luke‐Acts but also in Tobit and Joseph 4
N. Dahl, “The Neglected Factor in New Testament Theology,” Reflections 73 (1975): 5‒8.
Implications
283
and Aseneth invites exploration of the same motif in other narratives featur‐ ing recurring instances of praise. Some early Jewish examples include Esther and Daniel (with the Greek additions to these works) and the Testa‐ ment of Solomon (featuring twenty‐six scenes of narrated praise), as well as Josephus’ Antiquities and Pseudo‐Philo, both retellings of scriptural narra‐ tives that introduce praise into scenes where it does not appear originally. Within the New Testament, the Apocalypse of John (Revelation) includes numerous instances of narrated praise of God, which share some affinities with Luke‐Acts.5 Some early Christian narratives also feature narrated praise, such as Acts of Xanthippe and Polyxena, Acts of Thomas, Acts of Paul, Protoevangelium of James, and to a lesser extent, the Acts of Philip, Shepherd of Hermas, and Acts of Peter. Is praise incidental in these narratives or does it play a role in shaping the plot, structure, and characterization? It would be interesting to investigate the extent to which the praise motif in later texts may be modeled upon either Luke or Acts (or even Tobit or JA). To conclude, it is fitting to offer a final reflection on the praise motif in Luke‐Acts. As a historiographer, the author of Luke‐Acts sets out to write an orderly narrative, recounting with care and accuracy the events that have been brought to fulfillment by God. The findings of this study give some insight into the authorial process: this skilled author has used the praise motif as an important tool to unite disparate elements—a sweeping story, varied source material, many potentially unconnected episodes, and numerous minor characters—into a satisfying and purposeful literary whole, in keeping with his own claims in the preface to the work (Lk 1:1‒4). But the praise motif is more than just a structuring device. Our re‐ view of praise in the ancient world has found that praise not only lauds deity but narrates (διηγέομαι) divine beneficence. This observation corre‐ sponds with the function of praise in Luke’s historiography, in which re‐ peated praise responses bring God to the center of the story, turning the entire narrative (διήγησις) into declarative praise for the God of Israel. Per‐ haps the author had in mind something akin to Socrates’ assertion that the greatest way to honor deity inheres in recounting genuine history, narrated with accuracy. If so, then among the various purposes for which the narra‐ tive of Luke‐Acts may have been written, this study proposes another: to glorify God.
5
E.g., Rev 1:16, 4:9‒11, 5:11‒13, 7:12, 11:13‒18, 19:1‒7; cf. 14:7 and 15:4 (exhortations to praise), 16:9 (absence of praise), 18:7 (critique of self glorification), and 22:8‒9 (im‐ proper praise).
Appendix 1 Overview of Praise of God In Luke‐Acts Luke 1:46‐55 1:64, 68‐78 2:13‐14 2:20 2:28‐33 2:38 5:17‐26 7:11‐17 9:16 10:21 13:11‐17
17:11‐17 18:35‐43 19:37‐40 22:17‐19 23:47 24:50‐53
Description of Praise Mary’s hymn (μεγαλύνω) Zechariah’s hymn (εὐλογέω, εὐλογητός) The angels’ hymn (αἰνέω) The shepherds’ praise (αἰνέω, δοξάζω) Simeon’s hymn (εὐλογέω) Anna’s praise (ἀνθομολογέω) Praise of God by paralytic man healed by Jesus and praise by crowd (δοξάζω, 2x) Praise of God by crowd (δοξάζω) after Jesus raises widow’s son A berakah for food (εὐλογέω) by Jesus Thanks to God by Jesus (ἐξομολογέω) for revealing truth to infants Praise of God by woman straightened by Jesus (δοξάζω) and rejoicing by the crowd at the wonderful things (ἐδόξος) Jesus was doing Loud praise of God by one of ten healed lepers healed by Jesus (δοξάζω) and thanks to Jesus (εὐχαριστέω) Praise of God by blind man healed by Jesus (δοξάζω) and crowd (διδόναι αἶνον) Praise of God by disciples as Jesus approaches Jerusalem (αἰνέω) Berakot for food by Jesus (εὐχαριστέω, 2x) Praise of God by centurion at the foot of the cross (δοξάζω) Praise of God in Jerusalem by the disciples after revelation by Jesus and his ascension (εὐλογέω)
Appendix 1: Overview of Praise of God in Luke‐Acts
285
Acts 2:42‐47 3:1‐10, 4:21 10:44‐48 11:17‐18 13:46‐8
16:35 19:17
21:18‐20 27:35 28:15
Description of Praise Praise of God by believers in Jerusalem after Peter’s sermon (αἰνέω). Praise of God by lame man healed by Peter (3:8‐9, αἰνέω twice) and praise by crowd (4:21, δοξάζω) Praise of God by Gentiles in Caesarea (μεγαλύνω) Praise of God by Judean believers (δοξάζω) after hearing Peter describe the conversion of Gentiles Praise of God by certain Gentiles in Antioch (δοξάζω) in response to the “the word of the Lord” voiced by Paul and Barnabas Singing of hymns to God by Paul and Barnabas (ὑμνέω) in prison [not clearly praise] Praise for the “name of the Lord Jesus” voiced by residents of Ephesus (μεγαλύνω, passive) after Paul heals people but other healers fail to use the name of Jesus to heal Believers in Jerusalem praise God (δοξάζω) after hearing Paul describe his ministry to the Gentiles A berakah for food by Paul (εὐχαριστέω) on board the ship Praise for God by Paul (εὐχαριστέω) as he approaches Rome and is met by Roman believers
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Trites, Allison A. “The Prayer Motif in Luke‐Acts.” Pages 168–86 in Perspec‐ tives on Luke‐Acts. Edited by Charles H. Talbert. Perspectives in Reli‐ gious Studies Special Series 5. Danville, Va.: Association of Baptist Pro‐ fessors of Religion, 1978. Unnik, Willem Cornelius van. “Eine werkwürdige liturgische Aussage bei Josephus.” Pages 362–9 in Josephus‐Studien: Untersuchungen zu Josephus, dem antiken Judentum und dem Neuen Testament, Otto Michel zum 70. Ge‐ burtstag gewidmet. Edited by Martin Hengel, Otto Betz, and Klaus Haacker. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1974. Versnel, Hendrik S. “Religious Mentality in Ancient Prayer.” Pages 42–62 in Faith, Hope and Worship: Aspects of Religious Mentality in the Ancient World. Edited by Hendrik S. Versnel. Studies in Greek and Roman Re‐ ligion 2. Leiden: Brill, 1981. Virgil. The Aeneid. Translated by Robert Fitzgerald. New York: Random House, 1983. Wagner, J. Ross. “The Christ, Servant of Jew and Gentile: A Fresh Approach to Romans 15:8–9.” Journal of Biblical Literature 116 (1997): 473–95. Weitzman, Steven. “Allusions, Artifice, and Exile in the Hymn of Tobit.” Journal of Biblical Literature 115 (1996): 49–61. ________. Song and Story in Biblical Narrative: The History of a Literary Con‐ vention in Ancient Israel. Indiana Studies in Biblical Literature. Bloom‐ ington: Indiana University Press, 1997. Wellek, René and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. 3rd ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977. West, S. “Joseph and Aseneth: A Neglected Greek Romance.” Classical Quar‐ terly 24 (1974): 70–81. Westermann, Claus. Praise and Lament in the Psalms. Translated by Keith R. Crim and Richard N. Soulen. Atlanta, Ga.: Knox, 1981. Wills, Lawrence M. The Jewish Novel in the Ancient World. Myth and Poetics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995. Wire, Antoinette C. “The Structure of the Gospel Miracle Stories and Their Tellers.” Semeia 11 (1978): 83–111. Wolff, Hans Walter. Joel and Amos: A Commentary on the Books of the Prophets Joel and Amos. Translated by Waldemar Janzen, S. Dean McBride, Jr., and Charles A. Muenchow. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977. Wolfson, Harry A. Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Chris‐ tianity, and Islam. 2 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1948. York, John O. The Last Shall Be First: The Rhetoric of Reversal in Luke. Journal for the Study of the New Testament: Supplement Series 46. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990. Ziegler, Joseph. Sapientia Iesu Filii Sirach. Vetus Testamentum Graecum 12.2. Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht: Göttingen 1965.
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Index of Ancient Sources Biblical Sources Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Genesis 2:9 4:13‒14 9:26 11:30 12:2 15:8 16:2 17:19 21:6 25:21 25:22 25:23‒24 27:30 29:31 29:32 30:13 30:22 30:23 30:35 34:3 34:14 39:6 49:1 50:25
111 20 45 171 154 174 173 170 118, 170 145, 170, 171 145, 170 145 144 171 168, 170 170 168, 172 167, 170 46 57 167 111 228 131
Exodus 3:16 4:31 6:6 15:1 15:2 15:12 15:17‒19 28:17
131 162 57 37, 62 55 57 37 37
Leviticus 19:23‒24 19:24 20:17
45 45 167
Deuteronomy 1:39 4:29‒35
62 262
5:23 10:21 16:11 28:7 31‒32 32:39 34:12
144 159, 202 90 28 94 xiii, 94, 129, 130 159
Joshua 3:5 5:1 7:19‒21
159 144 88
Judges 2:7 13‒16 13:2‒3 19:3
159 170 171 57
Ruth 1:6 1‒4 2:13
131 126 57
1 Samuel 1:11 1:18 1:19‒20 2 2:5 2:6‒8 2:7‒8 12:24 13:10 24:2
168, 170 170 170 172 171 170 168, 172 154 144 143
2 Samuel 5:10 7:21‒26 22:51
154 155 154
1 Kings 1:37 1:47 8:33‒35 13
154 154 27 90
304
Index of Ancient Sources
2 Kings 11:14 11:20 23:17
162 162 90
1 Chronicles 9:1 10:13
126 126
2 Chronicles 6:24‒26 35:25
27 22
Nehemiah 2:17 9:15 9:33 13:3
167 117 88 144
Job 8:21
118
Psalms 5:13 (LXX) 6:5 6:6 (LXX) 6:30 7:1 9:3 (LXX) 9:13‒14 =LXX 9:14‒15 11:8 (LXX) 12:6 (LXX) 15 15:8‒11 (LXX) 16:14 (LXX) 17:47‒51 (LXX) 17:50 (LXX) 19:6‒8 (LXX) 19:8 21:27 (LXX) 23:5 (LXX) 26:6‒7 =LXX 25:6‒7 29:10 (LXX) 30:8 (LXX) 30:10 =LXX 30:9 30:19 (LXX) 31:11 (LXX) 32:1 (LXX) 33:1 33:3 33:3‒4 (LXX) 34:27 (LXX) 39:17 (LXX) 40:4 43:14 (LXX)
163 56 11 56 22 216 68 81 216 8 247, 278 230 155 263 146 220 262 193 68 67 61 56 37 61 216 44 58, 146 146 146 62, 146 58 167
46:11 (LXX) 50:20 (LXX) 64:11 65:17 (LXX) 68:14 (LXX) 68:31 (LXX) 68:31‒33 (LXX) 69:5 (LXX) 71:14‒15 =LXX 70:14‒15 71:19 72:2 72:18 73:28 =LXX 72:28 74:2 76:12‒15 77:20 =LXX 76:20 78:4 =LXX 77:4 78:13 (LXX) 86:10 89:32‒34 (LXX) 91:5‒6 (LXX) 95:2 (LXX) 96:1 97 (LXX) 97:1‒3 (LXX) 97:3‒9 (LXX) 97:4 (LXX) 97:6‒8 (LXX) 98:1 98:3 103:1 (LXX) 103:24 (LXX) 105:1 (LXX) 105:4 (LXX) 105:4‒5 (LXX) 105:43 (LXX) 105:47 (LXX) 106:9 (LXX) 106:21 106:21‒22 106:22 =LXX 107:22 113:7‒8 113:9 113‒118 114:4‒6 (LXX) 116:1 (LXX) 116:6 118 118:25 119:130
155 163 44 154 163 62 146 146 68 159 162 159 68 57 159 55 68 67 159 84 146 67 58 179, 256, 278 xiii, 160, 164, 165 262 216 59 58, 159 172 146, 155 146, 155 67 126, 132, 163 126, 132, 163 126 163 230 159 159 68 172 171, 172 56 145 263 220 225, 228 224 220
125:1‒6 (LXX) 125:2 (LXX) 125:2‒3 (LXX) 126 =LXX 125 126:2‒3 =LXX 125:2‒3 136:4 137:1‒5 144:4 (LXX) 144:9 144:16 (LXX) 149:1 150
Hebrew Bible/Old Testament 153 153, 154, 177 146, 154 154, 156 156 159 99 67 58 163 58 21
Proverbs 15:27 24:19 29:6
193 140 44
Lamentations 2:1 4:21
62 140
Song of Songs 7:13
62
Isaiah 1:5‒6 1:6 1:27 3:16‒26 6:3 9:6 11 11:1‒16 11:10 11:10‒13 11:15‒16 11:16 12:1‒16 12:4‒6 12:6 16:10 19:18‒25 19:22 24:8 24:11 24:14‒16 24:16‒23 25:1 26:17‒19 29:10‒14 29:18‒19 30:26 34‒35 35
205 206 193 126 227 162 55, 57, 58, 263 55 263 55 55 55 55 55 55, 56, 62 56 125 129, 130 56 56 56 56 159, 166 56, 57 217 177 156 54 58, 205, 206
35:1‒2 35:1‒10 35:3‒6 35:5 35:5‒6 35:6 35:9 35:9‒10 38:16‒20 40:1‒9 40:4 40:5 40‒55 41:8‒9 41:16 41:27 42:6 42:7 42:10 42:10‒12 42:10‒13 42:12 42:14 42:16 43:16 43:19 43:19‒21 44:1 44:21‒26 44:23 44:26‒28 45:5 45:13 45:16 45:22‒23 46:13 48:20 49 49:6 49:11 49:13 49:14‒26 49:14‒50:3 49:21 49:22 51 51:2 51:3 51:4 51:5 51:9 51:9‒11 51:10 51:10‒11 51:11
305 44, 58, 59 44, 58, 59, 177, 222 59, 205 177, 208 176, 177 59, 205 155, 205 155 64 57 207 164 54, 57, 58 159, 161 57, 216 57 164 208 58, 164, 262 57, 58 56 67 58 58, 156, 206 55, 206 206 58 159 155 56, 57 57 159 206 202 262 57, 62, 164 57, 262 59 164, 165, 257 206 56, 57, 216 157 57, 58 58, 171 58 202, 203 203 57, 126, 164, 203 164, 172 159 202 155, 159, 166 55, 57, 206 203 57
306 51:14 51:17 51:17‒52:10 52:2‒10 52:3 52:7 52:8‒10 52:9 52:9‒10 52:10 54 54:1 54:1‒11 54:1‒17 54:1‒6 54:1‒8 54:4 54:6 54:10‒14 54:11 55:12 57:14 58:6 58:6‒8 58:1‒14 58:10 58:12 59:16 59:20 60:1 60:1‒4 60:3 60:5‒6 60:15 60:17 60:18 60:19 60:20 60‒62 61:1 61:1‒11 61:1‒2 61:1‒3 61:10 61:10‒11 62:1 62:4 62:4‒5 62:4‒9 62:9‒11 62:10 62:11‒12 64:9 65:11‒14 65:13‒14
Index of Ancient Sources 202 203 57 166 57 234 164 126 262 159 158 57, 58, 126, 171 173 57, 58 126 157 169 126 155 171, 233 164 206 207, 209 155 126 156 126 159 171 156, 164 164 156 59 59, 126, 164 234 59, 162, 164 156, 164 57, 156 59 177, 207 177 60, 102, 207, 209 60, 254 111, 216 57 156 126 157 60 262 206 155, 166 126 60 57, 60
65:17‒19 65:18‒19 66:7 66:7‒10 66:7‒11 66:7‒14 66:9 66:10 66:10‒11 66:10‒14 66:12
60 57 173 229 157 157, 173 173 140, 157 57 233 233
Jeremiah 8:3 16:18 27:11 29:10‒14 30:12‒21 =LXX 37:12‒21 31:4‒14 =LXX 38:4‒14 31:13 =LXX 38:13 31:26 33:1‒12 =LXX 40:1‒12 38:10‒14
155
Ezekiel 7:12 20:30 22:5 36:31 37:1‒14 43:8
140 126 126 126 56 126
Daniel 5:5 9:1 9:14 9:20‒23
216 81 88 118
Daniel (Theodotion) 3:6 3:15 4:33 5:5
216 216 216 216
Hosea 9:1
140
Joel 1:17 2:9‒3:5 2:17 2:19‒27 2:21 2:21‒23 2:21‒26
145 154 169 156, 229 140, 154, 156, 229 139 173
81 126 145 132 57 57 91 62 57
New Testament
2:23 140, 156, 229 2:23‒25 229 2:23‒32 60 2:24‒26 159 2:26 159, 229, 230 2:27 229 2:28‒32 (English) 156, 174 =LXX/MT 3:1‒5 2:28‒3:2 (English) 174 =LXX/MT 3:1‒4:2 Amos 5:1 5:14‒15 5:16 7:13 8 8:3 8:10 9:11 9:11‒12 9:11‒15
91 103 91 90 90 91 89, 91 201 261 90, 103
Micah 1:8 2:13 4:10 4:10‒14 7:20
91 206 166 155 159
Habbakuk 1:5
257
307
3:1 3:17‒18
27 54, 172
Zephaniah 2:7 3:5‒20 3:11‒13 3:14
132 157 159 139, 140
Zechariah 2:14 2:15 8:12 9:9 9:9‒10 10:3‒7
157, 299 125 162 62, 139, 140, 228, 229, 249, 262 157, 229 132
Malachi 1:28 3:1 3:19‒23 3:20 3:22‒23 3:23 3:14‒15 3:14‒17 3:15 3:18‒19
156 153 144 145, 156 153, 156 145 229 155, 166 157, 229 158
New Testament Matthew 6:9 8:17 9:8 11:5 11:25 11:25‒26 11:25‒30 11:27 12:1 13:1 14:1 14:19 15:30‒31 15:31 15:36 19:20‒21 21:9 26:26‒27 26:30 26:49
28 7 11, 166 176 216 216 214 12 216 216 216 11 12 5, 166 11 185 12, 224, 227 11 237 140
27:29 28:9
140 140
Mark 2:1 2:1‒12 2:6 2:12 6:41 6:45 7:32 7:37 8:7 8:22‒27 10:32 10:32‒34 10:52 11:9 11:9‒10 11:10 14:22‒23 14:22‒24
11, 184, 186 5 186 11, 12, 166, 186 11 191 12 7 11 4 191 227 12 191 12, 224 227 11 236
308 14:26 14:28 15:18 15:39 16:7 Luke 1 1‒2 1:1‒14 1:1‒2 1:5‒25 1:6‒11 1:7 1:13 1:13‒14 1:13‒17 1:14 1:15 1:15‒17 1:16 1:16‒17 1:18 1:19‒20 1:20 1:22 1:25 1:28
1:28‒56 1:29 1:30‒33 1:31‒32 1:35 1:35‒37 1:39‒44 1:39‒56 1:41 1:41‒44 1:41‒47 1:44 1:45 1:46 1:46‒47 1:46‒55 1:47 1:48 1:48‒49 1:49
Index of Ancient Sources 237 191 140, 141 240 191 126 135, 152, 166, 169, 179, 180, 211 242 10, 135, 282, 283 4, 137 174 145 145, 170, 255 139 141 7, 138, 142, 149, 154, 175, 176, 189, 274 151 153 142 139, 153 170, 174 141 176, 226 175, 176 10, 115, 167, 168, 170, 172, 176 7, 122, 138, 140, 141, 142, 145, 149, 157, 229, 274 144 139 141 142 216 141 144 143 138, 145, 151, 153, 170, 176, 216 274 149 136, 138, 145, 153, 176 170 138, 199, 216 136, 146 274, 284 7, 138, 139, 160, 172, 216 167, 168, 170, 172 158 160, 174, 228
1:50 1:51 1:51‒55 1:52‒53 1:53 1:54 1:55 1:57‒80 1:58
1:62 1:64
1:67 1:68
1:68‒75 1:68‒79 1:69 1:69‒78 1:71 1:72 1:72‒73 1:73 1:74 1:75 1:76‒79 1:77 1:78
1:79 1:80 2 2:1‒21 2:10 2:10‒11 2:10‒12 2:10‒13 2:11 2:12 2:13 2:13‒14 2:14 2:15 2:17 2:20 2:22‒40
167 160 159 168 169 160, 172, 187 160, 202 147 7, 136, 138, 147, 148, 149, 153, 154, 170, 174, 176, 200, 274 176 136, 138, 148, 149, 154, 175, 185, 216, 274, 275, 284 151, 216 15, 131, 133, 148, 149, 172, 183, 211, 234, 262, 273, 274 155 138, 274 160 284 155 172 160 202 155 155 155, 206 160, 267 15, 131, 133, 153, 172, 183, 211, 234, 262, 273, 274 64 136 261 148 7, 138, 149, 189, 193, 229, 274 142 141 141 162 166 136, 149, 163, 216, 226, 229 138, 274, 284 12, 163, 192, 221, 226, 227 166, 227 166 10, 136, 138, 148, 149, 166, 219, 258, 274, 284 148
2:25‒27 2:27‒28 2:28 2:28 2:28‒29 2:28‒32 2:28‒33 2:29 2:29‒32 2:30‒32 2:32 2:34 2:34‒35 2:35 2:36 2:38 2:39 2:47 2:48‒49 3:3‒4 3:9 3:14 4:8 4:15 4:15‒21 4:18 4:18‒18 4:18‒20 4:21 4:22 4:27 4:29 4:32 4:35 4:39 4:41 5 5:1 5:9 5:12‒13 5:17 5:17‒21 5:17‒25 5:17‒26 5:19 5:20 5:20‒24 5:21 5:22 5:22‒25 5:25 5:25‒26
New Testament 151 216 136 148, 216 10 138, 274 284 132, 149, 162 274 164, 165 15, 164, 178, 222, 261 15, 134, 200 180 244, 278 151 136, 138, 148, 149, 216, 284 274 139 184 207 266 240 245 200, 258 218 201, 267 102, 207, 208, 211, 253 275 194, 266 139 267 200, 235 139 192 186, 192, 267 192 210 258 139 267 184, 186, 187 184 4 5, 182, 183, 187, 196, 205, 232, 266, 284 183 191, 268 267 184 188, 244 185 12, 185, 274 211, 258, 266
5:26
5:29‒32 5:31 5:34 6:8 6:9 6:20‒23 6:22 6:23 6:45 6:47 7 7:9 7:11‒17 7:16
7:16‒17 7:17 7:20‒22 7:22 7:30 7:36 7:40 7:50 7:52 8:8 8:13 8:15 8:21 8:24 8:36 8:39 8:41 8:44 8:47 8:48 8:50 8:55 9:1‒6 9:5 9:7‒9 9:9 9:10‒17 9:16 9:17 9:18 9:18‒20 9:21 9:21‒22 9:22 9:22‒27
309 11, 12, 182, 186, 187, 188, 189, 216, 227, 240, 274 187 187, 220 233 244 205, 268 7 228 7, 140, 145 229 258 226 191, 268 182, 196, 266, 284 7, 15, 132, 133, 182, 193, 200, 208, 211, 216, 234, 258, 262, 273, 274 7 183, 189 253, 275 176, 177, 208, 211, 219, 267 188 188 261 191, 205, 268, 268, 268 240 147 7, 8, 258 258 258 192 205, 268 147 268 186 186 191, 205, 268 205, 268, 268 186 221 235 220 219 221 11, 221, 248, 274, 284 230 221 221 192 238 234 221
310 9:28 9:30 9:37‒43 9:42 9:43 9:43‒45 9:44 9:44‒45 9:45 9:46 9:46‒47 9:48‒49 9:51 9:52‒53 9:56 10 10:1‒14 10:1‒17 10:1‒22 10:2 10:4 10:5‒6 10:5‒7 10:5‒9 10:8‒12 10:9 10:10‒15 10:11 10:13 10:13‒15 10:16 10:17 10:17‒19 10:17‒23 10:18 10:18‒19 10:18‒21 10:20 10:20‒19 10:20‒23 10:21 10:21‒22 10:21‒24 10:22 10:22‒24 10:23‒24 10:24 10:29 10:30 10:31 10:35
Index of Ancient Sources 221 232 221 192 8, 12, 139, 230 221, 245 242 227, 238 217, 218, 232, 233, 239, 275 239 244 228 214, 232 219 192 228, 241 215 217, 219 259 230, 256 215 162 219 268 219 215, 218, 218 235 218, 259 215, 218, 218 219 219 7 215, 218 8 214 221 228 7, 140, 218, 219, 228, 230, 234, 248, 259, 274 215 214, 223, 228 12, 147, 216, 217, 219, 220, 284 216, 221, 248, 274 9, 221 218 228 219, 220 217, 219 229 256 256 256
10:36 10:39 10:44‒46 10:44‒48 10:45‒46 11:2 11:9‒10 11:17‒18 11:23 11:23‒24 11:24 11:41 11:42 12:12 12:19 12:33 12:49‒13:31 13 13:6‒9 13:10‒17 13:11‒13 13:11‒17 13:13 13:14‒17 13:15‒16 13:16 13:17 13:18‒21 13:23 13:31 13:33‒35 13:35 13:52 14:1‒6 14:4 14:6 14:11 14:15‒24 14:17 15 15:1‒2 15:1‒29 15:3 15:5 15:5‒6 15:6 15:7 15:8‒9 15:9 15:10 15:18 15:19 15:23
256 258 217 151 253 28 184 151 147 151 184 193 228 216 7 193 201 210 184, 201 3, 201 188 182, 188, 196, 203, 226, 232, 266, 284 185, 201, 211, 258, 266, 274 189 267 201 7, 147, 211, 266, 274 201 205 216 231, 233, 234 228 151 189, 226 232, 255 232 169 169 216 8 224 188 147 7 147 7 7, 113, 118 184 147 7, 113, 118 170 113 7
15:23‒24 15:24 15:29 15:31 15:32 15:39 16:2 16:19 16:25 16:34 17 17:3 17:11‒17 17:11‒18 17:11‒19 17:12‒13 17:13 17:14‒18 17:15 17:16 17:18 17:19 17:25 18 18 18:1 18:9 18:9‒14 18:10‒11 18:13 18:14 18:15 18:18 18:31 18:31‒34 18:34 18:35‒42 18:35‒43 18:38‒39 18:39 18:42 18:43 19 19:3‒38 19:6 19:9 19:11 19:17 19:27‒28 19:34 19:36
New Testament 147 7 7 147 7, 147 113 258 7 169 147 204 192 284 267 5, 182, 187, 189, 197, 232, 266 189, 190 192 190 10, 211, 240, 258, 266, 274 200, 268 195 191, 205, 268, 268 234, 238 89, 188, 210 227 224 187, 241 4, 187, 191, 195 28 169, 189, 190, 192 187 192 191 232 221, 238 217, 219, 227, 233, 275 190 4, 182, 187, 197, 232, 266, 284 190, 192 191 191, 205, 268 5, 12, 185, 191, 227, 240, 258, 266, 274 188, 234, 240 222 7, 147, 202 202 232 5 232 239 232
19:37 19:37‒38
19:37‒40 19:38 19:39 19:39‒40 19:39‒23:47 19:40 19:41‒44 19:42 19:44 19:47 19:47‒48 20:1‒9 20:17 20:19 20:19‒20 20:20 20:21‒26 20:26 20:27‒40 20:46‒47 21:5‒6 21:8 21:12 21:17 21:28 22 22:1‒4 22:2‒3 22:5 22:14 22:15‒17 22:15‒20 22:17‒19 22:17‒20 22:19 22:20 22:24 22:25‒28 22:27 22:31 22:37 22:53 22:56‒57 22:60 23:2 23:8 23:10 23:12 23:13
311 3, 7, 147, 219, 226, 227, 230 12, 157, 163, 214, 224, 228, 229, 231, 237, 248, 274, 275, 279 207, 233, 284 162, 226, 227 255 12, 232 232 225 233 162, 163, 233 15, 132, 133,211, 262, 273, 274, 275, 280 234 184 235 234 216 169 234 235 139, 232, 235, 255 235 235 235 228 228 228 202 221, 240 234 234 7, 8, 235 240 238 274 11, 236, 284 236, 244, 249 238 236, 238, 234 237, 239 239 229 261 234 234 194 186 235 7, 8, 219, 220, 235 235 234 234
312 23:14 23:16‒20 23:18 23:23 23:27‒31 23:35 23:37 23:47
Index of Ancient Sources
24:50‒53 24:52 24:52‒53 24:53
235 235 234 235 241 235 242 227, 239, 249, 258, 274, 279, 284 241 242 241, 246, 280 184 243 243 243 243 243 50, 217, 243, 244 246 243 243 243 243 236, 238, 243, 275 244 227, 244 216 244 261 244 162, 229 244, 245 242, 249, 274, 275 7, 8 245 8, 227 238, 275, 278, 228, 245, 251, 267 4, 284 7, 147 200, 227, 278 8
John 6:11 6:23 11:41 12:12‒13 12:13
11 11 12 230 12, 224
Acts 1 1‒2 1‒4 1:6‒7
261, 263 212 162, 179 246
23:48‒49 23:50‒54 24 24:3‒5 24:3‒7 24:8‒10 24:11 24:12 24:13‒31 24:16 24:21 24:21‒24 24:22 24:22‒15 24:25‒27 24:26 24:30 24:31 24:33 24:33‒38 24:34 24:35 24:36 24:38 24:41‒53 24:41 24:45‒46 24:45 24:46
1:8 1:10 1:21‒26 1:41 2 2‒4 2:1‒4 2:5‒12 2:12 2:13 2:16‒20 2:17‒21 2:21 2:22 2:22‒24 2:22‒35 2:23 2:25‒28 2:25‒31 2:26 2:28‒3:2 2:28 2:29‒32 2:36‒47 2:37‒41 2:38 2:42‒47 2:46 2:46‒47 2:47 3‒4 3:1‒4:22 3:1 3:1‒11 3:4 3:6 3:7 3:7‒8 3:8‒4:21 3:8 3:9 3:9‒10 3:10 3:10‒11 3:11‒12 3:12 3:12‒4:22 3:13 3:13‒14 3:16 3:18 3:21 3:23 3:25
204, 251, 262 194 246 246 60, 174, 249 1, 280 246 246 247 246 275 246 199 229, 258, 268 246 247 232 8 247, 278 7, 247 174 7 236 274, 275 246 267 247, 285 247 246, 249, 278 246, 247 205, 210, 212, 247, 248, 249, 253, 254, 260, 273 192, 232 4 192, 285 193, 194 193, 195, 198 195 185, 205 182, 197, 266 193, 196 5, 240, 248, 274 253 206 193 248 193, 194, 195 207 193, 195, 198, 258 194 191, 206, 268 236, 239 179, 279 195, 248 202
3:32‒35 4:1‒2 4:1‒3 4:4 4:5‒7 4:8 4:9 4:9‒10 4:10 4:12 4:13 4:13‒18 4:16 4:17‒20 4:19 4:20 4:21 4:22 4:24‒30 4:27 4:30 4:31 5‒28 5:5 5:10 5:13 5:24 5:25‒26 5:31 5:34 5:41 6:2 6:7 6:15 7:16 7:41 7:55 7:59 8 8:8 8:9 8:10 8:14 8:25 8:29 9:1‒30 9:14 9:21 9:36 10‒11 10‒21 10‒28 10:1‒32 10:1‒11:18
New Testament 246 248 195 195, 196, 258 195 254 193, 268 248 195, 198 205 195, 220 195 219, 248, 275 195 195 219, 254 10, 195, 196, 206, 211, 240, 258, 274, 285 205, 219, 248, 275 207 235 268 165, 258 198 258 186 199, 200 258 165 267 232 7 258 258 194 165 7 194 199 204 7, 181, 198 5 6 258 258 7 169 199 199 193 252, 254, 260, 266 268 130 252 252, 256
10:2 10:3 10:4 10:9 10:15 10:25 10:29 10:30 10:31 10:33 10:35 10:35‒36 10:37 10:38 10:39 10:43 10:44 10:44‒48 10:45 10:45‒46 10:46 11 11:1 11:2‒3 11:5 11:6 11:9‒17 11:13 11:14 11:17 11:17‒18 11:18 11:21 11:22 11:23 11:24 12:4 12:14 12:19‒22 12:20‒24 12:21‒23 12:23 12:24 13‒21 13 13:5 13:7 13:9 13:11 13:12 13:13 13:13‒47 13:14 13:16
313 193 4, 253 193, 194, 222 222 267 119, 268 267 4, 222 193, 222, 255 252 162, 251 268 166 253, 267 258 267, 268 252, 258 285 252 252, 274 199, 266 261, 264 258 254, 275 222 194 267 253, 261 205, 253, 268 253, 255, 268 275, 285 165, 240, 255, 257, 258, 259, 266, 274 268 258 7, 227, 256 268 195 7 220 169 194 186, 195 258 252, 260, 266 256, 261, 263, 278 258 258 194 186 139 165 257 260 260
314 13:35 13:38 13:39 13:41 13:44 13:46 13:46‒48 13:47 13:47‒48 13:48 13:49 13:50‒51 13:51 13:51‒52 13:52 14:4‒6 14:4‒19 14:8‒9 14:9 14:11 14:12 14:17 14:19 15 15:1 15:1‒2 15:1‒30 15:3 15:4 15:5 15:6 15:6‒21 15:7 15:7‒11 15:9 15:11 15:12 15:13‒21 15:14 15:14‒17 15:16 15:17 15:22‒20 15:23 15:24 15:31 15:33 15:35‒36 16:16‒23 16:18 16:22‒24 16:25 16:26
Index of Ancient Sources 257 267 268 257 258 258 257, 274, 285 251, 257, 259, 262, 275 165 7, 147, 240, 257, 258, 260, 266 258 235 259 259 7, 217, 259 235 205 198 191, 194, 268 227 6 7 235 257, 264, 278 205 259 259, 275 7, 259 259, 264 232, 259, 260 260 262 258, 268 260 267 205, 268 260, 264, 268 260, 261 15, 132, 133, 211, 261, 262, 273, 274 273, 275 201, 262 251 260 140 261 7, 139 162 258 198 198, 216 235 29, 41 186
16:30‒31 16:32 16:33 16:34 16:35 16:36 16:39 17:2‒3 17:3 17:5‒6 17:13 17:13‒14 17:15 17:27 18:11 18:43 19:7 19:10 19:11 19:13 19:14‒16 19:17 19:29‒40 19:37‒38 20:23 20:35 20:38 21 21:17‒20 21:18‒20 21:20 22:13 22:14‒15 22:16 22:19‒20 22:24 23:1 23:6‒9 23:26 23:47 26:5 26:18 26:20 26:22‒23 26:23 27‒28 27:35 28:6 28:8‒11 28:15 28:25‒28
205, 268 258 186 7, 247, 264 285 162 235 236 239 184 258 235 165 184 258 165 133 258 198, 200 198 198 181, 198, 199, 200, 285 235 240 235 258 139 257 3 264, 274, 275, 285 165, 216, 240, 258, 266 216 219 199 236 239 194 232 140 165, 240 232 267 251 236 239 252 265, 274, 285 6 198 265, 274, 285 219, 268, 278
Romans 1:21 12:1
166 4
15:6 15:8‒12 15:9 16:18
Apocrypha and Septuagint 166 263 166 117
315
2 Thessalonians 3:1
258
Philemon 1:4
28, 29 62 46
1 Corinthians 5:7 14:15
62 29
Hebrews 12:24 13:15
Galatians 4:21‒31
172
Ephesians 1:6 1:16
James 3:9‒10 5:13
117 29
122 28, 29
Philippians 4:6
1 Peter 2:12 4:16
166 166
29
Colossians 1:3 4:2
28 28
1 Thessalonians 1:2 5:16‒18
28 28
Revelation 5:9 5:12‒13 7:12 14:3 21:9
58 117 117 58 111
Apocrypha and Septuagint
Baruch 2:32 3:4‒7 4 4:12‒16 4:19 4:23 4:24‒5:9 5:5‒7 5:13
99 27 103 206 126 91 61 207 162
Additions to Daniel: Prayer of Azariah 1:1‒2 27 1:3 166 1:10 167 1:28 166 3:86 44 4 88 1 Esdras 5:5 8:62 8:87
81 216 126
Additions to Esther 65 4:17.15 4:17.15 65 8:12.4 39 Judith 1:14
167
3:17 8:22 8:33 9:2 16:13
81 167 131 167 58
1 Maccabees 1:37‒40 4:30‒33 4:45 11:57 14:21
159 27 167 62 62
2 Maccabees 1:11 10:7 12:31
39 39 39
3 Maccabees 2:3 5:35 6:32 7:16
88 240 66 39
4 Maccabees 4:11‒12
36
Sirach 15:9‒10 15:15 17:1‒18:14
44 163 63
316
Index of Ancient Sources
17:6‒29 17:9‒10 17:25‒29 30:1 39:6 39:13‒15 39:14‒15 39:15‒16 39:33‒35 43:28‒44:15 50:18‒19 51:12‒13 51:22
63 68 36, 64 62 27 47 44 47 47, 48 155 27 27 63
Tobit 1:1‒3:15 1:1‒3:17 1:1‒15 1:3 1:12‒13 1:17‒18 1:19 2:1 2:3 2:5 2:5‒7 2:8 3:1 3:1‒6 3:2 3:3 3:4 3:4‒6 3:6 3:8 3:10 3:11 3:11‒15 3:12 3:15 3:16‒17 3:17 4:1‒12:11 4:7‒19 4:19 5:4 5:10 5:17 5:21 5:21‒22 6:18 7:1 7:6 7:12 7:13
80 78 76 88 79 91 92 78 91 90 89 91 77 78, 86, 87 88, 89, 115 88 94 90 88, 92, 96 78 167 11, 81, 82 78 88 88 79, 80 82, 207, 208 78, 79 93 77, 93 79, 80 64, 92, 94, 97 83 82 83 84 140 88, 96 83, 84 83
7:16 7:21 8:2‒3 8:2‒5 8:4 8:5 8:5‒6 8:7 8:10 8:15 8:15‒17 8:17 9:6 10:6 10:8 10:11 10:13 10:15 10:23 11:8 11:9 11:10‒15 11:13 11:13‒15 11:14 11:15 11:15‒17 11:16‒17 11:16‒18 11:17 11:17‒18 12:3 12:6 12:6‒7 12:12‒13 12:12‒15 12:16 12:16‒18 12:17‒18 12:20 12:22 13‒14 13:1 13:1‒8 13:1‒18 13:1‒14:15 13:2 13:3‒18 13:5 13:6 13:6‒10 13:7 13:8‒14 13:9 13:9‒18
82 83 80 81 84 82, 94 77 84 82 81, 117 77, 82, 84 94 77, 82, 88 83 82 83 77 87 21 64, 97 82 80 64, 97 82, 83 77, 81, 94, 96 77, 97 84 77, 97, 98 85 94 77 83 86, 93 77 91 79, 80 85 119 77, 86, 93 77, 86 77, 85 76 27, 94 98 77, 86 78, 80 84, 94, 96, 97, 129, 130 97 84, 94, 96 96, 98 93, 94 94 100 94 98
13:10 13:10‒18 13:11 13:11‒12 13:13 13:15 13:16‒17 13:18 14:2 14:6‒7 14:8 14:8‒9 14:10
Old Testament Pseudepigrapha 84, 96, 99 126 103 262 44 88, 101, 140 99 98 77, 93 100, 156, 262 93 77 64, 101, 193
317
14:15
77
Wisdom 10:20‒21 10:21 12:22 17:18 18:2 19:7 19:7‒9
62 154, 177 84 145 39 55 63
Other Jewish and Christian Sources Old Testament Pseudepigrapha 1 Enoch 27.3‒4 35.3 61.11‒12
58 67 58
Five Apocryphal Syriac Psalms 2 67 Joseph and Aseneth 1‒2 1‒9 1‒21 1:7‒8 3‒4 3:3 3:5 3:6 3:17 4:1 4:1‒2 4:2 4:3 4:7 4:11 5‒6 5:5 5:9‒12 6:2 6:4 6:5‒6 6:7‒8 7‒8 7‒9 7:3 7:7 7:8 8:5
109 116 107 112 109, 110 108, 110, 111, 113 108, 110, 112 112 119 108, 110, 111 112 108 110 112 112 109 111 112 253 111 117 113 109 113 111 119 108, 110, 113 10, 108, 110, 113
8:5‒6 8:8 8:9 9 9:1 10 10‒15 10‒18 10:8‒17 10:12‒13 11‒13 11:1‒18 11:8 11:8‒9 11:10‒14 11:13‒14 11:16‒17 11:18 12:1‒2 12:7 12:10 13:2 14‒17 14:1 14:5‒6 15:2 15:5 15:5‒10 15:7 15:8 15:8‒12 15:9 15:10 15:11 15:11‒12 15:12
114 108, 110, 113 64, 115 109, 116 108, 110, 113, 116 109 116 116 116 116 109 106 107, 108, 110, 117 117 117 126 117 117, 122, 126, 129, 130 108, 110, 115, 116, 117 123 123 119, 125 109, 116, 120 110, 116, 118 253 123 107, 108, 110, 115 118 124, 125 107, 108, 113 110 108 108 116 64, 108, 119, 120 115
318
Index of Ancient Sources
15:12x 15:20 16‒18 16:12‒14 16:16 16:16 17:1 18 18‒21 18:1‒11 18:3 18:10 19 19‒20 19‒21 19:5 19:5 19:8 20:6 20:7 20:7‒8 20:8 21 21:3 21:4 21:6 21:10 21:10‒21 21:12 21:16‒19 21:19 21:20‒21 21:24 22‒27 22‒29 22:6‒9 24:19 27:7‒11 27:10 29:9
107, 108, 119 107 118 116 120, 124 124 166 106, 109 121 124 111 108, 110, 121 106 109 118 124 124 124 108, 113 115 110, 121 107, 108, 113 109 107, 110, 121 108 108 108, 110, 122 106, 107 122 122 108 122 108 122 107, 109 106 123 123 108, 110, 115 108
Letter of Aristeas 139
47
141 234
47 47
Liber antiquitatum biblicarum (Pseudo‒Philo) 32.12‒13 69 51.4‒6 172 Psalms of Solomon 3.1 7.8‒10 9:2 10.1‒14 15.2‒3 15.3 18.4‒7
58 84 126 84 46 58 84
Testament of Dan 5.16 9.10
62 62
Testament of Joseph 1.6 122 Testament of Judah 5.10‒13 61 Testament of Levi 8.14 18.3 18.9
62 62 62
Testament of Naphtali 7.2 49 Testament of Simeon 12.2 62 Sibylline Oracles 4.26‒27 4.28‒30 4.30‒34 4.49‒101 4.102‒151 4.162‒178 4.167‒176 4.164‒170
44 44, 45 45 44 44 45 44, 45 64, 65
Texts from the Judean Desert 1QM XIV, 1
58
1QS IX, 3‒5 IX, 26 X, 5‒9 X, 22‒23
46 46 46 46
1QHa IX[I], 27‒34 IX[I], 29‒31 XI[II], 9 XI[II], 23 XVII[IX], 14‒15 4Q196 (4QpapToba) 7, 2 15 II, 1‐10
46 68 220 68 68 207 94
Philo
4Q200 (4QTobe hebr) 7, 2‒3 85 7, 4 80 4Q266 (4QDa) 2, I, 11
319
4Q440a (4QHa) IV, 32‒33
163
11Q5 (11QPsa) XVIII, 3‒4
220
132
Philo De agricultura 44 94‒95 99
37 37 30, 37
De congressu eruditionis gratia 99 38 De vita contemplativa 29 40 80‒84 40 81 45 87 40 De decalogo 73 158
30 28
Quod Deus sit immutabilis 87 30
129 136 210 220 222
38 46 38 25, 46 25
De plantatione 46‒49 52 90 93‒138 126 127‒129 128‒131 130 134‒135 135
37 37 37 45, 46 46 40 72 45 40 11, 38
De praemiis et poenis 79 28, 38
De ebrietate 1.66 1.79
28 28
In Flaccum 1.122
Quod omnis probus liber sit 57 37 156‒157 37
28
Legum allegoriae 1.79‒84 1.81‒84 2.93 2.95‒96 3.104
46 37 46 46 30
De sacrificiis Abelis et Caini 2 49 53 30
De migratione Abrahami 101 30, 38 121‒124 49 De vita Mosis 1.177 55 1.180 56 1.219 27 1.278‒294 28 2.133‒134 28 2.147 28 2.174 28 2.253 55 De mutatione nominum 41 38 125 38 127 38
De sobrietate 12 51‒58 53 58 59 61 62 66
37, 38 45 37 40, 46 37 37 37 37
De somniis 1.37 1.215 1.252 2.72 2.299
46 28 27, 37 27 28
De specialibus legibus 1.97 28 1.113 28 1.148 28 1.193 28
320 1.224‒226 1.224‒229 1.229 2.12 2.17
Index of Ancient Sources 2.38 2.115 2.148 2.167 2.180
25 28 27 27 28
27 27 237 28 46
Josephus Antiquitates judaicae 1.181 37 2.338 55 2.346 34, 37, 41 3.18 55 3.25 28 3.64 37 3.86 55 4.212 25 4.241 37 6.22 28 6.24 28 6.102 28 7.95 37 7.305 37 7.380‒381 36 7.389 37 8.53 37 8.108‒120 36 8.108‒124 49 8.110 37
8.173 8.176 9.10‒12 9.11‒15 9.269 10.253 10.255 11.80 11.157 12.312 12.312‒314 12.323 12.349 14.260 18.15 19.344‒345
37 37 36 37 37 28 28 37 37 37 36 37 37 28 28 194
Contra Apionem 2.196‒197
30, 36
Bellum judaicum 2.131
28
Targumic Texts Targum Isaiah 35.5 35.6 42.7
60.17 61.1 61.10
208 206 208
234 207 60
Mishnah and Rabbinic Texts ’Aggadat Berešit 53c
171
Midrash on Psalms 48 58 Pesaḥim 10
237
Pesiqta de Rab Kahana 16 57 20.1 171, 172 32 171
Pesiqta Rabbati 42.5 43.4
172 172
Genesis Rabbah 53.3
172
Song of Songs Rabbah 1.9 58 Tanḥuma 10
160
Mishnah and Rabbinic Texts
321
Christian Texts Eusebius
Shepherd of Hermas
Commentary on Isaiah 2.40.75‒84 203
Vision 1.4 2.2 23.2 Origen
Justin Dialogue with Trypho 65.1 158
141 141 141
Homiliae in Lucam 6.37 7.41‒42
141 144
Classical Texts Aeschylus Agamemnon 317
26
Choephori 463‒479 33 Alexander Numenius 4.1‒7, 14‒15 70 Apuleius Metamorphoses 11 11.2 11.25 Aristides Orationes 9.6 23.22 23.27 43.1‒11 264.7 264.10‒12 264.25 268.16 269.6‒8 Aristophanes Plutus 745 761 Aristotle
66 25 25
Rhetorica 1.9.33‒34 Cassius Dio Roman History 60.33.4 Cleanthus Hymn to Zeus 34‒39
70
141
52
Corpus hermeticum 1 25 1.30‒31 67
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
34 66 66 35 65 66 66 66 66
35 145
Ethica nichomachea 1.12.1‒8 70
Antiquitates romanae 3.32 35 Epictetus Diatribai 1.2.20‒24 1.4.18 1.4.22‒27 1.4.30‒32 1.5.3‒5 1.6.1‒13 1.16.7 1.16.15 1.16.15‒18 1.16.19‒21 1.18 1.19.25 1.28 2.6.27 2.18.22 3.22
51 51 51 49 50 49 50 71 50, 70 51 51 51 51 51 141 51
322 3.26 4.1.108‒109 4.8 6.42
Index of Ancient Sources 51 52 51 50
Etymologicum Gudianum 540.46 34 Euripides
Euthyphro 14c
28
Leges 653e‒674 700b 700b 801e 812c 821a‒822c 899d‒900c 947b
46 31 33 34 46 46 49 34
Politicus 290c‒d
30
Respublica 607a
34 34 71 34
Alcestis 509‒511
140
Electra 415 563 764 771 859‒865
26 26 26 26 26
Hecuba 426‒427
140
Symposium 177b 198d
Hercules furens 689‒700
34
Theaetetus 174e
Orestes 475‒476 Herodotus Historiae 6.3.2 Hesiod Theogony Homeric Hymns 9 Livy 7.37 28.13 Lucretius 5.156‒167 Pindar Pyth. 10.53 Plato
141
30
Timaeus 21a 23d 26e Plutarch
71 71 71
De Pythiae oraculis 406c 34 72
32
Quaestionum convivialum libri IX 654c 33 De Stoicorum repugnantiis 1050A‒B 49 Quintilian
35 35
Institutio oratoria 3.7.1‒9 Seneca
52
Epistulae morales 10.4 Virgil
34
Epinomis 922d
46
Critias 108c‒d
71
Aeneid 8.285‒288 8.803‒806 107‒112 Xenophon Symposium 4.49
69
53
71 72 50
35
Index of Modern Authors Allison, Dale C., 225, 227, 241 Aptowitzer, V., 125 Attridge, Harold W., 62 Aune, David Edward, vii, 88, 111 Bahr, Gordon J., 237, 238 Batiffol, Pierre., 124 Behr, Charles Allison, 65 Bernadicou, Paul J., 7 Bernstein, Moshe J., 46 Betz, Hans Dieter, 48, 204, 224 Beyerlin, Walter, 154, 156, 157 Blenkinsopp, Joseph, 54‒60, 157, 173 Bohak, Gideon., 106, 125‒127, 129 Bokser, Baruch M., 237 Borgen, Peder, 37 Bovon, François, 145, 161 Brawley, Robert L., 14, 152 Bremer, Jan M., 25, 31‒35, 69 Brown, Raymond E., 3, 4, 12, 132, 136, 139‒141, 145, 146, 156, 158, 159, 164, 170, 177, 179, 226, 237, 240, 241 Bultmann, Rudolf Karl, 4, 5, 184, 216 Burchard, Christoph, 106‒108, 111, 113, 117, 118, 122, 124, 125, 166 Burfeind, Carsten, vii, 106, 108, 111, 122 Bury, Robert G., 30 Cadbury, Henry Joel, 2, 194 Callaway, Mary, 167, 168, 171, 172 Charlesworth, James H., 55, 71, 116, 132, 134 Chazon, Esther G., 46 Chesnutt, Randall D., vii, 105‒107, 111, 114, 115, 120, 125, 127 Coleridge, Edward P., 26 Coleridge, Mark, 135, 136, 149‒152, 174, 175, 176, 178
Colson, F. H., 38 Conver, Christopher C., 7, 8 Conzelmann, Hans, 8, 205 Creed, John Martin, 153 Crenshaw, James L., 157 Crump, David Michael, 8, 9, 14, 214‒217, 220, 221 Dahl, Nils, 282 Danker, Frederick W., 6 Darr, John A., 188 Davies, William David, 225, 227, 241 Deichgräber, Reinhard, 20, 246, 263 Deselaers, Paul, 88 Di Lella, Alexander A., 19, 63, 76 Dibelius, Martin, 4, 5 Douglas, Rees Conrad, 120 Dowd, Sharyn, 26, 28, 30, 37, 49 Edelstein, Emma, 6 Edelstein, Ludwig, 6 Ego, Beate, 95 Enns, Peter, 62 Eynde, Sabine van den, 76 Farris, Stephen, 4, 148, 155, 159‒162, 164 Fink, Uta Barbara, 106, 108, 111, 122 Finkelstein, Louis, 237 Fitzgerald, Robert, 50 Fitzmyer, Joseph A., 2, 8, 11, 12, 76, 81, 84, 89‒91, 94, 95, 99, 101, 103, 141, 147, 159, 162, 163, 164, 184, 185, 187, 205, 215, 217, 218, 220, 221, 224‒226, 228, 229, 236, 240, 252, 256, 257 Flusser, David, 99 Ford, David, 43 Forster, E. M., 13 Freed, Edwin D., 4, 222
324
Index of Modern Authors
Freedman, William, 13, 272 Frick, Peter, 53 Funk, Robert W., 4 Furley, William D., 25, 31‒35, 69 Gathercole, Simon J., 75, 89, 91, 93 Genette, Gérard, 196 Goldin, Judah, 58 Gordley, Matthew E., vii, 69, 70 Gove, Phillip B., 20 Gowler, David B., 188 Green, Joel B., 6 Griffin, Patrick J., 76, 80, 81 Grol, Harm W., 20, 22 Gruen, Erich S., 89, 106 Haenchen, Ernst, 205, 252, 254 Hamm, M. Dennis, 3, 175, 189, 193, 200‒202, 204‒207, 215 Hanhart, Robert, 75, 89 Hardy, Daniel W., 43 Harris, Oscar G., 8 Heiler, Friedrich, 20 Heinemann, Joseph, 89 Hickson Hahn, Frances, 32 Horst, Pieter W. Van Der, 52 Howell, Maribeth, 59 Humphrey, Edith McEwan, 107, 116, 119, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 252‒254 Hurtado, Larry W., 199 Ireland, Ken, 13 Jacobs, Naomi S., 90 Jastrow, Marcus, 225 Jeremias, Joachim, 238 Jervell, Jacob, 201, 204 Johnson, Elisabeth Ann, 169, 171‒173 Johnson, Luke Timothy, 3, 132, 135, 204‒206, 212, 241, 260, 261 Jones, H. S. , 25, 117, 139, 191 Jonquière, Tessel, 36 Karris, Robert J., 8, 14 Käsemann, Ernst, 248 Kee, Howard Clark, 120 Kennedy, George A., 70
Kiley, Mark Christopher, 20, 21, 28, 37, 46 Koester, Helmut, 145, 161 Kolenkow, Anitra Bingham, 194 Kraemer, Ross Shepard, 106, 107, 119, 120, 125, 126, 128 Kugel, James L., 58, 62 Lake, Kirsopp, 194 Lambrecht, Jan, 263 LaPorte, Jean, 37, 40 Larson, Curtis W., 37 Ledogar, Robert J., 37‒39, 41, 44, 46, 56, 67 Leonhardt, Jutta., 26, 27, 30, 37, 38, 40, 48 Levine, Amy‒Jill, 101 Lewis, C. T., 70 Liddell, H. G., 25, 117, 139, 191 Litwak, Kenneth Duncan, 169, 170 Löhr, Hermut., 90 Long, A. A., 49 Longenecker, Bruce W., 8, 198 Lyonnet, Stanislaus., 158 Malherbe, Abraham J., 258 Malina, Bruce., 21 Marshall, I. Howard, 3, 211, 226, 227, 228 Martin, Ernest L., 5, 48, 240 May, David M., 201‒203 McKnight, Scot., 248 Merz, Annette, 238 Metzger, Bruce Manning, 163 Miller, Patrick D., 22‒24, 35, 39 Minear, Paul, 4 Miner, Earl., 13 Moessner, David R., 260 Moore, Carey A., 79‒81, 87, 89, 90, 94, 95 Nagy, Gregory, 34 Nave, Guy D., 14 Newman, Judith H., 20, 21 Neyrey, Jerome H., vii, 6, 7, 21 Nickelsburg, George W., 78, 84, 89, 106, 125 Nightingale, Andrea Wilson, 70, 71 Nitzan, B., 84 Norden, Eduard, 69, 217 Nowell, Irene, 79
Index of Modern Authors
Ott, Wilhelm, 8, 9, 247 Paul, G. M., 168 Penner, Todd C., 14 Perkins, Judith, 128 Perrin, Bernadotte, 34 Peterson, Erik, 5 Phillips, Thomas E., 135 Philonenko, Marc, 105, 106, 115, 124 Pleket, H. W., 36 Plymale, Steven F., 8 Pulleyn, Simon, 25‒27, 29‒35 Quincey, J. H., 36 Race, William H., 25, 32, 33, 35, 69 Rad, Gerhardt von, 64, 65 Rahlfs, Alfred, 63 Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal, 158 Ravens, David. Luke, 161, 177 Richard, Earl., 22, 152, 261, 264 Rimmon‒Kenan, Shlomith, 196 Rowe, C. Kavin, 198, 199, 256 Rusam, Dietrich, 164 Sanders, James A., 207 Sandt, Huub van de, 262 Schuller, Eileen, 20, 23 Scott, R., 25, 117, 139, 191 Shepherd, William H., 13, 120, 283 Short, C., 70 Skehan, Patrick W., 63 Smyth, Herbert Weir, 34, 122 Soll, Will, 101 Sparks, H. F. D., 106 Spengel, Leonhard von, 70 Squires, John T., 3, 178, 202
325
Standhartinger, Angela, 107 Stemberger, Günter, 237, 238 Sterling, Gregory E., vii, 37, 52, 240 Strelan, Rick, 193, 194 Stuckenbruck, Loren T., 75, 89, 91, 93 Talbert, Charles H., 3, 8 Tannehill, Robert C., 178, 279 Taylor, Herman W., 69 Terrien, Samuel L., 164 Theissen, Gerd, 4, 5, 6, 238 Thom, Johan Carl, 52, 101, 145, 161, 283 Thomas, Christine M., 145, 161 Thurston, Bonnie, 28 Trites, Allison A., 8, 9 Unnik, Willem Cornelius van, 48 Versnel, Hendrik S., 25, 26, 29‒31, 35, 39 Wagner, J. Ross, 263 Warren, Austin, 13 Weeks, Stuart, 75, 89, 91, 93 Weitzman, Steven, 56, 58, 63, 94, 96, 172 Wellek, René, 13 West, S., 105 Westermann, Claus., 22‒24, 35, 39, 40, 67, 69 Wills, Lawrence M., 76, 105, 121 Wire, Antoinette C., 4 Wolff, Hans Walter, 90, 157 Wolfson, Harry A., 37 York, John O., 169 Ziegler, Joseph, 64, 203 Zsengellér, József, 76, 86, 90, 100
Index of Subjects acclamation, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 167, 170, 182, 191, 194, 199, 211, 225, 228, 258 angelic revelation, 12, 76, 79, 80, 83‒85, 91‒94, 98, 104‒107, 116, 118‒120, 122, 128, 129, 135‒137, 139‒149, 151‒153, 156, 158, 161, 162, 166, 170, 174‒176, 178, 180, 183, 192, 226, 229, 243, 244, 249, 253, 255, 256, 272, 274, 275, 277, 280, 281 aretalogy, 6, 36, 69, 74 benefaction, 2, 6, 35, 45, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 271, 272, 281 conversion, 1, 2, 3, 15, 61, 65, 105, 115, 116, 119‒121, 124‒130, 132, 133, 147, 198, 204, 205, 211, 222, 242, 243, 247, 251‒253, 255, 256, 259‒269, 272‒278, 280‒282 disability in ancient texts – blindness, 4, 12, 15, 51, 54, 58, 59, 61, 73, 76, 78, 83, 89, 91, 93, 94, 96, 98, 101‒104, 115, 121, 128, 129, 140, 176, 177, 182, 190, 191, 197, 203, 206‒210, 222, 227, 232, 244, 267, 272, 274, 277 – deafness, 51, 59, 176, 177, 206, 208, 210, 222 – lameness, 51, 59, 176, 177, 189, 192, 193, 198, 205‒208, 222, 247, 248, 249, 269, 278 – muteness, 51, 59, 62, 66, 176, 177, 206, 210, 222 epideictic, see rhetoric, epideictic fertility/infertility – barrenness, 54, 57, 58, 61, 65, 66, 73, 128, 145, 167‒173, 222 – birth, 15, 22, 46, 55, 56, 58, 72, 140, 157, 158, 169‒173, 203, 209 – fecundity, 10, 61, 66, 73, 151, 206 Gentiles – revelation to, 2, 15, 179, 210, 211, 241, 245, 249, 251, 253, 255‒257, 261, 269, 273 God – beneficence of, 11, 15, 28, 30, 41, 43, 47, 48, 52, 53, 67, 68, 73, 99, 104, 128, 129, 210, 271, 272, 277, 281‒283
– divine plan, 1, 3, 104, 163, 169, 178, 188, 202, 213, 217, 234, 235, 236, 243, 245, 257, 260, 280, 282 – human response to, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 19, 21, 22, 27, 30, 39, 42, 44, 45, 48, 53‒59, 61, 64, 65, 67, 72, 74, 75, 79‒86, 91, 94, 96, 98, 100, 102, 104, 105, 107, 109‒111, 113, 116‒120, 142‒142, 181‒199, 222‒236, 239‒249, 252‒259, 265, 268, 271, 273‒278, 280, 282 – providence of, 14, 43, 47‒54, 67, 69, 70, 73, 75, 78, 79, 83, 86, 98, 122, 271, 272, 281, 282 – human recognition of salvation by, 15, 37, 43, 44, 47‒52, 54, 60, 61, 67, 73, 75‒77, 80, 85, 98, 102, 104, 107, 116, 117, 121, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 134, 138, 150‒152, 157, 166, 169, 175, 180, 190, 191, 196, 204, 209, 210, 213, 214, 219, 221, 222‒229, 239‒249, 264, 268, 272, 276‒279 – surprising work of, 1, 36, 92, 104, 112, 113, 134, 138, 145, 151, 152, 157, 168, 175, 178‒180, 182, 184, 186, 189, 193, 196, 197, 200, 210, 213, 221, 222, 232, 234, 236, 238, 239, 242, 245, 248, 252, 254, 256‒258, 260, 276, 277, 282 – visitation of, 1, 15, 104, 131‒135, 138, 150‒152, 155, 163‒166, 178‒180, 183, 190, 196, 197, 199, 200, 203, 204, 207, 208, 210, 211, 213, 215, 217‒219, 221, 222, 226, 230, 231, 233‒236, 238, 239, 241, 242, 245, 246, 248, 249, 251, 252, 254‒256, 261, 264, 269, 273‒280, 282 greeting (use of χαίρω), 91‒93, 139‒142 grief, see lament healing, 1, 3, 4, 11, 12, 15, 25, 35, 55, 57‒59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 76‒86, 88, 89, 92‒94, 96‒105, 120‒123, 129, 130, 132, 133, 138, 147, 169, 175‒177, 180‒211, 213‒215, 217‒223, 226, 227, 231, 232, 233, 240, 241, 246‒249, 251‒257, 260, 262, 264, 265, 267‒269, 273‒278, 280, 281 – spiritual, 2, 9, 86, 94, 98, 185, 187, 205
328
Index of Subjects
Israel – as light, 100, 164, 172, 262 – glory to, 2, 15, 104, 132, 133, 164, 179, 208, 210, 211, 247, 255, 269, 273 – restoration of, 9, 15, 55‒62, 65, 73, 74, 81, 83, 84‒86, 90, 95, 99, 100, 102‒104, 125, 126, 129‒134, 138, 140, 147, 152, 153‒166, 169, 171, 174, 175‒181, 201, 202, 204‒211, 216, 222, 223, 229‒231, 233, 243, 246, 247, 251, 253, 261, 262, 269, 272‒280 Jerusalem, 1, 12, 55‒57, 59‒62, 76, 79, 81, 84, 86, 95‒100, 102‒104, 111, 125‒127, 13‒134, 138, 147, 156‒158, 164‒167, 169‒171, 173, 179‒181, 184, 188, 191, 202‒204, 206, 209‒214, 216, 221‒226, 228, 230‒238, 240‒242, 244‒249, 251‒255, 257, 259, 260, 262, 264, 265, 267, 269, 273‒281 – personified as lady Zion, 55‒60, 62, 95, 100, 125, 126, 139, 156‒159, 164, 166, 170‒174, 203, 206, 207, 222, 223, 229, 231‒235, 246, 249, 262 – apostrophe to, 58, 231‒234, 249 – her children, vii, 55, 56, 58‒61, 100, 155‒159, 164, 171, 173, 174, 206, 207, 222, 223, 229, 231, 233, 234, 246 – resistance to visitation in Luke‐Acts, 192, 196, 231‒235, 254‒257, 259‒264, 227, 280 – see also Zion Jesus – birth of, 15, 130, 132, 133, 135‒149, 183, 211, 223, 227, 241, 247, 262, 269, 273‒275 – Christology, 8, 9, 135, 136, 151, 198, 199, 200, 282 – death of, 3, 130, 132, 133, 169, 192, 213, 221, 227, 232, 233, 236, 238‒248, 257, 262, 265, 269, 274, 276‒278 – name of, 198‒200, 210, 213, 228, 251, 263, 283 – praise by, – see praise of the divine by characters in Luke‐Acts, Jesus – resurrection of, 132‒135, 179, 183, 192, 198, 206, 213, 227, 238, 239, 241‒243, 245‒249, 262, 265, 267, 269, 274, 276, 278 – see also praise of the divine, by charac‐ ters in Luke‐Acts, Jesus; Luke‐Acts, Je‐ susʹ blessing of his disciples Joseph and Aseneth – and Luke‐Acts, see Luke‐Acts and Joseph and Aseneth – and Tobit, 100, 105, 107, 115, 118‒123, 126‒130 – discourse about praise of God, 107‒110, 113‒115
– Heliopolis, 106, 109, 125, 127 – hymn of Aseneth, 107, 109, 119, 121, 122, 128 – petition by Joseph, 115‒116 – petitions by Aseneth, 113, 117‒120 – plot of, 107, 109, 110, 112‒114, 116, 118‒120, 122, 123, 127‒129, – praise by characters, see praise of the divine by characters in Joseph and Ase‐ neth joy, 2, 6‒9, 12, 22, 26, 44, 48, 55‒62, 66, 82‒86, 89‒94, 98‒101, 103, 104, 107‒113, 116, 118, 119, 121‒123, 127, 128, 133, 135‒159, 161‒164, 166, 167, 170‒178, 181‒183, 184, 188, 189, 192, 193, 197, 198, 202, 203, 206, 207, 211, 214‒219, 221‒225, 227‒231, 233, 235, 244, 245, 247, 248, 256‒260, 262, 264, 274, 275, 278‒280 lament, mourning, grief, 22, 24, 50, 53, 57, 60, 65, 66, 90, 91, 94, 98, 101, 102, 116, 126, 140, 159, 241, 244, 280 Luke‐Acts – and Joseph and Aseneth, 2, 10, 13, 15, 17, 38, 40‒44, 59, 64, 65, 67, 73, 113, 115, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 126, 128, 130, 131, 166, 173, 209, 223, 253, 262, 268, 271, 272 – and Tobit, 2, 10, 13, 15, 17, 19, 38, 40‒43, 59, 65, 67, 73, 89, 100, 102‒104, 131, 140, 141, 156, 169, 173, 207‒209, 215, 216, 223, 229, 242, 244, 256, 262, 268, 271, 272 – divided response to divine plan, 134, 180, 188, 189, 195, 197, 200, 201, 211, 219, 221, 222, 233, 246, 248, 249, 251, 257, 259, 277, 280 – exhortation to rejoice, 139, 140, 143‒145, 157, 159, 173, 205, 214, 215, 218, 221, 223, 227‒230, 233, 234, 249, 259, 274 – healing and conversion, connection between, 3, 15, 61, 204, 265‒268, 277 – hymns – Benedictus, 131, 148, 152, 155, 156, 158, 160, 179, 263 – Magnificat, 136, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 170, 172, 216, 263 – Nunc Dimittis, 148, 164, 263 – Jesusʹ blessing of his disciples, 219‒221, 245 – plot of, 131‒136, 138, 143, 144, 146, 147, 149‒152, 158, 161, 165‒168, 176‒180, 183, 195, 205, 209‒212, 214, 225, 232, 235, 241, 242, 249, 251‒253, 257, 269, 271‒273
Index of Subjects
– praise of God – in four contexts, 15, 131‒134, 211, 241, 269, 273, 275‒277, 279 – in various scenes – conversion stories, 251‒265 – healing stories, 181‒212 – infancy narrative, 135‒180 – Jerusalem, approach to, 222‒231 – Jerusalem, new community in Acts 1‒4, 192, 196, 205‒207, 246‒248 – passion narrative, 236‒242 – Paul’s travels, 265 – post‒resurrection scenes in Luke, 242‒246 – return of the seventy (two), 214‒222 – see also praise of the divine – resistance to divine plan, 61, 134, 179, 180, 188, 195, 231‒235, 248, 249, 254‒257, 259‒264, 227, 280 – surprise, 1, 36, 92, 104, 112, 113, 134, 138, 145, 151, 152, 157, 175, 178, 179, 180, 182, 184, 186, 189, 193, 196, 197, 200, 210, 213, 221, 222, 232, 236, 238, 239, 242, 245, 248, 252, 254, 256, 257, 260, 276, 277, 282 – see also praise of the divine by characters in Luke‐Acts; God, visitation of miracles, 1‒6, 9, 12, 15, 41, 55, 63, 132, 157, 160, 167‒169, 172, 173, 180, 181, 185, 189, 191, 195, 200, 204, 205, 213, 214, 217‒219, 231, 235, 240‒242, 245, 246, 251, 253, 264, 274, 278 mourning, see lament narrative – irony, 70, 78‒80, 85, 89, 92, 98, 103‒104, 105, 115, 129, 141, 187, 242‒244, 272 – plot, 1, 2, 13, 15, 76‒80, 85, 86, 92, 96, 98, 103, 104, 107, 109, 110, 112‒114, 116, 118‒120, 122, 123, 127‒129, 131‒136, 138, 143, 144, 146, 147, 149‒152, 158, 161, 165‒168, 176‒180, 183, 195, 205, 209‒212, 214, 225, 232, 235, 241, 242, 249, 251‒253, 257, 269, 271‒273, 277‒279, 283 – climax, 1, 15, 32, 78, 80, 85, 86, 107, 118, 119, 123, 162, 168, 177, 249, 277 – dénouement, 80, 81, 98, 110, 118 – praise motif, 1‒3, 6, 7, 9‒13, 15, 16, 17, 54, 56‒58, 62, 66, 75‒77, 81, 82, 84, 90‒92, 96, 97, 103‒105, 107, 109, 115, 119, 122, 128, 130‒134, 138, 144‒146, 148, 150, 152‒154, 162, 165, 166, 173, 175, 178, 179, 181, 183, 184, 190, 194, 198‒200, 205, 210, 211, 214, 222, 224‒226, 229, 231, 235, 237, 238, 240, 241, 245‒248, 251, 257, 264, 269, 271‒273, 276‒283
329
– structure, 2, 3, 6, 13, 26, 69, 81, 119, 120, 136, 138, 142, 145, 148, 149, 152, 183, 184, 201, 211, 267, 279, 283 – tension, 1, 13, 15, 53, 78‒80, 96, 105, 107, 109, 110, 112‒114, 116, 118, 119, 127, 128, 134, 138, 149, 151, 154, 175, 176, 178, 180, 181, 183‒186, 188‒190, 192, 193, 195‒198, 205, 206, 210, 213, 214, 222, 231, 232, 235, 236, 240, 242‒246, 249, 252, 254‒257, 259, 260, 268, 272, 276, 277, 279, 280, 282 praise of the divine – and humility/arrogance, 20, 49, 50, 53, 54, 61, 73, 89, 112, 115, 122, 157, 167, 169, 178, 187, 189, 190, 191, 195, 220, 238, 239, 247, 277 – and joy, 7‒8, 22, 39, 44, 55‒59, 66‒68, 146‒148, 152‒155, 158, 164, 166, 174, 177, 178, 206, 222, 231, 247, 256‒258, 262, 274 – as indicative of life, 63‒66, 92 – as fulfillment of prophetic expectations, 16, 134, 147, 152‒154, 160, 161, 164, 166, 179, 216, 230, 232, 248, 263, 275, 277, 278, 283 – as mark of piety/righteousness, 44‒47, 73 – as sign of proper recognition of provi‐ dence, 47‒54, 73 – as response to divine transforma‐ tion/reversal, 54‒67, 73‒74, 93‒95 – berakah, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 110, 111, 113‒121, 123, 128, 129, 236‒238, 243, 245, 248, 249, 265, 274, 276 – by characters in Luke‐Acts – Anna, 136, 137, 138, 148, 149, 151, 155, 158, 162, 164, 166, 178, 222 – blind man, 4, 12, 182, 187, 190‒192, 197, 206, 210, 227, 232, 266, 274, 284 – centurion, 227, 231, 239‒242, 249, 258, 274, 276, 279, 284 – post‒resurrection followers of Jesus in Jerusalem, 165, 240, 246‒249, 253, 255, 257‒259, 266, 268, 274, 275, 278, 285 – crowds, 3, 10, 182, 185, 188, 189, 191‒193, 195‒197, 203, 206, 211, 223, 234, 240, 246, 258, 266, 274, 276, 277, 280, 284, 285 – disciples of Jesus, 3, 4, 7, 8, 12, 147, 157, 162, 163, 200, 207, 214, 219, 224, 226‒233, 237, 248, 255, 274, 275, 279, 284 – Gentiles in Caesarea, 199, 252‒254, 258, 261, 262, 266, 274, 278, 285
330
Index of Subjects
– Gentiles in Pisidian Antioch, 7, 147, 165, 240, 251, 257‒260, 262, 266, 274, 275, 285 – heavenly host, 12, 136, 138, 149, 163, 192, 216, 221, 226, 227, 229, 274, 284 – leaping lame man, 4, 5, 182, 185, , 192‒198, 205, 206, 222, 240, 247‒249, 253, 254, 266, 269, 274, 278, 285 – Jesus, 9, 11, 12, 147, 215‒221, 236‒239, 244, 248, 249, 274, 284 – Mary, 59, 122, 126, 136‒139, 141‒152, 155, 156, 158, 160, 161, 164, 166‒174, 176‒178, 180, 187, 209‒211, 216, 220, 222, 229, 235, 249, 274, 277 – paralyzed man (Lk 5), 4, 5, 182‒184, 186, 187, 196, 205, 232, 266, 284 – residents of Ephesus, 181, 198, 199, 200, 264, 285 – Samaritan leper, 5, 119, 182, 187, 189, 197, 206, 232, 266‒268, 274, 276, 284 – shepherds, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 148, 149, 162, 165, 166, 178, 226, 227, 229, 240 – Simeon, 10, 15, 59, 132‒134, 136‒138, 146, 148, 149, 151, 156, 162, 164, 165, 178‒180, 188, 195, 197, 200, 210, 211, 216, 222, 241, 244, 247, 251, 259, 261, 269, 273, 274 – straightened woman, 7, 147, 166, 182, 185, 188, 189, 193, 196, 200, 201, 203, 206, 211, 222, 226, 232, 258, 266, 267, 274, 284 – Zechariah, 59, 131, 132, 136‒139, 141, 142, 145, 146, 148‒156, 164, 167, 170, 174‒178, 180, 181, 183, 185, 186, 199, 200, 210, 211, 216, 222, 228, 229, 232, 234, 255, 274‒276 – by characters in Joseph and Aseneth – Aseneth, 64, 108, 110, 115‒123 – Corporate, 108 – Family, 108, 113, 121 – Joseph, 108, 115 – Pentephres, 108, 110‒113 – Parents, 108 – Pharaoh, 108, 121 – by characters in Tobit – Raguel and Edna, 77, 81, 82, 84, 94, 117 – Sarah, 11, 81, 82 – Gabael, 77, 82, 88 – Tobiah, 77, 83, 85‒86, 97 – Tobit, 44, 77, 78, 80, 83‒86, 88, 93, 94, 96‒101, 103, 126, 129, 130, 140, 262 – by characters in other narratives – Esther (LXX), 65
– – –
–
– – – –
–
– – – – – –
– Hezekiah (LXX), 64 – men of Troy (Aeneid), 71 by the Gentiles (nations), 16, 73, 95, 99‒100, 124‒127, 156, 164‒165, 251‒269 definition of, 73 eschatological praise, 58, 74, 95‒103, 127, 134, 152, 155, 156, 164, 171, 173, 179, 183, 209, 210, 222, 247, 262, 263, 278 failure to praise, silence, 1, 12, 14, 15, 43, 44, 49, 50, 60, 61, 64‒66, 69, 73, 86, 89, 91, 95, 126, 134, 138, 175, 176, 180, 183, 189‒192, 195, 200, 211, 221, 222, 225, 226, 231‒236, 239‒242, 246, 249, 254, 255, 260, 272, 275‒277, 279 in classical rhetoric, 69‒70 in Greek hymns, 30‒35, 69 in Stoicism, 49‒53, 66 in texts and authors – Alexander Numenius, 70 – Apuleius, 66 – Aristides, 65 – Aristotle, 70 – Baruch, 61 – Cleanthus, 52 – Epictetus, 49‒53, 71‒ – Isaiah, 44, 54‒61, 64 – Joseph and Aseneth, 105‒130 – Josephus, 48 – Letter of Aristeas, 47, 53 – Lucretius, 52 – Luke‐Acts, 1‒13, 131‒269 – Philo, 45‒46, 48‒49, 53, 72 – Plato, 46, 49, 70‒71 – Psalms, 22‒24, 44, 68 – Quintilian, 69‒70 – Seneca, 53 – Sibylline Oracles, 44, 64‒65 – Sirach, 44, 46, 53, 63, 68‒69 – Testament of Dan, 61 – Tobit, 75‒104 – Virgil, 71 – Wisdom of Solomon, 62 individuals’ praise representative of their communities, 61, 95‒103, 123‒127, 166‒178, 200‒207 narrative impulse inherent in, 67‒72, 74 narrative modes of, 9‒10 new song, 58, 262, 281 praise notices, 7, 10, 11, 21, 74, 76, 77, 84, 108, 162, 165, 178, 179, 182, 236, 264 Song of the Sea, 34, 55‒57, 62, 66, 179 thanksgiving, 6, 8, 11, 12, 20, 22‒24, 26, 27, 31, 35, 39, 42, 45, 48, 49, 53, 55‒57, 64, 68, 72, 94, 122, 190, 203, 217
Index of Subjects
– to the ends of the earth, 58, 73, 100, 134, 157, 164‒166, 204, 251, 256, 262, 263, 269, 275, 277 – types – declarative praise, 11, 23, 24, 39, 67, 69, 74, 81, 82, 83, 85, 88, 94, 115, 179, 270, 282 – descriptive praise, 11, 14, 23, 39, 67, 69, 74, 81, 82, 83, 85, 88, 94, 115, 179, 271, 283 – vocabulary, 38‒41 prayer – definitions of, 19‒21 – in Luke‐Acts, 8‒9 – meaning of εὐχή as primarily petition (not praise), 25‒38 – see also Tobit, petitions of Tobit and Sarah; Joseph and Aseneth, petitions of Aseneth and Joseph Quelle/double tradition, 8, 12, 201, 215 release from disease, oppression, sin, 60, 63, 66, 73, 87, 92, 102, 176, 201, 202, 207, 209, 210, 245, 258, 260, 267 restoration of Israel, – see Israel, restoration of resurrection, 55, 56, 66, 130 – of Jesus, see Jesus, resurrection of reversal, 43, 66, 67, 84, 90, 98, 103, 123, 127, 129, 156, 158, 164, 167‒173, 177, 179, 181, 187, 205, 220, 230, 235, 244, 280 – see also transformation; healing rhetoric, epideictic, 38, 40, 69, 70, 74, 117, 189, 279 salvation, 1, 7, 9, 15, 39, 43, 44, 55‒59, 61, 62, 64‒67, 69, 73‒75, 79, 81, 88, 98‒100, 104, 130, 132, 133, 134, 138‒140, 142, 146, 147, 150‒152, 154‒157, 159‒166, 169, 171, 174, 175, 177, 179‒181, 192, 193, 197, 202, 204, 205, 209, 210, 224, 225, 229, 233, 236, 238, 244, 245, 248, 249, 252‒260, 262‒264, 268, 269, 271, 273, 275‒282 Shavuot, 78, 89, 90 sight, 3, 6, 9, 12, 13, 15, 20, 26‒32, 35, 37, 40, 43‒47, 49‒51, 53, 55, 56, 58‒64, 73, 76, 78, 81, 82, 84, 89‒95, 97‒100, 102‒104, 107, 109, 111, 115, 119‒123, 125‒129, 134, 135,
331
139‒142, 145, 146, 149‒151, 154‒156, 158, 161, 162, 164, 166, 168, 170‒172, 177, 178, 180, 183, 184, 187, 188, 190‒194, 197, 202, 204, 207‒209, 213, 215‒217, 219, 220, 222, 223, 225‒228, 231, 245, 251, 253‒258, 260‒265, 267, 268, 275, 277, 278 silence, see praise of the divine, failure to praise Stoicism, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 66, 73, 99, 271, 282 thanksgiving, see praise, thanksgiving theodicy, 78, 79, 90, 280 Tobit – and Joseph and Aseneth, see Joseph and Aseneth and Tobit – and Luke‐Acts, see Luke‐Acts and Tobit – blindness, 76, 78, 83, 89, 91, 93, 94, 96, 98, 101‒104 – discourse about praise, 76, 93 – despair/hopelessness, 78, 86‒93 – exhortations to praise, 77, 86, 93, 94, 97, 98, 100 – hymn of Tobit, 44, 76‒78, 80, 81, 84, 86, 88, 93, 94‒103, 126, 129, 130, 140, 262 – irony, 78‒80, 85, 89, 92, 98, 103‒104, 105 – petitions of Tobit and Sarah, 78, 81, 87‒89, 118 – plot of, 76‒80, 85, 86, 92, 96, 98, 103, 104 – sight/seeing, 76, 78, 81, 82, 84, 89‒95, 97‒100, 102‒104 – theodicy, 78, 79, 90 transformation, 15, 43, 54‒67, 73, 76, 77, 82, 84, 86, 93‒95, 97, 99, 100, 102, 104, 105, 107, 109, 110, 114‒123, 125‒129, 134, 138, 153, 155, 157, 158, 162, 164, 167, 169, 171, 173, 176‒178, 180, 181, 184, 185, 187, 189, 192, 203‒206, 209, 211, 214, 221, 225, 229, 244‒246, 248, 249, 252, 253, 256, 257, 262, 265, 268, 272, 280, 281 – see also, reversal; healing Zion, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 66, 68, 99, 123, 125, 126, 127, 139, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 163, 164, 166, 169‒174, 177, 179, 202, 203, 206, 210, 222, 223, 229, 230, 231, 233, 246, 262 – see also Jerusalem