IRAN - Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies issue 35

IRAN Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 1997

VOLUMEXXXV

CONTENTS

Governing Council ............... Report of the Council ...................

Page ii

......... .......

The International Merv Project. Preliminary Report on the Fifth Season (1996), by Georgina Herrmann, K. Kurbansakhatov, St. John Simpson et al. ................... .....

THE

iii

1

An Amir Khusraw Khamsa of 1581, by B. W. Robinson ........... Excavations at Kazakl'i-Yatkan in the Tash-Ki'rman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia: a Preliminary Report, by Svend Helms and Vadim N. Yagodin ................... ........... The Elymaian Rock-Carving of Shaivand, Izeh, byJacfar Mehrkiyan . . .

35

Wrestling at the Victoria and Albert Museum, by Patricia L. Baker . . . A Lodi Inscription from Eastern Panjab, by Subhash Parihar ......

73

43 67

79

A Persian Gulf in the Sea of Lights: the Chapter on Naw-Rfiz in the ......... Bihgr al-Anwar,byJohn Walbridge ........ A Preliminary Account of the Persian Manuscripts in the Collection of the Late Sir Harold W. Bailey, by Maria Szuppe ............ Mediaeval Iranian Lustre-Painted and Associated Wares: Typology in a Multidisciplinary Study, by Robert B. Mason .............

103

Archaeological News from Iran, by Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis and St. John Simpson ............. ..........

137

BRITISH

INSTITUTE

OF PERSIAN

83 93

STUDIES

A Registered Charity

c/o The British Academy,

20-21

Cornwall Terrace,

ISSN 0578-6967

London

NW1 4QP

STATEMENTOF AIMS AND ACTIVITIES 1. The Institute has an establishment in Tehran at which British scholars, men and women of learning versed in the arts, friends of Iran, may reside and meet their Iranian colleagues in order to discuss with them subjects of common interest: the arts, archaeology, history, literature, linguistics, religion, philosophy and cognate subjects. 2. The Institute provides accommodation for senior scholars and for teachers from British Universities in order that they may refresh themselves at the source of knowledge from which their teaching derives. The same service is being rendered to younger students who show promise of developing interests in Persian studies. 3. The Institute, whilst concerned with Persian culture in the widest sense, is particularly concerned with the development of archaeological techniques, and seeks the co-operation of Iranian scholars and students in applying current methods to the resolution of archaeological and historical problems. 4. Archaeological excavation using modern scientific techniques as ancillary aids is one of the Institute's primary tasks. These activities, which entail a fresh appraisal of previous discoveries, have already yielded new historical, architectural, and archaeological evidence which is adding to our knowledge of the past and of its bearing on the modern world. 5. In pursuit of all the activities mentioned in the preceding paragraphs the Institute is gradually adding to its library, is collecting learned periodicals, and is publishing a journal, Iran, which appears annually. 6. The Institute arranges occasional seminars, lectures and conferences and enlists the help of distinguished scholars for this purpose. It will also aim at arranging small exhibitions with the object of demonstrating the importance of Persian culture and its attraction for the world of scholarship. 7. The Institute endeavours to collaborate with universities and educational institutions in Iran by all the means at its disposal and, when consulted, assists Iranian scholars with technical advice for directing them towards the appropriate channels in British universities.

MEMBERSHIP OF THE INSTITUTE Anyone wishing to join the Institute should write to the Membership Secretary, c/o The Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WCIH OPY The annual subscription rates (lstJanuary-31st December) are as follows: Full membership (U.K. only) ?25 ?8.00 Member not receiving journal Full membership (Overseas) ?30 or $60 ?7.50 Student membership

COPIESOF IRAN Full members of the Institute receive a post free copy of the current issue of the journal Iran each year. Copies of Iran may be obtained from the Publications Secretary (address as above) at the following prices: ?30 or US$60 each plus ?3/US$6 Current issue-single copies purchased by non-members per copy for postage and packing (surface mail outside Europe) see publications list inside back cover Back numbers-please Those ordering from overseas may pay in US dollars or by sterling draft drawn in London, by international money order or by Eurocheque.

IRAN Volume XXXV 1997

CONTENTS

Governing Council

..............

....................

Report of the Council

Page ii

... ..

........ ........ The International Merv Project. Preliminary Report on the Fifth Season (1996), by Georgina Herrmann, K. Kurbansakhatov, St. John Simpson et al. ...........

iii

An Amir Khusraw Khamsaof 1581, by B. W. Robinson

. .................... Excavations at Kazakl'i-Yatkan in the Tash-Ki'rman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia: a Preliminary Report, by Svend Helms and Vadim N. Yagodin ............

35

The Elymaian Rock-Carving of Shaivand, Izeh, byJacfar Mehrkiyan

.......

67

Wrestling at the Victoria and Albert Museum, by Patricia L. Baker

............

..................

A Lodi Inscription from Eastern Panjab, by Subhash Parihar

1

43

....

73

...........

. . . ..

79

Chapter on Naw-Riiz ............

in the ....

83

A Preliminary Account of the Persian Manuscripts in the Collection Late Sir Harold W. Bailey, by Maria Szuppe ...................

of the

A Persian Gulf in the Sea of Lights: the Bihar al-Anwar,byJohn Walbridge ..........

Mediaeval

Iranian Lustre-Painted and Associated Wares: Multidisciplinary Study, by Robert B. Mason ...................

Typology

Archaeological News from Iran, by Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis and St. John Simpson

93

... in

a ...

103

. . . .

137

ISSN 0578-6967

THE

BRITISH

INSTITUTE

OF PERSIAN

STUDIES

(A Registered Charity)

c/o The British Academy, 20-21 Cornwall Terrace, London NW1 4QP

BRITISH INSTITUTE OF PERSIANSTUDIES (A Registered Charity) GOVERNING COUNCIL President Mr. DESMOND HARNEY,O.B.E., B.Sc. Vice-President Professor ROBERT HILLENBRAND, M.A., D.Phil., F.R.S.E. HonoraryVice-Presidents Professor A. K. S. LAMBTON, O.B.E., D.Lit., Ph.D., F.B.A. Professor D. B. STRONACH, O.B.E., M.A., F.S.A. Sir DENIS WRIGHT, G.C.M.G., M.A. Members W. ALLAN, M.A., D.Phil. *ProfessorJ. Sir NICHOLAS BARRINGTON, K.C.M.G.,C.V.O. Dr.J. E. CURTIS, B.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. *Dr. PAUL LUFT, M.A., Ph.D. *Professor K. S. McLACHLAN,M.A., Ph.D. Mr. C.J. RUNDLE, O.B.E., M.A. HonoraryTreasurer *Mr. PETER KNAPTON, B.Phil., M.A., M.B.A., F.C.C.A. HonorarySecretary& Chairmanof theResearchCommittee *Dr. CHARLESMELVILLE,M.A., Ph.D. HonoraryLibrarian Dr. ROBERT GLEAVE,B.A., M.A., Ph.D. HonoraryJoint Editors Professor C. E. BOSWORTH, M.A., Ph.D., F.B.A. *Dr. VESTA CURTIS, M.A., Ph.D. SpecialAdviser Mrs. M. E. GUERITZ, M.B.E. AssistantSecretary MissJULIET DRYDEN,B.A., M.A. Secretary Membership MrsJIRAPORNHODSON Auditors PRIDIE BREWSTER,29-39 London Road, Twickenham, Middlesex TW1 3SZ.

c/o The British Academy, 20-21 Cornwall Terrace, LONDON NW1 4QP

*Member of Research Committee

P.O. Box 11365-6844 Tehran IRAN

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL to 31st March1996 A year rather marking time as various administrative and staffing changes were digested and as the British Academy's review of all thirteen Schools and Institutes was undertaken. The thirty-third Annual General Meeting was held at the British Academy on the 23rd November 1995. The following members of the Governing Council retired in accordance with the Articles and were duly re-elected: Mr. John Cooper, Dr. Vesta Curtis, Professor Robert Hillenbrand, Dr. David Morgan, Professor Michael Rogers and Mr. Alexander Morton. Professor Michael Rogers completed his term as President and was succeeded by Mr. Desmond Harney, a long standing member of Council. Dr. Vesta Curtis resigned as Honorary Secretary and was succeeded by Dr. Charles Melville. We will always remain in Dr. Curtis' debt for her devoted work in seeing the Institute through a difficult period of staff changes as well as her continued invaluable work on Iran. A new post of Honorary Librarian was created and Dr. Robert Gleave of Bristol University was appointed to fill it. After many years of dedicated and professional service to the Institute as its Honorary Treasurer, the indispensable Mr.John Cloake finally insisted on making himself dispensable. It is hard to express how grateful we are to him for his labours on the Institute's behalf. A new Honorary Treasurer, Mr. Peter Knapton, was formally appointed in March 1995 and generously offered to take on the burden of the administration of all membership records from his own office. In the following month we appointed a new Assistant Secretary in the person of Miss Juliet Dryden who quickly got a grip on our diverse affairs from our small second floor office in Old Street. Our lecture programme continued with Professor Peter Chelkowski of New York University giving the Summer Lecture on the contemporary theme of "Graphic Art in the Islamic Republic of Iran". The Annual Lecture after the AGM was given by Professor Ekhart Ehlers of Bonn University on "Rural Development: Between Exploitation and Sustainability". In the course of the year the following grants and bursaries were awarded by the Fellowship Committee. Undergraduate travel grants went to Tim Holman, Matthew Fielden and Lucy Proctor. Bursary Grants and Fellowships were awarded to Maria Brosius, working on a transliteration of 150 Persepolis Fortification Texts; Neil Green on "Fire Temples and Survival of Zoroastrian Culture", Jawid Mujaddedi on "The Position of Tabaqat al-Sufiyye in the Development of the Genre of Sufi Biographical Dictionaries", Syed Rizvi on "A Textual Study of the Sharh-i Manzumeh", Olivier Tirard-Collet on "The Revival of Western Afghanistan", and Elaine Wright for a study of the 14th-century manuscripts of Shiraz in Paris. A grant was also given to Dr. Charles Melville in support of The Societas Iranologica Europaea (S.I.E.)-the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies at Cambridge. BIPS also continued its support for the International Merv project by giving a substantial amount through Dr Georgina Herrmann-the nearest BIPS can presently get, at one remove, to an actual dig! Two Council members organised (independently of BIPS) two successful international conferences on Iranian studies. Dr. Charles Melville masterminded the conference at Cambridge referred to above and Professor Robert Hillenbrand organised the symposium "The Art of the Mongols: Its precursors, Contemporary Context and Legacy" at Edinburgh. Over the course of the year we were fortunate in having visits to Tehran by both Mr. Peter Knapton and Dr. Robert Gleave. Between them and our resident caretaker Houman Kordmahini, they ensured that the maintenance of the building was properly attended to and that the library was put in much better shape. As always the Governing Council wish to thank the British Academy, and in particular its Secretary Mr. Peter Brown (who was appointed a CBE during this period) for their guidance and support; to Mr. Jeffrey James, the British Charge d'Affaires in Tehran for his wise counsel concerning our position in Iran, as well as to the Middle East Department of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. We also began gratifyingly to see more of the Head of Mission, Gholamreza Ansari, and the staff of the Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Iran in London. DESMOND HARNEY President

CHARLES MELVILLE Hon. Secretary iii

THE INTERNATIONALMERVPROJECT Preliminary Report on the Fifth Season (1996) By Georgina Herrmann, K. Kurbansakhatov,StJohn Simpson et al. Londonand Ashgabat

1996 was the second year of the second threeyear Collaboration (1992-94 and 1995-97) between London and YuTAKE, University College of Turkmen Department History, Academy of Sciences: our fifth season at Merv ran from September 6 to October 19, when we worked under General Permit No. 7/445 granted to K. Kurbansakhatov.Finance was provided by the British Academy, the British Institute of Persian Studies, the British Museum, the Max van Berchem Foundation, the Rolex Awards for Enterprise, the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, the Society of Antiquaries of London and the U.C.L. Graduate School, to all of whom we are deeply grateful. Magnificent logistical support was provided in Turkmenistan by Bridas Energy Ltd. Equipment was generously supplied by Leica UK, Bartington Instruments (Witney), Bridas Energy and the Photographic Laboratory and Field Unit of the Institute of Archaeology. We would like to thank them warmlyfor these generous loans. Those who took part were Georgina Herrmann and K. Kurbansakhatov (joint directors); St John Simpson and Glynn Barratt (assistant directors, excavation and survey); Paul Murray, Neville Redvers-Higgins, Natasha Smirnova and Vladimir Zavyalov (MGK 5); Alaguli Berdiev, Ann Feuerbach, Adrian Powell, Alan Roy, Jim Stedman, Joshua Wright (MGK 4); Akmohammed Annaev, Alaguli Berdiev and Andrew Petersen, assisted by Kurban Agajanov, Pierre Brun and Cate Davies (MSK 1); Akmohammad Annaev, Pierre Brun and Kurban Agajanov (Sultan Kala walls). The house team comprised Gabriele Puschnigg (Sasanian ceramics), Cate Davies and Dave Gilbert (mediaeval ceramics); Sheila Boardman (archaeobotanist) with Guncha and Eneby Durdieva to sort flots, Ian Smith (zooarchaeologist), and Jane Goddard and Faith Pewtress (illustrators). The topographic team comprised Simon Doyle (UCL, G.I.S.) and Fyodor Litovchenko (Bridas Energy), while a magnetometer survey was undertaken by Stephen Bullas. Kathy Judelson served as liaison officer. On arrival we found our excellent expedition house had been occupied by Turkish workmen, involved in building a new mosque in the Yusuf Hamadani complex in the Merv Archaeological Park. We are grateful to the Director of the Archaeological Park 'Ancient Merv', Nursakhad

Mamedov, to his deputies, Azim Akhmedov, Akmohammad Annaev and Rejeb Dzapar, for vacating their offices to provide us with temporary accommodation, as well as for their friendship and practical help throughout the season. The Hakim of Bairam Ali and his deputies, Dovlet and Khalieva Kurbanjemal, were supportive and helpful, allocating us additional working space and a tent. We were glad to be able to take over our house in the second part of the season. The camp was efficiently run by Berdi, assisted by Terkesh Annaev. The excellent drivers were Ak Murad and Khoja. Saeed Khamrakuliev assisted generally. Up to twenty young Turkmen from the Merv kolkhoztook part in the excavations. 1996 Visitors This year we were happy to welcome visits from the British Ambassador and his wife, together with a delegation from Buckingham Palace and the Foreign Office arranging the State Visit of H.R.H. Prince Charles; Ian Berry and his wife of Condi Nast Traveller,Anthony Grey of the Australian Financial ReviewMagazine;,Dr Atamamedov of the Department of History, the Academy of Sciences; a tour of American archaeological enthusiasts led by Dr Sheila Blair; Sara O'Hara from Sheffield University investigating water management; Bryan Stenhouse of TACIS with our old friend Mohammad Chari; Professor Mehmet Ozdugan of Istanbul University, planning excavations in Turkmenistan; Turkmen radio and TV, and members of the Mary and Bairam Ali Peace Corps. We were happy to exchange visits with Asadulina Maya and Golubeva Yevgeniya, the Director and Assistant Director of the excellent Museum in Mary,probably one of the best in Central Asia, recently renovated with a grant from U.N.D.P. Thanks to the acquisition of new cases by the Turkish government, the museum staff have been able to mount a representative display of mainly Bronze Age and Sasanian to Islamic material on the ground floor, complementing their impressive ethnographic display on the first floor. Both Merv and the Museum were visited by a UNESCO delegation, invited by the Turkmen Government to prepare a report on improving Visitor Access to Nysa, Merv and Kunya Urgench. The delegation included Barry Lane from Tashkent and Professor M. Tosi, 1

2

JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES

recently appointed as the UNESCO coordinator of archaeological expeditions to Turkmenistan. Many more tourists now visit Merv. During the 1996 field season a busload of tourists arrived most days, some of whom visited either an excavation, especially the more accessible, "furnace site", or the expedition house or both. Merv is a large and complex site, and it is to help these visitors that the I.M.P. has prepared a guide to the site, Ancient Merv, published thanks to a subvention by H.M. Ambassador to Turkmenistan, H. E. Mr Neil Hook, M.V.O. The Ambassador has given copies to the Ministry of Culture, Merv Archaeological Park and the Mary Museum. The Guide will shortly be republished in English and Russian, thanks to sponsorship by the Boeing Commercial Airplane Group, a delegation from which visited the site. StateVisitofH.R.H. PrinceCharlesto Turkmenistan (November6-7, 1996) During a short visit to Turkmenistan H.R.H. Prince Charles visited Merv. Guided by G. Herrmann he visited the Kiz Kalas, climbed the walls of Erk Kala, visited the 'furnace site' in Gyaur Kala and drove to Shahriyar Ark where he looked at the palace, the keshk,our excavations and the walls. At Sultan Sanjar the MaryVilayet had prepared a small display of ethnographic and archaeological artefacts and prepared refreshments. He ended his visit at the shrine of Muhammad ibn Zayd, where local women, cooking on the ovens in front of the ruined keshk, offered him a Turkmen delicacy.

Sultan Kala. Unusually, a break in the outer wall of this two-storeybuilding provided access to a well-preserved vaulted room on the ground floor with domical vaults, similar to those on the 'Seljuk' palace in Shahriyar Ark. Useful visits were also made to the well-known Sasanian fortress at Chilburj, formerly dated to the Parthian period, the Partho-Sasanian fort at Durnali, Kyrk-depe ("Forty Mounds") near Chilburj, which reproduces on a smaller scale the plan of Erk and Gyaur Kala, K6ne Kishman ("Kishman East"), Kurtli-depe and G6k-depe. Many of these sites are unfortunately suffering from the damaging effects of rising salts with the loss of previously recorded architectural details. Some of these and other sites were overflown this season in a chartered crop-spraying plane enabling aerial photography. PRINCIPALAIMSAND RESULTS OF THE 1996 SEASON

ShahriyarArk Mediaeval Merv was only walled in the eleventh century when Sultan Malik-shah (1072-92) built the "great wall round the city 12,300 paces in circuit" (Bosworth 1968a, 85; Le Strange 1905, 402), while Sultan Sanjar (1118-57) is thought to have enclosed the irregular area in the north-east corner to form the Shahriyar Ark or "RoyalCitadel" (P1. Ib, Figs. 1, 9). The standard historical reconstruction of the mediaeval city is that Merv died as a result of the Mongol destruction of 1221: both Ibn Battuta and Mustawfi described the city as still almost entirely a TheRolexAwardforEnterprise ruin in the second quarter of the fourteenth century Georgina Herrmann was one of five "Laureates" (Le Strange 1905, 402-403). However, unpublished awarded the 1996 Rolex Awards for Enterprise. This Turkmen excavations have documented considerconsists of $50,000, a gold chronometer and pro- able post-Seljuk occupation including, for instance, two metres of later stratigraphy found near the vides Laureates with world-wide publicity. Numerous articles have appeared on Merv in newspapers and Seljuk mausoleum of Kiz Bibi (Herrmann et al. 1996, 19). It was within the context of documenting late journals, both foreign and British, the most recent of which are the November issue of Minerva and the and post-Seljuk Merv that we began work in Ark in 1995 and, thanks to a generous January issues of the GeographicalMagazineand New Shahriyar the Max van Berchem Foundation, were from Scientist. grant able to expand this programme in 1996. The citadel is roughly triangular in plan and meaThe Gazetteer sures approximately 775 x 400 m.: it was formed by A. D. Petersen has continued assembling informa- building a diagonal wall across the north-east corner tion on 60 standing monuments in the oasis for the of Sultan Kala, linking the existing city walls. In 1996 Gazetteer, to be published as part of a volume on we undertook a ground survey to supplement and mediaeval Merv. He will return to the oasis in April verify information from remote sensing images. We with a photographer to finalise the draft and com- also began a programme of recording the surviving fortifications of Sultan Kala, concentrating in 1996 plete any necessary planning and photography. Visits in 1996 were made to Nagym Kala, a well-pre- on the walls of the citadel and producing the first served example of the heshksof the Merv oasis, locat- plan (Fig. 9). We planned a prominent post-Seljuk ed some 28 km from Merv kolkhozto the south of the residence and continued excavations in one corner Kara Kum canal, and to the Yeki Pir keshk,north of (Figs. 10-11). The fourteenth-fifteenth century date

N S

0

Mosque of

* YusufHmarrltdani

E

W

Kus

1000m

Shnhriyar Ar

Organ

.-Muhammadibn Zayd

Keshk

.....*

G NYtr Gate .firuz

'

MSK1

SULTAN ,KALA

,,/

EK1 EKi

.....-."--

CMSK1

han Gate

Kyz'1ibi

-C , (;-

,e

S

/, - Sultan Sanjar

Great Kyz Kala

'esse

' 'Lesser Kyz Kala ?

",

"

.-.,.. .- . . . . , -,

St Buddhist Sjua

,ans

Standing Monuments

Locationof GK Gates

G

SH

/

"G-. 'Askhab'

..I, .

K

""

'? 0

MGK5'

LMGK5 Mosque .,t

MGK4

'-

. K%\%Buddhist

/

GYAUR KALA

Necropcjis

OvalBuilding

i

Ice House House

SIce

?* ?Pavilion

Ice House Ice House

led

..

-" Citadel '

Line of Ancient Road

ABDULLAH-KHANKALA

-

--------

Line of MajanCanal Bairam AliKhan Kala ,"'

Current Road network

I

MVIODDEFRN

E3AIRAMIV

ALl

Fig. 1. Siteplan of theancient city-sitesof Merv:theprincipal monumentsand the locationof IMP excavationtrenches(G. Barratt

4

JOURNAL

OF PERSIAN

of the excavated phases raises important questions about the occupation history of citadel, especially the date of better preserved structures standing within the citadel, including the so-called "Seljuk"palace and the keshk.Indeed the relatively small size and the form of the low domical vaults of the palace suggest a post-Seljuk date. Historically, the obviously exaggerated accounts in the mediaeval records of the devastation inflicted by the Mongols (for instance, nine million corpses at Merv), together with archaeological evidence for continued occupation after the sack, suggest that it may be time to query the accepted hypothesis. There is a possibility that there was an element of deliberate demonising of the Mongols in the sources to excuse the comprehensive defeats which they had inflicted on both the Islamic and European worlds. EarlyIslamicIndustry:GyaurKala Area4 Funding from the Rolex Award enabled us to undertake largescale excavation here for the first time, and to supplement this by a magnetometer survey of the surrounding area, generously supported by the British Institute of Persian Studies. Our excavation aims were to produce a plan of the Early Islamic metal workshop, to determine the method of construction and use of the steel furnaces and to confirm their suggested ninth-tenth century date (Fig. 5). These objectives were successfully completed. In addition excavation verified and dated buried architectural remains beside the nearby 'hollow way' feature, popularly interpreted as the remains of the main east-west road bisecting Gyaur Kala; these had been revealed by geophysical survey in 1993. Mediaeval accounts record that the cities of Khurasan were famous for their high quality metalwork, and al-Biruni even described the co-fusion technique probably employed at Merv. Rather to our surprise the magnetometer survey failed to find more "steel furnaces" in the vicinity of our workshop, although it did locate a variety of furnace and other features. This suggests a complex pattern of urban development with a number of different, yet contemporary Early Islamic specialised workshops located near one another in an otherwise largely deserted area of the city. This negative evidence suggests that, although Merv was known as a steel manufacturing centre, only a few workshops were employed in this expensive high technology industry, heavily dependent on long-distance imports for its materials. MiddleSasanianHousing:GyaurKalaArea5, StructureC Our third excavation continued work initiated in two major seasons (1994-95) of surface stripping and scraping. These had revealed the plan of a large area

STUDIES

of Sasanian private houses, generally dated to the fifth century A.D. (Fig. 2). One of these houses, Structure C, had been selected in 1995 for excavation over the coming seasons, with the objectives of defining its extent, excavating the interior and relating internal phasing to street deposits (Fig. 3). A large pit, rich in pottery, provided a useful corpus of Middle Sasanian pottery from an immediately postoccupational phase. Considered as a group, this assemblage provides an invaluable basis for comparison with Late Sasanian material excavated in Erk Kala (1992-95), as well as longterm re-evaluation of Soviet and earlier excavations at Merv.

A FIFTH CENTURYSASANIANHOUSE: GYAURKALAAREA 5, STRUCTURE C and Stratigraphy 1. Architecture Structure C was initially defined, following scraping, as a small building constructed of very sandy mudbricks separated from other buildings immediately to the east and north by north-south and eastwest aligned alleys. Unlike a number of other structures encountered in Area 5, Structure C did not appear to have been deliberately infilled with bricky rubble prior to levelling up for later construction. Furthermore, interior and exterior deposits associated with Structure C appeared to be refuse-rich, offering the potential recovery of a useful datable assemblage of pottery and other finds. Excavations were commenced within Structure C during the second half of the 1995 season (Herrmann et al. 1996, 5, figs. 3, 8). Three rooms were revealed, one on the eastern side and two in the south-west corner. A circular free-standing tanurwas excavated in Room C6 and further cooking installations were found in Room C7. The 1996 objectives were to define the full extent of Structure C to the north and west, sample adjacent alley deposits and establish a stratigraphic link between Structures B and C, and continue excavations within the rooms of Structure C. These objectives were successfully achieved, but further work is required in order to complete excavations within the building (Fig. 3). Structure C comprises a small house, containing up to six rooms (C1-C6) and a small enclosed but open courtyard (C7). All construction was in mudbrick, with evidence for periodic modifications to the plan and gradual accumulation of deposits and floors within the rooms. It was entered from the east by two separate doorways. The first of these led into a long room with green plastered walls running the entire northern width of the house, later subdivided with the construction of a cross-wall into two separate storerooms (C1-C2). The earliest excavated

THE INTERNATIONAL MERV PROJECT-PRELIMINARY

I

I

I

I

I

B -

II A

-i'.

0,I

,

10

j I

!

_

mI

I

! _ I

-

--

.

I

+

iD

E I

I

i

-

I

REPORT ON THE FIFTH SEASON

(1996)

floor within Room C1 was constructed of green and brown mudbricks laid over a make-up deposit. The contemporary street surface was reached outside the house with telltale evidence for use-wear on the intervening threshold. Evidence for three consecutive circular pits, each originally probably containing a storage jar although each had been disturbed or totally removed, was found in the eastern half of this room. Room C2 measured 3 m. across and also contained evidence for storage in the form of three large pithoi sunk in a row against the south wall. One of these was fully excavated in 1994 and found to hold up to 489 litres (Herrmann et al. 1995, 40, pl. IIc). Similar storage jars were characteristic of Sasanian housing excavated by the YuTAKEin the so-called "Miller's Quarter" near the north gate of Gyaur Kala. The second group of rooms lay immediately to the south of this storage area and was entered through a separate doorway, again leading from the alley running between Structures B and C. Room C3 was a rectangular vestibule measuring 5 m. in length and 2.5 m. across with good plastered floors. A doorway at the west end of C3 led directly into Room C4, a square room measuring approximately 3 m. across with a low mudbrick bench set against the north wall. A further friable reddish pithos was found set near the centre of this bench but, following excavation, was found to lack a base, suggesting that it had been reused in antiquity, possibly to serve as a soakaway or drain. A second doorway near the western end of Room C3 led via a step into a rectangular area measuring 3.00 x 3.60 m. across (C7). The heavily compacted sloping surface of the earliest excavated floor within C7 strongly suggests contact with the natural elements, hence C7 is interpreted as an open courtyard. It contained a number of hearths and small cooking installations in the final phase (Herrmann et al. 1996, 8, pl. IIa). A narrow mudbrick partition wall running along the eastern side of C7 defined a rectangular area measuring 4.00 x 1.75 m. (C6). Two consecutive free-standing bread ovens (tanurs) were found within C6, associated with ashy rake-out deposit overlying solid floors. The last remaining room (C5) within this house measured 3.00 x 4.00 m. and was probably entered via a doorway leading off the courtyard C5. However, Key Main structure walls

0

10 ?

e

1

Fig. 2. GyaurKala Area5 (MGK5): plan of a Sasanian residentialquarterfollowingscrapingand partial excavation.

5

Secondary walls Street/alley

?

deposits

Major refuse deposits Sand-filled post-occupational brick quarry pits

6

JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES

this room was largely destroyed by a substantial circular pit (573), initially half-sectioned and then fully excavated. The upper fills were particularly rich in broken pottery, including two ostraca; the uppermost deposits were excavated in a previous season. This pit is interpreted as an immediately post-occupational feature contemporary with nearby buildings in Area 5, possibly a late phase of Structure G immediately to the south. This would explain the close similarity between material recovered from within Structure C and material recovered from upper pit-fills and other deposits in Area 5. Finally a large portion of the alley running along the eastern side of Structure C was completely excavated this season, providing a useful body of artifactual and environmental material from external contexts. This operation also threw considerable light on the sequence and character of street deposits with

strongly suggestive evidence for gradual build-up and wear followed by periodic infilling and consolidation. 2. The Ceramics' The material found inside the house derives from a large post-occupational pit (Room C5) and refuse layers, plus additional material connected with floor levels: ceramics from street deposits derived from a range of gradual build-up, rapid infilling, street repairs and trampled layers. All ceramic forms and types of decoration were represented throughout Structure C, providing a homogenous group. The assemblage from the pit in Room C5 was particularly rich, distinguished not so much by exceptional vessels as the proportion of specimens belonging to certain groups. The most complete or reconstructable

iA

Pot

O

BREAD

OVENS C6

C3

C1

C7

C2

C2O

0

,Pot

Pots

- '

(' •5\

C4

iinc 0

N

0

5

----•

I

t O,=

5

I Fig. 3. MGK5: plan of StructureC.

i

THE INTERNATIONAL MERV PROJECT-PRELIMINARY

REPORT ON THE FIFTH SEASON

(1996)

7

forms also occurred within this pit. Fine small jugs pouring rim, from the pit, was vertically polished on ring bases, for example, formed one strong group with a low rib at the shoulder/neck junction and two (Fig. 4: 3-4); the same applied to amphora-like ves- horizontal incised lines on the shoulder (Fig. 4: 5); sels and trefoil pouring mouth jugs, whereas small lightly burnished decoration was generally rare, fine and trefoil pouring mouth jugs were compara- occurring mainly on red fabrics. Another group of tively rare from other contexts. Deep and shallow jugs was embellished with a wavy line and several bowls and cooking wares form the most constant incised horizontal lines: a low rib occasionally substigroups. Jugs and jars occur more frequently and in tuted for the horizontal lines. A few unusual jug fraggreater variety inside the rooms and are rarer in ments have a hole through the neck or shoulder. street contexts. The decoration of two-handled vessels was fairly or shallow bowls and show a Deep plates usually stereotyped. The shoulder/neck junction was usualstereotyped range of forms, distinguished only by ly marked either by several horizontal incised lines, a different decoration on the rim. Small and large low rib or a combination of both. The shoulders storage jars also follow a uniform pattern. In con- show vertical scratched decoration inspired by fluted trast,jugs range from rather small and fine shapes to metal vessels. In addition, the shoulders of some vessels were decorated with incised horizontal and wavy larger forms with narrow or trefoil pouring mouths. All fine jugs have low ring bases. One semi-complete lines, partly arranged in stripes or even a row of stitches. Vertical fluting on the shoulders had the jug of rather slim proportions testifies to influence from metalware (Fig. 4: 2). Three small, but not par- effect of producing a hard shiny surface. This metalticularly fine, jugs appear as a special group. Two- lic effect was combined with horizontal decoration handled vessels, similar to amphorae, occur in two originating in the softer medium of clay. Another variants, either with the handles reaching from neck example of this hybrid type of decoration was found to shoulder or with loop handles attached to the on plate rims with attached imitation handles. The shoulder. Most of the handles show a single deep fin- decoration on the rim, wavy incised lines and ger imprint at the point of attachment to the wall. impressions, are typical for ceramics yet the imitaOnly one fragment of a twisted handle was found in tion handles are obviously inspired by metalwares. Structure C. Trefoil pouring mouths were only This style unites traditional patterns of decoration found in the pit, although a neck fragment discov- with new fashionable elements taken from another ered in the street section could belong to such a medium and might illustrate an experimental phase form. The shape has been found in Area 5 before, in ceramic production. Three other sherds were but only in small quantities. This type might have incised after firing with symbols that may represent been imported from Bactria, although it is more ownership marks as they do not serve any particular probably a local imitation (Rutkovskaya 1962, 77, decorative purpose. Finally, the last group of ceramics are cooking wares. These were invariably decoratfig. 11:1; Zavyalov1994, 72, fig. 5:7). Decoration was sparse and ranged from simple ed with very simple types of decoration, namely wavy horizontal or wavy incised lines, relief lines, impres- incised lines or impressions. The latter can take the sions and wavy-combed decoration to lightly shape of stitches or dots; dotted impressions were scratched or scraped incision covering a greater part exclusively found on coarsewares. of the vessel wall. In general, none of these decorative elements appear to be restricted to any particular shape, although certain combinations were confined to single groups. Bowls and jugs were largely 3. Coinsand otherfinds plain, apart from an occasional low relief rib at the Twenty-five coins recovered from MGK 5 were shoulder/neck junction. Plate rims show two differ- cleaned by Natasha Smirnova and Ann Feuerbach, ent kinds of decoration, either rims embellished by with provisional identifications by Natasha incised or combed wavylines, or a single incised wavy Smirnova, to whom we are very grateful (Table 1). As line and a row of impressions. Two specimens with usual, all of the coins were copper alloy. There was a incised decoration had a vestigial wavy handle high proportion of residual Parthian and Early attached to the rim (cf. Herrmann et al. 1996, 10, Sasanian coins, plus a small number of unidentififig. 7: 3). Apart from plate rims, only storage jars able examples. The latest attributable stratified coins were decorated with wavy combing, sometimes com- belong to Peroz (459-484) suggesting an end of bined with a broad horizontal incised line. Larger occupation within the second half of the fifth storage jars often had a crude type of scratched pat- century; occasional coins of Khusrau I (531-579) tern, occasionally crossed, producing a different appear to derive from post-occupational contexts. A effect to that of the vertical scratched decoration on number of additional uncleaned coins await projugs and two-handled vessels. Two types of jug were cessing in 1997 but these are not expected to decorated. A well-preserved example with a trefoil significantly change this picture.

8

JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES

(I

\\\

S\\

\\I

r~

cm-

I \

s

I 6I

2~ 0

5

cm 2

35

//

/'

\

\

/ \\.

/,/

I

t

1

16

Fig. 4. MGK5: selectedSasanian ceramics.

THE INTERNATIONAL MERV PROJECT-PRELIMINARY

REPORT ON THE FIFTH SEASON (1996)

9

Gyaur Kala Area 5 coins (1996)

8.0-7.2V 6.4

a

5.6-

I 4.8-

u

e

4.0-

3.22.4

1.6 0.8 0.0 Parthian

ShapurI

ShapurII ShapurIII YazdgardI VarahranIV Peroz

KhusrauI Uncertain

Category

Table1. GyaurKala Area5 coins (1996 season)

Other small finds from this season included three inscribed sherds, an inscribed semi-complete vessel, and several figurine fragments, mostly belonging to hand-modelled horse and rider types. A possible section of a copper alloy bracelet fragment, two beads (blue glass and an unidentified material) and a dark glass setting from a piece ofjewellery hint at a modest degree of personal ornament. A small number of drilled sherd and slightly heavier fired clay domed spindle whorls indicate household spinning, perhaps of cotton and wool fibre, for which there is independent evidence from the environmental analyses. Grinding stones were employed for processing of cereal grain; there is evidence in the form of worked sheep/goat tibia and gazelle horn which suggests small-scale domestic boneworking. An iron smithing hearth bottom was also recovered and a broken whetstone, originally suspended from an iron ring fastened through a perforated end, implies regular resharpening of metal tools. However, the almost total absence of any traces of metal-even small scraps or flakes-other than the small denomination coins strongly suggests systematic recycling of metal, although the somewhat damp saline ground conditions may also be a contributory factor. The impression gained so far is that the assemblage of finds from Structure C appears to be somewhat poorer compared to that recovered in past seasons from the Late Sasanian house in Erk Kala. The most striking differences are the scarcity of glassware and ostraca from Area 5, possibly suggesting a lower degree of wealth and literacy in this quarter of the city. It may be noted that there is no evidence

for an indigenous glass industry at Merv during the Sasanian period, hence all pieces represent long-distance imports from further west. A programme of compositional analysis of Sasanian and Islamic glass from Merv is now underway: the results of a pilot project based on Erk Kala material accompanies this report. 4. Archaeobotanicalremains2 Sampling of intramural and extramural contexts was conducted throughout the season; a large postoccupational Sasanian refuse-filled pit in one room (C5) also provided samples, although these generally contained very few plant remains, consisting of 1-2 gr. of charcoal, occasional barley and indeterminate cereal grains, a single grape pip, some legume seeds and pods, and a narrow range of wild species (including Galium sp., Suaeda type, and Boraginaceae). However, the most productive samples from Structure C came from tanurs, hearths and ash dumps in different rooms. Plant remains included bread wheat, hulled six-row barley and broomcorn millet grains, large Vicieae seeds, cotton seeds and numerous grape pips. All of these now are familiar Sasanian crops at Merv. A similar range of species, plus lentil, was recovered from contemporaneous street deposits excavated immediately to the east of Structure C, although few samples contained more than 30 quantifiable elements. The seeds and pods of small seeded legumes, including camel thorn (Alhagi sp.), are common. Camel thorn is an important fodder crop and grows wild throughout the oasis today: a similar pattern of distribution and

10

JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES

use is therefore also likely in at least the fifth century. Finally, pieces of a conglomerated amorphous material with small animal bone inclusions were recovered from several samples. These have been exported for sterol analysis in order to test a hypothesis that this, and similar material from rubbish pits in Erk Kala, incorporated cess material, which might provide an insight into human diet at Merv. AN EARLYISLAMICINDUSTRIAL AREA AND ITS ENVIRONS: GYAURKALAAREA 4 In 1992 the Surface Artefact Survey team identified a concentration of highly vitrified crucible fragments within a more extensive industrial area south of the main east-west thoroughfare or so-called "hollow way" bisecting Gyaur Kala (P1. Ia). Following archaeometallurgical analyses in 1993, evaluation trenches were excavated here in 1994 and 1995 (Herrmann et al. 1994, 70-71; Herrmann et al. 1995, 42-49; 1996, 15-17). In 1996 the excavated area was extended 30 m. to the north to link the previously identified steel workshop with the "hollow way", where a geophysical survey in 1993 had revealed possible structures on both sides (Fig. 5: Herrmann et al. 1994, 59). The northern extension was shovel scraped in spits of roughly 5 cm., a technique which has proved to be successful at Merv, because the slight dampness beneath the surface often reveals mudbricks and mortarlines. A row of structures was indeed located adjacent to the "hollow way",as suggested by the geophysical survey: the area sloping down from these to the industrial workshop to the south was more heavily eroded and structures could not be detected without deeper excavation. Area 4 therefore comprises an industrial complex located south of a row of mediaeval domestic structures lining the post-occupational "hollow way"track. These two areas are described separately below. 1. TheSteelWorkshop3 The workshop complex consisted of a fine brick-paved courtyard floor (Herrmann et al. 1996, pl. IIIb), with rooms to the north, south and probably west, with an external area containing furnaces and industrial refuse pits to the east. There are no more than two phases of construction and a relatively shallow build-up of deposits, suggesting that this complex may have been abandoned within a generation or so. The small room (Room C) to the north of the paved courtyard measured 4 x 2.6 m. and was entered via a doorway in the north-west corner: an additional doorway appears to have connected with the paved area. The walls were constructed

0 II

5 "

M

1 Crucible pits

-- .

1 /FURNACE FURNACE

c

FURNACE3 L

O Paved courtyard I

0

4 FURNACE F-.

S ePot

.T7_7--I Fig. 5. GyaurKala Area 4 (MGK4): plan of thesteelworkshop andfurnaces, with domesticstructuresbesidethe "hollowway to the north.

THE INTERNATIONAL MERV PROJECT-PRELIMINARY

of good quality square mudbricks (28 cm. across) and there were traces of fallen white wall-plaster inside this room. The paved area was separated from the furnace zone by a narrow mudbrick wall and was drained in the north-east corner by a carefully constructed ceramic drainpipe made from eleven pre-fired close-fitting sections set into a steep sided cut and packed with large sherds and fired brick fragments. This drainpipe ran east-north-east before ending in a vertical soakaway lined with further fired brick fragments. Four separate furnaces have been identified and excavated in this external area. These appear to have belonged to two different but broadly contemporary types of furnace, judging by details of their construction. The first type (Furnaces 1, 2, 4) was characterised by a ceramic tuyereemerging from the centre of the floor whereas the second type (Furnace 3) lacked evidence for this form of tuyfre.The first type is confidently identified as having been used in the production of crucible steel but the exact function of the second type is at present uncertain. Furnaces 1 and 2 were situated close to an extensive area of inter-cutting pits filled with ash, charcoal and broken crucibles. Both of these furnaces were set into steep-sided circular cuts and had been repeatedly relined, implying repeated use; Furnace 4 lay south of these and belonged to a later phase and it was more heavily eroded. A section through Furnace 2 (P1. IIa) illustrated the rebuilds that these installations underwent during their working lives, although the area enclosed by the furnace was gradually decreased with subsequent relinings. The lowest levels were of mudbrick surrounding a ceramic tuyere of 8 cm. diameter entering the furnace from the north (P1. IIa); the L-shaped pipe found in the floor of Furnace 4 in 1995 is exactly the same type of tuy6re(P1.IIb). The general layout of traditional furnaces involves a tuyerein the floor for air to provide oxygen for combustion of the fuel in the body of the furnace. One or more inclined outlets for the exiting flue gases also exist through the furnace walls. Other factors are also consistent with the interpretation of the central hole and connected underground pipe as a tuy're.The hypothesis of a central tuyire in the floor affects the design of the upper parts of the furnace, for which there is little surviving archaeological evidence. Although many furnaces and kilns have a centrally placed top exit flue, this may be counter-productive in the case of a furnace supplied by an upwardly-directed, centrallyplaced blast of air from floor level, since it would generate a central roaring "chimney" of intensely burning fuel with little reason for the hot gases to circulate. Although such a "chimney" would broaden with the combustion of the fuel, it would be inef-

REPORT ON THE FIFTH SEASON (1996)

11

ficient in terms of transferring the thermal energy to the furnace charge. However, if the furnace had a closed top with one or more inclined exit flues through the furnace wall, the hot combustion gases would be forced into more turbulent flow with more efficient heat transfer. If this were indeed the design, one would expect to find vitrified openings in the furnace wall near ground level. The splayed vitrified opening inclined through the wall on the northern and eastern sides of Furnace 2 possibly represent exit flues of this type, periodic relinings of the furnace wall rendering necessary the excavation of new flues. Furnace 3 was larger and somewhat better preserved than these Furnaces (Fig. 6; Pl. IIc). It appears to have been contemporary with Furnace 2 but was already disused by the time Furnace 4 was constructed immediately to the east. The construction sequence for Furnace 3 initially consisted of digging a large pit (151) measuring 1.90 m. northsouth x 1.60 m. east-west, with a deliberate ledge 1.50 m. long x 0.10 m. across cut halfway down the western edge. This ledge supported part of the furnace structure built directly above and was partly cut by a pair of large steep-sided postholes, some 0.25 m. deep. The surviving furnace structure comprised two distinct elements: the body of the furnace and a box connecting it with the pit. The furnace itself was constructed as a segmented circle with a diameter of 0.80 m. Half bricks (0.30 x 0.15 x 0.08 m.) were used with triangular fragments to fill the interstices on the outside (the same technique was later used to build Furnace 4). The furnace was connected to the pit by a mudbrick box measuring 0.60 x 0.40 x 0.25 m., pierced by two holes running east-west and narrowing at the junction with the base of the furnace. The top of the box was vitrified. This box was built on top of the ledge projecting between the two postholes inside the pit which are regarded as supports for some kind of structure associated with a bellows; remains of two flanking walls constructed of single mudbricks set on edge were also found here. The associated pit (151) contained a number of different fills, partly cut by a later intrusion associated with the subsequent construction of Furnace 4. The primary pit fills were loosely compacted and included a substantial silty deposit and a fine white burnt organic layer, interpreted as burnt tinder. These deposits were clearly related to the use of Furnace 3. They were followed by the collapsed remains of a mudbrick wall which originally appears to have stood highest along the north-west side of the pit. This wall is interpreted as a protective construction designed to shield a bellows operator standing or sitting on the northern side of the pit from the heat generated from a nearby exit flue.

12

JOURNAL

OF PERSIAN

STUDIES

I

I

FURNACE 4 WALL

3

FURNACE

WALL 2

0 FIRED BRICK

I

M-

-.

Fig. 6. MGK4: plan ofFurnaces3 and 4.

2. Literary referencesto the production of steel4

Al-Kindi (c. 801-66 A.D.) described the principal cities of Khurasan, Nishapur, Merv, Herat and Balkh, as steel manufacturing centres (Bronson 1986, 19), while Khurasanwas known for manufacturing swords both of local iron and of iron imported from Sarandib, modern Sri Lanka (al-Hassan 1978, 34). AlBiruni travelled throughout Khurasan, and his writings seem to have been based on first-hand experience. Describing the method of producing steel by the co-fusion method, the method probably employed at Merv (Al-Hassan 1978, 31-52; Allan 1979, 65-76; Al-Hassan and Hill 1986, 252-57), he wrote "this was the method used in Herat and gave two different qualities of steel". One was the result of

melting components "equally so that they become united in the mixing operation and no component can be differentiated or seen independently... such steel is suitable for files or similar tools". The second quality was obtained if the degree of melting of the wrought and cast iron was different for each substance "and thus the intermixing between both components is not complete, and their parts are shifted so that each of their two colors can be seen by the naked eye and it is called firind" (Al-Hassan and Hill 1986, 77). Firind/farandis translated by Allan (1979, 77) as "Damascus"or by Al-Hassan and Hill as "pattern" (1986, 254) steel. Said (1989, 217) wrote "farandin Khurasan is called jawhar al-sayf(the glitter of the sword). Occasionally they hide it after heating

THE INTERNATIONAL MERV PROJECT-PRELIMINARY

it. If the people of India wish to display it, they polish it with the Bamiyanian vitriol or white Multani clay". The last two sentences refer to the etching of the sword with acid after the forging to reveal the pattern or farand. Apparently this was not always done in Khurasan:they would "hide it after heating it". Jean Chardin also described the co-fusion method of manufacturing steel, stating that in countries such as "Parthia"and "Bactria""they mix local iron (which is hard) with Indian steel (which is soft) and the Persians call the product Poulad Jauherder, washed steel or wavy steel, which we call Damascus steel, to distinguish it from the steel of Europe. .... They melt it down in a round loaf like the hollows of one's hand, and in small square rods" (quoted by Bronson 1986, 24). The hard iron is generally interpreted as cast iron and the soft as wrought iron. The crucible steel process at Merv (Herrmann et al. 1994, 70-71) may be related to although one thousand years earlier than what Bronson (1986, 43) calls the Hyderabad Process, as documented by Voysey in the 1820s. Voysey describes how "areddish gray porous bloomery iron" and a "moderately compact iron with a grayish fracture", which presumably must be cast iron, were heated together with a little slag in a crucible (Craddock 1995, 281). Bronson also categorises the process described by al-Biruni as the Hyderabad process, as well as a co-fusion method for the production of Damascus steel in Iran described by Massalski in the 1840s. The crucible charge consisted of iron "old and already worked (nails, sheets, etc.) but free from rust" and "the best quality white cast iron". These two metals must be heated until the mixture ceased to "boil", at which point the cover was removed in order to insert a very small quantity of silver which was stirred into the melted iron. The crucible was then recovered and the openings of the furnace were sealed to allow its contents to cool gradually over a period of two or three days".Bronson ends with the observation that Hyderabad steel is associated with Damascus swords and is the only type regularly to exhibit a Damascene structure when forged (Bronson 1986, 44-45). A number of different crucible types used for iron processing have been found in Uzbekistan and dated between the ninth and thirteenth centuries (Papachristou and Swertschkow 1993). Some crucibles are taller than those from Merv, 32-40 cm., the holes in their lids are twice as large, and they do not seem to have sat on a pad. The height of the slag fin differs, being closer to the lid, and the slag composition is also different. These crucibles were apparently used for the reduction of iron ore and have evidence of the charcoal, iron ore and dolomite as a flux (Papachristou and Swertschkow 1993, 127). They are the cementation production of steel, a process distinct from that used at Merv.

REPORT ON THE FIFTH SEASON

(1996)

13

In conclusion the archaeometallurgical remains from Merv represent a fully developed process for producing steel in a crucible by the co-fusion of high and low carbon iron, possibly cast iron and wrought iron. This process is distinctly different from the Wootz process but apparently can also produce a Damascus pattern. According to Allan (1979, 7576), "Al-Biruni'sdescription of the making of fulad suggests that it was a compound of iron with a very low carbon content and iron with a high carbon content to produce a steel with a carbon content between the two. This is an otherwise unrecorded method of making steel at this period and is therefore, as Validi noted, of some technical importance, for it indicates not only a different process of manufacture but also a recognition of at least some of the properties of cast iron, a form of metal not fully utilised in Europe until the fifteenth century, although known and used in China considerably earlier". The crucibles and furnaces found at Merv represent the earliest-known excavated remains of a cofusion crucible steel processing workshop. 3. GyaurKala Area 4: thenorthernextension5 A sounding was dug into the 'hollow way' with the intention of identifying any street surfaces and collecting a stratified sample of ceramics. The first surface did not appear until a depth of 1.10 m., buried beneath a considerable build up of laminated windblown sand deposits. Immediately to the south, flanking the street two small rooms (A and B) with substantial walls became visible at an average depth of 0.30 m. Both rooms appeared to have open doorways fronting onto the street and were at one time linked by a door, subsequently blocked (P1.IId). Room A measured 2.5 x 3.5 m. across and contained multiple fills and surfaces as well as a number of well-preserved internal features. It appears to have served a domestic purpose with two small grilling hearths deliberately lined with broken pottery sherds (sherds providing a good source of heat insulation), a rectangular installation with a fired brick floor surface built up against its west wall and an area in the south-west corner displaying well-preserved grey ashy plaster (similar to that seen in baths to the south of the Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar). Within this plastered area was a square depression, 0.60 m. across, which appears to have served as a water handling area. Immediately to the east is the even smaller room, Room B. Measuring only 2.90 x 1.0 m., it may have served as a storage area. In contrast to the multi-phased Room A, Room B contained only one fill, a bricky collapse from the plastered mudbrick walls. Lack of time prevented the completion of the excavation of this room: the foot of its east-facing wall has yet to be reached. A north-facing section

14

JOURNAL

OF PERSIAN

STUDIES

1

2

i4

0

5

cm

7

Fig. 7. MGK 4: selectedEarlyIslamicslippainted and plainwareceramics.

THE INTERNATIONAL MERV PROJECT-PRELIMINARY

REPORT ON THE FIFTH SEASON

(1996)

at the street frontage suggests that the collapse deposit continues to some depth. Finds from these rooms included a complete ceramic jug, iron objects, EarlyIslamic glassware and copper alloy coins.

15

long), a fragmentary polished bone pin with the head in the form of a clenched fist, several figurine fragments and a high proportion of copper alloy coins (Table 2). A small white stone pendant, sherd disks and drilled sherd spindle whorls and an oval 4. Ceramics6 ceramic slingstone could belong to almost any perThe ceramics recovered from Area 4 comprised a iod. However, several other categories appear to be Islamic in date (Fig. 8). These include a mottrange of plainwares with black and yellow slip-paint- Early led softstone pendant and beads made of grey ed glazed wares, plus a small number of other, worked roughly greenstone, perforated shell, presumably imported, glazed wares (Fig. 7). As in faience and dark blue glass (Fig. 8: turquoise glazed the wares previous seasons, slip-painted belonged almost exclusively to open bowls decorated with 2-4); a small greenstone chip was also found. A worn sheep/goat right astragalus and a pair stylised floral and geometric patterns in black and heavily of black jet gaming pieces with dotted circle fragile yellow, covered by a highly decayed transparent glaze decoration suggest leisure activities (Fig. 8: 1). Four 7: cf. Herrmann et al. 1995, 45, 48). No evi(Fig. 1-3; chlorite cooking pot sherds attest further imports dence for figural slip-painted designs has been found. An interesting potter's sideline in the form of from Tus (Fig. 8: 11): jet and soapstone objects were a black slip-painted hollow bird-shaped ceramic whis- listed among specialities of this city in the tenth cenal-Thacalibi (Bosworth 1968b, 133-34). Two tle or ocarina was also recovered. Fugitive paint was tury by used to indicate the wings and other details and cir- of these sherds had been drilled and fixed with iron cular holes pierced through the head, top and bot- wire in antiquity. The interior surfaces of these vestom of the body (Fig. 7: 4). The pale yellow surface sels were thickly coated with charred black residue and fabric (5Y 7/4) of this object resembled other deriving from lengthy use. It is somewhat ironic that one reason for the widespread popularity of softEarly Islamic slip-painted wares from Area 4. stone cooking pots in the Early Islamic period (they included a shallow lid with a Diagnostic plainwares are unknown from the Sasanian period) was their central pull-knob, a familiar Early CAbbasid type ease of greater cleaning. derived from Late Sasanian models in Mesopotamia Minor made of metal were significantly objects and Susiana (Fig. 7: 5; cf. Kervran1977, fig. 48: 8-10), more common than in Area 5, particularly fragexcised wares possibly inspired by CAbbasid crudely ments of sheet and iron, but there was also a copper "chattered wares" and a complete plain bowl found small number of recognisable artifacts. These interred beneath a threshold (Fig. 7: 7). included iron nails with rectangular, square or circular section shanks, an iron clasp, a copper alloy 5. Coinsand otherfinds button, rivet, finger ring hoop (minus bezel), belt Residual small finds from earlier periods include buckle and twisted clipped dagger blade and a piece a trilobate socketed bronze arrowhead (2.8 cm. of folded-over lead sheet. It is possible that some of

Gyaur Kala Area 4 coins (1996) 38.0

V a

34.2

I

26.6

u

22.8

e

30.4

19.0 15.2 11.4 7.6 3.8 0.0

Seleucid

Parthian

Sasanian

Early Islamic

Category

Table2. GyaurKala Area 4 coins (1996 season)

Uncertain

16

JOURNAL

STUDIES

OF PERSIAN

these represent scrap from the nearby metal workshop. An iron smithing hearth bottom and a small mould carved from a re-used sherd and used to cast small decorated spindle whorls c. 2-3 cm. across certainly fall within this class. Nevertheless, this small assemblage offers a modest yet useful excavated supplement to the less well-stratified Early Islamic corpus from Nishapur (Allan 1982). A small body of plain and moulded-blown decorated Early Islamic glass vessel sherds was also recovered belonging to straight-sided bowls, tall-necked bottles or flasks and bases with low push-ups (Fig. 8: 5-10). 6. Archaeobotanical remains7 Previous flotation samples from Area 4 were limited to external contexts associated with the steel workshops, particularly the crucible-rich refuse pits. These results were useful in establishing the pre-

ferred fuel source (imported pistachio and juniper twigs) used for these furnaces, but corresponding domestic contexts were lacking, hindering closer comparison with the archaeobotanical results from Sasanian and post-Seljuk contexts (Gale in Herrmann et al. 1996, 19-20; Boardman in Herrmann et al. 1995, 50-52). This year's extended excavation area, encompassing a wider range of contexts within the workshop itself as well as other structures on the 'hollow way' street frontage, offered the potential of documenting in more detail continuity or changes in plant regimes. Two rooms from the excavated structure immediately to the south were cleaned down to their latest floors. Room A incorporated two cooking installations and a single large homogeneous dump of charcoal. The latter was particularly interesting, since among the charcoal and various charred seeds and fruits, were a large quantity of whole charred grape

5 1

7

6 2

8

34

0

5

9

10

cm

Fig. 8. MGK 4: selectedEarlyIslamicsmallfinds and glassware.

•

THE INTERNATIONAL MERV PROJECT-PRELIMINARY

fruits. These are unusual archaeobotanical finds, despite their occurrence in samples from G6beklydepe. Melon/cucumber and cotton seeds were also present in this deposit. The cereals from the excavated rooms currently include free threshing wheat and barley. To the south, in the complex of buildings adjacent to the furnaces, samples again produced large quantities of charcoal with fragments of metal and other industrial debris, such as crucible and slag fragments. A sample from a pit produced a large quantity of silicified monocot culm material, possibly burnt tinder from furnace use. 7. TheMagnetometer Survey8 Sampling using magnetic susceptibility has become a recognised survey procedure for the appraisal of large areas (David 1995; Clark 1996). However, the relatively undisturbed conditions in this area, together with the largely unbroken and homogeneous nature of much of the terrain and topography surrounding it, permitted rapid sampling at significantly closer station intervals than would normally be available to users of this prospecting technique. These conditions therefore provided a near-unique opportunity to pioneer the use in geophysics of the method known as Stratified Systematic Unaligned Sampling (SSUS). SSUS may be used to ascertain whether one part of a site is statistically different to another vis-a-visa particular site characteristic. The method owes its origins to the spatial analysis of settlement patterns by Haggatt et al. (1977); the technique together with its statistical benefits are more fully described in Shennan (1988, 323-28). The survey employed a Bartington MS2 Susceptibility Meter with an MS2D 10 cm. Search Loop and a Geoscan Research FM 18 Fluxgate Gradiometer. The aim of the magnetometer survey was to ascertain as far as possible the physical extent of the Early Islamic industrial area in the vicinity of MGK 4, to determine the foci of hitherto unlocated metal workings and to attempt to establish any patterns of distribution in the layout of the various kilns and furnaces. An area of some ten hectares with MGK 4 approximately in the centre, was examined, first by fieldwalking, and then repeated using both instruments. It was hoped that use of magnetic detection instruments might aid in confirming whether the area was specifically used for industrial purposes, as well as identifying the area's physical boundaries and establishing any pattern in the groupings and layout of the kilns, furnaces, slag heaps and associated outbuildings. Where possible the areas immediately surrounding Area 4 were examined in detail, since excavations had revealed considerable industrial activity. Seven 20 x 20 m grids to the north and west were

REPORT ON THE FIFTH SEASON

(1996)

17

subjected to a full magnetometer survey at 0.50 m. station and traverse intervals, a total of 11,200 readings. Stratified Systematic Unaligned Samples were taken using the MS2D in three 30 x 30 m. sub-areas. Sampling was performed using grid cells of 1.5 x 1.5 m., giving a total of 1,200 samples: the initial 39 sets of random coordinates for each sub-area were generated by the roll of two dice. The exercise was repeated using a different series of cell coordinates, thus making a final total of 2,400 samples. The purpose of this second run was to provide a check-inbalance of the results from the first run, but was also valid as a separate set of samples in its own right since auto-correlation between sample intervals must defacto be non-existent (effective susceptibility sphere of 10 cm. diameter in cell proximities ranging from 0.5-2.5 m.). A total of 17,200 magnetic readings were recorded. 8. Archaeologicalevaluationtrenches9 The results of the magnetometer survey were partially successful and produced several surprises. A number of high reading concentrations were registered within and beyond the gridded area, mostly tested through evaluation trenches although shortage of time at the end of the season prevented more extensive investigation. Several factors were found to be responsible for high readings, ranging from heavily burnt installations to dense concentrations of potsherds (MGK 4/3, 4/5) or even mudbricks of a certain consistency in the case of an area tested within Shahriyar Ark. Furthermore, each of the identified anomalies was at or immediately below the present ground surface. Three kilns or furnaces were confirmed through excavation and belonged to large rectilinear or circular structures made of burnt brick. Small flecks of copper associated with one of these (MGK4/4) suggested that this installation may have been used in metalworking, whereas the other structure (MGK 4/2) was tentatively identified as a pottery kiln. A further furnace, comprising a circular chamber 1.20-1.30 m. across, lined and paved with fired bricks, and stoked via a pit on the eastern side was identified on the surface south of MGK 4 (MGK 4/6). Associated scraps of copper suggest that this furnace may also have been employed in metalworking. Significantly, each of the three identified installations was located on the edge of a separate discrete swelling on the topography of the site and was also characterised by a concentration of slag and vitrified clay. Each of these dates to the Early Islamic period. The intervening areas between these low rises were in contrast characterised by compacted laminated patches of ground that were virtually devoid of artefacts. This pattern may be interpreted, in view of our excavations of the steel workshop in Area 4, as

18

JOURNAL

OF PERSIAN

indicative of contemporaneous workshops specialising in different industries and separated by open areas. GYAURKALASURFACEFINDS A number of surface finds were made throughout the season and plotted wherever possible within the site survey grid. Most of these were collected by workmen from MGK 4 during morning breaks. It is possible that any exceptional finds were retained by the

STUDIES

finders, but it should be noted that the registered finds closely correspond with those recovered from the 1992-94 systematic survey and other seasons. Coins predominated, as usual copper alloy and mainly Sasanian in date (Tables 3-4). The preponderance of Sasanian coins reflects a combination of factors, not least the relative inaccessibility of earlier Seleucid-Parthian occupation buried below several metres of Sasanian and Early Islamic deposits, combined with periodically high emissions under certain Sasanian rulers and the greater fragmentation of seventh century and later coins struck on thin flans.

Gyaur Kala surface coins (1996) 27.0

V

24.3

a

21.6

18.9 U

16.2

e

13.5 10.8

8.1 5.4

2.7 0.0 Parthian

Sasanian

Islamic

Category

Table3. GyaurKala: surfacecoinfinds (1996 season)

Gyaur Kala surface Sasanian coins (1996) 9.0

--

V

8.1

--

a

7.2

--

!

~

6.3 --

U

5.4

e

4.5

--

3.6

-

2.7 1.8 0.9 0.0

ArdashirI ShapurI

ShapurII YazdgardI YazdgardII Peroz

Category

Table4. GyaurKala: surfaceSasanian coins (1996 season)

KhusrauI Unidentified

THE INTERNATIONAL MERV PROJECT-PRELIMINARY

Traces of minor crafts, possibly Early Islamic in date, are suggested by the presence of two small chunks of unworked lapis lazuli from one square (7.J.IV), a small flake of greenstone with smooth polished surfaces (7.F.IV) and a red sandstone open mould fragment with flat underside (7.G.1). Three perforated shell beads were also collected. Other Islamic finds of note included a large sherd belonging to a cast iron carinated vessel with handle (7.F.1), coloured glass beads and a circular lead spindle whorl.

TopographicSurveyprogramme10 The main survey effort was concentrated on recording the interior of Shahriyar Ark (P1. Ib). Visual and digital examination of a series of aerial photographs covering the area of the Ark had been carried out prior to the 1996 field season. Two sets of

-'". ,11,

Outer

Extent

. i'l

.).. I?I

!i

.

ot Surrounding .

i

Moat i

,;1

,I I.

.

,,'

f

I,

.."

,, -

Magnetometer S\\

"-itI

grid,I I(

SHAHRIYAR ARK

I

,I, 4

•

'~~~~\ '

. ,

,{•' :.,•::

: :?" -- • ,- .o .•_

-

P

~~~i

,-.i". .•" ,,,-•;.

\

..

I

?\ ...

e

aa

. .,

\ I's

"

It

?K . ..,,,...

:L .• ,, s•;'•,•

•.\ . irG r/

:"'

Keshk -"" -%'l