This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Editors and Consultants Editor In Chief Azlz S. Atiya University of Utah Editor, William Y. Adams University of Kentucky Basilios IV Archbi.s~op of Jerusalem PietTe du Bourguet, S.J. Louvre Museum, Paris Rene-George>;; Coquin College de Frana, Paris W. H. C. Frend Glasgow University Mirril Baulcos Ghali SQCiely of Coptic Ardlaeology, Cairo Bishop Gregorios Higher Institute of Coptic Sllhi Y. Labib Kid University Tito Orlandi V"ivusity of Rome Marian Robenson Utah State University Kbtlil Sam;r Ppntffical Oriurtal InstilUte, Rome
Consultants Labib Habachi Egyptian DepaT/mem of A,,/;quities, Cairo J. M. Robinson h15!ilute of Antiquit)" and ChriSTianity, ClaremOnl, California Magdi Wahba Cairo University Edllorlal Managing Commlnee S. Kent Brown
Brigham Young University. Provo Fuad Megally Polytechnic of CenrraI London
The Coptic Encyclopedia
Aziz S. Atiya EDITOR IN CHIEF
Volume 2
Macmillan Publishing Company NEW'\ORK
Collier Macmillan Canada TORONID
Maxwell Macmillan International NEW 'lURK· OXFORD· S1NGAPCRE· SYDNEY
Cop)Tight C 1991 by Macmillan Publishing Comp.,")' A Division of Macmillan, Inc.
All rights reserwd. No part of this book may ~ reproduced or transmilled in any form or by any means. electronic 01' mechanical, including photocopying. recording, or b)' any infonnation 5lorage and retrieval ~ystem, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022 Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. 1200 EgIinton Avenue East, Suite 200, Don Mills, Ontario MJC .lNI Ubrary of Congrns Calalos Card No.: 90-23448 Printed in the United S1ate$ of America. printing num~r I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ubl'21} of Congress Cataloging.in.Publication Data
TIle Coptic encyclopedia. I A!iz S. Ati)... editor·in·dud". p. cm. Includes bibliographical rderences and index. ISBN ~2.897025-X (set) I. CoptiC Church-Diclionaries. 2. Copts-Dictionaries. I. A.tiya, A.ziz S., 1393BX130.5.c66 1991 231'.7'03----- m.
BIBUOGIUP'HY
nrnm. s.
Dfl cIuisllkJt.l:DptiM:& At/plUf /" ..,.".
INschu Zdl. Vol I, pp. 274-7.5. ..
W~n,
1984.
The FIKtra.s
RA.'oiDolU. SnwAAT
The pn:unl fOl'1JUS (Bulkr, 1914: Toy, 1937, pp. 52-78), which c"",~nlionallydales from lhe period of lhe emperor Trapn in the .second century, is, Kconling Ihe 5(lI.Irces. a r«OlI51ruclion of a IorIn:ss mat goes back to the Penian period (Josq>hus 2.15. I). Of Ih", l>owever. tllen is no certain lmo" ..I. edge. Although the Romllll (o"ress was ulled as a quarry down to the end of the nineteenth century, it mu.st be regarded ;OS one of the best-pre.erved forIre" .tructures from lhe llont.an period. Cel1ainty on~ can still r~cognit~ lhe course of the cumin wall with its numerous half-rounded baslions and
BAIlLUHIYVAM. See Tan'is..
'0
BABYLON, the oldest pan of the dly of Cairo. Babylon is situated on the east bank of the Nile. to $Ome "xtenl on the border MtWffn Upper and Lower EJYpC. The >arne .pot marks the mOlllh of a n~l, originally cut about 600 B.C.. which connecl· ed the Nile 10 the Red Sea. The cily wu widely reluded amon, andent writers (Diodoru, Siculu$ 1.56.3: Strabo Georr"P~J 11. 1.30) as having been
317
318
BABYWN
foregruund, Fan of Bah,'lon (Old Cairol, Backgrwnd; ..nlrance 10 the Wpli< Museum. CourtU' Arab Rep"blie of E,ypi
ftichlS of",au-s. On lbt wnI sidf', "'~~ Ihe k>n~ .... bnJt,rtd ,mmedialclv br !he ri,«, lhe~ "'.,.,. a ri.-..r laIc flanked by lWO remarkablv Slro"t!, full" cireular 10V0'''''. • rare f""lun:' in lhe Iayuul of Roman fonre$Se 'icloriottl Anab :>rmy c-~aled Ih.. n('''' city of al·FIISl~1 10 Ih.. nonh of Ihhylon around lhe mosque, named aher lhe commandcr·in·chlef 'Ar"," ibn al·'A~, Tile na(h'e. mood. ChriSlian population, who had prohably 10 ."
" "
"
319
.. ~ " " ~
0
Pl... cMlhe Church of Saint Sergius. Cou,resy Pnu G,o..",allll.
,
320
BABYLON
,
0
p
I
( ,,-
_n:cs
thou'"
L. J
,I
longer be IISCCnained from dle present sIMe 01 the building. n... church """y be reprdcd u old. even mentioot of It ill the docs not go back very far. n... earliest mention is by Ibn Duqndq in the inurt«oth century. Al tIat time the c,,",rch was c"""''"''t~ with • nunnery. Other clIurches ..... DOl ~ n.c Copcic Church of Saini ~ . btlongi... cleariy 10 th., four-pi.llar typf: of building. wq I>wnecI clown in th., middIc of the llinc:en:nth cC!llCl.lty and was rchuilt wilhouI ~ aI Ute end of the cenlUl')'. To tlte Ila/Ilf: camp btlonss • 06'a1 a1··lrdn (Wtdding House). a 11 paIae., of th" Mamluk period. Th., Church of the VlJlPn, Oattlyyal a1.RII).ln. mentioned in thc laic ninth cenrury, _ "ubst ..
Plan of the Church of Mil" Mini. Co.-TMS1 Pltlltr Gmss"'Dnn.
;' ,: •
322
BABYWN
•
o
• •
EJ
IiJ
i'
~.
I :. ·I~
o
Plan of
th~
churaIf of the eltYenIh Ctntuly and still contaillS remains of a u'nU1lliud building ""til an ambulMoty orici' ....n)' constructed around ~r corner pillan. Othe..... wisoe its prtSe111 construction is subsuonlU.Uy from the eialtlunth ctntury. Chanoclerimic an Iht larat semien-Ollar $IInetuanes and tho: absa>ce of a 1:1111"'" The clturch 011 Ihe JIOnh s""" is dedlclled 10 Saint Cyna and SainI John, and its earliest. mention ill by Ibn DuqmAq in the founeemlt cenlury. Inside are prc:M! .....l!d the remains of a powerful kh~",s dividing wall. On the outside the elturch has been completely recon.trucled so that il Is nO longer possible to recogni,e its original fonn. The Churclioos with n<m>erous alterations and addilions on all Mde!.. BlllUOGurHY
Bulkr. It... J. Thll "lICk"l Co,mc Clrurches of Egypl, Vol. I. Oxford. 18&1. :c--C- Babylon of EfYPI, Oxfurd, 1914. Coquin. C. us I:difices .;h,bitllS d.. Yieu.r C..ire. Bibliodlcque d'itudes coplQ II. Caim. 1974. Cardin,.,.. A, H. ,4'Kienl Etypl'a.. Orwm"slic.., Vol. 2. London. 1947. Crossmann, P. ''Zur chri.llielltn Baukunsl in Amlen."' £n.;holia 8 (1978)'141. plale 16b. _ _ Mille/alter/khe Ltmghau,kuppe/ki,chen uud VerWtmd,c Type>! in Obe,dOPte". Ghickstadt, 1982. Middlelon. J. H. "On Ihe Coptic Churches of Old Cairo."' A,cltato/aria 46 (1865):397fF. Monneret de Villard, U. "Nole sloriehe sulle chiest di al·Fus!4!." RenJko>!ti adl" Reo/e "ccaJem'" Nooo..ale Jei l.ince' 5, ser. 6 (1929):2116lf. Monne.-et de Villard, u.. and M. A. Palricolo. u. chinD ili S. &rlM",. ~ce. 1922. Palricolo, M. A. "Uonuments copies." Compus 'e"· Jus du Comili de comen'. . dl'> "'on""'....ts de ran .. r..he 32 {1915-1919):I91lJ. Toy. S. "Babylon oJ. f&ypt." JoII"''''' rJ{ the 8rilis1t "rclureologic../ Auociarioot 3, st>". 1 {19J7):52-78. I'nu Campaanano, A.. eel. PI. Cirillo di wn•••de......e, CJm",/i., caple ...114 ".mOM, sun. C,.,.,e 10 s,,11.o Verxint. Teati 0' documenl; per Jo studio dell'.nlichili, Selie Copoa. Vol. 65. Milan. 19f1O. ZMga. G. Cal.klt". Codi&"", Copticor"", Ma"'" scriptoru", q"i I" M"oea Borria"o VcUtris Adoe.· V",UIi'. Roma. tUD; Hildoshtim. 1973. Tiro
ORLANDI
BADARI, AL•. Sec P1lgrimal'"S' BADK AL-JAMALI, Faumid ..me. al lhe lime of al-MLlSun¥< (I03S~ 1(94). Badr ....JimlIl - . bon> a( tlte bqinnin. of Ihe d~,,,h ddle and al the ... me .ime in a eommanding position is a larxe building (chapel 180) with u· lremely Ihin ",ails, originally ConSIl'\lCI~d as a ~ou"y.rd building, which in Ihe archaeological III' ~ralure i. frC<juendy des r BAGAWA.T, AL-: Greek Inscriptions
327
-,
,
.-
-l'!II'I .-
-
,
•
"
Plan of Chapel ISO at al·Hapw:'!. A. The original counyard building. external peristyle. Co",usy Peter Crossmann. fa'hry, A. The Egypt;an Duerr.: The Necropolis of El-Bagowdt in Kh,"ga Oo,is, Cairo, 1951. Gr_rnann, P. Milleloltuliche Langha"shppdhY. chen "tid verw,mdu Type" i" Oberligyp"". Glticbladl, 1982, Hauser, W. "The Christian Necropolis in Khargeh O""i•." B"lIe1;n ollhe Metropolitan Museum of Art (1932);38-50. Kaufmann, C. M. Ei" olu:,nt,tl;chu Pompeii. Mainl. 1902,
,
Winlod. H. E. The Tempi; of Hib;~ in el Khorgeh Oasis I. New York, 1941: h"JER GRoss.\t\~N
Greek Inscriptions Among nearly 400 Coptic or Greco-Coptic gr;tfliti. one may count al al-Bagaw:'! scarcely twenty·five Gruk insaiptions or graffiti, to which mUSt be added a dOLen funeral)' stelae dis~overed in re~.nT years in situ. A fundamental dislin~tion mUSt be made between graffiti by visitors and graffiti or
B. The later three·ai,led basilica with
drawings lhat may be called original to Ihe sile. It is among the laller that we rank se"eral liturgi~al te>!s, a Ir;s~g;o~ (a shon hymn of response), some p"'-ye..., or simple quotations of sacred texts. In this respc~t, appeals to the divine pity are ~, fre· quem. The God of the Old Testament, Christ, and 'he Hoi)' Trinity are invoked impartially. E\"en Saint Paul is quoted. In th. 10mb of the young Petechon, a long astra: and fol' that of Tis, which recalls that his mausoleum cost fony arlaba. (of wheat), Passing "isilors address therosel,·e. to Christ, to enter in'o his kingdom, or to God, the one who succors, There are also natu"'-Ily slaves of Jesus Christ, who have left only a signature. Some of the Greek text.
328
BAGAWAT, AL-: Coptic Inscriptions
l
•••
Plan of the
comple~ in
the northern area of aJ-Bagaw~t. Co"'I~,y Pettr GFO.<srn"~~.
of al·Bagawat go back to the fourth c~mul)', They are naturally indigenou,: .tran,iem visitors wrote there in Greek down to therixth and seventh centuries and perhaps b~}'ondi The known funeral)' stelae from al·Bagawat are "II late, and in general contain only the name of t,he decea,ed. They are tno"" of Sarapammon, Apoll"n, Senamounis, P$cnpnouthes, Timouthi" Horu$, ThlalO~, Tephatis, and Ploua. BIBLlOGRAf'IfV
Roquet, G. "U" graflites copte" de Bagawa! (OMi" de Kharga). Remarque, prtliminai",",," Bullel;n (trirnestrld) de la Soclile Ira~,ai," d'hud" mariales 76 (1976):25-49. GUY W~GNER
Coptic Inscriptions Of the 263 chapel. in the cemetery of al-Bagawat counted by Fakhl)' (1951), a con"iderable number are covered with Arabic graffiti of all period.: the hi'torical importance of some of them has been opportunely undcrlined b}' I. M. Haggagi (1978). Thirty-five chapel, contain Greek and Coptic graffi· ti, numbering nearly 400. Recently (Roquet, 1976) the hi",ol)' of the exploration of the site has been recalled, and the imerest of the documentation col. lected made plain. Some graffiti are simple signa· tures, a name, a family connection, a visitor'" iden· lit}' card. Others are e1aborat., incised or painted, somdime. carefully done: a prayer, an appeal to the invited visitor to pray for the signatory, imitat-
l
BAGHAM IBN BAOORAH AL-$AWWAF
«
inl the uwaJ formul ... of the coihons maIlU· SCriplS. Other BBflili are a""cdoIal. Wi,h olhers. we follow th,. i1i",,",~ of some penon. in their vW,inc or tM chapels and in their devol...... Some ",Titers are monks Or cleq.y-so they ....,·-bul 0Ihefs .re more une>.pcclal: local ofticen. such as • f"sJ..ne (vill""e ~e);. t"ltI<Wte (w:onior. champion); an lllI'Iir'. «our\er. If the \ioitor prides himllotlf on his binhpbce.• place name is pn:serwd. Fe", tUUl are daled. from lOll. ho",n'tt. me.... an' ' - vU' fili br the same 'risiloc. written in 8ohairk. The Iocal.pecch s""'-... lnee'! or ""INIindtrs 01111 allin· illes "';Ih the L~opoIiran diakcl. 10 wm. noel)'" Ihing seems to ir>dicale lhaJ 'M frequenlinl of 'M sile ., .1·Bapwlt by Coplic """akers ..;os &plical out between the sixth and eleventh cenlurin.. BIBLlOGaA'HY Fakhry. A. The Egyplian DU.,1S; The Necropolis 01 EI·8"r"w~r in Kharga O,u;s. Cai,..,. 1951. HallPlli, I. M. "Graffito. anbe, de aagawil." In An"aleJ isl.m"/ogiq,,.s 14 (1978);271-87, pis. 21*
22 RoqUIPI. G. "Lts gralfues copies de Bail"wit (Oasis de Kharga). Remarques preliminaires.'· SHU.rin (rrimeslriel! d. I. S<xib~ fr"",,,ise d'.r",1e. mon. tlt.n-e ..... no ......, 10 ....oid sen· tencing him '0 death. mlnmer p ..... ordIPn for 'I)mar
w
n..
his "",""U1ion.
The HI~Y Of' THE rATllLUCKS by sAw'f1W5 IlL" ALMUOlFt"A' [~~ords in full the del.ails 01. w >to". 01. me mlII1yfdom of Ihis )'OlIn, CopI1,IlIIil his denal'ilalion. n.e F21imid aliph al·Mus~ir had o.-dered his body to be banded """" to his family to bu~ " ",-here\...,.,- they wa'>led. B~m·s &Ilher came Ihe Cbun:h of Mlkh611 .1·Mukhl::i..... and buried his son oouide iu door. WhlPn on the: Ihird day Anbi CnristodoulUI c.m~ from Dayr aI-Sham· to ttie church. he objected to Baih~rn's burial out· sid~ lhe church, u.ylng that ,he martyr should be interred wllhin Ih., church. When he OI'ened Ih~ coffin 10 killS Ihe manyr, h~ fO\Jnd Ihal hi. blood had not dried_ H~ dipped his finger inlO II and signe ,. POW' urvi,,, I"hislOi,.. d.. rE:CfPle cIuJri........ " /11', V". VI' .., VII' !lU;c1..s. M&nciro publ.it's par I... M.....bra ck b Missioo ard>eologique F.. ~ise au Caire 4. Paris, 1586-
Ame)i......u. E. .&.Iot!u"'
'''' Pam.
_ _ L.. Cb:¥;r-4Ip.....
th fE:et- " ripoqo.e cple.
1193. 1'1'. 515-17. Coquin. R. G. -Un Compltnwnl ao.u .-ies saJ'lidiqu frequemly as a $U~ilule for il. BUI ...horeas the clborium W1IlI opc:n on all ";M$, the ~kl;oc:hin, edik, Vol. 3. pp. 122ft", Stult83rt. 1956. PETER G~MANN
BALESTRI. GIUSEPPE (1866-1940), IUllian Coploloeist and • membu of the Auguslillian order,
kno"'l1 for hilo publiacion of !he Sahidic Iiol..,. of Ihc New TQW1>Cnl prescDlly in tilt Bol'Jirl M.-urn (S1""'ed On a ...ry limited sc po:st·Kui!>;te culture of lo"''''r Nubia was first diScsc border, ~, ... led lhal the Ballana people had been ...,bject to. very po",..,rful mona~hy. The lUngs and qUe'ens were buri~d in chamber lombs under great ea"hen lumuli, lOi:ether wilh an aMOn· \shing arra)' of lhelr sccumulated wealth all wdl ~ sacrificial animals and human relainers. 11Ie monu· al)' ritual ...... &enerally. lhough nOl absolutely. Mm· liar to ,hat followed by ,he earl"'r rulcB of Kush. and in panieular ,he &Ilana royal crown. mained ,h, bmiliar Kus.hite' e'mblem. of authority. n.. Ballana monarchy, at reflected in the I"O)'lOI 1Ombs. is bdicved to haw endured from about 350 In 3SO. n.. lings and meir .... bjc.cu cyidcndy Icepo. up the _Mil> ollhe old £ayplian deities, especial· Iy i.>U. "'CO !OOu&b Ef:ypt by Ihis time ....... officially O"isIian and lhe cull of lhe earlier deities had been ~ . Christi... ideas we", also be,;n· lIing to mab 5(ltnt htadway amoog Ihe Nubians. to j u . from thc VOt"'" tamps and OIher Chrislian paraphernalia found In the Ballana tombs. Very few textual re'COrds from the Ballana period have .urvi...d. There a ..... bowe.'er. lWO comple'e royal texts, both in highly ucentric Greek. found al Kalab.h.. and at OA~R t8RlM. One i. the victory proc· larnalion of King Sliko of the Nooatae and Ihe'Dlhc, 13 • letter that rnalees rmrence to the oame kin., Since Sillco appean to have been .. om ;1'1 &I.'lis (also men-«! 10 lIS BalaW). "" Arabic _ r i p l (NlICional Ubrwy, hris, no. 154) _~thM .... was his a church of AI- Santno in binhplace. n.ere _ ....8al..... and Mudirn authon of tIw: Middle ActS often mention .. morta$lft)" in.the am. So...., SOIlrns call lhe monNtery Dayllelheless, in lhe twem;eth century Bani Suef became the Seat of a bishop. Il now has a eon'",nt and a church built on the site of an older church whose columns are still lying in sighl. A museum built in the mid· lwentieth cenlUry contains manuscripls, stones. and anifacts ITom Coptic lUins in the .urrounding area. BIBLIOGRAPHY
BANI KALB, village, today called Bani Majd!, sit· uated On the left bank of the Nile 3 miles (5 km) wesl of Manfahi! (nonh of ASYfJT). AI·MaqrlzI (1853, Vol. 2. p. SOO; 1845, pp. 42 [text], 101 [tmns.J) mentioned a monaste,)' there, uninhabited in hi, time (fifteenth century) bu! "'''''ing as a church for the Christians of Manful;;!. '!'fcording to him. il "'as consecraled t 342
AfI~r
BAPTISM OF CHRIST
thi$ pra~r. the priol dot,," him ;n a ,,'hile
pnnenl. ll'Iyin•. "A gannetU 01 life eternal and in· cOlTUpdble. Amen-" Then he SIl)'S a p")'ff. "Lord God Almighly ......bo commanded lhal Thy 5eI' vants be born through lhr: laver of the new hinh. and best_~ upon u....n fo..gNueS5 01 lheir lins. I~ prmcnl 01 incorTllpCion and lhe uae:e 01 IIOnship.... Ahe.....~ the baptind an: ckllhed with the "",I of Ihrir pm>enlS, and the ptiesl says • pno}'C:' ...'" Ihe cmv.ns and lhe Jird~, "Lord God ",Imishty•... who hast ~-ed crowns upon "Thy holy apostles, Thy prophets and Thy lnUt)'B ..•• do n-. apin bless liteM: erowns which "'C: ha,·e p~d to ~..... on Thy S'''''artll who reo cei~ed holy b:oplism. 1....1 Ihey may be unlO Ihem crowns 01 glOl)' arK! honour. Amen; crownS of ble$tiOf1$, and the l;llle..".. with the accession <Jl a Muslim rukr al Dongola in 1323, the ...,quir"Cment <Jl the SIIq/ plymenl ...as fonnaIly dtcla.-..d 10 be aI an end.
ado""",
BIBUOCtlAJ'lfT Adams. W. Y. Nubi•. C otrid« 10 .(/ric., pp. 451 -58. PrincetOn, 1'0" 19n. Burctllan:h.l. L Trawu if, N..bUI.. pp. 511-16. Lon·
don, 11119. Forand, P. "Early M\.ISIim RelaUons ..i1h Nubia." Dulsl"", 48 (1971):111-21. Hinds. M., and H. SUkoul...... LeUer from the Gov· trnO. S)..... an. born al Malaliyyah in 1226. His full name "''as Aht:l al·Fa",j JamAl al·Dln ibn Tlj al·Din H;l.rtin ibn Tilrn;l. al·Malali. He came from a famlly of Chri.li.n (not Jewish, as has $Ornelimes been maintained) orilin, He studied medicine and philooophy with his father. and lhen emigraled to Anlioch in 1243 after lhe Mongol inVlUlon, In 1244 he became a
345
_1ber. 1246, and lhen bishop of Aleppo In 1252. In 1264. he became lfIyltri... (alRKCrator) 01 Cllicia al Sis (and hence hnd of the Eastern Jacobit",). He made hi$ home in Mo$ul. but oiIen joum~ to Tabrtz and ~ ghah. capital of the Mongol rorc .... ""here he ~ On 30 July 1286. The grealest thinker 011'" Syrian dlUn:h in the Middle A,aes, he composed numerous works in Syriac concernin, nearly every reliJious IOpic. He i. known in Arable for his Mukhlt1f.' T4rlkh al,D~w~1 (Shon HislOry of Ihe World), which ....11I published in Oxford in 1663 by E. Pococke wilh a latin translalion; il ...... f"ffdited and lranslated many tim... thernfter. This history. a risumJ. of his greal chronicle written in Syriac.....a5 compot.ed al the request of Muslim fChoIaB in one monlh'. time in 1285. shortl., before his death. II is divided inlo len ,...".. ages, heJinn.... ..,;u, the CI"CIIIit>n 01 the worid. endin& ..ith the dnill of the Mongo1 IIchan ~n (1m), and CO,...rinll the Me attribution, all of them Coptic (Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo, History 41, Gmf, no. 566, Simaykah, no. 647, founeenth century; National Library, Paris, Arabe 271, also founeenth cemury; and Arabe 272, copied in 1643). In the seventeenth century another attribution to "a monk of the Mount of Ccthsemane" (al·hs· mliniITah) made its appearance among the Copts, This is found In thr.e manuscripts, all of Coptic origin (Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo, History 4, Graf, no. 5/>5, Simaykah, nO. 619, copied In 1605; Natl"nal Library, Paris, Arabe 273, copied In 1752 and restored in 1763; Ambe 274, copied In 1778). Other Arabic manuscripts of this nO"el are of Coptic pro"enance, witnessing to the diffusion of this teXl up to the modern period (Coptic Palriarchate, Cairo, History 42, Simaykah, no. 604, copied in the founeenth century or at the beginning of tbe fifteenth centu,y; Coptic Patriarchate, Cairo, Histo· ry 86, Simaykah, no. 669, fi""t text, dating un· known, but bequeathed to the patriarchate In 1814; Nationai Library. Paris, Ambe 4792, copied in the nineteenth century; Arabe 4891, copied in 1864). At the beginning of the twentieth c"ntury, two Copts, Wahbli. Bey and I;Iabib Jirjis, edited the only pub· lished Amble .'ersion. The Mekhites often illuminated the texl of this novel with numerous miniatures (see, for example, the Paris Arabe manuscripts 273 and 274, th" Vati· can Arabic manuscript 692. the Dayr al·Sha'Ir 953, etc.); we know of only one Illuminated Coptic manuscript, however (Coptic Patriarchale, Cairo, HistoI)' 19, Graf. no. 531, Slmaykah, no. 611. copied in the sixteenth century with some clumsy illumina· tions: "poorly designed pictures of people," accord· ing to SimaykahJ. Last, from the Arabic recension of the Copts, an Ethiopian translation was made, under Sars,,- Dengel (1563-1597), the work of 'Enb!kOm, or Habaqqliq, an Ethiopian of Yemenite origin, One of the manuscripts of this translation (British Library, London, Ethiopian 275), copied between 1746 and 1755, memlons Ba'¥wm;l. ibn Abi al-Faraj as the author of the Arabic rec"nslon, This person is othetwise unknown.
JlIJlUOGRAPHY Dodge, B, The flhrlSI of al·Nadfm. Vol. I, pp. 260, 359. N"w Yori no'
B1Bt.IOGlUrHY
818,\01 .. _BAP1Ar'OY"IQY KAI lOANNOY. edN~ Hafiorita. Venice. 1816. Se llDtM af me of lit. Ellti· ."..." Chure/., " "'Ok. Cambriclce, 1921. Crum.. W. E.. HBanau.ma the Naked." hocudi"lS of 1M Soddy of Bibli.,.! Am.wlt1 29 (I9pliJ&M. ill ..,.•. uM' UJI, Vol. I. pp. 3S3-s.4. Wiesbaden. 1954. RJ.IIrlI.U 5nw.\1tT
.
BA$HMOR. AL-. an area
u..
Christianily in .rea suffered greally as' ~ll of &.shm"rites' fin;>! ~fe.t by lhe Arabs, bllt it was not qllllShed completely. aos .~idenced by Ihe Visil 01 • presbyter from al·Bashmur In C.lro around. 1200. Tlte uact boundaries of al·BashmQr 're lIneel' taln becaliM' th. medieval sources are dlt< in which .he
Christian inhitbitanl$ IVOIted '"Pins! AOO n.... in the .i,lllh and nimh centuries (see ~ c '-£. VOI.n).
This SIllement would place aJ·8ashmur in the northern Delta. just _th 0/ Lake Bwull..... .\110 SlUl;ITHE ARME!'llMl .........d thai in • Ia.er period at le.l the i"habillmS of aJ.8ashmur and lhe inhabitants 01 aJ·BashnW _re the same people. The u· lC1 Iocatioo of al-s.hnld ia fimilarly wscertain. but it :rppo:ars 10 have oonhwL'$t of Sakhi (Tlmm. 1984. p. 360). IllS l:lAWQot.I. SUoUd thll the Iakc in NaswiiIt was also called Bu!:laynol alBashmGr [m Maspen:> ap,d Wicl. 191.-1919, p. 16), sugestinl lhal. the region of lbe Bash.......-ites ...near NI!IW'UIt, thai is.. nonh of the cilies known today as DisUq and Kafr al-$ba)ldt. Abo al-Ftda. ......C'Ver. placed al'Bashmllr ~_n the IluJIt)'3! arm 01 the "'d. and AMmOn TlIlitJ (Uaspero and Win. p. 44). It is pos.!ible thai th.. boundanes cI .~Bashmur hav.. nOl been eOJ>lltant throuahou••he eemuri.... Perha.ps from tilt.i.o.n. Rom.al1. and Byunline ...,.. len. Th;s _ .also the lasl rqion In Ec,ypc 10 PJ.b. mil 10 tIM: .......bs, yean mer !he ...,. of the country had been CCIfIe ~u may h:ave begun in thir ..,..,. Def~ Ulttldlna 10 tl'>e l>t:ichbor· inl ....... of the o..luI. One lhoukl ano bear in mind thai il ....... io doe nonhern pan 01 the Della thai Byzantines landed fOI" a $hort tllr>e in 720. ..iOCh could "",an WI Ihe uta ..;os .already in agitation or even in open re-voh. Re-oll$ 8a~ up in !he lasl )'tat'S 01 lhe Umayoyads. perhaps because.he caliph Man>-tn could not 10lerate troIJble in £opt, his IIl$I otronlhold. sAwtlws t8N .u.... UOAIT..• pro.,;dea precious infonnalion aboul tbe dr;unalic last operation against lhe Basbmurit... befu.., lhe ani",,) of lhe Abbuids in Egypt. II .urn, lhal HaWloora. Marwin'l governor in ~t, had already failed 10 end Ihe revolt, in .pile of hi' repealed upeditions by land and by sea, When Marwin ani ..ed In Egypt 10 dent S1rot'1p,old. and mrtat· eotd to kill him if !he: ~lJric£s did not end lhe honifuioe!.- Far from beinl intimWbled "" this 'lip, !he Copts avtn~ Ie by not only alIadci~ !hot besiq;iog anny, ...nidt hU. 10 ~Ie its pooitioc'elopmenl of a kind of double lOWer facade. Olherwise the ...nlto is a kind 01 enlDnce hall, which ordirwily spans the lull width of lhe church and >'ery frequenLly optf1S oulward into a conlinuous series of colu.mn.. The nanhe~ abo ""Cun in the same fom> ""ith cen",d·plan edl·
lieu, The ritual cenler of Ihe ba.ilica. finally. ;5 the $~"Cluary al Ihe eastern end. It e~hibits a variety of design•. in accordance wilh lhe various lilurs.lc.1 ordinance' in the dlfFerenl parts of lhe Christian oikmmte". (world), In Ihe West and in Asia Minor. the basilica normally ends in a semidrc"lar ~pJe I....t a>: a rule ptolrudes from .he otherwise slralghl east ...;011 as a simple cylinder·shaped and ""casion· ally polygonally encased pan of lhe buildin•. In Et;ypt and Syria, the apse, from the- early fifth century onward, is flank" on both ,ides by 1"0 bteral chambers (1CK'llI1e'e one or more aUks. A pseudolr3t1"'"JM ""cura whell .only the o:.ter1or profile of the basilica in fronl aps.e is e,umded, ..-hik ill the in.fI'rior only lite numboo:r of ....1es in Ihis pan is increased. as is the Ute ..;th the Leonidas Bal.ili· ca in Lecbaion at Corinih and the Ok! Church at Old Dongola. Besides ~ ..rialions in lhe design cl the basil· ica camed by Ihe Ceosraphlc.al posilion and hy diA'....nt local building lradition•. funher di~er· ,ences arise from lhe d'S1;ncl e>'olution of Ihe wil· ica In eaais.san~. OIorinl ,his lim., il underoelhral Iype of building, Ihe socalled basilica discopul~. which was thoughc to he aue.ced in Salona ee>·.. r the happened 10 be particularly .... rrow (G«mmann. (97). pp. 167ft.). As repn:ls 11.1' ...bdh·lslon of .1... naoI, the £&yptian basilica contains «rUin peculiarities in II... design of tho: we:stnn .sa;Iion. Wh..reas In ,he ....... of the Christ~ world Ihe side aislQ conlinue as far ... the ~ .. nd of ,he basil'· ca. ;n E&YP< !hey art, with few CXcql,jons (Ull .IllSA). COC\'Crirtn" 1OUS life. Manyniom cleansed lMm from all l\IiZl. E,,,n JQUO, .. the temptations ........-..d. poss~sd llIe pos:sibilitylo lin. lin« throug.tl his incamalion he ..... become man. Tbou&h C1emcat of Aleundria recoiled from lhese ideas .. "alhciscic'" (Slrom4u iv.12.as.I). they ~re lOunded on the conviction tIw God could noc be the ..uhoo- of t:vil. ~ accepled the P1alonIe: new of P'rovidencc: thliit in rIO St:nSt: coWd it be rQpoll$iblc forevil (SlrDmDttl iv.82_1). E"l1_ due. ntl>er, 10 the inlluence of Ihe arehons, chief or whom _ Yahweh. BasIIi6n W&$ th for mankind. If many of his ideas proved unac«plable 10 orthodo~ Chriscian... Ibsilides nonr:thclra hdped 10 frtt Chriscianity from SI.lbjec:tiotl 10 the Pf"""Jenl lIf'OCalyptic and millenarian conct'pll. He Ill'" thac a .. niven.a! religion must draw on tl>e ..i5dom of all mankind, and that if the end ..... a m)'llic:al faith, lhe ""y 10 thai eDd Ia)' ~ unclentandinc tl>e mr:so;agr of the Veal p1tiloosoPtel'5 ami poeIS. In partieu.1.u Pial aDd Homer. The emoersenu of an authentically gmlile Chriscianio:y ......" much to Builides. Basilidcs' views 1«... alrnt:loU cenainly to have inOuenced .....u ...ru.U5: and there arc reminiscences of his ideas, such as IIle ignonooce of Ihe Greal Archon (Yaltwdl) and crucifucion of a SU!:tstilUle for Christ. in $«q"d Tnati5t of the G'eat Seth. Isidore is mentioned in tl>e NaS Hantmadi Codex, lncWe IX. Much of tIM: GtlOiSlic view of the origins of creaticln. and ~n', relation 10 it and 10 God, may be said to have orilinaled .....ilh Basilides. He is pall of thc Alexandrian Jewish and Chri..ian philo· oophical l .... dition IIlal produced PHtLO, Valentinus . Clement. and Oll[(;"".
I""
BIBLlOORAI'HY Rkstcr, W. "Das Syslem des Ba5ilidcs." New Testoment SlUdi~. 9 (1961-1963):23)-5.5. cd. Die GnJis, trans. .... d cd. R. MeL Wil· son. vol. 1. OJdord. 1972, Hegcmonius. Act" A",~u.i, ed. H. Beeson. [);c g:riechi!IChcn christlichen SclIriftSl~ller doer e""'co drci Jalu10undttte 16. Leiptig. 1906. Hon, F. J. "8luilidQ.- In DeB I, PI'- 268-11.1tcpr. New Yort. 1974. Jerome_ S. H,,~•~",'hl; • f'ltnpnttltio Chro>tictle E.W:Ji; P_phili. In PL 27, col .. 34-676. Paris,
-=:::-
''''.
May. G. Sc/oi}pfun, ous Nidus. pp. 63-86. Berlin.
1978. NulenbcrJ. E. -Ba4ilidoes:' In T1t~he Real· ~>q,yl/cpmlie. Vol. 5. pp, 296-301. Berlin .nd New York. 1980. lMcs sur I'expedition de Charle· magne en Espagne (l904) and Recherches ,ur fa religi{m de, BerN", (l910). His principal work is his edition of Ihe Coptic Syna:cai" aral>c-jacobire, PO 3, 13. 56,78, 84, and 100. which appeared beIween 1905 and 1928, 8181.10GRAI'HY Coignel, J. "Basset, Rene." In Dictionnaire d'hislOire et de geographic eccMsiasliqu,s, col. 1268. Paris, 1932. Furlani, J. "Basset, Rene." In Enciclopedia cattol· iea, pp. 984-85. Valinn City, 1949. FRANcoIs
GRAFFIN.
S.J,
BASTAH, city localed in the Eastern Delta jusl ,oulh of al-zaqihlq in Ihe province of Sharqi)'yah. In Egyptian the cilY was known as Per-Ba.tet (lhe domain of Bastet, the lion goddess). A powerful political center, Bas!"-h provided lhe kings of Ihe Twenty·second Dynasty (945-712 B.C.l and servc'd as Ihe capilal of the eighteenth Lower Egyptian nome during the lale Period (712-332 a,c,), The Greek historian Herodolu" writing in the fifth century, knew the city as 8ubastis and referred 10 il often, describing ib lemples and other 'ights, Allhe localion of the ancient Egyptian senle· mem, exca"alors have uncovered lemples of Bastel, Kel;, Hori. Pepy, AlUm. and Mihos. as well as lombs and cal cemeteries. Coptic source., which give Ihe name of Ihe cit)' as Bouasli or POURSI" record a long Christian tradi· tion for Ihe place. Athana.iu. memions Ihallhc city had a Melitian bishop as early as A.D. 325 (,',poiog,a Seamd" [1,71, in Athanas,us Werke, Vol. 2, p. 150). Other source, speak of orthodox bishops in Ihis ~arly period also (,ee Timm, 1984, p. 363), Bas!ah i. mentioned ohen in accounts of mart),rs from Ih. period bofore 640. l1Jc mart)T Shenule. who was imprisoned in Antinoopolis, came from Bas!ah (Hy>'ernal. 1886-1887, p. 100). Apa Apoli """ put 10 dealh there during Ihe governorship of Ptolemaios (see Evelyn_While, 1926, pp. 87-93). Given the area'. Chrislian tradilion it is .urprising
1iL
BATN AL-I;IAJAR
that &sl"h does not appear in the medie>al Coptic· Arabic scale•. but the city is included in a medieval list of Egwtian bishopric. (Munier, 1943, pp. 4754), and various bishop. of Bas!"h are attested. Bishop Pahom from &slah was present at the con· flict between Patriarch YOsAB I (830-849) and Mu· ~amrnad ibn 'Abd AllAh, where he took sides against the patriarch. In 1078. Bishop Gabriel of Bas!"h attended the synod at DAYR ANItA MAQAR in Wadi al-Natrun where CYRtl H (1078-1092) was.elected as the sixty-sevemh patriarch (Munier, 1943, p. 26). One of the three bishops who ordained John as bishop of Cairo in 1118 w;U John "'bishop of al-Khandaq:' and the see of Bas!"h assisted PMriarch "'ARK 1H (1167-1189) and Bi.hop John of Tamwayh in th. dedication of a church in al· BaslJitin.
Coptic tradition holds that Bas!"h was the 6rst stopping place in EIDPt of the family of Jesus on the fUGHT li'lm EGYt'T. When the inhabitants of Bas!"h would nol receive Jesus and Mary, the)' pitched their tent ottt..tde the city, where a spring was made to flow for them, Later the people of Bas!ah revered this spot. A church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was built on the site in 1185. BIBUOGRAPHY
Amelineau, E. La Geographie de i'Egyp/e ~ Npoque coP/', p. 89, Paris, 1893, Alha"as;us Werke, .d. H,·G. Opitz. Berlin, 1934-. Baines. J., and J. M;\.lek. Alias of A"ci,,,t Egypl, pp. 174-75. New York, 1980. E.... l)'n-White, H. G. The Mo""sterie. of Ihe Wadi 'II Na/nm, pI. 1. New York, 1926_ Hyo'ernat, H. us ACMS du martyrs de I'E/:)'ple. Paris, 1886-1887. Munier, H. Ruueil des /ist.. 'pi.copal.. de NgHse cople. Cairo, 1943_ Timm, $, Das chrisr/ich_koptisc1le Jgypren in arabischer Zeil, pI. I, pp. 3li2-65. Wiesbaden, 1984,
.j
RAND~LL
STEWAIU
BATAN'(JN, AL_, a cit)' located some 10 mile. (16 km) south of Tanja in the province of al·Minu6yyah. It was known in Coptic times as Pathanon. AI·BamnOn was Ihe birthplace of Patriarch SHENUTE t (858-880) and the place to which the remains of the FOUY_Nt"E MARTYRS of Sectis were bolds of !he Nubian!. and them !he in}W,iunts of !he di:slrictl borde:ring on !he Muslim coonlry lake
amon,
~tult·
This tunc,ion as a rd'uge and ... n~tuary !:>oKame t'"en m~ fJgni(,.,an' in ,he dislurbed politktll and miliu.ry condilions of the later Middle As«- The..., was a rapid gro....'h of p<JIlulation. """"...,nll)' t1".... ing southward from the depreda,ions of Ihe IlAN!) AI,...... m In IAwer Nubia, and fo... ified selliemen.. as well as minialu,"" ~as'al.) IIIIILlOGlUI'HY
Adams. W. Y. 11Ie University of Kentucky bca'oa· lions at Kulubnarti. 1%9:' In Ku_ uJld G". $11-69." In K"~sr ,,~d Gesd.ichtr N..b;"ns in christl/cher Z,it, ed. E. Dinkler. Recklinghau.en. 1970. Mills, A. J, "The Archa.olOllkal Sun'ey from Gemal to Dal-P.epon on the 1965-1966 Season." Kush IS (l971)'200-210, Mills. A. J.. and H.·A. Nord.lrom. "The Archaeologi.
cal Sun'ey from Cenull '0 Dal. Prelimina')" Repor1 on .be s.:....,n 1964-6S."' K..:I a1JSIUIONAYN) bu. witl>ou. spedfying Ihe place. such as the "ISm..... MONACHOIl""" IN AEGl"P'fO, rela.ing a pilgrimage by the hennilS of EcYPt during Ihe winter of 39-'-39S. In .be CopIic hagmenlS Qi the life of PAUL Of' T-..H. it is related thai he visited an Apollo in this ...me relion (AmMineau, 11ll!1&95. pp. 7S9ft.). Finally. lhe $TfUlWI-lOH.. wttkh commernontft Pltib and his friend Apolk:> on 2S Blbah. speaks of a site called Jabal Ahliij. nt""U have so many eommon ekmenlS !hat it appears probable thai th~e _ an Apollo who had a friend and companion named Phib ....-1>0 diM ,,,'tnly yeaJS before tum. and another eompanion calleet1' of the monul:ery. It seems 100 much 10 allinn tlw lhc sile .. of PIoche>",ian char.ctc. with lOme 'iDdiridual lihertia" 01 an anc:horile I)Pe (Tal», 1%4. p. 185), fOI" lhe erea· 'OIIJoIII,hemsel_ haw de ...... II>1nued the e>.wence 01 eells ouuUk lhe IUJTo,ulding wall in the and the numerU'l iMCriplmns alle$l.ins lhe tull of "'poIlo. whith ;" always associaled ,.'ith ,hib and Anoup. are found only on lbe wallo of hemtiUCes In Middle lI/ld Upprr Egyp" at Wid! Sarjllh. 06y. aI· Bala·iulh. and u fa. a!l Isrul. bul never On ,he wall. of a monaslery known '0 have I>ccn Padwmian. II tlIe.don: JeCm~ more in confonn;ly wilh wh., is known of Ef;yplian monaslicism '0 ,hink Iha, Ihe $/Xalle BAWIT: Archaeology, Architecture, and Sculpture
•
--
•
•
.
.'
-
Ex~a,.,.tion
••
•
.. •
"
o •
••
• •
ofa room in th~ Nonh Church at B"""I· CI~dat Expedition, Rew,med /Fom MonastCTesN Ia de Mwit, Vol. I, by leon C!eda', Ca'm, [904_1906.
only that it lay to the north of the ..,.called South Church, was simpler in form, and had cruciform pillars, collunns, and a wooden 'CO~0STAS[S_ Sundried and humt bricks and limestone wece used as building materials. Re~ently the grol.tnd plan of the structuTe uncO"ered has been established on the basis of th1'ee old, unpublisbed cxca,'ation phOIOgraphs, In particular, it emerged that hen:, tOO, building phases wer" cleady to 00 distinguished in the af'Chite~,ura-1 remains, AI least the crudfo,m pillars in the transvrrse section and pans uf thc east ",all Jerive from an older COIlStruction of the pre-Islamic period, Tho., they are ,he cemains of an original chucch building on this site is improbable, In a later phas-:, chur~h architecture made its ap· pearance through additions and reconstruction, of brick wall work in eompartm"nL' alceady existing and through the introduction of reuoed base., ~ol· urnns, and "apitals; the old e'Ca"~lion unco"ered ,he ruin. of ,hi •. The com-ersion of the eady struc· tuc~ into a ~hurch can be dated at the earliesl to the eighth century, as the existence of a pmpec khii'us (mom ootween saneluary and nooooIatM. 1hcv ilt"C far OUlnumhercd bv lhe characteri5lic namples of a local and man.edh prn,incial pmduction. Taken ... a ,,-nol.-. the hmeSlone sculptures do no! re,.",.j a uIIIlonn IocaJ st,1c. The< fall in'o 5C'\eraJ grou~ ''''''I follow di~1 d3SSC5 of models. Quite unique afl' ,he wood sculpcUTCS of lU",i!. often wom of '-Crr IQOd qual ... l11e>' "ere rr>Ooiscaya, M. H. CII",..e Qf'$ Ix>i$ de /"EfYpfe Clip'" ("'ush du Louvre). Paris. 1980, St«rin, H. G. "Zur Sti 367
n.e <e:ltcnsi •.., pictorial decor at the Mo..-ery Gf 81,,1\ is distinaiv", ret diw~ in style. Yc~. tlt.. 81"1\ picwres do nu..iotain a diMinffiw cltulocter. Sina: tMn an multiple ponnoyalo ollh.. same Ide:a in •.no.... pi..... es at the site, one findo notable .... rialiom in st)'}e (c.r,., the p>up 01 Mary and Ib.. Aposl:lc:s benealh "'" Triumph of Cbm. (aedao, 191)1), oomJlllred Ii) ..... nthe.. eumplc:s of Ihls lhe_). Some Ih.-mc5 arc nURIi,.." In which case ",oc:uai~ scenes may be lined on.. wit.hln another ("'.1.• Ihe M~rc of lhe (nnoc",nlS): on ..... 0Ih.... hand. one :n$istf'l\t cbrl·cr-n color highlightrd by bright refleclOon. 1M s.aom fl'lay bf said for dlf very MI'IlIOII>OUS composition found in dlc bodies and limbs 01 the .........n fi&ura and Ihc degant lonns of IIw p,.,,1Ies. H_'IOftI'", Ihc vaguenns 01 rm faelal featu.rn most Iikdy indir:a~ • Copf. many lima ~rd. dcsava IlH:ntlon. 11 consi3O of jw;~ fiaurft, IWO of them holdi"l a key. They stand hQidc Ihne ~r fipra _fd Oft .. cushiontd dinn N d«Onolrd banqlottlf. Onf of whom is facina front "'hile the OIMr tWO fbnk him in .. thru-qUinu Or profile pot.lIkm. The dnpc of the folds in lhc elolhinl,*nkularly in that of those seated-Os d(lsdy ~lat fd to thoe wcU-kOO\O'n drap.o common to Bytanline an in the iliJIth cfntury_ Hf~ apin. thf facfS lire impenonal. Fonunatdy, how_vcr, thf Inscription of Ihf namu- are mormplelC cnouch 10 maltf such abKnas insignlficalli. iher ewents menlioned In the Gd type of thil. theme. euridwd with n. A realism Iha< emplwlZ:!" 1he aolnnnity 01 thl. theme emerges from the c..locIOlro~.. (Mocher numog her child) found in a niche, wberr:iD Mary is erllhzoned but ... • bust ..-ith her ehild lying ~..isc. whom she nunoel II her ri&ht bfUll. The painting seems 10 beloog 10 the fihh or ....th cenlu·
"
The essential element of sokmnity con[el'T'ed upon her by the restricled movement is generally evidel>Ced both by her eI11hronemenl and by lhe child seated facing fronl al her 1m side. There are some details, howev~r. which modify Ihis solemnity-notably. Ihe fia:u-re. added 10 the scene. Such additions mia:ht con,iJl of an archangel [allowed by a deacon at each side of Mary's throne Or a series of person_, .. In chapel 7.
370
BAWfT: Paintings
It is ali in Chapel 3 thai Mary. enthroned ..'ith Jl!SUS at her ~ being front, is Ranked by 1..'0 VO"Pll. ncl> 00" consisting of many jwt~ 6g-
\Ires Proc,..,dinB 10 tM ou~ edee of the scene. The 6ra tWO 6gwu an: sainlS """din&. crowned wi!h a two, holdilll in one hand a diadrm and in !he otlwr a staff that terminalcs in a red cross-b.-arin. dislets. and an archan&cl AllOlher BIber Late dcvelopmcrw: (ninth centu")', accordint 10 the figwn' clothina) KI$ Mary en· IhroMd between hw ....,Is, "",ell hold.", in his rich' h~d an incw5I" bunvr whiloe thoe rishe ann supportS an incenoc 00... Christ's imponance Is In· creased by the Iacl tha, He II Ka,ed in a small circular mandorla !hat Mary holds in ...... 1_ hands in fronl of her brt"". The slill moroe wlcrnn and cosrnlc role gi>"en to Ma"}'-elther enlhroned Or alone and s,andln, in an Ol":/.nt pose-appears in the scenes depic,;ng the Triumph of Christ. Holy Penonagn. The category of holy perso~.. g· es includes thoe ...int. and prophets of Ihe Old Tesla· ment and Christian sain... and monh. In chapel 12. ",ilhin a Inme bordered by garlands of vines and twisted mnlle. is a long line or prophets: Isaiah, Jererniah. Ezel '"'"
The ehree great arehangel. also have their place in ehe chap.els of B1w1l. Saint Gabriel i. depiceed al Ihe right of Ihe Virgin M;>.ry in a.I'1ll~ by in· lenecdng IozcngC5, has been ~ abo~ wilh ,.~
l'.
In the anond reception hall at et.... there was • rather high plinth about 4 reel (1.20 m) cO>iered whh approximately twenty colon:Sl!ible that the ani.t may have invented a new ornamentallon here. It can be dated to the .iJ
01 what is P"'"hltp5 11'11' largest surviving ~1CC1ion of Coptic paintinp. BIBLlOGllAI'Hl'
Cha&inat. E. Fouilles il Baouir. Memoir"s pI.lblies par les membre$ dec ['IIl$Ihut fran~alt d'II",h!ologlee orientale 13. Cairo, 191I, CI~dat. J. "ReuI studiu in !he Coptic CoIIq:e, ,... he~ he beeamt inltrested in !he N1'Vice 01 Coptic )'Otlth ....d lOundNI the afonn>elltioned sociefy. He tMn \Wcnt '0 England in Moly 1'110 '0 study Enclish acli... i,ies it> this sphere. 8u\R'S de~ a dosely knit orpnizalion with ,everal seCh "'. .. ioutIded. Jam';y,.1 n . - I I ,.j.TIIW{Iq "'... founded '" Cairo it> 1908 by Tadrus MikhI.'Il .. a charitable orpI'U:ation 10 pro,ide ~ eduCll\ion 10 the poor. In 1909 it OIll the Community Council in implememinl its resoIUlio.... Amana ilS outslanding achienmenl.$ were the building of lhe se·al. <Jf the Fenian in'"JoSion (619-629) and the ...... 11 (o.'IQl.'EST OF EGYI'T in 6 Chri"ianus: feslschrilr fur c, Dellel G, Muller >:Um 6IJ. Gebunslag, ed, P_ 0_ Schol. and R, Stem",,1. Tubingen, 1987, MUller, C. D. G. "Benjamin I. 38, Patriarch "on Alexandrien," Le M", Mth-century monk and third abbot of the White Monastery (DAY!!, ANIlA SHINIiD~H), situated beside the ancient village of Atrlb in the region of Akhmlm, near Suh.1j. The lIl()nastery was founded by PJOL in the middle of lbe founh century, and Besa', imme BETROTHAL CUSTOMS
offe...,d nothing more than a penal code to enable the individual to lead the good life. The ideal of fellowship and mutual advancement was alive in his communities. That his writing. contain hardly any ...,Ie...,nce. to the doctrinal controve",ie. of his day may. at least in part, be accounted for by the predominantly pastoral concentS displayed in them. All his writings ue in the $;>hidic dialect with the ""ception of the Ufo of Shenut•. which. in its en· tirety. has been preserved in Bohairic but which no doubt was compood originally in Sahidic. Besa's style is difficult to characterize. It is largely condi. tioned by the subject mailer of hi, writings. In the Ufe of Sh."ute. he adopts the conventional style of the panegyric: in his moral exbonation, be is often formal, stilted, and diffuse. Sometimes. however. when a problem engages his keen personal interest, hia style become. vivid and p"",uasive. It is perhaps inevitable that the figure of ShenUle should dwarf that of his successor. Nevenhe1e.., this fact ought nOl to blind uS to the many positive qualities of Be",. In his writings. he occasionally accuses himself 01 weaknes., but it is clear that, in order to fulfill his manifold duties, this had to be overcome. Hi. humility and utter sincerity shine through all his writings, and his moral earnestness and saintliness must have done much to strengthen the roots of monasticism and to encournge its,
_h.
BJBLlOCIlAPHY
Cauwenbergh, p, van. Etude "" /e5 mo;"es d'Egypl" pp. 137ff, Paris. 1914. Kuhn. K. H. "A Fifth Century Egyplian Abbo!." )O!Arn.,/ uf Th%gie.,/ Studies 5 (1954):36-48, 174-137; 6 (1955):35-48. _ _. ed. /Alle.s and Sermon, of Bun. Tex!u,. In CSCO 157, ScriplOTeS Copliei 21. Louvain. 1956. _ _, ed. uners .,nd SermmlS uf Besa. VerMo. In CSCO 158, ScriptOTeS Co~ei 22. Louvain, 1956. Leipoldt, 1.. ed. Sin"thii vil~ bol",;riee, TeX!US, In CSCO 41. Scriplores Coptici 1. Louvain, 19'06. Wiesmann, H. Sinmhii vila,bohairic~. Vertablished ,ho ,""rrillg.. contract, ,he plic$t da,es the document and has it slgn..d by all panies invol ...... as ......11 as cet'aln notabl ..
.....
Then .....0 wedding rings of told or diamQnds ue wnopped. "long wnh the _ddin, crowns, in a w"it. wilthat "'ill c.,.·..r th.. h..ads of the couple on their ",'edd.ing day. The pries, reads the COntract. bl~ the couple thcoe times ...ilh "is crosa. a"" reciteS the Ux'd's Pra.ytt in CO""""" with all those ~t. Not. turn;"! .o",-..nt the East and buin, his hnd. he says th.. Pn)"eT of Thanksii'ing. a"" oIlen "'I' incense, ",fUk the choir of deacons sines 10 .he aoct:ompanilDtn~ of triandos .nd cymbal... After al'V'op>i,m I~ from th.. Epistlfs, c;o.. pels. and I'$aIms. the priest recites the three pnlytrs of inltrcession, the Cretd., and three special pnyers for.he i)eu'OIhal cnntrac.!. Once apln he recil~ the Lord's Prayer. and $Ily$ another pra)'er o.'er the _-at Then ",kinS one of.he weddinl rinp, h.. phc, es it upon .he right hand of the future bridegroom. .....0. in tum. takes the o,her rinS and places it upon the righ, hand of hiJ brid.... o,he. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burmester, O. H. E. The tJgyP/;lln 0' Copll, Chu.ch. pp, 13111. Cairo, 1967. C£IlU W,SSA W,t,SSO'
BIBLE. COPTIC VERSION, Se.. Old Testa· ment. Cop.ic TlVlS1atlon of; New Te$lJllTlen•• (;Qptic v.."Sions_
BIBLE MANUSCRlPTS, GREEK, The Hebrew text of lhe Old TCSlllUl'nt "'as translated into Creek. The /..rna of ArislltOlJ ~ a 1qen BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aland, K. KUT"Ilicfasste LiSle der griechisehen Hand. «;hrilten des Neuen Testaments. A~it~n zur n~ll-
381
lestamemlichen Textforschung 1. Berlin, 1963. ___. Die griechische" Handsehrifte" des Neuen
und Ergiinwngen cur "Kurti!,efassten Liste," Malerialien wr neutestamcm/iehen Handsehriftcnkundc, Vol. 1. Arneiten TeSlamen/s~Kor,"ktur",
___. Repertorium der griuhischen chris/lichen Pa""ri, Vol. 1. Berlin, 1976. Aland, K, and B. Aland. Der Text des Neuen TeSlament --
Bib/ic,,' ."biec," "'e (., frO in reHd" in a niche l.IOder a broten pt'd,ment originally l'rom IlI*Ya At" JU.OIWi at SaqqaJa atId now in !he Coptic MlI5olds Nel: \he ",ised right arm of Ab...h.am wielding the knik """ne Abraham', len hand 8raws lu.ac's head by !he hair. Isaac s1ighdy bends hi' knus, The ram, whkh Cod proYided as" ,ubsthutt -""'rilice, stands in profile under the diyim hand "nd tht patriarch', upraised snn, A good study of Ihis pitc., by J. LAi· bovllch locales it. perhaps a lilde too prtclsely. In the middle of the fifth century by ~ason of lhe special aspect of the pediment (Leibovit~h, 1940). The ,ymmclry of the composition, as wtll as the lifelike proponioll5 of the figures and tM nalural· iom of lhe .,."etaI clements. suggest a date al the bc&inninl of the «nlury. La-ina ....de JI05SibJ., .,umpln that may haY< been destroyed, the theme reappeara much Iaol.". in two woven slee"" bands of the ninth cenlury. One belonp to !he Hiw>ric Museum of Te:xliln in Lyons and is in ncdlcnt eonditiom. n", other, in tJw Coope, He..tn Museum. New yon. has 1 _ dweado in the center. SOe'Obat to the detriment of Abraham and \he nm. Both bands tJw cora· pkte 1«nC. They come &om the sanw model and ha.... tlw same composilioo. 1.0 the Cooper-Hewitt piece. for example. tJw ~ lilh • yellow ochre square. which is 6at11:ed by two paneh decODled witll red ~rossbIItS bearing .. f1owr:r or a bircl, Ihe spread.out hal>es of fIo..,en. a.nd borden of (Wer" lappinl Iea>es. In boIh blonds COJlIic lellen are IUltcred ncar the heads of Ab..-hiorn slld lsue, ..me of them forming pan of the men', I'l&mCl.. BollI bands exhibit fc:oturl:S charactotri$tic of the ninth century-crossbars. spread Ro"''''l'halves. SyinC·lhulIle lines of unbleached lhread, borders of overlapping leaves, and the defective transcription of the nameS (0.. Bourguet, 1%4, pp. 26-30, sec. oul
.,rou;.
u-
n In painting. Ab...ham and Isn.ac appear aSaln in
383
the "",till (sanctuary) of the ancienlchllJ"Ch of DAnt MolB.\. A....'!"tHn"OS Mar the Reel Sn. (Pianko1l, 19S8, PI'- 156-59, pl. I). This muno! matches anc book of Oa.n;"l. Daniel. a dc>'OUI J"... at ,he- Bab-Ionian "Dun 0( Sebuchadnazar, '5 C2SI ;n,o a lion's dc-n f... ttis failh. This the...., ~ms to ha.,..,. been illmua,ed ".",Iy in Copci0. 1.U. p. 16.2). On thor beam lhe I>rro and lhe lions--se:oled on their ha1ncha and ..rnc:hi,. their heads lO\oo'ard Daniel_an U11 a",...y frolll Nl archit«tunl beclground. On an i\'OlJ pyx or thor si~th cerllulJ (in the Dumbanon Oaks CoIlec· tion. Washinpll1, D.C.), the lion's dm " "'"Qtrd loy lWO low brid _lis before ..i1Kh the lions ani' cl"OIlchina: (&da...,., 1978, no. l.n. p. 158). Daniel, simply dressed. lifuI h.. anII$ tOWard hn~en while an anee! app""",hes, clooing the "-Jlh of Ihe lion on Ihe ""I ".ilh his hand.
Bi",,,
385
brothers by Samuel, Somu.l'~ ehoke of Da,-id, Saul equipping David lor bailIe. David con&onling Goli· ath. Da,id ..Iaying Goliath. Da"id p1.-yina the I)Te before Saul on his throne, who th~lcns him ",i.h a jaW'lin, David and his friend JOnathllll, and Da,-id at the hewe nf the prirsI Ahimel«h. The SI)'1r of the 'wo KlS of sut;«u is pr:n::eptibly di~rftlL The pa.lnli".s of the iaobted epi50des are more richly deeooated and their 6gura more ""Ttlp" tuousIy clolhrd than thoto! in the deconui,.., ...,ries.. T1>ry appear to be earlier .han the s.eries. pa.sibly from the sixth cen....lJ. Sewnl indicuions, il>Clud· ing the beards of lhoSot ......ehlnl David's lighl with Goliatll and the sketchy ChanlCler of me design, SlIagest a dale in the ,,"ven.1I o' ei&hth cenlury. BIBUOCa"PHY
David at the Court or Saul The early history of Da.id. the shepherd boy eho· sen by the prophet $;lmuel to be ~ing, the hero who ~iIled the giant Goliath and played the harp for King Saul, is tCtld in Firs! Samuel. The appea",nce of David in SCenes from Ihis period of his life in wall r-inlinJS in several eltapds at Da)T Apa Apollo al Bi...i! "'Jr$U that he ....'as so honored al olher liles in Egypt, llllhouSh no e,~den.ce hai sul'iW!d. lte was Imporn"'t in Chrislian iconocraphy as both an anc:CSlOr or Christ and a prefiguralion of ChriiL ),I_cr, it is possible lhal the Coptic rntriclion 01 his story to II.. JOUlh ....... I...pired by ill aoaJocy at comain points to thor soory of Joseph at lhe coon of pharaoh. BoIh youths.. It>.- ~ .... p1e, Sotl'-N a ruler and \O<erc savio:>n of wir people, and both prdi",re'i.d Cook, Tlt.e!ie I.... figures also recalilhe race of demons, lhe siren "by her setpent's U1i1 and the centaur becaus. tht d.mon .ho""ed himself to Saint ANTONY 1"ttt GRUT in that form as cd by Sa;nt Jerome (d. Jerome. 1898. p. 4). The... 3re. however, represematlons of malevol"n, figures ""ith dark skin. who may ha,·c some connec· tion with demons, ;n SOme portrayals of the story of the patriaTch J~ph (see below). Examples are some temh-GCntury leXlile d«Qralions~o.i>ic",l"
386
BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Jonah
(circles) pt'I"h.ps fu~ cU5hiollf, and d ..", (bands fnami"l 1M from opening) and 5ke¥e bands fur prmenu-and min~ po..in,inp IUCh .. lhal of the 0cu.1eUCh of the Se~, whkh ponnoys JoIeph ball' 50kt 10 the hhmadMs by his jeaklu. ~ CKiWnr:CI, 1937-19J8, pp. 266-68), Possibly lhe rwity of demo,," ift Coptic .n ...... due W oupenlitious br of their ;ma&'!'...'hie" could have bern eatried oYer from pharaonic 10 Christian lima. The im~ in Ille pharaonic period lran~ fonned inlO Chrislian demons. Indeed, Ihere Is eve.,. reason Ihink Ihal Coplic monastic SIOriU were lhe vehicle for this iconographic delail, in Ihe West as well as in the East. In such slorie. Ihe demon i. pe-<sistenlly pn:scnlcd as '",he linle black Eihiopian" 01 man: .imply eiThtr as "tile Iinle Ethiopian" or "fbe black one." No other ~ril" lion In early ChrUtiall lilera'u~ Or K:OIlO8raphy specifies the color ofllle demon's skin. 1'l>f! expresaion. "the bbck one" .nd "lhe Ethiopian" (and its synonym "the Nubiao") 10 back '0 deseriptions of lhe wic.ked god Seth, .Ssod.led wi'h lIIe desen and sterility. in \'arious E(ypIian writinp 01 the f'loIeTnltic period. A c"TIe ...·as laid upon Seth by hamlik r in 660 H.C. 10 destroy cY'l'n Inlo !he hcMy places any impulse oIlhc black people of Nu· bia. ...no hod killed his fuhtr, 10 IIS«TWI aptn the throne of pharoah. This curse _ applied to lIIe des«ndan1S of !be Nubian kinp of the Twornl)-.fititt fly...!)'. The ~~ WCl"e passed on Ihrough 'lOrieS of lhe CUSlIDS, monaslic: rules, and liftS of lIIe Coptic monks, indtuUn,; tales of fTequent pmag· ing of Iheir m.....rnies by ,he nomadIC B1emmycs (see w. TIIIBfS). who Came nonh from Nubia by w.y of the desert. Thus 'he black color usoclalcd ,,"';Ih J>COllle ... darrtajlinll 10 monastic life In £trypl cO\&ld nOC bul paoli imo Ihe ge-neral lconOfll"lphy of Ihe demons who opposed manllSlic asceticism in Ihe wider CbriOlian world.
'0
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cltdal, J, I.o Mo~~sr~re et I~ ~teropol! tie 8000111. Mbnoires de l'lnslilul fran~.is d'ArcMologie ori· enlale 12 (1904).
Du Bourr;u~" P, "L'ori&in~ phanoonique d'W\ di:tail dam !'icOllosraphie chre.Jenne.: La Pe.au noi..., du d&non." In Procutli.f" of lite XXVII/Jr 1,,1071", tian..I COIt('UJ of OrWot./ws. Ann Arbor, Mich.
B-1'} A"3US1 1961, ed. Om;' Sinol " al. Wiabaden, 1911. J~1Vme (Euoebius Hinotlymus). "'VIC dt Sa.iDI hul "dt' piellU"tS depiets th", follo....ing; (I) ph.raoh·. dre.ms, whleh a. a nIl", w",re pre.cnted ill a cem,.al med.llion, while Ihe eight o,her epi""dc.. nm around Ihis med.llion eilhe. c1ock""i~ or emuller clockwise; (2) aoove Ih.. c..mer, the picltlre of Jacob. ,,'1>0 sits on a splendid bed and sends Joseph 10 his brothers: (3) Joseph meeting ,hem in the field
".l:a\o... .
al Siehem (Vikan, 1979. p 106, n 'I); (4) Joseph cast inlO a ,,·.. ll (Vibn. 1979. p, 106. n Ill. notes an ~p1e in ... hieh J06t'Ph is d.......n nul of.he ...-ell); (S) Jooq>h's brothers djppittt his coat ;n the blood of a sbup,teT'Cd JO'It. aJthoodt the- lhooglll 'M lhe brod>ers "ish 10 murder Jooq>h. ",no IS small >UK! has • nImbus. probabh pl",'S so""' part io lhe poetu"' (on nal comrae\;on of scene, (e,@.. scenes I. 2. 3, ~) indic.te lhm the ori@in of Ihese illustrations ;s to be .OUllhl !l01 in lexlile a11 but in book illustrat;on. On the hasi, or an exact .nal}'~is of the indh'idual scenes. G, Vilan ha. ,hown that the Coptic f1lbl'ics drew on ,he Sir Robert COllon manusc,ipt .....,he"'.. tm, Joseph ..cnes
""n.
388
BIBLICAL SUBJECTS IN
corTic
,\RT: The Three Hebrews
In
Ihe Furnace
StOry of Jmeph. Tapestry, Ninth-lenth century. Hdgbl: 26.5 cm.; w;d'h: 2R ,m COl/ru.'" I'l&s_ _ 01 !hem da10d with certainty 10 tile first half 01 the thirtttntll cennuy-then is one in the choir dlaI lIICco:m:linl 10 J. LeI"O)' '""Presents the theme of !be ~:1tebrews. Today ills scarcely ""lib"". bu1 one can ..ilil di.5linl"ish IIw anael. boldinl in his ripl hand a long sWf ... hic" PMSft in Ironl of the three )'OUI>« men. All are d.ad in a tunK wilh a mantle fastened: IIol !he neck. On .he ground and a~ lhe figures one can make OUt leaping
!ion; witll his tight hand he bolds in frolll of the you", men the rod "'·i.... ""hlch he has al1led the
.=
Two funher pieces dne-rve mCl1tion, a11hough iIrictIy ~g one fl 01 the H ~ in the Mo.--!ery of SIIilll Catherine. Mwr>I Sinai, shan the ic.... IIoOIrapby 01 the ~ic worb cUd lIbo>-e. Th\.lS. apart from lhe rq>resentalions at al· Bap"''iI and Bl~. _ can demornttale a Iazge degree of unity in the icollOgraphy of the thrft Hebre;,;s. n.e-y are pra}ing, their arms raUed to heaYC'll. and tile an~l. JOlllelimes in the mloralion of lhe martyr Anbi Bajl1sh on 26 TUbah. stales that Bajiish. a weallhy man. was from ... place to the north of Bilarl. Arianu•• Ihe Byzantine governor in Anlinoopolis. imerrogat.d and tortured Bajll.sh, who was ev.ntually martyred near Salml1n, "'esl of limi. in lhe districi of the city of Tkow. E. Amelineau theori~s that Ihe Bilad mentioned in this account may be Ihe modern Biud ai-Mal in the province of QinA in Upper Egypt (1893, p. 1(0). '!his identification, however. is unlenahle .ince the orthography of the two place names is different and because Bil;\d al-Mal is Mt aUesled before the nineteenth century. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amelineau, E. L.o Gtog'aphie de rEOPle ~ "iptX/"e Caple, p. 100. Paris, 1893, Timm, S. Vas chrisllich·koplische Agyplen in arabisehe' leil. pt.!. pp. 391-92, Wiesbaden. 1984. RANDALL S'rnWART
BILBEIS,
city in the province of Sharqiyyah locat-
ed at tho junction of the ~tern Des.ert and the
Delta about 30 miles (48 km) northeasl of Cairo. Though Bilbei. is seldom memioned in Greelt and Lalin sources from the Roman-Byzantine era. it is apparent that the city exi.ted prior to the ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT in 641 and that it had a bi,hop .. early as lhe sev.nth century. The name of the city appears often in Coptic scales. which is an indication of an older tradition. Bilbei. also occun in the li,ts of Egyptian bi.hopric. (Munier, 1943. pp. 47. 54. (3). The firsl bishop in Bilbeis whooe name we know was Apa Abraham. The Coptic ac· counl of the FORTY·NINE MARTYRS of $cetis stales Ihat Abraham soughl the remains of the martyrs when
391
they lay in Ihe cave of Piamoun. From Ihis slory one un reasonably "",,ume Ihal Abraham. who was a contemporary of John. Hegumenos of Seetis. was bi.hop in lbe pre-Arabic period (d_ Evelyn-White, 1932, pp. 270-71). Another Abraham who served as bishop of Bilbeis was pruent at the synod held in Cairo in 744 to choose KIIA'IL I as palriarch. Under Ihe direction of King Arnalrich of Jerusalem, the Crusaders look Bilbeis in 1168. and some Copu lost their lives in the baUles. However. by the fourteenth century. Ihe city was once again Ihe .eal of a Coptic bishop. There is also evidence 10 .uggest Ihal Bilbeis ha'lled a Chrislian wriling school al Ihe beginning of lhe fourteenlh century. Coptic tradition says thai Bilbe" was one of Ihe 'lopping places of tho family of J.sus during Ihe FU(;HT INTO
E In Clllinian-Anbianoonlc Ec>1M. where. special priesl wouJd h;n.", cared lOr lite royal placenta (Ayroul. 11'52).
Because prqn.ncy .nd childbirth ha,.., left the new moo...... euremely ....m and $U$Cep1ible 10 infeclion. th...., anendlnl ber take precautions to help her regain slreng,h and 10 proIect hcr from all evil- On ,he Ihird day .fter lhe binh. d>e is purged "ith caslor oil. and then she must lilerally large he.....lf in order to restOre her health and acti,ate Ih., mamm.1')' Il.nds. Funher, in order to spare h". any ."xiely 'hal could , and _I'. There is a lray near lbe ba· by's pillow upon wh;~h se"en ilem, have been placed to corre$pOnd 10 lhe $even days jusl p..." wh grot.'
BISHOP
anemisia oc inc~~. and saiL On lh~ ...heat ruts an "" lNot is .0 ~ cook.... Ih," nut day and olI~ 10 iOme.one ad,'lUlc.... in yean. This is.o ~nsure 1M child', lonF'ily. NQ~' an: .. W>l.ch. inkstand. and pu for a boy. oc sc'->rs. a thimble. needle, and rhread a girl. The m\dv.iJc Come! abou. non. As ,hoe suoesa arriYe. they slip cJHt, Cairo. 1952. Bb.:kn\an. A. M. ''Jhe PIlanoh's Plaoo,...,... and tht Moon God Khons." J"",..at 0/ EDptia" hchtobD J. oeries 1 (1916), B1acbnan. W. S. ~s f A$ God'. Sleward. a btshop midi be above reprKh. (2) As SUI\! Paul's suec,.....,.-. he muR he .. compeunl teacM', able to npound the true ChrUtian doclri~, ha,ina a twofold duly: to fill the £ailhfu.I ilh 7.fll. and 10 rtfute the argum~nlS of diose -hco hold unorthodo~ vi«p of Alexandria at the age of lWenty-Ihre~, (2) A candid.t~ should a1l"'""-dy
ror
394
BISHOP
~ oro.ined priest and pmloprie5l (Connolly. 1919. chap, 3, p. 24)_
SeI"Uon of Bhhops
11M:
stipubtes Uwc uTWlimOl.lll appr1)'lal c( lhe .,...... fplion of the chosm pnwn, ~ COOl' WlJonJ '" rite Holy Ap"'JJleJ also SCl"ftSa Uw !he peqon w be ord.ined bishop "is '0 be chown br IIw: whole ~, "ii, ~II Iw: if, named and lippI"OYed. 1ft til., people ..-mille with 1M Jlft'byIery hd bi$hops thai"" ~t. on the I..onl', C1Ua»' booo,..... his head, wh.iIe the other bishops SW>d inside, and be&ln the Jl 395
entrusted with the predous souls of men. much more ought he to give direction. about good•. that they all be distributed to those in walll. according to his authority, by the presbytef$ and deacons, and be used for their support with reverence." BIBUOGRAPHY
Cummings, D, The R~dder. Chicago. 1957. Habib Jirjis. Asrar aJ-Kanisah al-Sab-ah. 2nd ed" pp. 216-19,223.224. Cairo. 1950. Ibn SibA' YI1~ann6 ibn Abl Zakarly~. Ki1tJ.b al·lawha· rah al-Nafisah fl 'Viii", al.Ka"lsah, e BISHOP. CONSECRATION OF. In lhe event of a bishopric becoming vacant as a result of the death of its bishop or for other reasons, a su~cessor is nominaled by the clergy and congregation, and his name is submilted to the patriarch. tOg'Cthcr with a tC$timoniai called a deed of election, The patriarch refers this testimonial to the Holy Synod (see HNOD, HOLY) for approval, after which a date is set for the ceremony of the new bish"p's consecration. This takes place on a Sunday and is usually held at the cathedral church of the patriarchate In Cairo. Clothing wllh the Schema On the eve of the consecration. a service is held durin, which the nominee is given an ecclesiastical name and is clothed with the ",hema. unless he has already been vested with it at the outset of his monastic life. The s~hema is a long plailed leather girdle admed with cmSses and is worn crosswise Over Ihe chest and the back as a .ymbol of striCI austerity and asceticism. At the stan of Ihe proceedings. a further verifica· tion of the unanimous agreement of the clergy and congregation on the ~hoice of the nominee is car· ried out by the patriarch or his deputy. With the bish"p-elecl .tanding in from of all. they are asked three times if they consider him t" be the right man, one who is ca~ble of sh"uldering the serio,," responsibilities of the bishopri~. Thi. is done in fulfillment of the .tipulation laid down in the Con· stilulw~s of Ihe Holy Apas/les:
396
BISHOP, CONSECRATION OF
And let 'he principal of ,1M, bist>ope . . lhe pr~ bylery and people wbe.lM,r this be .he penon whom .hey desire for ,heir m1er. And if 'hey p'''' their consent. let him;a.sk Further whellX'.. he has a IJOOd tnlimony from all men &i 10 hi5 worthi. _ for so gre;>' and &Iorious an au'!Iori.y: w~bcr all things relating .0 his pie!)' God be richl; whed>C'r ~Ke "",,"aI'ds men has been oburw:er do accordillllO Inllh. and no, 1CC0rdini '0 p.-~e1icc. witness he i. wch a one. lei !hem the !hinl time. M bdore G:>d !he judae. anel Christ. me Holy Chos, boein, also pusenl. as ...·ell as all me holy and mini$ler1"1 spin.., ad< again .... hether he be 'nlly wonhy of thl, mini..ry••ha. so "in ,he mO\llh of 'wo Dr ,hree witnesses ~~ry ...-ard may be: eouobliohed:' And if they agree ,he lItiro,ime .hat he I. worthy. leI Ihem all be demanded ,heir \/OCe: and when ,hey all ttl,'C il willingly. lei them be heard.
.owarns
,ha,
Pledge The bi,hop..,lec' ,hen reads a solemn pledge I8.ken before Almigh,y God. ,he invi'ible Head of lhe Church: lhe ~red allll.r; me palriarch. bishops. and prubyle,",; ,he membcT'l of.he Holy Synod; and lhe people, in which he undertakes .0 uphold .he 0'" Ihodo. faith 10 .he lasl brnth and obey Ihe canon. of ,he holy apo:>!ille< and lhe ecumenical «>Uncil. of NICAEO (J25). COrr. not condemnin,: anyone "" MAnay bul affordi"l him an opportunity 10 prove his InlOOCetlce: 10 «>& ,;nue 10 Icad all ascetic life. n_r tTeali"l the chun:h uwu as his _"II; and 10 5l.Ibmit to the Alp«m.e authority of~ church. >utell In His H... lincu, the pope and patriarch of the Sec of Sain. Mark. and in me Holy Sp>od When the bishop-efect h.. read lhe pl..d&e. hi5 epiKopal VCSlments receiYC Ihe 'I8n of lite crnss. and hi. nr:w ecclesiastical m.me Is announced. Sunday Procession In lhe course of lhe celebration of Ihe Di~ine Lilu'1)' on the lollowing Sunday momina. and ;m· media,ely aher Ihe reading. from the ACI5 and ,he SYNHAJUON, the bishops. clergy. and deacon. go to
where the bishOj)'Clec' is a",ailinc- 1bey bring him Into the ca,hedralln an Imp"""';..e proce;sion. cal' rying c........ and lIab,ed candln and chanting in Coplic: !he h)mn beJinninc- '"The o..ly-bcg Maller. Lord God, the AJm~, Father of our Lord.. God and Savior J.....,. Olrisl. ""b;) has neither beJinnilll nor end ... wtIo cho'elleth in the ~ and Ioob upon 1M lowly ... do now pour Thy Holy Sp;rit "'hidt Thou hm gramed 10 Thy pun: apo$Lles. &i.e.~e same crace 10 Thy IC'tvanr (.... me], whom Thou hasl cJ>oo;en bishop. that he may shepherd Thy holy flock, and becollle unl Thff • blameless ..,...·eT. and pray unto Thy coodneSll day and nighl.... Give uniO him through Thy Chrisl lhe .....thorily 10 £o... i"" sin5 accordinl 10 the commandmem of Thy oniy. begouen Son. Jewi ChriSI OUr Lord. 10 ordain cle'llY. to 1005 anoUtcr prayer of thanug;'ina; and returns I IUs throne. Al Ihis poinl. the celclmotion <Ji the on"ne U!U'llY Is rdlImed. and. the Pauline episl;le is n:ad from Hebrews .:H and 5:6. followed by the TriM.pn. the Inlercession of lhe: Goopd. Ihe ~l n:adinl. and th~ rest of the anal'b;)ra. The pope admini5ters the communion 10 tM n~w bisJJop. giVC5 him the b",alh of the Holy Spiril, places his righl hand upon his head. sa)'ing, "Worthy, wonhy. wonhy. bishop [name] of Ih~ cily of [name} and ilS nome." His Iilurgical vestments a", changed fur his black cassock. and Ihe pope hands him his cro.i.. and cron, M
398
BISHOP, TRANSLATION OF
Epbcopal Exhortatioo Fmall" !he fJOPI!' &li.,cn a stnnon known .. Ihc episcopal CmmlUlo:hnenl. """ch II a compendium oJ pilliUpu ol.inue and godIinC!lS culled from !he H~ T~ft1 10 sen'e as ~ina for the I>CW bi:lJ'Iop. as sec.. from the folknrting ~
Be always humble. quiet. conlented and merciful. and ncv.... lose your ~imir)'. Eachew the ~ of mon~, and be kind 10 o~ v.ier, eidler intn>ding himself of his own suggcnion. or UI\du compulsion by the people. or by a>nMBinl Pope K/lA']L I (744-767), said, "Sword I)r he Or casting to lions or exile or capti";ty,-the.e are things that troubl~ me not; but I will not enrer into what is not lawful. nOr incur my own excommunicalion. which I subscribed with my own hand and initiated, to the effect thai no bishop shall become patriarch. For the excellent fathers excommunicat· ed him who shall take a degree in the hierarchy by the help or favour of the government." The only ;nslancuiareh. In ...., early lounh century. Archbishop AI· uandcr I. ninele""lh patriarch. had rcponedly ""rln"n an ell GcrsIingcr, H. "Bio&nophi~:' In R~"lkxik,," lur AIlI' i1IIISlCf)' of Phoi· bammon, sillwed ncar o;c...... ,...101 numerous lei' Ie,." to the ChriJtians of his dioe~. both d"ric:aI. and lay. He abo rccei,-ed l~n,," from Ihese pcnoll$ (114 ....T ilings are del" .....ith in Knwse, 1956. Vol. 1). Part of the c~ndenc~ ........ found by lhe escaVl'or E. Naville in lhoe cou..,... of pulling do"n Ih" Pboiha.mmon monastel}" dunn. lhe cxcaY:Otion of lite temples of Halshepsut and Thutmosc III a' DAYI. Al lW1R1, be.un by Ih~ Eg,ypl E>.ploJ1l,lion Fund in 1893. Whi~ !Ome of the COlTC,pTldence reached Ihe museums e>f Cairo and London, anoth· er pan. comprising mQre than 300 le~ts, was thrown on Ihe eXClvalion rubbish heaps, and was ne>t found until the )'Carsloilowina 1922. durin8 Ihe jnspection of Nlville's dumps b)' Ihe Metropolilan M""",,um of An. The discov~l}" was dj,'ided hetween
BISHOPS, CORRESPONDENCE OF
museums in Cairo and New York. [n 1959-1960 the Metropolilan Museum $Old these le,ts and olhers 10 Columbia University (Schiller, 1976, p, (04), [n addition, lex," were found during the excavation of Coptic monasleries buill into pharaonic ~mples or anchorite setdements. Some reached museums via Ihe anliquities lrade in Luxor. Only SOme of the texIS ha,'e heen published. While 114 texIS from this correspondence were known in 1956, since then the number h3$ grown 10 aboul 200, The existence of a large number of other writings, no longer eXlalll, can be inferred from the lexlS lhat recapimlate the early history of tnmsacli(ms. For example, in Crum's Coplic Os· """~ (CO 30) we road, "After I entroaled wu, you ordained me a deacon at Ihe monastery of the holy Apa vietor." Since the bishop himself, on the e,'i· dence of his testament, could not wrile, he employed four scribes. It has become evident that for many tranoactions there were set forms, inlO which only Ihe relevam personal and place narnes had 10 be inserted. This coOTespondence, the most comprehensi"e and best-proserved Gn ostraca, shows the activity of an Upper Egyptian bishop around 600. It includes lexlS on Ihe ordination of deacons and priests (see OIlOINAll0N, CLERICAl.. and CLD.lCAL INSTIUJCTION) as wen as documents relating to appoinlment to of. 6ce. For these documents of appoilllmem Ihere was also a set fonn, in which clergy, for the moSl part deacons, were named as titular heads of churches (and monasteries). The lask of the.e lilular heads was 10 watch for or prevenl any negligence and to instruci Iheir subordinales, thai they mighl walk in the fear of God. The disobedient among clergy and laity were 10 be excluded from communion (see EXCOMMUIICATlON), umil they came lI deduce lhei~ ethnic origin. Alongside bishops wiIh a light .kin .,.,10'....·hieh points 10 origin from F.8YPt. Ihere are some with a dart.e~ .,.,mpluion, which indicalCi an origin in NubUo. BIBUOGRAPHY
Go1lOWlki, T. "Rcmarques su. I'iconographie de I'b~ue de 'Rivergate Church.''' In Mtl,mge' offe.t, • K~d... im: Mil:h"lowsH Wanaw. 1966. Jakobielskl. S. A Hi N
,,,ttl
403
47. pp. 15-16 [AntIMe IUIJ; vol. 78. p_ 18 [Latin tramblionD. and his relia an kepi in Shibin aI· ~ in the pnninc", 01 Oab,.\>. and J>OI in ~h11 al-Qanki•• as aas,.,c read (Mru!:lin.,.u, 1893. pp. 432-33). A!'1:Iad1111 a misr'odinc 01 Cnf (Gra!. 1951, p. 111. last line).nd does not e>tiM. Bist1ra!t'$ _n .. a .,oIl~ 01. m~ poems in very simple literary Arabi amt'
rrom
""BOn'
Fiau.... of a saint holdin, a cross. Hone.
COlin, through the fold "'... usually done ",itlI. two sepanote needles and threads. Indi"'dually folded ~ we..., stab sewn; sin,le qui,..", were ,..,...,n willi 1"'0 ";ngle wlclles of lealller or cord; multiple quires _re sewn wilh two .....nole cllains of $Iilehes. Although a wooden board. wh!loul book· blocks /I...., thooght to be early. most murth-century board. consisted of layer$ of waste papyrus carlon"age (paper boards) pasted inside leather Cove"" to stiffen them. The bookblod was either sewn through the outer co,..,r r to a liplne llnlng of leather or part:hmen.l. ",hieh adM...,d 10 il. In lOme
'l"W
Cover coml"'nents. Dra...·ings ~eld.
eO~F1e'Y J~"e
Cr.w"
'0
BOOK OF EPACT
cases lWO P"oP\NS boards, double lhe " O"..-;"r eQlm"N
409
JQ"~
Gn",,~ld.
,he,..,
" binding from lhe "all Hammadi llb""1' V'a""n;: Jane GreOllfield.
."",,.5\'
BIBUOGRAJ'HY Cockerell. D. '-n,,, nenlopmenl of Bookbindins Methods, Coptic InAutoce:' p,., l.Jbr",.. 4 (19321170-90_ ~r. R.. ed. P"J»7NS ~r XliII, AC1"-f du Apdde hequ"•• Pi"TTe. Je"" e' Jude I.... uodu ~ne, .... 1961 _ P.T''''' Bodmer XXIll. E.ui". XLVII. 1.LXlil. 21 ..,hwlUiu" Inuoduclion, pp- 8 IS (l\apf and &$I 'n..). Lamacoo, C. T. ~E.arh· Bocl;,.l.indinl from a COP'Ie MOnaSlcn" The LilJrr,1)' 4 (1939-19-l-Oj:214 ·33. 'C1~rscn. T C "Earl)' Islamic Bookbin BOOK OF EPACT, lrealise on lhe calculalion of lhe da,e of Easler attributeh of Ale.ulldria (1119_231). We shall n,omine the a11libutioll ill liglll of the historical. liturg'i. cal. and Utenry Arabic tradition, of the Middle
......
Hl$Cor1all TradllloD
11M: hlswrian Sa1d IaN AL&tnIO. Mckhite pam. lll'Ch of Alaandria (933-'MO). tells U5 in h., His"".,• ..At this period. Oeme".,u,," the pal~h of Alexan· drilo. wt'OIe 10 Appi..,. bishop of Jnusalem, 10 MD· im..." patria"'h of Anlioch. and to VIClor, p"lriarch of Rome. conccmin& the ""kublion of lhe Eal.ter of Christians and their fast, [so as 10 know) ho'" 10 ""kulale lhem from the PaMo,-er of Ihe Jews. Nu· muous boob and e~istles _re compo.ed on Ihis subject. until the Eastcr of ChriSt;"f\S "'~ fi~ed. ;1$ is done loday." According to A. Harnack (11I9J. Vol, I. p, 330), Ihis ~ller was written in Ihe )ur 202. St",n,dy enwih MW!RtJS IElri Al.-MlJOAfI'A' makes no mention of Ihi, leller in hi, Hislory of II,. P~lri. '''chs. fio_ver. Ihe Copts' Arabic SYNAXARION. composed at the beginning of the Ihineenth centu. ry, mention. il Iwice, on 11 Babah and 10 HatuT. For 12 Bibah we read. This Hail III Demetrius, ....ho ordfcred abstinence from drink, .lId organized bstinl from foods for Ihe filly days! Had Ihis not b«a under lhe inspi...lion oll"e Spirit who reveals, how could il have been po<Ssible to discover and I1nd lhe computation oflhe periods of lime call..,l epaet, Haillo you, 0 priests. be Ihanked and prlbed for having come wilh diligence and wilhout delay 10 the meetinSl'llCe of the 8S$ ewptl Aceo"',,,,
412
BOOTS
poeveel on .,arth in his """ di"ine ~on. 10 Ill/Ill bolh H., ~d His >;l)1ngs were anibble 10 s.elecl aposlla in a foon unclOUde. He possnsed .. collection of Egypl:ian ant;q"iI~
and Coptic manuscriplllha, formed the bas.. of the coll..ction in lhe Naples MU5CUm catalogued in G. Zoega's
C"I"logNs cOOleN"" Copli(;Oive bibliocraphy of eame.. re-
_h. _ _ "Papyri and Roman Impoerial History. 196075:' Ja.o",,,/o( Rom~Jf StutJiu 66 (1976):153-73. J>nw.Bear, M. "Les Arcm~cs du c~ll municipal d'Hennoupolis Magna." In Am de' XlIII Con' . .USO inlenl.;iDndf~ .. pl>piroloPt, \'01. 3, pJr. 807-813. Naples. 1984. Intereui..S for the co..· t>KQon among alhlelicism, memben.bip in Ihe /oo«le. and fel~liun5 betwten HennopoJis and Ibl! OUl$ide "'Grld. nOl Ieasi wilb Rome and ehe 1m· perial coun. GaKou. J. "Us G..... III UUlA and To He published in ..........." fielda, and wroIe grammars of !he IWO $IagelI of ancient EcYptian and a crammar of Sabidic Copric. He U5ed lhe latter, which rnnains unpublished, _ a tool in his teaching. He published widely in all lhe a!:>ow,..menlinned disciplines. A selnlfil bibllog:r:o.phy of his wrilings ;r>cludes: e"t"foKue d" ~'off.. eop'" (M..de d.. wuvrej, Pa.. is, 1964; and L'''rI cople, Paris, 1968; lran:logi'l and CopIol"jisl. H. was horn in Neve.... "'fte. he became interested in Egyptology, he
BOUTROS GHALI
$,,,died under Gaston N.O&UO and b«:am~ an ori&!tW member of Ihe Mislion uchColopque mn(ai:le du Cair~ in lUI. He: was appoin'M "",~n' con~n'alor 01 1M BuUq MoH.t:I1D"I in 1883 and ~.....ed .., direclOl" of 1M MiMion a>chWlogique from 1&.16 1898. H~ diM at Vann"" HOI it....., an liRed in A Copli-c S;W..",.,pIIy (Kammerer. 19500, 1969).
,..,.i]
Bouriant. p, "Noli« sur Urbain 8out'iant:' Ru..ril d~ T,........, 26 (1904):29-32 (bibliocnphy). o.",'SOn, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Who Wu WIIo m EfY1'kXot:l. 36·1. London, 1912_ Kamn"O 415
English, French, and EaYPUan. ..... formed. tIN: Egyptian bein. R.i)'k Pasha.. His assi$tant ..... Bouuw Ghill. 1lle Reporr OIl the Land Tu "'. . ~ted 10 the commission by Boulros 011 IS February IS8O; il is .. thorouah Sludy oJ. tIN: I'I'OP"ItJ . The episcopacy ..... an urban institution, but monWkiJlII...ttlc:h had bqun as a flight from the ciliel..... run! and filled ...",11 in EnVand and Ireland As barbarians (WI is. DOncbssical pcoople$). the 1ri5h and ~isb li''Cd in heroic 50cieIies dllu .... oed. a man's individual qualilOes more than the of· 6 In,,,,,,..,
Irish Arl Artistic deo.ices and mQlifs also domon5l"l1e the contacts of the Irish "'ith Coptic influence. The cirded Irish cmss may dcri,~ from lhe ancien' E0!>lian ra" symbol. whieh had bet- Iurned into a Crt al I~ by IN: fifth century. a5 .. Coptic manuscripl in the PieI-ponl Morpn Ubrary in N.,.,.. Vorl,.J>ows ((;.67. p. 215). The famous "Virgin and Child with An... h~ iii_ration 01> folio 7v of the illuminated Irish manuacripl the Book of Kells has been sftown by F. Henry (1963) 10 be relalcd to .. Coptic man"""ripl. Henry abo points out ..u the use of red dots 5lItTOI.Indil'll .. fisure in order 10 illuminate il. a praclice uSoCd in sn'tta.lln"n manu· !iCr1pU. is of Coptic ori&in. Por,,;oits of Clui:sl in some Irish .....nuscripl$ and on llish Slone Cn>5$t$ bear WOOl resemblance 10 ponralts of Osiris. Irish church ""'""c also .00..'1 Coptic inlluence. "The Irish uoed .... nd bells, lid did the Copl$ in lhe sixlh c.ntury. bul lhe resl of Ihe Ew.oIern chuanut.eW that the AnsIo-Sa>.OfI ch"nh _ld he the ordered. stable ...,Lil)' SO familiar in the West. Indeed. Bede himself .... a Ben«llclinoe.. Bul lhe ~oIficial~ triumph of Roman views ""as I>Ot a triumpb of the heart. and old way$ penis.cd for a "'hile longer. One of Bede'. heron "-as Sslinl Culhben. a cnoobilic monk of .he M'~lh cen.ury ""ho left I'lis communily '0 become a hemtit. He li~ed on a d~ island. built a wall around him· telf SO high .hal he c(MIld oee only the ~y, bauled with demon•. aOO perlonned mi....c!n Wi.h ",ild animals. Only lale in lifo """" he impos«l upon 10 accept a bilohoprlc, an office Ite ....d pre>''ouMy reo fused (Hislori" ecde.i"Slic" 4.27-29). CUlhlac was a monk al Replon in the sevenlh cenlury bUI left 10 beeome a hennil on a manhy island, where he pracliced strict asceticism. Hi. bi· ogntphe,. Felix, in his Life of Cuthlac (chap. 30). ~ys Ihat demons lried to lempt him by offering \0 leach him the way of life of "Ihose reno"'ned monks who dwelt in E'.gypI:' On anolher occasion Guthlac routed 50me demOM by ITrnrolled 19 percent of the EgypTian economy while they made up only 7 per· cem of the population. After tlte Coptic congres.. publi.:;; opinion turned again.t the Copts. The European pre", of Egypt /1$ well as part of lite British press supported the Cop' tic claims. From the Muslim point of view, the Cop' tic .uppon of the British and the success of lite Protestant missionary activity among the COplS since the Brilish occupalion gave enough re""on for mistrusling the Copts: and e,'en Ihough official Brilish policy did nol favor Ihe Copts, Ihe missions crea~d a common ground bet""een British and Copts, encouraging the Copts in anti-Islamic tendencies, The missionary aclivity also played an importanl role in Ihe relations belween the community and ils patriarch and clergy, 'Ole palriarch, Cyril V, sa"" foreign inlerference as the reason for Ihe troubles he was having with the communily as it asked for Jay represemalion in the Community Council for the rule of Coptic affairs, This conflicl wem "" far as requesting removal of the palriarch from lhe chainnanship of the council in 1893 and the subsli· tution of anOlher church prelale in Ihat po,ition_ In Ihis conflict, Ihe Brilish sympalhized ""ilh the refonners. ln 1911 the Egyptian Congress of Heliop& lis was held as a reaction to the Coptic Congress and to answer Ihe Coplic dea was rejK1ed by most poIilical as ""II as inlcll«lual ponnr!"nia. Sa'd bchl(l] feh !hal "ithin a par!.iarJ).,nt only political a!'JUllWn15 should rule. M_ of the Copu also rejecled special trtalmenl for 1M Cop", as bet", i... compatibk ...nh 1M $O.... 'eigllly 0I~. No ~. raI Behrenl·Abouscif. D. Die KOplen in tI.. IIgypliwhe" Cele/lschall. Freiburg im Brei.gau. 19'2. Blunt. W, S, Secr..1 History olth.. E"Slish Occupa· rio" of Elj'pl. london. 1%1. Butcher. E. L Th.. Srory of Ih' Church of £Cpr. London. 1891. Crn...... r. Lonl. Modem Egypl. London. 1905. Miknail. k. Copts a"d Mudims U"d.., Brirish Con' troI. London. 1911. MUl;uommad Sayyic! KIUnI. aJ·Ad1 der H....· tal. rubin,.,.,. 1912.
BRUCE, JAMES {l1lO-l1941. Scol'loiogist. He became profnsor al GCittinltC" In 186J and di.tttor cf the ScbooI of £f;ypwloc in Cain:> in 1870. wortm,; in all fi.-Ids of EcYJItoIos;y as .......1 as in Coptology. He' rounded I"," jcM.rmal ~hri/l til. dgyplupto!ocist. Cop-
tologist. and Orientalist. H.. became a S1Udem al Christ CoII'1!'". Cambrici&.-. where he lUe..lled in lbe study of many a..dent cultures. In 1191 h. became keeper of t.hc DO'panmen' of E,ypIian and Assyrian Anliquities at the British Mu..e\>m. a post be I>.-Id until 1924. Budg.- "''f:n' 10 Ea>pt. lhe Su nal of Egyptian Archaeology 21 (1935):68, whi"" include. a pal1rait. Aw:S. ATtYA
, OilLUS AL-OUSHi (Paul of Bush), an Arab regarded as one of the most significant personalities in the Coptic hierarchy during the Middle Ages. There is no precise information about his bil1h date
423
or his secular life as a young man before he took the monastic vow. It is p<JS.ible that he was !>om between 1170 and 1175. This conjecture is based on the fact that PQpe JOHN \'t mentioned him as a possible successo< in 1216, and it is known that no patriarch of the Coptic church could be nominated before the age of forty, ThAYR AND.'. 1 424
BOLUS AL-HABIS, SAINT
In fact 8ulou aI·BUsh; is r"membe«d more for his "'ridnp ihlon lor hi. posi.ion <JrigiLancoe In tM p...·larcNlIe of Cyril III. Of his su""'i~inl wrilloeo _ria. I"" eodic:es haw: been known 10 e..at. !NIi.... Iy in manUKript in numemw; Tq>OSitorill$. and only a roew t-oe been published. Of u-e. his ri&bl miMt.iaft ~ H~ life end«l in Ihis Cll~il)'. thoush it is impossible 10 proddoe a p~ eiK da.e for his dealh.
'wo
""""'ft.
DlBuoCRAPHY
Samir. K. Maql/tlh {I ,,/·r..lhlllh __ ~I·r"i.JJ"d ...... $jl.>~al "I-Masl~jyy"h. Zouk Mibi!. 1933. Azrz S. !lTIYA
81'JLUS AL-I:IA8IS, SAINT, a Coptic monk and .. ne.... manyr" of lhe Ihin~ntn cenlury. BOlus al· l;labb (Paul the Solitary) appean in lhe Islamic·
Anlbie sources as harioa de.cended from a respect· able Coptic: family of scrihoes in Cairo_ MlkJa-~. as M "21 known prior 10 tatlna the monasllc '"0"1'5, vas hiJnsell" utib (scriboe Or secretary). Durina the niDI' of the Ayyubid sullllJ' ai-Malik al·SiJiJ:! Najm al-Din A)')'lIb and thlh. but as soon as the buildings had bttn constructed they were confiscated by the Mus· lims. Eutychius also mentioned that Ihe patriarch KM'l1 was ;nterre'0 ""OMS are. "For as in AlbIn all die. 50 also in Christ .hall all be made alive. BUI eaeh in lIis O\O'n order. duisl the fi .... fNits. then at his cominl tho§c whn prllyeIS an: oftered .1 nnaln lnl,"""," that, nW<Wlar-, are usua1ly rc:sllicled lO lhc ,hird .... d foninh dot ~r death ....d on lhe annivcnaO)' day. In ,imes. hown'Ct", these lnlel'\U wtte more: fre<juenL [See ,Iso: Funerary CuS1oms; ~k>umin, in Wly Christian Throes.) .
n.e
fane:;,
BURKITT, FRANCIS CRAWFORD (lll64193~),
FngIi'" p1"ofessor of divinIty. He was ach'", 3$ a Syriac ""halar ....d historian of n:ligions. S« C5pCcia1Iy his boob noe Re~ ut l/oe 1Ifarric:Mu (1925) and c/ou,.,/o ."d GnoN (1932). 1I1BUOCItAP1fY
Bethune-Bakel". J. f. "8tJrkil1. Frando Cra",btI.O>ciWruuy '" Na,""".1 Bio6C'pJty. 19J1-194(), J'P. 124-25. Undon. 1949.
BURMESTER, OSWALD HUGH EDWARD (1&97-1977), Brilish scholar of Qnhodo"y and the Eastern ehu~hes. He obtaiMd his red numerous books .nd a.rticles in the fields of liturgy and Coptic h;'lory. Apart fmm numerous anides. his most important arc: I.e l.eclioff· naire d~ la Semaitte Sainl~. in PO 24-25, Pari... 1933 .nd 1939; "Turuhal of the Coptic Church,N OJie"ra/u. C/o,...,;a"a Periodica 3 (1937):78-109, ~os_~a9): A CuUk /Q I/oC Mo"..,lene.. oI/he Wadi '" Nd{riln (Cairo. 1954): '~ Coptk-G~k·ArabM: Holy Week l.et:oona BUTRUS II. See Jerusalem, Coptic See of.
BUTKUS IBN 'ABO AL-SAYYID, a deacon who may have lived in Ethiopia, His name is con· necled with the Fetlie Nega", the Ethiopian ,'ersion of the NomOCtlnon of al-'iAFI lB" AL-'ASSAL. According to A. Dilimann and I. Guidi, Bu!rus ibn 'Abel al·Sa)Yid translaled the le't from Arabic into Ge'e:z, 'Abd al-&lmi' Mul,>ammad AJ.>mad (1965), who made a detailed study of Ihe relationship of the Arabic text wilh Ihe Ge'ez version, has shown that it is unlikely Ihat Bu!rus made Ihis translation, because numerouS elTOrs "ppear in the lranslation, TM eITors .eem to be due to Ihe trons· lator's inability to read Arabic correctly, as he mi.. placed diacritical marks, e\'en when the correct .eading was evident; nor had he mastered Arobk style as if Arabic were his native language. Furthermore, M.tmad show, tluot the word meaning "10 cop~" or "to translate" is used in the Fett,o Nagasl in the sense of "to copy,"
BlJfRUS IBN AL·KHABBAz
Hen«, Bu!n.rs copi«l Me of the manuscripts al the Fe"," ,VagiW for !he £dIiopian priesl IbrthTm ibn J:bn~ Na!ian, •••ftiol:h ~01'Y was """'" as a ~ for u... matltJl,CriplS, This lot least ew.bIMn lhal he bid a tood b>owJed&e 0( Ce'eL BI8UOCIlAPHY
Guidi. I. II "Feth" Nilg"SI" 0 "ugisl"zjone dei Re," ,odiu UclM;",sli'o e civile di Abl'srirlia, Vol. 2, pp. 9-11). Rome. 1&99. KIto.UL 5.lMIR. S,J.
BurRUS IBN AL-KHABBAz. thir1ttnth·cen. IUry metTopolitan of Ethiopia llIId coprist of biblical IUts. nm prinl is kno"'ll From DOl,.. found in fouT Arabic manuscripts of Coptic orilin. l- A. fnur1«nlh-c lexts (Gnf, 19M), ... KwnlCell accordi"l to Sitlla)bh aDd Y_ 'Abc! a1·M~ (1942). ,,'hich &I"l' faww:I on 170 le*~es. On fol. 1 Ba-IS. .appurs a Col/letion 0/ hvofooonu"",n's u/ me Ftl/hers c::om. Prisin$, amonc oWeT lelllS. uuacts of the twenly' thiTd chapler of the book or ~jnl Gregory the theIopan; extracts from lhe Wi$dont of Solomon; and exlnoc'" of the thi"ielh lrealise of Xif~b tll.Jf~ ...1 (The Comprehensive Bool).•n abbrevialed woli< (ik"f"~r,,ltu) by Ihe MUl"'n Anbl Bu!rus, known by lhe name Ibn al·Khabb.l:z. This l.xl is ciled lwice by G. Graf (1944. p, 387. ~oncerninll lhe "pophlh~grn,,(,,: 1947. p. 453, co ..... cernins: Xi/lib ,,1'1f~) who mistakenly named this bishop BU!ru5 aJ·KhlIbbiL In addilion, Gmt: eonsidered the bishop 10 be the author of th. . .oril, whicb is "",,"' apJJIITenlly 1 6 TO• ........ 997/6 Ju.... da I A.IL 679{3 or' September A.D. 1180. The ed by Guidi (lUI) lndi· cales that lite manuscnpl was copied fro... a model tranKl"'ibed by AoW BUl"'"' Irno..n as Ibn .1·Khabbiz, who had copied il in turn from lhe autograpM a manuscri]X written bf the pri$ V.'qUb, nepl'ic .. fJI "'Ulrin BuJnlS ibn al·Kha~ whicb RseIf wenl back 10 a copy pnserwd al the MonasleT)' of s.int Anlony (Gm. 1947. p. 3&5, par. 2: observe, lhal I'n. 1 has nothing 10 do with lhe plie&t Ya'qtlb). 1947. I'P.
4(J7
1>0_.,..
ward! (1897).
2. A Ihi"""nth-.eentury manuscnpl in the Ambro· sian Uhra...,., Milan (C 47 lnf.) provides an Anoble l....nslalion of the four Gospels, plus II gener.oI imroduction and four indIvidual inlrodu~tions, done by AI·Mad Abu al·F.....j Hibatallih ibn al-'AsslJ from Greek, Coptle, and S)'nac (Gnf, 1944, pp. 162-63;
IlIBUOGItA.PHV
Ahlwardt. W. Veru/cltn/s d.. arabisch... Hand· Jchri!u" der AIJ"lIliclten Bihliolhd; :u Bulin, Vol. 9, pp. 551-5'. 00. 10185. Bulin. 1891. Gm, G. "A....Imc:he Obersetzungen dC'r Apoka· IY!"'"':' Bibli.,. 10 (1929):170-94, especially p.
430
BUTRUS IBN $AHYON Al-GHANNAMI
179, Calaloc_ d~ ma""seriu iUaks ch,triens COf'IvTVb alt CaiT~, pp. 197-98, ...,. ~24. V.lie'an Cily, 193-4, Guidi, I. uk IracL.arlorri degli ewngdii in arabo e in
_
A""IId_ia dd (I1lS3):4-31, "'Specially pp. 19-21.
etiopico.~ A4~~ 4~Ua
LiJK~i 2S~
R~'e tlw tM Gr, ian calendar b the only In>e one and lhoc only ftC 'hkh, unlike lhe Julian and Coptk calendars, is in conformi!)' ,,'ilh the lUlllu of utronomiI mllSl ~"e belonged 10 a ""'ll·to-do family in Akhmlm, which Iurd SU$lained lhoc small Coptk KH.wL
s.uua. SJ.
BurRUS IBN SALIM AL-SUNBA:rt. a Mdchile hieromonk front lbe _ilia". of Sunba!, ..-ho in 1199 was liwin._ lhe mOnaslery- r:i Saini Catherine in Sinai. Sunbi! i5 in lhe diSlricl of Zilta, in lhc pro>ilKe or Gharbiyyah on lhe Delta, and is sirualtd 2'1. miles (about 3Vl km) southwttt of Mit DamsIs. Al the lime of BU!nll and in Ihe lhirt,enlh century. it w;lS considerable religious Importanct, especially as regards haalOllraphy, Howe.'er, no worn ncr mention Melchite. li.inl the",. This monk was Ih~ COpyisl at leut Iwo Sinai manuscripts. One (Sinai Arabic 159, a eode~ of 213 sheets) comains a leelionary of lhe "CIS of the Apostles and lhe ""i,tles of Paul for the emi,., )'e...r
or
or
BurRUS AL·SIDMANTI
I
wid! brit:f CGni.-nuria: Ie ....... com~w. on 14 Ab 6707 of Iub.m{l.O sn"...vll u. 596/14 Aul\'5l ,'-D. 119'l (c£. Ali)... &lid YGUUd". 1970. p. 312). The GllbeT (Sinai A...bic 96. 352 Wcu in addiOOt:l '0 ,~ missill& undated) eOfl,inues .. m_ripe (Sinai Anlbic 159) giving !he Gospel .-eadinp for ,he ...-hole year wi!h a eommenlRry Gn each pencopc: (e£. A.iy;> and Youssef. 1970. p. 19J). But".. a1·Sun~1 ...-ro,e in .. dear, pl~n, hand (a specimen nuy be s«n in Allya and Voussef, 1970, p, 312). AlThough lhe folis are nol num· bered, his work was very eaeduL Each folio be&1"S a ,l,le I"I.mning alon~ Ihe 'OP of lhe recIO, and each fascicule (quinwn) .. numbered al Ihe fool 01 ,ho recto in A",bk lellOl'S (cf. Sinai Mabie 96, fob, 9. 19. 29. 39, etc.; Ih .. shows tha, ,he fin, lony-twO folios allh .. manUKrlpi have di!appc:ared, a dciail noI men,ionel! in !he alalop). ~, each bscicule ~vised, and bean .. the lIooI of!h., !'«to of the fi~l Iolio W ..-d tuba.. which meam ~, ,he 1101' ....... rttbedefrllphU rooI) is an apology for O'lriMiaJliIJ, .rcalinl !he 60ctrine abouI Chrisl and provin& ill partid teellth cmno.nes. He is ~ described ... Moo -..." {a.eikho. 1924. p. 62)• .....rnd>.ppean lO be "'TOfll. ... _ know his blnhpbcoe ..-as in Upper Egypt. A tt>eologic:allrnltsoe by him of the Gregorian reform of the Julian calendar makes it impossible to give Gregorian equivalences that are valid for more than a century or two. Once the Julian date is known, the corresponding Gregorian date can easily be computed according to Rule
2 below. There is no need for such conversion if the Julian date is earlier than the introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 5/15 October 1582. To convert a Coptic or Ethiopian date (day and month) to its Julian equivalent in an ordinary year (a year A,M. or Ethiopian year not divisible by 4), add the numeral of the Coptic or Ethiopian day of the month to the day before the first day of the Julian period that corresponds to the Coptic or Ethiopian month in question (which can be found in the accompanying table). Por instance, to find the Julian date corresponding to the Coptic 15 Ki· yahk in an ordinary year, add 15 (the numeral of the day of Kiyahk) to 26 November (the day before the beginning of the Julian period corresponding to the month of Kiyahk in an ordinary year). Thus, 15 plus 26 November becomes 41 November, that is, 11 December. [f the year A.M. or year of the Ethiopian Era is divisible by 4, add 1 to the corresponding Julian date of an ordinary year, if the Coptic or Ethiopian date is one from I TClt through 4 Baramhat (from Ethiopian I Maskaram through 4 Magabit). Thus, 15 Kiyahk in a year A.M. div~ble by 4 equals J J December plus I, or 12 December. , To convert a Julian date;1O its Gregorian equivalent, add to the Julian date·lO days from (Julian) 5 October 1582 through 28 'Pebruary 1700, 11 days from 29 February 1700 througb 28 February 1800, 12 days from 29 February 1800 through 28 Febru· ary 1900, 13 days from 29 February 1900 through 28 February 2000, and so on, remembering that in the century years not divisible by 400, the Gregorian calendar has no 29 February, while the Julian calendar has it intercalated in those years just as in any other leap year. To convert a year A.M. to the corresponding
Coptic calendar showing commemorations during the month of Misra. Courtesy L. Atiya. year(s) A.D., add 283 to the year A.M. from 1 lut through 31 December; add 284 to the year A.M. from 1 January to the end of the Coptic year. Thus, A.M. 1700 equals A.D. 1983/1984. To conven a year of the Ethiopian Era (or old Coptic Era of the Incarnation) to the corresponding year(s) A.D., add 7 to the Ethiopian year or Coptic year "of Christ" from 1 Maskaram (Coptic 1 TClt) through 31 December; add 8 to the same Ethiopian or Coptic year from I January through the last Alexandrian epagomenal day. Thus, Ethiopian ITer 1980 (a year divisible by 4) equals Julian 28 Decem· ber 1987, whose corresponding Gregorian date, lying in the new year, is 10 January 1988. To convert a year of the Alexandrian Era of the World (of Ammianus, rendered coextensive with the Alexandrian year beginning 29 August) to the corresponding year(s) A.D., subtract 5493 from the Year of the World from I Maskaram (Coptic I Tut)
436
CALENDAR, GREGORIAN
.hrouch 31 Deccm~r; sulMnc. "92 hom the Y"ar of .he _rid from I Jarwary !hrou~ !he last AJu· andrian ~ day. 11ms. 1 G¢llbot (Copti~ B.toshans) of I.... Year dIM World 1155 (a date after Julian I January) equals Julian 26 April 1663. To cOIl~n a date in Iht A1r:undrian Era of Iht Wond ifll0 ~ of Lht Ethiopian Era. (tql>a!s C<Jptk Era of the 1ncama1>on), subma 5500 hom the Year of !he World. Tb..... I Gcnboc 1155 equals I Gtnbot 1655 of !he F.tlUopian Era "01 GQc:e,~ [Ste ,,1= Calendar, Grqorian; c.ltndu, Julian.] IlIBUOGIlAPHY
Batnall, R. 5., and K. A. Worp. nre Clrro"Ok>fic.1 SysltmS of 8,vlltline Et:Ypf. Stud... Amsltlodarn· ",nm ad El'iyaphicam> 10.05 An,iquum el Papyn> Iocium Perti""",l;" S. Zutphen, Netherlands. 1918. BIlker, R. "z.,ilrcchnullg: }.gypten:· In Realen~ydo padi, dor dassise GJqOrian calendar from Match 1900.0 February 2100, are in P, Peelers. BiJmotIIt· Cll Iwotiov-Pmc. orle>blkli. Mstioctaphk.a 10 (BruNdl,. 1910). pp. u-uiii, and (for Ethiopia) i/1 Eo H/lmmenchmidt, AIh,ofTucirt X.ltndena!ebr (WlnbJdert. I9nJ. AnnD CODY. 005,8.
CALENDAR, GREGORIAN. A rdonn oflhe 3ullan calendar (!ICC CAlDinu. Jl.UAH) was prom"l· ptee len days dr1>ppt "''0
ha,'"
~)
An;her, P.
Relorm.
n.e ChriMitln Cat.."dar and Ihe Grq-ona" N..... Vor\, 1941.-,
Cbmas, c. ROfffani ca/eruUJi a Gre,orio XIII ~I/ I .. n uplieallo. Ro......, 1603. Cinzel, F. K. Ha"dIt""h tin ..."lh.....aJi$ehe" ..nd leehnisehe" ChrottOlogi~. J vol•. LeipDg, 19061914. See especially Vol. 3. Kubitschek, W. G..",drin d~r ,.."ik~" bih~eh"u",. H""db..eh d~r AIIen......""i.... n"'''''!I. Vol. I, pl. 7, pp, llO-I~. Munich. 1928. AELRED COnY, a.S,B,
CALENDAR, JULIAN, lhe Roman adaplalion 01 I~"
EiYPli;on solar cal~nda.r in,roduc~d by Julius Caesar. wllh lhe lechnical aid of t~e Alexandrian
437
....Ironomer Sosi,.,nn, in ./0 8e.: ,hal year "'-as ..,.. 'lOWepnnlng of lhe New tangelo"" AewnlinllO Cerny (lIM3, pp, 17381), lhe; monllt "''U orillinally called Bolti (Buley). but by ..... lat'-i!l b«ame T6bi. •. ~ , tCq'; Sahid>c, R"~ ABbie, Almhlr (february 8-9 to Uut:h 9). This is OM 01 1"''0 nMlnths (dislinl"ished from each o 439
llna name i5 ob5t:ure, bul il is probebly a laler form of '11»1'. idenlihed at Thebes with Toeri., al.., • gnc each Iloe_ 10 poannlH IiUCcessful cuJti.....lion of o;rop, mainlCnanc.. of aood heahh, and proICIembcr, ..-hftl the flood rcaches Its maximum, and the mO$I opponunc lime lor irripling I~ lickk, as Inclicalfd by f't1~1 sayings.
/Jl:rt
Ttlt: roYT,,-.J14 ("Dllrinc Ttlt, imple. or for,: it:1 Tid: h: U .. sIIs11 ,n'fJ id..J.",,4br>" f'DurinaBibah, I" inside and pull the Iatch.-, The entire ~ depends on BIbah, !or in lhis mondt liIli"l and planting begin Ihrou""'w lite counlry. as lhe provcl'bs lell: I" Mr.!)!) tilT B't>yh4 illl ltal4k ("The beaK lhat mis.ses its ....re of dO\"er durinl Klyahk. is beller 10 perish.") ~re occun
the fi"n agricultural forty-l.W;. henna, and indiao. Wll.nnIecs< them and protoet them this l""u. and foo.rchain. P. ClmwrDJorie J'ECfple. C;oiro. 1954. Dicrion"..ire de I. eivJi.. rio" iC1'ficl"e. P:oris. 1959. DriOion. E. '''pi d'itYPgie onen· 'ale 66 (1961);1])-20. Parl<er. R. Tire C4Ie"tl4'. of ,4rrcient EO·pI. p. 8). Chicago, 1950. ""isla Wassef. Urb. Pttuiq.... riluelles e, "lime,,· l"iFf' des copres. Coiro, 1971. CUEs ""Iss.. WASSH
CALENDOLOGIA., tre"ises comparable to tOOse u~d
in ...lroIOBY and containing prognos.tications aboI'I future evems. made either by correlaling a given dale of lite year with a certain day of the Wttk or by correlatin. Certain il>\fI\05PIteric ph-e. nomtna wi.h a panicula, day of the week. Since 'hey are well "'>o>.,n in Greeclr.. i. is quite prob:able lhat lhe Copl$ derived 'hem or simply Ir.onslated. lhem from Grft"k uamples. In Coptic _ ha,.., lhe remnan.. of thrtt (peThaj>5 four) oodices containing a calendologium; (I) Vien· ...... ~ UhfV)'. 1'1112 and 9Sll5-9900 (ed. Till, 1936); (2) Vienna K5506 (ed. Till, 1936); (3) UrU.-enity of MlchipJI Ubraty (papyri;" du 1m;'.... m, 01 Miclr;,.n C41lecli4ol. Iny. 6590, ed. B.-o'•.-ne. 1979); ,.) (uncertain) Stale Museum of Berlin (>eo: B........... p. 56). Tbt ultndologi:a in tho: fir", Ihree: 101$ a.e ...b!.tamial1y alike. nch coMierhap5 another indicalion of Ihe Greek orillin of Ihese IrOlat;ons made by Egyplian writers. IlIIlLtOGRAPHY
CAMOUL, SAINT. or Chamou!. a martyr under nIOCu:Tl~N
(feast day; 16 aa.hans). Lacking a fi~t part. the texi of his Passion has survived in frag· ments from only one Sahidk code~ (British \Jbnll)'. London, Pap. V, ed, Winstedt, 1910, pp. 169ff.). The action opens with Camoul in prison under the governor Pompeiu•. He has ob,'iously been lor' tured. and has miraculously been healed; he then has a vision of Christ, who foretells his glorious end. The te~t is foJlowe CANCELLI, Churches.
See
Architectural
CANDELABRUM. SU \Jtu'llical Instruments; Metalwork, Coptic.
CANDLEMAS.
Browne, C. M. Midtigan Coptic Texts, no. 13, Barce· lona. 1979. Till. W_ C. "E.ine koptische Bauempraktik" Mille;· lunge" des Deutsche" ArdriJologisohe" {"stlluts, K"lro 6 (1936):108-149.175-76. TITO ORUNDJ
Elements
of
445
Se~ Feasts, Minor.
CANDLES, Candles have been used in churcbes since the early days of Christianity on many occasions. According to Ibn al-'AssAl's Kllilb al-Qawlinln (Book of Canon Law) and the DIDASCALlA, candles must be lighted during all services, a reference to the words of Jesus Christ. "I have come as a light into the world" (In. 12:46). Inside the sanctuary twO candlestick. are placed either on the altar or do," to it. one to the nonh and the other to the sOUlh. \Jkewise two candelabra stand outside the sanctuary, repre .. nting the Old and the New Testaments. During processiom, bish· ops enter the church preceded by priests and dea· cons nd of peac... ~here is one body and one Spirit. juSI as y"" were ;called to the one hope lhat belong, to )'our call" (Eph. 4:1~5). The Prayer of lhe Third !iour is a reminder of three significant eyeOls: the trial of Je,,,s Chri.1 by Pilate; Christ's Ascension; and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the disciples. He..., one prays that the grace of Ihe Holy Spiril be renewed within one, that the hean will be cleansed, and that true peace be giyen through the Holy Spiril, Ihe Comfoner, The absoiution prayer for this hour conveys a deep sense of gratilude 10 God, who has called the devoul to pray at this holy hour, which i. Ihat ""herein He poured f"rth the grace of His Holy Spirit in abundance upon His blessed dIsciples and apostles.
447
The sbnh hour commem"rales the crucifixion and Ihe Passion of Christ. Here one prays that the fellers of ,in be torn asunder, that suffering be broughl to an end by His redeeming and life·giYing Passion. that through the nails by which He was nailed on the cross the mind be deliyered from the recklessness of insubstantial works and w"rldly lusts, by the ...,membrance of His heavenly judgments. acc"rding t" His tender mercies. The ninth hour. at which lhe darkness thai had pervaded the eanh since the sixth hour was lifted. serYCS t" commemorate the redemptive death of Chri.t in the flesh on the cross and His acceptance of the repentance shown by the thief on His right hand. In Ihis hour one pray. Ihat the Redeemer, who suffered death for sinners, may mortify one's carnal senses and make one a panaker of the grace of His life-gi"ina sacraments so tbat, ha~ing lasled of His benefactions. One may offer Him unceasing praise. The devoul also pray lhat jusl as He receiYed the confession of Ihe repentant thief. He rna)' also reeeiye them unto Himself, when Ihey confe.. His DiYinily and cry out. "Remember us, 0 Lord, when You come inlO your Kingdoml" The eleYenth hour is 10 c"mmemorate the act of remo_ing Christ's body from Ihe cross and its prepamti"n for burial by Joseph of Arimalhea and Nicodemus_ It is also associaled with the parable of the Yiney.rd (Mt. 20). and so the 13ilhful pray thai they be considered worthy 10 be c"unted among the laborers who were called at Ihe eleyenlh hour. They lOis" giye lhanks for God's protecli"n Ihrough the day and confess, wilh Ihe Prodigal Son, that they haye sinned againsl heayen and are nor wonhy to be called God's childt''e mercy, Lord bless us. Amen. Glory to the Father, and to the Son, and to the HoI)' Spirit. both now and ever unto the ages of ages, Amen. the Lord's Prayer Ihe Prayer of Thanksgiving Psalm 50
Each hour conclude. with the following: l. Kyrie deison (fony-one times), representing the Ihiny-nine scourges, the spear. and the crown of thorns 1, Holy. Holy. Holy. 0 Lord of SabaOlh, etc. 3. the Lord'S Prayer 4. the Abwlutlon 5, Ihe Petition: Have mercy on us. 0 God. and have mercy on us. Thou who, al all times, and at ,"'ery hour, in Heaven and on eanh an wor· shiped and glorified. etc. The principal element in the structure of the canonical hours is a selection of Psalms specially arranged to harmonize .,th lbe basic theme of lhe hour in question_ Neediess to say, the Psalms possess and impan unique 'piritual dynamism and cover all the aspects of the relalionship between man llI1d God. from the depth of misery to the height of mercy. from the depth of sin to the heighl of grace. "In the Se"en Penitential Psalms we ha"e th" seven weapons wherewilh to oppose the seven deadly sins; the seven pro)'en inspired by Ihe sevenfold Spirit to th" r"penting sinn"r; the •• "en guardians for the seven days of the week; Ihe se.'en companions for the seven Canonical Hours of the da)'" (Neal and Litlledale, 1867, p. 7), It is a sublime Iribute 10 th. efficacy of the Psalms thaI Christ Him-
self frequently quoted from them-in the synod. during His temptation by the devil. at the Last Stlpper. and on the cross-and to note thaI His lasl words, "Imo Ihy hands I commit my spirit." came from the Psalms, The apostles, too, drew heavily on tlte Psalms in their teachings and their prayers. Saim Paul strong· ly urged the use of Psalms in worship (I Cor, 14:26; Eph, 5:19; Col, 3:16). The incorporation of such a rich heritage imo Christian worship was adopted first by Ihe church of Alexandria. The comemplative Theraputae. Ih" Jewish Egyplian ascetics who li"ed in "",Iusion near Lak" Mareotis, many of whom embraced Christilll1ity. must ha"e inAuenced. to a cenain degree, the mooe of worship in the emerging church. It must also be remembered Ihal in earlier times Ihe Psalms that were included in the canonical hours were sung, and not just read, de.pit" the fact Ihal some of these hours. panicularly the sixth and ninth, are aswciated with sorrowful e""nts such as the Crucifixion and the death of Christ on the cross, respectively. Hence the use of the lerm "h}'lIln" in Ihe introduction preceding thes" hours. "the hymn of the .. , hour of the blessed day. [ now offer to Christ my King and God, beseeching Him to forgive me my .ins." David sang his Psalms as hymns of praise to the Almighty and lbe apostles w.re always cheerful, despite Iheir tribulations (Acts 16:25). Among Ihe wrilings of the early falhers who de· scribed the fonn of worship prevalent in tlte Church of Alexandria is the testimony'of EtJSEBlUS OF CAESARE.A. who quoled Philo (c. 20 B.C.-c. A.D. 55): "While one sings [the Psalms] regularly in time, the olhers listen in silence, and join in chanting only Ihe close of Ihe hymns" (Eusebius 2.17.22). Ukewise. ATHANASIUS of Alexandria (c. 296-373) likened the singing of Psalms to a "balm which heals the spirit," The same point is underlined by John CASSt~N (Bk. 2. chap, II) in his description of Ihe proc· tice of Psalm-singing by the Egyptians: "They do not e"en atlempt to finish the Psalms, which they sing in the se",ice, by an unbroken and continuous reci· tation. But they repeal them separalely and bit by bil, dh'ided imo two or lhree seclions, according to the number of "erses, with prayers in betwe"n. , And sO they (:onsider it better for ten verses to be sung With understanding and thought, than for a whole Psalm to be pour«! fonh with a bewildered mind." Wilh regard 10 the number of Psalm. used in the canonical hours. the church now specifies se"enty· four (i.e., one half of the total number of Psalms) to
CANON LAW
be
~
daily. Apparently no ....ed ponion was pre-
scribed in former limes, and lhe choice ""as leh to Ihe discretion 01 !he .'arious bthen, "'" Ions as lhe appoimed times ..... 'e adhered 10. Thanks 10 the ",Ialive peace !hal it enjoyed dUl"ina the lint and st N
~ioesl ptnor>s 10 ~
canonized were lbe martyI'$, who submitled 10 death for Chris!. and !be cOl1fes5ors. ",bo .""""ed !heir failh in Christian life and acqujred a reputalioon for sanclily. Nexl Wft"e the early btheB, wnks to whom the basK 0): in this Clementine Octateuch theseapostolic canons form Book 8 (Graf. 1944-1953. Vol. I. pp. 581-84). A third ,"cension appears to have been borrowed from the Mdchite!l (Riedel, 19'00, pp. 44-45,158); it is unpublishcd. The p"rallelism between the fifty·six canons of Book 2 of the 117 Canons of the Apostles and Book 8 of the Octa· teuch of Clement i1id not escape Coptic amhors, like Abu al·BaraUt (Riedel. 1900. p. 73: Sami' Kha· lil, 197L p. 198). Content The Apostolic Canons. in contrast to the ECClEStAS· lteU CANO~S, deal in no particular order with the principal mailers of e,ain d'apr,;s un manuserit de ia bibliolhl'que du palri· arche Jacobite du Caire," Recuel/ de trava"" relarils il /0 philologi• • 1 " r"archia/ogie igyplie",,", el assyrie""es 5 (1884): 199-206, 6 (1885' 97_115. Crnm, W. E. Cora/ague ollhe Coplic Ma",,,crlpls i" the Brilish M"se"m, London, 1905, Funk, F, X., ed. Dld"sc"lia by l...aprde (lSu. pp. 239-91. of British L.DB1)'. Or. 1320). U. SOU.....n! (1884 and 1885). and G. W. Hon>er (191M. pp. 295-363; tnnsl.l.1lon only froID l.a&arde·, lexl; and pp. 459-13. Sahidic fragrmnb edilM). For Canont 31 to 62, 1ft W. TIll and J. Leipold! (l9S rr.e-
Boh.lrle T IXt This ftnion, based On a Sahidic ra:ena.ion lIS the colophon indic..es. Is lCme1imes c:aJled the Bohairic Octateuch or Hepweuch. II is 001 divided into ~ns. like lhe Sahidic iUld lite Arabic. but inw Ie'Ien boob "'iltt a ~ond numberinc COI"ftspondinC 10 a division inllolic CI"..d OnJu beeause it was pla.eed W>der dif[erntl rtaIne$ ol ap< ..... ""' ....... iX>oJ.""""" CIi ...... a.,oa~ ('"The orden esuhlished by C1emenl and the Ecc....iaoIica..l eattOIIS of the Hoi)' A.-. ties"). 11 has been published _ra1 limn. but ref· erenee: is usually ..-Ie 10 F. x. funk (l!t7, pp. 50-131· This is a rewom"8 01 the OO..che, and like il consists of lwo paru: an ethical disc:ouQe taking up the theme of the """'y ollife" from the 00/.(:111, bul omlning the "_y of dCIlth" (Canons 1-14; Ara· bic 1-12), then a series of canonical and lilurgk:al prescriptions: the number and Klection. the rune· tions and duties of Ihe bl 8oI1e, B. lA ""tlino.. "poslOliil'" J. s"if" HyppoI)·le. Essdi de reco,willl/Wrt. UIU... ie .... ssen· schafl1ich~ Ouell~n und For$Chungen 39_ Miin· .Ur, 1961.
Bourianl, U. "Les Canons ap05tollql>e$ de
Cl~menr
de Rome. TnUm 67 (1954):"03-&05.
;:C---,- A"I)pti"cQ. G61lineen, 1lU. Macne. 1_ Trotlili<m ApostOliq... SII' la charisma ttl Dimauis .us 'Qin/s Df'6"U, PariJ, 1975. Nau, F. lA ....1Si<m J)'I'itracts. wl;ieh do no! appur in lhe wrl.inp of Gr-egory of N)'Ma. are, hewn..,r, general!)' rqanled as authentic (Ge.-rard, 1974~1937, no. 31.'), So far "'" conCenl'l the IWO ~ in \he Coptic canonical coIiKtions. there- i, .... edition 01 any kind, saw: for wtw is givt'n in the coI1«-tion of Ibn al--'A$$lI (1918. p. IOj, and only a Germa.n 'ran,.. lalion by Rieckl (1900. pp. 2S1-U), not ''''ry ade· quat. bu. al teat .ll....ina 0"" 10 fonn some idea of the conleN oflhese canons.. ('I1>ey ~ all moral prKtpIS.) By rnson of the Jack of a troe «itical edilion of the lU'. one cannot know lis origin and age. for ..ilboul such an edilion one caIln01 make lhe nec· essary eompari$Ol'\ wilh Greaory's authenlic works. In Ihe collection of Macarius and Ihal of Berlin Ih. canora a~ followed by a list of the palri.rchal ""., das.ed according 10 lhelr order of precedenc.: Ihe lisl is pU'l"'n.dly drawn from Ih. works of Gregory of Nyssa, bUI ;n re.lily ;1 appears 10 be .xtracted from Ihe eighly·four CanOn. plac.d undOT lh. name of Ihe Council ofNlCA£.o.. According 10 lh. lisl. lher••re four ancient ~. Rome, Alex.a.ndria. Ephesu. (which has been lransferred 10 Constantinople, the lull; says). and Antioch, and then lhrtt more rKenl onet', --.bllihe.d 1lI Chaknlon in 4Sl. Jemsalem. Seleuc"·Coes.iphon, and the land 01 the Ethiopians. (In b.ct, these last Ihree an: rarher mlHropolilan sees.) An appvIdi-, Jivet' the autocephalOU$ c.... rch of Cypl'\ls, ..... ich in fact haS J>eIilioniJ,. ~ inlerQled re-a/kr shou1d c(M\$U11 Ihe 1m of lhese 107 canons 1$ rqxoduced by ibn ""'bar and lnnslaled inlO Gennan by W. Riedel (1900, pp. 55.-58). A$ In !he
BIBLIOCJU.PHY
Crum, W. E., and W. Riedel, ew. The C"nom of Alh"""$;"$ 01 Aleumdri... TeXI ancl Tnntlallon Society 9. London and Oxford, 1904; repr, Am· tlerdam, 1973. Munier, H. "MHanges de lilt~r11ture cOple 3: Les Canons de gim Alhan....,... Annalu du Service des "ntiq,,;'b de l'Egyple 19 (1920):238-41. ROedel, W. Die Ki""henuohuqudlen de, P"trial'Ch. "15 Aluandri.... Leipzig, 1900; repr. .ukn. 196t. R£Nt-(;E(lll(;£S COOOll'i
CANONS OF SAINT BASIL. one of the 5O\IJ"Cet of Coptic: eh"..:h la.... They appear In lWO"rieI. The fine, containing thirteen canons, is shared ...i\h the Mdcbitn; the: second, of lOS .... 106 canollll, is peculiar 10 the Copts. The line fCri"" ioclude$ disciplinuy loanCtions ..lIh reprd '0 prie$ts or ~ and the prohibldon apiltSl the burninl_of ,..,Iies .... of the Euc...· ri$t. canons appeal'lo be horTOwed from lhe worh of Saini Basil. The. 105 or 106 C&nOm are presenoed partly In Coptic. b... the complete lesl has ",,",,Iwed 0er. 1951. pp. 252, 2SS, 2S6) and eanon 36 (Kahle, Vol. I. pp. oliO. 413-415, 416)_ Canons 14, n-H, 38--..40. 90. 93, inti .".. are prexn-ed in the Torin p;>pyri (:s« Orlandi, 1914, p. 125). Canon. 48-96 an in me Chester Sealry fncmenl$. ,,-tlic:h are paldunalu derMna from the White Monasiery (Dayr Anbi SlIin CASSIAN, SAINT JOHN, monk and author of a monastic rule. John Cassian was born around 360, no doubl in the neighborhood of the presem town of Constant"", Romania. After receiving a first-rate education, John Cassia" was initiated into the monastic life at Bethlehem. He soon undertook a pilgrimage 10 the Egyplian monastic .ite., which so impressed him that he decided to slay in Egypt. He first met a number of solitaries and celebrated hegumenol (leaders of monasteries) in the Nile Delta (at Thennesu5, Thmuis, Panephysis, and DIOLKOS) hefore going to settle at senl5- 1{ is "ery unlikely that he viSited the monasteries of Upper Egypt, which included many Pachomian establishments. The quarrels about ANTllROPOMORPHtSM in 399 led him to leave- Egypt. He was later at Constantin""le and then at Antioch, and he look part in one or two legations from these patriarchal sees to that of Rome. At some time after 414 he was in Marseille., where, at the request of Western monks, he unde .. took to put into writing the fruits of his long 50-
462
CASSIAN, SAINT JOHN
joum in fcypI. Between 420 and 4lO he eoonpoud in .uc"C"",i on Ih iflstitulis COO!nobio...m (Cenobilic" InuiwlQ) and lWnIly-1our Ctmhlritmu (Confem>c«of ~ Falhen). divided ir>1O three series.. BdWe his dead> he participated in aoti-Ne5lOrian polemic" "'i!h his U'nlise 0.. 1M il'lc.-muio~ of rAe /..(>nI (Do ioocanwr.",t Do-Uoi COftrra NIUIrivM). Cassian th'" ....".-e5I!1lt$ " kilWl of lillk bel>Joten lbe Easlem and Western bnJ>is.... Patadoltically. lhe evidence from Cassian'1 ",ril' i... p Is of scarcdy any use for fUi"',lhe Ioo:alions of lhe mon.all:ic setllements in Lower EoPc. The few ilWlkaliollll he mues co,,",spond ill willi lhote Ii" en by olher co...temporary ""rilings.•nd Ihey c....· not be confirmed by presenl IOPOf;raplly (Guy, 1966. pp. 363-72). As for Ihe monks whom he vi,iled and cOllluhed, bio'n1phi......1 inform.tion i' fragmen~ry. unctruin, and sometimes nonexi,tenl. Consideration is given only 10 Ihe fourteen EcYPtian monu who .re spokll'Slflen in Ihe Co"I/;O"tl. The monks of Scetil include the folwwlng: Moses (C""larione. I aDd II: d. f"slir"lis eriIl (..uHt" (""'" J'AI.LWIUS) and -'"'"fOlI!CMA1A 'ATIlIIM (et. Guy. 196J, pp. 139-45). 'A1'\ol1aI (Coni. VII and VIII). No infonnat...... abouI him is Vo'eft. Isaa.t (Cms!. IX and Xl. No infomwion aboul him is ri¥nl. :and nodling '" 1 _ him i" rdation 10 othen known • lsNt (d. Guy. 1966. p. 102). The monks of the Nile Delta Include !he follow-
"'"
C hae,emon (COItI. XI, XII. and XIIl) .•1 Tbennes.... C.,ian mel him al the bqinninl of his lUI)' (c. 3&6)_ Then tr>()l'f: lnan • hundred yean okl. Chaer· emon ...... very aUSIere and refused 10 have any disciples. Neste"", (C".. I. XIV and XV), No information aboul him is given. JO$eph (C".. r. XVI and XVII). Of "oble family and a native of Thmuil, he spoke both Coptic and Greek. Perhaps he should be Identified wilh Jooeph of Panepho in Ihe A{X)ph/hef"'ala Pa/l·"m. Piamun (Co"l. XVIIl). lie li'cd in Ihe region of Diolkos, where he WOOl lhe oldest of the anchoriles and served them as priell (C""I. XVII 24.1). John (Co,,]. XIX). After Ihin)' ~an in a coenobium (mon_cry) and lwenty In solitude. he re-lurned 10 lhe COO!ncbium ...·Mn i1 became 100 diffi· cult 10 find .... ilude in lhe clewrt. He is also tailed John of Thm'" (/...1. COOl. v. n-18; C.,.,I_ XIV 4.2). He should be distinguished from another John cl>arged with the Dl.'C:Ofl. V «l.1; ConI. XXI 1.2-3; d. Guy. 1966. p. 116). Pinu&.as (Co"l. XX). He is known only from Caossilul...-ho hdd him 101 speclal tsl;.ptritnCtlI in Ihe li. dtul de J.." .. C.-I".. o. Oritntalu. Chmliana Ana· kcur 175. Rom~, 1966. Cottlie..-, J. B., eel Apop/uhept"l. P"m.m. PG M, PJ'. 71_440. hm, I U4. CriS/ianl, L J."" Cum", 2 vol.. Slim·Wandrille, 1946. Evelyn-While, H. G. The Mo"nJ<s. Ulol.-ain. 1938. Leroy. J. "Lcs prifxtt del krilli ",on...;q""$ doe .Ieao Cassitft." Rnu• .r.K;liq><S CaW· 6mls." Dil'.., 11Iom,,,)2 (1918);181-214. 425_56: 34 (l9lO):7fl-96: .}6 (1922):269-94; 37 (1923): 385-404; J8 (1924):8-4-91. JEAN-CUVDE GUY
CASTANETS. See M.Ullwork. Coplic;
Mu~ic.
CopIicf. itself ",n-ounde.i b)o lhc the hoJpttal, and the auembly artltS of the 'YV'Klw units. The soldiers' quanen proper _rt llJ'TaIICI"d in unifonn blocb around these emllIol instalJalions. Ftnally the whole camp "'~ SUrTOUnded by a rampan with In OUTer IlY:lICh. as _11 as a ,,,,,,,Iar road runninc alonllhe inner side of .he rampar1. It.. via "',..1.... is. Th. come", of lbe cucrum were rounded off. Th. satl'S ....'. localed on. IC each end of Ihe two main .1,..,1$ and strengthened by 10We1"5 e.. ree 10 lhe dcw:lopmcnl of ballistics Illal requimd beller proceelion; the area at the wall proridoed such bcotler than the area si'uaTed n9R1'" the cenler. The smaller campi (castdl«) ......... onpwly planned only for the au~i1iary 1rl>Up!I. whose mem· ben did DOl ""'"'""" Roman cilizenship. After the VDe""" confennenl of eiliuns/tip by Empcl'Ol" Can· calla lhis dislinclion into disuse. 1lte ,,,mel/.. chen became camps for sman.. contin""nt. of croops: me foot soldi.rs or Ihe cavalf)'. Each of chese consisced of appro~imaldy 500 or 1,000 men . In Iheir struclUre chese smaller camps were mod· .led (>n .he large camps of Ihe legions, only in a mOosoe o.terior ...all .....if1!d and equipped ..ith a munber of nd to,"I,,,n, 1"hl' buHdinp of the melt's IMnl quarteT'S "" .....11 as a number of office ..' tesiOencef "''C'J'e obsef"ed ~ the nonh wall. This anangemern illn evidence only fro", the fin! century 00..... 10 Gallien.., and acC CASTRUM
~< ,he cQ,lrum a' !'tan '"
Lu~or. Co"rl~'Y P~IU
Gron"'Q"".
467
CASTRUM
f100dinc alused by 1M damming of th Nile, ..... mains 0' the day-brick "-all. which had bttn ..... pe:atedly reinforced. and tWO gales on lhe lOUthwest had s"l"'j~ed. BOlh ~tes were flanked by protrud· ing semicircular towers, It would appear that in the 'ounh century nom.ds occupied it llJld reinforced tho: wnt I-,e "ith rectangular ponkos, Aj.o.,r fOtuio 0{ This (oMlfied camp. probably of a c~"'olry ~hm""l of ~ men, is a perfect IlqUU"e ...ith semldn:ular l'roIl\1din, lo",en """ .. sinale g;atewayon lhe wcot .ode. which unlih I"'" (lI1o.er secsiom .... Comlructed of firN bricks. eurioulJy, lhe stairs are n(lI attached to the inner _II bul carved ;nlO the _n (Naumann, 1939. pp. 2-3). AM Sh"·~r. This """'II a cohort fon at the coast of the Red Sea. 7'1> miln (12 km) nonh of Hurghada. a1thouih American investigations have erroneously ieaL Since 1953 the site has been exc....a1ed by the f.cpIian An.iqulliC'5 Orpnbllol'l. The men'l Im"l quaners -.e aited a1<Je~ Roman tombs "'ere found (unpublished). AJ.!in. On the area of the Crftk cC'rMIcry I ftw miIQ inland &om aJ.TUr. _1I·preserved remains of an nt.emi\IC fortification 5ytlle-m. "ith comer lawen and unifonn room5 laid out aklng the IUl'TOIlnd· ing ....,,11. were ""ca....ted by lhe f&yptian Ant>quilies OrganizatioD. II W'Ollld appear that it is a late Roman fon ong;nating perhaps In lhe sixth century. In the soulhwesl section. a Church of basilica de-sign with Slout square pilla" .nd .. lripa"'le SIInc·
"'1
San.
lUary WlII
[!T[[Jt
~~iJ'" '" L L L f" f~'~"''' ~"" g"[" "~~'''~
-1-1--'--'--!-
+ C'rkultraum yon lw«>r.- J.ul'lmch des d...tJC~ Q,ehiWlOfUcItC'.. l ...fi:u.lJ 94 (1979):600-652. El-Saghi•. Moo C'I a'. Le CQmp rom"ill de l.ouqSO'_ Cairo. 1986. F1in ess parallel to the spread of the new religlon among the Jewish and pagan inhabitants of Alexandria. Allhough we must repudiate the nalive .Onhodo~ theory thai Saim MARK its founder, it i. nol inconceivable thai SOOn affer , hi. man)'rdom Ihe newly establi.hed hierarg. ..phi... and wort. of Clement or any other head of lhe schooL But it .. ne"""",,ry 10 outline their ea· ......1'1 in relationn to .he """'dopmcnt 01 the bill' &eOllilll inslinni<m of theological kno....led&.. ill th.. Stocy d uni ..·..BaI Christianity. Clemem's rol.. in this picture ia unique In OOe ..ens.e. His thougltt ..... solidly bued Ol> libe.... prill' ciplQ. As a IheoJo«ian and Gretk philotopher at Ofle and th.. same lime, he labored ......;ml d... ret· onc:l1l.don of the tenets of h.is ""nhful n:l;pon wilh. ancieN Creel< luminJ, wt.ere he found no incampMibilily berween the bibfical Plopheu and the GrHk philaoophtn. He ..... aI pains tryi"l to pro..... Ita! the G.-....h ~ Mosoea and 'h.. Old Testament. It is amarinl Mw Cletnent _-...1 the se«Is of On.ian liber:ali.m in Ihe dasses of th.. Cal..chetical School. v.:h.... the chunh curia SUI' roundll11.he impeliou. Pope Demelri", I """" to.al· Iy co...........ti...e in its outlook Oil mane.. of doc· trine. In an age whore GnOltic teachin....ere still rampant amonS Egyptian Christian5, Cl..m.. nt ...ith all his tradilional orthodoxy, displa}'ed no OUtright hostility to the Gnostic•. Thou,h technically he was nol B Gnostic. in his d""~5 he prof~_d tha! lIIu· mination in religious knowle'ed !hr'ouch thI- angui:.tCllt d mutilatinl himW'lf, thus b«ominB a eunuch, a bel that cODtn1luled to his N.U.... t""'bl.... with Patriarch Dnnctriw; I. His education was enriched by the knowIqe he noadily absofbed fmm his learned master a .. m...,t. H.. also Iludied pagan philosophy and lilerature under Ammonius Sac""" (175-242), thI- real rounder of Neoplatonism, whose dlrecti..·~ influenc" captivat..d Plotinu!. H........1 ha... e ..u ..nd· cd the l«ture. of Saccas ....ith P10lino.os at the Ptole· mak School of Alenndria, H.. allO ''''''e1ed widely and became acquainted wilh moot of the eminent .chol.... and prelates of his day. Hi. wandering ex· tended from Arabia and Syria to Grel'l'e and Rome, where he all~nded Knnons by Saint Hippolytu•. Origen was oolined to become One of the wrld's ,r..atest ~x~getic.l Kholars of.11 time; his produc·
CATECHETICAL SCHOOL OF ALEXANDRIA
471
• tMty ..... el>OJ1TlOUS beyond rearon. Epiphanim of Salami> staleS that his bibl>.""aph)· reached sU lhomand books and lreatisc:s. The analytical .......'~ oi Origell'S works it: a ITemendoots wk lhal belonp elsewhere. ~heI"", a brief and panonomic ref· erence to his accompiishmenlS may help to reveal the Stature of Ihe school where Ihese v~t products were made. M a biblical scholar and philosophr, his erudi. tion was ~ and his crealivily colo.....I. There is hardly a single book in Ihc Old and Ne'" Testa· ........1$ on "'flich he did nOi wrile a lenlthy com.....ntary. His amannl critical edttiort of tk Old Teswnent, !he Heupl., ootnbint celesti.1 world. on man and matler. on rue "'ill and iu im,.et. and on the .scripnucs. 1bo:IuJh the original of !hat ambitious project porisheel almost completely, iu pul'Jl'OS"' has """";ved in l"ilIMr in:adequate Latin underings by Mil... and Saint Jerome. In a trealise called C....· Ir. Cel,um. Origen defended Christlanily from at· w:b by lhe second-ed at lhe city of T)'n! in 253 at ,h., ace on from ()rigtfI and to urr the great: mast", 10 mum I Aloandria. btU In \1lin. His ..,iDl i. of inlerat on anocher ...eOllnl, II Is saX! thaI ..·hen he in· ctea!onl the numb« cllot:al bW>op< 10 I"'~l)', Ihe p.-.:s.byters of the church decided 10 dislinrui:sh him from lhe res.l oIlhe biahops by calling him "Papa.~ If Ihis is 'roe. ,hen lhe finl pnrlale in ChrUtendom bear lhe lil~ 01 pope was Her",d.. lhe CopI in the urly pan of the Ihird C~n1ury, long hefore It w"" known 10 Roll1(!. The nexl head of Ihe school, anOlher famous pu· pil of Origen, was DIONYSHJS of Alexandria, laler ournamed Ihe Cre.t, He occupied Ihal POSI unlil he became patriarch (247-2M). His reign W3S full of lroubkos. In 250 tn" Decian persecution droYe ,he palli;trch inlO hiding. ,hou,h M was once arrested bul esc~ •n 257 .roo,ht'~ persecution .... eon· dueled by 'M Emperor Valeri.... "The COUnl!), ",as ha~ from 1m: IIOUth by barbarian ,ribet.. In AI· enndria., A~milia~ prefect of EcJ>I. dec:bM ~imwIf entpet"Ol". an.~ chil ....... that bmle oul ended in his n.p!u'" by lh~ imperia!l!P"'tral Th«>d. OIUS, who "",nl 1M rebel in chains to Iloone. ~ war.................... de\'UlIlled the city and depleted lhe populalion. Plague "'U imminent and famine was al Ihe dor. AI 1m: end of every peneculion. 0;0. n)"oiu. faced the probl~m of me apostates. But lie was broad·minded etlOUgh 10 readmillltem, and h~ forbade the rebaptism of returning herelies and s,.. hismalko. 11 i. a wonder lhal he had lime 10 compo.e a number of theulogical worh, where he diopbyed an independent bul mlMr com",ver$i.1 mind. He was accused of nilheism ~' his namesake • , Rome, "'31 defendnl by A!hanasius, ... d oppose eo...
.". Basil. In repro 10 the Trinily. """~r, he him· ...If rejecled the herelical. ,nn(WlllI(>l\$ of Pall of Samosata. bWlop ~ Antioch and weal'hy procur.o. lOr of Queen Zenobia of Palm~T.L At a IAler due Athanasius enlrU$,ed Didym... the Blind with I.... ""'Nship of the ulechedeal School in lhe early decades of the fount. cen,u.,•• pistoi.., de I·Ecole d'A1o.ndrie.~ Vivre el "",,,ur 2 (1941):80--109. Burkitt. F. C. "Th~ Christian Cbureh In Iht' East. ~ In The Imperi~1 Crisis _d Re~ry ".D. /~J J14. cd. S. Coak et ai, Cambrid£e Ancit'nl HisIbridge, 1%1. Cadiow, R. JHlroJ..clioH au sym_ d'Orip..e. Paris, 1932. U> Je.."uu d'Origin.,: HWQi'e de /"&ok d·"Ie.uHdrie "u dlbut du I/Je sin/e. !':tris. 1935. Catalfamo. G. S, Cle"""u Aless~ndri"o. Brescia. 195 •. Champ'",;"r, J. "N.i.....nee de l'humanisme ch,..;lien." B"II.I;" d. /'Asoocj~t;" G, Bud. (1947 ):58-
,,,it,,e.,
"
F.ye, E. d•. CI.meHI d'Ak",mdri., Etud• .." I.. raPT""'o d.. c!",'sliaH;sme .,1 d. I" philosophie grteque du II. site/e, P.ri" 1&98. _ OrigtHe-S~ .'ie, ro~ oeuvre. S isehen chris/lieh." Schriftsrdler du us/en drei Jahrhundule. Leipzig, 1905-1909. Miura-Slange, A. eelsus .md Origenes; Das Ce..,';,,· same litre, Welran""lta",mg, Ciessen, 192~. MolJand, E, The Concep/ion of Ihe Gospel in the A./c, they would be entered in a spedal register. This took place on the second Sunday of Lent in the church of Jerosalem, and on the fouTth in other churches, Catechumens were now entitled to bal" tism and full membership in the community of the faithful. During the initial period of the spread of Christi· anity. the apostles took upon themselves the task of teaching, later, schools and courses were systemat· iCall}' organized in Alexandria, Antioch, JerosaJem, Rome, and elsewhere. The CATECHETlCAl SCHOOL OF AlEXANDI\lA, presumably established by Saint Mark the Evangelist for the edification of catechumens, AH:h and True MaSl", Ap" Celulm"., ArcltbWtap of Ih~ City 01 Rome. ;" HOJIor of 11t~ Martyr ... &i"l Vic_ is in 1M Brilidl La1lnly (Or. 7022.26-59; ed. Bu• • 191_). The tut coolains a homiletic. pmIocue and a II'Iod1donal epi. Iotue. ~ which..,., iasened three paru: (I) a IIerles 01 poslmo.tyrioms, PI'. 46-101. London, 1914.
Trro OUA."D1
CELIBACY, unmarrieC' wri,len on their IorthadJ (Rn. 14:1_4). The early fathers (:llolled 1M ...crill and virtues of a celibate life CON«nted 10 the wonhip 01 God. Rt:pn:SCl:lWi"" eumplcs include Cyprian. b<shop 01 Cartha,:e (d. 258). IO ..-hom Yir&inity ...... an angelic atuibule. Applying the ,.mit of the wenlS 10 human fife. Saini A11IAKASIUI the Apolialit SUIts. "For then: arc two ways in life ... Ihoc one lIle more: moderate and ordinary. I mean ~c: lIle odter angdk and UTIIU'J*SCd. n_ly virgin11J:' CYlIIl Of JUIISAl.EN ICeS a IUperbuman qualily in chaslity: "lei us not be "nonnt of the gloO)' of chastity: for its crown is anlelic. and its excellence above man.... Angels walkinlllpon earth are they "..ho pJ'\llClice chastlty: the "ll'lIins lutve thir portion wilh MaO)' the \llIlln," GREGORY OF NYS$A (c. 330-c. 393) admires, above all, the purity of celibacy and iLs fuedom from corruption: '"The holy look of virginity is precious indeed in lhe judgment of aU who make purity rhe test of beauty; bul it belongs '0 thox alone wholoc struggles to gain 'his object of a noble lo,-e are bW>nd and helped by the ,faCe of God:' Similar u.achinp are found in Ihe writings 01 a.DODo' OF .u.EJ[Atl1nJA. BASil nit! Gll.EAl, Ambrose. biohop of Milan. JOHN CHRYSOS'IOIoI. and Saini JcThe carty church also publkly ~ celibates ~. civin& them p'«:ulcnC1! and priority in ..,alina: and communina:. The CopIic aOld ocher Onhodo. churcM require their bishops 10 be celibates. .... to the lawn ranb al the hierarchy, ",anioId candida1es are elipble fur Ordinal inn, bUl marrial'" is noc pamiud onee a penon has been OC"dained. CelibKy ;. a prcrcquisile of the rnonastic life. Saini &\SIL TIlt! GRfAl sulJ"Sll thai Cll:plicil vows be r~uirtd of lhe po$tu\.ant for admi..oon: "We are noc cOllnizanl of any vows of men, un· less il be ahar soniC men have enrolled themsel".,. in 1M ballalion of those who have adoptd the monastic life, if they setm to accept celibacy by silent agrument. Nevenhclns. 1 deem il fining that in their case too that dlould recel'"e primary atlention. They must be asked, and from them must bc taken a perspicuou. vOw, SO Ihal if any of them should by any cli.nce relUrn to a n""'·lov;", and sensual life afterward< Ihey shall be incurring the penalty al·
CELL
tached to those ",ho commil lomiGalion" (second Canoni(aJ EpWle of Baoil).
.""""""'" n..
C"mminp. D. R.J.din (l'uWionj. Chkago. 1957. Lta. H. C. HUiory of Scd there. a mOnaslery. Th.... oros 'ou (followed by • proper name) designatC5 a monastery. It II. however. importanl to indicale Ihe lenSC5 that the ",ord "cell" .... laken on in • monil$tic contt~l.
The wordJ blli(m and T' (ri) designate first of all a room in a larger whole "'here monb live, a mOn· &Stery or a prison. In thi. sense. il appears appropriale to tM Pachomian monasteries. where each
477
monk h.ad Ihe USC of a "cell." n.e luIS t/t.at ohow Ihis are oumerous: the teU". the Rule. and the pre· uP'S of Saini Pachomius pnscNed in Saiol lnomc'a Lllin IranslaliOJl often spcal of the eel}., oIlhe rachom.... Monk (e.... Koch, 19.B, p. 190 al the latin c~u.. or p. 185 al lhe Creek UrnOft). ~ archacoIoginl c:xca''''lions ha.", ",,-eaIed theJc ul!J. ailboqh. M. Grossmann (1986. J'P- 33-0t0. csp. filS- 1-2 with • plan of the nca,... ioles du MU$ie Guimt::l 25. Paris. 1894. Badawi.. A. '"1..o::lI PTemicrs habliiscmml5 chmlens dan. leo lIl1Clcnnes lombft, d'Ecn"e_" In T"",e Iy. Ute eight boob of Con"Q Celsum. written in e-rea (P:alestine) Ibou. 248. Ce:lsus "'as ITIOIt proboobly a S)'rian. fur he is best. inro.med about Ch,"tianily I" Palest.ine and Syria (comp:iln Oligen. CtPr'n> C~I'iUm .1i9. ...·here Cdsus profeua .linlhand knowlMgc 01 the .....ays 01 Christ... prophets in PhoenicUo and Pa/~ line). Origen enables a "ery considc...bk amount of Ihe True Discou"e to he reconstructed, and it i. clear that Cd.... hlld made himself well infonned about Christianity befon! he launched hi. attack. He ....,.. acquainted with the Gmpel of Manhew and proba· bly the Gospel of John, as ....elt .... Genesi. and
CELSUS
Exodus. He also knew of the Book of Enoch and the Book of the Secrets of Enoch, and In addition a number of apocryphal Jewish writing,;, such as The Life of Adam and Eve (see Contra Cels"", vi.27; Chadwick ed., p, 342, n. 2). as well as some Gnostic and Marcionile writing,;, He was well aware of the di.ision of Christianity in the second centu')' b.. tween the "Great Church" and numerous dissident (Gnostic and Mardonite) bodies. These, while shar· ing the name "Christian'" and refusing to be known by any other name. had nothing in cOmmon with each other (Cor/tra Cels"", iiLI2)-indeed, they hated each other (Con/ra Cels"", •.63). Nonetheless, Christianity was a danger to the SQ. ciety in which Celsus lived. His principal charge against the Christians "'.... that they formed an "illegal association" (i,I). Theirs was a secret s""iety (i.3), born from revolt against Judaism (ili.l4), that persuaded stupid individuals, by means of fear·in· spiring propaganda. to deStr. In the lower, .nd I'leSlricllnz the Ololi:e-hoIt, is • plalfonn, perforaled 10 makc • sort of ~nware &rill 011 whieh lhe pots 10 """ fiTe Adams, W. Y. "Poltel)' Kiln Exc...... lkm' ... K~h .. Journg/ 0{ liz. Sudgn IIntiquiliu Service 10 (1962):62-75. Arnold, D. "K"l'l1mik."' Luikon de' ;(gyp'olo,ie, Vol. 3. col. 392-409. Wicsbadcn. 1980. _ , "Agyp!ische MergehOl1e ("WlUlenlonc'") und die Herkunft einer MelllelTon"·.", dn Minle'
.-en Reiches autl der Gcgend VOn Memphis."' In Sttod"", 0" II/ratypllSChc" Xe'"mik. m. D. Ar· nold. Mainz am Rhein, 1981Ballet, P., and M. Picon. Ruhc'Cltu prilimi"gins $'" II'S orirUo.s de /g dt-a",ique du XeUUt f£crple). lmpon..rioolJ U prtHlou:rions laFfie""u' Cahirn de lao cmmlque f.&yp!lomne I. Cairn,
""
BlMo" de La, Roquc, F, MidtlntOtUl {19M,. F_iIl.s
de rI...nl"l fr"'~"is d',,~ orienl41e, Vd. 8, p~ 1. C.. ilD, 19J1. Bowriau, J. lJ",m d·C"·,,b. Pollery from tire Nile Vgllq klan ,Ju N"b Conquat. Exhibilion lU !he F"I\a:wiJliam M.-um. Cambridle, 198L Brissaud, P. Us ./eUe,s de pOIiers de I" .;gion de IAuqwf. Bibliodl~que d'Elude, Vol. E 78. Cairo, 1982.
Egloff, M. Xe/Ita. L4 PO/me COple. Q".t.. si~cks d'If,!isgn,,1 el d'ich"ngel e" &sse EVpu. Recherches suis$es d'a.cheologie cOple. Vol. J. Genc.., 1977.
Em!"',..,ur, J. Y., and C.arlan, edt. "Rccherche. sur I... amphOTCl! G",cques."· "'C'el 11" colloq". intun"li(mg/d'lIl"",,,el, 10./2 I,pltmb,. /984. Suppkmenl to B"lltU" de COrTespo"dg"a IzdU"ique 13 (1984). Holthoer, R, N.", Xlngdom Phllrllo"ic Sli.... The POllery. Copenhagen and S,ockholm, 1917. Jaocquet-GonJon. H. LeI E...../IIIJ:.s c1z"lins du di...... d'Es"", Vol. J: Cbj~1II1cri °
484
CERAMICS, COPTIC
1'11lle' ••'olved unlil Ihe fiflb Cenlury. "';Ih lIellen;Slic and Koman ",,,,irs, such .. garlands of 1I0",crs and de· ,ign. in IrieA'S, .. 'he prcdominaling inlluence Fro'" lhe lifth II> Ihe sC"emh CERAMICS. COPTIC
485
,reunlen, of mulirs. Tht)· adop.ed 'nc dark circle and ..mpkn'ed a rela'i~e1~ limi,...d ~1"'lc of colors.. Thrv in,roduced a ...,Ii~ icon on 11 wa•.,r·jug: 1"''0 hara and a .-..ge'a! mol'!. C_ ........ Coptit: Cairo_ Photo h Gi-:u-
If"..,,,,...
!'aint
or .he-
usuall. aprlltd ..."h a brush. A >k"'ch was mad emphasized "';Ih black lines and ha'ch",.. 11"s procedu ... or shadin~ ....,ith .wift, ""r.oJleI ""as I'~I" influcnc-ed b. lhe an of Alexandria tRw",,,. 1954. p. 60). Finail" ,he colo... of Ihc hlJ!lIo,h,. "'..,..., added (I"~~' rC!, 1966, p. 41: Oesroches,'Ilobl~oun and V",n;:out· .er. 1981). Sometime., ho... ",.""r, ,he linge' was u.ed 10 prinl oin'pl .. dol•. In 'he late Koman ""nod, ,he composi,ion of painted eemmic d~"Corat;on Wa' ~ct"''eCn 'M form of the ,..,..,h and thc romposition of 1M omam"nt.ation Thc bod;.". of jars ,,'''''' buds: toQInftilllC$ fuJi." aosorialcd "'ilh Iish "'-.os dl$jll..~ Ccomctrio< moIif,; "'ere arnnl"d OIl 1M "'ide rims of 'e:.sels ... nd Censl:f1 COplic palmed cen",;e" pre:<enlcd .... ,de! rani" of ic:onog..... Phr (Edolf, 1977, pp, 56-58. Mond and My"n. pI. 72-81). I'a;nlen of potle!) probabl)" drcw Ihcir ;nspi",'inn from 'he ironovaPh~' of mu· ral palming. book illuminalion, and le>tiles. C"rla,n compo.,.nsi~ly on ,his otud}' in reganllo the pain'ed decora,ion. Noll, W. Ik""du K.""",iktn. Stud,Uf tut Q/liityplisehen K.,~mik. ed. D. Amold. M.inz am Rhein. 19BI. Qui!>ell. J. E. £z.,.",..l'ion. ~, s..w~ra. II. 1906J907. Cairn, 1903. ___ &c"".lion. III Sle d. Ktim d· DilhL Etudes d T.. Vol. 10. TraYllW: du c.,n.... d'al'Cbiol"lie ~ i ~ e d. I'Aca· dtmie 1"10""""" des Sciences. Vol. 20_ Wat$lW,
,'aUll.
1973_
_ _ "Em'Jllian Glazed Ponel'} 01 ,he Eigltlh 10 Nimh Cemuries." B~tI'lj,\ de I.. Sociill! d'"rchtc>logi~ CpIe 2S (1983):73-75. Ulben, T. "K.ramiUt.mpel aus EI....,antin.:· Mil1~i1..ngm du DeUl.chu ilrchlJoiogischen {".liluI5, Ableilu..g K..i,o 27 (1971):23SM42. Waage. O. F. !lelt~ni"lc ~nd Rom,,,, rob/.war. 01 North S)'ri... ilnlioch Q" th. O",mes IV. Princ.ton. N.].. t948.
Types of Ceramic W•• e Th~
oernmia of CoplO"By>JIn,in~ Eflyp, .... all of temt",oIta. lhat is. filYd .annen",... re.. They If•• a .....lied nIlge of "'.~ .nd manutKlurint: groups adapled to very spev.inll discu$sion is ba.v:d larg.ly on ,he few InOllogr'aphs on archaeological siles ohal deal with pouery. The cJa.s.i~eation elven hen mull be con~ 488
CERAMICS, COPTIC
logi~al
definitions seem, howe,'er, to agree on the following ~riteria: the diameter of the mouth is gen· erally more than 6 to 8 inches (15-20 cm) and the objects are shallow, with a depth seldom more than one.third of th. diameter, Plate, and dishes are well represented in the three groups of "fine" cerami~ ware diotinguished by RO • cupules d'epoque copte;' R,vu, d.. Loa..... 5/6 (19SS);"12-IS.
I",
ONp Dbha ancI Bowb- Deep dishes and bowls made 0( brown 10 red clay. onen black in the break, an: similar 10 of Group K: ~, !he .""....... is coarse-r (Eglal. 19n. t)'PtS lSI-98; Jacquec-Gordon, 1912, Ell-IS, 51-"), Deep dishoes an: ~11y birl)' big':, lenerally tlIceedinS 10 Inches (25 cm) in diam..."" They au charxleriZle "'"as""
1972, C 5-S). Cooki ... polS an: often carinaled (ridged) up 10 Ihe ......·cr Ihird of lheir heighl. Some an: made of Group K da,.: others are of micaceous d~'S ""ilh quaa1l Sr:ains. These pots an: .somc-time:s deco""led ..-ilh painled dolS on cu •..-ed bands (EeJoI[. 1977, l)-p<s 98-108; Winlock and Crum. 1926, ~ 42, G-K).
Othn cdine pots. ...-jlb a MnyU belly, have ~rtkal or ~ and Rom~n periodo; (lb\cs, 1976, no_ 364)_ This group "'~s widel~' distribuled in C"p'o·Byzantin, Egypt and during thc firs, ccnturie, of the Arab occupation. The"" are thrce subl}'J' 491
Ob"s amphora, al'e of ligh, bn",,, mieaccous cia,' (Egloff, 1977, lypes 182-83; Kas~cr, 1983, no. '10: K.--.ufma". 1910, pis. 15,34: Bcmard et al.. 1937, pI. 38)_ ThC)' h~"e a body shaped like a cannon shdl and a barciy indica,ed ~hon n«k_ Shon round handles arc altached under thc rim, and the surface i. ,,,,,,,,,h ncept for some "e,')' fine gro",,·cs, ,,..... tCO wi,h ~ comb, haifway up th~ body, It remains to be Jetermined ",he,he,' this group o( amphorae was local or impo'1et!, Ligh, spheroidal amphorae ",flight clay are char· aCleriz~d by a round ba>e "nd a spheroidal or baggy body "i,h a short. narcow, cylind";eal neck, Small '"\lund handles are hued on to the should~r, The surfac and fifth and sixth centuries (Hblsche" 1954, vol. 5, p. 68, Cia:. 1910. Kubiak. W. B, Medieval Ceromic Oil l.amps from rust.. ,. AI'S Orientall.: The Am of I~am and the E.qt. Vol. 8. Ann Arbor, 1970.
497
Kupzc. M. "[);c Tonlampen im A&YJlCischen M..-urn." f'or:«:Jumplf .. nd B.richre 14 (1972):97-
'00.
Ledanl, J. lJI en_ill. d·i'.....iti de> p1"-s of TandcI et Tn......,; Vol. 7. W...,..w. 1973. Petrie. f. W. M. R""".." 'Y'" (He,allUJp01i:s AIJ>,....J 19OC. London. 1905. Shier, L A. Terr..COlI.. lJImps /rum K.,,",,i3, £DPIE.u:.V'eJ
arcW.norflJ'~
Slampa. Stamps, or seals. ;n lerno-COna WCTC chief!)' intended W imp...s mariti on lc..vC$ of b,..,ad ustd In lhe lilurgy, the 5101'P"n of ampho ...., and cerami CERM.IICS, COPTIC
SC>mC
of the
~tamp"
499
c-ould haw ... ned for se"erlll
""",.,.., Stamps "'ere also used '0 impresll deconlion on tile illSlde bouom of an opnI ,halX' sug", o';"nl.Ie, Vol. 12 Cairo.
S,orpers of unf,red cia,' mised "nh !>lrll" a~ conical and la'llel~ encase the upper pan of lhe neck, somellmes even ... far as the .houlder. The>' bear Ihe Imprin. of .uunp< ('''0 or mort), aenenolly round, more rarely r«ulngular, "..hich Seem small· ~r .han lhe Imprlms on plasler SlOppel!. l'l1cy m.. SOmet;mC'. red or ",hl'e, indicating that the Siamps had inillally bttn filled ",ilh eoloree _ueUes an: c,"e,ed with white
~ip.
Painl· ed detail applied O\"C"r lhe ~ip miligates the in.:ode'1uacies of the primlliw workmanship. Slrolcn of black or brown paint ,h'e the bee an expre..ion defined by the encircled eyes and attire the body in a long tunic if it is human, In a harness and saddle if il is a horse. I~pftk TJPft- Among lbe icOl'lOflraphic types. reprucntalions of kmales an: the ..-. nu· JDC"TOU5. ~ an: gmenlly sundinL lheir lep joined. wilh '"IriaUoIl$ in the position of the anns and in ,he coiflUr"C". Then: arc- ahe 3OmI!: k_ _ phoi (.... rf'S carryin, children) (for Abo Min:l.. Kaufmann, 1910, pl. 73: II and Ill: for Bawll. Palanque, 1903. p. 99, pi .. I, 4~5: for Anlinol!. An· linoi!, 1974. pI. 44'2). These female .tatu.ne. are often clothed in a long lunic, woven in a single pieo:-y an: adorned with nedJaces and bnceletl. "I1>eir pn>tubennt• ......-lik. noses an: modeled; their eya. eyebroows. and .-tho an: indicated by strokes d paint. T_ main g:roups of fmlale ~suns cart be ll'Ra of <Wfu:OOR. A l'NefI( JI>'iJI~,
Ltmvr. Mu,."m.
S02
CERAMICS, COPTIC
&1ass and comelu.n, as
_II as a tunic whose .".na· mentation 5 have been pro~d_ The 'gurlnes. including th""", from AbI:l Mln1. and in plll'1icular the ho..emen and animals. mighl be toys broughl back to their children b)' pilgrims (I.ec1erq, 1926. "Jeux," cols. 375-76), The hoo w."..,.
CERAMICS. COPTIC
ca't8""'I~b""ns.
1975. p. 71). FolIO"ing C. Palanque (l'al3-l1'l"" 1903. p. 93). H_ Lederq Sll" in ,hcsc 10:1' ·'impe"-~"t dtJ $4I'...."'a;,..5 d .. \/..""'s dans k tI.. ~" tie "areot... AI""ndri:o.
..
,
___ D,.. .11Ql'h~". "01. .,. Be,'lin, 1909. A-le:r:u",ldu ~1a"en" M. "figurinc6 en ,erre cuile copt.., decou""r1~'" ~ K0m d [),n" (Atc.andric}."' BIllleli'l d,· la SIX"r' M,'hcJrc" J"J1l1"". A&.ei!ury; Kairo
n"'1llW
31 (1976):106 //'rrlUiyaJr Petrie, F. W .\\ K_ bhqb...
Rom." Elma"·,,. lond<X1, 1905
S'lZ}'ZO,,""i. J. Kopt;sc/'e K"">J. C.'alogo'" &""c-.u des anlUp, I'holl) by Girgis.
1932). F_ilI"5 de l'l,ulilut fr"",,,is 1I'4re"iolDgi~ Vol. 9, pi.. J. Cairo, 19)), Tdlld/f; AlIio1, M. R"ppon uor lu l_ill"5 de T~" EJlow (/932). FaoUlk~ de l'J"~liu,, J"~.is 1I'"re~ Vo!. 9, pl. Z. Cairo. 19lJ. BIl.fJ'l:n:. B. " aI. T~U EJjt)Sliluts-Abt~UuPI y.
ro, Vol. 31. I.blru: :am Rhein. 1976.
Kalrfrna.nn, C. M. £4Dkouver'" du ,.......tu.i~u de Me"u a4JtS Ie diun d.. AI.riOlis. A1eundrioo, _
'''''. Die
~,~ ..asst.at
und das N.t.....I".. ,u,'um Ar1Pft~ '" a~~ .....st·
au "ltchTisllklUn "Iu.ndri"isch.... Wii$l~, Vol. I. Leipl:ig. 1910. "~imer, L "u, Chrism "ruI E".,JIili" of th" Or""t Sr.nun., AK""'" " B.dcgroTDUI 01 lH, Jopi". Coptic "n. E.udes ft Tra,'aWl. Vol. II: Tra, w; du C~nlre d'archipc~ in the Brilish Mw.eum (Lane, 1958, pI. 5·A). llldt~d, lh Icn,lhened life of $Ome of Ihes~ moIi£, (Grube. 1962) againSI com"",ing influences from China .nd Syria and Pe.--sia gocs far toward pro~inll lhe ime8rlty anrl distinction o( Egyptian waus in the broad category or [.Iamic cerami.,. Notwithstanding [hi. conlinuity. il can hardly be gainsaid lhat the d~ds!,~ proce,., Ont by which ...'c
«
CERAMICS OF THE LATE COPTIC PERIOD
can musure Ihe popularilyof "old" agallUl "new" cer.unics, Vo'alI lbe ..,inlroduclion of glazin& inlo Egypt. """ich $InoliuaPhicaI lesl.l al a1·F~! place 'I the lum oflhe' ~ m cenlury. soon alier'AbeI a1oMa1i.', refonn of the coinale in 695-6906. II bas been ~r>enJ.1y accq>led thai me.., had been lead Blazinc III !be f.a§tern Medilemmean J"'O"inces of thi: Roman fropire 100 •.Co. 10 AO 100) cenen!· Iy on eups. ,nd chalices. often wilh barbo!ine de1 ,nd Syria. iI seems to h;a'<e been pr'lK1iced al~1 505
rca.
Fillln: I. FJagmenI of cnen lead-glazed bowl; brown·hull da,. EicJ'nh-nlmh ce",uritS- Location: Kelsey M~m. I,lni"ef$il, of Michipn. D,."...,;"g tourruy Georre T. Sc.nkm. ..c.",..-o...., ..• daian (black and white slip on a psa>do-Samian Standard shape) io obviotlS on the veosel fragmnt in Figure 3. II io from an eighthcentury find-spol. Nor must il be forgOllen lhat the u.""l rouleUed••tamped, and gouged mOlifs contino ued «) be employed On the poli.lw:d red"...re wilh· OUI additional slip deconuion or glazing. A third rupon$C wu simply to continue slippainling ,·es.oels in Ihe old·whioned red-on..,,,,am
Ii,..,
figure 2. Fragmenl of pseudo·Samian ""...,1: applied nodular roseues and black·slip deeoration. Ninth century. Localion: American University. Cairo. Dr~wi"g curre~y
OeO/'ll" T.
Sc~"lo,,_
506
CERAMICS OF THE LATE COPTIC PERIOD
Figure 3, Fragment of pseudo-Samian bowl; slip decoration in black and white. Eighth cemury. Loca· tion: American University, Cairo, Dr~wi"g courtesy Georgt T, Sca"lo". slip styles of geamttrics, guilloches. and plaits (fig· ure 4. which was found in the undi.turbed pit that contained Ihe famous lu.ter goblel and can thue· fore be dated to 750-800. and Figure 5, whose de· •ign i. in black and red on an orange-while wash overall slip and whose find·spol allows a dating of the ninth 10 tenth century). A major variant within this survival mode was the continuing utility of the Apa Jeremiah ambit of decoration. Figures 6 and 7 exhibit. albeit on a reduced scale, the interest In zoomorphic motifs, The former can be daled to the eighth to ninth cenlury. And. though the latter i' a surface find. II can be related motivally to the lasl period "f the monastery "f Apa Jeremiah. aboUl 900. The more abstract pauerns (random Hnes, cir·
figure 4. Shallow bowl; red-on·cream slip design external. 750-800. Localion' Islamic Museum, Cairo, Drowi"g courtesy George T. Scolllo".
Figure 5. Food bowl; red and black design on orange-whIle slip external. Ninth 10 lenth eenturi"", Localion: A.hmolean Museum, Oxford. Draw;'lg cou"e,}" Coorg, T. Sca"lo".
de., dot•. and ovoid halehing) can be seen on lhe earliesl slip-painted filter bottle. (Scanlon, 1986, figs. 179, 188). However imere.ting these efforts were toward establishing a sen,e of ongoingness in Ihe realm of deeornted pottery. the major response mU$t be seen in the realm of lead_glazed wares of the eighth and ninlh centuries. A wealth of motifs from the Christian period were renewed and/or modified so as to Integrate both wIth the demands of the new tecMion: ~ U ........ rn. Unive~ty of Michigan_ Dr"wing wurtttWhat later mell>od and on lalller ~el$, tbe Inner surfxt "'-lI$ co,-ere Figure 8, Fragmem of bowl: zoomorphic mOlif: yd10"'. brown. and green slips under t ....nsp;lrent lead glaze. A.bout 800. Loeallon: hlamlc Mu"""m, Cairo. V,,,w;ng COUl1cry George T, SCstriCt leaf design in gr..:en,yellow, and pu..,lish,black dips under dear lead gla>:e. Eighth_nin'h Unlunes. l.ocadon: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Dr4 ....inS co~rt.sy GW'le T. SC4"/"".
"ulon 10 be ""en on Figure 13, made oflhe same ....hlte day with black motifs of a palm'iT« and an elliptica) medallion containing leaf fotTlls sugges· tive of the lUi (bean) pJanL From tbe I14lne find·spol .nother fraament of the exact same wa.-.: carried a womorphic motif, one .imil.... to thal .....n in Fig. un 6, which again bespeaks a "cany-ove-r" from tM pre-Islamic Cop'ic range of slip-painled poller,. We know from a .uudy of IiIte", ,h... an atelier in Gila produced • distinct liDC of ,uscli OOled for ha'i,.. :slip decnration; ,,'" miJho- auribute Ihili d... tinct ",hne-.....re ~ge to the ...."'" '-cnue. On ... dueoiOCicoJ uounck "'" may ~ I life Sfl'UI
Figun 10. Fragments of rim and shoulder of deep bowl: design in yellow and black on wllire under clear green lead glaze, Ninth century. WClrion: Kelsey MUSC'\lm. University of Michigan. Dr4W/"1l cOI"luy
G,orr" T. $c""lo".
FiguIl' 1L Fragments of buwl with flange rim: de· sign in }'dlow ..nd black on white under clear green glaze. Ninth century. location: Kdsey Mu""um. Uni· vers-it)' of Michigan. Dr"w/ns rowrl.. y Geolse T.
Sc""I"" .
from about 800 to 1000 for these killl5, and imagine them as producing no,hinl but slip-painted utiliI)' wares thai, if decon'ed, "'''''''' .... min""...,. of prtI.... mic: nomos and modtos of decont"",_ A' a ... cond ""move. a numb...- of lale classical and Chri5lian mOliB Wfll: nllilable In Eg)JlI on _ I s imporled from the kingdoms of Nubia and mosl p""icularly from Fa.... Thasoe that halle appeared in -aI·F~ are from both ~ of w. Y. Adams', "Classi.c Christian" period, ""hich runs from aOOuo ISO to 1000 (Adams, 19621. In a bier snady, Ao:bnu has relared mos, of the rel"'"",,t motih 10 Ihose p~"""nt in Copcic a" ift the si>
d decOl"llen.., mot.i£s of p.....-Isbmic pottery continued to eUTcUe $OInt hold on the imaginalion or the cnftsmen and C1.>S10~ throueh the tenth ctntury. There is linle doubt tha•• e>:cepl for the Giu. faetorin, the penonnel of tt.e.e in the Goute, Cairo ....... had become Muslim 1»' tlU5 dale. The m.art.et lor obp-
figure 12. Vase; deCOl"ll.lion in black sllp$ on grhty while clay. Eighth to nimh cemurirs. Location: Kelsey Museum. UniveT1!ity 01 Michigan. Drawing cQurllTy George T. &a~l<m.
Figu,"" 14. Ponion oJ Nubian slip·paimed bowL Fara•• Classic Chriltian I. before 900. Localion: An Museum. Princeton University. Drawing counesy Georee T. !kunlo>!.
510
CERAMICS OF THE LATE COPTIC PERJOD
Figure 15, MalChina fraamenl. of deep bowl: imernal decoration of .. range and reddi~·brown on an cream slip. P"",ibly As"",n. ClllUic Christian I, before 900. Localion' Islamic Muoeum. Cairo. Drll_ in, rOllrtuy George T. Sc.... lo...
0""''''
du.h, lead-tlazed ",..res ........ practically wiped out by lh a~nonce and p1ethomo of ntWCf" types of pouety. for aamplt, luster .....-c:< and undeflla1e sgraffilO ...-.res, imiWiotu of Chinese tebdons and splash wares, and particularly by the ra>lJe 01 SO" called Fayyi'tml .....-a. By tht middle of the d ..... etllh CWlUl"y, !he importinc of Nubian Christian POllIO!')' had ceasord Htn'Pt, whi~h pro· vide the background for lhis diocussion. are pub· I"hed In lhe Jou"",1 of/he Ameri,"n Rueorclr Cen· Itr in Egypt (JARC£). or in collabomion with W, B. t.:ubiak.
Filure 16. Fralllltnt of body of large -=sel; zooIIlOl1'hic decoration in I>ro........ black. and lighl red on cream slip. Faru. Clusll diDlulr J.ltldlq..r drs 'l.paplt,IIrU"tll" P"lTU"" (Cairo. 1960). He died al Ihe ClSlerdan A~ of Sainte·Marie·du·~K".Bel. legarde·Sainle·Marir, Haule·Garonne.
Uut,_
BIBLIOGRAPHY
l4wson. w. R,. and E. r. Uphill. Wlto WII$ Wlto In EDPloloD. pp. 51-58. London. 1972, Gulllaumont, A. B,,/lttl" de /'/".111'" ('."f.. is d·..... rlt'%r" orie.. r"lr 61 (I962),11-13. Kammerer, W.• compo I. Capt,e BibUarmplty. Ann Arbor. Mich.; 1950; rq>r. New Yolt. 1%9, Az1z. S. ATTU
CHAIREMON OF ALEXANDRIA, II Stoie phllOlOphc-r. Em>tian priest. and wriIeT 01 ~ first
Cftlt...,. ILl). ~ aact .we. of his life au I'OIX known, bu, he ....-as acl;'", in a litenry _y lTom abouI A.D. J() 10 A.D. 65. Only fraaments ofllh IlIOin, the uni\y of Christ', penon, lhe ddinillon INI He was "001 oil..... "",IU'''':' snd lhe I4temenl thaI the Virgin _ n.~oIoJcoJ (MOlher of God), These ;w.enions pro\'Cd 100 much for the leplU and lhe commissioners, bul Ihey were ac· copl.ble 10 lhe greal majorily of Ihe bishops. The le..les Ih"'alened 10 rolum 10 Romo and CO:>llVene a new synod. The menace was greeled wllh defl· ance. "LeI Ihe foonul. stand or we depan," Ihe bishops shouled. "These men .,'" N"'lOri.n•. let Ihem be off 10 Rome" (Mansi. Vol. 7, p. 1058:
Schwam. ..leI" cmteiliONm oee..m."ic.....m (1914_ 1940),1. 1.2, P. 125). In bel. had the foonula "001 of two naturr:t" he.,., acCepled, the doctrinal dille... ellees Constantinople and Aleundria -> relurn for the sixth ......ion on 25 Ocaober ",'lIh a definllion Ihal Emperor Marcian, accompanied by Pulcheria, promulgated amid enthusiasm. The lexl i. given below,
bet......,....
Ia.'.
Our Lord Jesus Christ: is to ut One and the same Son. the Self-t;tme Perfecl In Godhead, the Self· _ Perfecl in Manhood: Indy Cod and t",ly Man; the ScIh.mc of. rational $(lUI and body; eonsubswllial with Ihe F.lher according 10 the ~ ...... Self_me coosubstantial with us ac· cording to the Manhood: Itke US in all thillgs, sin apart; before .he "flU \>etOtten of the Falher as 10 the Godhead. bul in the lut days.. the Self_, lor us and OW' sa/.,.llon [born) of Mary the Virgin T'Molok>J as 10 the Manhood: One and the Same Christ. Son. Lord. On!y.bqotten: ackno-oiedgfd. in Two N3JUf'tlI unconfu.sed/y, uncltanl'"aI:>Iy, indimib/y, inseparably: the dlfl'erencc of the Nao IUTfl beiD' in no "'. .y ~mo~'ed ~ of lhe Union, hut radler lhe property of each Na... ~ bei"ll preserved. and [boch) concurring into One: P1'o5opon and One Hyposlasis: nOl as though He ",-en paned Qr divided imo TwD Prosopa, bu1 One aDd the Sell.,.me Son and Only-begotlen God. Word, Lord, Jesus Chris!. We can see thaI lhe domlnanl idea ....as inspired by CYIUI. of Alnand';•. Cyril's influence may be deIce led in the emphasis on Ih~ unily of Ille Son "Self·s.me Perfecl in Godhead. Ihe Sell"""me Pcrreel in Manhood" (Mansi, 1798). Bul there i. also lhe language of Ihe Formula of Reunion. and acknowleops I;I~ lhe canOn, III tile months fo.Ilowing the CQUndl, every ~fFort "'as made 10 gain Leo's acc.ptance of canOn 28 1$ ...~Il as of lhe d.finl!ion. The,e foundered on lhc popc', uncompromising refusal e"en to eonlider accordin. Constanlinopi~ «iu"lily of llalllll with Rome (Leo, /.ell CHANCEL
Sec ChuTch.", Cancelli.
Archilcclural
Elements
of
CHANDELIERS. See Melalwork. CHARISIOS. The name of Ihis archimandrite
is
preserved only by some fragments of the Iypica pTesen-cd at Leide" (lnslnger. 3&., Pleyle and BoeseT, 1897.1" 182). Vienna (K ~736). and Rome (Vatican, ik> known, The destiny of Chihichi is .ym!>olic of the survival of Egypt through the tonnents of that era, BIBLIOGRAPHY
Archives du Service histurique d~ I'annee, Vin~ennes, Orienta",,, Auman,ers ,r inurprlues, 1 canon. Briere, L de La. Champollion incormu, lellres i,,~Ji_ re., Paris, 1897. Hartleben, H, ChampolIion, sei>! Le~" und ..i" Werk, Vol. I, p, 81. Berlin, 1906, Louca, A, "Champollion entre Banholdi et Chiftichi." M~l""ges Jacque. Berqu', Paris, 1989. Sa,'ant, J, Los Mame/oub de NapoUo>l. Paris, 1949. ANOUAR LOucA CHOIR. See Architectural Elements of Churches: Choir; Khurus, CHOREPISCOPUS, assistant to a bishop. The rapid dilfusion of Christianity in the early ~enturies and the consequent increase in the number of ohurehe, and the duties of the diocesan bishops necessi"'ted the appointment of a.. .. istants to these bishops, holding the title which the above·mentioned ingredients are m;~ed together and left to filter o'"ernighl. Ion Kallar lells us lhat he had consulted various manuscripts. each giving different quantities and methods. To resolve the maUer. he preferred to give a description of the S}.,;lem used in his days oy Pope THEOOOSIUS n (12941300) al Ihe Church of Saint Mercurius in Cairo during Holy Week 1299. lJ\auOG~"PflY
Bunnester. 0, H. E. "A Coptic Tradilion Concern· ing the Holy Myron (Chrism)," In Publications de I'lrwitut d'hudes oriwlo/es de lu Bib/iolh~que po· trioYeole d·AIe.r:a"drie 3 (1954):52-58, Lanl$ChOOl. A. van, "Le MS Vatican Copte 44 el Ie Livre du Chreme (ms. Paris aral>e 100)." Le Mu· seo" 4S (1932):181-234. William Sulaym~n Qeladah. ed. AI·Dosqiiliyyoh. To'Jllm a/·Rusul. Cairo, 1979. FlJ~o MEG~UY
CHRISM, CONSECRATION OF THE,
The infrequenl <xc....ions on which the preparation and consecration of the chrism is petfOlTlled a,.., events of considerable .pirilual ;oy. After cont p'lriarch uJll the final p....~ of saneli· !Wallon. The pilu;arch. accompanied by ,he clergy. ,he deacons••nd Ihe c:ongrcplion. proceeds 10 1.... ou...r altar 10 consecrale lhe kaUiel,,;o.,. The _-nsels are Ihen le'.
'*
baptitmal font. A. J. Bulkr describes .such chrilmalOt)' he ...... In the Church of Anbi ShinUdah in Cairo: ". curious. round wooden """ with. revolvinllid. The bc>tc is 00I1d throughoul, bul ha.o; three holes oc:ooped OIlt imide. In each of ",hich is dcpositd • small phl.1 of oil" (1884. Vol. 2, p. 56). These Ihl"« phials conlalne 523
CHRIST, DIVINITY OF. See Ch....t. Nalure of_ CHRIST, NATURE Of. Christian churches
arc split t\OO pvuJll rcprdinl the union of the dioine and hUmlln nature in Jews Christ. The nonChalccdonian. includinl th.. Copt;,;, Syrian. Armenian, Elhiopian, and Indian Orthodoc:o churches, reject 1I1oc decit>ons of the Council 01 0&, confusion. Or chi . There is nothin, in"", i,,, in the Coptic clttm:h·. S1and rqardinl this fundamental poinl. noo- is there AnJ dCJ"l'tuT.. from the ,c.ac:ltinp of \he fathers• .such as ATltANASIIl5 t cnll I. lUtd ILAStl mE CREAT. "-00 had formubted lheir Vi.,.... long before the subjecl ....as discussed In Chalcedon. Until.1 lca5I the middle of the founh ceDIUry. the church of Rllme held the same v>ew as the chu""h of Alexandri., as is C'Videnl from lhe ICilen; of Pope JlIlim (341-352) to BisOOp Dlonytoilli of Cn>rus_ Relying on various teillmonies. from Ihe Gospel and the Episilei. he confirrnll th.t He Who .,..... born of the Virgin Mary. and cane ""0
524
CHRIST. NATURE OF
,he Issue of the one nalJJ.,," of Chri$t. nov.·here can "'C joe' I 8"nuine clue '0 the duali!)' of His natu,,", n... Go$pd of Saint John speab of die Word b«oming tlesh (In. 1:14). The >..,rb ·"\>ea.>me" is ,he m051 unambiCU"""5 term. deROling ~a1 union be''''CI:n ,he dninity and humanity of Chris!, Henc:e He Who _ born of !he V"upn Miry hal. OI'M: na,u~. that d inearnal.e God The ..wds of Je5US Christ. "No one tw asc..nded inlO helwen bul be "'M ~ndtod from he..... n. the Son of Man, ""'" is in twa.....•• (Jn. l:U). do no! ha~e the .1i&htC'l1 him of duality. ..lido.... Abraham was. 1 am (In. 6:5-8). n... pu ... port of ,hc5e words. spoken ",. the human Chrisl, indicates di>ine e'emi,y. "I am" is evidence of the unity of nature in the incarnat.. L.op. Spotlking to ,he e1de~ of the church who me' him in Ephesus, Saim Paul says, '-rake heed to yo>Jl'$Cl""" and to all the flock, in which the Haly Spirit has made you guardian5. to feed the church of God which He obtained with his own blood" (Act. 20:28). If there is any sense af duality in lhc nalure of Jesu. Christ, how lhen Can Saint Paul relcr here 10 the blood ..-hich redeemed lhe church lU God', b1ood~ To lhe Corinlhians, Saint Paul writes. "None of the rolers of this age ..nderslo>od Ihis; lor if they had, lhey wo.. ld 000: ha>'C eruci6ed the Lord of &loryH (I Cor. 2:8)...ftich is funher con6rm.,ion IMI Christ. had one nalll1"e, that of the inc.amate God. The Epi.tl .. to the Htbre>o... stales, "J"*,. Chri~ it; the same J"'S'erday and ,oda.y and for t\'e-r" (Heb. 13:8), The: name Jesus was riven 10 the l..ogos after the lnc.amation. yet the dn-me q...U,yof lmmonali· ty i5 a preroptn.-e of the incarnat.. I.otIIn Rt\'t'!.ation (1:17.18) ..... t"Cad. "I am the fint aOO the ~S1. and the living OM; 1 died, and bel>ald. I am ali...., fo~ ~nnore. and I ha,.., the keys of Dealh and of Hades. The pronoun used he'tt ClnOOO: rek~ to any dualily. bullO ,ea1 oneness, the one nal..," of the incarnal.. Son of God. If ..,... .....re 10 separat.. ehriY's divinity from Hi, humanity. ,he ...hol.. basi' of o.ristiltnily, Ihat is. ,he Idea of npiation and rtdemplion. would surely ..oIllpse, Christ's redemption is di.-ine, not h ..man. H~nIESllS (431). This appellation ..an only hold good on the buG of no", Chalcrdonian 'eachin,: rh.. pe~1 union of Jesus CIlri$t', dirini,y and humanity. M the Vi'lin Mary ...ould not: be consldered to have &iven binh only to Christ', h ..martity. to lhe d ..slon of bis divinity. "The Virgin Mary is rightly med MOIh.. ~ of God. IS EI~beth said, "And why is this Bl";lnt..d me. that Ihe mothe. of my Lord should COme to me?" (U, 1:43).
Som.. church historians believed that the doc· trines held by Po!", otOSCOMUS I (444-438) and w TYCHES Ih.. h..re.iarch were analogo.... Th.. confu· sion aro.., from the fact that Dioscnrns presided over the second Council of Ephesu. (449), which acquitted Eutych~ after his admi..ion in ...riling thaI he concurred wilh the views of the tradilional fathers of the church. It is possible that Eutyches renqed aft..r his acquittal and """'~ his .tand. ~olUS had consented to the acquiu.al only after all the ot:heT members of the council. including the bishop of Jenrsalem. had ...qtlJued him. Funher nidenc.. of the posilion of DioscONS on Ihi. matter is la'tt &iw:n by h .. sta'ement in the Council of Cbakedon Uoa' if Eu')'C-bes, ",ho bad renounced the 0tth0cI0... teaehinl II ir.eotpon,led in lhe docume-nt he submitted to the second Council of Ephesus. was now propaguil\& 50trlt n .....· iOtas conc..rning the divinil)· and humanity of Jt'SIU$ CIlriol. he destn,ed not merely to be punished. but to be buntt a!h-t. Wberr:u Eutyches maintained thaI Christ'5 rna", hood ·'ftnishNl'" into His di'fin.. nacure and thai the 1>00 became 0""" llft.. r th.. union in the i",::..rnar~ Christ. OioKorus belie~ed in lhe union of Hi!; divino ity and INm.nily throughoul, "ithout mjnglinlconfusion. or alt..ration. Eutych... evaded livinB a d ..ar admission that Christ was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and of Ih.. Virgin Mary-a belief lhat DiOst:OTuS virorously d..fended. Eutyches deni..d that the h..manity of Chris, was con.ubstanlial ...ith OUR. Dias.coTu' nol only firmly acknowledBed His incarnalion of lhe Holy Spirit and of lhe Vi'llin Mary bUI also reit..rated his vie.., in a lclt..r senl from his .....ile.
CHRIST, TRIUMPH OF
In lhe Council cl ChaJcedon. which ended by dq>osins him. DioscolU'l spoke oi his tm$.... bble belid in the doctri of the holy lIlpo»lOlic cho'u"ch. oi his Ihou.hlS bel all focused on his Creator. and of his bnn, concerned with one Ihi"l only: safquardin, tile uprichl Wth of the church. The deposlUon oi Dioscor'U$. ~r. occurred not beC&U5e 01 direct ~ea1 dilf~.-encn.. but beci>use he had tacommWlicated Pope LEO ntE CUAf 01 Rome. In his work HislOire da C.... ciles (1907. p. 53). lhe hi$lorian K. J. ""fek OWI!::I tIw lhe arcl>bishop oi Constantinople $aid thai t>ioscOf"U$ had not been deposed bec-..se of his faith but beca.he had e.communicaled Ihe pope. Ne\·mhelellll. the Copt:ic church hdd fasl 10 ilS deposed palri.an;h who 50 adamanlly defended i", flllh, IlOt choosinll a SU«es50r for DiOKOrus unlil after hil dealh. TIU()THY II (458-480), the new pope. fou.hI equally ""Iianlly. and mel wilh a similar file. He was exiled by Marcian again 10 lhe Island of Cangra where·he remained umil he wal reito.-ed 10 his see by Ihe new emp"ror. BasiJiscus (475-477). He lraveled to ConSl.antinople to 04fer his thanks 10 the emp"ror, and there he held a cOl.lndl. convened by imperial SUmmo"" and anended by SOO bishops. II repudialed Ihe Council of Chalcedon and the Eu· tychian heray, and reallirmed the failh as elUIl>lished by lhe pre'Iiom Councik oi NICAEA, c;oN$TA.. .. TlNOl'U. and Efl.ltsUJ. The Coptic church has lh.... remained rallhful 10 the principles lhM ",-en: established by lhe tarly bthers. unwilling to relinquish any of their leach· inp. and in doe words of G. Krti&n (1926. p. '14) uyina; ~to keep to the line. _rlted oul in the l!leol· 013' of Cyril. This ....... the C30C, e.l-. with ThllOlhelA Aelun>l. and. above aJ.J. ",;th Seve..... oi Anlioch. (Se, 4lso.' Monophysltism.] R
~OUOG~
GtfJ0rios. Bp. T1te CItriSlareth; and N. A. Nissiolis. Docs Cllilkedoot Divide or V"i,,? To_i1s COotw,," ~"ce j" tI nmar\ thai thcTc ...... also cltur0 is seated on a high·hooooked chair holding .he Child on her lap. This ..me ..,bje U"i""'Jilm Wiirthu". Wit$" baden. 1974. VC1.in, G. L'Adonltion er I. cycle d.s m"llS d~ns rllrl clt,hien primilif. Elude du i"f/uencu orien/"Iu ., grecques SU' !'"rI c~,ttiu, Paris, 1950.
Annundatlon Tk ardlansel Gabriel', .... il to announce die mi· raculous binh d lhc Inbnl Jesus 10 the V'trJin tnnslatell into piclorial lenm the belief in the In· aomation d God and the Immactllale Conc~1UfI tksplle the Monopbysi'" ~ia1 d the dual nau..". of Christ (Sfdskl)' on the O"erhang of a scoinron arch, while
CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Baplism of Jesus
Ihe Virgin. _1M on a background 1ICrue
1963. CranlCT. M. Koptische B..elundel"" p. 65. fip. 69. 10. R«klinghaascn. 196fo, Evd}...·While. H. C. 11Ie "~asleries af 1M W.di'" Nam.... 3 vols. New Yarl.mds i" ECPI. Vols. 1-3. JIP. 64, pl. 19. a~d p. 57. pl. 17. London. 1920-1922.
"0'"
MARlE·HUb<E RtlTSCHClI'/SCAVA
529
distinction must be made betWfl:n those picturing the Twelve Apoatles and Ittos.. picturing only the principal ones, Saini Peter anod SainI PIntl. The group 01 Twd.... .\pclI.I;les is found many limn in Day.- ~ Apollo at lU....ff in lhe \o. 1951.
PIEIlRlllllJ BotJRC;UET. S.J,
Apostles and Evangelists
Baptism of Ie.u.
In theIr art the Copts depicted the apostles In lVou~ or individually. In group representations. a
The elements of the iconogl'phy of the baptism of Jesus by Saint JOlIN ntB 8AI'TlST in the Jordan an:
SJ(l
CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Bath or the Infant Jesus
seen early in the Roman calacombs, nOlably tilat of SainI> Pe,er and Marcellino., The f,gure. are generallv reduced to ~ two earthly panicipan..-Jcsus, ,.,ho appears bean:lll$S, and 1IIn .~ B;apti a.
Bllh of the Infant Jesus .hat lh" bath of.he tnfant Jesu., a detail in 'he Nali,l.y SCene' thaI is frequent in 8ytan.inc al1, passed inlO Coplic an (Crome" 1959, pp 234-37), Ah",,",ch n"m.. row: paintings ha.,'.. d""ppeaTnc or ,,·ood, It is a slab uf limeSlone ca,,'ed in rdief, ",1.. lng the righl border and the top, which preoen.. th.. gTeater pan of ,he bath of an infant. 'The .... m:aininC framework COTI5ists of a wri"" of ...eandeB in "hieh _;ost,k» and """'·ercts alterna.e. The infanl app«an haJf·knath in I"" CC1\'er of a IOoos. The l"",""ut robe on one figure hM a wide neck marked by double lines. A li&hl ~DtiDe line 5lattinll: from IJM, ned: orl\a. ",mlS • darI< bedcround. The headdress WOrn by lhe ptnon OCI Ibe 1dI is Phrygian in and is adorned by a c.... simiI2r to tllooe of the object placed abo¥e t~ child. It is p"hablc that the "".... oot! on tM OJIPOSite oidc: wean the same ha.ddress. ...i1ich il cut 011" at • quarter 01. ill hei&ht, and may haooe a hood under the "-XIress.....i1ich falls 10 ll1e shouklen and hides the hair. The child and tlw penon on tlw left haooe hair curlm,: on each side of the face. The two adults are banfooL ..., froID lhe c~, which ",me (for nampJe. laJoscer. 1974, p. 119) Ibink may have been added looter. there II noIh;n,1O indicate thai the sculpture ponrays the balh of the lnbnt .Jesus. Althou&h the &Cene is treated f.... itself without any connection with the Nativity, it is an integral part in lhe whole of Christllon iconography. The CroMeS could be of lhe "me period .... the rest of the subject. without any dlrecl connection 10 the life of Christ. The gar· menU Ire nOt in any way decotolted in the Coptic fashion. The tight waist of the person on tbe risht would be achieved only by a girdle in Coplie doth· "''' b\lt there Is 1>0 girdle here. Finally the Pht)'llan cap polltU 10 an origin to the ea5t of Egypc. 1. Beckwith does roo' mention Ibis piece in his book COplic Sc"lp'.. ,e JOO-IJOO. It lIUIy be limply :a &ClOne drawi"3 auention to the pusan honored or ~ to som~"" drcea.vd.
ror.n
BIIIUOGRAPHT
Bed...ilh.1. Coptic SaUplun, JOO-IJOO. London, 1%3. Crwncr, M. "tinc koptiacbe ~I;erd:antrilunl und ihn byJantlniaehen Par.lIlelen.~ In Abe" tIes 24. Iruenuoli&ru>ltPl Orie"taJisd.Dl Koro~ ed. H. Franke. W}nbadm, 1959. Zatloseff. H. Die K.."M 1m c"'Yrlich~" AtyplCl'l. Vj. enna and Munich. 1974. PiERRE Dtl Bot;It(;I)I!I". SJ.
Calactotrophousa '1M tendrr rTI(ltif of the Holy Virain ,iving her brelll to her Son al .....y$ has beresenlations from medic,'a! Nubia she is .ootlKlimes weari"1 a crown and a veil. Often sht \$ accompanied by anaels. saints, or bolh. In the Nile Valley the motif il hardly e\lel" tun lIS a I'!nre ptece but is more often depicted with di,nilY' in the small niches in the easlern walls of monastery cells, prnbabl}' eighth cenmry. such as Cell 42 at Dayr Apa Apollo at RAwll (Cledat. 1904-19(6) and Cell 30 (Maspero. 1932). Cell. A. 1725, snd 1807 at Da}'T Apa Jeremi· ah. at Saqqara; on the walls of the cathedral of FatolS (four times); and in some miniatures. Since 1%5 th~n: has been SO'lmc di'lCussion as to how the GalactOirophousa should be reprded. Did it originate on EcYJ>1ian !Oil, but " ... il aimed, because 01 its t}'f>iaolly human ftalures. :Ill convincing the MorJophjlSites of lhe human nature 01. Christ (W~I, 196&. p. 234; MkhalowsJ.:i. 1967, pp. 91. 92. 109 :and 1504; Michalowski. 1974, pp. J3 and 229)1 Or did it originate lIS a poI!Iic motif in ancienl liter:alU.., too old to han come into beilll after the Council of Chakedon (451), and. ~"ft", . . . it lOStN Ibe humanity 01. Chriat) and !'latOriana (who refused 10 say God .... born of a \irFn), lKIl apinS! the Monopbyailes (Knust. 1970; I97A; '"IlO Moond. 1970)? A marble knter (Iar) from lht east· em .... of Ihe Roman empin, datinC fmm 364l7A :and bearing a ..,presentation 01 this motif-in lhe conl""t 01 tht adcmotion by the ,ullr"- -shows. ho_VU". that the G«1",kloffOpMuu need nOi necessarily be Egyptian in otigin and al"" that ;t cannot lot the fruit of theolor;ica! disc'usaions aboul Chaleedon (Severin, 1970). The sculpture in Berlin p"""';. ously dted seems. according 10 Weuel. abo 10 date to before 451 (Wessel, 1918, p. 199).
'0
BIBUOCItAI'HY
Clfdat. 1. U MO~Ilr$lhe tl la "tcropoJe de &0«11. 2 vol.. Cairo. 19t14-I'lOtl. 1916.
532
CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART; Jeremiah, Saint
Knwe. M. "Zur Kircient ChrisIoiopeaJ cycle. k appears retalions have righlly been Tefuled by H. u",lercq (1907 . cols. 2326-59). However. upon considering die originality 01 this Annuncia.tion. Ga)"eI.·s confusion ""'y be e~plained. for Ihe angel is approaching Mary, ...iJo is half reelining upon her bed in lhe position she assumel for lhe Nativily. T~ I""... Ih~mes may hav~ bfton c:onN,ed, bul since die paimings have disappea,.,d. il is intJ>O&"ible 10 know. From Ihe tenth century, however, the Nativity ""as pari of the decorali~ plan in Ihe majority of churches and ",as equally imponant in illuminaled
CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Nativity
manuscripts_ It was a.lways set amid other epi,ode, in ,he live, of Mar~y and Chri>!_ The fi ...t e.. mple of a Nati"ity painting might be in Chapel 51 of Dayr Apa Apollo at B~wjt. lIere, Salome, the midwife assisting the Virgin. stands beside her. G, A. Wellen is ret ice", about the identifi· cation of this ""ene (Wellen, 1960. n. \01) as are P. Tcstini (Testini, 1974, p. 314, note 99), and L. del Francia (Francia 1976. pp, 221-24, pIs. 13-16), There are two Nativity scenes al Widi al-Natrun. one in nayr Anb~ Maqir and the Olhcr (whose Cop· tic appurtenance i, doubtful) in Dayr al.su~n, Upon the southern half·dome of the choir in the church at Dayr al·SllryAn, the Annunciation and Nativity are seen side by side, The figure of Mal)' dominates; half-redining upon the bed, she turns her head loward the 'pet lb. F;ru Iw.." ..lio""/ COllg.CJ' of Egyptology. pp 2Z1-24. Cairo, 1976. Gaye" A. t'AN copu. Paris. 1902, lllbib. P., and V. Girgis_ Th. ("optic ,11"$0",,, .. "d Ihff Fimreu uf B"byl"". al Old Coi'o. pI. 26, ClIiro, 1975. Leclcrcq. H. "An,ino;:'." In Dic';Onn"IYff up of SainI Mcruos with the camels (sec AM""UA). It "-as adopIcd in sl;..h-ov,....0 a VOUp of deceased Christians on a boud~ lapcslO In In., Abqg Foun-
fU"~l1Iry SI~J~ I~JY
dcp;Clinl! an omn,
LimcSloO~.
Co"r·
Coptic M"u"',"" C Bourguet, p, du L'An copte, Paris, 1967. ___, L"A.rI cop"'. Mu.ee du lom'r". Petits guides des grnnds musees 19, Paris. 1964. Grab.., A. "Dellx monumenls chretiens d'Egyp'e," In SymMrmwn, p. 3. Paris, 1968, Pl~RRE \l\I !kJI;RCUET. S,J.
Parthian Horseman The Parthian, ruled a huge empire Ihal stretched from lhe Caspian Sea 10 lh. Indus River from 250 Be 10 ~,D, 225. For them, rocpl'e .. nlalions of " [nounled figu,"" diSlinguish"d by • raise SMnut" Co"ne••
St.,.
M"~,,,"
539
0/ Ihrli"_
ponrait ..ilh chc: ho!>' arch"n.I'd"'''., (1963. p. :n. no. 115). The doubt is nOi unjuiu6ed. 'housh it is perhaps a liule 100 , n.c "cnen,ion ind>c:a.ed by.he a~. and bY of am indication of rur>enlry use. seeTIIS 10 "..,....,.1 placing thif. n .... .". Slriking pte« in 1M iconosraPh) of the celebrat-
abfe,,,,,,,
ed ahboI. of Da)r ""'" Shinudah. 1:I11:11.1OCR,\PHV
Beclt... nh. J. COpltC Sc..lprure. JOO-IJ(J(). umdon. 1963_ I1roy. J. LeJ Ma""surth cast him into the lake of fire. They then cloThed Michael in Lucifer'S panoply. The question as To whether in the Nile Valley the tetram0ll'hs also had an allegorical meaning connecting them wiTh the Evangelists, M was common in oTher Chri.tian orcas, has not yet been settled (de GrooTh and van Moorsel. 19771978, pp. 233-41). 818U(l(;RAPHY
Donadini, S. "Les Fouilles a l'eglise de Sonqi Tino." In KwlSI und Ceschlch/e Nubie", in Chn,lIiJ:her Zeil. ed. E. Dinkier. Recklinghausen, 1970, Grooth, M. de, and P. ,,,n Moorse!. '"Jbe Lion, Ihe Calf. the Man and the Eagle in Early Christian and Coptic Art." Bullelin Amich Bc,chaving 5253 (1977-1978):233-41. Helm, M. ,,,n der, "Some Iconographical Remarks on St. Michael in Sonqi Tino," Nubian uucrs 4 (February 1985):26-27. Leroy, J. Les Peinlures de. couwnts du desert d'Es"a. Cairo, 1975, Meer, F. yan deL Molestas Dam'nl. Vatican City, 1935. Moorsel, P. van. "Une Theophanie nubienne." ReviSla di Archeologie ens/ia"" 42 (1966):297-316. Milller, C. Detlev G, Die Engdlchre der kopliseh"T Kirche. Wiesbaden, 1959. Nilgen, U. "E,·angelisten." In wikon du ChnSI· lie/un /konographie. Vol. I, ed. Verlag Bruder Hol1inek. Vi.nna, 1967-. PAUL VAN MOORSEl
Theda, Saint Theda is the name of Ihree saints in the early church. According to The apt>Cl)phal ACls of Sainls Paul and Thecla, when th. Aj>05tle Paul was in Iconium he convened the maiden Thecla, wbo followed in his footsteps. She ",-as condemned to be burnT alive for refusing To maTT)' her betroThed but was saved by • miracle, She suffered many vicissitudes before her death in Seleucia, in Syria. Theda of lconium was venerated in Egypt, especially at a sanctuary in the libyan desert near that of Saint Menas (see above). This Theda does not seem 10 haye passed into the Coptic liturgy, which mentions
CHRISTIAN' SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: The Twenty.four Elders
541
Qn5Cnl the t"'eh~ lrim of Israd cornbined ..."ith the T...·elvt Apolt1cs, 1lIe Copts ....~ ,..,..,ef1lled th..m since lhe """enth Or eighth centurY and commemorate lhem in Ihe CopIO'AIlTl'· spand to the lettera of Ihe Greek alphabet, were ""i,"" ror proteclion "PtnS! the e~ll one One IJf the earli.... reprt$CnlatiQnS of Ihe twent~·· foI,r elden in Coptic an II a " ....11 P"'inling of the lIinth or I.nth centl.lry in the apse of the chorch in DAn ANBA IIADAA in "'swan. Each eldet is identified with a letter of the Gre.k .Iphah a1JO appear In a tenth·century painting on the cast·
542
CHRISTIAN SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Virgin Enthroned
ern ",,,II oIllle san"'",,')' of Saint TatJ" Haymanol in .he CIoun:h of Sill Maryam (al·M,,·allaqah) in Old Cairo. but it is much damaged. OIher kooocnPhi· cal <e'p,","nlJltioru; include a !hirteenuH:oe.Ilury mural In the Chun:h of Sain. Antony in Da)r Anbl AnplniyUl. an eia!'Jleeru1'H:enll.uy m\lnl in the $011>lernnean et.Jn:h of Saint Paul me Theban In DA..... ""aJ. IlOl.l. (Io&onaslery of Saint Paul). I AlneteeA<J>. cemu.,. mural in the Church of !he Holy Virtin irl the l:llrit a1·ItUm. Cairo. and Iwenliet1'H:etIt\l1)' mu· raI$;n !he Upper Chun:h of !he Holy V.rein a. Rod "'FI~. Caim, and the Upper Church of tlte C,thedral 01 SAini George, Gn. Icons (panels) of .he twenly-four elde.. are rare. An ei&!ueen.h<enrury ioon in .he Coptic Museum. c.;ro, hu tile ...mes of tlte .",..,nly-foul elde.. wrillen in Ar1lblc. A 9)un· tine icon of Ihe t"""nty·four elders belongs 10 lhe Church of Saini Mercuriu. in 0.)'1" Abo Sayfayn. Old C.iro.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Ancoly. A. Z, "Le\ Noms masiquC$ dans les 9po E1hiop~ns:' Joum~1 ~.iMiq"e 220 (1932}:87-137. Cnom. W. E. C~,~lolue ot Ihe Co",ic MQn .. scripls in Ihe Brin." M.......m, 505, no. 1223; ~Il. no. 1007. London. 1905. Ennlln. A. AOpfische Url"nJrn ..... Jrn 1C"liil'ichr" Mwsun t" Berli... KopIiscbe Urlerv;ce,
Palntlng and
Tll~t1ry
1l>e major works supponin.a .Iudy of Ihr Vil'Jlin Enlhroned in Copllc an are Ihe apse frescoes from the Da)'r Apa Apolkl 1M ~! ....d Dayr Apa Jeremi· ah at Saqqa..... AI.hou'" none .. precis,.(y da.. b1e. the majority probably belonl to .he si~th cetllury. Coullrmatir'" 01 this daI~ is pnwided by compariwn with the ueat tapeStry. leon of VicVn. n""" in the ae....,bnd Museum 01 An. which has been finn· Iy dated within ,hat .:en!ury (SMpbttd. 1969). In !he majorily of !he aple fTftc....... "" in the 1:IoP"'JUY. !he Enthroned Vi..... participales in an dabon.Ie ~tieTed icooOCr'l'Phic propvn. ",hieh A. GrabaT (I94€>. pp. :Mll- no) has in.C'l"".ed "" "'P' es"".ing " theopluonic vision. In .he "f'Ptt" D~r. ChriM. in a """,dorla ci. IJ&hI. repreoenu " ,ilion of !he Second Coming. Bel"",. ,he Virgin with the Chrisl Child in her lap is a "ision ci. the Incanulion. The earliestloUCh representation 10 lu"'" su....-i,'ed in Eg}'Jll i. on OIle of ,he lea'·.... of a paiT of late fifth-of that Ihey were made for Christian grave•. In
544
CHRISTMAS, FEAST OF
these inslances, however, the iconognlphy of the 'Th€OIokos h", apparently taken on a purely symbolic chalOOr man who pos5C. .ed only 2'1. dirhams. Thus, the delegation look him to Ale""ndria, where he was initially consecrated under the name Christodoulus. laler, according to established tradi. tion, he was 10 t>.. laken for another formal ~onse· cralion in the ancient Church of Abo Sarjah (Saint Sergius) in Old uiro, but he decided that this shin. The vizier Mi'~ad al·Da",iah of the Fatimid admini.. tration "'as informed .that the Byzantines were offer' ing to pay 10,000 diQrprs for procuring the head, ",hich seems to have heen hidden in the house of a Copt by the name of:Abu al.Fat!: ibn Mufarrij in Alexandria. Mi't then commence, prayers saying, "Have mercy upon us, 0 God Falher almighlY. All· holy Trinity have mercy upon us. Lord God of powers, be Wilh us, for we have no help in our tribulations and affliction" save Thee." This is followed by the Lord's PTa}"'r, the prayer of lhanksgiving, lhe raising of Incense for the ,,'ening, Psalm 50, and Genesis 28,10-31. A priest says the intercession for lhe sick, and lbe deacons ,ing lhe litany, "The censer of gold is lhe Virgin, and her sweet aroma is our Sa\1or, She has given birth 10 Him; He has saved us and remitted our sins. We worship Thee, 0 Christ, with Tby good Falher and the Holy Spiril, for Thou didsl com~ and save us." The episde is laken from Heb...,ws 9:1_11: thi! is followed by lh~ Trisagi<Jn, and the imercession of Ihe Gospel, the psalm·ve"ic1e being Psalm 122: 1-2: "I was glad when they said 10 me, leI us go into lhe house of lhe Lord. Our feet sball stand wilhin thy gales, 0 Jerusalem," The Gospel is from Luke 9;28-36, Tbe deacons sing the appropriate response, and a priesl says the lh...,e s...,ater interce,.ion. (for the peace of the church, lh~ falhers, and lhe congregalion). The Creed is followed by K},rje Eleison said forty·one lime•. Here lhe head priesl say. a pra}'er incorporating an earneSl requesl 10 God 10 eSlablish the new church on sure foundalions, imparting purily to it' sanctuary where the faithful may worship His sacred name, receive lhe holy sacraments, and enjoy God's divine grace,. The lhree absolulion' are then said by the head prie 551
Church of SainI Mercurius, According to modern authors, they date from between the tenth 10 Ihe twelfth centuries. To the 'Duth of the na.'e. i. the baptistery, closed by a scU'd with five aisles. which ebewheu .....,. the casc only in the basilial of Annant and some smaller buildlnp in MadInM Mi4i and Makhiirah.. The C'IOthedraJ of aI· Ashmllnayn, nlOl~. is fumished with a thrff· aisle m.RSept, the aides of which unusually end in a semicircle. This desi,n ohould nOf. however, be conf\Qed with a lriconch. In the last quarter oflhe Mth alld the uriy sixth anturitf; n tnn.sept of this kind appears again in the church of Hawwiriyyah and In Ille g",al basilic-a of Abu Mint. Ihe largest church bulldlng in £8YPIian lenitory, bul here Ille side win,s ha.'c a straight tennination. While Ihne large buildings of Ihe fifth cenlury ha~e in tile saroctuary a relati~cly extensive and complicated voundplnn. perhap! rnulling from !he size of Ihe space available. by the fifth cenlUry Ihere was In Ihe _nCT buildings a canonical l'"oup ofthr« chambcl'$...... a nile, this group con' sisu of a M'micircular ar- and lWO ~nl"lar sid.. rooms. of ",h;"h at I.... one could be dl~dy emued f1'OITI the ..-:lS. £>.cq>lions in whleh Ihe side rooms arc Inl"'n, occur so far only In the area of Maryl)I. In the bulldinp that have: a cultic niche devdopcd as a triconch, the ~ dlam~ ~ bn:Jusht round ,he aide conches in the shape of • pmma. In addition, it ...... common. po.niallarly In tIppeT £aypc and rndmdy as carty ... lhc bte fifth unlury, 10 place bcfor'e the cullic nich.. an add;60naI lriumpbal arch suppon"" by Iwo fr_saandins columm (..... IWIDUAH). ~th the u«plion of the churches in the p-e;u laUla of Ih.. KeUia. t.he altar now alWIIY" su.ntk in front of lhe cuhie nic.... and i$ IlUfTOundcd by .. low s(ll". and were prot.bly influenced by these (Grossmann. 19n. pp. 13f.). So far. two cumples ha.... become known from the region 01 Abo. Minto. In lIppn" Et!:YP' in tbr .......e period Or a littk later then' appear a few four..pllar churches ..ith an ambulalOi)' «OR)5$mann. 1979, pp. 86/f.) thM .lIikin.aJy ",,'ended their inllucncc to the architcaure of Nub;" in particular and lite... round numcrow 1llC«SSOI'$ (see "'IIBIA."" CHRlST1All AKHrTECT1JU).
Early Middle Agu The early Middle Ages In £aypI be,an roughly wilh Ihe Arab conquest of Ihe counlry (A,D, 639641) (.u ARAB CONQUI'.ST OF EC~FT). During Ihis period church buildin, showed only a conlinuation of lhe nonnal b""ilka .tnlCtu"" which dewn to th.. I'alimid period belonged to Ihe Iype of church m""t frequ.. mly built, allhOUjh dimensions becam.. .mall.. r. With thc pauin, of Iale antiquity, Ihere ...... an increasina: tendenC)' 10 enhance lhe dirision be'wffr> the """raJ area and thai of the laity. proba· bly because of an intell$ifi.... 1IK",Iir:ation of the Iilurgical cercmooy. In front of the $3lnetuary a special room (kIll,"") ,""AN for lhc clcrs:Y""" sq»rMtd from lhc n_. and from aboul lhe ei&J'rth Cent"'Y. it was dhidcd from tile rut of the na"" by a hiah panition ..-..II. In the middle of the ..-:all .._ lICIe wi.d.. opcnina thaI could be c~ by. curtain. n.c room thus fonnl!'d containccl the altar, when all Cf:t'tmony lool< place out of the sight of the laity. In o\del- churches lIOf )'Cl equipped wilh • thiirus of Ibis kind. it was subKquemly buill in, although it required strange archilccltulIl compromises. By irs ~ery nalUrt a ",ido: room. the kftiituS opened in thc middle of irs east wail into lhe apse, usually coy~red over by • scmicupola, Ir lhe .Ide winp Weft Ci""n a similar romt of vault inS, they could be «1m· bin"" wilh the apse Into the form of a triconch, which INa'l frequently th .. case. One of the earliest examples is the "I-'Adhn' Church of DAn AlosunAN in Ihe Widr ai.Na!rUn, which dal.. from perhaps as urly as Ihe eighth cenCury. The HI8h Middle AS.... (F8tlmld Period) Th .. period of lhe high Middle Ages. roughl)' can· lempor,o.ry with th.. Falimld rule. rll...st rank as th..
554
CHURCH ARCHITECTURE IN EGYPT
golden age of church building in Egypt. 11 was in Ihis perid that the most imponam buildings were construcled. In general. the arrangement of the ",nctuary in these buildings corresponds to that of the preceding period. but the disposition of the rooms became tighter and more harmonious. All the chambers~inc1uding the cullic niche~were now rectangular. Mon~o,'er. since in this period all new buildings were provided wilh a kh;m" fr(Jm Ihe outset. there was no need for the kind of impro>'isation frequently found in older buildings. In the area of the nave. however. the development of church building took a fundamentaliy new direction. As in Byzantine and Islamic architecture, th"re was a change in Eg)'P1 from the wooden roof to >"ultinil' It was regarded as more economical and Ie" flammable. That the construction of vaults was possible only in the case of smaller buildings was of no consequence. since people had already grown accustomed to smaller church buildings in the preceding period. In addition. the galleries were largely abandoned in this period. The adoption of vaulting applied in the first place to the area of the nave. Here. strangely, Lower and Upper Egypt followed different paths. Lower Egypt preferred barrel-vaulting. It had the advantage that the directional thrust proper to Ihe basilica remained unaffected, Upper Egypt preferred domes. Since, howe>'er. as in Lo....·er Egypt. the ground plan of the basilica was at first retained, this led~in connection with the roofing of the central aisle~to the use 01 two domed areas linked for internal communication by a great arch. Funher arched entries opened into the side aisles. which were themselves constructed as barrel-vaulted areas running along the domed central areas On either side. In this way a new type (Jf building came into being~ the elongated church with a domed main aisle. Examples include. amon8 others, the monastery churches of the DAYR ~'ll" ""oRA at As'-'IAn, Dayr al-ShuhadA' (Isn~). and DAYR MAR HUQTUR (Oamulah). A building 'in Cairo is found in the p~,,,kklesi(m "f the Men... church. while (Jtber examples can be seen even in Nubia (Tarnit. Faras). In the following period the el"ngated. domed church went through a singular development presumably conditioned by lhe structural la",.. of domed '·auhing. The two domed areas. at first regarded as "f equal status, eventually became rivals, arK! in the course of further development this led to a stunting of the rearmost area, In the final phase, toward the end "f the twelfth een,ury. it became a small transversally oriented side room. or it entirely
disappeared. with the result that this building became a central structure with a single dome. Alongside these structures, which still stand in clear relation to Ihe preceding basilica form. a second type of building was developed in the ea.ly Fatimid period. which was elMe to the Greek type of octailon--domed churches. and whose origin is pmbably also to be lraced to Byzantine influence. This was a central building roofed o>'er hy a dome of unusually wide span (hI' comparison with other buildings of the period). the dome being canied by eight supports partly set into the sIde walk This type is found in its p.esent form in the cburch of the DAYR Al.-sHAYKHAH at Aswan. Here it was de· velope BoU'1luel. P. duo T~e Art of the Copts, lrans. Caryll Hay Shaw. New York. 1971Clarh. S. Christi"n ,(miq"ities in the Nile Vall,y, Oxford. 1912. Crossmann. P. "'Abu Mena Ailik vorlliufige BeriChlC Kampasnen 1975 and 1976:' Mitteilungen des De"t>cnu Archiiologischen J"stit"lS Ab"ilomg I(airo H (1977): 35-45_ _ _ "Zu, cbrnllichen Bau.lr.unsl in AJ)-pl.. n." En. dWria 9 (1978):135-146. _ Elephantin.. 11. Mainz. 1'119. _ Milld"/t",liehe u",:hl..u.O'p~lkircne.. " ..d wI'Yo'... dt, T,pen in Oberigwle". Gliktutadl, 1982. _ "Neu.e FriIblll..n:' ,(cle5 dO' XI' co~ mlcrnatitm.1 .rl1fClololo,ie clrrtliDf..... L,- 1I-Z6 sepumm 1986. Voi. 1. pp. I&lJ-ISlfM. P.ris. /989. Noonft"Cl de Villard. (I. Dqr c!.JJrJwmt.q.oh. Milan,
1921.
_
"t.e N.ailica e....iano
in EgilIO." In Alii tkJ
di .rcJ",~ "'rUCilia d,' V.Iic""" (19.38). Vol. I, pp. 191319. Rome, I~. .It Walten.. c. C. M"".stiI: .4rclraldov in Eop'. War' mlOSleT. 1914.
IV
"""f"~s.J(> inlCm.:itm.I~
Ii.".
CHURCH ARCHITECTURE IN NUBIA, SU Nubian Chrisli"n A~hilecIU"'.
CHURCH ART. In Coptic "hurches, the apse rounds tbe ~oykol (sancluary) off ~I Ihe east, lhe: di ....clion the ChriSlian faces to pray. I'or Ibis rea· son Ihe apse ......s one of Ibe fim pans of Ihe church
555
bulletinS 10 be , by oun. moon. ,."d sun; the composilion _ iR$pired by Isaiah 6. Ezekiel I. and Re\..,lulon 4. In lhe Io"..,r mne is Hi. mother. lIankM by .po6Iln and ,."gek. Of' by ,."gel. and olIter sainI$. The Illnks of th.. "p5t1e'1 are somelimes e.luended '0 indude local saints . Mary may be ponrayed &II oranl, ... an enthrone'eab inadequate ~nowledge of Coptic Christology (Wellen, 1960, p, 164). Where ther. w,," insuffi~;ent .pa~~ in ,he apse of the church or in Ihe niche of the ~ell, Ihe double theme eould be depicted in a reduced f"rm. It al· ready <xcurs in small apses at an early stage, at Saqqara, fOT in.tance; but we tll.'n still find tile combination of Cllrist (somelime. shown as a halffIgure) in th" upper zone, and Mary, alway. Oankcd by angel, and .!' liche>l KUlHl des erjUm Jahrm!r a sccne c>f Christ in Glory. Bawl!. Chapel XLII. C(mrresy Photog,aphic Library 01 BVUlIIl;lIe Arr. Schod of Applied Ad"allced Sr"dios. Pans.
CHURCH OF AL·,l,-tu'ALLAQAH
557
Inti, ...... •·itrrt" }"h,h.."dnr I>n ~ .. r MdU dt~ Kllltn )"Il,hu"dtrfs, Wiesbaden. 1960 KbU$ot•. T Re-.·iew d C. Ihm. Di" PrOfl'"",mt. )"hr· b..ch /«. ">nih- .. nd Chrislnl'''''' 4 (1%1):174-19. AI......, f. '-at! de•. AJ.. iuIoria, whicb formcrly sunnoumed lbc ahars, but time and neglee! had damaged lhe condition of lhe prenily painted figurc., Onc of these altar ciboria in "ood, dated", thc t~n,hl eJ..'emh cemury, i< in ,he Coptic Museum in Old Cairo. Dt:scribing th~ altars and their ciboria, moden, autbors muSt refer to tho.>e that replaced the ancient ones at the end of tlte nineteentb CHURCH OF SAINT ANTONY (JAFFA). See Holy und, Coptic Churches in the.
CHURCH OF SAINT ANTONY (JERICHO). See Holy land, Coptic Churches in the.
BIBUOGRAPH'i
E. La Geographie de I'Sgyple it /'ipoque copu. Paris. 1893. Buller, A. J, The Allciellt Coptic Churches of Egypt, 2 vols. Oxford. 1884. Coqu;n. C. Les Edifice, ehr'tiem du Vie",,·Caire. Vol. I, BibUographie .1 topographic historique$. BibliOlheque d'.lUdes copIes 11, Cairo, 1974. Dalton. D, M. Calalogue of Early Christiall Anriqui· ties alld Object> from Ihe Chri,tiall Ea.llS I (in Arabic). Cairo. 1930. ___. Guide somm"ire du Musee Copte el des prill' cipalts iglises du Caire. Cairo. 1937. CllARAlAMBIA CoQUIN
Am~lineau.
CHURCH OF SAINT GEORGE. See Je""sa·· lem. Coplic See of.
CIASCA, AGOSTINO (1835-1902). halian Cop' tologisl and OrientaH.t. Cia""" was born at Polig· nano a Mare, near Bali. He became prefect of tbe Vatican Archives and was named a cardinal in 1899. He lraveled to EID-pt in 1879 and acquired manuscripts for the Borgia Museum, He edited in two volume. Sahidic biblical fragments under the tilie Sacro",m nib/jarnm fragmenta copro.,ahidira Musei Borgiani (Rome. 1885-1889; wI. 3 published by p, J. Bale.tri 1"lO4. including facsimiles and at· las). Apan from lhis major work, he publi.hed lhe papyrus fragments of the same mu.eum under the tide I papiri copti del Museo BorgiaM .. , trado/ti e commmtati (Rome. 1881). He died in Rome. SIBUOG~APHY
Guidi, 1. "Ciasca, Agostino." Elldclopedia ltalialla. Vol. 10. p. 193. Rome. 1935-1939. Kammerer, W .• compo A Coptic 8inliography. Ann Arbor. Mich" 1950; repro New York, 1%9. MIZ S. ATlVA
CIBORIUM. See CHURCH OF THE NATIVITY.
See Holy
Architectural
Elemenls
of
Churches,
Land, Coptic Churches in the.
CIRCUMCISION, FEAST OF THE. CHURCH OF QAS1.IYAT AL-RIHAN.
See
Feasl$, Minor.
Babylon.
CLARKE, SOMERS (1841-1926). English archiCHURCH OF QUEEN. HILANA. See Je""sa· lem, Coptic See of.
CHURCH OF SAINT ANDREW. Su Holy land. CoptiC Churches in lhe.
CHURCH OF SAINT ANTONY. See Jerusa· lem. Coptic See of.
lect and archaelogisl. He was born in Brighton and received his training in church restoration in the office of Sir Gilbert ScOlt. In 1922 he retired to Egypt. where he lived until his dealh. There he worked wilh J, E. QUIBEll. and Frederick W. Green in the excavalions at Hierakonpolis, and laler he was involved in Ihe restoralion of many tempi .... His main contribulion in the field of Coptic slUdies i' Chrislioll Itnliquities ill lite Nile Valley (Oxford, 1912).
ClEMENT I, SAINT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dawson, W. P. and E. P. Uphill. Who Was Who in Egyplology. p. 65. London. 1972. Kamm~rer, W., compo A Coptic Bibliography. Ann Arbor, Mich.. 1950; repro New York, 1969. ..utI S. ATIn
CLAUDIUS, SAINT. Tltis anchorite saim (feast day, 19 Am.hir) is known from .arious documents, (l) lhe typica of Dayr Anba Shinudah, known as the While Monastery (Insinger. 3Bc-d, Pleyte and Boeser, 1897, p. 199; Oxford, Bodldan Hunt, 3); (1) a colophon (Nationall..ibrnry, Paris, Coptic 129/19. fol, 55v, published by Van LanlSrief~" St~u... 1910, Schmidl. C. Ou "sl~ CremMshrie/ in .llkoPlisclrCT (June/VtI!J:. Tute unci Umersuc:hunllCn 32.1. Leipri,. 1908. TnOOalAsD!
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (Titus Flavius CIem.cftS). born _ ....hens about .u>- ISO and hcad oi the CATS:Nn1CAI. 5CHOOI. in Ale>ties, concek~ . . - , i~ innw deci5ions ,he establil./tmenl of _ derical schooJ for the training of cduca,ed deric:l. Thus in October 11174, the council nominatN I'flllhnd.WU$ l_lIoI as lhe first headmas'er of the new relitiom school to be appended to the patriarchale. Thi, decision wu endolWd by CYRIL V (1874-1927). The new school was opened 13 JanWlry 11I7S in a ceremony attended by the patriarch. tnc whole membership of the CO""UNr'J'Y COONCll, and a con· siderable number of Coptic dlgnlrarles and leaders Its eOI'"' de/inile allainmenlS lhal "'e candidate ,,-as to pursue. or in accordance ...itb which he "''IIS 10 act. H", th",rek>re hood to be ill$UU Bilabel. F., and A. Grohmann. Zwei Urkunden aus dem bischOpkhen Arch", von Panopoli. in Agypl. en. Heidelberg. 1935. Coquin, R..c, "A propos de. rouleaux coptes arab Codex sho\\ing the beginning of the Epistle of James. Copto·Arabic manuscripl, A.D. 1250. Courtesy Coptic All/sewn, Cairo,
scription of literary works from rolls into codices at the beginning of the fourth cenlury_ BlDLiOGRAPHY
Hunger, H. "Antikes und miuelalterlichcs Buchund Schriftwesen." Geschichu der 7'exliiberliefenmg der all/ike', mid millelalierliche" Lilerullir 1 (1961):43-71. Robel1S, C H" and T. C. Skeat, The Bir/h of /lre Codex. London, 1983: repro 1985. Turner, E. G. Greek Papyri; All Ill/rodm:/iOll. Oxford. 1968; 2d ed., 1980. !laBan trnnslation by M. Manfredi. Papin" greei. Rome. 1984. Cli:>.TER POETIfKE
CODEX ALEXANDRINUS, of EK\l'lian ori· gin. one of the oldest known Greek lexts of the
Bible on vellum, the others being the CODEX \ATICA· MIS. the COOEX SI~AlTlctJS. and the CODEX EPHRAE.\I1
\., ..... >..,l",,,,C;· •.\I·)o:n t~n tnt of the Bible
-the Ol:hers are the Vatkan\.lll, the Sinairicus. and the Alnandrinus, in addition, of ~oune. to the earlier papyri. Paleographically It is ,ery ~imila' 10 rhe othen, except thai it i. written In one column .nd has neither accen15 nor hrrathinp, It.o words are continuous. withOUI spacing. It is probably a lillie Ia,er lhan the other eodic., and may be dMed lO die 1ifU, cenlury. It is probably the ..-l< of lWO hands. bul it had two conaon ill the sUth and ninth cenlulie$ ""he> acIdt. I of lhe NAG HAMMADt UBtt.....Y. Pun:hased from an antiquilies dealer in Belelum by the Junl IllSlitule of lurich on 10 ~ 1952. it contains pages 1-31. 31-41, SI-58. 91-136, and some fra&. lnenUl of the coda.. The res! ollbe maDu:se Na& Hammadl InUl acquired by the Coptio: Muo.eum In Cai.... The edifio princeps "'"35 published bel...-een 1956 and 1975, 11M: k>lios from Cai......~,.., also used for Ihis edillon. Codex I is ~omposed of Ihree qui""" conlain;ns p;tges 1-S4, 85 - 11 S, and 119 -138, respeclively. The pages are .boul 12 inches (30 cm) long and 5,S inches (14 cm) ... ide. The a,erace number of lines per pale is Ihiny_ven or thiny·eilht, wilh a rna>:1· mum of funy-two. The lwo paJfI of the fronl ftyleaf ...·....e inscn'bed when the main traclal., ..,re 6n· iohed (pio&es AlB). Neany the entire code>; wril' ten by oM .nd the same hand. e.tCepIl the tsQUse on pages 4l.2S-SO,18, which _ copied by !he SCriM of Code>. Xl, lnCWes 3 and 4. After !he completion of the editio princeps. the Codex June ....... returned 10 Cairo, and in the period 1975-1976 it ...... uniloo wilh Ihe .-est of Codex I. Alana with the oelM:r Nal Hammatli IUl5. the manus'"
CODEX JUSTINIANUS
The PRAYEIl OF THE ~I'OSTI.E PAUL fOT1llally resem·
bles the biblical psalms. but is acTually the expres· sion of the longing of a (Valentinian) Gnostic to be united with the Preexistent One, the Pternma, from which he originated The AP<XIlHHON OF lAMES (Nag Harnmadi Codex !.1-16.30) is a modern tille ckrived from the fact !hat the apostle James is addressing hi. r"aders and designates hi. writing as an "apocryphan" (1.10). Jame' and Peter re$Cd on the lepl tex! compile u....
u...
BIBLIOGIlAPIIY
Monro, C. H_ .rans. flu Oipsf of Justi,,;".., 2 vols. Cambrid&t,I9CM-I909. Sandars. T. C. I"Slil":u of Jusrirlilln. London, 1941.
n..
CODEX SINAITICUS, an andenl Greek bibli. cal text diICovered in Sinai al lhe Monastery of Saint Catherine by C"nstallline Tischendorl, and consisting of 390 vellum. lea.'ld have been al IeasI 730 leaves. 1hc e.ist. inl pIOns of 1M .... nuscripl include 148 lea>..... of the New Testamenl, which is complet~, and 242 I"".'Q of Ihr Old TCSUmtnL Its sm aVCf'alll"S ap pO'Oximaofty IS incha (37.5 ~m) in heianl and n.! 10 IS.u incheo (34 em 10 36 em) ill breaddl, and ""ch J>8BC hal; 4 columns of 48 lines cach. The lines ar~ wriU~1I eontinuO\>sl)' in fine uncial. withO\>t sp"ce. belw~en words. It has no accenls and nQ b...,alhings, but has. wmc puncl ....tion. Sa1 >oras a1mos1 wholly wriuen by one 1IC'ribe. joo,'u~fOU$ t cOllvinc· ing proof. Since Ihe S;".ilicus predal6 the ro...ndalion of the IrIIOUNT $IIlAl MON.lSJF.a.Y 0' SArNT CADlEa.tSl!. ;1 is likely : ,..jib him. It is .....,11 CSIabIishcd thai, cspcci.aJ.ly durinllbc Middle Aces. monb Rocked 10 that monastery from many counuies with Iheir ...,Ii-p:.us tl"CaSures. Even so, i1 is impossible 10 say when Codex Sinail;"uS reached the monaslery. The discovery and recovery of the code.>: helln in May 1844, when Constaminc tiochendori, One of lhe ninel.,.,nlh",,~ntul)i ocholaon who arne to lhe molUSlery'a lib....ry for Sludy, ....... auracted by a b.asW full of old parcllments. of "'hkh some moldmnl spcci"",ns had bcc-ft desu~d by fi...,. " cl_ er eD",inadoa revealed ~. considcnoble n<Jmbcr uscriplln the hands of th~ RUSIlian czar, ....ho donated the equiva· l~nl of 56,750 10 the monks in recognition of the I-Cquisition. The codu remained al the Russian capllal unlil 1933, when it ""'" sold 10 lhe British Museum for £lOO.lXIO. II ... delivered 10 the mu"",m On 17 Dccembn-. lu Y'C'Ilum Inva "''f:R: treated. orpn. tze'a.ricd manu""rip... disco¥ere BIBLIOGRAPHY
Archi. G. G. Teodosio /I • la sua cod;jica'l.ione. Na· pies, 1976. Gaudemet, J. "Theodosien (Code)."' In DiC/ionnair. de droit canon;"uo. Vol. 7.. cols. 1215-46, Paris. 1962. ___. "Aspects politiques de la codification theodooienne."· In /S/il~~ioni giuridkho e realta poliliche '''/tardo imporo. ed. G. G. Acchi. pp. 26179. Milan. 1970. ___. Lil!ormatiorl du droit seeuU", de NgUse a..r i>!' el >!' sudes. 2nd ed. Paris, 1979. Mommsen. T.. and P. M. Meyer, eds. Theodosia"i Ubri xvi, cum eonsli/U/io"ibus Sirmondia"is, 2 ,ols. Berlin. 1905; repr, 1962. PllalT. C. et at, eds. and trans.. The TheodOSian Code and Nove/s. Princeton. N. J" 1952. Seeck, O. RegiS/en der Kaiser und Paps/e. SlUlIgart. 1919: repro 1964. Thompson, E. A.. ed. and trans. De rebus bel/ieis, A Roman Reformer arid /.,vmlOr. Now York. 1979.
572
CODEX VATICANUS
Zuluna. F. de. lh ptJrf'DCi"iis viCOf'W"l. Oxford S0cial and l.q:a1 Studi6 I. lhford. 1909. W. It. C. F'-E.'iD
CODEX VATICANUS, one of me alMl krw:w.1l Bible texIS of likdy Aluandrian provenan«. most probably wrinen dun", the first .... If 01 Ille fourth cemury. lis daring il clear from its paleogr;opllkal llyle and the ab.ence of calligraphic ornamenta' tion. It Ii wrinen on excellem vellum. probably amelope skin. comprising 7S9 leave,. of which 142 are from the New Testamem. The 617 folios of the Old Teslamenl are baled On Ihe Sepruagim exCepl for Daniel. whose origin is l1Jeodolion'. version. The Old TeMament ,-enion lack. ~eo from Genesi5. 2 Samuel, Psalms. and Maccabees. In lhe New Testa_nt the ponion from Hebrew". 9:14 on is missin&The size 01 each leaf Is apprmimalely 11 inches x 10 inches (27 cm x 2S cm). and eu::h pagt II. l co"'m... 0140 10 42 lines 10 the CO"'l'1In. (llCepi In the poetical boob. •re the scribe reIOns to lhe OIichometlic divis'on of dH' li-. in two columns. lis simple W1C",h are comlnuous. tile .."Oms are nol spKed, and I"" sentences have no punclualion. The manuscript .... lew majestic initials and a simple scpilr1lolion at the head of each book. s..cred names are abbreviated. and qootallom from the Old Testa· mem are pre.enled in a Jp«ial angular parenthesis (>j, Apparently t....-o scribe. participared in oU'WOrth)" eo .0
COINAGE IN EGYPT: Pre·Islamic Period
In addition, other methods are charaye fullest the system consisted of denominations of 12, 6, and 3 noummia, and under Heraclius (610-641) a large coin of 33 "oummia_ The system ....as unique, and thes. coins were seldom found in company with Ihe standard denominations of Ihe eastern Byzantine mints, although lh.y appeared ocea· sionally in western Africa. It has heen suggested that 12 noumm;a was Ihe tariff of su .....,iving base· bullion tetra drachmas, but this is only a guess: against it is lh. lack of evidence for sun.-ival of the third·century tetrarlraehrna into the sixth, Their reversion to a formerly familiar shape may simply be a vestige of the earlier ecooomic isolation of Egypt, nOW reinstituteloS on ..tfC. The obv 575
f"ts coins
wilh Anlbic inscripllons ,"",e.ime 2ft.... lhe invention of l~amic coioage in DamiISCU> (699)
and surely by lhe lione 01 'he eovemor Qurnah ibn Sbartk (709-71.)....·hen Anlbic Iiass weights for crlppCl' coi.... were in'roduced. The new Arab lals ..... nO( different &om lhe 8)Ur1tine coins in ""ishl or fabric and probably llOl In .;.hoe. bul i....cad of imperial ?Omaita. e"l 'M. and a Greek illSCripdoD it was anonymoua. wXh brief rdigious inscripliom i.n Arabic. Suninl somelime bn...-ee\ H4 and 142, all copper isIues carried the 1""..,.-. nor's name. ~ coppers wrre the only coins mimed in fcyp. unlil 787, bu. impol1ec1 Bpanline and Arab sold and sih.,.- coins 111""e Fatimid silver coinage in contrast was usually small and increasingly debased in Ihe tenth and devemh centuries, stabilizing fmally al the end of the eleventh century al 30 percent silver. These linle coins served as small change in plac" of cop' per coinage. Despite the low w"igbt of th" acTual coins. the weight standard for a paymenT 01 a full dirham conTinued to be nearly three grams. The Falimids also revived official glass coin weighlS for dinars and dirhams. including fractions and multiples 01 the t.....o d"nominations. These have been calalog"d but th"ir e.·olution is still not clearly understood. ThroughoUl Ihe early Islamic centuries, as probably also before Islam. the relath'e values of gold. silver, and copper coins .....ere not fixed but f1uctuat· ed according to the market. from day to day and place to plac". The papyri and Geni"" documents often refer 10 the e,change rate (farf) between dinars and dirhams, As the early glass weights .how. the weight standard of Ihe dirham could change substantially and often, ..... ith five changes in the eighth centulli. At other periods, without Ihe e.'i· dence of the glass weighls, we can only assume that such changes were po"ible. These would naturally affecT the normal dinar-dirham exchange rate as well as prices. There is also evidence for changes in the all"y of gold and ,ii,..,r coins. The research to support preci.e statements has nol yet be"n done, but enough i. known 10 inspire caution in comparing pric"s and exchange rates from the -
COLOPHON
cial Hislory of Ihe Oriertl 24 (1981):70-81. ___, "Coins and Money in the Mabie Papyri" In Proceedings of rh, Table Ronde: Docume"'s de /"Islam mediival: Nouvelles perspectives (March. 1988). ed, Youse{ Ragheb (1989). Goitdn, S. D. "Money, Banking, and Finance." In A Mediluranean Soc;ery: The Jew;sh Communil;ts QI the Amb WQrld a. Portrayed ;" Ihe Documents of Ihe Caim Gmlla, I: ECQnQmic FQundalio.u, pp. 229-66. Berkeley and los Angeles, 1%7. Grabar, 0, The Coinage QI Ihe 'fMunids. American Numismatic Society Numismatic Notes and Mon· ographs 139. New York, 1957. Miles, G. C. "The Early Islamic Bronze Coinage of Egypt." In CwMnnlal Pub/lcall'm of I"e Americ'''' Numisma/Ie Soc;e1)', es Stamps In Ihe Brillsh Mus"'m. london, 1985. Oddy, W. A. 'The Gold Contents of Fa!imid Coins Reconside<ed." In Metallurgy In Numismalies, Vol. 1, pp. 99-118. london, 1980. MrcH~El B~ns
COLLUTHUS, a sc:hismalic
presb~ler in Ale"an-
dria during lhe episcopale of ALEXANDER (3 12- 326), nineleenth patria.andrian IbeolocY WI rejected the C<Wl....."ic as il did OIalcedon . . . ,,'holt. Now lItat conl.., rsia ha~ ~ 1ess pro-nOW1c~. the docuine of conrmUllic"lio idiom4lu'" may yet 6nd £,...or in Copoic Christian circles. 1I1BUOCAAntY
COMMUNICAno
IDlOMATllM
(i"lff'
change 01 J>rOP"niesl. a lerm appli~ 10 lhe ~non of Christ by lhose in !he ..,.rly church who believed Ihal ahtlough the human and divine nalureS remained scpo "'Ie. Ihe anribul... of lhe om: cOIlld bol: applied 10 Ihe ocher. Thus lhe divine Word cOIlld be de$cribed a.I dying on Ihe Crt>5!l ond Ihe Virgin Mary was Ihe mOlher of God (ThUJlokO$). The Idta of communicIAI.CWON- ibtre. a, ,he siluh session. held em 15 Oc1obcr 451. ,he council drafted a Christolot:Kal definilion W, ...-ned: "Our Lord Jeauf Christ is 10 us one and m.: ame lOll. lhe Jdf~me Perl'ecl in Godi'>ead, 'M scJf~me Perfecl In manhood. lruly God lUId truly man , .• the dill.,.... enee 01 Ihe NalUreI [olfChrisll being in no WIly remcn'eCl because 01 the UJlWn. bul rallter lhe propenies of tach nalure being prnen'td imo one Pl"OS' opon and one H)'J'O$Ia$i$." In Ialer dmes. In unh.,.... an c1Kles. lhe doclrine ..... understood in a "'lOy not In ....rmony wilh Leo_ In Byzamlum. on Ihe othtr band, ,he doclrine ""'" eXlended 10 cOveT Ihe n:lalions 01 ehuKh and Slale. Oppock [Iill the second day]. and we shall no, carl)' it oul of Iltc church. and wltatsoe"cr remains of il lhe prietU shall ell ..• And concerning the first Eucharist, namely. lite hre.d and Ihe chalice whi",1t the Lord blessed and p'''' to His diw:iples. lhen: remained nothing of h O¥tr il .iIl the second day, and il ........ nol cartied 10 a hOUie, Other than the one in which it (tbe Lasl SuPl"Crl was perfonned." Saint ea.il. in his nine1y-dghth canon Sil)". "And _ did not brine the Mystery nutsMte Ihe church al all 10 be ...~ 10 a Pft'IO •
t
COMMUNITY COUNCiL, COPTIC
earned the titl" of Father of Reform. Besides ",. forms ror the enlightenment of the clergy, he can· centrated on educational and cuhural pro~cls, ~uch as opening numerouS schools, introdudng Coplic and foreign languages imo the curriculum, and estabH,.},ing a priming p,""ss. Th" development of community councils passed
throu&,> various stages, following the issuance of Ihe Sultan'. Kh~H hamay,,,,j (official decree) in 1856. This was a form of chaner of libenie. for Ihe Christian minoritie' throughout the \'1'.1 Ottoman empire. It authorized the establishment of special councils within the patriarchales to deal Wilh problems of "penonal status," such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. as "",11 as the administration of the waqfs, prop"l1y donated to the church and the monasteries and held in trust, to be administered for ecdesiastical and charitable pUl"J>OSes. $""h _prllpenie. had been accumulating throughout lhe ages. and were considerably increased during lhe palriarchat" of Demetrius II (1362-1870). On lhe occasion of the .ullan'. vi.il to Eg)pI, the sultan beslowed 1.000 feddtms (acres) of arable land 10 lhe church, and this was supplemented by 500 feddans by Khedi"e IsmA'it (IS63-IS82). With the death of Pope Demetriu. in 1870. Mark (Murqus), bishop of the province of al·Beheirah, was appointed locum tenens until a new patriarch was consecrated. Bishop Mark chose a number of notabl"s to assist him in the administration of the financial affairs of the church. This may be consid· ered lhe firsl nudeus of the community council. The Copts welcomed the project and decided to submit a fermal application to Ihe authorities for the foundation of a similar elluneil te take charge of the waqfs, ""booTs. benevolent societi"s. affairs of personal Matus, and other secular functions, which would relie"e the clergy of such worldly con· cerns, The applicalion was presenled by BOlnROS CHALI to the khedive, who on 5'februa')' 1874 ap· pro"ed the establishment of a council to con.iSl of twel"e members and twelve adJuncl' olected by general suffrage, to meet under tM chairmanship of the patriarch, The relalillnship between Po~ CYkll \' {18741927) and th" elected council was not harmonious. and consequently lhe council w"!' dissoh'ed. Two councils in succession were elecled, but neither could hold a profitable meeting, The first of lhese was again dissolved, and the second was denied access and found the doors of the palriarchale locked in 1692 When the situation was reported to
581
the government, with Boutros Ghali as minister of finance, it was decided lhat bolh the patriarch and Bishop Yu'annis of al-Beheirah had to be removed to the Monaster-y of al·Bar.imu., a m"asure wilhoUI precedem in contempora')' ecclesiastical hislOl)'. Khedi,'e 'AbbAs II (1892- 1914) ordered Ihe return (Of the patriarch on 30 Janua')' 1893, and on I Feb· rua,)' he arriYed in Cairo amid enthusiaslic public acclaim. Those who were responsible for his exile were parooned. and two amendments to the constitUlion of the coundl were enacted, One was bylaw no. 8 of December 1908, by which the patriarch was solely responsible for the appointment of his derical Subslilule in lhe council, and Ihe adminis· tration of the waqts would be entrusted to the patn. arch and four monastic abbots. The second was bylaw no. 3 of February 1912, restricting lhe num, ber of the council membership to a tOlal of lwclve, eighl laymen to be elected by general suffrage and four- cleriCS '0 be nominated by the patriarch. These amendments remained in abeyance for- twel"e years, as they were resisted by lhe community and consequently abolished by parliament, and lhe original conSlilulion of May 18S3 remained in force. In 1927, after fifty.two years as patriarch, lhe dea'h of Cyril V at the age of ninety·six paved the ....'lly for the next .tage. This stage was inaugurated by Yu'anni., bishop of al-Beheirah, first as locum lenen. and in 1928 as Patriarch JOHN X'X. In November Ins the pope accepted the nomination of a comm;uee consisting of four members of the council and two bi.ho"" under his presidency, to .upervise lhe "asl waqf eslale•. BUI lhe system fallered, and lhe case had 10 be rclerred to the court when the patriarch died in 1942. He was .ucceeded by M~CAlttl!S III (19441945) after an interregnum of lwo years. The new po~ issued a favorable leller on 22 February 1944 nominating a commillee of five members of lhe council to be enlrusted with the administration of the waqfs, a measure that was refused by the Holy Synod. The brokenhearted patriarch retired to lhe monastery of Saint Antony (DHIt ~NBA ~NTONlYOS), He died in the following year. Anb! YOsAB I1 (1946-1956), metropolitan of Jirjil, be" tic population. Under the church rules as recognized by the stale (presidential decru of 3 November 1957), the gene....1 council ha< the following powers: (I) in conjunction with the Hoty Church Slnod, il appoint. the locom lenen. bi.hop, follow· ing the death of the pope; (2) a commillee con.ist· ing of eighleen members, nine of whom are to be chosen from Ihe general council, is authorized to select candidates for ,he patriarchate; (3) an elecloral committee consisting of the locum ,enens bish· 01', three clergymen, and three eminent members of the community conducts the voting process. According to the 18g3 constitution providing for the establishmenl of community councils, Ine pow_ ers Ihey exercised were exlensive. Subsequently many functions were eliminated. The council had jurisdi~tion of personal .talU. cases, when the parlie. concerned were all of the Coptic Ol1hodox denomination, otherwise the case would fall within the Muslim COurt jurisdiction. Such cases are now to be settled by ~i,~l courts. The management of Coptic school. was originally entrusted to community councils. These schools are nnw under Ihe full supervision of the Ministry of Education. The administration of Ihe waqf> passed to Ihe joint Patriar· chal Laical Waqf Organization in 1960. The 1883 constitution, slightly amended in 1927, also provided for the estabtishment of pro,'incial councils in cathedral cities of Egypt, under the presidency of Iheir local bishops. These councils asSume Iheir responsibilities within their own epar· chies, and are subject to the supervision of the general council in respect to matters of pal1icular imponance. Each council consists of four members, with the exception of the council of Ale'andria, which is made up of seven members under the presiden~y of the vi~ar·general. Apll AzER (IISrAWRQS
COMPLINE, the prayer of sleep instituted, ac· cording to the canonical hours, to commemorate the laying down of Ihe body of Jesus Christ in the tomb. In churches and monasteries compline is
1
CONCEPT OF OUR GREAT POWER
said after vespers and before the raising of incense for the evening service, The D'PASCAUA (Qeladah, 1979) and Ibn al·'Assal's Kitlib Q/,QQwli>t'>t (Book of Canon law) inclu 583
lusts and desire. and (the teachings of) ,he Anomoean., evil heresies that ha"e no hasi." (39,33-40,9). The reference to this here,y, which was propagated during thc fourth century, provides a term,,,,,, Q quo for the dating of the text (Wi,.., and Williams, 1979). A man who knows the Great Power is going to be born under the dominion of the ps)·chic aeon (40.24-27). He ""ill drink from the milk of the mother, he will.peak in parabl~s, he will proclaim the aeon that i. to come (40,28-32). Thi. man "spoke in 72 tongues, opened the gates of the heav, ens with his words, put to shame the ruler of Hades, rai!-Cd the dead" (41.6- 11). His coming provokes reaclion from the archons. Thi. man is Christ. By the lreachel)' of Judas, the text tell. us, the archons laid hold of him and brought him before the governor of Hades. But "the nature of his f1csh could not be .ei7-w" (42.1-2). Here we have the Gnostic doctrine of docetic origin, that the Christ could not be grasped. He leaves only his outward semblance in the hand. of the arehons, mocks them ("he prepared himself to go down and put them to shame"), and escapes from them (d. Nag Hammadi Library, Codex II. Seth 51.24-29: 52.10-14; 53,20-21; Codex I, Apocao'ps" of James 30.1-8; 31.15-21; Apocalypse of Peter 80,25-30; 8U-82.17). The coming of Christ is followed by a series of signs that mark the end of the psychic awn: "The sUn set during Ihe day; the day became dark; the evil .pirits were troubled, the aeons will dissolve, But those who would know these things ... will become blessed, ,inc" they will come '" know the truth" (42,15-43,29), The signs of the end are brought on by the dissolution of the archons: the destruction of cities, the shaking of the mOUn· tains, a trembling of the eanh, the death of animals (43.32-44.13) mark the transition from the realm of the archons to th~ kingdom of the Logos. These signs are typical of eschatological tim ••, and are found in similar form in the Jewish pwudepigrapha of the Old Testament (A.cension of Isaiah 4 and 5: 11 Enoch 22; IV Esdras 5; Ascension of Moses). An imitating spirit is .ent by the archon. to combat a di.. ine child come to his maturity (44.31~45A), His coming will also be marked by ,igns of the end (45.31-46.5). Positive signs on the contrary will accompany the coming of the Great Power who wiii protect the elect, who are dOlhed in hoiy garments (46.8-24). These will return to an "immeasurabie light" (46.8-9). The treatise ends Wilh the redemption of the souls, and the fact that the elect have come to be in the unchangeahle aeon,
......:.
584
CONCH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wisse, F" and F, E, Williams, "The Concept of Our Great Power," In Nag Hammadi Codices V, 2-5, a~d VI, ed. D. M. ParmI, pp. 291~324 ({ranslation). Nag Hammadi Studies 11. Leiden, 1979. MAO£U1N£ SC!'£lLQ
send you ... Rtteive the Holy Spirit. If you forgive the sins of any, they are forgiven: if you retain the sins of any, they are retained" (In. 20:22-23). This authority Mcame the prerogative of the disciples and the apostles, and was passed on 10 their successors in the episcopate and lhe presb)1el)'.
Confession In Ihe Old Testament
CONCH. See Symbols in Coptic Art. CONCOMITANCE, the doctrine held in the Roman Catholic church that Ihe Body and Blood of Christ are togelher and simuhanewsly administered in communion even when a communicant receives one of the dements only. This doctrine is meant to justify the act of withdrawing the chalice from the laity ever since the twc]fth century, and giving the Body alone, the Blood being restricted to the d,.rgy. This practice wa-' introduced during the papacy of Paschal II (1099-1118), and the decree was confinne CONFRATERN1TY
587
r..es ...........
eumpk, ,Iotre ....".., pnuo"orwi oi Saint WJCHAa. the Arc~el. Saini ,~ Salll' Eupnemia. aIId !he Sew Chu.-.:h. Also alslin, In th......." "''''' a confnl..mily d .gOUts, or l>Cllarin. recordc:d in u... FJKal Collo: d. He",oopol. of S90-600 (Po SoJb. Inv. 2227). II .. qun.. p"""ibk ,hal til...........'" 01 ...... conFni'..miliel comprisi,,& ,,",ml:>c~ oi Itt.. OlLlIle
HeUdopo/iem. a &roUP of monasIic ehara.cttt. Confracernities ",ere ,,\OWed '0 ""'.,. land and houses. In ,he F"",a1 Code of HennopoIi< they IIlto &ppeII1cG as mediators beI",,","n laXplyers and the: '1In1 Mlthoritie:s.
Member5 of a conFnilern;ly "'C'.... considlO.....:i a separate lVOuP in a church, along ",;th ttt.. clerg)'. monn. and la)",,",II. Thc aCli"ilie, of such confra· ,crnitie, includcd firs, of all frcquclll common prayers .lId reUgious """,Ice, in churches. The Canon, of Pseudo-Alhan:u;"'s (il.ie 3676). ~mbrl'5
or confraternities
belonSM to a group of l.ymen actina: at the side of the bishop and helping him in variu5 matteI'S. In Alexandria ,hc patri· arch lIM'd ,hem eithcr '0 exe" pre.,urc on Ihc administration or '0 fight q;ain,t his opponcnts (...,., Zachari.. Schola.Ul, Two tesl$. wriIten inlkpendendy. ~m lO sug. I'OSItNK Ibe Akundrian r-~ rtcularty inmod the: InOU pl'l>/Oinen, pIri1optMoi Ie> cablc as ""dl as the- membrl'5 01. his ckrJy (&dce. 1915, J>- 825; Orlandi, 1963, pp. 46-"'7). n... t....1$ coru>ec:l: WI .....lOm 10 the .imes of Athanasius, but Iht:y piOba· bIy pro;..cl back inlO ..... pasI sornflhinll dJat "'. . us...1 in ,he aulh~' times, as na,lo,..phic WOl"b often do. The chief!; of the philopt)ttOi brlonllcd 10 the 'own cli,c (Budge. 189"'. p. 58). AlolIll with religiou$ activitln, confra,eml,ln shared :II common social life, as did i1.s.sodil.'ions of Hellenistic .nd Roman timn II.S well as tne confra· lemtlies snd BUilds of medi."al Europe. This is .... Reeled In a CopI;c t""l coming mosl probably from
.~
h.a,,,
BIBlJOGRAPHl' Bud&e. E. A. W. 54;..' Mich",1 t~ Archa"Kd: Th.ee Encom;"",s. London. 189"'. _ , Misu!larlMus COpl~ Tuets in the Dia/«I of Uppor Egypt. London, 1915, Burmester. O. H. e.. TIl. Ril. of Consecration of tho Palriarch of Moxandria. p. 1). C..iro, 1960. eru",. W. E. Cala/Ofu, of Ih, Coplic Man".,,;p.. i" Ih, British M"~u,,,. London, 1905. Halkin, T., .d. S. " ..cloomit ViI..., rra«..e. B~Is. 19J1. MuRyl'>di, M. "Lcs 'AsIocIa,Io"s n'li~" '"" Ei)'Pte d'apri:s .........rus hwrogl)-phique:s. do!. moIiques eI uecques." One",.I'" t.ov...... ruitS/nnline Ihe Greal: The Rc"rgnni,alion of Ihe Empire nnd Ihe Triumph Q( Ihe Clturch. New York and London, 1905. Kae,ztes, P. Conslantine: A Greal Christian Mon· ~rch nnd Apostle. AmsTerdam. 1981; includes En· glish translaTion of documents relevant TO the rna· jor e.'ents in Constantine's life. !U.NOAU
STeWART
CONSTANTINE, sixth-seventh-c.nTury bi.hop, of As}'iil. [This em')' Clm5isiS of Iwo "nd ConsTantin.·s Writings.]
~rTide"
HisTOI)'
CONSTANTINE: History
History A summaI)' of Constamine's life has come down complete in a unique manuscript of the Sahidic recension of the Arabic SY~.u.o.RlON of the Copts, depo.ited at Lu~or. There also exists for the Ii"'t pall and identical with the above document an iso· lated leaf (NationallJbrary. Pans, Arabic 4895). Hi. feast day is II Amsh1r. This text reports thai COlI$tamine received the monaslic habit from the hands of his brother AnbA Moses. otherwise unknown. in a monastery that un· folluoately is not named. Ten young men emb",c"" the monastic life on that day. Among them. in addi· tion to Constantine, was Rufu•. the future bishop of Shu!b (Hypselis!Shotep), and AnM Yiisab (Joseph), who .ubsequently became bishop of Isfa~t (Apollinopolis Parva!Sbe~t). AnM YtisAb is not otherwise I:nown, but RUl'1JS OF SH(YrE. is the author of corn· mentaries on the Gospels, pall of which i. extant, and of senoons preserved in an Ar.d>ic version, His name is also cited in Ihe second encomium of Con· stant;ne on Saint Claudius of Antioch (PO 35. p. 614),
The Synaxarion continues Ihat Con.tamine mem· ori,ed Ihe New Testament, except for the Apoca· lypse, and the Psalrm and Ihe Prophets, Constantine was consecrated as bishop by the patriarch DAMIAN between 578 and 605. Damian also made him his vicar for Upper Eg>pt, and dedared. "I shall conse· crate as bishop only him who has with him a writing fmm your hand," This function of palriarchal vicar is allested b}' other texts for other bishops. There was one for Lower Egypl and another for the $ald. It seems to ha"e been exercised above all in the confirmation of Ihe election of new bishops, as suggested by the passage of the Synaxarion relating 10 Constantine. He was no longer a patriarchal vicar from the time of his elevatio,:, to the episcopate. That Constantine was bishop ~the period of Pa· triarch Damian i. also conlinne diocQe who remained in the ""hi.m bqun by h~ predecasoT Ol> ~ Ihronc of Asy1l!, MclitillS, in the foIlrth cenl"'l)'. """-'OGRA>Hy
&II, H. I.. and W. E. Crum. hw!. ",tJ Cltnmll'u in
Document$." Iourn,,1 o{ EgypMn AJ'ChcoIoo U (1927):19-26. Caritt", G. "Constantin, tvtq..., d'~:' In Coptic Studies in Htmo, o{ W. E. C....m. 8uU"fin 01 the 8Yt1'",;"" I..",,..te 2 (1950):287_ 3O Ji.sit:~to /94/-/917. VoJ. I, pp. 119-36. Louvain·!a·Ncun. 1980. "Coo.. amin, cV~<J.ue d'As$iool." In Diction· .."i'e d'Ms!<Ji,e .f de gcog,,,phie ecc!fsiUfiqucs. Vol. 13, col. 623.
-..-cO
R£Nt-GOOlOfS COQUIN
Constantine'. Writings, The Coptic I~ition ...... pro.idcrU5 Of' At-."1!OCH).
1. The Anbic I""t of me ucond. panqytic: (encomium) of SIIml Cw.di.us lhc Man)T it ""published. At letil lwo manuscripl$ conwn it: OM II Pam (Arabe lint> [f.cypI, 18ifI, lot 10Ia-l5b) and ~ ocher at f10~lK" (lau~nliana, Oricntll 204 (EgypI, 1508). lois. 69a-l39b). oJ. The beginnin8 of ~ panegyric (encomium) of Saln. Ccorze is found in Sahidk Cop!k In Pari. (Coptic 129/161b [t_lith e.,."lury}. fols. 8&b-9Jb). C.rilt~ published this lut with a Lalln Il"Ilnslation. without rcf~rrillg to th~ Arabic .'ef'$ion (i9S•. pp. 271-17). The Arabic text is known from a aingle manu· script, still unpublished (Coptic Museum, C.lro, Hlllol)' 472 [Egypt, .eventeenth century), copied by NIl!!~Il'h Ibn FarajallAh al-TOkhl; Oraf no, 71512nd; $imaykah no. 1(6). Folios 73a-13111> eontllin five
diICouI"SC$ on m~ miracles of Saini George, composed by Th«>philUi of Aieulldria, Acanl.llins "'" compkte homily; unfonunately, Iho Graf aDd Sirnaybh eataJos:s pro._ no indpit, and Un>. !he idenlily oi the 1""1$ rnnains uncC'l'tain. if lhe Copcic and Al"Ilbic 1""1$ f""OV" 10 be dilIcnnt, this .......wd pnnidc a new won to add to the list oi Coostanline'$ _rb in AI"Ilbk. •. The ~m P""'ecric (tocomium) of lhc martyr Jobn of Hcl"lld.". has 'lUrri\ocevenlcenlh century). fob. 54a-68b; Graf no. 544; Simaykah no. 354). Neither of the lWO cau.logs p"'" vides Ihe incipit, The Arable texI is unpublished. and the Coplic teXl is unknown. 7. ne teal, panegyrle (encomium) of Saint hi. dorus of Antio'eque d·~out." In Coptic Siudies In HO'nOf" of Wolle' Ewing C",m, 8oJ1Ie· tin of the By>anline Inslhule 2, pp. 287+304. 80s. Ion. 1950. Reedited in G. Garin., Scrip/a dlJlocla 1941_/977 I, pp. 119-136. Louvain·la·Ntu>'C. 1930, "Lt Panqyrique de S. Georj;;es allribue it. Constanlin d·Msiout." U AjMSion (1954):271- n. Gnof, G. C"t,,~ de "'''"''$Cril~ fI foe lhe ...mrno!>$ ol the CO\lncil. The main reason ....as lbe empcrQl"'. decenninalion 10 unite the empire on lhe bas.is of the Nicene failh. As a preliminary, ;m· medialol~ on his arrival in Con.tantinople on 24 November 380 (Socrates Seholastieus Hi.wri" ec· cles;lI$lic" V.ol, he summonwthe :semi-Arian bish. op Dt:n>ophilus and gave him Ihe choice of :.ccept· ina t"" Nlcene Creed or deposition (25 No-ernbet'
•
594
CONSTANTINOPLE, FIRST COUNCIL OF
)110). To
1m honor. Demophil... chose lhe buet
c....,.,.,. had. ~r. been a rnas>drnbk &hift in 11'", empe.......s rdij;1ous oudoalo; since dllle (C«gory of NaUanws. CanMn de seip50 XI.at4-&41. 9IOff.;' After PelleT' died. his successor. TitnOlhy (380-Jll5), "''as equally I>o:$ile 10 GreK"'Y. and ...'hen!he council ,,",",mbled in May• ....,.., ...~ already faclions. The Wnlern group. ineluding 4mbl"OSC' of Milan. lellned Maximus. while lhe Eastern. "ilh Ihe ucqnion of lhe Eg,l'tian bishops, was ootid in its suppo" of CretO"", From the ou....,1 the liner gained the uppe' hand. The president of Ihe counell was MeI",;us of Am;· .ha.
""''f:TSC
CONSTANTINOPLE, SECOND COUNCIL OF
ty and ltd 10 dw major d;_... ion bet...«n and thr: CMhcc PO'riarndemneed in Jerusal~m in F~bruary 543 (Evag· nus HiSloritl ~ccfu;,..tic" IV.38). However. on~ of th~ Otigenist Ie-.ders, TheodOfU. Askldas, was befriended by Jus,inian and promoted to the influential bishopric of C..,sarea in Cappado· cia. lIil1 inllucnce now ~ame paramount at court, repbcing that of the papal repre..,ntati,'CS. Askida.s belie~d that religi".." unity could be restored in tM EMt if thoe emperor could brine about tlte lor· .....1 condotmnalion of the theolOlY of Tbcodorus of Mopstlestia, "Tlteodon! of CyrThus, and lba$ of Ede:!a, aU rq>tYStowiva of !he Anliocbellt "",hool of lheolo«Y. Ibas's IettC'f 10 lhe P~rsian pusbyt.er Maris 1hM criticiled Cyrirs Chrislolot:t', Th«>dotet's rejolndet- 1O Cyril's T"'e"~ AnMhernas, aDd !lOme outspokenly Antiochcnc writinp of TbcodoIuI were ...,prdcd as osptrisIly obnOJt...... 11vse com· prised lhe '11lrtt Chapt~n" tit.. ~ offend lOr condemnation. A$ bolh Chalcedonians and anti· Chslcedonians in ,he EasI could ~ On ,his propOSllion, ;1 ...... hoped lha, un;ly could then be reo '10re ,_-ani
596
CONSTANTINOPLE, THIRD COUNCil OF
AskicLu. and other Ea..em bisl>op5, Vi,;lius uoom· 'r...or>kated !hem (II AugUSf 551). He had in .he meamime been broughl .0 CoIutanlinople: now, Inrin. IDr his life. he fled 10 Chakedon and ~ 10 praidoe al W general eouneil thal W emperorwas ~n. '0 summon. The council mel on S Ma~ 5SJ. V..aius issue' promiw of Heraclius in the nol «nIUl)'. 'IlIeM: COIKess>oftS. howe',e!', were compn>miloed by the councll's p;plie term ....as us.-:d In Ihe Eclhetis iswe 597
lilisme." Eclt", d'Ori""l 27 (1928):6-16, 257-77; 18 (1919):19-34, 171-82; 29 (1930):16-28. Hi:fele, C. J., and H. Leclercq, Imn•. His/oire des concileJ, Vol, 3, pt. I. pp. 471-538. Paris, 1909, Schaff, P., and H. Wace, cds. A SoI.CI Lib,,,,)' of N;un~ and Posl.N;cen~ Ft1Jhu" Vol 14, Th~ Seven Ecumenical Council" ed. Henry A, Percival. pp. 325-52. Grand Rapids, Mich,. 1956. LEsLIE
W, BARNARD
CONSUBSTANTIATION, theologicaltenn appiied by Manin luthe. 10 Ihe actual substantial cO" e.istence and combination of Ihe Body and Blood of Chrisl with the bread and wine of communion following the eucharislic consecration of Ihe ele· menlS. This doctrine is rejeclcd by Ihe Onhodox church, which holds that the bread and wine, through a mystical lronsformation not easily graspe ""'Om
COUNC~
~~ known as lhe High Cou.ncil. 1M Council of the Ciuodd.the Khcdivial Diwan. 1M General AsKrnbly, the
House of Cotn..-u. OC" lhe CcnenJ Council), coun· cil Ioun&ed by ~''''UD W in 182-4 10 deal with all the inlernal albi" of EI)PC- no! rew"'! 10 financial matlers. The cooncil's basic ~tions _no iswed. on 3 JanlW)' 1825: in 1830 those doeaIinl wi1JI ,he orpnb:ation of Itl meeTinp _..., issued. These wet'e folJo.,.td by rule and regulations ...,w· ed. 10 itI orpniDlion and 1lru In Egypt or Concerning Egyptians L The Coptic period in Egypt lasted from the second century B.C. to the middle of the seventh century A,D, It. lerminu. a quo is justified by th" beginning of the fonnation of the Coptic language. last stage of the I'.g)-ptian tongue, traced up 10 that point in hierogll1'h. or writtcn in hieratic or de· motic. The word "Copt" has only an ethnic meaning. The native inhabitants of I'.g)-pt during this period are Copts. initially mostly pagan. tben pagan and Christian, and finally Chri,tian by a large rna· jority. During this period the language is common to all. as i. the writing; the literature and an are Coptic. either pagan or Christian according to the subject maucr; the Christian liturgy i, Coptic: the pagan cult of pharaonic origin, mixed together with Greek "mysteries." is also Coptic. 2. lbe Coptic communit)' in egypt lasted from the middle of the seventh century to the twentieth cenlUl)'. The meaning of lhe word "Copt" is ethnoChristian. The word "Copt" designate. essentially the Onhodox Copts. By extension. it may I>e applied to COplS who have become Catholic or Protestant, or even agno.tic (but then re.'ening to the purely ethnic meaning). The Coptic language remained that of the Coptic communit)' for a shon time only. By the lenth century it was supplanted by Arabic, as was their literature. which. however, remained Christian, The Coptic liturgy hpt it. place of honor in this community and is to be distinguished from other Christian liturgies. Coptic an is also thaI of this communit)' and is thus Christian, It lost it, ,,,Iue as an during the thineenth century,
COPTIC CATHOLIC CHURCH
Outside Egypt The w"rd "Copt" is to I>fOln!ssn.., rnCOTpOl1ltlon of GTetk words into the local democic, endin, up ...;lh the ntablishment of ""haI is known as I'rooo-Coplic. This "''as mainly opoI<en f.«ypI:ian wrillen In Creek cltaractC'B. The Papyrus Heid·AJlih ibn 'Abd al· Malik, the Arn.b "keroy of Egypt. to u"" Arabic as
COPTIC LANGUAGE, SPOKEN
the only language of the administration. To keep their places in the adminislnttion. the Coptic functionaries leamed the language of the rulers and this led to the appearance of bilingual documents 31 first, ultimately giving way (0 Arabic as the role mode of expression in the gov.rnm.lII. t. The gradual apostasy of the Copts 10 Islam as a !' thai lilurgical Coptic has been preoerved within the church as an eslablished tradition, though the use of Arabic has been growing. In fact. the disco.'ery of the Coptic ecclesiastical heritage and Ihe revival of the slUdy of the Coplic language appears to have been made in modem tim~ by Western scholarship in Europe. The Ii,."t work to be published in the West in this field was wrinen by the Jesuit priest Athanasius Kircher. and .....as entitled P.-oJro"'us Copt..s siw Aegypriacus (l636). He 101"" crealed a grammar of the Coptic language entitled Lingua aegypliaca resritUlo (i6431644). In 1639, T. Petraeus published halm 1 in Bohairic Coptic supplemenled by phonetic Latin characters under the title Psalm.. s Primus Davidis, Copt'ce. Arabia et Larine (london, 1659), Since then, se.'era! otlle.- Coptic grammars have appea.-ed -by Blumbe.-g (1716). Christian Scholtz (1778). and the Catholic Coptic schola.- RIlfi!'lI al-Tilkhl (1778)-logether wilh the firsl Coptic lexicon by La~roze (1775). In Egypt ilself, the study of Coptic in schools was sponsored by CYRIL IV (1854-1861). who insisted on the use of Coptic in churches as Ihe official liturgical language. Outside the church. lql~diyits Lablb became a champion of Ihe use of Coptic among the laity as a spoken language. In the meantime, Cyril IV entrusted the HEGtJMENOS Takla wilh the teachinil. On a scienti1i~ basis. of the Cop· tic language. liturgy, and hymnaJ to priests. He was succeeded in this capacity by Mu'aJlim 'IRYAN JlRJIS MUFTA!:t. Unfortunately, the latter was responsible for departing in his system from the old Coptic phonolol}' to the modern C .....ek. This took place wilh the "",isla ncO' of a teacher of the Greek Ian· guage al the 'Abjdiyyah School in Cairo, This new system was unopposed by Ihe church authority and $OOn spread among lhe younger general ion of Ihe modern Coptic priests. Among its strong supporters was the great champion of the Coptic language, Iqladiyw Lab,b, who .',as himself a pupil of Mu·aJ· lim 'Iryan MufulI,J. In the late twentieth century, a new trend has """n encouraged by SHENOUDA 111. Emile Maher Ishaq. as head of Ihe Coplic language ....ction in the Cairo Clerical College. is promulgating the return to the origin.l Coptic phonology and the elimina· tion of the Greek influence that is foreign 10 traditional Coptic. BIBLIOGRI\PHY
Blumberg. C. G. Fundamema lingua~ coplicae in gralia", eo",,,, eonscripra. Leipzig. 1716. Ishak. E. M. The PhQntliJ:s a"d Philology of Ih. 80h· airic Dialecr of Coplie, and rhe S..",ival of Coptic
COPTIC MUSE.UM
607
Il'ord. III tJl.. Colloq"iol tmd Cu...;c,,1 Arab..:· 01 EC/pI, "nd of Coplic Gnunm,,'iCtif ConSln4('tlons in CoJ/oqu",l CC/plitln, 2 >'ols. D. Phil lhe"", O~· lord, 1975 Juji, Philuu......., ·A..-..q. DltllnJr ,\lu~/J. 'A..,.. Clio' ro.1911 _ Al-LuJ1t.1l "'.Qi~,-.,'d1t. Clioiro, 1916KirchC1". A P'rotJ,.,...u. Copt... .... ~ Ael;>."....." .... Rome, 1636. l.acro~, \\ V. cit. uJiNJn .tfYPIUICO-l.,........ u
,'tit• • ,n"" I",p"e _umtn/is .""'''10 studio eolltelUm tl tU.bo"'llUft. o.r.,.-d. 1775. _ Ling....~lYplitlc" ...."il,,'''. Rome, 164), Pelrxus. T P""Im..s Prumts D",~dis, COp/let. 04,.6London. 1659. OuaIRm~ ..... E. M Rultercltu cnltquu ICt tI UIUlt.
q"u s'" I" t."'8U'
fI
Imlori· 10 lilli,m"'e de fEC'pl< fI
Paris. 1808 1Ua(;l'll alTllkhl R"di",cnM /i"8".' COplU. s,,'. "ef)'p'i"c"., Ron'e. 1778. Sd"'lh~. Christi.n. Cm",,,,,,';c,, ucgyp""c" """'$le eenain hall. 'Cl ."",cia! colleclklns .""h as swnework, w'oodwon, me!:>I•. and '''diles, The libm')' prm'cd 10 hi: ,he pride of the mllSg for the , 1~J2 ___ A Bri"f Guide 10 liz" Coptic Museum a"d r Ih" PriMcipal A>lcrem CI",rehe, of Cairo, Cairo. 1938 Pahor Lahib. Thc Coplic Museum, Cairo, 1950, ___, TIle Coplic Mwc",,, a'ld Ihe fort,"ss of Bal>· JiIJ>l aI Old Cairo. Cairo, 1953. ___, CIJplic G"osljc P"pyri in liz" Cpl'C Mwew" at Old Cairo, Cairo. 1956. ___. Das koplische Kaj,o. Koplische K",.", ChriSt, .Il/llm ~m Nil, pp. 92-94. 8en[ two Jesuits. Christoforo RodriJUCZ and Giovanni Ba![;s.. lOll Eliano. 10 W CCplM: Pope GAlllUa. VII (15251S68). Tllis mission brought 00 potitiw: rc:sults. foe !he Roman rq,"s~11CaIi.'eS dtrnand«! of Uw: Cpls and wir pope unc:onditional subjection 10 the pope of R.omle fale lhat is in 510'" for sinDe"," Tonnenton, whosoe chief is AbdeJDtroucbos. mele 0Ul a ........ t)' of CMlel puniohments 10 all Ih.... who ha.e alnned. Isaac Is lhen led 10 bis father. Abraham. and Ihl'OUlh him is inslrucled by the lord on the condilions ~e$S.llry for entry inlO lhe kingdom of God. After the LoT'en though defectively-a Coptic grammar and several Coplic liturgical books with an Arabic translati,,,,, the Ana-phora (1136). Horologion (1750), Ponlifical (1161-1762), and Rit· ual (1763). In addition to the scholars ....'ho pursued lheir Coptological studies out of imerest in the content of the Coptic te~IS or in the Coptic language, other scholars concerned themselves with the Coptic Ian· guage in order 10 decipher the hieroglyphs with ils aid. They staned from the c"rrect assumption of some relati"nship between the Coptic language and the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Only the three mosl im· ponant among many scbolars need be mentioned, the Swedish diplomal and Orientalist Johann Davigie cople 20 (1971):211-14. Munier, H. "Gaston Maspero et les etudes copte....
Bulletin de /'A55odalion dts "mis d.... egUses /'"rl copies I (1936):27-36.
el
de
Mysror, W. 'Telat acmel de, ~ud£$ coptologiques en Pologne." Enchoria 8 (1978):25-28. Nagel, P. Bibliographie zur r",such«n und sowjd, ischen Kupt%gle. Arbeiten aus der Uni\'ersit~ts· und LandesbibliOthek &lchsen-Anhalt in HaHe 23. Halle/Saale, 1978, Petersen, H, "Coptic Studies in the United States of America," Bulletin de 10 Sodht. d'orcht.ologie copte 19 (1970):249-75,
Qualreml:re, E. RecheFches 617
the,.., are conneclions wilh Arabic studies and with Ihe sludy of Islam. The Coplic language gradually lost its significance as a colloquial and Ii,emry Ian· guage and was replaced, except as th~ language of Ihe chur-e wislted 10 00 50. and oe mwl therefore cond,w thaI lhey _re denied the 0pportunity. BiocraPhical compliers d>d l>OI apwn ...hy Muslim Copts pu~ed f,ew $ludin in the Is· Iamic curricuIum_ TIley simply did lIO'I record any IUCh $ludies, as they did 10 meliculousl.y for per· IOnl Ihey consi I. p_ 65; Marth.l, f. 23; Wiet 47) (Iwice). Nrnb: Reprn~ruatiff of lhe Sulun. In 1M Mamluk rnilitary hi.enon:hy, ~pre$enu.tl,'e of (he sultan In the ~-ptian or S)mn PJO';nces. In Ihis conl~"t, a Copt .... ,,-..:1 as QSlItanllO ....11;,;" Mamluk oIli«rs. Ot-July 1441 (Ql>.... IV, p. 313, 110. 841).
Shadd .Ultll; Wiel 1487). Sa'd .1·Dln Faraj ibn M1jid .1·Qib!; al·M~rf, koown as Ibn aJ.NaJ:IhAl, d. Jumidi II 8Mj Muclt-April 1;a;>1 (q...... VI. P. 1&9. no. 570; M....MI II, f. HS; Woet I~I) (1Wiu). Sa'd aI·Dln Ibriblm ibn 'Abel aJ·Razziq al-SkatI· dat'l al-MiFi aJ.()i~1. kno>o-n.u Ibn Ghurib. d. Rapb l103fDecembcr 1405-b!ua.ry 1-106 (.(law' I, p. 65: Mttnhall. f. 23; Wiet 41) (twice). ~r aI·Din ),tuhamtnad ibn "Abel aJ·Razdq a/. Armanl aI-O;~ d. Mtll;>arnm 88ljApril-M.ay (~w' VIII, p. SS, nO. 70; Mtt..m./III. r. 180; Wio1 H87) (three times). Mant'lr ibn aI~ aI.(Jib!!. d. Sh • .........;J 870jMayJune 1466 (1)w' X. p. 170, DO. 716). Sharaf aI·Dln MIls;i. ibn Ylllur al·BQllj! al·Mi¥! al·Qihit1 al.Qib,I, known all Ibn \(;ltib Ghartb. d. ~afar 882:/May-June 1477 (1;'~w' X, p. 192. DO. 810), byn al·Dln Yal:tY'" ibn ..\bd al·Rau1.q al·Qib!; al· Olhlrl, kno:»on as ai-Ash....'. d.. Rabl' I 874!S'encer of the It.han·s tn!:Ml1l"eI and munitiolll, raponsibk for in· ventories of supplin and annamenu held in Te "al)' 1417 (.Q~w' V, p. 102, no. 384) (twice). UJlIJdIJ. ,,1-m""d'i~nH:
Ov...scIe lor collecdna: ren15 from Ilovemment ptopetliC's. Rare: offic:e a~ only in this
_.
One position. 100 pc...,.... t of one lotal: The precedin, Ibn Abl SlIikIr. U~.IJt of sixtterl. total: Sa'd aI·Dln Ibnhlm Ibn 'Abd aI·Katlm aI.Qi~ a1-M~ a1-Shafi1, knooo,·n _ Ibn ~ib Jakarn, d. Rabr I S4lfSeptember-October 107 (.Qaw' l. p.6I). ~IAh ai-Din Mu!:,&mma.d ibn lbmim. d. Rajab 895jlliy-June 1490 (1;1""" VI. p. 283, no. 949). Will: Go,..,mor of a town or diurlcl. usually chief of police. A military office with direct tie. to the l<X'al populace, Usually h..ld by an "mir of secon· dary or teniary rank. Pr~rogalive. often used to e~lon bri"'" Or to o,enee go,emment con~""lO' 110.., of propeny. T..·o position•• 13 percent of sbcleen:
•
622
COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT
Fakhr "'·Din·Abd al-Ghanl ibn 'Abd ",.Ra>zAq al· Am>anI al-otb!t1. knov,..... Ibn Abi a1.FaDj, dSha_-tI '21fNw:mber 1411 (""'Null II. f. 336; W"'I 1442) (Iwice).
Forty-I_ .....ilions. S JlC'lunl 01. S3' total
rq>G"'
ed in ttm ClIIegory in the IWO diocti~, were held by JlC'nom 01. Coptic Incesny.
au,alucralk Oflict!l Officials in Ihi$ c"leJOry sen'cd as procedural ad· minlst",to'" or consultantS In Thc ~""al and diplo· maTic bureaus of the Mamluk statc. A majority of such bureaus wcrc located in Cairo, Thc imperial apilal, although lrs$Cr bureaucracies of similar hi· erarch;':aI orpnimTion were mainl.ainal in the S)'I' ian pro,incial apiuols as well. The suotistiol fot' personnel in these posldons OOCltnsted marlerS in his serrice. HowcYff. the sinsJe OCCUrTClK:C of th~ term ~hout complemen. '"'I' IQU its initial meaning. On
aI~ a1.()i~.
d. ShawwalI70/MayJuna 1466 (i).....' X, p. 170. no. 716).
•A"'i! .I·,,""qii/:
hclOY or coll«lion agenT servinl under cither thc .. b~I' "I·ewql!nr. more likely. lhe !Waneer (~stbdd.) ol pious lrust found.ations lOS I 1O'·",mmenl aI-.... 'Abd "'.chanl aI-Qib!i "'·Mip'!, d. Sha'Wn 813/NO\'Wlbcr-Deeem'oar 1410 (~w' IV. p. 145, I)(). 633). KartJD a)·Dln 'Abd ..·kartm 'Abd a1.Jluliq al· Q>"b!1 al-~, known • Ibn Kalib "'·MuniltlW, d. Rabr 11 8S2/June-July U411 (I}."" IV. p. 313. no. 84lll (,..ice), Kartm ai-Din 'Abd aI·Kal1m ibn Barakah a1.()i~i aI·Mi:lrl. known as Ibn Ulib Jabm. d RabI' I 833/Novambar-Dt!ccmbcr 1249 (~w' IV, p. JOg, no. 833). KarIm al·D1n 'Abd al,K;trfm ibn Fakhlrah al.Qlb!1. d. Rajab 8SS/July-AuSU" 14S1 1l{7tb.y-Jur>< 1468 (ll"w' XI. p. 16). no. SIS). Fakhr aI·Dln Mipd ibn 'Abel aI·R&zdq aI-Q>~ aI· A$laml aI·Sbndar1, !<nov.... IS Ibn Ghur:lb. cL '11/la(llI-l<W9 (ManIr./lII. f. 71 b; "",",,,,, 1~9), Fillr aI·Din Wojid ibn Ahl aI·Fao:!"il al-Qibtf, known as Ibn aI·Ma...... q. d, Rajab 83)/JobrchApril 1430 (,(hzw' VI. p. 235, no. 812l. Majd aI·Dln Majid ibn aI·~ aJ-Qib!i al·AsI· amI. d. Dhil a1-l:Iiijah 843{May-June 1440 (Q~w' VI, p. no. 813) (lwice). Khayr al.D1n Mu~ammad Ibn YaJ:Iya al·Qibp. known as Ibn FakMrah, d, 899/1493-1494 (Q""" X, p. 72, no, 245). Sharaf al·D1n ibn Y".... f al·BOttjl al.Mi¥' .l-Qahi'" aI-Qibll, known 1$ Ibn lOtib GILaJ1b, d. $alar 8U~-Ju,.. loin (Qil 870/M:oyJune 1466 (11""" X, p. 170, no. 716). Sharaf ,,1·Din Mil>A ibn Yl1!uf al-Blltljl al-MIJr1 a1~irl al-Oib!I, kno... n as Ibn Utib Gharlb, d. Safar 832/May-June 1477 (paw' X, p. 192, no. 810). Kdlib ''''.... m 791{December 1388January 1)89 (Ma ..haill. f. :>65b: Wlet 1.99). K~lib al·l~ld'
Secretary 10 Ihe 1~1~. an hont>,.,' X. p.lOO. no. SSot).
K.,rb .1·Jirr. Confidential secre1ary. head of !he tl/M.....1.im1l~· (royal chancellery). Servin. as fo.... e11f1 mlnistn (responsible £Or Infonning lhe ....I"'n about cbssiMd staU and dipi duri .., audi~nce:s i.. the Palace op,Jll5Iice (DJr aJ.·AdJ). rec;eivin, pelitions from the J"M'/ltld, and ""Oliing closely wilb lhe four chief judges in appeal. hean! "" Ihe Ihrone. One of Ib~ 1l>05t i,,/hleniial civil offi· ciall in lhe ""aim (the office ....... duplka,e 626
COPTS IN lATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT
M"I~bmm uJ-df"'~II:
Official in !he lipandal lxI·
fUU, lpecifically !he 01_ al-Da...tah (see unock-r "';;' Ill-d" ....,."). 0ulie5 limibr '0 Iho:ot of 'he "'.... /Mm" bu1 empowered decide procedural lepl malIn'S CQDCtminl collection and e.pendl,u.., of ",,'enua. One polilioll. 100 pe,..,etll of one 1eer of re~~nUel yl~lded by Chanlllble lrusll (",.,qlif) 10 fiscal administrator of a gov~mmenl bure.... or budgel direc:lor of a religio-
acadt:mic inslilution 5Uch . . . mosque, mut bel...........~ appoin.td. and ohio oil" lie men'fKe '0 a MLt>lim CopI. anadoe.l to a specifw; ro-.nclariOlt (Sa~mWtiyJah Madnoah). J>f'O"U lbt few CODverts 0. their de>.andanl$ hdd
"" p."
One potition. 2 pereenl of fifty-two touol, Ibrahim ibn Fakh. al·Dln al.Qi~I, known as Ibn al·StJk4. wa·al·LaymOn, d. Rajab 1164fMay 1460 (Qaw' I. p. IS3;.
N~>ir
aJ./nmdar: StJpcl'llsor of the port. The post fiNt appean fer the pon of AIUlindna, but after the monopolie> iml"""'d by StJltan Ba.l'>bAy (S25_8411 1421_I.J1). the offieial appean In the Red Sea pons con'1'OIl«l by the regime. Th.« po5ltion., 100 pcn:cnt of th""" total: Karim aI·Ofn 'Abd al·Karlm ibn 'Ahd al-Razdq aI~1 a!.·Mi!:I1. l:nown as Ibn K.ilib aJ.MunIkhM. d. Rabr II 852/June-July t.uS (AI",,""'/ II. f. J.45; Woe! 1461) (rw>ee). Stl'd aI·!)b, Ibrahim aI.Qib!! aI·Naprl aI-MUliiml, ktlo..-n as Ibn al-Mar'•• d. Rabr 11 PM/AueustSeptember 1440 {J;)oj ibn Mijid aJ.Qi~ u.M¥i, kn........ '"' Ibn aI·Na1:t~. d. Jumadfo II 865/ March-April 1461 (J;) wW'
N~;ir
4/-4(,,1>/: Supervisor of the ror-I 5tables. reo 6PQ11$ible fOl" dis"ibulinl re~nUf:S de:signaled to maintain the ro)'ill cavalry hou$ed in the Citadel complea (near the Maydan al·Ruma},jah). He ad· ministered purchases of fodder and harness... well III payment of waies to srooms and ~lable anend· ants. Nine positKms, 4i """,ent of tWf:nt)'two Colal:
628
cons
IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT
Amln al·Din 'Abd-Allih ibn Abl aJ·Fanoj aI.Qib!l aI·Mi¥!, known • Ibn Tij aJ·Din MOsI. d. J.... madli II 844!Oct. . .-N.....'CftIM 1440 CQ.rw' V. p. •1, no. 155; M"'nJ.aJ Il. f. 256; W~t 1297) (.......,~J.
T.ij a)·Din 'Abd aI·Wahhib ibn N~bh aI.Qib!l
al-Aslamr. known lQ a1-$haykh .... Kha!ir. d. !>hu al.Q;a·dah 865/Aucwt-Sq>t....... t>tr 1%1 (Q...... V. p. 11 •• no. 408: M""lutl II. f. 164b: Wi~1 14'18) (Iwice). Sa'd al·Din Faraj ibn MAjid al·Oi"'l al·MI~rf. known as Ibn al·Na~~AI. d. JumMo\. II 865/Feb· ruary~March 1461 (Q""" VI. p. 169, no. 570). hkhr al·Din MAjid Ibn Abl al·F...,u,·il al.Qib!1. known"" Ibn ManOq. d. Rajab 8H/MareltApril 1430 fQ Falli ai-Din M.IjMl ibn Abi aJ-F~'il a1.Qi!lf1. known as Ibn aI·Ma.mill. d. R&jab 833{MarchApril 1.30 tp"... VI. p. 235. 1>0_ Il2). N~r aJ.Din MuJ:wnnwi ibn 'Abel al-Razzaq al· Annanl a.I..Qibjl, no dnIt1t dale (1tI....Jrtt.1 Ill. f. 180; Wit! 2187). Fal:hr al·Dln MIl~ammad ibn Far,lI·AlIah aj.f.l~· rini al-Qib!1 al·Q6hiri aJ·Mlaml, d. 7,)2113311332 (M.."hallll. f. 24Ob; Wlet 2311). Shl.ms al·Dln MOsli ibn 'Abd al·WaltMb al·Mi~r1 al·Qib!i. d. 771/1369-1370 (Manha/IIl, f. 313; Wiet 2534) (Iwice/. Sharaf aJ-DIn Masa ibn Yiisuf aI-Karlik! al·Qibll al-Shawbakl. no death date (Manllal 111. f. 379; witt 2571) (three time.). Iami! al·Dln Nsuf ibn 'Abd al·lCarfm a1.Qib!1 at· Shifi1, known as Ibn Kitib Iakam, d. Oltu al· l:'-ijjah 862/Oclober-November 1.38 (Ma..Jrtt.f III, r.•59; W"1tl 2710). ,..~
..l~ (dho..An "I·J: Supervisor of 1M suI· \an's special bureau adminislerlnB a fund resen'fd 10 cover costs of miliW')' umpaipts an ""
'Ab.;n ai-DIn ·AbQ.Alah ibn ~mad al-Oib!l
aI·
~.
known as!bft lunbUr. d. 155/13S4-I35S (ltl'II1Jra1I1. r. 257; Wlel 1301)Fakhr aI·Din ·Abd·AlIib ibn MUsil aI-Oib!l al·Mi¥!. known a$ Ibn Tjj at·Din. d. 776/137.-1375 (M"nlutlll, r. 276b; Wit! 1340). 'Abd al-Ghanr ibn Hana-m ;>1..Qihu, known as Ibn al·Hawam. nO death date (M".. hal II, f. HSb: Wiet 1441) (".ice). Maj J
COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT
aJ'Mi~l1,
known as Ibn Klilib Jabm. d. IUbr I 8Jl/NO\·embcr-Dtte~r 1.29 (Q""" IV. p, 308. no. 8J3; Mnh 629
Amln ai-Din 'Abd-AII:Iih ibn .... hI IJ.Fa"'i ~i .. I-M~. trno..." as Ibn Tij II·tIl" Miis:Ii. 'incia\ ,owns, plus ..,.,·eraJ customs dUlies. The depanmenl healrne promi....nl durina the ..,ha,nate 01 Barqliq (784-801/1182-IJ99i. w-llo,.,rclIued brp numbe.. of Mamluk lroopen. A ma;orit~ of those post>; "'lOre held by Muslim Cop1S. Eighteen posilions, 75 pl'rc:en' of twenl)'four 10' 1.1: nj al-Oln 'Abd al-1Qm. d. Dllu aJ.--I;IiDah B341 Iwgusl-Sq>lrmher 1431 (Q.. w' IV. p. 191. no. 485; M=haill. f. 11Sb; Wlel 1407) (1,..;,;10). Taql aJ-Dio 'Abd a1-WahhAb ibn 'Abd-AlI:lih (MIojidl a1-Qi~1 al-I;lanaft. known iI:'I Ibn Ahl Shlkir. d. Dhu al.()o'fl, d.1}ala~ SS2/May-June 1477 (/?.... X. p. 192, no. 8(0). bl}'n ~J.l)fn VaI)yt Ibn 'Abd a/.~ a/·Qit,,1 aJ· ooil'l. known u aJ·Ashq.... d. RabJ' I 814,tSoq>. tembe~-October 1469 (Q-' X. P. 233, no. 983; ,"""h.., Ill, f. «l2b; Wie1 UJJ) {three tlll>Q). ~~ib
.I.; Wie1 (340).
~-'1ib
.1-..1",,-,:
Imendant of the bu~eau io~ ~evenues accruing 10 the Prophet's descendants. An individual appointed to this oIIice served ~ a lupe",llOry agent of the regime, shlrinS his authority (as a regulalO~) with the "aqlb al.aJI,,,,-!, who was mure autonomuus although also appoinled by the sultan. This d~rtment was open to bribery due 10 lhe claim. pelX>rl' with proven I:Ibhiml genealO@iet could m~ke on lhe su,te rreasury. R>t"&. eries were Inevitable, and the f4i1;b "''a5 respoll5lole roc- nllina lhe ....qib to acoounl, $ince the Lauer identi6ed with lhe '.. f"v,.Ibir'l, d.. SNo.....'ll1 8l1/No..embtr 141' (.K 631
Sa'd aI-DIn FaJaj ibn MAjid aI.()ibl.1 a1-M~rt, known ... Ibn aI·1Ul)I:IlI. d_ J\lrNdi II 865/ M..-ch-April 1461 (.1;1.....' VI, p. 169, DO. 570). Shams aI·Din IbBhlm ibn 'Abd-A.Ilih a/.Qibl.J. Ii. Sha'b6n 798jMay-June lJ.69 ('wa"hIIll. p. 51, \'00.31; Wiel 31). Amln aI·Dln ibrahIm ibn 'Abd aI.(;han1 al-Qibl.l, k.......·n as Ibn aI·Han-m, d. ~ 859/JanuaryFebruary 1455 (14a"hIIl l. p. 93, no. 49; W;et 49) (t..,1«). Sa'd aI·Dln lbr!htm ibn 'Ahd al·Karlm al·0ib11 .1·M;~"', knQwn as Ibn KAlib Jakam, d. RabJ' 1 841/September-October 1437 (Qaw' I, p. 68; M""},,,I I. p. 96. nO, 50; Wiet SO) (lwice), Sa'd al·Din Ib~lm ibn ·Abd al·RazUq al-Skan· dart al-M~'" aI·Oi~1 ""Musliml, known as Ibn Gltllrib. d_ Rajab 808/Dfanam 881/ApriI-May 1411 (Q"w' X, p. 268, \'00. 1061) (I..;ce).
Jamil aI·Din Ytlsif ibn 'Abd a1·Kartm aI.()ib!1 al· Sblfi'l. u.o-..·n as Ibn ""lib Jalt:am. d. Dhu "', J:fijjah 16Z/October-November 14$8 (Ma"hlll 111. f. 459: Wiel 2710), In lhis category 228 -positions, 21 percent of 1.039 loral reported in the lWO diclionaries. were held by personl of Cplic .nces!ry.
632
COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT
AnlHn&....kl OccupatloM In a>nIBSI wi... ohcir prominmce in the d;-"""I of Iht AUmluk relione, rela1;"e!y ft:w perMftl of Col'l'~ orilio en~ ;n the myriad crafts or nun· ufaclunnl tndts reponed in the biograpl'licaJ li'eT' a'ure of Ihe 1011".- Middle A,es (f""neenlh and 6fleenlh cemu';,...). Their reprfle'nullion amonl ,lie m\!n:anlile netWOfU of Cairo also wa< su'l'ri.in,ly minimal, especially in li,llt of the re,ime's usehokl with tK> dwana/ion of t;le""ry tninin._ The olher impHe. some devee of skill in accountancy, especially when pruedin, "I·dlw~n. Usually an ini· tial position. menlioned.t lhc beginning of an indio ~iduaJ'. career_ The s.pecialized usage of l:h~dim lied 10 :I. religious instl,utlon (such .. khlJdim ./. ilm!" Or kJo"dim dl....dljitl). looic;atinll SWIl' ~ • pilgrim or ~ mystic. doe:I not apply .0 llonc cases. none of ...·hich W~'e associated wilh religious te....ice. Eln.... posilions. 5 pen:~m of 224 lotaI:
KarIm ai-Din 'Ab financial bureau. presumably the DIw"" dl-D..wl"h or bureau of '~v~nues (sec >l'4;1r "1.d,,w'~Jo), Thl. was a.n eml)'·le"",l po5ltion .uggesling appremice· ship in bookkeeping and ""cretanal ,kill•. Three po£itionl, 7S percent of four 10lal: Sa'd ai-Din Il:>nhrm al·Qib!1 aI·~rt al-M .... llml. mQWrl as Ibn "'.Mar'ab. d. Rabf Jl 844/AU&US'I5puntal of /M Ali/eric.." 0rV1IU1-1 Soci1..,.,. hI e A. K. s.. tambl:on. and B. L,ew;s. Cambrid&e. 1970. Hilli. P. K.. Hif.lOrY of .he Arabs. London. 1946. ta...... roole. S. Hi.>."'Y of ED'pl I" /he Middle """s. London. 190\. SuBH' 'i.WSIS
COSMAS II. fifty-fourth palriaTCh of the SIte of
CORPUS HERMETICUM. See Hennes Trismqistl>$.
COS!\tAS I.
r.:..ty.fOllnh
patriarch of lhe See of
Saint MIork (730-731) (fns! day: 3(1 Ba·Onah). He wu • n.ti~c of the 10wn of Bani. nnr Samannoo in th.. Charbiyyah Province. Little is known a\>oul hi$ $teular life before he look Ihe monaslic .'ow in the wlldern<ss nf AnW Maepr. Cosm", ""01 a monMlic life dislinlUtshed by ""ne· lily. humililY••nd self-denial. Who:n ~ Coptic archons unanimou>ly deci BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aliya, A. S. Hi.lo'"! of EllS/ern
,"'.
Cambridge Hi.>rrwy
of 1,I"m.
Chri.sli~l1ity,
London.
2 mls. ed. P. M. Hoh.
SainI Mark (851-858). A nalive of s....... nnOd. Cosmas joined Do)'\" AnW 101.agar as I. dealt r.ma,.
However. nO'I IOf1ll alter the ~menl 01 Copts by MUilirns In lhe administnlion. the final>Ces of the counlry bepn 10 suffn- OSIcnsiblc depletion. Even ......allhy Mus!u... sucll as n." Sa·1t! aI·Asla, kinl. wnt' .ictimized by ",... lim fuDctioNriea.. Apparendy lhe poll ~ (1IZTAH), which had been lwo di~. now beamf: to Ethiopia and rcquesl.,d funds from the archbishop, who refused. They conspired ~ln'l him by submit· lin, fal.., leners /rom Ihe palrlarch 10 Ihe olde. son. Th" lellers Slated lhal MInt was Ihe real appointee 10 the Ethiopian diocese and Ihal SU!ru. WllS an impostor. Con..,quenll)'. Ihe older son musle....d an army and, wilh the new p....lender. def..aled Ih"
I""
638
COSMAS AND DAMIAN, SAINTS
younger hrolher, seized the I"C" pen:tptible than in the Copto-Arabic: form oi the lqend of the Am..JD....,;. The rnI opposition be1W«n !be IrouPS of A....r.tY1'Oi is btlwem !he R0man croup known 10 Malalas lind the Coplic: Arabi. Till, W. Koplische Heilige . und M~r1yrerleg""der, Vol. L pp. 156-63. Rome, 1935. Yul)annA SulaymAn. Tuhf!./ al.",m~n Ii Sim/ al. Illrisayn Quzman wa-Darnylln. Cairo, 1926. MICHEL VAN EsBROECK
COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES, the
nam~
giv-
en to an anonymous Nestorian autnor of lhe twel~e book Chris/ian TopogTaphy, written a f~w years befOTe the Second Council of CO'lSTANT[NOP~E (553). Cos""", was an Egyptian mercltam, probably from Alexandria, who plied his lrade in Alexandria, lhe
Red sea pon of Adulis (Sawakin). and Ceylon (Sri Lanka), calling at the island of Soc01ra and the ports of the Malabar Coast of soutll India on lhe way. He had probably sailed as fur noM as the Somali Coast (Zingion) (11.30). Cosmas was a man of his time, one for whom interest in lheological questions took prece COSTUME. CIVIL
whok ar~......'U Jurroundtd by high. ~rpt1ldk"lar IDOtlntains on ..'hi~h tIw: ,,",,,It of heUftl ~. 8eIw«n hea.-en and earth lay tIw: firmamUI. divld· i"l 1M uni_ InlO lwo s~ God lU>d .he jus, ~II on the upptr leYd. 10 which JnlUI would lw .mniltC'(\ WI" th~ ~ ; on the kM"" w;os hun\anhy In this lifeTM ~1IlcaJ descriptions thai e-s. JltO' videlI are tlwrdO.., incidental to his main purpo&e. buI thq are nondlwlea """Y ac~unaU. As a )'OUI'I man h~ "''M In Adule a' tt.", outbrnI< of .he war betWftfl the l"lt1lor6- Their classifieation 1he,efore dept."e1s on the st)'1e and not the archaeokJsi""ion. of Ciblalal 81....11). or a.., no! reproduced In phot~. finally. certain importanl collecdons have regre1U.b1y nol )~ been published .)'SIcrrullically (Coptic M..eum, Cairo: Melropolitan Museum, New York). Comparing pTe$Crved remain. and represen....· tiolU of clolhed pl'l"Sonages i. al$O helpful in analyz· Ing Coptic civilian costume. Slelae and reliefs treal 8arments in ralher summary fashion. bul they are rich.r in information when painled de....il. have ...".vi.'ed. Wall ~iminp. ,enerally more pre~i.... portray civilians only rarely. Some ,extiles depici clothed lieu........ and may Ihus be used 10 delrnnlne ,he alnU\g~ment of the pi«n IN.t ~om~ ,he ~""ume.
Finally. the clothes in USC in £cypt In the 6rs! cenluries of ,he ChrisliAn era are abundantly represaned by portrait£. mash, and fun.,.,..'Y cloths.
n............. of Coptic WOI'IIen _anne a headdrcso "'. .. '''''f'Ccted. from. lhe becinninll of the Christ"'n en until _II aft... the Arab conqUe9:. This ....tom, ~ommon 10 the pe over. some pads have ~n found ~wn to a small shawl. This fashion could have been introduced into Egypt from Palmyra, where it was much in favor, as witnessed by the female funerary busts found at this site. It is more difficult to detennine the use of small leather pads wilh openwork and gilded decoration, which have been discovered at the neck of some mummIes and whooe dImensions are sensibly smaller than tho.., of the fahric examples (Louvre. X4S51: British Museum, 26563),
Shawlll The shawl. together ",;th tbe tunic, i. the piece of clothins best represented in the collections, and its almost systematic u.., is confirmed both by the pia,-klround (in' ..cad linen) and ror Ihe dCcoralion. and by way of conscquence lhe Ulcnsion of Ihc 1~'Ch"iqu" of lapeSl1')' and of color 10 Ihe background of Ihe ga" mcnt. Al Ihe same lime. a >'CI')' dear laSlc aloSerts itsclf lor omarne"'al overlay and lhe usc of decora· ,ion sch'lSes (Lou"rc, 2051. 2057). It is dilflcuillo decide "'hether "'e should classify a curious p ... menl reproduced on certain sleI"" "" a "'3n,le (Brililh Museum. 1523; Coplic M ... ctJm. Cairo. 8689J, It comes 10' poin' on"'" fronl of lhe bod). ,,-hl(:h m"'l indklte lhal. beinl circular in lorn, (,,-herea< all "..,,~n Coptic ~ n "'ere basicall, rcaanpllar ... oqUIn... nee ~ ....., ,,'O"Cn 10 shipe and llot cu. from • piKe of fabric to be sec" n up ahe......,.rd) and withou' any sli, for Lhc arms. k could be .hrown back on 1M shoulder1; to .U",,· p-ca1C1" frftdom (>f ....,.,..,meol.
or
643
Mamie. chC'stnuI·colored backcround "ilh rcd neck line 3nd shouldcT IMnd decoraled ""h mOlif,; in ,-'Cru 3nd rcd. Tape""" Nin,h cenlury, Un~lh, 1.15 m; "idlh: 1.50 m, CQlmdy 1.0""" M"se"m, Po';s flowe", (Lou\'re, MCr,60), always execuled in 13pcSlrv, Some 3re en'irel" cO"cred "'III> reg"le~ of tapeslry. decoralions of 3nimals ~m. or of geometrical or floral molifs. "ilh ...btlc , ...rialions of color al the hea" of a .,nlle mohf. effecled ~' gradual Iv lillnening of the colors (\IUS« des Beau. Art 8 647
Copti Ihat ;1 is f'O"Sible only for the tunics and shawls 10 trace a cllronologi.. in the pontifiea1e 01 Pope S,.I· _~r ()14-H5). who made it the official YUllMnl of deacons. According co me Vii" SyM$lri. how~... cr, tM dalmalic becune a liturgical .~menl only under UheriU$ (352-366). In fK!. n "'as probably in II.. «>u~ of the fifth C(Dlury A.D. 1""1 II bee.amc a mark of the kom~D de~ons. allhoush lhe pope :somerlmes accord "'vi
I'"
'ion.
....1'
pictu....
Bourgun (0.47 m) high and made of 1,,,,,,,,00" p,un,ed in red ochn. with .he pupils of lhe ryes in black, pan".,.. a SQ.ndinr; man hnldinJ; a buckieT'. Al his ~ .. "" canic5 a sl>ealhcd tbger. He is dressed ;n a IUnIC ,hal SlOP; a, ,he In'l'eS. and his 'orliO is coo-ered b) a cuirass of ocales, ...,~nled bv a brae plasoron. JoSl abo\-e !he ~lt there -"ppeats on ,he cu,,,... a rorzon'S head, full-face. TIns ",.. imendl'dlo s.rile rea:r imo lhe enemy_ lbe lwo Ieatr and lhe 1«, a.... en"eloped in breec~ of coarse bUic:",,"-ork. pemaps of 1","10er. since Ihere is f\O IOOlwear. The head i> remarkable for ilS .,.-pression, "i,h almond eve. in an'iq"" on chubb~' checks and a Wlon n~ abm.'C closed lips in a roun ,
COSTUME OF THE REUGIOUS
limes whimsical form. 01 dress, at leasl in early limes, They drew upon local forms of dress, adap,ing them as closely as possible to lhe basic ideal scheme. Consideralions of lhe level of asceticism, Ihe malerial resources, and personal preferences were also taken into accounE. Also it was possible 10 distinguish onc group of monks from anOther by .'analions in ,heir tlrc'S An importanl eVolulion loward a more uniform style 01 dress took place nnder Ihe inAnence of lhe polilical, economic, social. and religious progress of Egypl. The stale had some'hin!; EO say, and popu· Iar fashions_Egyplian. Greco·Roman. Syrian, Byz· anline, or Arab. 10 mention onl)' the mosl import· anI-Influenced e of "ery small children. Some c",'ered Ihemsel"e' in cool wealher or on journeys Wilh the balol (cloak of sheepskin or goatskin), which On occasion ..,,,'ed as 3 pouch if lhe ends were knolled. Som.andria. afl"ected also the oecular e"'lJY ....d ll,urpeal """&C. Other rules followed.. ...·hich we do nOi a1..."Y" know, since ,hey probably remained in the domain of o",l,radi· tion and are cOIlS"'quently lost. The dirN,ive$ issued each monastery of any Importance had Ito own us· aJe" fllowing the !>asic mdel more or less strict· Iy, I, ....:as Ih... lhat the number of the gannenu WOrn by ,he religious grew. In addilion 10 ,hose known in the preced.i"l century ...'e may nOle ,he c.eil~n (1IInic), of ccane linen. h.."..p, or jUle. made of ., pieces of cloth joi,.,ed at !he shoukIers and rec !"1ar in form: ,he pori (BOOaIric, phti.nr), (dOQOkl, of dark colot>n of lhe rules In Ihe IJlOnasllc communi,..... Th... the monks WOre only the lunic, vlIln, and caci,rm, lhe leillfl, ,he mill, and probably lhe and hhoos; Ihough ...., ha,·e no n-idence of lhese certainly dating from lhis cen· tury. lhey definitely SUT\li~ed in,o Ihe follo",;ng cen, tmies,
'0 ....
pot.
Shth Century Ouring the si'-Ih century. there ",-erc sareely any changes £rom the po'eCedlng one. The i:k>ft was perhaps less frcqllCnl, or reslricled to liturgical tKllBe,
COSTUME OF THE RELIGIOUS
as ...as lhe. klobion. But lhe. 'hourgji bepn '0 appear. This ...';tS mode of leathe., and tqJUSC:med lhe ann< llptne;, ro·il for boIh men and "omen. I, ..-as a kllld of ..... I~ of k:atm... hich rrcalled lhe td"ltIlJn (baldric, o. orn:arRtnw should~ bIolt) of the C~ks .nd Roman. ... ..·ell ... ,he Cr«k ~"'" The tho"...;; "-as one oflhc coos«""ed ~-...cMftlU handed o.-n i.. Ihc COIInot of the .~; .. «,..,mOM' to< monks and nuDS at • bter pcriQd.
Sennth Century 1'1>c..., ....,..., pnHund modification. in Ec>l't ., lhe ""'" of lhe .rn,-aI 01. w Arabo, .nd dC)lh;"I "'lIS no ucepc;on. Tbt f lM'·" ....
The evidence: relat;nllO the eOStu",e of.he ...,Jigi""" in later ti"'el! is .teln" So",e _noes still menlion the epiwtli. ;n the eighth and ninth cenCUries; lbe b~llin, the ",hi"", and lhe ko"Ue in Ihe ninth cenlury; Ihe q"I"">U,,·,,n, lbe koukle. and Ihe kl"f' in Ihe Iwelfth: lhe qnlanJ,,"'nh again in the fourteenlh: and ~nally. the iII,ab and the ",i=, in thc .w\'Cnteenlh centul)'. The iibbah was a long tunic of bro"n "'001, the sleeve. of "hich did not reach the w.-is•• and "itich " .... closed in front. The ",fUll' WllS a large: lined cl"",k, black on Ihe outside and whilc on Ihe inside.
654
COSTUME OF THE REUGIOUS
tunics. "" manlles 'here a ~ th~ b..nTltS, the wmUtlt. and the I".•.,.U,,; .. headdreso. ,~ c.u.t, tht Aukl. the lJIn..n... hile 50""" mantles (hln,.... ..,.......,,-,,},) had a hood anOtChed. As" belt for lite lilU!JY. ,he mijious adotHed ,he hyass.h and lhe "''"I"A.h. "ill. the N".shll .. • ornamen': and for fuotwcar the ""'rAub (rootw~) and tlJ.u",lJh (....clal). The poorrs' clot""d lh"msekes in Or "'P. Thtr.. ~rc also panlaloons. which \'''''re worn by the rclilliouj a, " late dale. bu, for which w" h,,\'e only "ague icon",raphlc e"'idence. Oespite lhls multiplicity in malic,.. of clothing, an underl}'ing "on'inuloy kept aliye the direct h""itnge of lhe lirol rcliglOUj, Anton)' and Pachon'ius: cOJ' tume was accommodated to the: religious domain, and • continuing heril.,le was very dcfinttjvcll es· tablished in a bnd .....,et"ed ..,th the blood of lhe nrlie$, mart)"J'5. Throu.ho",' all the chanlQ. lhe ancien' ,-aloes pcrsi$ted. thfOUlh an InleniotJs con· cern ror adaptation able. br- example'. tnnspose the Greek Sl,d"",,,,, Into lhe ""'hie u/i· ,tJ,anlh. the i"",1IUOOft inw """.. or .......... lpcn·
",,,,,,qq.'
Lo>o'~r part of ..... nic (detail) sIlo"inl ~mbroiawe iuued \he uous e-nant of ·Umar. The early Islamic historians a>Ch U 'Abd .... J:bbm. Kind!:, and 8a!idhun do not h....e anJ record of this coYenam. which led _ Khobrs 10 considcT the cow:· nant 6ctitiow. o. apocryphal. N""rthekss, il5 delailm cillUion by a1-Qa.lqash.llnodi (1355 or 1lS61418), """n at that lale date. l~ no chane" lor doIIbtinl th" v"r.ocitJ of the situation as .. whol". if not in ilS minm" details. He.... is a sum~ry of al·Qalqashandl"s aCCOUnl of the Covenant (l913, pp. 381-87), which runS In perfect parallel to th" Trea· ty of Aluandria. in ;1$ varl"d s1ipulation~ and COn' dillon•. First, the lIZHH, or poll tax. was to be paid by all Dhimmis, that ". protecled non·Muslim wb· jecu. Second. Dbimmis W"1l' requimd 10 olrel'" tTee hospilalily 10 all Muslim sold;.,.. lor lhrcc do.ys in lheir churches. 1'h.ird. they well' to be 10)-aI Sll~ 10 lheir Muslim Mel'S. Funhermo...., they -... pe"" mi'ned 10 ride onl)' donkeys and lhc)' " ..,..., 10 ride them ~y$. ~ .""",ired 10 me in Ihe preleDCe 01 Muslims, and they WCIl' 10 "'...aT \"$' """'IS thai ~ distingulsh.able froll> ~ 01 their M....im compatriots. Dh;mmil were not 10 t'llisoe lImr ",*"" in I"""Y"r, and die)' we.... not 10 hold OSlffilalious processions wilh lhci:r ccmcrl and SCriptllll'S- Their chll",h l;>.,lls well' 10 be I'IInl in low Ion.... This special .tipula1ion could be ficli· tious, since bells appeared In the East"rn churehes only in modern times, and c"nainly not bero.., t),., sevenle"nth cenllll)', according to Ihe Je,uit C. Sic· ard (Tager. 1951, p. 54, n. I). Under Ihese condl· lions. I),., Christiam. includinl the Copts of EcYPt, were allowed to relaill their establi.... ed churches withoul inlenell'nc". However. they not allowed 10 IUtOrC .... iM The cO\...-..1 abo stipulated duot Dbimmis were nOlI. pennined 10 be employcd in !h" It:'T\ice of "'U5Iim$ or 1M MUlti.",lolat! in KCordanc" wilh """ dlcg,\eS of th.e Qur'1n. This principle.......'e'Yer. prm."aI to be utterly iJnpnclic-al for tlw.: simpk reaaeon !hac \he Copts. "'110 w",re the iilCCQoJ'WUII.., were the only fwK:1~ who could Mlp with !he levy of !he KHAJW. o. lenenol lAUlion. Tho: rnI".. had no other means of Ie.,inl uues bu1 through the good offices of th",ir Coptic subjects. So_ .... Ien DCCaston",ny dismissed the Copts from ollie"" ""suit· Ing in the collapse Qf th", ",conomy and the u!timale return of the Copts 10 reclif)' the financial p<Jsilion of the state. N""",nhel",u, jurists such as Ibn ",I· Naqqlsh cominu",d to uphold this s)"l",m, al leut
in theory. in their (..hi>" (juridkal cnRI1U1oIIon) .. sued I>efo«, 1362 (&1111. U51, p. found. The dale of Ihe codex has 1)(>en variously esl;mated from Ihe latter half of the second century 10 Ihe sixlh century, Ihough a third cemury dale i, mosl often ciled (Willi., p. 389; Cabani.., p. 71; E. G. Turner, 1977, p. 137; Hall, 1979, p. xlv and xvii n.
.,.
The Crosby-Sch0yen Cod",. Wall originally acquired by th", Uni,'ersity of Mississippi in 1955 through a donation of Lucius Olen and Margaret Reed Crosby (Willis, pp, 382-83). 11 was labeled by the university as Mississippi Coptic Code~ I: lhe Crosby Codex. Work toward publicalion Wall ~gun immediately, bUI circumstances resulting from Ihe desegregation of Ihe Un;"ersily of Mi..issippi caused delay and in Ihe end failure of these effort. CROSS, PROCESSIONAL
""''".
I I
I
B.l5IUOS
See titlfflical In·
CROSS, SIGN OF THE. symbolic sign of Ihe crucifixion. The writings allhe church fathers and the oldes! lllUrgies clearly Indicale Ihe use al lh, sign of the c'""" as an in~,ra1 pan of me serW:e or
CROSS, TRIUMPH OF THE, a subjeci of rich Chri$lian significance and Ihe th~m~ of a lape~lry In lh, co11«lion of Coplic texliles In th~ !..ouvre. About 4 feet (1.20 melers) hillh ",nd 6.8 f~el (2.10 melers) Ions, i. w ... CTealed In me technique of "looped" fabric, ,,'hleh produced a relief ~ffect.
I
CRO&'t .i,n; they wore It TOUOO lheir neoIIIly attaCbed. In addition, this t)~ of buildinl may be provided wnh :an lUnbu1alory. The e......m-sq.....e type p,..,...mabIy .... ~aJiud fer !hoe lim tim .. aTOUnd .ul. !80 in the lio·alled Nell. the ......... pWa: churcb oIEmp IIIIBLIO(;RAPtlY Dl>nielou. J. A Hij/Of)' of E"rly Chn5/i"n Dnetrine, Vol. I. chap, 19, London, 1964. A~CHlIISHOP BA,SIIJQS
CROSSES. See Metalwork. Coplic; Woodwork. Copll ,w
661
BIBUOCR,t,I"ffY
Adarns, W. Y. ""_·pharaonic Nubia in !he Lighl of Archaeology II:' J(lUm,,1 of £cpl;'n ArdJeoJon 51 (1965):160-78. Brnciani. £. Le ch>ae." In T,,,,,;, (19'61). Miuione arr::""ol"fica m EVIU> t:It, un,n.."siuppJlcirclt~n unJ "".......nJle Typen i.. ObofrilCJIle... Glilekslad!, 19112. ",""ulheimer, R. &;/y ClrriSli"n "na BF"ntin~ AT' e/wecluTe_ Hannonds""Onh. 1965. Mango, C. BJ!J2nl;ne ATClrileclut~. New York. 1976. Megaw. A. H. S. ''The Oril-inai Fonn of the ,.".".. 10k"" Church of ConlAanline Up"," Vumlx"'"" o..h P"pus 18 (1964):279-98. Millet. G. L·Ecol~ g,~c"", d"ns r"rchitecw,e byz"n. line. 2nd ed, london, 1974. Millingen. A. van, Spllline Churchcs In Cm"lOln· linoplc, 2nd cd. !.ondcm, 1974, Monn",..,l de Villard, U, L" Nubi" mcd;oev"I~, Vols. 1-4. Cairo, 1935-1957. Rice, D, T. "Exca.'ation. al BotJrum Camii 1930:' Br,p.ntion 8 (l931):ISI.74.