The Coptic Encyclopaedia

The Coptic Encyclopedia

.

OJ ,

Editors and Consultants Editor In Chief Am. S. Adya

University oll/I(I), EditOR William Y. Adams

U"i"cl'Sily of Kentucky Basilios IV Archbishop of JuuSIl/cm Picrn du Bourguel. SJ. Lo.."n Mwcum, Paris Rene.Georges Coquin Colle~

4e Frl:lnu:, Porn

W. H. C. F~d Gltugow Unil:cnity Mimi Bouuos Gbli Society of Copti.c Arch,u'oIOO. Coiro

Bishop Grqorio$ Hilher I,utitwc of Coptic Swdw. Cairo Peter Gl'O$Iirnann Gillmuin JI1SliIUIC

of Art:hllcolou.

C"iro

Amoin.. Guillaumonl CotltlC de Fu.ncc, Paris

Rodolphe " - r Unillm" 0/ Gent"" MllI1in KnoUSoe Wc$lf'tJ/ischc Wi/hclnu-U..ivusilw. Miinstl!f

Subhi Y. LaMb Kit! University Tito Orlandi Uoti"usl/)' of R~ Marian R~nson UUIII 5/"lc Uni"crsity Khalil Samir -fpnli/icllf Orlen/a! Institute. Rome

Co'mullanu Lablb Habachi Egypt/an DepartmcrJ(

0/

Antiquities, Cairo

J. M. Robinson /nSI;twte of Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont, California Magdi Wahba

Cairo VOlivers//)' Edllorlal Ma_glng Committee S. Kent Brown BrigJtam YOllng University, Provo

Fu.ad Megally Polyw:Jtl1ic of Central London

The Coptic Encyclopedia

Aziz S. Atiya EDITOR IN CHIEF

Volume 4

.

"' Macmillan Publishing Company NEW'lORK

Collier Macmillan Canada WRONTO

Maxwell Macmillan International NEW YORK· OXFORD· SINGAPORE· SYDNEY

Copyright @ 1991 by Macmillan Publishing Company A Divuion of Macmillan, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book rna)' be reproduced or lranmlit~d in any form or by any meaM, electronic or mechankaJ, including pholocopying. recording. OC" by an)' infonnalioo slOrage and relrie~-al $}'$tem, wilhoul permiwon in wriling from the Publisher. Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022 Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. 1200 Eglinton Avenue East, $line 200, Don Mills, Ontario M3C )NI library of Congress Catalog Card No.: 9().23448

Printed in the United Stales of America prinling number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Library of Congre55 Cataloglng-in-Publieation Data

The Coptic encydopeofuo I Azil. S. Atiya, editor-in-ehief. p. em. Includes bibliographical references and indCll. ISBN. 0-o2·897025·X (sel) I, COffic Church-DIctionaries, 2. Copts-Dictionaries. I. Atiya,:Azi1. S" 1898BXlJO.5.C66 1991

281'.1'03-dc20

90-23448 elP

The prrparation of this volume W'e monk sought safety on the island of Dahlak Kebr (Gff the coast of Mass,3wa), but was arrested there by al·MuM...k (first of the archipelago sui.

tans), who stripped him 01 all hi. good. and sent him to Cairo, where the vizier ordered hi. execu· tion in H'. 80l/A.D. 1085-1086. SAwiros, h>'ing been pan of his unde's entou· rage, knew Ethiopia well and enjo}ed considerable prestige. Thus, he was able to undertake a number of rdonn., distinguishing himself aboye all hy his fight against polygamy. Even the king (unnamed in the Hi.lOry of In" Patriarchs) renounced all his women, s,3ye hi. wife and one concubine who had borne him children. In October 1088, &iwiros, via hi. brother, RijAl, .ent a present to Badr al·Jamal!. But the yj~ier ""orned the gift and complained to Rijal-before the patriarch and many Coplic bishops, who had been urgently summoned-that &\",'il"05 had not fulfilled his earl} promises, in panicular, his prom· ise to build four mosque. for the Muslims of Ethio· pia. But Rijal replied that, on Ihe conlrary, hi' brolher had even been imprisoned by the king of Ethiopia precl~ly because he had agreed to Ihe construction of seven mosques-mosques lhat had been rapidly demolished by the Elhiopians. Thereupon, the vi~ier commanded Patria~ch Cyril It to wrile to the Ethiopian sovereign, urging him to respect the Muslims. A delegation, led by two Coptic bishops, carried the patriarch's lener to Ethiopia, along with a letter from Badr al·Jamall, in which he thbool Abuna S40.,.iros. bul lhe E1hil>pian Synaxarion relales thaI after len years. he kft Elhiopia to ""Iurn 10 Egypt. Howevet, lhis return was probably" prudent recall. agreed upon bet'oe punished. III Cairo. thc "izier had Giyo'lli. CUI imo prison, where he remainelrilltdu &iva nll further iofonMtion about Ihis pn:laie. II is probable, but I'lOl cenain, lhat IUs imanedi..e Sll
of E1hiopia by

N~RlIlS

1I (1102- 1128). Accordi,,& 10 Ihe HiS/Of'}' of 'lie p"ITian:!Is, Miki'tl's epCscopale ...... martrd by 1"'0 q>isodes importanl ID the hislory of Elhtopia. The Ii... oeeurnd durin, the ponti"'ale of GABRIEL II (IIlI_lIaS), ",·ben ,he kina of Elhiopla (unnamed in the Arabic lex') asked the Metropolitan MiU'tl 10 consecrale some bishops as coadjutorS in numbe'" 1.1'1:'" than thai pertAined by anon I.... In lhe margin ol!he Arabic .~.. a note of doublful val.... adds that II !he time. 'he number allowed In the CopIk: cbur"Ch ...... ",",-en. Ho_''et', Ihe melltlpolilan replied 10 the king Ihat he did noI have Ihe power 10 aceede 10 Ihi. requesl wilhuut Ih. palriarch's aUlhori'.:llion, ....herrupon m., kina made his requesl directl)' booth 10 the palrian:h and 10 lhe falimid caliph al·l:U~ (1130- 1149), ....ho like"'..... In""'pled tll influence

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

tho palriarch in this mal1er. The laller adroitly de~ed

hlmsoelf by "",-plaining 10 the a1liph ......1 if tho number cl bishops in A~n" .su~ the UI>Ol\kallimil. thftpi... Hi3'ory 10 1170, p. 2 1008

ETH IOP IAN PRELATES

10 Ethio pia a pries t name d Musi , ""ho had In.. rue· lions to ""1m .. • leueT 10 lhe kin, and in''e5ligoole tloc afiai •. an.. yar btu, acco m... .icd br an Edtiopi.lon ""lep tion , MUsi ~urned 10 ~l't with an answ ,,' from the kinS and I~ nece ssary lnfen na· tlon. tltal h" lhe INe reaso n for Mild i'tl·. Illlhl _ had 1I <Jl the ....llo nal I.".,. .d of Ethio pia. TIlis colop /lon stale s I.... the work had fi~ be.,., tnonslat"CI from Copt ic into Arnbic in the year 1211 of the Ethio pia" cal", ,· dar (A,D. 1224~1225). durin g the .eign of Uliba lli .and Ihe metr opoli taruu " of Ci)'Of"gi5 II. As fur lhe History of lire Coptic- ,...tri tJuhs . al. though II doa DOl list thr nalm <Jl lhe ITl Abu,,~ G~,.cl05 (i.e .. (}trel", or C)'ril), who ordained him a deacon. The text describes Q~relos as "bishop of Amhara at the time of the lAgw~ kings" and .tates that Abuna Takla H;l.ymlnot's ordination took place "when Benjamin was Archbishop of Alexandria;' a sUt.,. ment based on a misunderstanding, since the", was no successor 10 SainI Mark named Benjamin during the lhineenth cent,,')'_ Ac(ording 10 this same Life. oerel05 then conferred the priesthood upon Abuna Takla Haymanot and eventually named him ;;qa kdhniJ.t (chief of the priests), However. according to Cerulli (1943, pp. 230-31), the office of ;;qa kMm~/. which consisted in choming the candida Ie. to be presented to the metropolitan for ordination as priests. was in fact esublished only in the four· teenlh centu')' by Abuna Y;l'qob and assigned to Filel;'J;'OS' third abbot of Dabra Asbo. The name of this abu" is often missing in the traditional lists of tM melropolilans of the Ethiopi· an church. but there is !1{l doubt as to his exi.tence. He is mentioned ",.tably in an act concerning a gift of land made in 1210 by the negus Yekunno AmIM: soon after Itis accession to the throne. an act regis· tered in the Golden Gospel of Dabra Lib;lnos in ShimUi re zague e Takla H:iym.mol." Rendlcomi ddla Real. Accadem;" dei Uncei 4. ,er, 5 (1895):445-58. ___. "L'evangelo d'oro di Dabra LibAnos."' Rendl· comi d.lla RCllle Accademlll d..- Unce' 10, ser, 5 0%1):195-96, ___. Siona d'Elwpla, p. 321. Bcrgamo, 1928. Sergew Hable SCllassie. Andem and Medieval Ethio· pian History 10 1270, pp. 282. Addis Ababa, 1972. Taddessc Tamrat, Church ,,~d Siale in Ethiopia, 1270-/527, pp. 70-72, 11>0. O~ford, 1972. Weil, G. "l.es Relations egyplO·abyssines sous les suhans mamlouks."' Bull.rin de fa Sod'ii d'arch~ologie COpl< 4 (1938):117-21.

YOHANNES II (fl. early fourteenth century) The date of Yohotnnes' anival in Ethiopia is un· known, but in th. Ufe of Takla HAym:inol, the Ethiopian saint who fo~nded one of the two great mo· nastic orders of Ethlopia (Budge, 1906-1e~I, p. 84 and tmn•. , pp. 206-207), it is reported that loward the end of the saim's life there arrived in Elhiopia a metropolitan called Abuna Yol:umnes, This metropolitan wished 10 ordain Takla HAymAnot a bishop and give him half of the country; bur the saint declined the offer. In genemlthis episode is ~onsid· ered only as an imitation of a similar episode-lhe supposed assignment of the position of bishop 10 File{'J;'Os, third abbot of Dabra Lib:inos. Howe,'er, il is important from a chronological point of view, for

it shows that Yohannes II was the successor (proba· bly direct) of Abuna Q~relos rand lhat he arrived in Ethiopia just before lhe death of Abuna Takla H:,ym:inot (c. 1313). YoJ:lannes' prelacy is confinned by another Le'l. the Ufe of B¥lOla Mik:.'~1 (ROS$ini, 1962, pp, 2223; and 1961. pp. 20-21), abbot of Dabro Gol in Amhara during the firsl half of lhe fourteenlh cenlury. Here it is stated Ihat B!~lota Mik:.'~I, having 1l0ted that AbUlia YaJ:lannes was collecting contri· butions for administering th. sacraments and, in particular, for ordaining pri""lS, did nol hesitate to reproach him, all of which the metropolitan ig· no,..,d. Thereupon, the abbot dared 10 make his complaints known to the negus (unnamed in lhe Ethiopian 'e,', but doubtless 'Amda ~yon), who, howevcr, instead of giving credence to the abl:>ol, exiled him 10 Tigre, This aceusalion of simony seem, unU$ual, far il is well known thaI in Ethiopia the metropolitans ha\'e always been accorded reve· nues and lhat lhey collecled a conlribulicm from each candidate to lhe priesthood at the time of his ordination. This episode should lhus be interpreted in the sense lhat probably this particular metropoli· tan levied 100 large a contribution upon each can· didale, which would constilule an impediment 10 the increase of priesls just at a time ""hen th. Ethio' piao church was ha\'ing to fight in a ~ountry still rife with paganism. The date of Yohannes [I's dealh is unknown, bur it may be presumed thaI his metropolitanate un b. placed hetween 1310 and 1330, His ,ucceswr was Abuna YA'qob.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Almeida, M. de. Hisloria de Elhiopia a alit! ou Abas· ,ia, p. 184. Rerum Aethiopicarum ScriplO""S De· cidentales !nediti 5. Rome, 1907. Budge, E- A. W. The Ufe of Takla Haymimot i~ the Vers;"n of Dabra Ub
1011

BtBt.lOGRAPHY

Cerulli, E, "Gli abbati di Dabra Libanos. capi del monachesimo eliopico, secondo la "lista rimata"' (sec. XIV-XVlIl)."· Orien/alia 12 (1943);239. Guidi.!. "I.e liste dei melropoliti d'Abissinia."' Bes· sarion" S. seted by his brilliatlu 8IS a ITW1 of leuen. In panicubr. one may ask what _ his altitude in the areal ~ I around 1)30 whC'l'rin the tWO SOns of $;0)+.0 ~ ~ each OIher ro..,he posvnion of the throne and at lhe end of which Diwil eliminated his older brother, N~s N,..,."iya ~Urytim. Did Salimj, II a1i1n himself with lhe mon .... of Dabrn 1Lsbo. who condemned D6wil. or with Ihe mon .... of nobra J:IaYQ, wl>o supponed the new ""I"'? Salimi l1's successor was Abuna Banalom!wos, who arri,·evlow Chriuian communiUu (Copts. CaIOOlies, Ind Credt OnloodoKl. Upon !he ..thic~ of 8uWom!!.- and "'hh the .... istance of the Coptic patriarch ~TTHEW I (1.l78-1409), the ""IUS soml ~ misslons 10 wr"OJ>" in S, according to the Lib" A.8), the negus d~manded that they condemn th~ heretical trinitarian doctrin~ of th~ Zamika'elites (initiat~d by a monk named Zamilcl.'~l). This was probably ~. cause the negus remembered that Abuna Bartak,· mewo, had ~~n suspected of favoring thi, here,y. Cons~qu~ntly Mik.1'el and Gabr'~1 wer~ required to proclaim, "W~ ~Ii~v~ in thre~ p~rsons, hut one sole divinity." Likewise, in August 1449, at the request of the negus, both metropolitans suhscri~d to the verdiCI that Zar'a y,,'qob once again declared in the old disput~ of th~ celebration of t~ Sabbath on Saturday. In dfecl, th~ two metropolitans agre~d to the observ:ance of "the two Sabbaths," in conformance with Ihe decision adopted during Ihe reign of Abuna Banalom~wo •. Afterward, during the sovereign', residency at Dabra Berhan (1454-14l>8), the three EID'Ptian p,..,late. participated in Ihe tribunal that judged and condemned the Zamik.1'Hite., The exact circumstances f"r the joint reign of Mika'~1 III and Gabr'~l ... metropolitans are unknown, Probably when they were consecrate I, Vol. 2, Pr. 35/>-57), tlte chaplain of the first Ponuguese mission to arri,,,, in Ethiopia (1520), reponed tbat Abuna Marqos I told him that during the reign of Zar'a Yl'qob, the church in Ethiopia had been witbout a mrtropolitan for twenty,three years-that is, unti1the arrival of Abuna Yeshaq 11 t".....ard the end of 1481. From these data, il may be deduce-57. Cambridge, 1961. CeqUO!, A. "le. Actes d'Ezn de Gu",la·Gund~." An· nair. d'Ethiop;r (19/>1),95. Cerulli, E. r; libm ~thiopico dei M;racoli di Mari", pp. 109-120. Rome, 1943. Getatehew Haile. "The Letter of Archbishops Mi· ka'el and Glibra'el Concerning the Oooervance of Saturday," Journal 01 Semitic Studies 26, no, I (1981):73-78. Guidi, 1. "I.e liste dei metropoliti d'Abissinia. ' B...· ."rione 6 ser. 1 (1899):9. Rossini, C. "L'omi!ia di Yo~anne., vescovo d'Ak· sum, in onOre di Garill\l\," In Aaes du Xie Con· grt< inurnal;mtal des orie!1lalist<s, p. 142. Paris, 1897. Documenta ad mus/randam Histor;am, Vol. l. Liber Ammae. In cseo, 58, p. 82. Leu"a;n, 1954. Rossini, C. C.. and L. Ricci. // iibro della Luce del Negu. Zar'a Yl1'qoh (Mashala Buha,,;, Vol. 2. In CSCO 261, pp. 153-55. !.ou"ain, 19/>5. Taddesse Tamral. Church and Stale in Ethiopia 1270-/527, pp, 228-30, 235-3/>. O~ford, 1972.

GABR'£L (d, c. 14.58) Gabr'tl (Gabriel) arrived in Ethiopia in 1431 of the Ethiopian calendar (U). 1438-1439) with anoth· er metropolitan, Ahuna MikA'~1 Ill. They had both b~n consecrated together by the Coplic palriarch JOHN XI (1427-1452) and were the successors of Abuna Bartaloml: .....os, According to tradition, only one bisoop could be appointed metropolitan of Ethiopia. Consequently, it is probable that Gabr'N and MiU'N III were supposed to ""ereise this duty in successi"n (i.e., one after the death of the other). In reality, Ihey reigned jointly by dividing their territorial jurisdic·

•

ETHIOPIAN PRElATES

lion. By ordu of the negus, Gabr'tl look cha'"i~ of S/le\Q and Mi.k1'tl of Amhara.. for Ih~ MO$I part, th" infnnoltion aYlliJabI" is Ih" _ cone"",i,,, these two metropolitans ("'" th" biot"'phy of MlU'tl Ill. aboo...,). il mwt he added thai: it: was Abuna Gabr'tl ",ho conf.,on()Ilk Abaker;t;O>'emenl l!w shook 1M E1h;..,pian church durinJl: the fiftftnth nn"'ry. AW:. lhe death of Aburaa MiU'tl 1II. Gabr'tl _ •he sol" moelropolitan unlil his death around 1458. The church of Ethiopia lhe:n remained wilhoul an .bun for appmxima~ly ~nIy-Lbrce)'UJ'5, unlil 1M ani ....1 of Abuna y"s.\Iaq II in thai cQUnuy. BIBI,.IOCIIAPHY C"'lUOl, A. "Les Aetts d'Emi. de Gunda-Gundt." An· It"l.s d'Elhiopi. 4 (1961):95. C"rulli, E. 1/ Ubro OI;opico do; mir..coli di Marla, pp, 109-120. Rome. 1943. Cotalchew !-laUe, "The It'lter of Mchblshops MI· ka',,1 and C~bra'ol Concemini lhe Obs"n.'anc" of Saturday." Journ.. ! of Somitic SI"di~s 26, ser. 1 (1981):73-78. Cuidi. l. "Le Ii",,, d"i mtlropoliti d·Abissi"I.," B~s· $ .. r;"n" t. ",r. I (1899):9. Rossini, C. "L'omiha di YoIpi"n.., vescovo d'Ak· sum. In OltOre di OlIn....." in kIlOS is are unkno",n. bul such an altitude lndic.. ~ lhe: ronnaliofl of an autono· mous current at th" hean f lhe Ethiopian churth. AccOrt!inlto ttw. We of Marro Kr.,-sIOS (Kur. CSCO lll, pp, vii, 76-61), nimh abbot of Dabra L1bAnos. during the ninth year "f Ba'e3iCd this request, eonsiderin, i. to be COltlr.lr}· 10 tradition and eanonic:al Ia",'. He propo:K'd sending an eooplonlOl)' m~ to Egypt with the autborily. sJto.,.ld jt prove feasibk, 10 ask ioor a new metropoHlan. The ISSmlbly approved th" th.... m of oepam.i<m by fou.. hundred VOles 10 th~ hllndred; bul the nqus ~ ",Ih Marl)a Kreslos, 110 .here was no sch~. Hown..,•• Ihe cr. 8 (1946):7-17. Yi.-Ge s.."...-..m Anliquionom. Vol. I, Act" n,cJ el 1'.",,,I",,,,n. h. CSCO 27. pp. 37. SO. I..<Jo.rnin, 1955. T:oddnse Tam... Clwtclr a"d Suue in Etlliopia 1270_1527, p. 290. Oxford, 1972.

eaq...., It.

MARQOS I (d. 1530) He bclunaed 10 a group of Coptic prdale. Ihal had come to Elhiopia in 1481 wilh Abuna Yes!)aq II and \"as Sllppo$C'd 10 assume lhe dulie, of melropoliTan after Yesl"l;>q:s dealh. since he "''as his prln· cipal coadjulor.l1ats.f"hcn Yesl:*lll died near doc bqjnnina of Iht sW!'""'th Cn>lllry. rhcn was no YaCaOCY ;n Iht SC'e', for MUqos 1 ~ him imrtlf'dioldy. For a \one wtlile. h!slIorianl; did . underw.n Kcounl. of which one phra$l' was lmnop Yi'qob died,

who was coadju"'r to M:irqo5 and "''lIl5 .... ~d 10 succeed MJ.rctcx, bul d>d not do SO because be dif'd

,="Tbe-n:

is litde informalion aboulthis mr:lropOlillln in the EJhqNn document$. Accordinalo lhe ljf~ of Mari).a Kn5tOll (d, 1497). nind'l abbol of Dabra lj. bAnos, Mlrqos was p=enl al the tran.fen:nce of lh~ relics of Saint Takla HaymanOi. founder of lhi, rnon/l$tery, but lhi. occurred before Marqos acced. ed 10 the supreme throne. According 10 Ihe Libu Am"",e, M:orqOl' I died in 15H of !he E1hiopian c.alendar (&.0. 1529-1530). Th..., he liYed in Ethiopia half a Century and held the posinon of mcu-opoIilan lor approximalely three decades. 10 a ~ advanced ace. In bel, he Cposed an alliance agairl5f lhe Mamluk power in lhe

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

Red Sea. The leuer stated that this o.'enure had been made with the blessings of MArqos 1, and certain authors (e,g.. Jean Aubin) f,nd in this statement proof that Marqos I thought thaI he could resolve the problems besetting the church in Ethiopia by joining with the church of Rome. However, this view seems excessi'·e. for the metropolitan must have known of the doctrinal differences separating the two churches. It is therefore difficult 10 believe lhat in 1509. with no concrele threat present, Marq' os I was thinking of allying himself with the Catho· lic church. Second, in l535. Jooo Bennudez, the physician of the first Portuguese mission to Ethiopia. appeared in Rome, Ten years earlier, when the mission had returned to Europe. Bennudez had chosen to reo main in Ethiopia at the request of Lcbna Dengel. Now Bennude:;r. related that Lebna Dengel had asked Miirqos I, who was then on his deathbed, 10 name Bermode. "patriarch" (I.e .. metropolitan of Ethiopia). Marqos I complied with this request and even conferred all the holy orden; opon Bennudcz. who accep.cd the investiture, providlng thai the pope in Rome confinn it. lebna Dengellhen direct' cd Bermudez lQ go to Rome to make "an act of obedience" to the pope. According to Bermudez. Pope Paul III 0534-1549) .hen conGnned him as metropolitan of the church in Ethiopia. The subse· quent vicissitudes of Bermudez in Ethiopia concern the bishopric of Yo.ab t. but nonetheless it must be remembered thai .he supposed elevatioo of Ber· mudez by Marqos I is considered a fabrication. The third question involves Ah'ares' claim that Marqos I, a_fe of the vagaries of the church in Ethiopia. admired the faith of the Portuguese mi.. sion to Ihe point that he declared that, thanks 10 the Portuguese. the Ethiopians would not miss "return· ing to .he .ruth of the Gospel." From this, certain writel'5 have dedoced that M!i.rqos I had at Icast wished to have his own succession governed by Ihe Roman church. Howev'er~flas Lanfranco Ricci has ob~rved. while there are: Ponuguese texIS fav'orable 10 .he Catholic position. sucn as Alvares' ac· count, there are also E.hiopian texts opposing it, SIIch as the Jjk of 'EnMqom. according 10 which this abbot argued with i\.lvares and "converted him to the onhodox failh of the Jacnbile~." which most be read wilh great care. Thus. the successor to Marqos I was not Joan Bennude. hut ralher YosAb I, Ihe Coptic bishop who arrived in E,hiopia after the end of Ihe great Islamic invasion led by Gnli'iil. "the Left·Handed One."'

1017

BIBLlOGR.4.PffY

Alvares, F, The PreSler Jo~n of I~e !"dies, ed, C, F. Beckingbam and G. W. B. Honlingford, pp. 120. 243. 262, 348-51. 3S6-59, 361. 367-61\. Cam· bridge, 1961. Aubin, J. "L'Ambassade du p";m, Jean a D. Maou· e1," MQre Luso·l"dicum 3 (1976)'9-21. Caquot. A. "Les Actes d'Ezra de Gunda·Gunde,'· Annales d"El~lopie 4 (1961),115. 'Enb1qom, A"q.1~Q Qmin (LQ porle de /0 loil, ed. E, J. van Donzel. pp. 20, 21, 26. 28, 29, Leiden, 1969. Goes. D. de, Lega/io mag"i 'ndo""m imperolons Preslr;'leri loho""is ad Ema"uelem L"sitanioe regem An,w Domi"i MDXIJ!. Antwerp, i532. Guidi. I. "I.e liSle dei melropolili d'Abissinia," Bes· sorio"e 6. set. I (1899):10, n. $. Kur. S. "Actes de Ma~ Kresto.," In eSeQ 331. pp, vii. $0, 82. 94-95. wuwin, i972. Ricci, L "I.e v'i.e di 'Enhaqom e di YoJ:lannes di Dabra Ublinos di Scioa," Rosteguo di studi elloplci 14 (l955-1958):81~82; and 22 (1966):75-76. 83~85, n, 152. Rossini. C. "Sol metropolita YesJ:laq d'Etiopia," Rend/coni; della Reale Accademio del Lincel I. ser. 8 (1946):7-17. ___. Doc,,"',"'o ad lIIuslrondom Hlsloria",. Vol. I. Libu Ax"",ae, In CSCO 58, pp. 38. 39. 40. 82. Louvain. 1954. Tamral Taddese. Church and Stale I" ElhioplQ /2701527, pp. 290-91. Oxford. i972. Thomas, H. T~e Discovery of Abyssi"ia by rhe Porlu· guese i" /520. London, 1938.

YOSAB I (d. c. 1559) Yos;\.b I must be considered the successor of Mel· ropolitan Marqos t although this succession took place after a long v'aeaney of the Ethiopian episcopal throne because of complex circomstances. At Ihe death of Abuna M:lrqos I (1530). Ethiopia passed through a ""vere crisis that had begun in 1527 with Ihe Islamic invasion commanded by tbe imam AJ:lmad ibn Ibrahim. called al·GhilI (.he Warrior Champion) by the Muslims and Grliofii'i (the left-Handed One) by the Ethiopians. In 1525. Joao Bermodez. lhe physician of the first Ponuguese mission to Ethiopia. had chosen 10 stay in Ethiopia at the request of Negus I.ebna Dengel when Ihe mission re.urned 10 Europe. Ten years later in Rome. Ikrmudez recounted that Lehna Dengel had asked Mlirqos I, who "''''' Ihen on his deathbed, to name Bennudez as "patriarch" (i.e.. metropoiitan of Ethiopia. Mlirqos I acceded to this request by confening all .he holy orders upon Bennudez, who

IOlg

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

,"cce"ted doe inveslitun:, providing thai lhe pope in Rome «Infirm it. Leb"" Dengel then dir«led Be... mudn. 10 go finl to Rome 10 .......e an acl of obedienee 10 doe popt and then II;) l"onupJ. a counny wllh which Elhiopia had relalions. AceCJl'djn, 10 8cnrludcz, Pope l'aullll (1514-1549) did confirm him II!! n>e!mpol;tan of Elhiopia. The majoril)' of hiss0rian5 rrjttt Bermudn' 5101)-. firsc, b«;ous.e no Edool'"an mnmpolilan ew.- had the ~r to ~ his successor and. second. beca, .... no doc......,nt has CYn" been discovered 10 pro"" "'is ",pp do ...undo Porluguis. Vol. 4. pt. 2. Pl'. 285-305. IJsbon, 1940. -,---,- Doc..",..n/a ad I/lus/randa... Hwona"" Vol. I. Libe, hu",,,... In CSCO 58, JYP. 51 -52. g2. Lou· ,-ain. 195".

-,--:; Hwon.

,..~

Sa'f" De,,~eI (Mil/ill Slll"d). In CSCO 21. pp. 41-68. Louvain. 1955.

F£TROS II (d. 1570)

fttros

was thc succeuor of Abtrna Yosib 1. after having been his coadjulO1. The Uh..-~ A
___ His/oria Regis S"fl'a.Dengd (MIJ-Iak SlJ-glJ-d). In csca 21. pp. 41, 68, touvain, 1955.

MARQOS II (d. c. l58ili There is linle infonnalion about lhis succ=r to Abuna t:'t!r", 1I in lhe Elhiopian document" but Ihe date of his arrival in the country is known. The chronicle of ~rsa Dengel reports that after tlte death of Abuna Yos:!b I, which occurred in the eighth year of Sa~ Dengel's eeign (1570), lhe ne· gus succeeded in having the Coptic patriarch John XIV (1570-1585) send a new metropolitan named MArqos (U), who arri"ed dueing the fourteenth }'ear

1019

of his reign (1576). The chronicleT adds that this was a very happy year, for Ihe negus had just con· quered Mul:tammad, king of Adal, a date confinned in Arabic soure"", and that after .eizing power in A.H. 980/AO 1572-1573, MuJ:l.ammad ibn N",~it ibn 'Ulhman, .ultan of Adat undertook a military expe· dition against ~~ Dengel in which he was con· quetcd and killed near the end of 1575 or the be· ginning of 1576. The date of Marqos' arrival is also confinned by an Elhiopiall codex ill lhe National Ubrary, Paris, whose fuplicl/ announc"" that the manuscript was eompleted during the seventh year of Ihe episcopate of Ahuna MA,,:tOs n and the twentieth year of Sa~ Dengei', reign (1582). Th~ arriv· al of this metropolitan in 1516 must titus be consid· ered as cenain. Although Marqos II is likewise mentioned in a document from the Liber Axwna~, there is no information extant ~onceming his episcopale, an omission probably due to the rather dishonorabi~ tenni· nation of his episcopate, Around 1624, afteT N~gus Susenyos decided to join the Roman church, he i.-ued a manifesto in which he set forth not only his reason, for joining thi.~ church but also re· proaches con~eming the deplorable ~onduet 01 cer· tain metropolitans. In particular, Susenyos de· clared: "The Negus Malak-5agad {i.e.. Sarya Dengel] has shown Ihat Marqos [!I] became guilty of sexual delights that neither the ears dare hear nor the mouth pronounce, deljghts of such a natur~ as to make God rain fire from beaven, Therefore, Malak· Sagad sUipped this metropolitan of his episcopal dignity, deprived him of his holdings, and sent him to lhe island of Daqq in Lake pni, where he died an evil death." There is no document indicating tbe date of this di.mis.ctwee" 1582 (the date contained in the aoo"e-mentioned manuSCriPI in the National Library, Paris) and 1588 (the approximate date when the position of metropolitan was filled by another Coptic prel· ate). The sucee.." ,r of M~rqos 11 was Krestodolu I. BIBLIOGRi\PHY

Almeida, M. de. Historia de Ethiopia a alia ou Abossia, p. 390. Rerum Aethiopicarum &riplOres 0'er. if this accusation caused Krestodolu's dismissal or whether his episcopate came to an end with his natural death. BIBLIOGRAPHY Almeida. M. de. His/oria de Elhwpla a alta 0" Aba,sia, p. 399. Rerum Aethiopicarum Scriptores Occidentale. Inediti 6. Rome, 1907, BeguinOl. F. La cronaea abbreviata d'Abissi"ia, pp. 38-39. Rome. 1901.

Guidi, I. ··Le liste dei metropo!iti d'Abissinia." Bes_ sarion, 6. ser. I (1899): II. n. I. Ludolf, l. Ad s"am Ristor;am A'ihiopicam am~hac edi'am CommenMril<s. p. 510. Frankfurt am Main. 1691, Ros.ini, C. Docl<m,ma ad lllus/randam His/oriam, Vol, 1. Lib•• Axuma,. In CSCO 58. pp. 55-56. Louvain. 1954. ~£TROS III

(d. 1607)

J:'~!TOs

was certainly .he successor of Kre.tod"lu I. but in Ethiopian documents. information about his epi.copate is fragmentar;. and ,"~nt. perhaps explain"d by the fact that the annal. of the sO>'ereigns of his time do not sU!'live. Only the manifesto issued around 1624 by Negus Susen)'os (16071632) in an e\fon «) explain his joining the Catholic church gives a summary view of this episcopate. Denouncing the conduct of cenain metropolitans in Ethiopia. this negus wrote: Abuna J:'~!ros [1Il], who succeeded this metropolitan (Krestodolu I]. had relations with the wife of a Mekhite, and when this fact became publi~. he paid the fine levied against any adulterer who corrupts the wife of another; ceTta;n wilne...,s having knowledge of this aToo;e .uecessor was Abuna Scm'on. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Almelda, M. de. Histori.. de Bhiopi.. .. AI,,, 0" "/>ossi... Po 399. hrum AethiopicaJUm Scripto,," Qc. cido1>tale:s Inedili 6. R.ome, 1907. 1WKt, R. "Eludes ....r I'hisloi", d'Elhiopie." lou,· ""l.u.dq.." 18, MY. 1 (1881):120. squinat. F. L4 ctn"". llbbre.....". d·AbUsbr.... pp. 41-42. Ro....., 1901. Elte>'eS Peren, F. M. Chrrmic.. de S.......,..., rei d.

Vol. 2, pp. 63-~, 70-12. 359-60, L,S. bon, 1900. Cu.>dl, I, "Le liste dei metropoliti d'AbisliniL Buo Ja~ 6. $tI". 1 (1899):11, n. 2. LudoIf, I. Ad SIl"'" Hi.IOiIfi", hlJu·o~ ..'" .du.... ConI"""'"rius, pp. 510-11. Fnlnkfun am Main, 1691. PXz.. P. Hist"..;- Aemiopfue, p. 325. Rerum Aethloplcaru", ScriptOtfl Occidentales Inedili 1. Rom.., Elhio~,

R

,,,,,do,,..

'''''.

SEM'ON ld. 1617) The exact date of the 'arriVllI in Elhlopla of the ~uccessor to Ahuna p~!ros 1II is nOt recorded In Elhloplan documents, but from Ihe lnformalion av.tilable, il appea", lhal SweAy,," (Selpn Saga(!; 1601-1632) had him $tnl from Cairo, J10 doubt to fill tile vacancy left by the dealh of Pl\ro<Ji tIM: nobillI)', H~ also tried 10 help the Catholics. who WfflI: suWenn. under .serious difficllllics, bill ptrccnin, the Etltiopivls' newtlun"nt against thoo",. MirQOS "-as obliged 10 k«p his sil~nc~. Fi5ilalLu lhen Ihoushl of U5~lnl the meln:>p>litan the task of preachln, the hop Apollhuris d~ Almeida. former coadiuwr of Men~ who had not <Jbq<ed lhe ....1"5·s order to lca'tt Ethiopia and was hidd~n In Ihe counlty$idr Egypt, ~nter~d Ethiopia. where Ihey were discovered and condemned 10 death (Jllne (638). M~r<j05 Ill, who had known them well in Egypt, waS powerle$ll 10 sa,e tlM:ir li,~s. ChicAy b-eealne of II.. ~rained lempcl3ment, this metropolitan was often in difficulty with the clergy as well as wilh lhe coun. II appears lhat with the idea of p'ni"ll the negus's hn"Or, Mirqos III .... ~alO'd to F~ilada. tlte plol hatclMNl by his brolh. ~r. Gal~ (Claudius) to...,itt po_r. Gabwd· twos ....as, in fact. "PPI""'MnMd and ~ in ...,d.... sion (NQVflnbe!" 1646), but il appcan lhat MArqos III nc->er pined the king's eo.>er. in the theoloJical dl.pulcs that """re tMlI belinnin, w nxk the de'lJ'. this tndrOpI.iWl avoidoecltakin, al»' dear aand and. as a result. was disliked by all bcllons concerned- EvcnncaJly he _ openly at· taCked by the eff..rt of ~ra IJbanOl and head of tlte rquLar c1eID.....ho ~hed him for I~n. a licflliious life. It il; pO$sibl~. bov.~·cr, 1Iw this accusatioo> concealed other compbinta. He was dis· missed by .n ....embly of c0. During this episcopate, a Chri'IOJogical dispule arose in Ethiopia, one destined 10 divide the dergy for more than two cenluries. This was the question of union and unction, According to the thesis of those favoring union, supported primarily by the monks of Ihe order of Takla H.1ym.1nol, whose lead· er was the e~~agl, the abbot of Oabra UbAnos, the union between the Word and the Oesh made JesWl consuhstantial with the Father, while the Holy Ghost repre...nted Divine Grace, which restored to the Oesh the dignity lost following Adam's original sin. Conversely, according 10 the thesis of the Un~· tionists, supported mainly by tbe monks of the ot' der of £.wost.1ltwos, coming mainly from the mono asteries of Gojam and Tigre, Jesus did not become consubstantial with the Father by the mere union of th~ Word ",ith the /lesh but rather by virtue of the un~tion of th~ Holy Ghost. In a synod held during the twenty·second year of Fasiladao' reign (16531654), the Unctioni.t. seem 10 ha,'e prevailed, but in anotber synod, p"'ided o,er by the negus during the thirty-third year of his reign (1664-1665), the Unionists were able to have their doctrine acknowledged. With tbis·.tate of affairs, it is penni"i. ble to wonder iJ Abuna Mika'~l IV played any role in the first phases of thi. great controversy and if the end of his episcopate had any' connection with it, However, given the present lack of available data, these questions must remain unanswered, BIBLIOGRAPHY Basset, R. "Etudes sur i'histoire d'Ethiopie:' Jour· nala,;at;que 18, ser. 7 (1881):288-91.

F. U1 eronaca abbrevjata d'Abissin;a, pp. 51-53. Rome, 1901. Guidi, L "Le liste dei metropoliti d'Abissinia." 8es· ,arione 6, ser. I, (1899):12, n, I. __ . "Uno squardo di .toria ecde,iastica di Abissinia," 8essamm. 8, ser. I (1900)'15-17. Kolmodin, J. Trad;l;o,,, de T'Jav.ega el Hauega: Annales el dod ... ith ,",al pomp on 6 V.kkilil lOSS ("'.0- 10 February 1(93). Accompanied by Abul\lll Sinod;i.. he spenl ,he day in ,he ntbed...l of the holy dty, near tbe ··Ark of Zion" (i.e .. lhe most famous liibo/ of all the Ethiopi'" churches. .Noio to be the tme Ark of the Co"ell~nt. containing the Tablets of the law. described in the Old Testament). This was probably the last grand funclinn in which the old metropolitan panitiJl'lt· cd. In fact. Upotl his ,..,turn to Gonder, the neMus convoked an assembly of dignitaries and prelates bd"ore whom he had ~ leuer publicly read In ...hieh

posjr

the Coptic Jl'ItrialTh John XVI ordoel'ed tNot Wrq... M enthroned in SinodJ.'J plate. nus OCCUlTed ... the I...... day of AbbA SaIimA, the lim bishop of Ethiopia. ~6 J:lamll 168S (A.D. JO July 1693). The ele\'alion of Marqos IV occurnd i........diately. Sinodi must have li,'ed • lew years IonCft in aeneral cdN in the eiaht~ year fIl the l"I:iV' of 1»"3su I (November 1(99). This death is confirmed by the ..,.,.,..nl of the Frenc:h physic;"'n beque< Charle$ I'on
1 (lon-I6ll2), kad at lint bttn Fol'C'~ 10 Kqu:ill$CC 10 !he ,clip:....s politico of lbi. ruler. "'M openly kaMd l0W3rd the thesis of lhe Unctionisu (monks of the order of £ ~ ) in the Christolop;:a1 comroveTS)' f)W'r union and \lnd""'. a qualTel \hal had lOriM:n durini .he time of "buna Mlkl'll IV. N..... 1)')'iW t contrary 10 his father Yol:oannes. bvo~ the Unionists (monks of m.. onkr 01 Tub Hlymloot). and ",hu the negus d«:ided to r e _ his f.I~"'. ecde.iastical politics, SinodJ was placW in • difficuh position. Wilh Sinodl!'l concur....""e. lY)'l$U I thought il wi.., to ask the Coptic patriall'h JOliN XVI (1676-1718) 10 ..,nd *' new bish· op to Ethiopia. Thi. bishop, named Mirqot, arrived In Ethiopia via Senna. and was introduced by SinodA himself to lhe civil and clerical dignlta~ duro in, an auembly held at Gonder on 18 Mukal'llm 1681 of 1M Ethiopian cal~ndar (A.D. 25 September 1689). BullM ~hronicl~ .ual'"5 Ihal "Sinodi was nOi dismissed, and MArqos """" on>t 10 SlrU. WM~ he was Installed willi all Ihe bon<JT!I du~ him. for 1_ metropoliuons could nol reside in Ihe sam~ elly:· h may be deduced Ih~rrlrom lhal the n.. gus d«ided not 10 enlhrone M1rqos al chis lime. bullO consider him as Stnodi's coadjutor. Thus. he senl MMqo!lIO SkU. a .. ily near m.. fronliet- oJ SenN-r.....here lh.. ,,",we had 10 ..-..side. ""conlinl 10 one -.n:e. Mirqos JiYed there ;n cornpaD)' with his bthe•• mother, and bmthtr. He _ not ....... al Gondoe1" Joc- tome years. WhnI the neg..as risited d... calh... dral ofAxum on 6 Yallant 16l!5 (A.D. 10 febn.wy 1693). he ..... accompan'9! by lhe aged Abuna Sinodi. Upon II.. R:lum 10 -&nder. on !he ie~ 5Mbit: tIw M4rqos IV approved lhis decision. Ah weeks Illter there occtU't"edine m Wa\q1)1. a """'('m dimpUlloed 1»' Anlony of Al~... Syri· an who serwd AI their inte~•. Natun>lly u.e Fr.ano::tseans nourished the hope of r«onciling the coun of Ethiopia with the Roman church.. bul Abuna Yo/:Iannes III, supported by the Ethiopian clergy. inlerveno. and ocommunicaled Batt. a10,,& wilh his panisans. Those excommunicated look refuge in WiJllQ, when tbrir l
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bruce, J. Trav~ls to Diseovu lhe SOlon among its pmtTtO'l· en.. The inddenl ""as 10 end with a ruondliation bttwttn Chrislian. and Ommo. Toward the hqi"nin,l of 1795. during 11M: .him mp. of Tula GIyorp I (1794-1795), Walda Ca~ r'~. chief of Tilre and 50n of the ,4s MiU·t! Se~ul, anacked Ihc nCJUS i" his "cry palace: at COftder: peace could only be p",,"",n-ed by !he inle~nlion of !he mctropolilan. Shonl)' alierwan!. on 12 Gen· boo 1187 (.... 0. 18 May 1795) al CondeT. YosAb 11 crown~ Neaus Ba·e<J.a M~rylm II. ",ho how0 sh:a.>ld nol ha,~ adopIed it. But a I~ pan of the c1erJy rebelle.l and caulled Ihe l1>ClropoIitan to ~ WIed 10 an island on Lake T..... 0kI and weary, and n'COI"irins thai it ...... impossible for him to hrinll.l"nua1 reconcili3tion in,O d1CC1. Yodh II ended by .... lrac.inC lh.. e~communin.tion: "Sinc.. an .he world admbs In JeiUS • unique na· I"..... ..,. I admit m~lf. Ie. ~ach one remain in hi. "'•..., belief:' His episcopal ....1 ......,. Ihen restored.o him. According to Ihe royal chronicle. Abuna Yosa.b II di..d on I M..,karam 1796 (.... 0. II September 1803) and"""" buried at Conder In lite Ouddu. Gabr'tl church. According 10 some tradlllons. a w.... k after his death. towan! mldnighl. a h..av..nly light descended on hi. lomb. as If to confirm the sanctity of his long episcopale. As for lhe e?~~it Walda Yon;\. immediale1y aftor Yosib'. dealh h" in hi. lurn im· pose
1032

ETHIOPIAN PREUTES

th~r resuh: in !he 00l.U'SC 0{ the )'UT 1815. !he Coptic patriarch I"£TU VI (1809-1852) named and oon5'" cralN fo~ Edtiopia a monk callilit': him... lf Qhdoo• ..-110 rmclled W-.... in NoYCn>b..r of the same yea,- and rJ'l&de his mIry to ta!aQot, ..... residence of Ihe,4o walda SelJAst, On J YaUlriI 1808 in ..... Ethiopian calendar 1"-0. 10 february 1816), or a Jilll", ~fore lhe death of the old Tils, .....hich wok pl::lce on 24 Genbot (JI May) of rm same year. 0tTekn. 11 bepn by reskli"ll in Tigre for about Ihree ~a1S. but withoul winning lhe hearts of hif, flock. Meanwhile. al Conded 10 submil the questions 10 a synod held u Gonde~ in the p .......nce of Nr-gus Iyy'u II, toward ..... !>epninB of 1820. "The defende~ 0{ Ihe lheses conn~nn the doctrine of 1;4m1 (knife), whkh was Ihal prescribed by Ihe Coptic !",triarchate and had be.. n defended by his lwo p~ede" pon fumfshed by Crt~'al Britain 10 Ihe Protestant missionaries and 10 SaIAm~. ThLl~, from Ihe hegin· ning of lhe reign of nwodTo~ II. Ihere arose a climate of lenslon between the negus and Ihe melropolilan. The relations between SalAmA and nwodros. ""'ich had never bee" perfecl, were nOI long in detenorallng because Ihe sovereiln's ,real polhical pLon COnlrtiled with the interest! of the Elhlopian church: nwodros, "..bo never concea.led hi. con· lemp4 for the cle'lD', dnamed o£ creal in, a ps Chanoclto

lie llJusiofls in Onhodox Eflriopiu~a SallmJi III, ",Ito died in 1867. On Ihe death of N~gus Ttwodros II Qn 13 April 1868. al Ihe ~nd of a military campaign conduCled against him by British troop". Ihe lwo principal riv.ls lOr Ihe Ihrone of Elhiopia w~re Gob""", Gab", Madkhen. WigSum (or lor
ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

IioIl to Cairo 10 obIain from Ihe Coptic pmiarch Dm>ctrius II (1862-1810) Ihe election of a new 8WIropoliWt who could consecrale and "anoinl" tile new "I(ina: of Kin~" of Ethiopia. The deleptlolt formed '" Gol>az,e "'. .. II()( able 10 lcaw Ihe eounlll". for it was inlemcpt:cd and blockaded by Uot. In wulion. (;,r,I,"* had himself prodaimed Iin& of Kines by his anT»' ancI look !he crown _ Takb GiyOlp II. The 6cleplion formed by KJsi ...... able 10 reach Cairo. where iI handed (>Ocr I(> the Coptic pallial'chall! lhe ... m of si. thOU5aJKl Ilwcn in silver and ~cd the ~ding of the metropolitan. In Ihe cOUfW of September 1868, K..to.I rccciftd the i*ri· arch's ~ly by ICl:ler from his principal dcleple. Th.. re,lly was supposed 10 remain sccrel. but c.....ce allcd hi",""lf Kin& of Kinp of ElItiopia: finally. """"" m p rise 10 two mililary cxpC'diI1Il5 of Ihe Khedin I nl in Ethiopia. both victl>l"iomly R"pIbcd by YoI;oantW5 IV. It SCem! dial in the COlIne of this eonftiCt Amlltwof. had leaning! to",...rd his land of onlin .nd $lb1i5hed contae15 ",ilb MC'oelik II. ",-t.o ""'" kin8 of Sloe",... and vassal of YoI:oan""" IV and "'M emerulncd ~ret ambiti""" ",ith reprd 10 lhe Ihrone 01 lhe Kina: of Kings. "",,cordinl Gu&lidmo MMn'a the repon ran through the counlry lhat Yol:>anncs IV, at the time of hi! 5eCOiSl~ d~g/; l1"dl orl~nllJli 22 (1947):.7-59. Twe.chi. S. "Les Debuts. de 1.0. polltique religieuse de Yo!la"nt:s IV: 1868-1876:' Alii dd Co",ruso i"urJI"Von"/~ di Sl..di ..!rIt:"ni: L'A!rlt:d al Urn"; iii DlJnll:l~ Comboni {Rom". 19_21 Nawmbn of Shewa but ..Iso """;y 011.... imprKtall1 I....... such as Yaju. Battmder. and Dambra. al>d ~"'" beinl p,,,,n the nonhem pat! of the counlf)' rr>ve, Wi&. "ICo) and cenain cen"'lIl1 ,ern,o';"'" Aner ,he ballle of Matamma. Menelil conlined 1'e!ms 10 Shewa to prevenl him from consec"llin8 Il$ emperor lhe prince of Tigre, Rlb Mangotsha • .0.1· leged son of Yo!.>annu IV, and pretender 10 Ihe Imperial lhrone_ Howe."". once Mang;tSha w;ll5 de· lealed in 1899 and oiled 10 Shewa. 1'~''''' ...as

'0

allowed 10 'e,,,rn '0 T'llre and to the .esidence a, Addl Abun. Afle, len )'e.... he len fOlnd Soldm, the newspaper founded by Rfts Talari Makonnen, After a bout ,,"'ith pneumonia, he died in Addis Ababa on 4 December 192~, at eighly·three yeaTS "f age, having Tesided in Ethiopia for forty-five }'ears and having officiated as metropolitan for thirty·seven. Hi< dealh "ut an end to the biller accusations against him, but in widening the debate about his

1040

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

SUCCessoT, it also op do so, on condition that he did not ha"e to submit 10 the viceroy the text of the leller, The Italian authoritie, rejecled thi, condilion and hence aban· doned their overtures. Taking up his original request, O~relos wrote to Ihe italian government in July 1936 demanding that the Ethiopian church be exempted from any interlerence by the italian au· thorities and that official reCognilion be given to the right of the metropolitan to manage the affairs of his church and to carry out all the necessary nominations. The Italian government con,idered that in this leiter Qerelos was claiming wider rights than those that belonged to him in the time of the King of Kings, and chose to make no reply. A serious incident look place shortly afterward. Because of armed attacks by the Ethiopian resist· ance, the capital had been placed at the center of a vasl defensive enclosure, within which it was for· bidden to introduce or hold arm" but a group of armed "rebels" was captured on 29 July 1936 at Addis Ababa. Among the member,; 01 this group was found Abuna !,~!ros, bishop of Wallo (with his ,eat at Dassi~), In the course of the trial that took place the following day, Ihe bishop did not explain the reason for ","'hieh he had introduced himself into the capital, limiting himself to saying that he was defending his country. The military tribunal condemned him to be ,hOI, and the judgment was executed immediately. I.'~tros died a hero, aher blessing his judges. Graziani, who was later reproached for being unable to pardon the prelate, declared publidy that "this execution did not alter in any way Ihe respect borne by the Italian govern· ment for the Elhiopian church," An incident just as serious occurred some months

1042

ETHIOPIAN PRELATES

hlltr. On 19 nbruary 1937 al Addis Abab.>, in the COUI"$t of an official ceremony. nine bombs we.., Ihro..... .o.' die viceroy. The.., wt'f'e ~eral WO\Indt'd. indudinl Graziani and Qlrd.. III (the fonner St'ri· ously hit by St'Ve.... >plinlet3. the Iat_ .Iip,dy ","ol.u,,;kd in the riVlt Iund). Tht' Italian polk.. decl.o.red WI il ...... a C3ISC al a pul cOllSf'iracy. b... could t'$lablibobly ""lIN! wilh the s.uppon al Ce~· lain monks ol Dabno I..iblItow. By order ollhe ,it... 1'01. the _ e r y was lIIltaeklNl.. and tm monks ..'ho li,'flI!htn:, killed. From this rnonlot'nt. Gramni cOMidt.... d u... dergy u... soul of the nosiluonce. He the.....o.., propootd 10 u... JO'"emmenl in Rome to delepte to Qtrd.. III the widest poIO'en over the ..'hole Ethiopian clet'gy and 10 break .11 liou bellOI«n lhe Ethiopi3n church and lhe Coptic palriar. chale. This was 10 demand St'1£'1",-emmenl for Ihe Ethiopian church. under the aulhorily of Of'relos, bUI Rome replied lhat "il ,,'as filling nO! 10 gel ahrad of the times."' Sh(lrtly afterward Qtrd"" a,ked permission 10 go 10 Egypl "for ~easons of health."' The ",vernm..nl in Rome Tefu..,d him permi5Sion. SU8~Slin8 Ihat he come to have himsdf anended to In h.o.ly. He left Addis Ababa on 21 May 1937. after entrusting Ihe interim care of Ihe archcpiscopate to Abuna Abraham, biOrt of Ihis commit· ~, which, while welcoming several Ethiopian fC· quests. explidtly refu.-ed to assign to the melropoli· Ian of the Ethiopian church the right to name bishops and refused to name an E1hiopian metro· politan. The response was very badly recei"ed in Ethiopia. In addition, Ihe negotiations were inter· rupte
In December 19451he representative, oflbe Ethiopian clergy asscmbled at Addis Ababa. This ,,·as a stonny assembly. the majorily of Ihe speakers pro· claiming that from the moment the Coptic churcb

1043

refused to "'lisly lhe demands of Ihe Elhiopian church, nothing remained but to proceed to the separalion of the two churches. The emperor opted for a more flexible approach and so, on 9 January, sent to Egypt a delegation a!TIled with a lener in which he earnestly requested a new examination of the problem. On 31 January the Coptic s)'nod convened under the presidency of AnM A.hanasius, locum lenens in the patriarchale, and accepted lhe principle that after the death of Qfrel"" III the archbishop of Ihe Ethiopian church was to be chosen from among the Ethiopian prelate•. The synod also accepted Ihe principle of i"creasi"8 the num· ber of Elhiopian bishops who were to be consecral· ed by the Coplic patriarch. The demand for the power of the future Ethiopian archbishop to name bishops directly was rejected on the ground that in the church of Sai"l Mark Ihis power belonged only 10 the patriarch, The Ethiopia" church then sent to Egypl five prelales who were to be consecrated bishop. and it was during Ibeir presence in Cairo that the new patriarch YOS~!I JI was elected; he was enthroncd on 27 May 1946. On 20 June Yusalt II reconvened the s)'''od, which confirmed the refusal 10 g"'''1 the future archbishop of Ihe Ethiopian church the pow· er of naming bishops directly. In consequence, lhe patriarch attached a condition to Ihe consecration of the five Ethiopian prelates: Ihey must formally pledge themselves not consecrate either an arch· bishop or a bishop. This resulted in an impasse, for Ihe Ethiopian prelates refuseOlitan of Ihe Ethiopian church, in each case separately, Ihe power of consecrating an Ethiopian bishop, on condition lhat each candidature should be submitted for the prior approval of the Coptic palriarchale. Upon the announcement of this decisinn. ~reios III finally left Ethiopia and returned to

'0

""',

The Ethiopian clergy having approved the decree, YilsAb IJ ratified Ihis entente on 29 March 1948. and the agreement between the two churches was finally signed in Cairo on 13 July 1948. A subsequent agreement, which came about in Cairo on 25 June 1959. completed this very exten· sive process of achieving autonomy for the Ethiopi·

1044

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

an church wilhin d>e framcwoo1< of "I~ ~ of S.inl Mark.·' bul this Ia5I "Ireen>em Cllnnol be Do cribed 101M q>iscopllic of O&"des III, for M died in Calro on 22 OcllJblor 1950. This dalt Ihus marks lhc end of the cpiscopaIe 01 1M ItiI EcYiKbn mel· ropIl
"""'*'

ETHIOPIAN SAlNTS

munil)' and its head . His know ledge of the li.~ ~ could reach a stand ard thai mabo $ his inler pregIion oi p-rob!elDlOUo; bibli nl paMOl<S di>in ely Inspi~d. In Ihe couJ R of .ime, admi rers. especl.ally _ipl es, slarl telling SIOries C>f rema rkabl e or mi· ....,..anus deeds: perfo rmed by such a perso n durin g his liftlirM. Onth a' the ~nds of non-c a vision lhal lel1:l him .haI a new or an old fountain. usually in 1M neigh borh ood ....her e !he monk spenl hi!< life, is a holy sprin g flowing in Ihe name of lhe saini 10 heal .he skk. In a coun try ..tocrc the faithful are taeh l 10 t>e-lie,"" tha. all 1)PS of ailmenla ...., CMl$M by dem0rt5 and ",her e Ihe pl1lClM:e and use of mf:dicine is disco urage d by the teachers of the failh. Ihe heali ng powe r of Ihe boly spring is crod al In Ihe winn ing of fame and in pinin c nalio nal n:coc nilio n for a salOL Funh er.....-e. all founders of _er iItS and nunn eries an salr..s of .... ryins o.Ve e5 of re
mE NIN E SAIN TS The 5O-...... h_ nc>t been Pf'CS'On-ed. Acdef'" .... me 10 this His Iuol is celtbnted on l8 Khedar (Matdr) and 4 TnT (Tllbah). fd!aI. Abba ~ma i. bdie\'ed 10 ba,~ .-etlled IIOUllleasl of Ad,,·.Ii. Uk" many of his colll"al"ft, no p& for him h.. yC"t corne 10 light. Nor is lhc-re any m ~ center carrying his name. l1>ere it, ho_w· C"t". a ITgion of Tigre named E~ Abba !;ic~ma. The mosl of Abba $eJ:>mA i. cdebrat.d on 16 Terr (Tob-

da,.

'"

~ or ~ Thi. is mOM probably another name eilher AI
of

vAa£D (JARED)

".ry

Yirfic:: .. wdl as the IJal pan of its hymns. III this JU:SI sainI. Yi1td Rouris~ during the ""... or Qlbn Ma$'" ~ (e. SS3-SSS). ~ ""'5 a IIOI'I of an Mumile pictl:1y rami!)· of Yes/:Iaq and Kr..,nini (Isaac and OuiRina). ",hen his rather died ..ftilc the ton ..... Itill a C'hild. iii. mother "?Ok him 10 ~'On (GidfOlI). a bmOUl' hiblical or .... liml" who abo ll.ppened 10 be a ""laJi,..._ ,II soon l>ccamC" clear 10 .... child and thl" leachcr lhat Ylirf mao luril)'. he married and became both a rather and an Kcamplish.cd priesf th~ mont>m~ntal rock-l'l~wn chun:hc-s of UJtl is ascribed lo thi. dynast)". and specifically 10 UlibalA. In fact, the name of Ihe capilal dty. Roha. and its .urmundingl where Ihese cht>rchl"s are loc81ed hu been changed W Ulibalii. Ulibalii w... born alVUnd 1150 10 a princely Ustii family of l;ln (or );In or Z;lhn) Sen-urn and his ...ifl". whose name .. nol menlioned in Ihc :,,a' he "'OO.dd become and M QCOfted by the national army.

n.e

kin,

pnlpheqr ... not ""..,komtd ~ hi, bl'Olher. ruler of.m conn,,)' aI !hal lime. Hatboy, who _ In &ct, Harboy allemplcd 10 ba.., U1ibaIJ poi.-

~'" E...,n

bdore Ullba~ tool power. the aniI'I of God appeared to him in a Tmon and lransponed him to the :<eo'en,h ~a,'en. whe..., the Lord was enthroned. There. the Lord said to him, "~n the ears of your mind and comprehend what I Shall show you, ;n order Ihat you may build my temple on ranh whe..., I $hall dwell with people Bnd where I shall be sanelifil'd by the mouth of my ptOple," Ha'ing said Ihls. the Lord describtd for him W "",hitecture and Sf)eCifications of Ih., ICti nxk·he".., churches. Today n>tion 10 God in his own way comes lhrough dearl}' in his gQdl. For example. amonl Ihuse who resent.d his e>'emual reign was one who gave this reason: "If thl$ man reigned, h. would exchange me ror incen~ (or Ulle in the church," His judg· menl ",as not IOlally wrong: Ihere is a Il'2dition IMI U1iball indeed 50Id his own ""'" ",hen he had noth· ing to &i>'e 10 lhe poor. Whil. in hiding. U1ibl1lj. married Maoqal Kebri, who is abo commemoraled u a!MlinL His baa>oIBpher clainu lhal UJibloli had risited ~JlI anll the Holy Land before he -=ended the thmne. He "",pc:owdIy rttri>'ed hi$ other~. Gabr.o ~t:as4al (Sef,.--ant of the Crou), in a revelaliOC'l while he .... in lhe Holy UIld. P'il,nmage to Iheoe places Is "n atpi'-'lion of ...."er)' ...,lip,us EthOilpian. There are cues wheft hagiographeR lake the liberIy of indu.dinl pil,rimage $Iories in the xu of lheir ....inu. regardless of the Klual facts. According 10 his hapovaph.",. the end of Ulibm (Slephen) lhe Prolomanyr. Hi. life was composed centuri.. after his dealh. As a ' ..ull. It offers ~.ry liule of hislorical imponance. Iyyasus Mo'a Came from a religious family of Za· kre.t{)$ and Ep.i' Kebrl. (In fact, one of hi. Iwo brothetl'. Gab... ~on, died from harsh asceticism.) He received hi$ call 10 monastic life when he ""'" thirty )'
TAKLA HA,VMA,NOT Abu"" Takla H~y"""01 is the greate", Ethiopian saint and Is r~ognized 115 lUch ameng all Christians of the COUntry. He was born in i?clalesh, in Shew., under the Ugwe dyna5.l1: (1137-1270). The people in the area of his binh .Jere any regions in Shewa and Dim01 to Christianily, and he endure
1050

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

helpW Vekunno Amlal< in wlnnln& the suppon 01 lhe c1~ric..1 establishment when he ""enhrew Ihe U~ dynZiy in 1270. In fII'1Ilillode for the suppan of !he c1.. rgy in ....a:oblWlin, his dYf""Cy, y.. knnno Am.lilr. is reponed to ...."' p'"flI 10 lhe chun:h a thini 01 his annwl revenue from Il~ lands ci the COUIlI,),. Ho...·ner. Talda HJi)minoI.'. rok in the ovenhrnw ci the ~·t dynuIy is noI wry d ...... The foIkwr."eB of bolh Talia HI)'IIW>oI and I)~ Mo'a 0Il:h)'q f.s!.i~ chum that it \$ !heir falhetwho reprKeRled the cburch in helpin, Yekunno Ambk 10 e!IIiIblish !he Solomonic dynasIy in 1270. Takla HJiyminol spenl the Iasl years of his life in iKlusion, 5landing for pr:tl)"er 10 the poinl ...·here one of his kgs gave ......y. TM.... is abo lhe popular belief IIw he gnow six wings (th~ on dlher side) to Oy like lhe angel•. Talda HJi)minOi died durinll a pestilence lhat dedn"'ted his community in i\5 in· Fancy. He i. commemoraled nalionwide on 22 n· khUs (Kiyahk), hi. nal;"ily; 24 Nah,,", (Mi.r1i), his death; and 12 Genbol (Bashn.). lran,lation of his

bod, B1BLIOGIlAPHV

Budge. E. A, W, Tire Life of Tdta HdymdllOl in rlre V...si<m of Dabra LiMnos. alld lit.. Miracles of Tdla HIlymlmol in II,.. V..rs;"" of Dab.a Lib/mos, alld Ihe BooI< of lire Riche. of Kill's. London.

...

,

Gelalehew Haile. '"fhe Monastic C~ncalocY ci lhe Une 01 1llldlI. H;>yrnanOl of 500.:· Rass..,.... ai Stwa; "Ropid 29 (l912~193.\,:7~31. Ros.ini, C. C. "11 'Gad\a Ta1.Ia HaymanOl' secondo l.a ndarione ......w.-bbana-- MtmOri" d..lI. R#:lJ1" Ac..ad_ia d..i Lilfcei. CIas&e di scienu moraJi, Jloric:he e phildogiche, 2, ser. 5. pl. I (11196):9114.\.

twosTATtwos (Emtathel.lt) £woo!Jiltv._ .... b>ooo.n as the champion of lhe k\l.iJh Sabbath il the Ethiopian Onhodox Chun:h. l-le ....... born Ml'~ Epi' (TNJt oflhe lord) loa noble £amily of K<esI05 Mo'a and Sena !:ley....... a family known lor ·galhering lhe elderly poor Iceth. er and providing Ihem ...~th Iheir needs. Their faith "'. ... Jlrenglhene
he .._ bad 10 his mo~e')' regularly for retreal and seclusion, a prac1i« thai ga~e him 0er. When 'Amda ~n banished him, £W05!;1o. !twos allempled 10 oYtnhrow him by enCo...~ ......., that Salurday is not obser...ed in the Coplk cburch. In raet. they .,.....,. IaIIght thai Eibiopians should abandon J.,..~sh pnctiees. inct..ding Ihe obo ............e 01 Salurday as a Sabbalh. This c"'ated :a great schism in the Ethiopian church. MallJl :agreed 10 obsen"e only Sunday. 8ul a few. led by £"'OS!J. r~ refuM,d 10 violale rhe eommandrnenl& of lhelr ScriplUres. Ihe New and lhe Old Testaments and Ihe boob ci canon law which command the observance 01 Saturday. The feuding panl", came to rhe king's coun look· ing for a ",Iinll. Tho ... WIS apparenlly no melrop"l· iran in lhe country at rha' lime, However, $In'ery effective, A hymn composed in his honor says il all: Rising from lhe region of Sagla like a bright .un, buckling Ihe sharp sword of faith ahout his "siS!, Giyorgis swam the depth of the sea of the Scrip' 1l.lres, He built his castle upon a firm rock, its foundalion does not shake to right or left. The power of the wind could not make it fall.

1052

ETHIOPIAN SAINTS

Abba Giyorgis i. a ocholar saint without e<jual m Ihe Elhiopian church in the qualily and quantil}' of original literalUre he produced. Howe...er, he is mostly remembered for two importanl works' a book of hours called S,,'aIM (hours), and M,,~e"afa me.(ir (The Book of Mystery). Before Girorgis, lhe widd}' used serllice book for Ihe hours was Ihe Ge'e, ...ersion of Ihe Coptic HORn· LOGION. For unclear reason•. dilferem monaslerie. compil.d their own book< of the hours, Uhimatdy, howe.... r, that of Abba Giyorgis pre.'ailed, even Ihough many churches continue 10 use the Coplic Sa'aIM. The distincti.... characleri.tic of Ihe horologion ascribed to Abba Gi}'oTgi< i. that it con· tain. the doxology of beaulifully composed ....Iulary hymns to many of Ihe saints ac~epted by the Ethipian chu.ch. As a musician, h. pro...ided Ihe melody for his lyrics. His original horologion, probably in· tended to be. used in .hift. in hi, mona Zar'a·Jacob:· AI>ha~dlr",gen dec Koniglich.,n Akad~rnie de. Wis· .en.chaften w Berlin, Philsophisch·historische Klasse. 2 (1885):1-79. GeLatchew Haile. "A Prelimina!)' Investigation of the rornarii Ta.ba'/ of Emperor Ziir'a Ya'qob of Ethiopia." Bulle/in of Ihe Schoo/ of Oriental and African Swdies 43, ser. 2 (1980)'207-234. ___ "On lhe Wrilings of Abba Giyorgis &iglawi from Two Unedited Miracles of Mary." Orientalia Chris/iana Periodica 48, ser. 1 (1982):65-91. ___ "The Cause of the &!ifanosites: A Funda· mentalist Sect in the Chun:;h of Ethiopia:' Paid· euma 29 (1983):93-119. _ _, "The Homily of Abba Elayas, Bi-shop of Ak· sum, on M~!!a':' " .. aleCla BoUa"diana lOS (1990):29-47. Getatchew Haile and W. F. Macomber. A Catalogue of Ethiopia~ Manu$cripI$ Microfilmed for the Ethi· opian Manuscrip/ Microfilm Library, Addi. Ababa,

1056

.nd

"

ETYMOLOGY

/or the Hill Moot.wc Mo:Inwscripl Lih
_ _ us CIt"""i4"u dc z.,r. ~

y".~qOb

c/

d~

&l'cd" Mobyoinl. ",is d'Ei1tiDpi~ dc I4J4 .. 1418. Paris. 1893. Raineri. O. ~'Gadla SIdqin' 0 'Vila dei CiuslI' Missionari ~1'Erih,.. s 6 (I en8): 143-63. Rouin~ C. ~L'omilia di Yohannes. ve5C'o o;:an liYcn 10 il!' lhey ..ked (In. 6:60). Christ comitn>ed in the same vein ex· poundinl 10 them the lJI)~ery tha. He was shortly 10 institule, aft.. which they ~eiYed it ..ilhoul a ~ 01. doubt or funher questioninl. n".. bread and wine, following IDe IeaChi. . of Chris. and .he e:x.antple He set on the .... of His passion, are.he .km.....u of the Eucharist: Iea.ened "'.....1 bread atld wine. n.. wine is unfermented and milled with a linle waler, in memo.,. of Ille water which iuucd wilh Christ·. blood when His silk was pi.rced with a spear (In. 19:34). The Expreilion and Manifestation ofBell.f 11 i. the finn bellef of tilt Orthodox
hand. For from the: risinl of Ihe JUIl to its ""'tina my name Os lreal among tbe nalions. and in .,..e-ry place Incense is offered to my name. and a pure offennl; for my name is crell among the nations, say$ the Lord of hosts·· (Mal. 1:10. 11). This prophetic text carries a clear implication of the perfection of Mosaic sacrifice in the fullne.. of time. This one ....:rifice ,annot be that of the Gn:d oblations. lor our sac:rifu::es. and for tI>os0 imitales thaI "'hich Chris! did; and he lhnI offen a In>c and full _rifie" in m.. Chun:h to God the F..n..r, ..hen t,e pnxeedo 10 off".- it ak God's forPvc"""" for sins comm;lled by those 00 whose bdla.If the: oxrltic" (obl.ationaj is bcina o&red, both the and !he dead. S. The sacril>ce OIl lhe cross ...-as alicnd 0"""N Golgolha-....t...r"as lhe tucharislic sacrifice has been J"'I"PClually olfened sine" its instilution by

Ii"..,

Chrisl_

n.., cha,"""l"ristic

~al .. re

of lit" Eucharisl as an 'XPres!lkln of ,"'tilUde has its oriain in t..... preteoknl esbhlished by Chrisl ....h"n He inSlitulM I..... sacramen" "'He look brud .nd ....hC'n h" had gi,'en Ihanks. _:. (lk. 22;19; Cor. 11:23-24). The liturgi"s usIIS!IOver mcaI which, in memory of the hUJried departure of me Israelites from the land of Eg,l"I, had to be !he ~ lamb willi bill.,. herbs and ....lca,·encd bread-lhe bread of aIiIiction (01. 1603). The da)'ll of unln.'cncd bread wou..Id be -le:a;;iS nf 1M Lord~: -In lint month, on the fou.rt«nllt day 01 the month ;n !he .....,n;n" is tM Lord's pIMO"'tf'. And On lite fifteenth day of the same mon.h is !he feasl of ..........'Cned bread 10 Ihe LonI; ..,""'" day$ you shall cal unleavened bread. On the fi... Ctr sent mo, and I liu boca...,. ol the Fall>tr, 50 he ,,'ho ,""IS me ..ill li.'C becau..e of ...... (In. 6:57); and (3) a p1edct of eternal life: "n. ..i>o eau this brud will li--e for n"tr" (In. 6:58).

(My.,,,,,,,I,,

BIIIUOGRAPlIV

l.lablb Jirji$. Jlsr4r al·Ka.ds..h ~1·SQb'ah, 2nd ed., pp, 75-120. Cairo, 1950, Ibn Sihi' Yilt>ann4 ibn Abl zabtfy;t. Kit4!> a/·Jawgl-Ngfisah fi 'Ulftm g/.K"nls"h, M. ViklUr

""_all

1062

EUCHARISTIC BREAD

Cairo, 1902, Trans. inlO Latin as Pre/iosa margarita de seierltiis ecdesiastlds by Vincentio Mislrl~, Cairo, 1961), Jurgens, W, A" ed, The Failh of the Early Falhers. Vol, L Collegeville, Minn" 1970, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, Collegeville, Minn., 1979, Perck,l, H. R. "E<cursus on the Worship of the Early Church," In A Sel~CI Library of th, NiceMe aMd Post·NiceMe Falhers of th~ ChriJtian Chur~h, 2nd ...,r., Vol. 14, ed. P, Schaff and H, Wace. Grand Rapids, Mich., 1956. Tadrus Ya'qOb Malan. ChriSI iM the E,,~ha,ist, bk. 1, pp. 34-4(); bk. 5, pp, 268-74, 306. Alexandria, 1973. Man~Or.

ARCHBISHOP BASIUOS

EUCHARISTIC BREAD, one of the two visible element, ~onstitUling lhe eucharistic sacrament, lhe olher element heing the eucharislic wine, The bread is leavenesS consisting of twelve linle squares, each of which is marked with a diagonal cross, The four central squares fonn lhe despotikorl (the bread of the Lord), Along the circumference runs a sacred

Eucharislic bread. Courlesy Lola Aliya,

legend containing in Coptic lhe words Holy God, H"ly Mighly, Holy Immortal. Such crosses arc engra,-ed on lhe ;nside of the wooden seal used for .tamping the eucharistic loaves before baking, An old wooden seal was found in DAYR ADO 1;I1NNIS in lhe Easlern Desert that had lhiny,si, small cro5lles around its inner rim, this number being the thiny,six signs of the cross made by the celebrant prie
Burmesler. O. H. E. The ECPti,m Coplk CII.....,II. C.im. 1967. Buller. A. J. Th A"cie"t Coptic CI".;c'us 01 ECfPI. Vol. 2. pp. la-32. Em>< and 0xI0rd. 1884. AltCHBlSHOl' BAstUOS

EUCHARISTIC VESSELS AND INSTRlJ. MENTS, lhe chalice. palen. a51tcTi$k. spoon. and ark uo.ed al lhe altar ill the cdeb••don of I.... Divinl:' Uture· In lhe Old Te!lta(ljtent. God c:om .... nOed Moses 10 .noinl Illtc uobem.o.o;le of lM cooS...,plion. the arlt of the tesli.......)'. 1M table and its vessels. Ihtc candl_kk .nd its voe$Cb. Ihe allar 1100 its v_Is. el Ctcttc,.. (Ex, 30:26-281_ Similarly lhfc wcharislk W'$' N:ls·h..... to he eonsecrated ~ thfc)l .I...., fim used in the chul'Ch. These ve~sds. thoulh usuall)' made of iil,,,,r. ..'tcrtc .1 time. made of more precious mrtals such WI sold Siudded ",jlh predUs stonleS, and were pre· senled as lifts from wealthy ",.mbers of the con· g.elation, On the olher hand. vtcssels made of glass, wood, or eanhenware were also u.sed in EcYPtian church", al limn of perwCUlion. whfcn the church· es wertc threatened by plunderers .nd .... nuders.

Tbf: ark is a WOOolkn boll measuring approximale-

Iy 10 by 10 by II inches (25 " 25 " 30 em). which al,,-ay5 MaIld5 in the middltc of thor alGle. The top has a wide round hole. ..,d ronsists of 1'1,.., foldinl I"",,,,,, througtt ...·hk:h I.... d..:Jictc is placed durilll the 1itutJ:Y. Tbf: four sida caT1)' paintings of the Lasl So.tpptor. the vtrPn Mary. an angtl. and the saini in ...-ltOK namtc I .... church "'U enseI. O>;foo-d. IM4. Cummings, D. TIu R.ubler. ChicaBo, 1957. Darin, J. G. ~Pyx'" In A Dtclio"...,. lJf UJ"'I1 and W""hip. London, 1971. Jurgens, W. A., t!d. T1u. FG'ilh 01 rlrt: EG',iy F;ford, 1884. Dro_r, E. S. WeIer into Wine, p. 64. London, 1956. King, A. A. Tlte Rires of easurn Christtndl1m, Vol. l. 1'_ 406. Rome, 19-47. Worr-ide the types lor the temporal asp'isible COSffiC15.. Eug concludes with a ...-ediction of the com;n.. 01. one who ,.·m interpret or simply repnu. the words of&t· JheT1, is nO s.ignifiam t'\ident:e 01 Christian influ. ~nce in the composition 01 Ewe. a1thwe. there .. ~,idrn« 01 Christian influence in its bln&ly influenc...! by Neop)11tag0rean number speculation. These obw:r-....tions point to an early dale for Eut-probably in lhe ~nc cenlury A.O. E.., tm.. .......Id likely be thoughl of as an eomple of the kind of "peculaliv~ activity thaI was involved in Ihe origi"" of gnosti·

".m.

The pro"enance of Eug in all likelihood was Egypt. Thi. i. suggesl...! by Ihe refe.ence in Ihe teU to "Ihe 360 day" of Ihe year."' Only in Egypt in late anliquily was the year thought to be of thaI lenglh. It is now generally Il(:ct'pled tha, Ihe wtiler of SiC used EUl: as • source. Mo.! of the dida'Olenl ~""8tor god Yaldaba· olh, 1M .~il of sexuality. and the qualitalive differ· ence belween Ihose whose knowledge is "'pure" and those whose knowledge is "'defe
EUSEBJUS, SAINT

by the reason ju", di.ctl5S
1071

lion of the Divine Word. The heathen idea Ihat Jesus was a sOrcerer who acbieved his aims by simple magic i. discuss
Cross, F, L The Oxford DiC/ionary of Ihe Christian ChuTch. pp. 473-74. London, 1957, Useful bihliography included. Lightfoot. J. B. "Eusebius of Caesarea:' In DCB 2, New York, 1974. A:!.IZ S. Ann

EUSIGNIUS, SAINT, founh·cenlury martyr (feast day: 5 Tubah)_ A. manuscript of DAYR ANU SHINOOAH of which a few leaves remain at Paris

1072

EUSTATHlUS AND THEOPISTA, SAINTS

L.ibrary, 1lClOI. 129.1. fol. 99 and 129.16. f<M. 105) contains 1M lescnd of Saini Eusl&ni\ls. !be"" are lwo sources of this le,end: Ol"Oe COl'!M'S Ibrnugb lbc Coplo-Arabic S.l"'
in I........ of ...opovaphy. wfticl> played a ''flJ iIl__

100us role In lhe Coptic tndition. Ckarly. in sIlowlnj; lhat Constantine ""... Yicwrious thanks lO his faith in the CroM, whereas JUliall ...-as 10 be COli' quered by
rl- The homily finally concludes with praise for John Chty5" OSIom, """- d:i~1"!IQ ar,. copied "in an the world, ""cep! in th.".,. rqioru occupied by

lII8UOGRAPHY

Delehaye. H. "La Lqende de saint Eusurclle." In &Ileti" de rAc• .u.... fW).-!,. de !Jdtiqu,.. d _ de (1919),17S-21O.

"'ttret

EUSTA.THIUS OF THilACE, a ficti.ious per· Crftl:ed during the period of 'he CYCLlS, he appean In panicular in the. Cy
This .rftI:ise has $UT\'i''ed In Coptic: In lour Sahid· it: mal1uscripu: one a complete codo (Pierponl Morpn Library. ~ York. J,lS92. no. I).:and thmr in fn&mrnwy codi. prove Eutyches' tlUmp card agairtst Fla"ian and Eusebius of Dorylaeum in his next trial of strength. also held at Ephesus, Eutyches at once appealed his sentence, not only to Rome b"t also to witat he called "the councils" of Re>me. Ale. condemning EUlyches and sening oullhe Western vie,,' of the recognilion of the incarnal. Chrisl in two natures (perfecl godhead and perfecl manhood), By Ihis time not only the coull but also the majorit}' of clergy. monks, and a"kulate laity in the eastern provinc.s of Ih. empire had sided with EUI}'ehes. At the Second Coundl of Epbesus. Eutych.s was vindicated. To the rapturous applause of the hish· ops. he produced his "proofs" from the Apollinarian forge
BIBLIOGRAPHY Camelot, T, "De Nestoriu, a Eutych.s." In Das Ko,,:11 von ChalcedoM, .d. A. Grinm.ier and H, Bacht, Vol. I. PI'· 213-242. Wlinburg:, 1951. Draguel, R. "La Christologi. d'Eulyches, d'apus lcs acles du synode d. Flavien, 448." Bywntlum 6 {l931):441-57. Fr.nd, W. H. C. Tire Riu of Ihe Monophys;/< Movement, 2nd .d.. chap. I. Cambridg., 1979. Fulle., J, M. "Eul}'ches." In DCB 2, pp. 404-412. Repr. New York, 1974. Jalland, T, G. Saint Leo Ih" Grear, PI'. 205-300. London, 1941. Lebon, J. La Chrisrologie du monophys;sme syrien. Lou""in, i 909. Schwartz, E. "Ikr Prozess des EUlyches," In SIl eungsbf!richle de. Mi
MUU. H. "l..es Lines litu ...iQllf$ de l·t&l~ copIe." ~ilan~J &.ginc TUJUdm. Vol. J. Studi ~ Testi 2JJ. esp. pp. 9-12. Valican Cny. 196older of God. the E''&llgelist Mark. the holy apo,de and ....rtyr."· The Coptic ehuKh eonlmem0r3les hi. ~ on 30 Bara·

""rve

_.

IUotltSHOl' a..su!t)S EVELYN.WHJT~HUGH GERARD (1814-

1924]. EngIw, arc~1ocis1 and Coptologist. He ..'as educated at Kitig-s School. Ely. In 1909 he joined !he Melropolilan M....,um 01 New Yo....·s o· pedition 10 Egyp1. reinaininl With them und! 1921. ~~eept for a period when he oervcd in World War I. AI first he worked with H. E. Winlock at al·Bagawit in the Kharph Oasis and then at West Thebes unlil 1914. This"""" followed by Ihe explor.uion of the Coptic Mon"'tery of Eplphanill~ ar SH~YKl! '~B[l ~l.-OURN~H, His major undel1akinll was making an architect",."l and arch~logkal .un'ey of rhe mono asreries 01 W;\.di al-Na!n:in. which resulted in rhe

publication of his th~volume 11te Monasterie. of the Wadi'" N"!rlm (New yo..... 1926-193S). Arnone his Coptic contribulions ialM Mcnwslef"J' of EpiphtJnUu "I Thebe•• with H. E. Winlock and W. E. Crum (New yo..... 1909-1911). 81BUOCltAPHY

Crum. W. F. ~HuP Evelyn·White (a rnen>Oi.). ~ 10"...d1 of ECJHi".. ,v,,11"""'zlr 10 (1924):331_

"

Dawson. W. R.. and E. P. Uphill. Who w... Who Dr E.c!prDIoD. Londoll, 1912. Kammerer. W.• compo A Cdptic BiJ>liogr,.phy. pp. 101-101_ Ann Arbor. Mich .• 195
IUl). Tbe fi&ure and lrwlition of Evodius art pttrt in· vmoon, nude b,' the authon from the era of the CTClD. and thus E,"OC!ius' "'vrU 'llluation of the EcYPtlan J>05Wre t....:!d Rome, Illal it, its aui· tilde loward Byzanllum. ~ing this ltit item, there are in lbev manuscripts many quOUlliunl of '~heosophlc" nalure (d. Van den Brock. Inll), very rare in rnost Coptic te~lS, thaI bear wilness 10 the sevenlh<enlury remain. of Chrislianlzed pag< ~ullur~ In EJypt;. In fact. tllese hommes were probal:>Iy wrinen as ami·Islamk polemia masked by lhe aUlhorily of an ancient and venenued ~rson, It l~ .'ery probabl~ lllal in creating "Evodi~ of Rome," Ille Copts ",,~r. ;nsplr~d by the Evodius who .uc· ceeded Peler of Antioch. and of whom very Jillie is

1079

really known apan from one remark in the Ecclesiastical Hislory of Eusoebi,", 8IBUOCRAJ'HY Brock, R.. ,.. n den. "four Coplic F...mems of a Gally and in person for ,..,ad· mission 10 communion. This pica i$ 5ubmilled In writing only ,,'hM the person punished ca,u>Ot conic 10 !he bi5hop bec:ause oloidnef,S.. If the bishop lihs the p"nW"nent, the pe"",n ~dmined 10 communion decbns in ..."riIing that he: will not l'droo'1101.1! wh..., she .....,." alone wilh Ihe Father. When b ..... on she r.-Il inlo a body and inlO !his life. t.hc became coowninale
'0

EXOUCONTIANS

imposture. of her lovers. The soul is funher de· scribe
Baenelink, G. "le. D
___ L'ExJghe de fame: inlroduetion, Iraduelio",

commenlaire. leiden, 1982, MAOELEINE SCOPEll.O

EXOUCONTIANS,

one of the more extreme groups of Arianis.. that surfaced during the last he years of lhe reign of Constantiu. II, at the time of the third e~ilc of ATHANASIUS (356-361), So
C"d>lceliuy of IJoe SM" of C.. Plum Zuriclt.

EXUPERANTJUS, SAINT

1083

BIIIUOGRA.PIlY

Egloff, E. Wu h~1 d~s Chri'I"""''' nach Zijrich ge· brach" Zurich, 1948.

___, Der Sw"d"" de. M"na5leri"ms L"dwigs de~ De"lschen ill Zurich, Zurich, 1949 ___, D.. A"jfi"d,mg der Zijrcher fleilige". Zurich.

Ea'l Portal (die Zwinglillire) of lhe Gro"munstc' in Zurkh with ,cp,escntaiton of the three ri.en sainI' ,,>jth head in hand. Detail, COl"'es)' Mmmir FawlS

Gi.-g's.

"'

1950. Muller, I. "Die friihbrolingische Pa"io de' hire· her Heiligen," Zeilschril' li,r Sdrwbt 201. and VMican Mabie 103, fol. 1!Y, Ia.!t line) In the Inl of tht M Tnni'f f' f/ncllnUUU;m. PO 4~. fasc:. 3. nO. 1920, pp. 10-12. TurnhoUl, 1985. Sldanas. Adel Y.lbn "r-RlJhibs Lt!bfn .. nJ Wfri. £1" iopliscIJ..,r"biscltt!r EmyllopJidUJ d~ 71IJ. J"hr· h..ndtl:rls 1sIamhondlicht! l!nlefSuchunlen 36. Fmbu... 1975. YilAlb, bishop of Fuwwah. His/oaf (...... uteript of DII).. a~ryb). In KitMt Tbfh\r _.J.dIM'it &r{. I,;i,,/ "Us!Il"JJ>nyy.lI .J.Oihf. ~. Klno,l ~i~ l'lakJllah. p. 47.... Cairo. 1943.

Khalil Sam'r.

AI~a/l

KJ.uUl Sull'- SJ.

1bt children in llot anclenl Egyptian family were lhe focw. of bmily life. 1bt ancienl Eg)p11aM gave mIlCh C:IITt! 10 I""'ir children and 10 their education. The bt/ott Ir::aintd his children '0 5UCCt!'Cd kim in his fields• ........uhop. or office. In one of llot :ancienl ItJ:!£, a man """" cn-m 1M folIowinS:ad\ice: "Tab to thyself a wife when Ihou an a )'OUIlo, !hat w may P'~ ~ • son. Thou s.t!o..ll'tLan ,'Hlage works side by .id" with ho.tsd>oI.d, and low: thy wife at home .. it ~mtth. Fill ...... beUy, clothe hn bac"; u... pnt to W <Wlfdy for hrr limbs. Gla.ddeo hn heart. aa lonl ... " ..~.y..-eth; aI.e ia a goodly field ro.her lord" (Entun. 1%6. P. 61). Monopmy "'_ the prc,... i1in, pall",", of the ancifnl Ea,yptian family. B_her-si$l:t1" and blheT
1087

tion. Through the centuries, the means of recreation for the Coptic home were also religious. The occasions of the celebration of the feasll; of the saints served a, reminders 10 the COplS of Ihe exam· pIe of Chrislian life gi""n by the saint whose feast was celebr;>ted and at the same time 3$ an opportunity for ,..,creation and meeting friends and relalives.

Influence of MuslJm SocIety on the Coptic Family The similarities between the Copts and Ihe Mus· lims in family life and social cuslOms may be atll;b· uted mainly to the common social and cultural context in which thC)' live. Although they follow two different ,..,ligions, both religions have interact· ed and integrated with Ihe total Egyplian cnlture. Under Arab and Turkish rule, the Copts lived a .eparate life within their own community with few social contacts wilh their Muslim neighbors. The mWel syslem, which was established by the OtIO' man empire, gave the heads of the millels, or reli· gious minorities. the right to adn,inisler their own communities as autonomous entities in their spiritoal, personal, and administrative allain. The Changing Structure and Functions of the Coptic Family The responsibility for personal affairs of marriage. divorce. and inheritance bas shifted from the church to the stale, For centuries, marriage and divorce among Ihe Copts were conside,..,d entirely religious mallers for which the Coplic church was held responsible. Under Arab and Turkish rule, the palriarch. Ihe bishops. and Ihe prieSts of the Coptic church conducled Ihe marriage and decided about divcrce according to the canon laws of the Coplic church. When the Coptic millet councils were established in 1874. one of Iheir major tasks was to organize millel couns and maintain ,..,cords of marriage and diverce. In 1955, the ERvptian govem· ment replaced the miller coun, by civil courts, which took over the responsibility for marriage and divorce casl'$ among all citizens-Muslims, Copts. and other religious minorities, The principle ()f reHgious commonily laws. however, wo-s prese....'ed in the civil courts, Hence, the Coptic priests. as well as priesls and mini'lers of other churches. are Ii· censed as registrars for marriage on behalf of the government. The task of the priest end, wilh his filling in the registration forms and the liturgical celebralion uf the wedding. When problems later arise in the life of Ihe Family, concerned panie.

1088

apply for

FAMILY LIFE, COPTIC

di."O
The l1U5S media haw lito had a nliceable effect on F.gypo..ian bmily life. Th~ bmily and the Khool an" no longer the only basic sources al infomunion in the life I th~ child The role of boIh the ,,",ren' and the teacher is cbanainl with the growth of m.... media. TeIO'Yi$iotl, loo'.'ever, bas a ~~ dftcl bet __ of its poonicular anracllon in the oon'>C'. It has become an In
I"". Goode, W. J. "ChaRgine Family Panems in ""'bie b1am_" In WOIld A£\IOlulioIf ""d F"mi!y Patlcnu. N..... Ym. 1963. Je/fcry, Anhur. ''The Family in Islam." 11I11r~ F"",~ /y: II> F,,"c,i(m ""d DeJ';ny, ed. R. N_ An:sh~n. New York, 1959. Lerner. Daniel. 711£ P"ssi", '" Tradition,,1 Soci~ty: Moderni.i", Ih£ Middle E"JI, Glencoe, III., 1958. Muhyi, I. A, "Wom~n ill Ih~ Arab Middle East:' In The Modern Middl. £aJI, ed, R. H, Nolte. New York, 1963. Shenouda, Anba. Sharia' al·Za"" ai·Wahlda Ii 411· Ma~~iyy"It (Mon. .amy ;n Chri5l:lanity). Cairo, 1967•

FARAMA, Ai.-

Whit~,

loIln Manchlp. Ev~rydG)' Efypl. New York, 1%3.

Lif~

;" A."C...."I

MAUKlCf AS-All

FAN, S~~ Ut"!"ikal lntlrumenu.

FARAJALLAH AL-AKHMIMI, ... thor of a law rqW~r (NO~IOCA".oo...). C. Cnl thal fanjallih ..... from the cit)' of A.t.:loI/Ilblll in Upper £cypc and lived bonweeD t~ middle of the Ihlneenm .nd lhc middle oIm~ foIllU'ellth cemul'}. Th~ evidencc for mi< datinS i$ the fact I~I his law replcr is mosdy borro\o,'M from lhe 8001: of Spiril..l.l .. pIagiarnm. has lnlrodocrory chaplet'S oIlhc &01: of Spi"/>ltU Medic;"•. then cite! lhe ""'rees 01 church ....... and in the remal~ preseau lhe de ... BY .nd tht rituals In correspondence with u.osr -...en, bu. in altered order. n.e KCOnd part. ...;m fiity chaptet'S. COI'Cemi rnond .nd ;..dkial INlten. repratin« for the _ paI1 tite corresponding tal of !be BooI< of Spirit.. ,,1 Mt.ic/J,e, with the Clltq)lion 01. tht pan on conl"eision. whcne ~ and d.il I.o.w are lIollo-.d.. The onl)' $O\lrccs oarrtM for inht'riWOCt law .... the ""•••iu: of OnIr""op of Pdulium and in 351 he wb$cribrd lhe ~ of the Council of s.rdlc.a as bishop of Pel\!' sturn. The successor of Dorolhe~ or prtbaps of M.rk, was Panbalius, who .igDius of PcI....m anendrd tl>c Cw>cil of EnllSUS. In the middH: of tl>c si!uh cm. lUry a Chakcdonlan biUMlfI named George " .. In oftKe in Pell&Sium. He had bern a Ptlpll of SIlbA. lhe blItrT of monks, and was oMained blshC9 by lhe Chalcedonia.n pa.lriarch Zailus (53!-S51) tomecime bon......" ')40 and S50. A "-umber of sainlS and matt)T!l had aJ·F.nunt as rilhcr their birthplau or plau of manyrdom. Some of those assocw...t wirh the d'1llf"C Anlonius of Banall., Apa Tit. Epim.du,l$, bishop 01. Pclusium, Hor of Sirr-tqUs. lsido<e of Takin~. l.sidorus of Pdusium. Piroou, and SIna (see !ltIdlTYJ$. oornc). Al-Fararnj, bttame an impol'Urlt cmltT of m0nastic..... a. an tarly period. "The Af'OPHfli£GIUTA I'AT. ..u.. . menlions the area hen. 1'bc best-kno","" ol,he monks from ,he aru was lsidorus of Ptlusl..m (c. 355-c_ 435). who "'"as a lheologian of $OI'U. an txtgrlC, and the aumor of. vast eonrspondrnce (published iD PC 78). When Bernhard tnc Wise "",i'M aJ·Faram6 in 870 he spolilk pm,..,r, some .$Cholars ~J""" thai the capital 01 lhe posI·Meroruc kingdom of was esQl;,. Ji:lhed 'I Faras. Howe".,r, the e>idenee for litis is largely 'p"culal!Ye, for Ihe remain. of Ihe poll·Mcr· oilie p"riod thai hav~ been uncov~,..,d at Faras a"" nol very exlensive. A number of medieval Arabic docum~nu rder 10 Faru as Ihe c.pilal 01 Nobalia (or ai-Malts. as they one.ll call il), bul these dale from a la..... lime. after Nobetia had been absorl>cd Inlo the .lr.ingdom 01 lotAUlUW. Af1eor the merp:r, which probably IOOl< pia« in me Sf"enlb (;fntury, il is clear tha, the epa.... hs or 1I'i«~ of NoWlia resided chiefl)' a, Fans, lhou~h lhey e,i· dentiy had other resid~ncel as wia. Bologna. 1970. _ _ Chr;sf;t/niry in Sud"n. pp. 138-40, \4447. 8ologns. 1981.

II",

w.UJAJoI Y. ADAMS

FARAS MURALS. The mosl spectacular arc:haeolopC*!. discovery of the Intema.ionaJ CampaiJn to ~"" Ih" MortumenlS of Nubia was thai of the Faru Cathedral. buried ;n .... nd with ;\1 medi"...1 pn.>Il"IIm of wall decoration largely prncn'ed. Nearly 200 individual paintings were found On Ihe cathedral wall$ and In adjoininl bishops' lombs. and of Ihese 169 were wennalized and Italic ITUlment of tit" human ns· u,..,. Tlte two laler 51)"I"s are mOre distincli""ly Nu· bian and are characleriz"d by brilliant colol'$. lavish Of1IIlm"ntaI detail. and sornewhac more lifelike human ligurQ.

,,"""led

1092

FAROUK I

The sequence of S1}'lislie da..,lopmcnl in lhe Faras murals .. more or leu pllrallellcd in oUt(r Nubian ehurches. ahhough lite multicolored 5Iy1e SC'Cfm lO have ouched full devdopmenl only III Faras ilStlf. Michalowo.ki bellevel ttw FaJali - . the artistic cenlCr of Nubia. &om which odICI' ellu",h painlen lOOk their InsplralioP. bul lhcn is noc enough ... rvhinl ~nce lO ewobIisIl litis ckarly. Some of the FarB pIIinl;"&' haYe been exhibiled a1 lbc N~ Vorl< World's Fair (1964), lbc PeDI !"a. Lais in Paris (1964), and llle Villa Hilgd in &
E.

u.

GfOfl,aphie de I"ED'P" ~ I·tpoqu~

cople. Paris. 11193. Bud,e. E. A. W. Coptic Apocrypha in the Dialul 0{ Uppe, E,ypt. London. 1913.

Cerny,

J, Copric

Eryrnoloeicol Oictio",.ry. Cam'

beid,e. 1976. Munier. H. "Lc Mo.....tm de SL Abraham i Fa... s/lwI:' gu"ew. de I,. Sod;'ti d',.,c1,iolop d'AIu,."dm )0 (1936l:26-30. Vyekht W. Di",ti<mnai,.,. ilylflOlogique de ". "'''twe «>pIe.

Lc-u.""",

19iI).

Winlock, H. E., aDd W. E. Crum. 11010 Monastery CI{ EpipJt4"i... '" 71IeWs, 2 vol... New Yorl:, 19th.. Rn;~COOOt. ..

MAllRJClI;

M.orrts, S. J.

FASTINC. FastinC i5 :IU'iejlyobierved by the Copts in IIoCcordance wilh their calendar_ 1'he custom predall!:l Chrislianily in Judaiom and anc:,enl EsYJMian relipan. Fasts are recommended by JC'!'us (ML 6:16: Mk. 2:20) and by the apostles (Acto 13:2, 14:23; 2 Cor. 11:27). The toul fasting days in Coplle tradl· tion eo~er approximately IWo-Ihirds of lh~ year Or a minimum of 250 da)'!l. In their ~ts. lhe Cop's avoid meat and all animal eJiracts ineh.ding eus, milk. buller, and cheese. Fi~h II also prohibiled in Ihe fasts of Jonah, Our Lady, and especially Lent. It ~ said thai th~ fOMy da)'!l of Lent COincided with a. similar period during which the ancient Egyptian~ also refrained from

1093

eatill& tih Ihrough the $p&wnint - - . ; n the Nile. This renders thai lradilion wilh lhe CoplS okler !han ohIo introd"etinfI of Chrislianity. CcJpl.M: monks, as«IM:s. and solilarie5 often pushed fasting far beyond the canonical pntCIices. They f:Il5l.e:d the wbnIc year, and ~tly .tic only OIIe meal afl:er $UI\SI!:'l.

Fut of the Apoallu This f:w. commemonln lhe b5I observed by !he disciples after the Nc:enslon of Chmt (Acto 10:10; 12:2.3; 14:21-24; Xl:9. 21). " ..arts on the Monday that iollows PenlecOSl: and ends on 5 Ablb, when tile Coptioc chun::h cdcbratn lhe feall of oh~ apostlC'!' Peler and Paul. Since Pemec05l is a movable feast, Ihis fast "'" no ~Kcd duration, but ,,,,ri" betWl!:Cn fifteen and rony· nine days. According to the COllstilutiollS of Ihe Hoiy Fatlre,s 5.20: "', , . after you ha'"e kepI Ihl' felti,,,,l of Pente,,~t. keep one wl!:flk rna .... festival. and after that faS!: ror it i. reasonable to rejoice for the gift of God, and 10 fast after that relllltation" (Constiruti'm•. 1951, p. 449). The Coptic church. however, 5U.rt! the fast. immedialely after Pentecost. n.e fifty days followin, Ihe R"uTreTinI al Juusalcm. ~ Chrislians p:>inted oul 10 lhe empero~ con;' ~""e dille dcYa$lalion caused by the Jews during Ihe yean oJ. the Persilton o recommendadons. This "';IS the C8S.clusion of S6lurday and Sunday fronl tbe lenlen

....

Accordinlto the Itslimony of Etheria (or £&erial. the Spanish tr.. vel~ who visiled the Holy Lands in 382 and 3U (Pue,,;... 1io JlnltuUle, 1919), the church of Jerusa.J.ern obst..ed &II ri&h"'..eek &sI ~

East.,.,..

Fasl of Jonah AI... dco....led lhe Fasl of Nineveh, Ibi:1 f... is

obsenied 10 commemorale tbe penance of lhe Nin· ",-it"" at the preaching of Jonah (Jon. 3:1-10). This fast wall originally kept by the S)'rian Orthodox Cnurch and wlS adopted as one of Ihe fasts of the Coptic church by Patriarch ~a""HAM, the si.ty· second pope of Alu•• ndria (975-978), as s marl< of unity and solidarity bet"""",n the lwo sisler ~hurch· laning on a Monday. aboul 1"'0 ....,.,b before lhe bqinnina of ~ weal Unl. Uturgies ..... held daily;n lhe aft.,... DOOD. The eal;n. of fish and all forms of animal rat is not allowed dun,. thi. fast. The fnoclion prayers appointe
FASTING

chun:h oburvu Holy Week in memot)' of Chrisl's passion. 1nI1 has been obstn-e'olvinll physical enjoymenl or plcasure.

Faat or the Nativity The fast of lhe Nllmly innriably he';... on 16 HaUlr 01 the Coptic caJmdar and ends on lhe eye 01 29 Kiyahk. thus coverinl ro",...hr« days. Originally it "''25 obsen."Cd for forty days only. but toward the end of the leoth CClIIUI)'. three days we.... added 10 il 10 CIIlfDl'morate the mineulous evenl of the Ill<WtnI 01 the Mu~~ hill in Cairo during the palriatthale 01 Abnharn. The SlOry cl this ewnl I"... around the: ch.allenge by a1·Mu~1ZZ. ..... Fatimid caliph ('152-975), 10 lhe Coptic: patrian:h 10 prtn'C the truth ~ the ..yinc of Jaus (Mt. 17:20) that bid> could mQ>'e mountains. Aco;on:!ingly, the patriarch. together ",-jth .he Coplic. communily. kept ,'igiI and pr.oyen fOoIy alo 86 'Id Q/-$ayyldah (lhe WI pl'f:CCding the ~t of our Lady). This b:sl i' _ widely obse ....ed amona Copts 01 aU "CU, who kt:qI il with puticuIar abstention from ealina fi>h and all food substanU$ tha.t in· clude &1. 011. or iu products. II is abo ', p. 6(1).

BlJll.ll)(:aAPHY

k'ad Rustun>. K.m..t Mair",,1 AII4Jt An{~ "I· 'U9'!', Vol. I. pp. 4la_H. Beirul, 195!. Aliya, A. S. A NisIOr)' 01 E.. It~m Cltristi"Ni(y. london. 1961. Audet. J. P. La Did"cM.- '''SI,...:tions du ApQ/I't~. Paris, 1933.

Burmes'er. 0, H, E. Th. Etyprl..n o. Cop/ic Ch"'ch. Cairo, 1967. Bntclter. I!.. L Th. Story of Ih. Church of Etypl. Vol. 2. pp, lIS. 139. 1.0."lon, lS97. Buller, A. J, TJre Arab C.,.,q"ul of Eopl, ilna Ih. L ....I Tlti,,, Y~an of the ROI'Iiln Domi"ioN. pp. 136. 16L O!Iford. 1902. are. Wl:l6a wassd". Pr..tiquu n·tut/k• • 1 tllmt.... III~ du CO(1f." Cairo, 1971. Connolly. It H. DidIUC.J", A,ostolonl.... o.:foo-d, 1919. Repr.. 1969_ Cumminp, D. T1K IWdtJrr. ChicalO. 1957. I:U~ ot..-ud. JlI-DisqUliyy"h "'" r"'lit",, "I·RI/U"I, 2nd «I.. p, 17L Cairo, 1940. Homer, S. Th. S,al"u. of Ihe .41'0linu. Amsterdam, 1721. ~. L TrIl;li de ;e.:.".... de N,Jiu. ",,.;,. 1615. viIl«ourt. L "La Obsen'3nCeli litu....quu et Ia discipline du jeWle dans I'~ise coptc.. .. E..UrplS from U Mus/on 36.37,38 (1923-1915). Y~nI SalAmah. Xildb ,,/·Le'''l'' ,,/.NII{is4h " SIr",~ fuqu. "'II-J.IU'IIlq<MIJI III-KII,,'~Ir. Vol. 2. P!'. J71-73. Cairo, 1909_ ARCHBtSIfOP

B~SIUOS

FATlMlDS AND THE COPTS. h is dlfficuh to give a complete piclure oIlhe situation of lhe ColliS unckr Ihe F.'irnid dynasly (972-1171). Ccnen!llly ~ini the caliphs wrre very tolerant toward tllem. e.cel't during IWd period. Thq .... not actu.Uy an in-.uion oc the ~n of the F.limids. When they aniwd in £&ypc. Ge"" ..l Jawh.ar and hiI mauer, .1·Mu·iz:r. (972-97Sl, found Jews .nd Ch~ian:lI on dilJCf'Cflt lcvcb ollhe adminislnotion. aod they were wise c"""8;h to clLanie no!hi"i in Ibis matter. A1."Am (97S~~) was the fiBI of the Falimidi 10 bestow the tide of vWcr, and Abtl aI· Fanj Y.·qilb ibn Killis ..... me fint recipient. But he had. in facl, alrcady abandooed the Jewish reliiion before tM F....imidi anived in EoPt. On \he contrary. the Chrntian '1$.1 ibn Nu!OtllS. who held the same pt)S( from OIl,;; aI-qo.·dah 3gS/Oecem· ber 995 until Ram;a4an 386/ScplenlMr-Ot::loQer 9%, dler bring finandal "",reJary, hpt hil religion. Perhaps he showed mOre favor Ihan was tolerated to his fellow Christians was rumored 10 lhe caliph. Whatever the c.u he, was dismissed from hi, poll. tOllether wilh mhcr Chri..ians In offi· d.lpositions. Shonly aftel'Wll.rd. bowt>'er. 'llll was

1097

mnsuJled On the mtel"Vtian secretary ABU A!.-'AU' YAIl tBaAHIM was ~t officially, while in 1025 the c~iph al-~iT _ accompanied 10 the cdebr.uions by h;s wiw:s. He o.Ut:d only thaI ~tuslims and Chri.. ria... refr.Un from bathi". ~ther in lhe Nile. A.l certain periods, lor e.umpk, al Chris..n.....d £as. ter. the c~iph's pal"",e Mnl gifu, among which were sj)l'dally minted dinars, 10 lhe ChriSlian nfIi, dais (AI·Maqrlzl, Khi!Q(, Vol. I, pp. 265, 494~(5). II mu", nOl be supposed, however, that Ihe Cop« en;oycd full ....ligious libeny al the lime of the Fal;' mids. Careful reading of lhe work of loBO VoJ.JJ:I 1M!! .l1l.ItE!<Wl showo., in rael, dw Y"Y few n~ churclt· es Wef'e built in Ef;ypt. The ChristiaJu had to can· ltol them.sdves ...."itIt rescoring " ... ones b.lIeu inlO ruins. ""'cordial: 10 lbe mm0U5 CO\'ENANT OF 'UM.U.. The same was lrut; for lhe m""""'eria. It hapj)l'Md Ihat one or anoth" monaslery wao fTeqllenled and heij)l'd financially py a Muslim vider or even a caliph, bul lhe.., .... i50laled incidents (Abu ~;l.t, I89'S. pp. 62 and 89). The Copts, who 81 thaI lime ............ far ~ numerous !han today in ~'JII. had lhe kpIlllWU> of Dhimtnis applitnlXlS "",re not as rood as un· d... (A)l\Sl.3nline IX. The ani•.". of til.. Crusaders in lhe Easl upsel the haboc" of fo.-.:C5 in tht rqlon. Allianctl we.... eoncluded. sometimes be.......en 8)"'1· ami..... a"d Crwadc~ and eo..,n bcc.....ecn 1M Fati· mids and til" Crusaders against the U'OOpS of Nllr al-Ofn (1169). In !heir rdalionship ...ith Chmrian Nubia. IIw: Falimids had Inherittd a paniculu silUallon based nn the aM)T nEATT....-hieh bid do...'11 thai tht kina of Nubia had 10 pa)' an annual tnbute 10 £&)l". I'ot" a lon, period lhis tribule ~td mainly of 360 black slavts. IOl"lher wilh animal. lhal wert un· known or ..... in Egypt. Through """end Maori.".. a1.Maqrbl i" ""nkular. "'" .know that Ihis pf'loClice (onlinutd under lhe Fatimids, bul onl)' inl"rmi!· lentl)'. Apan from certain periods. the gOytmment of Cairo load no mean. of forcing lhe clauses of til" !r pay. We hear of Nubia ooee mo.... during the rtVOIl d Abo Rakwall. in aI~m" timtS. 1llt rtbri had fled.o Nubia.. bul ...... capturtd by the king 01 Ihe COUntry• ...no handed him ....'Cl" to tht Falimids. .........n tbc king of Nubia.. Solomon, who had rK.... lIy abdicated....·enl on pil· grimage 10 """... n (1080). he "''as 61"i1 arrcsted and SC"IIO Cairo. bUI the oilieT. &ad, aI-Jam;loll. lrealed h.im "ith spedal attenlion. 1llt ling ditd in Cairo the follo....ing ytar and ........ buritd in th~ Monaslel')' of SainI Geo'1le. During lhe Ma&h... b period of the dynasty. Sidly had been one of the major pnoocc"palion. of th" Fatimid caliph.s. When al·Mu'ill seultd in Cairo, he left hi. lind lieulenaol the t3llk of deftnding Sidly. Thi. pmvinc" remain"d "nder Musllm dominalion until the middle of til" e1"""nth cenlury. Fmm Ihat lime on. weakened both by Synontine auac"" and inlernal division., it bt&Rn to represent a covetC
"P-'-

BI8UOCItAPHY

MaIn Arabloc Sources

AbU ':Ianifah a1-Nu'mln ibn Mul)ammad lOidI}. Kil· ~" ,,1.M"jdl~ "",.../.MuStn3d ibn 'Abd al·Wahhib al·Nuwayt1. N'-~il)IQt ,,/. Ard~ f! Fun';'" ,,[·Ad,,". Cairo. 1923. 'AII ibn ~fir. Aklrl>dr "1.0"",,,,1 "1.M.."q,,(i',,Ir. ed. A, FelTe. Cairo. 1972. Ibn al-OaIAnisl. Dh",1 Totrlkh DI"'"s~q, "d. H. F. Amedool. Lcid"n. 1\108. Ibn al·-$ayarfl. "Allsh!rah IIi man nAJa al·Wiclrah," Bulletin de I'ln.tilUf /r"nr"ls d'),rc;heologie ori"n· ,,,Ie 25 (1925):49-112. Ib~ I;lajar al·A!lqaIAnl, R4 "r"f' '"n QmJl'I1 Mi~ •. CaiTO, t957_

1100

FAW

Ibn KhalliUn, Wa/aJ~r ,,1·11.')'1'" 6 vol$., ed. M, M. 'Abd a1-I;{arok\. Cairo, 1948~19SO. Ibn M,,}_. ,u1Un!, Mi?, ed. H. ~ Cairo,

1919; 1957. KilAl> 4I-M.....·i' .......I·{,lH' (41·Kh~I1l). 2 YOh. BuIaq, A-H. 1270.

YaJn'j al-Anlikl. ~il,,/ KillJ.1t Urf~IIlJ., ed. L Cheikho. Paris, 1909. Ed. and F,..,nch lrans. T. Kl'luchkowIky and A, V..iliev In PO 17 and 23 (l924 and 1932). "ntil yur 404.

""venlh celliury lhal lbe pla~e WIOS a Ihriving mo· naslie Center (Pra/um Spirituale U. 71). BlBlJOGIlAPtIy

Arnllineau, E. La GiotraphK.,u "Egyp'~ oil fipoque top/e. p. 337, l';lris, 1893. Le Quieti, M, Orlens ChTistian'H, 3 vol .. Gru.. 1958, Reprint of P.rls, 1740, Timm. S. D4J christlitlt·kopti$Che Ac'pun /" /IIrabisc~, kif, pt.'. pp. 1506-1525. Wiesbadcn, 1988.

Slodlet 'Abd al-Mun'im Mapd. ~1Iu, KII1/4/QI "I F4{imiyyt.. ..."·s"qU!,,ItlJ. Ii Mif" AI ....andrl., 1968. Canard M, "Un Vizir chr~ien i I'tpoque f:\!imile, l'Armenten Bahrim:' A""al... de I"institm d'£I"th. oritnUlkJ Alto U (1954):84-113. ___ "Noles sur les Annbliens en Egypte. il'
Feuts Observed by the Coptic Church

In obedience to God's commandmenlS. lhe following occasions were kepI as days of reSl, abslen· lion from work. and offering of sacrilices:

These fall inlO four main divisions: the se,·en major feaslS, the sC"en minor feasts (sec FEASTS. "l ..... 0R; fEA.STS, "l1,"OR), the seven Marian feasls. and the saims' and martyrs' feast days. The seven major feasts are:

1. The Sabbalh (Ex. 20:8- 11) 2. Passover (E>:. 12; Lv. 23:5) 3. Feast ofWeeb, or of lhe wheat hal1'e't, celebrat·

l. The Annuncialion (29 Baramhat)

ed seven weeks after Passover (Lv. 23:15) Feast of the Tabernacles, on the lifteenth day of the sevemh momh. al lhe end of lhe harvest feslival (Lv, 23:33) New Moon Feast, on lhe firsl day of every month (Nm. 10:10; 28:11-15) The Day of Atonement. on the lenth day of lhe sevenlh momh (Lv. 23:27) Feast of Blowing of the Trumpets. On the /il>ll day of the sevemh month (Lv. 23:24. 15)

2. The Nalivity (29 Kiyahk) 3. The Epiphany (11 Tubah) 4. Palm Sunday. on the seventh Sunday of lhe Greal lenl 5. Easter Sunday. a movab]" f"asl celebrated on lhe lirst Sunday after Passion Week 6. Ascension Day, on the fortieth day after the Res· urrection 7. Penteeost, on the fiftieth day aft"r the Resurrection

In addilion, lhe Israeliles were ordered 10 hallow the jubilee year. occurring once every fifty years al the end of se"e" Sabbatical cycles.

The seven minor feasls, in chronological order,

4.

5.

6. 7.

Early Chrlstlan Feasts From various references m the New Testament we learn that Christ and His disciples obsen-ed the annual Jewish feasts (Mt, 26:19; Mk. 19:13: U. 1:42: In. 2:13: 5:1: 7:2, 37). Ukewise Saim Paul celebral' ed various feasts. stressing their Chrislian characler and dissocialing them from Jewish connotalions. Thus. for e>bah) 3, Candlemas (8 Amshir) 4, Maundy ThuTIiday, on the Thursday preceding Good Friday 5. Saint Thomas's Sunday. On the Sunday followin8 Easter Sunday 6. Entry of lhe Holy Family inco Egypt (24 Bashans) 7. Transfiguration (13 Misra) The seven feasts of the Thtolokos are: I. Annunciation of her Nativity (7 Misra)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7,

Nativity (I Basbans) Candl"mas (3 Kiyahk) Dormition (21 Tubah) As.. OF AUX· Mo-VRIA (c. ISO-215) 5IalCS: " ••• ,here ,hose who ha"e determined nOl only ,he year of our Lxd's birth. bot also the day: and lhey say Ihat il look place in tht lwenly-eighlh year of AuguslU'. and on .he 'wenly·fifth day of Pachon. _.. Funher. o,he'" say .hat he ",..as born on the twenty-f""rth or twenly-M.h of PharamUlhr' (Stromata 21). The Co""i/"ri,,,.. oj/he Holy Apo5ll~. how....er. strike a !'IO.e 01 cenainty: "Brethren. ob.e~ lite fcsli.al days; and s...... of all the binhday ... hkh )00 arc 10 eclcbra,c on the l ....... nty-liIth 01 the ninth month." The month in lI.-lon hn-c is the nimh ol the Hebrew calendar. Difference of opinion also applies to the )'eN 0( Christ's Nllwity. To trenaet.15 (c. 130-200). ;t was Ihe forty·lirll year of me reign of Augmrus. AU£' 751 or 1 soc... n opinion ~h.red by Tertullian {c. I W-200j. Olher historians held the view Ihal Chri..'1 birth took place in the forty·.econd year of the rei", of AuguSIUS, the twenty-eighth year after Ihe COrUl,UC51 of Egypt. A,UC. 752 or 2 B.C. To Ihis sthool of thc>uth. belong Clement of Ale.... ndria (c. 150-215). Hippolyrus of Rome (c. 170~216). EU5&

,,-en

,"""

AS1O.,moion

p.,,,.«
the congreplion join ill the three cenlno' munds of

In the eoulV: of lheir cdebralion of Easler, lhe farhe", P'~ it ''arious dtsig....Oons. Ju::act day of Easler Sunday. so I~ it ........Id always foil"'" lhe Je.....ish Paswvu. in dOK a5e Math falls in the CO"","" 01 Holy Wed.. One" the enWiclion. the bilhful ",ithdrl..· ..ith their polIm C",",","" and their holy bread. As • rule. IMy break lhe Jast on ~al. consisting ~nliaJly of fish, all this happen. 10 be: the only day of len! when fish is p"r· milted. In the early etnturies of Coptic hislOry. a special procession is said 10 ha~t been conducted oulsidt lhe chu.-eh through tht city ~ ..,..... ht8ded by lhot eletw:r and Iolk>wcd by IN: a>mmunity d !he bith· fuL This 1f"8dilion rnnained in foret until il _ fori:>iddtn by thoe FaIimid calip/l al-l:f.Ikim at tilt lum of tnt Itnth untury. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burmesler, O. H. E'.. TIr, Etyp'iD.n or Coptic Cit"""h. Cairo, 1967.

Buller. A. J. 111, A..cienl Coplic Ch"rches of EDP!. 1 ..::>U. OlIbnl. 18M. Une, E'.. M.....""" ...11 CMSWfII <J/ th# M/JduJ< EO'po 1i.1IS. 1 woIs. Londo.., 1"2.

wa.s.sn.

am

Wissa. h.liqu~ ,jl"'"~

"

..urn,...

"'iru d" I:OpIU. Bibl~qu, d',tuoo Copt"'l 9,

pp, 195-96. Cai9>. 1971. ARCIl8IS110'

B1.S1UOS

Euler and earlitst ml;'''' of thot church, at which Chri$tians cdebrale the annivena· ry of the "':wrrection of 1esus Chrin and Hi. ~J.c. tory O\'er death. n.e omel'\'llnee "I Eutu starttd as early as lhe apo5l(l{ic age. Writina: to lhe Corinlhians, probably at or near thot """"""r lift5Ofl. Saine ,....1 decbns. .'0."". .,.ehal lamb. }u.s been UoC:rifictd La

East" Is 1M

""r

uealeSl

5:7,8).

,~.

The comroveny, nnenhe]""" continued. The..., was also a difference of opinion ""prding the inlerprelation of the concept of the crucifixion. To the Asian churcMs, it was an occasion of rejo«:ll\8, on the Srounllowinl are Ihe main fealures of the faMer Sunday service: I. The cdebration of the Uturo sans late on Holy Saturday .,..crain... • nd encb in the early hours of Sunday. in conhwmity with tnc New Tewomenl (ML 16:2,9; LL 2llimy and the Epiphany. the hahM appointed for the third aftd $iith hours are omilted, in vi.... of the facl tIJiU their contents are: not cOIll~ible wilh the joyful occao.ion of 1M feul. l. An irnpre:ul~ leaIllrc of this service ts the enIoCtItlCDI 01. w Resurrcclion. Ahff w Ieflion ft-om me Mts of'hc ApoI.I~, ",hich foIJo-1; tbe Pao.oline and Cath3lic Eptules, the JU>C1u.ary door is dooed. Aprien or a cXacOfl holds the Icon of the J!.CSUITCC· lion, and the l'QI 01. lhe clergy and deacons, cut)" ina candles. ef06SeS. ppels, and «men, sinl the bymn of m.: Resurrection. Thftt lhe priQts, toeetJt. .r with '''''0 or IbreI: deacons. enter inlO the S;lnetu· ary. ",hile the rtiC remain ouuide in m.: choir. and me sanetlUl}' doors are thecn d~ (repn5elllinl th~ sealed .......e front which Christ raoe. lO$ w~11 lIS .ymboIizina the clolure of .......iu as a ",sult of the bll of Adam). A1llichts in the ch..rc.h llre atinpilJtcd. and IWO deacons. !Undine outside the ...nctuaty. chant in Coptic "Chrisl ts risen" three times• .,.,h time the chief prie$l. .-cspondina: from within: "He .. rilen ind«d"; this is then ",peated in Anlbic. Th. t..o «loCons e~dalm. "Un lip )"our beads. 0 lates, and be )'e lined lip. 0 aoci.nt doo",. thai the King of gbry may cOme in" (Ps. 24:1). This is said !hI"« timcs. witho"il~ response from within the sancluary. Aher the thi~ time Ihe chief pric$t ask>. "Who is this Kinl of ,lory?" to which Ihe deacon. answee, ''The lord,strona: and mia:ftly. the Lord. mia:ftly in battle" (Ps, 24:8-9). Then 11",)' knock on the 5&DCu,Iaty door vlolently, at whkh Ih. door is pushed open. and the lights a.e ptH on. t. The clergy altd deaconllo in pnx:CS$ion three time. around the altar, ~arryilta the icon of Ihe Re.llrre
1107

feast, wholewme and ben"ficial, rather like the wine of blessing menlioned in Genesis 27:28, 37. and in Deuleronomy 7:lJ. or the eucharistic wine. 4. It is a manifest indication thaI lhe church blesses marriage and treats it as a sacramem, Hence there are many references 10 the marriage feast of Cana in the sacrament of holy Malrimony, Allain, in the offering of incense on .he eve of 13 Tubah, the lection from MaUhew 19. which is used in lhe prayers during the matrimony service, is in· duded in the celebration of the Feast of Cana of Galilee, "Have you not read that he who made them from the beginning made then male and female, .. , What theref".., Go;53-58; I Cm. 1l;23-29; 10:16-17), As with all covenants drawn betw~n God and lIlan and consolidated by means of a blood OOnd (e.g., circumcision in the case of Abraham. and the paschal lamb in lhe case of Moses), Christ's reo demptive covenanl was confirmed "n lhe cross by meanS of His precious blood. The commemorative ""nice thaI the Coplic church holds on Mau"dy Thursday, the only day wilh a liturgy in Holy Week, is particularly rich in spiritual nourishment. It fall. inlO thr..... main parts. The first part covers the canonical hours of H"ly Week, .tarting with the first hour (or morning pra}'er), f"llowed by the third, sixth. and ninlh hours, in each of which lhe laction from the Old Testamenl is in perfect harmony with lhal from the New Teslament. After each hour the rdevant Psalm is chanted in a special sad melody, then follow the appoinled readings from the Go.""ls. and finally a short passage, calle'In," (In. 20:21). A durer idea of the '1\JI'c eharac.1'c1'" of Thomas can bI'c ~ ;( "''I'c take' into acCOUnt that he OIKe oIJe«d to die with Jesus on H'" "''ay 10 see Uzaru:s in Bed",n)·. "Let us ....... 10. lhal _ may di., ",ith him." said ~ ",t>tn bwever, was. nOI the first lime that th~ thr." diloC:iples ""ell!
1110

FELIX. SAINT

fuund In ,h~ "",.-n,h... COf>c~rnins ,,/lA'll. I (744 767). bul withou, lopogr.ophical d~ ...il. (IImor:>' 0/ I~ P",,,,,rrlu. \01. l. pl. 3. P 162). II i. a " ...U· ktloO\O.ll them~ or folklo...... the ene' origtn or" hich. ...... ner. is no! ........ n (Cerulli. 1946, P9 439-11). BlBUOGU~HY

CCI'\llh. E. "La ronqu..... persia.... di ~ruS:llem...., e fonu ori".,uali criotianc di un cpo.o,ho dell' Orlando furiooo.' OriDff./i. 15 (I946)~39-11 Ode""..., II S,..,,,-,,,,'-;um Erclesitu COtlSl!. \l AI.Qilm"5 .l-JugJrTl-'fi 1,1·8;'~d ., llif· r1ryal1, 3 ,-ols. in 6 pu. Cairo. 1953-1%8 Simon. j, "Not...Ul I'ori,inal dc la Passion de Sain'e Hbr-onir."· """lula IWlla"d,.". 42 (1924),69-i6.

ai,,,,

'''''''''e.

Rf.Nt-GWR'.f.S

COQIII.~

FELIX. SAINT.lhird"'~n1u",miSl;iollarv who was "ne of Ihe ""lOIS ma'ty.....d n~ar ,he Roma" fortress of Turieum (lurich) (fea.'" day: I Tlul The carlie.1 dcscnplions of his dea,h are found io ,he "i@h'h cenlu,'" Codex 225 in ,he Con'..,n' of SalOl Gall (jIp. 413--71). ,he mid-nin,h..,..nlury Cook. C.IO" 10 lhe CCOIral Librvv of Zurich (fols 59r-6OI"). and 'M laIC nlmh..,enlu" Cook. 5$0 io Gall tP9· 29-

Sai,,.

Sain' Felix and his si'h:r. Salm Regola, S,one rdief. Pillar ,n ,he GrossmjjnSl~r, Zurich. SWll/erinud. Courtesy S. Throughoul lhor \hddlc Aces. the... Ihree churchn cnjwct, and then distributed to those who are present and to the poor. The Feast of Ihe Virgin occu,,; on the twenty·first of ~vel)' Coptic momh. It is a simple memorial service consisting of laudation after th~ reading of the Synaxarion, with some more hymns sung 10 th~ Virgin. The monthly feast is more regularly observed in churches dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, especially the feas," commemorating her dor· milion, 21 Tubah, and th~ consecration of the firsl

1111

church dedicated to the TIlEOTOKOS at Philippi, 21 Ba'i\nah, The commemoration of the Annunciation, the Nativity, and th~ Resurrection of Ihe Lord is ob· served on the twenty-ninth of every Coptic month with the prC!lent exception of the months of Tolbah and Amshir, which represent the Old Testament period and the silence that preced.d the Annuncia· tion, respectively, Thus, this momhly commemora· tion continues fur ten successive months, beginning on the Annunciation, 29 Baramhat, and ronning until tho Nativity, 19 Kiyahk. The Resurrection of th~ Lord also occurred On 29 BaramMt (see FE..ISTS, MAJOR).

Commonly both 29 Bammoldah and 29 Bashan' fall during Paschahide. the fifty days beginning with East~r Sunday. Therefore, they are dedicated, like all the days of Paschaltide, only to th~ commemora· tion of lhe Resurrection. [f these days of monthly commemoration fall on fast days, the fast i. ended directly after the liturgy, which is 10 be celebrated early in the morning, but th~ required ab,tinence is observed, The liturgy is recited in the joyful mode (see UI;lN). The lessons appointed for the day are to be read as usuaL But if it be a Sunday, the le..on. are to be changed for those of 29 Baramhl'it, except du1, Coptic Bishop 1 NikioIp. 245-86. Pari•. 1915.

,,,,,,be•.

FIGURINES. METAL &e Metalwon.. Copt;.;. FIGURINES, TE;RRA·COTTA. See COplic.

~ramiC$,

~~

FJLJOQUE, a Latin word meaning "and from ,he Son" adde:d 10 ~ Ni""ne.{:Ot1$Wltinopolilan Creed by the latin chu.-ch after lhe words "thf: Holy Spirit ... Who proceN!l from the father." II _ the subjecl of diMension bet....«n Ea!i~ and W ~ chu.-cbes. Hisiory of the FlUoque Controveny IdeM akin 10 lhose cxpc_d by rhe fJilXj"e WeciI 10 acathiAg crilicist>!. and look issu~ with ralriarcb T_ _ ... Con... minople, wlto had da~ lO say thai ,h.e procession 01 Ihe Holy Spirit was from ,he Father Ihrouih lht Son. Pope Hadrian I auempled 10 justi· fy Taraslus' doctrine to Ihe F",nks, bUI in 794 Charlemagne called his own ..,pposc
..,..0

n..

ALlOQUE

in the Mas$ lhrougbout the empird into oJ6ciod doctrine of !he cburcb in !he Weollern ~mpl,..,_ His !ina! action on .IMO """ct was to ha,~ IW(I IiI...,. Iablell engra"ed-one in Grtdt, the other in l~uin-wilb the unlme'l"'lat~ Nice"'" ConsUonlinopo!itan Crud and 10 hang one al .,ach ~jde of Ih., 10mb of Saint Peler in Rome. Renewed friction was generated by Ihe U$t of tbe ~lioq.. e later in the nintb cemury, when a mi&Slon 10 lhe Bulgan; headed by Bishop Fonnosus of P0' ina from Roman l"'PIes not only ~ of. the Nice!le'ConslantinopoliUln Creed ",;mout ;ll(\(\ilioos hUI also an agreement that DO additions ohould be made 10 it. N......rtheless. by tbe ele~enlh c ..ntu')' Ihe Franks had w(ce"ded In iml'O'lng the fi/ifXJu" on the papacy, It Is generally agre..d that Ben.. dict VlIl acced· ed 10 th.. wi.h of the Gennan .. mperor H .. nry Il, "'bo had inherited thi~ Iheological and liturgical Iepc:y, and th.. creed wilh the filioqu .. was .... ng In Rome. This did not m ..an ill ""loma1ic di•..,m;na· lion throughout tile West as a "We;"'" learn from

1113

Aluande1" of Hales that ill - . noI in use in Pam as la"" as 12-40. But the Jl"I*CY's accepcance ensured that it was mentioned in 1054. One Mlhe xcuy· tions Ievded at Constanlinopk in that by Humbt" of. Silva Cancli.rolingian theologians invoh'W in controvelOY "Wr the {ilioque, 'uch as Theodulf of Orleans, the anQnym"us author of the LilJelius de prQcess;"'te Spiritus Sancr;, Aeneas "f Paris, and RalramnU. of Cornie. all used him, Nor does Anselm', basic thoughl differ subslantiall}' from that of Augustine, The explanatory framework of the De pnxessione is Anselm's own but, like Augusline, he ",,,ncentrates on the essence rather than the Persons of the Trini· ty. Saint Thomas Aquinas was also dependent 10 a degree On Augu'tine, espedally when dealing wilh lhe chan, 1915. Kelly, J. N. D. E.rly Chri$ti." C,etS$, 2nd ed. lon· don. 1960. Palmieri, A. "La ProcessiOn du Sainl-Esp';l du Pm lOt du fils." In Dk-Jiann"ir.
taining a fJagmenl on Abo. F'b kept in the Univenity UbDry of Loonin (ronds Lefort arabe A 14) was burned in the fi... ,bal d~led Ihe library durinB World War I. BIBUOCaAI'Hl' Graf, G, Ca/"log". de man"scripl$ a,,,blCS ch,";,,,. cO"$e",h liu elii'e, pp, 264-61, no, 112, Vatican Cit}', 1934. Muyser. J. "Enni,e p~relrlnanl et pHerin inbti· Kable. FraBmenl anobe de la vie inedil'" d'Anba Harmln, nloon,u par $On cornpagnon de "'}'lOg'

FLIGHT INTO EGYPT

Apa HOr de Preht," B"II~lj" de la Soc;;/; d'Mch· ;ologi~ copu 9 (1943);160-236, Troupeau. G. Catalog"e d,s man"scrits (..abu. Vol. 2. pp. 25-26 no. 4775. Paris, 1974. KIlAUl SAMIR. S. J,

FISH.

$", Symbols in Coplic An,

FlsHAH. earlier name of the Egyplian town now known as Fishah Salkhah. which is located in the province of Beheirah in the dislrict of al· Mahmoldiyyah in the noohwest Delta.. The SYNAXARtON siaies in its commemoration of Apa plOJJMI (II Kiyahk) thai this monk hailed from Fishah. After Pidjimi had Ii"ed in Seetis for more than I....,OIy years. an angel appeared 10 him, prom· i..,d thaI a memorial church would be constructed for him in Fishah, and commanded him 10 relurn t(> his homelown. which the monk then did. This account place. lhe origins of Christianity in Fishah at leasl as early as the end "f lhe fourth or lhe beginning of lhe fifth cenlury (for lhe dat" of Pidji. mi, """ Evelyn·White. 1926, pp, 157-62).

1117

was indeed married. This suggests ongins in an Encratite milieu (see ENCMTIT~). which, however. is difficult to situate chronologically. The Se ha"e been inveme
1118

FLORENCE, COPTS AT THE COUNCIL OF

came 10 Egypt, Ihe saintly Virgin Mary, with our Lord Jesus Christ in her ann•. " PA!.L'lOlUS. Bishop of Helenopolis (c. 365-425), who spent several yea... wilh the monks of Egypt. recorded his visit 10 Ihe region of al·Ashmiinayn (Hennopolis Magna), to which Jesus went wilh Mary and Joseph. thai Ihere might be fulfilled Ihe word of Isaiah quoted above. According 10 Palla· dius, "We also saw there Ihe house of idols wherein all the idols that were in il fell down upon their faces on the ground when our Redeemer went inlo the cily." Various historians have traced a roule likely 10 have heen followed by the group. The Coptic Syna~· arion also records the ilinerary. and many homilies refer to names of places '"isited by the holy family in the Delta and in Upper Egypt. It is nOw accepted Ihat the group (;J'OSsed the Sinai Peninsula by the nonhern cara,,,,,n route alongside the Medilemtne· an littoral from Gara to Raphia (modern Rafa!)) and came to the present aJ.'Artsh. Their last stalion in Sinai was Pdusiurn (modern al·f~RAM~. regarded as the easlern key cily 10 Egypl). Having c Meinardus. O. E, A. I" the Sleps of the Holy Fornily from Bethlehem 10 Upper Egypl. Cairo, 1963. BlSHQP GREGORIOS

The I~ al Ma!ariyyah near Cairo under which Ihe Holy Family resled during their joumey into Egypt. Courtery Egypli~ Slate T,,,,";sl AdminiSlration. Phoro by Subht Af'fl.

FLORENCE, COPTS AT THE COUNCIL OF (1439-1443). The Council of Flo...,na was one of a series of increasingly polilically motivated gatherings between Ihe Lalin church and individual

FLORENCE, COPTS AT TIlE COUNCIL OF

East~m

churches. Pope Eugeni.... IV uoed the "di..ide and rule" policy, for the variotls E.u"m churches in'iled aI diIIel"Cflt Ii",", and Iho.lS Ihqo could not £om, a unifif'd bloc 10 nqollale ..ith ,he Latins as Cr n:ampk. thC)' Wd ROC know about OOI'llinna· IW:>n and "e:uremc: unclion~; they omilted the nuoO!JI: lhey ~enIted Dioscon.Is as a saini; IMy al"'-d divon:e in case of socrious crime Of l<eprwy; and they pennitted dUld marriage. On 31 ""go.os.t 1441 And~ spol<e lO the council pnlising Eusenius IV as ~ lrue SUCCCS!Of" of Saint PCICT and the head and ,?,,=her of IIIe universal church. "The dexon Peler '$pOk~ 2 Seplember. in· forminl Eucenius and the council ahoul his 1'lolI,Ive EJhiopia and aboul !he emperor's intenlion 10 reunile wich the Roman church. On 4 Februal)' '442. the bull of reunion with Ihe Jacobile. of Egypl, CQl1lale Dom;~o. Vi"" solemnly promulgaled In the Chul"Ch of Santa Maria NO'o'ella in Florence, It was .ilned by EUI~niu•. lw~nly cardinal., and f,fty·one prelate., Dnd by Andreas "in lhe nam~ of lhe Jaco· bi~ and hi. plltriarch." Thi$ bull e~pla;n~d the Latin doctrine of the Trinicy. enumerated the hooks of lhe Old and New Testament, anathem",i~d here·

_re

1119

siarc/u. and ..'&n>ed against the above-mentioned eTfQl$ of the Copt$ and EJMopians. These ....,..., aclI.ally lqjtimale cultural. lilU~1. canonical, and lheolopcal differences. in«>mprl'hensible at IlK time ... !he Latin mind. ""nhennore. lhe bull contained lhe 1$ 01 seven ecumenical coundl. and the ~ ... they combaled. and of the OIher I~te councils. Att:ae:hed 10 !he bull were tWO Olher bulls, lAcuna.. ctHli (on ""'nion with the Grede meanlimt:. lsidhurus had died. 50 lhe monks 1001< the imperial 1s ..'ltre fast ridln. a.....y, bon 0;"" saw a vision in ...hich ansels were conduCling !he M>I.I'" of Ihe manyn 10 paradise and placing !he c........... 01 manyrdom 011 their heads. Hc begged hls futher 10 allow him 10 obtain a simi· lar e.o".... for himself, ... both falher and bon rodoo Nck and shared th" manyrdom of lhe monks. When tho: Bcrbers had SO"" away. rhe other monks came down from lhe fori, eollect(d Ihe reo main. of lh( rnass.acred martyrs, and burled Ihem in a ca~e. In 538, durin. the palriarchale of n1l!Oro SIUS I, their rel;';s wen: n:mo~ed to a n"w cllV~, and a chapel w"" buill on thc top. In the following century, when Pope BENJAMIN I _s re,lored ro his throne following th( ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT, he visil(d Seeli. and lho: cav( ",h(re lhe fony·nlne wen buried and inslilut(d a feasr day to COmmem· orate their reimem>enl, 10 fall on 5 Am~hlr,

.'1'1

I"'"

hac".

FRANCISCANS IN EGYPT

Wben tbe cbapel was dilapidated, tbe monks reo moved their relks once again to a cell opposite tbe lort where tbey remained till 1773, when tBRAHr.... AL·JAWHAllI, a charitable Copt, built a new church in DAYR AHBJ. MAQAR, where their relics still reS!. BIBUOGRAPHY

O·Lury. De L. The London, 1937.

Sai~u

of Egypt pp. 245-47.

ARCIIBISl-Ior BASILI05

FOUAD I. See Mul)ammad 'All Dynasty. FOUR liVING CREATURES IN COPTIC ART. See Christ, Triumph of. FRACTION. the ceremonial breaking of the con· secrated bread in the eucharistic ""rvice. As a bask pan of tbe liturgy, it follows the teaching and ac, lions of Jesus Chrisl at the Last Supper: "Jesus took bread, and blessed, and broke it. and gave it 10 the disciples and said. Take. eat: this is my body'" (Mt. 26:26:..,., also Mk. 14:22; Lk, 22:19: I Cor. 11:23. 24),

Fraction is perfonned in two stages during the celebralioo of the Lilurgy: Immedialely after Ihe praye~ "f crossing the gifrs, known also as the recitalioo of Ihe words of inslitulion, Ihe officialing priest lakes Ihe Oblalion and slightly divides it into one-lhird and IWO-lhirds ""clions. without aclually separating them. Using his Ihumbs, and taking care 001 10 touch the spadi· kOIl (the cemral part), be holds the one'lhird sec· tion in his right band, and the two-thirds seclion in his left band. saying, "He broke it; He gave it to His own saintly disciples an'lO lWO )'UfS later. tbq came bKk in 1249-1250. and In IU3 .......... friars suffered martyrdom in !hat cily. In 1301 their pnse1>U""'" atleSl.... in Cairo, .......re. in 1l45. Li>i""s obtained the CI'OWll of manyrdom. In 1320 a UOUp of frian, In-ed in Akundria at lhe f"ruJ"'l (hold) of the men:han15 of Maneilles. The Franciteam rd.umed >pin and "Pin 10 £cpl. Their ~Iy eonsisl:ed in pro'ridin, spiritual care 10 Cal!)OIic fouianen; in Eml and -'stance 10 pil,rims on their _y 10 and from lhe Holy Land. and ~Iishi"ll con~ with Europeans who for one _ _ or another ended up in 1..,a1 pri-... Arw.nd 1600. leo'era! friars liulhern suburb of Cairo where a con'lantly changing group of foreigners lived. In Kafr al·Daww;!.r a church was "rected for the C"ptic Cath"lic C(>mmunity in the 1960s and was enlarged in the 198Os. BU! the friars retired fr"m Mansurah, Damiena, and ."me olher minor I"wns. Thcs in ~ oi. 1M dead is slill to he found. 1'hesc ~ions of en>olion, which arc cornidercd an honor due to lhe deccued, reach their heighl when the deceased is aboul Ie> be taken from !.he home. Members ci Ihe de<J:l' (th... lrealCr the nurn· her the hiChC'r Ihe lIatuS ci Ihe dco.eascrl), dnsscd in mouminl pm, !"ttil" Ihe absolulion pr.t.yen. In rural ........ , a procession led by the clCIl!.Y' followed by the men, and finllly by the women, follows the ca!lket, which is carried on men'. shoulders. on a can, or in a hea~. In chy fune",l., howe,·"r, ....omen until recentfy were not allowed to leave the hou"" to attend Ihe church ",...ice or the burial. The lavishn,," of I funeral depends on the sociaf status of the indivldUl1 10 be buried .and of hi. famify. The hea.... used 10 be pulled by a Il'"lOCt of

_1"1'1

FRENCH EXFEDmON. s...e

Va'qUb, Gencnli.

FRIENDS OF THE BIBLE, Copll" asaociation founded in 1908 by BasH! Bu!",. who was flS finl president until his death in 1921. The main aims of the sodety were to inspire sen'ke in the Coptic Onhodo>: Church and active membership in it and to urge members 10 pray and study the Hofy S;ously come 10 Eg)pt in the entourage of another famous Islamized Armenian, B~DIl ~L-JAM~LI. During Bahram's rule, the Chrislians. including ooth Annenians and C<Jpts. fared e,tremely well. The Annenians held nume'" ous governol'5hips of Ihe province" and the Copts monopolized the highest posts in the adminisTra· tion. notably th' offices of oolh finances and laXation. In fact. there was a tomplete reversal of the fonnal policies of Coptic pel'5ecution that had ""ist· ed during the hal'5h reign of al'l;!AKIM (996-1021 j. In facl, some authorities began 10 fear that Islam· ittd Copts might be tempted to abjur", their new faith and return wholes;,le 10 their C<Jptic Chri"ian beliefs. This, indeed, may have been one of Ihe

GABRIEL IV

facton that precipiGlled lh~ rdoollion of l:luan. aI~'. MIn, agailW his £lither. ,",'hieh kd 10 the 'em· potar}' deposition of 1M alipb and 1M applicuion

of I'$ricti\'t

011 the Cop«. It _ du""" this il\~ri"d., that J.iaoan ~ and incan:enlted Gabriel. Gabriel was ...,It-.t aher p;t.)ing an im· poA of a thousand dinars !hal had bttn raised by !he Copl:ic arrhoou and ril;h _rch.nts. 'Jl.., gnovil)' of the ;nternal situation within the country was inten.. fied by conflicts between the Suda~ and the Turkish batallions ....i thin the mil· itary forces of the caliph aIf;!'. This Jed to the oustinll of 1,la$ll.11 and the rdum of al'I:lAfi~ 10 his throne. A new lead"" by the name of RudwAn ibn Walkhasl K~ mi,,;slenal power. Under these circuJTl5tan· masur~

u •. Bahnlom bettn l"ftIorlCd by i!oe bUhop of SaIl. . in lhe city of Minyat-Ziftl, and IUI"'IIed It in,o a rnooque. The bishop complained 10 'he adrnin;W;Uion au· lhonli..... and a writ ""11I5 issued l"Ol'lpIly for its """oration &5 • church and an uplicil order was giwn for its pn-:soer.-ation and $«urity. In the ""alm of ~gn polk:y. Gahritl II "..alched O\'er the imer=! of the church in his relallons with Ethiopia. The Ethiopian emperor wamed Ihe palri· arch to consecrate numerous bishops for his coun· try, but Cabriel insisted on the prese"'alion of uld es,ablished tr;>dilions of nomloatlng lhe usual Coptic AlIuN, The Abyosinian emperor wroce to the ca· liph 10 bring presoure 10 bnr upon Ihe pauurch 10

1129

rupond b,'-onbly 10 his roequest. Gabriel e:'ed be relalively puaful and, if "..e overloolc a number of occasional incidents and the interlude of lhe oppressive Nles of l;Iasan, SOn of al'J:lI~~, and Rudwan ihn W.lkhasl, ,he Copts lived in rela· live .ecurity and enjoyed considerable collabora· ,ion wilh Ihe laIc Falimid administration of the count,)', Gabriel II concluded his reign pt'acefully In 1145.

ha,..,

'0

InBUOCltAnlY

Bute....., E. L nrc SIOry of 1M CI"",::& of Ef:n1I, 2 vols. London, Ig97. tane-Poole. S." HiJlfH)' 0{ ED""'-" me MUldie A,ru. J...ond,o.,. 19C11. Repr. New Yorlc:d a priest. His election 10 !he ~llian:halC ....-;as farililaled by a prophecy of his pn'd«essor. MATTHEW I (137814(9). 1'be Slory is lold thu~ in the HISJOIl.Y Of mE 'ATlUAROIS (Vol. 3. pt. 3. p. 171): Manhew had indiCllted to his disciples. before his death. thaI ,'''' Father AoW Gabriel would be palriaTch alter him. And wme of the people did not believe him. unl,1 this FatheT appeared to them on the da.y On which they called Gabriel to be onlained HEGUIoI£NOS. Al the time when the peop'" we.... assembled in lhe CHURCH Of a... ottr.IJ.. IAQ,UI.. one of the Mindy elden; "'ho _re auoem· b...d on tha. day saw this Father in the spiril ......ding at the aide of the altar. and he .... laying his hand ..-llh Ihe hand of the Falhen the bishops on the head tI Anhi Gabriel And whm the eld« saw thi!., he'lharvelled, and he resolved 10 he blessed by him befon: he ~....,iahed from him. and MHl"

'Abdallah, A., a.r.M. L'Or,m, in Minsh~h or Manshi)Yat Abu ·A:i,hah. near DUll. AI.MUl;IARRAO. we:o;t of AI-Q1l~iyyah in the province of ,uyU!. He was known by the name of Ibn MuhannA. His father. the lIogummo' Jirjis ibn Rufil.'ll. was tbe pari,h priest of the famous church of Saint Mercurius (ABO S~Yf~YN) in Old Cairo. At an unknown dale. Ibn Muhann~ eutered DAYR Al-SURY~N in the desert of Seetis and took the name Rufil.'11. like his grandfather. Shortly after he became a priest, then a HE()UMENOS A note in the manuscript of Saim Autony, numbered Theology 209. describes Gabriel VII as a tall, Quiet man.•trongly inclined toward an asceticism that included fasts, long prayers. and stringent austerity, On 5 Febroary 1524, JOHN XIlI, the ninety-fourth patriarch, died. After deliberations that lasled near· ly twenty months, lhe bishops and ~RCHON' of lhe community chose Ruf.!'i! (lS patriarch. He was can· secrated on 1 October 1525. One of the colophons in Coptic Vatican 9 notes that on 29 November 1525, JUSt two months alter his consecmlion. Gabriel acquired from masler Barsilm ibn MikhA'i! Ta)'y Ibn BisAdah this manu· script. nOW in tbe Vatican, which contains the four gospels in Bohairic and Arabic (Hebbelynck and van Lant
GABRIEL, ARCHANGEL

A. •nd A. ~.n untschool. Codices Coplid VII/lcll"j 8IIrberlnill"i 80rgill"; R"uia"i. Vl. I. Codices Coptic V'llanl, pp. 321. Vatican City, 1937. Kamit M. "J...,lIers to Elhiopia from I~ Coplic Patriarch,. Yo'annas XVIII (1770-1796) and Mallia. VI[( (1796-1809):' Bulleti" i, I.. Sodhi d'Atehiologi, COP" , (19. monlh.I...,r he appea" to lhe Virgin Mary in Nazarr:th and announces lhal ~e is 10 be th, .....,.ne,- d the Mtuia), (Lk. 1:16-38). Al· though his name is nOt mentioned, ~ is supposed 10 be the angel "00 appean in Rewlalion 10:1-11, since: be briJtp a masage of good tidinp. )n Jewi5h ulr.lbiblicallileralu"" ~riel is riven the titH, ol··arthant;el" (I EnoclI 21:3) and Is con· sidered 1o be one of tho: four rn:ai.. angelic princes l"&"'Im with Michael, Uricl (Sand). and Raphael or one of the socvell archaneels (I Enoch 20:7; d. Zec:. 4:IOb). II is said thaI Gabriel is OtatM a1 the Idt hand of God-with Micn..",l a1 tb., rilht-and that he has Enoch for u> acoI)te (I Enoch 24:1). As his name indicates. Gabriel ..... auu-tty O¥U all tho: ~ (I Enoch 40:9). He has.....,en.! misoioll5. such as to watch Vel' Puwli:se, the "'""1""n15, and the che.... bim (I Eoocb 20:7), to inlen:ede for !he jusl (I Enoch 40:9), to be- Pf"'"1 at the hour of death (4 E.sd. 6:1f.; ,tpocphael (Budge, 1915, pp. 526-35), the name of Gabriel is th'en the meaning of "God and man:' and it is stated that this is why he is the messenger of Ihe Incarnation. As in all Coptic literature and especially in Ihe Coptic G05pd 01 Bartholomew, Gabriel is the bringer of good lidings. IT is thought that Gabri· el is also the angel who revealed 10 Enoch Ihe mysteries of the judgment, according to the "Coplic Fragments of Enoch" (Pearwn, 1976. p. 223). In the Coptic Apokalypse des Elias (Steindorf, 1899). Gabriel appears leading the jusl to the Holy Land (10 Parad;,;e) al the head of Ihe angel•. In the Testa· men! of Jacob. it ;,; stated that he com.. with Mi· chael and many angel. to bear the soul of Jacob to the tabernacles of light. Gabriel also plays a part in the magic Coptic lexlf;, in which he is invoked to awake the lo,'e of a certain person, 10 deliver people from serpents. and to cure fevers. He is closer and more apprrnlchable than Michael, and his name frequently appears on amulets. In the Coptic liturgy, the archangel Gabriel is celebralM on 30 BaramiJdah, feast of the Annunciation; 22 Kiyahk. ycr of 1M descent of the Holy Spiril, when th~ dn.con SollJ$. "Worship God In a_ and trembling:' In the t"SlilIlIU of John CASSlAN (c. 360-435). in which he describes '"the canoniCll! syll~m of the nocturnal prayers and psalms, obs.erv ""IS

A particular event connected with Saim George is the commemoration on 3 Ba'unah of the consecra· tion of the firsl church in Egypt to be dedicaled to his name. According to lhe Coptic Syna.arion lhat church was at the town of Bil'l11a in the Ba~ariyyah oasis. The saint's decapitated booy was brought from Lydda in Palestine to the Bahnasli. Another church at Bil'l11a near Tan!! in the Delta wa.o; al"" consecrated to Saint George on a similar date. The S)'",,,,arion gives an interesting story lhat throws some light on the similarity of the names of the two towns. A young man lhed near a well, in the area of present-day Binna, together with a community of Christian soldiers. He had heard of the mirade. wrought by God at the hands of Saint George. so he collected details of lhe saint's life story. wrote them down. and found great spiritoal enjoyment in read· ing them. On the ew of 24 Bashans. while he was praying. he saw a group of saintly men singing and praising God around the well. One of the group, in military dress, stepped fOlWard and lold him thaI he was George and thaI he was martyred by Diodelian. and commanded him to build a church on that spot. The youth kept wondering bow he could af· ford 10 do so, But Saim George appeared 10 him again. pointed out 10 him tbe exact spot where the church was to be built. and explained to him where he could find the necessary money, In the moming the young man went to Ihal place, where he dug up a pot full of gold and silver coins. The church was ,oon buill, and wa.o; consecrated by the palriarch on 3 Ba'unah. Afterv'iard many houses were buill in the ,idnity of the church, which acquired the name Bi' rna' (i,e .. ,,"'ater well), after the well near which the church was buill. The Synaxarion goes on to say thaI the relics of Saint George were later translated from his church at lhe town of Blr rna' in the oases to lhe Monastery of Anbi ~lm""ll during the patriarchate of M~TIHEW J (1378- 1409). Later, during the palriarchate of G~BRJ· EL v (I409~1421), the saint's relics were translated, once again. to the church dedicated to his name in Old Cairo. BIBLJOGRAf'HY

Delehaye. H. Les Legendes grec9"es des sainI< mili· lair«. New York, 1975. Holweck. F. G. A BiograpMca/ Diclionary 01 Ihe SainlS. Repr. Detroit, 1969. Meinardus. O. Ch,-;slian Egypl Ancient and Modem, Cairo, 1965. O·Leary. De L The Sa;>l/S f Egypl, London. 1937. Fu~D MEGAUY

GIZA

GRAll, finance minister for

MIJI;t.UlW.U)

'.uJ 8c>m

in the laic eighlttnth ttntwy. Chlll was emplo,d by Mul;>ammad ~ ai-All\. " leading ..... re among I~ Mamluu' He w;u a co.llemporary of I~ french Eapedidon (see n"QllB. GENEllL), during which lhe J_'!w1 brthtrs rO$a,... mad •All b«amc Khedive, CMII inherited .be posttion in !he finance admin...ration fonnel1)' held by Jt~rs 4L-U"'·llAlli. Appannll}' Ghill's me(hod of noi5i... funds for the ""'5 mono conciliatory I~n rlllll of Jirjis, who _ forced 10 ftN his ...... maslCr and his compdiror 10 refuge in Upper £CYP1. In 1105, !he khWi.... enlru5led Chill with the Iotlil arlminil.tration of the finances of Egypl, Hc rcorpnlud the finances on a firm basis by taking a compkte survey of Ihe counlry and panilioninllhe arable Klil inlO IlUable sqrnenl5-lhus utablishing a p~o.e bud&,,!, which incnascd cO"'liderably as a •.,wh. Hc alw divided the country into provlncC5 and districl5 with a Boyernor, lilled a81la, responsl· bl" for each district, In lhe meamime, Mul).ammad 'All was cBBcr 10 secure armamenli from Europe bul round IiiCTC. do .... loid the \.hcdive that the best .....,. to attnellhc Copts to Catho!· iciNn "'lIS limply to adopc the RoIlUOD faith hlmscff. The khedr.~ acccpced m.:.J"'U"'lion. "'hleh proved ro be the bqinnlnl of !he very $lIlail Calholle con,...pion In Eafpt. This is'probably the only S1Jrvi... in,lcpcy from the Chj]j family. who ~ante CalhoIic on ItUII occasion. A"""r~nlly ChAIrs SUCCCM in discharging his duo lies cnated ;calousy. and hi. cmpctlllOQ began 10 fomem lrouble behind his back al cOlIn. For hill rlilurc to meet the khedi,'e's requesl for utraordi, nary funds, he was incarcerate
GIRGIS MATTHA (190S-1%7), Coptic: Egyptologist, papyrolosist, and I specialist in ancitnt Egyplian philolOC·. He ..._ 0'" of the carlJ lradua in 1949-1950. and bcC'ame diretUM'll and bo.>ls. ..iii'" Jt'O'l1ffnc palle""" of a shallo-r ".." oma· me'l1ed jup and bootiesB, ,he nin,h cenlUry. aller lhe Islamic cooquesl. nC'W .. Oft. shapes. and deeon,;"e ,e...-hniques ehanctd Eg)'P'ian glass inm some,hin. diAincli,..,I,' dillCffn, from earlier wori. Techniques ...ell :Ii painl,ng in IUiler (melallie glaze) .....,..., used :u fi ..., fur Coplic mOli&; and ,uOsequenlly for the hlamk rcpak· inl after ,he l.lamic cooquesl. AplIl1 from lhesoe stles. thc e,-.&nee ~ 01 scMl~ refCTellCes 10 finds, musnom g~ "i,h p.-obabfe E&YJ>lian pro,enancc. and brief m"",;ons of glass and cJass. maken in plIptT1 and manuocripts.

'0

Tablewa~

and Stonge Vessels

Karanili pm,'ides the best evidence for ,he "pes of dmcs,ic table glass u""d in Rom;tn and Coplic: E&>l'1; simil.r c>!. ,hal 'hey wore an e",pensi"e ilem deslined more for ,hc export 'rade than for common domeslic use. Groups of glass ,'('s.. cl, slored in Ihe Karan,s housLos ..ugg'''' how glassware was u.....d in the a\Crage hous"h(>ld, In (>ne inSlance a group (>f si~ ("'al di.h"" and .ix shallow bowl.. found 10gether with other shapes indica'... a completo glass 'ablc s.er\-

Polycandclon wilh sh glass lamps. SiXlh eighlh cen· turies. CO/mes." Waller; Art Galler". Ballimore_

GLASS, COPTIC

oration of horiwmal wheel-cuI lines, zigzag Threads, or applied blue glass blobs. Al K.1ranis small vcr· siam aboUl 4 10 5 inches (10-13 em) in heighl were in u,e, probably 'upported ;n I"w wooden lripod >lands. Larger examples, "bo,a 8 in"hes (20 "m) and over in height, were generally suspended from ,he ceiling in groups by means of melal holders, These hulders wn ~ircular- "r r~""langu­ lar'palt~rneJ limes"'ne windqw fr~me,. >\lw al the Saqq"ra monastery, m""aic glass cubes were fOlm',"$ Cod dlr«cJy. bul Ihrougb lhe 1~ller of che Law, as ,,"'ilh ch~ bier rabbis. MI mow 1'be~. 0 my Cod. by lhe Spiril ..."ich 11Iou hast givcn 10 m"n, and by Thy Holy Spirit I ha,.., faitJ-.fully heartened 10 Thy ml.,,~llous counsel'· (Hymn 19. col. 12.... ~nnes. 197_). Tho: ... me concept is found in !he Go&pel of Jo),n 17,), 'This is (not: will be) etenW life. that thty know (r>oc: btI~ in 11>ee) and know Ja.as CII.... (M", and now). wborn Thou ~ Knl,- Aho. jJl che Jewish Merbbah ",>",iei:sm of lhe tll'Sl cen· luriel lNIn is pennined 10 behold direcd)" the Clory of Cod in che funn li~ the aPJl'C"'nncc of man (Ezekiel 1:26). This was Ihe grvundinj: upon "'Mch the "no:. lies" of AleJUtndria buih:lheir ")"S1~m, whieh was known 10 and Chrislianized by "'at~nlin.. s. The COn· fercnc~ on Ihe origins of gno5i.s in Messina (1966) distinl"ishe4 becween gnosi•. an e50leric knowl· ed~ for che ele~t. and ,nOlStieism. which is chara.::· lerlled by a 5plil within Ihe ~ic)"; lhe fall of a spiritual being, called AmhroJlO!l or Sophia; and Ihe identicy of the human spirit with che Deil)", Valen· tinus, in his Gospd of Trulh (32. 38, Allridge and Ma~Rae. 1988) call. his followers "child,~n of Ihe

n-

Knowledge of 1M hean:' "H~ ""'0 chus ~ che gno5is [Coptic: l4u.. el. knows "'hence he is come and .....hither h~ is goina:" (22.13-15). Such gnosis does not abolWl che sacramtnl but COmpleles il. acconlin, 10 . . . . .lencin;"n quoted by Clement of Alexandria in ~rr-pu /Tom Ths (first cenlury kq had giwll .. raip:-. opIimiSllic inlerpret"5 ..,.~ in sp«Ului...... about Sophia, ,"'hose rdaliomhip wilh ,h wanWn Aslane is mini,. .'rikd. Mo...,.,.,er. ,he fnlgrnenlS 0# ,he Alexandrian Jt'Wisb pot! &rbel ~U5 ~vuJ ,hal by Ihe second cffl'ury a.cwere celU;n cin:les in Alexandria lhal meditated abou, Ille "like· neM lik. Ihe appearance of 8 Man" 01 £.>••;el 1:26. ""hl,,11 '0 ,his day r.mains Ih. main ,h.me of Jewish mYS'lcism. Som. idenli6.d ,lIis "Glary «God" wilh lhe Idea of Man, Gnaslic A"'hropos and gnaslic Sophia are of Jew. ish origin. There: wert aiso Egyptian COplS in Alu' andria al lile Ii"",. They. 100, contributed 10 lhe rise of gl\OSlicism. According 10 Egyplian •• Iigion. Ihe Nile oricinal~ from ,h" lears of lhe sun goo Rll. In olher word.. maner is an .man.a1ion of lhe deity. So Valentinu. can S¥J thaI lhe _rid came Into beinll from the lears and III" smil" 01 creativt' W~ ds. So did Ille GII_iea.. According 10 Ihe ~ogy of Hennapolls. a Nile I"""" (Ihe Greal Caclder) laid her eu in th. moor; from it "'.... born d>e ,..n p . ...t.o funelions as" d.mn.l"J. "'M a~" ,he world. In lit. ume lhe Orphie Implka' tion was thaI only spiritual men could be loaved. The leade" of Ih W""tem school of valentlnl.an· isnt, Ptolemaeu. and Heradeon In Rome, took a more favorable ,iew of rising Catholicism and Ihe ordinary churchgoer. whom thy called "psychic" becau~e he had a soul but no .pirit, They thorough. ly modified the system and even Imrodu.::eo; in Ihe other venions the lhree are killed 10i\ether. The Syriac ",ralon gl,'eo a sepam.. text for Dad. which agrees almOSI complelely wllh lhe pan concerning the passion of Gobidlaha. Possibly lhe original language ...... Syria join them both together, allea${ let him Db.ene the Sahhath-day:'

BIBUOGII"PHY

BOOjan. P. Acta Martyrurn el Sancta,urn ,iriaa. 7 vols, Paris and Leipzig, 1890-1897. Repr. Hilde,· heirn, 1968. Orlandi, T. "Papiri copti di conlenUio teologico." Mirteilungen aus der Papyrussamrn/ung du 0,1
Good Fmb,. CC'leb~Uons 10 J«vsalem The Copcic cdcbracioo of Goo. ducled in Ihru di$tinC1 &lain, I. Morn;ni pra~r and th. r",yer of the Third Hour are p"rformed br:lween 4:30 and 7:30 Ul. 1. A pmcessiO
BIBUOGJlAPHY

Btlntlesler. O. H. E. The Eopfirm or Coptic ChUTC". Cairo. 1967. Phlliilhlwus al-Maqirt eI al. Kit4b 0411~ ....·T.1'116 1"""
GOSPEL BOOK.

SU Lilu"¥ical Instrument$.

purina: as Ihe second lractate in Code1 III and the other as Ihe Hcond piece in Coskion," Journal As;a/;que 254 (1%6):317-435, and 256 (1%8):289-386. Hedrick, C. W. "Christian Motifs in Ihe Cospel of tho Egypr;ans: Method and Motive." Novum Testa. mentum 23 (1981):242-60. Schneemclcher, W. "The Gospel of the Egyptians," In New Testament ApfHCrj'pha, ed. E. Hennccl:e and w. Schneeme1cher, 2 yol,. Philadelphia, 1963-1965. Wilwn, R. M. "The Gospel of the Egyptians." [n Studia Palrist;ca 14, ed, R. M. Wilson, pp, 243SO. Texte und Untersu~hungen 117. Berlin, 1976, ___. "One Texl, Four Translations, Some Reflections on the Nag Hammadi Gospel of the EID-p' tian.... In Cnosis: F'srs~hFift fur Hans JonaJ, ed, R. M. Wilson, Pl'. 441-48. Gallingen, 1978, S. Kt;NT BROWN

GOSPEL OF PHILIP

GOSPEL OF MARY,

an

apocrwhal Gnostic gos-

1"1 originally wrillen in Grul. probably during the ",,~ond century A.I>, Two pages (John Ryland. Ubrary, Manchester, England. Pap}'rus 463. 21r and 22v; Ihis papyrus, from Oxyrn\'Ilchus, was acquired in 1917) of the Creek lext survive from the third century. Pan of the text i. preserved as well in a Coptic (Sahidic) translation at Ihe beginning of the Papyrus ~rolinensis 8502, The lranslation differs in places from the original Greek and may be a some....'hat condensed veTS;on. The Coptic rnanuslelli in La Parola del PaHala, fasc. 2, pp. 22M., (Naples, 1946). Th~ Captic t~xt has ~~n ~dit~d, with a German translation and introduction, by W. Till, in his "Di~ gno.tischen Schrifren des koptischen Papyrus Bero· linensis 8502," Tex,e und Unursuchunge~ [fir Ceo schich'e der altchri.,lichen Literalur (\() (1955);2432, 62-79. An English translation by F. Wi,s< has been included in The Nag Hammadi Library i" E~· gUsh, pp. 471-74 (New York, 1977), For """ondary ies:

lit~rature,

see

th~

following stud·

Henne
Tes/amentum). Wllson. R. McL The Gospel of Philip. London and New York, 1962 (with co"",ental)')' R. McL WIlSON

GOSPELS, SYNOPTIC, the Gospels of Matthew, Mark. and Luke. The similarity of considerable segments of their .ubject maller and even their phraseology may be explained by on. of two theories. The Gospel of Saint Mark is supposed to be the earliest of the three Gospels and could have bun utilized by the other two. This imerdep.mdence and the pooling of knowle
1157

trait of that age. SainI Mark w>I$ the most highly educated of the evangelists. Another possibility adVllnced by sOme theological s~holars is that the th,,,,, Gos!>"l, drew upon a foum source. 0"" loS! and unknown. In the meantime. one must bear in mind that Matth.,.· and Luke used .ome material peculiar to ea~h and without pa.... net in Mark's GospeL Wheth· er each e\'angelist had his own independem source on cel1ain matt"rs. in addition to their common knowl"dge. i. debatable. In this .ituation of uncer· taimi.. and multiple probabililies, the Coplic IheO' logian. insist on the seniority and superiority of the Gospel according to Saint Mark the Evangelist. the fuunder of Egyptian Christianity an
Thomp&on, J. M. Th~ Synoptic GO.'p 1159

deduced that the three synoptic Gospels.•ince they antedate Acts, were writlen prior to 6Z. Zuntz inter· preted Mark 13:14 as a reference to Ihe emperor Caligula's threat 10 place his statue in the lemple al Jel"U$3.lem and dated the Gospel to 40. Jf the best solulion to the .ynoptic problem (~ below) i. Ihe thwry that Ihe lhree .)'noplk Gospels developed over a period of time, the allempl 10 establish a fixed date for the composilion of each is an endeavor donme«n put forward as the pssible provenance of the Gospel, no other lheory has been able 1O discredit the ancient testimony and win a large bdy Qf fQlIowers. The tradition and the internal suggestions of a Roman origin are simply too convincing. In addition to the evidence adduced by lane, Cranfield, Zunl2. and Hengel thaI Ihe Gospel, Or s;gni~cant parts of it, may address various politi· cal and .ocial .ituations in Rome. there is linguistic evidence that il was wrinen for a Roman audience and a theological·historical argument thaI il had its birth in Rome. The Gospel contains a great number of Latin technical tenns such as l.g;o (5:9), specula/or (6:27), denarius (I Z: IS), quadFan. (12:4Z), pagel/are (15:15). praetorium (15:16), and Unfurio (15:39),

1160

GOSPEL OF SAINT MARK

While it is true that .uch tenn;nology was in use throughout the Roman empire, the fact that Mark twke uses a Latin word to explain a commonplace Greek expression is telltale, At 12:42 he give. quad· ran. (a quaner of an as) as a gloss for the widow's mite (lepla duo) and at 15:16 he offers pmewti"", ,.. an explanation of "in.ide the han" (uo /eS aules)_ These lexical aids would be more des
1161

Jerome believed ,his ending to be a later addition to the Gospel. No references to Ihese verses occur in the wor"'~ of Clement of Alexandria, ORtGEN. Cyprian. and CYall_ OF JERIIS~LE.M, Internal considera· lion. nOl only cast doubl on Marcan authQrship of Ihis ending but also run counter to the Iheory that it was written later spe.:incally as an addition to Ma.k·s Cospel, Verse 9 does not continue the narrative of verse 8, but ralher introduces a lisl of Jesus' post·Resurrection narratives in Manhew. Luke, and John. Concomitant with this rather abropt change in the sto'l' line are a jarring change of subjeel and a sudden formalily in rdemng to Mary of Magdala, Whereas Ihe subject of verse 8 is the women, verse 9 has JestlS as its understood .ubject. and when Mary is m~ntioned later in the .-erse. she is introduced as if for the first time in Ihis narrative, de.pile the faetzu"gm. Ikihefte lur Zcitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wissen· schaft und die Kunde der alteren Kirche 29. Ber· lin. 1964. Wilson, R. McL St"dies in Ihe Gospel of Thomas. London. 1960. YVO~NE JA~SSR<S

GOSPEL OF TRUTH, an apoc'1'Phal work probably of tbe second century. The Gospel Qf Trulh

1164

GOSPEL OF TRUTH

sul'\'iva in lwo ""rsioM from ,h~ s.w HAMMAII/ u· BAAlY; a -'I~rved copy (I. 3) .. nd a ....,. fn.&. l\'Ioetluo.,. piee~ (XII. 2). While the oririnal tille ~ .....ins unkn'w 1tM. initial phrase ('"Tb1C ppcl of lruth") may ha 5eI"'Cd ao. an incipillhl~ and c~r· uoinly has been ..:iopttG as iu tille by modem in_ 'ip,on. One mip,t ~n hazard a CI>nI tha, lhIC manina of ,his le"'l is el~ ~lsewtIe~ ...ithin ,he- 6r3t pan.anPb: "lhIC name (of] !he IlO'JId is IhIC ~""bdon of hope" (L 17. 1-3). Whclloer mil. d0cument bu any lilcrazy connection wiIh 1m "Gasp'1 d T.....m.. mlCnlioncd by lunaocus (Ad""rUlJ om..cs 1k>~r(~S 3. II. 9) cannot be dcmoMinled in a deeish-e _yo allhough il would not be surprising if lhe 1Wl> were ,elalat. NaiuBily. since this t~",t WllS Ql'IIC of ,he finl to be published from IIIe Nag Hammadi coUeclion. II tIM be~n widely Iludiedied at the French Sl:minary in Rome and then completed this -..1< al Inrn.bruek. In charge of Syriac Sb,od;es at the InSliM catholique in Paris, he conec;"ed the projecl of an "Oritntal Migne." which was at 6nt con6ned to Syriao: wilh lhe Patn)Iogia Syriaea series, COnsisli"l of lhree ....Iumes only: ApIrr,um (I197), 8Ilrtku..e (1901), and livre des deph (1921; Book 0/ Steps/, ... ilh 'o'OCaliJ:ed 1e:>1S and latin lranswion\: 8cglnnil18 in 1')0), in lhe Patrol08ia OrM:ntalls Mies, he published le~.. in Arabic, Annenian, CoPlit.... mcdici_ and medical lUIS. Hi:! ime~ in Coptic t.:d to V"", Hicog/whisch·DenrcxUdte" lW'l K~f1 (Berlin, 19)8) and "Untersucft. ungea ubcr Stil und SpBcbe des kopt:iscMn lUmbysesmman$" (uilsdtrift fUr IJDpliscllc SF"ehe ..nd A/Jer/Wf!sh",de 74, 19J8. pp, 55-68), ;os

BIBUOGIlAPHY

Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill Who Will II'ho I.. Et:>'PIlOfO·. pp. 12111. London. 1972. Fird lhe ninlh-eighth eenl"'ry H.C Unambiguou. evidence for Gl"ftk presence in EcYPl is available from lhe ..,~nlh century 8.C. on. P$llmmetichos I (664-610 II.C,) gave lhe Ionian and Cari;In men::enaries (the "bronu men" of He· rodotusll.152, 31J.), who h~d helped him ~ome inlO power, se((lemenu in !he Easlern Delta (SITatope· da). He enlruste alumnis oblalum, pp. 263,~ 7g, Studia Hellenistica It> [Lou,-ain, 1968]). The politics of tlte Roman emperors in Egypt intentionally emphasized the distinction between the Egyptian and the Greek/Jewish inhabitants, for in$tance, by granting the lauer 6scal privileges and curtailing the political and economic power of the nati,'e priesthood. Though pari of an empire of which the official language was Ultin, Egypt-as tlte eastern provinces in general~continued to handle it. official af-

I 167

fairs in Greek, the more so since most of the pro' vincial prefects originated from the h.llenized East, The ratio of Ultln to Greek papyrological documenlS from E'ID-pt is Ie.. than 1 to 100. During the 6rst three centuries of Roman rule, the use of Latin in Egypt was confined to correspondence between Roman magistrates or individuals, the army, the COt1rt~as far as lu' civile wa, concerned-and edicts or decrees of the central gO"emment_when dealing with the categories mentioned above. Greek, moreover, preserwd its supremacy as the language of the educated. Aleundria, with the Mouseion, remained the unrivaled center of Hellenistic culture, but the nome capitals such as Oxyrhynchus gradually developed their o....n institutions for Creek education and the tradition of Gruk (and, to a much lesser e~tent, Latin) litera· ture. In educated milieus of the second century, Auic literature: (lyrics and tragedies) "nce more aroused interest and, accordingly, "archaic" termi· nology revived in the Greek language they u""d. Parad",ically, the Roman conquest of Egypt rein_ forced lhe rapprochement between the Egyptianand the Greek-$peaking populations, both group' being henceforth treated as subjects of 3 foreign ruler. The popularity "f double names such as "DionJ5ios [Creel] also known 3$ Petosiris [Egyptian]" marks the increasing hellenization of the nati"" inhabitants of the nome capilals, especially of the educated and official strata. Demotic-Greek bilingualism was more than ever current among members of the middle elass (see, e.g., J. Quaegebeur, '"Mummy·Labels: An Orientation," in Texte, gr.cs, demotlques el billngu.s, ed. E. Boswinkel and P. W. Pestman, pp. 244-47, Papyrologica Lugduno-Batava 19 [leiden, 1978J). The interaction between Greek and Egyptian is particularly revealed by the fact that Egyptian writ· ing adopted Greek characters, thus resuhing in Coptic. After an unsuccessful al1empt to u.<e the Greek alphabet for Egyptian (mainly magical) texts about ~,D, 100 (Old Coptic), Coptic proper was de· veloped in the course of the second cemul)'. Though Chrislianity had gained its first converts in Egypt among the Greek-speaking inhabitants (e.g., the Jews at Alexandria), Coptic-first emplo}'ed fr translation of the Holy Scriptures from the Greekbecame the chosen medium for the Christianization of the native population of the chora from the end of the second centul)', The third centul]' and the reign of DtOClEThlN, introducing the Byzantine period in Egypt, ",it· n...ed fundamental linguistic transformation., The

1168

GREEK LANGUAGE

spread of Christianily and socioeconomic chang~s, sud as Ih~ agricultural crisis in the first half of th~ fourth century, brought about semalllic e"olutions in Creek language. Thus, for example, anacIr6ri.• i$ us~d for withdrawal (in order to evade tal< paym~m) acquired th~ particular m~aning "withdrawal from th~ world" (in ord~r to devote one'. life to God)-thence the designation anachoreu. for monks: and geouclro. (landowner) acquired the specifically social connotation "pos""ssor" about

340-350, Literacy (the ability to read and write Greek) gradually receded with the impo,..,rish""'llI of the middle classes, c~used above all by the Roman liturgic rystem, The decline had se1 in at the end of the second century, as shown by, for instance, the case of Petaus, who learned to write Greek after having been nominated as village scribe of Plolemais Honnou about 185 (.ee Va. "'chiv de. Pcrau., ed. U. Hagedorn, D. Hagedorn, L. C. Youtie, and H. e. Youtie, Papyrologica Colonensia 4 [Cologne and Opladen, 1969)), Diocletian's attempts to latinize the administrntion had littl~ influence on official practice in Egypt. Latinisms intruded into the Greek vocabutal)' but did not neee.....rily supplant the ~~i.ting Greek equivalents, and Greek writing increasingly followed a Latin course. Still, these phenomena prove that the Gruk language kept its vitality. There even was a reviva.! of some classical Greek literal)' words (e.g., ht rhrl!psament, the nourishing [soil]) and Ptolemaic terminology (e.g., p"'gramm5) was wrillen by a eontem]XIrary authnr (Jew or Christian?) at Alexan. dria ('N. Scan, "The Last Sibyllin~ Oracle of Alex' andria," Clo5,,'-cal QuarTerl,. 9 [1915]:144). Latin had a greal~r impact on the Greek language in Egypt. About one·fourth of the Latin teons auested in Greek papyri mad~ th~ir first appearance at the "nd of the thirdlbcginning of the fourth c"nlU· ry. They were particularly numerouS in military vocabulary, but also embrac"d the spheres of adminis· tration, fiscal maners, law, agriculture, and textile manufacture. The adoption of Latin words followed several patterns: (1) transcription: (2) translation: (3) metaphorical usc. When t.--anscribed, the Latin words gen~ra1ly unt, qafF; d. the to]XInyms Q~r Qanln [i,e .. Dionrsias]: Luxor (Arabic al·Uqfur, the camps]). To a l=er ",tent, Latin influenced Gre~k morphology (e,g., the incr"asing popularity of the suffix· es ·t()F and .arlos), Symactical influence was practically nonexistent. Latin literature played a minor role in Egypt (about 100 ..tant Latin literary papy. ri). BIBLIOGRAPHY Barnes, J. W. B. "Egypt and the Greek Romance." In ..lb." des VTr/. Imernatio"alen K<mgre","" fi'F Papymlogie (Wi." /955). Milleilungen aus der Papyrussammlung der Oste=ic!tischen National· bibliothek, n.s., Vol. 5. Vienna, 195/>. Bowman, A. K. Egypt After ,he Pharaoh... 332 B.C.A.D. 641. From Alexander to tlr. Arab Conq"""t, PI" 157-/>4. L::>noon, 1986.

1\70

GREEK LANGUAGE IN CHRISTIAN NUBIA

Cadell, H. M. "Lc Rcnouvellemenl du voeabulaia au IVe li""'le de noltt m d'apres les pllpyrua." In Aile" des Xlll. lnlemaliorfalm P"/'Yro1ot.,,*'m· ,.uses (Mam...-y'l.ahn. Z -6 A"P''' /971. MunisJeb, 1979, Uoyd. A. B. -n.e Crttb in Empt lTom thf Bronze Ace 10 the Time of HerodOl:m:' Hrrodot... Book 11. InlFOd... ,ion. Etude$ preliminairta lUll; Rei.. cionJ, orientales ~ l'Empi..., romain 43. Leiden, 1975. _ "Nacionalisl P~ndo in P10lemaie £cypl." Hiswn. 31 (1982):13~55. Ulddecbns. E. "XIYP"'n.~ In Di$ SjOTt>C/l... ;m rllttIisc1lUl Rrich du K/loq.. iurtt ..,... I. bis II). April 1974, cd. C. Neu...."n, Bonner Jahrblkher, 8eihdt 40. Colov!~ 1910. MacMullen, R. ~P'rovincial LanKW'ge$ in lhe Roman Empire." Amuic1lnJol#ndofPlrilolo87 (19M}: I -

_d~rwdc.

~a .. H~rodolo,'

pp"OOJ

in h~,

IH:Id

Ecypfiseh~ ~n a"kr~ CO"femporair~ ,""""~,,. Biblioth~Uoe dOl MU5Con 27. Lou,-aln.

...... de

1951. Mortte\'eCchi, O. u. popimlOfi-. pp, 73-85. Turin, 19a ---C~ "Fpani e Creel: La coesisl~Jml delle We culture ndl' Ecitto romano." III EfZlID e Jt>ciail ""Ilic'a_ Am d~J roo.vtf"o Torino 8/9 Yl-D/24 Xl 1984. Milan.. 1915. Pack. R. A. n.~ Gre" ."d LoI;"UJerlJry Tutt from Greco--R''''''1n £01", 2nd cd. Ann Arbor, Mich.• 1%5. Palmer, L R. A G...""",ar of u.~ I'oIl.J>lokm.ic P.· pyri. London. 1946. ~. W. "Sur Ie bllfngul'rne dans l'Eg).pt d~ u.g;des:· In SfUdia Paulo Nast~r chi"'''. Vol. 2. Ori~nlalia antiquo. Orienlalia L.ovaniensia Anale Ia 13. t..o:>u""in. 1982. P~migotli, S. "I ph) napporll Ira l'Egitl e i Gr""i (secoli VII-IVa. C.)." In EliI/O ~ .oci~lir antica. Alti d~l conv~, .. o Tori"o 8/9 V/-2J/24 Xl 1984. Milan, 1985. P.otman. P. W. Greek a..d D~mOtic Texl' from the Z~ .. o" Archiv•• esp, p, 8, Papyrol GREEK LANGUACE IN CHRISTIAN NU. BIA. Of lhe lemtol)' in whiu u".P'.rk Aies 01. G~ Egypt uper!efK:ed Gr«1r. invaders and ...itkrs, bUt me counlry was not aeceuible .0 la~alc colonizalion ....hen Gr«u ~ pn. In 1M eighlh c.mury RC.. 10 s~ad Iheir Killemenu and .,,,ding S1a1ions over the Medilernncan and the Black Sea. Howe..r, with Ihe dria .... and rema.ined a oommunity of
t.....

""""""'in,,,

l! 76

GREEKS IN EGYPT

awarcnes,; of the perfonnance of Egyptian Late Perioo art, are c....ating conditions for a fre.h look at the relations between Egyptians and G.....,ks in Ptulcmaic and early Roman Egypt. The question of mi~ed civilization should be reexamined on a larger and morc systematic scale including all aspects of life and carefully distinguishing places, perioos. s0cial strata, and ethnic groups. It is evident that there is at least one group of Egyptians. occupying positions in the administra· tion and the ann}', who tended to become partially hellenized. The same will apply to many G"",ks and Egyptians mingling racially and sharing commun values. Not all the.. cases need to be ,'iewed as examples of unilateral Hellenization, that is, Egyp. tianization (the laller to a le..er degree), because some people. then as today, belonged at the same time to two cuhures. for example. persons serving as Greek-speaking soldiers in the Ptolemaic army and oIIiciating simultaneously as Egyptian-speaking prieslS in a native cult. This graduall}' and partially hellenized group certainly represented a minority only of aurochthonuus Egyplians. hut it was a high· ly active, fairly propertied, and politically important segment of Ptolemaic oociet}', becoming ever more visible and assertive after Ihe third century B.C Such person. often boore two names, one Greek. the other Egyptian. That means thaI names, aboove all from the second century B.(;. unward. cannot be considered any more as reliable indications of ethnic urigin. Anyway. after more than a hundred years of mi~ed marriages in Ptolemaic Egypl. the queslion of ethnic origin had ceased 10 make sense in the corresponding milieux. On Ihe olher hand, e"en outside these intennediary groups. Eg}']ltian and Greek traditions were not totally impenneable to each other. Instead of focusing the debate on ethnicity in tenns of "nati,.., Egyptians" .'erous "foreign Greeks." il seems mo'li.rewarding to detennine the rcspeetive slrength of EID']lllan and Greek traditions in Hellenistic as well .os in Roman and Byzantine Egypt. That approach is·of great relevance for a fair appraisal of boolh Greek' civilization in Egypt and the part pla}'ed in ilS developmenl by native f.gyptians. Comparison wilh mooern colonialism will not do. One seems justifiecl in saying that Greek civilizalion in Egypt is not only the mark of an occupying force. bul also. and not at least. an achievemenl of hellenized Eg)ptlans. Additionally and simultaneously. the aclivily of Egyptians is on reeord in nalive Eg)l'tian religion. art, and litenlture in Ptole· maic and Roman limes. Far from being one long

iOlennecllate period interrupting the continuity of Egyptian hi,tory. the centuries between Alexander and the Arab conquest Inily belong to the heritage of Egypt'. people and have made a great. but often underestimated. contribulion to booth Egyptian and classical d,'ilizalion. Nevertheless, notwilhstanding contacts and common performances, difference. even opposition. belween Greeks and Egyplians did not disappear in Ihe cou""," of time, the dividing line being. ho....'cvcr. not one of race, but one of cuhure and social class. As there was cooperation, there also was hoslilily. clearly evidenced, for in· stance. in prophedes foretelling, like the POller's Oracle, the ahandonment of Alexandria and the end of foreign rule in Eg}']lt. After the conquest of Eg}']lt by the Romans in 30 Re., the country entered Ihe Roman empire as a province administered by a representative of the emperor. the praef<elus Aegyp/i. Roman citizens. active in the administration and in the army, doing business and owning land. were hencefo"h Ihe suo preme cla.. in Eg}1't. soon reinforced by Egyptian Greeks. that is, hellenized Egyplians who acquired Ruman citizenship, espedally Ihrough service in Ihe Roman army. The rest, Ihat is Ihe majority, were "foreigners" (puegri~i), al leasl in Roman ju· ridkal construction. In fact, Greek remained the ruling language, rIC,'er replaced by Latin e~cept in the highest ec:helons of governmenl .en.;ce. in legal procedures in,'olving Roman citizens, and partiall}' in official military use. Analyzing the relevant te~1S of the Roman period, Montevecchi (1935, pp, 339-53) reached the conclusion that the term Aigyprios had a twofold mean· ing: (i) in highly official language, it designated both Greeks (including hellenized Egyptians) and nonhellenized nati.'es as oppo...d 10 Roman citioens: (2) in everyday life, and even in court. "';gyp. rios could characterize the nonhellenized nati"e. in contrast tu Ihe Greek. Ihat is, hellenized Egyptians, That is not to say that Ine Romans established no official dislinction belween the Greek and the "truly" Egyptian inhabitants of the country. Both groups had to pay the poll ta~ (/aographia). but the gymnasial elite (those "Greeks" whose status had been verified by as
1178

GREEKS IN EGYPT

k conjec'ured, a furtioegegnungen drcier Jahrtausende im Schme!Ulegel ~i~er m~diterr~n~n Cro$S$wdt, ed. C. Grimm, pp. 53-62. Aegyptiaca Treverensia 1. Mainz, 1981. Kmuse, M., and K. Hoheisel. "Agyptcn 11 (Ii'era'ur· geschich'lich)." Reallv:lkon fur Amlke ,,~d Chris· remum, Supplement-Ucferung 1/2, cols. 14-88. Stullgart, 1985. Lewis, N. Lifo i~ Egypi under Roma~ Rul~. O"ford, 1983. ___. Grub i~ Prolemaic Eg)'pl. Case Studiu I~ lite Sod,,1 HiJlory of the Hdlenistic World, Ox· ford, 1986, Lloyd, A. B. Herodotus Book If, 3 vols. Etude< preliminaires aux rdigion. orientales dans l'empire romain 43, Leiden, 1975-1988. _ _ . "Nationalist Propaganda in Ptolcmaic Egypt." Hisroria 31 (1982):33-55. MacCoull, L. S, B. Dio>corus of AphrodllO. His Work and His World. The Transformation of the Clas.i· cal H~ritage 16. Berhley, Calif.. 1989, Meleze·Mod,-zejewski, J. "Lc Sta,ul des Hellene. dans l'Egypte lagide: bHan et perspectives de rccherches." Revu~ d~s budes grecq"~s 96 (1983),241-68. __ . "Fra la cilla 0' il fisco: 10 statuto greco nell'Egilto romana." In Studi i~ o~ore dl Ce.ar~ Sanfilippo, Vol. 7, Pl'. 463-86, Milan, 1987, Montevecchi, 0, ..... igyptiO!i-Hellen in eta romana." In Studl III o~ore de Edda Br~S. 41-54). refused to cede on that point. But Alcrandria did have a wide range of munieipal institutions and magistracies. among which were the exegeles. gym~asi/1.rd!Q$, kO.I",ete$. eUlheniQcchos. and "goranomos, A distinctive feature of polis organization was the subdi.'ision of Alexandria's citi""n corps imo tribes (phyla!) and deme. (demo!). M a privi_ lege, the Alexandrians were exempted from the poll tax (laographia) and from liturgie, in the l'.ID'Ptian chora (on the Alexandrian chora, cr, Jabne, 1981). Besides ilS citizen population. Alexaodria was inhabiteptian population. Jl was cuicr to ddend and spread Gtffk ci~i1ization than to pre' ""rve nldal puriTy. Ali a consequence. and contrary 10 the Laws of NaUCTllI;', the citw.n. of Antinoopolis _te ,n....,n the rishl 10 marry £optian. fep;· lamia}, many 01 whom Ji~e. H. d·. "1'lIe AJeundrian Cuiz=ship.Journal uf ElJ1'n.n Ivduo/OO 43 (1962):106-

on. Balconi, C. "A.lcsandria nell'eti augu...,,,, Aspftli di .ita-" In Ednll ~ liJI)(;eJb ."ne.. ..ttti del c".,,'~~ n" Torino S/9 VI-Up. XI19B., PI'- 181-96. Mibn. 1983. BaI.y, J..c_ "Le 'boulcuterlon' de l'AI~Dndrie .eve""nne:' In Eludes ~l /tI"'au~ D, pp. 7_12. T",,· \';lUX dll Centll' d'Arch~losie mMilernn~.",n., de l'Academic polonaise del .cie~ 26. Warsaw, 1983. Jlihne, A. "Die '.uf(al'6pt.. ~ X"'-"'." Klio 63 (1981):63-103. Wolff, H. "Die Conllilulio Anloniniana und Papyrus GiMen.i. 40 I:' 2 vols, Dissenalkon, Cologne, 1976. Sec e.pecially pp. 239-71, "Zur Rechtsstd· lung der XlYJ'Ier. D/I$ Beispiel docs flal'J'O"ras:' AntlnoopoIb

Bell, H. I. "Aminoopolis: A Kadrianic FoundaTion In Ecl'1." Ioumlll til R"n"", Stud;,. 30 (1940):133- 4 7. Bemand, A. us porT.S du di~n. ~CU.,i1 <Us in· scripOOots uecqueJ tl'..t"tiroooupolis Mllpa. pp. 23-107. Paris, 1984. BrauDett, H... G......,htK~ Un
Bernand, J.. Le Ddt"
Fun"""""",",. a nol'" in a manuscript .. o~ in 1.594-1.59.5 (Mir £liM ShuW3)')"l' [Lebanon] Matt· uscript 30) .ecords tha' Pauiarch Crepy was mo....n as Grqory al-51n",,1.1 (lOis. 2a-2b). This ind>t:ateS thai he had bttn a monk al Sinal and ....pla:;"" ..... hy some oJ. his manuscripls are found lhere loday. Accoming '0 GlUm"'. Cre",., II died ~fo.. 13.54. allhough Grume! adds a qUC:Sflon mark. Ac· cording 10 Nasrallah. he died wro.. I33S.

GREEK TRANSCRiPTIONS. See Appr..du. BIBUOGRAI'HY

GREGORY II,

fou"~nth..:enlury Melchite p~(ri­

arch of Alexandria. Very little Is known about Cn:g· ory II. V, Crum..l and J. Nasrallah dale his el..ction around 015, As IIOOn lIS he Wlll5 el"~led. he .em a •ynodal lelte. to hlJ colleagu .. of ConsUlminople. Palriarch John XIII Clykys, announcing hi. ele~· lion, Thi. letter was published by F. MikJ05i~h and J. MUller along wilh a ,eply from John XIII. Invit· inl him 10 come 10 COnst.a.nlinople, Nallrallah (1981. p. S6) Slales lhal the patriarchs

A,iy>.. A. 5.. and J. N. Yotlt$ef. Call1log.. , Raiw.. nl of lh, MOUn! SI"ai Manll.criplJ (In Arabic). pp. 203-204 and 4B~84. Alexandria. 1970. Black. M. "Rituale Me!chilarum. A Christian Pales.tinian," Bo...... orlen/aUKhe SllIdien 22 (1938):28-3.5 . Omilrievskij. A. Opi.", ..ij, IirurgiC'$kh ,ukop;J~j, Vol. 2: Elfcholv~;'" I'f'. 684-91. Kiev, 1901. Engberdin8. H, "Der Nil in de, lilurgi'chen Frtlm· migkeit d•• chri.dichen Osten.:' chri'li". .."'s 37 (19.5)):.56-88. Gmmel, V. LII cltro..olori... p. 144. I. I!. Paris, 1958.

Orl,,,,

GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS, SAINT

Margoliouth. G. "n..:, Liturgy of the Nile," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 0/ Creal Brito;n and [rdand (1896);677-731. Miklo,ich. F., and J. Muller. ..lela el dip/ornata gro_ eco medii aevi .acra el profono. VoL 1, PI', 20~2~, Vienna, 1860. Nasnollah. J, Ristoir. du mouvemenl /i11'raire dans rEglise "'e/chite. Vol. 3. 1'1. 2, PI'. 62 and 149. Paris and louvain. 19SI. Kw.UL S,u,IlR, S.J.

GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR, SAINT, or the Armenian (c. 240-332), bishop and patriarch of Annenia .....ho is a "martyr without bloodshed" (feast days: 1$ Kiyahk and 19 Hit), His is venerated in the diptychs of tbe Coptic church. where hi' name is mentioned together .....ith two other Gregot)'es ! by order of Ardashir. The dying king commanded that Amak's whole family be put to death. But the infant Gregory was saved and se'tl\lh cenlul)', and an: allrib!aled 10 Gl"Cpy for reasons of co.wenience. Dc Mich.,c1c ArclNl",Uo cl de di4lbolo (Lafon",;ne. 1919. from \he .... IlUICripi ;n the f'ie''POtll Morpn Ubrary. New Vori. by Macarius (Vaciclln library. Coptic 61, 6), auributed in

Capric '0 Gregor)' of Na>ianntI. 1be oritinal Int has b«n .-hered '" as 10 tmpkJy only lhe pari th;ot is eMC'nllally CUBelical :and moral in dU'1'aC1CT. ). lk "ni",.. el ruclio"e is a dialogue found in a fn.l"'ental)' SaIImc c 1185

was, in addition, one of the firsl students of the Old Nubian language, publishing a translation and commental")' on three documents that he found in thc British Museum and in the Royal library in Berlin as The Nubi~n Texl' of the Chrislian Period (Abhandlungen der Koniglichen preussi$Chen Mademie der Wissen.chaften, Jahrgang 1913, Philoso· phisch·hislorische Classe 8, Berlin, 1913). Griffith was also a pioneer in the study of Ihe Meroitic language .nd culture of the pre-Christian Sudan. He excavated a number of imponanl Mem· itic sit.., chieRy at Faras, and published many anic1es on the Meroiti~ language. B1BUOGltAPHY

10 ACUHON'CUS OF TARSUs,

BIBUQGRAPHY

Chaine, M, "Une Homelie de S, Gregoire de Ny",e," R,v"e de 1'0rie"l chrhi", 17 (1912):395-409; 18 (1913):36-41. Coquin, R,-G" and E Lucchesi. "Une Venion copte du De anima et resurrectione (Macrinia) de Gre· goire de Nysse," Oriml~lia wva"ie.uia. Pe.iodic~ 12 (1981):161-201. Fsbroeck, M. van. "Fragments sahidiques du Pa· negyrique de Gregoire Ie Tllaumaturge par Gregoire de Nysse." Orimlalia Lova"iensia Periodic~ 6-7 (1975)-1976):555-68. Orlandi, T. "GTegorio di Nissa nella letleratura COpt3.." V.IOTa ChriSlianorum 18 (1981):333-39,

Adams, W. Y. ""ubia. Co",idor to Africa, pp. 77_79, 486-87. Prin~eton, N,J" 1977, Gardner, A. H. "Fran~i. U.,...'ellyn Griffith." Journal 01 Egyplia" Archaeology 20 (1934);71-77. W'LUAM Y. AOA\iS

GROFF, WILLIAM N. (1857-1901), American Egypt"logi.t. He studied Egyptology in Paris under G. "AS~ERO in 1878. He lived in Cairo from 1891 to 1899, A nUmbeT of his published anicles were later collecled and edited by Maspero, with a biographical notice by hi. sister, Florence Groff.

TITO ORlANDI

GREGORY OF NYSSA, SAINT, CANONS OF. See Canons of Gregory of Nyssa.

GRIFFITH. FRANCiS LLEWELLYN (18621934), British Egyptologist. As longtime profes· SOT of Egyptology at Oxfo~ University, he was a pioneer in the slUdy of medieval Nubian archaeolo· gy and philology. Between 1410 and 191 2 he direci' ed lhe excavation of sew",l churlhek, Papyrus Ert!terzpr Ra,,,er, p. JO. Vie""o, 19&J.

GUARDIAN ANGEL, anglJ ass.icned to wonhip. glorify, and awl God co,,,inuousJy. and also 10 miniweT 10 sainu and 10 prot«l, _u:h owoer, and inlercW. on behalf of pcn>-s 10 them. "You are mad.n!hey loid her: but she ill$iJte-d thaI i\ " .... so. lMn lh
GUIMET, EMILE ETIENNE

In rt.e Varkan MuswJJU, :and from 1376 M laUlhl Hcbrtw and $emilie IaIli""8'n al 1M Uni..~ity of Rome. He publishftl1C~t5 md mIlognopns rtlad.... 10 tht ABbo-lsJamic, SyriaJ, l,2 (11S1):I'I-lS, 65-31, 177-190, 251-270, 368-].84, 4.1 (IW):60-70; "Gli Aoi Apocrifi dqll Apo$IoI; nci reslll copIi anbi td H;':'1,id." Giorn.k ddl.. Sodelii arid,.... ,'..Ii..... 2 (I ISJ): 1-60: "Dl alculW ~pmnw ""idick della coIJcnone BorCiana,· R."dicO
livfil in a ea•.., and appHfiI himself 10 Ihe S{udy of the li~ of Saini ..,ro)tlf A{ Ihe end of some lime. he .....,.,1 off and lived as a reclusoe in. cell, the door of which "'1'> shUI. The Synu.arlon speaks of his miracles. aDd in panicubr of those 1""OP}c. ~ by demons in the fil"$l ~'S of the Crescenl moon. ,,-boon he de!i'....-ed; and the sid. whom he eured. lIwlb co the oil bJcs-l by M.... Syrians consulted him on obscure points of scripture; the $!Lint gave them upbtww.ns lhey 1wI 001 obuoincd from nu· merous doclen and p/'Iilollophen. When the bishop of As"",n died. the inhabiW\ts ...d the neighboring monks took hold of Hadrt. opening hi!; C4.'1l by lOr-c:e. They bn:tughl him '0 Alexandria. "tte", he " .... conoecraled by lhe p"1rbn:h THEOPItlutS (JIl5412). HOOn was an eumplary bishop. and at h.. death the anllds accompanied his spiril, The present·day Mon... tery of s..in! Symeon Is In faci OAYR mBA IIAOIIA BIBLIOGRAPHY

Graf. G. Cyr lUmyllT ill $il\lMcd on the blnk ." the ri,"e!'". 1M tnenMlny of Dandanoh is localed near 1lw lown. Pagans liwd in a , i l l . noc br fro... his mo""'lery. One niem they obsenlcm headaches, bu1 he did nol Tel"" hi. ascetkism and his .andria ~em. 10 ha"e been the main cenler of this lilentun!: and Alexandrian infille'nce remai~. vivid In ils development. Therefoce lite P~ion, of the epic genre. or lite epic Passion...... Odcha}'e called them. were wide· spread in Egypt (C(lming directly from Alexandria) before the consolldatkln and diffuoion of the nonbib)icalliteratliTe in Ihe Coptic language In Ihe fifth century. The eFie Passions are dislinauW>ed by their MCnl:OIyped construclion buill around chaneten (l
ography within Ihe limits of currenl kllOWl.ation and rearrangement of a more disorderly set of malerials probably going back to the fifth CentUT)'. Literary Development Writing aboul Coptic saints extends from the fourth century 00 the ninth, Fourth and Fifth Centurles. Because Coplic hagiography staned with translations from Greek. a study must firsl take into accounl the material from which the Copts had to cht:>me, thaI is, the produc· tion of the Egyptian hagiographic schools. These schools had disseminated some texts thaI are con.iderc
1194

HAGIOGRAPHY, COPTIC

empcror Coroluonline and cI lhe dioroYery of I~ C'I'CU. Momtion may be made cllhe f"agio ... of AIIlf.S CYIWDJS and 01. I;l.I5IQIU.5.. besida !be minc~ deKri>ed in d>e Passion of IoIUOlRlIIS OF ~ thco'e _n: also 1'- IhaI ~,. be deseriboed as clast.ical epic PassioM. which weu buill "round wnlS of various pw.-e""nce, each ....Ih his o"'n peculiarities: EPI.,,","U5 Of' ,EUl$IU.... 1oIEHA.S. J..".es

IIOI'UClSUS the Persian. L.£OtmI$ OF TItlPOU. MeK\lr· ius, ,.\NTAllQti. fUSTATMIUS Of Am"lOCH. Cyrus and John, PHll.OTHEUS Ol' ANTIOCH. and the funy m.n)'T'l of Sebaste. Some of Ihcse are wilnesscd only in Ihc Coptic ",xts lind Ihey probably had lypicaJ Eg)ipllan connOlalions of a Strictly intemal nsture. f()l" eum· pie. lhose of JOOkt of Jlnjeb. of HH"" of T.mmah, and of DIOS. The PU$il)(ll of lhe marlyr-monb oksc...... special consOdcnlion. 110cy aJ,o derive from !be epic l"'n~ 1M monasUc "nvironmelll had a dclerminln. illllumc" on m..m. 10 thai lhey can be cono.idercd evideroc" cI an epie hapogTaphlc ochool ill m.. monaslic emironm"n1- n.e,. an: lhe hssions at hphnuoo. (rmybe m.. lint and the 11I05I imponan. and widely witt>esst
HAILE SElASSIE I

~ auribu~

for- political reuoJ\S I penonaliliell "'bo w~ CQmpletdy In\"flUed but _rc pR:SlJmed 10 hao;e IMd in the palrisco.: ~riod in ~ l"outth and fifth anlUl'Xs. To der an El:hiopi· an religious tulor and then under lhe F...,nch Lazar. o.t missionaries in Harar. Lat
....,,0

1198

HAILE SELASSIE I

assi.. Emp","", bwd ilu Menelik in the Nno in. or Sl3tt aJlain.. Upon hu death in 19)0 , he s"e c~d 10 'M impe rial Ih........, unde r lhe name of Haile Selas ,ie I, At his ....n diose eoro nallo n, the palri neh of Alt~· andr ia was repre sente d by Arch bisho p VIls;ib, who bier beca me palriarc:h. 'TI>l' MWe reip'S ",Ii&ious polic y ..,. prMo .nina ndy liM" " aod toler ant tw.rd ollle r relig ions and deno mina tions . prior i'its btlng nalUl'8lly reser ved for the Ethio pian Orthodo~ Chu uh, "'~ I*tro n he ""ll$. His rtlall ons "'ilh the See of A1t und " we", l"'ne nlly cordi al, thou.,h occa siona lly !lCmncd. 'TI>l' prob lems eDla' lWed from t""O historical dewelopmenlS: the 'lues · lion of ,he right s of tM Ethiopian Orth odox Chor eh in Jerus alem . whle h had enga gtd lht COpts sinee Ute mid ninel~th cen,o l}', and Ute q..... 'ion rt'.own omy for ,he Ethio pian cho, eh. whk h _ peatedIy nise d lor seYn'lll eeOI\lrWs,. Dori n. his visi' 10 Jerus alem In 1924, IUs Tabr i h.d ,..,mweOI travel to Ec'JII on acco on, of illness. "'as cons «:...., ed in Addis Ababa whtn the IXiuriarch visited lhe E,hio pi· an ~apital in url}' 1930 <see ETHtOPIAtl CHURCH

-no

AUTOCEPKA.LY).

n.e

rdali ons bet", '«n the ,..lIp e'Or ....d the met· ropol itan were corii aI until tlM: FascOlt occu pa,io n of Ethio pia (193 6-19 41). wht!n the dign i'ary .._ more or less fol'C'ed to luve his dioce st. The ltdian$ "'ant ed to separ ale the Ethio pian chul'C'h from A1ezandria 50 lIS 10 bring ilun der their full conl rol, and Mftr opolm ul (Jere l.. WZI llIJmmoned Ie> Rome foI- cons uha'i o..... aner ...hie h he rerum ed '0 Ea,wl. The llalia no appo in,ed an Ethio pian metrnJ'Olilan who orda ined SOmt bishops. This Italia n polic y was cond emne d by lhe see of SainI Mark . Upon his retur n from aile , Emp eror Haile SlObssit: que:stiooed the integ rity of the Coptie tne1rOpOIitan, who a1lesedly deserted his eCD gnpl ion a, ,he time of di$lresa, and he dtma ndtd that an Elhlo p;' an be eonS «:r8l ed in his stead . After an exttn si"e corra pond enee . euha nges or ddep lion s. and lellf:thy OOllSUiuuicns, it was agn.ed IlpOI'I Uuu Melropo liWl dersuu>di".

HAIL MARY

1199

ascribing ~se 10 I"," MOIhe.. of God. Notablr :orr Ihe fuIlO"',ng: Bel'de Maryam Menna (Ba'eda Jar)'Im Mm;t.). MIM Gachich~ der iilhioc>pncbcn Palriarc.... n

_ 1926 bis 2W" ~",-an." DocIOO'l1 disa.., RupteclIl karl Unlvrnily. HrideIMl'L 1982. Cb.pftarn. C. H~jJ., SeI/1S5i.e·s Gcw.........,"I. London.

,....

!-bile Sebsr.... T1u AUlobiocr~pIty D{ Emperor H~i1e Se/4s.sH.I; My ute .n4 E.tJriorM's ~css, /892/937, Irw>$. E. UlIftMlonI. Oxford. 1976. Heyu, F. Ole Kirdtc Atltiopims: Eine &SI""JSy of the World:' 1. duriD.g m., monlb of Kiyahlt: "HaIl Moll')'. eli.,;"" peace be .. nlO Iheo:o. Hail 10 Thee, Mother of lhe H"'y One." "'n ostracon fouDd in lwlor in lIpper Eio'P1 l>eaJ5 nidenc:e IMI the angelic: salutallon wa!l popular as a common deVOlic>nal p ...yer In I"," .ixlh cenTury (~clerq. 1~12).

BIBLIOGRA'HY

•...hd al·Masih

~aJib

.1·Mq·Qdl. KilfJ.b III.Khitliiji al· Muqaddas ay KilfJ.b a!.TI!a!fJ.lhal Q..tldfJ.!lfJ.f. Cairo,

1902.

1200

I:IAJIR lDFU

Iqladiylls Yl1l;>annl Labib_ Kildb ,,/.Abftn.. Henu fi&hting brok~ out betWt"Cll me dlfIernot bctions ""'hich resulted in me remo....1 of Ibn ·Ammar his I1!:plactmem by lbe Turk Baljaorin in 997. From the year 1000 on_rd. a1.Hilkim himself C1trcM
and gifts, were disg.-a~ed and beheaded a few weeks late., Here we ~an only give a brief list of these tyrannical measures, t",ating the caliph's behavior toward the Chri$tiam ""pamtely, In 1004 came prohibition against eating ~enain green vegetables, such as mu!ukhiyyah (because Caliph Mu'awiya liked it); ii'71r or rocket salad (per. haps in memory of 'A"isha, the wife of the prophet Mu~ammad); mutawakki!iyyah (becau.... Caliph al· Mutawakkil was a Sunnl and al·Hllim was a Shiite Mu.lim); and fish withoul scales. It was likewise forbidden to drink fuqq{,' (a drink roade of barley lhat 'All detested). It was prohibited to go out after sunset. An order wl\$ givell to kill all the dogs in Cairo. The traditional celebrations for the Feast of Sacrifices were forbidden. Mourning observe:cesses. we ha"" to mcos:' nize thaI hyperbole _ eommon in lhe fatimid enlourage, whieh mad" its lignjlicance .-ela.h-e, We have rdali...ely preci$f infoomalion 0' pied importanl poail>ona in the dno'QIU. AbU ManF Dishr ibn 'Abelanlh ibn Solr'llt, sec'--'Y to lhe Diwlln IIUnshlf, who lranscribed lhe caliph's «ders, "...,rns 10 have li ...en comple1e salisfaction. since he remained in olliee unlil his nalural dealh II' Oclober 1009. We also know of Iwo of al· I;li.ldm's doct~ who were Christl""s: Ya'qub Ibn Nas!h and AbU al·f.t/:t Manflir ibn Sahlin, ..t\o b n ~ witlt the caliph w obUlln die libenliDII ot the Coptic officiab who had bHn imprisoned after ,he lOSSIS$inal>on of lbe ¥We. fahd ibn Ib-

Ia,,,,

""~.

Sec"",, rneOSI"es. MallY X'Curily measures decreeer 1004, an edict was rud In Ihe rnosqo.>e$ obliging J""'S and Otrisllaos 10 "ur black clothes and 10 carry special bf.dces (particularly tlte Vlnn"" a xnoam'. beh). laler, Cbmtianl were obli...,d 10 wear • .."ODden Cn>lS aJ"<MInod lhrir lIeC"b, .nd lhey ..-enIi:..bidden to ride hon.eback, Ita";n. to be sati$fied witlt mules o. donkeys. llIey -.e 10 "..., undecoraled WQO the caliph, for at the "m~ tim~ he had forbidden publk festi"iti~ for the feast of ~rifiCft and the mouming of 'Aihilri', Other m~asures. ho,.,~,~r. wen: dearly din!Cted .pinst ChriSlians, fOt" eum· ple, the dffiroying of churdws and ~inlthem with mosques. In IOOS tl>t' RAshida mosqu~ "'-lOlI buill in place 01. new church th.. had b«n built withollt th~ caliph', pennission. n.e year 1008 ",as mar\ed by the dc5!rw;tion 01 many churches, be· linnlog ",ith thai: of th~ Koly ~pIlkheJ in Juusal~m. ",hkh .J.l;lildm orde~ to be completely de· 51roy'fll. In 1010 the M~khltc montite'}' or al~r (ncar Cain» .... dc5Iroyed and its «mete'}' pr0faned. Finally, in 10))·\01•• n.. m ~ con~cnlS and. chW'tMs met wi,h tl>t' ",me bt~. It ww1d be dii!iicuh '0 ...... ~ an e>'en Ipproxlmat~ ~ lOll to the RIlmi>a of bulldinp doestroyed, bill it ..,."". there wtre many. n.e caliph onIc~ the confisca· tion '" c.... n:h PnlP"rty and. the U'aMfeT of !hci, adminnu..tion '0 !he finan. Hall ..... born in Londol> and educated at Saint John's CoII~, Chfonl. 5UppIemenlini hia ch"....1 $Iud.... with Ec~ IanlU&Ce and hisotory unda F. L Griffith·s guidance. He joinc
£ca, .... ho had him ~ted and IOnured 10 dc3lh. Cyril ordered Ammoni"" 10 hrc Jiven the bonon dc '0 rnar1)n.. In our $\Ory...f>ich -Ioft'OIS par.alkl to Ihal of the historian Socrates. th~ Pachom;"" monks are recei\'cd by 1It~ p",r..c.. and Hamal in· '""&ft$ again$! him. In a .... the prrittl bas the )'OWlS rnon.k "ruo:lfl.ed. dt~n orden him britcadcd. n,.. IC1I of the upper £&ypcian S~ Ihen describes Hamal', ascen. to hawn, his buri.al at A1~undria. and the fel'Vt'nl v~ra.tion ntndtrtd to him by .h~ monks and lallY. In "ontns! 10 the Coptic movtyrdoms. thet-~ are hen no inlem>plions inl~nperxd with IOrturc5 hclWeftl the pmoel and I"" monk; the pre£ca docs nol a"empl 10 ma....~ the "andidate fo, manyrdorn nnounce his bilh. and Hama; only reproac:hcs (2{I em) wtdt. '1M. ~ngth and brudth of tIM: spKe ~ by ..-nang on !he ""~B1l! paces amounlS 10 about 8.S inches by 6.2 indtes (22 em by IS.S em). The pages of the Cud.. S«1ions of !he tUI ha~ an of thirty-fi".., Ii""",; tho5e of th" COplle pan. an a,..,rag" of thirty-two lines of Inl. The is in at ~ two diff"r"nt hancb and can be . allows one to "'flP05" lhal the miginaf from which it "''lIS copied ... an cccles....iral book of deVOliofl Of" a Iec-

"""'pt

1205

"'On

A eom~rison between the Creri: &:dcsiaSics and the Coptic Ecclesiasles of Pap. bU. I and of both lexU wilh CodcK Yaricanus C......eus 1109 (B). as well as other grea1 ~ t codices. poinu to a clofer affinily of !he CilJk Vorl"ce of Coptic ~. clcsWtes to B than can be observed in C....ek &:. elcsiasles lransmined in m" same codex. Al all .......ms. Creek ~clcsiasles.is nOi th" VorlIa. besonde.. des Kocie>: B (Vat. Go-. 1:r(9).-&obacbtungea lind mc!hodiKbe BemerlwllF'.~ In F~I6"bc fur Cltr. Su,dl4rtl tum SO. CWUTt$llll. Hcidelbe~

1981.

DicbneT. B. J•• and R.

Kauer. H"mburger Paf'P"W

hil. 1.- ~ mneJIame"t/klN" TUJl ./:r.ltri". 3 vol•.

Cairo. 1911.

J:lANNA $ALlB SA'D (1880-1928). Egwli.an td\ld llI'Ches. ol ""hich ,wo •..., inside .he oan tombo ciatnl ..·ith many evenu in Coplle his.ory. bolll majOIJand miAOr. PatriaTchal Ind episcopal consecratiot. ..·~e oIien confirmed in ':liri. al·Rum. Church counc:ibi wen: also held h""". $UCh IS .he cpnc:opal synod tha. repudiated lhc simoniaoiree! lcycl. Apparently ,h" ana was mlr.ed as onc of the spa'" where lbc Holy Family Slopped during ilS RJGIIT INTO ECn'T, immediately aner their p-rerious restinl."lace. wilh ils .radidon.al sycamore Ir.,.,. aI al·NATAIlIYTAII. A. the time of the CnsIruetioa ol !he lim ollhcsc churches. ,hll seclion ol the area may h2ve been .still .... ati¥el,. open vound utilized by Ihc CopIs as a d"P. in the sense of I cemclety norM than • regular monaucry inhabiled by

UIM. probably

,wo . .

-"-

The Churcb ol 1M Vil'Jin (a!-'Adhrll is lhe oIdca of lite u..- in J:llrit. z........,lah. It is Kcessible from (he SOlJlh~ and th., southeast by lWO en(raM~ one lOt- .....men and .he 0lheT for men. The church .. de:dicaJed to the Vi... in, 1:_... .he nllM Copes ~ lite .ille of ··l:\a1lal al·Hachd," lhaI is. she wilo mel.. the iron fel.e", of Ma.lllias. die: di§ciple who replaced Judas bcarioo:. 1hough if is difficult to Ii.... I p of 1"~W g",)'ish marble col· umns surmounled b}' Corinthian and 8)Unline apilals adorned with crosses "",one foliaF- The marble ambo rIldler fow IIrps hiJther th.atI tM d.e';e. "The' """cinar)' and Iht nn" ...~ sep;t.tlIN by a 1..-dfltH:enlut, bu' he it rnentio..ed .. ,he head of tIte 1m On 14 Febnury 1300. it _ apin J:lasabaIlah "'..... eOrtJUnoted tIte ei&htieth patriarch. JOHN VTIl. dapite IN p,,"W',,", of Anb.l YUsM! 01 Akhmlm uwl AlIbI. Mikhl·ll. ~ mdrOpnlimn 01 Jenosalem (ct. Craf, 1927, P. JlO). Duri... the concoction of the chrism peri"ormcd by John VllI on IZ April 1l05, Anbt Bull\l$ 1:1balWl was co""",m!OtIy bishop of Shanshi. San. dUb. TandiotJ. ;md SamannUod. and was. of course. the W'nior bishop of Lower E.cPt (d. Munier. p. 37; and Samir. 1971. pp. 358-59, wl>ere he ;5 refel"rN to as bishop of Sand"b and Shansh.i). AI Hasabotl1ilb's death. hi5 isb."ttd piou& Copts in Egypc 10 _k sltelter in their fai!h. They ne no dillettt'lt From people of odler ~ligjons who IUm 10 Cod for help either through lrue bhh Or because OIh"r means failO'd. The ~rlessncss of lhe docton is some1;me:s described in the tnlS. which even portray lhem as ~ing aided by rn;ogicians anti enchant~rs. What this means is that rhe li.t of illnnsts cured mir.w:uloudy coincides more or I"" with thai of the afllide disuses not in m..dkal boob. Such diseasel.. ncept.. perhaps, for blindness in one eye. can be nplalned _ stemming from ps)·chosomazic Cau5Q. n..,... mmtionco never uisl:ed. Of sreaou ~Iicious i"leresl is lhe comparison d"l1 an be IIllIde• ..,d !hal cannot rail 10 be J»rllc· uluiy inSlrucli..e. between Ih""" luIS and lhe mino· cles ~laled in .he New Testamenl. Apllrl from. blind and deaf penon ",,-tw was 1"'"....50(1, • hunch· b.ck, and a uah them. These ex!nordinary healinp could be produ«d in Vllriow; drcumslanCes and by vwious means: "'" ~ e of the a sbp he giws, "'" ...., of walCT or of tM oil of the I.s1'nfl belon: the ollar, a pT'llye1" of the saint's, In order he gives. 1m breath. toucbina his clothe!.. !he blood of a manyr, in one instance _ e who ..... the \icIin:l of demon possession ..... hunl up by Saini Menas. Miracles likewise y or snming death lhal is inyolved). titeso: ...., mere ""pi.,.. of Gmpel miracles. It is a qUCSlion of faith ra!her than of science. If the doclor son>elimes proved PG",..,rleSll, we musl not conclude th~t he wall the objecl of mockery or deri.ion, Luke the evangeli5t was a doclor, as were Coltuth". the Copllc martyr and Sain.. COSM.os AND DAMI""', who, though nOI EJYptian, were held in honor in E!m>1. If the Egypti~n of pharaonic daY" prized fim and fonmost ancient lllthcr than new

1214

HEAVEN

remedies, and perhaps because of that attitude abstained from medical research, we must, neverthe· less, note that the hope of cures by otber (supernat· ural) means left the door open for progress. Without having a clear idea of what they were actu' aJiy doing, the Copts, by reading and hearing these pious stories, maintained the hope of improved medicine. BIBLIOGRAPlty

Amelineau, E. C. Les Actes des many,. de Ngli.. eoplt:, Paris, 1890. ___. Mo>wm",ls pour servir ;, /'hiSloire de I'Egyplt: chr~/ierme. Musee Guimet, Annales 25. Paris, 1894. Barnes, J. W. B" and A, E. A, Reymond. Faur Martyrdoms from Ihe Pierpont Morgan Coptic Coaices. Oxford, 1973. Budge, E. A. W. Coptic Martyrdoms, eIC., in the DialeCI 01 Upper Egypl. london, 1914. Hyvemat, H. Les ACles aes martyrs de I'Egyplt, pts. 1-4. Paris, 1886-t887, Lemm, O. E. BruchSIiJcke koplischer Marlyrerak/m. St. Petersburg, 1913. Till, W. Koplische Heiligen· una Marlyrerlegurae", 2 vols. Orientalia Christiana Analecta 102, lOS. Rome, 1935-1936. ___. Die An.neikunde der Kopten. Berlin, 1951. GooRD GoDROII

HEAVEN, term used in the Holy Scriptures to indicate the sky overhead created by God (Gn. 1:1) and the dwelling place of God (Pt;. 2:4: 11:4; 103:19; 123:1; 129:7-8). The Jewish mystics adopted the concept of the plurality of heavens rising above one another; the first as the upanse of space sUlTOunding the earth: the second as the firrrojrnent containing the sun, moon, and stars: and tbe third (or heaven of heavens) as the abode of God. The concept held by the Coptic Orthodox Church differs as far as the third heaven is concemed and is based On the teachings of Saint Paul, ""here he tells the Corinthians (2 Cor. 12:2-4) of his vision and revelations: '" kl'lOw a man in Christ who fourteen years ago ",'as caught up to lhe third hea.en-whether ill tbe body or out of the body I do not know, God knows. And I know that this man was caught up into Paradisewhether iv the body Or out of the body [ do not know, God knows-and he heard things that cannot be lold, which man may nol utter." Here the

third heaven is paradise, the resting place of tbe souls of the righteous awaiting the day of judgment. Thus, hea,'en and paradise are quite distinct. This view is supported by evidence from the New Testament. Heaven is Ihe place from which Cbrist came down and to which He was raised. He said to Nicodemus, "No one has ascended into heaven bUI he who descended from heaven, Son of Mav, who is in hea"en" (In. 3:13). Again, at His ascension, as the disciples were watching steadfastly into heaven as He was lihed up, "behold, two mev stood beside them in while robes, and said, 'Men of Galil.,." why do you .tand looking inlO heaven? This Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven'" (Acts 1:10-11). The Revelation to John (21:1-23) draws a symbolical rep.esentation of heaven. The new Jerusa· loom is a realm that kno,,"'S nO hunger or thirst, no scorching heat. "Fo. the lamb in the midst of the throne will he thei. shepherd, and he will guide them to springs of living water; and God will ",ipe away evel)' tear from their eyes" (7:17). "The.e ,hall vo more be anything accursed, bUl the throne of God and of the Lamb shall be in it, and his ,e",ants shall worship him; they shall see his face, and bis name shall be on their foreheads. And night shall be no more; the)' need vo light of lamp or sun, lor the Lord God will be their light, and they shall reign for ever and ever" (22:3-5). Many of the early fathers described Iheir impres· sions of heaven and the beatific vision: Clement of Rome (Epislola I ad Conn/hlos, PG I, col. 2IS); Athenagoras of Athens ("Supplication for the Christians" 31, 1970); lrenaeus (Advusus om"es hae· re.ses, 1857, 1.10.1 and 4.20.5), The following "". cerpt from Saint Augustine deserves quotation in Ihis respect: How great ",ill be that happiness ... where there will be leisure for the praises of God, who shall be all in all! ... There the reward of virtue shall be God Himself, the Author of virtue: and He promised Himself, than whom the... cav be nothing bener or greater.... For thus tOO is that to be rightly understood which the Apostle sa)'S, "That God may be all in all." He Himself will be the end of our desires. He ,hall be seen without end. He shall he loved withoul surfeit. He shall be pmised without weariness, . _There we shall resl and we shall behold, we shall behold and we shalllo\' lbe 6eld of church counrg, 1855-1874). TlIii wor\ ,,'as conlinued by CanJinal J. A. G. Her.enrblher. who publi~h~d Volum~s 8 and 9 (1887-189Q). The final work w&:ll Iran~laled inlO English by W. R. Clark &:II A. Hislory 0/ Ihe Cowncils of/he Church from Ihe Odginai Orx;um,UlS (5 ..015., Edinbur,h, 1883-1896). It was lrallslale
HENEIN MAKARIOUS, SU

MaUrus l:Iufta}·n.

HENGSTENBERG, WILHELM (1885-1963). profe$.sor of Ea,nern Chriatianity at the Un;nrsity of Munich. He lau&I>t the Ianl"a&cs of Eas'em Cb..ulianily. ir>clud!lI& Copcic. Among his pupils "'..,..., J. Asshlf: and A. BOltI;,. His doctonJ lhcsas. "Koptioche trmmden unci Brid'e"' (\Jnl..eniry of Munich, 1921)...-as not pub.li~. but M did publisIt i,"poNnt a"ides about mona>tic;s.... in EcYP1. notably "I'acbomiana. mit cine.... ....nhallJ tiber die Ulurtie 'IOn .... lexandlitn.. (in 8.ilTlige wy Guc"icht. des christlic"'" A;/",rll",$ II"d du !ry,anti"isch." LiIUal"y,' FUlrab. Alberr E.hrhard, Bonn and Leip:zig. 1922. pp. 228-52) and "Bcmcrkungm mr Emwid,lung)geo'aI"ICe of this bi.h aIld pr;aisc of God, In. Savior Jesw Christ, and the VlrJi-n T1l~ will .nable Ille entmia of tile empire 10 be desu'oy«land the fruils oflhe tanh 10 be brou&ht hmh abundantly_ The .mpcrw lO" on 10 Male lhal he has received many beanfdt pelilions from "archimandriles. htr· mhs and other holy men" 10 knit the churches togelht, one. more in unity. Scuu"" of diS3jrIoI:l me Syrian ChTflnicon 9. 6; and Ubenrus BretNuW... 9). Tbtse d_nle~ 1>«_ kllown as ACEl'tl.ot.Ol (.. the hadless'1. having rejected the empet'Ol' and palrian:h of AJeuJldria as their hado.. Pete.- III Mongus. however. and Pder 01 Iberia. the do¥en 01 ascetics. acc~ the Hen(llicon. 'fht documenl ...... abo acCoepltd gcnenlly. !hough "'M degtecs of rcl\le· tanc~. Ihroughoul lite 1\J1;I. nOi IeasI by lhe anti· C~lcedonian .-lriarch -er•.lhe Soil.....'ion..,.. different. Pope Leo had br;mded all who rejec,ed his Tonie as ''Eulychiaos'' tUllers 111 and 112. ",rilten In 453). and his wie.." ...e .... accepted by his SU
Allaner. B. Patrology. Eng. lrans. H. Graef. London. 1958. Bardenhewer, O. Geschichle der altkirchliche" Lile· Talur. 3 vols. Freiburg. Germany, 1902-1912, Duchesne. L Early Hislmy of Ihe C~rislian Ch~rc~, Val. I, pp. 3411f. Lundn, 1909, Quasten, J. Palrology, 3 ,·ols. Ulrecht and Antwerp. 1975. AlII S. ATtY.'.

HERACLAS, SAINT, thirteenlh palriarch oflhe See of Saint Mark (231-247) (feast day. 8 Ki)'ahk). He sludied theology al the CATECHE:JlCAL SCHOOL OF M.EXANDRIA under ORIGEN. who seleeted him as his assistam to teach beginning students (Eusebius His· lori" eccle.iaslicQ 6. 15). When Origen had difficul· ties with the authorities. Herod.. succeeded him as head of the s-chool; he taught the advanced dasses.

HERACLEON, GnO!ltic teacher in Alexandria about 170-180. who had great inAuence on Saint CLEMENT Of ALEXANDRIA and ORIGEN. Clement de· scribed him as "the most esteemed {d"k;matotos]"" disciple of VAl.ENTINUS (Clemenl SlTOmaleis 4. 9. 71.

,

).

Heradeon is the first known commentatoc on the

1220

HERACLEOPOLlS MAGNA

N"", Tt:Stam"m after BAStUDES, and fragments of his commentaries on Luke and, in panicular, John have survived. He seems to ha,'e made a large con· llibUlion to ORlCEN'S great Comm~,,'ary 0" Joh" lstaned c. 227), which sought to explain th.. Founh Gospel within the framework of orthodox teaching. He",cleon believed that there was significance in every .ingle word in the Gospels. The Gospels, especially the Founh Gospel, were the "","",ge of the Oivine Logos, proper undt:rstanding of which provided the means of spiritual ""ivation to the believer. Thus, the ime'l'reter must look at every "'ord and understand why that, aud not some other, expre,;.sion had been used. In the fragment of his comm"ntary on Luk" 12,B ("Whosoover conf".s,," in me bared the ground for those of the Christian Platonists of Alex' andria. They also saw th" Word speaking through scripture and therefore r,ld der EFliJsung '" der Legende "nd im Kult der fruh ... kOpli$chen Kirche, p_ 103. Mun.ter, 1972Coquin, R.-C. "Le Synaxaire des Coptes. Un Nouveau temoin de la recension de Haute·Eg)pte." Analecr" Bolla"dla~a 96 (1978):351-65. Rossi, F. I Paplri COpl' del Museo Egizio di Ton'Flo. 2 vols. Tunn, 1887-1892. Trw ORLINm

HERAISCUS, an Alexandrian Neoplatonic philosopher of the late fifth cenlu!), and a pagan priest. He came from an Egyplian family that owned an ancest,."l estate at Phenebythis in the nome Panopolis. Three primary sources mention him: Oamascius' Life of Isidore. composed in the early sixth centu!)'. olfers fragmentary infonnatioll about Her· aiseus' role as a pagan religious figure; the Syriac Life of Severos, written by Zachariah of Mit}'lene, numbers him as one of six NeoplalonistS connected with an outbreak of religious violence near Alexan' dria in 485: a papyrus letter composed in Greek by Flavius 1l0lUlPOllON and found at Kom lshqll.w has been lranslated and studied by J. Maspero (1914). who demonstrated thaI Herai..,us. although not named in the leller, was both the uncle and the

1222

HERESY

blhn-in·law of HOI3pollon and the bl'OlheT of AStU'.PlAOES. lwo liomous profesM>l"S .. lhe Alexan-

drian Muwon. What Inleresled Dan.....c.... abou. HeraiiCllS was. that he. &lonk ""ith his older brolhe.- Asclepiades. was usinS native J't'1;p:.us conctpl$ 10 addJ't'IlI phil060pbk:al issI.Ies. In his. commentary (),., Fim Pmociplu (ed. Ruelle, chap. 1l5), Damasclus cbimed lhat !hey uuths hiddnl in EcYJxian myths, _h as the tradition that Unknown DaItne:sa .... !he bqinnins of all creation_ In an exe~ka1traa eompoced by Heniscus and to J>roc..... head of the Athenilut philosophical school. lhe brolhets' ........ well' round 10 diW!rse conceminSlhe ....\uJ't' of the inielligible cO$Dl()$. conOkl of opinion pl'Ompled Damasc:ius 10 remark .hal ~n E,yptians mspuled ov.... concepts and 10 acknowledce a .Ii,. linelion betw«n Coptic and Greek philosophers. A few fn,sments From the life of bJdore allude to HeralllCus' prieslly actiyity. He spent much of his time In lemples tending to the paternal cult in £cpt and elsewhere, By .imple observation, while approaching a sac..w image. he W"li pJd to Mnse whether It was diyinely animated. for he would eJl· perience a leaping senption in his 50ul as If pos. sessed by a god. At Heraiscu..· death. his br'Olher Aiclepiades lended In the funeral rit"" and pre· pared to hand """,r In the prinu the CUSlOmary fianerar)' objects. which includcd the bandages of Osiris in "'hich the body was 10 be wrapped, II Is nOlewonhy lhat HeraiKus' rclic:ious bchaviOO' COn· forms 10 the principles of Iheu.., • explained by the Iounh-eenlury Syrian NeopWonist lamblich.. in his It'arl On I1te Etfl>til.n A4yslvic.J.

""."xl

Krl'

kaqi. W. "The Fifth Ceniliry Twili&l" of Byzanline Paganism." Cumi.... el Med'''e»c ~ au chrislianismc (V'-vlr sOkles)." B..llni-rt de rJulitul ,....... is 4'~ ariD""le 51 (1952):63-78. Zlntzen, C. ~MJSlik unci Ma:gic ill der neupIaIonischell l'triIo$opMe." Rh Demetrius and subsequent 10 thai time. 8f'I'I'Cd that the ne-.iyan"'Cd CathoIk faith ,"'U i~1f Mretkal. and chaq;n and countercbargcs of heresy continued for centuries. E....n beiore the time of Deolnftr'ius, there "<ere some who l.ye become known as Mll'6cs and founders of herecical n'lQYCnlents.- So>clt designa· tions are mcanin&ful primarily for rltose wlto Wf:rf: per«i~ as having establithed belie& or practices not accqlWsle to olhers da:mlng IC>1Idersbip in the Christian chlln:hc'I'. While most so-called heretics of carly f.cyplian Christianily are a1so included under Ihe generic lenn "enOSlic:' there is Iilde juslifit:a· tion for considerinllhem to be anything olher lhan diotinci and dispante ~uba:roups within the larger Christian community. Some of the more famous early heretic.. associated with Chrisllan Egypt were Basilidcs, CARI'OC"'TES, CERIN1ll1JS, and VALENTINUS. Herelical groups with no specifically Idenlified founder included the Ophltes and the Sethians. among other'i.

HERMES TRISMEGISTUS

1223

BIBUOGRAPUl'

BIBUOGRAPUl'

Grigg$, C. W. Early Egyptian Christiani/)'. Brill, 1989. Lampe, G, W. H, A Patristic Gruk Laico". Oxford, 19M. Schlier, H...A.'ptojlD..... In Th~o;,'gicai Dictionary of Ihe New TeS/arnent, ed. G, Kine!, Vo1. I, pp, 18085. Grand Rapids, Mich. 1964.

Ahaner, 6., and A. Stuiber. Patrol/ogie, 8th ed., pp. 55-58. Freiburg, Basel. and Vienna, 1978. Joly, R. Hermas. Le Pas/our, 2nd cd. Sources chretiennes 53, Paris, 1968. lefort, L·T. L,e, Pores aposlOliquu en Copu. CSCQ 135, 136, Scriplor~ Cop/ici 17, 18. Louvain, 1952. Lucchesi, E. "Complements aux peres aposlOliques en Copte." Anaiec/a BoUandia"a 99 (1981):395-

C. WilfRED GRIGGS

HERMAS, ..,cond-century Roman author of The Sh~pherd,

an apo Hermes Trismegisws, 4 vols. Repr. BosT,i>n, 19S5. C. WJlI'!<E[) GRIGGS

HERMIT. Su AnchOrite. HERMITAGE, tlte lodging or dwt'lling house of a hennit, "one li~ing in the desert," or anchorite, "one living far removed." They were probably at first only single-roomed Ituts !hat wt're built, ac·

cording 10 geographic;>l circumstances, of 'lOne, wood, or bricks; but at an early time they had al· ready developed into houses with se>'eral rooms. Early descriptions are those of Pallad;u.~ (HislOria Lauslac" 8. hennitage of Amun; IS, of Macarius of Ale""ndria; 35, of John of Lycopolis), and the Hisroria monacltornm (20.\1. hermitage of Ammonius), Many anchorites settled in tombs (Hisroria Lausiaca 5, 45.49) Or caves in abandoned quarries. In the neighborhood of bna, fut1hennore, some monks dug subterranean ca~es for themselves, If several h~rmitages became linked together in a loose association, with due regard for more Or less interven_ ing space between them. we speak of a lau",. fa· mous lauras a", those of SCETI' (today Wadi al· Naltiin), NITRJA, KUllA. and ENATON. Other lauras hav~ been identified at ABU MINA. in KO'y NAMRU[). and on Sinai. in the neighborhood of Saint Catherine's monastery (see M[)UNT SlNAt Mo""-STERY [)F SAJNT CATHeRJ!'E).

The oldest hennitages so far, belonging to the }",ginning of the fifth century, we", excavated in the KeTlia. These are brid buildings half sunk in the ground and containing "'>"'ntl small rooms, but they do not yet allow us 10 recognize any definite system in tlte arrangement of the individual rooms. Only in the course of the sixtlt century does a cer· tain regularity in the form of the ground plan hegin to pre>"il. The buildings developed into large ",c· !angular courtyards witlt Ii>'ing quat1ers usually ac· commodated in the nortltwest comer. These quar· ters were in eacb case intended for two bermits. an old father and hi, disciple, and contained a sleeping room with cupboard rooms for each, as well as a common devotional room for both, or oraIDrium. Tltis oralory was equipped witlt a benclt in front of the west wall and a prayer niche ,et into th~ east ""all. To the east in front of this group of rooms, on a somewhat wider basis. there was a kitchen with a slOreroom and also a visiting room. Finally, there are in the courtyard a small garden, a washing place. and a toilet. With increased necd for space owing to the arrival of more monks, or even juS! occasional visitoTS, fut1lter rooms were added, Some of these hermitages grew into stately build· ings, several of which e~en possessed churches of their own. Vel)' similar comple~es, although divergem in their detailed arrangemem, ltave been e~cavated in Kom Namnld (not1hwest of Sam..ltlt), The main building in each case consist< of a wide room fur· nished with niches, 10 which are attached two smaller rooms as well as a staircase on the east

HERPAESE AND JUUANUS, SAINTS

sI,k uuer a courtyanl was added on the south side. whh ~raJ sinlle room!! an;mged on the aide Iy;nl oppo$ile. hermilagc:o of Seclis may have had a differenl aJlpcararlCC. bu! these have not so fou- been invntipled. from the rubbish heaps Uw can he 1oeCC\. they WffC built of quarried stone instead 01 bricks. and had flat root. of wood. Sub&u.ntially "."plu an: the bcnnita,aes that have beftI i6mlificd in the lauD ill the call of AbQ Mlfll. ThC)' h;oyc fWO ronna, of "'hich the Ia,..er m:.nl room se...-cd as a noccption room and workroom. ..nile lhe smaller back room " . for &Jeepinl and for prayer. In 5CYenol cases the laner room was di.ide
t'ETU~'oIfoI

M.>uaiCE MARTIS. SJ_

HERMONTHIS_ S •• Annanl. HERMITAGES, mEBAN. Many Christian sila on the Icft bank of the Nil. ~icc Lwonastery). ...."hac ".., know of these hcnaitalles

"'-

HERMOPOLIS MAGNA. Se.

A$hmolllllyt1. a1-.

HERMOPOUS PARVA. Sec Daminhllr.

In the Valley of the Kinp. wv..... ulebralC'd wmbs p ~ veWl"S of their ottI.IJ>"lion by hef' milS. We may cite the tOmbs of ~ IV, lhat clcstined for Ramsa III. ~ also thai of Ramscs Vl. They an: $Ummarily de.en~ b,I O. McinardllS (hi cd.. 1%5. p. 315; 2nd «1... 1m. p. 429). SeYeraI tolO\b$ s,;1..... ed it SHAY~ ·...an .u.QI..IRltA1l .. ill puse....., trues of Christian occupllilon, 11Ie tombs were ~lIed up, and Creek ()op is crediled wilh the revision no( 0«1)' of lhe Stpluat:inl bu' aloo of the N~ Tes,tame:nt or al Ie_ ,he four Gospels In cin:ulation in EcYJ>t- This rettnslon Is memlonoed by Jerome as the work of Hesyon of Ihe Bibl,. The Dec,et"", GeldS....n..'" (c. .... D_ 500, described Ihe "'"OTk of H""ychi", as "'apoc')l'hal."' Modem eri,i· cisrn 01 'he laoors of H",,)'~hius, however, appears 10 be le>5 severe. As a ehur~hman, "esy~hlus pankipaled in 'he condemnalion of Ihe MHUTlAr< SCHISM, Aboul 296 he. Phil.,., Theo/orie, 2nd ed.• pp. 212-1". Freibu!'i. Gn'many. 1901. Keo)'Od. F. A. Ht~-''''s a..J lire Text 0; me New

Tut.....nl. Paris. 19-tO. -,,-: Our Bibl. ""d ,-'t .4""':'''1 MSS, rn. ed. A. W. Adams. New York, 1958. Qu:asl:en, J. Pa!rOloD. Vol. 2, p. I Ill. lh.-echl, Brus· scls. and Wesuninslu. Md .. 1950. Vogels. H. J. Ho"dbuc/' ur ne"Iean he did: The foundation, how· ever, of all study of the Bibl~ was the establishment of an accurate lext. Fairly early in 'his career (c. nO) Origen was confmmed' with tM fact that Jews disputed whether some Christian proof texts were to be found in scripture, while Christians accused the Jews of removing embarrassing lexlS from ."ripIUre. It was not, however, until his long exile in C~esa­ rea (232-254) that Origen had the opponunity to undenake his major work of textual criticism, EllSEa,uS (Hi,rori~ ecclesiaslica 6, 16) tell, us that "he

1227

even made a thorough study of the Hebrew language," an exaggeration; but with the help of a Jewish teacher he learned enough Hebrew to be able to compare the various Jewish and Jewish· Chri.tian "er,;ions of the Old Testament that were eXiant in the third century. Jerome (De vin, iIIus/ribus 54) adds that knowledge of Hebrew was "contrary to 'he spirit of his period and his race:' an interesting sidelight on how Greeks and Jews remainedcd with a modcsl budget by lhe COM.IoIU';ITY «M.l«;tL on 21 January 19S4.

th.. hmilule was

up«ted 10 become ;m imponant faclOr in 1M mi· val of Copt:ic slUdies in E«;ypl. lu restricted mnns IWTe supplemenled by meager donalions from pli. ...te. indiridual soun:e:s, which enabled lu initial admin;w;.tion 10 bunch _ $Iud)' pr'OIram In Cop(0101)'. This prognm _ facilitated by the volun· leer services of its pn:.idenl. ~ S. Atiya. _r>d two vice-presidents. lolUItM> liMtt and SIoMt GASItA. wOO in tum recruited volunleers among nOled !!Cholars and specialis15 to serve as a leachinl body and 10 conslitute lh. Institute Council. The idel of lhe In51ilule was universall}' acclaimed. and a number of eminenl profe5S0l"$ al the uni\'erslllCll of Oxford, Uverpool. Michigan. Princeton, and Hartford, among othen, 3tCcepted hononry fellowship$ in lhe new foundallon. The Initial sections of 1M i_ilute included Ihft>l· 01Y, Copt:ic language and lileralure, Copic history. _rchaeolocY. sopher. Tltn:~ yea~ Ialcr, Pambo learns Ihrough l"e\'e1alion lhal Hilaria Is • WOman and asks her not 10 .-eveal herself. in order to avoid any ..,andaL Nine years laler, still being beardl~••, she becom~. known as Hllanon, lhe eunuch, A demon enters her youn&: siSler, who is al Con· stantinople. The emperor Zeno, nol knowing whal 10 do, leaves the m.ner 10 Ihe monks of Sectis. As"

HILARIA, SAINT

consequence, Theopiste is brought before Saint Pambo. To everyone's astonishment, the eunuch Hilarion'. reaction i. e~treme; she drenches the ground "ith a flood of tears. Touched by such com· passion. Pambo entlUSts the afllicted young woman to Hilarion. For a week th" laner prays~consoling and finally curing ""r young sister. who d""s not recognize her. Once cured. Theopiste r"ceh.,,; the sacraments and returns to her father in the palace. Sh" t"lIs th" emp"ror that, to comfort her. Hilario" the monk kissed her on the mouth and slept in the same bed with her. Shocked, the emp"ror Zeno summonS the healing monk to come to him on the prete~t that there is another cure to be done at Constantinople itself. Taking Hilarion aside. z"no discloses thaI his mind is troubled. To avoid any scandal. Hilarion unveils herself to the emperor alone. provided he lets her go back in p"ace to her monastery. For an hour the emperor Zeno remain. slUp"fied. Only the empre$S and th" younger sister are infonned. The recogni· tion results in tender tears. Hilaria again become. th" eunuch Hilarion in the monastery of Seetis, and twelve years later .he dies. Pambo then writes the life of the saint, who is burieIS 132', fols. 19-21; a leaf of the sam. manuscript from the Museum of Antiqui. ties at leiden; an isolated leaf from Paris MS 78. fo!. 39; and finally a papyros fragment from the British Museum. Only the text for 848 is complete. 11 Greek original is not probable; moreover, lhe legend does not exist in Greek.

1232

HlLAR10N, SAINT

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Drescher, J. Th,u Copli a

e.........""".

bad t='! find at leut a number of .maller

...

...,wivel,.

HIPPOLYTUS building~

of the same kind in Ihe neighborllood. but Ihi. is not the 1235

(Aegyptiaca 1883) and was based on a .ingle manu· script (Btitish Museum Or, 1320) of A,M, 722!A.D. 1006. A more recenl edition by W. Till and Johan· nes ~ipoldt (1954) makes a few correClions. This Sahidic version omits the prayers for Ihe ordina· tions and the anaphora, which are presel'>'ed in the latin "ersion. The Arabie "ersion is based on a complete Sahidie text, the oldest text possibly of ~.M. 1011!~.n. 1295, It is based on Valican Arabic 149. There is also a critical edition by A. Petier (1912). The Ethiopic version, a lran~lation from the Arabic, " based on British Museum Oriental 793. A critical edition by H. Duensing (1946) is based On Vatican Borgia Aethiopic 2 (fiheemh century) and seven other manuscripts, and has a good critical apparalus. II conlains more variants Ihan Dix (1937) was able to use. Besides lhe Latin version. translated from the Greek, we have pans preserved in Sytiac (Testamentum DominO and parts of the Greek original in the AposlOUc Constitutions. Book VlII and its epilome (ed. Funk, 1891), as well as a number of scatlere
1236

HIPPOlYTUS, CANONS OF

osroUc Co"sJitwkms vm (oroinations of a bishop). It contains five chapters, of which tbe title "Consti. tutions of the Holy Apostles Through Hippol)1u, Concerning Ordinations" belongs to Chapter 2, Some scholars have extended the title to the whole of the Epitome. The Epi/ome is of some value for the reconstruction of Hippolytus' Apostolic Trodi· tions and it is the only source of the Greek text of two paMages. BIBLIOGRAPHY Acheli•• H. Die ~lleSI"n QueUen des oriullalischen KirchenrechMs, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1904. Bolte. B. La Tradi/ion apasto/iq"e de saint Hip· polyte. Essai d. recom/i/U/ion. Liturgiewissen"",haftliche Quellen und Forschungen 39. Mun· ster. 1963. Coquin, Dom M. CO"Siitwio"s Through Hippo/yt"s. A new edition. Dix. G. Th" Treatise of rhe Apostolk Tradllion of Sr. Hippolyws of Rome_ New York. 1937. With English translation. Reissued with additional materi· ai, corrections, and preface b)' H. Chadwick. Lon· don, 1968. Duensing, H. Du "e,hiopisch. Texl du Kirchenord71U"8 des Hippolyt. GOningen, 1946, Funk. F. X, "Vas achte Buch der Apostolischen Konstitutionen in der koptischen Uberlieferung," In his Kirchengeschichrliche Abha"dlwwen utld Umersuch""g,,,. VoL 3. pp. 362-81. Paderbom, 1891-1907. Haneberg, Bishop D. B. von, Canmus S. Hippolyli arabice e codibus Romanis. Munich. 1870. First published version. Hanssens, J. M. La Lirurgie d'Hippolyle, Oriens Christlanus Analecta 155. Rome. 1959. Homer. G. The Statules of the Apostlts. London, 1904. The Arabic version. Lagarde. P. A. de. Aegypliaca. GOllingen. 1883. perier. A. Les 127 canon. des apiJlres. PO 8. 4, Paris, 1912. A critical edition. Riedel, W. Die Kirchetllffhtquelletl des Patriarchals A/exandrien. pp. 200-230. Leip7.ig, 19OO. A better edition than von Haneberg. Tidner, E. Didascalitl" 'apostolorum canon""" ec· c1esjasticorum Iradiljimis apostolwae versionl, Il1li"ao. Texte und Untersuchungen 75, Berlin. 1963. Till, W.. and J. Leipold!. HyppolyluS. Antipope, co. 170-235 or 6. Berlin, 1954. ERIC

SEGELBERG

HIPPOLYTVS, CANONS OF. See Hippolytus.

Canons of

HISAB DOBIA. See Account. and Accounting, Histol)" of Coptic,

J:lISBAH, or il)ljslib, the "promotion of good and the forbidding of evil'· as one of the principal religious dutif;"$ of evel)" Muslim and as tbe dut)' of a specially appointed person in each town, panicular· ly in regard to the supervision of markets, anisans, and moral behavior in public. This person, called the mu~tMjb. was concerned with such mallel> as fraud in the manufacture of goods and swindling in their ""Ie. In that r"speel he supervised the conduct of both Muslims and the AHL AL-DHtMMAH ("People of the Covenant"), or Dhimmis. His supervision had two aspects. one religious, one legislative. Th" rdigious aspect was the injunction on all Muslims to "promote good and forbid evil:' There is a strong historical eonnection between this formula and Chrislianit), in Islamic tradition, for Christ, according to Islam, was the first person to enforce "what is legally rigbt and prevent illegality,"' which he did on Palm Sunday, The legislative ...peel is that the coveted status of Dhimmi was authori<ed only by th" imam or his representative and was goanted only to those nonMuslims who had a religion re,'ealed in scripture. that is, Jews. Copts and other Christians, and Magi· ans. Polytheists. idolalors. apostates. and atheists were not emilled to .uch statuS and therefore had no stable social mnk in D~r a/·ls/am (the "Land of Islam") unless they convened to Islam. In addition to supervi,ing commerce. the mul)raslb also saw that the Copts and other Dhimmis obser.ed the religious obligations of their status as laid down b)' 'Umar ibn al·Khal!ab in thc seventh centul)'. These obligations included payment of the JlZYAH (poll tax), wearing a girdle around the waist, wearing a cross around the neck, and stricti)' adhering 10 discriminatory rule, in dealing with Muslims-rules meant 10 humiliate the Dhirnmi and eult the Muslim. Despite the fact that the terms l)/sbah, i~lisflb. and mU~lasib rarely appeared in Coptic books-panicu· lady the HiSlOry of the Palriarchs-in the Middle Ages. the)' reveal the object of the call to Islam in a different mode, This object is made clear in tbe J,isbah register. established b)' the q~4i ("supreme judge") al.F~il in the twelfth century, as shown i" the following quotation: "Know the Copts and Jews, the transgressors. by their discriminating dress. by their girdle, this is proof enougb nf the

HISTORIA MONACHORUM IN AEGYPTO

glol')' of Islam and the humility of the transgresso,". It is a p",paratol')' Slllge for th~m to pro'iew. conlinne.d by the COmpat"3Uff .Iudy of lhe two te:J.1$ made by ..... J. Feslu~re (1955), is no.... generally ao;eepK Rufin.., aceordi"ll to his habits, I....nsbled ralher freely, 5Qm01imq adding In the Grttk le:IU, which he peT' haps kn...... in a form s1igh.1y differenl from Ihe One we know. So.omen', a.senion (HillOria ~ecl~liol/ic. O. 29) lhal the author WItS "l1mOlhy, bishop of Alexandria.'" who died ""me len years before lhe joum~y look pl""c. cann"l be mainlained, Buder's conjec· lUre (1898. pp. 276-77). slill accepled In SOme handbooks, Ihal the aUlhor "'all One TimOlhy, deacOn of Aleundria in 412, whom Sozomen cont1u~d Wilh lhe bishop of the ... me name. also remains \lnconnmw:d. In lhe prolo,;ue lbe aUlhor "'Y' he Wrole al Ihe request of the members of "Ihe pious fraternity established on Ihe M<MInl of OIi.....:' an expr~ion thai eenainly indica!.,. Ih~ monaslic community of Rufinus and Meb.nia. The lno,'d~T", Woo are ~'" by ""lUin ~es in lhe lUI 10 be of Latin speech, probably themsel>u belo. 10 llUs commUJIity. and arnona: lhem the .ulhor. 11>ey ~m to ........ g""e direcll} by the Nile to As)i'lL n.. fi~ dU'J"ler ...,laIes thtir visil to J(lIf.'ol Of !.looP· IlU5.. but.hry cIo l'I(lt ..... l'1l 10 11.>."0' cone any bnhn-. TIwy ..... ited nurnenJUO monb in lhe Tbebaill nIabt,. lhose in Ihe rqion of Oayritynchus. Then they c:lIlM back dov." !he N~e as br as lite
1241

f'Cl'Wns are quoted: a cenain Yu!)ann! ibn Wahb ibn Yii!).anna ibn Ya!)y" ibn Biilus and a shaykh called 'Alam al-Mulk ibn al-I:la.jj Shams al-Riy;\sah. The editors appear to regard the former as a coauthor and Ihe latter as the compiler. A collation of this te,t with the Dayr al-Su')'~n manu.cript, done by Nablh Kamil D~wiid, howe.-er, has established that both texts are in fact identical, which implies that the life of Cyril ibn Laqlaq as e""rus Ibn al·Muqalb.~ JoumQI 01 Ihe A.....ricQ" Oril:nJ~ S«itt:1)' 99 (1979):49-57. G.,J. G. (ol./06"e de m."USCrfl' oroM< ~hf'iM"s ~",,-,erY
Patrn:.,.hes d·Aluondrie." 8ibliOlh..a Orl,"toli. 41 (1984):33(,-47. _ _. "L'RiSl,,;re de. Plltri.:r.rehe. d'A/oo"dri', re~", ...ion primili.,,,, et Vulgate," B"II.,,'.. de IQ SQciili .r"rrllio1t>gi. cop'e 27 (1985),1-29. ___ M"",lIiib Urn M"...,,1' ibn M,,/omg rllisror!ogroplI;e cop'e... Elude '''1' IQ co",po.irio" d" rHiSloi1'e de. P,,/riQrrlles d'A!oQ"dritt:. Lou •.,.in, 1989.

e'

r,,".

Johnson, D. W. COpl;" So..'CttS

of ,lie History of /Irtt:

PlIlri"rcl.. of AI....."driQ. Ph. D. diss.. TM Catholic: Uni'iffSily 01 A"""rica. Washinaton, D. C.• 1971. "Funha Fraj""""15 of a Coptic HiSlor)" of Ihe Ch...-.:h: Camboiri" delltl Chiaout 3 o'dock [in the afternoon) a huge cross appeared in the sky over Golgotha, reaching as far as the Mount of Olives. It was seen. not by oOe or lwo poople, but by all the inhabitants of the city, with Ihe utmost clarity. Rather Ihan fade away as we e~pected it would soon do, il continued 10 shine for many hours. in a most resplendent brightness, more brilliant than Ihe sun ilself., .. All Ihe city hurried 10 a man in awe and wonder, but also in joy to see this celestial sight. They Aocke the Nali"ity Church continued 10 come in the founeenth centu· ry, particularly duriog Christmas (Harvey, 1935, pp. 11-12). Writing in August 1335. Jacques de Verone panicipated in Ihe feasl held in memory of the Virgin's "isil 10 the ca"e three days before her as' cent to heaven. He des0"'" or Ihe Coptic monb ......0 "'enl to lhe Holy ~nd .tayed 10 worship in Ihe dese". Among those woo "''''m \here II Ihe begin· nina of Ihe I_n,ieu. cenillry _.., ShinUdah al. An\unl .nd th.. archpriest Pllllubbul al·M~rI". The CoplS ha~ a monasl.. ry by lhe Jordan called .ft..r John Ih.. Bap,ist_ H...., Anba TheophilOll. arch. bishop of Ih.. see 01 Jerusalem from 1935 to 1945. laid Ihe roundalion stone of th.. Chun:h of Saini John Ihe Baplis'. bUI Ihi, church is Mill not com· pleted. An~ Yacoboni on the feasl of Baramun and Epiphan)' .. lbe IDOnastery_ Usualb" 011 0C'CUi0n • big procession tak.... plac... ,),tu, the ckrp and deacOl'i preceded by Boy Scouts' and Girl Sc:OOI5 pla)inc lnst"u"enlt. Tbe)' proceed from the monwery 10 th.. ri.er .nd th..re conduCl pr,l)U'S befou l"C'1umins to the monaslery. Sin~ ,he "'.... of June 1967. t"is has been. mili· tary ana and the monks have been !oo ",as ,h.. Ii", chy In lhe Holy ~nd after J..rusal.. m, [t ",as

he... thai Chrisl made the blind see and lha, H ....... a CUC'Sl in Ihuld see Him again, "and your Marts will rejoice, and nO One will take )'our joy from you" (In. 16:22). It is a day of joy not only for the living but also for the dead who died in Christ (Is. 56:1-4; U:. 4:18-21; Pl. 3:19), for on Holy Saturday Christ', spirit descend· ed into HADES, the re.ting place of the souls of the dead. A. Good Friday draws to a dose, the church pre· pares to celebrate the ri,inS of the Sa.,wr from the dead, by abandoning the emblems of mourning pul up throughout Holy Week, particularly on Good Friday.

Events or the Day According to Mallhew 27:62-66, the chiefpriesls and the Pharise"" went to Pilate and told him that ....hile Jesus was still ali"e, H~ said that He would be noised from the dead after three days. Th"Y asked Pilate 10 give orders for tbe gnove to be made secure until the third day, lest the disciples steal Christ's body and toll the people that He had been raised from th. dead, "and the last deception would be worse than the firs!." Pilate granted Ihem tbeir t"ia the them portion of the n)1uncIa. AI the same time, Other member of the Coptic community rccci"cs the light from !he IOtIthem 0>..1 wi ... dow of the aedicula and proceeds via the same: rOttte to the Coptic chapel, where the c....dle lartlJ'l' arc lit from the Holy Ught and the congregation lighl their own candlel. The Coptic proce..lon stam immediately. making Ihr.., circultl around the rotunda, followed by tho Syrian Orthodo., all chanti"i, At Ihe third circuit, they stop opposite the Holy Sepulchcr. where a Coptic pries.! recitn the Intercession of Ihe Gospel. Then Ih. Coptic metropolitan reads tho Iection from Ihe Go5pd in Coptic Inside the Holy Sepul· cher and is followed by " deacon who reads it in Arabic at Ihe mtl'll"'. 10 lhe $epulchct'. n.e pmcession then moves to"..ard the Coptic chapelI'I the Chu.-eh of the Rcsurt'Klion. Here again a priCSl: .-cads the InlCreCMion, and the meinl,'d lin1 1250

HOLY SPIRIT, COPTIC DOCTRINE OF THE

!'IASI\I5 ~ fonh his doclrine on the divinily and

prol:ftSion of the Holy Spirit. He .o.rgued lhal the }Ioly Spirit mUSl ....ve the divine J\alu<e In order 10 divinil:C and sanaify human beinp. The church of Alcund" ..... fully nprnnIled al the l«ond «umenical council, CONSJ....' ffiI«lI'U I (3SI), and aliopt. ed Its oiIicial credal fonnub. concernl... the tk>Iy Sp;ril, which ttJday In a modified form reads: '"Truly ...., bel;ew, In the Holy Spirit and in the Lord, Ci.,.,r of lift. Who forthly procee
t~S7_

M. ''}a S~cnmtrll$ de j";n;ti.olion chr+-

licnne dam I'i&!iu coptIC. In u Pn>c"~ritrlt chritien 7 (1957):7-25, Harnmcrscl>midt, E. Die Uipriscllc GrecorioS. W Last scenecs of 1M liee of Chruc. wi!.h ~es snodually risinll In IOleem· nity 10 Maundy Thursday and Good friday. To enlno mof'l' fully inlO lhe pn>fItI" spirit 01 .... f· '-rin& and lleclf·rroonil>e.lion.!.hee norly Chrislians m· duncl S'lricl pclice is th~ld. II refen 10 OIrisl'S crucifu.ion II Go\gotho ou\$idee leJ"U5lllem. "So Inus also sullered ou'· Wde the gate in order to sanctify the peoplee 1hrt:JUgh his own blood. Therefore let us 10 forth to him (lall$ide !.he amp. be:arins abuse for him" (He!>. 13,12-13).1"'1;u in Old Te$lamenl ritual the sin olf~rings, Ihe blood of which was broughl within the veil 10 make explallon In the sancluary, were taken outside the camp and destroyed. so Christ suWere1", veil (10« I!I.lCKAAIST1C VEILS) is opuad O\..,r lhem. and t\rs IMer. how",,",. in the Daled Cnled Or Fourth Creed of Sinnium (22 May lS9l. ;1 had become a lest ...-ord (th.... SocnotCIIIS rating oY'er a definit.... thai -..Id Include the words '1ike in aD things,N refcrrin, to the 5001', rewioMhip 10 the Fatheo-. In January 360. the HomoealI fonnula "'as adopled by .he East •• a council hel!lUnlinopie. h ..-aj these councils !hat elicited Jerome's ""rdict, thIN '1'1Ic ..·hole wurid poaned 10 find i_If Arian" (Discu"" but cenain moments in its history .....nd out. lhe Gnolitici !IOmetimes UKd it 10 de5cribr sorne _I, "" "consuhotantial with the devil"': oaJGEN used it occasionally, bu. the IC'Iidrnce ,hat he applied il 10 the Son ill doubUul. Paul of Sarnosalll appllrently used it in defendin. himself against a charve ol heray beIween 264 and 263, al~ his ..... of the word is difficult to determine. " link before lhis, Dionysius, bishott 01 Rome, and DI(ltIYStus., bishop of "Juan. dria, came ,nlO an am>nble cont,."...e.-sy in which 1M former .-epr.-chcd the Iaue-r k>r no! accept in. Itomooou'os as :applied to the Son. The bUhop of A1e.laDdria finally accepted the tenn, lhou'" with ...." reluctance. 1be exac1 meaning of I r _........ in the Nicene Crred has been much debated. The theory was widely aocoepleaock and by loo& lhat tile main inftuence m.... ha.'e been dial of Ossius, bish· op of COrdoba, ...me ...as plftioden. olthe Council of >;0ClI0A and ,"i.ose "'eoIocic:al tradition, like lhal of winuaRy all Western theolocians of the time. stemmed from Tenullian. Tenullian had declared thai the Son was "of one ,ubstance" (.."itlJ WbSltlfl.....) or"of the same substanclt" (..iMsdtm wbs/l'/1/;· " ..) with Ihe Father, ."d a. first $igh. dlis seems to _Ie the problem. But Jludy of Ihe subjecl by C. Stead has seen reason 10 revi$e Ihis judllmenL In the lint place, Tenullian's consubstant~ity is in bCI '"'J dilferenl from lOunh.ce'llury conceptS of Ihe ..... rd. being ~d OIl a Stoic conc..ption of God as " substance. In lhe second place, it I!as been shown lhal the term was IJM'd in a much less pre· cise way Ih.n had been thought, and ;1 is a w<ml of Greek, nol of Ullin, ori&in. lu ,ery imprecision, """ordinglo E. SCh....artz, was iu value for Emperor CONSTANTINE I.... ho dominated Ihe council. Ot~rs have Il>oughl lhat Ihe chief reO$OTI for lis inclusion was Ihal in hi, Th"iei". ARllIS hd rejected it, and it would therefore sene as a specific poinl of doclrine "Ilainst ARIANISM. Sl>ortly after 12S the wr in relation to Saint Jeremiah of Saqqarll (Crum, 1913, p. 1604, n_ I; MU)'ocr, 1944. p. 181). Crum sees in the spelling BadoaMy;;s in the- SVllAXAltlON from Uppc-r Eg)"pf a corrup,ion ol Ambrosius, .nd eo>= in~ !be name of Epiphatlius. "'hkh 5C'ems quite g>-aII1ilOUS (1926, Vol. I, p. 216), Muyser (1944. p. 181) thinks that he i!5 !be ...,..., as ApR HOI' of Abr.ol.w. because the- .ta,.. ci commemoration indicaled on the one hand in 1M rc-c~nsic>n of the- $TPl.\XAItION of !be Copts from Upper f"«)'J'I (2l T\Ibah) and on lhe OIbc-or in the Cairo leaf published by E,-dyn-Whi~ ace the' same; but he' does nOl eq>Iain ....-10)· the 0.... is a companion of Aml>rc>Mus and not !be OIher. Aceortling 10 lhese 5OU~a Apo Hor wrore ro Saini J~~iah. lhe: one of Saqqara, and Wll$ !be companion of Ambrosius, ....-hoK name is of WcY· corn origin and r.on among EaYPtian proper names. H" S
HORAPOLLON, an inlellecltlal active during the late fifth cenTUry, He came from an Eg}ptian family who owned an ancesTral estaTe at PhenebyThis in the nome Panopolis. He was a leading Neoplatoni~ philosopher aud religious figure in Alexandria. Three primary sources pro,'ide infonnation about him: Damascius' Life af Is/dore, composed in the early sixth century, preselV~ a description of Horapollon', culluml en~ironment; the Syriac !-ife af Severns, written b)' Zachariah of Mitylene (also known as Zacharia Scholasticus), narraTes an out· break of religious .';olenee around Alexandria in 485 in which Horapollon was a k,y figure; The Third document is a papyrus letTer, composed in Greek by Horarollon and found aT Kom Ishqliw. which has been translated and studied by J. Mas!"'ro (i914). HrapoIIon came from a family of long-standing phiI()6Qphical tradition. He claimed in the Kom Ish· qaw letter both ThaI he inherited hi. profession

1256

HORAPOLLON

from his aneeslors and that his own father, """lIOJ'I· AI:>ES, who spent a lifetime teaching at the Museon, was his teacher. He called himsdf a "clarnsimus:' a nmk that would place him among the elite of late Roman society. Zachariah confirmed that Horapol· lon, whom he calls a grammarian, was known as an outstanding lucher who knew his profession reo markably well. But these vinues, he added, were offset by his admimlion for demons and magic. In the Life of Seve""s, HompoJlon appears as the most imponanl personality in a group of si~ Ale.andrian Neoplatonists: HorapoHon, Heraiscus, Asclepiades, AmmoniU$, AsciepiodolUS, and lsidores. They were affiliated with the paganism still secretly practiced in outlying communities such as Menouthis, Canpus, and Astu. Horapollon married his cousin in order to keep the ancestral estate at Phenebythis intact, Aamples from the monas· tery of B~wtr are panicularly notewonhy. One, on a sancmal)' walt in a chapel, illustrate. a pas.
Grillmeier, A. Chrisl in Chris/in" Tradition, trans. J. S. Bowden, chap. 5. london, 1964. Jouassard, G, "Un problem., d'anlhropologie el de chrnlOlogie che< saint Cytille d'Al"""ndrie." Recherches de sciences ,dig;e",.,. 43 (1955):361-19. Noms, R. A, Manhood and Christ: A Study of Ihe Ckriswlng)' 01 Theodore of Mopsuestia, Oxford, 1963. Richar
1262

HYPOSTATIC UNION

Bullard. R. A. ~ HypoSlIUi. uf 1M A",Aon1C The Coptic Tut witll Tr"tuI,,1ion "ltd Corn"'e,,'''/)', P.o.· trislixn.. TUle und Studien 10. &r1in. 1910. Bullard,. R. A.. and B. laylOR. '-n,., HYJ"Xltiis oi tIM: Archons."" In The N"K HfJlmlladi Libr'Ilry. ed. James M. Robinson, PI'- IS1~60. New York. 1971. fa/loft, f. T. 1M E"lhnmmum of Sabdotl!: J... E1_~nts ;" e-z>o:- C'eOStOc Scrip",,"s. pp. 65-16. Ga.den City, N.Y .• 1981. STvttEN E. ROIllSSOl
eyond all argument the complete unity of the Divine Word and \h~ Aesh In Christ. For Cyril Ih~ Word is the only HYI'OST"-SlS ("subst.onu"), a.nd il "a»umed Aesh" (J~n 1:14) wilh· OUI c~asinJ la be th. XI (XI.4.69.21-72..lH. "'Ih lhe missing con. elusion most likely al the bottom oi p;lge 12). A tilul..- SUft'"!$Cript, HYPSIPH[RONE). is given at 69.21 ••uland "'th confidence 01\ tIM: basi~ of the """ of this name .0.1 XU.b9.2l-24. 70.11-23, and 12.21; tIt~ tIKWe also p«ten1S i1sc:1f in the incipit as '"!he book laboul the thlnp) ..-hich ,,-ue seright-eyed one:' Unfonunalely, ~ause of Ihe deterioraled condi· lion of the 1 and rn"ts. His reign was rather turbulem; he also wrote a treatise of disputation between him and his ad,'e""'ries in an altempt to establish the Melchitc over the onhodo~ rule of the Coptic church, lt ""'" his chronicle, howe~er. thai brought him special attention. It. text was first edited with a Latin tran,lation by the famou, Engli'h Orientali,t Edward Pocockc in 1654. Since then, the authori'.ed Arabic te~t of his annals has been compiled from the a,'~ilabl. manu,cript, and edited by L. Cheikho, B. Carra de Vatu, ~nd H. Zayyat under a new lille, KilJb al-Tilrikh al-Maim£
wa.'.

1267

continued 10 occupy Ihis ecclesiastical ]XIsition until his dealh. He was a contem]XIrary of several popes and patria«"hs of the church including j<JHN VII (1262-1268, 1271-1293), THEODOSJUS II (12941300), JOHN VIll (1300-1320) and JOHN IX (13201327). All revered him for his profound theological kn"""ledge and piery. In the year 1321, another ""ave of Islamic perse· cutions swept Ihe Copts, The Muslim mob sought Ibn Kabar, who disappeared from sighl; il is said that Ihe Mamluk prince Rukn al·Din Bayba!> al· Man~uri, his old sponsor, e>tended hi. protection to the great scholar, keeping him hidden umil his dealh on 10 May 1324. We must a.,;ume that in lhe seclusion of Ihese lasl Ihree or four years of his life, he was able 10 edit and finali~e his monumental works; these may he classified in several calegories, The first and most importanl calegory is Iheological studie•. He produced Ih" mosl comprer.ensive -and still unsurpassed-encyclopedia of Coptic religi"Us knowledge in tv.'enty-four sections, .....ith numerous supplements, under the tille of Mish/ll] a/-Zulmah, Ii It/Ill] a/-Khidmah. Several manuscripts of Ihis work have been found in varied reposilories; Ihe mosl ancient is Ihe Valican manuscripI
1268

IBN KATIB QAY$AR

1324. He was probably Church in Old Cairo.

bu~

in the ;>l-Mu'allaqah

m.~

~iJ;l

NakhW>_ Kitllh T,rilJI .....J.dI...·jJ ok· /'tiUt d1.1si.,.d~ promOOled later 10 the secretaryshJp 01 "'Ilhe di.. ·.DU of the ~overn­ meel machinery durin, lhe lI!ilnS of bot.h Saladin (1l69-1192) and. ",.'~ (1193-1193) of Ihe An:u, bid dynasIy_ lb. third in the Ilne .... the rna" rellOWned o£ the bmily. AI·MAQIIIzt. th. fiftce:nth-ccntury Arab historian. quotes his full ""me 1.$ al-A$'ad Ibn Mu· hadhdhab ibn lakariyyfi ibn MId Sharaf ",1·Din AbU al-Makirim ibn Sa"ld ibn Abl sl·Mall~ ibn Mammat!. His fame was not bued merely on hil; lofty polilion in the administration of the country as head of all the diwo", but also on his literary accomplishmel\lI in Arabic and his productivity as a writer and u a poel ",110 left hit mark on that age. The source.

IBN QAYYIM AL-JAWZIYYAH

have recorded at least twenty_three worts under the name of al-As'l>ns het"'een the Dhimmis and the Muslims. He discusses the regulations binding the Dhimmis in their own financial affairs, the regulations relevanl to Iheir waqfs (religious property) and the waqfs endowed upon them by the Muslims, the laW$ of inheritance applying to the Dhimmis among themselves, and whether transmission by in· heritan AAItbar .1-Ni a to!cram and sympathctk: writer as wcll as a fairly "b.., .....ant one. and he has Icft a word picture of life in Nubia that i. ""'thout pal1lllel in ancient or medieval litera'ure, In addition to dcscribinglhe kingdom of Makouria, which hc observed al first hand, he also gives much Informarion about .he more """theriy kingdom of. ·AL....·A, This ,nformation was e\'idCflt!y pined at second ""nd, _inee Ibn Salim had no "fficial busin..... wi.h ·"Iwi. but i... almoo.! the only descrip'i\"C information poossascd about this littlt-known Chrisdan kingdom or lhe cent ...1Sudan. Other plOS$ljIU. alio based on hearsay infonnalion. deal with .hoe sources of the Ni'" and ",;th the BEJA DlIES. IIlBUOGaAPHY

Adams. W. Y. N..m•. Corridor 10 Afric., pp. 4ti1-61. Princcton. NJ.• 1977. Burckhardt. J. L r,-"wu in NIlbitJ. pp. 4')}-SlO. London. 1819. Trou~, G. "La '~ription de Is I'lubie' d·"l· lIs~i." Au,hi". WI9S4):276-88. Vantini. G. Cltristi"niry in me 51c:>l "xpatl$C of

'0

"'" Mtlhilh.

Ibn 5ibl". oompreh..ml..e work, AJ-JawiuJralt 111NIlfi.
Mot1.ki, H. Dimma "od igalil~, Die nic!l/m"siimi· sch... Minderhei/en A/lYp"", in der
and "Koptisch., 8ul:llcinbllnde ...1 AIYPlen" (ibid.. 49. 1928. pp. 86·90). BIBUOCltAnfY

lb._n. W. R.. and E. P. Uphill. Who W"J W/w in

£mroJoo. London, 1972. AzIZ S. ATlTA

lBTO•

.,.;:onlin. 10 S. Tinlln (198-4), the Arabic ~ of IDe el!y thal ~ known In G~k:t$ tJ-mc (Bout"'" and In Copck as IiOY"O or n(tyY'O (BoLIIO, Paulo). The city, ...hkh no Ionaer uists. was Ioa,M in W nonh_ put of 1M EcJpl:ian ~lta in ",io;u it DOW the
1276

ICONOGRAPHY

uccMingly complu. II jnvol~ the whol~ Byzantinc popul;lolion-empero", bishops. monb. Ihco!alian•• c.....n officialb. civil ~rv;lonl$- ... well ;as lhe popula~ Ihc ~a, chlu of Ihc Byzanline

Martin. E. J. A Hi.lOry of 1M .blr. blc that the main InllM:l'lccs wen: Imoemal to ~ lme Christia.nity. The position 01 .... empet'Of' WlI.S im~1 in 9yDntillm, ."d ;1 may be thai Leo III lI.SM>Cwed the military ~tsS of .... empl~ in the S thc: fourth cenll'Cr ..... God In CopIk churches. icons arc placed On lop of Or hunll on the iconost.aSis. Ihe wall thai !IC~""la lhe n,",: from ,he sancluary. They play an lmponam role during lhe ~rvlcc, «ped.11)' on futal days. Icons are gen.",.]ly pa.;nlcd on !bl pi«es of wood covered hy a 1aJ"T of lessa. Thol fits! icons ",en: painled in rilMr enca....lic (hoi wax) or cgg lempera. but late' tempera bl';Camm (726-787 and 8IS-843) in the Bynonline empire folk,.... ~~. As EJi:)1't M,d the Si""i penin,uia wen:: nol under the jurisdiction of the O}-;.an'ine emperor. they C$caped the d"v"$tating consequenc.... of this edin After the iconoclaslie period. a ...ie, '~'S1em of icon p"inting was inlToduced in lite llY'antine world: icons ,,'crt'

"0

1277

10 be pain,ed according 10 eenain ~t,lislic rules_ COUnl";'" oulSide the borden 01 the empire, like E&,>JlC. hrn.~r. mainta,ned .h",r freels, Icon painting in Egypt has to b" studied in rela,i"n with Le\'aoline paiming, Nowada}s icon p.inting is widely pra production of icon painting, Large quan· titie; uf cighteenth·cen'ul')' icons can be found in the churthes ,hroughout Egj.l't. The majority are signed by lbr:'ihim al·Nasikh and Yell",nna alArmanl al·Qud'l, and man)' paimers We['e inAu.need by their style. The figures depicled on lhe icuns aTe hea\-ily OUllined and ha\'e o\'al faces with large. almend·shaped eyes. Because of some difTe[" ences in st}'le and quality among the icons signed by these ''''0 paimers and bet We "., I" m.. s~" I.'icdu S..,soc.l:. Brirut. 1%9. Habib, R. TIl" ""cienl Copric Ch..rehc of C..iro: " Sh_ .... ~_"'. Cairo, 1961, MuloclCe 10 lhe west. The spelli"ll of the name has 10 some exlenl been modified. AI-Maqr1zT and abo Ibn Duqmaq wrile "11ft," which wilh ehe "I" recalb 1M spellinll of andem EtYPtian o. of Creek, while lhe modern name i. "Idfl,"

n;,,,,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

JULIUS LUDWIC

(1809-1842), ~rman scholar who published many worQ on EiYl't. His contribulion 10 Cop'k sludi.,. was the publication of the Pultuiu... Coprice, ad Codic"... Fidem R"u"...i1. mlio"is V"t1eI""'", ." Ps..lmos Apocryphos s..hidicl1 Dio.lu'.. ConscrlplOJ Pri· m....... Woidio Edi'... "d;«;,. (Berlin. IS37).

"c

'Ali Mubirak. Ki'4b 11.1 Khi!tl! 11.1 Tawfitliyyah a[.Ja· dldtlh. Cairo, 1886-1888. Orlandi. T. l/ doss;e. copre del marlire Pmte. Te.ti e Documenti pe, to SuKlio den'Amkhi!i 61. Milan, 1978. Sauneron, S. Vilks " li,e..du d'Egypte. (Firsl appea,ed in larae pan in 8,,11,,;.. de rI... f""'Cfis J',('chlologie om..,ok_, Cairn. 1974.

'i',,'

• IBUOC.... PHY

Ro;t-(;E01IQS

Bnopch, H_ F_ K. !lei" Leben .."d INi" Wond.,.,. p.•5. Berlin, 1894. Dawson, W. R., and E. P. Uphill. Wlto Wu Who in qyptoJocy. London, 1912. Karrlln"rer. W.• compo ,( Coptic B~. Ann .ltboe, Midi.. , 1950; repro New Yon. 1%9.

A21l S. AnYA

IDFA, cily in the Zlricl ofS"Idj. Calloed heb;n lhe pharaonic period. 'and then in Hellenjscic limes liOn 0' 1105, Idfi is. menlioned in llle Chrislian period only in lhe 5U"''''''''IY lha, the rece .... lon 01 lhe SYAAXAIllO/l of the Copts from Upper Egypt de,'OIe. 10 lhe martyr hermits rA/ll"~ uID tANEU II , Kiyahk. Pan. of lheir Ufe is preserved in Coplic, but nol lhe mention of Ihis smalllown, Afte, ludin, a wande,ini life in lhe Fan....m in Ihe valley of Qalam;;n, Ihey returned nea, 10 Idfii, in lhe dcsert of Adribah, where laler Shenule wlL< 10 found his famCoe. The fi"'l certain .etesw>on of Christianity in IdkQ CoIes seclions from the ldIeJ3.. finall)' he draws aliention '0 ....-ide""", in iT........"" of Lyons and Pofyarp of Smyrna rcprlijr1g Ignatius (111.36.

12-15). Amon, OIMr things. he' qUsed to the ·'Anuo· che"" .\larI,-rdo;.n·· or ,1/"","",,'" ColHrtm.....). The Grttk ori&i....l could hlo.......... me inlO e\~ence in Ihe fif,h cm'lI" (cr Banknhewoer. 1902. Vol. I. pp. 143-145), The app"r1
Qua:sI... n. J.

THEOFRIED BU'\IElSTU

IHNASIYYAU AL·MADINAH. Stt "'hn.is.

IKHSHIDIDS. Set Tulunids and rkhshids. COP15 Und .. ,he

Coplo·"'"bic illuminated manuscript. Par"hmen' Fanum. Tenth c"n,ul)'. ufl ~idc: End of th.. firs"ext of Ihc tnan~rdom of Elias. 1I,.. ltor unknown. Right .ide: Beginning of th... ~ond ,.... t of the mart~nlom and cnComiurll abou' the manH Eli... Writtcn b) Bishop S,ephanoo of Ahnby,,1t Co",,''',,, Coprie Mil'

''''m, Cairo.

ILLUMINATION, COPTIC

1283

si, careel}' more 'han ,I,lQ5Pou' addiliolrw;i ....ty, pnncl""lI~ on bil>lical and olher relia:ious works. Allor and fig".,.mc mOlifs inc.......ed and ",ere oflen combined ""ilh r...,tangular cal'louches (ornamen.al fl1lmes) u,uall~ fin..d with dccorali.,,, inlerlae,n8- ~ eanouches somelimL"!C we'e at ,h.. lOP of a pale and eanicd a litl.. or continued on on" or bulh stdes of a !>"lIe. ""melimes eor"l'lctel~ fnunin, ;1. They 11""" pfominen"" 10 either lhe leXl or a r.gurn\w.. 5Ccnc, Some· ,imes, ho"ner. 5Cenf/S WilhoUI any r,-ame "'ere in_ ...ned in1U Ihe teXl. "'hich filled lh" rCSt "f the page, An example is th.· Copto-At..bic Tem,,,.-anllclium in Ihe Na\ional Ubr.,.~, Paris, in regard 10 sc.-cn'y·fo". 80spd 5Ccnes QUI of sev"nty-,,,>,,n illu_ minaliollS. O(len the emirc pagc "as didded ;n...

Coplo-Arabic illumina'cd manu"",'ipl. A.I> 1620.1..

V···· ·..U

'L~ . . "-' ••U

· "•• · U y

U .....

is. 1914, RC\'icwed by R. G. (oquin. Bihli"lheco or;~nlalis. 34 (1917):181-90, ZUnlZ, D. '·Th. Two Slyles uf CoPli", Painling. ' Jo",· "Ill of F.:g,·ptilln Ar,'hoc"logy 21 (1935). PlEIU<E DU BoLFCUET. S.J, MYRlA.\! ROSE~·AYALON

.

~",.

Dayr Anba Maq~r, Church of Sl. "tichael. Manu'OCripl Wilh figures of sa int•. Courtesy the Met'opo!ium MUMum of An, New York.

Another important subject was th, cross. either Ihe emx aMsala (Ioo""d ~ross. or a"kh) or the ~ross enlarged al lIS eXlremities, which was decorated wi'h interlacing or ,,,,rious smaller crosse •. The style of lht'SC illuminmions is in wn[orn,ily wilh lhe general e"olution of Copli~ style. the stag· es of which have been lraced ~lsewhere (see ART, COI'TIC). In the lhit'te"nlh cenlury. if the slyle of lhe C"p'o-Arabic Tell'devangelium in 'he Vatican (COpl. 9, f,gs. 12. 13, 98) i\!pF",ntine. il is all isol~ICd inslance. /I was ralher the Muslim influ~nce thaI infd'ra'e<J 'be COplo-A,..bic T', lIyb left with lhem in thc ~ompany of Gc~er~1 Ya·qiib. !\flcr landing at Ma .... illes. he lived on the pillanee he .amed as inlerpreler for Ih. Egyplian refugees, 1Iftcrn'ard he moved 10 Paris, where he had an ;mrodUClion 10 the councillor of .late and direclor of poblic inslruc!ion for a posi,ion in lhe Nalional Libra'}' as lra~sla1Or of i\,..~bi~ manusu have no living water, then baptiu in other water; and if you are nol able in cold, then in wann" (Jurgens, 1970-1979, Vol. I, p. 2). The following poinl$ pro,'ide further confirmation of Ihis practice: I. Matthew 3:16 says that after baptism, Jesus came up oUl of Ihe river Jordan, a clear indication thai He ha'e. were reborn" ("Firsl Apology," in Jurgen., 19101979, VoL 1. p, 54), likewise, Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315-386) wrOle. "When you go down into the water. then regard not simply the water, but look (or salvation through the power 01 the Holy Spirit. For without both you cannot atlain to perfection. 11 is not 1 who say this, bUl the Lord Jesus Christ, who has the power in this mauer" ("CalCecause of Ihe king's having taken up his r"Sidence in a single house Ihere; so, 100, has it 1o«n wilh the Monarch of all" (9.3). 2, Making use of Ihe same monarch ..ubject analogy, Athanasius shows how this great work of redemplion was panicularly suited 10 God's goodness: "For if a king, having founded a house or cily, if it be hesel by bandils from the carelessness of its inmates, does not by any means negieci ii, but avenges and reclaims it as his own work, ha,'ing regaslance said to be an amidote to fire, the stubble no longer dreads the fire, being secured by its enclo· sure in incombuslible maner; in Ihis very way, one

1290

INCENSE

may say with rega, found in a cave at Nag Hammadl (Bucher, 1931). II wine list has survived from DnR Al'A JEREMIAH, whkh shows how much wine was drunk on the feast days of the saim (Thompson, 1912, no. 226). A festal calendar has also bun handed down in fragmentary condition from OAYR APA AJ>OlLO, !lAwlT (Cledat, 1904, p. 5). Ins.oriptions al50 allest visits to monasleries and chapels by pilgrims, especially in B~wit and alIlAGAwAT. They often name the place from which the pilgrims tra"ele
1291

translonnation of pagan temples into Christian churche•. " large number of dergy are named, cspedally bishops, of wham there is no other evidence. The same holds for functionaries In Egyptian monasteries. We learn their titles and Iheir names, can draw condusl(lns about Ihe organi'"tion of the mona.teries, and (lbtain material for historical ac· counts. Ins.oriptions are a150 imponam for PROSOJ>OORA?H¥. We learn what names (Egyptian, Christian, or Old Te.tament) the monks and laity of Egypt bore. From graye inscription., we can detennine, in addition to the name, the date of death, and sometimes the age of the doceased. Dated memorial inscriptions in monasteries set up alongside paint· ings sometime. help with dating Ihe wall paintings (d. Krause, 1966,570). Frequently we learn the names of the craftsmen and anislli at work on a building; and from a few inscriptions, in addition to the name, we learn the period at which artists worked. For e~ample, the anist Mercuriu. from the Monastery of Shen".e, who also worked in DAYR ANBA HADRA at Aswan, was painting In DAYR ANBA BtSHOI. SuMj, In the year 1301. In 1124 the IInnenian anist Theodore had already worked in DaJT AnbA Shinudah at Suh:l.j (Crum, 1904, pp, 556f.). The artist's financial spon.or is also named.

There is no collecti\'e edition of inscriptions in Coptic. The .ituation is better for inscriptions in Greek through the works (If G. Lefebvre, panly ,..,. placed by the more r""em work of E, Bernand. Groups of local ins.oriptions are variomly trealed. Of those in Dayr Apa Apollo, for uample, only those dioco"ered by J_ Maspero and edited by E_ Drioton (Maspero, 19:>1) meeen ",,·i.,ed and edited by G. Roquet. The digest published by II. Mallon in 1914 is base rest," The third redaction expands the text afteT the date of death by a prayer. In tbis, entreaty is made for rest fOT the soul in lhe bosom of Abraham, I.....c, and Jacob. While the tombstones carrying inscriptions of tbe first redaction are dated only according to indiction years, tho.e of the second and third also mention the years of the era of the many,,", beginning with the )'ear 284 (after Diodetian). From this it follows that the three redactions ~an be dated to different periods. Munier sets the first in the sixth centu')'. and the second in the ""vemh, and the third in the eighth to ninth, A funher check (Krause, 1975, p. 79) has Ie'es from the necropolis of ~NfINOOPOUS and is dated 620 (Lefebvre. 1915. pp. lllllf.). Some toml>Slones are dated both according to the em of the martyrs and also according to the Hegira of Mu· I)ammad, for example, a Greek grnvestone from Jsn~ of Ihe year 119O (ldebvre, 1907. no, 541), Fonnwas. Some prayer fonnulas ar", found all over Egypt. Oth...rs are chamcl...ristic of a particuiar l""ation. A very frequent formulary attested Ihroughout Egypt ghes the quoted fonnulary of al· Dikhaylah expanded by a prayer at the end. F,..,. quernly it is matched by the formula "God is one" or "One is God. who help$." Less frequently auested on Greek tombstones are Ihe fonnula. "God [lArd or Christ] gmm rest to Ihe soul." "God be mindful." and "Lord, God, have mercy on the soul" (Lefeb",e, 1907, XXXI), Typical for gravestones from ~KHMIM i< the formula in the firsl redaclion "Slela of Ihe blessed [name]. H... liv...d [ . . I years [and date of death]," In Ihe second re
1295

hood of Cairo come from .he nearby Slone quarries of lurah. In the Fa)')'lim, hard while limeslone, which is light gray on lhe upper surface, was u,ed alongside nummulitic limestone. In Luxor people used the local limestone; in Hermonthi,. sand,tone, of a lighl to dark ochre or reddish·yellow to red· di,h·brown; and in bna and Jdfu, light, roft lime· slOne. In Aswan and Nubia. graveslones ""ere made from san
,ood. The a..illnment of

Copt;~

tombstones with a non-

1296

INSCRIPTIONS

Sahidic ins'ed. BIBUO(;~APHY

Cmm, W. E. Ca1a!ogue of the Coplic M(1I'Iu>crlpls in Ihe Brilish Museum. London, 1905. _ Cota!ogu~ of Ihe COPlie Ma~u'criplS in the Colleclion of Ih, John Rylands Library Manchester. Manchester, 1909. Reinhardt, K. "Eine araltisch·koplische Kirchenbannurkunde." In Aegypliaca, Fesl«:hn'fl !ur Georg Ebers wm 1. M~rz /897. leipzig, 1897. Ste,ndorff, $, "Eine koptische Bannbullc und andere Briefe." Zeitschr;{1 fUr ~lO'plische Sproche und AberlUmsJ"'nde 30 (1892):31-43. Yas... 'Abd al-Masih. "Leuer from a Bishop of eIFayyum." Buller;'; de la Soclbt d'orcheo!ogie copM 7 (1941):15-18. MARTIN .KRAUSE

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR COPTIC STUDIES, founded in Cairo in 1976, under the auspic... of the Ell)ptian Anliquilies Organi,.alion, on Ihe occasion of the Fin;l lNT~R"ATIO"Al. CQNGRESS OF COPTIC sTUDIES. From iI' inception, Mirrit B. Ghali served as hon· oral)' president and Tito Orland; as honorary secre· tal)'. The [nlernational Associalion for Coptic Stud· ies (lAC) is a nonprofit organiz.ation designed to PTomOte Coplic studies, inviting ",holars from all over the ",'orld 10 contribute to a field hitherto almost neglected. The lAC issue, a newsletler that gives information on ne.... publicat;ons and discov· eries, It also makes available a lis, of scholars in· volved in Coptic studies, During the fi"t Interna· tional Congress of Coptic Studies, the rules and regulations of the association were eSlablished. One of ilS functions is also to announce in the

1300

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF COPTIC STUDIES

"""..leu"r The date and place of upIly very lew families ........ able '0 impleo men, lUI sc""_ of rft>derinl CopIie lheir dally means ol eommuniation.. He ~bliahed a special periodical Cfllidf'cl Moja/I., '04,... SMms lor-Ihe I"OtI>otion of his ideas.. Fu.... lhewed by Biblical caMiela and prayttS. accompan>ed 1». an Arabic lransblion. ~"'-I and COl"n,ct", by HqumenOf ..tJl(l

SIoLlII ...... ~ and ediled by Mac:arius, art:hblshop of Asylil. and I.abib (Cairo. 1197); Ki/Qh aJ..A~lmW
ISAAC, fort)'-fi~t patriarch of Ihe See of Saint Mark (636-689). Isaac w"" a native of the district of Shubnl. now pan of modern Cairo, before he took the monastic vow at I)AYR mIlA MAQAR, Unle is known about hi< early secular life. In his monas· tery. however, he became the spiritual .On of a bi.hop by the name of Zacharias. who was known for his Christian virtues, hi. dignity, his theological learning, and his humility. Following his mentor in his qualitiC$. Isaac also concentrated on the literary activity of the monastery and be
BaumeisTer, T, Martyr lnvielUs, D., Miirryrer als Shmbild der Erlosung In dor Legende und 1m K"tr der fri.iahs mentioned in Egyptian monaStic sources of the fourth and fifth centuries, The most renowned is the author of the asceTic treatises that had" wide vogue in Ihe Christian Orient, UnfonunateJy, we do not find in these treati""s much in the way of autohigraphical information. We learn merely that Isaiah had begun his life as a monk in Egypt, probably at SCETIS. where he was in contact with several per· sonaliTies mentioned in the APOPHTHEGMAH PATRuM,

1305

John, Anuh, Pocmen, Paphnutius, Amun, Peter, Lot, Agathon, Abraham, 5isDeS, Or, and Athraeus, Had he perhaps been " disciple of Ammoe' and of Achillas? When he in tum had become an old man, he was surrounded by numerous disciples, among whom there stands out one called Peter, who carefully collected Isaiah'. teachings to pass Ihem on to his own disciple•. From EIOPt, where Ill' still was in 431, Isaiah went to live in Palestine and died a reeM of ;nlulion. Humilit)". th.. prirn~ Yirt~. is me-nlioned birly fnquently. but rno.., often is indicated b)' its elf«ts. in panicubr by "counlina on~( as of no r.-putalion" and by circumscribing one's OWn will. All Ihis ..... already ~.., in th.. leaedilalion On Ihe Scriptures with fuquenl reson 10 aIletorical inlerp........I>ons. In addilion to the predominanl inlluence of ,.... d.....rt bthers. ...., may not" also thai of EVAGItIIJS. which cannoc he denied IsaWa had a V"'I inll,..,ncc in allihe churches of lhe Orient. He had friends amona C"-lce-donians as 1 as non· C~c~nians. For all ChmtiartS he re ins a masle~ of genuine splriluallty,

.

BIBUOG~l'tIV

....ugou>(inoo Monachos lOf"daniles. TOY OIIOY JIATI'01: HMnN .... aa.... HIAYOY ;.orOI "6. J.... rusalem, 1911: 2nd d .. Solenos N. Schuln"", VoIO. 1962. Chilly, D, J .......bba Isaiah:' T~, Icum,,1 0/ Tlre"logi. col S",die. 22 {l971):41-72, DrnKu~l, R. lA., cinq ,e..e".lon. de /'A.al'-""n .y'i· aqu. d·abba !Jaie, CSCO 289-290. 293-294. Lou· ..ain, 1968. G~baUl, S" ed, Synualre Irhioplen, PO " p, 310. Pari., 19(11.

Gu;l]aumont, ..... l.·Axeti..on COpl. d. /,.bW I.aie. Fragmtnlt 5tJ.hidiqu" Jdili. eI Iraduiu. Sibli,.. Iheque d'E1udes "opIes 5. Cairo, 1956. "rug,,'. c. "Wer ..... ~ de.- Psaldn-Dion)'Sios:· B)'toIltflini$("he uil>ehn/I 8 (1899):302-305. R.el.-JIt, L "Isaie dr Sc~tt ou dr Gaza." In D,c_ lionnaiTe d, Spin"'alilJ, Vol. 7, pp. 2OSJ-95, Par· is, 1932-. UlCle; REGNAUl.T

ISI:IAQ mN IBRAHbt IBN NASTAS, ....bU Ya'qr:;b, I.. nth---<elevenlh-anlury physicbln and annd· son of NAS]:As IIIN IUUYJ. also • ph)-sician. He was bom in Old Cairo (M~) at an unkno\o.-...
Aft".

...u. BIBLIOGRAl'HY

Ibn Abl Usaybi'ah. 'Uyiin al·A"M' tr raboqlJl ol"'!, ibbil·. ed. A. Milller, pp. 85-89, Kl:Inigsbf'rg, 1884, M. Midor Ridl. pp. 544. 549. 8eil"\lI. 1%5. Kralchkovsk}'. I.. and ..... Vasili~", Hiswire de Ya~)'o Ibn Sa',d d·Ant;oche, cOn/inuateur de Sa'/d Ibn Bilriq. PO 23. fuse. 3, 1\0, 114, p. 480. Pam, 1932. Rep~. Turnhom, 1916. Schachl. I., and M. Mey.~hof. The Mldlco·Philo· Sc community .t Aleundria. ~r compI~in& his edl,lcalion In !he newly established Coptic School in CaIro. hidltilrus was ..... lecled to teach Arabic. CopIIc. and lite rudim~us of French in Cloiro. At tM _ e 111M, he COfIlinued the Rudy 01 ad¥anced French with a from the ColI~ des Frhe.. In 111I5 he loot mooasric _ .. from Pope CUlL Y. who KR! him 10 his own formtr mollaSlery. DoO.n. ~, In WidJ .J·Nalriin. Thcre Iw: bK......, the pu,pll of the nnm...nl lit~nry monk 'ABD AlMASll:l $WI Al.-M.W:roI. Rt:luming 10 Calro in 1W. lsidhl1rus "'"'lIS made .....,"" III Saini Mark', CalMdral in aJ...AzbUin"ab. then pricslal Mlr Mini'. chureh II Fum ... aJ.Khlij. Mnn ...hiIt. ht ~ a dow clisciple 10 boIh Pope Cyril V and Anbi ~arius, bishop of "'yUI. He _ pul in chute 01 the relilious properties ~ DAn. "I.-MItA.IolOs and DAn ~'lJARlAO, bul dec.... ed 10 leave tMw worldly obllptlonllo devoIe him· self 10 .pirih,a1 ~h Ind wriling. TMn he was nominaled for • bishopric bltl esc.pe
"I.

S;""bild dcr Er!bs""g i" du Lttend. ~"d i.., K"'t der /,j;he" kopti.chm Kin:he. MUnMer, 1972.

1308

ISIDORUS OF PELUSIUM, SAINT

BoHandiani, Socii, e
..........

of......

Qucttion. an: oIlm raised on !he authenliclly and !he Ionn IClten. Many of them lack the cuslomary introduclions or ~1.... ioJu,; othent are splil into _raJ. fr8gmell"; Mhf:rs again arc Q\>OU' tions or paraphrues from classical or patristic worts. Wt may SUSpecl that some wen: ""hool Cit!' docs add.rtiicd 10 fiCl'lioul ~espondcnlS. Nevertheless. the consistency 01 lite prosopognophy. both g~ical and historical. argu<s in bvor of the aulltenticilY of thCS/! Itlters. All lite correspondents (and thtlr tilies and occupations) a.... contemporary wilh lsido...... (!hue art more than 420. amons whom 104 btlons.o tht aUlhorities, 34 to the 10wn· ship of PtlllSium. 171 to Ihe church. 64 to !he moIWilic ""ene. and for Ihe most pan they lived in the region of Peluslum or elsewbere in f.Byptl.

1309

The gaps or dtfttl$ in the COrpt15 arc cCTUinly lItril:nnable to those ,,110 compiled il shonly after the dealh of lite Pdusiol l1lese compilers "'ere .'Cry probably monks from .... rca:loc> oJ Pdus'um (!'Cler lite lln'himandrite. and lite monb Nil.... Paul. Orion. Ouintiam.ls. ClC.) wllO around 4-<W-4'iO eoled 10 him in lhe SYN.\.X· IdUOS buI he is dcsl RI!GNAl!LT

ISLAMIC INFLUENCES ON COPTIC ART, rhe cffects of Islam 011 Coptic an from the Muslim conquest of Egypl onward. There can he no absolule appraisal of ouch onc-sidM a"tstlc de"el· pment, for eyer since th~ ~onqucst. Ihere has been

JSu\MIC

INFLUENCES ON COPTiC ART

J 31 1

an interaction of Muslim anT1ists. and e"entoaJly art objects "ere manufactured by MllSlilm for a Chris'ian eli. entele. At .he same time. there were fields in "hich the COPIS Entditionaily excelled, such as in textile weaving or w"()(). Both the Sa.h'dtc and the Bohairic U.'es Of Saim PACHOMlU5 give Sne as the binhplace of the famouS father of monko. The same te",. relate thar Theodorus, the succes.or of Pac hom ius, was hom of aristeratic parents from Sne/Latopolis. BIBUOGRAPHY Am~lineau,

E. La Gi:ographie de l'Egyple iJ. l'i:poque cOP", pp. 171-75, Pari., 1893. Lefon, L T., ed. S. Paeham;; Vila Bo/rairice Scripla. cseo 99/100. louvain. 1952. ___. S. P«.".., lhe ce,,'er of Ih. splinter klnldom of DoIawo, to which it gave ilS name. Here a Christian monarchy survived for anolher cenlul)' "r more. ~nally d;,appca,;nl ncar Ihe elld of lhe ~flttnch cenlury. ....'heD Ihe Onomanf annu.cd Nubia In Ihe PaI"nth eeDIU!J', a IUNlIl prris11 Iorce was IUlli
I9n.

p. 442).

Unforlunaltly ....., do "'" know the pl'imili\'t name of th.. n>c>nM>e,..,. of ....t.ich 110 ancient iiie'!"' a'Y lal spnh BIBUOGltAnfY

Chabrnl. M. M. dr, and E. f. Jomard. ~Dac:ription d'Ombos ... do- ses enriT'Ons.·· In lA ~riPljo,t de rEgypte. Vol. I, pp. 2601f. hris. 1821 Grilfuh, f. L "NOll'S 011 a Tour in Upper f&)'P':' Proceedin&, 01 lite Sode/)' 0/ 8ibliedlllf'ClrdeoiOV 12 (1889):93-95. l1R:bvre, G. fUc".. i/ des m>Criprions ('....qu.... eltRtienllc, d'Egyplc_ Cairo. 1907. Meinardus, O. Clrri>tuln EO'Pf: A."~i",,, ."d Model'll, Cairo. 1965; 2nd ed. 1977. Sa)"". A. H. "Exca~·",iOlU at Gebel $tlsil.:· 1I"....lts au Se"""., des IInliqMilu d.. j'EDP'e 8 (1907):97-

U". Ra th. fael Ihot il is on the 1,IilUde of Tabenn!!!, in the v"Hev of Ihe Nile, are about 5 miles (8 km) nonh. east ~of Shams al·Oln, almo.t at the summ;, of lhe rocky plateau. Al Ihe oil" are some small ~avcs, which serv.d as CellI. and" opring. There are some drawings (sla" of David. candleltlckt). and some red graff,ti among which we may recO(lnlze tbe names IUCHt......,...oc I1l"8CI, i¢t!ph paulos presho !he inilials lC xc. is ~ho, and Ihe sequen~e ....

.,..o.oc

JABAL AL·TAYR

_.....,.,.: ...CTf............,.....,.

~\o$

thernr iI r"rcloiolog>e de I'Ec1"e "Ior/tienn•. Saint Pelfrsburg. 1901. Fakhry. A. ''Th" Rock Inscriptions of Gahal "'·Tei.at Kha'P Oasi.:· A"""I... d.. Suviu de. ~"n·· quirl. de I'Evpl., 51 (1951):401.4)4. Mallon, A. "Copte (tpiiraphi,,)." In Dktionnaire d'au:httJIogie chrirl., ....., el d. 1t'1IITgic, Vol. J, pI. 2, cola. 2819-86. Paris. 1914. RDqud. G. .. l.t:s If'*IIit... copt,," de. Baga"""l (Oasis de Kharp)." BNlle1in d. iii Sociil~ fU1l1t;ai>e d·ic,.,~ 76 (1916):25-49.

1318

JABAL AL-TAYR

Winlock, H. E. The Temple of Hibis o.S;I. New York. 1941-

JABAL AI.,.TAYR ($.amillil).

!k~

j .. Ella,,,rz~"

Pilgrimages.

JABLONSKI, PAUL ERNST (lb9}-17S1). German InMop;u. :and OriftlUli$t. He s,udied at

,he

Unlv~rsily

of F.....kfun...n- a,

BIBUOGaAPHY

Helderman, J. "Jablonski en Te Wale.., T..~e Kopt· olo&en uit de lijd van de V ....lic:hlin,. - 1'JIr;"""i:< JoO (IW):S4---62. Qu.alremhe, E. Ihderches eritiquu CI IIis10riques SOU 14 l_npe tI '" lilloalUTe de rEm"". pp. &2. IIs-n. I"aris. IlIll8.

pJ\"£Cnl as a nhy JUCCCSloOf"'o the throne of Sain. Mark. 111m hen Mart died.•h", bishops imrnedialely ..-en! 10 WJ
SUM' V, lABtB

JACOB BARADAEUS (c. s00-S7I1l. the apostle of Monoph},ite Christianity in lhe church of Antioch fIOOIIOftlY$lT1SIoII). Throuah his dJons to pt'Csen"" the Antiod>ene church from pe~m be is ........,. II!I the found« of lhe Syrian Orthodon ehurch. or Jacobite church. whicb rcganls him U:l


1320

JAHSHIYARI, ABU 'ABD Al.l.AH. AL·

5"00 ~Iit:ious aIIiIialion, and translaled illlo Anbic from S)'I'4o, it makes up an imporl/lnl part of !he nonbiblloal ....ading lessons for Jacobites and (opts,

Sou,*" D. "AI·Djahshi)"jrt.. In Encyclopedi. at Is· 10m, Vol. 2, pt. 2. p. 39'9 (",fth bibliography). lei· den and L:>ndon, 1%5. KHAlil SAMIll., S.J_

Bc:djam. p" ed_ Homillu &Jecl"e M,,, J"com Sallll" e.. sis, ed. P. Bedjan. 5 l"OIs. Paris and ltipzlg. 1905-1910 (Syriae " ... an Ei)l'!1an who ..i1hd.ew to Samaria 0' a PaleMinian SO 10'11 as the ....."'e of lhc G..,ek Synau.riool i> nOl known. All &ourceo mentIon th" fcrvor of his lIllc"tldsm and his gIft for drh'ing oul dt:mons. The Coptic S)'JIaxarion adds tltal this won for him the hoslilily of Ihe discipl.... of the ;'Iluvene. James conress.ed his crime, but Ihe bishop persuaded him lhal God could pardon """tyIltinc. on ~ondilion thal the JUilly one repented of hi> crime and did penance. filially Jamea agreed '0 suppl>cate God; a heavy ",infall nme 10 .tl....~ Ihe people of Ihe region. He died at. a ripe ofd ag
JAMES INTERCISUS, SAINT, or Jacob the Sawn or al·Muqana', a Persian manyr of the third century (feast day: 27 HatOr). He is fully document· ed in Syrioc, Greek. Arabk, and other s()urees, The bask text c()ncerning him is a Passi()n extant in .everal redaction•. The redaction closest to the original, according to P. Devos, is th. Syriac (Bed· jan, 1%8). One of the four Greek redaction. appar· enlly derives from this one (the other three .eem to be reworkings), and the other Oriental versions would appear to derive, directly or indirectly. from Ihe Greek, In Coptic we possess fragments ()f the Passion in Sahidk (British Museum. Or, 7561.12021. ed. Winstedl. 1911; Valican library, Borgia. 109. 145a: National Library. Paris, COpte 129,16.78 and 78 bis). In Bohairic we possess the complete te.t (Valkan library, Coptk 59f. 1-29, ed. BaI.,.tri and Hyvemal. 19(3) and fragments of another codex (d_ Evelyn.White. 1926, p. 14). These lexts ..,.,m to be in su""tanfial agreement. However. if is important to n()le that the complete texi ()f the Passion has a hi.torically interesting ap~9dix, which is a long passage dellCribing Pefer th !berian's mo,'ing of the relics of Jame. from Jenlsal~m t a site near Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. This passage .hould be at· tributed 10 the end of the fifth century. A summary of the complete Bohairic redaclion of Ihe Pusion follows. linder the Persian kin& !skarnf. son of Shipur I. a great persecution/was unle....hed againsl the Christians, James was a nobleman. and a member of the king's council. Although he was a ChriSlian, al firsl he did not react. His mOfher and wife u'N Ibn Abi ZakariY)'f,.

JAWSAQ. S.... Kttp.

JAZIRAT Al·DAYR. See Dayr

JEME.

s.... Madinal

al·ll.um~niyy.h.

HibU; Memnonia.

JEREMIAH,

APOCRYPHON

OF,

SU

Apocr}]>hoo of Je....miah.

JEREMIAH, SAINT. Very linle is knQwn aboul Ih;" ..int. II is plausible Ihal the monaslery al Saqqara had been pluM under Ihe ~ln:>nag~ of a J~iah. la whom a pank"lar holines$ """5 allrib,,!£d. ,,·beIh.... 0< n01 he " ... m first superior. 11M: chronkle of Ihe bishop JOHN OF N1JUOI! ~ 10 speak 01 him. whkh makes him a enl.. mpon.ry oi the ~mpen:>' Anaslasi.... !he dales of whosoe Geogmphie de /'Egypte ~ Npoque COple, Paris, 1893. Charles, R. H. The C!mmkle of 10hn, Coptk Bishop of Nikiu. Text and T"mslation $o
11. small ehurn at lite very !pIll where MARY rHE EGynrAN Is said to have ..,pemed in 382. The nu",beT of Copts visitina the "ity incrased sreadily_ Copts are mentiollCd among the sects represo:nte io Jerusall!:m have pt'ucrved their sacred relics and pbrales. Since thaI lime. Ihe seclenlive recion. were rcoduccod in Ihe middle of the I_nl~ eth century l(l Jervsakm. PaIaUI>e. Sinai. and thco Oricm. n(l'" bcoin. called ,he Diocese of Ihe So« of Jeru....lem. lilt" Near Ea!.t. and Sinai. "The spiritual leader of lIMo I « has bun a metropo!iW! "tN>. accl'd.i", to Coptic Ortbodo:>x tndition, stands finI an1O"ll the" archbWonps ....d follows the" pope of AJeu.ndria in sconiorily_ There e~iSlS no detailed history of Ihe an::hbish. ops of the 5« of Jerusalem. Tile following li'l of the archbishops .Ince BasillOI I is derived from manU5CripI~ prt:lC"rved in llf5,. patriarchal archi",. in Cairo. lhe library of lhe ~ic Museum in Old Cairo. and lhe JMIriarchalco In Jerusalem (somco gaps r~main 10 bco fillcod): 1. BasiliOJ I (1236-1260) .... eonsecr.l1ed ~rin«: the rriJn of Popt Cyril III. 2. Bu!ruI I (1211-1.306) ..-as comt:
June 1604. il is ~laled that Mart< appoinlenl*leries outside the Church of lhe Resurreclion. 7. ChristodoulO$ I (l6JI-I~J """ a enlCtnpOrary of MATTHtw HI (lo3"-16ot9). S. Gabriel I (1680-1105) ...... a roTllemponory of JOHN X\1 (1676-1718). 9. Chmlodou!os II (1120--172~) _ . contemporary of PETDl V1 (1713-1726). 10..... lhanasi... I (172.5-l1oo) Wall a co....emporary of Palriarch Peter VI. "'ho. accordinlj: 10 tlte NI5TORY OF TH~ '~Tl\IAI\CHS, appoinled him 10 suc· ceed Cltrislodouk». whom hco lransfened 10 Ethiopia.. II. Viisib I (1170-1796) was a conlemporary of (1169-1196). 12. Chri,uodou\os III (1797- IB19) ""as a con,CtnpOrary of IoI.UIo: VIn (11%-1809) and ruu "ll aI·Jawll (1809-1852). 13. Abraham I (1820--185-4) """ a conlemporary of JOHS XVIII

I".

1.5.

16.

17.

18.

Pcoler VII. He ~rtic-ipated wilh Anb! Saraba· mun. known as .... bU Tarl:ted ... most IaCred not only because It is situllId behind 1M Holy s"pukher but abo be· ukher was left intaci. n.. Crusaden. ""hUe pc1"'" s«u'ing lhe dCTIl:)' of OrienUoi churches. P'""Mt"Ied this Coptic saotcl..:ll)'. Wllm Saladin en•.,red Jenua· lem in 1187. he rewarded the loyalty of the Copts by restoriotg In., plx"'t that had Men tak",n from them. When f,re ."read from the Anntnia" chapel on 30 September IW8. It destroyed th., dome of the Church of the Res.urrection and dIlmaged the col· ",m"" and marble floor. Onl\' th., dom., of lhe ~I"

""w

I""

JERUSALEM, COPTIC SEE OF

uleher, the Latins' church, the eave of the Cross, and the museum of the hc>ly relics
1327

alt:lT was replaced and a Coptic iconostasis inserted. A new chapel dedicated to Oneen Helena was built. Mass is usually held evel)' Tuesday and on feast days, but doily during the season of pilgrimage and visiting, The Church of the Apparition of the Holy Virgin was built to commemorate the appearance of the Virgin in 1954 at that site. There is one sanctuary in the church and an icon obo>'e the altar depicling the Holy Virgin carr;ring the infant Jesus. There is also an image of the Holy Virgin on the ceiling "f the church. Mass is celebrated every Monday mom· ing. The Churcb of Saint Ga«e and on feast da)". Two annual m _ ne hdd. tbt first on Saini Gecd a small house in Cairo from which they could Launch missionari.,. 10 Elhiopia. To facilil.lIe this ;l5siSnment. lhey ~OUr1ed the ""PJXln of patri· arch JOHN ltVl (1676-1718), who ac~orded a fa,'Or' able welcome to ,hem and even comml$l!ioned one of them by ,he name 01 Falher Du\>t:mat to carl)' to Ethiopia the CHRISM consecnlled In 1703. Father Ollbemat. who died in l711. recounted thl. Ind· dent to a Bollandi.t Cl1ea8tJe by the name of Jean BaptiSie SoI.leriu•. ""M "''TUte a treati..., On the pa. "ia-rebate of Alexandria. His ,uccenor in Cairo was Cl:aude Sicard, whose ..Tilin,. are a principal • ource 01 knowledge aboul Copt:ic ll'IOnaslkism in IllIs period-l.ller lhe Jesuits Opet'led I modes! coed· uCI'ionaJ school, ..ito5e uisten~e "'as ralher precarious, and in 1173, tbe M1ppf"C$fiOIl 01 the d«...., permininl its tsl3blishmen.1 ended its IoI;ltvilies altolOtI .. XIV

,ha,

r

ther . Tht- ,bird ota.se of souunl,-s bibliquu .1 chrtlWnJ. Wle, 1Sll9). M. Chat"", (Chmno:>IQfi. ths lemp. chri';"",. de rEDPM 10' de rEdriop;•. Beirul, 19(4). M_ de Fenooyl (Cou· I.."",• •eli~.. ~ du etJpIU, Cairo. 1953). and u S4m:toral Copl. (Beirul. 1960). like 0IheT ...,!ip:.ua orde.. of the La,;n rile. the J-.i<s intqr:a,ed thcmsel,",", with thc Ioc.oJ c'-'reh, ,,-hich they oonlinued to anve boIh by swclli"l their nun>bcn. ""';Ih new rccruiu and 1>,' adopt;", the Copt:ic rite.. In U- ways. their priDcipaI orienwion b«amc ecumenical in d.arael..... BIBUOCllArtly Deccari. C. R....... Aelhwpic"",,,, Scripro:>'YS Occi· tIen,,,I•• In.di,; " Sateu/c XVI (1.d XIX, Vol. 14. Rome, 1914. CaslellanL G. "La mi$fionc pontific;' pres.so i copti 5OIto Crellorio Xlll.'· Civil/(}. Ca/loliCtl 4 (19411):~9_68, 154.. 63, Del...,. J. M. "Comributlon. I'ttude de. relalion. du Patriarch. Cople Jean XVIl a~ec Rme de 1735" 1738." SI..dl" Or/eNlalia Christia.na. ColI.ctarlca ~ (1960):123-81. Perieo!;, R. "La misslone pomitlel. pre,,"o iI pal' riarea copto dl All'u;Ilndri. Cabriel. VII nel 1561-1563." ReviJ;la de,li sl"dl oriento:>/i 31 (19St»: I H_ 57. Rabbllh, A. /Joc:..",e'\Ii irtti,'I. POI" .uvir .. I'hi•. ,ire d.. clltisl;arti....e .rt Orient, \'01. I. Paris. 1905. Scadulo, M. ·'Chrisloforo Rodrigu.... p..-. H pam. area ~opIo.'. In l.'epoe. di Giacomo l.lIinel. Vol. 2, pp. 92_108-.. Monumenta Hislorica Socioetalis Jcsu. Rome, n.d. SoU. J. C. "£I P. Juan 8apIisia EJiano. un docu· .......to autobioJrafioo Inedill>.·· hdl....'" HiSI.,... "'...... Sorictalis i,... 4 (1'JJ~1;l91~321. SoIkriw., J. B. Traet
K. "Bibliographie du dialogue is[amt>-, 18, and'SO of thaI u-anslation. as well as a plate reproducing folio. 47b-48a and containing 1I.e lext of Genesis 35:23 to 36:15. It shows how well Jirjis uecmed his work, both sci· entifically and aesthelically. The manuscript is also beautifully decorated. In folios Ib-2a are found illuminations of geme1ric designs, At lhe beginning of each of lhe fi"" books of the Pentaleuch as well as althe end of the manu· script. title, appear in two pages in kufic lellers in

1934. Rieu. C. Supplement to ,he Ca'alogue of th. Arabic Manuscripts /n the Briti,h Museum. pp. 1-4. london, 1894, Slane, W. McGuckin baron de. Catalogu. des manU' ,crfts ar"bes de la Blbliorheque narionale. Paris. 1883-1885, Troupesu. C. Catalogue des manl-'Scr/ts arabes de la Bib/lOlheque natlona/e. Vol. I. pl. L M"n"scrfts ehret/en•. Paris, 1972. Vol. 2, Paris. 1974.

JIRJIS AL-JAWHARl, a noted Copt (d. 1810) who after lhe death of his brolher IBRAHIM AL-JAWHA· R1 (1795) replaced him as dir-eClor of the Egyptian adminislfation of taxes and finances. and aiso became an inlimate confidant of the dominant Mamluk amirs. He was-like his pre
the financial administration, whirh was given to Mu'allim GHAU, and was pot under arrest for some time, along with other Coptir intendants. Once release
"new manyr" of lhe eighth cemul)' (feast day: 19 Ba'unah), He was the son of a Muslim by the name of Jum'ah al-'A!wl, who had married a Christian from Damlrah. a village in the QalyOliyyah pro,', ince, Murol)im used 10 go to church wilh hi, mother and very much wanted 10 partake of the Holy Euebarisl. BUI his mother told h,m thatlhis was not permilled except for those who were baptized. She gave him a mo",et of lhe bread. and he felt il like honey in his mOUlh. Henceforth, he becamc confirmed in his desire to become a Christian. As he grew older. he married a Christian, to wbom he revealed his intention to be baplized. BUI the local prieStS were apprehensive aboul baptizing him for fear of mob retaliation. So he went 10 Damiena, where he had his wish fulfilled. and he changed his name to Jitjis. On hearing Ihis. the Musiims ",ized him and beal him. but he managed to escape and Oed 10 Sa~ Abu Turab, where he slayed for Ihree years. Then he moved to Qurur, where he served in the church of Saint George, Afterward. he decided to retum 10 his native village of Damlrah. where the Muslim population ",ill remembered him, ",ized him. and delivered him to the governor to chasliz.e him as an apostale from Islam. But lhe governor did nol take immediate action against him, owing to the ,ntercession of his wife. who was a Christian. He placed Htjis in prison, bUl lhe infuriated mob broke into lbe prison and lynched Jirjis. On the following morning. Christians carne to bury him, bUl found him still ali,'e. On discovering th's. the Muslims came barim

ed.. AaIen, 1966. W~lIha'-'Sen, J. Dill ",,,lnsdle R.iclr "nd 5.i" SI"~ Berlin, 1902. Ye'or, Ebr. Th~ Dhimmi: Jews "nd Clrristi,m. V.. Ju 1,I"m. I",ns, from French, D. Mai~l, P. F~nton, and D. Unman. Ruthetford, Calif.. and London, 1985.

I

JOHANN GEORG, Prince of SPony (1869Nau, F. N. L'J Mb.ok;F,J deJ iv"ng,/i"i,u COplU",,,be., PO 10, 1, pp, 104, 2OS,113, 134, 213.181.

Paris. 1915, O'leary, DeL TIl. S"inl' of "typl in Ihe COpiit C"/e"d,,,. Loodon, 1937,

JIUB. See Oi"..

JlZYAH, a poll tax, or caplu,lion

ta~. imposed on

all able-bodied non-Mupa~Ji.. of,dam. Leiden. 1978..

Jenophion. G. D. "In memoriam S. A. R. Ie Prince Jean Gco~ dria. According 10 lhe HISTOII.Y OF TIlt PATII.IARCHS. he is crediled with ,,"curing gifts of Wheal. wi"", and oil for his old monaslery of Saini Mae.rius from the Emperor Zeno (474_491). Though firmly anli-. Church. and he left an impocum litenry lepcy. John's "riIinp .hal he " . . a fi&hler far the failh of Ihe Coptic: church. Firm in imponI.nce is a work of Ihe so-called Iype of E,owrtr~.. (Erolapokrisels: see PHV$10LOGUS). in which an unknown prub)'ler named Theodorus. probably a m~n of lette~. poses twenly·three '1uesl;ons concerning the exegesis of the Bible. The queslionl address Bible

""'''u.s-

.pin..

mow

1338

JOHN IV

lhal could have ......... ;nlt'~ion$. bul the palriarch prnrides Ihe accepted Coptic ,_sion. Some importanl 1ISpeC'1$ of th.. work arc lhe usc of allegory and lhe: usc of parts of II'lc Ph)'5ilogus, for Ihe explanation of the Sacramenl of Baptism 115 !:>oing Ihe only key 10 Hea...en and the major Orthodo~ Coplic Chrillian distincl"'n from Islam and Keld of CluiSlolor;y. John defines lite Coplic posllion concerninl God and Man io 0.... Body. Ht ditcusscs lhe fall of SaJan and the ill$litution of SainI Micbad• • _11 as mou of the imponanl p.-obIems of fanIt in EcYPt at that lime. The le~1 is: nUlnt in a Salridic version. copied rather carelessly aboul 900 in the monllSlery of Ihe archangel Michael (DAYR ~J,.loIALI.K IoIfKIIA·IL) at 56· pehes (HamOll) in the Fayyt>m. There arc $e>'eral Arabic versions lhat correspond 10 four Bobairk fragmtnlll of that worlOflSCS cons~ 10 be canonical. The diff.....,nl bum. Ulli.....ldy it was purchased. for 3,000 dina..... The aovcrnor !hen ;niliated a dispule between the palriarch. a Jew named Aaron. and a Chalce'ersa'" lhal ",ilh faith, bread and wine can M converted inlo lite flesh and Blood of Ihe Heavenly One. Ant>11ter impomUII work. an EnI. Some disavcemenl nis!s aboul its Aulltooship....-heth,..,. il had been ",,·i1len by SainI John. arcltbishop of Alexandria, 01" John III or IOH'" IV. Its edil.,..-, J. Ore",""r. lends 10 ascribe il to Sohn I"" ""eo"OmOS of $a.int Men,,' church, while Tilo Orlandi attributes Ihe ,,'ork to John III "n the basi. of lhe pro~imlly of Saint Men,,' church 10 the monas· lery of Ihe Brolher's wl'lcre the palriarch resided. p"'"

n.e Eneomiu ... consi515 of I\\'e pam: an illlroduc·

lion from luke 1:1. and an assu"".... that the SlOr· ies of Saim Moenas come from aUlhtnt;c sources.: a discussion of Ih,"", feats by the saint; the life of lite ulnl including his descent from noble parentage and his martyrdom: the fate of hi$ relics and Ihelr burial in a shrine ",hot", miracles were performed: and finally. an exhortation for people 10 Visil Ihe sIlrin" of S;tinl Menu. n.e rdcreoce 10 lohn as the author of ~ Enemium come:s only at the conclusion. Whether I"" is John 111. should IlOII detracl hvm his importance as a Mtte fighler for orthodoJty and as • eood ",riter and preacher whose wort is only panly known 10 U5. BIBUOGRAI"HY

Dt-cs.che-.canl for- nearly I".., ycal'$, because the bishop" and Ihc de'l)' 0( Alexandria wuld nt>l rcach u...• nlmltyon a s..lIable candidale lor tbe patriat"chale. They ultimalely rnchcd a cornprnmisc ...hcr'rl>y lbey "TOle the ""mlOS of IhT« pos.sible i5cop:101e, and lhe bilhtul had 10 chain him in anticipation of his ac:. c~anct. BUI ht penisltd in his rd'usal and man· "lied 10 escape hi< iron ftllers and return 10 his convenl. The p"lriarch's ""ralh for lhis; disobedl· tnee and AlGhl was appeased only when a min of ,",al plely told him Ihal Mark was nol meanl fur the episcopale, ben Ihat a prophecy had dtsianaled him for $uccesslon 10 Ihe Ihrone of SainI M.. k, t~tn againSI his will. n.e pa.niarc:h. in Ihe company of Anbl Mlkhf'U.

res;,tnded

1339

bWIop of M~r, and Anbl Jirji, bishop of Memphis, wenl 10 the gm"'mor, al·La}1h ibn aI·hol!. "'110 ...... sympalJ>elir 10..-anI!he Chrioli.llns, 10 pay !he annu· al U.r(tj tall. after wltirh !hey sailed back 10 Alexandria. 11 ....,.. .... ring their ~ 10 !he QpiIaI that John fdl the end ~hlnc- Befo.... his death. he declared 10 the ~ lhal he regarded Mart; "" his won!»' succ_.

BIBUOCtAPHV

f'riM. F.• ed_ 1982.

~

Book

at

C.h"d.,s. New Vork, ~I

Y. UIIIB

JOHN IVTHE FASTER, SA.• NT (d. 595). palriarch of Con",anlinoplt tnga~d in a conlro.'ersy O~er a lilk ";Ih lwo popel. John, born in Cappadocia. was calltd Ihe Fasltr (Jejunalor in Greek) b",cause of his exlreme asctlleism. As palnanoh from 58210595 he took Ihe Iitie "Oecumenical (unl~er. sal]I'Mriareh:' which had been gl~en 10 hi. prede· cessor by Ihe emperor and had also been used In Rome. Pope Pelagius II and his succes........ Gregory libe Greal, proIeo.led, .Ince il made CnSlanlinoplt spirilually equal 10 Rome. Ne~tnhelC55. John and hi< sucusson; rontinue lnlerctde willl tIM: patri· arch for lht e_mk>n of. Coptioc archbishop 10 his eO\l.nl"., ....bile pkading willl !hem foe fair.nd jusllTUlmenl of their Coptic subFU. The ElMopl· an Phs mUSl ha.-e impreosed the ...I,.ns ~n­ dously. Once lho: Elhiopian monarch senl lIle patri· arch • ;ewtled ,old crown Ihal he in 110m cedoed 10 lhe ....llan. On anolhtr occask>n the ..."..1 Iif! eOn· sisted of an eltphant•• lion, • prall.,. and • utlra. n.e appe.rance of sueh silallge items must ha.-e caused gu'l commotion at ;nted as archbishop a lay bachelor like him~If, • man who was knowledgeable in mal· lers of religion and Coptic ch..rch traditions, His name was Kil ibn al·M ..labbis and he Came from the chy of T~kh in the Gharbiyyah PrO\'lnce. Kll was wel1-'tidendy lhesoe celebrations. in ,,·hidt Muslims and Chris.tiam pan~ ...;!houl distinC1ion. a..,.,lion.led the JI'CK;lion d 1M Copu and the p.lt';' an;h wilh the Muslim ruJc;l Ntwrthel.,.ss, Joho's rri.gn "1U marked by a nurnbt'r of local difficollies. In on.,. InslJOnct. a monl naraed Yu!).al'lnA, from $.ailll Macaorius, oon"ened to lslam, • rJlO!il unusual occ..rrence. He was "",=ded for- his apostaSy by al'Adil, who appointn! Y..1:Ianna '" Ia:< collcc!or in the oily of Mll-Ghamr, a position lhal h.,. h.,.ld for th~~ years. Then he changed his mind and later approached Sollan al_JCarnil with a .hroud il'l his hand and asked permission to relum to his Chris· lian faith or olherwise sulkr lhe usual £xecutlon for lhose who rccan",d. The benign suhan permillcd his reluro and ga~e him a prolccliw decree ag.inlt

""'y

I"'"

abuse by Muslim bnalu A similar case arose of an Isl.mileDd crisis in John's mll'l ..... precipitated by the same Vuljannl, ...tlo ~ed to lho: ...han thaI a I,..,.,.,,.., lrove of &Old and sil...,r ..I.,....ils " ... dilCo""red in a pll al Dayr Aobl Maqir. The solWl hastened 10 lay bis hand on the II"e3.$l1n. bUI foond only the usuaI $:l(:r.unenlal inslromeolll lho.t "..,... identified for bim by anOlher Islami:ted CopL Th.,. man who dug the pil eKposed the fraud..lenl repon of YuJ:1anna. The Sol",n look no fu"her mea",,,,,, of confiscation, and 1M ease ..... c1OS"d. 11 is interestin, to note Ihal the Muslim hisMrian .1·Maqrizl quoted Cuptic SoOUrces on Ihe monns made by John VI, including supprCSl'ion of the simoniacal practice known as CHEI~OTON'A, He ..,. cord.,.d Ihal John wa. impervious '0 "ectpting gifts from his bishop••nd Ihal he never laid hand. on provi.ions from lhe members of hil congregalion. On Ihe conlrary, he p~e away all lhe fortu"" he accum..laled from com"",ree, atnOUnting 10 17,000 din,", 10 charitable instilullons Ihl'Ol.lghouI h" 1'6. trian;halt'. 1'I11'1UOCll,\PHY

ALi)". A.. S. Crusau Com_ru. lind C..I,..,.,.. Bloomington, Ind.. 1962. u.ne-Poole. S. Hislor1 of EIYf'I 'N tile Middle Ages. London, 1901. _ :nr" .4joJ,,,,,,,,,,,d,," o,NIISriU. PariI, 1915. Runciman, S. Historl of th~ C...udQ, ) ....... Cambridee, 1951-19!i4. SuBHI Y. Lo.!lIB

JOHN VII, se>-enl)"SeYtdth palriarclt of lhe S« of Saint Marl< (1262-1268, 1271-129)), John had a n"a! in GA8lUEL Ill. who replaced him by order of the sultan for a penod, after "'hich he r«aplured Ihe palriarchal seal for a second lim.,. II nal"'" of Old Cairo, hi. full name was V~'annis ibn IIbl Sa'id al·Sukkar1. Ouring the first period of his len ....,. John Vll was a contempornl)' of .he Mamlul s.. han al·~hjr Bayba,.. al·BunduqdArf (1260-1277), During al· ~hir Ba)'bars' reign, the number of Copts reached

,

JOHN VIII

the lowest level. owing to wholesale Islami2.luion by pressure tactics and brutal persecution, Many Copts feigned conv"rsion to save th"ir liv ... The Islamic sources indicate thaI Copts, who had been 40 percent of the population of Egypt, sank to a mere 10 percent under the Mamluks. The HISToRY OF THE PATRIARCHS contains Iinl" infonnation on this sub· j
Lane-Poole, S. Hislory of ED'pl i~ the Middle Age> London, 1901, ____ The Moh(lmmadan Dynasties. Paris, 1925, SUBlII Y. lABIB

JOHN VIII, eighlieth palriarch of the Se" of Saint Mark (1300-1320). Jobn is beller known in the HISTORV OF THE PATRIARCHS as the Son of a Saint, presumably penaining 10 a saintly spiritual father, wbose pal1iculars are nol identified, Even his mOnastic whereabouts are not clear from Ih" few lines devoled to his reign in thaI history. How"ver, his sc1
Lane-Poole, S, Hisrory of Egypr in the Middle Ages, Lond()n, 19Q1. ___ The Mohammadon Dynasti... Paris, 1925 SUBHI Y, lMllll

JOHN IX, dghty·first palriarch of the See of Saini Mark (1320-1321). John IX succeeded his predeC~r and namesake at one of Ihe mOSI critical mOmentS in Coplic hislory. Linle is known about his life before he lOOk the monastic \'OW, nor do we know much aboul his life as a monk. The HISTORy OF THE PATRtARCHS d""" nol indicate the monastery where he enrolled, and onl)' stales thai he was a nalive of Ihe village of Nahy;!. in Ihe Minufiyyah Province. He was unanimously selecled by the council of bishops, clergy, and ARCHONS shonly af· ler Ihe decease of JOHN VlIt. 11 is not known whelher he wa.. consecrated in Cairo or Alexandria, hUI he is known 10 have resided al the Church of Our Lady at I;l~Rrr WWAYUH, in Ihe midsl of a Coplic quanel wbere he could ~ safe from Ihe intennit· lent inroads of Muslim nt~ in the capital, Jobn IX was a contemporary of Su~tan al-N~ir MuJ:oammad ibn Qalawiin (1310-1341), and his reign was marked by a series of tragi,c e,'ents' lhal leff him no lime for anending to reform. He was hindered from Ihe work of restoring any churches by continuous anacks on the COplS, and he was unahle 10 p"'pare the CHRISM, The History of Ihe Patrion'hs Telates John'~ biography in a maller of a rew lines, in which is recorded a general statement that the COPI~ undeTWent bilter hardships in his reign and that many of them wene killed or burned or even crucified, They we", led in humiliating processions on camel's backs,

and they were required to wear dark robes with blue turban, and a girdle to distinguish them from Ihe Muslim majoriTy, The Islamic sources ",Iale many details of lhe repression of Ihe Coptic popula· lion, On 8 May 1321, many Coptic churches Ihroughout the country were destroyed. This aclion was premeditated and highly organized by fanatic groups. In the face of these events, Ihe Copts, whether Jacobit". or Me1chites, did nol stand motionles.s, Numbers of them sleallhily found IheiT ways to Muslim mosques and set them ablaze as a measure of relalialion, a fuct Ihat promptN Muslim counter· aClions, It is said IIIat a group of Me1chite monks from Turah contemplated the burning of Cairo. The History of the Patriarchs conc1ude~ its biography by saying thai peace was restoTed by Ihe lime John died. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lane·Poole, S, llisrory of Egypt in the Middle Ages. London, 19Q!. ___. The Mohammadan Dynastie5. Pari., 1925. SUBIU

Y. LAStS

JOHN X, eighty-fifth patriarch of the See of Saint Mark (13~3-13t>9). The biography of John X occupies only three lines in the HISTORl Of THe PATRI· ARCHS. He is descri~d as Father YuJ:oanna al-Mu'taman al-ShAmT, which seems 10 denole his Syrian origin. He was a 'man of learning and great vinue. We know nothing of his monastic iife or his affiliation wilh one of Ihe recognired Coptic monasteries. He is known to have acceded 10 the Ihrone of Saint Mark during Ihe rdgn of tbe Ba~li Mamluk suhan, ai-Ashraf Sha'blI.n (1363-1377), and we must assume Ihat his patriarchate was a peaceful one with no outstanding events connected with hi, life. SUBHI Y.

LABt8

JOHN Xl, eighly·ninth patriarch of Ihe See of Saint Mark (1427-1452). John's life before his selection is unknown. Hi, biography in the HISTORV OF THE fATlUARCHS is restricted 10 lhe dales of his inveSlilUre and decease. In fact, the biographer!; of that period of Ihe founeenlh cenlury have refrained from dealing wilh the evellls of most palriarchal reigns, and we have 10 look for Ihis male rial in Ihe contemporary Islamic sources, We do nOt know with which monastery John was

,

JOHN XI

affiliated at the lUrn: of his elec1ion, whic:h look pbce duri"llhe sultanale of the Mamluk a1-.wrn.c ~y (1422-143&). He .....,.,. a eonlemporary <X Jamil al-Din Ya:wf (1438) and died ill !he Ialler yea" 01.1.... ",il" of Jaqrn.aq (1438-1453). Perhaps the major event lhal oecurn:'d in lhe ear· ly ~a" of John', paniarchale concerned. the que.· lion of Ihe inherilance. of dec.ased COpts and Jews, According 10 al'MAQRIZI, In his 8",ed for col. let:tinC funds, ai-Ashraf 8arsbay appolmcd a penon of "low chanocre," 10 Mlend 10 Ihis fullction. His name does nor ~ar ill any source, for all SOUICC£ wen: dis£usrcd ..'i!h his policy <X illegal appn:>J>rialion 01 propeny .... the dca!ll of the owner. Heirs -... rtqUCSlcd to pro~ o8icial documents pr0ving \heir ov.'nrcsr.r John" and eM Far Easl. The ...... policy also aflectcd lhoe ",wions with Elhiopia. w!l.ich ...... COnrtet:le.l wi'" Ec>1lI through its reliPous ~ c e Oil lite patriarchate of John XI. nr... in u.e end, lIS Abyssinian SOYft'ei&ns de· dded to mend relations ..ilh the Mamluk "",ltans by disptltching a special emt-&y who urriccl • p .... ciQlJs lift 01. gold and the rare m«l"inal produ..... of th. country_ Th••mbassy also ..,bm;u.d a ro)'li bri.f asking the aUlhorllie. in Egypl to rcfl"llin from Ml'1ls.slng Ihe Copt.s and 10 let Ihem live in peac" .nd ••curity wilh Ih.ir churches Intact (.i·Maqrlzi< 1956, Vol. 4, pl. 2, p. 102"). Neither the Coplic nOr the Ishlmlc sources provide .n)' t;peellic infonn.·

dra....

1346

JOHN XII

tion about the situation of the Coplic church in Nubia nor do the~ treat the relationship with the sister Monoph}'site church of Antioch.

of a Coplic arehbishQp was gran led, and the patri· arch consecrated his ecclesiastical repre.;entati\'e of Egypt at the Abyssinian court,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ibn !:Iajar al·'Asqalanl. AI-Durar al-K~minah, 6 ,'ols. H~derabad. 1972-1976. LIne-Poole, S. Hi$lory of EgypJ in ,he Middle Age•. London, 1901. _ _~, The Mohammadan Dynasties. Paris, 1925.

LIne-Poole, S. His/ory 01 Egypl in Ihe Middle Ages, London, 1901. ___ The Mohammadan D)'nasiles, Paris, 1925. Mul)ammad ibn Al)mad Ibn lyas. Bada';' al·Zuhu, Ii Waqa'f' al-Duhur, 5 vok Cairo, 1960,

SUDHI Y. UtBtD

SuBHI y, UtBIB

JOHN XII, ninety-third patriarch of the See of

JOHN XIII, ninely·fourth palriarch of the See of

Saint Mark (1479-1482). John acceded to the throne of Saint Mark afle. an interregnum of about fwo years. during which the bi.hops, the dergy, and lhe archons could not settle on a .uitable candidate for this high ecclesiastical office, John was a native of the city of Naqadah in Upper Egypl and was a monk of the Monastery of Our Lady, known as n~n ~L·MUl;I~RMO, when his candi· dacy was approved. We do not know when he joined the monastery, nor do ,~ know anything aboul his .ecular life before he fook the monastic vOw. He was a contemporary of the Bulji Mamluk sui. tan al·Ashraf Sayf al·Din Qa.'itMy (1468-1495), un· der whooe rule the Copts li"ed in relative peace and security, Perhaps the most signifieanf event of John's reign was the receipt of an epistle hom the pope of Rome, Si.lUs IV (1471-1484). almost a quaner ofa amu'1' after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans. The HISTORY OF TIlE P~TRI~RCHS (Vol. 3, pt. 3, Arabic lext p, 159; lrans., p. 274) makes a special mention of thi, papal o"enure without detailing its contents, but ,tate, that the Coptic patriarchal reo sponse was a lengrhy one iqWhret' brochures. John XII summarizes their purport in IWO major points: (Il the elimination of contPdictory behavior in matters of doctrine; and (2)' the e!ltablishmenl of peace and conciliatiQn among all Christian ",cts. In this way, the patriarch preserved the Qld Coptic tradition of independent thinking, On Ihe internationai scene, the amicable n.'lations with the Ethiopian empire were renewed when an Abyssinian embassy arrived with precious gifts for the Sultan, who met their delegations with all lhe hQnors accorded to friendly nations, Egypt needed 10 secure its lrade roules in Ihc Red Sea. The n.'quest by the Abyssinians for tile appointment

Saint Mark (1484~1524). John's life before joining the Monastery of Our lady. known as nAU AL-MUl;I· ARIlAO. is unknown. After tile death of JOIn< ~11, the bishops, the dergy, and the archQn, remained undecided about Ihe selection of a candidate for patriarch for approxi· mately two years, Finally lhey chose another monk of Dayr al-MuJ:larraq whom Ihey consecrated as John XIII. Perhaps the mo,t memorable fact of his patriarchate was its lengrh of fon~i yea"" eleven months. and twenty·si~ days, He accery "I tlte Pmri"rch, records Ihat a new embassy from Rome arrived with an epistle from Ihc pope "f Rome hearing lhc same proposals as lhose received by iOHH XII half a century earlier. The Roman pontiff was seeking the submission of lhe Coplic Church (Fowler, 1901, p. 114). John XIV, like John XII, replied 10 it in the same essence, which indicates the independent place of the

1347

Coptic church. It is noteworthy> however, to point out thai Ihe secular Muslim regime of the counlry never interfered with these ecclesiastical missives between Rome and Alexandria. John XIV was a contemporary of two Ouoman sultans, Sellm II ([566-1574) and MurAd III (1574_ [595). There is little 10 repon on the relation' between the coun al Constantinople and Ihe patriar· chale in Cairo, which was 100 remote from the centcr of power 10 attraci any special allention by the Turki,h sultans, who acled through local foreign vicero)'s dispatched to Cairo from Istanbul. Beyond Ihe payment of the annual ta, 10 the viceroy's office, Ihere is hardly any record of nOlable OCCurrenceS affecling the Copt>. After a relath'ely quiet reign of fifteen years, John XIV diod and was interred in an unknown Coptic chu""h, probably in Cairo. BIBLIOGRAPHY Fowler, M. Chrislian Egyp'. London, 1901. Hanotau", G., ed. Hi,IOi,. de I" ""tion egyptie"ne, 7 vols. Paris, 1931- 1940. Meinardus, 0, Chrisli"" Egypl: A"cieM ""d Modern. Cairo, 1977. SUaHt Y. LlBIB

JOHN XV, ninely·ninth palriarch of Ihe See of Saint Mark (1619-1634). John was a nalive of the cily of Mallawl in Upper Egypl. He wa< probably sel«te
JOHN XVI, 103rd palriarch of the Set' of Saint Mark (1676-1718). He succeeded MATTIIEw tV (I c>6O- 1675), originally a monk of uAYR AL-BARAMOs.

1348

JOHN XVII

As a nall~ of lhe old tiry of Tokh l>""l~ri or

Tolkh

Oalabh his sKular name before \lIlklns the monaMk "0\01 al DAYR ",,"&I """'!"ONI1'OS _ Ibrthlm a1·Ttlkhl. He "'"as a man of ,...1 lheolosinJ knowl· flIse and he "'. ~ to the ....,,·ke of his ehurch durin, adver5e intemal events and elllema1 plouilllNt peni5ted througboul his ...,iJ1l of Sonytwo yean..

He reslored
Duling his reip. the Capek community sufered ,rnlly from the imposition of uttaanfinary tau· rion from which the hierarchy could nt)I escapr. In 17B, a pm"", (Turkish decree) issued by the

Ounman sull4n in Comtantinople -hereby lbe khhir ~~moT) of each dislricl was ordered 10 liM '"'"ell' Chri51ian and Jew. These fines we.., di"idtd inlO Ih..,e categories to cope wilh the financial ability of each individual. including Ihe c[.,rn'The fiM catep)' ....as _ d 101 .20 fH"as (dT)' measur=) a head. the ","cond at 210, and the Ihird al 100. Coupled with a general Sl4te of famine and Ihe failu.., In Ihe crops Ihal caused lhe p""e of an aT/lOp (dry measure) of wheal to soar (0 six gold dinars, many poor Cop.. r.iled 10 meel the n.", impost and .....re ""ved from punlshmenl only by lbe InlerceSllion of certain archons in Ihe Copti
'0

1350

JOHN XVIII

..In. a CiIIoJlU'in in the Dulch na,'Y nam.-d Fr«krick Nord..n. also visiled EIO'J'I in ..... _ p.-riod ard wt"OI.. voluminous accounts of hi5 ..ull, but th..,h.o~ .. liltl.. ","arin& on lh.. Copa.. From 1736 l(> 110, ..... mOSl J>OW'"'I'fuI tttaII in f.mll was 'UthnWt (Bey) Zulliqir, who di5pl~ only .,.,.. virtue by not ac",q>rin& bribes. but ..... tynnnical in his trnlmn\1 of his 5Ub;ecu, OIn.cian and M11SIim alit.... Unlike the Marnluk amin. how......... he ..".,Ip.-d -...ination and ...- his ~. 10 Conslantinople, although his hoo.as.- .... pllbc.-d and saek.-d by local . . . Is and unruly sold...... T_-.rd lhe end of John', pattian"h.ol.., in 1745, lhe ... Ilan Mal)mCld I Mso.-d .. """rel ord.-r 10 lhe ..-h.o of Egypl, M~onad lUghib. to ul..rmina... til.- tl"OlJbletom.- bul 'l-..d to be e~ more rapacio~ than the preceding Mamluk am;"'" He pye .. fr..,..- hand 10 his conquerin. !lOldien to abu5e lhe ChrisIians, and by his order they pillaged their houses and sokI their prop.-ny in public auctions. Tke Htm)II;Y or Tttf 'AlIUIoJ.OI$ reportS that oold fon:ed h.cr 10 divulge the sedstUI. The ..-is were destmy«I, there ....... no toecUrity an)"""""re, and ...iw remained attn the ra,-aces of.he ami.... ktl prey to the bcdouillO who marauded lhe t:OUnt'}'5ide. At the close of the eip.....nth century, Ec'J'C was perhaps ill a worse condition than it had ......r been "'IKe Roman ",Ie with in