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The Coptic Encyclopedia
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Editors and Consultants Editor In Chief Aziz S. Aliya Ullivcrsily of Utah EdItOnl Willi...
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The Coptic Encyclopedia
,
Editors and Consultants Editor In Chief Aziz S. Aliya Ullivcrsily of Utah EdItOnl William Y. Adams University of Kell1/lcky Basilios IV
Archbishop of lemsalem PieTTC du Bf)urguet, SJ. Lollvre Museum, Paris Rene-Georges Coquin College de France, "uris w. H. C. Fl'cnd GltUgow Univers;ly Mirri! BoUlI"OS Ghali
Society of Coptic Archaeology. Cairo Bishop Gregonos Higher Im;/iwle 0/ Caplic SlIldics. Cairo Peter Grossmann Germatl Il/stiW/e of Archaeology, Coiro AnlOine Guillaumont College de France, Paris
Rodolphe Kassel' Ulliversity 0/ Gelleva Martin Kr-.luSC
West/alische Wilhelms~U"iversilal, Milnsler Subhi Y. I...,bib Kid Ulliversily Tilo Orlandi University (If Rome Marian Rob(,rtson Ulah State University Khalil Samir Pontifical Oriental Ins/ilU.le, Rome Consultants Labib Haba(:hi Egypt/WI Depurlmelll of Antiquities, Cairo
J. M. Robinson h,slitllle of AIl/iquity alTd Chris/iallity, C/arCIIIOIlI, Colifomia Magdi Wahba Cairo Ulli,'ersity Editorial Managing Committee S. Kent Brown Brigham Young University, Provo Fuad Megally Polytechllh' of Cell/rol London
•
Aziz S. Atiya EDITOR IN CHIEF
Volume 6
Macmillan Publishing Company NEW'rtJRJ(
Collier Macmillan Canada TORONlD
Maxwell Macmillan International NEW 'rtJRK· OXFORD· SINGAPORE· SYDNEY
,
Copyright C 1991 by Macmillan Publishing Company A Division of Macmillan, Inc.
All righLS reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any fonn or by any means, electronic or mechanical. including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and rClrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Macmillan Publishing Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022 Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc. 1200 Eglinton Avenue East, Suite 200, Don Mills, Ontario M3C JNl Library of Congress c..,talog Card No.: 90-23448 Printed in the United Slates of America
printing number
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Library of Congress Cataloging·in-Publication Dala
The Coptic encyclopedia p.
I Aziz S. Atiya, editor-in-chicf.
em.
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN O·02·897025-X (set) 1. Coplic Church-Dictionaries. 2. Copts-Diclionaries. I. Atiya, Aziz S., 1898BXI30.5.C66 1991 281 '.7'03-dc20
90-23448 CIP
The preparation of this volume was made possible in pal1 by a groint from the National Endowment for lhe Humanities, an independent federal agency. Photographs on pages 567, 736, 754, 755, 790. 791, 876-878, 1284. 1311, and 2168 arc reproduced courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Photography by the Egyptian Expedition.
(continued)
MUHAOHOHAB A....oIN ABO SA'ln IBN ARt SULAYMAN, physician son of Abi SuJ3ymflll D;'iwlid ibn Abi 31·Muna ibn Abl Fanah from whom, 3mong OIhers, he learned medicine, and brolher of AaO ALFAQL IBN ADI SUL\yM.\N and of Abu Sh:iklr ibn AbT Sulnymiin, to whom he laught Ihe 3n of medicine. He wa.~ a skilled uoclor, respected and wilh a good position at coun. The suhlln al-M;lllk al·'Adil (1200-1218), for whom he worked, app..inted him to the sentlee of his son ai-Malik al-Mu'~m. He also worked as physician for ai-Malik al-Nl\sir Salt\h • • • ai-DIn. He moved to Egypt and remained there umil his death in 1216, He wns buried at Diir ~i·Khandaq in ClIiro. While in D(llna~ell~ he also taught his nephew Rashid ai-DIn AnO t.tUL\YUAIl, PENE,;WPE JOHNSTONE
MUI:fAMMAD 'ALI, VICEROY. See Mu~am. mad 'All Dynasty.
MUJ:lAMMAD 'ALI DYNASTY, a family dial ruled Egypt for about a eenlury and a half (1805-
1691
1952). The following is a brid survcy of Ihe line of succession, with panicular reference to Ihe role played by the Copts during Ihe time of each ruler. Dales refer 10 the yean of their accession and demise or abdication.
Mubammad 'All, Viceroy (1805-1849) An outstanding soldier and statesman, Mu~am· mad 'All wa~ the founder of modem Egypt and of the dynasty that ruled the country until the 1952 revolution. Following the French Invasion or Egypl (1798), the sultan sent lin cltpedJtlooary force, including a contingent of Macedonlan Albanians, of whom Mu· J;lammad 'All W89 an officer. After the defent of the French and Iheir departure in 1801. Mu~ammad 'All stayed on and watched the ensuing confusion and struggle for power between the MamJuks, the OUOman governor, and the Egyptian people, whieh he eltploited for his own benefit. In 1805, having won the contidence of the inhabi· tants, he was asked by Ihe '«/emas (the Muslim) 10 become Iheir ruler, and Ihe sultan had 10 confirm him as governor (walI). MuJ;lanullad 'All was subsequently able; 10 gel rid of his rivals and become; the; unchallengcd master of the counlly. Ue
1692
MUI:IAMMAD 'ALi DYNASTY
now SCt out 10 Ir(lllSfQr'ln ~gypt into 1l powerful slate sclf·sulfidcnt economically, industrially, and ag,'icuhUl'ally. 1·le rcbuih [he army alld the navy,
with which he achic\'ed resounding succco;scs and victurics all lIround I;gypl. He Clltcndcd I,is influence into Arahia, the Sudan, Sy.ia. Crete, and Ana· tulia, upscuing the political balam;c in tht, arca. With their inl(~reslS seriously thre:uened, the for· cign powers intervened, and in 1840, Muhammad 'All's vast empire was reduced to Egypt and the Sudan. He ....'35 also given hereditary rule of Egypt. MuJ.tammad .All's physical and menial faculties deteriorated IOward the end of his life, and he died in 1849, 11is SOil Ib,..oIhim having prt:1.1l-'Ceas..'J him in 1848. Among the innucnlial Copt:; who scrYl'd under Mu~ammad 'All, supplying him with huge amounts or money from their pri\'lnc sources to finance his projects, WllS Mu'allim JIMJIS AIAAWHAII.I (d. 1810), and Mu'allim CHAw. Mu~ammad 'AIT also l.'mployed some Cop!.s in key lIdmi"istrtltive positions as gov· ernors or provinces: Riu: Asha in Sharqiyyah, Makram Agha in Atnt.l, Mikha'll "II:M in Fashn. and Bu!ru~ Agh1 in Bardls (Riy!~ Sury:\l. 1984. pp. 4950). II is said that when Muhammad 'All was approached by Europeans st.-cking 10 ronn a o.:ompany to finance the building or a canal between the Med· itcrranean and the Red Sea, Mu'allim Ghalj pointcd out to him the inherent danll:cr of such a "Olnpany to the sovereignty of Egypt.
'AbbAs J;ltlmll, Khedive (1813-1854) Frum the beginning of his reign. 'Abbfls l;Iilmi aimed at selling mles and policies contral)' to those of his predeccssol1l. He wanted to relieve the Egyp· tian economy of foreign pressure lmd inflllcnce by liquidating (III projects of economic growth inaugu· ntled by his gl1lndralher. Muhammad 'AIT, whicb, in his opinion, rendered the economy or Egypt suhser· vient to Eurupe, As " resull. he closed ,,11 modern factories and all higher schools, and decreased the l"orces of both the army and the navy. He believed that his grandfather had opened the door widll for Europe:tll influence :tnd weakellt.~ the Ottuman elllpil"e by the destruction of its rniHtal)' power in Egypt. Because uf his Otlumiln eduCiltiun ilnd upbl'inging, he lended to oppose the policies of both Mu~ammild 'Ali and Ibrahim. Cunscquentl.v, he de· viated from their policies and stal1ed pel-,;ccuting allthl.'ir fonner assistants in the European projects. In this way, 'Abb& thought to relUl'n Egypt to its
Islamic and Orienl:.1 Ch.\rtICler and lu fn:~ il frum Western ambitions. But soon lime Iwoved hi.~ gross misjudgment. In fact, even his l-elationship with lhe Supreme Pone or ConSlanlinupl1; deleriur,lted later bt.-cause of his allempt 10 suppress some of its administrative privileges gr,lnled under iln [846 treaty. Owing to BI'itain's fa\'Ot"llble position with Turkey, 'Abb.'is thought 10 ask Ihe English authorities to negotiate on his behalf with Ihe Suprenle Pune and in return offered the British a projeci of constructing a railW.lY linl; from Alexandria lu SUC"L via Cairo. In Ihe meantime, he insisted that this projecl should be rl,.-garded as an Egyptian one 10 avoid the infihm· tion or English influence into lhe country. This siluation was indin.'t:t1y afT«ted by the oul· break of the Climean War between Russia and Turkey. The czar olfc~d Britain the oppol1unity to occupy EiYiJt in return for giving him a rree h.md 10 seize cenain J13l1!i of Ottoman terrilOry. Accord· ingly, 'AbbAs hasH:Ilt.'t! 10 accept lhe Turkish sui· tan's proposal 10 cnler Ihe Crimenn War, by rein· forcing the Egyplian amlY and the ronifieiltion of hi~ own coa.~!.'1 against any JI'05-~ible incur.;ions by the British navy. In the lonll: run, Egypt W,lS able to escape all h37.ards precipitated by this Orienlal cri· sis. Internally, the viceroy enlertained lhe idea or lransport.ing the Coplic communily from Egypt to lhc Sudan and Ethiupl:l, thereby giving Egypl an unmixed Islamic color. Thl!! strange project was communicaled 10 Ihe Islnl1lie religious authurilY fur comment, and a clear' fulwo (religious opinion) was issued refuting this idea and informing lhe viceroy th,lt the Cupls were lhe ur'ill:innl inh'lbilnnls uf the land of Egypt and that their extelmination would he holh wrong and impractical. On 14 July 1854, 'Abbfl.~ was assassinated by a group uf eonspirnlurs from his own f:lmily in his own palace at Sanh:'. Al the lime or hi.~ death, the nlilwuy line had re'jehed Karr ill·Zayynl; il was cumpletcd in the reign of his successor, Sa'Td [·asha.
Sa'ld, Khedive (1854-1863) Unlike his preclecessul", 'Abbf\s Hilmi I, &l'td en· coumge1 Rdations, 1800-1953. London, 1954. Mlkhl'lI ShAnlblm. AI·KlJ/r 11 TllrlkJr Mi:fr al..(}adim wll·al fladrth. Cairo, 1900. Precis de I'histoire de I'Egyptt:. Cairo, 1932-1935. Dalllni Fahml (Pasha). Mudhllkkirllt 'an Ba'd lIawll· dith Il/.MtJ.t!I, vol. I. Cairo, 1931. RamzJ Tlidrus. ,t./,AqbiJ! /t-flI·Qam tll·'hhnn, vol. 2. Cairo, 1911. Ri~ Suryal. M-Mlljtllma' al.Qibri 11 Mi:fr Ii al·Oam al·Tllsi' 'Ashar. Cairo, 1984. Sabry, M. L'Empire etyplian sous I.~mail. Paris, 1930. Safran, N. Egypt in St:llrch 0/ Political Community. Cambridge, Mass., 1961. SchoIch, A. Egypt lor lIlt: Egyplians. London, 1982. Nawllbigh al.Aqbii! waTaw8q lskan1s. Mashllhlmhllttt II al·Qam al-Tllsf 'A.~har, vol. 2. Cairo, 1913. Tignor, R. Modllmization ulld British Ca{ollial Rule in Egypl, 1881-19/4. Princeton, N.J.. 1966. Ya'qob Nakhlah Ruraylah. Tlirikh al·Ummah al-Oib· (iyyah, pp. 282-81. Cairo, 1899. Youssef, A. Independent Egypt. London, 1940. RA'OI' 'Af:lIIAS HAMED
MUJ:lAMMAD RAMZJ
(1871-[945), Egyptian scholar. He wa~ born and educated at Ihe town of al.Man~Orllh in the Delta and latcr al llic School of Law In Cairo. [n 1892 he joined the Ministry of Finance as a clerical employee, and by 1930 he had been promOled to the position of inspector general of land taxalion. During his lung carel", he visited every region of the country, making extensive sur· veys of every town, village, hamlet, and fann. He was keenly interested in the names, history, and background of every area, which he checked and revised in the light of information given mainly by al·Maql1lJ'S KillJh al.Khi{a! (Land Survey) and 'All Mubllrak's AI·Khital al-Tawliqiyyah, as well as many medieval and modem geographers, including such French geographers as Emile Aml:lineau, Jean Mas-
1695
pero, a·M. Quat remere, and G. Daressy. He thus became the leading authorily on Egyptian topony· my. In 1941 he published M·Dall1 al-lllghrafi (Geo· graphical Guide), but his mast valuable work, AI· QiJmus al·lullhrajt fjf·Bilad al.M4rlyyah (Geographi· cal Dictionary, 2 vols.), was posthumously published. Its illlponance lies In the facl that it is fully comprehensive, covering Egyptian loponymy from ancienl lim(:$ 10 Ihe present. FuAD MEGAUY
MURDI. MUJ:lAMMAD AL-, Muslim scholar, born as a Copt about 1731 and died a Muslim in 1815. Muhdl became one of the leading Egyptian 'ulam/J' (Muslim scholars) of hb time. As a child of Coptic parents, he was originally named Hibal' Allah. About 1150 his father, Abu F1nylls (Epiphan. ios) Faen time,.
~j KY'fl-'"
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(;()H
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Ky·······pl·e···················· Ky·······J·i·e··-.
~ (1- - - - _ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
AeH-COIl
e···············_--··-··lee-son Example of anliphonal choral singing. The Furt)'-one Kyrit! preceding the Procession of the HOIit from Ihe Liturgy of St. Basil. Transcriptiun by Robt!rlSon. In the trnnscriptions by Robcrt50n. a plus sign (+J over a note indicales a quaneNone higher. and a minus sign (-] indicates a quaner'lone lower.
1717
1718
MUSIC, COPTIC; Des crip tion of Ihe Cor pus and Pre sen t Musica l Pra ctic e
tl- -·· ·-· -·· ·T tI· --· ·-· -·- -·· -tl hi· - . - - - - - - - - te . - . - - .. - . - - - - . n
Nl- --- -·-· --- ·.E iy- --.ni· .. - - - .... - . - eu ... - -
--'.
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---- -Tt !
1I.l.1
-b (e)n - - - - - te
(; ••• 2Onses. Today these are sung in Greco·Coptit:, Coptic, and Arabic. The texl.~ 3re written in the Bohlliric dialcct (in Upper Egypt thc Sahidic dialect m3Y be heard), and al'e accompa· nied by a line·by·linc translation in Arabic. with the rubrics all being in Arabic a.~ well. The l3st section of the E"cha/ogiol/ contains ahe texts of many chants and hymns proper to the various tilurgical
seasons. The panicipanu in the celebration of the liturgy and Offering of Incense are:
I. The offidafll, that is, the pricst (Arabic: til.
Kilhin), and/or other high mcmbers of the dcflO' who happen to be prcscfll and wish (0 palticipale. It is the role of the officiant to offer the prayers (Arabic: tlwshi)'}'llh, pl. Ilwilshf), which may be noeitcd silently or sung aloud, according 10 the traditional melodies adjusted to the festal and seasonal requirements. These prayeTS are constructed on recurring psalmodic formulas, some beginning with simple, unadomed Slalements, and othcTS having an eXlended mclisma from Ihe OUI$CI. Since they bCi:ome more and more elaborate as they continue, and conclude with a formula comprised of Ihe richest of melismala, they llIay be rather 'engthy. They a~ int<med in fn.oe rhylhm that generally follows Ihe lexlual accents and metel'S. 2. The DeACON (Arabic: tI/.shtimmils) wh~ dutil$ include relaying the biddings (Arabic: /l/-"bru,siit, from Greco·Coptic; r'lfoceyxtt, derived from Greek 1TpocmJX+', proseukht) of the officiant, reading the lessons, and le3ding the set reSJl()nSeS and singing of the Conl{regational hymns. Like the officiant, he cantillates in free rhythm, and his melodic line may be both rhapsodic and/or chanting. His melodies are genel'ally more rhythmic thlln thosi: of the officiant, with duple and triple metres alternating ac· cording to the textual accents. Voealises and melismata arc common, but they in no way change the basic structure of the melody. Because the melodies of the officiant and deacon arc rendered solo, then.: is greater opportunity here fOJ' improvisation and vocal embellishment lhan in the choir pieces. 3. The choir and/or people (Ambie: U/-lihfl'b) sing certain responses (Arabic; lIlaraddllt) and portions of the hymns. In the ellrly centuries, these sections were Mlligned to Ihe people a.~ a whole, but as the IituT"iY developed, they became so complicatt:d that Ihose who were not musiclilly inclined could nOI sing them. Thus the choir of deacons, trained in
-, 1720
MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Prescnt Musical Practice
A··························· ...
(a)······························
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.
. .
.
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(a)···························
MUSIC, COPTIC: Dt=scription of the Corpus and
(a)
. . . • - .•
....
Pres~nt
Musical Practice
1721
_--_._.- ...
Facing pog~ ond ooovc:: Example of chor.tl vocaliM'. Beginning of the TrisagiQII Hymn, as sung on Good Friday. Transcription by Rober/SOil.
smgmg, replaced the congl'egation. In the la'"gcr cOngregations this choir may number about twdve. The deacons involved stand by the iconostasis at light angles 10 the sanctuary in two Jines fadng each othel', with one line known liS the bahr! ("nonhem"j, and the other as the qiblf (".~ollth. em"), According to the rubrication of "I]" or "Q" marked in the margin of the text, the choil' may sing antiphonally, strophe aoout, or two strophes aboul. The singers altcmate according to the r"rm of the musical phrase. They may also sing in uni·
. ,.
Among !litany familiar choir pieces, th~ rna}' be dted: (I) Ihe hymn "We worship the Father .. :' (Copeic: ~T H4-T. lenouOSht(e)tIl{e)phiOI), which is sung Wednesday through Saturday at the beginning or the Morning Offering of Incense; (2) the nJSM;tQH ("Holy God! Holy and Mighty! Iioly and Immortal! .. :': Greco-Coptic: MK)(; 0 oc-oc: ,\/1()C tcXy1'OC: )J'"IOC ,lo9,\,IU,TOC ••• , agios 0 thllQS: agios isshyros: aglOS athanatos ... ), which, according to legend, comcs from a hymn lOunS by Nic"demus and Joseph at the Lord's entombment; and (3) the LORD'S PRAYER (Coptic: xe OOHIIlT ...• je peni· 01 ... ), which is chanted on one note. The melodies for the people and/or choir arc quite simple, with lillie embellishment, Hnwevel·, certllin hymns are complicllted by some rudinll'llta· ry, rhythmic ormtmenHltion inteilral to the compn· Jhlon. As has been stated, thi.~ choral singing is lllorHxl· ic, and should any harmonic clements appear, they are only occasional overlappings of the incipits or one part with the linalis of another. AI.'lO, the unison chant may not always be perfl-oct, for some singers, wishini to participate in the ac~ of praise but not having good musical ears, do not listen to each other. Such lack of precision may be rather p...,va· lent today, for in many chun;hes the people, led Ind supported by the choir of dcacons, are again Iclively rendering the hymns and responses, once
again fulfilling the role originally assigned to them, A. vel)' wide vibrato characteri1.es all the singing. Although the melodies of the participants arc dis· tinctive, as described above, there arc many trails common to all. One of the most obvious characteristics of Coptic music, and one that probably de· rives from ancient times, is the prolonglltioll of a single vowel ovcr many phra~es of music that vary in length and complication. This phcnomcnon may take two forms identified by scholars as vocalise, when the vowel is prolongeI: many vocalisCli and mdismata, ::J. study of the text alone does not always indicate the form of the music. The music may rurther show its independence from the text in that musical and textual phrases do not always cOlTCSpond. For CJtample, in the Utul'1O' or Saint 8a~il, there is considerable enjambment in the solos or the priClit and in the hymns sung pl"\.'ceding the anaphora: in !lOme hymnlO a musical ca· dence ma)' occur even in the middle of a word ("Juda.~. Judas," heard during Holy Week on Maun· dy Thursday, is a case in point). In addition, the music nllIy distort the stresS and length of the syl. lables, especially it' the text being sung is Greek. Other tmlts ure also prevalent. Melodies tend to pr'OCeed diatonically, usually within a range of five tones, with a characteristic progression of a half· step, whole step, and half·step, both descending and ascending. There may be intervals of thirds in the melodic line, although the distinction between the major and minor third is not always recognized as clearly as in WClitem music; the augmented second 11O rare: the diminished fourth occurs rather often. Throughout, there arc numerous microtont.'$, and, therefore, many intervals can never be accurately reproduced on a keyboard instrument. Indeed, by
1722
MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Prescnt Musical Practice
J" 82
moll() rll,
~~J~~'I b. EJlamplc of char:aclcri:;lic interval progressions. a. From the I-Iymo Shere Maria ('o'-hlil Mlll)'''), prepnl':uol)' 10 the Liturgy O(SI. D.ll;il. b. Typical Cadcm;c (fTom P"llim ISO, sung as a COl1lmuniull Hymn). TrOlrJf;riplions /Iy Rober/SOIl.
means ot' these rnicrotone:-;, the implied lonal cent,'e of a given tune may shirt imperceptibly, some' timeli by as much ;IS a minor thil1,l or more. Many Kholal'$ have felt Ihal Coplic melodies ~m
to unfold in spontaneous anJ endless improv-
isation. However, analyses reveal that this music ha..~ been construc!cd according to definite fonlls, lhn;oe of which may be described. (I) Some sonB-~ are made up of various brief ph'"ases, which an.: woven together SO us to form clearly identifiable sections (usually three or four) unci repeated with slight vadalion: the piece ends with a prescribed cadcntial formul;!., Concerning these compositions, Newlandsmith (sec Musicologisls, below) isolnted tcn musical pIU'U5eS which he temlcd "typical." The extended voealisc:s and mclismalll described above are fUllnd most often in this kind of piece. (2) Other melodics arc composed of longer, Individual phras. es. complete in thcmsel\'es, so thaI one or two such pht"'olS(,.'S, repeated as strophes and/or fefmins, are 5ufflcielll for the construction of an entire hymn. (3) Some songs are made up of melodic line and rhythm lhlll Me simplified to fit the inflection and rhythm of the te~l. Such melodies tend to be syllah, ic and often have an ambitus of only two or three tones. Some important terms, which appear in liturgical books and manuscripts to specify th~ music to be sung with a givcn text, are the Coptic HXOC, adopt· (I!'chos): the Coptic ~ ed from Greek (Bohem) or 0)"(n6H (ouohem). meaning ··fe· sponsc": and the At"'oIbic LAI:IN (I'll, ,,(I./ull). Ibn 8i,,1 (1106-1187), ll!l quoted in LisM/ o/·'Arab (complied by Ibn Man?,lir, 1232-1311), asslJ.:ned to lal,m six meanings, among which are "song" arid "pSlIlm,
",roo;
odbdng" 01' "inloning." Western scholars have manslated la~ltl as "lone," "air:' and/or "melody," bOl none of these words conveys ils full meaning. Although the lenn may have some affinilil$ wilh Ihe Ambic maqAm and the Byzantinc echos, in Cop, tic music it refers basically to a cenaln melody or melody-Iype which l~ readily recognired by Ihe people and known by a specific, oflen dcscripti\'e name, such as /al!/l a/.~,u", (".. ,of grief"), {al!lI a/·faral., (n", of joy"), lal,m al'la;"fl (n. , , for the dead"), (/1.!a~lIl a/'lIla'rflf ("familiar"), etc. Wl'itinll in the fourteenth century, IRN KAI)AR named some lwent,v·silt OII!IJII, mOSI of which are slill known today, Some, designated sUllawiyyah (annual), lire sung throughout Ihe year, whereas others may be reserved for one occasion only. The same text may be sung to different QII!IJ", and conversely, the same IQI111 may have different tellts. Funhennore, Ihe same lal1" may have Ihrec fonns: shol' (qaffr), abridged (mukhlafar), and long (!owf/), Among many beautiful al~IIJ", the sorrowfullal1" Idribf may be ciled as one of the most eloquent. Performed on Good Friday, during the Sillth Haul', h expresses vividly the tt"'dgedy of the Crucifixion. Its text being Ihe psalm versicle preceding the Gospel Icelion, it is also called Mal/HI'r Idribf (Psalm Idlibl). This name may derive from Ihe ancient village Alribi, which once Siood near prescnt·day Suhilj, or it may stem from Coptic 6T6f'2tI&l (one causing grief). An· other 'QI1" whose rulmc shows the anliqoity of its music is I.Q~1Il Si"jdrf, named after SINJAR, an lin· eienl village near RosellO, The twO melody types mOSl frequently named are Afhml and Baros (Ar..bic: ADAM and wATUS). Hymns labeled Adam arc to be sung Sunday through Tues·
MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Present Musical Practice
J _116 MOli( I
-
Motif II
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she-re Ma-ri-······· a······· ti··ou··ro ti . vo (c)n a·lo·1i Malif III
~
Motif IV
~~'~ 0I1-6··TO Moo oY'-W--'-1 the-c·-te (c)mpe au -. 6 - - - - i
6---fO-·····-·y-·-w·--······--·-1
e·--ro--······u···6········-····i
{I·······-·roc·· e····-----ros··
Example of compositiun type 1. Beginning of Ihe Ilymn Shere Aft/ria ("Hail Mary'), preparalOry 10 Ihe Ulurgy of 51. Basil. TrartUripl;()I1 by Rober/5OtI.
J>=72-80
Phrase I.
-
Ii ·He • 'T·~e • GoJ-go-tha (e)m.mc··t·h(; /"0,\·/"0·9.),
J ,,,
- .• - . • . . - •• &re • • • • • • • . • • • • OC
···bl'c""""",
'OS
. .
* "01 6····W·····1t.
.
af··o··-·········-----sh e,-,-v(J·····I
.
.1....
-0)-- •• - •••••••••
Example of composition Iype 2. From lhe Hymn Ca!gollrll, sung during lhe Twelfth Hour on Good Friday. TrQ"~ripl;o,, by Rober/sort.
1723
1724
MUSIC, COPTIC: Description of the Corpus and Pnolsenl Musical Practice
cove
lII-----XfIC---TOC
(I - - - lOtI - - - - -fl
le----sQUS
pi--(c)Khris - - - los
(c)['I' .. she· ... -n
III - - .
~\
)i
IW'
I~\
P ~
-J
~ss ,
H._._ .. IA).
which is l>elfonned immediately before the E"cning Offering of In-
cense. at the conclusion of the Prayers of the Mid· night Hour, and between the Office of M0l11ing Prayer and the Moming Offering uf Inccnt<e, In the monasteries, Psu/modia is performed dall.v, bUI in the city churches, il has become cuslom31)' 10 perfonn il only on Sunday eve, that is, Saturday night.
I
,
The texis IIml order of the prayers, th~' hymns. and the Iec:llons are to be found in the bo..II:, a/.A1>SflJmudiyYuh a/.Sanuwiyyah. Abo. a special book, a/·Ab.wlmlfdi)')·llh Il/-KiYrlhkiYYrlh. comains the
COIT\US
anti Present MusicRIA (c. 150220), which, however, may date from an ClIrIicr period. Only the telll is given. Three more papyri from Egypt, edited by Jourdan·Hemmen.linger. contain a system of dots related to letters of" the lext, which may perhaps indicate a type of musiC-'ll notation. Two of thl'SC date from the third cemury s.c.. but one of them (British Museum, 1m'. 230), found in the Fayyl1m and dating from the third or founh century UI.. appears to be from a Psalter wrilten in Greek. None of these has yel been deciphered into musical fonn. One other manuscript of Egyptian provenance, dating from the fifth or sixth cemury 10.0.. Is contruversial. Covered with circles of varied si'l'C$ and colors. it "'"as considcrcl.! by A. Gulezyan of New York to represent musical notation, which he transcribed IIlIO Western notation and subsequemly published. Jourdan-Hemmcrdinger. viewing it as a po.s.~ible development from the system of dots, has tentatively identified it as an elememary manual of practical music. Eric Werner and Rcn~ Menard, on Ihe other hand, do not consider it to be any kind of musical notation. Although it is obvious Ihat many texts are common 10 both lhe Coptic and Gn'ek Churches, it doe~ nOI necCMarily secm 10 follow Ihal Ihe melodies have been held in common as well. For e~am· pie, Ihe great hymns The OIt/y-81'~ottell (Creek: b P.OJiO'Yfv1F.. ho trIonogenes) and the TRISAGION havc the same text In bOlh traditions, bUI the Greek and Coplic mclOi:lies for lhem arc entirely different. In view of this facI and mher supporting obselvations, one might lent:ltivcly propose that hOlh the melodic style lind Individual melodies of the Coptic \;hurch appet\r to have remained diSlinct. However, since lhe relalion of Greek and Coptic music is il study slill in its infancy, no comprehen~ive or definitive Sltllement can be made nbout Ihls problem at pres· ent. Poulble Egyptian Influence. Despite Greek innuenees in lhe urban centers, in th~, pharaonic tern' ple5 and throughout lhe nlrnl 1l1'eaS in general, an· cient E&yplilln music continued to bc pcrfomled. "The people lhought, fclt, and sang 'Egyptian'" (Hickmann. 1961, p. 17). Homdsha, a haflJist. and 'Ankh·hep, a temple musician and cymbal player (bolh Iirst century A.D.), arc IWo prufl:Ssionals whose names indicate their Egyptian lOOK Hicklllllnn pmpo.~ed a connection between the
Kyrie and the ancient Egyptian riles of lhe sun-god, and according to Baumstark, a litanic form of the l~i~ prayer is found in lhe Olfyrhynchu.~ Papyrus 1380; even the Invocations of the saints in the RolIIan formulary arc dosdy relnted to this andent cult. In the Songs 01 Isis and Nepht/lYs (Middle Kingdom teXiS, trans. both Faulkner and Schou), evidcOl;:e exists of antiphonal singing, which still remains today as a basic feature of Coplic music (see ANTIPHON and Description of the COIPUS and Present Musical Practice, above). This pnlclice was also known among Ihe Thempeutae, an a.~etic sect of Alexandria (c. 100 R.C.). Another Coptic musical characteristic that might have exisled in pharaonic EcYPt is Ihc vocalise and/or melisma (sec Description of the Corpus, above). After research into Middle Kingdom texl5, Hickmann suggested that certain repeated syllables (translitenltctl by him as X', X', Xf ... , khe, khe, khe ... ) mighl be inteflJrctl-od as such. Further. some Gnostic lexts contain vocal· ises said to be built on the seven "magic vowels." Pseudo-Demetrius of Phaleron referred to this phe· nomenon as well, calling it "kalophony." Other holdovers from ancient Egypt could be the use of professional blind singers in Ihe performance of the liturgical services (see Cantors, below). and the use of percussion instrumenls in certain rituals (see Musical Instruments, below). Hickmann and Borsai felt that Ihe folk song.~ of Egyptian villagers have melodies and rhythms similar to those of Coptic ehanl. Much more l'CSCarch needs to be done, however. From the Beginning or the Church to the Council orChnlccdon (451 A.D.) Uke other Christian churches in the early centur· ies, the Coptic church was a nUlional one. It used the musical style and perhl1p~ even some melodies familillf 10 the people. According to Baumstark, the primitive Iiltlrgiclll leX1S were, for lhe mOSl part, ImproviSlltions. 'nle riles developed gradually, and varied from region 10 r·egion. But there was throughoUl lhe church a common font of telfts meant to be sung. The Coptic hr)s might possibly be assigned to this first period (see De.~riplion of the Corpus, above). De LlIcy O'leary, maintaining that the earliesl hymns were composed in imitation of the Psalm.~, .~uggcsted that such works should be dated before Ihe second half of the third century. In Ihis regard, he cited three hymns (rom Coptic ser· vices that appenr to have derived from the Syrian rite or "its ByulOtine daughter," the GLORIA IN EXCELSIS (Luke 2: 14), lhe Trisagioll, and the Prayer
MUSIC, COPTIC: HislOry
• of E.osalllli (excerpl~ from b. 8 and 9, nol to be
confused with the canlides; sec Cilnliclet;. above). This last hymn is no longer found In recem Coptic liturgical boc.Jks. FIJI' its part. the Copti,yah al.Ki)'ahki)')'alr (sec Dl'S\;ription or the Corpus, IIbovc), the following are some of the more prominent authors named (IS having euntrib· Uled hymns to the collection, sorne mOr'e prolifical. Iy Ihan otllers: ro,' I'salis Mu'allim Yu'annis (six Coptic patOlphr.L'lCs), Sarltis (ninc Greek p;lra· phrases), :lOd Nicodemus (nine Coptic Psalis): for lIlada'l1.1 Dnd pamphmsc:; in Ardbil: 'Abd al·Masll,t al·Masu'di from DAYR A1A.tUt;tARRAQ. al·B"rallludah of BahnasA, and Fa41 AllAh al.Jbyari; and for hymns in Ar,lbic with frequent Coptic terms and phra.'lCs interpolated, Patriarch MARK VIII (1796-1809),
Cantors, Their Role and Musical Training Because members of the clergy were not equally talented as singel1i, it became and has rcmaint..J the tr.ldilion to entrust perfonnance of the music 10 a professional canlor (Arabic: 'ari!, "one who knows:' or mu'al/im, "teacher"), who is employed and tmined by the ehurch to be responsible for the eurr«t delivery of the hymru; and responses in all the services. He is uwaUy blind, due to the popular belief dating from anciem limes that the 5Cnsitivity of ey~lght w.15 transferred frum the eyes of a blind person to his cars, and that such transference l'nhanced oluslcal skills. He is ellpcctcd to be at the church to perform and siog all the ritcs at their proper times and ill thereby assured his Jiving. The camor is not an ordained member of the ch~,'ical orders, but in timl'S past, a prdyer used to be said for him as the llppoimed singer in the church. This pmyer, entitled A Proyer Over Ooe Who Shall Be Made a Singe,' (COI)tic: oyeyxE E.XEN OYJlI 6yt!J.J.l't !1tJ.>,HI,IAOC, oueukhe ejen ouai eunanir (e)mpsalmOd01i), is as follows: Master, Lord God, the Almighty, ... This Thy servant, who stands before Thee and hath hastened to Thy Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church, do Thou illumine him for rendering sweetly Thy holy words. and give grace to him to chant unto Thec, with unOme 198 entries, is listed in the Journal of the !)()ciely of EtlmomusicoloJ:J, vol. IX, no. I (January 1965), pp. 45-53, and vol. XII, no. 2 (May 1969), PI'. 317-19. MARtAN ROBERTSON Newlandsmlth, Ernesl (1875-? [arler 1936]) British violinist, composer, and writer, besl known for his eXlensive lr.mscription.~ of Coptic lilurgical music. The !>On of a clergyman, he wa~ horn 10 April, 1875. Having shown a talent for music, he eme"ed the Royal Academy of Music in 1893. from which he graduated with distinction in 189~, earning the A.R.A.M. (Associate of Royal Acadellly of Music). Disillusioned as a music teacher and concen violinist, he turned his back on music as a profession (1908) and became a "pilgrim" or "minstrel friar." Henceforth, he traveled through the countryside pTC5Cnting musical religious services and living by the generosity of olhers. In 1926 he undertook a musical pilgrimage to the Holy Land. En route, he Slopped at Cairo where he met Ragheb Moftah (sec Cantors, ab<we), who ar· ranged for him to compile a book of lilurgical mu· sic of lhe ancient Coplic church. Newlandsmith conlinued his journey to the Holy Land (Mount
Western Notation
Carmel), but soon returned to Cairo. Here, ali Ihe guest of Mr. Moflah, he lived in a houseboat on lhe Nile. nolaling the music as chanters-among them the great ma~ter chanter Mu'allim M1KHA'IL JJIU1S (see Canlors, above)-sang their limL~honored mel· odies hour afler hour, day aher day (1926-1931). He also spent some lime at Abu al-Shuquq working with Mr. Moflah on the transcriptions (1929). Thc complete projecl lasled about len years (1926-1936), and during this time. Ncwlandsmith lranscribed some sixteen folio volumes of music, including the Lilurgy of Saint Basil (vol. I), numer· ous olher special songs for lhe various feasts and fasts, and special songs reserved for high church officials. Impressed by the dignity and beaUly of this mu' sic, Newlandsmith used certain melodies in his own violin compositions, and upon relurn trips to England (1928,1931), he played lh~ works as part of his music services. He also gave cnthusialitic lec· turcs about the antiqoity of the Coptic musical tra' dition. During his life Newlandsmith founded various musical-religious societies, the most significant being "The New Life Movement." A prolific wriler, he penned sever-Ii pamphlets and books wherein he ellpounded his ideas about music. A bibliography of his early musical compositions is listed in the Universal Hatldblldr der M"siklilera. tur alter lei/en lind Vij/ku (Vienna. n. d.). vol. I, pt. I, p. 124. He based his laler works on Coptic melo· dies, of which two, dating from 1929, remain signif· icant: his Orienlal Sliite for violin and piano, and lhc Cannt'lile Rhapsody for solo violin. MARIA."l
ROBERTSON
Transcriptions in Western Notation Although there may be some evidences of a nOla' tion system using dots and a primitivc ekphonelic notation for Coptic music, the Copts have prL'SCrved their music over the cenluries csswr of Hugh Nibley 011 Ihe Occasioll of His EiglllieJh Birlh(luy, 27 Murch 1990, ed. S. D. Ricks, pp. 416lf. salt Lake City, 1990. Sachs, C. Die MIUiki/!s/rwllellle /llts ailen AgyPleIlS. Berlin,192l. Die Mluik der Arrlike. Putsdam. 1':135. The Risl! of Ml/sic irl /he Arlcienl Wurfd, East ((nd West. New Yor'k, 1943. Schott, S., cd. (lnd lrans. AIJilgyp/ische Lh'bes/ieder. ZUrich, 1950, Shawan, s, :,1·. "An Annulllied lJibliography of Cop· tic Music." Unpublished M.A. thesis, Colurnbia University. New York, 1975. Sidnrous, A. "La Pilque sainle au 13 Scmaine sainte selon la liturgic copte." Proche-OriclIl cllrelifm 18 (1967):3-43. Tawfl'q l;Iablb. AI~I(Hl a/·Krll1/s/l}r /I1.Qib!iY}'nh (melo· dies of lhe Coptic church). Leclurc given a' the Coplic Girls College. Cairo, 30 March 1917. T6th, M. "A Trunscriplion of lhe Complele LilUrgy of 51. Basil." Cairo, 1970-1980. Villecoun, L.. cd. and mJns. "Us Observances li'ur· giques et la discipline du jeune dan.~ I'eglise copte" (chaplers XVI-XIX from Mi~ah al. lulmah by Abu aJ·Bamk51 ibn Kabar). I,~ Musto/!
==. :
1747
36 {I92J):249-92; 37 (1924):201-280; 38 ( 1925):261-320. Villoteau, G. A. Descriplioll de l'E.gypre, tlat mo· deme, Vol. 2: De I'ttal ae/llef de I'arl lIu4$ical ttl Egypt. pp. 754fr. Paris, 1809. Wellesz, E. "The Earliest Example uf Chlistian Hymnudy." Chrislian Q14amrly 39 (1945):34ff. -:::-::. EQs/em E/emell/s in We.flcm Chall/. Oxronl, 1947. Wel'Oer. E. The Sacred Bridge. London and New York. 1959. -:::-. "The Origin of the Eight Modes or Music (Octucchus)." CurrJrib14/iorl.J 10 a Hisloric(ll S/14dy of Jewish Music. N.P., 1976. Ziegler, C. CalQloglie des ins/rumenls de lIlusiq.u· (gyp/iens. Paris, 1979.
MUSIC, CORPUS OF. See Music, Coplic: De· scription.
MUSIC. HISTORY OF, Sell Music. Coplic: HislOry.
MUSIC, NONLITURGICAL. See Music, Coptic: Nonliturgical Music.
MUSIC, ORAL TRADITION OF. See Music. Coptic: Oral Tradition.
MUSIC, RELATIONSHIP TO GUAGES, See Music, Coptic: Melody.
LAN·
MUSIC, WESTERN TRANSCRIPTION OF COPTIC. See Music, Coptic: Transcriptions. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, See Music, Cop· tic: Musiellllnstruments; Metalwork, Coptic: Wood· work, Coptic.
MUSIC AND CHURCH FATHERS. See Mu· sic, Coptic: Hlsl01)'; Music, Coptic: Musical Instru· ments.
MUSICOLOGISTS. Sel! Music, Coptic: Musicul· ogists.
MUSTAFA KAMIL (1874-1908), Nationaiisl pal·ty leader. He sludied law at the Khcdivial School of Law and later a, Toulouse in France, where he
1748
MUSTURUD
received a dea,'ct in 1894. His political inll::rCSls :lnd his intention 10 fight the British oecup:!tion staned l'at lln cady IIge. In 1890 he founu(."(] a nlilionalisl litcl1l1)' society and followed that by publish. ing his anicles in the prominent Egyptian ncwspapel'll of thaI lime.
MlIs!af:i K.imil's political career may be divided into three stages. 'nle first stage c.wered the period bctwl-en 1894 and 1900, dUling which he founded the clandestine Nationalist party :Illd i55ucd his famous paper Af-LiWD·.
The second slage ....'as between lhe years 1900 and 1904, when he concentrated on making the Egyplian question an international onl', in order to rnanct.l\'cr the European powers, mainly France, to put rressure all England [0 force it to withdrnw from
_..
During the third stage he conCl'nmllcd on escalating internal ~ist.anee to Britain as revealed by
the erisis that arose bctw(..ocn the Ottoman and Brit· i... h empires in 1906 over T::iW on Ihe Gulf of 'Aqa· ba. He incited Islamic reactions in Egypt against the British occupation and to the Dinshway incident, when the British resoned to panicularly bru· tal measur(:s in dealing with thl' fellahin of that village. 1·le exploited the occasion to inllame EgyptiOln and European feelings regarding the:-;e measo~. This stage ended with the formation of the Nationalist Pany on 22 October 1907. Mu."!3f=i !(jlIlil died shol'tly :.fterward, in Fcb"l:lry 1908. Most Coptl'; refused to join the political move· ment initillled by Mus!afa !Camil because they resented Its religious a... peet and rhe call to Pan, IslamiMIl ;Idopted by Mus!afa Kiimil. The small number of Copts who joined his pany is evident from the f;let thilt of the thirty members who constituted the adminisU"ative conllniue", only one was a Cupt, WlliSA WASSEr, while out of th~' 113 founders of the olher' big party, Hi~b al,Ullllllah (Nation's Party), rOUl1ccn were Copts. However', lowaru the cnd of his life, Mus!,.f'pl 4th IJII. C""I"ries C,I:, Je""...lcm, I'JIlO. 8clurlWct, P. duo I:Arf cople, Pelil Palais. l'aris, I .... CQlalog du boffes ctJpIC.>. Vol. I. MusCc Nalional du Lo ·re. Pam, 1%4. Caudedier. J>. l"cs TiS5"J cupl,,$. Ca'alogue ... isonnt' du Mu$Cc tk... lkaux·A,u de Oijo.>n. llijon, 1986. O'Andria. F. "Un l
COllch .hell rcprescll1ing Arlmxli,l'. Third-fourlh
ceIlIUl)'.
CUlm~'J'
Co!"ie AI",·em". Caif(>.
MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COPTIC ART: Apollo and Daphnc
1753
Aphrodile Anlld)'Ome~ hi:1""~...,n .. Trilon and" Nen,id. lime5lOoe. $i.,lh eenlul)'. C(mrl~s)' /.Ol...r~ ,11"51:'11I". Purl•. believ"d 10 hi: born of the foom of Ih" sc" and ..... a.~ blown Iv land. I'lossihly in Cyprus in a conch shell. As tlphrodihl AlI"d)'ornene ("'rising fr()l" the wa· ters"). under the inlluellce vf the Platonic COllccpt of itle"s, she became Ihe symbol vf spiritu:ll 100·e. A new intluence. this time Chrisli:m. alf,·clt, as 1:11" as Ihe Muslim ~rioo. She is Il.'prescnted as a woman. :l coneh shell. or:l cross in relids in SlOne as at II..., mnas· tet)' of I""VII Mil. JEJlE.IollA1I :11 S"qqa"" or in wood ;n lhe. monaste,)' al 11.~wl1. She lliso apt'le;,ors In lapesI~. IIOW in the Lou\'~, Paris.
Apollo ;H1d Dallhnc In Crtck IllylholoBY Al>ollo W"S the god of the sun. archei)'. soolltS:lying, medicine. and lIlusic. He had Illany amorous esc:lJ'adcs. induding Ihe ":lin pursuil of Ihe nymph D(lphnc (see below). who W(lS ch""I:icl~'d the SIal)' of Apollo and Daphne in ''nriou.~ Ilkcc:s of sculplure and textiles. A bt.-:lutiful h'ory can"i,,!; of th~' fifth 10 si.~lh cen· lUI)' in Ihe National Museum of k:l\'cnna bears :I sccne in which it nude Apollo is playing hiS lyre in a" crfv!1 to charm tl1e u"happy Daphne. enlmpped in the I,·ce. The flgul·e.~ arc ~er:u~'tt:nd bring tu th...·m the ville. which Is :> symbol of ...:binh, Diunysus is gencr..ll) depk:'l-U as:> gUIde, holding a .h)'r'Sus, a long Malr '~Or.,'cU wi.h iV) "nd ,ippo..-u with a pine eonc ur 3. bunch of grnpc.-s. Mosl of,en nude:. he has the chla"')'5, a dook of Mae"don;;m origin. Ihrown o"cr hi. shoulder, :md i~ shod wi,h ...",h"J< sojuurn in Indi:•. Hc is piclu.....d a.~ blond, al rea~t where\'er colur pla)'S a role, and his curly loch arc crowned ....i.h II......",.,;. ivy. amI ~incs. lie is wicstl)' ;n tIll' Coptic Museum, Ihe lion ICum, 1.o",lon) tu which Ihis I",nd is nlo,;l closdy similar. '''e second pand, of which ooly Ihe IlJlJlC" hair is pl'(.~n·cd. prescnlS lhe goddCM Victory cmwning 5OI1Ie Jll-'rsonagc (10,;1) and .. hurscm.. n. pOliloibly J.. iWII. 'I"e Ihird paJld illu.trall.'" dlC Ilighl ur J;,,;o,, ;md ~kdca prcsu"",bly "flel' Ihe C;Ipl",.e of Ihe Golden I'leiX:e. On I)' Ihe bU.1< of Jason and Mcd"a rem"in, ~I~ w.-ll ~" lhc Alllu in Ihe "ppCI' righl·I",,,d Curner tllHI (wO) I;,,:onls ill Ihe lefl enl'llel'. The loss of .-lassie pl'Oporlluns ~lI\d Ihe Il'e"lmelll of sl'"ce wilhuut illusionist elt'cci h'lVe led so""e schnlal1l; to compal'e these pancl.~ with th" seulplUl'CS of Ahnas "1·M..di",,h ",,,I O;\),I'hyndIUS ill Ihe Ime rOUl'll1 or l'arly nfth eenil"" and I" cunsidc" lhcm "S being of IOgyI" ian manubclure. '1 hcir origi· nalily r..sts in Iheir nalTIlt;"e char:>
•
CI":)ll!'IS0p S! l"U1~03 JO 1Sl:!:3 J!:)'lJ. ·~.UIIJ
'"",,,r"IV 'ilJ,Wryl ,(r'il'J"a;) ·tU;) 8 :SUOlllL"p:lIU 1)'11 jO JI)I "'''Icln '.\:1111";'13 'IIJ!:' '.L ,S,)d"J. 'U"'"OM " JO Isnq " )0 UUO) :;1'1' "I llupS :>'11 JO SUO!llllu:>S:>.ld;t., JO S'?!Jas IJ U! P,l:llJld 311 UI:3 A,ltll smu. .:lllJpds" I,UIl ..Jill"!M" UO!ld~,:,s,,! :>!Ido:) " "'I p:l!lJlJ(hUO:>:l'1 5l :un\'l!!lpca ,'lS1l1l3:l<j "41 -.10,\\:>,011 "'JI: sluaw:I1:"J ilSallJ. "pm:'''1 llu!\lI,111'1 lU,?PlI1OlI' pml S'U,1ll SI1l( ",.1Il8\1 pU03as :l'!.!. '811{lltrH( ~U!i!I0'l""\S l'lnop 011 'P.101,\\I',"01' Pll:>lf 'pnp Il S! pll."! 51! .m"'N '1)(),1 '1 pUll :>1""'1 ItUUlS II sI'IO\l 'puUlI C lIl!'" "puc", 11 "! PUI:l ,IfllI,ll1." '.I:>lulM 'llll!.Id~ l'Ull J:llll'M llU'IIl,?S:>,ld:u s:>,mjj~ 11I3!.Io:lall" paollllf OMl.l" 1'!SlI03 .\;1'1.1, ':>!lllli ,: J(I puq p"': IUfUJ :l'll tlO SIl0!lI),IO:>:lP JO \:>S J1 JO ~Jl1d pallJ.lIuo "I"n S! aJ:>'l1 'I.'!'IA, JO 'l'Ul!,U)A !'U03,)S "'I.L 'Po!.rad mil JO S"!"'""W "'II ;"III"n 'IUOIQJ ul ,"ilfA ,'(l~,unh·"(l.lI(1 .10 33CJ'II''J :>.m SI''':>'I :>'l~ 'stlokl 'sl.l\" ;'ltl' )0 tlltI.")Snw ;'l'II p"" c'\J1:) 'IunoJ :>'11 JO SIlO!II'IP '::IlI' (31!d 1'.....rooP "pno'l tI! 1I:;I1 ",","::1 :>'11 JO sq"10:>'~1l13 11\)'"01'1 :l'1I "I $lIU! 'IU!oo lie.", U! 5'''Cld ,(q p.)puno.un;: ualJo pl:"'1 ~!'I JO (lUnd" JO UUO) :>'11 U! lUv.)ddu :>UI:>'II :ltU, ';osU:>S 1llT11!Jld5 '1s,?llnJ 51! U! '\1!Wa\:l 3'10.\:> 01 3W,?'1' a'll paooTl Ja'''1 SUI:II~1-''1:J 'NnIU:;I;) ISJ!I ::ltll U! I!JdwO,1 U! slsnq U! IJIl UIJ'U0ll...Q3:>.1~ U! $.Ic.ldd" II ·AI!ILl."", JO "!IOlluli;: ;),uu.->::>q UOlIS pUll JC",\ "'I' )0 "1;).(3 "I1USO:> :>111 p,),~ns 5u{)sll,w "'II JO """"11 a,ll. SIJOSIlOtS iUU
N'os.tK1'I'UIl,huo:) "IlU _nsn :).111 ~1'''lJl,m JO S'I:lllll 'IllM lund ',,1:." :lIUlJS :l'11
'~'
L9Ll
S!FILI.I, :.D:IV
JI.l.dOJ NI S.LJ3fHnS
~IVJI:JO~IOH.LAW
1768
MYTHOLOGICAL SUBJECTS IN COI'TIC ART: The Three Graces
lewis, S. "A Coplil: R..." resenilltion of Theti~;u the Forgl: of HephaisIO'l:' American Jo.m,al of Ar. chowlOf:177 (1973):309-318. SlIZANNI! LEwIS
The Three Graces
Thetis in lhe forge of Ilcphaeslus. Tapeslry. Sixth eenlul)'. Each side: 12.5 em. Ct,mrlesy Viewr;I' tmd AlI,"'t Museu"" (.(J,,,lo". in lhe 51"le Museum, Fmnkfun, tlOd prohably d;ues from lhe sixllt cenlury. Th" London leMil" repl"\:' "",nl" Thelis "I lhe fOl'ge of lhe blacksmith god He· ph~tU5, as he mal<es new ar",or for Achilles. an epiw' er posilions. Se\'cn hundred and Ihincen inscribed fr.lgmenlli ""''''!lin unplaced. hut mOSt of these ,u-e vcry small. Robinsoll's Icam al:CW
H"""'.'IOix months, according II) lhe Coptic liturgy Comments,)' on Manhew (homilies 76-90) by
John ChrysoslOlll 93 (fourteclllh century): Commentary on John drawn from lhe fathers 94 (1236): Homilies of John CllI)'SOSlOlll on lhe Epistles
•
95(1218):
10 the Corinthians and on Mallhe.... Homilies of John Chrysostom on the Epistle to the Hcbn:ws Ritual of Gabriel V
98 (fifteenth century): 100 (fourteenth century): Collection on holy chrism 112 (sbneenth centuI)'): Key to lhe pericopes for lhe offices of the COptic yt:ar 113 (IJI2): Lectionary for Greal Week 114 (lirteenth ceillury): Collection of praye~ and 'ncO/oha 131 (1440): Predominantly hagiographicnl collection 132 (1629): Varia 133 (fifteenth cemury): 26 Homilies of Basil, including seventeen nn the P~lms 134 (fifteenth century): Homilit$ on the Hellaemeron by 8oL..i1 and Gregory of N)'SSll 135 (thh1eenth century): Collection of the 52 honlilies of Ephrcm 136 (thil1eeOlh century): Collection of the 52 homilies of Ephrem 137 (foul1eenth centuI)"): Collection of the 52 homilies of Ephrem 138 (fo0l1eenth centOl)'): Collection of the 52 homilies of Eplll'em 139 (fOurleenth cenIOl)'): Collection of the 52 homilies of Eplll'em 140 (1689): Collection of the 52 homilies of Ephrem 141 (fifteenth century): Marlan homiletic collection 143 (fourteenlh century): Coptic anu Mclehitc homilal)' 144(1617): Ascetic homilies lInu four Gospels 145 (1641): Homiletic collection on the Annunciation and Saint Michael 146 (sillteelHh cenlul)'): 87 homilies of John Chry"~o5tom for Sundays and Lent 147 (thirteenlh celllul)'): Vllria 14ft (1645): Homiletic and hagiogrnphical collection 149 (thh1eenlh century): Ascetic works of Simon rind Stylite and Issac of Nineveh 150 (1606): Patristic collection lSI (foul1Ctlnth century): Patristic collectioo 152 (sixteenth centuI)'): Hagiogmphical colk-ction 153 (seventeenth century): Hagiogrnphical collection 154 (1604): Coptic hagiogrnphical collection 155 (1486): Colleclion on the Virgin MrU'y
NATIONAL LIBRARY, PARIS
157 (fourteenth century): Ascetical collection: Evagrius, John Climacus, John of Carpathus, Issac of Nineveh, John Sabas 158 (fourteenth century): John Chrysostom: moral theology and Christ's divinity John s;',b:ls 159(1]14): John S;,lbaS 160 (fifteenth century): 161 (fourteenth century): John Climacus Exegctil:al apologetical replies by Ibrahim Ibn 'Awn 166(I22Z/]): Refutation of Mu~ammad ibn Hlil11n III-Wam'iq by Ya~y!libn 167 (l2Z7): 'Ad. 168 (fourteenth century): Refutation of al·Warr.lq by YaJ.1yi ibn 'AdT Apologl'lical trealiscs of Y.,J.1y.l ibn' AdT anu Abu 169(1654): !ta'i!ah al·TakrttI 170 (lllirteenth century): Kitllb ol·l4a~ (Iwelve chapters) of Severus of al·Ashmo.nayn Two tht.'Olog.ical works of Severus of al·Asl1rnunayn 171 (1618): Severus of al·Ashmo.nayn (Book of Ihe Cmmciu) and 172 (1291): Refwation of Ihe JeM'S by Abo al,Fakhr al-Ma.~hj~j
\73 (fourteenth century):
\74 (fourtcenlh century): 175 (1299): 176 (sixteenth century): 177 (fourteenth cennllY): 178(1452): 179(1642): 180 (1664): \83 (thirteenth ec::n\tlry): 184 (1214):
J 85 (thirteenth cenlury): 191 (fourteenth centlllY): 19Z (foultecnth CerllUlY): 193 (1584): 197 (I 27!l): 198 (~ixtecllth century): 199 (thirtcenth century): ZOO (sixtecnlh century): ZOI (thirteenlh century):
Apolog('tical and spiritual collection Apolog('tical treatises o( 'f.sa ibn Zur'ah The Dar a{oHamm of Elias of Nisibis The Dar o{·Humm by Elias of Nisibis; and the Politics of PseuJo-Aristotle Theological varia and apocrypha AI·Rashid Abu al·Khayr ibn al-Tayyib (Coptic Manuscript of Syria) AI-Rasl,id Abo. al·Khayr ibn al.Tl..'yyib AI-Rashid Abu a1-Khayr ibn al'Tayyib The CUIl!essio PDlrlmr (dogmatic pau·i.~tic anlhology) The Kilub al,RIl'u$ (large work on spiritual uirection and ,-on(ession) Ki/(lb ,,1_Ru'us BOfJk 01 the Tower by MiiTi ibn Suloym:!n (Part I) DOfJk 01 the Tower by MiiTi ibn Sulayman (P.trt II) Sim'an ibn Kalil ibn Maq:lra (large theological tlnd spiritual work) Ki/(lb ,,1·Shifi'1' by l3ulrus ibn .tl-Rahlb Controversy between Abo Qun'tlh and v.trious Muslims Theologicl.ll varia Swt,nUl Theoiogiac by Abn IsI.laq ibn .11,' Assil.1 SI/mlliu Theoiogiac by Abu Isl.lil.q Ibn ll!·'Assil.1 (chnp. 1-19)
202 (thirtcenlhfourteenth century): Collec1 ion of four predominanlly theological manu."Cripts 203 (foUlteenth century): Encyclopedia uf AbO al·Banlkil., ibn Kabllr 205 (fOUl1eenth century): Varia 207 (foIll1ec".h centUlY); Predominllnlly liturgical cncyclopedill by Ibn SabM' 208 (follnccflfh century): Encydopc.-'C1i;t by Ibn 5;Jbbj' Theological palris/ic anthology of &'I'(.°roS of 209(1551): al.A$hmunaJ'n 2/0(/634); ThcologkaJ patristic anlholugy by SCl'e'lJS ofal· Ashmill1ayn
1779
1780
NATIONAL LIBRARY, PARIS
212(1601): 213 (1601): 214 (1538): 215 (1590): 225 (1671): 226(1671):
Varia Varia: o;;aoool(;al, theological. and
~piritual
Apologelical collection Apologelical collection Profession of failh by Patriarch Mauhew IV (scroll) Profession of faith by Palrn.rch Mauhew IV (5(;roll) concerning the Eucharist
227 (1671):
Profession of failh by Patriarch Manhcw
IV (scroll) concerning the Eucharist 238 (fourteenth cenlury): Coplic canonical collCX:lion 239 (lifleenlh century): Coptic canonical colk-clion 240 (fourteenlh century): Coptic canonical colJ not to ex· pound his views. When Arius refused to comply, Alexander eJl;conlmunicaled him and his suppeners. It was Arius who carried the controversy beyond Ihe boundaries of Egypt. Refusing the tht.'Ological authority of Alexander of Alexandria, he wrote to and gained the support of Euscbius of Nicomedia. a felluw student of Lucian of Antioch. In response Alexander buure,o;"o;cd his authority by convening a synod of Egyptian bishops in 319 who collectively excommunicated Arius and his companions. Alexander then communicated the delibcnttions and ac, tiuns of this synod to all bishops in the form of an encyclical. In support of Arius a Bithynian synod was convened in 320, which issued an encyclical calling for Alexandcr to restOI'e the exeommunicat· ed Arians. Alexander extended the controversy yel further by writing over seventy letters in which he solicited and gained the support of bishops in Thcssalonica, Asia Minor, Greece, the Balkan peninsula, and Rome. By 324, most of ChriSlendom had been drawn inlO the cOntroversy, which was debated among the Iheologians and clergy by letter and lrcatise, and amung the laity by song and verse. The inner Christian conllict had become so widespread that it was parooied in Ihe pagan theater. The theological point at is~ue was both subtle and abstract. It had to do with a critiquc uf Alexandlian tht.'Olugy. OKlO!!"', the most influential of the Alexan' drian theologians, conceived of the Logos of GodGod's mind or rea.'\On-as a distinct hypostasis (es· sence). In Arius' view this led 10 Ihe cquiv-oI1ent of lWo first principles. Adus, following the AnLiochene sc:;hool, rejecled lhis view as posiling two Gods and therefore tending IOwaI'd pagan polytheism. God alone can be ungenerated (agtPl~losl and without beginning (uIIQrchos), eternal and unchanging. The divine subslance of the hyposlasis of Ihe Father is uttcrly simple and cannot be divided and thereby changed, M) the Son cannot be the same substance as Ihe Father. To affirm that the Son is of the same
NICAEA, COUNCIL OF
substance as the Father would imply th"l God was changeable. According 10 Arius, Ihe Son bc1on~ed 10 the realm of the created becausc the Son h;ld a begin· ning and was generated through an act of the Fa· ther's will, out of nothing. Arius did, howeve.·, granl the pre·exilOlence of the Son before Ihe c;rt:ation of Ihe world; in this SCIISC lhe priorily of Ihe Falher over Ihe Son w.:L'l really a logieal ralher Ihan a lempor.d priorily. The Son was called Logos in a derivalh'e scnse because in Arius' underslanding Cod's logos or mind remains immanem with Him and is not a separate hypostasis. The involvement of Ihe emperor CONS'UmlNE t in this controversy derived from the Roman tradilion that the emperor is poll/ilu mllxiJmlS (chief priest), responsible for the religiOUli activities of the stale, which secured Ihe benevolence of the gods and thus the welfare of the empire. A5. emperor of the Western empire Constanline had alread)' convened twa councils in an auempt to resolve the DonatiS! controversy. He had also experimented with perM:' tulion tlnd confisclltion in an auempt to impose unily. During thilO period Conslanline h:.d selecled O$'lius of CordOY"" as his adviser in religious affairs. Constamine's firsl auempt 10 resolve the eOlllrovcny involved scnding Ossius to Alexandria to meet with the two panies that had precipitat"d the con· f1icl. This elTon fllited since the comrove~ had long sinCI! lefl thl! confines of nonhern Egypt. In 325, in connection wilh Ihe planned lavish celebra· tlon of Ihe Iwentieth year of his reign. Constantine convened a council of bishops. The site of the ecumenical council. originally planned for AncyTa, was chtmgeJ to Nkac;l in or· der to allow the emperor, whose residcnce was in nearby Nicomedla, to panicipale in lhe sessions. Constantine'li polilieal objective wa'l a religiOU$ uni· ty that would en~ure the prosperity of the state. His concept of how thut religious unity should be ob· hained was Ihe cretltioll of a cumpromise document thai would be signed by all thc bishops. His objec. tive was nOl thl! resolution of theological problems but the reconcilitltion of upposing partks. The emperol' opened the council with a solemn speech and tl symbolic acl. He delivered in Latin, the languulle of imperial alfairs, a passionate exhor· talion 10 unity. By burning in tl bnu;ier the pctitions of the bilihops accusing one another of ptl"1iOnal scandal tlnd polhical disloyally, he dcmonstrated his commitment to nonpartisanlOhip. In the ab.'lence of acts of Ihe coundl we are dependent on historians of Ihe neXI gencralion for the highlighu of the proceedings. The Arian pany
1791
sciuxlthc inililltive by presenting a creed that artie· u1:lIed their underslanding. The Arian creed was signL-d by somc eighleen bishops. Al the same lime the assembly was introduced 10 the catchy lunes of Arius' Thaleill. An uproar ensued and anli·Arian bishops cx.pn.'SS05ed this unironnity. About twenty yea..,. after the council, the Sunday obscrv-.lOce of the Christian Passover was nearly universal. The council assigned the astronomiclll and malhemlllical task of determining the date of Ihe Chrislian Pass.wer for each year 10 Ihe Alexandrian bishop in n:cognilion of Alexandria'li promInence a~ an Intellectual cemer. Anolher Egyplian controveny ....-as sculcd by the council, that of the MF.tJTIAN SCIllS"'. MI'.lJTlUS, bish· op of L~opolis, broke with Peter, bishop of Alexan' dria, over Ihe treatmenl of the lapsed, Meliliu$ tak· ins the stricler view. The outcome was that Mcliliuli set up his own church and succcssioll of bishops. The council allowed MelitiLL~ 10 retain his see and required ll1 (385-412) announced in his paschal letter of 404 that he had ordained Thl..Vpellll'tus as the succ.:essor of Theodosiu.s in t.he blsh· opric.: of Nikiou (cited hi Munier, 1943, p. 12). In 454. lJishop Piu.'mmmon of Nikiou appealed to Pope Leo in Rome concerning his removal from office by
1794
NILE DEITY
Palrillrch flIOSCOIl.US r and in 459 this Plusammon joined in thc condemnation of Eutyches (Munier. 1943, pp. 22-23). The Ilame of Bishop Macmius of Nikiou comes up In the account of Saint Theopista. Maearius had blessed Theopista and inhoouced her inlO mona~ticism. but ahcr she had spent a year alone in a room. he forgOI about her. Then after seeing Theopisla in a vision. he went 10 her room and found her dead. The historian JOHN 01' NtKIOU mentions a man named John as bishop of the city at Ihe beginning of Ihe sevenlh century. In 645 or 646. not long afler the ARAR CONQUFRr OF EGYPT. Bishop Basil of Nikioo. a man described ali greal and leame
Amclineau. E. Lo Giogr(lphie de !'l3gyp/r' ii l'epoqut copU., pp. 277-83. Paris, 1893. Sutche.·, E. L Thl! 5wry of Ihl! Church of Egypt, 2 'lois. London, 1897. Coquin, H.. G. Uvre de 1a cOllS~cratioll du saHCII/· aire de /Jell/umill. Bibliolhl!que d'etudes coptes 13. Cairu, 1975, Drescher, J. Apa MClla: A Seleclloll of COplk' "("XiS Relallng 10 51. Menus. Cairu, 1946. Hyvel'nl1l, H. Lcs AClcs dl!s marlyrs de I'Egyple. ParIs, 1886-1887. Mingllnll, A. "Woodbrooke Studies 5." Journal of Ihe 101m Ryltmd~' Library 13 (1929):31'13-474. Munier, H. Reclieil des /iSles eplscopak~ de I'egli.!1! coprl!.. Cairo, 1943. Timm, S. Vas chrisllich.koptisclre Agyplell in Uf(/' bucher Zeil, pt. 3, pp. 1132-40. Wiesbadcn, 1985. RANOAlJ.
NILOMETER. a number gauge for mcasuring the rise in the walers of the Nile at ilS annual llood. In Coptic times it had Ihe shape of a grdduat
or
a probahle indicatioll that the site was no longcr thcn inhabited by monks (d. R.·G. Coquin, 1975, pp. 98-99). biBLIOGRAPHY
Bernard, A. I.e 'Jelta Igyp/i,II d'llpr~~' de:> textes grees, \'01. I. Les eonfins libyques, \'QI. 3, Cairo, 1970. Coquin, R.·G. Livre de fa consecration dl. SallC/lIa;rit de Bitt/jamill. Cairo, 1975. Evelyn·White, H. G. The MOllasteries o//he Wod'~11 Namin, pl. 2. Tile IlislOry o/tlle Monasteries 0/ Hi/ria aud See/is. New York, 1932. A,.TOtNE GUII.J.,AUAIONT
NOB, APA, third..century mint mentioned in the of the Copts at 2] Ba'Unllb. A more completc Ufe is given by s.everal Arabic manu· scripts (Coptic Museum, Cairo, History 469, fols, 348r, 353r; National Library, Paris, Arobe 154, fols. 53r-64r: Arnbl: 263, fols. 128r-38r: leipZig University, Orientale 1067, fols. 202r-4v). Nob was a nalive of a villagl: called al·Biliid (8il· 4nas 1I1'1'0rding to Forget'll edition of the Synallarion). He lived in a monastery in Upper Egypl in Ihe time of D1OCI..ETIAN (284-305). I-Ie was brought before Arianl/s, prcfl:el of the Thcbaid, and called upon to offcr incense to Apollo. On bis refusal he .....as suhjected to torture and exiled 10 Pentapolis. where he was left in a pit for seven yl:III'S, l/ntil thc dl:ath of Diocleti:lll (313). The Synllxarion rcports thc following legend. When Constantine had Ilber:lted the confessors, he wished to sec seventy·two of thcm and rCl'eive tbeir blc.~sing. Among the four most illustrious, the Syn· a~l\rion nlllnCS Zaeh"ri"h, :1 native of Ahnil.s, Maximian of the Fayyom, Aglibi of Dahna, and Apa Nob of the to .....n or BUlld. AD" Nob, however, on his rcturn fmm Pentapolis hod .....Ithdl'llwn TO the moun· lain of Sishla (//larkin or district of Mit Chamr). He wil.~ Ol'dtllned prieST against his wishcs. He wcn! with thc sevcnty-two before Emperor Constantine and accepted as I'Jresents only sollle vases and vestments fol' the church. Then he l'CIUI'ned to his monastcry, where he died. SVNAXARIOH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Graf, G. Catalogl/it de I/lllllllscri/s orubes cllre/iens consitTvls 011 ClIire. Studi e Testi 6]. Vatican City, 1934.
NOBATIA
Troupe:lu, G. COla/agIle de IIUWllscrits
,
,
NOBATIA. the m,me given in medieval times to the mOSl not'therly par't of Nubia, illllnediate1y !;(Juth of Egypt. Its territory is believed to have extended from aboul Ihe First 10 lhe 'nlird Calarael of the Nile, Ihnugh thel"e is !;(Jme doubt about the locl11ion uf the soulhern frontier. The regiun took il~ name from the Nubian·speaking Nobmae (Noba. dac, Noubadc) lribe, Ael:on.ling to Procopius, they were formerly dwelleI'll in the oa~es but were invito ed by Dioclelian tu seule in Lower Nubia when he withdrew the Roman legions, near the end of the
1797
lhird eentuf)', I-Iowever, some scholars believc Ihal the Nobalae senlement began at a considerably earlier dlltC. II is a~sumed that the Nobatae were OIiginally subjcl..'t 10 the empire of KUSH (Meroe). After Ihe collapse of Kushit~ power in the fourth century, they became politically indcpendent and were ruled by their own king. One of the early Nobatae kings, Silko, left an inscription In Greek in the temple of Kalabsha, Another, Aburnai, is mentiono,:d in a kl· tel' found at OA$R tBRIM. Mmt scholars believe that the royal tombs at BAUJoNA and Qu~tul, excavated in the 19305, are those of the Nooatae kings, although there i5 no texlual evidence to provide a certain identification, In pagan times the capital or principal royal residenec was apparently at o-~r Ibrflll, Lat~r, with th~ coming of Christianity, it may ha\'e 5hlfted to fARAS. The l..'onven;ion of Nobatia 10 Christianity in the 5ixth l..'entury iJi recorded by John of Ephl,."Sus. Accurding to him, thc WQrk of cvangcliUllion was be· gun by a Monophysite priest named JUUAN in 543 :lnd was completcd by LONCINUS. :l15O a Monophysite, in 569-575. Ecclesiastical historians suggest that there wa.~ rival missionary activity in NUBlA by the Mcichitl.'S, but the efforts of the MOIlOphysites triumphed, at leasl in Nobatia. That the WQrk of l:onversion was very I1Ipid and complete is suggest· ed by the archaeological evidence from Nubian cemeteril."S, where we lind an abrupt and complete disappearance of ragnn burial practices in lhe later sixth century. Shortly aftel' lhe coming or Chri.~tianity, Nobatia ceased to be an independent kingdom :md became a dependency of thc larger' medieval kingdom of MAKOURIA, which bordered Nobatil1 on the south, The circumStances that led to this conquest or merger arc not historically recorded, Thereafter Nobatia WI1S ruled nOI by a king but by lln epllrch appointed by the king of Makouria. However, lhe northern region conlinued to CRrry Ihe toponym Noblltill, and ilS ['uler' was designated as Ihe epareh of Nohatia or the epareh of the Nubatians, In Il1ler medievlll Coptic lind Arabic sources the region is also sometimes designated as the province of alMaris, In the rourteellth century the kingdom of Makouria disintegrolted, and Lower Nubill Olll;e again became politically independent. However, it l;ame to be known at lhis time as the kingdom of OOTAWO, and the toponytll Nobatia wa~ no longer ~d.
1798
NOBATIA, EPARCH OF
HlBLlOCRAPUY
Adams, W. Y. NI/bid, Corridor 10 Africa, pp.438-71. Princeton, NJ., 1917. Kirwan, L P. "Noles on the TopogrJphy of the Christian Nubian Kingdoms." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 21 (1935):58-61. Monnerel de Villard, U. Sioria del/a N"bia cristiana. pp. 36-95. Orienta/ia Chrisliana AnalCCla 118. Rome, 1938. Vanllni, G. Cl,ristianity in the Sud"n, pp. 36-82. Bologna, 1981. WIWAM Y.
ADAMS
NOBATIA. EPARCH OF. The Nubian kingd
1801
was an intenllption of misslolUu)' activity un1il Ihe arrival of LONGINUS in 569. According to 10hn of Ephesu5, it wa.
,, ,, ,:1
I /",
l
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•
. ';': • 1,
, _
mallll.
WCI'C
• :
: I ;.. •
Example of a four.piJlarchu,·ch. Courtesy PCler GrO$S.
these
,,
~el III II dilfcr'(:l1l height in the several
al'ea~.
lhe MellS in Ihc ;lXCS heing given preferential Irc:llmcnl. In this way Ihere l:llillt! II. pp. 86ff. Mainz, 1979. "Abii Mina. Neumer vorliiuliger Bcricht. Kampagnen 1977, 1978, und 1979." Milleilllngm des Dell/S€hen Archaeologj.u;hen Inslilws, Ablei· II/ng Koiro 36 (1980):222-24, fig. 8. ___" MilleJQlurfiche LanglrollskuppeJkirr:hen wid verwa"dle Type" in Oberagypleu. GWckstadt, 1982. ''Typologische Problcme der lIubischcn VierstUtzcnbautcn." Acts of the f/l Cvtlgres_~ of Coptic S/14dies. Warsaw, 1984. Jakobicbki. S. "Nuhian Christiun Architecture." Zeitsclrrifl fur ugyplische Spraclre I/Ild Aflerlwtl,~. /twlde 108 (1981):33-48. Mileham, G. S. Churches i.. l.ol\ll'r Nubia. Oxford, 1910. Monneret de Villard, U. lA Nllbia medioel'ole, Vols. 1-4. Cairo, 1935-1957. PI;,f.Jt GROSSMANN
NUBIAN CHRISTIAN SURVIVALS. The people of NUflrA adhered to the Copric Chlistkm faith from the time of their conversion in the sixth century (51.'(: NUalA, F.VANC:lli.IZATION 01') ur'lil nearly the end of the fifteenth century. Al thai lime the Christian Nubian kingdoms were deslroyl,J lhroog.h a combinalion of inlernal weakness, nOlllad Arnb migrations, and Mamlok intervention. EH,.: also the spoken language, and in Makouria, where die spoken language WoIS Dongolawi. Griffith believed thaI the few Old Nubian tellts recovered from the more southerly kingdom of 'Alwa might represent a different language or dia· lect.
1816
NUBIAN LITURGY
Old Nubian was not the only written language in medieval Nubia; both Creek and Coptic were also
in regular use. For obvious reasons Coptic was the preferred language of the numerous Egyptians who served in the Nubian priesthood and monastic or· ders. However. the liturgical language thai was originally introduced when Nubia was convened 10 Christianity was Greek, and even after they accepted the discipline of Alexandria. the Nubians were reluctant 10 abandon iI. In later centuries. when knowledge of Greek became increasingly imperfect. the tendency among the native clergy was to substi· lute Old Nubian rather than Coptic. Thus, according to Jakobiclskfs analysis. Coptic was the language only of the Egyptian clergy ~idenl within Nubia, while Greek, increasingly augmented by Old Nubian, was used by the indigenous population. The surviving IheratuTl~ in Coplic and in Greek is .Imost exclusively religious, while Old Nubian was also used for administration and commerce. In the later Middle Agcs there was much commercial cor"respondence in Arabic, since much of Nubia's trade was carried on by Egyptians. It is not certain when the usc of Coptic and Greek died out in Nubia; presumably it was when contact with Alexandria was broken in the fourteenlh century. The latest knowr' document in Coptic is the con.secralion scroll of Bishop Timothcos of Ibrfm and Faras, wrillen in 1372. It was buried beside him in his tomb at ~r Ibrlm. Old Nubian persisted for a century longer as the written language of the Christian splinter kingdom of OOTAWO. which came to an end late in the fifteenth century. The last known document in Old Nubian bears the dale 1484. Since their conversion to Islam. the Nubians have used Arabic cxclusivdy as an instnunent or written communication. though they continue to speak their indigenous language,.; as well as Arabic. [St!t! also: Nubian Church Organization; Nubian Inscriptions, Medieval.] BIBLIOGRAPHV
Adams, W. Y. Nubia, Co,.,.idor M Africa, pp. 47-48, 484-88. Princeton, N.J., 1977. Greenberg, J. H. The Languages of Africa, 2nd cd.. pp. 85-129. Bloomington, Ind., 1966. Griffith, F. L The Nubiall Texl.I of the Chris/iall Period. Abhandlungen der Ktlniglichen Preu.o;sisehen Akademie der Wissenschaften, PhilologiS(:h.His· torische Klassc 8. Berlin. 19 IJ. "Chrbtian Documents from Nubia." PrCJceedings of the Bri/ish ACQdemy 14 (1928): I 17-46.
Haycock, B. G. "Medieval Nubia in the Perspective of Sudanese History." Sudan Note$ and Records 53 (1972):18-35. Jakobielski. S. "Some Remarks on Faras Inscriptions." In Kun$t ulld Geschichte Nubiells ill christ· fichu lei!, ed. E. Dinkier. Reeklinghausen, 1970. Menger, B. M. "The Christianization of Nubia and the Old Nubian Version of the New Testament." TUle ulld Ulltersuchungen wr Geschichte der ailchris/lichen Lilera/ur 92 (1966):531-42. Shinnie, P. L "Multilingualism in Medieval Nubia." In Studies in Ancien/ Langllages of the SudQJ'l, ed. A. M. Abdalla. University of Khartoum, Institute of Amcan and Asian Studies, Sudanese Studies Ubrary 3. Khartoum, 1974. WIWAM Y. ADAMS
1\.'lJBIAN LITURGY. Even at present Nubian lit· urgy remains obscure. II is evident, however, that Byzantine-Creek, Coptic. and native Nubian tradi· tions all shared In the creation of a liturgical life of richness and intensity among the Nuhian Christians of thc Nile Valley between 500 and 1450. Evidence comes from two main sources. The !irst is the magnificenl frescoes from the cathederal at FARAS, excavated in the 196Os; the sccond is the manuscripts that may have formed part of a cathedrallibrary from the fortress town of OA$k lliklM. In addition, small liturgical fragments in the same style of handwriting as those from O~r Jbom have bl;'cn found in a church al Sunnarti; these appear to be from an amphora. The frcscoes from Faros indicate an intense reli· gious life centered on the cult of the Christ and the Virgin, the Archangel Michael, and martyrs, especially the miJitllry mllrtyrs Mercurius and Demetrius. Apart from thc frescoes tbemselves, grnffiti cut or painted on the plaster of the wall of Ihe nave and aisle of the cathedml bear witness to similar trends in popul1lf piety. Typical examples are "Lord Jesus [and) Mal)', guard, bless, protect, strengthen (and) help thy servant Marianne, daughter of Mariata. So be it. Amen," and "l..Qrd Jesus Christ [and] Michael, guard, bless, protect, strengthen [and] help thy scrvllnt ... " (Michalowski, 1974, p. 299). An in· scription by a deacon reads, "Lord Jesus Christ [and] Mary, guard, bless. protect, strengthen [and] help tby servant Joseph, the deacon, son of Marl.; [of thc church] of Mal)' [In) Pachora. So he it. Amen" (ibid., pp. 298-99). Oa:jr Ibrlm has no surviving frescoes, hut documents from the charred and tom remains of what is
NUBIAN MONASTERIES
assumed to ha ...e been the cathedral library scat· tered on the noar of the great church connnn the evidence from Faras. The liturgy was sung appar· ently in Creek or Nubian, with some texts of the church fathe!\:, 1Such liS John Chrysoslom's "Homily on the Four U ... ing Beasts." using Coptic. From insenions in some of thc praycl"5 and din:ctions to the celebrant. it seems deal' that Greek was as familiar as Nubian to the worshipeD. at least until about 1100. Fragments of a eucharistic sequence that included an offenory prayer From 3. service book, the opening pllSSllge of an anaphora of Atha· nasius and the transition From the Mass of the Cate· chumens to the Mass of the Faithful. and a large fragment of the prayer of dismissal indiQte that the Nubian liturgy was based on the liturgy of Saint Mark, although it was shoner and simpler. This suggests that the Nubians obscnoed older fonns of the litul'l)', .....hich underwent elaborations as time Wt:nt on in other areas where it was U5Cd The fenoent character of the cult of military mar· lyn also can be pro...ed from the fragments of the ACID S. Mercurii and Acta S. Georgii found in the cathl-dral of OaiFr Ibr1m. These confinn the e...i· dence from the frescoes at 'AlIDAUAII NINOI as well as at F3.ra.~. The liturgy of the Nubian churches would appear to ha...e been Monophysile, using a slightly modified form of the liturgy of S."int Mark throughout thc lifetime of the church there. In the ele...enth centu' ry, howc...er. the usc of Ihe Euehologion Mega indio cates Melchite inl1uence in the church of Fams. This de...e1opment. associated perhaps with the episcopate of Bishop MarianO!! (1005-1037). whose tomb wa.~ at Oa.~r Ibrim and not Faras. needs fur· ther research. Otherwise, the Nubian church reo mained true to its Monophysile origins throughout its history. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Frend. W. H. C. "A Fnlgrnent or the Acta S. Gcorgii from Nubia." Analec/tl Bollandiana 100 (1982):79-
86. Sequence from Qa~r (brim." Jahrbllch filr A'l/ike IHld Chris/enwm 30 (1987): 90-98. Frend, W. H. C.. and I. A. Muirhead. "Greek Manu· script from the Cathednll of Qa~r lbrlm. Le Mus· eon 89 (1976):43-49. Jakobiclski, S. A Hls/ory of the Bishopric of Pachoras 011 lhe Basis of Coptic [llscriptions, Vol. 3, Faras. Warsaw. 1972.
....,..,... "A
Euchal;~tic
1817
Michalowski. K. I'uras: Wall Pai'l/I,,~s ill Ihe Calleclion of Ihe Notionul Mllseum In Warsaw. Warsaw, 1974. MUlier, C. D. G. "Dcut1Schc TClItfunde in Nubicn:' In KUllst "tld Geschic1lte Nubiens in christliche.r Zeil. ed. E. DinkIer, pp. 245-59. Recklinghausen, 1970. Moorsel, P. van; J. Jacquel; and H. Schncidcr. The Central Chureh of Abdallah Nlrqi. Leiden, 1975. W. H. C. FllEND
NUBIAN MONASTERIES. ABO ~I,t
ruE ARME.
NtAN. in his Churches And Monast.riu of Em! alld SOllie Neighbouring Countries, spc:-aks of numenrus and imposing monasteries in Nubia. Archaeology suggests, ho.....e...er. that the monastic movement was nc...er as important in Nubia a5 it was in Ec,ypt. Fewer than a dozen Nubian monasteries have been identified archaeologically. and none of these can compare in size or splendor with Ihe great establishmenlS at SuhAj and in Ihe WAdi a]·Na!n.in. The largeS! of the Nubian monasteries mighl perhaps have accommodated 6fty or sixty monks, hut many were considenlbly smaller. Mosl of the known Nubian monasteries seem to date from the period between 900 and 1200. Only IWO of Ihem, lit ~r ai-Win near FloRAS lind in the Wadi Ghazall, ha...e been investigated with any Ihoroughness. In both places a centnll church wa.~ en· closed within a compact cluster of adjoining build· ings. and the whole was surrounded by a girdle wall. AI Oa~r al·Win It Is p0S51ble specifically to recogniz.c a cluster of monks' eells, II central kitch· en and refectory, and workshops. Some of the earli· er Nubian monasteries, like the one at Wadi Ghaz!ll. stood slightly removed !Tom ~eltled areas, but none was tndy isolated (as were many Egyptian monasteries). Nubian monasticism seems to ha...e declined nip· idly after the eleventh century, probably a.~ a re~uh of unsettled political conditions. Detaehcd scule· ments like those of Oll.\>r al-Wb.z and WAdi Ghlll'AII were abandoned, and colonies of monk$ apparently allached themsel ...es for protection to already exist· ing communities. In the late Middle Ages there was one such colony at MENARTI. where the monks shared the ...iIlage church with the lay inhabitants of the communily. Similar accommodatiOns may ha...e taken place at some of the Island ~ites in the BATN At..t:WAR region. All Nubian monastic communities seem to ha...e come 10 an end before the 6fteenth
1818
NUBIANS
century, though the Christi:m faith itself persisted for llOother hundred years. There are neither liurviving l-ecords nor firsthand descriptions to suggest how the Nubia" monasteries were organb.ed and governed. The abundance of Coptic tombstones at WAdi G~II, Fan'S, lind Qa:jr al-Wi7oZ Slls.gCSts Ihal many, perhaps e ....en mosl, of
the monks al these plaet::> "'"ere Egyptians rather than Nubinns.•iowcvcr. the style of church 3n:hilecture exhibited at all the Nubian mona.slcri~'S is distinclly indigenous and nOI Egyptian. In addition to cenobitic monks, there were isolatt-J hcrmilS liv· ing in caves and ancient lombs in v;,u;ous part of Nubia. One meh anchorite, a certain Theophilus, decorate(! the ....'811$ of his 10mb home with a reo marbblc series of Coptic liturgical antI magical inS(;riplions. dated 10 739 (5« NUBI"'... INSC'UnIONS, MEDIEVAL).
[Set also: Nubian Archaeology, Mooieval; Nubian ChriSlian Archileclure; Nubian Church Organixa· tion; Nubian languages and Litcratun·.J BIDUOCRAP}I¥
....Jams, W. Y. Nubia. Corridor 10 Africa. PI'. 478-87. Princeton, N. J., 1977. Griffilh, F. L "Ollford EIlcavations in Nubia." University of Liverpool Allllais of Archaeology alld At!· thropology 14 (1927);81-91. Michalowski, K. Faras, fOllilles p%l/aises 19611962, pp. 114-17. Warsaw, 1965. Monnerel de VillanI. U. La Nubiu medioevalC'. Vol. I, pp. 1]2-4]. Cairo, 19]5. Vol. 3, pp. 61-62. Cairo, 1957. Scanlon, G. T. "Excavations of Kasr el-Wizz: A Prl°liminary Report, I." JOllmal oj Egyptian Archaeo/· ogy 56 (1\170):29-57. _ _ . "IlxCllvalions lit Kasr e!·Wi7.7.: 1\ Prelimin::u)' Report, II." JU/lmul of E;:yptiun Ar,:haeology 58 (1972):7 -42. Shinnle, P. L., lind H. N. Chilliek. "Glmwli-a Mona~tel'Y in the Northern Sudlm:' SU(\;m Antiquities Service, Occasional Papel'1l, no. 5. Khartoum, 1961. WlLLlAM Y. ADAMS
NUBIANS, TIle ter'm "Nubillns" lms sorncthnCli been used to designate all of the inhabitanL~ of the region called NUlllA. Even more loosely, it sometimes designales ::Ill of Ihe dark·skinned neighboring !'Copies who dwt.:ll 10 the south of Egypt. To be lechnically ::Iccurate, however, the name should be applied only to speakers of the Nubian family of languages. Today Ihey ::In.' found prindpnlly in the
Nile Valley belween Asw::ln in Egypl ::Ind Debba in Sudan, but they on(;e o(;(;upit:d a much wider tel'ritOl)'.
The Nubian family of kmsutlgcs is believed to have o"iginated In western Sud;:m. In Ihe provinces tod..y dcsignaled as Koruof::an and Dlufur. From Ihis ancestral homel::lnd, Nubian speakers migrated eastward inlo the Nile Valley, although a few remm,nt groups are still fOtllld in western Sudan. Nubi· an grou~ sueh a.. the !'IOBA and M::Ikkourai are menlioned in classical ICltlS as occupying Ihe wes' hank of the Nile, but the main pan of Ihe river VOIlley at th::lt lime ....~.u slill in the power of Ihe empire of KUSH. The official language of the empire, called Meroitic, is not bclit.'VI:t1 to have been related to Nubi::ln. However, aftef the empi~'s coll::lp:sC' the Nubians continued to move both eastward and nonhwaru. eventually occupying all of the old terntori~ of Kush ::Ind absorbing the previously residenl population. In the Middle Ages, Nubi::lns were the main. and perhaps Ihe only, occupanlS of Ihe Nile Valley between Aswan and Ihe confluence of Ihe Bluc and White Niles. However, afler Ihe foul1eenth centu,)', grou~ of Arab norn::lds overran the more southerly Nubian-speaking lerrilorics, and political power passed 10 Ihe newcomeT!i. Under their influence the Nubian l:tnguagt."5 were gradually displaced by Ara· bic. Tod:iy they su,vlve only In the nonhern pan of what was once Nubian lerrilOry, between Aswan and Dcbba, as well as in a few surviving pockets in Kordof::ln and Darfur. The Arabic·speaking groups in the Nile Valley between Dcbba and Kh::lrtoulil lire descendants of formel' Nubian trihes, but they h::lve lost their (Ineestnll speech ami no longer Ole' knowledge ::I Nubian OIigin. When the Nubians fmit e:ulle to the NiJc Valley, they adopted the worship of the ::Incient Egyptian dellies, ptlrtlcularly of Isis. In the sixth centUl)' they were convened 10 Christianity and beC::Ime memo bers of the Egypt!"n Coptic ehun:h. Christianity eventu"lIy gave way to Islam aJier rhe Arab migra· tions and the breakup of the medieval Nubian king. doms in Ihe rourtcenlh centul)'. Although united in their f::lilh, lhe Nubian spcakel"ll were never unified either polilieat1y or linguistically. [n the Nile Valley they were divided into two principal kingdoms, MAIWURIA and 'ALWA, and they spoke at least twO sepanlle but 1'CI::Itcd l::Ingu::lgcs. For lhese l'Casons Ihe Nubian peoples ne\'er had" strung :ocnse of common identity ::Ind did not designale themselves by a common lerm. even Ihough their Ar
natural color of the undyed callan. The clothing style of the Kushiles was derived fTOm thai of the ancient Egyptians. Kilts with long, pendant aprons in front wen: worn by the men; women wore long or short skirts, and are shown on temple relieh wearing )ong. close-lilting dresses, lhouah none of these has been found by archaeologisu. In addition to tapcstry wcave. pile weaves,
and applied decoration, elaborate
borders of
wrapped openwork and fringe wen: made for the lower edges of skirts and other garments. These lattice borders are strictly Nubian and have not been found in J!&ypt. In the fifth and sixth centuries the use of Calion decreased markedly. and wool took it" place. There ....ere many reasons for the change. but one important factor must have been the collapse of Merot'. which interrupted well·established trade networks. Also. the coming of Christianity brought many changes. induding standards of personal dress. The new styles S(:em generally to have c01lered more of the body than did pharaonic clothing. The tunic, popular In Coptic and medieval Egypt. was worn by the elite Nubians, but most of the people wore a rectangular length of cloth dmpcd or fastened around the body. Much of the materi:,l had brighlly colOred stripes in red. green, yellow, blue, or purple, as welt as the natuml color of the white wool and many shades of brown and tan. The use of linen and colton grat!ually incrcasct!, so that by 1000, 40 percent of the Nubians' textiles were COIIOn, 20 percent were linen, and appro:d· mately 35 percent wel'e wool-only half as much wool a., had been uset! 200 years earlier. Colton f:lbrlcs were often embroldel'ed with geometric de· signs and Christian symbols in brightly colored wool yarn. silk was rare, but was imported by the wealthy. Goat hair wa.~ made inlO bags, rugs, tents, cort.ls, and strJps. The weaving techrdques for the laller were often complex, pl'Oducing different patterns on the two sides in several difr~,rent colors. By the late Middle Ages, Nubian textiles were numerous and varied. The ;allabiyyah seems to have been the basic garment. It was dark blue or white. made of linen or callan. In style. it W'oIS lillie different from the modem ;affabiyyah, which is an
Ilnkle-lenglh, shirtllke garment with long, wide sleeves and a f'rQnt nC(:k opening lhat closes with string ties. The neck opening was often decorated with small circles or nowers worked in silk embroi· del')', Checks and slripcs in blue and white were also used, Wall paintings found in Nubian churches provide dClailcd pictute$ of ecclesiastical and royal dress. The overall impression is one of great richn(:ssvoluminous ganncnts in several layers, elegant braids decorating hems and cuffs, a profusion of pearls sewn in rows of roselles on sumptuous fubrics. Although there is no way of identifying the m:uerial from which these luxury fabrics were made. it is reasonable 10 assume that some, at least, were of silk. Among the pauemed fabrics. stripes are most commonly seen, but small and laIKcr repeating patterns are also prcs.cnt. There are many ways In which these patterns could have been produced: by printing or painting. by applied decoration such as embroidery or applique, or by the weaving process iuelf. All of thcse teehniquC$ have been found archaeologically from lhe medieval per· iod, and It is clear that gannenls similar to those represented on the wall paintings did, in fact, exist. Much of this luxury fabric wa..~ imported from the great textile centers of lhe Middle East and s(:I"VCS as an eloquent indication of the wealth of medieval Chrislian Nubia. BIBLIOGRAPHV
Adams, W. Y. Oasr Ibrim: The Late Medieval Period. Egypt Exploration Society Excavation Memoirs. In preparation. Crowroot, E. G. "The Clothing of a Fourteenth-Century Nubian Bishop," In Studies in Textile History, ed. V. GerveOl. TOl'Onto. 1977. Eastwood, G. "Textiles," In OU~'eir aI-Qadim 1980, ed. D. S. Whitcomb and J. H. Johnson, pp. 285326. American Research Center in Egypt Reports. Malibu, Calif., 1982. Michalowski, K. Paras. Warsaw, 1974. Plumley, J. M.; W. Y. Adams: nod E. G. Crowfoot. "Qasr Ibrim 1976," Jrmmal uf Egyptian Archaeol· ogy 63 (1977):45-47. NETT1I.! K. ADAMS
NUMERICAL SYSTEM. COPTIC, When CoplS adopted, at an early dale, thc Grt:'Ck alphabel. they also abandoned the demotic numel'llis for the Greek system bascd on the principle of allaching a numerical value to leiters of the alphabel. Thus in
NUMERICAL SYSTEM, COPTIC
1821
Comparative table showing Coptic cardinal numbers and other standard systems of cardinal numbers. Subdivided from left to right. the three main columns show Coptic printed numbers. Coptic cursive numbers. Roman numerals. "Arabic" numerals as they appear in Arabic. and "Arabic" numerals as adapted by Europeans. Photo of a manuscript dated 1937. found among the papers of Aziz S. Atiya. Coptic, numbers could be represented by the ordinary Greek alphabet together with additional letters which the Greeks had already borrowed from the archaic Phoenician alphabet and inserted in their own namely. the digamma (from Semitic waw) for 6, the koppa (from Semitic qaf) for 90. and the san (from Semitic sad,,) for 900. These twenty-seven letters represented the three series of nine numerals, the units. the tens. and the hundreds. and enabled the scribe to write the numbers from I to 999. The Greek supralinear diacritical mark was rendered in the regular Coptic script by a horizontal supralinear stroke. The same letters marked with two parallel supralinear strokes were used as numerals for the thou-
sands. This laborious detail seems to have been the reason for other forms in which the two supralinear strokes were replaced by one sublinear stroke. and also why all strokes were abandoned in several other examples. Nonetheless. if these regular numerals suited quite a few Coptic manuscripts written in uncials. they were in fact less practical for rapid notations than the tailed Greek forms. This is why Greek numerals were often used in Coptic accounts rather than Coptic ones. These regular numerals underwent a process of graphic transformation, observed in other scripts and in particular in hieratic and in demotic, yielding many paleographical variations. which are yet
1822
NUN
to be studied. It seems that at a later si;'8c scribes tried to assimilate the tlll'ee Semilic Jellers to COf>"
tic characters, which were drnwn from demotic. The Iwppa was finally 5tandardi1:ed as a Ill)' (..). the sad/: as a shay (",) or a.~ the barred Greek leller rho {Pl. while the digalll"'u was never llS5imiJated by the demotic sign for 6. All these Coptic numCl1Ils were extensively used in Bohninc, less in Fayyumic, but rarely in Sahidic where numbers were nannally wnUl'n out in words. To express fraclions. multiplicatioll, and dis· tributive concepts. Coptic Icons were used in both Sahidic and Bohaine. f\lAD MECAlJ.Y
NUN, a member of a female rcligioWi order living
under vows of chastity and asceticism. With the diuemination of Chri5lian ideals in the apostolic age. many widows and virgins separall~d themselves from society to worship God, initially in seclusion and lalcr in communal groups (cr. I Tm. 5:9-10). Cenohilic conventual monasticism C3n therefore be said to antedate its male counterpan hy severnl genernllon!, as evidenced by sevcrnl inslanccs from the hi:i>lol)' of the Coptic church. For example, upon his consecration as patriareh in 199, DEMETRIUS I. twelfth patriarch of Alexandria, entrusled his wife, with whom he had lived in total abstinence, to the care of a community of devout women. Likewise, saint ANTONY (c. 251-356), rightly called the Father of MonOL~licism, consigncd his only siSler to the care of a pious sisterhood before he devoted his life 10 solitary wOl'Shlp In the desen. Again, after Saint PACfIOMtUS (c. 290-346) had established cenobitic Christian mnnasticism, his sister Mary is said to have visited him askinlj; for liuidance to lead a life of slmllill' Ilustenty Ilnd devotion. The cell that he built for her in the hills of Tabenn~s~ Intel' developed into II convent near Dandarah in Upper Egypt, of which his sister bet:amt: the sup{,rior. This was followed by Ilnothel' near Akhmim. When Pachomius died, Theodorus, his fuvorite disciple, esttlblished another convent ot Faw in the vicinity of modem Oent!. Besides beinW the spiritual father of thnusands of monks living under his supervision, ApOl SHENUTE the Archimandritc (343-425) founded a convent that accommodated about eighteen hundred nuns. When Palladius (c. 365-425) visited Egypt, twelve convents had already been eslablished in Anli· noopolis alone. He recorded lengthy aCCOOlllS of Ihe saintliness of inmates of these Con\'cnl\. One
such was Talidll, whose prudence in administering her community was proverbial. Sillty nuns lived with her in real Christian fellowship and devotion, without once thinking of dC5Cning the community, whose gale was nevcr lockcd. Another was Taor, who lived in absolute self.negation for thiny years, consecl'3ting all her time 10 prayer and worship. Menlion must also be made of Saint Theodora (295-412), an a,
upon the abillt)' 10 COIleCned. Thls relalcs both to lnans· lalions from Greek into COptic and 10 translations within Coptic (Bohairie transpositions of Sahidic oriKinllls), A special form of textual tradition is rcpn:scnll..-d by the bilinguals, which appear in all forms of the transmission except for quotations. In the first millennium this relates panitularly to Greco-sahidic bilinguals, and after about 1000 to Bohairic·Arabic texts. In general the editing and explication of the Coplie Old Testamenl (in alllhe diak-cls) lags behind in comparison with Ihe New Testament. The main lasks and problems for inv(.'Stigation are (I) collecllon, arrangement, and e1assilicalion of the textual wilnesses; (2) tritical editions of the texts and concordances based upon tllern; (3) lhe relalions of the Coptic versions to lhe Septuaginl; (4) lexlual rcla· tionships within Coptic; (5) collection and examina· lion of the citations in the Coplic original and translation literature. Investigalions inlo cornpahl' tive philology in Greek and Coplic, and into the objectivc evalulltion of the textual variants, are still in their beginning~; such qucMions can be brought nearer 10 H soluliun only wilhin Ihe context or the Greco·Coptic lranslation lilerature as a whole, in· cluding Ihe New Tcstamcnl. IUHUOGM,u'HY
The editions of lhe text aloe distrihuled over morc than 100 separdte public:ltions, muny of Ihem journals. The most complete list of these publiclltiuns is A. V:l.'lchalde, "Ce qui a etc public des versions coptes de la Bihle," ReVile IJibliqlle, new serics 16, 28 (1919):220-43. 513-31; 29 (1920):91-106,24158; 30 (1921):237-46; 31 (1922):81-8. 234-58 (Sa' hidit); Le MllseQn 43 (1930):409-31 (Dohairic), 46 (1933):299-306 (Fa}')'umic ;lOd Middle Egyptian). and 46 (1933):306-313 (AkhmimicjSubakhmimic).
Vaschalde's list Is updated in W. C, Till, "Coptic
OLD TESTAMENT, COPTIC TRANSLATIONS OF
Biblit;31 Tt;IIts After Vasclu.ldc's Lists," /llillet;" of the Joh" Rylallds Library 42 (1959-1960):220-40; and in P. Nagel. "Editiont;n koptischcr BibehCJ(lc sci! Till 1960," A.rclriv lilr Pllpyrus/orschung 35 (1990), The COI,tic Old Testament tCltts of th,' DoJmcr PapYI'i wel'C published completely by R. Kasscr. Papyru~' 8m/mer 11/. tlJllll¥i1e de Jtiall tit Gti/lesti 1lV,2. CSCQ 177-178. ProlO-Bohairic, Dialed B4. Papyrus Bodmer VI, livre dl!J Proverbe.f. eseo 194195. Proto·Sahldic::, Dialect P. Papyrus Bodmer XVI, Exode /,J-XV,21 en sahidiqlle. CoJogny/Gcneva, 1961. Papyrlls Bodmer XVIII, Deulbollol/le 1,/-X.7 etl sal,i· diqlle. Cologny/Gene\'3, 1962. Papyrus Bodmtr XXI, JOSIIC V/,16-25, VII,6-X/,23, XII,I-2, /9, XXIII,7.15-XX/V,2J t'n sahidique. coJogny/Geneva, 1963. Also in Kasscr's t:cvangile ulon uin, Jtan l!/ les versions copus d" la Bible, pp. 90-167 (Neudu\tel, 1966), togelher' with the Chester Dealty manuscript inv. no. 1389, belonging to the same COOCII. Papynu Bodmer XXII e/ Mississippi Coptic Codex 11. Urcm;l! XL,3_U/,J4. LAmt'nlations, epitre de Uri.· mil!, Baruch /,/_ V,S en sahidique. Cologny/ Geneva, 1964. Popyrus Om/mer XX1J1, Esoie chop. 47,9~66,24 ell sahidique. CoJogny/Gcneva. 1965. Editions of other Old Testament tellts in Coptic indude J. Drescher's handling of Codelt MS67 from the Pierpont MOI-aan Libl1Uy in New York in Thti Coptic (Suhidic) Versivns 01 Kingdvllls J, /J (Sumlle.l I, 11), CSCQ 313-314; P. Nagel, "Aufg:lben lind Probleme einer krlti!lchen Edition del' kopti'lCh·sa· hidischen Vel'Sion der Sepluaginta:' in Arts of Ihe Second IlltemuliOllo/ COl/gress lor Coptit· StmJills, pp. 215-24 (Romc 1985); M. K. H. Peters, A Crilical Edition ollhe Coplic (Oohuiric) Penlatcuch, Vol. 5, Deuterollomy (Chico, C:;lJif., 1983), Vol. I. Gellcsi.~ (Atlanta, Ga., 1985), Vol. 2, Exodus (Atlanta, Ga., 1986); Septuagint and Cognate Studies 15. 19, and 22; and I'. Nagel, "Griechisch.kOptische llilinguen des Allen Testnmcnts," in (,'rIH populari1Y, The icons representing him arc numerous Ihroughout the entire CI,ris1ian East. BIBLIOGR....... HY
Antonini, L. "Le Chiese eristiane ncll'Egillo dal IV~ IX secolo sersonal; here Ihe biblical Ir:adilion made its impression on him. God is omniscient and omniputenl, l>ul he is not the prcdeslining God Qf Old TeSlament and New Testament. He fureknows and foresees but does not foreurdain. In Odgen's view God's guudness nrld His juslice ure nOI Contrasted ur evell kepI In bal· ance. bUl arc Idcnticul. God. of course, punishes
or
those who d1.'SCI"Ve punishmenl, bUI his punishmenl is never purely relnbuth'e: il is alwaY" rcmedi:ll. Origen rejecls altogethel' the nOlion of God's wrath; God is never angry. At one point he says that the wurSI thing that God can do 10 :Jnybody is simply to leave him :,lolle. In Ihis respect Origen t:urried the Iiberalthl.'Qlogy of Clement much funher. Origen's dOClrine of God is firmly Irinllarian. God's nalure is 10 communicate and reveal Himself: and bccau!le He cannot change, He must always have been communicaling Himself. from eternily. In order to communicate Himself. however, Ihe One and Simple must become manifold. and He I;an do Ihis only by amlll' doning I-lis absolute immunity 10 change or experi· ence (impassibility. apatheiCl) and assuming a form in which He can act find be an Orgllll for aCIing. This Is the WQrd (Logos) or Son. The Logos is the perfcel image of God. really and truly God: In faci. Origen ean call him "Sceond God" (not "0 second god"), echoing a Middle Platonist lerlll. The Logos/Son has a distinct existence, lin individual reality (Origcn uses both llypostosu and ollsia for this). from lhat of the Father, and Ihis, tOO, is divine: "The Savior," he says, "is God not merely by p.."lr1ieipation (melOlIsia) but in His Qwn right (klll·o".liall).'· The Logos/Son htls :I[ways been with the F:uhcr. and has :Jlways been distinct from Him. The gener:Jtion or production of the Son is an act lasting from eternity. "There never wa~ a lime when He did not exist," says Origen, and elsewhere, "The Savior is elernally generaloo by the Falher." In this doclrine of Ihe elemal general ion of the Son. Origen has broken lhrough the lrinitarian .scheme Ihal had held in Christian Iheology before his day and had taught lhal for purposes of ere· alion, revelation, and n."
argument. This technique meant that his thought could be, and to some CXlent undoubtedly was, in· dependent of scriptural control (or as independent as he chose). In consequence, Origen may be re· garded as a great theologian, but he can hardly be described as a great biblical scholar, in spite of his immense exegetical labors and his popularizing the commentary fonn. which in fact he borrowed (as he borrowed the practice of all¢ioli;dng eschatology) from the Gnoslics. Origen was a devout churchman all his life; he championed the Chl;stian church in his books, encouraged iL~ martyrs, instrut:ted its prayer, conduct· ed its servit:cs. preached to its congregations, and on more than one occasion was called in to reconcile heretics or to convert the misled. In his own day he was regarded by most of his friends and followers as ;1 grefll ChriSlilln leacher and philosopher, and Ihis deserved reputation lasted long after his death. It would be Quite wrong to call him a hl,:TClic. By lhe standard~ of his own day he was not only orthodox but a defender lind upholder of or· thodoxy. II was only long after his death that serious accusations of hcresy were broughl againsl him, culminating in his condemnation at the &''C' ond Council of Constantinople of (553). But the charges brought there against Origen were caused partly by misunderstanding and misrepresentalion, partly by complete lack of historical sense. and panly by the demand of contemporary prcs.sures. Origen'. influence upon the Creek.,spca.king theo-logians of the Eastern church elltended for well over a cenlury after his death. His contribution to Ihe development of the doctrine of the Trinity was a pt:nnanent gain and enabled the defenders of the Nicenc Creed to overcome Ihe influence of ARIAN· ISM. even Ihough certain othl,'r trJits in his thought lIlay have tended in the opposite direction. His tradition of iOleq)reting the Bible in the interests of the spiritual developmenl of the Individual lioul, especially displayed in his wOl'k on the Song of Sollgs and on the hook of Numbers, extended its influence well into the Middle Ages in both East and WCSI. Origen has always appealed to illdividu, ah of intcllect and jnsight through the agl,'s-roc instance, 10 John $cOIUS Engena and to Erasmusand probably always will. Indeed, inlemational scholarship has seen a greal revival in the study of Origen since the end of World War II. a!ld an international Colloquium Ongenianllm has bcen found· ed to rurther this interest. Perhaps Ori~n's greatest and most enduring achievement was to compel the church to recog· nlze the necessity of coming 10 tenns with contem'
ORlGEN: Origen
porary non-Christian thought. So thoroughly did he achieve this Ihat the church's auitude to I'hilOliOphy was pennanenlly altered by his work. Never again could it afford 10 ignore 15ecular thoughl. Dislanl though he is from us in time. and dislam in culture owing to his living in a late Greco-Rom..n civiliza· tion, and distant in thought becau15e of his preoccu· pation with late Platonism, we clIn salute this great Christian Egyptian and recogni:.:e in him a kindred sph'it as we in our generation struggle to express lhe Christian message in the language and thought of our day.
818L1OCRAPIIY
Bertrand, F. Myslique de Jesus chez
Origi~Ple.
Paris,
195 I.
Bigg. C. The Chris/iaPl Pia/on isIs 01 A!prmdria. Oxronl, 1913. BUllelWOrth. G. W.• lrans. Origen on Firsl Principles. London, 1936. Chadwick. 1,1., lrans. Orige" Cotl/ro Ce/~·um. Cambridge, 1953. Crouzel, 1·lenri. Theo/ogie de I'image de dieu chez Qrigenll. Paris, 1956. _ _ . OriglJ11e el Ia philosophie. Paris, 1962. Daniclou, J. Origen. London, 1955. Faye, E. de. On·genll. sa vie. SO/1 oelwre, .~a pensee, 3 vols. Paris, 1923-1928. Hanson, R. P. C. Allegory and Eve'll; A SllIdy 01 tlie $ourcn alld Signi/icance 01 Origell's Imerpl"ela· lion 01 &I"iptul"t. London. 1959. Har!, ~L Ol"ige/lt el ItJ lone/ion ri.vi.latl"icc du verbfl incaml!. Paris, 1958. Jay. E. G., tmns. Origen's Treatise on PrtJyu. Lon· don, 1954. Kelller. F. H. Drr ursprling/iche Sinn der Doglrlatik des Orige~les. Berlin, 1966. Koch, H. Pro/loia UIfJ Paideusis. Berlin and l.cip:.:ig, 1932.
Lubac, H. de. His/(Jil"c cr esprit: I. 'ill/ellil:ence de /'~crirrm! d'l/pres Origem-. Paris, 1950. Naulin, P. Origelle, sa vie et SOIl oe/lvre. Pari.~, 1977. Oulton, J. E. L., and H. Chadwick. Alaal/driem Christianity. London, 1954. Tollinglon, R. 8., lrans. Selections Irom Ihe COlli' mell/aries a"d Homilies 01 Origen. Londun. 1929. Trigg. J. W. Origen; The Bibft and Philosophy in Ihe Third Century Church. London, 1985. Vito~. A. Idetllidad entre el cuerpeJ mtlerto y res...,,· ilado en Origenes $l!gim el "De rrSlln·ectione." Jerusalem, 1981. VOgl, H. J. Vas Kirchenversliindnis des On"genes. Cologne and Vienna, 1974. Vtslker, W. Vas Vollkomlllelllidtsideal des Origellts. Tilbingen, 1931. R. P. C. IlANSON
In
the Coplo-Arabic Tradition
1851
Orlgen in the Copto.Arablc Tradition There can be no doubt lhat the condemmllion of Origen in 231 and again in 232. and his deposition from !he priesthood by Demelrius, the twelr1h patriarch or Alexandria (189-231). disqualilied Origen in the Coptic church. II is possible Ihat his condemna· Hun by Justinian in 543 as a heretic, as confirmed by Ihe Second Council of CONSTANTtNOPUl in 553, also was known to some medieval Copts, thus reinfnrcinQ: their rejection of him. No work by Origen was Irnnslmed lnw Amblc during the Middle Ages-or even in the modem period. Furthem1ore, no lmce of him can be found even in Ihe palrislic series on Ihe Dible. in Ihe dogmatic anthologies, or in !he original works COIll' posed by the Copts in the Middle Ages. The only mention of him Is made in the context of Ihe history or lhe church, when speaking or Demelrius or Dionysius of Alexandria. Even lhcn. Ori· gen always ligures among hcretiCl5. Two par1icular Ambic medieval works make mention of him, lhe HISTORV 01' TIm PATRIARCHS and the Coptic Allibic SVNAXARION. Tire Ifistory of the Patriarc!r.~ of Alexandria, CUIllposed by sAwlRUS IBN Al.oMUOAHA". bishop of al·Ash· m(ln/l.yn, in thc mid·umlh Century. speaks at some lcnglh of Origen in the biography of Demetrius: There was a man [Evens's correclion "among lhem was the mther of a man" cannOl be justilied) named Origen. who learned the sciences or Ihe heathen. and abandoned the books of God, and began to speak blasphemously of them. So when Ih~ Father Demetrius heanl or this man, and saw Ihat some of the people had gone aslray arter his lies, he removed him rrom the church. (History 01 the Patriarchs. Vol. I. part I) The account or the bailIe against Origen goes on for several pages and occupies the nl8jor part of the biotlraphy or Demelriu~. II is borrowed faithfully from book VI of the Ecclesiasficul His/ory of Euse· bius of Caesarea. The Ambic Synaxarion, composed during the first half of the thirteenth century. mentions Origen lwice. The til'!it mention is in !he biogrnphy of Saint Demetrius, on 12 BJ.bah, where the rollowing is wriltcn: "During his lime heretics appeared: here are the names of some or them: Clement. Origen, Arius and o!hers. They composed deceitful books, such that Demelrius cursed them and excommunicatt:d lhem." The second account is In the bibliography or Saint Dionysius (246-266), on 13 Baramhllt, where we read:
1852
ORIGEN: Origcn's Writings
During his lime, numerous heresies appeared in religion. Thus in lhe districts of Arabia people WCI"e seen smtinjf, in the error of thei,- spirit, that the soul dies wilh the body and th..t it rises again wilh il at the resurrection. He calkcl a synod ag....inst them and cllOcommunicated Utem. Othcl'l' followed the heresy of Origen and of Sabcllius. During the modem period, a timid rehabilitation of OTigen has been slowly under way ill the CopLic church. and certain of his .....orks have recently oc-en translated Into ArJ.bic. KllAl.U. SAMtR. S.J.
Orlgen's Writings Origen is dL,,piJled in vain; it ~ destined to gain others for the troc faith. Finnily there is the Philocillill, a book of extracts of "choice thoughts" of Origen, compiled by CREGORY OF NAZIANZ!JS and Basil and addreli5ed to Theodosius, bishop of Tyrnna. around 382, The interest of thi!> work, apart from the intrinsic excellence of its quotalions, lies in the exposition of the place of the Catholic saints in Origen's teaching, Moreover, the Philcx:alia deals with subjccts such as the inspirntion of divine Scripture, Scripture as a pcrfoci in· stroment of God, the special character of the persons in Scripture, Ihe c1arificntion of inaeeul'ilcies or obs.curities in $Orne scriptural phr1lSCS, the passages of Scripture that trouble heretics with ill· advised difficulties, the dark riddles and parables of the Scriptures, a reply 10 the Greek philosophers who di5par.1gc the poverty of style in the Scriptures, free will and fate, and a host of other questions and selections from Origen's vast heritage. It is not easy to make a full evaluation of Origen's writiogs, for the simple reason that what survives from them is an infinltesimal frdction of Ihe total. Nevertheless, evcn from Ih~ fragmental)' remains uf his works, in addition to the surviving transla1ioos of a limited number of his lost 1l'ea1i.'lC1I by great and historic personalities 5ueh as Rufinus, Saint le· rome, and others, the modem scholar stanek in awe and bewilderment at Origen's accomplishments. In the field of biblical studies alone, he is accredited with more contributions than any other man in history, Among olher major contributions, he is known to have been the founder of a school of interpretation as well as the textual editor of the Old Testament in Hebrew and Greek. Hi5 many books on the New Testament, in the form of commentaries or homiletics, are beyond all recognition. This article gives a mere bird's·eye view uf what is lraceable from his monumental writings, It is casy for any scholar to apply the canons of modern research to minor poinu of his work and to i.ssue a critique of some of his detailed pronouncements. Whereas this is 10 be expected in the incalculable mass of writing left by him, the fact remains that he has done more than any other person for practically all depart menu of religious studies. Controversies have arisen from his writings, as have numerous schools of thought for and against his thought. Even in hi5 lifetime, he was a55ailed by ecclesiasti· cal authorities for !iOme of his doctrines that the church repudiated. But this should not minimize the immensity of his contributions or reduce his
ORIGENIST CONTROVERSIES
place as the grealeSt mCntor of lhc Christian faith in classical anliquity. We must remember that Origen the theologian IiVl."
1859
bennest simply to pursue his ascetic way of life. But. as in Shenesl!:t. several men and women con· grcgated around him in the village that had been abandoned when Pachomius arrived. The idea of elaborating a new fonn of spiritual fatherhood did not occur to Pachomius. He simply pUI him~lf at the ~rvice of all his companions. taking care of their needs until he found it m:cessary 10 organize the emerging community into a son of cooperative brotherhood. Afler sevcral year.; Pachomius stal1ed laying down roles of common wo.-k, common meals, and common prayer.; in the image of the primitive church in Jel1.lsalem. These rules were unpopular with his followers, so they rebelled against him and were expelled. This represented a failure. and Pachomius thus learned ales· son. Conscquently, when other disciples came, he did not hecome their servant. but decided to organize them into a community of service in which each would he re~pon~lble for all the olhers. That ide"l of mutual service is at lhe root of the nascent Pachomian koinO'lia (community) and constitutes lhe essence of his spirituality. When he set ul" his new koittmlia. I'achomius was not aware that he was founding a new fonn of monastic life. Nevertheless, it was clear to his con· temporaries, as well as to his bIographer.;. that he gave to the monastic phenomenon an absolutely original expression lhat would be a resounding success, and that was destined to innuencc the evolu· lion of monaslic religious life until modern limes. Gradually. without Pachomius' planning ii, a slyle of life, a pori/eill. emerged. It was inspired to a great extent, especially from the point of view of the matenal setup of the community, by the organi· zation of the cOlltemporary COptic villages. Gradu· ally a distinction was made bctwt:cn those who ae-
1860
PACHQMI US, SAINT
ecpled lhe life of Integral sharing and mulual sen.'ice under :1 munastic l'\lle, and the other men and women who had come to live in the villl'lge of 5henestt and now eunstituted a selat...-d inlo Latin by Jerome in 404 contained eleven letteB, some of them making a cryptic or "spirilual" use of the symbols of the Coptic alphabet. Until very recently IhCK lettcr.l were known only in the Latin version, but now the Greek and Coptic originals of the majority of them have been discovercll and published. We possess the Coptic text of lellen 8, 9a and 9b, 10, and I la and II b (leiters 9 and 11 in the translation of Jerome correspond 10 two different lellers in the Coptic manuscripts). We also have a very old Greek translalion of lellers I, Z, 3, 7, and 10 from a manuscript of the Chester Beany UblOiry. After sever..1preliminary studies, Hans QUl.'(;ke published all these Coptic and Greek dOCumenL'i in 1975, with a long technical ililroduction. One of the impor1ant qUl.'Stions concerning these lellers is theil' Pachomian aUlhenticity. They cer· tainly elCisted in Coplic at a very early stage, since we have a GI'Cek translalion preserved on tI four1h· eentul)' parchment. From a comparison of Je· rome's versIon and the Coptic and Greek lelCts, it appears thaI Jerome had before him a Greek telCl very similar 10 tht: one prt:scrved in lh~, Chesler Bcally Library. Jerome aurihuted the letters explic· itly 10 Pachomius, lind Queekc docs nol find any positive rca.~on to doubl thaI audhution. However, nOne of the Il,:ltel'll, either in Greek or in Coptic, bears a litle allr'ibuting it 10 Pachomius. A few passages from Ihese lellen are quoted by Horsiesios and SttF.NUTE withoul My elCp1icit referenl:e to Pa· chomius. This seems to leave a cel1ain margin of doubt concerning the allribution of the corpus 10 Pachomius himself, although there is no question conccrning lheir provenance from a Paehomian mi· lieu. Onc of thc ICllers (no. 5) is about the annual meeting of all the brolhers for the Easter l:c1cbra· tion, and another (no. 7) about the other annual meeting in the month of Mis!"!. nle lasl three let· ters (9, 10, and 11) are about the things 10 come,
1863
lind hence have a PI'Ophelic chal'acter. The reSl seem 10 be spirhual elChonations. BUI nonc of them is easy to inlell'l'Cl. least of all those (nos. 1,2,3,6, 8,9, and 11) that use a cryptic type of language. No satisfactory elCplsnation has yet been given, and e1len Ouecke, who has studied the question 1Iery thoroughly, was unable to find a de-'u answer. No demonstrable connection can be established wilh a similar use of thc alphabet in various documents of lhe NAG ItAMMAOl Ul.lIlAItY. The Pachomian practice probably has somelhing to do with the traditional love of the Egyptians for cryptograms, to which old Egyptian hieroglyphs len! themsel1les so well. 8IOUOCRAPitY
Ami-lineau, E. MOllImlellts ,xmr urvir it l'histoire de t'Egyple chretien/Ie lUI /Vr sitdr-Histoirc de StJim PalcJr.Omr el de su commWlautts. D/Xu· mell/S l,:ople$ el uruhu jnl-dits, publiis el traduits pllr E. Al1ll.lilfellU, 2 vals. Annales du Muste Gui· met 17. Paris, 1889. Bacht, H. "Antonius und Pachomius. Von der Ana· chores!: zum Ctsnobitentum." In An/onills maglllls erelf/ita, ed_ Basilius Steidle; pp. 66-107. Studia Anselmiana 38. Rome, 1956. "Palt.home-der grosse 'Adler:" Geisl WId Leben. Zeilschrifi /lir Asuse Imd Mysiik ZZ (1949):367-82. "Ein verkanntes Fragment des koptischen Paehomiusregel."/.e Mllseon 75 (1962):5-18. _ _ . "Pach6me el ses disciples." Th~ologie de lu vie monas/iqlle 49 (1961 ):39-71. Biedermann, H. M. "Die Rell:el des Pachomius und die evangelischen RalC." DSlkirchliche SmdielJ 9 (1960):241-53. Boon, A. Pachomiaml I,atina. Ri!g/e el ~pilres de $. Puch6ml!, Apitrl! dl! $. '{'Modorl! I!t "libl!r" de $. Orsil!$iljs. Te",tl! IUlill Ill! $. JArUlf/tl. l3ibliolheque de la Revue cl'Hisluiri: Eccll:siRsliquc 7. Louvain, 1932. Chilly, Denvas J. "Pachomkm Sources Reconsidered." The JOimlal of Eccle.~/aSlical Hislory 5 (1954):38-77. _--;. "Some nOles, Mainly LelCical, 011 the Sourc· es for lhe Life of Paehomius." In SII/dia pUlrislieu, Vol. 5. pp. 266-269. Tcxlc und Unlersuchungen ZUI' Geschichle dCI' altehristlichen UlelOi!Ur 80. Berlin, 1962. ___. "Pachomian Sources Once More." In Siudia paIr/Mica, Vol. 10, pp. 54-64. Berlin. 1970. Crnnenburg, H. van. Ul Vie lalilll!! de sainI Pacllome Iradl/i1e dll grec par Deny$ Ie Petit, ediliQtI cntiqllc. Subsidia Hagiographies 46. IJrusscls, 1969. De Clerq, D. 'oL'innuence de la Regie de sainI Pa· ch6me en Occident." In Milallges d'nis/oire du moyen dge didiis Q fa mblloire de Lollis Halphen, pp. 169-76. Paris, 1951.
1864
PACHOMIUS BASILICA
Oes
Third, shlee Herodotus, Ihe Greeks had discovered common features in Greek and Egyptian dci· ties and had linked them wilh each other, for inJlance, Oslris.Dionysus, Isis-Demetcr, IsiJ·Aphrodill,', Horus·Apollo, Ammon·Zeus, Mut-!'lera, Chon· su-Heraeles, Thoth·Hennes. After Alexander Ihe Great, the long coexistence of Ihe two ethnic eommunltle5 made these equations popular with the masses and led to the fonnation of numerous syncrelistic Grcco·Egyptian cults. II was Serapls (Osir· is.Apis) amaJg:l.lnated with Zeus, Helius, Hades, Po· scidon, and other deities, as well as Isis, who had the greatest appeal to the Greco·Roman world. Greeks living in Egypt were allractcd 10 Egyptian funeral)' culls and gradually adopted nlllmlnifica· tion. Fourth, the Jewish communities In Alexandria and in other places constitUled an important rdiiious factor. The Sepluagint and the religious trea· tises of Philo rendered their faith accessible to members of other ethnic groups. They had a temple
1866
PAGANISM AND CHRISTIANITY IN EGYPT
Enmity between them llnd the Greeks in Alexandria was a recurring element. Ii grotYC cOlllllct hetween
Christians and Jews in the time of Cyril ended with the sacking of the Jewish quarter. Fihh, lhe re!'I of the cults did nOI play any pmmi· nent pan. Among them the eullS of Jupiter Capitol· inus in Arsinol, of the goddess Roma, and of the empeml"l received support from the state, though some pagan monumenrs were dedicated by soldiers Stationed In Egypt. Oriental deitics were worshiped in smaller cir· cles. We have a vivid early Ptolemaic description of the Adonis festival in Alellandrla In the AdolliQl}fS(li of Thel)(:rituS, and Ihere is evidence for Ihis cull also from Ihe Roman period, when Adonis was identified with Osiris and Aion. Astarte had her cult in Egypt from the time of the New Kingdom. Atar· galls also was adopted in Egypt. Mithra had a sane· tuary in Alemndria and WOolS venerated in other places. There was a Nanalon in Alexandria built in honor of the semitic goddCS!l Nanaia. Christianity
Follower of the:: t10ddess Isill. Sheikh Ibada (Upper Egypt), ca. 325 A,J), Limestone with traces of paint. Height 17 In. COllftcSy D. & J. de Mellil Col/ectiml.
in Leonlopolls from the time of Plolemay VI Philomelar (180-145 H.C.). It was erected by the high priest Oolas (Josephus Flavius AN/iql/i/utes 13.3) within the building of a desel1cd temple of the goddess Basi. After the capture of JCnJSlllem by Titus (A.D. 70), it was dosed.
The suppression of the Jewish revolt in A.D. liS lempol"llrily broke the power of the Jews in Egypt.
According to Euscbius, Christianity was introduced into Alexandria by $alnt Mark, though earlier sources do not mention this mission. $canty evi· dence hinders the reconstruction of the history of early Christianity in Egypt. The earliest record is a fragmentary papyrus of the Gospel according to Saint John. It is a mailer of debate how strongly the early Christian communitit:s were connet of Amon in A.D. ISO (Ouaegebeur, 1914, p. 43). Aboul 300 a Roman camp was built In the temple of Lullor. The sactlluffl, the sanctuary of the camp. was the place of the imperial cult under the Tetrarchy. A number of Coptic churches were ereetcd beside the temple, one in the court iL~elf (now beneath lhe Abu al-
J:laijAj mosque). In Kamtlk, the Festival Hall of Thutmosis III was transformcd into a church, and the remains of monasteries have been found in vari· ous places. On the west side of Thebes numerous ancient tombs were converted into dwellings or used for cultic purposes by the Christians. There were Christian buildings in a number of temples, and temples were used for the Christian cult. The last of the temples where me cub survived until lhe reign of Emperor JUST1NIAN (527-565) was the tcmple of Isis at Philae. This was tolerated for political reasons, since the majority of Ihe Nobadae and Blemmya accepted Christianity as late as the sixth centul)'. They were pennitted 10 visit the is· land regularly. Abhough it was a pagan religious center, a Christian community lived there from the fourth century. The exact date of the closing of the temple cannot be established beyond 535/531. 11 was pari of the religious policy thaI put an end to Ihe Academy in Athens in 529. The prit1Sts were arrested and the Images of Ihe gods sent to Con· slantinople (Procopiu$ De bello Persico, 1.19-37). The ttlmple was convened into the Church of Saint Stephen.
BIDUOCIlAPIlY
&mes, T. D. Cons/rmtine and Eusebius. London, 1981. Bell, H. J. JtWS and Chrutians in Egypt. London, 1924.
:-:---,=
"Popular Religion in Grdeeo-Roman Egypt; I: The Pagan Period," Journal of Egyptian Arche· ology 34 (1948):82-97. _ _ . Cults and Creeds in Graeco-Rom(ln Egypt, reprint cd. Uverpool, 1951. Burckhardt. J. The Aile of Const(ln/ine Ihe Great. London. 1949. Dodds, E. R. Pagan and Christian In an Age of Anxl· ely. Cambddgc, 1965. Fowden, G. "The Pagan Holy Man in Late Antique Socicty." Journal of Hellel1ic Studies 102 (1982):3359. Fr3.'lcr, P. M. Ptolemaic Alexandria. 3 vols. Ollford. 1972. ~I:lbachi,
L "The Destruction of Temples in Egypt."
In Medlel'al and Middle Eas/ern Studies in Honor of Alit Sltf)'al ~/iya, ed. Sami A. Hanna. Ldden, 1912. KJl.ko.~y,
L "Der GOII &"!l in dner koptlschen Le· gende." ~cta Antiqua Hungarica 14 (1966):1851£. Repr. in Smdia AelO'ptiaca 1 (1981):119ff. "Probleme der ligyptischen Jenseitsvor.;tellungcn in der Ptolemlier· und Kaiserzeit:' In Reli· gions en EDPte ht/liPlistique tl romaine. Paris, 1969. Repr. in S/udia Aegyptiaca 7 (I981):195ff.
PAGARCH
Kalavrewu·Maxeiner, J. "The Imperial Chamber at Luxor." Dumbarf<m Oaks Pape-rs 29 (1975);22551. Milne, J. G. A Histary of Egypi Unde-r Roman Rule. London, 1924. Momlgliano, A. ed. The COrlfliel Belwurl Paganism and Chris/ianilY irl Ihe Fourth Celliury. Oxford, 1963. Monnercl de Villard. U. "The Temple of the Imperi' al Cult at Luxor." Archaeo/ollia 95 (1953):85ff. Mussies, G. ''The InlerpreUltio Judaica of Sarapis." In Siudies in I{ellerlislic Religion, ed. M. J. Vermaseren. Eludes prtliminaires aux religions or· ientales dans I'empire romain 78. [.eiden, 1979. "The Interprelatio Judaiea of Thot-Herme5." In Siudies in Egyptian Religion, pp. 89120. Studies in the History of Religion.
Murals in Churches Very little is known today about murals in the most ancient Coptic chu...ches because few exam· pies survive. Many evidences of Egyptian Christianity disappeared in the thiricemh and fourteenth cen· turies. Informntion from secondal)' soun:es i:;; often uncertain. The Arabic writeB al·M:lqri71 :lnd AbO ~lil? the Armeni:lO menliOll an impressive numbe... of churches and monasleries eonlaining murals and icons, but they do not nanle the subjects depicted. Ukewise. most of the descriptions by European travclcB from Ihe fift~nth 10 the ninetel'nth centu·
ry are brief and give little uscful inform:ltion. Doubtless. as in other Christian areas. Ihere wen: scenes ilIuslraling the life of Christ and ...ep...esenta· tions of local sainl5. but whelher they were on walls or apses is unknown. The most that can be said is that the iconogmphy fonowed Ihe plans of Ihe mu· mls in oratories of the monks' cells and prepared the way fo... the vast iconographic programs of the churches in the Middle Ages. Mural. In Early Chun:.he•. Only a few murals of saints ...emain in Ihe churches at Philac buill in the lemples of Imholep. Isis, and Hatho.... where they overlaid pharoonic decol-atioll. Then: are also a few such murals in the churches constructed in the temples of Seli I at Abydos, Hatshepsut t-fore the tenth century. Thl,.."Y present a vast iconographical array lhal unfolds all along the walls, apses, and columns. Scenes born the: Old Testament such a., 030iel in the lions' den, the sacrifice of Isaac, and the three children in the furnace deconltc the walls. The walls also show scenC$ from the life of Mary, sueh as the Annundalion, Nativity, Durmition, and A.'I.,umptiun. and of Christ, in lhe Adoration of the Magi and mirades, llotably the wedding at Cana. Prophets, saints, espe· cially mounted ones, mOllks, and founders of mono asteries appeal' on the walls, and male flOd female saints decorate the columns. The cross is less frequent " 111 was covered with mosaics: on the columns there were saints afoot, dnlperies, and friezes, but no painted wall decoraiion has yet bc llnd flJur nights, Paphnulius fQ~md a cave, the occupam of which had been dead fOl' sollle lime. ~Ie saw to his burial and then, a little farthel' on, met a hermit called Timotheus, who was living among the antelopes but had a box at hi~ di~posal and was close to a spring and a date palm. This man, a monk from a monas· tery in the Thebaid. had become a hermit ncar his monastery, and after cohabiting for six months with a nun, weill Into the hc:art of the desert to expiate his sin. After leaving him, Paphnutius went "into the inner desert of the Oasis," "when: the Maziecs live," says a Greek text (ed, F, N, Nau, in Revue de I'OrlCnI ch~bjell 10 11905 J:412), which may indicate the oasis of OXYkHYNCHUS, today called al·Bahnas1, for the Ma7.ices lived in lhe desert SO\lthwcsl of Seetis, This passage in the text could con'espond LO a second journey by Paphnutius. He took bread and water for four days, but h.ad to walk for another four days without food or drink. He thought he wa.~ going to die, but a man of light came to rescue him. Four more days passed, and he was still a.'i5isted by the man of light. Finally, at the end of seventeen days, he observed a man of fire, covered by long hair and rrsembling a leopard. This was Onophrius, who recounted his life to Paphnutius and died after dictating his last wish...-s. P.Jphnutius buried him, then had to cOlltinue his joumey, for the d'lte palm and the hut of Onophrius crumbled immediately after he died, After three days and three nights, he came acros.~ a ~mall cell and a hermit clothed in palm leaves. The hermit hall lived with three other brothe~ in this part of the desel'! fol' sixty YCllr, like Onophrius. but they lived on [<XlVes mirnculou~ly brought to them. They refu~ed tn tell him Lheil' namcs-in contrast with the other hermits he met-but asked him to make their way of life known in E~ypl. Paphnutius stayed with Lhem for one day, then went on his way. He came to n spl'ing wilh d'lte p:llms and all kinds uf fruit trees, and thought he hlHI ;.rrived ill Paradise, Fuur youn~ men clothed in sheepskins in the form of aprons came \0 him. These were son~ of councillors from Oxyrhynchus who, after allend· ing the schools in lhe l()wn, had decided tugether to embr.u;e the h('rmit life, After four days' walking. they had been led to this place by a man of light. There they found an old man who taught them the rule!! of the hermit life lind died a )~ar later. They had been living there for six years a.~ semianchol;t(!'l;, meeting on Satunlay and Sunday for Di· vine Liturgy; an angel broughl the Eucharist to them. Paphnutius remained wilh them for seven
1883
days, and on Sllturday p.'ll'ticipated with them in the miraculous Communion brought by the angel, whieh was repc:atoo on Sunday momin~, The names of these hermll~ were John, Andrew, Hera· damon, and Th...'Ophiluli. After Iheir refusal to k...'Cp him with them, Paphnutius left, and at the end of seven days' walking, mel some monks from Sceti~, who tranSCI;bed his story and took it to their mona!itl.'ry, to depo~it it in the church. The work allributed to ABO $AUI:I ruE ARMENtAN 1985 relates that Paphnutius, the one who visit...-d Onophrius, lived at DAYR AL-SHAM', also called Dayr al.Shayyll!ln, situated on the left bank of the Nile in the district of Giza. After his joumey into the desert. he is Silid to have become a disciple of Saint MACARIUS ruE GRF.AT at $cetis, then to have lived at Dayr al-5ham', where he died and where his body was buried. The author of the text adds that, "",cording to his biography," he died on IS Amshir, which presupposes It source different from that for the joumey in the de.~rt, Should we identify the author of the narrative about Timolheus, Onophrlus, and the other hermits with saint I'Al'lINltTtUS ot' SCtrrtS. the disciple and successor of Maea.rius the Great, as is done by the document attributcd to Abo ~Ii~? That PaphnUlius, sUl'l1amed Kephalas, was bo~n between 301 and 311. and had the reputation of loving solitude. Some authors, such as De Lacy O'leary (pp. 21920), do not hesitate to make this identification, 110wever Ihut !IIay be, nl) other document, ll) our knowledge, affinn~ that the disciple of Macarius died at DayI' ai-Sham', Curiously, the Synaxarion ha.~ no notice about Paphnutius or Scetis, alluding to him only tiS a disciple of Macarius in the pa.~sage devoted to the laller at 27 BaramhAl. A History of Ihe MOllks of the Desert, in fact of the hermits living in Upper Ellypt and on the islands or the Fir:st Cataract, i~ attributed to a certain Paph. nut Ius, It seems that this is anoLher per:son, BIBLIOGRA.PHY O'Leal'Y, De I., The $1I;nl$ of Egypl. London, \937. RENE·GOORCES COOUIN
PAPHNUTJUS OF PROW, SAINT, a fourthcentury monk who wa.~ ~leward of the koilwnia (community) eslablished by Saint PACHOMtUS, A younger brother of Saint rueODQRUS 01' TA8F..NNIlSP~ Paphnutius came to the monastery of Tabcnne:sc a few years aftcr hl~ brother. When Paehomius estab-
1884
PAPHNUTIUS OF SCETIS, SAINT
1ished the general IIdministration of the koinQnia al PDOW. he appointed Pilphnutius as the first great steward of the koinonia, with the responsibility of receiving the fruits of lhe labor of all the brothers and providing for all their needs. Paphnutius died during the plague of 346, as did Pachomius and many of the older brOlhers. ARMAND Vau..ElJX
PAPHNUTIUS OF SCETIS. SAINT. "the one who belongs to God," mimE borne, par1icularly in the tounh century. by several monks among whom il is sometimu difficuh to distinguish. John CASSIAN. during his sojoum in Egypt between J8S and 400, knew an Abba. Paphnutius who \IrI;U then priest of SCETIS and to Wholll he ascribes his third conference, "On the Three Renunciations." Paphnutius was renowned for his taste for seclusion. He had established his cell several miles fTom the church, where he was seen only on Salurda)'5 and Sundays; on the olher da~ il \'1M very difficuh to see him. For this reason he was nicknamed "Bubal:' from the name of the desert antelope. According 10 John Cassian, Paphnutius was Ihen over ninety years old. He was ~iJJ alive in 399, since, according to Cassian (X, 2-3), in that year he was the only prie~t of Seetis to welCOnle the letter of Patriarch TIlEOrlllLUS denouncing amluopomorphlte elTon. In the Ufe of Saints Maximus and Domitius (Aml:lincau, 1894, p. 312) he is called "a disciple of Macarius" (the Egyptian) and "father of Seeds" after him. However, according to Casslan (XVIII, 15) he succeeded Isidorus In Ihis function. On the other hand, in chapter 47 or his His/oria lausillCIl, PAWnlUS speaks of a Paphnutius surnamed Kephahls and rcpOt1S a long discourse that he delivered before Palladius himself-hence after 390-on tho rellsons virtuous monks f:'lll
PAPOH£' OF BAWIT. See Phib, Saint.
PAPYRI, COPTIC LITERARY. The Coptic litC'tMER PAPYRI). From the Ch~tcr Beatty collection the manu· script of Joshua, dated to the fourth centul')' and edited by A. F. Shore, mould be mentioned. The Kcond pan of it is in the Bodmer colltttion (Bodmer XXI). Among Ncw Testament manuscripts, ref· erence should be made to Ihc three parchment manuscripu of the Gospels of Mark, Luke, and John, written in the first half of the fifth century (P. Palau Rib. 181-83, published by H. OuecKc), as wdl as the Berlin Aets published by F. Hin17.e and H. M. Schenke. Papyrus Bodmcr VI, a manuscript of Proverbs wriucn in the Proto-Sahidic dialect and published In 1960 by Kasser, also belongs with the ~hidic.
In the Middle Egyptian dialcct four Bible manu~ scripts have bcc:n found; three of the New Testa· ment (Mauhew, Acts, and letters of podull and one of the Old Tcstament (Psalter). Of these, two have been published: the Gospel of Mauhcw (Schenke) ant! the lelten of Paul (Quecke and Orlandi). An early Bohairic rn!lnuscript is Papyrus Bodmer m, published by Kasser in 1971. Not mentioned by Kahle is a manuscript of the Gospel of John from thc UniveT!\ity of Michigan collection (P. Mich 3521), which was published in 1962 by Husselman. So fur there Is no such list of the manuscripts from the 9i~th century on. Only some of the Sahidic manuscripts of this period arc included in van Lantschoot's work (1929) on the colophons of Coptic manuscripts. While thc early manuscripts have fo!' the most pan preserved wrilings of the Old and New Testa· ments, intenestllmental Iitemture, apoclyphal writings of the Old Testament and the New Testament, the apostolic fathel's, apologists, and original writings of the Gnostics lind Manichaeans. the later manuscripts contain, in addition to the biblical lit· ennure, especially hagiographical and homiletic works (see UTERATURE. comc), as well as profane IiteralUre (see PArYRI. comc MEDICAL). The state of pTe$ervation of the manuscripts is varied. The dry climate of Egypt is favorable to
1885
their preservation, so far as the manuscripts were found in the dry desert soil, whelher in the ruins of Coptic monasleries or In graves. Actually, llIany manuscripts have survived in very good condition, sueh as the Papyrus Palau biblical manuscripts mentioned ahove. Othen, such as the Manichaean papyri (see PAPYRUS DISCQV!l.RIES), are more poorly preserved. Despite thc large number of extant manuscripts from Egypt In comparison with those from other countries, the number Is small In comparison with the number of the literary manuscripts written in Egypt. Many Christian manuscripts were destroyed in the PI!.RS6CtJTIONS, or in the attacks by nomads on the Coptic momuterie5 situated on the edge of the desen (e.g., In the WAdt al-Na!rUn). The Egyptian state church attempted 10 destroy manu· scripts of Christian sccu or non·Christian religious communities (e.g" Manichaeans and Gnostics), or those of Christian authors whose orthodoxy came under wspicion (e.g., ORleEN and D1DYMlIS THE DUND).
Even lifter their discovery In modem times the manuscripts-so far as they were not found in a scientific undertaking-were threatened by further danger. Finders, who generally did not know the value of their discovery, 10 some elltent heedlessly destroyed Ihem, or destroyed pans in the division of the find into several lots. Through the antiquities trade these passed into various collections. Rela· tively few of Ihe manuscripts recognized as belong. ing together have been reassembled through ell' change between the collections (see PAPYRUS COLlECTtONS). In most cascs It rcmains a maHer of knowing which p:iges in different collections once belonged to a slnglc codcll. This work, which be· longs to the realm of codlcology, is the presupposi· tion for the publication of litcrary manuscripts. In the case of biblical manusedpts (Schmitz and Mink, 1986, Pl'. 29fT.), such rcconstruction of codices is still relatively easy but tlme·consuming; and since there are concordances for these tellIS, it demands good knowledge of the literature for other groups of tellts. Inde~cs of works of literature prese",ed complete are also lmpottant.
BI8L10GRAPIIY
Hintze, F., and H.·M. Schenke. Die Berliner Hand· schrift der sahidischen Apostelgeschichte. Berlin, 1970. Husselman, E. M. The Gos,nl of John in Fayumic Coptic. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1962. Kahle, P. E. Bala'itJJh. Coptic TexiS from Deir e/Bala'iljlh in Upptr Egypt, Vol. I. London, 1954.
1886
PAPYRI, COPTIC MEDICAL
UlO1SChoot, A. 'Ian. Reclui/ des colop/lorlS de.• ilion' userils chretien d'!3gyptt. BibliOlheque du Muston I. Louvain, 1929. O'wry, Dc I... E. Primary Guide 10 Cop/ie Literary lola/erial. London, 1938. Ouecke, H. Dos Markllscllollgelillll/ sardisch. Papy·
lin. 1964]). A gl'OliP of Coptic ductors is known to us by name (K. S. Kolla, "Namen christlicher Ante der koptischen Zeit in Agypten," Die Well des Ori· ellts 14 [1983]:189-95).
rologicll Castroclaviana 4. Barcelona. 1972. --::-' Da.s Lukasevotlreliulfl sa/dueh. Papyrologica CasltoClaviana 6. Barcelona, 1977. _-;-_ Das )oJllmnesevange!ium SlJidi,'I(;h. PapyroJo· gicll Caslroctaviana II. Barcelona. 1984. Ouecke, H., and T. Orlandi. Ullere di Sail Paolo ill copto-ossirinchita. Papiri della Universitil degli Studi di Milano. Milan, 1974. Schenke, II.·M. Das Matthaus·EvlllIge!ium im mit/t!iJBYPtiu;hen Dirddl des Koplischtn (Codex Schei. dt). Berlin, 1981. Schmitt, F.-I., and G. Mink. Lisle der koptischen lIandschrilfttl des Newm TeslamenlS, Vol. I, Dir. $UhidischePl lIanrLu:hri/len der EVllIIgelir.II, pt. 1. Arbeiten zur Neutcstamcntlichcn Textfol"5Chung 8. Berlin and New York, 1986. Shorc, A. F. JosJllIa I-VI and Olhu Passages ill Coplie. Dublin, 196].
Remains or Parchment ManuscrlplS
MARTIN KRAUSE
PAPYRI, COPTIC MEDICAL. Of the volumi· I'lOUS Coptic medical IitCl"lllllrc, ol'lly remnaolS have survived, as is shown by the high I'lumbers of the elllant numbered pages. These remnanlS have come down 10 us on parchment, on papyn's, on ostmea, on paper, and on walls (as gmffiti). beept for the second JXlrchment manuscript (sec bdow) the tCAIS have been tmnslated and editcd by W. Till in Die Annefkimde de' Kopten (Berlin, 1951). Only a part is dated. The copies range from tilt, sixth to the twelfth century. From the Iibmry catalog of the monastery of Elii,ls in West Thebe~ (sec below, ostl"i1con 7), as well M from the graffiti (scc bclow, graffiti I and 2) and the ostrl1ca deriving from man· Mteries {see below, (lSllnca 4 and 5), it is clear that al least these texts came from Coptk mOllllsterics, In Ilddition, the seventh·cenlory document from Jd· fil (British Museum, Orient:d 8903, published by W. E. en/m, in "Koplischc ZUnfte und das Pfefferlllonopol," Zeilschri/I fii' Agyplischr. Sprache rmd Allerlul1lskimde 60 [1925]:103-111) shows that Ihel'e was a guild of doctoT:!l there (II. 107ff.). In the middle uf the fifth century SIU!.NIJI'E appointed seven dQctors 10 give medical treatment to men wounded in the invasiun by the Kushites (1. l.eipoldt, "Ein Klosler lindert Kriegsnot. Schenlltcs Bericht Uber die Tliligkeil des Weissen KIQSters bei SQhag wah... end ell'les Elnfalls der Kuschiten," in Festschrift Ii,r Enrst Barnikol Vlm 70. CebU"S!ag, pp. 52-56 [Ber·
I. A parchment leaf with the page numbers 2:14-
15 (sigilim SA): published by U. Doonant, "Frag· ment d'lln Iivne de medceine en copte thcbain." Acadimir. dr.s inscriptiolls e.I belles·ltllrt's. CDmptes relldus ser. 4, IS (1887):]19-20, 374-79; Gcnnan trans. in W. C. Till, Dit AfUlejJumde de' KDptell, p. 112 (Benin, 1951). To this 5aJTlC manuscripl belong two pan::hmcnl kaves with the page numbel'!l 24144 (siglum ZB), published by G. Zocga in Cll/Illogus cooko'um cop/korl/In nlllrlllScriptontm qui ill Musco Borgiallo Ve.1ilris lldUrYllntu', pp. 626-30 (Leipzig. 190]: reprint of Rome. 1810); sec also J. F. Champollion. "Recellcs mCdicales pour les maladies cu· tanees. traduhes d'un fragment egyplicn, en dia· lcete theb.:J.in:' Revue llrchio/ogique II (1854): 3]]42 (ediled by E. Pollevin after the dcalh of Cham' polliol'l): E. Delaurier, "Fragment d'lln tmite de mCdc::cine cople faisant pal,ie de la collection des manuscrilS du cardinal Burgia publiee par Zoega:' Journlll asillfiqlle 4 (1843):433-52 (translalion with notC5), German tmns. in Till. AfUltikunde, pp_ 135-37. 2. Six pan::hment leaves frum the si...th cen\llry with the page numbers 103-106, 111-14, and 13536 in the Egyptological Institute uf the University of Copenhagen, bought in Cairo at the beginning of the 19305 by C. Schmidt and perhaps deriving from Ihe Jeremiah moni,lslery 011 Sllqqara: published by W. Erichsen, "Aus einem koptischen AnneibU;orne cases. offer older readings. Howcver. the significance of the literary papyri lies in the fact that the number of the tuU that have become known ror the first time through them is considerable. So far as the exteill of the Hterary tr:u:lition u concerned, Homer with the Iliad stands first. Then follow Demosthenes and Euripides. While the worb of many authors experienced enlargement, Bacchylides. for example, only comes alive for us through the papyri, and only they convey to u.s a comprehensive insight into Menander's dramadc art. The Acts of th~ Ale.xrmdri· an Martyrs shows the aversion of the Gn:eks against imperial despotism and its anti-Semitic attitude. Greek professional liter.llIun; U represented just as much as papn religious or Christian literature. The content of the documents provides evidence for political. public, and legal relalion..hips, and fnr economic and ~ial conditions. The st"te authorities arc the originators of many documents. Edicts. ofliclal journals. Judicial records. and petitions by private perwns to oflicials are numer"us; private contracts. accounts. and letters have survived in great quantity. Greek remained the langua8e of commerce cvcn after the incorporlllion or Egypt into the Roman empire. Apart from a few high administrative officillls. it was lIlmost only the Roman legionaries who spoke Latin. Thu~ dncument~ from the army. the administration. and the law lIml private lellers form the bulk of the Latin papyri from Egypt. Among literary woro, we find te"ts of dassinll authors (Cicero. Sallust. Livy, Vil'gil). aillong juridical text.. pans of the WOI'k.~ of Ulpian and Papinian. the CODEX THt!ODOSIANUS. and lhe CODEX JUSTINIANliS. After pfe"CI'Vative treatment of the m:lterial. two tasks present Ihemselves to the spescher, R. Ibscher, and A. Fackclmann-thc scientific disclosure of most papyrus collections in calalogs and publicalions 15 stlJl deficienl. ProCrcss has been grealesl on lhe Greek and Lat· In papyri be
Royal Library constitute the foundation of the Coptic holdings of the National Library. After the royal library became the National Library, an additional 1,883 fragments of manuscripts from the library of the White Monastery (O,>,YR ANIJA SIIlNCrt>AH) in Suhiij were acquired. Other fragments of these manu· scripls have come to the library from Cairo, Leidcn, and London. The manuscriplS (i.e., the manuscript fragmems) ron the gamut of Coptic literature: Old Testament, New Teslament, lives of monks, councils and church hislory, acts of martyn, apocrypha, liturgical manuscripts, large katameros, Shenute, homilies, miscellaneous, unidentified fragments, and medicine and astronomy. Chabot's shan summary of the library's holdings was followed by the detailed but incomplete sum· maries of J. Delapone and E. Porcher. The m0i51 eXlerlSive catalog of the Sahidic manuscripts, which lists the publicatioru of Ihe texts, was prepared by E. Lucchesi. Paris, lAuvre Museum Among the Ilonliterary texis the dialysis document from Djemc (£.5134) and the conupondence of Bishop PISENTIUS 01' cop· TOS are worthy of menlion. The publications of E. Revilloul need to be redone. W. E. Cronl published some of the documents in 1912 (KRU 40 and 43) and others in 1921. Slrasbourg, Unlvcnlly Library Among the copi· ous holdings are some Coplic and Coplic-Ambic tellts. Germany, Federal Republic of Berlin, Stllte Library The manuscript collection contains eighty-four Coptic manuscripts. Berlin, Egyptian Museum The Egyptian Museum has 2 papyrus, I parchment, lind 2 paper manu' scripts, 220 papyri, innumerable unidentified frag· ments, and 2 ostrnca. Cologne, Papyrus collection lit Institute for AnIlqully, Unlverslly der Rhelnlsch.Westfll.lIsehen Akademle of Cologne The collection has about 100 Coptic papyri. Cologne, Department of Egyptology, University of Cologne The depanment houses Coptic papyri. Frelburg 1m Drelsgau, University Library The collection contains twenty-five Coptic papyri (some very small) and two Coptic manuscripts: Manu$tript 615 (fragment of a G~k·Sahidic text of the Gospels, which is from Manuscripl M61S of the Pierpom Morgan Library, New York) and Manu· script 699 (from Manuscript M587 of lhe Pierponl Morgan Library, New York).
PAPYRUS COLLECTIONS
Glelllen, Unlve...lt)' Library The collection conlalns aboul sevenly-five Coptic papyri, G6tllngen, State and Unlverslt)' Library of Lower Saxony In Ig77, Ihc Gtlllingcn Univcrsity Ubrory acquired thirty.four Coplic manuscripts from H. Brngsch. These texts have been described by F. W(lSlen(eld and P. de Lagarde. Hllmburz, State and University Library The col· lection COntains len Coptic papyri and onc CoplieGrcek bilingual papyrus of Ihe Old Testament (see lIAMlIl)RC PAI'YRUS). Heidelberg, Unlverllty Library Thc collection contains threc Coptic manuscripts: Cod. Heid. Or. 63,97, and 113. Heidelberg, Institute for Papyrology The Institute has 390 Coptic papyri, 51 parchml'nt manu5Cripts, 68 paper manU!;cripts, and 33 OSlrau. Munich, Bavarian State Library The collection contains Coptic and Greek papyri as well as t~nty· two Coptic and Gn:ck·Arabic papyri. WUmurr, University Library The collection has three Coptic papyri. German Democratic Republic Berlin, State Museums of Berlin The holding:; of thc papyrus colleclion, built up over a period of more Ihan 150 years, exceed 20.000 in number. of which about 2,500 are Coptic texts. Of these Coptic pieces about 681 arc papyri, 153 arc parchmcnt. 69 are paper, and 1,.549 al·e ostraca. As part of a rescarch effon of thc Oriental and Ancient Studies Section o( Martin Luther University in Halle· Wittenberg, W. Beltz has divided the Coptic texts into the rollowing cleven groups; (a) kllers; (b) documents. contracts. lists, accounts; (c} natural science nnd medicine; (d) magic lexts; (e) liter.uy texts; (f) bibBcnltexts; (g) homiletic texL~; (h) apoc· rypha; (j) Gnostic texts; (k) school exercises and analecta. Among the best·known texts nre the Gnos· lie manuscript P. 8502, which contains tl'xts parallel to lhose in Ihe Nag Hamrnadi Librar)'. and the papyrus (P. IS. 926) of the Acts of the Apostles. At the beginning or the twenlieth century. A. Erman. J. Leipoldt, nnd others started to publish the Coptic documents. After a lifly·year interlude. F. Hintzc has taken up the task of publishing thcse documents. Berlin, German State Library A5 a reroult o( the division of the holdings for prol(''MI'R PAPYRI). the CheSler Beatty Li· bl1lry (see Clll'STER BEATTY BlBUCAL PAPYRI. COPTIC PAPYRI). and lhe Universily of Mississippi. Thill dis· co\'el)' contains nol only documenLl; in Greek and Coplie bUI also Greco-Latin writings from lhe pre· Chrilliian period (e.g., works of Menandcr. Thucydi. dt'S, Cicero) and Christian writings from lhe Old and New Testamenls, a.pocrypha, and carly Christian literalure in Greek and Coplie. The early bibli-
1900
PARADISE
clli manuscripts found arc especially important for
thc lex\ of the Bible. The combination in this disCOIlCry of pagan lind Christian writings presents problcm.~ in deciding ahout !.he character of the carlier library or libraries. Finally, reference should be made ;llso to thc old manuscripts found in monasteries in Egypt by Eu-
ropean tn:lVelers lind scholars. For Ihe Old Testament only Ihe CODIlX SINAITIC\1S found by K. von TlSCIlI'.NI)(,)RI' in the monastery of Saini Catherine on
Mount Sinai need be named; for Coptic Ii!eralllre, there is the library found by G. M:ospero in SheoUle's White 1.1oo:;l.5lc1')' (see DAYR AHB" SHINODAH) at
SuhAj ilnd the books found in the JIlonasteries of the Wadi al·Nll!nln, most of which were brought to
European libraries. In most cases lhe colophons give lU information about their origin. BIBLIOGRAPHY
&ms. J. W. 8.; G. M. Browne; and J. C. Shelton. Gred lind Coplic Papyri from Ihe Canan,wge o{ lire CoverJ. Nag Hammadi Studies 16. I..c:iden, 1981. Dorcue, J. The SeCUI Boob o{ Ihe F.gyptilln Gnw· lics. All Imroduction to the Gnoslic Coptic Mallu, scripls Discovered al Chelloboskiall. pp. 116-.36. London, 1%0. Elderen, O. van. ''The Nag Hammadi Exeavalion." Biblical A.rchaeoiogisl 42 (1979):225-31. Gabra, Gawdat. "Zur Bedeutung des Gebietes von l;I:\gir Edfu fUr die Koplologie und Nubiologic." Miueilungen des deutschen art'haolugischen !tlSli· lUIS Kairo 45 (1985):9-14. - , _ . "Zur Bedculung des koptischen Psalrnen· buche~ 1m oxyrhynchltischen Dialekl." GOl/inger Mis:dlcII 93 (1986):37-42. Gul!inlud, O. "Lc p(lpyrus de Tour;,),: I. Sa decouverte and son ~tllt de conselVation." In Sur la piiqllc: Orlg~ne . lraili iw!dit pllblie d'apres Ifn papyrllS de T, ami was chiefly intended for the carrying uut of the baptismal ceremony (Juritl, 1970. p. 74). Further, all lhe larger' churches at SCETIS ;lrc equipped with parekklesia. The Im'ger secondary churches, which as a rule arc aClIlally sputiully 5cpurate, mUSl be considered independenl churches. From the late Flitimid period, with a view tu inereltsir,g lhe fre· queney of mllsses, snwll plll'ekkiesia were set up in muny Cairo churches in lhc side ruonrs :.nd the gallel'le.~. They were in eltch cllse provided with an altar and an iCOnOSlasis shutting off the altar area. 11 was only after ilanctuarics wilh sever'lll altars were introduced, well inlo the Mamluk period, that the designation parekklcsia for the 5ide allars 10SI it.~ justification. UIDUOGRAPIIY
Descoeudres, G. Dic PQslophoriel1 im syro-bYYll1lil1' ischel1 OSI/!!n, pp. 21-22. Wiesbaden, 1983. Forsyth, G. 1·1. "·I1t.e Mnnll.'acry of 51. Calherinc at
1903
Moum Sinai." DrllllbllrlOIl Dllks Pllpcrs 22 (1968): 3-19. Grossmann, P. MiUdQllerliJ:lle Llltlgllllliskuppelkir. dum uud venva"dte Typell ill Oberiig)'ple.II. pp. 222-24. GlUcksladl, 1982. Jarilz, H. "Die Nonlba5ilib." Mifleililllgen des dellischeu arcllQologische/l l/lsfifuls-Aobleilul1g Kairo 26 (1970):69-74. PJrr1SR GROSSMANN
PARTHEY, GUSTAV FRIEDRICH CON· STANTIN (1798-1872), German Coptologisl and classical Kholar. He was educaled at Berlin and Heidelberg. He published a number of Greek and Coptic texts and several books. BIDUOGRAPIIY
Dawson, W. R., Egyptology, p. Kammerer, W., Arbo~, Mich.,
and E. P. Uphill, Who Was Who in 222. London, 1972, comp, Ao Coptic Bibliography, Ann 1950; repr, New York, 1969. AZIZ S. ATIVA
PARTHIAN HORSEMAN. StU Chri~tian Subjects in Coplic An.
PASCHA, it Jewish feaSl 1'QOled in lhe seminoma· dic religious pr:actice~ of the ancient Near East, allached 10 memories of lhe Israelitcs' exodus (rom Egypt by the histori(:i7,ing imellll'eunion of E.xodu~ 12:12-13, 23-27, and Deuteronomy 16:1-6, and adapled to lhe celebralion of the Christian mySlery of ~alvation by lhe early Christians, Despile modern philological pr'Oposals, the etymology and original meaning of the Hebrew word pe~(/I.r, from which lhe Greek puscha is derived, r'emain obscur'e. Exodus 12:13, 23, :md 27 provide (\ popular etymology by relalinll: pe~(lll to lhe Hebrew verb p(Jsa~, 10 lImf', 10 skip or Jump over. God, prepared to strike down the firslborn in Egypt, would limp past, or skip over, lhe houses of the Israelite~ who had pcriormcd the paschal rite, In Hellenistic JUdllislll, the word pllscllO was explained either as hypcrbllsia or llyperbasis, a passing-<Jver, with reference to God's passing over the houses of lhe Israeliles in Egypl, or a$ diobosis or diobllleria, a passing·through, wilh reference 10 Ihe Israeliles passing lhrough Ihe Red Sea. Of Ihese two Hellenislie Jewish explanalions, Ihe
1904
PASCHA
not easily transferable to Ihe Christian paschQ, hut Christians used the second by laking the p.'\ssagc Ihrough the Red Sea a.~ a type of Christ's passage from death to life or of the Christian's passage to new life in baptism (ideally 8t the time of Ihe puehal celebration), or even by laking the passage through the Red Sea as an allegory of Ihe Christian's pas.~se from sin, ignorance, and false· hood 10 virtue, knowledge. and truth. I.n a specififirst
Wall
cally Christian etymology popular in early ChMslian ccnlUrics but infrequently used by learned writers. pasc:ha was taken as a word related to p4S(;hrin, 10
suffer, and thus referred to christ's suffering and death. In the earlicst years of Christianity, Jt"WS, in celebr.l!ing Passover on the night of Ihe full moon. the fourteenth-fifteenth of the IUnllT month of Nisan, joyfully and thankfully commemorated the past de· Iiver-mce of their people from bondage in Egypt, looked upon that deliverance as repreSl.:nted in the present, and to some extent looked forward to a new liberation in a future age. Unlil the Temple in Jeru."lliem was deslroyed in A.D. 70, the killing and eating of the paschal lamb and thc blood rites per· fonned with the hllllb's blood were important parts of the celcbration, as they are to this day in the paschal observance of the Samaritans. In nascent Christianity, the passion and resurreclion of Jesus at the time of the' Jewish pasch (Passover) delennined the nature of the Christian Pasch. The paschal lamb was taken as a type of Christ (1 Cor. 5:7; In. 1:29,36; 19:33,36; 1 Pt. 1:19; Rev. 5:6. 9. 12; 12:11), although its killing and eating were quickly replaced by the Christian o.g<Jpe and Eucharist in the early morning, after a vigil and a fast. The earliest Christians observed their P"'sch on the date of the Jewish Passover, in the night of 14-15 Ntsan, a pl'llctice continued in the Qu.Jt1odeciman observance in Asia Minor into the late sccond cen· lUI)' and among heterodox Christian groups as late a~ the founh. Their intelllretation depended above all on the dating of the Passion and dC;lth of Jcsus on t4 NiSlln, evident in the clll'onology of the Gos· pel According to John (In. 19:14). The passion and death of Jesus were at the center of the earliest Christians' understanding of their Pasch. This by no means necess&I'ily excluded His Resurrection as motive for the joy and hope that characterized the paschal celebration, but from the extant sources, it i.~ impossible to reconstruct with cenitude a com· plete and authcmic Ouanodeciman inlcrprelation of Ihe early Christian Pasch.
The practice of celebrating the Christian Pasch not in the night of 14-15 Nisan but in the vigil leading into the Sunday follOWing 14-15 Nisan arose early, perhaps in the church or Jerusalem, and spread rapidly, so that by the end of the second ccnlUry it was the common practice throughout Christendom. The choice was made in view of Christ's ResulTCCtion on the Sunday following the Jewish Pasch, and it entailed a shift of emphasis from his passion and death to his Resurrection in Christians' interpretation of their Pasch. In the early centuries of the Christian cra, howcver, Christ's passion. death, Resurreclion, and Ascension were seen as integral moments of a single paschal mys' tery. Christian use of typology and allegory 10 adapt elementll inherited from the Jewish Pasch (the killing and ealing of the paschal lamb, the propilialory value o( its blood, commemoration of the deliverance of the fintbom in a ncw age) to those various moments of Christ'S saving aClion, in a single pas' chal celebration, satisfied the needs of the occasion. Roughly in the course of the founh century, as the development of the Christian calendar reflected an increasing concern wilh temporal distinctions, Ihe sense of unity In the aspects of the Christian Pasch was weakened. The commemoration o( Christ's pas. sion and death wa.~ concentrated on Good Friday. that of His Ascensioll was moved to a new feasl fony days after Easler, in accordance with the chronology of Acts I :3, and EaSler Sunday b...-camc more exclusively the commemol'lltlon of His Resurrection. It W".IS Easter Sunday, not Good Friday, that retailled the name po.scho. in Greek·speaking Chris· tendom, but the concept of Holy Thursday and Good Friduy as days of the Christilll1 paschal meal and of the Immolation of the "Paschal Lamb" was not lost. The East and West Syrian and Maronite churches continue to use the Syriac form of pascha to designate Holy Thursday, and the East Syrian church, 10 designale Good Friday as well. In thc Coptic church all of Holy Week is often called the Week of pascn<J. DIOLIOCRAPIIY Batte, B. "Pascha." L 'Orient syrien 8 (1963):213-26. Cascl, O. "An und Sinn der «Itesten christlichen Ostcrfeier." Jo.hrbllcn fllr Lilurgicwisscrlschaft 14 (193g): 1-78. Dani~lou, J. "Le Symbolisme du jour de Paques." DicII "i"o."l 18 (1951):43-56. Goudocvcr, J. van, Biblical Co./cndars, 2nd ed., pp. 7-14, 155-75. Leiden, 1961.
PASCHAL CONTROVERSY
J
,
Huber, W, Passa lind Os/em. Beil,dle ZUI" Zeilschrift Rlr die ncutcslamcnllichc Wissenschaft 35. Berlin, 1969, Jeremias, J. "nmrxQ'," In Theofogisches WoNerbuch ZUlli Nellen Tes/amen/, Vol. 5, pp. 895-903. Stungart. 1954. Lanne, E.. "Texles el rites de la liturgic pascale dans I'ancienne eglise cople," L'Oritllll !iyrien 6 (1961):81-94. lnhse, B. DDS Passofesf der QUQrladuimlJner. BeiIrlige zur Fordcrung chrisllicher Theologie 2. Series 54. Ciltersloh, 1953. Mohrmann, C. "Pascha, Passio, Transitus." Ephemerides Liturgicat 66 (1952):37-52. Emdu S14, Ill: flltin des chretiens, vol. I, pp. 205-222. Rome, 1958. Rordon, W. "Zum Ursprung des OstcrfcslCS am SOnntag." TheololiKlle Zei/unrilt 18 (1962):16789. SchUnnann, H. "Die An~nge der chrisllichen 051erfeier," Theologi.u:he DuaNa/Kllri'l 13\ (1951):414-25. Schwanz, E. "Ostcrbctrachtungen." h;m:hrift f«r dis "tut,stamstlfliehe Wiue"schafl 7 (1'J06):I-JJ. _::-_ Guammslls Sehriften, Vol. 5, pp. 1-41. Berlin, 1963. Sidarous, A. "La paque salmI' 01.1 la semaine sainte scion la litursie caple." Proche·Orie"t chrilie.., 17 (1967):3-43. Vau_, R. de. us Sacrificu d, tAncien restQ",enl, pp. 7-27, Cahiers de la Revue blbliqul' I. Paris, 1964, AF.JJIED CODY. O.5.B.
PASCHAL CONTROVERSY, any controvcrsy arising fyom differences in the way of establishing the date of Easter. By the second century. the prae· tice of celebrating the majot' day of the Christian Pascha on the Sunday nfter the fourteenlh day of the Jewish lunnr month of Nisan, the dnte of the Jewish P3SS0VCI', became the established praclice throughout Christendom, except in the dllll'ches of western Asia Minor, where the practice of ending the fast and celebrating the Pascha every year on t4 Nisan iuelf (Ouartodeeilllanism) continued. Disagreement on Ihis point was noticed in Rome around 120, when POLYCARP, bishop of Smyrna, vis· ited there in the reign of AnicetlL~, but no issue was made of the matter unlil around 190, when Victor of Rome tri(:d to persuade PolyerlllCli of Ephesus and other blshops of his region 10 adopt the common prnclice as the one required by apostolic tradi· lion. When Po1ycrates consulted his fellow bishops
1905
lind sent 10 Vietor their ,'efu.'lal 10 abandon the Ouanodedm.1.l1 pr.Il;:ticc, which he defended a~ equally apostolic and traditional, Victor cxcommu· nicated the churehes of the Province of Asia and adjacent areas, a step that led lrenaeu~ of Lyons and other bishops to write to Victor, urging him 10 prefer Ihe cause of peIlCC, unity, and charily 10 Ihal of uniformity. In reporting this controversy, Eusebius (HistoriQ eccfesiaslicu 5.23-25) did not mention Ihe Church of Alexandria in his list of regional councils that III that lime insisted Ihat Easter should be: obsen'ed on Sunday alone; but he did report a document in which the Palestinian bishops, who did hold such a council, said thai they exchanged leltcn with Ihc Alexandrians, so that the I:hurches in both regions obsen'cd the holy day together. &sic agreement on the requirement of celebrat· ing Easter on Sunday did litde, howevcr, to settle the dctcnnination of the precise date from year to year. Easter tables showing the date in consecutive: years differed, mainly because of the different lunar cycles used in reconciling synodical twelve-month lunar years of 354.3672 days with the civil calendar's solar years of 365.2422 days and because of Ihe different Eastl;'r limits set. When controversy arose, the issue was one of Easter limit.~, which were of two kinds: lunar days, on one of which Easter had to be obscn'ed, and dates in the civil calendar, with or without specific solar reference, In Alexandria, lit least by the time of Bishop IlIO· NYSIUS (c. 248-265), Easler wa.~ nOI to be celebrnt· ed until after the vernal equino_, whose Ale_andr;· an date was prohably the Ptolemaic 26 Phamenoth/ Julian 22 March, until the beginning of the fourth century, when it was fixed on the Julian 2\ March. The 14 Nisan could not be observed on a il/na xiv (the fourteenth, cnlendar full-moon, day of any lunar month) occurring earlier than the equinoctial day itself. In thh'd-century Syria, Palestine, Mesopo' lamia, and Ctllda, Christians. in detcrmining their own E3ster date. depended on the date of 14 Nisan, as it was established by Jewish computists, who at that time were taking nO account of the equinox. The Alc.l:andrian pr'inciple that 14 Nisan should be no earlier than the equino_ was in\J"O(]uced, but as late as during the time of Saint ATIIAN"StUS. MJme Christians of those regions were still follOWing the Jewish calcuhuion. One cannot be sure thai Ale_an· dria and the resl of the East before Ihe Council of Nicaca (sec NICAIlA, COUNCIL OF) avoided Easter on luna xiv itself when the day was a Sunday, After the
1906
PASCHAL CONTROVERSY
council, Ihey
con~istcnlly
obscrvl.-d as lunar
lillliL~
IIII/tle xv-xxi. Rome llnd the West nuctuall.-d. AI times the Roman lunar limits .seem 10 have been {mIlle xiv-:u,
bUI JIII/Ut! xvi-uii, appearing alread,. in Hippolylus' table In the early third l:Cnlury. remained the usual Roman lunar limils until the sbuh century. In the
third century. Rome look nu aCCOIIIl1 of the equi· nox. Even when Romans had accepted an equinoctial limit. they long look the L"quinox as the earliest day for Easler illl'c1r. while the AlcJt:}ndrians took it as the earliest day for 14 Nisan. In the Iirs! half of the founh century. funhcr confusion resuhed from the conflict between the naditional ROlllan equi-
noctial dale (25 March) and the Alexandrian one, by then 21 March. Peculiar to Rome was 21 April as limit ad quem, evident already in the third century and n,:taincd in Ihe foul1h and fifth. That is lhe anniversary of Ihe founding of Ronu" whose world· ly festivities, moved into lIoly Week if Easter was celebrated later, '"'>'Quid be unsec.:mly. In the early fool1h century, conciliar efforts were made to promote unifonnity of Easter date. The Council of ArICll (]14) prescribed that the bishop of Rome should $Cnd out pa..~hallellcn; liD lmol Easter would be observed on Ihe same day everywhere in the WQrld. The Western world mll5t have been meant, for Ihat council was enlirely Western, and there is no cvidellce lhat Ihe bishop of Rome ever .sent paschal leuel"5 10 Eastern churches. At the Council of Nieaea (]25), Ihe OUill1odecim:l.Os were anathernali1.ed, and unifonnity of lhe Easlcl' date was prellCribed for all.of ChriSlendom. The text of the decree lias been 10Sl, but it is clt'ar from II letter 01' Constantine in Eusebius (]. 18-19) Ihal Easter was prohibited on 14 Nisan, even if the day was Sunday; that It should never be celebrated twice in the same yelll' (Ille reason for Akxandrian insis· tence on the equinocti.ll limit); and Ihat all church· es should observe It on the same day, How such uniformity wa~ 10 be achieved is not clear, After Ihe Council of Nicaca, paschal nonconfol'm· ity in Ihe Easl was almost entirely lirniled 10 hetero· dnx gl'OUpS, Rome seems generally to have followed Ihe Alexandrian Easter dates, even when they ex· ceeded Roman lunar limils, but to have been un· willing to do so when they exceeded Roman calen· dar limits. In such YC:In; Alexandria wa~ at first willing 10 avoid controversy by yielding to Rome. In ]]] the Alellandrian tables prescribed 22 April (too laiC for Ihe Roman limit of 21 April), but a Syriac chrnnicle now in lhe Bl'ilish Library shows
that thl!! Alexandrians Ihal year actually observed 15 April, which the Roman chronogmph of ]54 shows to have bC
Zeiuchrif/ filr die "elltes/amell/liche Wisse/lScllof/ 56 (1965). ---:.,--_ "I.e Comput pascal par OCla~teris." Muscoll 87 (1974):307-329. Schmid, J. Die OSlu/fls/lruge auf de", erSlell aUge",dFlCII KOllvl 1'(111 NiciJa. Theologischc Studien del' Leo-Gc5ellschaft 13. Vienna, 1905. SChwan:!:, E. Chris/lidlt/. "lid jiidisclle Os/erlllfelti.
Abhilndlungen der kfinlglichen Gesellsehafl dl.'r Wisscnschaften '1.U Q;t1ingen. phi1ologisch. historischc Klasse, Neue Fo[gc VllI/6. Berlin, 1905.
___. "O,~terhetrachtungen." lei/sellrift filr die "ellleSIUIIIII.Il//ic!lc Wissnuchuf/ 7 (l90li): I -33. -,,-_. Gesculllllclu Schriftt:m, Vul. 5. pp. 1-41. Berlin, 1~63. Strobel, A. Vrsprwl~ Hlld Ge.lchichtc de)' friih,'hriSI/icJlell OsterkulemJers, Texte und Untersuchungen 1.ur Geschichte der ;lhchriSllichen Lltcratur 121. Berlin, 1977. AELlum COlJv. O.S.B.
PASTOPHORJON. See Arehilcl:lur..1 Elemcnts of Chul'ches. j
PASTORAL SCENES, See Mythological Sub· jecl~
in Coptic Arl.
PATAPE or 8idaba (c. 244-312), nn anchorite who became bishop of
COplo.~
(Oif!) and \OllIS manyred
1907
(feast day: 19 Ablb), Hc was born to Christi;m par" ents from Herrnonlhls {i\l'mantl and was hmughl up by Andrew, his l:ousin. When, at the age of fifteen, he becallle an anchorite, he and Andrew went to the same district where PACIIOMIUS founded his mon;lSterics some deeade!l lateL The Ambic tcxt tdl5 us that PaUlpc' was an andiorite for fony-nine lind a half years. He was ordained a priest and wem to church wit,h his cousin Andrew every fony days 10 receive Holy Comlllunion. Patape wa.~ COnS(:erated bishop of CoplUS about 309, in the tenlll year of PETE.lt SC\'enteenth patriarch of Alexandria. Under the gon'rnor Arillnus, operating in the name of Dtocum........ he W;lS mar· Iyred about 312 at CaplUS, where he had been bish· op for thre COOUIN GAwooU GASItA
PATERAE. See PATAsrus, SAINT.
a hermit credited with many miracles (feasl day: 23 Ttibah). He is men· tloned in the reccn,ion of the Corto-Arabic SYNAX· ARION from Upper Egypl. The parenu of PalAsiu5 were nalives of Fiiw. The fnmily livL-d wilh a devout Christian called Pcg6sh and his only son, Joseph. The Iwo children were brought up logether. They often went to Ihe monas· lery of Suinl PACIIOMIUS and admired lhe monks who lived lhere. When they grew up, they asked to be admitted 10 the community. One day Patii.~ius asked the renowned monk Anbi1 Paul how he could be savcd. Anbl\ Puul '\IIswered: "Know Ihat there arc IWO commandments which our SavioI' has givcn In lhe Gospel: You shall love Ihc Lord yoor God with all your hearl and all your soul, and you shall love your neighbor as yourself." Patl\slus lived liS 0 recluse ncar Fiiw. After some lime he hellied a lame man and a blind mono Be· cause of these cures he was much sought after by the monb, 50 he took refuge in the house of a widow al Ftiw whose name WM Ba.~idiyyah. On the third day of Easter, he left lhe widow and returned to his hermitage. The monks wished to clothe him in the monllStic cowl, but he Wll$ unwilling. out of humility. He also heated ArsinoC!!, the wife of the chief magisll'ale of Faw. He left his hermilage shon·
Melalwork, Coptic.
or Dermatawu.~, a desert falher (feast day: 7 Kiyahk). Patcrmulhius was a native of Ollyrhynehu$ (Pemdje, or a1Bahna...:i). It i5 not known where he lived as 11 monk. He had a group of disciples, whom he ex· honed to pul'lty. fear of God. abstenlion from jealousy, and love of one another. Because of the simi· larity belween the first syllable of Pathermuthius' name and the title Apa, his name has been abridged to Termoule in the recension of the Copl{}-Arnbic sy· NAXARtON from Upper Egypl. He was celebrated at DAYII. AN"" StiINOOAlI), as several typikll show (Insthut fram;ais t.l'Archcologie orientale, Coplic, n.p.; Paris, National Library, COpl. 12911I• fols. 166r and 171 v). He also was cclebmled by the monks of DayI' Apa Apollo III uAwlr, al Saqqara, and in the hel'mitages of Isnd.
PATERMUTHIUS, SAINT.
DllJLlOCRAPIIY
SaUnel'On, S. i.es erlllilages chr~lifms dll desert d'Es"u, Vol. 4. Foui1les de I'lnstitut fram;ais d'Areh(:ologie orientale 29{4. Thompson, H. ''The Coplic Inscriptions." In £Xcavalia"l at Saqqara (1908-1909). ed. J. E. Ouibelt. Cairo, 1912. R£N£.GEDRGES COOU1N
PATRIARCH, CONSECRATION OF
wor d is a com posi te lcnn orig inal ing f!'om Lati n
Zuu -k, I. el al. 1 paln'area,; orie mali nel primo mi/. lenio. Rom e, 1968. AZII S. ATin.
rolce. peop le, nati on) and arch/)$ (IcOldcl' or chie f). In Ihe Cop lic chu rch the lenn signifie:oo Ihe head of Ihe enti re chu rch orga niza tion with arch bish ops, bishops, and priests uncleI' his eccl esia stica l auth ori.
PA TR IAR CH , CO NS EC RA TIO N OF . The
PAT RIA RC H, head of Ihe Coptic chun:h. The and Greek words: pule r (falher) or palr ill (lineage.
•
1909
Iy. In the earl iest lime s the head of lhe l:hurch was
the bish op of Alu and ria, who cam e to be identified IlS pappas, or POPE, in lhe thi.'d cen tury duri ng the episcopate of liem clas . Grad uall y bOlh "pat riar ch" and "pop e" were used ime rcha ngea bly II) desc ribe the head of the Egyptian chur ch. The term then spre ad 10 olhe r Easl cm chur che: oo-A rmc nian . Jaco bite, Nes toria n. In the Ann cnhm chun ;h the term appe ars as "pat riarc h·ca thol icos ." In the Rom an Cath olic chur ch, the patr iarc h is a /"lInk abov e bi5h.
op but und er the ecclCliiasliclll auth ority of the Roman pope . Hen ce It has severnl patriarch~, each the head of a regi on of Ihe gene/"lll chur ch. In Ethi opia , from the time of FRU Mem US in the fourth cent ury, the chu rch was head ed by a bish op or arch bish op chOllen from amo ng the Cop tic c1er. gy unli l 1959 . whe n Emp eror llAILE SEL\SSIF. plea d. ed for the elev atio n of a nativ e to head hil chu rch betw een !IS patr iarc h. An agrr eme nt was reac hed the Ethi opia n and Egyptian dele gati ons und er CYRiL . VI. II WllS sugg este d in the deli berl llion s ..,£ Ihe Cl'm fere nce that the Wc~tern met hod of mul tiple patr i. arch s und er the pope of Alex andr ia mig ht be applied. But Ihe Egyptian dclcg.1tion coul d nOt acce pt that s)'!ltem owin g to the long 'stan ding conn Olal ion of the terlll "pat riarc h" in Egyptian histo ry, whi ch has always signified Ihe sole head of the chu rch and the equi vale nt of pope . Thu s thc Ethi opia n prel ate beca me the only patr iarc h or patr iarc h.c.u holi c05 brun chin g from the Cop tic patr iarc hale . [See a/so: Ethi opia n Chu rch Auto ceph aly.] BIBL IOG RAP HY
Bird, T., and E. Pidd ubch eshe n, ed~. Arch iepis copa l and Patriarchal All/a nom y. New York, 1972. Ed, E. La Figure /llridiqlle du fHltriaN:he. Rom e ' 1962. Kan e, T. A. The Jllri sdkl iml of Ihe PalrillYchs of Ihe Major Sees ill Antiquily and fhe Middle Ages: A llislQrical Com men tary . Was hing ton, D.C., 1949. Vcrg hese , P. Koplisches Christenfllm: Die orlho. duxe n Kirc hen ifgyplt'-IIS mrd Allriopiens. StulIgaM ' 1973. Vries, W. de. Rom Iwd die Palriarchale des OSIens. Frei burg and Mun ich, 1963.
cons ecra tion of a POPE of Alex andr ia and patr iarc h of Ihe See of Sain t MAR K lake s plac e on a SUNDAY in the cou rse of the cele brat ion of Divinc Litu rgy at $ain t Mar k's Cath edra l in Cair o. Afler Ihe appo inl' ed lecti ons from the Acts of the Apostles anu the dea. SYNA XAR1 0N have been read , the pres byte rs and cons , carr ying cros ses, cens ers, and cand les, leav e in a proc essi on to brin g the pope-ciCCI from Ihc near by pnpa l resid ence . The doo r of the cath edra l is then locked, and Ihe key is held by an ARCIIDF..ACQN who slan ds ther e awa iling the relu rn of the proc es. sion . The proc essi on star ts from Ihe papa l resi dcnc e tow ard the ealh cdro l: first Ihe DEACONS, Ihen the pres byte rs, the 81SHOPS in orde r of seni orily , fol. lowe d by the pope ·clec t. An arch deac on carr ies the Book of the Gospel in from of the seni or bish op. and the following hym n is chan ted in Coptic: "Th e Onl y·be gon en Son . the Etel'nal Logos, Who for our salv ation was inca rnat e from the nlEO TOK OS, the ever · Virgin Mary, and beca me man , and was cruc i. fied .... " Upon reac hing the cath edra l duo r, Ihe arch deacon presenlS the key to the pope -elec t, who open s the doo r, reci ting words from the Psalms: "Op en to me the gate s or righteousnt."SS, that I may ente r thro ugh them and give than ks to the Lord . This i.~ the gale of the Lord: the righ teou s shal l enle r thro ugh it. 1 than k thee thaI thou ha.~t answ ered me and hast bt."Corne my salv alio n" CPs. 118: 19-2 1). Hcr e the cath edra l bells ring to proc laim the arriv al of the new pope . Insi de the cath edra l at the .sanctuary steps, all mak e an obei sanc e, and the popc -ele ct stan ds betwee n two bish ops, while Ihe seni or bish op read s the seco nd pray er to the Gospel and then hand s thc deed of c1et;:lion to an arch deac on or a priu t to read it from Ihe pulp it. While Ihc pope ·elec t knee ls jn front of the hay/ wI (sanctual')'), the seni or bish op offers INCENSE and says the Pray er of Ince nse, followed by ano ther pray er 10 the Almighty to pou r forth Ihe grac e of high pri~thooJ on the pope ·clec l. The arch deac on says the following peti tion s, 10 each of whi ch Ihe: deac ons resp ond by saying KYR.lE EIFIS ON:
1910
PATRIARCH, CONSECRATION OF
lei U~ all ~y, Us!en to us, 0 God, and
1I3vI.'
me,'cy upon us. I'r'll)' fOl- the peace of the 00\' Holy Calholic
Apostolic Church and the salvation of God's people. P~y for
the forgh'cncss of our sins and deliver·
ance from all tribul:l.lion, all uprising of enemies. 1"'3)' 10 Cod 10 bless UL~ inheritance, have mer-
cy upon all people. gi\'e help [0 all Christians through the power of the lift..--giving Cross, 10 blot our transgo.'S5ions through the inl~'rcession of the ThcQtokO$, of Saint Mark the Evangelisl, and all the Saints. We b6eech Tlu~e. lnrd, send TI,ine Holy Spirit
upon Thy servant Lllame]. whom Thou hast chosen 10 be the High Priest of Thy people. The senior bishop invokes the Holy Spirit to 611 the pope.elecl wilh grace and wisd,)m 10 shepherd the church nock in purity and justice.
Next. the senior bishop says the p,ayer of in\lestitune. This prayer is OIccumpanied by the LAYISG ON Of HANDS only when the pope-elect is a monk who has not been consecrdted bishop befort'. Tuming his f;:ace toward the pope·dect, the senior bishop then $01)'11 tu him, "Wc pronounce thee Anba [n.:unc], Pope ;:and l';miarch, Master and Archbishop of the SCe of S::.int Mark, In the Nnme of the Fnlher and of the Son nnd of the Holy Spi,;t:' 1·lere the new pope ill clothed Wilh a stieharion (llee UTtJRGICAI_ VE:,iTMans) while the choir lIing.~ Saint Mark's Doxology. The senior bishop hOlnds him the deed of investiture as the choir sings, "May thou be granted the grace of Moses. the priesthood or Mckhi~edek, the old age of Jacoh, the longevity of Melhu!\Clah, the sagacity of D:wid. Ihe wisdom of Solomon, lind the Paraclctc who descended upon the Apostles." Some petitions are then .'wid by Ihe arcl,de;".;on, e"eh followed by the Kyri~ ~l~is,m respunse from the dencons. Tile rUfUS (worthy) hymn is then chnnled, and the senior bishop holds the Book 01" the Gospels over Ihe new pope's hL'ad, while the deacons ll~aln sing Qxios. At this point, II" he has nOI previously been conseel'llled to Ihe episcopacy, all Ihe bishops I"y theil' hands upon his hend, while the scnlor bishop says, "We lay our hands upon [or "pr Cathedrnl :1.1 Anba Ruways in the quarters of Abbasiyyah in Cairo, This residence b on the 1Iite of the andent DAYR AI"'(IlANIIAO. which included scveral churches in thc Middle Ages. DIBLIOCRAPJlY
Brct.ldy, N, Das Allllalellll'uk des EUlycllio_~ von Ai· exalldriClI, CSCO 471-472. EvcJ)'n·White, U. G. The MOllas/eries of Ille Wadi '" Nalrm" pl. 2, 7'l,e flis/ory of Ihe MOIJI/Sleries of Ni/riu /lIlel of Sec/is. New Yurk, 1932. Kamil ~'1li~ Nakhltlh. Kilflb Tilrikh IVa Jadinl'i1 Bald· rikal al./skalldarlyyah al·Oib!. Tarikh al·Ummah tll·Qib!iyytlh 4. DayI' ai·Sury1i.n, 1943. No.
N.l.MI'.
Ytil\1lS
PATRIARCHS, DATES AND SUCCESSION OF. Significant dates in Ihe lives of nUlable persons from the past, particularly from the ancienl pa...., are oflen a malleI' of conjt:cture. In some ~ a paucity of hislorical source malerial makes it impossible to de:lemlim,: whc,:n pal1icular events look place, and in olher instances discrepancies in the sources that are Cxtanl make such a delCnnina· lion fruslT:llingly tenuous. Since lltlch uncertainly is a feature uf the btogn.phkal data available for many of the Coplic patriarchs, Ihe following list can give only the approximate dates for some of these leaden. For lhe period up to 1243 the table relies solely on the His/ory ollhe Palriarchs compiled by S:iwlrus ibn al-Muqaffa'. Supplemenlary sections of subs
AchlllllS
Jll-J12
unknown
19.
Alexander I
312-326
unknown
20.
Allw!llISius I
326-373
unknown
21. I'ete,- II
373-380
unknown
22. Timothy I
380-385 385-412
unknown unknown
,.
Celadion
23. Theophilus
RULER
Hadrian Antonius Pius Antonius Pius Antonius Pius Marcus Aurelius Mal"CWi Aurclius Commodw; Commodus Peninax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caraealla Marcinus Heliogabalus Alexander Severus Alexander Severus MaximinUli Bulbinus and Pupienus Gort.lianus III Philippus Philippus Decius Gallus Valcrianus Cnllienus Cnllicnus Claudius II Aurelianus Tacitus Florianus Probus Caros Numcrianus Diodetian Dioclctian Galcrlus Galcrlus Licinius Lidnlus Constaillille I COnslanline I ConSlflll1ius II Juli(ln Jovian Valens Valens Gl'tItilln Valenlinilln II Theodosias Theodoslus Arcadius Theodosius II
Y"«s 117-138 138-161 138-161 138-161 161-180 161-180 180-192 180-192 193 193 193-211 211-217 217-218 218-222 222-235 222-235 235-238 238 238-244 244-249 244-249 249-251 251-253 253-260 260-268 260-268 268-270 270-275 275-276 276 276-282 282-283 283-284 284-305 284-305 305-310 J05-J10 J08-J24 308-324 306-337 306-337 337-361 361-363 363-364 364-378 364-378 375-383 375-392 379-395 379-395 395-408 408-450
PATRlARCHS, DATES AND SUCCESSION OF
No.
N~'
V"",
PROVENANCE
24. Cyril I 25. Dioscorus I
412-444 444-458
Anbii MlIq3.r unknown
26. Timothy Adurns II
458-480
unknown
"The Cal"
27. Peter III (Mongus)
RULER
Thcodosius II Thcodosius II Marcian Marcian Loa I
28. Athanasius II
480-488 488-494
unknown unknown
29. John I 30. John II 31. Dioscorus It
494-503 503-515 515-517
AnW Maqar a1-Zujaj (Enaton) unknown
32. Timothy III
517-535
unknown
33.
Theodosius I
535-567
34. 3S.
Peter IV Damian
567-569 569-605
al.Zujaj (Enaton) Tabur Abo Yu~annis
36. Anastasius
605-616
unknown
37. Andronicus
616-622
unknown
622-661
QibriyilS
Zeno leno Zeno Anastasius Anastasius Anastaslus Anastasius Justin I JU5lin I Justinian Justinian Justin II Justin II Justin II Tiberiu! II Maurice Phocas Phocas Hcradius Hcrndius
1915
V"", 408-450 408-450 450-457 450-457 457-474 474-491 474-491 474-491 491-518 491-518 491-518 491-518 518-527 518-527 527-565 527-565 565-578 565-578 565-578 578-582 582-602 602-610 602-610 610-634 610-634
Medieval Al'llb Period 38.
39. 40.
Benjamin I
Agathon John III
41. 42.
661-677 677-686
Aleltandria AnbA Maqar
Isaac Simon I 43. Alexander II
686-689 689-701 705-730
Anba Maqar al.Zujaj (Enaton) al·lujAj (Enalon)
44. 45.
Cosmas I Thcodorns
730-731 731-743
46.
Kha'lll
744-767
AnM Maqar Tllmnurah (Mareotis) Anba Mllq.ar
Heradius 'Umar 'Uthman 'All al-J:lasan b. 'All Mu'llwiyah I Mu'Awiyah I Yazld I MU'Qwiyah Il Marwan J 'Abd-al-Matik 'Abd·al·Malik .Abd al·Malik 'Abd al·Malik 1I1-WalJd ibn 'Abd aI-Malik Sulayman 'Umllr ibn 'Abd at·'AzT:l: YazTd II Hisham Hishdm Hisham al-WlIlld ibn Yazid Ymid III
610-634 634-644 644-656 656-661 661
661-681 661-681 680-683 683
684-685 685-705 685-705 685-705 685-705 705-715 715-717 717-720 720-724 724-743 724-743 724-743 743-744 744
1916
PATRIARCHS, DATES AND SUCCESSION OF
No.
NAME
YEAKS
PROVENANCE
RUI.PJt
Ilmlhim MfllWilll II tll-Safr:.l_l al-Man~tlr
47.
Mln~
1
767-774
Anba Maqiir
48. John IV
775-799
Anoo Maqar
49.
Mark IT
799-819
Anba Maqar
'0.
J~ob
819-X30
Simon II
830
Yu.~bf
830-849
Anb1 Maq;'ir AnM Maq:'!.r Anba Maqar
'I.52.
al-Man~ur
al·Mahdi al-Mahdi al·IUdl 1-llil'On aI-Rashid Hanin aI-RashId al-Amln al·Mu'mfm al·Ma'mun al-Ma'mOn al·Ma'mun al.Mu'l.a.~im
Sl. Kha'i111 '4. Cosmas 11 55.
Shellllle I
849-851 851-858 858-1180
Abo Yuhannis AnM Muql'ir AnM Maq:'!.r
al-Wlllhiq 1I1-MulllWJkkil al-Mulawakkil al-Mulaw3kkil al·Muluwakkil al-Muntn~ir
,•. 57.
SR. 59
Kh:'!.'il III
Cabriel J Cnsmas III Macarius I
.0. Thcophnno::s
.1. Mlnil 11
880-':107
Anba Maqal-
909-'120 920-932 932-952
Anba Mnqal' unknown Anba Maq:'ir
952-'156 956-'174
Anbli Maqilr AnbA MaqAr'
.2.
Abr-aham
975-978
Layman
.3.
Philothcu~
979-1003
Anro Maqa..
b4.
Zacharia~
1004-1032
unknown
31-Mustu'ln 31-Mu'I37.2. 1l1·Muhladl AI,lIn3d ibn Tuhin AI)mad ibn Tulun KhulTl:ir:lwayll Jaysh ibn Khum:irJwayh Hartln ibn Khumilrnwayb Shaylmn ibn A~mad al-Muktnfl ul·Muqllldir nl.Muqt:ldil' lll-Muqladll' al-Muht:ldt al·Radi al-Ikhshld Abo id-Qilsilll QnOjlirAbu nl-Qilsirn OnujOI' Abfl al-Qasim QnOjOI' Abli tll-l:J;ls,m 'All KMlir Abu al·Fawaris ihn 'All ul-Mu'i1.1. ul·Mu'tu 0.1·' A7.l1. al·' Al,ll, al·H.::ikim nl-l:J.::ikim al-Uhl..
YEAK$
744 744-750 750-754 754-775 754-775 775-785 775-785 785-786 786-809 786-809 809-813 813-833 813-833 813-833 813-833 833-842 842-847 847-861 847-861 847-861 847-861 861-862 862-866 866-869 869-870 870-884 870-884 884-896
".
896-904 904 904-908 908-932 908-932 908-932 932-934 935 936-946 946-960 946-960 946~960
960-966 966-968 968-969 972-975 972-975 975-996 975-996 996-1021 996-1021 102.1-1035
PATRIARCHS, DATES AND SUCCESSION OF
NO.
NoI.Mt\
65. Shenute II
YEAKS 1032-1046
PRoveNANce Anl)A Maqii,-
66. Christodoulus 67. Cyril II 68. Mlkha'illV
69. Macarius II 70. Gabrielli 71. Mtkh~11 V 72. John V
1047-1077 1078-1092 1092-1102
;.1-IX,rlilnus Anba Mllq1r Anba Maqtir Sinjar
1102-1128 1131-1145 1145-1146 1147-1167
Anba Maqar Layman Anbi\ MaqAr Abu Yu~annis
1167-1189
Cayma.
74. John VI
1189-121(,
Layman
75.
Cyril ibn Laql:lq III
1235-1243
unknown
76.
Athanasiu~
1250-1261
Anba Maqar
73.
Mark III
III
V""
RuU!1I. al-7~hir'
al-Muslan~ir Abo
Tamllll
al-MuSI!ln~ir al.Must::lIl~lr al-Mustan~ir
al·MuSlll·11 al·'Amir al-'Amir al-HMil. al-I.lMi?, al-I:liih? al-?..Alir al-Fa'i:t al-'A4id al-'A4id ~l:i.l) aI-Din ~I:i.I) aI-Din a[·'Al.b: 'Im;\(J al·Din al-Man~ur Mul.lamllla
77.
John VII
78.
Qlbrid III
79.
Thendo~iu~
I[
1262-126/\ 1271-1293 1268-1271
unknown unknown unknown
1294-1300
Abu Fanah
80.
John VIII
[300- [320
Shah I'M
81. 82. 8J.
John IX Benjamin II Peler V
1320-1327 1327-133\1 1304-1348
unknown Jabal TU!'" the hotllilies, :lnd the letters of the fin;t fathers of the Eastern chun::hes publishcd in lhe Pa!ro/ugiu OriellfaliJ permit a beller understanding of the heresies :lnci controversies of the pt'riod. From 1903 to 1984. some 191 fascicles were published. FRAStOtS
GRAFFIN.
S.J.
Geography There are a few instances of the fathers being arouped by geographic areas, such as the Cappadocian fathers (Basil, (jREliORY Ot' HAZIAJIl'lUS. and CREGORY Of NYSSA) or Alexnndrine fathers (Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and CYRIL). D1.BLIOGRAPHY
Quasten, J., nnd J. C. I'lumpe, ew;. A"dr"t Chri:;/iu/I Writers. New York. 1946-. Robens. A., and J. Donalw;on, ew;. The ""/e-Nice"e Fa/lien, 10 vol5. Buffalo. N.Y.. 1885-1896. $chaff, P., and H, Wace, L-dS. A SI!-Iecl Library 01 Ni. near the fifth milcstone. 10 the Wel>t of Aleundria in all probabilily, and on the coastal strip separating Ihe sea from Lake Mtm..'Olis, where several othcr rdigious cstab[ishment$ were similarly located in the Later Empire. The rcgion of the Pemplon Wll!l also called the Eremika, mQre by way of allusion to the nature of Ihe landscape-", desert by thc sca"-than 10 it$ dedicatinn to the hermit'.'i life. AccOl'ding 10 John Moschus, it was an unprepossessing spol: the gallows Qf Ale~andria. Not fur from it was a ruined tcmplc of Kronos. The precise situation of the Pempton is hard to determine, but there is rcason to bdieve that it coincid· cd more or less with the present village of Dikbaylah (Dekheila), in Ihe neighborhood of which there were e~cav(lted at the heginning of the twentieth century and in 1966 some momlstic funerary stelae and the rem:lins of some religious buildings (von Wl:\ss, 1923, pp. 258-60). The Pemplon is attested for the fiNt timt' between 374 and 376 by Epiphanius who tells of a visionary ascetic: from a monastery of Ihe Eremika who took himself 10 he a bishop and acted accordingly. Mound 338, J'Au..Al)lU$. the author of Ihe Lau$iac His/ory, tried his hand there at the monastic life, under the direclioll of the Theban ascetic Dorntheus. This holy mtln had been living in a cave there for SiMy years, building with his own hands cells for the brethren and earning his livelihood, as many olher Egyptian monks did, by weaving palms. Stllomen and Xanthopolus l'U1te in this connection lhal the Eremika and Ihe olher monasteries on Ihe
DIDLIOCRAI"HY
elugnet, L. "Vic et rCcits de I'abbe Daniel de Scele, Revue de ('Ori,nt chr~lietl 5 (1900). JEAN GASCOU
PENALIZATION. As observed in Ihe AUDIf.N'TlA EPISCOPALlS, the bishop can punish in two ways, either by impo:sing a fine or a flogging, the execution of which falls to Ihe IllS/lime (lieloTS), or by inflict· ing an ecclesiastical punishment, which only he himself can lift. On lhe evidence of the Coptic sources, the ecclesiastical punishments consisted of EXCOMMUNICATION. lllli'ItOCKtNG 01' PItH!.!;T:>, and the imposing of an INTBRDtCT. To these punitive meaSllres we may add the punIshments mentioned In circular letters from bishops in various regions of Egypt after thc ninth century. In these lellers, various curses are called down upon the pcroons to be punished. For elCample. they may be saId to be "under the curse of the Law and the Prophets" or "of the 318 bishops who assem· bled in Nicaea." In a leller of John. bishop of Hcrmopolis, published by G. Stelndorlf (1892), such punishments were invoked againsl those who broke inlo a house in Hermopolis and slole provisions and utensils. In a lettcr from another bishop of Hermopolil', whose name has not survived, similar punishments were described for the thefl of various provisions !Tom a hou.~. This teltt was published by w. Eo Crum (1909, no. 267). Bishop Daniel of the
1932
PENANCE
fl,yyOm wr'l)lc Ii IcHef, e(liled by Y:lSsa 'AlxI al· Masih (1941). io which such cun;es an:: invoked
against those who pluck a pal1icuhu" plant of the Virgin 0'.1(11)' and Ap,a Paphnutius.
Fl"lIgmcnls of another leiter that ml'ntions penal· ties like these a,'e preserved in the British Museum (Or. 4720 (72), cat. nu. 633). Crum (1909, p. 126)
SIlUes Ihal pieces of additional such letters were in Ihe pO$sa~ion of de Ricci, and OIl k-asl one ili prescrved in Vienna (see Krall, 1892,33). K. Reinhardt has edited Arnbic-Coplic documents of a similar
nalure. BIHl.1OCRAf'HY
Crum, W. E. CA/a/ogll/!! ol/he Coptic MamlScripl5 i"
tile 8ritish MIlSi!!W',. London, 1905. -:-co Call1logrie of tire Coptic MlllllfR:ripls in the ColIUlioll of the Jolm Rylcmds l.ibmry. Millie/rester. Manchester, 1909. Krall, J. "Koptische Briefe." MiudJulIgerl ails det' Sllmm{,lIlg du PUpyrllS £,.ne,-.,pg Rainer 5 (1892):21-58.
Reinrordt. K. "Eine arnbiKh-koptische Kin;henbannurkunde:' In AegypfillcU. F"~/!iChrill liir Georg Ebers UI1I1 I. MQrz. 1897. Leipzig. 1897. Sieindorlf, G. "Eine koptische Bannbulle und andere Briefe." Zeiuchril' fUr iilD'pli_~che Spraclle u"d AI'tr'llmsJIIIIlJe 30 (1892):37 -4l. y~ 'Abd al-Masih. "Lcller from a Bishop of a.l Fayyum." BlIlleli" de III Sudile d'Archiolugie coplt 7 (1941):15-18. MARTIN KRAUSE
PENANCE, Ihe performance of specific expiatOl'Y act~ n.'i,~igned
by a pliesl. The severily of a penance is proportionlll 10 lhc gmvity of the sin committed. It Is given :u remedial discipline 10 tilt" penitent for Ihe purpose of he:\Jing his soul and helping him resist any relapse Into similar kinds of wrongdoing aI fI llller slage. Penance, folluwing sacramentlll confession, may take the form ofaddilional faslings, pmyers, genuflections, IIlmsgiving, or temporal)' ex· elusion from Communion, 10 generale wilhin the penitent a genuine 5ense of contrition, ~rrow, and deleslation fOI' his sin. The autholity to give ab.~olution from sin is part of the power of binding and lousing conferred by JI."SUS Chl'i...t on Hi... di.«:iples (MI. 16:19, 18:18; In. 20:23) lind passed 011, in sU(a;ession, 10 the priesthood. Vtllious eeclesia..~licaJ councils, such as those of Aneyru (314). Nicaca (J25), and Laodicea (343381) di1'Cu~c;ed the ways and means of administer· ing penances, lmd promulgaled n;leVtlnl canons, recorded by the early falhers.
During Ihe eady centurie... of Christianity, the church apparenlly adopled a rigorous penitential procedure by which penitents had 10 pass Ihrough four slagel! or stalions of penance befure they were readmilled to full membership hi the church: I. Mourners. Mouml."r-pcnitents were foru;d to Sland at Ihe porch in the open area in fn:ml of the church door and appeal 10 other members of Ihe congregation liS they entered. II is likely Ihat refer' ence is made to Ihese penitenLS in particular whl."n, toward Ihe end of the liturgy I:Ind jusl before Holy Communion is administered (0 Ihe fllilhful, the dellcon says, "PllIy for all Chrislians who have asked us to remember them in Ihe I-louse of the Lord." 2. USleners. These pcnitenlJl were allowL-U within the door in lhe nanhex of the church so that they I."ould listen to the Scriplures and the sermon, but wen:: obliged 10 depart before lite Divine Uturgy commenced. 3. KnceicTS. At this stage, penitents were allowed within the walls of the church in the pan below the pulpit (or AMBO), but had 10 km..· d down whik the congregation siood during prayers. Before going OUI, they had to prostrate lhemselves in obeisance to the bi...hop who would lay his hands on their heads. Togethcr wilh the CATIXIlUMENS, Ihey left before the commenceml."nt of Ihe Ulurgy of the Faith· ful. 4. CO~lIanders. This is Ihe most advanced elas..~ of penitents; they were allowed to attend the whole of the Divine Lilurgy, slanding with Ihe rest of the congregation, hearing Ihe prayers, but 1'101 allowed to panakl." of Holy Communion. Certain non·Orthodox churches appear to hold a different concept of pcmmcc lind inlerpret it as a form of reconciliation hetwCl."n Goo and one who has, through sin, offended divine justice and hence must appease the Creatol'. This Is contrary to the Ol'lhouoJll belief Ihal Chr'ist Jesu~ hll~ once lind fOt' all repaid Goo's ddlt through Hi... hlood, which He shed on thc cross to nmsolll humanity. Penance is an individual elfot't with a twofold effect: it heals the sinner's bruised soul, ltnd It m:,kes sin "ppe.,r all the mOl'e detestable in his eyes. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cummings, D.. cd. Th~ Rluld~r. Chicago, 1957. J:lablb Jirjis. Asrdr a/·Kaufsah al-Sab'alt (The Seven Chun;h Sacraments), 2nd cd. Cairo, 1950. Kelly, J. N. D. Early Clrrislian Doclrines. San Fr,mcisco, 1978. Mlkh;l'1I Shil.l;llah. Sirr al·Ta\llbah (The Sacraml."nt of Penitence). Cairo, 1925.
PENTA POLIS
Monimer, R. C. 'I1,e Orillill 01 Privllle Pellllllce ill file Wil'slem Church. Oxford, 1939. ~ft Ibn-al·'AssAl, al·. Kifilb ll/-QllWilllfll (Book of Canon Law). Repr. Cairo, 1927. W. s, Oiladah, Ki/flb al.Disqiili)'ah. Ta·ali.., (l1·Husul (The Oi
PERSECUTIONS
Synesius, metropolitan since 412 (residing in Ptolem~Y5), draws a vivid picture of the strength of Christian life in contemporary Pentspoli". The flU' merous "village" bL~hoprics (besides those in the "fivc cities") attest the sprcad of Christian commu· nities in the hinlerland of Cyrenaica: Borcion, Iklrqah, Dyslhis, Erythron, Limnias, Olbia, Palaibiska, Theodorias (following the Iisl of Roque!;. 1987. p. 340), to which Tesila may be added. latcr on, monophyllitism prevailed in Egypl and seellls also to have been dominant in the Pentapolis. This dissent with Constantlnopolitan onhodoxy ought to have f.1f;:i1itated the conquest of the Pentapolis by the troups of 'Amr ibn lll-'k, in 642 (Goodchild, 1967). Teuchelratrukrnh was the last Byzantine strong· hold to suetumb when 'Amr launched a second attatk in 644-645 with the help of the naval commander Sanulius, an Egyptian Christian in the service of the Arab cause.
BtBLIOCRAPHY Barker, G.: J. Uoyd: and J. Reynolds, cds. Cyrenai. ca in Anliqtli/y. Soc:iety for Libyan Studies Occa· sionsl Papers 1. British Archaeological Reports International series 236. Oxford, 1985. Brea.man, J. Synesius of Cyrene, PhiloSQpJIf:r-8ishop. Berkeley, Los Angeles, lind London, 1982. Goodchild, R. G. Tabula imperii Romani. Map of Ihe ROll1il'! Empirr. Shrrl II. /.34 Cyren,,_ Oxford, 1954. ___. "Dy13ntines, Berbers and Arabs III Seventh· Century LibyJ.... Antiquity. A QIUHterly Review of Archaeology 41 (1967):114-24. ___. Libya'l Studiu. Select Papers of the Lale R. G. Goodchild, ed. J. Reynolds. London, 1976. Jones, A. H. M. The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces, 2nd cu., pp. 349-62. Oxford, 1971a. ___. "Frontier Defence in By....mtine Ubya." In Libya in History. Historical Conference 16-23 March 1968. Bcnghali, Libya, t 971 h. Kraellng, C. H. Ptolemais, City of the Lihyan PCll/apolis. University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publi· cations 90. Chicago, 1962. LacOlllbrade, C. Syntsio)' ele Cyrime, hellelle et (,l1r;'lieu. Paris, 1951. Reynolds, J. "The TnSCI;ptions of Apollonia." In ApollOllia, tlrl Port of Cyrene. Excavations by the Univer)'ity of Mi(,hi"tm /965-/967, cd. J. H. Hum· phrey, pp. 293-333. Supplements 10 Libya An,i· qua 4. Tripoli. 1978. Romanelli, P. La Cirenaica romana. Berlmnia, 1943. Roques, D. SYI/esios de Cyrelle et fa Cyreani"que du Bas.Empirr. Etudes d'AntiquitC1i Africaincs. Paris. 1987. HEINZ HEINEN
1935
PENTATEUCH. SCI' Old Testament, Arubic Vcr' sions of 'he.
PENTECOST, Srr Feasts, Major.
PEOPLE'S PARTY. See Political Panies. PERSECUTIONS. The persecution of Christians in Egypl has 10 he considered in connection with the religious policy and the ruler cull of the ROman emperors. Right from (he stan Ihe Christians, being the followers of what was tarsely perceived as a Jewish sectarian executed by order of a Roman government representative, looked suspicious to both Romans and onhodox Jews (Viuinghoff, 1984). NOlwithstanding their effons to present themselves as loyal subjects of the Roman !Hate, Chrislians had been occasionally perseculrd since the time of Nero (A.D. 64). But only in the third cenhJry did large·scale persecutions become a fea· ture of Roman religious policy. They generally aimed at destroying Chrisli;:an belief and church or· ganiz:llion ruther lhan Ihc Christians themselvcs (if Ihe latter could be avoided). State aUlhorities would Iry to bring Christians to apostasy and would spare their lives when the defendants sacrificed to the gods of the empire a.~ a gesture of respect to the person of the cmperor. State pressure to secure political loyally through applying the inslrumenl of lhe ruler cult was often successful, and thus created ror the chur'ch the problem of how 10 deal later on with those lapsi and apostates wishing to return to the community of the Christian church. The dissensions on disciplinary measures within the Chr'istlan communities led in some ca.~es to ~erious and long-lasting schisms such as lhe MUlTIAN SCHISM in Egypt, and tha' of the Donatists in the Latin-speaking provinces of nonhero Africa. On the other hl\lld, the cxtrtloruinary endurance or Chr'is· 'ian confessors facing tonUl'e and death made a deep impression not only on believcrs but also on the noncommitled and lhe persecutors. The literury genre of the ACla martyrwn and the Passio kept alive and enhanced the memory of the confrontation between Christian confessor and pagan judge. as ~II as the ordeals of the Christians sentenced, after tonure, 10 Ihe mines or to death (Frend, 1965; Musurillo, 1972). The tombs of the manyrs gave rise to memorial buildings and thurchcs outside the city walls, thereby Illaking a strong impact on the urban fealUreli of cltics like Rome, Alexandria
1936
PERSECUTIONS
(Boukolia), and Canhage, and even leading to the development of ncw celllers complcte wilh churches_ city dwellings, and accommodation~ for pil· grims, as was lhe case al Kann Abu ~kl1a (Krause, 1978).
Rule... Cult and Peneeutlons or Christians In Egyp' As lhe emperors pursued a policy of growing au· tOCl'ncy and religious exaltation of tht'ir majesty, Christianity in Egypt look root firM in Alexandria, home to a large Jewish cOmmunily, and laler in the Ejyptian chora (roral arca). There it made convens both in me Creek.speaking "towns" (e.s·, the nome capilals) and in the traditional Egyplian milieu. But the spread of lhe new belief mel with ~rowing resistance, because the Christians, being fiercely monotheistic: and rejecting any form of cumpromise wilh pagan polytheism, foecluded themselves from all public aCtivities involving saCriflCl' to pagan gods and Roman emperors. This must have been particularly resented in Alexandria, being as it were (and as Philo Legalio ad Gail/ttl 338 Slates) a real pal1ldigm of ruler cult. The Christians practiced a highly secretive religious life, which g;,ve rise to suspicions lhat Ihl.'Y were eulp..1ble of rilUal murder and incestuous relatlons. While there had already been sporodic actions against Christians in Rome amI the pro,-inccs (e.g., under Nero, Trojan, Marcus Aurelius), we leal'n for the first time of pcrset:utions in Egypt under the emperor Seplimius Severus in 202. Orij;en's father. Lconides, WllS one of the victims. The sojoulTl of Severus In the EaSt (200 in Etlypt) and his sped,11 veneration for St:rapis may havc contributed to this outhreak of anti·Chrislian feding, but "Ihe story in the Auguswn History that he issued an edict prohib· iling lhe Jews to prusclylize und Ihc Christi:lI1s to makc converts is a plece of fiction" (Bil'l,~y, 1971, p. 209, I'cfcrTing to Scrip{urt;~ hi~{uriue AlI!:uslae, vila Severl, 17.1). Still wiJer runKing llclions (lgllinst Christians followed under Deciu~ (249-251). First m,'asurcs had dri~en Dionysius, bishop or Alcxandria, into flighl and hiding. In 250, l>ecius issued u univt:rsal orJer 10 sacrifice 10 lhe goos, 10 pour a libalian, and to laMe saclilicial Illeal. The pellalty for refusal was imprisonmt:nt, torture, and death. Those who com· plied received cer1ilieales for lhe (It:cufTlplishmcnt of the sacrificl.'S (/ibelli. well known fmm Egypt, especially fl'Om the Fayyihn). In lhe fal:e of coercion, many capitulated, among them leaders of the
church. Ilul others wilhstoud and endured. The names of foeVCnteen Egyptian martyrs aloe on record (Frend, 1965, p. 411). After the short reign of Dc· clUS and a lXluse of a few yeal'S, persecmions l'eo wmed in 257 under Valerianus (253-260). Dionysiu5 and members of the Akx;mdrian c1t:rgy were deponed to Libya. Olhers, including Christian laymen, suffered worse falcs. DUI lhese aclions came to a halt in 260, when Valerianus was defeated and capturetl by the Sassanids uf Persia. His son and SUCCesliOr, Callienu.~, pennilled Christianity 10 sUI'Yive unmolested, a policy largely followed umil the end of the third century. During this period, the Egyptian national religion began 10 decline, the rural areas of the country tuming progressivdy to Christianity but also wit· nes.~ing Ihe advance of Manichaeism, especially in Upper Egypt. This WlI.5 also the period thaI .'laW Ihe ri~ of Coplic ;"nd the del;line of Creck in the choru. However, wilh Ihe sources at our disposal, we are not able to give a clear picture of me advance of Christianity in the Egyptian hinterlllnd. It has been argued in a forcdlll and brilliant manner that by 33{1 half of the Egyptian populalion had joined the Christian religion and that by me end of the fourth century, "the figure must have been lit lellst ninety perecnt" (Bagnall, 1982. p. 123). E. Wipszycka (1986), however, has challenged Ihat view with somc good argumenl5. BUI nobody ha.~ ever con· tested that at least a sm;lll percenj(lge of plIgans survived inlo the fiflh Century. In facl, we heal' or monks still fighting pag,anism in the c1lOrll in that centul)'. Things changcd again when Dioclctian (284-305) undertook the ideological ((n(l political reslructuring of the Roman empire. For the sakc of di~cipline lind the Strenglhening of Ihe majority, lhe emperor and his colleagues In the tetrarchy took mea.~ures againsl Manidmdsm (297) and aKuinsl somc recul· citrant Christians in the army. BUI the mar1yfdom thai Ihe sO·t:alled Theban Legion is said to have sulfered on Mllximilln's orders when aboul 10 begin operations against the Bagauds of Gaul, in 286 mO.~t probably is nOl hlslOriClll, since the specifics of lilc stury cannot confirm the participation of a legionIIry force from the Thebaid (van Berchem, 1956; Dupraz, 1961). The tradition regarding Saini Mena.~, a Roman soldier first, thell a hel'mit in Asill Minur, ulld finally a martyr there in Ihe time of lJioclelian, also is largely legendal)'. His body is believed to have been brought to Egypt and have come 10 l'ellt in what was Inler calk"C.I KlIrm Abo Mena. That plat:e be-
PERSECUTIONS
I
came a famous religious center for several ccntur· ies, until the remaios of $:lint Menas w~re ll'llOS' ferr('d to Cairo. The prelude 10 the C,oellt Pel'l',e
Aml!lineau, E. Ln Geographie de {'Egyp/e a Npoque caple. Paris, 1893. Brchier, L. i.e Moude bytaulill. Paris, 1948. Budge, E. A. W., cd. llnd lr·ans. Coplic Apocrypha ill the Dia/ecl of Upper Egypl. London, 1913. Com. pare Gawdal, 1984, Bury, J. B. A Hislory of the Laler Roman Empire from Arcadius 10 Irene, Vol. 2. London, 1889. BUller, A. J. 71'e Arab Co"qrlest of /.:'gypl. Oxford, 1902. 2nd cd., rev. P. M. Fraser'. O"rord, 1978. Cauwenbergh, P, Elude sur les moil1l!.'i d'Egyplc de· pub. /e conci/e de Cha/~'idoill(, (45/) iusqu'a I'illlIasioll Arab, (640). Milon, 1973. Reprint of Paris and Louvoin, 1914. Christensen, A, f.'lrall sous Its Sassa"ides. Copenhagen, 1944.
Chrysos, E. K. "The Date of Papyrus S8 4483 and the Persian Occupation of Egypl." IJodQue 4 (1975}:342-48. Dtllger, p, Regesle" der Kaisemrkunden tle~' ost~iJ lIIischetl Reiclle~' IIU" 565-1453, pt. I. Munich and Berlin, 1924. Ore!M;her, J. "A Widow's Petilion." 8u/lelill de III Sociiti d'archi%gie caple 10 (1944):91-96. Frye, R. N. "The Polilical History of Lran under Ihe $asanlans." In The Cambridge History uf I~all, Vol. 3. London, 1983. Tile HiSlof)' 01 Alldotliliran. Munich. 1984. GObI, R. "Numismalica B)'7.antino·Persica." Jahr· buch der oSlerreichischell br,jlllli"ischotll Gtse//· Khafl 17(1968):165-78. Hahn, W. MOlleta imperii Byz.an/ini, Vol. 3. VO'lller· ac/ius bls uo 111. Itlleillregilmtllg 6/0-720. Vien· na, 1981. Hansen, 0., cd. Diot mittelpersist;lIell Papyri der PapyrassammlulltJ der Staatliche'l NfttSUIl W B...rlil1. Berlin, 1938. Hardy, E. R., Jr. "New Light on the Persian Occu· pation of Egypt." Jounral of the Society of Oriell,al Research 13 (1929):185-89. _-:-_. ChriSliatl Egypt-Church a'ld People, Christiallily alld NaliotlalislIl ill Ihe Patriarchale of Alexalldria. New York and Ollford, 1952. Justi, F. "~le~l'5Chafl del' S3s5niden." In Grulldri$$ du irullischen Phil%gie, Vol. 2, ed. W. Geiger and E. Kuhn. Strasbourg, 1896-1904. Repr. Berlin and New York, 1974. MacC/)ull, L S. B. Coptic Egypt Dllring the PersiQll OccupMioll, tile Papyrological Ellidellce. Studi Cla~ici e Orienlali 36. Pisn, 1986. Menasce, J. de. "Recherches de papyrologic pchlevic." JOl/mal fuialique 241 (1953):185~96. MOller, C. D. G. "Die koplische Kirche zwischen Chalkedon und dem Ambcrcinrnarsch." Zeit.~chrift filr Kirchellgeschichle 75 (1964):271-308. Ntlldeke, T, GC.~Cllichlc der Puser IIml Arf/her Zlir Ze.i! fler $IlSani(JI:Il. Leiden, 1973. Repr. of 11179 edition, Phillips, J. R, "The By~.ilrllirle Bronze Coins of Alcllandria in lhc Scvenlh Cenlury." NWlli.IIII/llic ChrOl1icle ser. 7, 2 (1962):225-41. Revillout, E. "Textes coptes extrnits de la r.:orres· pondonce de Sl. Pesunthlus, ev~que de Copto~ r.:l dc plusieul"li documents nnalogues (juridiques ou cconomiqucli)." Revue ~gYPloIQgiqu(' 9 (1900): 133-79; 10 (1902):34-47; 14 (1914):22-32. Slratos, A. N. 8yZ(JIltium ill Ihe Seventh Ce'1lllry, Vol. I, 601-634, ll'ans. Marc Ogilvie·Gr"dll1. Am· sterdam, 1968. Volkmann, H. ""gyplen unter romisehcr Hcrl" schar1." In Oriell/aUsd/f1 Geschicillc \'0/1 Kyros his Mohammad, cd, B. Spuler. ~llIndbuch der Oricntalistik 1.2,4.I.A. Lcidcn lind Cologne, 1971.
PERSONAL STATUS LAW
l r
Winlock, Herben Eustis. Tire Mfmas/ery uf Epipha,,· ius at '''elles, 2 'lois. Vol. I: "The An:h.
PETER I
II.
12. 13.
14.
15.
communion of the church so that they would hllve no excuse for "violent departure" nor rea· son "to slacken once more from the faith." Those who lapsed during incarceration or punishment for their sympathy with the martyrs were: to be readmitted, although no schedule was SCI. Those who avoided persecution by i»'yment ineUrTed no punishmenl. Those who "gave up everything for the safety of their lives and withdrew, even if others were detained because of them," also inwrrcd no punishmenl. Those who lapsed only after severe tonure "and no longer had the strength to speak or even to utter a sound or to make any movement of resistance" were to be rc:t:eived immediately. The founh and sixth days of the week ~rc set as timC!i of fasting.
Peter's charity is perhaps best illustrated by a statement in the elevemh canon: "we arc mindful of the many miseries and troublC!i they have undergone in Ihe name of Christ; not only Ilave they repentcd, but Ihey also mourn for what they did when Ihey were: beutlyed by the weakness and morlality of the nC!ih. Funhennore, they lestify that Ihey, as it were, have been disenfranchisell from the faith. Let us prny with Ihem and plead together for their reconciliation I:Ind for other proper things, through Him who is our Advocate with the Father." The CflIlQ/licfl/ ~/ler mises the qut::o;tion whether a penitential system such as that known to Saint Gre~ory Thaumatur~U5 and Saint Basil ('xisted in Alexandria in Peter's day (PG 10, p. 1048; Basil, Epistle 199). Although one can Irace the slow development of a pcnitenllal system in the letters of saims Cyprian and Dionysius and through the Cllnons of Ihe preNicene councils of Elvira nnd Aneyra, it is not clear that Peler knew of such a system. ORIGEN (Homily all Leviticu.~ and Numben) knew of sacerdotal ahso· lution and penance, which shows that the institution of penance at Alexandria goes back to the early second century. Peter, along with Cyprian and Dionysius, shows the bishops' insistence on episcopal authority. All thn-c insistt.-d that only the bishop (and nOI the "confessors," those who had !iSlllann, P," "Obel'legungen ZUlli Gnmdriss der OstkircllC von Phil:u;:." h./,rbm:h /lir A"tike IHld Christel1lllm 13 (1970):20-4l. Monneret de Vill.ml, U. La Nl by J. Bidez in Oil.' J.:ricchi.fc1Il!ll ehris/liehe'/ Sehrilts/efler del' ers/cn drei Jahrhllndu/t', Vol. 21 (Ber· lin. 1913): also trollS. E. Walford (London, 1855).
1959
SI.'C also G. Fritz, "Philostorge," in D;el;QllIlairt' de tlre%xie f:(l/ltoliqut', Vol. 12, pt. 2 (Paris, 1935); and W. Milligan, "PhiiostorglUli," In A. Die· /ionllry of Chris/hili Biogruplry, cd. W. Smith and H. Wace, Vol. 4 (repr. New York, 1914). W. H. C. FRENO
PHlLQTHEUS, Sixty·lhlrd palriarch or Ihe Sec of Saint Mark (919-1003). Philotheus was a monk of the Monastery of Saint Mncarius (DAYR ANBA MAOAR) and a dl'iCiple to an older saintly monk by the name of Yu~anna.. Arter the de:toth of Pope Abraham ibn Zar'ah, there waa an intern.llnum of six months, during which the blshop.~ together with thc c1c~ and the archons of the city of Mi~r (Cairo) delibe.... atcd on the subject of a new candidate for the patriarchate. They were informed about the suitability of a monk by the name of YuJ.tanna and con· SC. TIM,j'S edict n....q uiring homage to the pagan god~ and was put to death aI AsyO! on I Da'unah (26 May; see Forget, 1926, Vol. 2, p. 147). He i10 hest known for hi10 complete Sahidie martyrology and related fnl.gmenlS, his connt..'Ction wilh lOevernl fel· low lOOldier.marty1'5, his confusion with another,
1963
identically named martyr, and his possible rule as the tutelary saint of two Thehan mona.~teries. Marlyrdom An intllc.:t martyrology survives in an unpublilihcd Coplic manu10cript in the Piel'JlOnl Morgan libraI)' (582; eodex 46; sec Hyvcmat, 1922), which was copied by the scribe Colluthus (fol. 301'., 9-12). AI k-asl Ihree Coplic fragmenllO belong to other copies of this hagiogl'aphical aCcOunt (British Library. Or. 6012, cd. CNm, 1905, p. 414, no. 999; British U· brary, Or. 7561, fol. 67-69, cd. emm, 1926, p. 205: Bavarian Stale Ubrary. Munich, Handschrift kopti!iCh 3, fol. 52-58, s« Crum, 1905, p. 414, n. I on no. 999 [missing since 1970». An unpublished Ara· bic version of the martyrology is in the Coptic Mu· seum, Cairo (manuscrlpl Hisl. 275; s« Khater and Bunncster. 1981, p. 13). Very lillie is known of Phoioommon's early life. In the miracu/o at the end of Morgan 582, Touho in Middle Egypt is said to have been Phoihammon's birthplace (£01. 21r., 39-45). Touho is the modern Ta~j al·A'midah (Kessler, 1981, p. 42). l'hoibam· mon was thirty al lhe time of his execution (fol. 2v.• 45-46) :lnd had heen a Christian for four years (fol. 7r.. 45-49). His Greek mother was named Sarah (fol. 211.. 46-49). 1·lis fathcrs name is unknown. CUllian05 [sic] W35 hypalos (highe1ll official. fol. 11'., 13-15); Solerichus was tJ/Xlrc1IOS (prefect of the city, fol. Ir., 15-17); Romanus was s/NJlefa/ts (gen· eral of the palace, fo1. 11'., 17-19); Phillip was sti. choll!/iko., (leader of the I'egiment at Preh!, fol. II'" 20-22); Maximinian was the comls (count) or dux (duke) of the Thelmid (fol. 811., 50-52; Ilr., 33-35, 53); and Flavianus WllS praeposims (commander of the camp of Prcht, fol. Iv., 51-52). The chronology and list of officials is mther garbled. Although I'holhammon WIlS allegedly martyred in Diocletian's first year (foJ. 11',,22-24), thc emperor, who had come (0 thc tlll'one in 284, did nOI issue his c.:dict proscribing Christian selviees unlil 303. Even dlen the penalties were uimc.:d III church leaders, not al laypcl'lOOllS such lIS Phoibammon. The fourth edict, promulgated in 304, applied to all Christians. The pellalty was death. That Phoiballlmon's martyrdom probably occurred not in Diode· lian'1O first year but sometime between 304 and J08 is indicatcd by the reference to "Cullian05," surely Clodiu1O Culcianus, who WllS prefect during lhc (: (t:cclesiaslical His/ory 6.42.1) to have been executed during the reign of D«:ius. Orscnuphis is known from a fmg, mentary Coptic text In the 8ritish LiblOIry (Or. 7561, fols. 52-53; sec Crum, 1926, p. 204). Phoib· ammon'S lnartyrology may have spawned a larger cycle of hagioglOlphieal texts or was il~elf part of a series.
Confusion with Another Martyr Pholbammon Al least four martyrs answered to the name of Phoibammon (Khater and Bumlester. 1981, p. II, n. I). In an unpublished Arabie teJtt (Vatican library, Arabic manuscript 172) Phoibammon of Preht is connatcd with an identically named person, who was born of a noble family in Awslm (Letopo· lis, in the Mcmphite n:g:ion) and martyred near Qau on 27 Tubah (Janual)' 22) and buried n¢8r GiUt (Forget, 1912, Vol. 1, PI'. 419-30; Crum, 1926, pp. 109-110; Amelineau, 1890, p. 54-63). Several Cop· til;: fragments in the ChCl;Il,:r Beatty Library, Dublin, llI"e similar 10, but are not exactly like, passages in Morgan 582 and therefore represent either different editions or perhaps an otherwi$C unaltcsted martyr· ology of the patrician. One fragment (2029), for example, has Phoibammon beholding the Lord "sitting on the chariot of the cherobim." In Morgan 582 (fol. 9r., 52-54) Phoibammon sings hymns to Jesus "who sits upon the chariots of the chcrobim." The splendidly clad Phoibammon in a B.4.wtr Fresco (Cledat, 1904/1916, pl. 53) b probably the nobleman (Crnm. 1926, p. 109).
Possible Role 81 Tutelary Saint of the Monutery of Pholhammon at Thebes Two mona..~teries at Thelx.-s were dedicated to a martyr Phoibamllloli. One lay about 5 miles (8 km) from the WC!lt bank between Madlnat HAbu and Armant; the other was erected on the uppcnnost telTace of Hatshepsut's temple at Dayr al·Bahn (Timm, 1979, PI'. 1378-94; Krau$C, 1985). 80th arc now in ruins. To which, if either, of these martyrs the two monasteries were dedicated is uncertain. A Theban text (Crnm, 1902, pp. 41-42, n. 455) in· c1udes "the day of Apa Pholbammon" in a list of festivals In vel)' close proximity to the Ascension and Pentecost, both of which are celebrated shortly befon:: 26 May, which was Phoihammon of Prehl'S day of ma11yrdom. This Is the only evidence for Hnklng him with eilher monastery (Crum, 1926, p. 110). The patriclan Phoibammon rates sevelOIl pages in the Theban re
tuml tern,jn in the volley of lhe Nile in Uppel' Egypt, it is silualed wilhin Smiles (8 km) of a Coptic monastery detliealed 10 SAtNT 8UQTtJR (Viclor) Shu. This saint was a Roman legional)' and was man)'rcd in the pel"SeCarch is being conducted for the exact silt' of the discovery of the Gnostic p;,pyri of the Nag Hammadi library, Pilgrimages are made annually by the faithful to the Monastery of Anba Balamun on 30 Tobah/7 February and 25 Ablb/I August to \'enerate the founder of cenobitic life. Sudomonl, This lawn is now known as $adamant al·Jabal. It ili liituated about 17 mik-s (27 km) Mlulh of Madlnal al·FayyOm within the frontier of Ihe province of Bani Suef. II eonlained an ancient mOnaslery. Dayr Mar Jirjls, It wa... well known in the thlneemh century, and its name W;IS immona· Ji1.ed by the farnou.s th..: vlogian BUlllUS Al-SI~tAlnl. whO!ie ""'ork was published around 1260. In the fifteenth century, al·MaqJi71 said that it ....'lIS almost desened. However, it was ,"",-stored in 1914 and monastic life w:lS rene~d there. Ill.safil,minl. This is a village situated nonh of Ihe beller-known village of al'J:!awAwlsh in the districi of Akhmtm. It had in its neighborhood a monaslery dedic::ued to the archangel Michael, DAYR AL-MALAK MIKHA·!1.. which appeared in al·Maqrizi's history in the fifteenth century as DayI' l?abrnh, a word derivcd from an Arab tribe called BanI *,brah Ihal senled in this region. nltlonastica 13, 72: CSCO
1984
POEMEN. SAINT
238. p. 101). The Coptic collcction of lh~ Vinue.s of 5aillt Macon'Wi q~es several answers given by Mao.:llrius 10 questions :lSkcd by foemen. One of them 5uggesLs thaI the Jailer did nOI enjoy an unehallcngl.-d aUlhorliy: "My F:uhcr, how is it lhal you want me 10 be wilh the brothers. for I speak in vain to lhcm and they do not listen?" (AIII
YJ1m'l.n Lablb Ri7.q. al.AI.lljlb rat 1952. Cairo, 1977.
al-Mi~riYY(jh
(Jobl Thaw-
YONAN uBla RIZQ
NaHan's Party (1:Ilzb AI-Ummah) On 20 September 1907 H~n 'Abd al-RAziq Pasha annuunced lhe cswblishmcnt of the al,Vl/lltlah party. MarymJ1d SulaYIlll'in Pasha was elected president; J;lllsun Abd al.RJ.z:iq Pasha and 'Ali Sha'raw'l Pasha vice'presidents, and Arymad t..u!fi al-5ayyid penna' nent sion. Despite the par1y's progralll, it lacked a proper frnmework, and it did not ClUJ)' OUI any program by which one could judge its prindples. The two Cop' tic newspapers at that time, Mi~r and ul-Wu!lm. cleo c1ined to become the urgan uf the party. BIBLIOGRAPHY
YL1nlln Lablb Ri~.q. ul-i/(/ylll ul'//iwiyyuh If Mi~r Ii 'Alit! 111.1I,1li1I11 /1/-8ri((hl( 1882-/914. Cairo. 1970, _:-'-' a/.A1.lzuh al.Mi,Jriyyah QI/bl Thaw"ClI 1952. Cairo, 1977. YONAN l.Afllll RIZO
Egyptian Democratic Party (Al-l:J:lzb Al.DlnlliqrAU A)-Mlsrl) This par1y came inlo being on 10 Jallu:,ry 1919. The pany's ten principles covered a number of al'> eas: political, sodal, and economic. In Ihe polilieal area, the pliny called for Egypt's inlemal and external independence, the cl'Clllion of II repfCscnlalive body deputized by the people, and Ihe maintenance
1989
or iXIulility between all Egyptian!> and assuring pub· lie liberties. In the social al'ea, the p.'\rty advocated free and compulsory primary education. and Ihe beuerment of Ihe working classes. As to Ihe economic area, Ihe party dedicaled itself to the growth or Ihe counlry's wealth. Severnl of the polilical parlies fonned in the aflerml:nh of the 1919 l'evolution absorbed members of Ihe Egyptian Democratic Party and speeded up Its liquidalion; some joined the Wald party, olhers thc Yekenis. The last of il.5 meelings was held on 4 May 1923. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahmad
Zakariyy~
al·Shillq. I./iw o.l.A/JrlJr QI-DuSIUri)'yill. Caim, 1982. 'AI' ai-Din HilAI. Q{·SiylJsuh WQ·Q/·HII1cm II Mifr. Cairo, 1977. Fatry' al-Ramll. QllW' 'Qlll Q/.TQ;llrib Q/./fitlriYYQh Ii Mi~r. Cairo, 1978. MuJ:mmmad l;Iusayn Hllykal. Ml/dhaH:irlll If ul-Siyllsah a/.M~riYYQh, vol. I. cairo. 1951. YONAN LABIB RlzQ
Ward Parly The WQld party wa... Ihe most impol1ant political pany in Egypt in modem timL'S. Its importance lay nOI 1lO much in its si1.e when compared 10 olher p..... nics but in Ihe sweeping majority it managed 10 win eve!)' lime free elections were held, while all olher parties combined logelher won only a limited number uf ~eats. The party also remained a large and integrated one despite various internal splits and external alWeks to which it was subjected. In Ihe twenty.five year period (1927 -1952) of Mus!af~ III-Nal;1ryils's lelldefllhip he presided over ~even eabi· neL~, an achievement no other leauer was able to malch.
Because of the Wale/'s wide popular base the Brit· ish were forced to concede, more than once, Ihot it was the only genuine representative of the people. They refused, for instance, to conclude a treaty wilh any uther p....l1y as in thl: negotiations of 1930 and 1936. The Waldisl organization wa~ not inlended 10 be a political pal1y at lhe start, but events maue il develop into one. II would thus be u"Ue to say that Ihe Wald as an organi'llttion sparked off Ihe uprising of 1919, and that Ihe Wald as a party was born of that uprising. Since the Wald 0l'gani7.alion was originally fonnL-d with Ihe 3im or cnding Ihe British pl'Otec-
•
1990
POLITICAL PARTIES: Wafd Party
toru.te and gammg independence, it was natural that the main objective of the Wald, all through its existence, should be 10 work for that independence according to the evolution of that concept. Throughout Ihal period the national cause had centered on two issues: military evacuation and union wilh the Sudan, or the "Unity of the Nile Valley."
The Wold led the greatest popular uprising against the Brillsh presence in Egypt, Ihe 1919 revolution. II forced Brili$h polilicians to abandon the policy of
keeping E&YPI a British proteclor.lle. In 1920 the Wafd took the lead in campaigning for the boycott of lord Milner's commilIlVllr aJ.f!arakaIJ alWa!alliyyah II Mifr, Vol, I, /9/8-/936. Cairo, 1968.
POLYCARP, SAINT: leiters of Polycarp
Mahmud Milwlll1l, Mi.fr II'U ul-1.{rJYul (JI-Hiwryyuh '1'(( ul-NiyllbiyyuJr 'Iubl Smlfll 1952. Cairo, 1980. nriq al·BishrT. A/'JfurakQII al-SiyiisiYYQJr Tr Mi.fr: 1945-1952. Cairo, 1972. AI.IIoIM) ZAKAklYYA "l.-SItIL.lO
POLYCARP. SAINT
1997
mlu1yrs is made in the oook of Revelil\ion: "I know thy WOl-k.~ and tribulation, and l)Oveny (but thou ai' rich) and I know the blasphemy of them which say they are JeWll and are not, but are the synagogue of Satan. Fear none or thosc things which thou shalt suffer ... be thou faithful untO death, and I will givc thee a crown of Iifc" (Rev. 2:9-10).
(c. 69-c. 156). hishop of
Smyrna who was manyn:d (fcasl day; 29 Amshir). ThiJi enny consislS of IWO articles: Life of I'olyea'l' and Lettcrs of Polycarp.
OIBLIOCRAPJlV
O'leary, Dc L Tile Saill/s 01 Egypt. London and Ncw York, 1937. BISHOP GKEGOKIUS
Life of Polycarp Polycarp was bishop ()/" Smyrna (mode'li Izrnir, Turkey) and defender of orthodox belief. According to Saint Ircnaeus (c. 130-2(0), he was closely ass0ciated wilh Saini John. one of the twelve ,Iisclples, by whom he was consecrated bishop. HI: iJi thcrefore a vilal link belween the aposlOlic age and Ihe generation of gn:al Chrislian wrilers who Jlourished IOward the end of the second cenlUry. When Igf1lltius. bishop of Antioch, "''as on his way 10 Rome, where he was martyred by ordel' of Em· peror Trojan, he visited Polyearp in Smym:l and, in chains, greeted and ellcoul-aged this staunch pillar of Ihe lroe f'lilh. Also, on n:aching Troas, Ignatius dispatched letters 10 Polycarp, which the l"lIer preserved and, wilh hiJi own addilionll, made inlo an imponant documenl on orthQ(lolly. He wa.~ also held In great eSleem oUL~ide his own diOCese, and other churches valued his te3,hings at a lime of acure theological controversies Iltat trou· bled the Christian church. At the age of dghty he traveled to Rome to panicipate in senling the dis· pute between E.'\stern and Western ehurehl's on the question of the dale of &ISler. Though IlU visible agreement could be reached on Ihis topic. Bishop Anicelus of ROllle requested lhlll he celebr'lltc the Or1hodo" Eucharist in his church a.~ a mark of hon· or anti esleem, On hi.~ return tn Smyrna. l'olycal'P was arrested by Romun .lulhoriliCl; during II pagan festival. On trial he l'efused to recant his Chtistian f:Jith, and consequently he was burned [0 death, while the gleeful mob shouted: "Let him be burned, he is the teacher of Asia, the father of the Christians, and the destroyer of our gods." Ills mal1yrdom louk place on Holy Saturday, the eve of Easter, probably in the year 156 or shOl11y afterward. I-Ie died happily, con· fesslng Jesus Christ. Polycarp is rcrcr. W" compo A Copric B,b1rovaplry. Ann Arbor, Mich,. 1950: repr. t-,cw Yon. 1969. !rX.Nn-el'.OIlGeS
COOl1IS
PORTRAITURE. COPTIC. /The (radilit"" 0/
'''Itt
pun(allll"" de,'c/o/lln) in "!wn,,,";c licy/'( ami i" Hvm" co"li""",1 i" Copl;c E/:}'pl IWIO"11 ""III)' VII.a clemCIIIS of /,Iw(oon;c amI c/oss;c,,1 ""'. 1'(Hlmils "'ere (;frlll,,it5 can be called proto-Copllc Ix:cause Ihey already show Ihe unrealistic, e~prnsi"e style of Coptic Christian an. In this prow-Coptic period. Ihere arc only a few "ad"pled" Chri$ti:1Il day eoUins. l'O!i.o:ibly these ex· eeplions al"()l;C even bdorc lhe linal prohibilion of pagan culls, al the end of Ihe foonh eentul)'. (Par·
R0ll111no-Egypliall 1>O"'"il (t'..gyl'linn Iype). Thi,·d· (oUl,h cenlul)'. COllrh')'y IAJ'll're Mil)·"""', I'aris.
POl1nit of a "sickly woman." Romano·Eg}'J>lian. M". s.:",,, of Berli".
PORTRAITURE, COPTIC: Porll,lilurc or the Third and Fourth Centuries
lascll, 1966, Pl'. 210, 291). Only in l'"r four c1,iWlike pages. Tbe complele ab!;cnce of pa. pn symbols (..'Oden coffins in Ihe imperial lX:riod always bear I1tolifs from lhe wo..ld of Ihe E&YI'li;>n cull of Ihe deoo) .1 the boy belonged 10 :> Chrisli:tn family. nle upper 1)311 of Ihe deatl hoy's
2003
body stands nUl c1carly againsl Ihe background. The field Ide open in Ihe nmllrcss·palh:nl h,.s ehe clfeel of " rccl.angular nimbus. The sl)'le of Ihe painling. especially Ihe 51ylW;-d portr.lil. suggc:lts a laic fourth-ccnlury dale. II rnay hoe roughly com",mporary wilh lhe 100Ie mummy portrails. II111LlOCRAPIfY
Coche de la Fert~. E. l.es Ponroils romQllo-i1JJ'p/i~lls d" (.0",.,.". Pntis. 1952. l)rerup, II. me /J",i"r""g du ,u,m,icIlponriJu. P:ld· crOOm, 19)); Ncudruck, New Vork and London, 1968, Grimm, G. Di" ro",iscll"" Mumie""",~kt'" {illS Agypleu. Wk'Sbndcn, 1974. l'arla"'a. K. M,m,icl1l1or,riilS w,d ,'"m'""dlc DellI;· "';;/
111is W:lS conf"'lI\ed by "'hr!ln Kl'au.'iC (1971) 10 be 590-600, with Illl' place b.,.·ing Arm""I, wher'e AIm,· Imlll "'0"'':1;1 of a boy. I'a;ming on wood. /'ri,·tlle Cul/ulio". EdwIg",", C(Jtlrl"'~y I'i"",,,, lilt lJo"f/SUr.I.
PORTRAITURE, COPTIC: Portraiture or the Firth to Ninth CClllur'ics
2005
Painled sarcophagus. Founh ",emury. Wood ca,'cred \\ilh paililed linen: approx, lenglh: 160 em. CamUS! J. "",,, G"II)' Muse"m. Af,"ib", Calif..m"'(l.
Ibm slyle. The IWO l~rsonages, full·face I'ml "ide by side, have a Illo"l p
2013
Mllr lirlis, published by the hegumfmos Fu'4d
Baslll since 1949. mainly for ed.iling the tel(lS of predications. MIRIUT BoUTROS GIl ...U
PRIEST, ORDINATION OF. When a person is chosen as a candidate for the priesthood, a docu~ ment testifying to the candidate's aptitude and good charaeler is drawn up by the clergy. deacons, and people of the church to be presented to the bishop. If he is not I.1ready a deacon, he must be ordained reader and deacon before the day of ordination. The service of ordination of priests takes place during the Sunday celebration of the Divine Utur· gy, immediately after the Prayer of Reconciliation, before the beginning of the anaphora. The candi· date, wearing the vestmenu of the d.iaconate, is presented to the ordaining bishop, metropolitan. or palliarch before the altar. in the presence of the assembly of the faithful. The bishop first ascertains from the congregation that no one has any objeClion to the candidatc's being ordained a priest. Then he proceeds with the prayer of morning Incense and, facing the altar, Sllys: Lord, God of hosu, who has brought US unto the lot of this ministry, who searches all hearts and reins, listen to us according to Thy tendcr mercies, cleanse us of all sins of body and soul. Scalier like smoke the mist of our transgressions and fill us with Thy divine power, the grnce of Thy only.begollen Son, and the efficacy of Thy Holy Spirit, that we may become worthy of this ministry which is unto the new covenant, to carT)' Thy Holy Name, to stand and minister to Thy divine mysteries. Suffer us not to be partakers of other men's sins, but bioI our own sins, and grunt us, 0 heavenly King, not to stray from the right path. Endow us with the true knowledge to say what is proper and to approach Thy sacred lable. Accept the priesthood of Thy servant [name], who is here kneeling before Thee, awaiting Thy heavenly gifts. For Thou are righteous, full of compassion towards those who call upon Thee, and mighty is Thy dominion, together with Thy Son and the Holy Spirit, now and. forever, Amen. The deacons respond by saying the Kyrie ekiso" three times. The archdeacon im)'!l: May the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ which perfeclS our shoneoming5 through the good pleasure of God Ihe Father and. Ihe Holy Spiril.
2014
PRIEST, ORDINATION OF
descend upon [name] who has corne 10 the sa· ered altar wilh fellr Ilnd trembling, knceling and liMing the eyes of his hea.11 to Thce. who dwellest in heaven, awailing Thy heavenly gifls, to pa.
2022
PROTHESIS
1980. II should be supplemented by the Pr{)~'{)p, O[:faplrie chretiellll(l du Bas-Empire prepared by H. I. Mnrrou and others, of which the fir:;t volume, edited by A. ManJouzc, appeared in 1982. Howe\'er, it includ~ only Christi!ln NOl1h Africa. In addition 10 thC$C large work.~ there are prosopogmphies of individual places. Older works. like the 1938 pmsopog...~phy of Aphrodilopoli.~ by V. A. Girgis, based on the Greek documents. arc supc~d('d by the editions of IX'pyri thai have appeared sintered by pagarehs (see ",,"GARCH).
BIOUOGRAPIlY
Barnes, T. D. The New Empire of Dioc{e/iall alld COtl$/untine, PI" 21 If.. 224£. Cotmbridge, Ma.o;s., and London, 1982. Bowman, A. K. Egypt afler Ihe Pharaohs: JJ2 8.(;.A.D. 642. From Afuandu /0 Ihe Arab Conquest. London, 1986. See p. 79, fig. 4, for a lable showing the divisions of Egypl for the period 295-560.
2024
PROVOST
Eadie, J. W. The Bre",iarium of F~'us: A en'tical Edition with His/orical Commentary, pp. 154~71. London, 1967. Contains the provincia.! lists. Jones, A. H. M. The Laler Roman Empire, 284-602.
A Social. Economic, and Adminislro/i"e Survey. pp. 1451-61. Cambridge. 1964. Discusses the dioceses and provinces. Jones, A. H. M.: J. R. Martindale; and J. Moms. The Prosopography a/the
UJtt!r
Roman Empire, 2 vols.
Cambridge. 1971-1980. The provincial govemors and Egypt are treate
siide, pp. 41-57. Brussels, 1964. Papyri from Ponopolis &l the Chutu Beatty Library Dublin, ed. T. C. Skeat. Dublin. 1964. See pp.
xv-xxi for the division of Egypt. Rtmondon, R. "L'Edit XliI de Justinien a+il Cll~ promulgu~ in S19?" Clrrrmiqutl d'Egyplt' 10 {19SS):JJ2-21. Rouillard, G. L'~dmi"islr~tion civile de n,gyple byz~"li"e, 2nd ed. Paris. 1928. Salvo, L de. "La data d'istituzione delle provincie d'Aegyptus lovla e d'Aegyptus Herculia:' Aegyptus 44 (1%4):34-46. Cf. Oxyrlrynehus Papyri, Vol. SI, no. 3619 (London, 1984) for the 6rst contemporary evidence of the existence of Acgyptus lovia. "Anchora sull'istitullone della dioecesis Aegyptl." Rivisl~ sloriea dtl/'~ntichi/il 9 (1979): 69-74. Thomas, J. D. "Sabinianus, prae5t!S of Aegyptus Mercuriana?" Buf[tli" of Ihtl American Society of Pllpyro{ogists 21 (1984):22S-34. HEINZ HEINEN
PROVOST, senior monk in charge of the material need~
of his fellow monks in a monastery. In earlier times it was the lleCUMENOS, or head of the man· astery, who a~~umed re~ponsibility for the spiritual and material well·being of his flock. Later, however, it became necessary for every nlOnaSllc community to have a provost who would relieve the abbot of such mundane obligations. Thus, lhe provost became the second In AYR ANBA 815HOI; but, lIS with Antony and Macarius. we must not imagine that Pshoi (or, to speak in modem terms, Anb1 Blshol) was a superior as Ihat term is under· slood today. Pshoi's authorily, more spiritual than temporal, was compatible with mOl'e 01' less lengthy sojourns in the remotest pans of the desen. This life included, we arc told, visions of Jesus, Conslantine, and others. Then came the first sack of Seeds by the Ma:dqucs (407) and the dispersion of thc monks. John Colohos fled to CLYSMA (al'Oulzum), where he died sometime later. Pshoi look refuge in the mountain of Anllnoopolis. According to Ihe Arabic life (neilher the Creek nor the Syriae life says Ihis), Pshoi's body, with lhat of his friend PAUL OF TAM.Wr.. was transferred from the area of Antinoopolis to the monastery of Sishoi, in the present Wk!1 al·Natn"in. The date of this tnrnslatlon is not given, but we know from a list of the rcliC5 venerated in Egypt, drawn up by the dea· con MAWItOU, aulhor of a pan of the HlSTORY OF ntE PAllUARCHS OF THE EGynlAN CIIUROI. Ihat these bodies were preserved In the Wadi al·Natn"in at the end of the eleventh century. Since Pshoi was a younger contemporary or John Colobos, we may deduce that he lived mainly In the fourth century and, with Evelyn·White, fix his death in the first decodes of the fifth century. (1932, pp. 159-160). A Life is preserved in Greek under the name of Paisius. It is published without translation by Pomjalovski (pp. 1-61). Other Greek texts are listed in BibliOlhcca Hagiographica Gmeca, 1402-1403d. Their relation to the Life preser.red In Arabic have not yet been determined. (Evelyn.While, pp. Ii 112). A Life is transmitted in Syriac by Bedjan (vol. 3, pp. 572-620; sec Bibliotheca hugiographica Graeca nos. 181-82). A third Life, in Arabic, is unpublished (Paris, Bibliolheque NaJio"al~, Aroln 4796, fols. 119r-169v; see Troupeau. vol. 2. p. 47). Evelyn.White says he has used it, thanks to an un· published translation by Evetts (p. III, n. 4). A r~ume of the Arabie Ufe is given in the recension of the 5YNAXARlON of Ihe Copts from Lower EsYPI at
,
2030
P$HOI OF TOO, SAINT
8 Ablb: reference may be made 10 the t.x1ilions of Ibssel (pp. 630-34) or Forget (text, p. 210, Ilnd Irons., pp. 206-08). The ETHIOI'IAN SYNAXARION gives Il perceptibly Identical version III 8 H:lmle (Guidi, pp. 270-76). One may also refer to the English lranshllion by Budge (Vol. 4, PI" 1083-87), al· though this Is nOI Il criticlil edition. There is an E1hiopian 1CJl,1 that is without doubt a version of the Arabic life. II has nOI yel been ediled. bUI Beylo! gi1lcs Il detailed analysis (pp. 172-79). The pas..~e from the Elhiopian Synaxarion is pem:.ps a summaI')' of Ihis life. BIBUOCRAPIlY
Amclincau, £. 1.A Geographic de I'Egypu- Q l'ipoqIU. cupit. Paris, 1893. Bedjan. P. Ac/a lPlanyrlllll ef j/mcfQf'llm. 7 vols. Pari~ and Leip1.ig, 1890-1897. Beylol, P. "La version ~Ihiopienne de 'l'hisloire de Peso)':" RIlVlIft de I'hiS/Q;re des rc:ligions 20] (1986): 169-84. Budge. E. A. W. The Book of the Saims of th~ Ethiopiatl Chl/rch, 4 vols. Cambridge. 1928. Evclyn·Whiu:, H. G. Tilt Afomwerits of {he Wad;'" Nalr.i". Pl. 2. Tilt lIis/ory of the M"nasteries of Ni/ria and SCdis. New York, 19]2. Mul.lomlnad RamzI. At-Q/I/mis a/-J/lgllrilfi IiI·Bi/iid at Mi~riyyoh, 2 vullO. in 5 pis. Cairo, 195]-1963. Troupeau. G. CaM/agile des matlllScrits arabes. Pari~, 1972-1974. Rl'.N~GroRGES (OOUIN
PSHOI OF rOO, SAINT, ascetk of Upper Egypl (feaM day: 25 KIyahk). He Is known only from a bdef notice in the recension of Ihe SYNAXAR. ION from Upper Egypl. The notice describes P...hoi as :m nscetic who distinguished hlmsdf by ::m ,"ssid· llUUS reading of the book of the prophet Jeremiah, to the point lhal Jeremiah revealed hilllsdf tu him. This revelation MIS repeated for other authors of (holy) books, whum lhe Synm"arion dues not name. Pshoi attracted notice through his prayel'S and his vigils, so mu,,;h so that his death was regarded as that of 11 SIlin\. Pshoi was buried in a church-we are not told which one-llnlt was then endowed wilh a mirolcle. Whoever washed with the water from its well was healed of sickness, espl,cially tho:;c who suffered from tenian fevel' (a form of malaria). In linolher nolih Library, Or. 7597, fols. 1-8, cd. Budge, 1915, and Odandi, 1978), and it, like the Passion, t:ontllins a long !lerie!l of recommendations and predictions by Psote of his own deilth. In the Arabic tmdltion, the Ambie SYNAXARION StunnlltriZi:s the extended Passion (Forget, 1905, pp. 282-85). Also, in the commemoration of Abadion, it is told that Abadion revealed to Arianus the story of Dioc1etian-Agrippida, lind that PSOle confirmed it. BIBLIOGRAPHY Am~lineau,
Eo C. "Fragments COplCS pour servir fI I'histoire de III conquele de l'Egypte IXlr Ics Ar· abes," Journal Asialique, ser. 8, 12 (1888):376. Budge, E. A. W. A-1iscellQtleous Coptic TtJCls. pp. 147-55: 1141-57. London, 1915. Delehaye, H. "Les Martyrs d'Egypte." AtlaleetQ 80/latldiQtlQ 40 (1922):5-154, 299-364.
Orlandi, T. II Dossier coplo del mar/ire Psole. Milan, 1978. TlTO ORLANDI
PTOLEMAIS HERMIOU, See Psoi.
PUBLIC LAW. See Law, Coptic.
PUECH, HENRI·CHARLES (1902-1986), born at Montpellier (Herault), France, chairman of the history of the early church and patristics in the section of religious sciences at the Ecole Prntiquc des Hautes Etudes (Sorbonne) for {orty·two years (1930-19721, and for twenty yean (1952-1972) that of the hislOry of religions at the College de France. Puech's contribution to Coptic studies relates essentially to Manichaeanillm and grlosis, domains in which he was the undisputed master in his generation. His book Le maniehiisme, son fotlda/eur, sa doctrine (Paris, 1949), remains a fundamental work. In it. in addition to the classical sources and the documents discovered in Central Asia. he used the Coptic Manichaean te)[1.5 discovered about 1930 in the Fayyiim. When it became known that a library of Coptic Gno.stic writings had been disc::overed nClOr Nag Hammadi in the winter of 1945-1946, Puech imme·