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"lI"! u~ """'1 .(NI u:>'I!-J:>Jl!P S().' 1")!""'oP» P"'l",",u" 011'" uaJ].IO sre." II ·u"" OW!I ~1Ili I" S! 'po!) 10 p.lOM ~,ew")UI "'{I 'i'>U'I:> .~J![ 1"""'>1"
' "'I'
"'I'
""""'¥l
(H,61-tr61) NllSIW lD,n
.n1.390~ S'n'MVH:J 'A'M'M3811V
t>Ol
ALTAR
ALLOGENES, th~ third Ir:aW.t~ from Codex XI (45.1·69.20) of lhot !tAG ltAMM.A(lI U8R.o..V. i, a ·'book·· (68.21; cr. 69_17-18, ""here th~ plur:al is used) said 10 be wrin~n by • certain A1~ r'S!r;t.ncu:' "one 01. anolh...- .-..;.,., for Meuos ("middl., onc,~ i.e., thl. and tan even uclaim, '" bec.amr dMne" (52.12-13). v'''en Youel finally depam (57.~-27), Alloaenes speIlds a full cenlury pt"tpaTinll for further ,-mons of the~, and he It$ nol disappoinled in his hopes. He is laIc",n up in e1!Slasy 10 a marvel..... holy place ...tItre hu,~nl)· powel'l explain how h~ may recri,.., "'a primary 1'1!'\~lallon of Ihe Unknown One, th~ 0"" ",hom, If )'Ou would know him, be ignorant of him" (59.28-H). Wilh a profound 5ilenc~ and calm Allogencs uc:"nds up IhruuSIt IIt~ Triple Power, from the bleS!edn~ss of ""If,knowle0 subscqu~ntly Is described in uncrly lrarJsce-ndlnl and par.ldo.xical lemt. (61.25-67.20). A1Igftlcs thus is a non-chrislian Gn"",ic t""• ...illt a Sln;>nlly philosophical orienu'-'ion. (king lenns and penpe
106
ALTAR
;",.~
of I~ (:l'Un$ (cancelli). lhe presb)lery (see ~RrnITECTlJlVot. E1..EI1I'.>1Tli OF CHURCIIES). In Ihe C~at Basilica of Abc. Mini it stood in the center of the intenec.llon of lhe nave and the pl"C$bytcry, and in the Nonh Baslliea of the $llme place, it w><x! ;n the area of lhe second U,'em inlcrcolumniurn. Onl)' in .'ery simple churches-such a, thos.ie", Comic Ch"rches 0/ EgJpl. Vol_ 2. Oxford, 1884; TI"pf". 1970. Daumas. F. "Rappon sur l·acli.·it,. de ]. InSlitul hnt:ais d'Archlo!ogie orienlale du Cai ... an Cours des annb=s 196&-1969. Comp,u ""ndus d.. I'Ac"d"",ie des /nscripllo... .., 8t:U..S-ullres, ]>p. 4%-501. Paris. 1%9. ~""udre•.
C. Die PaS'ophorien 1m .yrv-by;:an. lischen 0>11'''_ Wiesbaden, 1983. Calling, K.; 1, P, Kirsch; T, KlallSCr; and L. Ziehen "Allar I-Ill.'" Reol/uiion {i" An/ike ,md ChrislmI (1950):310-54, Grossmann. P. "Abt't Mini, Die OSlkireh"." Mil/c;!· /Um
~nge"
des de~/$chln a'ch~()IOfi,ch.n [nsl;I""_ Abuilll1lg Kai'Q 33 (1917),35-38. ___. "Abc. ~\lna. Die OslkiTl"he." Mimi/,mge" ties Je"lSehe~ areltaoJOlIisc},.n 1".,iIUlS-Ablei"",g Kajro J6 (1980):122-224.
___ Mill./oller/kll. IAmgh""j],,,ppe/iuchen "nd ...""'a"dle Typen I" Oberiigfl"M. Glud,$laaraclete, .. He had done 10 lhe apostles. 10 bleso lhis new plaoce and lransform il imo • holy church, s houst 01 salV31ion, a pI""" oIlorg;"eness of sin, an asstmbling place oJ Ihe an,els. a haven of safe1y. a holy labcfnacle, a hea"enly altar, and a cleansing place "f slained souls; (16) the pn>yer for lhe wellbeing "f 'lte patriarch and the bi.lOon d Thy sen.""... ... Lonl God oJ our saI""llon, who Nos subsli'utl"d ecdesiaSCcralion 01 lh~ altar with lite oil oJ uace, !he mY"" let)' of lhe Holy Spiril, 1o offer the bloodless sacri· fice through Ihe mysllc un.ts in the Old Nubian language h:>"e been l'eCOYered from the lerrilOl)' of 'AI\ri. On Ihe basis of some pet:uliarit>es of wminl. F. L GRimm concluded lhat ,M lanauale spoken here may have heen diffe"'nt from the Old Nubian of the kingdom of Makourla, 'Alwi is mclllioned incidentally in a number of Iale medie,.,.1 Arabic documen.... dealing mostly ..-ith the ,.~ J.""mluk campaigns into Nubia. On a number of """,,,,ions ...'hen the ",,,,,,Iub anempt· ed 10 depose !he roler 01 Makouria. I.he laner fled for safely 10 Ihe district 01 al-AbY.-ab. within the lenitory of ·Alw:t.. This ttr:Megy ..'as not always successful. for On 31 leasl lwe> """,,,,ions ,he fu&itive ruler "'as captur~d by Ihe "king 01 al·Abwib·· and "'.,.. ""nl as a prisoner 10 Cairo. It i. nOi cl~ar from Ihe.., accounlS whelher the king of al·Abwlb ....'as in fac, ,he kinK of 'AI .....a or wh~thcr the southern king' dom at ,his time was divided inlO pclly principalilies. caeh ",-ilh iu own ruler. A Ihi,,~nlh..::enlU')· Mamluk emissary. 'Alam aJ·Dln Sanjar. reponed that he had to deal ",·ith nine indMdlaal ehlefs ...·hiIe on a dip60m3lic tnisPon 10·AIwlo.. F""", Ihe thirTeenth cenlUry on...·ard ·AI....1i. like !he nci&hboring kingdom of Makouria, .... increasin&1'f overrun by Arab nomads. A famili:lr Sudanese fclk lradillon. the so..::alled Funj Chronkle. auribuIes the final downfall of 'Alw1 and its capi"'-I ci,y of Saba '0 a combined attack of bedouin A",bs and ,he black Funj Sullllns of $cnnar in 1504, Modern scholarship has SUl&"'ted lhal ,he allack probably look piKe at an earlier date. and "'"as Ihe ....-ork 01 the '.lbda)1ab Arab< alone. Witen the 'Abdalbb in
AMBO
111
tlteir 'urn weas! side of the nav",. II ;" built of white 0" colored marble, uone, Or wood, supponed on pillars. and Is reached by a .taircase. II is "Omelin,cs carved with crO&SCs and flowers. ~nely sculptured and f,lIcd with rkh dcsiBns. It can also be decor-Illed with !he imaB"" of the four e"anBelim or in$rds from Psalm 107:32, "Let ,h~m eAlol him in the ccngregati"n of ,he peoplc. and praise him in the a~scmbly of ,he elde1'$." From lhe ambo lhe Gospel Is sometimes read 10 !he people. and also cenain addreu~. such as p"p.al
Ambo in tho: Chul"Ch of a1·Mu'a1I~ (Old Cairo). C_n~sy.4Tab R~p,J,l~ 01 Er;ypf.
or ~ f'01$., Paris, 18811); and LD giogrt>plo;..
de "EOPI< • rtpoqMe COPIl (Paris. 18'1.3). Other lilies are listed In A Copnc Bibliov"phy (Kam· meTeI'". 1950. 1969). BIBUOGJlAPHT
AMBULATORY. Su Alchilt:uier-upon the arre.l of Karim aI·Drn aI·Kablr. Two years wer he was t-e. Jicved I'rom ollice, bu. withoul coo6.0"ion 0/ his propeny. In 1328 the $llllan al·N~i. MuJ.ulmmad ibn Oaliwun pve him Ihe office of Jr" 114
AMMONIUS OF TUNAH
beta praen"Cd. but il is ""n- hklNl..
DOl
kn<no." "'htther afl)'
'UI)". H. Torp (1%5, pp. 167-61) Ihlnb that Ih.is Ammon,u, of Tunah is the AJT\OUn men.ioned in Chapter 9 cl the KISTOaa -....cHOaUlII IW Io£GYno (F-.::ui~e. There they found lhe ..'Oman, ,ailed al-SAdij by the Synaurion. An angel ""~aJed 10 Apollo that lhey had been brought .0 Ammonius 10 be ~nt at the the agafUlae (beloved) who lived with asceti" (Guillau· monr.. 1%9). If it is ind.,.,d Apollo of BJw1l, Ihis Ammonius Ii.-cd t~ lhe end of the foo"h cen·
Clhla., J. U
MonlU'~re el
/il nkropoJtt Jtt &wit. M~oire, p.1blia par In memb,es de l'lnslitul fran~ais d'Archwlogie orientale 12, Cairo, 1904-
1916. Crum, W. E- Tlte Rock Tombs of Deir el.Gttbrawi, Vol. 2, ed. N. de G, Davies. !.£Inden, 1902, ___. n,eo(o&;cal TUIJ from Coplic Papyri. Oxford. 1913, Evelyn·Whittt, H. G. The MonllSuries oj lite W"di'" Nal""", PI. 2, 11ttt: HUlo')' of lite Moolasleries of Nirria "nd Seen•. New Va.... 1932. Festugitre, A. J.. Nl.. His/orio monaehorum i" Att:t:Ypla. Subsldill Hagiographica 53. Bn-.els. 1971. Two ]»rt5 in 1 >'01., Gnd tUt and Latin
,-
Guillauf'flO!o1 and Eunomianism in a more deyelopod form lhan thaI encuntered by Basil and GregOI)' in lhe years "p to 380. Amphilochi"s answers Eunomius' doctrine Qf the innale names by an (>rthodQ~ inlerpretation of lhe Gnostic spelog;'b from ackJK""kdginl! IOC a,u,bull'm '0 ~T"""\S'U I of A... 'and ..... One of ,hc !.J,·cs of AmpJoiIocIu", (lldIJlUllru,l. nea, Ale,pndria. ,\m!",II"e, ldld "ith watn"J ill cady Christian source,
,,
,,, ,Impulla in praise of ,\bf' ~1in" (SI. M~"~s), T~n" ~olta. s~\ ~nth·ei£hl h ~"nlurv_ Cvrme5\' Lo', l'yc M,,-\~, I'm, Paris.
by a sli", ne~k Th~ m()uth alld ",,,e were modeled ;n day, Ihe eyes p~inled, and 'he who]" ",uch~d up wilh color. Their prOdocf; and H. E. Slier. "Bencht U~r die Vo.....nlersuchungen auf den Kuriim el· !uwil bei Amr1je." Mitteilu"v" du deu,~hen .or· cltaolcisclte.. ,..JlfluIS_Abre,Junl Kairo I (1930): 106-129. Mei"udU$. O. ClrriSli'''' Egy",' ",,,cre..1 and Mode"" p. 136. Cairo, 1977.
AMULET. See Maaical ObjeclS.
AMUN, SAINT, founh·unlury anchorite. Around 'he y..arno. Amun bKame lhe Ii... monk to ieltle
"In'"
i" tlw 'Cd by ruson of their 0011lion. ComplelCly ignored by humans.. the anchorite Os only disc".·...-cd at the ~ I of his death. ;n order tIw a 121
tion from death Ihat has swayed upon us; that to which we arC all bound in abe}'ance hccause of our sins: He descended into Had.s as accorded t" the Cross, He rose from the dead on the third day, as~endeefore the Lord's Prayer, a.~ in the West and East Syrian rites, but aClions ,hat would naturally follow (a consignation and commic'ion) are postponed until .ft"r ,he eleva'ion follo,"ing lhe Lord's Prayer wilh il. ernboli.ttn used for cenlul;es, wilh Coplic and. incrcasl"lly Anbic. beins lhe only liturgical bncuaaes rcuined. Some ohon Creek elements have ~n r...uined in tt..: CopIk Inl. especially in pans ~ W 10 the deacon and Ihe pcopk, waf
BIBUOGll4rHY The Crcd: In' is in E. Renaudol, L..t.. ,p.nom orienu.1ium ",olleelio (2nd ed.• frankfun and Lon· don, 1847; repr, franbol'OUlh, 1970); a1so;n AnIon Hiing; and Irmpn:l l'ahl, ~, P7u eJtCI,,"ufiea (Spic:ilegium l'ribu.~nse 11. fn1>ou..... 1968), pp. 347-57. only lhe ar>af"hon in lhoe Aria """nse); and in William f, Macomber, OrU~la/u. cltristiana ~ri odic. ~3 (1977):J03-33~ (with lhoe cOmmon orner). F.... a lisl of """... lce boob conui"';n, lhe Bohai.... it: and Arabic Inti printed. before 1961, ~ H. ~bLU: in J,W.ttpS E..p"e T......r""l. Vol. 3, pp. 6-11, n (Sludi e lesti 13,). Vatkan CIty, 1%4). A fourt«ntJ>.<entuoy ArIOic lUI Iuos bttn published by Khalil Samir in OrU~ud;" Chruli"n. Periodk. 44 (19711):342-90. An imponam ~i,,", ",-;I~ hao$ brcn published by J. Do~ and E. Lanne. Un ,n-'n ",elldiq..e de I. lil.....e "'OfI/e de S. &uile (Bibliod>tquc de M~ 47, Lounin. 1960). ",t.ich can be wpplcmenled by frlogmenes published by P. E. Kahle. &>Ia.i~h (Vol. I, p. 4()4. London, 1934) and by H. Qu«ke in Oritnlali4 ~II (1979):611-81. Transluions In Enensh are fo.. nd In John. Mar· quis of Bute, n.. Copfi", Morn;n, ServKe for Ihe Lord's Day (3rd cd., pp. ~-134, London. 1905); 1M C"plJe Lilw'D. a ..lhoriud by H. H. Abba K)'rillos (Vol. 6, pp. 57-117, Cairo, 19(3); Fayek M. ishak. A Complele Translalion of tJ.e Copli~ O"/wdtu Idass and Ihe UlUrtY of 51. Basil (Honll KQllg, 1974). French translallons are found In NOI'~ ",esse sell". I" lil..,p €op'e dlle de Saini 8asil. Ie G'a"d (Cairo, 1963), halian in Cuida 'a€;I. per ser..;.e /" Muu di ,;/0 altssa"d.i,,/} wp/O (Vatican Cil)', 1956), and Lalln In E. Renaudot, Guida lad/e, el~. (Vol. I, pp. 1-25 lof the Coptic r~tensionl and Vol. 1. I'P. 57-86 [of Ihe C,eek lexl). the anaphoric pat1 of lhe lauer being reprinted In H~nggi·Pahl, Guida lacil., ~Ie" pp. 34S-58). 5lUdie$ on lhe ~ubjetl arc O. H. E. Bunncst.r, "Riles and Ccromonie. of Ihe Coptic Ch .. rch, Pat1 lJ"' (T},. Easre... CJ",re},es Q,ume.ly 8 [19491950]: 1-39) re·edited in Burmc~ter, T},e £r),I";Qn 0' Coplic CII",'1:}" pp. ~6-90 (Publkallon! de la Sod"'· It d'A...,htlogie Cople, Texles el documents 10, Cairo, 1967).
123
Other-. are H. Enllberding. Das
124
ANAPHQRA OF SAINT GREGORY
wilh Ihe An...,hor.! of Sain. Basil. The Ihree Unl pDyers of inleJ"CeS5ion after the pnyn- of 'M ...,il are eilher .0 ~ omitted or 10 be SUbsll'UIet! with shorter pr:o.yers .... hen the """pIIor.! of SaIni Cyril ..
-
In modem limes tht Anapbora. of Saini C)TiI .. l'IIll'1y used, and most of ~ music proper 10 .. na.s vown dim in tht me~ of the sincen. if it na.s fK)O Mn !'orKOIlen allogethc.r. Some eelebnnu ...., paye.. drawn from il in p~e of the CorTeSponding prayers in the Anaphono of Saim BMlI. and some effoos ~ made 10 restore ill inle&~ use. Tmi· .ionally il "''as.oeen ... especially apl for use in Lenl and in the Coplic month of K.i)-ahk before Chri.. ~.
BIBLIOGRAl'Hl'
A Greek text once u.ed in the Coptic Church ha. been published by W. F. ~tae 12. pp. U5-l9, Freiburg,
''''.
ANAPHORA OF
AUJlE1) COOY. OS.B.
SAINT GREGORY, one of lhe .h,ee anapboras rewnewn \'oiee" as wcll as 10 send Hi. Hoi)' Spirit '0 hallow and change them. Although one of Ihe.\\IO alterna.ive prolye", of the 11.... of pexe preceding the anapho... proper may be a secondary addilion. both are addres.sed to Christ and th... ~. thaI ~uliarity of the anaphQT1L These pnyel'5 are p~eded by a pn",r cllhe ~eil lhat is c!<early secondary. for il is addreosed not to the Son bUI .0 lhe Falher. In ,he Greek recellSion. proboobly fo1ekhile, lhe~ is also an allemar.i..-e pn)'." of.he ...,il ..hich is idenlical with the Bynntine pra)'l'r of the clre"'bUtooo. and this is il5elf preceded b,- lhree olher prayeri' absent in the Coptic ,cf the Bohairic and Arabic texts. d. H. Malak in MII"ngeJ Eugene TiMe,,,m. vol. 3, pp. 6-8, 27. (Studi 00 lest; 233: Vat;"an Cit)·, 1%
ANASTASJUS, Ihl"~"lh patriarch of the Scl.mding An..,ta,iu, be~arne even worse. In Al, exandria at this time, there was a ChaJcedonian by the name of Eulogius who wrote a dcfamal00' let· ter to Phoca. about AnaSt-aSius. Con,equently, the infuriated emperor issued an order to the prefe~t of Ale~andria that the Coptic patriarch should be dis· possessed of the impol1ant Chllrch of Cosmas and Damian and all it< dependencies and all that be· longed to it: it should be given to Eulogius, the misguided Chalcedonian. The saddened Anastasius apparently ned to a neighboring monastery where he eould bury his grief, Due to his increa'c, Athanasi· us 'ummoned an ecclcsia ("';ghlh cent..),). in nlation to the lqiend> conuming .he mar1}T THEODOII.l'$ $T1UT£LATU, ""00 "'.... from Eucaita. Ano.slasi... Is said 10 ha.e been bi5bop of EucaJta. lhe succ~ of a cer1;lin Sukian.... and il is ..:lIed lhal he composed an w'Cry coosuaI nunner, BIBLIOCRAPHY
Delma)". H. Urt"du "«'l".u de $dmlj ...fli/. gir.u. pp. 11-0. Paris. 19(19. ~, F. "Di a1euni manoserini copei che .. eon· ...rvano nella 8iblk>l«a Nazionale di Tonno." M~ ... ori~ Aagd,rni, oJi Tori"o, 2nd $CT., 43 (1893):223-340; 44 (1194):21-70. TTlo QRl.M'Ot
ANATHEMA, either a volive offering "" up in • temple (2 Mace. 2:13: Philo. Dc ~ila Mosis 1.2531 or, in I~ncraltcnns, t....t "'hieh is de'-oted 10 a di"inily
127
eiiheT colIKCraled Or aceune
,-01."
128
ANATOUUS. SAINT
"" and WestCIn ~bUfl:Ms through ~ Middle Ares- AnlUhnna """ regarded as ~ mOOl serious discipli""ry measure. in,'OMn, complele oeplInl' tion rrom the fai1hful (Gnolian. Ch~rel",m n. ~anon 106). 11 .univeo to rhe presenl da)' in th Coptic ~hur.arin, Analoli"" "''as a gene",1 of Pen-ian origin under 0I0lU:TlA.'l Wh.:n thee pelXCltlionl began h.. confecssed bi$ faith. ()io. cletlan triN in "";n to ha'"e him persuaded a,,~ from btl faith by me ge..... raJ Romanu.. From here the Coptic lal continues. The SCenl< is set in Anlioch. ""alol"", h..,nl been lor1U.....t \>e. taUSC' 01 his 0JII'0ISiti0n '0 ,hee apos.tasy of Dioclelian, is pr,ll)in,.. Jems appurs 10 him, cures, and comll>nJ him. As Anatoli .... leavcs '0 10 ,he em· pl
um"d for I>im ,I>.... pill"" of The"!,I>an",, (Ih.. b
,.... ""pi
,h",
IlIS"(H' (,n('.o~lOS
ANCHORITE. [lI,i; ""'" ''0'"'''' of
p'u'I' 11"'0,", ,wd fol kim... 11,. {,,,I " .."Is tI,e drwlop"",,,, 01 lilt "'O,'"",,,n: al1d roum", ~onu is ,'i~i· ",,', wilh hi. life slorv. When dca,h ell,ne, 'he an ehorl, wrole th",,,: ot AnI>:! Mi~ '11 and Anb,; GIl"I)',,,, "TI'W and An~ BUll!"', ,hc ~hl"'t of DHR A' tI,.. IiI.. Slorie< of mure anchoritelOl.. nes- Aub:l PW:ljim, ""'II' I"('Il"·r",,r ,..-an ,n ,he compam of eklril. mo0 was similarly supporled by God ncar the brook Cherilh n KS". 17:2-6). Apa Nofar dwclt d",e to a palm tree and a spring of water. Anba Pidjimi and Anba Milsa eaeh fed on herb.~ge and drank dewdrops off leaves or I",,,s. It should not. howe,'cr. be assumeO" IhcUi "'lIS afflicted by a li,..,r diseue. and Ap.o Nobr died of f~r. Certain of them "'eTC a~ Wb;e0 e~lually ..,pented "ilh lhe help of Anb:. Samuel the Confessor and partook 01 Holy Commu. nion before he depar1nl this lile. .... 10 clothing. "-e are told lhal Anbl 8ll1A p.olm In.,-a and fibc.. iNO a pnnem. A f",,' ....... chon,~. how",.. r. _nl naked. a lOI<en of tnOl1i6-calion of lhe flesh: Ap;a Nofar ......... his lair long to cO'O"Cr his body. Anbli Pidjimi pteferred.• pen. od of naledn...... to cm..,r his body•• ince God p"" raimenl la Adam and Eve. and .ince lhe cherubim eO'O"Cr their bos (PG 97, CGk. 11921105; Clavis I'alrum Craecorum 8181); and the CIon· ons on Penance (Clam Plio,rum Graec:orum 8219). ..·hleh art nO( }'Ct pn:>psr0e5 II Pa,.. "iz. ~ended upon Ec3l't and th" Ert'P'i.ans lik" lac....... and "trod them down ... the o~en lread lhe Ih>aohing Roor. and eolltcl
bollalion... 11 was IMIC unlil W Byzamine cm""ror Hcrxliu. "''as abl~ bt~r in !lis
Rille. New
A1.!l S. AT1YA
ANCEL, one of tht myriad 01 incorporeal C!"Ca' lUres wl>ost: naturaJ abode io henen and ..'1>0. on occ...io.... appear to man in !he shal'l' of human beings to rcv~1 God's will and carry 0111 Hi:!: commands. Tht appdIar.ion "moesKtl&er" 0' "alIIel" in lh", pro~y of ~hl was cOn· lil'1l1ol'd by Chris/. ",t-, He said of Jolin lhe 8apliSl, 'Thls is he of whom it is ..Tin"", 'Behold. I send my mesMnECr (or angd] bric>re lhy face, ..'1>0 sha.ll prepare lhy "'...y ~ u-.~ (MI. 11:10 'lOO"i"C Mal ):1). '"'" ""..... usage "'"lO5 applied lO some bishop; in c~ 01 churches in AsiII Minor (Rev. 1:%0; 2:1. 8. 11, 18; ):1. 7. 14). T1Ic &thers of lhe church mcordcd ,heir riews of lh" ctllt$lial h;"rarrhy. CUMr.... , CIt' ... l..EX.\Io:.,...... (C. 150~2IS) holds lhal "Ih" gTades here in the church of bishops, prcsb)'"",. deaa>.... are imilalions of Ihe ang"lIc glory .. :. (Slromata U. in A~le-Nkene Fathe13. Vol. 2. p. 505; Jurg.,ns. 1970. Vol. I. p. 184), According 10 CYRIL OF JUOSA~r.M (c. ) 15-)86). "After lhis "'" make m",ntion of h.,aven .. , of !he Angels. Archangtls. Vil1ues. Dominalionl, Princi· pallties. I'owe~. ThTon.,s. of lhe Cherubim with many faces: in effect repeating lhat call of David·s. 'Magnify !he Lord with me.' Wc make menlion also of Ihe Seraphim ..." (On ,he My.te,its 3,6. in A Seleci Library, 1935, Vol, 7. p. 134; Juri"ns. Vol. I. p, 362). ce~in
10$""
llo\5lL TtlE CREAl fc. BO~)79l states ,....t "Acco
133
chael and All Angels. Heliopolis; the Church of Je· su. lhe Lighl of lhe World, Old Cairo: the Church of the Good Shepherd. Ciza; the Egyptian . Oxford, 1984. La.hrey. F. 0, These Fifty Years, The Story oilhe Old CaimMcdicol Mission from /889/0 1939. 2nd ed, Cairo, 1946. Pany. E. C. "Unto Him Be the Glory in Ihe Ch"rch," Being ~n ACCOUnl 01 ,h~ Ar~b;c Ang/ican Chweh ;n Egyp'. Cairo. 1937. Vander Werlf, L L Christian Missio" 10 M",lims; Th~ Ruord, A"glican and Reformed ApprO<Jches ;n f"dia and Ihe ,Ilea, Eas'. 1800 10 1938, Sou,h Pas;>dena, uhf.. 197T. HIURY
WEIR
ANIANUS. the immediate Suten a c.--os>. IUOnd hi. """k. 1$ sornmOllnl impor· tance. as the .hipments from 1M Nile 10 {he Tiber provickd the imp"rial capital ew:ry year wilh ",'heal lor Four "". of .,,-el~ month... AUguslllS himself ...... med in 21 IIJ:. the cur" ""nonoe (lhe TQponsi· b,lity lOr .he lrain ..... pply). a fact thai ... "derUnes 1M politi",on" milirgris (supply for ,he army) WM normally seer..... d the minu,iae of sueh elrc... nlSlances (ei. Skeal, 1%4). 'The firs, of ,hem ~ concerned wilh preparalion'i for ,he: fonl>coming \/isi! olDiodetian 10 Panopolis ("'''''''oIhol) In StpiembeT l';IS. especially ",;u, arr.mgemenlS for provlslonin, the troops accompanying ,he emperor. This ,e>.! shows an ,",idem lack of emhusiaom and eoopcralion on !he side of lhe municipal a...!horitoes. The second pap)'f\1S consists enlirely of ofticlal eorrespoodtncc bet>o'ecn the SlrQlef'» of the Panopolltcs and the protllrtlflN" (epilropasJ of ,he Lower ThdN.id, all du· N from 300. It conWM a Iona: ..eries of orders iMucd 10 u,e UtiJlq,os 10 supply money or pro>;-'"otIS 10 a wide ..ne'y 01. military unllS ,hrouJhouI ,he Thebaid. It is S1rikinglO set deliymcs (oil, sah) being made from the nome of Panopolis 10 plxes ts far.""')' as Sycne (ASW".'ol). The mili,ary organization in Egypt _ ""arrani"" ..,H....I lim"" in lhe cOllrse of lhe 6yz.:>mine ""rionograp!ls II), Dublin, 19M. Thomos. J. D.. and W. CI.ryS$e. "A Projected Visil of Se"erus Aluandcr 10 Egyp1." Ancie'" Srx;ior}' 8 (1977): 195-207,
I.
An"''''''
HEINZ HEINEN
ANNUNCIATION.
s••
Chnilian Subjelic Chureh of God, Amen." Then he anoints him on lhe !>tan. ,he palm and ""liS! 01 Ihe nghl hand. and the ~m and ""riS! of his left hand. sayIng, "May this oil btl... to nought all doc oPflOllilion of !he ~ . Amen. The second lithe oil 01 CJlordsm. called the ,,,I/i. d"ilm (£rom lbc (;fft'k meaning "eunn"lled olivc;' th... pu.... olive oil). After lhe pcr.;on 10 be i>apliud has rcnoune .""....1 oli"e lree anoin.ed pe Coptk church is apparently unique In following Ihis prxlk",. ""hkh is immedl· al,.]y succttded by placing C"''''"lt5 on Il>elr heads. Anointing of KlnS' service (Jr.noo.o.-n in Ar.obic as "'nib "'''.1 .J-...ulukl wed 10 be perlonned. Immodialely before lbe c"""-ni,,. of a ktn, or empet'Or. lbe pal";"n:h .....wd Pr3)' owr the oil of anoint;"&- saying, "Send, o Lord. from Thy Sacred Heights ... and the Throne of Thy Klnsdorn's Glory, the 1I00y Spiril, Ihe Comforter, upon lhl. oil ..'illl which we anoinl [name]. UI il b", a sacred anoin,ing. a hoi)' oil. an oil of joy. a Toyal ano!nling, a giTdle of light, a "estmcn' of .al~allon, a proleclion of life, a Spirilu' al grace for the purificalion of wul and body. an elemal joy .. , , a bre",'pla'e of power to 5llnClify Your 5erYllnl [name] "'hom thou has' called king [empero.]. _,'n ,he Nam, of Jesus Chris, OUr Lord:' Then he anoints him on the IorlOl>ead, e)'I:$, nostrils, heart, and hands.
n...
Unction
or rbe Slek
Unclioll of the sick is one of the .....""" sacra· menl$ of Ute church. in k«Pinl. with Ute teaching of James the Aposlle, "Is any arnonC you sid? Let him call lor the elden. of the church. and leI lhem pray ave. him, anoin,lng him wi,h oil in lhe name of Ihe lord; and Ihe prayer of failh will sa"e Ihe sick man, and lhe Lord will raire him up: and If he has committed sins. he will be lorgi.'en" (las, 5,141S), From Mark /dJ ("thOl:)' ... anoimed wilh oil many lhal we..., sience, ideally, S"'ven
ConSKratlon of Buildings and ObJteu ""'hen a church is cOt\SeCra,td. it is arKJimed ..i,h llIe chrism aft.,.. pray,," 01 IOonsee_ion. The priesl!l CtM-.lIh. Cairo. 1909. P~nge. J. dc. Le Roi Irb dtritim. Paris, 1949. N
,,1-10',,·
Perri..... H. R., ed. and m..... ''The ~ven Ecumenical eouncils." In A Select Library of lire Nke,,~ Dn,; PoS/.Nicene fOllters 01 lire CltriS/;t", Ch.. rch. ed. P. Schaff and II. Wa
nlhl thumb, a practicc common 10 Western churches.
~m
and
81BLlOGRAPHY
•Abd al·J,tasI" al·Mu·i1dl. AI-MD',.,lu/iyytJh "I·,\/"qad· aD."h. Cairo. 1906. A,h:anasiu... Kit~b TDrlfb Q;,,,,,,' R.. /ab "J.Kohortul ...a·Tahl. ja",r Aw~,,1 a/·Madhbah. Cairo, 1959. Blocb. M. L~s Roi$ Ihaumallaie. "Epistk 70. In 17u: An1~'ice1U F"lherJ, Vol. S. od. A. Roba1. and J. Doaa1dson. (;nnd Rapids. Mkh.. 1951. Cyril of Jerusa1em. "Ceremonies of £Lo.pois.m and Chrism." In Inlrodo.o
ANOIl\'TING OF THE ETHIOPIAN EMPEROR. The tnDtJI powerful prine,. IUCCeNed 10 the Ethiopi.tln lhrone immedialely Upoll lhe dealh or rernoval of a $O>ereign, 001 his enlhronem~nl had 10 he I~lilimiud sooner or later by I"'" solemn a"oin1~nt al Ihe hands of the melropolilan, 'JlM> time:, the place, ~B
ANOMOEANS
King of King< of ElhiopUo ""ing twice rejected, the questions were reiterated fo. the thiTd tlme. and he cut the thread ....i th hil s",.,..d and continued 011 his way. thereby symboliung the obstacles he might encounter in his reign and his delem'ination to .urmOUnt .hem. A group of c1e.-g:,·men then led him s;nling to the ac:compani_nt of the dr-um, sislrum. and stick$.. The procession again h,lted. as the church pce ...."aS shut ...d as lite sinp"I derxr from ",ithin po$ed QUe$riofu. ~ sillpng derxr from ""Wde rq>Iied, and lite pie opened. The ........-eipI spread ",Id p;eees, the,eby symbolizinl tim the kin,dom of hea....,n would nol be gained by fol'CC' but by the gi.ing of alms. The conYQ(ation culmi· nated with the proceSl of anointment, When the emperOT lat On hi. throne, the metro· politan admin;,tered to him a solemn OIlth to reo main loyal to the Orthodox bith. to ""Ie with jnstice, and '0 defend the SUl,e and 'he Telicion. The lIIoelrOJ'Olit... coofim>ed the (IIlllh by an _hem.. against all opponenlS to his rule and u,..eel the peoploe lO rally ""hind thri< so~. A spedal mass _ then cdebraled with a V",I deal of readings from the Hnly Scripnlres Iltld the wo.b of the f:nhe.... in lhe COUT"", of wh;"h the A81!1« oulSidc that lhe ciCCI of God "'-as now anointtd Kine of Kings of Ethiopia. The army responded "'ith thundt!ring rifle volle)-s :and 101 gun salutes, the women with ululations, and the men with songs and dance•. Finally. the emperor Went to a .pecified place where he sat on hi~ throne with ,h~ a/tun to hi. right and the E«Act to his lefl. H~ d~dared hi"""lf the shepherd of hi. people by .eading aloud lO his subjects (rom the Psalms and had the basic principles of his rule spelled OU' through a benld. The c.....mony was concluded by a s.trio:$ of feasts that bsIod for a minim...m of snen clays.
ric"
BI8UOGILU'HV
Sel1a.if. Chrr)l!lqu~ dOl ,~t' .. de M~nelik 11. m' des '0;' d·Ethiop'e, t"'ns. Tesfa Sellas.i';, pp. 26~-78. Paris. 1930-1931. l.u')' of Nyssa III E"""",I",,, 1.6-) Actius, 50n of • minoT (lOWmmenl official who had died bankrupt, had lried his hand at fIIany I...des, includine that of goldsmith, befon: _tlina: "'" teachillJ that had • strona: theolog;caJ bias. His ta.... ts _.e the Gnostics.nd Manichaean$, .nd he maM his name through a celebealed d.,ba,illl vielOry ove. the Manid.......n leader Aphlhonius at AIe~andria about 345 (Pbilostorglus Hi.lOria eCcleJ;d'· tica 3.15). Aller a .pell at Antioch coinciding with Athanasius' return to Al''''''ndria from his second exile ;n 346. 1M: was ordained doeacon. and took ad n ...ge of Athanasiu$' third oxile to return to Ale ndria in 356. There he established himself as a on the
142
AN$INA
and ..-as a«..,.l~d by A.I\.:r.na$Ns' rival, Bishop Ceor&e of c.oppadoda, lOS d-.on (Epiph;onius Pana""'" 76.1.). He wu joined in AIctie.ally t11inct. Anotllounism """'" a Iosieal system of belief dUlt pushc-d the Arian pr='Iise of the coosequences of the I",MCeooence of God for the relarions of lhe penoO$ of Ihe Trinil}' 10 ,heir ultimate conclusion. [t Wa1!I a creed lhat mighl win dellalrs bUT could 001 inspire multitudes. [n Aleundria il was one of lhe alternatives 10 Nkaca lhar Athanasiu. rej~ltCh suppon OUlllide Aleundri. among Egyptian Chrislians as • ""hole. though curiously. the Anomoeans IIf"C cursed u an "t.;1 htmy" in the "Concq>t of the Greal ro"'"r," tea"« from a liteJ1l1 rudinl of .he many Old Te&lamen. refertlla's 10 the eyes, bee. and hand. of God. This belief seems 10 have been widely held by Ihe monk! of Ell)pl in the lUI. foul1h and early ~nh <enturles. THEOPHllVS. J)"'triarch of Alu..ndria (J85412), refuted thi! belief in his festal leller of J9'9 and .roused a gre.. t deal of resen....em .mong the: monks. It is DOt cle;or how ...idesprdld the .n.h.... pornotl)bile bcl"h _re. Jhn Cus.ian's account (CoIIaliooles 10_2ff.) indKales Wt lhe majority of 1M monks in KEllS (Wldi a1-~3!nin) we-re anth.... pomorp/tit.... Sozomen (Histori.. ecdui"slicII 8.11) Slates thaI a delegation of aniI)', threatening monk. visiled "Theophlh.ls. who did nOl relracl his critici.m of anlhropomorphism but accommodated the monks by condemning Orig.nism and attacking ....sp«ted Oriceni51 mor>ks. The Audiaru. a founh-cenlUI)' anthropoeel. "'ere condemned and exiled to Scythia by Constllnt;ne It is l>Ol clear "'MTher then: .. any cannee.ton bet",-e-en the Audians 01 Syril and u", anthropornorp/ti.e monks of f.cpt. The Egyptian monits suff.rN! no penoecution for Ihei, belief!>, pertlaps w.~ of their nu"",tical st,enlth.
BIBLIOGRAPHY A"g"stine. De hoeresibu•. In PL 42, cols, 21-~_ Paris, 1841. See KC, SO,76. OriOIOn, E. "L:a discussion d'''n moine amhropomorphite audi.n avetD1ed mooa.sIeI)' dedicaled 10 Saint Shinudah. whow name ~ added 10 thaI of tht pro"';nce. AWl ~Iil) also name$ IDe noonastery 01 ~inl Collulftll:'! wilft his n!licll, lhal cl AbU T~ ..ilft his reliQ, and 61\111y the OAl" .u..1OWl!J.l. whicJI. a1-MAOltW and Ihe Srale of lite !'ro"'I'tes anciml Antinoopolis in detail (V01"fI<S en £01'" Ie. 1971. pp_ 57-63). 2. J. w..'<Sl.EIIl. who in 1673 spo-nl ....-er:aI days II Abu l:Iinni< (1617. pp. 141-52: Eng. ed, 161S, pp. lJ2-~). He abo saw the 'omb 01 Ammoni· us. man)'r bi>.hop 01 lsni. ,,,,,nsfonned imo a mosque. and loouaht that Shl)--kh ·Ab.tdah (Ihe presem name of llIe village d~ 10 the mins of Anlinoopolis) comes from a confusion between tht appolialion 'dlJid (de"out), gi..en Ammoni· us and misunderstood by Ihe Ara\», and ·AW..... (1910. 1915). Ii gener.tl view wilh a bil>lio&noplty on lI.e .subjecl can be found in H. Munier (l9~9). 2.. £inct T916 lhe It-alian missions from lh~ uni""rsi.ieo; of Rome and florence ha>-e 1CJl'aled chicfly the lown (Btuc" and Oonadooi. 1938; [)onadoni, 191~. 1915).
•,, ,, ,
~.~::::.-.:::::::::;··~!'~·i!i·i!i·_·_---_· .. ····r.. ·:::::~. Pan 01 die ruins of tlte medic,,,] ceMbile monastery .1 Antinoopol". CONru1, Julli.. n."' 8ull",'" de I" So' cilll d'A,c!llologie cop,e 6 (1940):141-68. ___. "'St~Jes chritienne. d'Anlinl!," Aegyplu$ 29 (1949),126-36. Muy.ser, J. "Des va""s euc:hariSliques en verre," Bul· I.,li" d., 141 Sodili d'Archklcsif COpl' 3 (19l7):9lB. Sicard, C. Oe"v,u, Vols. 2 and 3, BlbUol~ue d'ctude 84-85. D.iro. 1982. Till, W. KDplisc:he Hell;'"", ,md 1tf""yrerl'l"nden. Qritntalill Christiana A,,",Iee... 102, 108, Rome, 1935-1936. Vansleb. J. NOl'velJe rd",iofl en (onnf df jo"m"t d'".. """'lIe f"iI "" EDPr., en 1671 el 167J. Paris, 1617. Tnns. ... The Pruf'm SI.." gf Etypt. London. 1618. Vo,..,es e.. EfJ't'Ie de. "nnw 1589, 1590 " 159/, lAo VhflUn ,,_,.....,; k Sf''Z'U"r de Vil"""",,l; Ie Holl""this J.,n Sonur the si~.
The other chun::h buildings t""ceable in the cen· ter of the uno.... (Mitchell, 1'982. pp. In-79,
/'
~
church in
th~ south~ast
quaner of Antinoopolis. Co,mesy /'.1
149
I....... lhat he used not only his """n memories bul also lhe informalion Ii,..,n htm by someone who _ for"""", time a d,"iple of Anlony. (On ibis point, ,he publi>.hed Greek tUt mttSl be corrected in acconiance with tlte Coptic snd S)'riac: ...,rsio.....) This ....... probably SUAJ'tOOI Of' nortII$. who u;as at tbe same Ii...., • ~ipW of "'..ony and a friend of Athanasius. In addition to thf: bi~y wrillen by Athanas>us•• ltet-e are some 0Ihe!' soun:es Wt re--eal certain aspeeI5 of Antony's life and perwnalily. The >tIphahelical collnel'on of the AI'OI'HlHEGJIUTA P'ATIUJM Ita< colleeted under h.s name Ihit1y"';glu apOlheg.m, which Dl:\nies (1966) though' li,~ a better knowledge- of Anlonfo ,rue personality than ,n., bool 1»' Athanasiw. P'AU.ADlUS (190-4, pp. 63-74) rq><med lite recolleetions of a priest of NlTRIA. Cronius, who in his youlh hood ,,.,,.r Antony and his disciples. The ArabiC-Jacobite SY"':AXARIO~' add. some new informa,i"n to that given in ,he sources ciled above_ Anlony " ..s born of Chtistlan parents in the vii· lage of Q;m~n (modern·day Oim~n al··Atiis. in the ",g;on of al-Was!ah) aoout 251. After experiencing the death of his parenti ",'hen Ite was some tw{"nty yea", old and being mindful of ,he ""ords of Jesus on .enundation (MI. 1~:21) l'I'ad in the chu'ch, he &Dve a"'..y his goods, UINst"d his YOU"K: ".Ier to a eommonity of .irg'ns. and lived as a hermit outside Ihe rillag{", followin, tlte example of OIher 9SCnbcs al ,his lime_ Then hf: lTIO>'ed away, reaehing the mountainous region "t1el'l' the tombs and shul himself "p in One of tltem. ""Itere he lived"" a recluse for abooJt ten yea,,". heroially endurinl. according: 10 his biognopher. the most ,ioIcnt as~lts of the demons. Harassed by vlsilors. he wen' off 10 Ihe odu:r bank of the Nile and instal-Ie!cipIes then ea_ 10 live around him, thus forming lite lim eommunity of ,I-.. monast..!)' of P'ispir. silualed in pr<Wmity 10 II-.. ,;"oer. Some I,",enly y~ la,e•. he desired to live in ...,.ter solitude, and 51>, under lhe guidance of bedouins, he penetrated into the East· ern [)cs"rt and ,"stablished hirmelf in a hermitage si,ualed :1ooU' 10 miles (30 km) from ,he Red Sea at the foot of MOUn! Qulz"m, near ,he place "'h.,,.., toda)' stands the monaltery of Sain, AnlO sUJ'PQn Alhanasius in his 5lruggle against Ihe Ari· lUI'; it "'as in Ihe e......,.., of one of Ihe$e journeys. in 338. thai he .topped al Nilrla anrly". nan>e. by Saini JDlOliIE (IN: >'iris i1hmribus 88. PI.. 23. col. 731). A Lalin lnllIW.lion wM made in lhe Iift«n'h century from '" c;......k I....' now loti (PG 40. cols. 977_1000). A Georgian ~rsion. made directly from • Gr«k 1....1. was puhh.hed by G. Garine (1955). There is .. fragm"nl in Coptic. edited by E. O. Win.. edt and .epublished by Garine (l955). gi"ing one COmplele Ielu,r. lhe end of another, and ,he beginning of. Ihird. Qulllalio"" in Coptic (.lso published by Garille) ar" found in the fifth cen,ury in lhe ....o.k. of SNF~wn. :rnd his disciple 8ESA. The aUlhemlcity of Ihe Ien"q i. q..... lionable. There 1..'1' se~1 ll'Silmonle:s '0 Ihe "';5Iola1)' ,.... livily of Anlony. In addi'ion 10 .he C(1lTCSpondence e_changed wilh Inc emperors of ,,·ltich Alhanasiu. speaks. t~re is n>enlion in lhe Mrso Gr....k Ufe of Saint Pachomius (Halkin, 19'32. p. 781 of a leller thai Anlony addrt'Sscd 10 A,hanasius Ihrough lhe medium or lWO hchomian monks ",ho had come to see him on ,heir "'~y to Alexandria, Another documem. Ihe Ltller of " ..,,,,on (Halkin, 1932, pp, 116-17), gi.'es lhe le.1 ofaleller ",rillen by Antony 10 Theodore, the succusor or Pachomiu•• a lener wriuen in Egyplian (i.c.. in Cop,Ic). AniOn)'. in facI, ",a. ignurant uf Greek (P.lladiu~, 1904, pp. 68-69). and Ihi. is probably whal Alhanasiu. mean, ",hcn he says lhal he was unleltered (ut•. chap. I. col.
841). The 5Iy)e and composition of ,hese letters are devoid of any an ;o.r,d bear .... ilneM 10 a real lack of cullUre. BUI more sU'l'risin. in such an aUlhor.re _ opinions .uggestiye of Drigeni.", .nd. hence. of Ihe high.... inl"lleclualism. Thus. """ r..ad. for """mple. all prtlapurian beings formed a sin· &Ie essence and .ha' Ihty became d;venlfied. laking various accordinalo Ihe degree of lheir fall. Anlony was pe.-....ps in conlact ....ilh lhe Origenist eirel... of Aluandria. Pallad,us (chap. 4) affirms lhal Anlony, on the occaslon of his joumeyll 10 Ihe cily. wen! sever.ol .im... lO visit oror... t'S THt BI.l.~D in his ceU. But the """ of lhe lellers Is ..ill very poorly established. and .he.... .... grea' dl\"ffIC11cC$ bnW'l'l'lt lhe various wrsions. It is nOI c.. naln I..... the Coptic fra&menu lhemseh'e:s .... pre... nt the 0";" inallal. A............u in fa.·or of ...uttenlicily ...... in addition 10 lhe anci..nl 1,,"limonies-. lhe polemic against Arianism. of which ...'C know AnlOllv was an adwrsary, aod lhe facl thaI one 01 theK ielll'l'S Os adO old.o copy rhe manuscript himsdr, at hi, own e>pcn", he had copied in Cairo a la'1le folio manU5lDr
BIBLIOGRAPH"
Grat, G. C..,Jor.... d.. ....lUonono (193519!1). enume....ted more lhan thiny ~hurcho"iedac of !he CCOfK>ltlic and social rolt thai 1M Cbrislians and ..... ir elergy ..'et'!' :oble to play befon: the Aue CONOUl:Sf OF a;,·PJ (ef. Wipszicka. 1972). As for the dial«...l petuliarilies. P. E. Kahle (I954. Vol. I. pp. 51ft.) examines 'hem. grouping Ihem ""h Ihose of the ,exlS of Dayr al-8>.Layah and widl Saljah.
BIBLlOGRAPIlY
Antonini, L "'I.e ehieseophilus 'hal a' Ihe dealh of the archbishop of Oxphynchus. he obligated the inltabitant> to elect that unknown monk as their biliho?, Aphu ac~epted unwillingJ)'. bm refused to .pend da)'$ other Ihan Saturday. and Sunda)'s in tov.. n and cominued to reside in a Inon· astc')' during Ihe rest of the week until hi' death. Hi. lall word' upr.... ed 'egret for the solitude of Ihe de.ert. which alone a)lowed growth loward spiriTual p.-rfeC1ion. The apothegm mentioned above ~ also inspired by such ....n/imenu. The di$pu"'lion ....ilh 1htophilU'l aroused a cer· tain inlere$( among ,he scholar:e of the queSdOr'>l linked ..,;u, the OIigen'" coo11"""'ny. blOUtlOned under Theopltilus and ....,.. e .... phasiud 1»' the monastic milieu. The monks relaled it 10 !he rnOl"... tion of .he 3!C~is. in order 10 k.,..p !he body in ils ori&inal purity. The exe~ and thcolOC' oflb.- Egyptian monk! in Upper and Cen.ral Eg)1" (apan from !he Pactiomilm community) are substantially unknown '0 us. bu, ,he~ a~ elcmenlS that lead us to believe that the silenee ofthc sou...:... ~on~eaIs lilerali.. ic ways of thinking. perhaps of Asian innuen~e. It i. then f'OS'IIiblc that Aphu·. life is the product of that en>'ironment and .ilualion, and it shows how a part of lhe Nile Valley monasticism interpret· ed Ihe e,'emS of 399-400, ~h()()sing a penon panic· ularly \lener:.ted l!l a spokesman of its own point of ~iew. On the '-'ther hand, it i. quite possible that Aphu might ha~e taken 1"''' in all ,hQSe evenl',
h"
APION, FAMILY OF
482; Theophana Cltro"OfTe a eonYinced support.... of Ihe new d)Tla$ty's Chakedonian Crttd. a conriclion Wred by his SOIl. He diM about 530. His ..,n Flavius Stra.eaiuJ _ e\~n rroot't distil>guishod lhan his bthff. In 51S he "'. .. honor.or)' consul and hononry "'.cts'n ""Iit.. m, and ....as senl IQ Eel" as ,..-.~f«tul A"t>'SI01is (51S~ 523). He "'. ... patricius by De«mber 530 (Oxyrlryttchus PIIppi 2779). I{"ts lO'·emment, in a time of increasing lel>sion bet\Ol«n pro- and anti-t:halcedonians foUowin( .he arri,-al 01 Se>'erus of Antioch .0.1 Akundria in lhe autumn 01 518. \OllIS successful-peace _ II:epl. In 531, bearinll the nnk 01 ag,ms vlum m"gls· t,; officiorum. Flavius "'as ~nt by Emperor J""lini· an to negoliale with Ihe Persians. In this cap""ity he attended lhe l'D(!eting ......nSed by the emperor 10 attempt to $Oh·e the dlfferenca betwcen ortho· dox and Monophysltel, Th.. meeting look plac.. lale In 532 at Constanlinople, in the palace of Hormis· Ce eith.... side decisively. From 535 to 538 he held various senior offices ;n the financial adminis,,-alion of the empi"". His lasl kno.....n posi.;on was in 533, ",·hen h.. was sent by Justinian to ami''''t.. ;n a dispule ~'."....n Anh Jhtly/dts, which It... Per· siam had hoped to use to ""new war against Ihe empi.., {Procopius of eaes.arn. :n.e P~,s/"" 2.1.9}_ He ~ a lanoo...T1e, III o..yrhyochus (0")'th~....,"us Papyri 1984, 2719) and diM '"'-'., 545. His son, f1a.iuJ St... eJius Apion, "'... comul in 519 and held the .itle of pro«lpQmrius (probably. "leader of the Senate'") (Papyri O"Y'h>="~1 136, 137). H.. lived unlil May bul is nol mo...T1 to ha.... 1iI1td any $l
APION,
ISS
FAlloULY OF, wealthy landowne ...
prominent in Eg)ptian imperial and public lif. in the flNt half of the sixth century. The earliest known member of th. family, Apion J. hdd I.nd .round Herakleopolis Magna (sec ~IHed the t_T1 and pt. rison 01 Ede.... with ero>&h wheat 10 proris,ion the pnisons of Dan and Amid&. F1a\;us "''all . . . . rded as .....1)' effic:ient (Jheodorus 1.«101" Ep,'Iom, 482). He moved to Alexandria. m May S04 with limllar dutia-"to make the ..,Idie"" bread the.., and send a .supply" (Joshua Stylites, HistMY of ,h, C.lamities Which 8~f,,11 EJ.J$Q. Amido. ond All Muopolami.) -b\ll Wlt$ l;tIe•• «alled to Constanli"opk a11"lledly lor conspirins to obslruct lhe Persian umpaign lTheophann. Ch'onog,,,phia A.M_ 59'9S), While in Constantinople (50l!-5101 Ra~lul made the acq""inumce of SEV£~lJS OF "~"'IOC~, who dedi· c"ed his work Against Eu~S,~. 10 him Dnd a cer· taln Paul. (He thus at this time nlUst have ~en an aml·Chalcedonian.) In 510. however, Flavius was condemned by the emperor Anastasius on political grounds and ordained presbyter at Nicsea by force (Lydul, D~ magl.rtalibu. 3.11; Theodorus l«lor,
w.,
sn,
156
APOCALYPSE OF ADAM
his supporters, They made their mark in the "'''''ice e>f JUSTIN t and JUST''-I'AN BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chroniwn PtlscntJ/" 2 ,ols., cd. B. G. Niebuhr. Bonn, 1832. Hardy, 10, R. The Ltlyge ES/Qles of Byzanli". EgYP1. New York, 1%8. Jones, A, Ii. M. The Lata Rtlmon Empire, 2 vols. Nonnan, Okla" 1964. Joshua Stylite,. History tlf Ihe Ctl!tJ",ities Which Be_ fell Ede""tl, Amidtl, tlnd All Meso{X)/Qmltl, e'idence of Ihe e,istence of a type of non,Christian gnosticism ['OSScssing a redeemer mylhology, These two sources were edited probahly sOmelime prior 10 Ihe beginning of the .econd century Hl, during an early slage in Ihe de"e!opment of the &Ihian-Archomic lradition by a gmup thaI argued for a spirilualized understanding of baptism and ao ascelic lifest)'k The redaClOr'S ,'iews are mem clearly e,press.ed in his concluding >lalemenl (84,4_85,18,22b_31). The docunlCnt was composed originally in Greek and waS later translatoo into Coplic (Sahidic), BIBLIOGRAPHY Hedrid., C. W, The Apocalypse of Adam: II Literary and SO""c< Analy,;s. SBL Dissertation Series. Missoula, Monl" 1980, MacRae, G, W. ''The Apocalypse af Adam." In Nag Hammadi Codicc,< V. 2-5, and VI with Papyms Ber<Jlinen,is 8502, 1 and 4, ed. Douglas M. Par· rolt, Nag Hammadi Studies 11. loiden, 1979. Scholar, D. M. Nag /iammadi Bibliagraphy 19481969. Nag Hamll\adi Siudies l. Leiden, 19;1. Up' daled annually in Nav"m resramemum. CHARLES W. HH)RI1 of ,wo such apoeh·gno'tischc Apoka· IYP,et1 aus Codd V von Nag Hammadi im Kopt. i,ch,n Mu,eum ZJ' AItKairo. Special Issue: Wissmscha'tliehe Zeit,en,i't dOT Martin·Lulh,,· Universi/iJr. Halle·Willenberg, 1963. Brown. S. K. "James: A Religlo·Hlstorical Study of ,he Rdation.' between Jewi,h, Gnostic and Ca,ho· lic Christianity in the Early Period Through an Investigation of the Traditions about James the Lord's Brother." Ph.D, dissertation. flrown University. 1972. Grese, W. C. "Corpus Hermeticum 13 and Early Christian Literature_'" Studia ad Carpu, Hellenisticu", Nal,i Testa",enti 1979):85-86, Kasser. R. "Te~t .. gnostiques: Nouvelle. remarques 3. propos des Apoca.lYl"es de Paul, Jacques et Adam." Le AJ",;on 78 (l965):299-30~. ___. "Textes gno.tlques: Remarques II propos des editions recent"" du li,'re secret de Jean et des ApocalYl"es de Paul. Jacques et Adam."' fA Musion 78 (19~5):71-98, Schenke. H,·M. "Koptisch·gnostische Apokalypsen."' O,ient~li$ch. Uteralun.eilung ~1 (1966):23-34 Schmidt. Carl. "Irenaus und ,eine Quelle in Ad". Haer, 1. 29."' In Phi/meJia, Pa~1 Kleinert wm LXX. Gebrmstag. ed. Hermann Diels, K"r1 Holl, Paul Gennrich. and Emil KaUll.'ich. Berlin, 1907. Schoedel. W. R. '''The First Apocalypse of James."' In The Nag Ha",madi Library. cd. James M. Rob· inson. San Francisco, 1977, ___ "The (First) Apocalypse of James."' In Nag Ha",mQdi ("odice, V, 2-5 and VI with Papyrus Beroli"enJi< 8502. I ,,,,d 4. cd. D. M. Parrott. Nag Hammadi Studies II. Leiden, 1979. ___ "Scripture and the Se"enty·two He,,,,ens of the First Apocalypse of .lames."' Nov"", Testa· menlH", 12 (1970):118-29. Sed, N. "Les Dou,,", hebdomadcs, Ie char de Saba· oth et les soixante-dou,e langu...."' Nov"", Testament"", 21 (1979):156-84. Troger. K.·W" ed. GTlQsls ,,,,d Neue:; res/amem, PI'. 44-45. Berlin, 1973, WrLU~M
R. SCHOEDEL
APOCALYPSE OF JAMES, SECOND. Thi.' apocalypse constitutes the fourth tractate in Codex V of the N~G H~MMA()r uBRARY. It is called the Second Apot:al)'pse of James in order m distinguish it from its immediate predecessor in Codex V; both te~ts have the same anciem tide, The Apocalypse 0/ la"'eJ, The presence and order of the two apocalypses in Codcx V may be allribured to deliberate scribal organization. Although the two documem. stre.. dlffercnl aspects of the James tradition. the recipiem of the revelation is thc ""me in both tractarcs' James. the brother of Je.us (24.12-13; 50.t-23). In the First Apocaiyp.... Jomes is warned about his future sufferings (25.12-14; 30,13-15) at the hands of an angry mob (33,2-5). which James will stir 1'0 anger against himself (32.9-11). In its fragment''')' conclusion, ho""'e,,er. this document contains only ""ant reference to James's .uffering in accordance with these predictions. The Second Apocalypse, on ,he other hand, gives a detailed repon of the suffer· ing and death of James at the hands of a mob angered by hi. discourses. In short, the Second Apocalypse of James fulfill. the predictions of the First Apocalypse of Jam.s. Although it i. titled an "apocaIYl"e:' the second James text takes the forn, of a twO·pall repon to Theuda, the father of James, by a priest who was apparently ps· and prophets' journC}'S to heaven. including lbe of futia},; 2, J En""h. Apoere. qUCSlionings by Ihe appoinled toll-eallcclon al the gales. pl1SS"''On;I$ ""d signa thaI Ihe fOUl musl gi..., in order to ad· """,,e. and finally .he presence III an e!§COrting an· lei ",'1>0 helps Ihe soul in her wanderings (for a discussion of this ;maeel')', d. Scholem. 19(0)The ApoOS. SCS/;ion of Ihc soul; Ihe semence "I saw yo" and dC$ired you" i. vel)' expressive in this conneclion (ef, the case of the possession of Sal1lh by the de·
A.""sk>oo
160
APOCALYPSE OF PETER
moo> A.om~ in lhO" Boot 01 Tobit). We 5....uld OOIe, '00, ole race of ~moM, the OM lb. rn-eall bodies 10 a 5OU1-sccd. ~ 11 is the lkmons, lhen, who are raponsibk for the new incarnalion cl (he wicked ........ Furthennore, Tar1an>5. the inkmal place of punishmtn•. is situated no1 urw;kor Ihe eanh nor in the sublu ..... pan of Ihe Ileavens bOll on canh-an canh which the author does no1 hesitate 10 define as '1and of the dead" Or "world of the dead." Another ..,...ne laI:es place in lhe se,..,nlh heaven, willt Paul 8.$ prol.agonist, and is also wonh noliog. He meetS an old man there, a demlurge, who asks Paul Ihree que:s.tion5 before allowing him to pn>,..,ed: "Where are you going, Paul? , . Whe.,. are you from? .. How will you be abl,. U,l gel .......Y from me~" To these queSlions Paul gives the an,weI'S: "I am going to tlte plnce From which I came'" "1 am going down 10 lhe world of the dead in order 10 lead captive Ihe capt,vily Ihat was led caplivo in the captivity of Ilabylon." Paul is presented here as Ihe ... vir going down into tlte ,,'orld of lhe dead 1o del"'er lhem from Ihe capl;"'ily of sin (Kroll, 1963; for ait:Jr",,,losi4 [captivity). d. Teol.. men. of Dankl S. 8, II, 13, where a Levilic Meuiah "'ill come and ,u,li,"'r from lhe ClIplivil)' <Ji. Beliar the 50Uis of ........inu and will taU them to reer of W ""'en,h hea,~ opens up to him .IM: ""'y to ,he Os:doad. Tltis q..esllo...·and·.,...-.loeC'IioD .~mbles closely lhe FirM AfHKaJypse of J-.a from Ihe Nag Hammadi Lib"",. Throueh his ans,,·e.., James. like Paul, tSCap
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
,ee, the "new ligill" descend on Jesus, illu,traling Ihe difference belween lhe Gnoslic disciple and all others with inferior spiritual capabililies (72.473,14). The fourth ,egment i, made up of lhe Sav· ior's in, are linked to the feared "deCeplion" are of an unchanging nature, SO thaI lhey cannOl ,..,. ceive salvation (8(1,21-23). Moreo>'er, when those from above mingle Wilh those of lhe world, lhe former are made caplive, a simalion from which they can e.eape only b}' possessing lhe .<wing g"o· ,I, (73.21~74.3), In facl, the "immortal ones" from aho>'e alone are receptacles of glol)' (83.19-26). Withoul doubt, lhe doccric view of Jesus' escape from suffering is clearer here than in any texl in the library. Jl is lhe narralion of Peter's final vi,ion thm clinches lhe ca.",: "And I said: 'Who is it lhal I am ,eeing, 0 Lord, since you yourself are taken and il is [al,ol you reStraining me? Or who is lhi. happy one abo.'e the tree ["ro,s) who is laughing while anolher is being Slmck on hi, feet and On his hands?' Th... Sa.'ior said 10 me: The one whom you see ahove the lree, who is glad and i, laughing, is the living Jesus. BUI thaI one, imo whose hands and feel they are driving lhe naHs, in his Aeshly counler· pan, lhe Subslitule . . Bul look al him and Me'" (81.6-24), One further feature is worth menlioning,
161
The garmenl thaI Peler wears throughout sen,,,, as a vehicle lor re>'dalion (72,13-28), perhaps recall· ing lhe revelalOl)' charaeler of lhe ephoo worn by lhe Israelite high prie'l. Tile dale and place of composition of lhe Apoca· In'se {If Peler are impo<sible 10 fix, since il makes no clear hislOrical allusions to contemporary e>'em •. P. Perkins (1975) and A, Werner (1974) have demonslraled lhat lhere are all""ions 1(> Mauhew's r.opcl and olher New Teslament mtdi· tion. aboul Peter. One is left 10 conclude thaI lhe earlier Greek "Or,ion of thi, tc~t rcached it. currem shape by the beginning of the ,econd cenlury, BIBliOGRAPHY BrashIer, J A. "The Apocalypse of Peter."' Ph.D. di<s. Claremont (Calif.) School of Theology, 1977. Brown, S. K., and C. W. Griggs. "The Apocalypse of PC>1U: Inlroduelion and Translalion."' Brigham Yo"ng Universi/y Studie, IS (1974_1975):13l_45. Krau.e, M., and v. Cirgis. "Die Pelrusapohlypse," In ChriSIl" Apoblypse des PC'1rus."' E.<S
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
from the second or third century A,D, and suggest" th.t the tradition, concerning Enoch·Metl"aton cir· culated in Egypt, and were taken o>'er by some GnoSlk groups there, This Wuld parollel with thc books of Jehu (c, Schmidt, 1892), In Christian cirdes in Egypt the figure of En<xh was important, and they gathered many Jewish tra, dition" (see the Pierponl Morga" Fragmems 01 a Copric Enoch Apocrypho", Coptic Theological Texts 3, fol" 1-9, found in Hou, ed, W, E. Crum, 1913: A. Pierwn in Nickdsburg, ed.. 1976; Latin trans, Galitle in Milik, 1976, PI' 100-10.3). These fragments are extremely deteriorated and consist of very poor quality papyrus in • eO'i, Kohat, Am· ron-and of one in Hebrew-Naphtali, the text of which differs from that of Testament 12 (d. Miiik, 1959), There is also a work called the Testament of Moses (sometimes called the As.
Apocalypses Although the a.pocal~'Plk genre is present in many apocr)'phaJ wli,ch, Schnr,e" i" Koplischer Sprache at« dem Code~ Brucia""" herou.gegben, iiberselV und bearbeilel, Texte und Untersuchungen lU' Ceschic'hte deT ahchri.tlichen Literatur 8, Leipl.ig, 1892. Win.tedt, E, O. "Some Coptic Apocryphal Leg· ends." Journal 01 Theological Sludi., 9 (190719(8):372~87: 10 (1908-1909):389-412. Books of Enoch Black. M. ApMolypsi< Heno,;a, Jlp"kalypse, kop,;jche Tau, Uberset"mg, Glossar. Tal_ und Unler",ch"ngen z.. r e ..chichle der all, chrisllichen Li'erolUr 17/3a. uipzig, 1899. Stern, L "Di" koptis"he Apokalypse de< Sophonias: Mit einem Anhang tiber den umenahidisehen Di· alecl." Zei'seh,if' fiir iigyplische Sproche ""d All· errwnskunde 24 (1886):115-29, S[o"e, M, E" and 1. Snugnell. The Books of E/iiah, pIS. I and 2, Te~IS and Translations 18, Missoula, Mont., \979.
Apocalypse of Zephaniah Dicbner, B, J, "Lilcrarl:rilischc Probkme der Zephanja·Apokal'r-pse." Nag Hammadi a"d enos;s, ed, R. MeL Wilson. Leiden, 1978. ___. "&merkungcn zum Te~t des sahidischen und des achmimischen Fmgments der sog. Zephanja·llpokat,-pse." Didheirne, Blouer wm AlteM hsramen1 14 (1979):54_60. Lefort, L T, "Coplica Lo,'anicnI 51 (19)3):24-32_ "fl"llllmenlS d·"pch. II oisu in a Coptic (Sahid>c:) ~ as ",.,U lIS in Anbic and Ganhuni "USiono. In Iht Coptic. il be..... Ihe lilk "I"ar.llipomc-na l...-cmiae,~ bul il is noc idtntical ",'ilb the other ....ort< kno BalJ,.-lon, while Jeumiah rides in a chariot with Nebuch:a<J. ...,>ZaT and his &'e'c Is a connection ••iiu. a Sethian tot, ".,en tltou&h tbe: name Seu. does not appear. However lhaa may be. we possibly ha,,, ht:rr: a wi...... to a very an
MQS"S said, ..•"
Apan from the po"ible "Chtistianl>.:"ion" m"n· t;on"d abo"". other Intl""nc.es may ha"" come together in th" tut as w" now h....... it. So,.,.e ha"" n",oed occasional allW;Onl to Iran (S. Gi"""",n and R. KA$st-r), For instanoe, the demiuJ!e lalda-baoth, ". of ignoranc":' may be mod.,J"d on Ahri·
172
APOLl, SAINT
man, lhe principle of t:\Iil in ZQroa:jIn.anivn, of ""hom Plutarch "'TVte ilial be ..... like "cb"knes> and 'Cnonnce" (1m tiM Osiris 46). Funher, at The vet)' beJjnninl of the lexT, a Pha~ named Ari· mlIniDa insidiously suggt'SlS '0 John lhal the "Nuornn~ hal docri\'ed Them. NoIal>lY. in Greek hie ... lure !he name Arirnanaos appean on/y ,n < II there appears a ...,riu of ~Ir·re-.",lalions In "1 am"' S1yle t""l h:>s led 10 comparisons ....i lh Ihe Isis ....... Iogics. On Ihe whole. Ihe Apocryphon of John is a .'ery Imponam source bolh ror the Study of snosis and very possibly for the primitive Gnostic mythology, BIBUOGRAPHY Brot"k, R, ,'an den, ,turoge"es m,d A(/"",,,s' The Mylholoric,,1 Slrnc""e of Ihe Apo
WIue. f. "The Apocryphon of John." In 17fe Nilll 1I"",..,.,di [.jJ""ry in Enlilisit. ed. J. M. Robinson. San Francl'ICo, 1977.
APOLl, SAINT, foul1h·century maMy' of Amiochi.n origin. who was put to dealh in I!gypt (feast day: I Misl'1lh). Hc appears only In the laler hagloInIIophic Coptic lradition, Of his PaSl5ion, ascribI Is. in fact. !he predominanl principle, the II>OSI i>O"~rful and inftuential demenl of aclion in ChrU\ and lhe n,."
....."'·.....Imine power [h", animal'" the body al'd lhe irrational Sotll ..ilh the di~;n~ supernalural and sublime life . Apollinarius could not admit the possibililY of a real union between the Logos and 'he ralional hI" man soul He fell lhal in [his case lhe Talional hu· man soul either mainlllin. ilS free will-and conse· quemly lhere w""ld be no real union l>eeause lhe human free will would remain "",i",,-Ol" 1 _ its free will. being "bsorl>ed u"erly in,o the logos. In order saVi' the leaching ,}un Chris, is one Person and.o demolWl lhe Arian '''''''hme of lhe duali.y in Chrisl, ApoJlinarius denied.he ,""islence of. ralion· al ....... in Chrisl and ...ogh. \hal lht loaOI ~Iao:ed the l'l1ional :soul. The main and fundamenUll <Jbj0 i$ perfect in iii. divinily and perfKl in Hu humanilJ. His diYinity and humanity ~ unlted .... ~ in ~ peorson. in Oildition.
Coptic Tradition The oldest Xcount of the m.nyrdom of Apolloniu. and Ph,lemon is found in cha",er 19 of the tlL$T(lRlA .\tONACHOItU.. tN A&;YPTO. ","rinen around 400 (see the edition by FlOSlugiere). Accardin. to this lext. Apollo!tlul ....... a mook and a deacon who5e I.""., far his enemies 00 ;mp~ Philemon. a Aute p1ayeT ",-110 had been n:";ling him In prison.• hat the laneT eonfessed hirmdf a Chrisoian brio~ the judge. When the two men ...·ere to N burned. a cloud of dew m,rIOCulously euincuished the fin:. They were lhen t2len to the: p~fect In Alexandria_ En roule. ApoIloniU$ in<m>c.e4 lhe: soldiers in the Christian faith. Al the command of ,he p<efe being Ialer found on the shore. The author of lhe 1IiJlori" repons Ihat Ihe tnwele,.. had visited the manyrs' sanctuary on their pilgrimage to .he Egyptian mon", Of Apollonius he s;ly~, "We too him, along with those who died ",ilh him as mart}'n" ",hile ....... ""ere praying in lhe martyrium. And "'e fell do",,, before Cod and ,... ntta.ed thei~ bodies in .he ",.,bais:· It can be taken ... hiMorical fact .hal before 400 Ihen: ..... a sancluary consccnted '0 these martyn.. In it. followin, lhe EIDptian pracliu mumm~ fi.od "OO~ Ie! probably ",'Ore placed on nds. when: die)' cvuld M venenued. The Gred!; Passion (BiMio,lue, h.~ap/tic. ""«G 1514; M'G UPKtonmmilled, 0"'" mUSl IlCYn ~r of di>ine me...:y. Some doubt. surrounch !he fesu.1 dale of ApoUo, S AnlShl., for on the same day AI'OUJ) Of' .......1T is commemor.oted The mnnory of the bt~r may haw _Urac1ed that of this. Apollo. BIBLIOGRAP""
Budge, E. A. W., t.... ns. 111" Book. of Ille S4inlS oJ tJr" Elhiopi"n Church, 4 vol... Cambridge, 1928. Craf, C. Ca/alogue des ...onttSCriIJ "rabu cllrl/iens consr"'''s "u Coi,,,. St..di e lesti 6). V-,io::on Cily, 1934.
Troupeau, G. Co'alo:ue des mo"uscri,s o,Qks, Pl. t, M""usuils ell,eti",.., 2 wls, Pari., 1972-1974. Waddell, H" Iran•. The Deser! Fa/hus, London, 1981-
Ward, B., Ira".f the God In ....hom Christians believed. u"ing lhe p,e,.,.i1ini Mlddl~ Plalonisl phi· lOiSOphy, ""me of the Apo1oai5U attempted to prove Ihal Christianily was lite In>< philosophy and Ihe fulfillment nol only of Judaism and lhe Old Tena· men! bUI abo of Creel: thoughl, Moreover, their USe of the Logos dOCI1;ne (i.e" Ihal Ih~ Logo., or Word I'll.!!'> generaled by God's wilt wilh a view 10 briniing about creal ion, and lhal Ihe Word assum· lng flesh and being (ef. John 1,14) wu Incam,ale as.
J...... Christ) won lhal doclrine a pemtanenl piKe in Chriotian IheolOl)'. The Apolopu include Arislides. lhe "'Titer of lhe EpUlle 10 Dio(ntfl1 use iI, w~ercas lllcy frcquenlly QU()I' Ihe Livu ""d W(>,d, 0/ Ilf. Falke., or the C.ronricQ. Anolher lille must h....·e
177
beoen in fairly cOm..-> use. (hal of '.rt!i.. or G",· de" of lhe fathen. monb. or holy old men. We find il .. lhe headins of Ill, Syriac coll«lion of ERam· sho ($C\'e""h ceOlury). In lhe Coplic cradilion. the lif, of JOHS CO!.OIOS wrillen al Ihe end of Ihe sev· ,nrh cemury by 7.ACHMUAS. BrSIlOP OF UKH •• in Lo...· er Egypt, menliolU the "Book of Ih. lIoly Old .Yen . .. 10 which rhe lltle of PQ,odis. has al.o been S;"'en" (1894, p. 322). The ArabiC ManuscripI 547 from Sinai conlains "a part 01 Ihe Pal"ikon known under Ihe name of the Gard,,, ..·h1ch comlsts of accOUnts of the Old Men and falhen" (~. 1973. P. 10). It is also under lhe lille Garde.. of ,lot: Mo£l of t.... col1«liooo Ihal we know in the manuscriptS or publications belong 10 these: lwo 'YJ>f5, and the car· lier COliccliun~ ha"e almosl entirely disappeared, One of t.... Ie",' 51111 in c~iSle",e is in the Syria" McClikon of Abba Isaiah (OraJruet. CSCO 289. pp. 30-51; 293. pp. 27-&3). To some exlenl, monaslic life apptand "'Cl)'where- in the Christian ..-arid in lhe Ihird and lourth «nluries.. bul from Ihe OU1StI. EcYJ>fi:an mo"""hism shone ..-irh ,""ch special splendor lhal 11 appeared everywhere IS ,he pallem 10 hot rcpmducetl. The apothegm. contribuled much 10 che fame of the vea' anchomes of SCF.ns. Fmm lite shIh cenlUry. lhe apothegms wer, translaled fmm Creek inlO lal' in and soon alSl> inlO S),na
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BouSM:I, W. Apoph'hermar", S,ut!ielt lilT Ceschkhre des al,em" MOOch,u"'•. Tiibingen. 1923. Chaine, M. Le M.. "u.crit de I.. vers;o" copl. Cit Jialrcle s"hidiqu. des .....p"phth.gm .. ,o p.. trurn," Cairo, 1969. Cotelier. J. B., ed, Apophthegmolo Potrum, In PC 65. col$. 71-440. Paris, 1864. Draguet, R. us Ci"q reuns;o". de /'udlicon syria· que d'aM" f"'ie. cseo 289. Scriptoru Syri 120. Louv~in. 1968. Cuy, I. C. Red.erchrs sur la ,rad;lio" "eeque du uApophrhep'isi~ Re"ueil el Iablu.. SoIesmn-. 1976. -C;:CO ~I..e:s Apopht~." drs ~r'eI en Pakstine au \"_\1" »kks." lrmiJ:lill the language of the li'''I"I)' in Rome. Since the be&inning of Christianity. the apostles had laid do"'. ... formula to be repeated by c"..,ehu· men. al b~plism (e.S', Rom. 1:3-5; I Cor. 15:3-5: I Pl. 3;18-22). When the A""",tle philip baptized .he Ethiopian eunuch ....1>0 had gone Jerusalem, lan.. r said, "I believe that Jesus Chris! is the Son of God" (Acts &:37). ht.il also ,""minds his disciple r""othy, -You I'I\lIde !he &ood ~on in the ~ of many ",;\lleISeS- (I Tm. 6:12), ",·hieh confruioa is belie,'ed 10 have been made at his
'0
........
t'"
Such sw:rmccnlS expressinC belWf in !he Holy Trinily came 10 be blown ".er as the Apo$lles' Creed and. orilinally inc1udinc only nine claU5es. _ eIplltIdrd .1 51lccessr.~ stages in the generatiom that follo..ed. In his t!"eatee on the >'!'Q$1OLIC TIWlITlOS. HlPf'OL'rTUS mentio"" a Irnc apres6ion of failh. ;n the form of three questions dealing .... ,th belief in Ihe Holy Trini,y that we,"" asked by' prieslS durin, haptism. In Easlern churches Olher Statements 01 faith were common, .uch a~ the formula .Iill in use by the Coptic church for baptism: '" believe in One God, the Father Almighty, and His only·begOiten Son Jesus Chrlll e>ur Lord. and in thc He>ly Spirit, the Life·giver, and in 1M Resurreclion of the body. I b..He,·e in the one, !>oly, catholic, apostolic
APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS
cburcb, Amen." Other formulas were u<ed by the cburches 01 Punt, Jeru:KAEA, COUNCIL OF), two state' mcn[s ()f faith were in use, one Eastern and the other Western, that were similar in substance though different in wording, Of the two, the ea.tern one was abandoned after [he adoption of [h. Niceno· ConSlantinopolitan Creed in all llI scats multiplied in numl>cr. Some of them aequir<prnilqe of mlnisuy as Ih'Cn 10 OdlnlN$. AI·KJ""fdv. 1I1-N_fiull /I T4TflJ1 a/. Ka..lsall. Cai 192J. J.,r;oujmus M rrah. T4rlbIt aUouIliqlq. Belru•• 19J1. IOrull al-An!uni_ 'Ap aU!4jdnu". Cairo. 1952. KlruU Maqir. AI.Waif a/-nlllli fI Ta',/s aJ.Ka..ISilIl. Cairo, 1925. Leclercq. H. ··Si~S" apos101ique:' In Dklio.... d'arelllolo';' cIrTitit:>tn~ ~I de lilurrfe, Vol. IS. Paris.I907-19SJ. Sunh'lln, f. A. ·'Aposlolic 5«:' In New C..,llo/ic Encyclopedio. New York. 1967.
"i'.,
ARCHBISHOP BAStUC>S
APOSTOUC SUCCESSION, term referring to th., unbrohn chain of spiritual authority passed to
.Each MOSTOUC SUo J.,rusalell>. Alt.undria. Anti-och, and Rom". mainlaincd .ke apo$lo/ic SUe«$sion in an uninlClTUpon ApmIollque' doc Saint HFppoIl1C.- In Revue du duti "",",/lis 96 (191B):g5.
1888. Kirk, K. E. Tile Apo'IO/k. Miniury. lQndo... 194fi. Sulli,'aIl. F. A "Apostolic Succeuion." In New Ca,holi~ Enc'Clopcdu.. Vol I. pp. 695. 696. Nev.York, 1967, A~a(Bt511O"
B.l5lUOS
APOSTOLIC TRADITION, a lIlurgkaltreatise. previously known as the Egyptian Churl:h Order, by the ecdC$iasticaJ writer and theololian of Ihe Rman church, H1PPQLYnlS (170-236). The original Greek te" was lost. but Arabic. Coptic. Ethiopian. and utiI' ,"CT$i(>t\$ have sur.. i~d. the oldesl ~Ing the Sahidic Coptic translation made aboul 500. Tht A""bk venion ...... made from a Copllc lexl not ntiie. than the tenlh CCnluO)'. In h.. won Hippol)1'" describe-d amon, olhcr thines the consecr.nion ccremooy of bhhops. 1M ordination of pries!> and deac:OM . .00 the oac... !ftCnt of bapc;'1IL He gi'-es the thlft cal""h""",1 Slcp5 d opo ~ of wlh in baptism in the lOIlowIng qo.... lion" -no )__ belit,~ In God the Fa""'r A1mighl}'? Do you !>d....... in Jaus Chrisl, the Son 01 God.....'hI> "''as born of thely known. Thet-e is. ltowe-....-. (IonC picce of tangible eYidenee lhat
,h.
IlIBLlOGRAI'HV
Am~1in.au, E, La Ct08r~phie d. I'Etyplc il I'~poqu£
Copl'. pp,
~-58,
Paris. 1893. RfNt-G(o~(;(S COQUIN
183
ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT. The con· que... under 'Amr ibn al··"t_ w..s lhe la.. or Ihe ",pid series of viclori.s in the y'idencc for administrari,c and fiscal hislOry. , In addition. ece.!iastleal hislories
184
ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT
(paMicularly 'hat of SAW[leSt, lherefore, the histoTia" may hope 10 ex· trac' onl}' an outline of wha' occurred from all 'hese inadequate sources. The brief account thai follows omits Mtailed di,cu>sioll of the i,(wluble problems raised by many episodes (for these Ihe Teader is refer,."d above all 10 the works of Butler and Caetani) and attempts only to provide a frame· work against whieh In()re demiled studies can be consulted with " deaTer understanding, A few words of intmdue[ion regarding the condition of Byzantine Egypt will pro"de a bad,ground for Ihe narra'J\'e of the conquesl ilself. In terms of ilS links wilh the rest of the empi,.", the political
ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT
put to the sword, and they on their side undert<x>k to deliver up all the munitions of war. which were considerable. Thereupon he ordered them to evacuate the citadel, and they took a small quantity of gold and set out. And it was in this way that the citadel of Babylon in Egypl w"" ....k. en on the second day after the [festival e>f the] Resurrection, The te,t of the "Treaty of Mi~r" gi>'en in Butler, (Vol. 2. Pl'. 32-33), whatever its origin, does not seem te> be a rele,'ant document in this context. The doubts ca>t on its authcnticit), by S. Lane-Poole and L C. Caetani are not wholly dispelled by Butler's subsequent vigorous treatment of the te~t With Babylon lallen, the forces of 'Amr again turned northward and proceeded up the western side "f the Ddta, capturing Tcrenuthis. Nikiou (tbc main link between Bahyl"n and Ale.•andria. and later the Seat of Bishop J()hn). Kom Sharik and Sul!ays, and rea"hed the outskim; of AIe'andria at f.lulwa and Max (FUI~h Mi~r, pp. 73-74), 'Amr, as alwaY" at his least effecti,'e when facing a siege, failed to takc thc city (Nikiou, p. CJli~, 3) and left a detachment 10 cominue the siege. He "ncc more returned south to his new garrison at Babylon in order to meet Cyrus, who had returned in Septem· ber from Constantinople ,'ia Rhodes 10 Ale~andria (togcther with the commander·in-chiefTheodore), CyT\lS came armed with authority to ncgo,iatc a !",l'manent pe.ce from the succe",i", short·li"ed successors of lIeraclius. This was signed between the twO protagonists at Babylon in A.H. 20/A,D, 641. This final treaty of Alexandria, recorded by John of Nikiou (p. cu, 17ff,), unlike the previous submission at Babylon, co"ered the whole field of future relations in Egypt to Muslim rule and acceptance of subject Slatus. with payment of tribute and a two· dinar poll ta~ (JIZYAH) by all UnCOMel1e;lus 338; d. Butler, 1902. p, 481). It should be stressed that ,he double siege and double surrender, once by voluntary submission (~"Ih) and once by force (,,"""ala"), led 10 that profound confusion in the minds of the Egyptian tr;>.ditionalists. who in a short time inextricably cOnflated the terms imposed after the sch and e1·Areg Oases in the Libyan Dc'CI1." Jo"mal of Ecyptian Mcnaeolog)' 23 (1937):226-29. Fakhry, A, "The Tombs of d-'Areg Oasis in the Liby. an Desel1," Amra/es d" Service des IInliq"i/<s de I'Egyple 39 (1939):609-19, MAURICE MARTIN, S.J. Rl'.N~-GE()RGES CCOUIN
ARCHANGEL (Coptic,
from the Greek &pXiryy.-Aoo;, arkhaggelos), superhuman being dwelling in hea,'en who ..e.'eal. to man God'. will and e,ecules His commands. Archangels occupy the eighth of the nine mnks in lhe hierarchy of lhe hea.venly hs\, which ha.> a lhreefold 'lro~lu", (see ANGEl.s). A Coptic doxology, forming part of the .ervice of the evening and the moming offering of incensc, indudcs the names of ,e,'en :m;:hangels who con· stantly glorify the Almighty: MICHAEl. (Mjlcha'll), GIl· llRIEl (Ghubriyal), R...,HAEl (RO~'Il), sURlEL (Su"",I), Sadakad, Saratael, and Ananael, they are the great, pure, and luminesccnl bcings who inlcrcc<Je on behalf of humanity. Commemoration dales of the first four archangel' are Michael on 12 Hatur, Gabriel on 22 Ki}'ahk, Raphael on 3 al·Nasi, and Surid on 27 Tobah. ;l.fXlWT6.\OC,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Marriott, W. B. "Angels and Archangels." In Dicli~ nary of ChriS/ian ""'tiql
193
do"35 sometime>o replx~ by Ihe Coplk >WJo "TOm
R~f
$ani,ry Saddk},a"k roof
Nave l"khe
""'ire, J. "A_ a corner ",~ne used 10 X".., lOS lhe $UPpon for la..er arches over lhe remaining space. &l... of this conslruction ha¥c .urvived in lhe comdor ,.,mlling of the accommudation building in DAn ANIl.I. IiADRA.. As_n (Gr"O$Smann, t982, pp. 245-46). 1,I11,11.10CR"PHY
Borchardt, L Agypllsche Tempel ",il U",gang, Cairo, In8, Deh'O}'•• C. "Ambit"•." In Reallu:ikcm ZJl-r by.:antin. isc/wl Kunsl, Vol. I. Pl'. 124-26. Stullgart. 1966. Grossmann, P. Ekph~"li"c. Vol. 2. Main •• 1980. ___ Milul~lt~rI;che LA",gh~l-;""es. 11'IJlde greal. dlons to dec<wal.. tM apse richly. Tl>e an:h a.t the ...,trance nc"'wed panicular Mtention (oce ""triumphal arc:h~ below). In ~I churches of the fifth and $ixth c..nluries. columns _"" itunxluced &$ abulmll:lUS 10 fhe arch and adorned with lhe fin.... C1pitab. from Ih.. nimh cenlury. the arch was often deconted with an archivolt (ornament>.! molding). In a lara:e number of churches lhe curved w:all of the apse ,,;as provided with a ring of engaged columns. $OI1'JC!;mes In 1....- 0 liers..... in lhe churches of DoIY1l ANtlA SHlflin"'"iscJIe' bit. WiQ. baden. 1973.
Baptistery A baplillef)' i. a pan of a church..,.. a U'l"'l"lIte church buildin~ u5eo.,n Eg,ptian bap!isIeries are conn«l· ~d willi churches. either .. "" intqnl pan or lIS an annex, None is iTeeslanding. They are connectoed 10 ;....., churches, such :as I~ Manyr Church of Abol Mini, lbe basilica of al-A$lnnii....yn. and the church of Dayr AoW ShinUdah, and 10 srn:aller 0""" in pla.ces weh:a> TUIl 0.- Marnn'" lliilnt.. ""'"'" church, es milht be the seat of a bishop,,,, at al·AshmOnayn .nd Oift: pilgrim ~Icrs. as at AbU MinI.: mooaslery churche•. as in "u.u~ and at Dayr Anbf Shi· niidah: Or parish churche., TIM: location of the baptistery within th~ church building was not "rictly defined. bUI there can be seen a clear trend toward placing it In the eutern end of the building. usually adjoining tm: sanctuary (or aha, orea. sec below), In Egypl Icnerolly the predominant trend seems to have bee'n to locate
197
tht: baptiOluy in the nonhusl«n pan of !he
ehun:h, Irrespecti.'e of the W oflhe building or the haptislery. In some churches in Upper Egypt, Itowevn-, al Tw:!, ....:adlnat Hl.bii, and Suldj, the hapt."n)' was in Ihc southeaslem part of me compw,,,_ In AbU Min1 the blplislery occup;es the ""atem pan ol the: church oomple1. Thoulh this Ioc:ation """ms 10 have been quite alien 10 Eo"J'liall pladiott. !he", art 0Iltcr """",pin of a western Iocat"'" in ehun:be. in Kunlm al·TIlWIl. by the pylon in Luxor. and in Medamud. In lhe C'Tlla'Wed church of Makhiirah.• b:apl:islery ... been C01ltirrned in the UII'eme e_em pIOn of die building. behind the sanclUary_ A similar sh~ b used In the Nonh Church in Khiroat, if the .....ll baSin In Ihe space behind the altar hili' beCrstructure. Su Mfn~. al·Ashmunayn. Q~r al·Wal)a.ydah al Kellia. Makhurah, and SuMj. One version of lhis lype is lhe western pool "I the sixth-century hapli"ery "f AbU MIn!: two fiighls "f stairs. one a!x>,'e the other, lead into Ihe round basin. Such an arr;lngement result, from limited access 10 lhe pool. ",hich i' in a shallow niche in a rela· ti"ely narrow room,
0 0
0
•
Baptist~ry
of Ihe North Basilica al Abu Min!. Co"rlesy PtI" Gwss,nann.
2. L1rg" crucifonn pools ",ith steps in the we'lern arm of Ihe cross leading down into it, ", al Qift anti Kururn al·Tuw!!' 3. Large circular pools with internal slairs on ei'her ,ide, an ~'·OIUlion of Iype I, as in luNi dans la repon d'A!:>ousir (~is)." In A"n ... iT~ d.. ,\/wb Veeo·rom";"'. Vol. 3. p. 12. A1eundria, 19-40-1950. C\tello'. F. 1'ouilles i KItirbet eHlousiyd> (l91~)."· A""oles du Senoice du a"tiquilis de rEcPI~ 16 (1916):19-32. fig. 21_ DaTeSS)'. G. "NOles sur Luxor de la pf:riodc romaine tl copl~:· An"al~s dll Se,..,ice des ."liq"i'is de tEVpu 19 (1920):173. llg, 3. Ecloff. M. "Kellia: la poleri~ copte:' R~clte'chn suisas d·A'cMolog;~ copre 3 (1977):pl. 117. Eilmann, R,; A. Langsdorf; and H. Eo Sti~r. "'Berichl i1i:r¢r die Voruntcrs.uchungen auf den Kurnm elTu"'allx:i Amrije." Milleil,mgcM du deu'.5r},en er· ch~l)log;jchm
f"SI;'ulj_A1>r~illII,g
Keirt;
1
(1930),113, fig. 3 and ~. pI. XXb. Grossmann. P. "Abu Mella, Siebenl",r "orlluflger Berichl." Min~illlngeM des d.ulSch~n "rrh~t;log. iJCIt~" fnSlil"IS-M,leil"ng Kairo 26 (1970):~5-~2, _ "Ei,.., ~erxesM:ne frilhehmlliche Kire de bapti$l~n: byunlin:· R~",,~ biblUjue 31 (1922);583-89. Wace. A. J. 8.; A. H. S. Mep",,: and T. C. Sk....... J/~rmopolis Mogno, A.5hmun~in. The P'ol~moic Sonc",a'Y and rh~ Bosilica, p, 49, pI. 23, fig. 3. Al~xandria. 1959. Ward·Perkins. J. 8, "rhe Monaslcry of Taposiris Magna:' H"lIe';" d~ la Societe a'dreologiquc d'Alua"dri. 36 (1946):48-53. W. GooLEwSKI H
'"iii·
Cancelli ea....elli (Gruk. le.nul/oi) arc screen,; used '0 endoo.e the prnbylery (see below). !he pan of an early Chrisfian ehu~h ~ for me clergy. The area enc~, abo ~led me be...... hiertUnort, ..../0". • dJItt. or ItI>PSu. (apse. see abon:). coolai... ed the a1r.ar. il could be emered by !he laity only fur lhe recepliotl of ,he EUCIWUST. In large cathed""b such as lhe one al .1·As.lurn:lna)"J'. cancdli were also ,zsed 10 sllbd"ide ,he pnsb)1ery. In the Man)'r Chures an allar. lomb, or throne. It may be I"'t up in Ihe open o' inskit a building. The lenns "'cioorium" and "l>oldachin" are oflcn used synonymously in Eng];sh, bUI a baldachin was originally a fabriIl ha.~ been found in sever:o.l early ChriMian chun:""" $lOCh • lI>ost in AbU Mild and MaUi..ah. All 1M older Cairo chu.ches are furnished ""ilh allar ciboria of Ihis lind.....hich con· finn. Iheir use down In 1M J>R'5"111 time. In Ihosecx:o.mples Ih~ cupola is \Osually of wood. and i. ha! Ihe form of a uU V;>l-Ih (see below). th" undc,...ide of which i. often lichl)" painted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alfoldi. A, "In.ilnien und T"",ht Mr rilmi'-Chcn Kai",.:· Mir,.i/lI1lgtn all d""ISch"" archaa/agisc. h... l"srilw,-RlJmi.«:ltt Ab,,,iI"ng 50 (1935): 127-
"
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF CHURCHES: Coller
Butler. A. J, The "'''dent Cop/Ie Ch~,ch of £/:-vpl, Vol. I, 2nd ed., p, 114; Vol. 2. pp. 28-35, London. 1970. Erman. A" and H. Ranke. .:tgyple" u"d iigypl;sches Leben;m "'Iur/"rn. Tubingen, 1923; repro 1981, Klauser, T, Du V"pnmg de' blJchoflichw Insignien ""d Ehre,,'echu, 2nd ed. Bonn~T Ahdemisehe Reden l. Krefeld, 1953. ___, "Cibori"m," In Ra '" _.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ocichmano, f. W_ "Siult und Ordnuna in der frtjh,hristlichcn Arthi.eklur," Alille;/un,... iu deu/KMn 1In;ltao~h"n IrtSrilUIJ-R~isll(> a pillar (..e below), which i. chen reclangular and usuall)' hca..;er, A column consists of IWO clements-a
shaft and a capital-and usu:dly a baJ
205
column and therefore more subject to changing st}'le. than the base or even the shaft, It can thus be dated within a narrowcr span of time. 11 i, nol possible 10 describe here all the t;pes of capitals kno",n in late·da"ical and Byzamine Egypt, The m""t important and most widel}' distrib· uted are the Corinthian, the Ionic. Ihe composite, the capital with acanthus and flutes, ,he capitai wilh olive branches on f1al leaves, 'arious types of t"'o· zone capital, the impo.1 capital (and il. special reo finement, tbe imposl capital of fold t)pe), and final· Iy lhe basket·shaped capital (d. Sc""rin. 1977, nos. 274-77). In lhe fully de,'doped Corinthian "apila!, lin up' per ao",n and a lower crown, of eight acanthus lea>',," each, surround the calathus (cup-shapc"s a.,d /Iwu, the I"wer ",ne is covered \l'ith acanth", le",'es or h", onl\' four acanlhu' la,·~, a,nnged diagonally, Abo,,, Ihem (or be'ween th" four lea,·e,) is a crown Qf flutes: the abacus has "raigh, or· e()n"a\,e sides, 11,is capital ,,-as much in use in marble lhmughout th~ foU
207
[mposl capi,a!. />.-1a rble, Six,h centu,)', Cai.-o, M05qtle of Sultan al'N~~ir Mu~ammad (Citorlcl) 'Ot-ccistiana presso la po,1a orientale." [n A~ti"ot (1965-1968): Mis,ion. tlTcheologictl I" Egi/lo. Rome, 1974. PETER GROSSMANN
Diaconlcon A diaamlcon ;,; a room in a church for lh. use of the deacon, in ariyyah Oasis (Fakhry. 1950. PI', 55-60) is an uample of an Egyptian church Ihal eomalns sevcral ho.-..eshoe archei, BIBLlOGRAPIIY Ashby, T. "The Classical TopogTIlphy of Ille Roman Campagna:' J'apers of 'Ire Britislr Sclrool ~, Rome 4 (1907):3-153.
Iconostasls An iconoslasis is Ihe Krt:en Or wall in a church
that ..,panotes the liancluary. preo:h)'CT)'. 01" bema. rntricted '" the dtrgy. from lhe flam. or area of me laity_ It de>'eloped in the founeenm un,ul)' in By..."tine areas. earlier In E&YPo. The Arab word lot- it is h;i~ . ...hich literally means "cunains-·· ibe Spalial ..,pamion of derc from laity began in lhe carll' church. "'here low cancelli (see abo.·c) shielded ,he ...nctuary bu, did nol hitk it From "iew. In the sixth «nlul)' in a~nti"" areas the cancelli de.'eloped 1010 Ihe lemplon. a more ornate "Teen "ilh cunalns abo,'e h, which c"ncealed Ihe aclS carried oul at the altaI' from the view of W{lT' shipers. It i. not known cxaclly when such conceal· mcnt was considered necessary. A similar effect ",-as achieved ...hen curtains were added above Ihe cancelll in Weslern churehcs. fir'" me,nioned in the se.·emh cemury in Libel' po,,'i(l. calis (Dochesne and Vosel. 1955-1957. p. 375). Aboul ,..., same lime. Ihe western wall of the /chiHus. a room between lhe naoJ and the sancluary. "'"as performinillhe funcllon of concealment in Ecl'lian churches. The .....llluod a central openi"ll. which o'igltc be natTOW and providN ""th wooden doors. as in me ch",.,hes of Ib}T .aI-5uryin and Da}T at BaratnUs in Wldl al·Na!nln. "ilkh havt doors from the tenlh «nlul)' (Evtlyn·Whi••• 1972. pp. 187-90. 197-200). If the central opening ..... ",d.yfayn. Cairo. columns were inse:ned in i' llJId the spKe bet",'eeO ,hem "''as provide
A J:lri. ..u (Greek. c1loro..~l q"p1ian chul'Ch in lhc !at" sev"nth and earl)' eighth cenluT'"". lIS fronl ( _ m ) wail. which setS it off from the laity. fulfills a funclion simillr 10 ...... ol the t"mplon (a type of cancelli) in Byr.an.ine an:hi'«I.. re. Both slruct..rcs sc....·• primarily 10 hide the litul"iical actions carried out in tm. sanctu~ry from the vi"w of the believeIh~r "difi"es have a ih~,u1 buill with thr~ openings. The kh"",s as an integrated component of Ihe Egyptian ch..",h can be lraced ,,"ell inro Ihe Mam· luk period (thineenlh 10 early sixteen!h cenrury). When. os a ...sult of the increased frequency of rna...", during this period, i. became cu"omary lO supply Ihe ch.. rches with multiple altar rooms, rh. availabl. lide chamben of 1M apse Qf older
""'"0
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF CHURCHES: Narthex
churches were con.'eI1OO into additional altar rooms. At that time there was no reason to add a kh~ru" so the practice was eventually abolished. In its stead, an iconoswis of bricks or wood was built immediately in from of lhe emrance 10 the sanctu'ry BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grossmann, P. "Zurchristlichen Baukunst in Agypten." E>rcho.-ia 8 (1978):89fL ___. Minelalter/khe Langhausk"ppdhrchen ,md veFwQnd" Typen i" Oberiigyplen. pp. i 121[, GliJd,stadt, 1982. PE:JER GROSSMA~'N
MaqsOrah A maqfurh is a seconda!)' side room off the sanctuary in some mooern Coptic churchc..; it is frequently linked with the sanctuary by an Qp of the ,eventh and eighth ccnturies that are occasionally found anne.cd t
Niche with co,,~h dccor~lion. Cairo, Coptic Museum (In v ,81}}).
216
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF CHURCHES: Paslophorium
ch.mbers of ... ~ Upptr Egyplian ehurches. Fur· Iher. ther" "'" s","CTal symmetrically arnn,ed small nich
chun:~,
beginninll in the bue founh csis, did nOi eKisl untilihoe laIc eleve:nth cenlUry_ Briore thai lime, the pt...panuions _,..., m:ade allhe rnl~ce of the church or even ouUlide it in a room called Ihe scevophiJacion (()qcocudres. 1983. pp. nO-l2). The roo'" called lhe diaconicon ",as l>OI assigned a funclion. In Syrian churches il usually has a larger comlnce and is oflen filled ",ilh shrines of rnarly~. SO it may rcaoonably be called a martyrium. Room. corrc,pondinllto the paslophoria suitable for the functions mentioned are found in thc olde.l Egyptian churches, as early as Ihe fourth cenlury, but lhe designalion "pa.>lophoria" i. nol 50 far al· tested. It i, lherefore ..dvi....ble to call Ihem a~ ,ide room.. NevenM1QS, Ihere is early rn..mion of a diaconicon (Apophthegma/a Pal",m 11&; Cel,uiu. 3). ",hich may rder 10 one of Ihe apst ";de root'n$. From lhe COnlellt il is clear Ihal lh" " .... a sepanue room ~ible from in.ide Ihe church.. P'ruNbly in Egypt abo the lurn "diaconicon" ...... used for both .-..oms. disreprdin, Ih..ir indiridual functions. In thae can, fcptw. cumplts. lhe", ,,~re _ jw;l [WQ bul a 1at'JC number 01. rooms. l» in lite 1...,.,;cpI bailie. of .1·AW!milnayn aI Hermopol" M-ena and o.yr AlIW Sltint>OI introduced unckr Syrian influence. Tb..,· aao appear-ed in S)Tl' In dIe lal" founh """'ury (Schneider. 1949. p. ~9,. 8lBUOGR,tl'HY Oe.§Cocudr~.
J. Dit Pos/opho.-un im s)',o--by:.onlin· i.oohm OS/tn. Wiesbaden, 1983. Hopfner, T. "P35tophoroi.·' In R"al-.t$ .ha. ccrtainly ....>..,r had a pliny. In the n>tdieval £cyptian basiliQ;. it ,ooually rell ow of use, but i. is Mill iound in ,....entI eiglntH::entury c1tl1f"(:hes.
BIBUOCRAPHY Gl'OISmaIIlI. P. MZ.. r christliehen &ublltSl in A&rJ>l. en:' ElKIoorid SuppI. 8 (19711):391". Monne..... de Villard, U_ Us Co......."rs p'u de SVol. 2. p. 95. Milan, 1926___ "La basilka cristiana in Ecino." In AIr; dd IV c_,reno iOll.."'..ulable.. Enn the earliest ~ ulclten, howewr. -.-., built of \:astin, mateoUb. Churclta front the F...timid period on uxd vaul.in, bee..- it "'... less liable 10 be ~ by -.ornl$ .,.. fin:, a chan~ "l>tCilically mentioned in the
.patI.
~=
"'at
The construction of ... 1I.a1 roof ""*I ~nlially of a cem. . (see abo.-..). It required additional ~ caution•• howe>....., to ~ th.. troubJe.fre.e dnoi". of mnbll. 1he surface was Itren,theMd ""ith .. la}"Cr of $Ion"" Dr bricks tha1 ..... re then completely CO\-"Cred br ... COU of plasrer. in order to _I all openings. To make it more solid.•he plaster was often ellrie/wod with chips 01 burnt brick. produdnl a ".."...the1'l'roof mortar akin to opus sil~It"" devel. oped in the ~n period. Roof tiles ""ere not known ill E.gyp4:. Since rhe upper e
teet ion by lead pla,es, such as many Byian,ine churches in Cons,antinople have and such as Euscbius e~pressly mentioned for the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem (Eusebuius Vita Co,,stami"i 3.36). For the decoration of ,he inside of ,he roof, coffering could be applied belween the rafters or on a horizontal ceiling. The beams may ha,'e been pain,ed, bu' in mos, cases ,hey were "]Sible from inside the church ewn if ,heI'e was a ceiling. From ,he tenth century on, the saddleback roof was increasingly replaced by stone vaulting, which ""as les> suscep,ible damage front wonns and fire (Gl Ob~riig)'pl~n, p. 161. n. 707. Gluckstadt, 19$2 Lane, E. W. Arabic.Englis], Lu;e<m, New York, 1955-1956. Steinmeyer-Schareika, A. Va, Nilmosaik von Pai~s lri"a. Bonn, 1978.
Sanctuary Th~
sanclUary (Ar~bic, Itaykal) is the arca around the ahar. The lerm deri,'''' from the Hebrew htkal, the main hall in ,he Temple in J~rusalem, which lay in fronl of the inaccessible Hal}' of Holies. The .4rabic term is firs' used in the II1STORY OF THE f~TRlARCHS by Sawirus rbn al_Muqaffa'. Older 'ynonyms are oskina (Greek, sken~) and ;radiy,m (Greek, hierale;on), The term has a func,ional rather than an archi,eclural significance. In the fifth and six,h centuries the deyelopment of ,he altar area-a, Icast in Egyp,ian pati,h churches-was in accordance with prac,ice ootside Egypt. II was an area at the eastern end f thc church no, in Ihe apse but in fron' of it, projecting in'o thc n""e. h was surrounded at first anI}' by low cancelli and wat; devated by one or two steps. 11 wa. called, as has hcen Iloted, ,he pre5tylerium or bema. In Upper EgJl'tian chorches wi,h a lricollch sane'ua!)'. the ahar seems '0 ha,'e ",ood no, in ,he
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF CHURCHES: Synlhronon
ea.st (central) conch but in the cemer fidd of the triconch. The cancelli were brought fo"'..... rd as far as the arch at the front of the apse. The apse itself -in triconch churches, the eastern main conchwas adorned with severnl decorative niches, In the urban bishop', churches the apse eonta;ned a symhronon, or seating for the bishops and pr"l'byters (see below). Some early mona"er)' churches, particularly in Kellia, show a ,omewhat simpler plan. They had a rectangular altar area, which contained the altar roughly in the middle and "". connected with the naus through an arched opening that wa, fairly large but relatively small in proportion to it. width. Th" cancelli were fined in between the jambs of this arch. The..., were at first no nichl>$ in the cast wall of the.se ahar areas. They first appeared in the laICr churches of this type in the late sixth cemury and in their formation are roughly reminiocem of the prayer niche< in thc simplc hcnnitagcs of an· chorite,. P=ibly this simple style was an older form of building pr",en'ed in ,he.. small mOnas,cry churches, which in the parish churche. and in ,he great churches of the Upper Egyptian cenobite monasteries had already fallen out of usc. When the khums was introduced in front of the sanctuary in the ,econd half of ,he seventh century, it did not lead to any immediate change in the ahar area. The altar remained in one of two possible places: wi,hin a rectangular chamber equipped with a niche in the east "'all or in the are. in front of the apse. In the lane, place, however, it waS now within the khums, Becau.se the khfm<s was .eparoted from the naos by a strong, high wall, the surround· ing cancelli were unneces.<ary and were aboJisllcd. The term ha)"kal was ,ran,ferreJ to the Hi"u.' containing the .ltar. The area developed as the apse is given the architectural term concha or gunka (Grttk, lo,,"I,e; Gmf, 1954, p. 931, meaning a ..,mi· circular, shell.like form, although it was only rnrely used in Eg>pt. Since the late Middle Ages the haykat ha.s been a largely .self-conta;ned room in the middle of which the altar slands. It is closed off on the west from the nanS by a high screen (hiiab). In some cases, however, the room is open to neighboring haykals on the sides. The old",t e~ample is the old ,'hurch at Dayr Anb" Amunyiis, from the early thirteenth cemury. Part of the finings of the r ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF CHURCHES: Vault
c"n'truetion, (Clarke, 1912, pp. 26-27). Be,'au"" L 36). The mOSl impol1am derivations of Ihe barrel vault are the groin vauh (or em" vault) and the doi,ter vauh (or domieal ,'auh). These forms are erealed b)' the inle,,"eetion of Iwo barrel vaults al right angle._ In Ihe groin vault Ihe '''''lion, of the generaling barrel vault thaI lie outside Ihe edge. of interseelion are relaineroduced, like the sail vault. with the help of a rotaling template. Only the center of cun"a'ure muSt be SCi higher. Nevenheless, dif!i",ulties are posed by lhe COmers of the square area that Ihe dome i. 10 cover, since the circular hase of the dome does not e"end to the corners. In order to soh'e this problem, two fundamentaUy diffe",nt ,tntclural d,,--,igns have been de\'eloped. The simpler and oider method i, 10 bridge the comers wilh beam. or squin",he. (ring courses of increasing radius) creating four more poinlS of support, ;n addition to th""e al the middle of the walls. Many d"med churches in the Nile Valley are built with squinches. The other Solulion is the pendentive, a cantilevered construction wilh a spherically cUl'ied surface and a triangular shape. A pendentive re1ed 10 Ihe monaSlery
227
(Sleinw.nter. 1921); deeds of gifts of plots of land, palms, grnus and she~p. and "arious olher ilems; and col>1racts for wo,x. Th~ bishop's archiv~ con· tained , K. "Archiv." In Reallexlko" /i,r Artlike lmd ChrlS/en/um, VoL 1, colS. 614-31.SlUltgan, 1950, Heiehelheim. F, "Berichl liber ein Papyruwerlei~h· "is naeh Gauen, Arehiven und Jahrlmndcrlen geordnet." Orronique d'Egyp'c 7 (1932):137-50. Hc1ek. W. "Archive," Lexikon der Agyplologie. Vol. I, cols. 422-24. Wi~"bad~n. 1975, Kramer. B. Va,< Arehi" des Nepnews 'md vuwa"dle Texle, 2 "01,. in I, Aegypliaca Trc.-crcnsia 4. Mainl. 1987. Krau'e, M. "Die TesTamente der ;\ble dcs Phoibammon KloSlers in Theben," In Mille/I,mge" des Dewsehe" Art'hiJo!oglschen '"slillm. Abreilrmg Kairo. Pl'. 57-67. WiesbaMn, 1969 ___, "Oje Beliehungen zwischen den beiden Phoibamrnon-Klfulern auf dem th~bani",he" Weslufer." Billie;,,, de la Socii:le d'areneologl" ""pte 27 (1985):31-44. ___, "Zur Edition kOplischer nichllitemri"'her TeXle. P. WUl"2burg 43 neu bearbeitel," Zeitschri!, fiJr iJgyptiscJr~ Sprad" lInd Allerll,msk,,,,de 112 (1985):143-53.
228
ARCHIVES OF PAPAS
lur MOxli~hlrit von Besie! im .. potU. enchcn MlInchtum Ag)'J'l~ns. In ACIJ qf 1M &c. Intentlll;o",J C""vus 01 Coptic Sludies. Ronu. 11-16 S~p":mM' 1980. ed. T. Orlandi and F. wns... pp. 121-]3. Rome, 1935. _,--_ "~ Ilt!IChrift~ .... 1' d~ Turstunbalk~n des A",,·Aponon-KIost~rs>'
ARCHIVES OF PAPAS, Pap.s. son of Liberiu•. was papreh of A.pollllnos An¢ (Idftl) from 703 10 714. The doSsier of the correspondence sent to him. eonsl!ting of more than 100 Creek Bnd B .~mBller number of Coptic (but no Mabie) doc:uments, was found in 1921_1922 in a jar ,,"'est of the southwest p)"lon of the temple at IdfU. where "'aPM ~v1demly
Ii,oed and h3d his ollieI'. While pagarrh he was. as " .... fn,quently the case......ne. of large estates. As P"i",~h. Papas wu direaly wbordinate 10 lite .miT of the Thebaid. 0ediaries. The amir. often absent from his post. on other duties 0ecau§fl lh. level of official administration lhal it illuSlral"S is 10"'er, This is, however. in itself a malter of some inter.SI itS showing the "arieties of adm;ni"rat;.e practice In Umayyad F.g)1>!. as well as Ih. ,urv;val, ;n cenaln respect!; rno,"" d"rly eS/ablished by this dossier than by lha, of 8 ..;li"s. of lh. old By>.anline
229
insliIUlioru
230
ARIADNE
H}Yemat. H .. ed. Us Acl~ tl~ """"')iTS de r£Dpl~
1iTi> de. "",,,..selia «1pI~ tlt14 Bihlio/mqlle van. c""t t, 1$ Culciallnus and Hierokles. Such hUwrical relil$ do 1\01 mean chac ...., may unpmenl. Under Ihcsc CQndilions Chrislian lheolgicaJ Ihinking "'as in full proc...... of elaboration. wilh all Inc risks lhal entatlW. AriU'5 found his place at Ihis critical poinl in the de-'-cloPJllCftI f CI"i$liall thoughl. H" preaching Iaughl " kind at WIlOROI"'Ano.~ ",ilh regMd IQ Chris•• the second Pnwn of lhe Trinily. in main· la.ini", the uni,)' 01 God. He combated all her~ 01 his re an eloq\lent oralor lhan aulhor. He :s.c.cms 10 have wriUen vel)' lillIe, and even 1c:\S has survived. conslsling almost enlirdy of Quota' tions and paraphTtiCS in ,he writings of hil opponents. He spread his doctrine. primarily dtroullh popular sonp', known under the name of Th~lcio (Banquet). of which only a few fragmenl$ ha.'c IUrviwd. Of hO$ cOll'CSpOndencc 0 ..... lelter has wr· vived in which he asks thc wpport ol £lSEllttl1 Of' CAES.lItEA. Anothcr leiter, 10 Bishop Aluander, in· eludes his ptofession oll.i1h. At the end ol 321 a Ii...... letler ""&$ Itlbrnit.1:d 10 Emperor Comtanline; in it he rttords • e~ inlended 1 pro.", his or-
,......,
Was Anus '" heretic? Witho.1t cnterinl into lhe details of his .eaCW ",'ith the purpose of pfe5Cninl .he unity ol God in a "f3liona1" manner. This oullocH; was ;u. ready prescnl in the school of Aluandna in the Ihird ccnt..ry_for eumple, OUGE>l spoke of a e limits cenain lfialeClical clemcPl$ alrndy presenl in Alexandrian .pct'ulalions. He ought 10 ltave confined him""lf 10 pm'ate rdition (he wa< a theologian despile himsclf). To clarify lhe case of Arius. here, In brief, arc the b...ic ~Iionl: In Aleundrian onhodoxy ,hc L0gos. identified ""ilh Christ. is not the "'0", of a deds;"", of.n aAI'R Al.-.avA" monast"ry; s...' aiso the documen,s of oertaln w';ters, such as al·MAORlz1: Kllshagian, 1937; and Kardasltian. 1~43). It mus, be .ta,ed Iha, Arme·
w""'
ARMY. ROMAN
nlans _ ... a1low~d al .-ario... periislory to conduct m~ir 0"'1'1 wot>.hip in CopIk cl>urcl>es or mona51ene. (A1boyadjian. 1941~1961). for me first lime si""e lhe ~hh centul")'. lhe Mme.....n and Iht Coptic churches. IOCetber "";lh lhe EJI>~n••be Syrian. and lbe S)...... lndian d,urc!>es mel I. .her a' a confe,.."""e In Addis Ahat:-. In 1965. under the.auspK:cs of ...... U'. SEUSSlE I. ~ral imponant .nd bl"'"reac:hing dc;",. the t. Henceforward. the 'radi,ional separation of the mili,a')- command from ,h" civil administralion was abandoned in ,he fi~e pro~inces of Egyp, (AeVpl.U. Augusl"mnie". Aread;". Theb,,;s. Lib)'a) and Ihe direclion of both civil arod mililary affairs was unified under ,he comrol of one official designaled ... dux A"gu.l"lio. Jones (1964. Vol. I. pp.656-57) offe'" the foIl".,..i"l uplanalion for ,his reform: In Egypt the.... _1"4' ,hree problems. The $tl)' troubled by D>Zi;oa of the dest:n tribes, the Dlemmya and ,he Nobadae ThrooghOUt the counlry ,he gru, Iarodl"'d< ,,·;Ih their bands of buc~"lIrii ~ ,he adminislration. &O''Cmrnel'' 10 im· Above all. ,he at,emptS pose Chakedonian Pl'uiarchs and CIeIJ:l' On the rabidl)' monopb~e popul.non p .....'ked frtquenl ci,i) distutbanees. .,..,.,eially in Alexandria. To cope "';110 lhe firsc problem the diU of lloe Thebaid had already in the fifth cenlury been gh'en adminwnol"'" poweT$ in ,he u,reme south. To deal "'ilh Ihe lasl. lhe offices of Augusta! prefeci and dou of ~'P1 had from 'ime 10 lime ~n ,.....ed in one pc"",n. JIS"ini." made boIh these changes pennanem. and seems 10 h"ve e~lended the principle of a uniled d,·j) and milil3.ry CQm· mand all Ih1 01 Cons'antiu, /( ed, H. l. Bell et al. o~· ford. 1962. Barnes, T. D. "The Carcer of Abinnaeus." Phoe>1iJ: 39 (1985):36$-74_ lkegtr, P. The Notilio di&nitolUm_ Ann Acbor. Mich., 1974, Bowman, A. K. "The Military Occupalion of Upper Egypt in the Reign of Diocletian," Bullelin of Ihe American Society of Pop)·'Ologi.<J.' [5 (1978):25-
'".
Carrie, l.-M. "Le role &onomique de I'arm&" dan, l'Egypte romaine." In el Ii_IeaHle do", I~ mondc a"tiq"c_ Pari., /4_16 <X'wh" 1976, Collo· ques naliQnau~ du Centre naliQnal de Ia Recherche scienlifique 936. Paris. 1977 Cavenaile. R_ "Pn)SOpographie de l'annee romaine d'Egypte d'AugllSte a Diocletien." Aegypw., 50 (1970):213-320. Supplemented by N. Ctinili in Ae&yptlls 53 (1973)93-158; 59 (1979):190-261. Daris. S_ Documenli pu /0 swria d.II·"uciro roma· no in £giIlO. Pubblicazioni dell'Uni,'ersiI3 CalIQlica del Sacro Cuo<e. Conl1el.>.nl, Sludia Hellenistica 22, Louvain. 1975_ Dietha". J. M . and P. Dintsi" "Die Leontoklibanarier. Versllch ei~er archliologisch-papyrologischen Zusarnmenschau." In Bytanrios. fesl5chrill fur Herb.rt f1"n&u ,"rtslag, ed. W. Horander et at. Vienna, 1984, Drew·Bear, T "Les voyages d'Aur"liu, Gaius, soldat de Diocl&lien," In La geo&raphie adminis/ralivc e' po/il,q«e d'A/rxandre ~ Mahoma ACles du Colloq'" d. Strasoo"'K 14_ /6 j"i" 1979. Universile des Sciences bumaincs de Slrasoourg. Tra"au~ du Cenlre de Recberche su< Ie Proche-Orient et la Gt""ce antique 6_ Leiden, 1981. EI·Saghi
ARSENAL OF TUNIS
Io(ic:al Asoons that Cop.. inhabiled the suburbs of Tripoli and lhal lhey composed lI'\OSI of lhe population of Ajdibi~)"" (pp. 17.20). For a ti"'" ..... patrian:h of Alcrandria sent bish· Dplto ........, the Copt>.: communities in Nonh Africa (Ibn Abi Dlnir. 1967. p. IS). AI presew lOlita'}" lOOn had his cell in a remole lpot J2 miles (...8 km) from ,h., monaslic center (Anenius 21). when' he led the mOSl: au"e", of liws. He mO"ed from there only aher the Manu had devuUlled the rcp::>n. This _ after Rome ....d been laun by Alark, lor Anenius wept and said. '''!'he _rid ...... lost Ron>e and the monks h...., lost 5ytt. with hands uplifted. beiftJI: eat (Arwniul 3OJ_ It ""as all his spiriluallife.......ich remained a>nccaI· cd in tboose invisibl.. activities. aboul which ht said. -struggle wilh ail )'OUr mlahl 10 that your inward llC15 ma~' ~ aecordin. 10 Cod's will. and JOU will conq.>er !OU< OUI....ard paMtOnI" (Anennn 9). He did perhaps belray blmself a linle ....lten he said. -U ...., oed Cod. he ... i11 appl'M '0 us; and if _ hold on 1o him, he will abide ..i'b ..... (Arwni... 10). One- t..n ..;th him throoghou! hi. [ifI' as a monk (Arsenius 4O)-an indubitable silJn of his peTtee!;"n (d. Sisocs 1~). "fill"" with the Holy Spirit and with fa;lh:' Despite the .-:ath..r sutly way in which he defend· ed his solilude. Saini Arlenius did have a few disci· pIes. We know of Ale~ander. Zoilui. and Daniel. But his contacls with them were imennittent (Ar-
J"'"
abo.""
ART, BYZANTINE INFLUENCES ON COPTIC
scniu' 32) and he muSt have lived CUSlom~rily alone in the desert. Some writings aTe attribuled 10 him (Arsenius, 1864. cols. 1617-26). The mosl im· portanl i' a leiter pre'c....'cd in Gwrgian and pub· li.hed by G. Garitte (1955), Its authenticity is ac· knowledged as probable by M. Van Parys (1981), a good judge, who stressed the points of convergence with lhe apolhcgm.: allachmcnt 10 his cell and to silence, perseve,ance in his "ell, aOslinen"e fTom food and sleep, and "onslant prayer, This leller compleles the spirilual ph}'siognomy of the saint and singularly enriches our knowledge of his teaching. whkh was wholly scriplural in ilS inspiration, II is said thai Arscni,,' "never wante
1725 Arseniu' I'.rcmiLa. D""t";na et exJwrtali". In PG 66, cols, 1617-26. Paris, 1864. Chilly, D. J. The D"m" Cily, pp, 53,56,61-64,68, 70, n. O~ford, I ~66. COlelier, 1, 8., ed. Apophlhegmala Fa/rum. [n PC 65, cols, 88-108, Paris, i864. David, J "A""ne." In Dic/ionn"ire d'h;slaire el de gi"graphie ecdi
242
ART. BYZANTINE INFLUENCES ON COPTIC
from lile nimh 10 ,"" I.....lhh UnhJry....h..n Tulunid and F4I;mid EgJ.'J'l gJ>tduaily op"n«llls pes 10 lile Ilyunlin.... mpire. tint of ~ p"riods. Ih..n. ;s one COb.i..
n...
i""
or
of lh...., 1"''' an ,raditions...... Eel" "'"as oc:cvp;«I by ,lie 8)-zanI''''' au,horitil$, In Eel'! ttx, bastlicao of 1M cl'}'P' of UO NlSA. one ~:t""""'" bt Co<wanllne in lhe paleo-Christian pniod and .h.. OChtr ad=iculari)' lrue of lhe corbeled capilals such .. ,hose;o the Soulh Chun;h oflllw,!The corbeled capit.ol. 000. "'M of Libyan ori,io. rrom Sabr3tha and Lq>tis Magna. and earlier lOOn B)'7.anI;M an. The imaginalion displa,"ed here and lhe clear-cut riglu-angIed coni... of surface and r«es.s d",. th.-.. il inla relief are typieall)' Coptic. The piclorial deconlioa of the Chapel of """"" al al·Bapwl. "'... plainly Bynnlint and toot CoptIC. II ...,mained isolated a. th:u a>is from all ollter Coptic produclions. none of which included any of iIs fea· 1U,'es. Some liturgical anribules. such as doe prments of.he sainos or monks in Ih" church of ,he monas'ery of (DAYI) Mit JER£.\I11tH al ~ar. or in 1M d""otlonal chapels of Rbi!. m:llched thO$ w"r" Krouped side by side Ins.ead of plhered log"lher. "" if in an inlerpret... I;On 01 mo"emem, ;l.S is usual in Ihe a" of R
(The meaning of the nursing scene on the walls of the apse. of BAwl! is discussed bdow in the .en:11· The figcores of IUwi! are, in ""ttl, a .. 'n,hesi~ of
,ha,
..,'e",1 "",bol. lha, "",all ,h" Inearna,ion, ,he A.· ....n"on as a prelu.n \~rrgins of I.... Mec"";un .....r be.. uomed Ul"'lIn! ",..an! Chrisl IW.. '!. ella"..1 40). 1l>c b'...... of Man. on ..... 1...._ """ of WI.. ', and s..qqara malts" III so"", ,..".... improbabl.. Iha. lho: Cor" "lShed lu dq,ict an AM-.-mion. A3,'cuph"l\u, of O.JOP'l "",\3
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\JViJ
said '0 him"e1f: "They acted well in your regard, }'OU, who have skin black as cinders. Not being a man, why do you go among men?" (1976, pp. 104105), This .,"me feature is found in the texIS of SHENvr£ in the HiSlori. MQ~achQr"m transmined to the West by Rufinus Aquilae (Festugiere, 197 I), and in the Collation" of John eASSIAN (Sourcu cJrretiennes, no, 64), whcre Satan is desc1'ibed as a black-skinned Ethiopian. Few Coptic representations of this type of de\'il ha.'e reached us. Nevenheless, a twelfth·century miniature of ,hc Coptic Manuscript 13 in the National Lihrary in Pari, offers a good example in a SCene of the Temptation, in which the "eraphim appear on the right, while the devil, on the left and depicted as a black seraphim, is rejected, The West adopted th~ Eastern tradition, and the most illll,t,iOllS saintS saw the devil appealing U) them "-, bluck, such as Saint Luke of Thessaly, a hennit on Mount Joannits. in Corinth, who in 946 saw the d~\'il in the fonn of a small black man. Saint George The iconography of S.int George, who appears both in the East and W~", as the champion in ,he fighl against the devil, also deserves mention in relation to Egypt. In pharaonic symbolism, Horus trampling the crocodiles signifies the triumph of good over eviL The stela of Mit Rahinah in tlte Cairo Museum offers a good example of this iconography, which is .ery reminiscent of the iconography of Christ depicted on • Coptic textile Jeri\ing from Akhmlm and now found in the Forrer Collection ., the Vic_ toria and Alben Museum, London. The transition of the image of Horus victoriolls o\'cr malc\'olent powcrs to that of Saint George trampling the dragon could have happened in two ways. The first hypothesis suggeSts that the transition coincides with the arrival of the Romans, who depicted Horus as a knight in annor. How~ver, the Horus-eavalier wa, rardy portrayed, the only known example being in the Louvre, According to du Bourguet, the seconJ, more complex h)-pothesis relates to the Christians exiled to the oasis of Kh;ujah by the emperor Diocletian. Under Theo(' h~.on of, h.· CoptS O('('UI"..-5 a b,!,,-" place is Il>e,,, a,,~ qunlion or. n"h, be· for~ ,he i",ader. "'hkh "")'\\'a, "ould ha,,' h~...-" a libc'" deoie" a. an c.plan,,· "on fOf eenain ieonog,-:ophieal or ""li"ie inllucn" ~, ul"'l\ Mer.win~ian '''Ulplu''O, " mu" b~ '~-Oog n,,~11 ,hal ,bo Cpl< \\'e,,,, ""II ,,,II are. " Ch,'i."i"" diO\,-" selle) (Smillt. 1929. pp. 1-12; Jacob$!l>al. 1969. no. J I. pis. 178-83; [AA.u. 1977. pp. 5. and JIO). The repntoire 01 Celtic omamenlal mOOn was funher enrif;:h«! as .........It of new Italian and Balkan COIl· quesu. O. Klindt-J~ (1982. p. 83) _ns ",he Cehle $lyle was inIl.uenceltrusallls, It Is evi· dent ,ha, ,he interlacing> at ,he bue of ,he ol"'r kltool in the Bri'ish Museum. which are of a similar date. can only have an eas,"m, but non·Cop'ic, in· spira.l"n, At Waldalge.heim (Germany) around 25(1 8.C.. ,he lmerlacing mOtif appears on numerous ob· jec". Spirob Imerlace: "no separate .piralls visible; one Ke$ onl)' one ,endril" (Duval.nd "ru.a. 1982. Fig. II). According '0 Klindt·Jemen. in,ellec,ual ai· finhies ...i.hau' direct conlU. could well h8\'e ulst· ed bet..-een Cop.ic EcYPt and l.-ebnd. However. ,he tssen,iall)' spirirnal nature of these affi"llies musl be emphasUed.
,wo
,ha,
Ireland 1n:Iand-that veritable ~con","n'3tory of CeW· cism" """red by Ibe Roman conquc:st-had a de$t;. n)' .ery di/h,rent from !hal of the other countries of Europe at the beginni"g of !be Chtislian era. This dlslan, CClUntry. encloocd within itself. ...... to devel· op 'n an ,hal mixed all the influences recehed by !he Celts during their ionnidable period of ,"-,paro. "ion. an npanslon definilively in,e""pted in the fil'$' cen'ury of the Christian era when the Romans pu' an end '0 the Celtic J'O"·e.... excel" ,he kinll' ooms of Ireland. If one wishes 10 admit the .ery simple lIypo,hesis of a .. Nn8 and unique Celtic influence on Imh illuminatcu book., one mu" cite the influence ,hit Gaul uerei.e
ART, COPTIC AND IRISH
loi,e of the Orienl: '''The Occidental ....mid _ ~lIed wilh Orienlal le~.i1Q tUed for hangings or to enwrap the relks. juSt as Ihc hu.,)' and stylized pcrwn.gcs lhat .he Copll had the habit of drawing muSl have inspin,d .1Jc Irish aMists" (Urn')', p. 51). Troe. Ihe distribu.ion of Middle EaSlern le~1iles in Western Europe was accomplished by merchantS. but one won(\crs if they were .pcei~caJly Coptic, These IC:ou, the en,ire ~kdi",rr.oncan btiin at the same period. lI"",tyer. .""di.ion maln...i... that Coptic inlluencc spread 'hrough luland thanl:. 10 ,he monh who copiCin) ~came aware of this Vir". None,heless. Ihis wfficcs for many scholars cstablWl a n::lal>onship bct"''een Coptic and Irish an. This common point of relationship ~I\"..ea'Oa-'ion. Saini AenSUS enumcralet 1M names of the principal ...ints and lhcir disciples and inlroduces lhe names of :several foreigners. among whom...., __e Copt$ who ]j\-ed as hermits on 1M i~land and _re buried lhere. In I'rin'er. il secms lo....al 10 assume lhal lhe Celtic m"mln. 101'$ worklnj! in the $crlploria of Ireland prol1led from lhe c~pt:rience acquired o,'e. the centuriC$ b~ bronzesmilh$. sil~ersmhhs, and goldsm;ths, on the one hand, and by the Oriental s
ART, HISTORIOGRAPHY OF COPTIC
hwOf)'. Tru... ouuide of an. th.. Cop.s w...... cr..diled with c..nain merits.: Ih.. surge of ChriSlian monas!k\$m in th.. lhin! and founh c..nturies. ""hich 5pf~ InIO th.. W"Sl. alId the Middle fas1: '" ~. ................... churches and mona5l..rics; and .he preSotn'alion in some or these places or precious seriplwa! and patristic nun..... ripu. But ci the hillory of this mioority. i. _ uncl......hat nrb of an it could ha~ ptOdueN.. Tho; Coprs re • peopI.. who. sinu lhe fuurth c..nnlll' &c.. had beflI kepi down by the Ptolnnaic. RDman. and Byzanline: oc' cupations. and who under the Muslim dominaolion had been redoced from 7 million '0 SC2rc..1y I mil. lion peopl... They had sun-n'W only by clinging to th..ir traditions and Chrisr.ian prac.ices. all Ih.. ",·hil.. devo.ing th........ I,·es "".her to menial labor or. in • f..", ....... pliona.l cues, 10 professional """rk of. subordin.'e ....nk. Th.. inlerlude b.. t",,,,,,n ph.,.. aonlt an and the an thaI began to uk.. shape under lh .. Muslim aegis sum"" to de.., ....'"' nOlhina more lhan the modeSI title "Coptic period:' with no pre· tent;ons to being art.
A New Concepl N...... nh..l..... loward Ih....nd of th.. nineteenth
c.. ntury, numerous pittes of art and d..conui.... anieles, un ..anh..d from th.. upper smlla or ..nri· rons of ancienl si.es, ""'"' ,...rified by their po$ilion as bein'lat..... lhan lhe principal objeci of the ellC.· ,-ation, bu. they were not H.. llenistie, Roman, or Byzantine. They could nOt be ipored, though 5OI"Ile scholars. influenced by their ..moIions. did 10. MOftd by these diocO¥'Cr1es, us and pic,,,resquo: discovery at ,he e>cpense of Sludying ,he site and ilS o:nvirons. Pun:haseo of objects from cb.lldes,inc diWlIgs-lbe by-products of a so:arch for orpoic 0.. cakaro:ous ..,(\i~lIts..,.fu/ for fertili>ffoffero:d 00 finn.... .sclen,ific cernoioly..... yo:t. thc doo.inC of an ob;ec' could be baso:d only on SIyIe and its ",,·olution. In ,his relard, comparisons ..ith dasPeal an and its ""'" modifications .... er tho: c....h.ries could 0/£.". al'J"'OS'imate dari"I' It is on such infunnatioa lhal Wulf( and w. F. Von...ch in 8e'rlin, A. 1'. Kendrick in London, and R. Plislcr in P'aris boiscd their ,hi..kins; I'fister conlinno:d his dal.a wnh analyso:s of ,ho: coIOt"S and nal mU$tllm in 1931 and ""ncefonh elicible II) r«elve and cauolClC all Coptic ilem. deri¥i~g from exca"",i""•. I)fficial pun::hases. and gifts. [n 1928 the wu,'re opened tWO Greco-Roman haUs-one I)f ",'kich w;u called the Biwtl Hal1_ e..~hibiting anicles from Ef;)-pl thai cl)Uld be eon$ld~ Coptic. thai is. Egyptian·Byzantine. The rNjoriIy consisted of a ~ d dewrali,.., mOl....1 reliefs from e:«,,,,,.lIons of the churches of lJI,wft. as wodl a$ ..,..cral dour! items p.ln:hMed by G. BtMdite. Thi< rnnained only !he embryo of a ""panic collec· tion. bul il publicly demonsll.. ted an advance toward de,..,loping IUch a collection. Thi. alSCmbla~ of objects, whick represemed the e....mial an forms of a pe.ation, finally brought a r"eogoilion of the Copu' distinctive way of life. However. Ihe question a~ of whether Coptic collections concerned an-with all !ht this implies .. to ,xptll. -atiely. and sound oliginalily c,..,.. alinl a un;.qu.e aaIhc:tk-or an ensembloe 01 c..... 10.... 1Jomr,o"C'd from lhe v- civilimtions !hal had successi"ely dominaI
*"""
l1te Question of.n Original TOlaUty Bul one Iw pmbIem surfaced: To "'hal dev;r~ did an oriiPn-a1 tculiry "'merz-eloped would sum to have worl<ed apirul a con~enl ",",""Iop",,"nt o"er $0 long a period. Thi< al1kle stl""'}-S lhe sculplure. painling. a"hilec popul;
26'
,
ART AND ARCHITECTURE, COPTIC
wen perpe...UOted in t""'s rroeJlion. Ow.,";'" denied EID'J'I. the ~lUS ol a Roman provir>cc and resoe...ed the counuys production of InUn for Rome. rot" which ic bc!c;anw the impenal l
'ha' ....
&'""",
"",,,,-0.1
~rll."';:
263
of Ihc nle> 01 4<w'",n "nll'lu,,' Th.,I d no< prod mo· "'''led in Cg,'l"; 'ransi"on an
(~ee aL'~Ii"(""")
1m,
~"'ad,'
in Rome ud mu," ha,'" p:w;..-d from ,here in'u ~-p" 'han'" ,he dlfeor' '"la"o"," cre~'ed b- ,he C1p"no.ion of th., g""n 'a' rem> COl';> "as ,n,nxluced from Ron...·.... " ... ,hc building of .....110 b- Slacking T'O"-' of brick~ ta>-.::r Inla,..". upon ...~n b1111'n
•
Bu" of a ",all" ill, pal,," r:J." 1>c3rd, ComUS" CO;JtlC
Ai",'''''''. C""nl.
ART I\ND ARCHITECTURE. COPTIC
JU"npoe,uon. a,.., '0 be irnp."..-d 10 Ibc Grttks ~for e,arnplc a cull of [,i. ~uppli.'lll~. e, ecpt. ... hao; been _cd. fur- I'" Connlllian ellpl.3.1 ",h.el> a Grrd:, nOi ...... ,,~ an' acantlnr> Iea,e-. ,..:" II(l( ha-r ,«ogniLC't! -!:v·ptornan", ft""..,.j on", a!'A'in no,,1> 01 Ihe Mco.lnem",,~an. "here Ihr I"s ",It fIo... mJord on nu' .....,l"QlJ~ s:onC'lua~ Thr r>.il" jl!0s, bu, .has ,,:os Ilu.. ....,h in ,he Gre"o-Roman ""hel.>!. Once '"I'31n lhe F~-ploan' made Ihrir ..hoices. btU It "11.' lM)f a q""Slion or 0"" panlhcon .""""'inl anorhe. Antm... Daphne...... Th.-cc Gr.oc"", Here.. I.... ""h no. OrphcU$, Pan. Scm""" lhor Phoen'I., U:da "nh ,.... s...-an-all:appear from lime 10 Ii",... lie", and ,he,... ,..... find< sub;ccts I>oo-Tos-..d f.om tlell....,i"i.. ,,,,,holor pas.oral fi~u...",. lhe Sc,...,,,,,. the "klor oco; '''PP'••t1nl an '.n,,1:'0 (a Roman bu.t) In II. " ...... n "I" la"rel. the Panhian I>c>rMman or hunlc,. and ,he gladiator. Ilo"e,·rc. lh" subject> ,ha, ""'" often '....cur arc II) Dla",,,"u'. Aphrodi'" "nh Cupid, ,h... binh of Aphmdile (Aphrodit" anari'" of ,he"" force. " ..,." p~3n: «llt,",,!u... n,h. lhe ~gures and deeoral"'''' ","",. 10 be bol'TO"'rd (""hin all ambiance "ill "'~ and "'Olll,notic. Onc m:tv w'b Ihe re'ull of the religiolls frcedom, "ilhoul ccoJ]omic ill'pnl\Tmen', iILtl',,O\«k1Kes and ""rnn~ of ,he l\.rr~l "f ,imila, interlaced noral 1110tifs thM d~e01"'le the front or ,.c"m~n", s~~m '0 ha,c Inallgura,,,d in Egypt the u,~ of the A)'ing .shullle. Imt as yet only in a pureh' decm'ari,.. mann"r, The fl)'ing ,huttk, pc:rhaps bor· !'Owed from Sjria. is a shuttle independ~n' of ,he weh ,hreads k"ming lh" background through ,he wa'l', It all""" ann, thr'e,d of ""ef( to ,kip_ sho' ;," .hOl, o\'er one {)l' mor~ cman fTamed by a borde'- of rQnt!lQri (jugs w'ith handles) and medallions, " piece in lhe Louwe Mu""wIl d"in~ f,um ,he founh cen'ury, in ",hid, yt'lI"", anJ while lilles enlm,u ,he hgum,ions against a pU'T'le haekground_ ,It th" end oflhe fo,mh ,en""", coloT, including pU'T'le, ,Iea'-], pre· domina,ed, The square po"rai" of Dion,~us and Ari~Jne in Ii«' UJu\Te are good illuSlr'd,io"s of Ihi, u,~ of ~"I()r, 'hough 'hC)' -"ill remain faithful to ,h,,,lings in col", 1 rend~r ,h~ n"anc~, and ,hadow-, M~lal .....,rk. finally, iL must I", nOled ,I,~, melal wa, little u,~,1 ,luring ,hi, reriod, with ,h,' L"XC~p tion of 5mall jewels in ,ilwr (earring" rin£,. nnd bracdets). some rore liturgical object' (5uch '" a censer decora,ed in high relief wilh Ihe fo" .. "'01hob of Ih£ £,'ongclists. no,,' in Ihe Lo"ne), "nd '''''!C' bml\l.e lamp", of \\'hich eerlain ones a,,, of sYmholic animal figu,-", ,uch a, ,he dolph;" and ,be dove_ ArchitccIUrC. In Ihi, o,er-i,\\' of medi", Inccting plaees-nutaol}' religious-mus< be me",io~ed, ror 11K'y rcprC>;c'" a form appropriale 10 religious co,nTlJuniti",. It ha, b~£n e,lahli,hcd ,ha' in llois per",d, the pagnn temples (whi
of ,\l~n', "hich "a, prO(I~il1\ed a, 'h" Cou",'iI of I.J'IH'SL'S (4311 and pro",ol~d b' ,he 1,..,,0 Ii!llc gras" bnd for she,'p to grazc upon. [xc"p' for the af'O"L1c-, ,n Ihi' paHl1irlg "I Ch,i" in glo", mann" "'h,,'h .... IV,"Inn or S.",'rn, o'her ,han &linl ,\1ena' nr Sain' The,'la, ''''"n'h allmdcd 'he COpls' ,Iel'otio" Th,' Cop" d;rce'eJ th~il' \ClLerat,on ra,ht'I' 10 Cop,i,mo"ks, und ",pe"i"lI, 10 'k great f(Junde,~ "I 110" nw"a"eries: Sa,nls ,'''rO'''' ,\pollo of B:j\\'II, PM 1f0· MILS, of Talx:"IL~'", .'IAC AKIUS Til E f.GyrTI'~, J1-:~FlI I '" "nrl a ho," ,)1' o,hn" The ~"g~b and Ihe archangel MWHAFl.. fo' th"ir pal'1, ''''~ con""n,l" 1"~'''''''1. One ",a,' disr. pac.-ed and protective ambi
to,,,,,.,,,
"m
anc~
Nid,c' ,huwi,,~ nui" in Glo .... , In ma"do,'b "U,· rounded b' 1 with th,' Thn'" He'brcw, in 'ltc Furnace (See BIBUOI. MI~ JEnS '" rOPI"- A"",l Certain Clrri"i,," ,,,nhol' cn· joYed rnor~ fa"or: lhe Greek U'-"', t)", nux wlsaia Icru," in tlk" f""", of an ,'~~H), Ihe Alpha ~nd Olll"g«, and Lhe phOo,,~h hi. P':"''''''''''~ ,,,'-, (r....lu"'"I>· menlion,'d in ,h,' IC,"~. n,,'ahh ",una."i,· <m.'" 0"", q"il'" "ne,pe showing ,10,' J,'wlop",c", pli." ,." Jc'l.'"",,km da,ing 1m", 4;0_460 Her< ,h~ ,-olu',.,. 01 ,he sUpt"riot mn,' .n: "uminu' "'us!> absorbed h, ,he l~a",'5 of ,he ,",e<mel '-i~icalh ,n ,he O'-iaIl""e enunllY'S and III ",,,n' case!! elld noI "l>and<Xl ,h~ ,radiliona] fom... it b Ilea, ,he ba>&:... capllal in ,hen-- ......" f:t..J\ion. Th". ('o""
,ha,
had al",:ocI, ap".."red in II... precedinlt peoiod of ",kin, libenl...... ""I> I"'Oponions rn Old.., '0 ",,,'ph .... i,,, a i"'J'lnkin, in lhe,r perlcr· lion Th" rh,~hm of tlte frincs the Ixe clfeel of ,he eap"",lo, and.he Inwnph.al asprtl 01 the nllll~nn ... of "r.;oftsmanship an, ..
hold.ns. a bo>o.l Ta....stl"\ s...'.. nlh nmU
bu. """Id "'II pr..wn, 11~ .......r,..-lic rorc"" from op",:.. in~ for man, 'u'~ ,herealll ~,!h' an ~rt·h".~, In Ih" LouH.. is O("r",ionall, "on."Ic..·d lo"lruclion onh slowed but did not >lOp, n~n in the' elabo,·",iu" of srea, pl'OjeclS, no)n~d ,,\ both ,hc ~ii",
Fmgmcn1 of a tapc"', Vol 2.
A.""''''I,,,i,,>!
C~it'.ked ol be So/ubl... a..... e~"'K:l.,o l7< us,n, damp pads all... apphin, • ]a,.". of solub4e 0,100. permeable Ihe _""I .. bu, nO! ""Ier On ,e,,,,-cOl',,, and unb.>.k"d .ut,·, di"e"i". a"d ,ig"ih,ant numb!'r of COl""- te"il.~ liMe "omrib"led in lar~,· mea,ure 10 "ur kno"led,.e of Cop,i, art_ The fibe.... ,ha' make "I' ,h~ I"
Th. eo",. inherited f,u", ancient F..,."l" ,he us 3"" all:1n may be furthered by uccss of lime. Chemical lreatment carried OUI by specialists can hall the process 01 di.intcgration and ~tabitiu lhe glass. Therufter the fragment.< of a ~ingle Coplic ObjeCI in glass may be f,lled tOllclhcr eilher by using a cyanoacrylatc glue or an epoxy·type optic ,Iue.
Hidt'$ and Skins The Copu used hides and ski"" for c10Ihes. foo.· wear. and various objects. Skin disinlegr;>lcs in hu· midity and it is equally $ rt'l'lloO>e orpnic deposilS such ItS fungus and mold. Fumlpt;"n ;n a """uu", with melhyl bromide of llois JUte prOlot)-pn, whether nati...., or
ha,..,
f0rei3 n . A survival of a symbolic kind ,....t is, nevertheless, widespread in Coplk an finds e~pression rhrough Creco-Roman lhemes by seeing the Egyp'ian god, inherilM from pharaonic times in rhe Grcek god, InlroduC"d by rhe P1ol.,mie, or in lhe Roman goo, added to lbem and prC$er...ing their original nameS. The sub;"clS were gods as importanr in the late ph:>nMmic era as Osiris and lsi!.. The proc..... oc-
281
curred in two succasi..... staen' !he firs' bepn un· der the pharaohs, "'hen. lor eumple. represen",· liofts of Ou«n Nefenarl:ill' Abu SimbellOOk on .he a"ributes of the soddesses. llois, Halhor, and MUI; lhe second followed, for eumple, in .he lirat een· .un.,,; A.D. in the lern..::OI'. repre.en.mg Aphrodi,e in the pharaonic hierallc p:...e ,,~.h rhe combined aUrioo,es of ,he same EcYPtian goddes>es. The Es>'Plian aUitudes and auribut.", rna)' ha"e disappeared in tn.,
BouT'....
P. du. "Die kopolischt KUnSl aI. rnBcl;,;"'"
&bin der phaBonischen KUnSl_" Kopti
ASCLA, SAINT, "",rtyr in lhe
~neUlbreak of religious ~iolence near Aluandria in 485: a papyrus lener composed in Grttk by F1a~;us 1I0rapolloo and found al Kom lshq.lw. The !euer has ~ lransblw and ...,died by J. "laspero.....!to demolU.lt':>led thai Asc!epiades was the father of 1tO~. lhe auU- of lhe letter. 10 il. he: ......... pqised by his son as a famous profnsor ",110 openl a lifelime leaching al ,he Ale>., andrian M~m. AKI.",;ades ,,"as bOth a Neaplalon;'; philC>SOopher and an Eg~ipt'lln plies!. Damasciu,' commenlary 0" Fir.1 Principl•• (ed. Ruelle, chap, 12S) oo-n in win llWlsiation and brief quouoUons in Grftk. This Coptic: U'anS1ation func1ions as the coneludins tnclaIe in a cockx thai MIlam. thrft such Hermetic: teJ;ts: the DCSOOIJIlS£ ON mE EJC;IlTM .viI) NISllI {VI. 61, THf. PIlATU OF ntJ.Jlisehes Gedankengul in der Apok.aiyPM' des Aselepius." Zeilsch,i!1 der de"l.chc" morg...ta"dlsch." C.,'ell.cha/r. S...pplement t (1969):48-57, Krause. M" and P, i.abib. G"o,li:'\'M (Gjmoumi). (n older Arabie ""urc"" il '" k""""n as Ashmun al-JUT;llydl, In h" encomium or .wAC'-OlIlUO (who precrded him :15 b~ of NllYOU) Bi>hop Memo of Nikiou _nlions dw M3-ptian nome of Ihe Hare and of the Gredi: He,n""poIi,e nome. Known as aD epiKopaI 0« since lhe Sihle. llhahh'" .." hng ':lull) inri.'-
1959. Wac ... A, J. g,; A. H. S. Meg."'; and T. C. Skeat. HcrmopoliJ Magna A$ltmuncin, The PI"I.maic Salle/utlry and rlt. Basilica. Al."andria. 19S9.
HA.... s.Gto~() S6Vf.'U"
ASHMUNEN. S .., AshmulIaY!'. aj.,
ASKINAH (
n::ly iJiltt"Il). the normal MsiflJtalion in old le~\$ for ~,uary .nd u...d aim"", b£lusively. for example. in Ih., HISrOII.Y OF THE 'llJlUAR0I5 of s.lwlRll' leN AJ.."'\JOA~"F~·. lip 10 Ih.. Falimid period. Aft,. this period. in th" process of a o li~td from Ihc laIC sevenl«nlh to the early niflelEenth centu· ry. They .re Joseph Simeonls (AMc. YUsuf Sim·:lll.: 16lI7-1766), Slephen (A"'bie, Istaf:lll.) Evodiu. (1709~1782), Joseph (Arabic, YQsuf) A10)'Sius (1710-1782), and Simon (Arabic, Sim'!n~ 1752>1821). All of Ihem ,raduated from the Maronite College al Rome. and .11 became IU3Ched to Ihe V.lican Ubrary in v.rious capadti", ....hile contrib· uting IVleatly 10 its publicalion series ."d die cata· login, of acc...muL;utd 0ri....111 man\lSCr1pU. Jsq>h Simeonis ,"""",ni ..... an ICIM collttlOr of manldCripu on behalf of lhe Vatican. espe. cially those in Syriac. CopIic, and ArabK from Mid· die EaSI...-n ...,..rces. iDCludinl lhe CopIic monasterits of WIdr aJ.·Na!f1ln (sec tcETlS). He was lWice commissioned by Popy inlerval be~n lht::se lWO wmpleroenu,ry feasts. None of lbe Eastern churches has pt"aerved this "",Ie olaJrairs, apan from lhe: dau&h' Ie, church of Elhiopia.
The Copllc Tradillon Tile Copu have an abundant lileram..., on lhe A'iSumplion, whioh W&$ in part described by A. van lanls.., lhus a ",..,..k panllello ilial olIO 10 17 A"IWl- ThaI of 29 January ltnl itselr 10 the «Itb..... ion of .he dulh of the Vi'lin aI lhe lime when lhe distlnc.ion ollhe I"'" nal.....,..1 Chalcedon "'. ... undtl"SlOOd as deuimtntal 10 lhe litle 11KOIokos. It is k""""n lhal after Juwna.!'s Ttlum a cenain Theodo..., or Thendosi". became a counlerbi.hop for Ihe oppof I'"B' ends. At .hat palm when Maurice fixed the fast al IS A..,...e. lbe lUI thai sums trustworthy is the Grffk 1eC'""d (Bibliolhu.. ilo~.. phi,,, G'''U:IJ lOSS). al.ributed ",;!hou. haila'tion '0 John the EVWl&"Iis:I. This is an epOt"",e of lhe second lorm. the developed .)-pes of ",,-hielt attempt wim pov.",rful ..,..,m...... 10 attnb.lle it 10 John. Fon"na~ly, .he d.ligence of John f Thessalonica has preserved for us a dooble reconslnlellon of the fim legend (BiJ>/iDtloecIJ ilo~opJlic" Gro...,,, II44d and 11(4). and A. Wengt.i"', published by Rhillout (1907). pp. 174-83. C.2 Cyril oller"~I",,,. ed. fort>es Robimon (1896).
pp. 1.4_41.
291
'0 whkh eorresponds .he PielpOnl
fob. 46-74 (Bib/iotheco Hogiog'op/tico Oriemo/is 67Ib). A rebled version is found in W. Budp (1915). pp. 49_73. which col'USJlOflds 10 lhe Pierpon. ,",orpn M 5&3. pp. 139-57. rcccndy published by A. Campagnano (19llO). pp. 152-94. E-ai.... nhe and Harpocralian here.ies. The point is.o oppose ide.. of mere ··fantasy""; it ..... 10 be sbov.n thai then really .. a .omb. and .bat the Virgin .. 001 a phan'om. The .."i1nesses to the Dormi1iorl addoced by C.2 botI"",.o ohe Johannm..: cycle of Prochoms: John. P........ v.....,... and James. The Eihiopic version of C.2 published by V. Arras in 1974 (pp. I-H) is a de,.,.lopment in the .,,,ne Ii"", as C.2 in (onnec:ting the "'~In........ ",,;.h ,he cycle of Pr-ochol'\lS. The doc,rinal tluacb .....m '0 be aimed a' the disappearance of .he bod)' ac· cording 10 the complele wiln_ of C.I. C.3 and 1:.4 b...e lheir accoo",s of ,he fac.. on anmher group of wi.nesses: E.,ooius. lhe successor of P",er a' Antioch before Ignaliu.; Pe.er; Ale~an' der; and Rufus. The pl'escmalion of the fuClS corroborates the doclrinal allocks of C.2. The role of John ;" reduced to very small climen_.ions_ It is probable .ha' Ihe .wo presem.at;ons and th. 11010 BTOllps of witnesses correspond 10 lhe respective
292
ASSUMPTION
tradition. of the aphthanodocetic Gaianite. and those of the Severians, whQ farmcd a majority in the Coptic church. We may gain SOme idea of the antiquity of the"" tepresenllltions by noting that the cycle of Dionysiu. the A.....opagite, born toward Ihe beginning of the sixth or the end of the fihh century. is a rejoinder from Juvenal. Dionysius. Titus. Timothy. and Hierotheus are present at the Dormition, PULCJtE.RtA, the ....ife of Ihe "impious" Marcian, demands the body of MaT)' from Juvenal, for she has learned of the existence of the tomb. Juvenal explain. that the body disappeared from the tomb at the moment ""hen thc apostle Thomas, at first absent, came back and ae), This defense pro domo is intended to cast a shadow upon the erroneous presentations of the Chalcedonian Marcian. Dionysius the Areopagite speaks of the body that received God. theodok~ot! soma (PC 3. col. ~81), transferring the Nestorian adje the inanimate body of Mary alone. Conwrsely, C.5, the discourse 01 Thea· dosius, was obliged to show that the body of Mary ....as the object of an assumption different from those of the bodies of Enoch and Elijah, The t",o Coptic types. C.2 and C.4, thus have their source in developments prior to 500. This is not the case with the blQ5lloming uf the ~ond group. but the lalter i' trans mined practically only in Arabk. The Arable Tradition The Arabic tradilion on the Assumption touches the Coptic world very c1Qsely. Almost all the atm· butions come bacl to Egyptian bishops. But the body of the legend belongs almost alway, to the sewnd group. The following is a prdiminal)' de· ",ription of the Arabic corru", A. I The TranSitus in six books. Edited from a re· cent manu",ript by M. Enger in IBM (Bib/iffIneCU Hagiograpnica Orimtaljj 633-38). this text exists in a tenth·century manuscript pointed oul by G, Craf (1915). p, 340. and today at Bryn Mawr College. A. 2 Under the name of CYIlJL Of ALEXANnRl~, a homily for 21 Tubah has heen published (1927). pp. 210-48. A, 3 Under the name of Cyril af Alexandria. a homily for 16 Mism (1927), pp, 248-60, A. 4 Thecxlosius of Alexandria, Vatican Ar~bic 698. f"ls. 85-102. Translation of C.5. A. 5 Transitus. in Paris Arabic 150. translated by J. Leroy (1910), pp. 162-72.
A. 6 Theophilus of "umdra," Vatican 698, fols. 4148, translation of the Greel homily of Thwte' lnos of Livias. Bibliorb~£(l Hagiograp~icQ Graeca 1083u, A. 7 Vatican Arabic 170, fol•. 317-39, homily of Cyriacus of Bahna. are collected by Veros (in Coptic. Bibros) in C.2. which also relates the building by Constantine and hi. 50ns of the church for the feast of the disappearance of the Virgin on the night of 20 Tobe. Crego')' of Toors in his worl it! gloria morlyrum at the end of the sixth century also speaks of the basilica built by Constantine, The Coptic traditions, as we see, have collected
ASTASi AL-RUMi
their elemenll; al all the stages of the developmem of the legends about the Dormit;on of Mary. We may add that MICHAEL and GABlUU- play considerable roles in the first groop of legends, and tMt lhe book of the enthronemem of each archangel, pecu· liar 10 the Copts, derives from lhe tradition about the AssUmplion of Ihe Virgin, in type C.2. which gi"e> a large place to lhe disciples of John, Verns. and Prochorns. BIBI.lt)GRAPHY
Arra,. V" cd. Ve Tr"ns;tu Mariae Apocrypha Ac'hiop;ee I. In CSCQ 342. $eriptores Aethiopici 66. wm'ain.1973. ___, e
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Elevation and plan of lhe medieval church of Saint Pwte, alone lime located at Aswan, C(>~YI'sy I'ele, Cr(>um"~H.
296
ASYUT
ered, ""' wei) '" a baptistery Ix!longing to it (lou' guet, 1896, pp. 371f.: on the columns and capitals, d. Monneret de Villard, 1927, p. 152). A ""ienlific examination of the5
ATHANASIAN CREED, a pro(cS/;ion 01 fui,h ....iddy used in Ihc West do,,'n
10
recen' 'imes.
ATHANASIUS J
298
...ronKly allribtJltd to Athnallus, ltl Italements oppIY 10 CoMwtline. anoUw:r apolog)' ."inst me Arians, hill lette.. 10 Seraplon and 10 lbe monb. and his r-aJ lelle..; (2) I~ wori<s of eontemJ'O'lWY eburch fallM:rs. indudillJ Hi1aJy of Poi· tien, 1lAStL nil! CRl!AT. llu:GOllY Of NA2.L\."ll.US. and Epipbani",,: and (3) ~hronie new archbishop now faced alone me spreading doctrine of Arianism Anua ..-as probably of Libyan origin and a pupil cl WciaD of Aotlodl. He ..-as fiJ'Si ordaIned by Adilllaa (d. JlI) :os preob)1er of ,he imponam church of Bucali< in Akundria. All eloquenl speal "e""
fi,,,
The Five Edl... Athanasius ....maineO'ition as archbillhop and otfefCil him suppo" throughout his reign. FilUll1y, through the inOueJK;~ of Constanliw II (337-361), he ,,-as reslor'" 10 his diocese in Alexandria, now ''3Caled from Ariart ''e5' tip by lhe murdeT of its Arian occ;:upant. Gregory of Cappadocia. in february 345. Athanasius' relum prowdria on 24 Babalt. Gretot1' of Nazi. anw> de$cribed lbe lumul""o... _!come by the people. who .treamed forth wlike lhe river Nile. Even lhe di"""ntine Ari;m eIemenl oIlhe population seemed, for the time being, to h,'~ faced Ihe prel· "te's reslo....tion with charitahl~ ck'mency, After Ihese (e.. lvitie., peace appeared to have reignr
300
ATHANASlUS I
~"me'I .. ry
.......... a company of .-~ .-emain.-d in J'"'Yn aft.. r ,h.. res! of the eGn,rcplion .... d d... pencd. SdMsIian asked the ";'lins 10 ~mbn:- yUI"$, he wrole IlIO!I of his theolotlcal worU. While kttping cOOUICI ..·jth his Alexandrlaro flod lhrough !etten of encouragement, he mo-oed from ..... Ni.rian Descn to the Thebaid and lWed for a whil.. in th.. Desert. He mtI5I ha.·.. spenl some time wilh Saini A.lm," THE GREAT befor.. hIS death. And it ..-as then IIw .... was abl .. to compose his classic work. ,he Lif.. of Soi,,' ,t"t"",.. With 'he dealh of Conslantlus II in 361. ll.UAN THB AI'QSfATIl (361-363) acceded 10 the imperial Ihron •. Julian had long been contemptuous of Ihe argu' m.. nLs of the Chrislians. wh ..lh ..r onhodox or Anan. The immedial" result of Julian's accession ,,-as th.. em""'l"nce of the pagan population, who we~ delermilled to a'-engo: ~I\U on George the D.po pado ""'.ern
dria or in Anl>OCh. On.. of t.... decisions of that council provided that all ,,'1>0 had forfeited their communion ...·ith th.. church could regain it by sun' ply dedannll wir allegia~ 10 the 'enns of 1ose who spoke of th ..... hypostases ",ere found to m..an llt ....e penons. wh .. reas lhe Nicene fonnula pl-escribed on" HY/'QSTASJS, tlte actual tn' camalion of lhe Logos, or assumption of manhood by Ihe Son. Alhanasius ""ucd • synodal .. pilule or lorn.. to Ihe Antiochians :lbottt lh.. findings of the councll in the hop.- of ""hi..vln, church unity. He ..... unsucCQOfuI because Paulinll$," dissenler. had already been elevated .he cpisC
'0
"""flI
• ATHANASJUS I
for Athanasius, who stood on the dden,i"e, while the prefect of Altland,;a mu",cred hi. forces 10 act against the prelate. Alhanasius quietly made hi' e,cape through the Chun::h of Saint Dionysius and look rdug. for the nexl four months in a house outside the dty. This shon period might be considere his r~t 0fI the lwentleth of nil," Appa<ently Ihe confuJion trealed by lhe Council of eHU£EOON (451) during the reign of DIOSCORU!l I had subsided by his time. AZIZ S, ATlY~
ATHANASIUS III, se,enrY'li~th parriareh of lhe See of Saim Mark (1250-1261), Alhanasius was
ATHANASruS
peacefully selected to the throne of S.~in1 Mark after an intcrregnum of seven years, during which the patriarchal seat remaincd "acanl. The reasons are hard to e~plain beyond the lack "f unanimily on an}' candidate and the general unrest tnat accomp;lnied [he transfer of power in E~'Pt from the Ay' yubid to ,he Ba~r1 Mamluk dynasty, The son of Maka"m or Abu al-MakArim ibn KaW, the priest of Our Lady'. Church of al-Mu'allaqah, Athana.f his monasticism is also unknown. He had nc> "vols, and his seleclion and consecration at Alexandria were unopposed_ llis biography in the I-![STORY OF TIlE ~ATR1UCI-!S is succinct and appears in a few lines only, and we must look for any event, of his reign in the Islamic sources, One significant evelll during his reign was the apl",intment of a Copt as .'izier for the first lime in the Mamluk state_ His name wa.< al-As'ad Sharaf al·DIn llibal AlIr.h ibn s.nd al·H·izl, and he was famous for the rwrganization of lhe tax s)'Stem, which earned for him Muslim discomem; the Copts wac penalized by the doubling of the poll la~ or JtZVMt, Athanasius was a contemporaf)' of a number of Ba~rl Mamluk sultans, beginning with the famous Shajarat al-DuIT (1250-1252), and including 'Iu al· Din 'Aybak (1252-1257), al-Man~ur Nur ai-Din 'Ali ibn Aybak (1257-1259), and al-Mu""fIar Say{ ai-Din Qutuz (1259-1260). The mo,t prominent event of his time was the Seventh Crusade, which Saint l.u· is, king of France (1226-1270), directed against Egypt_ After landing at Damictla in 1249, he pene· trated the Delta as far as al-Man~urah. where the Mamluks ""ened the dikes of the Nile, and the invaders found themselves paralyzed in wateL l.uis and his nobles were consequently defealed by the batalli"ns of Shajaral al-Dorr in 1250, and all were seized as prisone.... The story of these stining events has been poignantl}' related hl an eyewitness, the French chronicler Joinville_ Nego.iations concerning the liberation of the king and the French nobility were opened at once. In addilion to the evacuati()() of Damietla, tbe lenn, included the payment of a ransom amounting 10 half a million I;."" lO"mo;, or the equi"alenl of approximately I million dina .... Afterward the French contingent set sail to 'Aklta, which was still the seat of the shadowy Frankish kingdom of Je",salem.
303
Within the Mamluk realm In S)'Tia, howe"er, sad cvcnl' were reported about the position "f the Jaco· bite Christians in tbe city of Damascu,. Mob riots of the Islamic population resulted in the burning of the Church of Our L'ldy as well as a number of houses belonging to Chrislians, Their propeny w"" pillaged, and many of them died in the fray, About the same time. in 1265, the baule of 'Ayn Jalu! was fought between Mongols and the Muslims. Syrian Christians were accused of clandestine support to .he Mongols. Finally Sayf aI-Din Qutuz \ 1259- 1260) quelled the rebels and imposed a penalty of 150,000 dirhems on the Christians_ The Sum was raised and sun-enderod to a Mamluk emir wh" was the atabcg of the anny, Faris ai-Din Aqal~y. Evidently the accumulalion of penalties from the French and the Syrian Christians, as well as the taxes and capitation pre\'iously levied in Egypt, en· riched the Mamluh, and we hear of no additi"nal imposts on Athanasiu, and his congregation. Ne,'er· thele.., there is n" evidence of ehureh building or re
306
ATHRIBIS
ftl .
ATNATEWOS. Su EtltiopW> pmalC$.
ATONEMENT. the basic doclri"" of ,he ffl:oociliation of fallen man to God ow God's r!&hleousness. bec.ausc in hi. divine fo.-bea",nn 1M Pierponl AIotg.... CopllC CO' dice>. Oxford. 1973. r,mU\. s. Do~ cl>rUllich-kop'iscJte Ag,p,cn in ",,,. bischn Zeil, pc. I. pp. Z57-65. \\'le>baden, 1984. RMlDAU. Sn;wAu
ATRls,
,'illagc on lhe Icft bank of lhe Rosella branch of the Nile, in the ",a,ka: (dislricl) of 1mbi· bah. Minufiyyah, not far fron, Bani Salimah. 45 mil.. (73 kill) oonhwc.. of Cairo. The exislence of a rnonasle')' in or near this village is allcste judged no. only in ,im>e of his splrilual authorlly but abo "" the IIrength of imperial aulhorily. If prt:X« bore lhe title lakhr ~1-dal
Ya'qub Nakhlah R..faylah. Tarlkh "1·U",,,,all al· Qibr;yyah, p. ISS. Cairo, IS~ . Azlz S. ATIYA
AWSHIM. See K.an.nis.
AWSHJYAH, an ttdesiaslical Arabic leon some· Limes pronounced onv*i)oIh or oiiy'e Ge'e~ of Ethiopia, In his e"rlieT "dae, Aezana auributes his military viclories to the inte... vention of tbe Elhiopian god Mahrem (equivalent 10 Ares), but the last of the stelae begins and ends with Christian invocations. The latest coins of A.,.",na also have a croSs on the reverse face, in place (If the cre",en' and di,k found on earlier A,umile coinage. hom ,hese faclS one may infer that lhe Axumite ruler, and presumably his subjects, were conv",'ed to Christianity .honly before the year 350, The story of Ethiopia's conversion is confirmed in
most of ilS detail, by the Roman historian RUFINUS. He tells how two educated Greel yc>uths, Aedesius and Frumentius, were kidnapped and taken '0 Mum, wheTe in lime they bttame gTeat favorites of the reigning ling, When the king died, they were made guardians and tuTors of hi. infant son. Aczana, and in Ihis role they began spreading the Christian faith wi,hin the country. When Aw.ana reached manhod, he allowed the brothers to go their ways. but Frumentiu. went to the palriarch of Alexandria with the request that he be allowed to return to Bhiopia os bishop-mi,,'ionary. This was granted by Ihe newly inslalled patriarch, ATHAN.<sWS I. and upon hi' relurn 10 Axum, Fn,mentius effecled the official conversion of Aezana and of his subjects. £lhiopia was th'" brought under the wing of the Ale_andrian church, where it was to remain until 1958. Frumentius has corne to be known in Elhiopian tradition as Abba Sal~mah (father of peace). (See SAUMA t. ABUNA.) The power of Axulll gradually weakened after the fifth century, in part becau,e of continual involvement in the wars of Sooth Aslat~ .hoe Gr~k SCriPluru into r.h~ na'....., (;e'n !angUlit'. The name$: of the Nine SainIS figure prominently in Eihiopian hagiography, and many
monas,m.es '"
named for ,hem. The ,nodi,io... of the T"'-dve T~ and of 1M Nine: S;oiflu ""',.., sufficient 10 ......, tNt .bum would reuin iu ",Iigiou< importan
Mary... hieh obah (a rough and diHicuh ascftIlJ that opl'Oi on 10 tM ph.tau domi· nati08 me Kharja/'l depression. are !he ruins of a Roman fun","," and a pbanonic tempk. They seem 10 ""-H bee" occupied by henniU ..'tim lhey """ Joh.nn,... Ai>" John 01 rake. AI'" Hor. Apa Pim"'l. .nd olt>cn. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Winkler. H, A, Rock Dr"wings 0/ Sou/nun Upper Egypt, p. 117. pI. 7, Lond'm, 1938-1939. Guv WAOSU
'AYN N.lSIMAH. SU
Qasr N"lSlmah.
,\VYVBID DYNASTY AND THE COPTS, *,Ullion of the Coptic communily in £Cpt unc2r the ru,," 01 the A,-yubid dyna5ty (1l7l-12SO) was cOl'ltrolled by ~ poop ..... oi the Cr\ISlldes and the Muslim ~. With lhe death of ItM: I'lUimld caliph. a1-' Ao;Iid, .,.. IS SepwnlN:r 117l. .nd 11M: lermiNilion of F"timid ruk in EcYPt. Saladin, a youn, Kurdl$h solditr ....ho hod CO"" 10 Egypt in 11M: lrain of hi' unc,," Shirkuh. was inV<e5ted ...ilh \he power or Ihe Slate in Cairo, under Ihe tllular conltol oilhe Abba.id callphale in Ba&hdad, On IS May 1174. Niir aJ·Din died in Syri., and Saladin was able 10 "'ize his Ihrone. Saladin consequently be· elme 'ulun of the whote area exlending from Mowi 10 Aleppo in the norlh and Egypt in the south. In thl! "'~y. S;>.ladin exlendcd his bordcrs .round Ihe Latin Kingdom of Jes. Thi' pm,oed .., be 11M: beginning (Of lhe ..nd. ,ioc.. iI led 10 Ihe banle or Hinin. in ...hich on 4 July 1187 he d",,"royed lhe crusading hosu beyond repair. Wilb his lriumpb. the way 10 J~lem became dear. Aftcr " shorl sicgc of twd,'e da)'5. on 2 Oclober the Holy Cily .urrenhn replied through the intenne