Singing and Communicating in English: A Singer's Guide to English Diction

Singing and Communicating in English In Memory of Maestro Luigi Ricci, my illuminator and mentor To my husband, Gary,...

Author: Kathryn LaBouff

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Singing and Communicating in English

In Memory of Maestro Luigi Ricci, my illuminator and mentor To my husband, Gary, and my children, Eric, Meredith, and Megan; your love and support have kept me balanced.

OXJFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further Oxford University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education. Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam

Copyright © 2008 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 www.oup.com Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Singing and communicating in English : a singer's guide to English diction / Kathryn LaBouff. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-19-531138-9; 978-0-19-531139-6 (pbk.) 1. Singing—Diction. 2. English language—Phonetics. MT833.L132007 783'.043—dc22 2006030318

I. Title.

Recorded audio tracks (marked in text with and an exercise guide are available online at www.oup.com/us/singinginenglish; access with username Music5 and password Book 1745.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

SINGING and Communicating in

ENGLISH A Singer's Guideto English Diction

Kathryn LaBouff

OXFORD 2008

FOREWORD Renée Fleming

Kathryn LaBouff has developed an approach to singing in the English language which is wonderfully user-friendly, and which has surely saved much wear and tear on my voice. It is a technique that has empowered me with the knowledge and skills to bring a text to life and to be able to negotiate all of the sounds of the language with the least amount of effort. I have found her clever and creative use of substitute consonants or combinations of consonants in diction utterly delightful because they are surprising and because they work. These techniques have been equally useful when singing in foreign languages. I now apply these concepts to every language I sing in. We sopranos are not usually known to have good diction, particularly in our high range. I found that working with Kathryn improved my ability to be understood by an enormous percentage of the audience and caused me much less vocal fatigue than I would have experienced if left to my own devices. My artistic relationship with Kathryn LaBouff began while I was a student in the Juilliard Opera Center. She prepared the diction for Gian Carlo Menotti's opera Tamu, Tamu in which I sang the soprano role. Over the years I have worked with her on several other projects as well. She coached me in the roles of Rosina, in the premiere of The Ghosts of Versailles, and Ellen Orford, in Peter Grimes at the Metropolitan Opera. Kathryn prepared the diction and dialects for the arias on my CD / Want Magic, and was a supportive presence and advisor during the recording sessions. Her work with me and the rest of the cast of Andre Previn's A Streetcar Named Desire created an unusually positive response from members of the audience regarding our ability to be understood, an important aspect in any opera in English but most especially in a premiere. I have often told my colleagues enthusiastically of her interesting solutions to the frustrating problems of diction. I am thrilled that her techniques are now in print for all to benefit. Enjoy and be understood!

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PREFACE

Terrence MacNally, the wonderful playwright and librettist for the Broadway musical Master Class and the opera Dead Man Walking, gave the commencement address at the -milliard School in 1998. In his speech to the graduates he said: "Words on a page only exist in two dimensions, as do notes in a score. The arts we're talking about this morning— theater, music, dance—exist, happily, in three dimensions. We need you to bring them to life. I know I am not William Shakespeare, but a good actor, an honest actor, an artist, can make me sound like good McNally. And I'm very grateful." That is our fundamental job description as artists, isn't it—to make them grateful. Who are They? Not only the poet and the composer whose art our job is to re-create but the listeners in the audience whose hearts and souls we hope to touch; the arts administrators whose years of planning can come to fruition in a turn of a phrase; the producers and creative team whose collective visions are dependent upon your skills. By bringing the music and the texts to life and "into the third dimension" as Mr. McNally so brilliantly states, we serve the poet, we serve the composer, we serve the art, we create the art. Without us it is merely ink on a page. And when They are grateful, the art that is created will be sustained. The audience will return again and again for their sustenance. As fundamental and simple as this concept is, it is a daunting and illusive task. Why do even our best and most emotionally commited performances sometimes not reach past the footlights? Technique! Art is all about discipline and technique. Without it, the art can only be a fraction of what it could have been. Singing is such a stylized art form. Like ballet is to walking, singing is to talking. In essence it is a cultivated scream. And while one is screaming (beautifully), the thoughts expressed in the text need to be transmitted in slow motion. So that's what this book is about. It is about technique: the technique involved in working with this stylized art form in which texts need to be sustained over long phrases in extreme ranges and extreme volumes. It is about the technique of how to maneuver around all of the consonant-laden English language with its non-Italianate vowels and still

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PREFACE

sing it with real, honest vowel sounds beautifully. It is about the technique of transfering to the lyric line the nuances and expressive cadence of the language that is so instinctively expressed by native English speakers in everyday speech, but often sounds bland and emotionally detached in the performance of a song. In addition to offering techniques for "getting it across," I hope to offer an approach to singing in English that is singer-friendly and vocally beneficial. To my mind, there is no point in using an approach that ties you up in knots. My years as a singer and a voice teacher leave me with a mission to make the singer sing well in English. From my twenty years of work with professional singers in opera productions and my students at the Juilliard School, the Manhattan School of Music, and the Curtis Institute of Music, I have been able to try out my ideas on thousands of singers. If I asked something of them that vocally tied them up in knots, I immediately scrapped that idea and found some other way to get the text clear, expressive, and well sung. I spent three years in Rome in the studio of the belcanto opera coach Maestro Luigi Ricci, where I worked on my own roles as well as sat in on his coaching as a translator. Many of his approaches to phrasal doublings, legato connection, and technique of "Appoggio," which I have called "pulsing the phrase," I have transferred to the treatment of the English language. From my collaborative work on productions and recitals, I have concluded that there seem to be three specific English dialects that are most frequently requested by conductors and stage directors. They are American Standard, known in the American theater as Theatre Standard, used for North American repertoire; British Received Pronunciation, used for British works; and the hybrid dialect, Mid-Atlantic pronunciation, used for works of European origin that are not specifically British. Because a proficiency in these three dialects is most useful to singers, these are the three dialects I have focused on in this book. So—let's get on with the business of making Them grateful!

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to thank my wonderful students over the years for allowing me to try my ideas out on them. Having a full-year course to build a diction technique with them and then working with them throughout their professional careers has been one of my greatest joys. I want to thank all of the conductors, coaches, and singers who have been so supportive of my work and encouraged me to make this book a reality. I also want to thank my colleagues, Linda Jones at the Cleveland Institute of Music, Renée Santer at the Mannes College of Music, and Allison Voth at Boston University for their feedback after having taught from the manuscript of this book. I also want to thank Dawn Kasprow Wolski, Camille Zamora, and Stephen Paul Spears for their generous help with proofreading and editing the early manuscript versions. For this final version, I thank Alexander Sartakov for inputting all the musical examples into Sibelius, and Mateusz Wolski for technical support. Thanks to Dr. Catherine Sangster of the BBC for her guidance on usage of RP versus BBC English in current broadcast speech in the United Kingdom. Special thanks to dialect coaches Terry Besson and Gillian Lane-Plescia for their guidance on the English regional dialects. Thanks to Abe Jacobs, director of sound for the New York City Opera, for his guidance on microphone technique, and to Bob Taibbi, recording engineer at the Juilliard School, for his expertise in recording the texts, and to Barry Banks, Richard Suart, and Sir Thomas Allen for repertoire suggestions and applications from the United Kingdom. Special thanks to Marti Newland for guidance on source information for Gullah dialect. I thank the team at Oxford University Press: executive editor Suzanne Ryan, assistant editor Norm Hirschy, senior production editor Bob Milks, and Lynn Childress for copyediting and Jade Myers for preparing the illustrations. And finally I thank Dawn Wolski, my amazing assistant on this project. As a voice student at Manhattan School, she volunteered to edit the earlier manuscript for me. For this edition, she obtained all the publisher permissions, copyedited, formatted, edited, and inputted all the phonetics into the musical examples.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To the many composers that I have contacted and worked with in developing lists of their works, I thank you for all of your valuable input. The repertoire lists have grown too large to be included in this book. They have led to a second book project focusing on the repertoires lists themselves. Though you are not included now, I know you will have even greater visibility in the near future.

CREDITS

I wish to thank the following publishers for their kind permission to reprint excerpts of their copyrighted works: "A Minor Bird" from The Poetry of Robert Frost, edited by Edward Connery Lathem. Copyright © 1928, 1969 by Henry Holt and Company. Copyright © 1956 by Robert Frost. Reprinted by permission of Henry Holt and Company, LLC. "Buddy on the Nightshift" by Oscar Hammerstein II and Kurt Weill. Copyright © 1981 by Coda Publishing (administered by European American Music Corp.) and Bambalina Music Publishing Company (administered by Williamson Music). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used By Permission. "Do You Know the Land?" from Little Women by Mark Adamo. Copyright © 1998 by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. "Every Ranch Hand I Ever Knew" from Of Mice and Men by Carlisle Floyd. © Copyright 1971 by Carlisle Floyd. Copyright renewed. Boosey & Hawkes, Inc., Sole Agent. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. "Green Finch and Linnet Bird" from Sweeney Todd. Words and music by Stephen Sondheim. © 1978 Rilting Music, Inc. All Rights Administered by WB Music Corp. All Rights Reserved. Used by Permission of Alfred Publishing Co., Inc. Laurie's Aria from The Tender Land by Aaron Copland. © Copyright 1954, 1956 by the Aaron Copland Fund for Music, Inc. Copyright renewed. Boosey & Hawkes, Inc., Sole Publisher & Licensee. Reprinted by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. "Love Too Frequently Betrayed" from The Rake's Progress by Igor Stravinsky. © Copyright 1951 by Boosey & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. Lucretia's Aria from Rape of Lucretia by Benjamin Britten. © Copyright 1946,1947 by Hawkes and Son (London) Ltd. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. "Lullaby" from The Consul by Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1950 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Text reprinted by permission. "Lullaby" by Thomas Pasatieri. © by James Agee, permission of The Wiley Agency.

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CREDITS

"Manhattan Joy Ride" by Paul Sargent. Copyright ©1946 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International. Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. "Must the Winter Come So Soon?" From Vanessa by Samuel Barber and Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1957 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Text reprinted by kind permission. "No Word from Tom" from The Rake's Progress by Igor Stravinsky. © Copyright 1951 by Boosey & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. "Oh, Lady Be Good!" Music and Lyrics by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin. © 1924 WBMusic Corp. (Renewed) Gershwin®, George Gershwin® and Ira Gershwin™ are trademarks of Gershwin Enterprises. All Rights Reserved Used By Permission. "See How They Love Me" by Ned Rorem. Copyright © 1958 by Henmar Press. Used By Permission. All Rights Reserved. "Somewhere" from West Side Story by Leonard Bernstein, Stephen Sondheim. © 1957, copyright renewed, Leonard Bernstein Music Publishing, LLC. All rights administered by UniversalPolyGram International Publishing, Inc. / ASCAP. Used By Permission. All Rights Reserved. "Sure on This Shining Night" by Samuel Barber. © by James Agee, permission of The Wiley Agency. "The Black Swan" from The Medium by Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1947 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Text reprinted by kind permission. "The Crucifixion" by Samuel Barber. From The Romanesque Lyric: Studies in its Background and Development from Petronius to the Cambridge Songs, 50-1050 by Philip Schuyler Allen. Copyright © 1928 by the University of North Carolina Press. Used by permission of its publisher. "The Idle Gift" from Five Songs for Tenor and Piano by Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1983 by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. "There Is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti by Leonard Bernstein. © 1957, copyright renewed, Leonard Bernstein Music Publishing, LLC. All right administered by Universal-PolyGram International Publishing, Inc. / ASCAP Used By Permission. All Rights Reserved. "Things Change" from Little Women by Mark Adamo. Copyright © 1998 by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. "Tom Rakewell's Aria" from The Rake's Progress by Igor Stravinsky. © Copyright 1951 by Boosey & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. "What's the Use of Wondrin'" by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II. Copyright © 1945 by Williamson Music. Copyright Renewed. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used By Permission. "Where the Music Comes From" from 13 Songs by Lee Hoiby. Copyright © 1990 by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. "Who Is There to Love Me?" from A Hand of Bridge by Samuel Barber and Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright ©1959 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. Tom Sails Away by Charles Ives. Copyright 1935, Merion Music, Inc. Bryn Mawr, PA 19010. Text reprinted by kind permission of Carl Fischer, LLC, on behalf of Merion Music, Inc.

CONTENTS

Foreword by Renée Fleming v CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Diction

Diction: What Is It?

3

3

Why Do Native English Speakers Need English Diction Study? 3 What Is the Ultimate Goal of English Lyric Diction Study? Why Is This Goal Often Not Realized?

4

Expectations of the English-Speaking Audience What Is Neutral English?

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6

References for English Pronunciation Approach to English Diction Study

7 8

Introduction to the International Phonetic Alphabet How to Use This Book

9

10

The International Phonetic Alphabet for American English Exercises CHAPTER 2

14

Communicating the Thought

17

Communication through Appropriate Stress Syllabic Stress within Words

18

Stress/Sense within the English Phrase The Hierarchy of Stress

21

Stress versus Interpretation The Division of Syllables

25 26

Exercises 27 CHAPTER 3

Introduction to Vowels

31

Preparation for Vowel Production The Vowel Chart

35

4

31

20

17

11

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CONTENTS

Eliminating Glottal Attacks

36

Exercise Drills for Glottal Attack Elimination Easy Onset Exercises CHAPTER 4

38

The Fronting Vowels

[i] Production Exercises

45

[i] Production Exercises

43

43 47

49

[e] Production 50 Exercises

52

[æ] Production Exercises

53

55

Review of Front Vowels 55 [a] Production 56 Exercises CHAPTER 5

57

The Backing Vowels

[u]/[ju] Production Exercises

65 66

69

[D] Production CHAPTER 6

63

64

[o] Production [o] Production Exercises

59

61

[u] Production Exercises

70

The Mixed Vowels [A]/[9] Production Exercises

59

71

71

74

|>]/[e] Production 75 Exercises CHAPTER 7

77

Diphthongs

79

[ai] Production 81 Drill 83 Exercises

83

[ei] Production 84 Exercises

85

[01] Production Exercises

87

86

38

XV

CONTENTS

[ou] Production Exercises

89

90

[au] Production Exercises

91

92

The R-Colored Diphthongs Exercises

94

Triphthongs Exercises CHAPTER 8

93

96

97

The Three Semi-Vowel Glides

Vowels or Consonants? [w] Production

99

99

102

[j] Production

103

[j] Production

105

Drill for Alleviating Trilled R's 108 Exercises CHAPTER 9

109

Introduction to Consonants The English Consonants Exercises

CHAPTER 10

115

11 7

The Plosives

119

[b]/[p] Production Exercises

11 3

120

122

[d]/[t] Production

123

Practice Drill 125 Exercises

126

[g]/[k] Production Exercises

Implosions

126

130

131

[d3][tf] Production Exercises

133

134

Save Breath for Shadow Vowels Exercises CHAPTER 11

138

The Fricatives

141

Merges: The Legato Builder [v]/[f] Production Exercises

135

141

143

145

[z]/[s] Production

146

Drills for Overcoming Lisping S and Z

148

CONTENTS

XVI

Expressive Doublings of the Fricatives Exercises

[3]/[f] Production Exercises

154

155

[a]/ [6] Production Exercises

CHAPTER 12

157

159

[h]/[m] Production Exercises

149

151

160

164

The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L

[m] Production

167

167

Drill 168 [n] Production Drill

169

170

[rj] Production Drill

172

Drill

174

Exercises

1 71

177

Sing through and Resonate the Nasal Consonants [1] Production

1 79

179

Drill 181 Exercises CHAPTER 13

182

The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots

The Legato Connection: Connect It Up! Implosions and Merges Exercises

187

190

Expressive Doublings: Get It Off the Printed Page! Pulsing the Phrase 202 Exercises CHAPTER 14

185

185

192

203

Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"

International Phonetic Alphabet for British Received Pronunciation IPA Drill

208

211

British Received versus American Standard Rules for British Received Pronunciation Exercises

216

214 215

207

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contents

[D] Production Exercises

218

[ou] versus [su] Exercises

21 7 219

220

The Reduced R Colourings Exercises

222

Shall We D-ah-nce? Exercises

221

223

226

Usage of the "Liquid U" in Historic versus Modern RP Unstressed Words and Syllables Stress Patterns

231

234

Articulating the Letter T in RP Exercises CHAPTER 15

236

237

The Mid-Atlantic Dialect

The Default Dialect [a]

229

229

Trilled and Flipped R's Exercise

228

241

241

242

The Mid-Atlantic Dialect Overview

243

Repertoire Suggestions for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation Rules for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation Exercises

244

245

246

[a] Production

247

Exercise Drills 248 Exercises

250

Afterword: The Finesse Factor A Final Cautionary Note

255

255

A Word about Interdependence

256

Strive for the Third Dimension

256

APPENDIX 1

The International Phonetic Alphabet for English

APPENDIX 2

Three-Dialect Overview

APPENDIX 3

Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire Glossary

263

291

Music Publishers Guide

305

265

259

xviii

SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH

Selected Bibliography and Resources Index of Song Texts General Index

309

315

319

Exercise Guide

Available online at www.oup.com/us/singinginenglish

Singing and Communicating in English: A Singer's Guide to English Diction is an Oxford Web Music title, and this icon indicates examples for which companion audio files are available online at www.oup.com/ us/singinginenglish. For more information on Oxford Web Music, visit www.oxfordwebmusic.com.

Singing and Communicating in English


CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction

Diction: What Is It? "Diction," according to Webster's International Dictionary, is the execution of text with regard to pronunciation, enunciation, and expression. The study of sung speech may be separated into these three distinct areas: Pronunciation: The cultivation of sung speech that is free from regionalisms and is easily understood by the audience. Enunciation: The study of the physiology of speech sounds in order to deliver the vocal text with ease, clarity, and minimal tension. Expression: The communication of the meaning and emotion of a vocal text within the parameters of the musical setting given to us by the composer. Before we begin to tackle all of this, it is important to answer several questions that many whose native language is English may have.

Why Do Native English Speakers Need English Diction Study? If we are native speakers, we tend to be very careless with our language. Since English is easy for us to speak and understand, we assume our facility with it will automatically be transferred to our singing in English. As native speakers, we focus usually on the ideas that we are trying to communicate, not on the specific sounds that make up the words we are using to express ourselves. For most of us, little time is spent analyzing the specific vowel sounds and consonant sounds. If we are to sing effectively in English, we must treat

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the English language with as much care and precision as we give the foreign languages in which we sing. The distinct vowels, of which there are 16, must be very clear and precise when they are sustained in music. In everyday speech, vowel precision is not a requirement for intelligibility. But when a word must be sustained musically in slow motion, it is very important that the vowel sound is precise or else no one will know what we are singing about!

What Is the Ultimate Goal of English Lyric Diction Study? The principal goal of lyric diction is communication. For an English-speaking public, operas performed in their vernacular, whether the original language or in translation, can be profoundly moving. With effective English diction, we have the unique opportunity to have an immediate communicative connection with the audience that is not possible with works in foreign languages.

Why Is This Coal Often Not Realized? There are many factors involved. The absolute essentials of effective communication are: 1. You must be heard. 2. You must be understood. If either of these two does not occur, much of the connection with the audience is lost. If the voice does not carry over the orchestra because of heavy orchestration, problems with staging, or positioning on the stage, the singer will not be heard well enough to be an effective communicator. These are some of the many factors creating problems in reaching the goal of effective communication. However, some of these are beyond the control of the singer. Assuming that we can be heard, there are still many things to consider that impede our communication of the text with our audience. Perhaps the fault of non-communication lies with one of the following: 1. An overwhelming concern on the singer's part for producing beautiful tones and little concern for the projection of the text. Of course, the voice needs to be the number one concern for a classical singer, but beautiful singing with muddy diction is not as exciting for the listener as beautiful singing in which the text is also


clear. Actually, muddy diction can result in muddy singing. The techniques of beautiful singing and good diction need to go hand in hand. Rarely does a singer sing only vowel sounds. In every language, singing almost always involves negotiating around the consonants. 2. The transference of foreign pronunciations into the English language rather than singing English vowels. This is called "singerese." This has consciously or unconsciously slipped into the English diction of almost all singers at one time or another, whether out of habit or choice. Even if vowels need to be modified for vocal reasons, the modifications should not be detectable to the audience. English vowels must always "read" as real and honest to the listener. 3. A gross inconsistency among performers in any kind of standard pronunciation of the same text within the same cast and production. Often, some singers will be singing in several different regional American dialects while the others are singing in a British dialect. 4. An almost cavalier assumption on the part of some performers and administrators of musical organizations that since this is the vernacular, English speakers already have an "inborn skill and sensitivity to singing in English" and therefore need give no further attention to its communicative delivery. This would never be the case for classically trained actors. Sadly, this is often the case with singers.

Expectations of the English-Speaking Audience The English-speaking audience has a very different expectation for the musical performances it hears in English from a performance in a foreign language. They expect and want to understand most of the text on first hearing. Not all of the audience members have grown up listening to opera and therefore come to a classical music performance with very little background in the work, its text, and its plot. If we hope to forge a connection with the younger generation, maintain, and even build opera and concert attendance, the text needs to be clear and communicative. Our fast-paced, stressful modern lifestyle is partly to blame. Rarely do we have the time or energy to come prepared to a concert or opera by having previously read the libretto and familiarized ourselves with the music. For these reasons, we need the musical exposure to classical music performances to be very accessible and "audience-friendly." The text must be clear and intelligible on first hearing. Of course, 100 percent intelligibility of the text is virtually impossible. With heavy orchestration and words set in extremely high and low vocal ranges, some of the words will

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inevitably be lost. But 90 to 95 percent of the text clarity is realistic and definitely possible for singers trained with good diction knowledge and technique. In this book, we will strive to achieve 90 to 95 percent intelligibility in English lyric diction. To that end, we must consider these things. 1. Neutral Pronunciation: The standardization of English pronunciation for communication with the majority of the audience. This is accomplished through the study and knowledge of neutral pronunciation of American English and British English, one that is free of regionalisms and that conforms to the norms of the theatrical stage and public usage—that is, the pronunciation of news broadcasters, television actors, and national mass media performers. 2. Physiological Clarification: The clarification physiologically of the production of the speech sounds of the English language and the release of tensions of everyday speech that will aid in freer vocalism. 3. Study of the English Cadence: The innate accents of inflection of the English language, which leads not only to communication but also to expressive delivery of the language.

What Is Neutral English? Neutral English in North America is called American Standard, or AS. It is a pronunciation of North American English that is most recognizable and understandable to the majority of North Americans. Neutral English in the United Kingdom is known as Received Pronunciation, or RP. Historic forms of RP are used in classical theater and eighteenth- and nineteenth-century opera. Modern RP is used by the broadcasters on BBC 1 and 2 and has been determined to be the most easily accessible to the listening public. The current trend in the United Kingdom seems to be use of RP colored with and inclusive of some of the regional pronunciation of the broadcaster. The far-reaching influence of the mass media has resulted in instant communication of news and world events to all parts of the English-speaking world. Even with some inclusion of regionalism, news broadcasters and other public speakers have cultivated a neutral speech pronunciation that bridges regional speech barriers and facilitates easier communication with this broad area of population. This is not to imply that neutral pronunciation has greater merit than any of the regional dialects. It is also a dialect, but one without any regionalisms. It is, however, the dialect that is used by trained speakers and performers for public usage. The way we speak


English regionally is part of our personal identity. It is something that should be used and maintained in our everyday speech. However, when we are speaking or performing in a public forum, neutral English should be used, so as to erase regional barriers and communicate most effectively with the most people. In this book, we will focus on three dialects that are most readily used by professional singers. 1. American Standard: used for North American repertoire. 2. Received Pronunciation: both the historic and modern forms of RP that are used for repertoire by composers from the British Isles. 3. Mid-Atlantic Dialect: a hybrid of North American and British pronunciation that blends the two dialects. It is frequently used in oratorio and works of European origin that are not specifically British.

References for English Pronunciation American Standard Pronunciation The Pronouncing Dictionary of American English, John S. Kenyon and Thomas A. Knott, editors. All entries are listed in IPA. The preferred pronunciation for American Standard, AS, is listed first, followed by variant regional differences. The NBC Handbook of Pronunciation, revised and updated by Eugene Ehrlich and Raymond Hand, Jr. Used as a reference book by broadcasters, this is an excellent reference for current words and foreign words found in English. Unfortunately, it has no listings in IPA. Longman Dictionary of American English, edited by J. C. Wells. This is an excellent teaching dictionary for English as a foreign language. Listings are in General American. Excellent quick reference guides are scattered throughout. Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English, edited by Clive Upton, William A. Kretzshmar, Jr., and Rafal Konopka. This is excellent for both American and British current pronunciation. Good for the General American Dialect, colloquial American usage.

British Received Pronunciation The Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary, edited by Peter Roach and James Hartman. This is the new seventeenth edition of the original dictionary listed below. It is an excellent dictionary for British Received Pronunciation. It lists both RP and American pronunciations; however, it is not a clear guide for American Standard pronunciation. The determination of what is considered American Standard is far clearer in the Kenyon and Knott Pronouncing Dictionary listed above. It comes with an interactive CD-ROM.

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Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary, edited by Daniel Jones. The basis for the Cambridge Dictionary listed above, it is an excellent source of historic British Received Pronunciation. It is very helpful for the Baroque and Classical repertoire. Unfortunately, it is out of print. Longman Pronouncing Dictionary, edited by J. C. Wells. Developed as a teaching tool for English as a foreign language programs, this is a very clear dictionary with excellent informational guides scattered throughout. It has an accompanying CD-ROM. Oxford Dictionary for Pronunciation for Current English, edited by Clive Upton, William A. Kretzschmar, Jr., and Fafal Konopka. It is an excellent source for modern RP and colloquial American English.

Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation The vowel sounds for Mid-Atlantic pronunciation are generally American vowels with the r-colorings lessened. Use of flipped and rolled R's is also frequent. The use of the sources for both the American Standard and British Received Pronunciations will be helpful. Since Mid-Atlantic is not a spoken dialect but rather a hybrid pronunciation used to blend AS and RP, no dictionaries are found for this pronunciation.

Approach to English Diction Study Most people learn a language through imitation by trial and error. A more accurate way to learn pronunciation of a language is through phonetics, the scientific study of speech sounds and their formation. Ear training is important; we first must be able to hear the sounds within ourselves correctly. But it is not enough to drill the sounds through rote imitation. Minute exactness is required in lyric diction because the sounds are sustained for a much longer time than when spoken. They must be absolutely correctly produced for communicative clarity and to avoid vocal tension. Many singers find singing in English the most stressful vocally. This is often the fault of transference of improper speech production into their singing. As a general characteristic, we are laconic, tense-jawed speakers with little tongue and lip independence when producing the speech sounds. Before we begin in depth, we must familiarize ourselves with the actual sounds we will be dealing with. The most efficient way to do this is through knowledge of the International Phonetic Alphabet.


Introduction to the International Phonetic Alphabet All spoken languages are made up of sounds. Most languages have unphonetic characteristics, that is, the words are not pronounced the way they are spelled. This is especially true of English. For example, the words, "rough," "dough," and "through" are all spelled with the same vowel combination but are pronounced with three different vowel sounds. This poem sums up just how difficult English can be to learn and pronounce! When the English tongue we speak, Why is break not rhymed with freak? Will you tell me why it's true We say sew but likewise few; And the maker of a verse Cannot cap his horse with worse ? Beard sounds not the same as heard; Cord is different from word. Cow is cow but low is low;

Shoe is never rhymed with foe. Think of hose and dose and lose; And think of goose and yet of choose. Think of comb and tomb and bomb; Doll and roll and home and some; And since pay is rhymed with say, Why not paid with said, I pray? We have blood and food and good; Mould is not pronounced like could. Wherefore done but gone and lone ? Is there any reason known? And, in short, it seems to me Sounds and letters disagree. (Anonymous, "Our Queer Language")

The International Phonetic Alphabet, known as the IPA, is a pronouncing alphabet that indicates the exact sounds of all languages regardless of their spelling. It was devised in 1888 by a group of European scientists and linguists.

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1. It is made up of conventional letters from the Roman alphabet plus some new symbols. 2. Each letter of the alphabet equals one sound and always the same sound. 3. All letters are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish them from normal language spellings. 4. The IPA, or the International Phonetic Alphabet, is a key to all languages and is therefore a perfect tool for singers who must be able to switch easily back and forth between the pronunciations of several languages. For example, the same [u] "oo" vowel sound in the words "food," "jewel," and "wound" is the same sound as in the words "ruhe" in German, "luce" in Italian, and "douce" in French. 5. Here is a vowel comparison for English, German, Italian, and French. All four languages use the Roman alphabet and have the same five vowel letters: "a," "e," "i," "o," "u." However, the same five vowel letters represent a different number of vowel sounds in each language: Italian has 7 vowels using these letters. German has 14 vowels, including unlauts and open and closed vowels. French has 14 vowels, including nasals and mixed vowels. English has 16 vowels, including diphthongs.

How to Use This Book This book focuses on three different dialects: American Standard (AS), Received Pronunciation (RP), and Mid-Atlantic (MA) pronunciation. You may choose to work with AS at the beginning of the book and continue straight on through, or start directly with RP or MA found at the end of the book. For the purpose of clarity, these three dialects have been dealt with separately throughout the book. Although the book begins with American Standard pronunciation, it is not necessary to focus on this pronunciation first. The chapters in the middle of this text, chapters 2 through 13, focus on the production of consonants and vowels and are applicable to all three dialects. The treatment of the text within the context of the musical setting for expression and musicality again applies to all three pronunciations. The specifics of British Received Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation are found in chapters 14 and 15 at the end of the book. If you are a British or British Commonwealth speaker, you may want to familiarize yourself first with the International Phonetic Alphabet as it applies to the British Received Pronunciation. It is found in chapter 14 on page 208. Once you have gone through chap-


ter 14, continue on with chapter 2. Chapters 2 through 13 will contain applications and texts for both American and British English. Throughout all the chapters, American texts are treated in American Standard and the British texts are treated in Received Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation. If you are a North American English speaker, just continue on in chapter 1 to learn the IPA as it applies to American English speech sounds. Chapters 2-13 will contain applications and texts for both American and British English. The American texts are treated in American Standard pronunciation and the British texts are treated in Received Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation. An Exercise Guide with phonetic transcriptions and applications for all the exercises and drills can be found on the companion website.

IT'S DECISION TIME!! FOR

IPA for American English

IPA for British English

Continue below

Go to page 208

On to the IPA .. . !!

The International Phonetic Alphabet for American English Consonants The following symbols are identical to the letters of our English (Roman) alphabet:

[b], [d], [f], [g], [h], [k], [1], [m], [n], [p], [s], [t], [v], [w], [z]

The symbols below are new symbols added because no corresponding symbols exist in the Roman alphabet: Symbol

Key Words

[rj]

(ng)

in

sing, think

[6]

(th)

in

thin, thirst

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Symbol

Key Words (th) (hw)

in

thine, this

in

whisper, when

in

y_ou, y_es

(sh)

in

she, sure

(ch)

in

choose, church

in

vision, 'azure*

in

George, joy

in

red, remember, every (the burred r)

Vowels Symbol

Key Words

(ah)

in

father, hot

(eh)

in

wed, many, bury

(ih) (ee)

in

hit, been, busy

in

me, chief, feat, receive

(ee)

in

pretty_, lovely_

in

cat, marry, ask, charity

in

too, wound, blue, juice

in

view, beautiful, usual, tune

in

book, bosom, cushion, full

(oo)

(oh) (aw) (er)

in

obey, desolate, melody (unstressed syllables only)

in

awful, call, daughter, sought

in

learn, burn, rehearse, journey (stressed syllables only)

(er)

in

father, doctor, vulgar, elixir (unstressed syllables only)

(uh) (uh)

in

hum, blood, trouble, judge (stressed syllables)

in

sofa, heaven, nation, joyous (unstressed syllables)

* See alternate pronunciation and stress pattern in RP. ** The use of rolled [R] and flipped R's [r] is found in the British RP and Mid-Atlantic dialects. They should not be used in American Standard pronunciation. t

[3-] and [a--] are the r-colored vowels characteristic of American Standard pronunciation, AS.


Diphthongs Symbol

Key Words in

night, buy, sky_

in

day, break, reign

in

boy, voice, toil

in

no, slow, reproach

in

now, about, doubt

in

air, care, there

in

ear, dear, here, tier

in

pour, four, soar, o'er

in

sure, tour, poor

in

are, heart, garden

Triphthongs Symbol

Key Words in

fire, choir, admire

in

our, flower, tower

Listed below are some frequently used words that are transcribed into the International Phonetic Alphabet; American Standard pronunciations are listed. sing

song

singer

word

would

wonder

walk

war

whisper

jaw church

judge

joyous

choose

children

this

thou

thine

bear

beard

burden

dawn

double

darkness

new

nuisance

numerous

Now give these exercises a try. (Note that the phonetic characters in exercises and text throughout the book are in different fonts and some appear slightly different from each other in the two fonts.)

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EXERCISES IPA Drill 1. Change the following words in IPA symbols into English spellings:

2. Change the following English words into corresponding IPA symbols: charm

zephyr

pensive

earth

flood

anoint


bought

vision

winter

once

hatch

giant

absurd

year

passion

enough

usage

difficult

younger

languish

beautiful

pronounce

worthy

technical

3. Write your name in IPA symbols 4. Find a short paragraph from a newspaper or magazine and transcribe it into phonetics.

5. Change the following texts in IPA into English spellings: American Standard pronunciation:

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2.

CHAPTER TWO Communicating the Thought

Through my years of working with singers, I have found that the singing of exact vowels and correct pronunciation is of the utmost importance; however, in order to communicate the text to the audience, of even greater importance is the correct application of the natural stress and inflection patterns of the English language. If you have had the experience of trying to understand a person speaking to you with a thick foreign accent, you have probably dealt with the difficulties about to be described. If a non-native English speaker speaks to us and most of the grammatically stressed words are properly emphasized, we can understand them. However, if they speak with almost exact vowels but their "emPHAsis is on the wrong syLLAble," we have to re-translate, putting the syllabic accents right before we comprehend what they are saying. The adherence to the correct stress and inflection patterns of English, both syllabically within the words and within phrases, seems to be primary to language clarity and communication. For this reason, I will discuss appropriate stress first.

Communication through Appropriate Stress For native English speakers, it is second nature to communicate clearly and effectively in conversational speech. Unless we mumble or drop the ends of our phrases, usually we can be understood. Because it is second nature to us, we probably have never analyzed just how we communicate through our language. If we hope to successfully transfer our abilities in

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spoken English to sung English, we need to take the time to understand how we communicate, listen to, and process text. The study and understanding of the innate cadence or inflection patterns of the English language is imperative for effective lyric communication. Rarely as listeners do we listen to every word that a speaker is saying. Instead, we instinctively listen for key words and phrases in order to exact the meaning of the person's speech. Our ears are so tuned to listening for the stressed syllables within a single word as well as the stressed words within a phrase that if the syllabic or phrasal stress is incorrect, we often have to re-process the words, mentally adding the correct stresses in order to comprehend the meaning. When a person with a thick foreign accent speaks, if the cadence or stress patterns are correct, we will still easily understand him regardless of his inaccurate vowels or consonants. However, if the vowels and consonants are accurate but the stress and inflection are wrong, it will be very difficult for us to comprehend. Let's analyze the stress patterns of English.

Syllabic Stress within Words The weak and strong pulses within words in English are an integral part of the language. When all the syllables are stressed (or conversely, unstressed) within a word, even if the pronunciation is precise, the words are often not understood. A syllable can be an entire word (sing) or a subdivision of a word with a single vowel sound (re-hearse). The listener does not listen to individual speech sounds but rather recognizes the syllabic stress within a word. Stress can occur in all positions in English words. There can always be found a primary stress, sometimes a secondary stress also, and occasionally a word will contain a double primary stress. Primary stress is indicated by an accent mark above and before the stressed syllable ('), while secondary stress is indicated by an accent mark before and below the syllable (,). Primary Stress

Primary + Secondary Stress

Double Stress

'mu-sic

,ad-ver-'tise-ment (AS)

'sun-'rise

re-'mem-ber

,re-cog-'ni-tion

'rose-'bud

in-'flec-tion

,cha-rac-te-'ris-tic

'diph-'thong

In general, the majority of words have only one primary stress. The predominance of a weak/strong stress pattern within English words is what makes English unique among the lyric languages.


The Unstressed Neutral Vowel In order to energize the strongly accented syllables with sufficient stress, strength must be taken away from weak syllables. We do this by shortening and neutralizing the weak syllables by the use of the [9] schwa vowel. For example, with the word "problem," we would pronounce the second syllable with a [9] vowel [piabtam] in AS or [paobbm] in RP rather than with an [e] vowel [pja/oblem]. If it were pronounced like the second version, "problem" would sound to our ears like a double stressed word and sound like the German "kein pro'blem" rather than English. This neutralizing of the weak vowel does not occur in the Romance languages and appears only in a limited fashion in German with the neutral schwa occurring in weak final syllables. EXAMPLES

English

Italian

'aria

'aria [aria]

a'merican

a'merican

Though unstressed, the Italian vowels do not become weaker and neutralized. The Italian vowels remain pure and full while the English vowels shift to the reduced schwa vowel to accommodate the stressed syllable.

RULE The unstressed syllables »n English should be pronounced with a neutral schwa [0] vowel or one of the possible substitutions

EXAMPLES

heaven motion melody

or possible or possible or possible

for schwa. for schwa. for schwa.

In other words, as singers we have several vowels choices when singing the unstressed syllables of English.

DIAGRAM 2.1

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In many instances, the [a] vowel may seem like too dark or dull a vowel color for certain syllables. In this case, [i], [u], [e], or [o] may be substituted. The bottom line is tha it must sound natural and normal.

RULE When there are two adjacent unstressed syllables in a word, the use of a [a] vowel as well as one of the substitute vowels is preferable to two adjacent [a] vowels.

For example, beautiful, [bjutiful] or [bjutifal], when sustained with any duration, would command the listener's attention more than [bjutafal] because of the variety of adjacent vowel sounds. The choice of the substitute vowel will depend on the individual preference of the artist and the vocal ease of certain vowels in specific ranges. For example, in the higher tessitura, the more closed and rounded vowel substitutions [i] or [u] would perhaps be easier to negotiate. No matter which schwa substitution you choose, remember that it must sound normal to the listener's ear. If it sounds modified or distorted, it will only confuse the listener and sabotage your efforts.

Tips for Vocal Ease

In the passaggio, try using [u] for the schwa substitute as in a word like "heav[u]n." The lip rounding adds more head resonance and comfort. In the lower register, try using [i] or [e] as a schwa substitute for more point and resonance.

Stress/Sense within the English Phrase Similar to the strong/weak patterns of individual words in English, a strong/weak pattern strongly exists within the English phrase or sentence. In order for the listener's ear to be directed to the relevant ideas of a sentence or phrase, the strong word-types must be energized and highlighted. Without this highlighting, the phrase or sentence will make little to no sense. In daily speech, native speakers respond almost instinctively to proper word stress of a sentence or phrase in order to communicate their ideas. But, because the natu ral speech rhythm is stretched and slowed down when English is set to music, singers cannot immediately transfer what they would instinctively in speech. A conscious grasp of English grammatical structure is very helpful for the singer to understand how a listener receives the ideas of his lyric text.


Telegram the Message! Before the advent of email, people would send telegrams in emergencies. Telegrams were charged by the number of words sent over the wire. So, it was important to be brief in order to cut down on the cost. If we were to send a telegram home, we would have little trouble determining the important words that must be sent in order to convey our message. Rather than writing, "My flight from Rome has been canceled. I will be arriving in New York Thursday at 4 p.m." we would send "FLIGHT CANCELED. ARRIVING NEW YORK THURSDAY 4 P.M." We would choose just the words necessary to convey the message and nothing more. Essentially, we would choose the strong word-types to convey our message—the nouns, active verbs, adverbs, and adjectives. This same principle needs to be used when "telegramming" our musical texts. For example: Come away, come away, death, And in sad cypress let me be laid. Fly away, fly away, breath, I am slain by a fair, cruel maid. (William Shakespeare, Twelfth Night, act 2, scene 4)

In telegramming this text by Shakespeare, we would choose "Come death, cypress laid, fly breath, slain maid" to transmit the thought. We have chosen the nouns and active verbs. For greater depth of meaning, we might also include the adverbs "away" and perhaps the adjectives "sad, fair, and cruel." Let's look at this in a more organized, coherent fashion.

The Hierarchy of Stress The strong/weak word-types are listed below: Stressed Words

Unstressed Words

Nouns

Articles (the, a, an)

Active Verbs

Prepositions (in, through)

Adjectives

Conjunctions (and, or, but)

Adverbs

Pronouns (me, I, he, she)

Negatives Interrogative pronouns

Auxiliary/linking verbs

(who, what, where, when, why, how)

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HIERARCHY OF STRESS

DIAGRAM 2.2

There is hierarchy of stress among the list of stress word-types. The primary stress should be placed on the nouns and the active verbs, with secondary stress placed on the words that modify them—the adjectives, adverbs, and negatives. Usually the articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and auxiliary/linking verbs are not stressed. There will occasionally be exceptions to this rule. In the sentence, "John went under not over the bridge," a comparison is made between the prepositions "under" and "over." In this instance, these prepositions need to be stressed. Pronouns, even if they function as the subject of the sentence, are usually not stressed. Like the prepositions above, they should be stressed only when there is a comparison between them. For example: "/ went to class, YOU did not!" Care should be taken not to inflate the modifiers over the words they modify. In the Shakespeare text above, if the adjectives "fair" and "cruel" are stressed more than the noun they modify—"maid"—then the listener is confused as to what is fair and cruel. To serve as a memory aid, let's notate the hierarchy of stress by circling the primary stress words and underlining the words with secondary stress. (Come) away (come) away, (death/) And in sad (cypress) let me be (TaidT) (FlyJ away, (fly) away, (breath) I am (slain) by a fair, cruel (maid) The words that are (circled) are the nouns and the verbs. These transmit the thought to the listener. They must be treated with great care and should always be stressed. The words that are underlined are their modifiers—the adjectives, adverbs, interrogative pro-


nouns, and negatives—which add greater depth to the transmitted thought. In order to communicate with your listener, you must always stress the circled words, but you may choose which of the underlined words you would like to stress.

To Be or Not To Be? The Question Is "Is the Verb 'to be' Stressed?"

RUii Do not stress any forms of the verb "to-be"- unless they are in the subjunc•%

Wve mood or conditional tense. Only the subjunctive mood, which is contrary to fact or the conditional tense should stressed. The verb "to be" is a weak, nonactive, intransitive verb form. Its modifiers, the predicate nominative or predicate adjective that follow the vertv should receive primary stress.

Let's see how this applies to a line of poetry. Is she (kind) as she is (fair?) (William Shakespeare, "Who Is Sylvia?") from Two Gentlemen of Verona, act 4, scene 2 The verb "is" does not need be stressed. Rather "kind" and "fair," the adjectives that follow "is," should be stressed. They are predicate adjectives. They were adjectives but now have become part of the verb or predicate and now function as predicate adjectives. "Is" in essence, now functions as the auxiliary verb and therefore does not need to be stressed. For the grammarphobes, a short grammar review is found in the glossary! Let's try another example. (Rose leaves) when the (rose) is (dead/) Are (heaped) for the beloved's (bed;) (Percy Bysshe Shelley, "Music When Soft Voices Die") Here the forms to the verb "to be" ("is" and "are") do not need to be stressed. Like the Shakespeare example above, the adjective "dead" takes on primary stress because it functions as a predicate adjective and becomes part of the verb phrase. "Heaped" is passive tense and receives primary stress because "are" in this case functions merely as an auxiliary verb.

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And for the brave of heart, let's try another example. Flowers alone are chaste. For their beauty is so brief. . . . Years are their love,

and time's their thief. (Benjamin Britten, "Lucretia's Aria" from The Rape ofLucretid) In the first two lines of "Lucretia's Aria," "chaste" and "brief1 function as predicate adjectives. In the second two lines, "love" and "thief," which were already nouns, have become part of the verb and function as predicate nominatives (nominative = noun).

Pulsing the Phrase English is a Germanic stop-language. It does not have an innate legato and words are often punched when we want to emphasize them. To sing well in English, English must be treated as though it were Italian; we must swell on the stressed vowel sounds rather than punching them.

RULE On the stressed syllable of the stressed word types, swell on the vowel sound and relax the sounds down into the body. This is called pulsing the phrase.

It should feel like you are sighing or moaning on these stressed syllables. Deepen the body connection with the tone and use a full sound that relaxes down into the center of the body. Pulsing the phrase refers to singing into and opening up the voice on the stressed syllables of the stressed words. If the stressed syllables are pulsed and sung into, the important words will be targeted vocally and musically for the listener. The unstressed syllables will be in balance when the stressed words and syllables are pulsed. The pulses are notated with an arrow:

Come away, come away, Death. And in sad cypress let me be laid.

Fly away, fly away, Breath. I am slain by a fair, cruel maid.


Imitate "The Count"! For those of you who grew up watching Sesame Street, it helps to remember the speech pattern of the Dracula character, "The Count," who taught all the children to count their numbers. "The Count" had a thick Hungarian accent and would "SWEEEELL on the Vowel Sounds"! Rather than punching at words like English speakers do, he spoke with in a very "sing-songy" voice and would count "Ooooone! Twoooooo! ThRRRRreeeeeee! Ha! Ha! Ha!" Though trying to imitate "The Count" may seem ridiculous, it can be a helpful aid

to feel what it is like to swell on the stressed vowel. English speakers need to be able to "override" the habit of punching, which is inherent in English speech patterns. Actually, a good intermediate step before singing a text is to intone the text and swell on the stressed vowels. Then try to transfer the sensation of "the swell" or "the pulse" into your singing.

Now let's apply this technique to the Roger Quilter setting of "Come away, Death." Find a copy of the music and do the following: 1. First say the words in rhythm. Then intone them in rhythm. 2. Now do it again and remember to imitate "The Count"! (It helps to say "Ha! Ha! Ha!" after each phrase.) 3. Now try singing the musical phrases and make sure to swell on, not punch, the stressed vowel sounds.

Stress versus Interpretation The stress/inflection patterns of English are the groundwork for artistic interpretation, which is something that needs to be very personal and individual for each singer. For basic communication, the nouns and active verbs must be stressed. After that, it is the individual artist's personal choice as to which of the modifiers he or she would like to emphasize. In the example above, a singer might choose to emphasize the fairness rather than the cruelty of the maid or vice versa, or choose to stress neither of the adjectives. This is their artistic license and the element of an artistic performance that makes it interesting and unique.

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Now that we know what ought to be stressed, how do we give stress vocally with the musical phrase? By putting an overlay of the stress and inflection pattern upon every musical text setting that we sing. In other words, all musical and vocal stresses must correspond with the stress of the text. This will be dealt with in chapter 13 on expressive singing. Before we begin to tackle the individual speech sounds of English, it is necessary to look at one more aspect of the language: how the division of syllables is affected when the words are sung rather than spoken.

The Division of Syllables The conventional division of words into syllables in most dictionaries, or often in musical scores, does not always coincide with the division of syllables needed in song for clarity and vocal legato. In print, words are divided structurally. This will be dealt with in depth as we work with the specific consonants. But for now, in singing, consonants are shifted over to begin the next syllable. For example, the word "diction" would be divided in the dictionary as "dic-tion." For singing, we would divide it "di-ction." This is done in order to allow the singer more time to sing and swell on the stressed vowel sound. By shifting the consonants over to begin the next syllable, more vocal time can be allowed to elongate the vowels and thereby avoid the choppiness that is characteristic of spoken English. It is often this choppiness or lack of inherent legato in the English language that causes many singers to feel more vocal tension while singing in English than while singing in any of the Romance languages. EXAMPLES

Syllables in Print

Treatment in Song

A-mer-i-can

A-me-ri-can

char-i-ty

cha-ri-ty

good-will

goo-dwill

dif-fer-ence

di-ffe-rence

wis-dom

wi-sdom

ex-cel-lent

e-xce-llent

heart-break

hear-tbreak

in-no-cent

i-nno-cent

doubt-ful

dou-btful


EXERCISES 1. Transcribe the following words into the IPA, divide them syllabically for singing legato, and indicate the stress: repertoire

poverty

sensitivity

dazzled

withdraw

theater

interest

candidate

important

dictionary

extremes

characters

presumptuous

approval

2. Transcribe the following text into the IPA and indicate the stressed word-types by circling the nouns and verbs, and underlining their modifiers: In the scented bud of the morning O, When the windy grass went rippling far! I saw my dear one walking slow In the field where the daisies are. We did not laugh and we did not speak, As we wandered happ'ly to and fro, I kissed my dear on either cheek, In the bud of the morning O! A lark sang up, from the breezy land; A lark sang down, from a cloud afar; As she and I went hand in hand, In the field where the daisies are. (James Stephens / Samuel Barber, "The Daisies")

3. Get a copy of Barber's song "The Daisies." Practice intoning and swelling on the stressed syllables of the words. See if you can maintain the swell when you sing it.

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4. Transcribe the following texts into I PA* and indicate the stressed words by circling the nouns and verbs and underlining the modifiers: She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies, And all that's best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes; Thus mellow'd to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies. One shade the more, one ray the less, Had half impair'd the nameless grace Which waves in every raven tress Or softly lightens o'er her face, Where thoughts serenely sweet express How pure, how dear their dwelling-place. And on that cheek and o'er that brow So soft, so calm, yet eloquent, The smiles that win, the tints that glow But tell of days in goodness spent, A mind at peace with all below, A heart whose love is innocent. (Lord Byron, "She Walks in Beauty")

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date; Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, And often is his gold complexion dimm'd; And every fair from fair sometime declines, By chance or nature's hanging course untrimm'd: But thy eternal summer shall not fade Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st;

* Ideally these two British poems should be transcribed into RP or Mid-Atlantic. However, for the purpose of focusing on the grammatically stressed words, use whichever dialect is most familiar to you.


Nor shall Death brag thou wand'rest in his shade, When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st; So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, So long lives this and this gives life to thee. (William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18)

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CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels

Preparation for Vowel Production Before we begin our work on producing specific vowels correctly, we must concern ourselves with body awareness and relaxation. Throughout the day, many develop tensions that must be released. Let's concentrate on isolated areas of the body. The entire body works better when it is aligned properly. The muscles surrounding the articulators—the jaw, lips, tongue, teeth, lips, soft palate, and hard palate—must not be tense. The diaphragm must be soft and pliable. Here are some exercises to release the tension in these areas. 1. Alignment of Spine: Concentrate on sitting or standing tall, with both feet on the floor and knees unlocked. Feel the neck elongated upward. When the head is aligned on the vertebrae of the neck, the jaw will drop easily and the tongue will function efficiently. 2. Facial Massage: Massage the hollows of the cheeks, upper lip, lower lip, temples and forehead. 3. Tongue/Neck Massage: Massage the tendons on the side of neck, walking your fingers upward toward your jaw. Walk your fingers along the lower jawbone toward the chin. The soft muscle under the chin is the base of the tongue. Push up gently with your thumbs, softening this muscle if it is tight. 4. Lip Buzz: Blow air lightly through your closed lips and let them flap on the air. 5. Tongue Stretch: Stick your tongue out as far as is comfortable. Point your tongue toward your left cheek, right cheek, chin and nose. Repeat this several times.

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6. Cud Chew: Chew slowly and deliberately, moving your tongue all around your mouth. Pause to count "one" in an exaggerated fashion and continue chewing as you count to ten. When you are finished, the tip of the tongue should rest easily against the inside of the lower front teeth. The jaw should feel like it is hanging lower and is more released. The facial muscles should feel more pliable. 7. Neck Stretches: Tilt your head slightly forward, diagonally forward, and to the sides, holding in each for ten seconds. Be careful not to push head down in these positions, but rather let it hang from its own weight. 8. Shoulder Rolls: Roll shoulders one at a time forward and backward ten times each. Roll both shoulders together ten times forward and ten times backward. 9. Diaphragm Massage: Massage the diaphragm muscle with your fist in a circular motion. It is relaxed when it is soft enough that you press your fingers in under your rib cage to your second knuckle. Many hold tensions there. When one is angry, nervous, upset or tense, our diaphragm muscle is usually very rigid. 10. Puff Exercise: Take a full breath, purse your lips, and exhale the air with five puffs. The diaphragm should remain relaxed while you tuck in slightly for each puff. 11. Soft Palate Stretch: Encourage yourself to yawn several times. Lift and lower the soft palate by alternating the sounds [rj] and [a]. Hopefully by now the articulators and the muscles directly involved with producing sound feel relaxed and activated. We need to be in a state of active relaxation. Inactive, flaccid muscles do not respond well to our brain impulses and tense muscles cannot respond well either. This is the state of relaxation we need before beginning the vowel drill work. When the tongue is relaxed, the tip stays easily in contact with the lower front teeth, the front and back of the tongue will adjust easily to the required position of the specific vowels. Also, the throat will remain open since it is not crowded by a bulky, tense tongue. These exercises should be included in your vocal warm-up routine everyday. With your diaphragm, shoulders, neck, facial muscles, and the articulators in a state of active relaxation, your singing and speaking voice will respond much quicker to your vocal warm-up exercises. Although the native English speaker can make most of the tongue adjustments for various vowels almost automatically, it is often with stress or tension. It is hoped that studying the detailed analysis of the production of each vowel will help each singer to discover any problems with production that they individually carry over from their speech. The detailed vowel descriptions should also be very helpful to the non-native English singer who is perhaps approaching the study of English diction for the first time.


The Organs of Speech Before we move on to vowel production, let's discuss some specifics about the articulators that we have been working with.

FIGURE 3.1 1 Lips (Labia) 2 Teeth (Denies) 3 Gum Ridge (Alveolar Ridge) 4 Hard Palate 5 Soft Palate (Velum) 6 Uvula a. relaxed b. raised 7 Nasal Passage 8 Mouth (Oral Passage) 9 Tongue (Lingua) 10 Tip of the Tongue 11 Blade of the Tongue 12 Front of the Tongue 13 Middle of the Tongue 14 Back of the Tongue 15 Throat (Pharynx) 16 Epiglottis 17 Voice Box (Larynx) 18 Vocal Folds and Glottis 19 Wind Pipe (Trachea) 20 Food Passage or Gullet (Esophagus)

What Are the Essential Articulators? They are:

The jaw The lips The teeth The tongue The hard palate The soft palate

What Do the Articulators Do? The articulators move in very precise coordination to form the consonants and vowel sounds that we speak and sing.

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How Do They Work? The Jaw

The jaw closes by contracting the jaw muscles. When you release the jaw muscles, the jaw will drop open. You do not need to pull the jaw open; gravity will do the work for you. The Lips The upper and lower lips are muscles that can work together to form a smile, a frown, a pucker, a whistle position, or work independently. The Teeth The teeth are connected to the jaw and are positioned closer or further apart by opening or closing the jaw. The Tongue The tongue is a flexible muscle that can be moved in many ways. The front can be lifted to touch the upper gum ridge or the teeth. The middle can be arched to bring it closer to the hard palate. The back can lift up closer to the soft palate. The entire tongue can move forward out of the mouth or can be drawn back and bunched in the back of the mouth. The tongue is a very long muscle and is problematic for many singers. The base of the tongue actually attaches just above the larynx or voice box, and if it is tense, it can distort the vocal quality. The Hard Palate The hard palate, or roof of the mouth, is actually bone cartilage and cannot be moved. The Soft Palate The soft palate is soft muscle tissue that is attached to the back of the hard palate. It can be raised and lowered to open or close off the passage from the throat into the nasal space. As children, we learned to use our speech articulators by experimenting and imitating the speech of the people around us. It took several years to learn how to talk. We imitated our parents and picked up both their good speech habits and often also their tensions. As we become aware of the specific control we have over the articulators, we will be able to release negative tensions and produce more optimal vocal sounds. Now let's look briefly at an overview of how the English vowels are produced.


The Vowel Chart

DIAGRAM 3.1

The Fronting Vowels: These require the fronting of the tongue. The middle of the tongue slides forward and rises toward the hard palate. The tip of the tongue should be in contact with the lower front teeth. The vowel [i] has the highest tongue arch; [ae] has the most relaxed arching of the tongue. Lips are spread.

The Backing Vowels: The arch of the tongue is raised toward the soft palate; the tip of the tongue touches the lower front teeth. Lips are rounded. The vowel [u] has the highest tongue arch; [D], the lowest.

[a] The tongue is in the lowest position—neither front nor back. The tongue is still slightly arched but in a relaxed, neutral position. Lips are relaxed and neutral.

The Mixed Vowels: The mixed vowels have characteristics of both the fronting and backing vowels. They require the tongue position of one of the fronting vowels plus the lip position of the backing vowels. These will be described in depth later on.

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A Word of Caution The backing of the tongue in no way refers to pulling the tongue backward and bunching it in the throat. It refers to the forward arching of the tongue that, in relation to the soft palate, is slightly further in "back" of the hard palate. In any case, the tongue should always be felt in contact with the lower front teeth.

Tips for Vocal Ease In general, when singing in the upper register or the passaggio, try shifting the vowel up toward the next closed vowel on the vowel chart for more vocal comfort. For difficulty in the passaggio with: Substitutions

Examples

try [e]

for "man" —> sing m[e]n

try [e] without second vowel

for "heaven" —> sing h[e]ven

in diphthong for "body" —> sing b[o]dy for "exalted" —>sing exh[o]lted For [i] and [i], try using the umlauted or mixed vowels from French or German. [i]

try [yj

for "dream" -»sing dr[y]m

[i]

try [Y]

for "hill" —> sing h[v]ll

A Word of Caution If a vowel is modified or substituted for greater vocal ease, it must be done in such a way that the vowel change is not discernible to the listener. The listener needs to hear real vowel sounds and should not have to struggle with a text sung in "singerese." Use the modifications only in the passaggio or the extreme ranges of the registers. In the middle range, always use precise and correct vowels. More suggestions for these vowel modifications can be found in the chapters for the specific vowel sounds.

Eliminating Glottal Attacks Before we speak or sing these vowels, let's discuss the way they should be initiated for optimal vocal health. The initiation of a vowel is called an attack or an onset. In other


words, the attack or onset is the way in which the vowel is started in your throat and mouth.

RULE AH vowels should be initiated with breath pulses or breath lifts, rather than by glottal attacks.

When glottal attacks occur, the breath below the opening of the vocal folds does not escape evenly because of tension at the vocal folds. Most English speakers initiate all words beginning with a vowel with a glottal attack. To isolate the feeling of the tension of the glottal attack, bring the vocal folds together as though beginning to cough. Habitual use of harsh glottal attacks may lead to severe vocal problems. In singing, the glottal attack should be used rarely and purposefully with great caution. In order to give stress to key words that begin with vowel sounds, breath lifts may be used to effectively separate the stressed word from the word that precedes it. A breath lift requires a tuck in at the diaphragm that results in the release of a small jet of air helping to initiate the separated vowel. One way to easily find the sensation of the breath lift is to insert the [h] consonant before initial vowels. For example, "earth" would be sounded as "h-earth." Of course, starting vowels with a breathy [h] sound is not the ultimate goal. But we do want to initiate vowels with the sensation of the release of breath that accompanies the beginning of phonation. For now, however, we need to insert the [h] in order to break the ingrained habit of harsh glottal attacks.

RULE Break the legato line and use a breath lift only when a primary stressed word begins with a vowel. Do not break the legato line with a breath lift on unstressed words, such as prepositions, conjunctions or pronouns that begin with a vowel.

EXAMPLES

Break:

My [']only hope

Connect:

Getting —> and spending we lay waste —> our powers

Her languid ['jeyes

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Modera

As they low-ered the bright

'awn - ing

At the

'out- door ca -

fe

("Early in the Morning," Ned Rorem)

EXERCISE DRILLS FOR GLOTTAL ATTACK ELIMINATION 1. Count slowly to twenty. Concentrate on beginning number 8 and number 18 with breath lifts rather than glottal attacks. 2. Read across the columns, adding a glottal attack [?] to the first column and an [h] to the words in the second column. Then try to duplicate the sensation of vocal relaxation in the third column, silencing the [h] and instead using a breath lift [']. ? aim

^ aim

'aim

? owe

[ti] OWe

'owe

? unto

^ unto

'unto

?out

^ out

'out

?eye

[h] gyg

'eye

? under

[h]

under

'under

? awful

w awful

'awful

? always

[h]

'always

always

[?] = glottal attack ['] = breath lift

EASY ONSET EXERCISES In the field of speech therapy, glottal attacks are referred to as hard onsets. In other words, when you start a vowel with a glottal attack you have a hard onset of the vowel. If you start a vowel on the impulse or lift of the breath, you have an easy onset of the vowel. Practice using easy onsets on the stressed words. Final consonants may be shifted over to an unstressed vowel to avoid glottals on words that are unstressed.


'Eat_an 'apple 'every day.

'Oliverând 'Audrey were 'unruly.

'Enjoy the 'opera!

'It was_an 'awful 'accident.

Go 'outsideând smell the 'orchids.

Get 'outôf my sight!

'Under 'eye 'ointmentsâre 'oily.

'Eggs with 'olives taste 'awful.

' Honestyând 'integrity _are 'admirable.

'An 'Astin Martinôrâ Bentley would be 'awfully nice!

Determining Your Optimum Pitch Another very harmful speech habit a lot of singers have is speaking too far above or below their optimum pitch. The great American baritone Jerome Hines wrote about vocal fatigue in his book, Great Singers on Great Singing. He found that his own vocal fatigue was not from his opera performances but from speaking improperly. His work with a speech therapist led him to interview his colleagues and discuss their personal approach to classical vocal technique. Singers are trained ideally to have a three-octave range of optimum pitches when they sing. But when they speak, there is a fairly narrow optimum pitch range that is best for their speaking voice. An optimum pitch is a pitch at which the speaker is most physically comfortable and the voice resonates and projects most easily. Most of us learned to speak by imitating our parents and caregivers. It is not a coincidence that when visiting our childhood home, we answer our parent's telephones and the person on the other end exclaims, "Oh, you sound just like your Father/Mother!" Unfortunately, imitating our parents does not mean that we are speaking in the pitch range that is best for our own voices. Part of it is also cultural influence. Girls are often encouraged to sound "ladylike" and have soft, high-pitched voices; boys are encouraged to sound "masculine" and macho. Often classically trained singers are encouraged to speak in their singing range rather than their optimum speaking range. I call it the '"Hi, I'm a tenor' syndrome." So, how do you find where your optimum pitch for speaking is? Gather around the piano with some friends or colleagues and listen to each other speak. Ladies: Start out at middle C. At medium volume repeat a phrase like "Hi! How are you?" on several pitches. Make sure you are speaking on these pitches and not singing on them. First try middle C, then go up or down by half steps. Listeners, listen for the pitch that sounds the most resonant and brings out the most unique quality to their speaking voice. For most sopranos, the optimum pitch is somewhere between B-flat and D. For a high

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coloratura, it might be an E. For most mezzos, the optimum pitch range is often between middle A-flat and C. There may be one or two pitches that seem correct. After a week or so of using the voice in that range, the speaker will settle in on the one that seems most natural and comfortable. Gentlemen: Start your search around the D below Middle C. Again, repeat a phrase like "Hi, how are you?" on several pitches. Remember to speak on the pitches; don't sing on them. Go up and down by half step and listen to the feedback of your listeners. When the voice seems to resonate naturally and the partials seem to come into the vocal color, then you are close to the optimum pitch. For tenors, the range is often somewhere between D and F. For baritones, the range is often between B and D. For basses, A and C. Again, if it is a toss up between two notes one half step apart, give it a week and see which one ends up being the best fit for you.

Speaking at Your Optimum Pitch Range Once you have determined approximately what is your optimum pitch, use a short memorized text to practice with. It could be a speech or prayer or anything that you have by rote memory. Play your optimum pitch on the piano and start every phrase of your memorized text on that pitch. Try to stay within an interval of a third on either side of your determined optimum pitch. That way, when you naturally inflect your voice you will stay only a note or two above or below it. Many singers make the mistake of trying to speak with a wide range. The optimum pitch range is only the range of a perfect fifth or a sixth. If you begin using your optimum pitch range regularly, you will find that you will have less vocal fatigue and that you will not have to push your voice to be heard. It is especially important to use it when speaking on stage or in the midst of a crowd.

Here are some more exercises to work with eliminating glottal attacks while using your optimum pitch range.

1. Go through the vowels of the Vowel Chart on page 35 in order. Initiate each vowel with a breath lift. Be careful not to use glottal attacks. EXAMPLES

Tongue vowels: Lip vowels: Mixed vowels:

Now go through all the same vowels above, instead alternating between [m] and a breath lift ['] before each vowel. Concentrate on staying near your optimum pitch.


EXAMPLES

2. Try alternating between breath lifts and glottal attacks on Lady MacBeth's desperate cry in her sleepwalking scene: 'Out damn'd spot! 'Out I say! vs. ?Out darnn'd spot! ?Out I say! Lines this dramatic are much more effective with glottal attacks. This is an example where a breath lift would not be expressive enough. In singing, try to use glottal attacks only when the dramatic intensity requires it. Otherwise, always substitute breath lifts to maintain healthier vocalism. 3. Look for five examples in your own repertoire where breath lifts could be substituted for glottal attacks on stressed word-types beginning with a vowel. 4. Prepare the following poem for dramatic reading. Indicate the stressed wordtypes. Practice initiating the stressed words that begin with vowels with breath lifts. (Note that the breath lifts on the stressed words have been indicated. The unstressed words should not have glottal attacks.) Thus Dullness, the safe 'opiate_of the mind, The last kind refuge weary Wit can find, Fit for 'all stations, andjn 'each content, Is satisfied, secure, and 'innocent. No painsjt takes, and no offencejt gives: 'Unfeared, 'unhated, 'undisturbedJt lives. And if 'each writing 'author's best pretence Be but to teach the 'ignorant more sense, Then Dullness was the cause they wrote before, As 'tis at last the cause they write no more, So Wit, which most to scorn Jt does pretend, With Dullness first began, in Dullness last must 'end. (Alexander Pope, "On Dullness")

Breath lifts were added before each of the stressed words that begin with a vowel. All unstressed words that begin with vowels should be initiated with breath lifts if they are at the beginning of a line, as is the natural onset in a healthy singing technique. Unstressed vowels that begin words in the middle of the line should be connected with a liaison (_) to the word preceding them.

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CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels

[i] Production The international vowel sound [i], also found in German, Italian, and French, is the highest and most forward of the English vowels. It is found in words such as: he, she, need, peace, scene, people, feat, and receive. The vowel [i] occurs only in stressed syllables.

FIGURE 4.1 [i]

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Action Tongue

tip on lower front teeth front of tongue arched forward toward hard palate sides of tongue touching upper molars

Jaw

lower jaw released, loose no teeth clenching drop as if yawning teeth most closed together but must practice producing [i] with teeth further apart for passaggio and high notes

Lips/Facial Muscles

lips horizontal, soft, relaxed energize cheek muscles surrounding lips and cheek bone area

Pitfalls to Avoid No glottal attacks. No "on-off glides." For example, "steal"- stea-(uh)-!, which occurs when [1] is anticipated. Be careful not to tense throat muscles, flatten tongue, or grin by pulling lips back at corners of the mouth. Avoid nasality when [i] is adjacent to [m] and [n].

Tips for Vocal Ease In the passaggio or the extremes of the register, try modifying [i] to the umlauted or mixed vowel [y] for greater vocal ease and more point and focus on the lower notes.

[y]

Wil - low,

if

he

once

should

be

re

-

turn

- ing

("Willow Song" from The Ballad of Baby Doe, Douglas Moore)

The Lowered [i] Vowel In Standard American Speech for the Stage and British Received, there is a lowered [i] vowel used for final unstressed "y" endings as in the words "pretty" and "only." This sound


is halfway between [i] and [i]. The [i] symbol is used in the IPA for an unstressed mixed vowel. It was chosen in this book because it is the best visual reminder to de-intensify an unstressed final "y" ending.

RULE Final unstressed "y" and its plural("-les" endings) should always be sung as[i].

EXAMPLES

daisy [deizi]

daisies [deiztz]

beauty [bjuti]

beauties [bjutiz]

duty [djuti]

duties [djuttz]

carry [kaejt]

carries [kaejtz]

EXERCISES 1. Practice intoning and singing the following words:

me

read

deceive*

achieve

he

weep

believe*

pleasing

she

creed

release*

people

we

queen

relieve*

eagles

seal**

shield**

reveal**

yield**

2. Transcribe the following words into IPA observing the rules above: merrily

mysteries

joyfully

only

very

visionaries

sunny

journey

melodies

3. Practice examples from vocal texts: He shall speak peace unto the heathen. (C. F. Handel, Messiah)

The unstressed prefixes in the third column above should be pronounced with [i] (rule, p. 48). ** Avoid off-glides with the letter I.

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0 sleep, why dost thou leave me? (G. F. Handel, Semele) Over the ripening peach

Buzzes the bee Splash on the billowy beach Tumbles the sea But the peach And the beach They are each Nothing to me! (W. S. Gilbert, Ruddigore) 4. Transcribe the following text and intone/sing it: 1 shall find for you shells and stars, I shall swim for you river and sea. Sleep, my love, sleep for me, My sleep is old. I shall feed for you lamb and dove. I shall buy for you sugar and bread. Sleep, my love, sleep for me My sleep is dead. Rain will fall but Baby won't know, He laughs alone in orchards of gold. Tears will fall but Baby won't know, His laughter is blind. Sleep, my love, for sleep is kind. Sleep is kind when sleep is young. Sleep for me, sleep for me. I shall build for you planes and boats. I shall catch for you cricket and bee. Let the old ones watch your sleep. Only death will watch the old. Sleep. (Gian Carlo Menotti, "Lullaby" from The Consuf)

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[i] Production

FIGURE 4.2 [i]

The international vowel sound [i] is also found in German, but not in Italian or French. It is found in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Compared to [i], the [i] vowel sound is generally shorter in duration. It is found in stressed positions in words such as: it, been,* build, women, sing, think. It can be found in unstressed positions such as: beautiful, individual, and all "ing" endings such as: singing, going, and loving. It is also frequently used as a substitution for the unstressed [3] schwa vowel, for example, musical, delicate.

Action Tongue

tip behind lower front teeth front arched slightly less toward hard palate sides touching upper molars

Lips

horizontal, relaxed cheek muscles energized

Jaw

dropped slightly more open

*AS and weak form in RP/MA [bin].

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Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid singing substitution of [i] for [i]. EXAMPLE

I love h[i]m not h[i]m [i] [i] [i] ['] She bid me take life easy

Do not let sound fall back in throat. Do not keep jaw too wide. Do not keep tongue too slack or arched too low. Avoid regional substitutions of [e] for [i]. EXAMPLES

[him] not [hem] [pin] not [pm]

been [bin] not Ben [bm] Avoid southern off-glides. EXAMPLES

him since

Tips for Vocal Ease In the passaggio and register extremes, try modifying [i] to the mixed German or French vowel [Y] for greater vocal ease.

Y

Dream - ing

y

as

I watch it

gleam,

("The Silver Aria" from The Ballad of Baby Doe, Douglas Moore)

RULE The unstressed prefixs or syllables spelled're-','be-','se-','de-','e-', and 'e' plus a consonant as in the words recive,beleve,select,deceive,elect, and escape as well as 'Im-' and 'in-'should be sung with[I].The suffixes

'-ing'and '-ic' use [I] as well.


lidPTI0N S

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1. When the unstressed syllable Is elongated or at a very slow tempo, use a full vowel sound, either [I] or [t] as jqdpropifatte 2* The stressed 're-' pref ix, stressing that an action is perfoiwtfed again, also uses [i]. For example, words like-revisljif "reconnect"

EXAMPLES

[i]

[I]

[I]

[I]

[I]

[I]

[I]

remember

delight

excite

secure

important

include singing

Since this vowel sound is found only in the lyric repertoire in English and German, it often poses difficulties for native speakers of the Romance and Asian Languages. Great care must be taken to drill and differentiate between the [i] and [i] vowel sounds. The following is a list for non-native speakers. They are the most frequently found words that are pronounced with [i]. Memorizing this list should greatly decrease the mistaken substitution of [i] for the [i] vowel in at least the most common usages. Always [i] it, is, him, with, which, this, since, been,* slip, sing, live, sick, sin, bid, sit, will, lips, ship, still, win, wing, hit, winter, pity, wither, whither, miss, lit, lids, give, city, kiss, whisper, pity, riches. * In RP, "been" has two pronunciations: sf [i] wf [i].

EXERCISES 1. Read aloud the following words alternating, between the [i] and [i] columns:

[I]

[i]

[i]

[i]

itch

each

hitting

heating

slip

sleep

filling

feeling

rid

read

bitter

beater

mill

meal

dipper

deeper

been

bean

riches

reaches

sin

seen

living

leaving

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2. Transcribe the following song text into IPA using care to differentiate between the [i] and [i] vowels. Then read and sing it aloud: Down by the Sally Gardens my love and I did meet, She passed the Sally Gardens with little snow white feet. She bid me take love easy, as the leaves grow on the tree But I being young and foolish with her did not agree. In a field by the river, my love and I did stand, And on my leaning shoulder she laid her snow white hand; She bid me take life easy as the grass grows on the weirs, But I was young and foolish and, now am full of tears. (W. B. Yeats, Traditional)

3. Transcribe the following words into IPA observing the prefix rules above: decision

deserve

delightful

restore

rejoice

respond

begun

belittle

behavior

secure

seduce

seclusion

erode

event

elusive

enjoy

enhance

exaggerate

4. Transcribe the following text in IPA and practice speaking/singing it using care to differentiate the [i] and [i] vowels: "If with all your hearts ye truly seek me, Ye shall ever surely find me," Thus saith our God. Oh! that I knew where I might find Him, That I might even come before His presence! (Felix Mendelssohn, Elijah)

[s] Production The international vowel [e] appears in varied versions in Italian, German, and French. It is found in stressed syllables like in the words: wed, many, bury, friend, head, guest, any, says, said, and saith (saith is archaic form of said, the past tense of "to say" and is pronounced as [se0]). It is also a frequent substitute for the unstressed [a] vowel.

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FIGURE 4.3 [e]

Action Tongue

tip in contact with lower front teeth front of tongue less arched toward soft palate lowest of lip vowels to still have contact with upper molars

Lips

relaxed, slightly spread

Jaw

cheeks still energized lower than for [i] or [ei] diphthong

Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid tense tongue, lips, or mouth. Avoid glottal attacks. Avoid off-glides: [heed] for head [hed]. Avoid nasal Midwestern twang. EXAMPLES

many—not [mini] but [mmt] any—not [int] but [eni]

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Avoid American Southern substitution of [i] for [e]. EXAMPLES

pencil—not

but

forget—not

but

Tips for Vocal Ease If the [e] spreads in the passaggio, try closing to a more closed [e], as in the first vowel of the diphthong [ei]. Be careful to just sing [e] and not add the second [i] vowel. Larghetto e piano

[e

He shall

feed His flock like

a

shep -

("He Shall Feed His Flock" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)

EXERCISES 1 . Practice intoning/singing the following words: wed

bed

head

guest

met

let

next

send

gentle

well

tell

quell

quest

bury

said

saith

says

fetch

weather

death

breath

bells

heaven

whether

get

2. Transcribe and practice reading the following text: I attempt from Love's sickness to fly in vain, Since I am myself my own fever and pain, No more now, no more now, Fond heart, with pride no more swell: Thou canst not raise forces enough to rebel (Henry Purcell, from The Indian Queen)

-

- herd

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3. Transcribe the following song text into IPA and practice with care the [t] vowel sounds: Low as the singer lies In a field of heather, Songs of his fashion bring the swains together. And when the west is red With the sunset embers, The lover lingers and sings, And the maid remembers. (Robert Louis Stevenson / Ralph Vaughan Williams, "Bright Is the Ring of Words")

[ae] Production The vowel [ae] is a distinctively English vowel that is not found in German, Italian, or French. A long vowel sound in duration, it is the most common stressed vowel in English. In American Standard pronunciation, all [ae] vowels are pronounced alike.

FIGURE 4.4 [ae]

544


Because the [ae] vowel does not exist in the other lyric languages, it is often overlooked and seldom vocalized. A well produced [ae] can be a very beautiful sound.

Action Tongue

tip in contact with lower front teeth front arched less than for [e] sides of tongue aligned with lower molars first vowel to be in contact with lower teeth

Lips

released, not spread cheeks still energized

Jaw

more open than for [e]

Pitfalls to Avoid Do not stretch lips against teeth. Do not pull back corners of mouth. Do not tighten tongue muscles under chin. Do not nasalize by directing vowel through nose. Do not substitute [a] for [ae] vowel—it sounds affected EXAMPLES

hand: man:

not [hand] not [man]

Be careful not to produce flat, nasal sound when adjacent to nasal consonants. EXAMPLES

hands, lands, sang, dance

Avoid Midwestern regional substitution of [e] for [ae] EXAMPLES

tarry marry

not terry not merry

Tips for Vocal Ease For greater comfort in the passaggio and high range, modify [ae] to [e]. Be sure to really sing a true [ae] in the middle range, or else the listener can hear that the vowel has been modified and your diction will sound artificial.


EXERCISES 1. Practice intoning/singing the following words, avoiding nasality: cat

hand

land

passion

hat

man

stand

matter

sad

valley

happy

balance

than

lamb

capture

rapture

bag

magic

hallowed

understand

2. If you find that you are tempted to substitute [E] for [ae], which is common pronunciation for many people who live in areas of North America, practice the following words using the correct [ae] pronunciation: arrow

carry

charity

embarrass

marry

marriage

narrow

paradise

Arab

Carol

Harry

Paris

3. Practice maintaining an [a?] vowel without nasalization when in close proximity with nasal consonants: Repeat: had/had/hand

bad/bad/band

sad/sad/sand

cad/cad/candy

lad/lad/land

mad/mad/mandate

glad/glad/gland

gad/gad/gander

Review of Front Vowels Repeat the following words, carefully differentiating between the various vowel sounds:

[i]

[i]

[ei]

bean

been

bane

read

Pete

rid fist sit pit

peel keen

feast seat

raid

Ben red

[a] ban rad

faced

fest

fast

sate pate

set pet

pill

pail

Pell

kin

cane

Ken

sat pat pal can

[E]

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56


If you experience difficulty in finding the [ae] vowel easily, practice drilling back and forth between the adjacent vowels on the vowel chart:

The same approach can be helpful with finding the mouth position for [i]:

[i] . .. [i] , . . [e] or [e] ... [i] ... [i] Although [a] is neither considered a fronting nor a backing vowel, it will be included here because of the physiological sequence of the vowel chart.

[a] Production The [a] vowel is the most favored sound in singing internationally. It is found in various forms in Italian, French, German, Russian, and so on. It is the most open of all English vowels. In American Standard, it is found in words such as: father, God, calm, hot, and doctor. In RP and MA, the words spelled with "o," God, not, honour, are pronounced with [D]. See page 217.

FIGURE 4.5 [a]


It is a long vowel in duration. In the United States, [o] is often substituted in areas of Germanic immigration; and [D] is often heard in New England and the Eastern seaboard.

Action Tongue

tip on lower front teeth body of tongue lying in lowest position front of tongue fiat, middle still slightly arched

Lips

relaxed, no specifications no protrusion toward [o] cheeks still lifted and energized

Jaw

most relaxed, lowest vertical drop

Pitfalls to Avoid No pressure under chin. Do not press tongue down. Do not protrude lips—results in [o] vowel. No lip rounding or tensing lips. No off-glides to [9] vowel—for example, calm not [ko(9)m]. Avoid [a] or [D] substitutions in AS.

Tips for Vocal Ease Try singing [a] with [Y] placement if the [a] poses problems in the passaggio. Again, to the listener, this vowel must always sound exact and not Italianate or artificial.

EXERCISES 1. Intone/sing the following words focusing on [a] for AS pronunciation: body

John

bomb

accomplish

doctor

box

shock

possibility

got

common

Tom

problem

Robert

collar

motto

popcorn

Psalm*

calm*

palm*

balmy*

not

upon

on

God

*While many regionalisms may pronounce the letter "I," it is in fact silent in all neutral pronunciations (AS, RP, and MA).

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58


If the [a] pronunciation on these "o" spellings seems very foreign to your regional pronunciation, keep a list of [a] words for frequent reference. 2. Transcribe the following text into American Standard Pronunciation IPA and practice intoning/singing it: Sure on this shining night Of star made shadows round, Kindness must watch for me This side the ground. The late year lies down the north. All is healed, All is health. High summer holds the earth. Hearts all whole. Sure on this shining night I weep for wonder. Wand'ring far alone Of shadows on the stars. (James Agee / Samuel Barber, "Sure on This Shining Night")

CHAPTER FIVE The Backing Vowels

[u]/[ju] Production The vowel sounds [u] and [ju] are related in English. The vowel [u] appears in German, Italian, and French, though the European version has more intensity. The vowel [ju] is found only in English. The vowel [u] is found in the words: too, wound, blue, juice; [ju] in the words: view, beautiful, usual, music.

FIGURE 5.1 [u]/[ju]

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600


Action Tongue

tip touching lower front teeth back of tongue arched toward soft palate sides of tongue in contact with upper molars for [ju]-movement begins with [j] glide position— sides in contact with inner surface of upper teeth, then glides forward as it merges with [u]

Lips

round, smallest circular shape lip rounding essential to accurate production the rounder the lip contour, the higher the tongue arch

Jaw

mouth opening and jaw very small vertically wide opening in center of mouth between tongue and hard palate

Pitfalls to Avoid Do not arch tongue too high in back. Do not hold tongue/jaw too stiffly—muffles sound. Do not nasalize [u] when adjacent to m, n—moon, fume. Do not form vowel in throat—squeezed and guttural. Avoid regional substitution of [o] for [u]. EXAMPLES

roof:

not

root:

not

Avoid off-glides with 1. EXAMPLES

fool [ful] not school [skul] not

[ju] PRONUNCIATION: THE LIQUID U Certain words often spelled "u" or "ew" can have two different pronunciations— either [u] or [ju]. The words "duty" and "duke" can be pronounced either [dutt] or [djuti], [duk] or [djuk]. The second pronunciation, commonly called the Liquid U, is considered preferable when singing art song, oratorio, and opera and is the only pronunciation for RP and MA. Of course, there are exceptional circumstances. In North American songs with a juvenile text or colloquial flavor, the [ju] sounds too stuffy.

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The words with two possible pronunciations usually contain the English spellings "u," "ew," "eu," or "ue" and are preceded by one of the following consonants: d, n, I, s, t, or th. Below is a list of the most commonly used of these words: d

duty, duly, due, dew, duke, endure, induce, duplicate

n

new, knew, renew, news, nuisance, numerous, nuclear*

I

lute, alluring, illusion, elude, prelude, interlude

s

suitor, pursuit, assume, consume, presume, resume

t

tune, Tuesday, tumult, student, stupid, gratitude, multitude, astute, tutor

th

enthuse, enthusiasm

Exceptions to these spellings are words that should be pronounced with [u] only: blue, blew, clue, include, exclude, flute, flew, flue, glue, plume, slew, and words spelled with "u" but that have an [A] pronunciation: dumb, numb, lung, sung, tumble, thunder, and so on. [ju] only: There are some words not listed that always use the [ju] pronunciation. The most common of them are: music, amuse, huge, few, cure, imbued, human, Hugh, humility, humorous, excuse, calculate, refute, future, beautiful, mute, value, hue, unison, university, unit, usurp, community * Nuclear is often mispronounced in the United States as dard pronunciation is or

The American Stan-

EXERCISES 1. Practice intoning/singing the following words containing [u] vowel: too

cool

blue

blew

through

lose

who

whom

fruit

moon

noon

flute

roof

choose

glue

flew

gloom

soothe

tomb

wounded

June

bruise

peruse

recruit

school*

fool*

tool*

cool*

* Avoid off-glide [9] by not anticipating [1].

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2. Practice making the distinction between [u] and [ju] in the following words: stoop —> stupid

noon -> new

two -> tune

do -» dew

pooh —» pew

who —> hue

coo -> cue

flute -»lute*

3. Transcribe and recite the following text: I have wished a bird would fly away And not sing round my house all day. I have clapped my hands at him from the door When it seemed as if I could bear no more. The fault must partly have been in me, The bird was not to blame for his key. And besides there must be something wrong In wanting to silence any song. (Robert Frost / Celius Dougherty, "A Minor Bird")**

4. Transcribe the following song text: Slowly, silently, now the moon Walks the night in her silver shoon; This way, and that, she peers, and sees Silver fruit upon silver trees; And moveless fish in the water gleam, By silver reeds in a silver stream. (Walter de la Mare / John Duke, "Silver")

5. Transcribe the following song text: See how they love me, Green leaf, gold grass, Swearing my blue wrists Tick and are timeless. See how it woos me,

*ln AS and Historic RP/MA, [ljut], in Modern RP/MA, [lut]. **From "A Minor Bird" in The Poetry of Robert Frost, edited by Edward Connery Lathem. Copyright 1928, 1969 by Henry Holt and Company. Copyright 1956 by Robert Frost. Reprinted by permission of Henry Holt and Company, LLC.

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Old sea, blue sea, Curving a half moon Round to surround me. Yet you rebuke me, O love, I only pursue, See how they love me. (Howard Moss / Ned Rorem, "See How They Love Me")

[u] Production The vowel [u] is a very characteristic vowel in English that is considered short in duration. It appears in German, but not in Italian or French. In English, it can be found in stressed words such as: good, could, book, full, bosom, cushion; or in unstressed positions as a substitute for [9]: fulfill, joyful, supreme, today.

FIGURE 5.2

[u]

64


Action Tongue

tip behind lower front teeth

Lips

back of tongue arched toward soft palate but lower than for [u] rounded but less firm than [u] cheeks energized

Jaw

slightly dropped from [u] position

Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid pushing from throat with guttural sound. Avoid drawled, off-glides: putpull Avoid substitution of [u] for [u]—sounds foreign EXAMPLES

put:

not [put]

pull:

not [pul]

look:

not [luk]

The vowel [u] is frequently difficult for singers because it is rarely vocalized and therefore is often distorted or substituted with [u]. As with the [ae] vowel, [u] must be drilled and vocalized in order to easily produce the beautiful English vowel it can be.

EXERCISES 1. Practice alternating between the [u] and [u] sounds in the words listed below:

[o] pull

[u]

stood

stewed

could

cooed

would

wooed

full

fool

should

shoed

cook

kook

hood

who'd

pool


2. Practice speaking/intoning the following words: full

wood

good

look

put

book

stood

would

push

foot

crooked

wolf

fulfill

wool

forsook

woman

3. Transcribe and intone the following text: Oh, sweet and lovely lady, be good! Oh, lady be good to me! I am so awf'ly misunderstood, So lady, be good to me. Oh, please have some pity, I'm all alone in this big city, I tell you I'm just a lonesome babe in the wood, So lady be good to me! (Ira Gershwin and George Gershwin, "Oh, Lady Be Good!")*

*OH, Lady Be GOOD! Music and Lyrics by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin. © 1924 WBMusic Corp. (Renewed) Gershwin®, George Gershwin® and Ira Gershwin™ are trademarks of Gershwin Enterprises. All Rights Reserved. Used by kind permission.

[o] Production The sound [o] represents the vowel in an unstressed syllable like in the word "obey." When it is found in a stressed position, it becomes the diphthong [ou]. This single pure vowel appears in German, Italian, and French; the diphthong does not.

Action Tongue

tip on contact with lower front teeth back arched halfway between [u] and [o]

Lips

rounded, with larger circle than for [u]

Mouth

quite open jaw released cheeks lifted and energized

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66


FIGURE 5.3 [o]

More detail will be given on this vowel as it appears within the diphthong [ou] later in this text. Listed below are words that contain the unstressed [o] vowel as a [9] substitute. obey omit police polite

provide protect profound pronounce

melody desolate indolent omnipotent

[D] Production A characteristic, long English vowel, [o] also appears in Italian, German, and French in shorter versions. For singing, it should be a very long "aw"-shaped vowel, as opposed to the shorter versions of the European languages. It is found in words such as: saw, caught, daughter, broad, office, walking, call, and sought.

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The English spellings for [o] in American Standard pronunciation are: al

as in

all, call

aw

as in

awe, awful

augh

as in

caught, daughter

ough

as in

bought, thought

ong

as in

song, long

off/of

as in

off, often*, soft

OSS

as in

cross, loss

ost

as in

lost, cost

In RP, the [o] is actually a more closed, raised vowel than its AS counterpart. To notate the difference in this vowel, it will be written as [c]. See chapter 14 for the production of [c].

FIGURE 5.4

* The "t" in "often" is not sounded in AS, RP, or MA. It is, however, sounded in several regional dialects.

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Action Tongue

Lips Jaw

tip in contact with lower front teeth back arch slightly lower than for [o] lowest arch of all the lip vowels sides of tongue in contact with lower molars protruded forward lips far apart, narrowed at corners dropped as much as for [a]

Pitfalls to Avoid Do not change lip shape during production. Do not tense back of tongue. Do not substitute [a] for [o] — a common U.S. regionalism. EXAMPLES

water

not

thought

not

broad

not

Do not substitute the RP vowel—[c] for EXAMPLES

water

not

thought broad

not not

Do not substitute a Brooklyn accent EXAMPLES

dog

office

for

not not

Tips for Vocal Ease The vowel [o] can be closed to [o] in the passaggio and for melismatic settings of this vowel. It keeps the vowel from spreading in the passaggio. It also conserves breath, which makes it easier to negotiate the run.

69


[o

shall be ex - alt o -

lted]

ed ("Ev'ry Valley" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)

EXERCISES 1. Practice intoning/singing the following words with [D] for AS or [c] for RP: all

because

awe

daughter

exalt

applaud

jaw

aught

walk

autumn

awful

taught

always

exhaust

awning

withdraw

Paul

Saul

caution

water

2. Transcribe and practice the following song text in AS: Sleep falls, with limpid drops of rain, Upon the steep cliffs of the town. Sleep falls; men are at peace again While the small drops fall softly down. The bright drops ring like bells of glass Thinned by the wind and lightly blown; Sleep cannot fall on peaceful grass So softly as it falls on stone. Peace falls unheeded on the dead Asleep; they have had peace to drink; Upon a live man's bloody head It falls most tenderly, I think (Elinor Wylie / John Duke, "Bells in the Rain")

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3. Practice the following text in Historic RP: Unlearned he in aught Save that which love has taught. . . I am the lowliest tar That sails the water, And you, proud maiden, are The captain's daughter. (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From H.M.S. Pinafore)

[D] Production The vowel [D] is a short open o vowel. This vowel is found in words with an "o" spelling, as in "honest," "on," "upon," "not," "opera" in RP and is heard regionally throughout North America. It is the lowest of the tongue vowel sounds that has lip rounding. The vowel sound is halfway between [a] and [D]. The position is most easily found by saying [a] while slightly rounding the lips. This vowel is heard on the Eastern Seaboard and several parts of North America, influenced historically by British immigration patterns. It is somewhat controversial as to whether this vowel usage is considered standard for neutral American speech. Since this vowel is not used in American broadcast speech, it will not be used in this book for American Standard pronunciation. Details about its production and use can be found in chapters 14 and 15.

CHAPTER SIX The Mixed Vowels

Production The vowels [A] and [9] are stressed and unstressed counterparts of the same vowel. A distinctly neutral English vowel sound, [A] and [9] do not appear in German, Italian, or French. The [A] sound is always heard in stressed syllables of strong word-types, while [9], the weaker form, is heard in unstressed syllables and weak word-types. The vowel po-

FIGURE6.1

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72


sition (stressed or unstressed) determines the IPA symbol, but the only difference in sound is the amount of intensity given to each vowel. They are considered mixed vowels because their physiological formation employs elements of both the lip and tongue vowels. The vowel [A] is found in the stressed syllable of words such as: love, hum, blood, trouble, covet, judge, among, humble, summer, and sudden. The vowel [9] is found in the unstressed syllable of words such as: alone, attempt, among, sofa, heaven, nation, joyous, sudden, and maiden.

Action Tongue

tip touching lower front teeth central in mouth tongue slightly arched in same position as [o]

Lips

neutral without rounding no spread of lips as with [a]

Jaw

released, vertical drop same position and drop for [o] and [ae]

Pitfalls to Avoid Do not open jaw too wide—becomes I Do not round lips—becomes

I

you.*

you.

Do not tighten muscles under chin. Do not permit vowel to lodge in throat. Avoid starting with throaty, hard glottal attack. Avoid regional substitution of [i] or [e] for EXAMPLES

just

not

or

Tips for Vocal Ease If the [A] falls back in placement, try modifying it more toward [a]. Again, the listener must hear a real [A] vowel and not an Italianate version of it. Remember the four substitutions for the unstressed schwa [a] vowel are [i], [o], [u], and [e]. Depending upon the vocal setting, experiment with these substitute vowels to find the one that sings the best. Remember, it must sound natural and not artificial.

* Although the RP variant of [A] is more frontal and in the placement of [a], it should never be discerned as a fully pronounced [a]. See chapter 14.

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The "Un-" Prefix When the stressed prefix "un-" is found in words, it denies and reverses the meaning of the word, for example, undo, unsung, unkind, and so on. Therefore, [A] is used phonetically to encourage the singer to give this prefix its due stress and hence make it a doublestressed word.

RULE Use for all stressed "un" prefixes.

EXAMPLES

unkind

unloved

unhappy

undone

In unstressed "un-" spellings, as in the words "until" and "unless," use the schwa [9]. The versus The versus The

RU LI The word "the" should be sung [89] before an unvoiced consonant, [6*4 before a voiced consonant, and [6i] before a vowel.

the thought

the sense

the form

the men

the lake

the depths

[i] the earth

W

D3

the interest

the awe

ra EXAMPLE

The vowels of the text should be supported with the air flow.

Exception: When the word "the" is set on an elongated note, do not use [o] but only [a] before a word beginning with a consonant andfj] before a word beginning with a vowel.

74


EXERCISES 1. Write the following words in IPA and practice singing/intoning them: just

mother

love

money

much

blood

come

young

won

such

us

punish

cup

brother

some

touch

sun

was

utterly

judgment

2. The following words contain both [A] and [9]; transcribe them into IPA and practice singing/intoning them, giving each its appropriate intensity: husband

above

onion

hubbub

ruffian

abutment

among

judgment

cultivate

shovel

loveliest

trouble

3. Transcribe the following song text into IPA: The sun has fallen and it lies in blood. The moon is weaving bandages of gold. O black swan, where is my lover gone? Torn and tattered is my bridal gown, And my lamp is lost. With silver needles and with silver thread, The stars stitch a shroud for the dying sun. O black swan, where has my lover gone? (Gian Carlo Menotti, "The Black Swan" from The Medium) 4. Transcribe the following song text into IPA in colloquial American (see glossary,

p. 292): What's the use of wondrin if he's good or if he's bad, Or if you like the way he wears his hat? He's your feller and you love him. That's all there is to that. (Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein, "What's the Use of Wond'rin'" from Carousel)

75


Production are distinctly American Standard vowels. They do not appear in French, The vowels German, or Italian, or in RP or Mid-Atlantic dialects. Although related to the "r" consonant,

are considered r-colored vowels. The vowel

is always used in a stressed

syllable or word-type and is found in words such as: girl, verse, surge, journey, learn, and rehearse. The vowel

is used for unstressed syllables and is often found at the ends of

words such as: father, doctor, vulgar, over, and vapor. As with the

vowels, the only

audible difference is in the intensity of the vowel.

FIGURE 6.2

Many singers are very hesitant to use this vowel in their English repertoire. When produced correctly, it is a very beautiful vowel sound similar to the [os] in French and the [0] in German. Since it is part of the American Standard English pronunciation, it is very much an integral sound of the language and therefore should be used. The vowels the reduced r-colored variants used in RP and Mid-Atlantic dialects, will be discussed in chapter 14.

76


Action Tongue

like all other vowels, tip remains down in contact with lower front teeth if tongue rises, curls backwards, and inverts toward throat, a mangled sound is produced

Lip Jaw

middle of tongue arches similar to [e] position sides in contact with upper molars rounded but not tense rounding similar to [o] position relaxed, steady does not move during execution

Pitfalls to Avoid Do not initiate vowel with tongue-tip raised. Do not permit tongue to curl backward. Do not trill r's: very foreign-sounding, not American English. Do not twang r's: commonly heard in Pennsylvania and the Western United States. Do not reduce r colors: New England/British pronunciation—bird [b3rd] the sub-standard New York pronunciation—bird [boid] retroflex r twang—bird: "brrrrrd"

Tips for Vocal Ease If the [3^] vowels feel constricted, sing [e] and focus on the [e] tongue arch position without rounding the lips. It is half of the position that produces these vowels. It also helps to try singing [ce], which is the slightly more open French equivalent of these vowels.

EXAMPLE

Shall we gather by the river.

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EXERCISES 1. Transcribe the following words into IPA and practice the appropriate pronunciation: earth

heard

surge

work

girl

mercy

err

rehearse

berth

diverse

third

iron

ever

mother

ledger

misery

perhaps

master

actor

comfortable

2. Transcribe the following bi-syllabic words containing both merger

murmur

Herbert

learner

murder

worker

server

burner

perverted

fervor

3. Transcribe the following aria in AS or modern MA: Things change, Jo: Things change. You're a babe at the breast, You're a daughter by the fire, You have all the love you think you could desire, Still, Things change, Jo, And, oh, what happens when they do? Your heart, Jo, your heart. It's a bird in the nest with its head beneath its wing, Half asleep, it cannot know it wants a thing, Still, Your heart, Jo, I know will dream of something new: Something that blurred, that broke within me, A secret word, who was it? spoke within me: She loves her mother, loves her father, Her sisters of course, But wants her John.

and

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You're a rosebud in the night, You're a blossom in the morn, You're unmade by that light, yet reborn: Things change, And oh! One day, my Jo, I wish only that things change the same way for you. (Mark Adamo, "Things Change" from Little Women) 4. Transcribe and intone/sing the following song text in AS: At the cry of the first bird They began to crucify Thee, O swan! Never shall lament cease because of that, It was like the parting of day from night. Ah! sore was the suffering born, By the body of Mary's Son, But sorer still to Him was the grief That for his sake came upon His mother. (Samuel Barber, "The Crucifixion" from The Hermit Songs')

CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs

A diphthong, pronounced [difGorj], is a sound composed of two consecutive vowels in the same syllable. It comes from the Greek word di, meaning "two," andphthongos, meaning "sounds." Since the majority of words in English contain diphthongs, it is very important that we learn to treat them correctly. The pronunciation of the diphthongs varies a great deal in the various regional dialects. Therefore, our first task is to standardize the pronunciation of them. Even if singers may pronounce them accurately in speech, they often distort the vowels or drop the second vowel when singing. In every diphthong, the first vowel must be sustained, and the second vowel added at the very last moment. Even when the diphthong is to be sung over several notes, the first vowel is sung on all the notes and the second vowel is sung at the end of the very last note.

GENERAL RULES FOR DIPHTHONGS 1. There should be no break between the two vowels. After the first vowel is sustained, it blends Into the second vowel, 2. The change from one vowel to the next should be almost imperceptible. 3. There should be very little movement of the articulators during the production of the compound vowel, 4. The first vowel is sustained with the second sung at the very last moment 5. When the diphthong is sung on more than one note, the firstvowel Is sustained on all the notes, with the second vowel added at the very end. 6. There is a tendency to lose pitch during the glide to the second vowel, Work to achieve level pitch with added support for second vowel,

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80


The diphthongs of American Standard are listed below: night, buy day, break joy, voice no, go, slow

air, care, there* ear, fear, here* pour, soar, o'er* sure, poor, tour*

now, doubt, about

are, heart, garden*

The phonetic spellings of the diphthongs listed above may seem different from the way they are pronounced in spoken English, particularly spoken regional American English. There is good reason for this. The initial primary vowels have been purposely opened for easier articulation when singing. In speech, the secondary vowels of the first list of diphthongs are also pronounced [i] and [u]. These have been opened to [i] and [u] in order to facilitate less movement of the lips and jaw when singing. Similarly, [i] and [u] are used in speech as the initial vowel of the diphthongs with "r colorings." The initial primary vowels may seem more open than in colloquial American speech. EXAMPLE

Singing them as written makes it easier to articulate both adjacent vowel sounds and not anticipate and twang on the r coloring. They have been opened so that they are more relaxed, and also closer physiologically on the vowel chart to the secondary vowel, which makes them easier to produce with less vocal tension.

Tips for Vocal Ease For all the diphthongs, check the tips section for each individual vowel for suggestions. It is very important to be very precise with the shape of the first vowel. The [o] vowel of [ou] should not spread to [o]. If it does, "no" could sound like "now" and be very confusing for the listener. It should also never be sung [QU] as in spoken RP, except in Gilbert and

*The r-colored diphthongs in the second column above are unique to American Standard pronunciation. The reduced r-colored diphthongs used in RP and MA pronunciation are listed below:

These are discussed in depth on page 221.

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Sullivan or some musicals requiring it. The [e] of [ei] must be closed. All the diphthongs are easier to sing if you really sing the vowels as precisely as they are written in IPA. The second vowel has been purposely opened up, [i] and [u]; to make it closer in position to the first vowel. Be sure to sustain the first vowel and sound the second only as you are phrasing off the note. Also note that the first vowel of the r-colored diphthongs has been opened up in order to avoid anticipating and twanging on the r coloring.

[ai] Production The diphthong [ai] is found in the English words: light, smile, delight, silence, divine, beguile, aisle, isle. It is spelled with a bright [a] symbol that is not found in English as a single stressed vowel sound. As a single vowel, only [a] exists in English. The vowel [a] is used because of its adjacency to [i], making the "a" vowel brighter and with a higher tongue arch.

FIGURE 7.1 [ai]

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Action Tongue

sides of tongue against lower molars tongue moves upward and forward toward the upper molars for [i]

Lips

released minimal movement

Mouth

mouth contour does not change when going to [i]

Pitfalls to Avoid Do not add [i] instead of [i] for second vowel. Avoid regionalisms • Eastern/British: sky [skai] not [skoi] or [skAi] Modern RP • Southern: substituting [9] or [e] for [i] EXAMPLE

spite [spait]

not

or

dropping [i] altogether EXAMPLES

fine [fain]

not [fa:n]

blind [blaind]

not [bla:nd]

• avoid nasality when diphthong is followed by a nasal consonant EXAMPLES

mine, time, find, sign, rhyme, and so on

Remember always to sustain the first vowel in a diphthong and put the second vowel on

at the end. Moderately Slow ( J1 = 76) mp

Where the rock threw back the bil-low

[a - - - - ai 3

Bright

("Long Time Ago" from Old American Songs, Aaron Copland)

rit.

er

a tempo

than

snow


DRILL Practice the following words, taking care not to allow the diphthongs followed by nasal consonants to become nasal.

my

my

mine

tie

tie

time

fie

fie

find

sigh

sigh

sign

die

die

dine

kite

kite

kind

lie

lie

lime

buy

buy

bind

EXERCISES 1. Transcribe and drill the following words: sigh

mile

finite

island

right

pile

subside

daylight

twice

I'm

diary

license

rise

beguile

certify

diamond

guide

triumph

bicycle

biography

2. Transcribe and intone the following song text in Historic RP or MA: Drink to me only with thine eyes, And I will pledge with mine; Or leave a kiss but in the cup And I'll not look for wine. The thirst that from the soul doth rise Doth ask a drink divine; But might I of Jove's nectar sup, I would not change for thine. (Ben jonson, arr. Roger Quilter, "Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes" ) 3. Transcribe and intone the following text in colloquial American: Buddy on the nightshift! I hope you slept all day, Until the moon came out and woke you up and sent you away. Hello there buddy on the nightshift, I hope you feel fine! I left a lot of work for you to do on the assembly line. (Kurt Weill, "Buddy on the Nightshift" from Lunchtime Follies)

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[ei] Production The diphthong [ei] is found in the words: fate, day, ancient, afraid, proclaim, and so on. Often this diphthong is written phonetically as [ei]. It is preferable to use the closed vowel [e] in singing. When the open [e] is sung, it often causes a spread and diffused vocal tone. The [e] is especially helpful when singing in the upper register and passaggio.

FIGURE 7.2 [ei]

Action Tongue

front arched—sides aligned with upper molars

Lips

unrounded—horizontal throughout entire production

Mouth

do not change mouth opening or jaw while enunciating vowels

sides of tongue rise and front arches for [i]

Pitfalls to Avoid Use care not to spread the first vowel; [e] can easily incorrectly modify to [e] or [ae]. This vowel seems to open more in Modern RP, toward [ei]; keep it [e] in singing. EXAMPLE

save [seiv]

not [SEIV]


The vowel [e] should be produced with relaxed tongue base. Do not anticipate an [1] by switching [9] for [ij. EXAMPLE

fail [feil]

not [feal]

Don't close [e] so much that it sounds like [i]. EXAMPLE

fate [feit]

not feet [fit]

say [sei]

not see [si]

EXERCISES 1. Drill the following words: fate

rage

vain

reign

day

great

maid

obey

lace

face

disdain

grateful

betray

they

radiant

proclaim

2. Transcribe and intone the following song text in Historic RP: The sun whose rays are all ablaze in ever living glory, Does not deny his majesty but scorns to tell a story. He won't exclaim "I blush for shame" so kindly be indulgent. But fierce and bold in fiery gold he glories all effulgent. (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, "The Sun Whose Rays" from The Mikado) 3. Transcribe and intone the following text in AS: Quaint name—Ann Street. Width of same—Ten feet. Barnum's mob—Ann Street, Far from obsolete. Narrow, yes. Ann Street But business, Both feet. Sun just hits Ann Street, Then it quits—Some greet! Rather short, Ann Street. . . (Maurice Morris/Charles Ives, "Ann Street")

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[DI] Production The diphthong [01] is found in the words: joy, voice, avoid, boisterous.

FIGURE 7.3 [01]

Action Tongue

back arched toward soft palate arches gradually toward hard palate or [i]

Lips

oval shape

Mouth

open vertically

minimal movement jaw remains flexible and steady

Pitfalls to Avoid Do not protrude lips too much for [o] or spread sides of mouth excessively for [i]. Do not separate two vowels—it should be a continuous sound.

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Do not let pitch fluctuate during diphthong pattern—keep support firm. Do not omit second vowel. EXAMPLE

joy[d3Di]

notjaw[d3D]

Do not substitute [a] for [o]. EXAMPLE

boys [bDiz]

not buys [baiz]

Tips for Vocal Ease In the passaggio and with [01] vowels set melismatically, close the vowel down to [o]. [o

rejoice.

ois]

greatly, ("Rejoice Greatly" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)

EXERCISES 1. Transcribe and drill the following words: joy

voice

rejoice

destroy

toil

noise

royal

employ

choice

join

embroil

poignant

enjoy

oyster

sirloin

disappoint

2. Transcribe and practice the following text in Historic RP: When first my old, old love I knew, My bosom welled with joy;

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My riches at her feet I threw— I was a love-sick boy! No terms seemed too extravagant Upon her to employ— I used to mope, and sigh, and pant, just like a love-sick boy! (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From Trial by jury)

3. Transcribe and practice the following text in Historic RP or MA: Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion, Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: Behold thy King cometh unto thee: He is the righteous Saviour, And He shall speak peace unto the heathen. (G. F. Handel, "Rejoice Greatly" from Messiah}

4. Transcribe the following text in AS: On the lake where droop'd the willow, Long time ago Where the rock drew back the billow, Brighter than snow. Dwelt a maid beloved and cherish'd, By high and low. But with autumn leaf she perish'd, Long time ago. Rock and tree and flowing water, Long time ago. Bird and bee and blossom taught her Love's spell to know. While to my fond words she listen'd, Murmuring low. Tenderly her blue eyes glisten'd, Long time ago. (Aaron Copland, "Long Time Ago" from Old American Songs)

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[ou] Production The [ou] vowel is found in such English words as: no, oh, role, though, shoulder, roam, and reproach. It is found in all stressed words and syllables pronounced with the "o" vowel sound and in the unstressed final syllables as in window, piano, sorrow, and so on. As a schwa substitute in all other unstressed positions, the monophong [o] is used.

FIGURE 7.4 [ou]

RULE Always diphthongize "o" spellings in: 1. Words or exclamations of one syllable. EXAMPLE

Oh! O, no, go, road

2, Words of more than one syllable where the V EXAMPLE

devotion, suppose, open, sotdier

syllable receives stress.

90


Action Tongue

back raised in [o] position

Lips

minimal movement when gliding to [u] rounded

Mouth

outer contour should not change for [u] jaw released no movement during production

Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid regional habit of modifying [ou] to [ou] or [su]* EXAMPLE

know:

not [riDu] or [nau]* but [nou]

woeful:

not [wDuful] or [wauful]* but [wouful]

[90] is used in speech for RP, but for lyric diction this diphthong should be sung as [ou]. See chapter 14.

EXERCISES 1. Practice speaking the following words using care to differentiate between [au], [ou] and [u]: [D] ->

[OU]

pause

pose

bowl

bull

walk

woke

showed

should

shawl

shoal

pole

pull

chalk

choke

stowed

stood

saw

sew

code

could

2. Transcribe and intone the following text in RP: Away in the shadows a lone bird is singing, The wind whispers low in a sighing refrain; Their music makes memory's voices go winging: The Ash Grove in beauty I see once again;

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How little we knew, as we laughed there so lightly, And time seemed to us to stretch endless away, The hopes that then shone like a vision so brightly Could fade as a dream at the coming of day! (Excerpt from "The Ash Grove"—Old Welsh Melody) 3. Transcribe and intone the text in Historic RP or MA: O, be still, be still, unquiet thoughts, and rest on love's adventer. Go no more astray, my wanton eyes, but keep within your center. Delight not yourselves for to stand and gaze On the alluring looks of a beautyous face For love is like to an endless maze, More hard to get than to enter. (Thomas Campion / Peter Warlock, "The Lover's Maze")

[au] Production

FIGURE 7.5 [au]


92

The diphthong [au] is found in words such as: shout, now, doubt, house, and vow. Regionally, this diphthong has two different highly prevalent pronunciations: [aeu] and [au]. The latter is much preferred for singing. Action Tongue Lips Mouth

flat in mouth—as moves toward [u] back rises higher adjustment should be minimal unrounded, rounds gently for [u] opening for [a] closes smoothly for [u] released jaw follows with little movement

Pitfalls to Avoid Do not mouth or exaggerate movement between the two vowel positions. Be careful not to substitute [aeu] for [au]. EXAMPLES

bound [bound] not [baeund] vow [vau] not [vaeu]

EXERCISES 1. Drill correctly and incorrectly the pronunciation of this diphthong: now [nau] —» [naeu] —> [nau] count [kaunt] -> [kaeunt] -> [kaunt] howl [haul] -» [haeul] -> [haul] 2. Transcribe and drill the following words: thou

owl

foul

ourselves

shout

sound

scowl

mountains

mouth

ground

devout

doubtful

frown

thousand

resound

boundary

3. Transcribe and intone the following text in Historic RP: He who doubts from what he sees, Will ne'er believe, so what you please, If the Sun and Moon should doubt, They'd immediately go out. (William Blake, "Auguries of Innocence" )


4. Transcribe the following song text: Come away, come away, death, And in sad cypress let me be laid; Fly away, fly away, breath; I am slain by a fair cruel maid. My shroud of white, stuck all with yew, O, prepare it! My part of death, no one so true Did share it. Not a flower, not a flower, sweet, On my black coffin let there be strown; Not a friend, not a friend greet My poor corpse, where my bones shall be thrown: A thousand, thousand sighs to save, Lay me, O. where Sad true lover never find my grave, To weep there! (William Shakespeare, "Come Away, Death")

The R-Colored Diphthongs Since all the individual vowel sounds that make up the r-colored diphthongs have previously been discussed earlier in the text, they will not be dealt with individually but all together as a group. They are listed together as the r-colored vowels of the American Standard and reduced r-colored vowels of RP and Mid-Atlantic dialects below. R-Colored

R-Reduced as in

air, care, there

as in

ear, dear, we're

as in

pour, four, o'er

as in

sure, tour, poor

as in

are, heart, garden

Please note once again, the initial vowel sounds of each of these diphthongs have been opened to facilitate easier vocal production. In speech, these vowels are usually more closed.

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Acoustically, the substitution of the more opened counterparts cannot be discerned. The more opened initial vowels encourage less mouthing and exaggeration of the mouth and lips and decrease the amount of movement required to produce these diphthongs. As with all stressed and unstressed r-colored vowels, care should be taken not to pull back and arch the tongue tip, producing instead the characteristically constricted colloquial American "r" vowel. Like all other vowels in English, the r-colored diphthongs must be produced with the tip of the tongue forward and in contact with the back of the lower front teeth. Like the other diphthongs of English, the first vowel of the r-colored diphthongs should be sustained; with the secondary vowel sound, the r coloring, added at the very last moment.

RULE Lifee the other diphthongs of English, the first vowel of tine r-colored diphthongs should be sustained; the secondary vowel sound, th€ r coloring, is added at the very last moment.

EXERCISES 1. Practice alternating the r-colored and r-reduced diphthongs below:

air

dear

o'er

sure

are

hair

mere

yore

poor

heart

despair

we're

pour

moor

charm

rare

weir

adore

tour

depart

prepare

cheer

before

*endure

garden

e'er

revere

implore

*secure

partner

ensnare

sincere

restore

*obscure

marvelous

The [uaVuar] diphthongs are found only in stressed syllables. All "ure" spellings in UNstressed positions should be pronounced [&/3r].

*These words contain the [j] glide preceding the [uWsr] diphthongs. Others like this include: pure, cure, lure, demure, allure, and so on.


RULE The [u^/uar] diphthongs are found only in stressed syllablei, AH "are" spellings in UNstressed positions should be pronounced t>] in AS and {»r] In RP

and MA.

EXAMPLES

pleasure

not

treasure

not

The unstressed [uaVar] pronunciations sound affected and dated. 2. Transcribe and sing the correct pronunciation of the following words with "ure" endings: measure

leisure

treasure

pleasure

nature

stature

verdure

rapture

capture

3. Transcribe the following text in Historic RP or MA: Endless pleasure, endless love, Semele enjoys above, On her bosom Jove reclining, Useless now his thunder lies, To her arms his bolts resigning, And his lightning to her eyes. (G. F. Handel, from Semele) 4. Transcribe the following text in AS: I was standing in a garden, A garden gone to seed, Choked with every kind of weed. There were twisted trees around me, All black against the sky; Black and bare and dead and dry, My father called: "Come out of this place." I wanted to go, but there was no way: No sign, no path, to show me the way: Then another voice was calling: It barely could be heard.

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I remember ev'ry word: "There is a garden: Come with me, come with me: A shining garden: Come and see There love will teach us Harmony and grace, Then love will lead us To a quiet place." (Leonard Bernstein, "There Is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti)

Triphthongs A triphthong is the combination of three vowels within the same syllable. Like the diphthong, the first vowel is sustained vocally with the remaining two vowels added at the very end. The General Rules for Diphthongs on page 79 refer also to triphthongs.

RULI When singing a triphthong on two or more notes, sing the first vowel on all the notes, adding the last two vowels at the very end of the last note.

[a

And the de - sire

of ("Thus Saith the Lord" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)

The two principal triphthongs of English are: as in lyre, fire, choir as in our, flower, power

all na - tions shall come.


RV LE Sing all threfc vowels In triphthongs.

In Modern RP especially, triphthongs seem to be dissolving into diphthongs or even single vowels. For example, the word "choir" has become [kwa9r] or even [kwa]. Words become unintelligible when the vowels are dropped. Make sure to sing all three vowel sounds in triphthongs.

EXERCISES 1. Transcribe and drill the following triphthongs and practice singing them on one or more notes:

lyre

our

ire

hour

choir

dower

tire

flower

desire

power

inspire

shower

conspire

tower

admire

devour

2. Transcribe the following song texts into phonetics and practice the diphthongs and triphthongs in their musical settings in Historic RP or MA: Oh had I Jubal's lyre, Or Miriam's tuneful voice To sounds like his I would aspire To songs like her rejoice! My humble strains but faintly show How much to Heaven and thee I owe. (G. F. Handel, From Joshua) But who may abide the day of His coming? and who shall stand when he appeareth? For He is like a refiner's fire, (G. F. Handel, From Messiah)

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3. Transcribe and practice the following text in AS or Modern RP: Beloved, thou hast brought me many flow'rs Plucked in the garden, all the summer through (And winter), and it seemed as if they grew. In this close room, nor missed the sun and show'rs So, in the like name of that love of ours, Take back these thoughts which here are unfolded, too, And which on warm and cold days I withdrew From my heart's ground. Indeed, those beds and bowers Be overgrown with bitter weeds and rue. And wait thy weeding: Yet here's eglantine, Here's ivy! Take them, as I used to do Thy flowers, and keep them where they shall not pine. Instruct thine eyes to keep their colors true, And tell thy soul their roots are left in mine. (Elizabeth Barrett Browning / Libby Larsen, "Beloved, Thou Hast Brought Me Many Flowers")

CHAPTER EIGHT The Three Semi-Vowel Glides

The three consonants [w], [j], and [J/R] are considered semi-vowel glides in English. They are also known as semi-consonants or semi-vowels. It is because they are organically related to the vowel sounds [u], [i], and [a\|, respectively. (u) -> [w]

(i) -> [j]

(*) -> [J/R]

Vowels or Consonants? A semi-vowel glide is a consonant that is produced during the movement from its initial articulatory position to another position that is formed by the oncoming vowel. In other words, it is the action of gliding from the related vowel sound to another vowel following that causes the consonant to be created and sounded. The initial consonants of the words "wed," "yes," and "red" are produced by gliding from their respective related vowel sounds to the vowel that follows. As in the case of "wed," [u] glides to [e] and in the process the [wj is sounded. For "yes" and "red," [i] and [a-] glide to [e], producing [j] and [j/R/r]. [u (w) e d] = wed [i (j) e s] = yes [> (J/R) e d] = red

Feel the difference between intoning these three words with and without their related vowel sounds. First, consciously initiate each with the related vowel; then, consciously omit the related vowel and stress the initial consonant/glide only.

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You most probably noticed that there is far less subvocal tension when the vowel begins these words rather than the consonants. This is an especially helpful tool when articulating similar words in the passaggio and extreme high range of the voice. The semi-vowels [w], [j], and [J/R] can either occur as initial consonants, part of initial consonant clusters, or beginning a new syllable in the middle of a word. When these glide consonants are found alone or as part of a consonant cluster in the stressed syllables of stressed word-types, their respective related vowel sounds may be added before [w], [j], and [J/R] in order to vocally stress the stressed word-types. Hopefully, the examples below will clarify this concept. Initial and medial [w], [j], [J/R] as single consonants in stressed positions:

[w]

U]

M*

wonder [(u)WAnda-/9r]**

yearning [(l)J3-/3rmrj]

rhyme [(at)jaim]

worthy [(u)w3V3r5i]

Yankee [(l)jaenki]

really [^jili]

(u)

r

(l)

beware [bi wea-/9 ]

unusual [An ju3U9l]

erase [i(aAf] is foltpwed by a stressed word-type beginning with a vowel, botfo words can be discreetly connected with a consonant r. In Neutral American Standard, it would be a burred r [j]. In historic British Received and Mid-Atlantic pronunciations^ ft WoWd be connected with a flipped r [r]. This strengthens th6 legato and is far mom preferable than breaking the tine in the passaggi o with a breath lift*

EXAMPLE

RP: Mine with storms of care [r]opprest Grief shall ne'er [r]approach the fair. (Henry Purcell, Dido and Aeneas) AS: To view a murder [j] or [j] a carnival reflected in the window of my mirror. (Dominic Argento, "The Mirror Aria" from Postcard from Morocco)

A Word of Caution Once again, this must be done with subtlety and taste. The listener must not think that a new word "ropprest" or "rapproach" or "roar" has been formed. When this is applied with subtlety, this can be a wonderful technique and can provide a springboard to help the singer open up the voice and swell on the vowel.

General Application for Types of R's

RULi Only burred r's [j] should be used in music by North American composers with North American texts.

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Since North American English speech does not contain any trilled r's [R] or flipped r's [r], they should not be used in song or opera from North America. Only the burred r consonant [j] used in the United States and Canada should be sung in this repertoire.

RULE For oratorio and repertoire originating from the British Isles, British Received Pronunciation, or the hybrid dialect, Mid-Atlantic, is appropriate, In these pronunciations, tried r's [sj and Intervocalic flipped r's [r] could be used. See chapters 14 and 15 for RULES for their usage,

RULE If a North American $tm§ or opera has a text by an English poet, either American Standard, British Received, or Mid-Atlantic pronunciation would be appropriate. One consideration rrrtght be which dialect would be most intelligible for the venue or the sophistication of the audience. In opera, often the directors or conductors make the decision based on the production style and values.

For Non-Native English Speakers For non-native English singers or native English speakers who regularly use trilled and rolled r's in their speech, here is a drill to gain control over the r choices you use in your vocal repertoire.

DRILL FOR A L L E V I A T I N G TRILLED R's In order to alleviate the habit of trilling the r's, practice exaggerating the duration of the related [a-] vowel before the [j] and concentrate on not allowing the tongue to make contact with the gum ridge while the r is executed. Remember the lips must be rounded to produce an exact [j] sound. Since [j] does not appear in many of the world languages, it is often particularly problematic for foreign singers. The muscle memory is so strong for trilling r's that there is often great difficulty refraining from using trilled r's in their singing of American Standard English. Unfortunately, trilled and flipped r's do not exist in Neutral American English and are therefore inappropriate.


Tony the Tiger on the Frosted Flakes commercials had the right idea! G (» ->) reat!!!!! EXAMPLES

right

rain

really

EXERCISES 1. Practice saying the following words with both initial burred r's [j] and trilled r's [R]:

[J]

[R]

rose

rose

[J] rose

wrong

wrong

wrong

cry

cry

cry

breath

breath

breath

thread

thread

thread

2. Transcribe and drill the following words. Use care to initiate them with their related vowel sounds: Semi-vowel [j] yes

yellow

young

yawn

year

yore

yonder

yearn

yet

yacht

yams

Yankee

Ye

York

Europe

yesterday

Semi-vowel [w] world

walk

wonder

worthy

wife

wash

woman

wisdom

worm

weigh

would

weather

witty

wishes

witch

whether

Semi-vowel [J/R] ripe

proud

brown

drum

cream

really

pray

bright

draw

crowd

rough

print

bring

dream

craft

rhyme

pretty

brother

dreary

crown

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3. Transcribe the following text and add related vowel sounds to the stressed semivowel glide consonants. Practice intoning the entire text, and then apply it to the first eight measures of the music as it appears below: When green as a river was the barley, Green as the river the rye. I waded deep and began to parley With a youth whom I heard sigh. "I seek," said he, "a lovely lady, A nymph as bright as a queen. Like a tree that drips with pearls her shady Locks of hair were seen; And all the rivers became her flocks Though their wool you cannot shear. Because of the love of her flowing locks The kingly sun like a swain Came strong, unheeding of her scorn. Wading in deeps where she has lain, Sleeping upon her river lawn And chasing her starry satyr train, She fled, and changed into a tree— That lovely fair-haired lady . . ." And now I seek through the sere summer Where no trees are shady! (William Walton,* "Daphne" from Three Poems of Edith Sitwell)

* This poem is by the British poet Edith Sitwell. It should be sung in British Received or MidAtlantic pronunciation. But for the purposes of this exercise, it could be done also in American Standard.

Andante ( J = I04c.) p espress.

When g(>)reen

Gr reen as a

ri

- ver the

rye,

as a

(

^ri

-

ver

I

was

(u)

wad

-

the bar

-

ed

and be-

deep

ley,

111


gan

to par-ley With a

(l)

youth

whom I

heard

sigh.

("Daphne" from Three Poems of Edith Sitwell, William Walton)

4. Transcribe the following text into colloquial American, adding related glide vowels and breath lifts on stressed words: There's a place for us, Somewhere a place for us. Peace and quiet and open air, Wait for us, Somewhere. There's a time for us, Someday a time for us, Time together with time to spare, Time to learn, time to care, Someday, Somewhere, We'll find a new way of living, We'll find a way of forgiving, Somewhere. There's a place for us, A time and place for us. Hold my hand and we're half way there, Hold my hand and I'll take you there. Somehow, Someday, Somewhere. (Leonard Bernstein / Steven Sondheim, "Somewhere" from West Side Story)


CHAPTER NINE Introduction to Consonants

The study of English lyric diction cannot be complete without an in-depth focus on the consonant speech sounds of the language. Many singers find that it is the delivery of the consonant sounds that causes them the most difficulty when singing in English. Unlike the Romance languages found in the lyric repertoire, the ratio of consonant to vowel in English is very high. Since the consonants are so much more prevalent in English than in the other languages, it is therefore important that we learn how to produce them properly and how to treat them expressively. There are two main reasons why the consonants of English pose problems for the lyric singer. The first is the fault of lax and careless colloquial delivery; the second is lack of concentration on the production of the consonants within the vocal studio. The study of the lyric treatment of the English consonants in singing is a muchneglected subject. As students of singing, a great deal of time and attention is spent on the vocal production of the various vowel sounds and practically no time is spent on the correct production of the consonants that precede, follow, and surround the vowel sounds. Taking into account the difficulty of learning to sing well and the number of years required to learn this skill, it is completely understandable that the thrust of the work in the vocal studio is on perfecting the vowels with little time left over for the consonants. For many years in North America, at least, secondary schools have not offered and encouraged verse recitation of any kind. Elocution courses have been taken out of the curricula. The oral tradition of recitation has been eclipsed by more technological pursuits. Worldwide, the computer age has left us with less time than previous generations to interact socially and converse in our daily lives. Communication seems to be done mostly by email, text messaging, and mobile phone usage. Admitting that there are deficiencies in this area, let us begin our work!

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First we need to develop a positive mindset regarding consonants. Consonants are not the enemy of legato singing. They are the connective tissue that sustains the legato and propels it forward. When released and handled properly, the consonants help maintain the forward placement of the vowels and help the voice to achieve its bloom. Except for a few songs composed as vocalises on a single vowel, the vast majority of vocal repertory has text. Text means words, and words have consonants. Without the consonants, we have no words. Without the words, we have no concrete thoughts being transmitted. If we hope to communicate the thoughts and intentions of a piece of literature as set to music, we will need to be armed with an arsenal of techniques for dealing successfully with the challenges of the consonants. It is very important to learn to produce the consonants well and to savor them. Here are some general rules to consider.

GENERAL RULES FOR CONSONANTS 1. The consonants make the word intelligible. 2. There are no ugly consonants, only the inept execution of them that causes them to be unattractive at times. 3. The dynamic level of the consonants must be brought into balance with that of the vowels, 4. The consonants must be sustained vocally as part of the vocal line. 5. Doubling or tripling the duration of the initial sustaining consonant of the stressed syllable of the words receiving stress helps to highlight the key words for the listener. This is accomplished by robbing time from the vowel of the word preceding the stressed consonant. This will be dealt with in detail in chapter 13. EXAM PLES

I Illove you

If with all your hhhearts you truly ssseek me

The stop-plosive consonants [d], [t], and [g] are doubled or tripled by stopping down on the consonant before its release. This is treated the same as a double stop-plosive in Italian. EXAMPLES

Oh! My g;goodnessl

drdeath invades me

6. The preparation or anticipation of the consonant must be done without tension and distortion of the vowel. 7. The objective should be to keep the base of the tongue from hardening. This is accomplished in part by striving to maintain a flexibility and pliability of the jaw

/

lips, and tongue muscles,

CHAPTER NINE Introduction to Consonants

8; /4fl consonants not begrnnfng stressed words that are followed %-¥»w«js sttbuttf, tescvmfed with the vowels that follow them, IX AMPLE

wai'-»ting fo -4 rus

The English Consonants The English language contains twenty-five consonants. Fifteen of them are voiced consonants and ten are unvoiced consonants. A voiced consonant is a consonant that involves the vibration of the vocal chords in its production. A voiceless or unvoiced consonant does not. Note the list of the English consonants with their voiced and unvoiced cognates below.

ENGLISH CONSONANTS Voiced

Unvoiced Cognates

b

P

d

•t

9

k

v

-f

z

s

3

•\

5

e

d3

>tj

M
b cutoffs: weep

creep

sleep

hope

help

drop

slip

lamp

grasp

up

trip

grope

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CHAPTER TEN The Plosives

[d]/[t] Production Lingua-alveolar consonants.

FIGURE 10.2 [d]/[t]

Action Tongue

Lips Jaw

sides of tongue in contact with upper molars tongue tip securely placed on gum ridge behind center of the upper teeth tip releases with spring-like action to below lower front teeth as cords vibrate for [d] or breath releases for [t] tongue tip very energized inactive no action of jaw necessary in release of consonant

Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid dental t's and d's as in Italian. They must be aspirated for English (the only dental consonants that exist in English are [5] and [6]). Avoid slack d's, caused by thick tongue contacting too broad an area of gum ridge. Only tongue tip in the center of the gum ridge is needed.

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Avoid over-aspirated medial consonants—use softer attack when medial consonants begin unstressed syllables.

RU11S for W endings* 1. When the "ed" ending;($preceded by a vo/earf consonant, the d b soynded a$[d]. ....EXAMPLE

troubled | crowne

2. When the "ed" ending!; preceded by an unvQlcetf--consonant, the d is sounded as [t]. EXAMPLE

kissed [kist| talked

Aids for Projection Plosives are the consonants most prevalently found in English words. If good projection technique is acquired for the plosive consonants, much of the intelligibility battle can be won. Besides being most prevalent, the plosive consonants can be the most problematical vocally and acoustically with any microphone enhancement. With this is mind, it is important to know which type of plosive consonants are needed for specific circumstances.

With Thick Instrumental Accompaniments,

Use Wet T's and D's 1. With thick accompaniment or orchestration, use a wet t/d to project. A wet t or d has a forward-placed vowel released with it. Release final t's with a whispered [i] vowel following it. A final d is released with an [i] following it. EXAMPLE

night [nait®]

This final wet t sounds similar to the percussion instrument, the high hat. 2. With instrumental accompaniment, initial d's may be replaced by an aspirated partial [t] for easier projection. The symbol for this kind of "half d-t" sound is [d]. It almost sounds like a [dz], but with less voicing.


Drill alternating the words "town" and "down" releasing the [d] with the same frontal position and aspiration as the [t]. EXAMPLE

[taun] -> [daun] -> [taun] -»[daun]

3. The tr and dr consonant clusters are often mispronounced colloquially as [tjj] and [d;y]. This pronunciation, though incorrect, does project better over an orchestra and takes less air to produce. Actually, it alleviates subvocal pressure to substitute [tjj] for tr spellings. Therefore, substitute these whenever the tessitura is difficult or the orchestration is heavy. EXAMPLES

dream

truth

tree

tremble

try

trust

4. Double t and d spellings are only sounded as one consonant. Use light aspiration on the medial t's. EXAMPLES

better, pretty, matter, wedding, adding, ladder

With Light Accompaniments and Microphones,

Use Dry T's and D's Use dry t's and d's when singing and speaking with a microphone or light accompaniment. A dry d or t is released with a vowel [9], which releases downward. If you hold the palm of your hand two or three inches in front of your mouth and release a dry d or t, you should not feel a puff of air against your palm. A dry d or t should not have any forward release of breath that would "pop" the mike.

PRACTICE DRILL Say or sing the following words with dry t's and d's. Hold your palm in front of your mouth and make sure you do not feel any puff of air. Wept / wed

paint / pained

bet / bed

helped / held

Tell / dale

tot / dot

Tom / Don

tear / dare

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EXERCISES 1. Practice t's and d's in the various positions. Alternate between wet and dry t's and d's:

Initial

Medial

Final

touch

letter

night

tree

bitter

sweet

twenty

winter

blessed

divine

under

find

dagger

sudden

beside

daughter

riddle

confide

2. Practice intoning/singing the following with no intrusive vowels between the consonant clusters. If the [sts] cluster is difficult, first say the [s] followed by the [ts]:

[sts] beasts

mists

guests

ghosts

lasts

tastes

hosts

casts

texts

t plus various consonants

do not go

great joy

set forth

sweet dream

sent me

let none

night prayer

thou art good

bright vision

secret sorrow

lost souls

first song

[g]/[k] Production The consonants [g] and [k] are lingua-velar stop-plosives. Their articulatory adjustment involves the back of the tongue and the velum.

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FIGURE 10.3 [g]/[k]

Action Mouth

open

Tongue

tip behind lower front teeth middle of tongue in contact with hard palate (they can be produced with soft palate, but a more forward production is recommended);

Lips Jaw

tongue springs away as cords vibrate for [g] or air puff for [k] inactive no movement necessary in release of consonant; the tongue does all the work in release

Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid guttural, gulpy g's produced in back of throat. Avoid faulty k's—croaking k's against soft palate; must be further forward. Avoid pull back production in anticipation of the [1] in [gl] combinations—gleam, glimpse, glade.

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RULfS for [i)+g] or [nj atone; 1. [rj] is sounded alone when the root of the word Is a verb, EXAMPLE

singer longing

2. [rj+g] is sounded when .the stem of the word does not form a verb, EXAMPLE

• finger anguish

Exceptions: the comparative acfjective forms EXAMPLE

long longer longest

young younger youngest

Aids for Projection 1. Take care not to release an explosion of air from behind tongue. Air should be released no further back than from the hard palate. 2. Potentially throaty consonants—do not let them go back like they do colloquially. Again, remember to use the plosive consonants appropriately to the musical circumstance.

With Thick Accompaniment Use Wet K's and G's As with wet t's and d's, use wet k's and g's to cut through thick accompaniment or orchestration. For a wet g or k, to aid the forward release, think of the tongue in the [i] position for the cutoff of final k's and [i] for the cutoff of final g's. EXAMPLES

back [bae -^ k®] look [lu ^ k«] big [bi -> gW]

plague [plei -> g(l)]

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For initial wet k's and g's, anticipate the consonants by preparing tongue for [i] vowel. EXAMPLES

keep = (i) -> [kip]

cast = (i) -> [kaest]

go = (i) -> [gou]

guide = (i) -> [gaid]

With Light Accompaniment and Microphones Use Dry G's and K's

Use dry g's and k's for light accompaniment and with microphones. For a dry g or k, remember to avoid a forward release of the consonant with a puff of air. Drill the following consonants using dry g's and k's. Say these word groups, making sure you release the g's and k's with a final [9] with cutoff. pig—pick

egg—ache

brogue—broke

lug—luck

gape—cape

girl—curl

good—could

God—cod

For the initial consonant clusters kr, gr, kw, kl, and gl, insert a very quick [&•], [u], or [3] vowel between the consonants to elongate the beginning of a stressed word or stressed syllable of a stressed word. EXAMPLES

cross

great

choir

cloud

glance

Word of Caution Never insert a schwa [9] unless in a consonant cluster with an 1. For the semi-glide consonants in clusters, only their related vowel can be inserted. This applies to all consonant clusters with glide consonants, not just those with k's and g's. In other words: Insert [u] only when [w] is in an initial cluster EXAMPLE

queen [k< u >win]

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[i] only when [j] is in an initial stressed cluster EXAMPLE

music [m^juzik]

[a^] only when [J/R] is in initial stressed cluster EXAMPLE

green [gjin]

[9] only when [1] is in initial stressed cluster EXAMPLE

blow [b] and [tj] are cognate pairs that are lingua-alveolar and lingua-palatal involving the tongue against the front and sides of the palate.

FIGURE 10.4 [ds]/[tj]

Action Tongue

sides of tongue against upper molars, flattened tip on gum ridge, and front section of hard palate sound is produced when air escapes while the tip releases with spring-like movement forming a groove in the tongue [d] and [3] blend simultaneously

Lips

inactive

Jaw

no required involvement

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Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid mushy [ds] caused by escape of air over sides of tongue rather than over the tip. This problem is called lateralization. To correct lateralization, make sure sides of tongue are in contact with the molars. Avoid unintentional exchanging of [tj] for [ds]. Drill the following pairs: perch—purge

batch—badge

etch—edge

These affricates are particularly difficult for non-native speakers. Because many languages do not contain [tj] and [03], many non-native speakers sometimes substitute [J] and [3] or [ts] and [dz].

Aids for Projection 1. No compression or explosion of air. It destroys the legato. 2. Substitute [tj] for [ds] in vocally difficult settings. The consonant [tj] is easier to project and the substitution cannot be aurally discerned over an instrumental accompaniment. EXAMPLE

From The Crucible by Robert Ward: "I do not judge you, John" sn

' g [trj -» [tJ01"1] rather than [d3an]

1UL1 [ds| and [tf] cannot be Imploded, Both must be pronounced in alt tempi. EXAMPLE

orange jj futce

large || gem

each I) child

such jj Joy

EXERCISES 1. Practice articulating these consonants in various positions: Initial

Medial

Final

charm

nature

witch

cherish

butcher

match


champion

furniture

beach

childlike

teacher

sandwich

joy

major

merge

jelly

rejoice

besiege

George

Egypt

marriage

judah

imagination

courage

2. Practice separating the following words phrases: such || generosity

purge || jealousy

sage || judgment

George || jests

marriage || choice

judge || judiciously

Save Breath for Shadow Vowels One of the biggest impediments to transmitting a complete thought to the listener is the unintentional practice of not saving enough breath to fully finish the last word of a phrase. This is not only a problem that singers have. Start listening to sermons and lectures and notice how many speakers drop off the final word of their sentences. It is often a very frustrating experience for the listener. In English sentence structure, the last word of a sentence is usually a stressed word. If we lose the last word, we have often lost the entire thought. Let's analyze the following text: Weep you no more, sad fountains; What need you flow so fast? Look how the snowy mountains Heaven's sun doth gently waste! But my sun's heavenly eyes View not your weeping, That now lies sleeping Softly now, softly lies sleeping. (Anonymous, "Weep You No More, Sad Fountains" from John Dowland's Third Book of Songs)

Notice what happens when every word at the end of the poetic line is dropped.

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136


Weep you no more sad

?

What need you flow so

?

Look how the snowy Heaven's sun doth gently

? ?

After four or five phrases like that, the listener usually stops listening. Their mind starts to wander; they might start thinking about what will be offered at the coffee bar during the interval! The way to prevent this major disconnect is to make sure the entire thought is transmitted to them. To do that, the final word of the phrase must be well supported and finished fully. Other non-communicative things can potentially occur in the next part: But my sun's heavenly (ice) View not your weepy While she lies sleepy Softly now, softly lies sleepy This happens because the final consonant of the final word is not projected. It is always unintentional. No one really plans on changing "sleeping" to "sleepy" or "weeping" to "weepy." If the support is dropped before the final consonant is projected, then it is lost. This frequently happens in singing because the pedagogical focus is always on singing through the vowel sounds and the final consonants are left to their own devices. To eliminate this problem, sing a shadow vowel: a short vowel with the release of the final consonant. The preferred vowel to sing would be a short "ih" vowel [i] rather than a schwa [9], which makes English start to sound very Italianate. EXAMPLE

Thy hand(l) Belinda, darkness shades me, More I would(l), but death invades me. (Henry Purcell, "When I am Laid in Earth" from Dido and Aeneas)

Here are some rules to consider regarding shadow vowels.

RULES FOR SHADOW VOWiiS In this chapter, the use of shadow vowels after the final voiced plosive consonants [b], [d], and [g] has been discussed. Actually all final voiced consonants


137

that are followed by a rest or punctuation should be projected by use of a shadow vowel on the cut-off. Below are some parameters for their use. 1. The preferred shadow vowel is an [i] vowel. If a [a] is used, the tfext begins to sound very Italianate.

2. Shadow vowels are used at the end of a phrase to keep the test word of the phrase supported and projected. 3. They also can be used to project a final [b], [d], or [g] of a stressed worcf-type when It is followed by a consonant. If a shadow vowel is inserted in the rWddle of the line/ it should be sung on the pitch of the word following It And are up-gathere ~»d(1) now like sleeping flowers*

EXAMPLE

4. A shadow vowel should be very short, roughly the length of a 16th notfe 5. A shadow vowel at the end of a phrase should be loud enough to be heard over the accompaniment but softer than the primary vowel of the word it finishes. In other words, a shadow vowel is there to serve the projected of the text but should not draw attention away from the stressed words of thfi phrase, 6. for microphones: If you are singing with a body mike, you will only need to put shadow vowels on final [b], [d], or [g]f Just sing through the final nasal and fricative consonants and they will be sufficiently projected by the mike. * More detailed applications can be found in chapter 13.

Observe shadow vowels in the following two musical examples: Andante

Sure

50

on

this shin - ing night

Of

("Sure on This Shining Night," Samuel Barber)

star - made shad-ows rou

-

ndw

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Some - times

I

Some-times a

hear

a

dis - tant

stair - case

creak -

ing,

tel - e - phone.

.n(I)

("Lonely House" from Street Scene, Kurt Weill)

EXERCISES Transcribe the following texts in IPA, indicate implosions to improve the legato, and insert shadow vowels to project the final voice consonants:

AS I want to be where the music comes from. Where the clock stops, where it's now. I want to be with the friends around me, Who have found me, who show me how. I want to sing to the early morning, See the sunlight melt the snow; And oh, I want to grow. I want to wake to the living spirit Here inside me, where it lies. I want to listen til' I can hear it, Let it guide me, and realize That I can go with the flow unending, That is bending, that is real; And oh, I want to feel. I want to walk in the earthly garden, Far from cities, far from fear. I want to talk to the growing garden,


To the devas*, to the deer, And to be one with the river flowing, Breezes blowing, sky above; And oh, I want to love. (Lee Hoiby, "Where the Music Comes From")

AS

Do not despise the rose because its beauty is manifest, Do not decry the thistle for its elusive grace, I love what must be searched as well as read'ly offered, If joy or pain accompany the gift. Your easy words and kisses neither burned nor stung. You left me at dawn on a dreamless bed. (Gian Carlo Menotti, The Idle Gift)

* devas [deivas]: nature spirits.

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CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives

A fricative is a speech sound in which breath passes through the articulators so as to create frictional noises. Most fricatives occur as cognate pairs. There are ten fricative consonants in English in four cognate pairs: [v]/[f], [z]/[s], [sMJ], [9]/[6], and [Av]/[h]. The consonants [z], [s], [3], [J] are also called sibilants. A sibilant is a speech sound in which breath passes through the articulators so as to create a hissing sound. With the exception of the stop-plosives, all other consonants in English are continuants and can be sustained. [v]/[f] are labio-dental. They are produced with contact between the lower lip and upper teeth. [z]/[s] are lingua-dental. They are produced with the tongue between the upper and lower teeth. [sMJ] are lingua-palatal. They are produced with the tongue against the sides and front of teeth. [5]/[9] are lingua-dental. They are produced with the tongue in contact with the upper front teeth. [h] is glottal. The sound is articulated in the glottis or throat. [M] is a bilabial consonant glide.

Merges: The Legato Builder In the previous chapter, I focused on a technique for improving the legato line with the plosive consonants: the use of an implosion of the cognate pairs [b]/[p], [d]/[t], [g]/[k]

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AN OVERVIEW OF THE FRICATIVE CONSONANTS 1. In the production of all the fricatives, always keep the exterior facial muscles and throat uninvolved. 2. Never blow breath. There should be no sensation of air, only resonance. 3. Except for special circumstances, immediately voice the voiced consonants with prompt vocal vibration. Do not initiate with the voiceless cognates. It destroys the legato. EXAMPLE

divine [divain] not [dif>vain]

4. Only adequate duration conveys these consonants to the audience, not air pressure. 5. Keep time value of the duration of the stressed consonants consistent with the English stress patterns. As in the word "velvet," the initial [v] would be tripled while the second [v] that begins the unstressed syllable would be short. 6. Any intentional substitutions of consonant cognates for projection purposes must not be discernible to the audience. 7. The unvoiced consonants must be heard long enough to be recognized. They must be held longer than their voiced counterparts. 8. Like the plosive consonants, the fricatives need as much abdominal support as the vowels require. Plosive consonants implode when the cognate pairs are back to back; fricative consonants merge when they are back to back.

when they are adjacent to each other in a vocal line. A similar principle can be applied to fricative consonants [v]/[f], [z]/[s], b]/[J], [9]/[6], and [MJ/[h] when they are adjacent to each other in a vocal line. Since the fricatives are sustaining consonants, rather than stop consonants like the plosives, they can be sustained together without any stop of tone. This sustained connection of one fricative consonant to another is called a merge.

RULE A Merge is the seamless sustaining of two adjacent consonants |o as to not allow an intrusive vowel to accidentally occur between them, thereby disturbing the textual line. If the articulators are dropped for even a split second while adjusting for the position of the next consonant a schwa or lorne other weakened vowel sound will be heard between the two consonants.

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The symbol for a merge is: [_]. Throughout this chapter, there will be discussions about the merging of the fricative consonants.

All Fricatives Can Merge Although each of the cognate pairs of the fricative consonants have been discussed separately, in actuality, all fricative consonants can merge when they are adjacent to each other in a vocal line. In other words, any combination of the fricative consonants back to back can form a merge. In reality, any combination of fricatives can merge with any other sustaining consonants. See chapter 13. EXAMPLES

|TJ[f]

[v][8]

[z] [0]

[3]

Rushorward

oOhis

doesthirst

mirage^vanishes

[v]

[v]/[f] Production The sounds [v] / [f] are labio-dental fricatives involving the lower lip and upper teeth. These sounds are made by bringing up the inner edges of the lower lip against the upper teeth. The sounds are produced when the breath [f] or the voice [v] escapes through a narrow opening between the upper teeth and lower lip.

FIGURE 11.1 [v]/[f]

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Action Tongue

relaxed, low in mouth

Teeth

slightly apart cutting edge of upper teeth rests lightly inside lower lip

Lips

relaxed and apart Very little air required

Pitfalls to Avoid Do not UNintentionally exchange [f] for [v]. EXAMPLES

of: [av] not [af] I have to go: [haev tu] not [haef tu]

Do not overblow—easy air flow, no breath pressure. Do not omit the [f] before the [6] in words like fifth or twelfth.

Aids for Projection and Legato 1. To avoid an intrusive schwa [a] after [v] as in the word "love," wait for the vibration of [v] to cease and then move the articulators. 2. With instrumental accompaniment, use a shadow vowel [i] after final v and a whispered [i] after final [f] followed by a rest or pause in order to better project. EXAMPLES

dove[dAV«]

grief [gjif(l)]

3. With thick orchestral accompaniment, final f's that end a phrase may be projected easier if [f] is switched to [v] on the release. EXAMPLES

life [laif -> v«]

belief [bilif -> v«]

RULE Merge final [v/f] followed by an initial [v/f} with one continuous sound.

EXAMPLES

live^vitally

live^forever

life^varies

griePfalls


EXERCISES 1. Practice articulating v's and f's in the various positions: Initial

Medial

Final

fame

infamous

grief

photo

coffee

laugh

friend

suffer

leaf

fortune

coffin

strife

fury

offer

nymph

voice

evil

love

Venus

avoid

eve

virtue

divine

shelve

valley

Savior

groove

villain

invade

move

2. Transcribe the following text and intone it. Where applicable, use glide vowels and breath lifts to treat the stressed words, and add shadow vowels to project the final voiced consonant before punctuation or a breath and merges for legato. Music when soft voices die, Vibrates in the memory; Odours when sweet violets sicken, Live within the sense they quicken. Rose leaves when the rose is dead, Are heaped for the beloved's bed; And so thy thoughts, when thou art gone, Love itself, shall slumber on (Percy Bysshe Shelley / Ernest Gold, "Music When Soft Voices Die")

3. Transcribe the following aria into IPA. Where applicable, use glide vowels and breath lifts to treat the stressed words. Add shadow vowels to project the final voiced consonants before punctuation or a breath. Green finch and linnet bird, nightingale, blackbird, How is it you sing? How can you jubilate, sitting in cages, Never taking wing?

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146


Outside the sky waits, beckoning, Just beyond the bars. How can you remain, staring at the rain, maddened by the stars? How is it you sing anything? How is it you sing? Whence comes this melody constantly flowing? Is it rejoicing or merely hallowing? Are you discussing or fussing or simply dreaming? Are you crowing? Are you screaming? Ringdove and robinet, is it for wages, Singing to be sold? Have you decided it's safer in cages, Singing when you're told? My cage has many rooms, damask and dark. Nothing there sings, not even my lark. Larks never will, you know, when they're captive. Teach me to be more adaptive. Ah, Green finch and linnet bird, nightingale, blackbird, Teach me how you sing. If I cannot fly let me sing. (Stephen Sondheim, "Green Finch and Linnet Bird" from Sweeney Todd)

[z]/[s] Production The consonants [z]/[s] are lingua-alveolar fricatives involving the blade of the tongue contacting the alveolar ridge.

Action Teeth

slightly apart

Tongue

sides of tongue press against upper back teeth, sealing off breath point tip of tongue toward exact center of upper front teeth

Lips

keep lips symmetrical

Vibration occurs between tip of tongue and the gum ridge

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FIGURE 11.2 [ z ] / [ s ]

Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid dull sound, which occurs if tongue tip is down; there is more resonance with tongue tip up by gum ridge. Avoid lisping s's.

LISPING S 1. Frontal lisp: substituting [0] for [s] and [9] for [z] caused by tongue touching gum ridge. 2. Lateral lisp: aspirated [I] position substituted for [s] or [z] caused by sides of tongue not in contact with upper teeth. 3. Effeminate s caused by top and bottom teeth together and tongue groove too narrow. 4. Whistling s caused by tongue tip too far back or by tongue tip against lower gum or teeth.

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DRILLS FOR OVERCOMING LISPING S AND Z For S's Practice ts/s alternation: EXAMPLES

tsee/see, tsay/say, tsaw/saw, tsew/sew, tsoon/soon

Practice ns/s alternation: EXAMPLES

nsun/sun, nso/so, nsaid/said, nsign/sign, nseal/seal

For Z's Practice dz/z alternation: EXAMPLES

dzone/zone, dzoo/zoo, dzip/zip, dzeal/zeal

Practice nz/z alternation: EXAMPLES

nzone/zone, nzoo/zoo, nzip/zip, nzeal/zeal

Aids for Projection and Legato 1. There should be no shadow vowel needed on final [z] when the piano accompaniment is very light. Drill the following words, saying them with an exaggerated shadow vowel; then say them ending only with the buzz of the fricative consonant: comes

[kAinz(i)]

tells

[kAm —> z]

lives

[telz(l)]

please

[pliz(l)]

leaves

[livz(l)]

[tel —> z]

[livz(i)]

loves

[liv -» z]

[Lwz(i)]

[pli -> z]

[Lvv -» z]

[liv —> z]

2. With instrumental accompaniment, add a whispered [i] for final [s] followed by a rest or pause, and a shadow vowel [i] after a final [z] followed by a rest or pause. weeks [wiks(I)] (l)

pause [poz ]

laughs [laefs(1)] (l)

eyes [aiz ]

sets [sets(I)] rose [J/ROUZ(I)]

3. For final [s] / [z] followed by initial [s] / [z], merge the consonants into one continuous sound without any intervening vowels. EXAMPLES

less^sweet

yes,~sir

for Mistake

life's^zest

his~zeal

says^Zeus


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Expressive Doublings of the Fricatives

RULE To bring out the expressive qualities of the text, double and triple the initial consonants of the stressed words and syllables of important words. This is called an expressive doubling. This can be accommodated rhythmically by inserting a voiced or unvoiced grace note before the beat.

EXAMPLE

Voiced grace note: v:voice

Unvoiced grace note: s:sun

This will be discussed in depth in chapter 13.

Because the fricative consonants are sustaining consonants, they can be doubled and tripled to bring out and heighten the stressed words in a vocal line. Let's look at an excerpt from the Finzi setting of the Shakespeare song "Fear No More the Heat of the Sun." Try reading the text first without the music and experiment with doubling the initial consonants of the words you want to stress. The consonant doublings can transform a text reading from bland to captivating when we begin to use fricative consonants in this way. Fear no more the heat o' the sun, Nor the furious winter's rages Thou thy worldly task is done Home art gone, and ta'en thy wages; (William Shakespeare / Gerald Finzi, "Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun" from Let Us Garlands Bring)

Now try it in the musical setting. To notate a consonant doubling in a text, merely write two consonants and insert a colon between them, that is [f:f], [h:h], [s:s] and so on. Grave

Fifear

c. 42

no

more

the

("Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun," Gerald Finzi)

h:heat

o'

the

s:sun

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Now let's try out this technique on some Wordsworth. Recite the following text using glides, breath lifts, shadow vowels, merges, and expressive doublings: The world is too much with us; late and soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers; Little we see in Nature that is ours; We have given our hearts a way, a sordid boon! The sea that bares her bosom to the moon; The winds that will be howling at all hours, And are up-gathered now like sleeping flowers; For this, for everything, we are out of tune; It moves us not. — (William Wordsworth, excerpt from "The World Is Too Much with Us")

The stressed words that begin with consonant clusters may be stressed by adding the related vowel sounds the consonant clusters si, str, skr, skw, and spr in order to highlight them in a musical phrase: EXAMPLES

sleep

strong

scream

squeeze

spring

RULES FOR FINAL S PRONUNCIATION 1 » Pronounce [s] if s is preceded by an w/tvo/ced consonant. EXAMPLE

mists [mists]

lasts [Jaests]

2. Pronounce [i] if s Is preceded by a voiced consonant or vowel. EXAMPLE

sounds [sawdz] voices

3. For plurals, the same principle applies: [s] is preceded by a voiceless consonant; [z] is preceded by a voiced consonant or vowel EXAMPLE

ships [fipsj

tracks [fciaeks]

musicians [mjuzijanz]

memories


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• 4. Th£ same ai$0''»pH^s for possessive prooOyns. EXAMPLE'

Settfs

Tom's

5. All *«?. ] for AS or reduced r coloration [arj for Rl* and MA, For British pronunciation, see chapter 14.

EXAMPLES

AS comfort

comforteth

RP, MA comfort

comforteth

Although not applicable to this text, another archaic holdover oratorio performance practice is the pronunciation of the word "evil." It sounds very affected to pronounce it [ivil]. Preferred would be [a] or [u] for the second syllable. Also "angel" sounds affected when the second syllable is pronounced with [t]: [eind3£l]. Again, preferred would be [B] or [u]: [eindâl] or [eind3ul]. As a memory aid, remember there is no "ill" in evil, no "fort" in "comfort" and no "gel" in "angel." 5. Transcribe the following text into AS and substitute [c] for [h] where possible: Must the winter come so soon? Night after night I hear the hungry deer wander weeping in the woods, And from his house of brittle bark hoots the frozen owl. Must the winter come so soon? Here in this forest neither dawn nor sunset marks the passing of the days. It is a long winter here. Must the winter come so soon? (Gian Carlo Menotti / Samuel Barber, "Must the Winter Come So Soon?" from Vanessa)

CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L

A nasal consonant is a speech sound that is produced by the vibration of breath that escapes through the nose when the velum (soft palate) is relaxed. The three nasal sounds are [m], [n], and [rj]. The consonant [m] is a bilabial consonant; [n] is a lingua-alveolar consonant; [rj] is lingua-velar (the back of the tongue against the velum). The velar-valve reflex is an action common to all the nasal consonants. The relaxed velum (soft palate) drops like a valve, enabling these sounds along with the breath to enter the nasal passages.

[m] Production The consonant [m] is a bilabial voiced nasal consonant made by closing the lips.

Action Tongue Lips

flatin [a] position together lips open with the formation of the next vowel or consonant

Teeth

space between teeth

Jaw

released

The consonant [m] is produced by closing the lips and relaxing the velum. When the velum or soft palate is actively lowered, it allows the vibrating breath to escape through the nasal cavity and out the nose.

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FIGURE 12.1 [m]

DRILL 1. Intone or sing the vowel chart below, elongating the [m:] preceding each vowel:*

See note on page 1 71.


2. Intone or sing the words below, elongating the [m]'s: Initial

Medial

Final

moon

demean

groom

many

umbrella

autumn

month

comedic

form

march

similar

game

middle

demolish

climb

myth

diminish

phlegm

humanity

column

murder

3. Recite the following text, taking care with the [m]s: It was many and many a year ago, In a kingdom by the sea, That a maiden there lived whom you may know By the name of Annabel Lee; And this maiden she lived with no other thought Than to love and be loved by me. I was a child and she was a child, In this kingdom by the sea. But we loved with a love that was more than love— I and my Annabel Lee— With a love that the winged seraphs of heaven Coveted her and me. (Edgar Allan Poe, "Annabel Lee")

[n] Production The consonant [n] is a voiced nasal sound made by the closure created by the tongue tip touching the alveolar ridge. The relaxed velum allows the breath to escape through the nose.

Action Tongue

tip against gum ridge

Jaw

released

The consonant [n] is completed when tongue tip descends for the next consonant/vowel link.

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FIGURE 12.2

[n]

DRILL 1. Go through all vowels on the vowel chart with an exaggerated [n:] preceding them:


2. Intone and sing the elongated n's in the words below:* seen burn grin sun fan

tender gentle handsome frantic * This is an exercise to feel the sensation of singing through the nasal final or medial consonants. Though they should be resonated, they should not be doubled in a song text. The doubled consonants should be reserved for the beginnings of stressed word-types only.

[q] Production The consonant [q] is a voiced nasal sound made with strong contact between the middle of the tongue and the hard palate. The velum is relaxed, allowing the sound to resonate through the nose.** It appears frequently in German, infrequently in Italian, and not at all in French. In English, [rj] is found in words such as sing, king, strong, yearning, among, linger, and languish.

Action Tongue

middle of tongue raised toward hard palate tongue tip down sides of tongue in contact with upper molars

Jaw

released

Lips

in position of following vowel

The action is finished when tongue shifts to accommodate the next vowel or consonant.

** Although colloquially [rj] is usually produced further back with the mid tongue raising toward the soft palate, greater resonance can be produced when this consonant is produced further forward using the hard palate. The more frontal production can also aid in relieving any sub-vocal tension that might occur from this inherently "throaty" consonant.

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FIGURE 12.3

[rj]

DRILL 1. Intone and sing the following words, elongating the [nj: strong

sank

anchor

anger

thank

linger

length

strength

larynx

English

tongue

elongate

languish

meringue

distinguish

monkey

penguin

ankle

bingo

young

sing

VERSUS Sometimes in English, the "ng" spellings are pronounced [rj] as in the words "sing" and "strong" and other times they are pronounced as [rj] + [g] as in the words "linger" and "languish." Hopefully the rules below will help clarify when the "g" should be sounded in words with "ng" spellings:


[rj] only when the root of the word forms a verb; the [g] is not sounded EXAMPLE

sing

singer

long

longing

hang

hanger

when the first syllable or root does not form a verb; sound both consonants EXAMPLE

finger languor extinguish

E X C E P T I O N The comparative adjective forms use [q+g] pronunciation EXAMPLE

long

longer

longest

young

younger

youngest

strong

stronger

strongest

Pitfalls to Avoid for Nasal Consonants Avoid hypernasality—a vocal quality that can occur when too much of the vowel sound following the nasal consonants is resonated in the nose. Hypernasality Check 1. Place a tissue on a piece of cardboard and hold it under your nose, above your upper lip. 2. Say out loud several times: [t], [d], [s], and [z]. The tissue should not move because the air is escaping through the mouth. 3. Now say [m], [n] and [rj]. The tissue ought to move because the air should escape through the nose. If the tissue does not move, the air is trapped in the nasal passages and there is too much nasal resonance.

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Avoid denasality—insufficient nasal resonance. The vibrations escape through the mouth rather than the nose. The "cold in the head" quality that most people have with nasal congestion is a similar sensation to when there is a lack of air. Because of the lack of air escaping through the nose on these consonants, [m], [n], and [rj] become different sounds: [m] becomes [b] [n] becomes [d] [n] becomes [g] Exception: Although denasality is generally to be avoided, it does help with negotiating words with nasal consonants set in the extreme ranges of the voice. See Aids for Projection and Vocal Ease below.

DRILL 1. While holding your nose to minimize nasal resonance, read the following poem. You have produced denasality! O mistress mine, where are you roaming? O stay and hear your true love's coming, That can sing both high and low. Trip no further pretty sweeting, journey's end in lover's meeting, Ev'ry wise man's son doth know. (William Shakespeare, "O Mistress Mine, Where Are You Roaming?")

Aids for Projection and Vocal Ease As noted above, denasalizing the nasal consonants can help free up the voice in the extreme upper register. Use denasality for high notes and dramatic effect. Denasality can be very useful in projecting notes that are set in the passaggio or extreme high range where singing true nasal consonants can close up the voice. It can also be helpful in cutting through thick


accompaniment or orchestration, and can help intensify dramatic outbursts like "No!' "Never!" "Mother!" To use denasality effectively, begin with the correct consonant and then denasalize it just before releasing into the vowel. Remember:

a denasalized [m] turns into a [b]. a denasalized [n] turns into a [d]. a denasalized [rj] turns into a [g].

How to Access Denasalized Consonants First, start with one of the mainstays of the vocal warm-up.

THE FIVE NOTE ASCENDING AND DESCENDING SCALES 1. Sing a five note ascending and descending scale on meeee [mi:]: • Start in the mid-range and repeat up by half steps until you are in the passaggio. • When it becomes less comfortable to sing a fully nasalized [m], change it slightly to more of a [b]. By switching it to a slight [b], you can keep the throat open as you go into the high range. • Now try the same scale releasing the [m]'s into more open vowels: [mo], [ma], and so on, followed by switching the [m]'s to [b]'s. 2. Now repeat the five-note scale in the same range on nee [mi] and ngee [rji:]: • As you approach the passaggio, start to switch to a partial [d] after the [n] and a partial [g] after the ng [nj. • Now try the scale with the open vowel: [no], [na], and so on, followed by switching to [d]'s and [g]'s. • Remember to only use partial b's, d's, and g's! It should feel more like a percussive release into the vowel with the full plosives rather then the nasals. 3. Now try some sustained tones on [m], [n], and [rj]: • In mid-range, sing: "me." • Hum [m] and then release into [bi:] mmmmmmmmmmmmbi:. It should feel like a a more percussive release into the vowel than when you release only into

an [m]. • Now hum on [n] and release into [di] nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnndi: • Now hum on [rj] and release into [g]: Cot it???

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176


4. Try these examples: For "No!" sing For "mother" sing Final nasal releases at the ends of phrases are hard to negotiate. They can really clamp down on the voice. Try changing them to the related plosive: EXAMPLE

"thing" can be released

A Word of Caution Make sure that "No!" does not sound as if you are singing "doe." Use a dentalized [d] rather than an aspirated [d] after the [n]. For "mother" use a soft [b] sound rather than a strong plosive [b] after the [m]. This will take some practice to get the right amount of [d] and [b], but once mastered, this can greatly free up singing the nasal consonants and make them very dramatic and expressive. Here is a phrase from Carlisle Floyd's Susannah where I have found the denasalization has helped a lot of sopranos.

When I've seen

what's be - yond them mount-ains.

("Trees on the Mountains" from Susannah, Carlisle Floyd)

On the release of "when I've seen," change the [n] to a soft [d]. In the following phrase, "what's beyond them mountains," start with an [m] to finish "them" and release it as a soft, partial [b] as you sing the high B-flat on "mountains." Also, to keep the voice from closing down on the final [ns] of "mountains," leave off the [n]'s completely. In other words, sing "mou-tets" but with a soft [b] at the beginning. There is a full brass section to cut through and denazalizing the nasal consonants helps to keep the throat open and maximize the singer's volume. As you are vocally climbing up the mountain at the end of "Climb Every Mountain" from The Sound of Music, try:

177


(breath!) your

find

you Til It works!! Another difficult passage that has tied up quite a few mezzos is the final section of Dido's Lament.

re - member me, but ah! [ji mbe mbar mbi]

for - get

my— fate.

("Dido's Lament" from Dido and Aeneas, Henry Purcell) Put the first [m] of "remember" on the D, but release to a loose-lipped [b] for both [m]'s on the high G's. It sings something like: [urn bem bsr mbi]. Just finesse the [b] so that it does not sound too much like an actual [b]. Again, a word of caution -.finesse and subtlety are the name of the game! None of these consonant substitutions should ever be discernible to the audience. It is part of the operatic illusion that needs to seem "real" out in the house. Your colleagues on the stage may be able to tell you have switched a consonant, but then again, if you do it with enough finesse and bravura . . . maybe not!

EXERCISES 1. Practice denasalizing the following words: Initial

Initial

[n:d-]

[m:b-]

none

night

neighbor

man

more

majesty

nasal

nimble

natural

mob

money

mashed

final

final

fan

ran

can

loom

tomb

womb

fine

dine

sign

lamb

gram

ham

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2. Transcribe the following text in RP, treat all the stressed words, and employ denasalization on the stressed nasal consonants: When I am laid in earth, May my wrongs create No trouble in thy breast. Remember me, But ah! forget my fate. (Henry Purcell, from Dido and Aeneas)

3. Transcribe the following text in AS, treat the stressed words, and employ denasalization on the stressed nasal consonants: What was he thinking of that he plays so distractedly? Surely not of his wife, the long discarded Queen; Surely not of me whose foot he no longer seeks under the card table. Who is there to love me? Who is there for me to love? Not he, the foolish knave of hearts, not my father's faded photograph, not my stock market husband, nor my football son. Only my mother could have loved me had I but let her!

But there she lies in her pain, cocooned in her illness, an indiff rent stranger. hatching for herself the black wings of death. Do not die, Mother,

do not die, yet. Let me see your pleading eyes once more. Now that at last, I am learning to love you. (Samuel Barber, "Who Is There to Love Me?" from A Hand of Bridge)


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Sing through and Resonate the Nasal Consonants As singers we all know that a good voice must contain an appropriate amount of resonance in the nasal cavities. To maintain the resonance throughout a vocal phrase, make sure to sing and vibrate through the nasal consonants and let them help you. The medial nasal consonants, as in "gentle" or "sometime" are frequently ignored and abandoned by English speakers. The native speakers of the Romance languages always take much more care with their nasal consonants than we as English speakers do. Singing through the medial nasal consonants can greatly aid the legato line. Remember that when we syllabify words for singing we shift the final consonant of the first syllable to begin the following syllable. Musically, this means that if these words are set on two different pitches, sing the medial nasal consonant on the lower of the pitches. If set on the same note, sing it with the second syllable as noted below.

ge

title

te

nder

si

-mple

Now see if you can maintain the same legato feel on a musical excerpt with a larger leap.

It

falls most

te

nder-ly,

I

think.

("Bells in the Rain," John Duke)

Tips for Vocal Ease By shifting the nasal consonants to the lower of two pitches, the nasal consonant is easier to resonate and the vowel of the stressed syllable is elongated.

[I] Production The consonant [1] is a voiced lateral consonant.

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FIGURE 12.4 [1]

Action Tongue

tip lightly touches the upper gum ridge not tense or pressed hard against ridge middle of tongue drops so that there is space between tongue and upper molars feel vibration on tip the sound escapes over sides of tongue after sounded, tongue relaxes back to floor of mouth

Jaw

released and open

Lips

relaxed and open

Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid the back or dark [1]. Colloquially, there are two types of [l]'s used in speech: the light and clear [1] and the dark and back [1]. The light and clear [1] is used at the beginnin of a word. The dark and back [1] is formed farther back and is made by raising the middl of the tongue toward the roof of the mouth with the tongue tip not in contact with the gum ridge. The dark and back [1] is never used in standard stage speech and should not be use in singing.


RULI Use only the front andkcbar [if in tinging.

Do not let the tongue pull back and bunch when singing or saying medial and final [1]. It is a speech characteristic that is very common among North Americans.

RULE Never anticipate medial and final {1] souftcfe.

Remain on the preceding vowel sound as long as is notated musically and put on the [1] as late as possible. If the tongue pulls back in anticipation of the [1], the preceding vowel becomes contaminated with the tongue tension and becomes dark and muffled.

DRILL Practice the following words, using only clear and light [l]'s. Initial

Medial

Final

light

alone

feel

late

alas

all

learn

believe

cruel

love

below

Hell

Tips for Vocal Ease If it is difficult to avoid pulling the tongue back, try inserting a brief [u] vowel before sounding the [1]. This will help keep the tongue forward. Be careful not to insert a [e], however, which will constrict the tongue. For example: while smile kneel

fill yield melt

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182


fKIJJ InilW flf$ tât;l^p|liip|^l^t^;siress^l w« tiz] and "Not at all" is sounded [no -> ts -> tol]. Practice saying "not at all" and "it is" several times.

[th]

The aspiration of a consonant should be notated phonetically by using [th]. Since for projection, all t's need to be aspirated in AS, RP, and MA, the symbol [t] alone will imply aspiration. Only in colloquial American will the characteristic American flapped t be used. It is notated [r].

See glossary page 294 for discussion of flapped t's [r].

CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"

EXERCISES 1. Transcribe the following words in British dialect and drill them: touch

little

polite

tree

better

quiet

tongue

lately

clapped

tell

central

kissed

teeth

pretty

delight

2. Practice reciting the following texts concentrating on aspirated T's: I am the very model of a modern Major-General, I've information vegetable, animal and mineral. I know the kings of England, and I quote the fights historical, From Marathon to Waterloo, in order categorical; I'm very well acquainted too with matters mathematical. I understand equations, both simple and quadratical, About binomial theorem I'm teeming with a lot o' news— With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse. I'm very good at integral and differential calculus, I know the scientific names of being animalculus; In short, in matters vegetable, animal and mineral, I am the very model of a modern Major-General. (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, from Pirates of Penzance)

There is beauty in the bellow of the blast, There is grandeur in the growling of the gale, There is eloquent out-pouring When the lion is a-roaring, And the tiger is a-lashing of his tail! Yes, I like to see a tiger From the Congo or the Niger, And especially the lashing of his tail! (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, from The Mikado)

3. Transcribe the following texts: Your hands lie open in the long fresh grass,— The finger-points look through like rosy blooms: Your eyes smile peace. The pasture gleams and glooms

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238


'Neath billowing skies that scatter and amass. All round our nest, far as the eye can pass, Are golden kingcup fields with silver edge Where the cow-parsley skirts the hawthorn hedge. Tis visible silence, still as the hour glass. Deep in the sun-searched growths the dragon-fly Hangs like a blue thread loosened from the sky:— So this winged hour is dropt to us from above. Oh! clasp we to our hearts, for deathless dower, This close-companioned inarticulate hour When twofold silence was the song of love. (Ralph Vaughan Williams, "Silent Noon" from The House of Life)

Come, sleep, and with thy sweet deceiving Lock me in delight awhile; Let some pleasing dreams beguile All my fancies, that from hence There may steal an influence, All my powers of care bereaving. Tho' but a shadow, but a sliding, Let me know some little joy. We, that suffer long annoy, Are contented with a thought Thro' an idle fancy wrought: O let my joys have some abiding. (John Fletcher/ Peter Warlock, Sleep)

The fountains mingle with the River And the Rivers with the Ocean, The winds of Heaven mix for ever With a sweet emotion; Nothing in the world is single; All things by a law divine In one another's being mingle. Why not I with thine? See the mountains kiss high Heaven And the waves clasp one another; No sister-flower would be forgiven If it disdained its brother;

CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"

And the sunlight clasps the earth And the moonbeams kiss the sea: What are all these kissings worth If thou kiss not me? (Percy Bysshe Shelley / Roger Quilter, "Love's Philosophy") Spring, the sweet Spring, is the year's pleasant king; Then blooms each thing, then maids dance in a ring, Cold doth not sting, the pretty birds do sing, Cuckoo, jug-jug, pu-we, to-witta-woo! The palm and may make country houses gay, Lambs frisk and play, the shepherds pipe all day, And we hear aye birds tune this merry lay, Cuckoo, jug-jug, pu-we, to-witta-woo! The fields breathe sweet, the daisies kiss our feet, Young lovers meet, old wives a-sunning sit, In every street these tunes our ears do greet, Cuckoo, jug-jug, pu-we, to-witta-woo! Spring! The sweet Spring! (Thomas Nashe / Ivor Gurney, "Spring," from Summer's Last Will and Testament) When fishes flew and forests walked and figs grew upon thorn, Some moment when the moon was blood Then surely I was born. With montrous head and sickening cry And ears like errant wings, The devil's walking parody on all four-footed things. The tattered outlaw of the earth of ancient crooked will; Starve, scourge, deride me: I am dumb, I keep my secret still. Fools! For I also had my hour; One far fierce hour and sweet: There was a shout about my ears, And palms before my feet. ("The Donkey," G. K. Chesterton / Rebecca Clarke)

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240


In summertime on Bredon The bells they sound so clear; Round both the shires they ring them In steeples far and near, A happy noise to hear. Here of a Sunday morning My love and I would lie, And see the coloured counties, And hear the larks so high About us in the sky. The bells would ring to call her In valleys miles away; "Come all to church, good people; Good people come and pray." But here my love would stay. And I would turn and answer Among the springing thyme, "Oh, peal upon our wedding, And we will hear the chime, And come to church in time." But when the snows at Christmas On Bredon top were strown, My love rose up so early And stole out unbeknown And went to church alone. They tolled the one bell only, Groom there was none to see, The mourners followed after, And so to church went she, And would not wait for me. The bells they sound on Bredon, And still the steeples hum, "Come all to church, good people." 0 noisy bells, be dumb; 1 hear you, I will come. (A. E. Housman / Sir Arthur Somervell, "In Summertome on Bredon," from A Shropshire Lad)

Many other British texts can be found in chapters 2-13.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Mid-Atlantic Dialect

The Default Dialect The Mid-Atlantic English is a version of the English language that tries to be neither predominantly American nor British. Mid-Atlantic English, also known as Transatlantic pronunciation, is a type of accent formerly cultivated by American and Canadian actors for use in theater and by North American news announcers for war correspondence. Its aim was mutual intelligibility across the Atlantic. Generally based on the educated Bostonian speech of the 1920s, it was essentially North American speech with some adopted features of British pronunciation. In theater, it was used in stage productions of Shakespeare and other works from the British Isles and frequently in film until the post-World War II era. This form of "stage British" is not used today as much as it once was. In current North American theater, the practice is to use a more American sounding Theater Standard. It is what in this book is referred to as AS. Sadly, today, even Shakespeare is rarely performed in the United States with any sort of British dialect. The codification of Mid-Atlantic pronunciation in written form is credited to Edith Warman Skinner in the 1930s. Sir Tyrone Guthrie had established an acting troupe that was made up of British, American, and Canadian actors. He became frustrated with the distraction of the "ping-pong" fluctuation of all the pronunciation variants he heard in the dialogue of his actors, and enlisted the help of Edith Skinner to regulate a hybrid pronunciation for English that would blend the vowel variants and the language usage. The pronunciation that Edith Skinner codified led to the writing of her book Speak with Distinction, which has become one of the principal texts for stage speech used by acting schools throughout the English-speaking world.

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242


Good examples of exemplary Mid-Atlantic can be found in the films of the Americanborn but British-trained Vincent Price, the ex-pat Gary Grant, the Canadian Christopher Plummer, and the American actor James Earl Jones. One good way to become attuned to this pronunciation is to spend some time watching the black and white Hollywood movies of the 1930s and 1940s. All the starlets of the American Motion Picture studio system were trained to speak in Mid-Atlantic. Listen to the old movies of Betty Davis, Katherine Hepburn, and Humphrey Bogart. The list of stars is long. Even in the 1960s, Mid-Atlantic was used in The Sound of Music to blend the North American accents of the actors playing the nuns and the von Trapp family with British pronunciation of Maria played by Dame Julie Andrews. Although Mid-Atlantic is not used as much today, it still can be heard in a more modern form in the speech of such American television characters as Frasier and Niles on Frasier, and the parents on Will and Grace and Gilmore Girls. Mid-Atlantic dialect is often used to define a character who is highly educated or upper class. It can be used to help establish the relationships between the characters of a work. Even Princess Leia, Queen Amidala, and of course Darth Vader of the Star Wars film series speak in a modern MidAtlantic to establish their relationships to the authority figures of the Force and the Dark Side. In 2007, The Illusionist, a film set in Vienna, used dialogue in Mid-Atlantic For singers today, knowledge and fluency in the Mid-Atlantic dialect is a very useful skill. In North America, it is often the requested pronunciation by many conductors and directors for vocal works that are not specifically of North American origin. Oratorio and European opera in English translation are frequently presented in Mid-Atlantic rather than RP or AS. In the rest of the English-speaking world, it would potentially be an excellent guide for an international English that could be used for any European or English Commonwealth works not specific to the British Isles. In North America, there is sometimes a concern that the use of RP with its darkened vowels will lower the text intelligibility for North American audiences. Often RP is not used in a stage production of a British work unless supertitles are employed as a safety net. If this is a concern, or supertitles are not being used, then Mid-Atlantic pronunciation is an excellent solution. In Mid-Atlantic, the vowels are generally pronounced the same as in American Standard. The biggest distinctions between Mid-Atlantic and AS are found with the lessened "r" colorations in [sr] and [sr] and in the diphthongs and triphthongs, as well as the optional use of rolled and flipped "r's" in historic MA.

[a] The chief difference between British Received and Mid-Atlantic, besides the lack of vowel shifts, is the use of the intermediate [a] instead of [a] for the "Ask List" words. By lessen-


ing the "r" colorations and using the more open [a] vowel for the "Ask List" words, MidAtlantic takes on a "Continental" flare to the language and does not register as a North American pronunciation. It is the dialect that is used in the Madeleine Marshall book, To Sing in English. Let's have a look at more specifics of this pronunciation.

The Mid-Atlantic Dialect Overview A little of this . . . A little of that. . . 1. Mid-Atlantic dialect is generally made up of AS vowels with British "r" treatments. 2. The use of [M] always in words with "wh" spellings such as "what," "wherefore," "why," and "whether." 3. Like AS and RP, the Prefix Rule applies, see page 48. 4. The "Ask List" words now are pronounced with [a], see list on page 224. 5. For unstressed "o" spellings, the [o] schwa substitute is preferred. 6. Like RP, the [D], as in "honest," is used for words with "o" spellings. 7. The parameters for rolled and flipped r's and r-colored vowels are the same as RP, see chapter 14, p. 234. 8. Use [9r] in the second to last syllables of polysyllabic words with the endings "ory," "-ery," "-ary," and "-berry," see page 230. 9. T's are aspirated as in RP. See page 236. 10. Use burred r's [j] only for r's in Modern MA. In Historic MA, use burred or rolled [J]/[R] r's for initial r's or r's in initial consonant clusters, and flipped r's [r] between vowels. Historic MA

EXAMPLES

arise truth forever royal

Modern MA

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Repertoire Suggestions for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation In North America

In Europe / British Commonwealth

Oratorio of European origin

Oratorio of European Origin

Handel's Messiah

Mendelssohn's Elijah

Mendelssohn's Elijah

Bach Cantatas

Bach Cantatas Opera Any U.K. Opera where intelligibility is a concern Opera in English translation The Magic Flute

Opera in English translation The Magic Flute Die Fledermaus The Merry Widow

Die Fledermaus The Merry Widow European Operetta

European Operetta

Offenbach, Romberg

Offenbach, Romberg

British Art Songs (if intelligibility is concern) Quilter, Finzi, Purcell, and so on

The Intelligibility Factor The type of venue and the sophistication of the audience should be considered when determining which dialect will be intelligible and communicative. For a professional concert in a major city such as London or New York, the audience should be able to understand RP or AS without the default compromise of using MA. You, the artist, must make the final decision about what is best.

Note: I prefer that all British repertoire be performed in Historic or Modern RP or an appropriate regional U.K. accent where required, and all North American repertoire be performed in AS or an appropriate colloquial/regional accent where required. Mid-Atlantic is the default pronunciation to be used if the repertoire is not specifically American or British, is European repertoire done in English translation, or there is concern about intelligibility.


Rules for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation

RULf Always use [M] for atl stressed words beginnings with "wh" sellings: that is, whether, when, where, which, and so on, ' ..; T '•

This is no different from RP. For British and Mid-Atlantic dialects, the [h] should be much more exaggerated than in Neutral North American. Be sure to insert the related [u] vowel between h and w to stress and highlight these interrogative pronouns. EXAMPLES

Why? [h(u)wai]

Where? [h(u)w£ar]

When? [h(u)wm]

Remember that a few words spelled with "wh" are sounded with [h] only: EXAMPLES

who, whom, whose, whole, wholly, whore,

Ry Li Always use the liquid u [ju] in words that are spelled V or'-ew" and begin with the consonants d, n, s, I, t, and tit, See page 61 /

When these spellings occur in a stressed position in a stressed word, as in "tune" or "pursue," add the [i] related glide vowel to help stress and exaggerate this pronunciation. EXAMPLES

tune [t^jun]

pursue

When they occur in positions of only secondary stress, as in "interlude" or "gratitude," do not add the related [i] vowel. EXAMPLES

interlude ['intarljud] gratitude ['gR

For a more complete list of examples of these words, see page 61.

245

246


EXERCISES Drill the following sentences, using [ju] appropriately: The stupid pupil was confused about latitudes and platitudes.

Nuclear fusion renews confusion.

The youth endured puberty with humor.

Students must studiously study their etudes.

Eunice was amused by their new attitude.

Please try to duplicate the numerous nuances of beautiful elocution!

Allusion and illusion are infused with collusion.

The Muse was imbued with dubious acumen.

RULI UseJa]for"AslcUst*spellings.

The vowel [a] as in "Ask" is often referred to as the intermediate "A" because it is a vowel sound between [ae] as in "cat" and [a] as in "father."

247


[a] Production

FIGURE 15.1 [a]

Action Jaw

wide relaxed

Lips

spread lightly in smile

Tongue

tip behind lower front teeth arch slightly lower than for [ae]

The vowel [a] is the first vowel in the diphthong [ai] as in the word "my." One way to find the correct Intermediate "A" vowel is to sustain the first vowel of "my"—[maaaaaa] and kinesthetically feel and hear this vowel sound. Here is an overview of the three vowel variants for the Ask List spellings.

248


ASK LIST VARIANTS

RP

MA

AS

after

[a] [aft9r]

[a] [aftsr]

[a] [asft

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