Learner English SECOND EDITION
A teacher's guide to interference and other problems
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Learner English SECOND EDITION
A teacher's guide to interference and other problems
) ! +
published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom cambridge university press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011±4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de AlarcoÂn 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org # Cambridge University Press 2001 This book is in copyright, which normally means that no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. The copying of certain parts of it by individual teachers for use within their classrooms, however, is permitted without such formality. To aid identi®cation, pages which are copiable by the teacher without further permission are identi®ed by a separate copyright notice: # Cambridge University Press 2001. First published 1987 Second edition 2001 Fourth printing 2002 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge Typeset in Sabon 10.5/12pt
[CE]
& + '
'
, , --* Learner English: a teacher's guide to interference and other problems / [edited by] Michael Swan and Bernard Smith. ± 2nd ed. p. cm. ± (Cambridge handbooks for language teachers) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-521-77939-1 (pb) ± ISBN 0-521-00024-6 (audio cd) ± ISBN 0-521-77497-7 (cassette) 1. English language ± Study and teaching ± Foreign speakers. 2. Interference (Linguistics) I. Swan, Michael. II. Smith, Bernard, 1937± . III. Series. PE1128.A2 L36 2001 428'.0071±dc21 ISBN: 0 521 77939 1 paperback ISBN: 0 521 77497 7 cassette ISBN: 0 521 00024 6 CD (audio)
00-046785
Contents
Notes on contributors vii Introduction ix Note for teachers of American English List of phonetic symbols xiv Acknowledgements xvi
xii
Dutch speakers 1 Speakers of Scandinavian languages 21 German speakers 37 French speakers 52 Italian speakers 73 Speakers of Spanish and Catalan 90 Portuguese speakers 113 Greek speakers 129 Russian speakers 145 Polish speakers 162 Farsi speakers 179 Arabic speakers 195 Turkish speakers 214 Speakers of South Asian languages 227 Speakers of Dravidian languages 244 Speakers of West African languages 251 Swahili speakers 260 Malay/Indonesian speakers 279 Japanese speakers 296 Chinese speakers 310 Korean speakers 325 Thai speakers 343 The cassette and CD
357
v
Dutch speakers
Distribution ! "# $$ % & '( !$$ $ ) ! $$ $$*&$ " +
& & , !$$ & & -. !$$ $ # +" !& / +0" $$ " $ * *1
Introduction "# !!& + # )2 1 ! " & "# + 3
"# "$ $ $ 4 *$ # ! # " $ * * # $ * * # #$
4$ # # + $*! /# + & +0" $$ " $$ 54$! #6 # + # $ * * # 0 $ * * + ! / # #$ # 4$ # ! $ # & $$ + # ! $" $ $" 7! + # $ * * # #*# ! #* $$ * # $ * * 3
$! /# & $" & ! $$ $$*&$ &# # #$ 4$ "# *$ # &* "$ $ $ # # ! !3 $ $$ + # * !! "# * *$ # $ $ $$ /# # ! *
Phonology General # "# *$ # #$*" $ ! & $ !$ # + "# ! $$ # +0"$ "* * "* ! *$ #
$ ! * * $ "" # "# -
# &$! /# *$ # ""*$
$ +
+ "# ** "# "" *$ # 8 9 "* + 0 $ " " * #* # $*# + "* /$ 8 + + " 9 !"# / * "#* #
! $/ "#
*$ # 9 :" + /# "" # $$*
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eK aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z8 @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ "#
#$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - * # $ 6 * + *
Intonation "# ! /# !"# / * # *$ # # "# * # /#$ $ $ #*# "# #
! $/ "# *$ # * / # " * ! / # # //
Juncture and assimilation - "# # 0 $ " +" " /# # "; 0 $ D /# " # + $$* "# #
!! + *$ # /#"# " ! ! $ " ; $ ) * (
$! &$$*
Tags, short answers and reply questions "# # " " "! &$ /# # *$ # ; *% "$ & 8 ,
C+ " ( , ( )+ + " (1 $ "# *$ # # ; !& + 07 &F"3 $ 3 7$ /#"# +; "
$ 7"# * # 3 #
/ + "# ! !! * !
+
&
**
) ( - $ )+ - " % $1 - $ ." $ )+ + $1 $ / $ )+ / " $ / " " (1 - $ - 0 )+ - " % $ % $1
Auxiliaries # * $ +" "3! "# *$ # hebben )G 1 / zijn )G 1 +! # +" + zijn + blijven )G 1 + "!! "# *3+3 & 8 C1
" $ C1 $ # "# ! + #
" worden )G 1 #
! $ % #/ # +" "# # ! $ +! + zijn )G 1 + "# $ # zijn $$ # /#$ #* # # *$ # & * +" # # /$$ &
# *
# &$! "!3 & # 7 " *$ # + " " $ /#"# ! !$ + 2 # + ! # *$ # + + $ " $
Time, tense and aspect + "# " &# +" /# !"# ++" ! * # $ # ! $ +! B $ "# " /# *$ # /$ +"8 C%
$ C)
$ ?
C+ %
" $
7
#/ $* + ++ # & ** "# ! $$ +"8 C% $ C% ) % $
- #*# "# # + +! /# 7$ )*#$ ; $ # , + + *$ #1 +
# + # +8 C% % $ ' 7
#/ $* + + ++ /$$ # $ "# + ! $ + ! $ 8 C% 3456 % 57 $ C % $ = "# " +$ # + &"$ + !8 C1 $
"# # *
& +! 8 C% * $ C% 2 $ 5:*
6 ! * " #/ & 7
+ "
& # + " F" & 8 C' ( )+ ' (1 C-
" ( ! &* * $ # *$ # *
8 C $
Conditionals - # "# # " &/ # + & $ +!
# "# &"$ ! "$ # *$ #% +! # ; $ + # ! $ *$ # +! "# $$/
# + , , # &"$ + +$$ $7" $ & # ! "$ " ! $8 @
C% %
" % $ C% " ) 1 $ C%
"
$ ' "!! "# # & dan )G 1 # ! "$ + " $ " "8 H C%
" % #
( H C1 % " % $
Modal verbs I # /#$ # "# *$ # ! + ! $ &
!$ 8 - *$ # " $ $ "# moeten )G 1% #" # +; + /# # # ! $8 C' ( )+ ' $ $ $(1 C% 8 )+ $ $ $ $ $ $1 # * moest niet ! 8 C- " % ' "0" $$ $ ! & # ; $ + # "# moest )G 1 C% * $ C
" $ = # "# moet niet !
#+ "! $$ ++ +! 8 C9
> "# kan )0 kunnen1 $$ +
&$% #
; $ + *$ # , # 8 C% : $ C% . # + "# kunnen kon ) *1 < konden ) $1 /# * &$ $$ ! $ ! # ! &$8 $! &$ ** # # " 7
& # ! & /
" $$ " " "# ! & ! $ & # 8 C- 7 )+ $ $ $ 1 , :!
! $ *# * "# & ! + # A
! $ mag )0 mogen1 +! $ * $ *
*$ # $ $ # + mag /#"# mocht ) G 18 C+ #
? "# zou # $ ++ ! * $ +/ + /#"# " & 7
& ' = 8 C
)+ $ $ $
$ $ $ $ $ $
$ $ $: 1 C1 + " )+ $ $ $ $ $ $8 +$0$$ 1 C) )+ ) 8 !1
Non-finite forms "# " &$ +/ 30 +! # *$ # #
" &$! " $$ # + & $ "! $! 3 # +! / / &# *$ # "#
"# ! " $ $ # *$ # "! $! + / + ++ +! "# ; $ - "# /$$ & "$ F" $ & $ " " + 0 * + & 8 C1 % $ C% C%
)+ % 1 C ' "# # ; $ + # *$ # * /$$ +
& 0 + +/ " $ 7 ! $ 8 C% $ C% " C% $ C% $ C% $ C% $ " $$ # & " + * ; $ /$$ $ $ # """ + 0 + 8 C% " = # ; $ + # " 5& J &F" J " $6 /# ! * 7
!& + ++
" 8 C% $ C% ; $ C
-(
4 $$ " $ "$ "# "# $
$ &$ $ " !+* " $ " $ & $ "$ ) 1 $ /#$ * #! & $ " $ "$ $ < "
* #! / +" " $ "$ $ 1 "
)/#"# # "# ; $ $$1 /$$ $*
Word order 2 "# $
! $ # *$ # ! + # !
* ++" /$$ $ + $! $$ & # "# ! ! & $ # # /$$ $ &$! ! ! " $$
- "# # &F" # 0 +! + # &
&$8 C1 + ' # "# 0 & * & +! # + # & $ * )0 " $ 18 C%
C = " *$ # "# " # & ) ! $1 &F"
"! $! & & $ 8 C% C C+ > $/ "" "# + # " /# " # # # &F" "F"8 C %
C% 0 C # . # $ + & $ $ ++ ! & $
* " # + $ "8 C+
* , # & "$ "! # + # "$ 8 C1 ; ? "# # "$ " & +! & "! $7 " $ "$ & F" "! $!8 --
C + C1 @ 4 / * "$ # " 5 *
* " 6 A "# + &* " /# # ; $ + 8 C' +$ ) )+ 1 C) 5==3 %
& & $ * "! # + & "$ 8 C1 2
) $ $ $
1
Constructions with it and there - B$ +* $ #* &* /# het # "# ; $ + het +$$/ & $ $ & +! /# $ $ +$$/ " /$$ 3 "* " $8 C% 2 $ C% $ ' "# $ het $ + " " +! & ! $ %
.
C
C
"# # 0 "$ &F" "! $! /# " &$ * +
"" $* $% + # ; $ + : C+ "
+
$ + $ C) >
C+ # ! / *$ # )$ " " 1 /#"#
" & # "$ /# # /# ! & # ! ! * $ " & /#"# $ " # "$ /# #
" # & # " + /#"# # $ " " $$ #*# "# # ! $$$ # /# # "$ $ naar bed/school gaan )G , 1 # + +/% #" ! $8 C )+ 1 C ! + ! $ ! $$ " & "$ # $ $" " # # ) 1 $ ! $8 C* # ! $ -(( - ((( # "$ "#% #" C C
Adjectives and adverbs & " $ /# # E" +! + # " *
F" # + ! & $ +! $ # "# 6 "! " # " $ ! ! $8 C+ $ C- ? # 8 C
Quantifiers and determiners - "# ++ ; 0 /# " &$ "3
&$ % #" ! $ $
+ )+ 1 ' # " &/ /$$ # & *# -=
7 $"$ # #* # "! "$ # ; 0 "# #
! #$ + , , ! " $ ! 8 C% )&* $1 C$ $ $ # C@ % ( C $
Interrogative pronouns # $ &$! # + # &* 7 " ; $ + # "#% #"8 C' " ? A (
Relative pronouns - "# # ++ $ + $ #* # + /# $ " ) ) $ $ $1 +0"$ " ' # &* " &/ " 3 " "$ + # "#" + "" &* + /# " $ & " A & " ) * !! " $ = Wat # !"# / " * # *$ # 8 /# "$ " /# ; 0 " "
* $ /# # 7 $ # + !& + " /# *$ # ; 8 C2 " # $ C % $ I"" $$ $ 8 C % $ $ $ > B " "$ )"$ /# $ 1 3 * $$ / "# 7% #+ &* ! 7"
+ " $8 % B 2 . + $ J "# + "! $ & $ + # / * $$ & $ *$ # K J +! $ "# # + #! " # $$
&$ /#"# /$ & * #$ "#*
* 7" # $ + )K1 $ 8 ->
C $ C % $ , 4 "!! /# $ "$ 5:" 6
Reflexive pronouns "# E" # " # $+ + E7 + !& #" ! $ )+ % $ ""1 # "!& /# /# ! $$ !$ & ) ! $ & +* #* # $ #! $ 1 *$ # /#"# # "# ; $8 C1
The indefinite pronoun one Men $ +! $ *$ # ; $ "#
#$ & $ # # * + $ " ; $ 8 C% &
) )+ $ $ $ 1 . $ $ $ )+ $
+! $ - 1 C. )+ $ $ $1
Gender # $ * ! + *$ # # ! "# "#8 # "# # ! $ # ! " ! )F $ # ! 1 /#$ + # "# / & ! )! "$ 1 /# $! #* !& + +! 2#"# ! # $* "# + "$ " !
# ! "$ +! *! /# # "# ;3 $ 8 C ? $ $ $ $ $ $ C $ $ $ $ $ $
-.
Countability and number - "# "$$" $/ +$$/ & *$ & /#$ &+ /$$* $ *$ # & +$$/ & $ $ /# % # /$$ * +
# #
"$$" # ; $ $ & /$$ * $8 C $ ' : 3 $ $ /% # & 3 *$ # &/* "
$ * 8 C' ( % ) % 561 ! "!! + $ # $ $ +! 8 + $ = "# $ * # " &$ " &$ &
$$ ; $ &$* #
! " *% #" ! $ C " " " > + # 0 $! + J "! $ $
! $ *$ *$ # "# # !& " $ * ! $ $ . & $ # ++" &/ + 7 ! $ + "# # *$ # /$ & &# " " ! $ C
Conjunctions # $ $ &$! # # "!! "+ &/ 8 C' $
Prepositions #*#
&$ " *# ; $" &/ "# *$ # # ! " /# # ! "# # /$$ # $ ! # "$$" +/ "!! ! & / + 7 ! $8 C C1 =$ C , )+ 1 C -,
C C C $ C $ C )+ 1 # $ $
/ +/ ! " ! " & ! 8 - Sinds $ # % $8 C% ' Achter $ # % "+ #!8 C1 = In $ # % $8 CB $
Vocabulary "# *$ # # #
! & " ! " " &$ )* voet G groet G zien G
mij G in G 1 /#"# * $ + "$ $ * + # ! + $ + * # ! " + # " &$ + "$ & # + " # "# #
&/ + $ 7 $ +! ! " # ! " $ / 4"# ) " $$ $*!1 !
False friends # "$ *" $ # # ** #" $ 7! &/ "# *$ # $ # + " # &# # &/ 7 $ +! ! " "
$ $ # 7 " + ! + $ + + # ! # "# $ $ * *
4"# $ "# /$$ # +$$/*8
;
bekomen merk brengen camping parking smoking chance techniek
dramatisch solliciteren
*"
$ )+ F&1 * F&3#* * "; & ! " ! *3 " * $ F " 7 $" "#$* -?
concurrentie controleren neef nicht actueel actueel defect rijden zich amuseren eventueel leren missen fout novelle stage achterkant
"! "#" ) 1 " " "
"$ +" ) " 1 F $+
&$ "# /#
# # & "
Some typical mistakes with high-frequency words CD =
% $ 1 ( + $ @ % ( )# * 81 9 $ 1 ( )+ 1 (1 " $ CD %
$ % )+ % 1
Compounding *$ # "! $
+;$ # "# /$$ !
"# "!
Multi-word verbs # 7 "# & # + $
# *$ # /$$ + & "
7 $"$ / # 6 -@
$ & # # /$$ #/ + $ " 8
+
&
zoeken beschouwen verdragen
"
) !$3/ & + $ &$! # ! "# & !$ "! & &$ & "#1
A sample of written Dutch with a word-for-word translation Vele
malen heb ik al
meegemaakt, als
in een gezelschap
! # $ 7 " /# + " # $ " *$ # ! " /# *$ # # $ $ *$
# " $ * * :
&$ ! 8 C )+ 1 C &
) )+ &
) 1 C $ . ! " # # / $ * $8 C9 # $ C
$ , ++" +
* ! !" $ 7
" !
$8 C 3 H C
Articles - # 0 "$ "" " $ * * &+ "3
&$ $ $ * $ *$ # ! $ "$ # " # $ $8 C+ $ C ) + $ ' &F" &F" "! $! +" !$ $ + # " $ * * # 0 "$ /# +" 3 "0" /#"# $ $8 C1
$ C) $ = $ * !& + ! $
! " " #
! " + "$ $ /# # &F" " &
+!* ! " /#$ *# /# # & #
# $ " " /$ #
"$ # " $ * * "$ $ "!!$ $+ + # / + : C C
Premodification - # * )/# #1 + # " $ * * &F" # " # $! *$ # # ! $ 8 C ' " & !+ # *$ # / # " $ * * # / +! "! / /
# 0 $! ) $
"
" 1 '@
+ +
= +0" $ $ & F" " $ " # 3 " $! "# #! #8 den i de gamle regler beskrevne maÊde )G
) ! "" $$ + # + " " *$ # > # $ + * F" /# # # " 3
$ * * " &$ $
" # *$ # /#"# $ $8 C) $
Postmodification - # " $ * * + +$$ $ "$ )* 1 " /# *$ # + $
"!& ! " $ " " )* 1 ' ! " *$ # $ # /# 3 !0 /# # " $ * * #
$ "!! ! # + # / 8 C
Adjective or adverb? - " & + ! & !$ +!
F" /#"# $ +; ! 8 C+ ; $ C- $ ' # ! " "" " /# # & " " " "
/#"# ! " &
F" " $ * * 8 C%
$
Pronouns and determiners - # , " # " " $ * * 8 C % '$ + # *$ ; $8 C+ " % $ 'A
+ +
= + + +$$/ & $ "$ " $ * * + ! !8 C # $ > # " $ * * # "! $$ "0" $ man /#"# " # *$ # 5* $6 + ! & /# *$ # #
"
$ % $ ; $
$$ " . ! " /# #
! &$* *$ # & /# "$ +! # "7 /# #
# " $ * * # 0 "$8 1
Verb forms # E" + !& " $ * * B ;$ $ # #3 %
" $ # "# # "" $$8 C1 I @
$ ) )# +! + ! !$ # *$ " & +! er/aÈr1 & + " 8 C% $
Do " # #
! &$! /# # " "
# + $ "" * # +! + ; * * " $$ +0"$ & "$ 8 C $ # "!! + 5&$6 < +! 8 C1 $ C+ C D $
-ing forms - # " " $ $ $! $
"! /# *$ # &* ! $ & F" )
1 /# " & ) D B ;$ $ # &$! /# # " $ !& + " + 7 ! $ & $ "$ )
=(
+ +
B " %
1$ ' # & " + # * # / $ * * ! " # 0 " $8 C% ) * 5 61 C% C D $
Progressive aspect " $ * * # *
& +! $!
+ * $ # *$ # 5 ! $6 +! 8 C $ ! ! / *
+! # $ + "" # 8 C% + $
Tense - # +" "!!$ +! $ /# #
7$ & $ /# # ; $ + + + # 3 +" /#"# 7
"# * +!
# "!! !* $! # $ 8 C $ C $ ' # " +" " & /# 0 +" $ * ! $8 C $ C1 5=J3$ = / # # + " " " /# sedan )G , 18 C% $ > # " $ * * + /# #
+ # & ""! * & $ ! "$ # # +" # + # $ #
! $ + # + ) # +" + # + +"18 C+ $ C% $ - $ C' #
$ C % $ =-
+ +
# ! $ $ /# + +" + # *
+!8 C2 + $ C% % $
Voice # " $ * * #
" 7
# + / / 8 /# # +07 -s /# # 7$ blive/bli )/#"# "
$ ! 1 # + # " $ "" $ + ! 8 C% )+ % 1 C1 $ #
! $ & 3 + + # ! $
" /# ) # " 5: 61
Modal verbs $#*# !& + # *$ # ! $ # *# " ; $ # ++" # + ! $ /# " ; $ * &$! ! + # ! !
+$$/ 8 - Kan $ +0! " $ & /## #* # " ! # # +8 C9 * $ C # $ ' Skal 7
"! $ "!! )$ *$ # 1 # !$ /# $ "+ 8 C- ; $ = Skal " $ 7
# + ! )$ *$ # 18 C1 $ > # + skal $ & *! )*$ # 18 C& )$ C2 $ . / # /* # +! skulle "
!& + *$ # & & # ; $ # $ ! 8 C+ )+ + 1 C+ )+ 1 ='
+ +
Complementation - :&$! /# " & ++ +! *$ # ; $ " &F" !!
++$ &8 C+ $ C1 # $ ' Q& /# &$* E7 !"# ! "!! # " $ * * # *$ #8 C1 0 = # 5&F" J 06 " " $ * *
/$$ 8 C1
)+ 1
$ $ $ 1 C%
$
Prepositions - # " $ * * " & +$$/ & att/at-"$ )# ; $ + *$ # 3"$ 1 # ! $ $8 C1 $ C $ ' ! $ & +$$/ & 0 " " :
&$ ! 8 C $ C% ,
$ =
" # * " & # af/at $* $8 C $ > # #*#$ +; i + /# *$ #
# # # $ $8 C I
Vocabulary # "$ $ # &/ # " $ * * *$ # ! $ * + *$ # " &$ $ ""
&$ " 2 $ " " " $$ 5#
!6% !& + " # $$* /#"# E" $ *
+ # $ * * #$ &$ # + !$ /# # " ++ ! $ * " $
! + # !$ + ==
+ +
" " % &$/ /$$ & + $ + *$ # 5+ $ + 6 # &$! " + + $$ # $ * *
False friends # +$$/* $ "!! ! * + " "* /
#/ & " 4 " 5 ) G 16 !
# # " / # $ $ & /#"#
" $$ ! )# / # " # annoncere /* annonsere / # annonsera1 ! " " 3
/ $ ! # $ # 5+ $ +6 ! * &
$ ! "7 #
! ! * # *$ # "* 4 " komme/komma " /$$ ) 1 $ ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G
" 1 ) G " C D /$$ 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1
) G
1
CD ) G " " 1 ) G 1 ) " ! # Han kom fùrst kl. 10 G 1 541 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G # 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G " " ; " 1 ) G " 1 ) G C D 1 =>
+ +
) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 " ) G 1
Some problems involving grammatical words - ) ! + # # " ; $ # ! " &$! /# # " &/ + " * ) /$$
! "# % &$! + $ 1 $ ' " # / "* " ) +0!3
" 1
, # ! " ! + # ! 5 !$ 6 / = # / ogsaÊ/ocksaÊ " # + *$ # " " # ! /$$ ! + +! &$! + "#" # $ " &$ +0"$ + / + 7 ! $8 C% , > # ! & " # / # / /#"# " $ & $ # "" $$ $ # + $ " + $ & $ +" )+ 1% / & $ +" % E"* #
* # " $ * * . # / om +" &# "F" )G 1 )G " 1 4$$/* & /# &# + /
&$ ! $ ( " & +
A sample of written Danish with a word-for-word translation Der
holdt
mindst hundrede taxaer med dùrene
# $$ $ og
han havde aldrig set
# #
staÊet til ham,
paÊ klem
# 7 /# # F
saÊ mange biler paÊ en gang. Havde det
! " ! var han styrtet
#! LG + # & $+ #!M / # # =.
+ + fra
den ene vogn til den anden, indtil han havde fundet en
+! # " # # $ # #
+
chauffùr med et ansigt, han kunne lide.
Men hans
/# + " # "$ ++ L G # $M #
far
lùftede blot en ®nger, en mand med kasket paÊ hovedet saÊ
+ # $+ F 0* ! /# " det, stùdte ùjeblikkelig
i
en ¯ùjte
# #
/
og straks
blev der
&$/ !! $ /# $ " / # bevñgelse i den yderste bilrñkke !! # ! " 3/ )4! 5#6 & 2$$ ! !
2 & &
1
Acknowledgements # # 6 # * #
! R3$ # * $ * SF I#$
$
T* $ # + "
=,
German speakers "# $ /
Distribution P 2 U B I 4 " $ ! $*! $$ :$ BK"# &$" $ * !
Introduction ! 3 $ * * "$ $ $ "# *$ # # " $ * * 7 / + $" ! ++ +! "# # & ! $
! $$ $$*&$ # $ * * + ! )Hochdeutsch 5*# ! 61 + / "!!" #*#3 # ! 3 * /# +/ ! $$ * $ ++" & ! ! ! 3/
# # 0 $ * * " $" )+ /# * * $ "$*1 " + # "$ + !$ $ # &/ *$ # ! # ! !$ &/ # / $ * *
* #$* " &$ 7 ! #+ 0 *$ # $ $$ ! $ $ *
Phonology General # ! *$ # #$*" $ ! & $ !$ ! # +0"$ "* 3 "* ! *$ # !* # + + ! /#"# " * 5! ""6 *$ # 8 9
*" "$ # *$ # + /# /$ ! 7 $ " )(
B
Grammar # ! *$ # * !! " $ ! !$ ! / # #
! 5 + "#6 " * ! # + " *$ $ $ +! 0 0 "$ *$ *$ & 7$ ! $ & "
& $ " ! $ * $$ & # & # !"# *$ # #*# # +! /#"# !&$ # *$ # +" #
! / % # *
+! ! #*#$ E" $ * * /#"# / "# * # +! ) " $$ # * 1 ""* # * !! " $ +" 9 "$ F" + 7 ! $ # ++ +!
)5" 61 ""* /## # # &F" " &F" " &F"
# ! # / !/# + # *$ # /# # * !! " $ +" + /
" $$ " & ! # * !! " $ *8 ! "$ +! )# $$ $ # &/ * ! *1 # $ " + ! " E" $ ! *$ # + $ ! 3 * +$ # *$ # # 5 * !! 6
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # 7$ # ; $ ! % * ! & ! $ 3/ & ! * & * nicht ) G 1 + # &8 C' ( C " % $ ' :+" * $$ +! /# haben ) G 1 J " $ *$ # / ! & )! $ "!! & +* "# * + 1 +! # +"
/# sein ) G 18 C+ = " + # !$ + +! *$ # + ! ; $ + ! hat ) G 1 haÈtte )/#"# " !
9 &$/18 C ) ( > ! # #* " * # "! $" *$ #
! + ; * 8 *! ! $$ $" & *$ &$ / # "# nicht wahr? )G (1
! *$ # ( ( ; $8 C% " ( >-
B
Time, tense and aspect - ! # +! !$ # *$ # ! $ ! $ +" ! $ +" & # *
+! 8 C% $ C% % $ 1 ( ' # ! +! /#"# !&$ # +" 7 "$ #
! / 8 + +" F "
$ 8 C%
& = B $ # ! ! & /# / /$ +"8 C B > " "# ! &F" /# *$ # + * & 8 C%
- # ! $ " + *
" ! 8 C' ( '
#/ $* + ++ # & ** ! + /# *$ # +"8 C1 B ( )! * 1
$ $ $(1 C%
! # ; $ + # + # + +! /# 7$ )*#$ ; $ # , +1 # 7 $ + # +8 C% %
Conditionals ! " $ " # 7$ wuÈrde )/#"# " *#$ 1 ! & &# "$ 8 C% " % (Wenn er mich fragen wuÈrde, wuÈrde ich ihm nichts sagen.)
# " $ # 2# " "!! & ! >'
B
! # &F" ) 3/ +!1 + # "3 $ )"! $ *$ # % 1 " !
&F" + !&$ # $ *$ # )* kaÈme< waÈre ! will ! CD 8 C+ # " $ "+ &/ )! wollte)8 C% %
. ! soll )G 1 !! ! 3 $ sollte )G 1 8 C1 )+ 1 1 C% , ! ! $ +! ; * #
! /
# & # " $ *$ # ! $ &* #
! / 8 C ( C- >=
B
Passivisation ! + " " /# # &F" man )G 1 /# *$ # +
C. ? $ C.
There is . . . "!! ! ; $ + es ist )$ $$ 18 C%
$ ! " $ es &+ $ $ & # " % #
" "!! /# & # # sein )G 18 C% $ C $ ! $ es gibt )$ $$ 1 ; $ + , C%
Non-finite forms ! # ; $ + # *$ # 3$ + # +! )5*61 Lachen + " " " *$ # ! " # & 0 ""* # "7 " # $$ #+ + "+ C% , "
, $ C% , $ C% $ C% $ ! # $ ! # +0"$ /# # *$ # 5&F" J 06 " "8 C% "
Word order - 0 " $ "! # + "$ ! # *$ # / ;"$ $ & &*
!! ! ! 8 C% C1
>>
B
' =
> .
, ? @ A
& * $$ "! # + ! & "$ $ * &* ! ! 8 C % " ? ( ! # & " 5& "6 / + # &F" + ! "$ " & #* # # "F" #
&F" & 8 C. " ! &* /# # " &F" "! $!8 C % CA 0 & ! & +! &F" "! $!% #
$ *$ #8 C- B $ C1 9
& "$ "! # + "$ 8 C1 ; ! #/ # + "$ # &$ /# " $ % ' ( ! "$ ! & +! & ; "! $7 " $ # 8 C # Vor ) G 1 " 7
+ ! Entlang )G 1 +$$/
8 C%
C% , # $ C+ $
Articles - ! # 0 "$ + ""! /#"# * $ 8 C $ C' ' # 0 "$ /# 0* $6 +
8 C& = # 0 "$ + ! + # ; $ + 8 C- $ C% "
>.
B
Gender ! "$ +! /# 5!6 * : ""*$8 C& $ @ ( C )das MaÈdchen 9 !1 $ %
Number and countability - ! +! # $ $ / B!! $ $ * -en -er% &* !! # +! # $ $ + *$ # # # $ 8 C%
$ ' ! *$ # " &$ # " &$ ! ; $
9 + " ? C) C1
?$ C@ ( = ! *$ # $ $ # *$ ! ; $ 8 + 7 ! $ &
) C@ ( C
Possessive `s ! # ; $ + # *$ #
" &
! $ /# ! # " von ) G 1 * $$ 8 C%
Adjectives and adverbs - ! & + ! $$ " $ +! /# # E" F" 4 7 ! $ gut G , % schrecklich G , 8 C+ $ C1 $ C% ' ! !! & + " & 5 6 +
F"8 C " >,
B
Relative pronouns - ! was " $ & $ ) " " 1 /# # " "$ #
$ ! + 8 C $ $ $ C) $ $ $ C1 " ' ! * # $ 8 C%
= " # * !! " $ " ! &/ 3
" 3 " $ "$ &* ! /# " $ 1 " 9 & " * !! " $ > ! " &F" $ " $8 %
Conjunctions - ! # #
! / + )+* !$ 18 C- ' # ! / falls )$ $$ 1 ! " "7 # " $ + /#"# "" # *$ #8 C9
Prepositions ! # *# *$ # ; $ :&$!
" ) ! $ 1 /# 07 *$ # 7
"$$" " " /# # 5
!6 ! " $ ! # 8 C C- , $ C $ C I# &$! ) "1 "" /# ! # ! # *$ *$ # ; $ ! "!! +03 "$ 8 - Nach ) G 1 " $ ! 8 C) " >?
B
' Seit " ! 8 C%
= Von G % $ /# $* & # # 8 C@ % ( C C
> Zu G 8 C ? 1
1
. An G 8 C & , Vor G % $ 8 C $ C% , C% ) * % 1 ? Mit ) G 1 /# * 8 C' 5K
@ WaÈhrend G 8 C+ A Bei " $ * !& + *$ # * # "7 9 & $ : C% 2 ) )+ $ $ $ 2
) 1 C I
Vocabulary Q ! ! *$ # / +! #
!
)* Haus G % Schuh G % jung 9 % singen G 1 #
+ "$ $ * # /#$ #*# # " !& + 5+ $ + 6 ) &$/1 ! 3 * /
* $$ / ! 4"# /#"# #$ #! /# # + *$ # " &$ /#"#
+ 4"# * )#*# ! $ $ #! ! " $$ 4"# ! + $$* " &$ 1
False friends $ * !& + ! / # ! * /#"#
$*#$ "! $$ ++ +! # + # *$ # "* ! ! # +$$/* / ) !* # 18 >@
)! kommen G ""* "71 )! gehen G ""* "71
B
CD
CD
)! bringen G ""* "71 )! meinen $$ G 1 )! aktuell G " 1 )! eventuell G , , 1 )! sympathisch G 1 )! danke " ! / " 1 )! wenn G 1 )! bekommen G 1 )! kontrollieren G 1 )! weil G 1 )! kochen G 1 )! gluÈcklich G 1 )! rentabel G 1
$ # )! wer1 )! wo1 $ "+ & &*
Other confusions +! +0"$ " & ! $ * "* &$! ! * $$ /# ! / # ! # *$ # ; $ /# + " * / & ; #
! / # *$ # ; $ +/ 7 ! $ 8 :#" $$ ! "+ 8 # ! / + )bitte) /# ++* !#*
$ +!$ " $ # ) # $ & !"# ! /$1 # $ ! 9 *$ # >A
B
/
!! ' ( $ /# $ ;8 '
& * @ ( ' (
Word formation B! $7 "!! ! )Dorfschullehrer G 1 ! ! !$ 3/ "! *$ #
A sample of written German with a word-for-word translation Eines Abends
saû ich im
I * L*M
Dorfwirtshaus
# $$ * &
vor
(genauer
gesagt, hinter)
Bier, als
ein Mann gewoÈhnlichen Aussehens
+ + )! 7 "$
einem Glas

*$
& /# ! L+M " L*M sich
neben mich setzte und mich mit
vertraulicher
#! $+ & ! $ " ! /# "0 $ ich eine Lokomotive kaufen wolle
Stimme fragte, ob
" /## L &F"M Nun ist es zwar
$"! & /
ziemlich leicht, mir
etwas
zu verkaufen
/ # ! !#* $$ denn ich kann schlecht nein sagen,
+
" & $
groÈûeren Anschaffung dieser Art
&**
"#
aber bei
schien mir
doch
+ # ! ! #/
Vorsicht am Platze " # $ " L" ! ! & " M Obgleich ich wenig von Lokomotiven verstehe,
$#*# ich mich
.(
einer
L 0 +0"$
M & /#
erkundigte
$$ + $"! +! nach Typ und Bauart,
um
bei
! $+ L ;M + " "
B dem Mann den Anschein
zu erwecken, als
# ! # !
/ mit
einem Experten zu tun, der nicht gewillt sei, die Katz'
/# im
habe er es hier
L+M # # #
7
/# /$$* & # " sagt
& +$)$1
Sack zu kaufen, wie man so schoÈn
#
" &
)5 *VW "# ++*6 & 2$+* * $ #! +! * *
1
.-
French speakers B # 2 $
Distribution 4 B )"$* 4"# 2 1 2 U B % ! + #/ $ 7!&*% +0" $ / " $ * * ! +! 4"# $* "$ # / " $ +" # : "0" # !"
Introduction 4"# &$* # ! " * + 3 $ * * "$ $ $ $ # :* ! # ! " * # ! ++" &/ $* B 4"# + 7 ! $ # 4"# + 4 " & # ++" * # # &/ # !" *$ #% # ++ 4"# $" " $ ! $$ "! # &$ " 4"# 3 $ * * &" # ! "& *$ # / * # ! !$ 3 &/ 4"# *$ # &# 7 " &$ # #$*" $ ! 7#& ! ! ++" #/ # $$ 4"# /# &$! *
"* *$ # ! * $ &/ $$*
"
Phonology General 4"# # ! #$*" $ "# " " /# *$ # 4"#
# * +0"$ "* "* ! *$ # " & ! + # /$ &$! :# ! ! $ # 4"# *$ # ! + /
##! ++ # " $
.'
A
+0"$ &# * "* *$ # !* # + + 4"# /#"# $ 54"# ""6 *$ #
8 9 $$ 4"# / + / $$ &$ !
*$ / ) &$/1 $ # *$ # ! /# #
+ "# / /3 ! & $ # " $ &$!
+ "! # "! # &$ 9
* $$ &$ 4"# $ "* # ! * " *$ # #
$$ + # /$ " # ""
*$ #
$$ &$ # / + " ! ! 4"# # *$ # 5 / $$/6 # / " ! # *$ #
& 4"# ! "" 9 4"# ! $ ! +; F / *% # + # * # ! + # &$ )# &# # 1 + # * ** 5 +6
! "
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ 4"#
#$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - 4"# # $ # + ,i:< ,I< $ * "+ &/ $ ' 4"# # /#"# #
! / # *$ # *
$ & " *
* # #
! 4"# $ $ & # &
" # 4"# ! # *
$ " + ! $ ) # + , 18 C'
% $ C% % %& C? @ A @" # $ " /# # +" *
/$ & *$ # /# 8 C' % " $ # $$ & "$* 5 6 & " & # 4"#8 C% . # 4"# /#"# +! $ # *$ # +"
* " * $$ # *$ # " $ & /# # " & +! # & + " # "!! /$* # 9 #*# # ! & !8 1 $ < 3H3$ % 0
- 4"# # *
+!8 C2 $ + , ' 4"# # + 7
$ 8 C % * $
4"# # #
! # / + 7
* + ! *$ #8 " + * $ 4"#
*$ #
* + # !$ & # ! ++" - " 4"# # *
# ! $ ! & ""$ + # +8 C% @ ' 4"# # 7
" # !! 8 .A
A
)# &$$ * 1 % 0 # $ 7
! 8 C% ,% $ = 4"# # + + + ! + # ; $ + 8 C% $ C' (
Modal verbs # *$ # ! $ " " " # 4"# ; $ # & 4"# +! "$
8 $ # *$ # " # &# ++$ +! # E" &
# " $ $ & ; * +$$/* 0 # $ ! " $$ + &* $ 1 $ $ $ $ $ $ $ # # ++" + /#"# $ ! ! "!! &$! 8 - " 4"# *# # # 0 +! " 3 # *$ # 30 "!! + #! # 30 /# *$ # ! $ 8 C% $ C- $ C- ' 4"# +! + # *$ & devoir " # + &$* " 7
*$ # & $ # " $
* /# # ! "
8 C- C D ?
$ C- C D ) $ = # " 4"# " * # *$ # + + ! * * + ** # "
8 # # 5! +"6 /# 8 C% ( C' ( C% % ( > 4"# " $ #
! /
# *$ # ; $ / " $ $ )+ 7 ! $ / "$ / & " 1 " # # +! * & $$ " 8 C # $ ) + , $ $ $1 ,(
A
C) .
"
$ ) +
$1 . # 4"# ; $ + ! $ +" " " ++$8 # ; $ + % + 7 ! $ j'aurais duà aller 9 $ $$ % # " $ 4"#
*$ # 0 + " $8 C% $
Imperatives - 4"# # + + + " " $ * ! *$ #8 C- " $ $ $ ' / 4"# # 0 + ! +!8 C
" $ C
Clause structure and complementation - 4"# + + $ "$ /# *$ # +!
F" $$8 C%
' 4"# 0 * /# & +!
0$$ # $ " + 8 C $ C $ C% $ C% + $ C1 = " /# *$ # 0 + & 7
4"# # ; $ + $ " $ # ""8 C1 * $ C$ $ $ $ C$ $ $ $ > 2#$ *$ # # &# 5& 6 5 36 0 4"# # $ # $ ! $8 C% $ % $ . 4"# $$/ 57 6 &F" &F" "8 C- $ C ( ,-
A
C+ " ( , $ ! 4"# 4"#
" # &$ * ! "* "
$8
Complementation with certain verbs 4"# & # # "$ ; $ *$ # + # ++ "! $! ! + # ! "!! " 8 - 4"# ) &F"1 "$ # # 0 "
+ # ; $ + 8 C+ $ ' # ; $ + 4"# " & +$$/ & 08 C% $ = 2# 7
+ $"! ) " " " "1 4"# "+ # + !! & " $ # & # "#" + ! & # *$ #8 C+ $ )+ + $1
$ )+
$1 > &# *$ # 4"# " & " & !! $ +$$/ & " &F" /#"#
/# ++" & # &6
" & # $ ; #
! # / $ * * 8 C% # C1
It and there # 4"# 7
" * ! " # &** /# # ; $ + # " $ ! 8 C%
$ # 4"# ; $ + C$ $ $ D " $ & /# ! 7
! % $ $ $ 8 C% $ C #
$
Passivisation - 4"# # E7 # ; $ + ! " /# *$ # #
8 ,'
A
C $ )+ $1 . ? $ ' 4"# # &0" + & )" &F"
" " "1 " & # &F" +
" 48 '
4"# /$$
8 C. C D = # $ 4"# # &$ /# "! $7
8 C $ )+ $ $ $ $1 ) $
Word order: influence of French 4"# # + # " $$ "! &+ !0 # # + /# # *$ # # "
! # - & F" 4"# $ " + # ! &$! *$ # ! +! # 8 C
C C ; ; C+ % $ ' 9 "! 4"# $
+; # *$ #% /# # "" # ! 0 # !+* +$$/ 8 C C = # " " * # * " 4"# # 4"# # 30 / " $ !
$8 C C
> 4"# & + "! &/ # & # " &F"8 C% $ C% $ C+ ?$ C1 $ # $ # "!! + ! /#"# " 4"# / ,=
A
- 4"# " &F" "$ $ "$ + #
&F" + # "$ 8 C% $ C 2 ( C $ $ $ C $ $ $ ' + # &F" + # & "$ ! $ " 4"# *$ #% & * $
+! *$ # ; +! ! $$ $ ! "#8 C $ C%
= 4"# +
" " " 8 C% $ C% $ C& 1 $ C9 # ) "1 0 # ; $ 4"# " " #
"
! * $ * *$ # " $ %
> 4"# 7
+ ; " &F" "! &+ # " $ + /3 &8 C% $ C+ " $ C% $ C1 .
7
/# 0 4"# " & de aÁ /#"# 4"# !! $ $ # # ++" # $
+ * 0 8 C% $ , 7"$ ! /# # 4"# ; $ + J F"< & 8 C1 0 ? I# " $ ! * +! 4"# / 8 C C C%
( C
" C )+ 1 C
# C1
A (
,>
A
Word order: particles and prepositions # & " * " * #
$< $ &
4"# 4"# # +0"$ $ * #/ # & *$ #% / /# &F" "$ &$! C2 $ @ ( 4"# " 5 6 # + "$ 2# # ; / # &F" + 4"# #
$/ "! &+ # ; / # " *$ #8 CA ( # # $ # ! "
*8 C D ) $ $ $( $ ! # +0"$ * $
" $8 % $ 1
$
Articles - 4"# # 0 "$ ""! /#"# * $ 8 C% ; $ C ' 4"# "$ &+ # ! + +
"! $! 8 C+ = 4"# 0 "$ &+
! ! 8 C $ C > 4"# # 0 "$ " !! & ! + # ; $ + 8 C% $ C ( . I# " $ ! * +! 4"# + "$ 8 C & C' ( C ? $ C1 #
$ C @ N C 9 @ ,.
A
C% $ C' 0
Gender - ! "$ +! : ""*$8 C% O $ C ' #
! " * 3 " $% # * * /# # # !+8 C% 2 $ C2
Number - !& + " &$ 4"# " &$ )!
1 *$ # B!! ! 8 C C C ' ! #* # * & $ $ *$ # * & *$ 4"# :
&$ ! 8 C C
)+ &
) 1 C )+ 1 C = D + ! ! + $; $ "
" $$ $ $ & +$$/ & $ $ 4"#8 C%
" % $ CA
% $ C+# > 2# $ $
#
! + #* 4"# + # +* # #* # *$ 8 C' $ . *$ # 9 "! ! $ &$! /# + # # $ $ ! * *$ +!8 C
,,
A
Adjectives and adverbs ) $ # " 52 61 - + / ! F" 4"# $$ et )G 1 &+ # $ # " $ ! /# *$ # &
F" 8 C ' # !& + F" # " & *$
4"#8 C 0 )! * , 01 C
F" " & #" $$ /# # ; $ + *$ # +! 8 ' ( $ = : " $ F" )$ 1 + "+ 8 C% $ > B! $ $/ +! /# # ; $3 + 8 C% $ C% $ , . 2# "! F" & 4"# # / que )/# ! "!! *$ # ; $ 1 8 C% $ C+
Reflexive pronouns 4"# 7
" # 0 "
&/ E7 &F"
4"# # " &/ # 5 $+6 5 "# #68 C% $ C'
Relative pronouns - 4"# # &F" $ )qui /#"# * ! 1% &F" $ )que /#"# * ! 1 # " $ &$! *$ #8 ,?
A
C
$ $ $ C % $ $ $ ' # "$ ! + # 4"# # "
8 C $ $ $ = 4"# # / " * $ + ! ! 7
8 C
Conjunctions - 4"# # #
! / )comme1 + )+*
!$ 18 C' " ' 4"# + $$ + 8 1 ( % B ) $ $ $
Prepositions 4"# # *# *$ # ; $ :&$!
" ) ! $ 1 /# *$ # 7
" " /# # 5
!6 4"#% /# + # $ * * # # " $ ! # 8 C C
C C
C I# &$! ) "1 "" /# 4"# #
! # *$ *$ # ; $ ! "!! +0"$ 8 - Depuis " ! 8 C% ' De " ! $ /# $* &
# # 8 C1 @ $ C P = *$ # $ " /## * + !! )* ,, 1 4"# $ "
! 7 # / "$
+ # &F" + # ,@
A
" + 7 ! $ /$$ & " & aÁ /## #
! " *$ #8 C+ * $ C 9$ C% B > 4"# "$ "!! & $ + ! +* + 8 C% ; C% C%
/ $
Vocabulary Q ! 4"# *$ # / +! #
! # ! $$" $ "#" $ / # ! # $$ "" # + "$ $ * # /#$ " $$ # 3 ! * & / + ! # 4"# $
"$ $
"!! ! 3 * "* ! " ! + ! "!! ! " /#"# !
8 +
# # # # # # + ! " ! !! " " " * * # +0"$ + * #
$< $ & # !& + 5+ $ + 6 /#"# # ++ ! * # / $ * * % 9 # / 9 5$ &$ + 68 / # ! $! #
! # / $ * * ! #
! "7 #
`Bleached verbs' + !$3 5&$ "# & 6 7 &# *$ # 4"# & # * " ++$ "# $ * *8 -
+ # "" 7
*$ # /# # & 7
4"# /# # & " * # " $ ! $8 C% C+ $ C- $ )+ - 1 B $ 4"# # ; $ + Je suis d'accord )G %
$ $$ %
1 $ * # "!! ! %
,A
A
' 4"# # ; $ + 7
/# *$ #
/$ $ * ! $ *
=
" # 7
/# # & *$ # 7
/# E7 & 4"#8 C%
False and unreliable friends !! !& + 4"# / # ! * /#"# $*#$ "! $$ ++ +! # *$ # "*
! $$
! $ + # / # 4"# ! ! *$ #8 " )4"# actuel G " > actuellement G 1 )4"# avis G 1 )4"# chance G L M 1 )4"# commander G
L " "M1 )4"# corps G 1 )4"# crier G 1
)4"# demander G 1
)4"# eÂducation G 1
)4"# engage G 1
)4"# essence G 1
)4"# eÂventuel G " 1
)4"# eÂvident G 1
# )4"# expeÂrience Q # # 1 )4"# faute G 1 )4"# gentil G " 1 )4"# ignorer G 1 )4"# important G " # 1 )4"# inteÂressant G " " 1 )4"# large G
1 )4"# librairie G 1 )4"# occasion G " 1 C #D )4"# passer un examen G " #1 )4"# politique G 1 )4"# professeur G 1 )4"# sauvage G 1 )4"# sensible G 1 )4"# sympathique G " 1
?(
A
A sample of written French with a word-for-word translation Le printemps eÂtait venu. Un
dimanche, apreÁs avoir
# * / "! I sa boutique aÁ grande eau,
# #
&*
Lecouvreur, sentant les chaleurs
/ " +$* # #
proches, deÂcide de sortir
nettoyeÂ
+ 3# "$
la
terrasse
: quatre
" # ! " +Z 8 +
tables rondes et
huit
chaises de jardin,
qu'on
aligne
sur
&$ *# "# + * # $ 3 le
trottoir,
ouÁ
sous un grand store
on
lit
en lettres
# ! &* /* /# $
rouges: HOTEL- VINS-
8
LIQUEURS.
I 32 3:
Lecouvreur aime musarder dans le quartier,
" $ 3 $$ au
coin
des
la
cigarette
# *#&# # "*
leÁvres . . . Toujours la meÃme
3# " +3# $ $/ #
! promenade, tranquille, apaisante. Il
longe
/ $
;
" $!* / $ 3 $*3#3 3+
l'hoÃpital
Saint-Louis, puis il regagne le
quai
# # $ 3 # # * # !& ! de Jemmapes. Des
peÃcheurs sont installeÂs sur le
bord du
+ !! ! 0 #! $$ # & +3# canal, au
bon endroit. [. . .] Lecouvreur s'arreÃte.
Il
" $ 3# * $ " L M " #! $+ fait
beau . . .
! 0 Partout
les marronniers
¯eurissent,
/# # # 3"# 3 &$
! de
grands arbres qui semblent planteÂs laÁ
L0 !& +M &* pour saluer
# !
les peÂniches. Des
+ 3* # & *
$ #
bateliers
L 0 !& +M & !
?-
A se
deÂmeÁnent . . .
Un peu plus
haut,
L#! $ M / /# + " * $$ ! #*# des
montagnes de sable ou de pierre,
des
tas
L0 !& +M ! +
+ de charbon, des
L0 !& +M $ + " $
L0 !& +M
sacs de ciment, encombrent le quai.
& * + "! "!& # !& ! Des
voitures traversent le
L0 !& +M "
&*M
"
pont
tournant.
# &* * LG # /*
)4! 1 R / & *[ & # Z V$1
?'
Italian speakers $ *
Distribution P : B I4
$ ! $
I Q B 2 U
Introduction $ 3 $ * * "$ " +!
"$ $ $ # :* 4"# # / + * $ $" ! + /#"# ! $$ $$*&$
! + /#"# # $ + # / $ " " + # * $ * ;" # # $ "
/$$ $ " $$ # $ # ! " $ # $ * * /#"# $ +! + " % & ! " # $" $ $" /# * $" "$ $ #
# $" ! & # 0 $ * * + ! $ $ * * "! $ &F" #*# !
" "#$ # $$ # ++" # / *$ # /$$ & $ $ # !
" $ * *$ # #*# # /
+ # * + !"# *$ # $7 7 # *$3 7 $! *$ # #/ " " +0"$ & " "$$; $ *$ #
* + "
! &$ # ! +! $ " !" * $ $ + / & * !! " $ "" "% # ! E" # " 5"" $ 6 # "!! !#3* "#* # $$ # #*# $$ + * !! " $
/
/#"# " & 7 $ +* $ * * $ *
?=
%
Phonology General $#*# # ++" &/ *$ # $ # & + $ # ! +0"$ + $ $ $ # +
##! # # $ # ! &$! * ! * #!3
$ # $ $ *$ ! "# &/
$$* " $ # " $ + /
!! " $ &"! ; * & # "3
" + *$ #
Vowels
i:
I
e
{ eI aI OI
A:
¡ O:
U
aU @U I@
u:
à z:
@
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ $
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ # ; $ $ + # #! 5B $6 + $ " ! #$*" $$ * $$ & +! # # " " # +" 50 6 5 "6 5#6 " $ 5" $ " 6 " " ! + $7 $ # &F" # 3"$ + /# / /$ " $$ " # "3 $ ! ; $ *$ #8 C% " $ C% %
?A
%
Time, tense and aspect: use - :*
& 7 $ & # ! $! # *$ #8 C' ( )+ ' (1 ' $ # +" +" " # " # 0! $ / ! # $! + /# " ! & " & +0"$ # / # + # ! $ 5# "6 +# "! $" & # + " # # ++"
* &/ # # $
&/ / $ # " ! *$ # + #/ # " / /# " # # $ ! * + $ + +0"$ + #! * + # +" + # ! $ +;8 C%
= $ & #/ $* + ++ # & ** $
# ! $ )+ ! * + * % " " & $* /# $ 18 C% $ C% 5=JH$ C%
% ? > + " & # $ ; $ + "$ # & "$ /# /$ & *$ #8 C' " % . $ # ; $ # + # + # *
/# + ! *% & #
! $ +" /# + ! +" $ 8 C' ( )+ '
(1 C%
To be, to have and to do # ; $ + $ $ & "!! # " $
8 C% $ C1 ,( 7$ +$$3& +! + + "+ 8 C% # ; $ + , + " *$ # +$$3& 8 @(
%
C% , $ C' $ C% ,
# $ ; $ +
" /# 8 C%
$
Auxiliaries and modals " $ & & $! $ 8 C% + # 0 ! $ 7$ $ /#"# # $$ # ! #3 $*" $ "" + # & $ # *$ # ; $ # " $ "# " " + *$ # ! $ #+ " &$! 8 C% $ C% $ C+ $ C ( % + $ + vorrei )G D8 C% $ # # + ! * # +
&$ " &$* " 7
& # *$ # ! $ +0"$ + $
5+$6 # + " " $ ++ +! + dovere # ! * # # ++ ! $ 8 C- )+ - , $1 I# " /#"# ! " +0"$ # &/
% % "
%
$ C- %$ C@
$ B! # &$! ! & " & # + " # # /
+! + ! $ $ ! & " & $
Non-finite forms $#*# # 5*6 $ # +! #
! / +;$ *$ # # 0 & & $ + & + # * + F" + J *8 @-
%
C' $ $ $ C% * $ C% $ C% $
$ + $ $ # * + 8 C " $ $ $ C%
$ ! & &+ 0 /# # " * / $ 8 C% $ C%
# 5&F" J 06 " " &$! " $ "$ 8 C % " ( # $ 0 + " per )G 18 C+ $ $ $ , $ $ $ , $ $ $
Clause structure: subjects and objects $ "!!$ 7
# + 5$*6 /# # ; $ + 5 $ 6 )piacere) # ! # # $ &F" " # *$ # &F" "
/#"# " " ! 8 C- $ !$ &$! /# # & 8 # $ + % Tu mi manchi 9 $ $$ - # " " $
# *$ # & # /* / 8 C& $ + # &F" &$* ! $ "$$; $ "#8 C' " $ C% $ # + &F" " + # *$ # " & ! " + ! # $ "8 CC%D $ C% B $ &F" "!!8 C& % $ $ $ I&F" ! & !8 C- " % $ # ; $ + # " # / &F" $ 8 C9 # $ C@ ( C+ $ @'
%
Reported speech +0"$ * * # *$ # 53 6 #+ $ + " & " $ " + * ! " $$ " $ " " $
"# "$ 8 C1 # )+ 1 2 * 3; " & &$!8 C ( $ # / $ " # +" + 8 C1 $ $ $
Relatives ! # +0"$ * "* "$
/# K $ $ % $ ! & 8 C %
The passive voice $ #
" !"# $
# *$ # ! # +0"$ +!* *$ #
"$ $ +" *
+! C/ $ C. ! ! # & *# #
# !"# " $ / 8 C D &
$ $ " ! " &F" # &F" +
& "$ $ B " ! "$ $ " $ 1
"! $ $
Reflexive verbs E7 & ! "!! $ # *$ # # ; $ + + 7 ! $ $$ E7 $ @=
% C D
% K$44 $ $ E7 ++ +! +! $ 8 C $ $ E7 " $ & " &F" "
/# *$ # /$
8 C% $ # " 7
# + 5 "# #6 C'
$ # $ $ ! $ E7 " "% + $ 0 # "" *$ #
; $ $ "# 8 C% , , $
Articles $#*# ! + "$ $ ! "!!" # $
+ # * &$! + $ $ $ # &# 0 0 "$ /#"# E" + !& * & # ++ +! *$ # # " &/ "0" *" " &$! " $ *" # 0 "$8 C $ C% $ $ # 0 "$ /# +* $6
+
8 C% $ C' % $ $ $ 0 "$ + + # ; $ + : C% $ C- $ C% ? # $ ! "!! 7
+* $" 8 C+ , / "$ " & $ !& + " /# #
*$ # 9 + " /# +* " "$ * ! $ 8 C% %$ C& C) " $ I# +0"$ "$8 @>
%
, , , #
, #
C D " " " "
Quantifiers $ $$ $ #
+0! "$ 8 C+ & + /*$ /# "$8 C * $ # + " " &$! 8 C' $ + $ $ $ , $ ! $ $ $ : C1 $ / " $$ & nessuno $ 8 C/ $
Possessive structures " /#
! & # /* / 8 C
! & $8 C $
! E" + !& * # # # #3/ " &/ " 8 # "#" + / $ # * )! "$ +!1 + /#
+ #
8 C* O & 0 C1 I $ I# "!! "$ # + + % !
$ " $
+;$ "3"" /#
"$ B+ +
! $ "" +3 ;$ # # #
! +! $ 8 C 4! $ +0"$
@.
%
Number and countability # " &$ F" " $$ !+ # 8 C C@ ( # ! # $ @ N @ "$ $ +0"$ + # B $ $ &" + #! # $! + # # /$ ! $$ & 7
# 8 C @ N @ * # # B $ # # + ! + # +" " & /# !3/# & $ ! *
! $ /# +* " $ #
! 8 C' ( C % % $ # + !" # # # #
! $ " & ) ! # # + # # $ !1 /# # *$ # ; # +"8 Ya lo leõÂ G % $ . # B $ # ! # +! " * # *
*$ # + /#"# ! #
! C D # " "+ 8 C' " $ -('
+ + @
* $ # +! ! +; # *$ #
"" $$ + # + & )# ; $ + " "18 C' %
" % $ C+ $ , # ! + # 7
&F"8 C@ 0 ? # B $ # & "$ + ! "
+* + ! # # &F" $ $" # ! $8 C' & " @ # B $ # +; & )soler1 /#"# $$/
$$ +! + 5 6 7
+;" ! *8 C% # $
Passives - # B $ #
+! " " #
! / # *$ #
8 /# J " $6% & # " /# *$ # #
/# * # # B $ +! ! " + # *$ # E78 C $ ' # B $ " +!
# $$$8 @$ 9 $ # " )/# # " &F" # &"! # &F" +
&1 +0"$ + $ = # # # 7
# + # ! $ /# ha )G 18 C% %
. # " + & $ +* 0 # 0 # !3 # $ " "#" :* 8 C%
< $ C%
, # +" *
:* #
! $ *
! ; $
8 C% $ C% ? C+ & 5=J5
- : # / "!!$3 +! 8 *#$ ;3 $ # *$ # ! $ )* Ele percebe 9 1
1 # # ; $ # *$ # *
)* Ele esta trabalhando 9 1 1 :&$! #/ /# & )! $ & 1 /#"# # $ " " :* & *$ # C+
--A
9
' : +! *
+! /# estar a J 0 )$ $$ 5 & !#*61 C' ( % $ " # " /# &# " & :
! "+ ! $ *
+! *$ # = :* " $ # ; $ + *
7$ $ * ! ' ( 1 $ )+ 1 $1
! + & +! + "F" + !8 C%
$ # + :* ! + # *$ # 7
*
$ ' 9 ( C1 ( )+ 1 (1
Modal verbs 2# *$ # $ & $$ :* $ # ! &8 C1 )+ 1 1 # *$ # + " $ +! )/# 1 + # 0 + ! $ # :* ; $8 C1 $ # "! $7 " &/ +0"$ + :* + # $
Conditionals " + $ ! ! :* * !! " $$ # $ * * ! $$$ & +! # / # $ + " $ " C% %
" % $ C% % * " % & $ C% $
-'(
9
Relatives :* # / que " * $ C%
$ C% # +0"$ * * *$ # "$ /# K $ )$
1
The passive voice * $ #
+" !$ / :* *$ # $! # # $ &$! " "* # +! ""$ "! $7 " ! " +0"$8 C-
)+ $ $ $
1 C
)+ $ $ $
1 :* !! E7 & /# *$ #
8 C? :* # " &F" + " & " *$ # +" # &F" +
& #+ # +0"$ /# " $ % B
+ # :* ; $ 8 1 )+ 1 , $1
Non-finite forms - # ; $ :* + # & $ + # +! )*1 # 0 8 C ( C% C+ $ ' :* 0 + " & "# de a " /# :* 0 #
! &+ # *$ # ; $ C% $ C+ $ = # *$ # 5&F" J 06 " # :* ; $8 C+ )+ + 1
-'-
9
Word order - :* / * $$ + # *$ #
"!! ! 3 &F" " $! # + + #
"8 C D @ % 0 ' # & +$$/ # ; / " "# :3 * 8 C%
C% = & & $ # " & +! &F"8 C% $ C1 ? $ C% + > "$ / 7"$ ! /# como ) G 18 C1 0 . : $ ! & $ " &+ + &/ $!
+ # & * !/# # + :* 8 C1 # ):1 C1 # ):1 C% )+ % 1 , : " 3"$+ " " & Quem (= ' 1 C' 2 ? F" +$$/ :* 8 C% @ # ++" # / " $ ! 3
* 8 ! & % " & A :#
$ & "" :* % # / /# &F" " &$! 8 $ @ ( -( : " & "# +! # &F" :* # ! $ $ 3+! $ $ ;
" 8 ' ( $
" $ # +$$/* $ + +0"$8 % % $ 1 $
-''
9
Articles and countability - :* # 0 "$ /# # +$$/*8 9 * $ 8 C
$ C $ 9 8 C 9 & $ 9 ! + ! $ 8 C1 " $ 9 # ; $ + # 8 C%
# + $ C%
$ 9 # ! +
C% .# +
$ 9 / + 5 6 * $ /# *$ # +
"$8 C , , ' ! " $ ! E"* :* 7
/#
"$ 8 C1 &$ C C
C C- )! * - 1 = ! " &$ *$ # # " &$ ; $ :* 8 C% $ > + # ; $ + :* " # *$ +! + " &$ + /
" &$ C' $ C%
$
Determiners - # ; $ + # 8 C $ C' ' :* # ; $ + " & /# *$ " &$ # ; $ + + "! "# 8 -'=
9
C'
)+ $ $ $ 1 C1
= "$ # ! "!!$ &+ 3
" $$ :8 C+ $ C. $ C (
Adjectives and adverbs & F" ! $$ +$$/ :* * /# $ $ 8 C # $ C' 0 C $ " & + F" + # ! * "$ +! # "7 C $
Pronouns - &F" +;$ % &F" ! $ & $+ + # " & +! # "7 C $ C% $ C8
$ C%
' # ! $ &F" 7 :* 8 C% " " C%
= B $ 0" + e /# " $ # + 8 C > ! :* & " & +$$/ & &$3&F" " "3 /#$ # *$ # ; $ " 8 C?# C< . . # ; $ :*
! $$ 7
& a gente )$ $$ 1 C )+ . 1 , :* # *$
! + -'>
9
/#"# * * /# # #*
2# " *$ # # " " &$! 8 C1 ? +! $ + $ $ :* # "
teu(s), tua(s) $ " & # #3 +! seu(s), sua(s). # " " "+ # *$ # ; $ 8 C+ )+ + 1 @ E7 /# ! :* & /# *$ # ; $ # #!8 C%
% $
Prepositions and particles # * !& + *$ # /#"# #3 + ! " 0 + ! $" !! :&$! "" /# :* # ! # *$ # ; $ - Ate + &# ! ) G 1 " ) G 18 C1 ' Durante " ! 8 C% *
= Para ! 8 C+ $ C1 ? #
$ C $ C1 )+ $ $ $ 1 > Para $ /# 0 ! *
8 2 . Em ! )+ !1 $ 8 C+ @$ C% $ C1 C%
)+ $ $ $ 1 C )+ $ $ $ 1 , # ; $ + # /# &
"# " C 9 ? I# "!! ! E"* :* $
*8 C )+ 1 , C C , C )+ 1 )+ 1 -'.
9
C C
Vocabulary " :* 3& $ * * : : 0 * " !" "0" !"# $
+0"$ # 3
* "$$; $ *$ #
Some common problems - # ; $ + # $*#$ ++ ! " $ # :* B ! & + !! +! $ 8 ) ( . % " $ !$ ! /# 8 C 2 $ 1 # ' # & ®car /$ :* " ! & " $ + "# * + + * 8 C1 )+ 1 1 = :* # #
! / + 8 C1 $ > :* # #
! / + 8 C1 . #
! & ! # ; $ + # :* 8 C C )+ 1 , # :* / obrigado ) G 1 " & 7
$ +
$ 2# # / *$ # * #
!
) #
# $! $$ &$
obrigado1 *
!
+ ! $
" ! ? # ; $ + /# 0
1 $ $ $(% 1 @ B+ * &" # :* / + / ! / *$ #8 O O O O -',
9
O O O O
O O O O O
False friends ! $$ $"8 CD
#
#
)abusar G ; 1 )actual(mente) G " " 1 )cigarro = 1 )cobra = 1 )constipacËaÄo = 1 )discutir G
1 )desgracËa =
" 1 )desgaste G 1 )distraõÂdo G
1 )educado G 1 )esperar G $ 1 )esperto G " 1 )facilidades G 1 )familiar G
" 1 )entender G
1 )livraria G 1 )licencËa G 1 )local G 1 )lanche G 1 )ordinaÂrio = 1 )parentes G 1 )presentemente G 1 )pretender G " 1 )primeiramente G 1 ): privada G " 1 )puxe G 1 (rato = 1 )real G > > #1 )usar G 1 )vulgar G 1 -'?
9
Paralinguistic elements :* & $/ "# # # *$ # &
#*# $! # * $$ &$
$ " + ! + ; +! ) $ ; ! # ! 1 + " # ) 1 !
# # * ! $$ "" 3! $ " " $*# !* K$ # /# ! : $ "$ *# /# # $ # " $ "#* ! /$ "" &$ # " " & !
A sample of written Portuguese with a word-for-word translation Ao acordar
disse
para a
I / #
hoje
e dia de pagar a
mulher:
Escuta, minha ®lha:
# /! L/+M8 !
prestacËaÄo de televisaÄo, vem
*$8
aõÂ
o
+ # $! + $ "! # # sujeito com a
conta, na certa.
&F" /# # &$$ trouxe
dinheiro da
cidade, estou a nenhum.
&*# ! +! # " ao
homem ± repondeu a
DaÂ
um ar de vigarice,
# !
Mas acontece que ontem
eu naÄo
" # #
!
± Explique isso
L $ *M 9 7 $ #
mulher. ± NaÄo gosto dessas coisas.
9 / # /! 9 $ + # #* gosto de cumprir rigorosamente as
+ /$* $ + +$0$ * $
#
minhas obrigacËoÄes ! L $ $M &$* ). 1 / & 4 &1
Acknowledgement # # /$ $ # # # /# #$ $$ * + # + # "# & $!/ B# # ! /# ** + # :* 7 ! $
-'@
Greek speakers # B : +#!3
Distribution B BP:
Introduction 3 $ * * & "$ $ $
# $ * * # + !$ *$ # #$* 7
" &$ ++ *$ # #+
$ * * +
Phonology General # *$ # #$*" $ ! & $
!$ # +0"$ "*
B
. "" # # # + * & #/ # /# *$ # + * &8 C1 $ , + # ! +" + 8 C1 " $
- # # *$ * + !8 C1 $ ' # $ " + *
" ! 8 ' ( 1 I $ C* 0 0 C% % $ = # *
# & + !8 C $ C+ $ I # # # !! "
$ # ! $ 8 C' $ C+ ?$
- *$ # + " " ; ++$ # ; $ + # +8 C%
$ C $ ' $ ! ! $ + + 8 C% $ = I # # # &$! " & # *$ # + # & "$ +* # +8 C%
$
Conditionals and `unreal' forms - " $ " ! # #
! & $ " &# "$ # + &* 6 *$ #8 C% %
$ C% $ -=.
B
' : " $ +0"$8 C% #
$ = # +0"$ /# " + % 8 C& $ % , % $
The passive voice - # + #
*#$ ; $ *$ # "!! ! ! +! # " $ # 7$ 8 C $ C ' ! # +0"$ /# "! $7
! ! $8 C $
Modal verbs # *$ # ! $ !3! $ " # 33 ; $ &$ # ++" /#"# $ ! ! "!! &$! 8 - * J 0 + ! $ 8 C%
$ ' : ! $ " " &$! + ! * # ! $ & ! ! $ /# ! &8 C% $ C'
$ = # ++" &/ " ! !
Complementation - *$ # +! + " 0 9 + 7 ! $ + 8 C
$ ' 0 + + +! "! $! + & F" 8 C% $ % $ C9 # $ C+ $ -=,
B
= $ + J 0 " /# *$ #
# 0 /# 9 + 7 ! $ + # &
" " "
" " " 8 C+ $ C%
$
Infinitive of purpose - *$ # * 0 + * $$ " &
# ! & 8 C1
$ ' ! $ " # 0 + & +! ) * $
+ +! 18 C% B $ = 0 + ! & $ " & ! "$ 8 C% % $ > 0 + ! & " & 8 CB * ?$
The causative structure # 7 $ " /# # ; $ +! /#"# *$ # $ "+ & /# /# + /#!8 C+ $
Word order 2 + /#"# " $ ! +; ! - " ! &* /# # " # " &F" "! $!8 C & % + $ C'
$ ' & ! & $ +! &F" &F" "! $!8 C% $ C ? $ C $ = & + $ " ! " & + ! " /# *$ # /$ # 8 -=?
B
C $ > # ; $ + ! " 7
+ !8 C%
$
Articles - # 0 "$ ! ""! /#"# * $ # $ ! ! /# " &$ $ $ *$ #8 C # $ C $ C' $ C $ ' 0 "$ /# ! 8 C+ A $ C 9 $ = # 0 "$ &+ &F" "! $3 !8 C+ $ C) # $ C1 9 $
Gender ! "$ +! :
""*$ * + /
"# #* 8 C& $ @ ( C $ 1 $
Number - ! " &$ *$ # # " &$ ; $ 8 C@ ( C% $ C% $ ' *$ $ $ $ &$!8 C
$
-=@
B
Adjectives and adverbs - F" E" # "+! # !& )
/$$ # * " 1 + # /#"# # + # $ " + ! + &* 8 C
$ ' & + ! + !&$ F" +! 8 C) $ = Q + F" "# & 8 C+ $
Pronouns and determiners - : $ + !8 C% $ C' " $ C' $ C% $ ' I # # # &F" + &F" ! & " & 8 C&
$ C& # #
$ C % $ + 0 "! $! &F" ! & "
$8 C $ "
! $ & $ "$ 8 # " &$/ = % ! & + " 0 &F" 8 C% # $ > I# ! $ "+ & $ 8 O O O O O O O O
-=A
B
Reflexive pronouns - # + "+ &/ &F" E7< ! # " 8 C% C2 $ ' E7 !! + & $ /#"# ; !3
C $
Relative clauses - $ $ "$ /#"# !+ # ! "$ +! $ "$ /#"# !+ # * $
+ ! * C $ ' ! # +0"$ * "* $ "$ /# K $ $8
= $ &F" &F" ! & " 3
$ C 9 $ C % $ C 2 " % $
Conjunctions $ " " ; 8 C% $
Comparisons - * + + +! + "! *$ #8 C& 2 $ C& 2 $ ' #
! / ! " &# " "7 # $ " + "+ 8 C+ $ C%" " $ ->(
B
Prepositions - $ # " &$ +0"$ /# *$ # 3 # *# *$ # ; $ & &$! " ) ! $ 1 /# *$ # 7 3
; # 5
!6 8 C+ $ C1 $ C $ ' :&$! $ "" /# # ! # *$ # ; $ * # "7 ! 7 ! $ 8 9 meÂxri G C' $ C # $ 9 se G 8 C1 $ C+ $ 9 se G + !8 C'
+ $ C% $ 9 apo G 8 C+
+ $ C1
$ = : ! & ""$ ! + " & # E" + 8 C1 $ C1 # $ C $ > # " + &
* # E" + 8 C ? A )+ ? 1 C1 $ . # +0"$ /# 5 3 *6 "
/# $ " # + "$ "!! ! # 8 C' ( C % $ , + $ " /# /# 8 C& $ C%
5==M$
->-
B
Phrasal verbs - # $7" $ ! ; $ *$ # #
$ & $ # +0"$ /# #! * #! +* 3/ & /#"# " * # +! $ & # !
8 1 + )+ 1 + 1 % )+ % 1
)+
1 ' )+ ' 1 ' 2# /3 #
$ & # &F" + $ " + # "$ + &+ C% $
Vocabulary - ! *$ # / $ +! )* 1 I# # & &/ )* 1 # + "$ $ * " " & # $ ! 5+ $ + 6 /#"# ! $ "+ 4 7 ! $ ! ! 8 ! ! " ! !
! ! ! ; ! ! " ! ! ' ! # +0"$ " /# / #
$ *$ # ; $ /# $ + *$ # /
# 7 " " 7 ! $ 8 , ,, , , , , ,
,
,
->'
B
, , ,
,
, , ?# , + , , , , = :#" $$ ! "+ $
&$ " + ! 8 , , ,
A sample of written Greek with a transliteration and a word-for-word translation " Htane toÂso dynato to xtyÂphma, poy den brhÂke Itane
2
toso dinato to htipima,
#
O O
to koyraÂgio na to kourajio
na
# &$/
# + # # " *
noÂhma
Wa eiÂxe mia opoiadhÂpote diamartyriÂa;
diamartyrhWeiÂ. Ti diamartirithi.
pou den vrike
Ti
noima
tha ihe mia opiadipote
2# ! * /$$ #
aÂlloq
/#
diamartiria?
H
th doyleia toy: eÂkobe syneÂxeia
allos,
ti
doulia
# # L"M # /
to kreÂaq. to kreas # 8 " # " $ # !
tou: ekove sinehia
Kai to maxaiÂri, ayto to katakaiÂnoyrio, to astraftero maxaiÂri, Ke to maheri, afto to katakenourjio, to astraftero maheri # + # # $$ / # # + eiÂxe giÂnei ihe
jini
agnwristo. agnoristo.
PagvmeÂno liÂpoq eiÂxe kollhÂsei sthn Pagomeno lipos ihe
# &"! "*
&$ B$ lepiÂda toy kai sthn
+
kolisi
stin
# " #
labhÂ, mikra kommaÂtia kreÂaq. mikra komatia kreas &$ # # $ ! $$ " L+M ! L*M lepida tou ke stin
lavi,
Den mporoyÂse na dei kalaÂ, to fvq Den borouse
"$ #
na di kala, to
fos
ligostoÂ, h
ligosto,
/$$ # $*# L/ M $$
i
#
kardia kardia
#
->=
B
toy tou
anastatvmeÂnh. Pwq na to piaÂsei sta xeÂria toy to anastatomeni.
# L/ M
Pos na to pjiasi
sta herjia tou to
/ # # # #
ejaWlivmeÂno maxaiÂri, pwq na to karfwsei sto sthÂWoq exathliomeno maheri, pos na to karfosi
! &$
+
#/ $3#
thq . . .
tis # & #
sto stithos
)4! 9 & ! 1
An example of the written English of an elementary Greek learner ! # + / # $ /# #* # + ! # ! ! # /#"# ! !
# $ # 6$$ * $$/ /# ! * !#N + ! * + #6 # $ # / ! /# #N 0 # *! /# ! + # & # #
N 6! # & ** $$/ 6$$ 6$$ * + ! $ " N I+ " 6! $$ # &" 6$$ ! + ! + !$ + $* ! 6! # # # 6$$ EN 2# $ 4
->>
Russian speakers "
$7
Distribution 4 I ! K& F $ * O K # O*K # $ F ! K&
Introduction
&$* # $ " & "# + # 3 + !$ + $ * * "$ $ $ $
% # # $ " $ * * :$ # BK"# $ $ & B $* " # ! # ! F + # ->@ !$$ $
# $ * * ! @( !$$ $ # +! &$" + # $ #
# 0 $ * * /# # >( !$$ $ # /$ " *
" $ * *
Phonology General # / ! F + /#"# * # #
! +! *$ # # & " + # #9$* /$ ++
# & " + ##* *$ # ##!
$ # +
!
->.
,
# ! /# ;" + 8 C+ C C1 C $ -.'
1
Gjckt ltcznbvtczxyjuj
jncencndbz dthyekcz r ;tyt b
+ !#
& "
Posle desyatimesyachnovo* otsutstviya vernulsa k zhene i
ltnzv
exfcnybr
detyam uchastnik
/+
ghjikjujlyb[ cjhtdyjdfybq gj proshlogodnikh sorevnovaniy
"#$ " $
cgjhnbdyjve jhbtynbhjdfyb. A& Erkjyztd& sportivnomu
orientirovaniyu
*
po
"!
F. Uklonyaev.
Chfpe ;t
Srazu zhe
4 $ "
gjckt djpdhfotybz
cgjhncvty yfxfk ecbktyye.
+
! &* *#
posle vozvrashcheniya sportsmen nachal usilennuyu
gjlujnjdre r
podgotovku k
yjdsv dtctyybv cnfhnfv&
novim vesennim startam.
+ /
*
C # * / 3* & " 3 -,(
$$ +" &$! ! + $$ # + +"8 C1 & )+ 1 & 1 . 4 + ! +" :$ # # + & "$ + !8 C' % " % $ C% $
Sequence of tenses "# + * & :$ # # + # * $ "# #"8 C1 $ -?(
9
$ 8 C% $ C1 $ C% $ I* $
$ ! $8 C% , )+ % , 1
The passive voice B! /# *$ # :$ # #
!"# $
#*# ! " # 7 " ; $ /# # # $$ 0 # *
" $$ +0"$8 C% , )+ % 1 " $ ! "$8 C+ & $ C $ $ 8 C% $
Conditionals 4 + ! +" :$ # # + & "$ + "8 C% % " % )+ % % " % 1 # & "$ # 5 "6 5#6 " $ " $ :$ # # *# /# # $! !& + :$ # $ * "+ $$ "!& + *$ #
&$ " $$8 C% " % )+ % " % 1 C% " , % "
% ) $$ + % " 1
Modal auxiliaries *$ # ! $ 7$ # *# :$ # ; $ # :$ # & #/ +$$/ " $ $ + ; * 4#! :$ # # $ + 0 -?-
9
# "#" &/ 0 /# /# $ "
&$! ! +" *
0 +! $$ # $ * $ + "+ - I* $
+ $ ""* # +! + *
* $ 8 C , " " C D ( $ 8 C1 )+ 1
1 ' # + " &$! 8 C% C D C $ = # ++" &/ - - + $
# &/ - $ $ $ - $ $ $ > # / + ""$8 & % ( - " $ )+ 9 1 . + % $ $ $( ++ +
" * $$ ** / @,& % ( $ $ $( % $ $ $( , @ # # $ & "
&$8 C+ $ ? :+" *
0 & $$8 C+
)+ +
1 C1 )+ 1 $1 " $ # & ! $ /$$
& $ $ $ % $ $ $ * ! $ $*#
Infinitives and - ing forms - *$ # +! $$ " :$ # 0 8 C% $ C- $ ' :$ # & "$ /# *$ # 5&F" J 06 " #"8 C1 % )+ 1 1 C' % ( = :$ # $ & "$ /# *$ # 5&F" J " $6 "8 C% , )+ % 1
-?'
9
Reflexive verbs E7 & ! "!! :$ # # *$ # " $$ $
8 C% " % " % %
$ C )+ 1 C )+ 1
Word order 2 $ $ + :$ # #*# # "
! &$! !*# 7 " - I + +0"$ # + & 8 C% ?$ C% ?$ C% $ C% $ C% , $ C. % $ ' 4 $ :$ # $ # $$
8 C) ( CA ( C' ( C $ = # & + !! $ +$$/ # $ :$ # #"8 C C ,D $ CC ,)D X C D $ > 2 :$ # " ; #
! " ; )# 1% , ; ; ; / /## # " /# # ! *$ # " ; ! #+
8 C $ C $ C+ $ $ 8 C1 ) 5;" + 61 C%
-?=
9
Articles # "$ :$ # $ ! $ #! $$ ! #! ! $$ # #! # ! & " " &/ 506 506 " * "+ 8 C% C D $ C1 C D $ C% , $ CC)D A % )+ % 1
Possessive determiners and pronouns, personal pronouns - :
! #
! :$ # #"8 C $ ' :
! + :$ # /# "$ +! # "7 /# #
8 C% $ C? )+ ? 1 = * $ # " &$ &$! /# &F" &F" $ /$$
! 8 C%
)+ %
1
Other determiners :$ # $ # &$! "! * &/ , , " " #"8 C1 ( C%
$ # + ) " + # $1 $ " "+ 8 C% C D )+ % 1
Relative pronouns " #
! $ ktoÂry )G 1 + #!
! $ ! &F" # +$$/* + !
&$8 CC ,)D +
C D C D $ $ 8 C % $ -?>
9
Countability, number and concord - # " &$ :$ #8 C% $ ' # :$ # / + )drzwi1 7 $ # $ $% $+ )zÇycie1 7 $ # *$ 8 C CD )+ 1 C9 $ $ $ = :$ # "$$" # !&* $ *$ $ $ ) & ! & ""*$1 #+
" $ $ $ $ :$ # $
# !"# ! $$
$ $ $ " $ ! "$8 CC D 9 $ $ # wszyscy )G & # :$ # ; $ + ; *$ & # ; $ + /# # + $ $ " &$ 8 C1 ( C1 $
Gender :$ # *$ ! "$ +! : ""*$ #" ! $8 * , $ + $ ' ( 1 $
Adjectives and adverbs - & !! :$ # /# *$ # ; F"3 #"8 C% , $ C%
$ ' :$ # & F" " & $ + # ) # /#"# # :$ # ; $18 CB C, D )+ B 1 C $ -?.
9
Prepositions - :$ # $ # " &$ +0"$ /# *$ #
$#*# ! # *# :$ # ; $ # #/ ++"
* #"8 C , )+ , 1 C C C @ C , C )+ 1 C 8, C C )+ 1 C C , " C C C C )+ 1 C # C , C
)+
1 C
)+
1 ' :&$! $ /# :$ # ; 8 C , C # , $ $ $ C , $ $ $ = : + ""$ # E" + :$ #8 C C C C )+ 1 C
C
C C #,
Phrasal verbs # #
$ & :$ # :$ # $ ! $$
# # # -?,
9
# # # "
Vocabulary - # " &$ !& + / # " $ :$ #
*$ # ) 9 radio1 !$ ) 9 alfabet1 + # # + * # $ !
$ +! *$ # ) 9 sweter1 $$ # + "$
$ * $ $ ! "# # " + ):$ # parking G 1 )camping kemping G 1
)sleeping sliping G
1 4 $ + ! 5+ $ + 6 # @ % ? ' $ "" # + " # / ! :$ # / # *$ # ; $ *$
+ 7 ! $ # szklanka ! $ + * kieliszek + $"#$ )" # " &$ ++" K &/ # / "6 "!3 ! / *$
+ / $ " & ! &$ # "& !1 = # # " ! "+ #/ # +$$/* + / $$
" /# :$ # ; $8 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ) 7 !1 ?# ,+ > # *$ # / + & # 7 " ; $ + # :$ # proszeÎ + " proszeÎ # !"# / * +
*8 $ / )*#$ / 1 " ! 1 9 @ " A " C& % ( )+ @ ,A 1 . # 7
& ! 8 ( - " $ , # :$ # ; $ + $ & * 8 C1 )+ 1 1
Forms of address :$ # ! " * + +! $ #+ $ $ 0 +0"$
# "# & # # 0 ! -??
9
9 ! +0"$ + ! :$ $
$ /$$
"; #
# * pan )&1 pani )&1
!! panna )&1 # $ !& + ! 8 C& ) " % ( C9 ,&$ )+ ?# 1 $ 8 C) ,& $
A sample of written Polish with a word-for-word translation Nie ma pisarza, ktoÂry
nie mysÂlaø
by
# / /#"# L" $ "$M #*# L! "$M o
tylko w sÂredniowieczu spotyka
søawie. MozÇe
& + !
& $ !$ * ! L! $M bezimienne ksiaÎzÇki, ktoÂrych
sieÎ
autorzy, ukrywajaÎc
LE7 "$M ! & )+1 /#"# # #* swoje
nazwisko, zwracajaÎ sieÎ
przy
!
Arabic speakers !#
Distribution P: D I O 2 I P I IBBI I : D P P : B &" " ! F $ * * B# $
F& *$ #% $ K& F K& ! F O K # O*K B#"# &" &* # $ * * + # O # #$ / + $ ! $$ $! + /# $ ! 7 + !$ /# &" " " 7 $ #+ E" & # + #/ $ * * / $ ! # *0" +$$/* * $ $ * * ! $ &$" O +*# :
$ # :#$ # B# *$ 7! $ >(( ((( ((( $ $$ " *
Introduction &" !" $ * * # * * !! " $ ! !$
! " &/ # #
$ 5 3 &"6 $ * * /#"# *# "#$ & # !
!
$$ & " + $$ "!!" + +0" $ 2# "# " + ; ! $$ / + "$$; $ $" # $ ++* +! # $ " & $ "!! $7" $ ! ! 7 " # ++" +! " " ! ! #
++" &/ O $ *$ #
Phonology General # &" *$ # #$*" $ ! ++ $ # * + & # ! # $ " /$
-A.
)
" 7
* ! * 2#$ *$ # # '' /$
##* '> " &" # $ *# /$ ##* )# # # $* / ##* 1 =' "3
# # # /$ &" # $$ *0" "8 #
$! $$ #" # / # " # " $* /$ ##* /#"# * ! * &" #+ *$
"+ *$ # # /$ /#$ $ ! # * " * $
# +! !* # + + &" /#"# * 5 &" ""6 *$ # 8 9 *" "$ # *$ # /# !
$3 $ &$ & +/ "$ $ "$ /$ ** $$ "" 5F &&6 ++" 9 # + *$ $ &+ $ /$ "!! + + &" # & * # $ " + *$ # 9 * $ $" " ! " " # / +!
/ *
bahcËelerde kaÃrll
bir bicËimde yararlanllabilir.
$ ! +$8 1 #
$ $ "# #/ / /$ + ##! ! # * " E/% # "
+07
/ ! "$ /# /# /#! * $
+ / # #+ 0 *$ # / $
$ #
*$ " #
* !*# ** & #$
! F
!&$* &$" $* "! $7 "
Phonology Vowels -
. ,
" * /# # ; $ + 1 % % !$ 7
"!! # "$ ki )G 1 /#"# * 8 C1 " "!! + / "3 "$ 8 + " " * /# CËuÈnkuÈ )G 7 $ * /# # * &+1 ! $$ + +$$ + $ I#/ # + # +$$ * #* " !"# *$ # B$ *$ # & $$ +$$/ & " $ $ !3"$ $$ D "# + &/ *$ #3 $ "!! &/ X Y ! I+ ; *$ / # "$ # ) 1% #" ! $ ! & + &/ X Y ! # 9 /# *$ # !*# 3 $ &$ 9 #/ & " $ $ "!!
Grammar Word order # 5 &F"9&F"9&6 $ * * /# ; $0 "
; $0 " " "!! & " ! & +! # $ "!! "# $$ /* $$
F" $ #/ $* " # & # ; $ + *$ # +$$/ # # ; $ + & 3 * "F" +$$/ # "$ $ & +$$/ $7" $ & ;"$ $ # + ! $ + *$ # /
$ ! $ " & " # +0"$ ! "! $7 " # + &F" /# #
$ &
&$!8 C% " % $ " /# 5 3 *6 $ " &$8 $ # &$ * "* " $8 1 ( %
'-@
Verbs: general # # & #/ !& " " ! ! $ $ /$$ #+ & + # "" & 7
#*# "# * & +! #*# # *$ # +! #! $ " * +0"$ # &F" 7
/# # &% *
To be # & # # ! $ " $ $$ * 7
C& $ # # ; $ + " & )$ # *$ #
"1 /# 0 &F" 8 C )+ 1 C- % " )+ - % " 1
To have # " # ; $ )4 " # # + % $ $ $$ @ 1 # & &* /# ! $ * &$!
Questions and negatives - , * * " " # & * "$ "$ # & 0 &#
# + +0"$8 C- ( C% # # ; $ + *$ # ; * ! $ &$ 7
8 C- " (
Time, tense and aspect ++" # " * + # *$ # & +! $ # +$$/* +0"$ 8 '-A
- ! # *
$ /# & "# + # & $ " 8 C% $ %
' #
#/ $* #* # & ** # # ; $ +
8 C% ?
= # " &$ +0"$ /# # !$ $" + "
# 7 *$ # + +* # + 4 " #
! $ ! & + # + " $$ ; ++ ! /# +* " &$ "! 8 ' ( - " % $ C O 0 C) BG> > # *
# " " ! & "+ 8 C% % . # +" & * + #
! $ " /# &* +! # & $* ! $ $ * 8 C
K44 $ C% " %
Modal verbs # # "! # + ! $ & /#"# 7
!$ ! * # *$ # ! $ "$* +! " * " "# % , % '
, ' #+ & $ + !$ /# # ! * 7
& # *$ # ! $ )#*# # ++3 " &/ " +0"$1 # # !"# " + # *$ # +! #/ /# # " "3 $ /$ " * $ + &$
Conditionals $$ # & + " $ /# # "! $" # # # $ +! + $ + # $$
+$0$$ &$8 C% %
? % )+ % % ? % 1 ''(
The passive voice :
"" $ +0"$ & " $$ # *$ #
# "$! # $ $ +
*
7$
+! ! $ " + +0"$ $ * "+ "# " C& 5=34$ B! $7 +! $ # *
+"
" "$ +0"$8 C/ $ C& # + ! "0" # *$ #
"8 C $ C% I$ * # "9
# + *$ # # !& + & /#"# " & &# $ )/# #
* &F"1 $ )/# # &F"1 % , % + ,
% % , "
$ # # & % ! #+ 0 "+ * #
! & &# " "!! ! 8 C' (
Participles and subordinate clauses *$ # " $ "$ " * ++$ +! # # ; $ $ * &$! "# + # +$$/* 7
" *$ "! $7 " $ & +! #8 $ $ $ , , , ,
, " # # +! #/ ! # +0"$ ** *# *$ # & "$ )* " "# " " 1 ''-
C% % % %
Relative clauses # ! "!! # ; $ + *$ # $ "$ " $ " " $ " &+ # # $ $ * "F" CËalõsËtõgÏõmõz guÈnler . . . $ $ $ CËalõsËtõgÏõmõz mesele . . . $ $ $ CËalõsËtõgÏõmõz yer . . . $ $ $ *$ # $ " #+ +0"$ + # $ # ! * #! $*# ! + ! 8 C % ( C% 9
Nominalised clauses *$ # # + / + ! $ * "$ #!
&F" &F" "! $! # 0 # +
" "# # +$$/* +0"$ " &$% # #
" "# " 8 % to go$ % she went$ Her going $ % she went$ The fact that she went $ % for her to go$ % her going$
Nouns # *$
& # #/ !&
" # $ $ $
# *$ # 9 "$ $ /# 0 *" + !&3/ $* +! # $* ! " 8 C% " $ C% $ C' $ C
'''
4! + +! # + "# #*#$ *$ # # " &$ &$ /# *$ # / +!
Pronouns : $ !"# $
# *$ #8 # &F" 7
$ + ! # " " #
&F" " /#"# ! $$ * # *$ # & "# *
I&F" $
:
$ ! $$ "
" # 5
6 +! + # ! # $ # "$ 8 C' " $ C " % $ C2 $ # # $ #3 "!!$ "+ #
8 C& $
Articles # # 0 "$ /#"#
/"# &/ F"
! $ * * + +
* 7 $ 8 C%
$ C $ # "#" &/ , +0"$ + #
" # $ &/ " &$ " &$ $
# $ / # *$ # 8 C% "
$ # # 0 "$ & " &F" ++ +!
""* /## # 0 ! * #
" * $ /# $$ 0 " &F" $ * ! "# 8 C* $ C% @ $
Adjectives B! $/ ! #8 C+ $ ''=
Quantifiers # 5* < 6 " , ,
& # /# # " &$ # " $ 7$ & # ; $ + #
& " * + & $ + *$ #8 C- )+ 1 1
'=>
+ + )
Time, tense and aspect ! $ $ * # # # & $ *
+" #*#
* "! $$ " $ *$ # - 2# # ! $$ * + "!! & "$*
/#"# $ *
+! # *$ # *
! & $ &
$* /# # # & $ +! /# # " $ 7$ 8 C' ? ' # ! $ ! & /# *$ # /$ + # +"8 C+ )+ + 1 = # +" + ! *
+! # /# # +" & " +! + ! # ! $ *$ #8 C )+ $ $ $1 > # "# /#"# $$
# * $ + * & 8 C1 )+ 1
1
! $ $ * # # *
+" / "!! + "+ "" # /* + # *
*$ # - 2# & $ *
+! # *
! & $ & $* /# #
! $ +! /# # " $
7$ 8 C'
)+ '
1 ' # *
#/ $*
+ ++ # & ** 8 C1 ? ( C+ ? #
'=.
+ + )
# +$$ + + # !"# ! +$ # *$ # 7
# + & &$8 C- )+ - 1
Conditionals " $$ + + # # " $ "$ & + $ $* /# # +
&F"8 C% " )+ % $ $ $1 ! " ! & + # ! $ # " $ "$ /$$ # ! "$ 8 C% " )+ % $ $ $1
Modal verbs # # " ; $ ! *$ # ! $ & ; "$ $ $* " " & # +; ! ! "# # *$ # "$ #*# 7 #
* + # " !8 C'
)+ '
1 # +; "#" + +" * & $* + * $
# # +! $*
# + &F"8 C*
)+
$ $ $1 !$ $ + 8 C' )+ ' 1 B $ +;$ ! & # + $ " + 8 C1 )+ 1 $ $ $1 + " 7
+ & ;
! & "3 /# + ; ! & * / 8 C- )+ ' (1 B! 8 C% )+ & % (1 '=,
+ + )
Q& + / #* &$ &$! ! # $ /# + # *$ # 0 + & # + & "$ " # &F" & + 8 C% % )+ % $1 C% )+ % $1
Non-finite forms *$ # # &# 7
# + & $ /# # $ *$ 0 B+ &/ # / *$ # +! "$ $ "!! 7
* # + /# # !$ 9 + # 0 +$$/ & ; $ 9 ! & ! 8 C1 ? )+ $ $ $ ?1 B $ # *$ # 0 +;$ $ " + +!8 C+ )+ $ $ $ 1 C' )+ $ $ $ 1
Reflexive verbs ! E7 " /# # #
!#3* " 8 C9 $ ." " $
Word order $#*# ! # $ * * ++ +! *$ # # * # # $ " # & # + # " # + " $$ "+ 7" " ; ) &1
Articles # + # *$ # "$ + # ! +0"$ + $ * # # $ * * # ; $ + # 0 "$ $ # !& 56 " '=?
+ + )
! + # 0 B+ " ;$ +; *$ # /# $ + ! # "$ " $$
& + # 0 "$
Gender, number and case * !! " $$ # ! "$ +!% 7" /# $ 7 "" # "$
0" # $$ $ ! * # +! + + #/ * F" & ! $ ++ +! )5 *!61 ""* # * + # ** # # * +!
$! & #/ # "" $ ) &F" &F" "1 " : * # + *
# # 9 # ; $ + 9 & ! $ ! * $$ * # * " &$! *$ # + # $ +0"$ * #* * # # *$ ! & $ & "! + # ! "$8 C% )+ $ $ $ 1 # *$ #
" "$ $ $* # + &$; " +$$/ &
# ! &$! + # $ $ * * $ #
" /# *$ # + /# + "! $7 $! 8 C )+ 1 :$ $ + +! & # $ + # 0 $ /$ & # + * $ * * + ! "$ ! "# * # ! $ +! + # $ $ # ! "" + # "" $ * + +! *$ # $ $ # $ ! ++" &/ *$ # # + /# " $ $ # ! " "+
*$ # 2 $ *$ /# ! # " &$ *$ #
$ $8 C $ C1 $ :$ $ + + *$ 2# " $ $ $ # ; $ + + #!8 C' )+ ' 1
'=@
+ + )
Adjectives and adverbs F" " # # ; $+ *$ # # / $ * * # "! &$ + ! $ & +/ "!! + "+ #/ 8 - # " $ +! + # "! $ +
& * ! $ " " + # 8 C # " ;$ ! "+ # + # *$ # "! $ +! &$ +! "!!8 C1 ' ! #
! " &/ +*
& / & # *$ # 8 C% )+ $ $ $ 1 = # F" & +;$ * + & ! #  C1 " )+ $ $ $ 1 C9 " )+ $ $ $ $ $ $ 1
Prepositions and particles B &$ +0"$ " + ! + # $ * * & $$ +! + * "$* #
3 " /#
$ ) % 1 /#
#
$ & C1
1 + # ! "!! "" # ! $ $$ + * # /* & $* /# # # /$ & $ * * $ "! &$ 7
I$ +/ + # ! "!! "+ " & " #8 C% )+ $ $ $ 1 C )+ $ $ $ 1 C+ ? # )+ $ $ $ # 1
& # * " &F" *$ # $ /# 8 C' $ C $ C% $ # 0 $ $! + #
$ & $ $ &$ "+ 8 C1 )+ 1 $ $ $1 '=A
+ + )
C1 )+ 1 1
Subordinate clauses # $ * * * $$ $
+ + "! $7 & "$ # *$ # +* ! $ $$$ " " +03 "$ #+ $$ 7 " & $ + *$ # # $* # ! "! $7 + & "$* $ " "# # # " " $$ & & $ $ "$ /# + # " "8 C' " )+ 1 C) " )+ ' 1
Vocabulary *$ # $ / $ * !& $$ # $ * * " $$ "" /# ! "#$* # $$ * #$ $ + *$ # /# /$$ &$ / * $ + " &$ /# $$ "# $ / #/ !! $ + &$ & " *$ # # &" # " # & *0" $ "# * &" # / & $ # *$ # &" # "$ $" $ 7 + ! * + # " * +/ 7 ! $ /$$ ! # + +0"$ /#"# ! # ! + # !# $$ &/ +! *$ # & # " # + & *0" $ $8 ' + A % ' + )% ' + )% ' + . " !$ $ hotal # ! $ ; $ + # *$ # &
$ "$ " +Z furlong / " # " " ! & " # " /# + " / # # 7 crossing # roof +
! # & " * + # /#
* & 6 # /# # / 5/ /$$ #/ ! & " 6N
'>(
+ + )
Culture + "# * " ! # E" + # "$ + # * " "!! + + # $ * * $ # &" # $ " + # "# + # / / $$ ! "# " " + $ +! # *#&* " ! # +! $ " $ / / # & " $"$ ! "" /#"# ! 0 # " /# # "
! # "$$; $
* "# ! 0 # $" +! +! $ $ $
# $$3+! $ "$
Samples of Hindi and Urdu A passage of Hindi printed in the Nagari script
A direct transliteration and word-for-word translation ek
din begam saÅhabaÅ ke sir
menÇ dard hone lagaÅ
I * ! #& 36 # unhonÇne launÇdõÅ se Ç
kahaÅ ± jaÅ-kar
3& ! +!
bulaÅ laÅ.
kisõÅ
3& &*
5# *3*
hakõÅm ke yahaÅnÇ se
mirzaÅ saÅhib ko
K #&
davaÅ
" $$ &* ! " 36 # +! !" laÅenÇ.
daur , jaldõÅ kar.
Ç )#1 ! 3&* # ! 6 mirzaÅjõÅ
ne kahaÅ ± cal
K F &
abhõÅ
launÇdõÅ gayõÅ to Ç
/ #
aÅte hainÇ.
begam
5 F 3/ )/1 "!6 * !
'>-
+ + ) saÅhabaÅ kaÅ mizaÅj
garm thaÅ. itnõÅ
taÅb
kahaÅnÇ
#& 36 ! # / 3!"# " /# ki
unke sir
menÇ dard ho aur pati
# # # kheltaÅ
rahe.
shatranj
& # & "#
cehraÅ surkh ho gayaÅ. launÇdõÅ se Ç
$ * ! 4 " &" ! kahaÅ ± jaÅ-kar
kah, abhõÅ
+!
calie,
nahõÅnÇ to
5 *3*
55 3/ $3#!3* vah ap hõÅ
#
hakõÅm ke yahaÅnÇ jaÅenÇgõÅ.
# # " 36 # /$$ *666
An idiomatic translation I * ! #& # # "# 5 " $$ K #& 6 # $ # ! 5 #! * ! ! !" +! "6 $* #N6 2# # ! / #! K F
5I++ * 6! F "!*6 * ! #& / + / "$
# /# # * # "# /#$ # # & / $ * "#
H + " E # # $ # ! * $$ #! $
*# / #/ #6 * # "6 # $+ )4! @ 9 & :! B# 1
A passage of Urdu in Perso-Arabic calligraphy
A direct transliteration and word-for-word translation ab
savaÅl
ye uthtaÅ
hai ki
agar vo
Ç / ; # * # + urduÅ vaÅle
hindõÅ ke muta'alliq aur hindõÅ vaÅle
/ $$ # 36 & socte
hainÇ, aur agar in
#* + '>'
sab kuch
thõÅk hai jo
Ç # $$ !#* *# /#"# urduÅ ke muta'alliq
/ $$ # 36 &
dononÇ zubaÅnonÇ
kõÅ bunyaÅd
masnuÅ õÅ
# &# $ * * 36 + 0" $
+ + ) aur ghair-®trõÅ
hai, to
phir is
kaÅ kyaÅ
sabab hai ki
in
dononÇ
$ # # 36 /# # # &# zubaÅnonÇ
kõÅ din ba-din taraqqõÅ
ho
rahõÅ hai aur in
kõÅ
$ * * 36 &3 $ ! # 3* # 36
maqbuÅliyat avaÅm men barh rahõÅ hai? Ç Ç
$ $
*/ 3* H
An idiomatic translation # ; / # + $$ # # # & # & "" # & + &# # $ * * 0" $ $ # /# # # &# $ * * $ * & # # $
!* $ */*H )4! 1 N 5J44 B # "$ $$1
'>=
Speakers of Dravidian languages: Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu !#
Distribution I O :I $
# +" ! Q ! # B && % # !$3 * "!! ! # + # /$
Introduction
+ # &$! + " & + $ * * /# # $ *$ # # /# + # # $ * * 4 $ + # * ''?9'>= / $ * * **$ $ * * $ #% # ++ " $$ # #$* ! #$* 7 +! # 3 $ * * + # &" # " *$ $
"!! /# *$ # # # $ * * + $ * * #+ " !& + $ &$! /# $ * *$ # # "# $ /# # *$ # + !$3 * $ & # ! * $$ $ + + # $ * *
Phonology Vowels # !$ /$ ! " + 0 + # $* /$ 8 ?
+
#+ 0 *$ # $ " +0"$ !
* #!
Interrogatives and negatives 0 # *$ # + 7$ + ; *
/ + ; # $ )D ! !$ & * "$1 D * ! & $ " & *$ * ! 8 - " (
Tenses !$ # "! $7 ! + /# ! * #
$/ " "$ $ # + # *$ # ; $ 4 7 ! $ # 5+ 6 " 7
# & $ "F" / # !* # #* C% % $ )+ ' % % 1 C/ # $ )+ / # $1 C % $ )+ % % 1
Articles !$ $ " /# / " $$ "$ #*# ! / " * ! + # + *$ # "$ :" &$ $ 0 # "$ ! +0"$ " $ ! $ * + , $ * 7" ! ! # " "7
Emphatic and reflexive pronouns !$ # ! # " E7 ! $ * $ # *$ # ; $ C' $ C % $ C% $ C $ C+ " $ '>@
+
Adjectives and adverbs # ! & "+ /# "# # /# & ) ! & + "#1 !$ 7
"! $ ! * & " $ "$ & "# * # F" F" & " $$ + ! #
Hierarchy and honorifics !$ # $* " " + " * # $ +
# ! +$ /* #/ # *$ # !
! # # !
* !#*
Speech and writing # * &/ # / * $$ $ * * # ! $ $ + 3$ & 3+! $ $ / *$ #
A literal translation of a Tamil text, with a normal English gloss This one man-of one day-of (adj.) living.
# + ! 6 $*
You (hon.) having-dared-being-if having-done-being-able small-nesses,
#
# !*# # "!! + # compel-being-forced-being-if having-shown-being-able daring,
# * !*# # $ + # & +" having-wished-being-if having-received-being-able diseases,
# !*# # * + #
having-touched/taken-being-if attained-being-possible disrepute/shame,
# # ! !*# # "# + # $$/ $+ & "# these-indeed that-man life.
# # ! 6 $+ '>A
+ That-man-that next day (acc.) about we knowing taking need-not.
# + 0 & # 7
Why-asked-if that-man-to-also ± us-among many-to like-indeed ±
" + # ! 9 + ! !* 9 tomorrow different-one day-indeed!
!/ #
) * F 1
Reference #! #! ) B &
:"# -A@A
'.(
Speakers of West African languages :#$ **
Introduction # $ * * + 2 +" ! + $ * $ $ * 2# "# ! ++ !# *
+ $ # ! $$ ; $$3 *&$ # /#"# # "# ! /# * # ! # $" / $ /$$ & + " * $ * * $ /# ! $$ ! # & / / $$ 4! *$ # $ * * "#* + / ! +$ "$
+ # + 2 +" ""* # +0" $ " $ * * )*$ # 4"#1 # " $ * * # $ * * + *! $ * 7 + " &F" $" $ $" $ # !! + */* +" $ " 4"# "$ $ *$ # "!! * * + / ! # + # !# * 4 # # "#" + *$ # 4"# +0" $ " $ * * # * E" *$ # "#* ! $ !# # # !# * + $ "# $ * + # $ + $! " $ +/ / + *$ # $$ # /# # # $! " ! *$ # $ "" $$ /# $ $! "! " # #*#$ " $ "
$ # #! ! $! 7" #
/ # + * *$ # " $ "# *$ # " # / $" + * ! 7 $ * * $ "* " *
" !" $$ * *$ # *$ & ! 2 +" $$" $ # $$ +0" $ "* /$$ & " # #*# /$$ & E" ! + # + + " * !! & + ) # !"# + #
*
+ / * +! $$* /#"# # " 1 # *$ # + 2 +" "$ * # !& ) $$ +! # "$ 1 $ & '.-
+ ' )
/#"# # # " $ $ / /# # B ! *$ # # # ; $ /# 4"# & "" $ / + 0 " ) & '. " + # $ 1
*$ # # + " # ) +! B !1 "!
$ * B# * $ # B 4 * # " ! #/ * 4"# E" *$ # $ & ! # $ * * &
/# 4"# "" # *$ # + " # " " # /#$ + 2 +" 7" + 3
&" $ 7" ! 7 + $* !* $ !" $ "#E # &3 # # ! ! + # !# * *$ # 2 +" ) +! *$ # & 1 +$$/ 8 . / 8
4$ # # P& # #/ & # #
& &$ # ! ! #*#$ $ + $$ 2 +" $ * * # & *$ E3 " & &" # $* $ & #/ /# # "& ! ! * $ *$ # . B8 # * + $ * * )! $ / 4 1 # # # # + "" / ) $$ " 1 # # *& # # # . + * 8 $$ *$ # 4/ & ! $ O # / ! # # # )G
*1 # # . B8 2$+ # . * 8 $$ *$ # & ! $ + # $ * * $#*# # E" + # ! 0 " $ * *
&$ $ & " $ 2 +" &$!
+ $ /# # *$ # * !$ # &$! ! & $ # +" + " & +
# "!! ! 2 +" $ * * "# $
"! $ ! $ /$ ! $ $ # $ ! +
+" + *$ # $ "!! "$ $ + # * $ $ "$ $ *
# /#"# ) " $$ # +!1 ! # # "$ + 2 +" *$ # "#*
'.'
+ ' )
Phonology General 2 +" $ * * # +/ /$ # *$ # +/ 0 $ " " "$ # ! *$ # /$ ++ & 2 +" ! ! 0 $ " " ! 2 +" $ * *
&# $ $$ &$3! # + * 2 +" *$ # F
&# !* )/# $$ *$
$$ &$ !"# + ! # 1 )/# / & !"# $$ 1
Vowels - B! ! & + +! 8 C )+ ; 1
Pronouns - 1 + + #! +! $ + ! $ 8 C%
' E7 + + 8 C
= " /* # " ) '.?
+ ' )
# #" " 1 ++ / "! $
"$ # $ + /
Subordinate clauses +! " $ " " &$! 8 C% % " C% " $
( # # !$ +! &$! "!!$ ""$ + +* # +8 C%
' ;" + $ " "# /$$ 8 C2 $ C% $ C% " ; * # +! " 8 C% $ C1 "
"$ & +$$/ & # ! "$ % "$ " / +0"$ 8 C) " % $ C1 " % $
$ "$ "!!$ " &$! " $$ # + 8 C % $
'.@
+ ' )
Vocabulary and culture 2# *$ # " $ * * +* $ * * &"! ! 7 # + # 3 %
# # / E" # # / "$ +" #! $ # + # " $$ # " + # "# "$ ! / $ # *$ # # + " ! # 2 +" " *$ # #
$ & " "# " " / % " " &$ * $ 7
" ! * $ + * !! % ! "# /$$ 0 +0"$ "* #/ + * 5""*6 " + ! #! "+! # # ! #$ + 7 ! $ "" % 1 )+ 1 1% ' % " $$ + /#"# "!!$ 2 +" *$ #H #$ " # * + +! $ $ /* ** /#"# * 2 +" "$H "# ;
! #*#$ & &$ 2 +" $ * * "# & "$+$
* +" " ;" & $ " *$ # &
* ! #! + ! & +
&$ # * + 0" &* # + $ "! $ * + " $ $+3! ! 3 $/ " /# 7"
+ # " "# & "" B#" + &$ 0" +" + $$ + !$ /# &F" / " +! #
+ / /# " 0" + $
&$ #
" # 7 " # -A.( + *$ +" $ *$ # **
&$ $ & # $ * * + !"# + +0"$ F " $$ # "
!! " $
'.A
Swahili speakers $$
Distribution U OP IU D B! ! $ / I! U !&
U
Introduction / #$ # ! ! $ * * +" /# $ ,( !$$ I$ ! / #$ # !# *8 ! " # +# $ * * / #$ # $ $ * * + K + # + +" $ $ * * + U # +0" $ $ * * + O $ ! $ ! 7 B $ +" /# /$ &# $" $ $ & " * !& + / # */* $ " "# " # / #$ / !** $ * * $ # # " # & &$ * +! # O $ # $ * * &# / # +" " # # ! / #$ "! +! # &" / sawaÅh il ! * # $ * * " !& + / + &" * / # $ * *
$$ +" / #$ &$* # + !$ + $ * * /#"# & ! +" # + $ / *#$ +! $ B ! # / / # # + Q" % +! # + Q" "
! $ / #$ "! $$ " $ + $ * * ) &$/1 & # ! /$ $ * * &$ " +" # /# # # $ * * $$ # ! * " $ ! #$3 *" $ "# " " " + # ! + ! + # & 3 ! & / #$ # "# ! & $ # $ * * $ * * # # +$$/* "# " " 8 ',(
+
- / $ * * $! $$ +!
" + 07 $ ! # 07 /$$ " ! " * /# "$
# 8 mtu G watu G kiko G viko G # !& + "$
$*#$ +! $ * * # / #$ # ! 0+ "$
# +/ # ! # $ * * ' @ $ * * # ! # " # # / # " &*# "" $ $ # /# # & ! + +07 " $$ / 7 ! $ + / #$ /$$ +0"8 Kisu kile kikubwa kimevunjika )$ O O O 1 G $ Visu vile vikubwa vimevunjika )$ O O O 1 G $ = ) $$ $ * * # **$ * ! #3 $*" $ " )/ ! " * !! " $ "$ 1 / #$ 7 ! $8 wameshindwa wa G me G < " ! shinda G ! + # & kushinda ; w G
!
)! *
; 1 > + $ * * # !$ !8 9 $ * * $8 #/ $ $$
& +! ! $" + / #$ 9 :#!" $$ # $ * * $ ! &$ !$ + #! # #
! 0 /$ #! ) &$/1 ##* # " ! $ !$ 7" # ! + # # $ * * # &/
! O#
5"$"6 / #$ # &/ ! &" + / + &" * # # ! + #
$ 0* "# " " + $ * * /$$ & # # ! ++" &/ / #$ # # $ * * $ # +/ / + &" * #
&/ *# /# ! " $ " + $ # ! $$ !& + "$
# " $$ # " / #$ ! & * " $ $ * * # "!!
# +$$/ & / #$ 6 +0"$ $ * *$ # /$$ #+ & $" &$ $ * 7 + # $ * * /$$ ',-
+
Phonology General # ! ++" &/ / #$ *$ # +$$/ 8 9 / #$ # $ 0 /$ " # '' + *$ # 9 *$ # # '> " % / #$ # '@ 9 / #$ "# $ /$ /# " "
$$ " "$ 9 / #$ $$ " $$ &$ /$ 9 # / $ * * # ++ ! + /
9 # !/# ++
Vowels # /$ # &** *$ &$! + / #$
$ * *$ # # 0 /$ + / #$ +$$/ 8 ) ,i< # $*#$ #*# # # ; $ ,e< *$ # B+ + 8 C , $ . B+ + 8 C1 ( 1 $
Nouns $ * * "$
! ++ +! *$ # # ! &$! "$*8 9 + " &$ 8 C " ; " " " " 9 * $ $ & +! /# *$ 8 C $ 9 * $ $ # *$ 8 C " " 9 4 $ ! + # 3 * /#"# 7 / #$8 C
9 B+ + F" )+ #*# + $ #$*18 , " , "
'?-
+
Pronouns # &** *$ &$! # + $ * # &/ ! "3 $ +! +! /#"# ! / #$ # $ * * 8 C+ $ # ! F &$! # + + + / #$8 C! $ C1 ( # $ # ; !! ! # &F" 07 $ * "# 8 C% $ ! # " +! !! $8 C& % $ C& & $
Adjectives and adverbs F" " +$$/ # / #$ # +
F" *$ # " " &$! # ! &$!
"! $7 F" $ $* "! 8 Mtoto wangu ni mrefu sawa na wako )G & 1 # E" + "! $ +! /#"#
* $$ & / $ kuliko kupita # $ ! 8 C )# 0 sana
# ; $ + 1 C $ C1 % $ C $ +! # +0"$ /# & "$ &$/ # &$! /# & "$8 - I!
+ & 8 ) ( % $ ) !1 C% % $ ' 4 $ "! " " /# F" 8 C $ C% = 4 $ & +! 8 C $ I# !$ "$ " )+ 1 ; )+ ; 1 &* "# * &$ '?'
+
Prepositions and particles # ! / #$ ++ +! *$ # #3 + " * &$! - I!
8 C+ # # $ C1 $ C+ ' + "
8 C ; $ C' ( = + "" I ! F &$! # / #$ #
$" +07 )ni1 # ! * + /#"# ""* # "7 $ *$ # + $" $$ & "+ 8 mezani )G " " " " 1 nyumbani )G " " " " 1 mwituni )G " " " "
" " 1 # # &$! + # ! *0" &* # !$3 katika /#"# " ! " " " " " $ # # ! " # !$3 kwa /#"# " ! " " " " " 8 kwa miguu )G 1 kwa kisu )G 1 !* # ! "!! 8 C C C C
* C
C C C C $$ *$ # #
$ & $$ " &$! # ; $ $ * * # 5 $ & 6 /#"# & E" 7
/ &$ + $ # #
! / "! &$ & "" /# # $
& $ "$ *$ # $8 C $ I# & * "
"$ 8 C $ C' $ '?=
+
Subordinate clauses # ; $ + # *$ # $ / #$ # "" amba /#"# E" #/ "" $ *!8 Hiki ni kikapu ambacho nilikinunua )G 1 % 1 I + + # " # # & "$ "$ # &F" 07 -ki- # # $ $ $ + # "
% # "$ + # &F" &F" " ;$ "!! 8 C % $ C * P$ C % $
) # ! "F" / #$ na )G 1 /#"# ! $ "" # $ "!! "3 * "F"
"# juu ya hayo )G
1 kwa hivyo )G 1 # ; $ *$ # " "" # # "F"
# $ " $8 C+ $ C # $ C+ # $ ? $ C1
$ : + & " $ " &$! # $$3 0 sana $ "$ *$ # " "
$8 C % $ C % $ # ; $ + )ingawa1 )lakini1 &# ""
"8 C) $ C " $
Vocabulary # +$$/* & "+ ! # &" # "# # $ ; $ / #$ &" + ! " $ + # 8 '?>
+
,
, ,
,
, , ,
, ,
, C D , ,
, ,
, , ,
, , , , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, , , , , , # +$$/* 7 ! $ + +" ! " *$ # "!! #*# ! + * &$ "" &$8
$ $ $ )G 1
$ $ $ )G $ $ $1 )G 1 )&1 * % & )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1
Culture /# # *# +" /$$ * # # $ "# # / $ + # "# ! ! ! $ # # 0 # ! ! # "# +" "! $$ /* +" & $* 8 # ! /$$ # / $ +" $ * * ) $$ + #! 1 &+ # $ *$ # # ""
$ * *$ # '?.
+
* # ! +0"$ ; ! &$ # * "# /# # "# +" /$ /$$ !!& # +$$/* 8 - # * "# $ * $ + &# # "$ + # # " + $ * * + +$$/ !!& + ++ +! # !
# 7 $ # /$$ & # !"# ! /$"!* + * $+
$* $ /# # ! $" $ $ * * F &$ #$ "# ! ++"$ &
$$ #$ +! /#/#$ $ # /# $ +! # # " ' 4 ;"$
&$ & $" $ ; "3 $ $ #/ $ * "# # $ + "# # " !$ / /$ +$ # & + "" /# # F& # &# & & " $ + " 4 7 ! $ # /$ & " $ "
8 5$$ & # ! &$ 2# H6 "# # ! +" + # ! &$ # &*
! + # /$ "$* +" # $ "# & "# /$ & ! ++ "# "
/# ; & # 6 # $# + !$ " ! # #/ $$ =
* ! ! "" &$ " " ! +" " 4 7 ! $ ! +" " ** /# * # #
* K ! & #*# ++ I # # # # * # !"# ! "!! # /# ! /#! + $ + 0* * #$ & "$ $ # " $ 5"! #6 &"* /# # +0* > /# / #/* ! $ " + !$ 7 " #$ $/ & /$"! ! #/
* 6 * *! # ! $ 7 $ /# * + $ $#*# #$ &
# ! +" " * 7 "
! . 4 & $" $
I # " $!
* " #$ & " * ++" 4 7 ! $ /! #$
" +$$ ! $* #$ & &$ " 7" ! " # "!! &$+ !* * ! $ # " $
" +! $ #+ +$
I+ #/ # # ++" 7" +! $ "" # $$ " +$ & # # 0$ '?,
+
"" &$ +/ " &$ K #
" $$ +&
A sample of written Swahili with a word-for-word translation Hapo kale
paka hakukaa
katika nyumba za watu; alikaa
+!$ " $ " # + !% # mwituni au maguguni tu.
+ & # wakatembea
Paka mmoja alikuwa ra®ki
$ B
pamoja, na
ya sungura
# / + + #
paka akastaajabia
werevu
wa
# / *# " # ! "$
+ ra®ki
yake; lakini siku moja funo
akagombana
na
+ # % & # * *# /# sungura akamwua
#
kwa pembe zake. Sasa kwa kuwa ra®ki
# #! $$ /# # # # +
& +
yake amekufa paka akafuatana na yule funo # # " # ""! /# # )#1
An idiomatic translation $* ! * # " $ !6 # 8 # $ $ # + # & # " " / # + + # / & /# #!% # " ! # "$
+ # + & ; $$ /# # # $$ #! /# # + # # " # + / # " &* * "! /# # )4! ) % * * ) & : $7 1
Acknowledgement # # /$ $ # $3## + # B + +" * * * + # "!! $ + + #
'??
+
Bibliography $7 : )-A?'1 ) % * * ) $ & 4 #/ :
! " $ # I )-A>> -=# !
-A,,1 + B 8 *! &* )-A,, ' 1 * ) # *8 "# )-A@-1 + * $ & B ! &$$ 8 $* O* : $
$$ Q : )-AA,1 - + 8 *# 2#$ 2$+ )-A,A1 + C D 8 #
'?@
Malay/Indonesian speakers P P*
Distribution : B I4 I 4 I I4 P : B I4 :I I4 % # / " +
#! " + # $ * "# $ * + !
$ 3& "$ + $ !* # * $$ B# 3
* # & + # $ $! + +! #
$ & $ + B# !
$ # B" $ # I"
Introduction # $ $ " # $ 7 /$
