Phonetics and Diction in Singing

PHONETICS AND DICTION IN SINGING

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ITALIAN - FRENCH - SPANISH • GERMAN

Phonetics and Diction in Singing by Kurt Adlei

UNIVERSITY

OF M I N N E S O T A

PRESS

•

MINNEAPOLIS

© Copyright 1965, 1967, by the University of Minnesota. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 67-25073. Published in Great Britain, India, and Pakistan by the Oxford University Press, London, Bombay, and Karachi, and in Canada by the Copp Clark Publishing Co. Limited, Toronto. Printed in the United States of America at the North Central Publishing Company, St. Paul. 3

This book is based on Chapters 4-8 of Mr. Adler's The Art of Accompanying and Coaching

Preface

MY BOOK The Art of Accompanying and Coaching has been out for only about two years. It fell upon fertile soil, and during the long period consumed by its writing and its preparation for printing the musical climate in America grew considerably warmer. What one of the less offensive cliches of our day calls a cultural explosion is taking place in this country. Opportunities for singers, in concert as well as in opera, are multiplying in universities, colleges, high schools, workshops, and music groups. More young people are listening to good music, many FM radio stations are broadcasting serious music around the clock, and even television networks sometimes weather the storm of advertising agencies and sneak in some long-hair musical programs. Politicians have discovered the publicity value of being seen at musical performances; the big foundations and even some giants of industry and business are

spending enormous amounts of money to encourage the development of music. American cities that have heretofore been dependent on touring opera groups to satisfy their cultural needs are proudly forming their own opera companies and groups. Germany's, Austria's, and Switzerland's opera houses simply could not exist without young American singers, because their own strength in this field has not yet been restored to pre-war standards. Thus the United States, once a country that imported foreign musical talent, is now exporting its own cultural products. Given all necessary training, a young artist — with good advisory guidance — will be able to have a career in this country without having to make the expensive detour through Europe that was almost obligatory in earlier years. This all means that the number of voice students and necessarily also the number of voice teachers is increas-

ing from year to year. It is not an exaggeration to say that we are already experiencing a shortage of wellprepared, talented young singers who are ready to step into the breach caused by the evergrowing number of possibilities for professional engagements. From its first pages, my book was slanted not only toward accompanists and coaches — although these were its principal audience, since it is the only textbook of its kind — but also toward the whole "vocal population" of this country. The success of the book demonstrated the good sense of my approach. Reports came in from all sides to suggest that voice teachers and students in great numbers were perusing my book. These reports also told me that the chapters on phonetics and diction were especially helpful, because they contain all the rules and examples necessary for the study of songs and opera in the leading foreign tongues. One may ask why phonetics and diction in Italian, Latin, French, Spanish, and German are essential in a country where the trend is toward opera in English. The answer is simple: if you know how to sing well in these languages and know how to apply the rules correctly you

will also sing well in English. I have emphasized many times that singing diction is quite different from diction in speech. English is rich in diphthongs which if pronounced in singing exactly as they are in speech would make the voice sound uneven, mushy, devoid of the beauty of bel canto. The study of foreign operatic and song literature in its native tongues will provide the correct basis for a sound vocal technique. The application of that sound technique to English, combined with the right way of projection, will help the English-speaking singing student and artist considerably, even decisively. Although I want to refrain from discussing the basic rules for English phonetics and singing diction, leaving it to qualified American-born experts, I must caution immediately against misconstruing my words to make them suggest that the result of using this system would make English sound as it sometimes does — especially in our big opera houses: almost completely unintelligible. The reason for this deplorable fact is again the impossibility of singing English the way you pronounce it in speech. There are many English diction teachers, some of them actors or Shakespearian experts, who destroy

any vocal phrase by teaching the "sing as you speak" method. Only a good coach or a teacher who not only knows the correct pronunciation but also thoroughly understands how to adapt it to the vocal problems of phonetics and diction can show young artists the proper English singing diction. But even these professional teachers will have to consult dictionaries or other source material when they deal with foreign languages and, should they encounter especially difficult problems — as for instance when to make a liaison in singing French — even these sources might not give satisfactory and authoritative solutions. This book, composed of the chapters on phonetics and diction from my larger book, The Art oj Accompanying and Coaching, is intended to do just that. These chapters form a handbook and a textbook based on my many years of experience in which I have tried to meet every foreseeable problem. It is therefore completely accurate

to substitute "voice teacher and singer" for "accompanist and coach" whenever you come upon the latter. A serious student of this book ought to be able to teach himself the mechanics of phonetics and diction in singing, and at the professional level the book may be used as a reference work, to check up on questions in doubt or to find exceptions to a rule. A voice teacher and coach performing a supervisory and constructively critical function will of course be beneficial even to the student well along the road toward professionalism. In publishing the phonetics and diction chapters from The Art of Accompanying and Coaching separately I feel certain that a wider circle of vocalists will be reached; many of them will also be interested in learning about the other important ingredients that go into the making of an artist — and they may be led back to the larger work. KURT ADLER

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Table of Contents

PHONETICS AND DICTION IN SINGING page 3 ITALIAN PHONETICS AND DICTION page 12 FRENCH PHONETICS AND DICTION page 48 SPANISH PHONETICS AND DICTION page 100 GERMAN PHONETICS AND DICTION page 106 INDEX page 147

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PHONETICS AND DICTION IN SINGING

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Phonetics and Diction in Singing

WHICH is more important, the words or the music? To this day, the old argument has lost nothing of its ardor, its vehemence, its partisanship, and above all its emotional aspects and its question mark. Truly, which of the two arts is more important when combined in a vocal composition? The question has occupied many great creative artists and many of their utterances about this problem could be quoted. But it may be best to let a great musician take the rostrum. At an age when wisdom and experience become molded into serene impartiality, Richard Strauss undertook to cast this ever-alive question into poetic and musical form. His conversation piece for music, Cappriccio, has this problem as its main topic. He lets a poet and a musician argue the question, fight about it, and finally leave it to a beautiful woman of noble heart and soul to solve. Though Strauss leaves the question unan-

swered — the opera ends without the solution's actually being announced —by his words "music and word are brother and sister" he leaves no doubt in anybody's mind that the fight must end in a draw. In vocal art the word is lifted up and ennobled by the music, the music is made clear and brought into focus by the word. This chapter will analyze the elements of the spoken word and discuss their adjustment to the singing phrase. It has been said that in vocal art the singing comes from the heart, but the words must be controlled by the intellect. This is only partly true. Both music and words must come from the heart, but both must also be controlled by the brain —not only controlled but brought under a common denominator which could be called the esthetic golden mean. A word consists of sounds. The science of producing and pronouncing sounds is called phonetics; the enunci-

ation of words and sentences synthesized from sounds is called diction. Spoken and sung sounds fall into the categories of vowels, semivowels, vowel combinations (diphthongs, triphthongs), and consonants. The popular belief that there are five different vowels has been discarded by the science of phonetics. Of the languages most frequently encountered in vocal literature, Italian has seven vowels, German fourteen, English fifteen, and French sixteen. When we come to vowel combinations and consonants, the confusion grows even greater. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), created in 1888 and revised in 1951, has a sign for each sound. This alphabet may be too complicated for every singer to learn, but it is a necessity for accompanists and coaches who want to master the intricacies of phonetics and diction for singers. This book will use the IPA because of its definitiveness and because it allows no error and no second meaning of a sound. It will then be up to the individual accompanist or coach to judge the intelligence of his singers and use any method of making the sound clear to them.

The comparative simplicity of Italian, as suggested by its use of only seven vowels, makes it the easiest language to sing. It therefore will be the first language to be discussed and its vowels will form the basis for those of all other languages with which singers should be familiar, at least phonetically. The accompanist and coach with aspirations must know one Romance language well enough to be able to converse fluently, in addition to thoroughly understanding its phonetical, grammatical, and stylistic intricacies. Since Italian is easier than French, the American coach or accompanist will have fewer difficulties in speaking Italian than French. Besides this complete mastery of one Romance language, a thorough knowledge of another one, as well as of German, is essential. The accompanist or coach must understand these languages from the point of view of all their phonetic and linguistic problems. This seems a very high standard, but we must keep in mind what I said in the introductory chapter about the qualifications and background of an accompanist or coach. If he is able to thoroughly search one language for its philological qualities he will be in a [4]

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much better position to study and understand other languages. As a famous linguist who was proficient in about sixty-four languages once said: "Only the first six are difficult; after that, everything becomes very easy." This book is meant for American and English accompanists and coaches. Complete knowledge of English is an assumed prerequisite. Although it is a known fact that English singing diction is frequently massacred by coaches as well as by singers, this book will not undertake to analyze faulty production and enunciation of English phrases. A very good book, The Singer's Manual of English Diction by Madeleine Marshall (published by G. Schirmer's, Inc., New York), is available and should not be absent from any accompanist's or coach's studio. Where my experience with singers has led me to different conclusions from Miss Marshall's, my point of view will be offered. These chapters will make Italian, Latin, French, Spanish, and German singing diction understandable to accompanists and coaches. The problems which will be brought into focus must necessarily be based on the relation of the pronunciation of these languages to the

pronunciation of native tongue of teacher and student, namely, English. I purposely use the term "singing diction." This book is not concerned with speech as such and the elements of speech are treated only as they are related to singing. One of the most widespread errors is that spoken and sung sounds are the same. Nothing is further from the truth. To sing the way you speak may be advisable for popular music, but it would make the voice sound brittle, harsh, and uneven in opera, song, and choral music. The adjustment of phonetics to the vocal phrase is the real problem for any accompanist and coach and the solution constitutes a very important part of his art. The basic elements of phonetics are nevertheless the speech sounds and this chapter will start with them. Of the speech sounds, the vowels are the simplest. A vowel is a voiced speech sound which originates in the larynx and passes unhindered through the channel formed by throat and mouth. Different vowels will require different positions of the speech apparatus, but in all vowels the passage through throat and mouth is uninterrupted by obstacles. Obstacles to the speech sounds

Symbol

Italian

French

Spanish

[a] [e]

patria vendetta, pesca (peach) era, pesca (fishing)

pale, pas, patte tete, mere

pan escuela, cerca

[e] M L ^J [i] [o] [D] [0] [02] [u]

fvl Ij J

si , dove cosa

subito

the ville si beau porte, fort peu oeuf, veuve tout

si llorar ojo

mucho

Iiirif* lUllC

[5] [oe]

English

fahren, Gast Bett, Bar

far pet

leben Erd^> wie, bitte wohl Sonne schon zwolf gut, Hund

chaotic (approx.) #bout h^rb (approx.) see, bit

VOWELS

Scotch, fought surf, sir (approx.) doom, book (approx.)

|ir\ck«-

Irllif^K UUCI, VJIUCIV

ange, ensemble infame, teint ombre, onde un, humble

[u] [?]

German

SEMIVOWELS

[w] [j]

quando ieri

oiseau, oui hier puis, huit

cuando, huelga tib/'o

[b] [0]

bene

bien

[d]

dormire

dormir

bueno hablar yo (in stress) duerme

[til

ew'ge, Jahr

suave, persuasion you, yet

CONSONANTS

w

Bett ich du

bet love (Southern U.S., approx.) hue (in stress) doom

[3] [9] [f] [g] [gs]

forte gamba

[y]

[h] [k] [ks] [1] U] [j] [m] [n] [Ji] [ij] [p] W [s] [z] [dz] h] [d3] [/] [t] [ts] [tj] [v] [x]

caro lungo figlia amore onda agnus angolo padre rosso sangue sdegno zero giubilo sciocco tutto io ielo verde

fort guerir exil haine carte luxe long

lado corazon, cinco fuerte guerra luego

pere rouge sang zele

calidad excavar leche llamar (Castilian) llamar (Mexican) amor andar senor cinco, tengo padre rojo sangre rasgar

jour

alii (Argentinian)

chaud tout

todo

caoutchouc vert

charro verde gente, jabon

fille amour nez agneau

fast gerne

this, other thunder fast get exile

hoch kalt Luchs lachen

high cold lax

Joch Mann Name

yonder man name onion sing pour red see zeal adze vision, measure jar show tan Tsar church vast khan, loch

singen Pore rot rasten Sohn Gendarm schon Tonne Zahn rutschen warm Loch

come into play in helping to form the other speech sounds, the consonants. Vowels' unobstructed passage makes them the foremost carriers of the singing tone. A simple example will illustrate this: The vocalise in its voice-building form in a teacher's studio and in its adaptation as a special vocal art form (see Ravel's or Rachmaninoff's Vocalise) consists entirely of a vowel or vowels. Any examination of singing phonetics and diction must therefore start with the vowel speech sounds; this I shall follow, for each language, with a discussion of semivowels, combinations of vowels (such as diphthongs and triphthongs), and consonants.

CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS

The vowels can be classified in many ways. The easiest way is to divide them into front, middle, and back, a division based on different positions of tongue and lips. Vowels can also be divided into a long and closed or short and open vowel. The most natural vowel is the

Figure 18. Mouth positions during the production of the principal kinds of vowel sound

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a which is the least modified vowel. According to William Vennard, "The pharynx is distended comfortably, the jaw is dropped, the tongue is low and grooved, if possible." e and i are formed by slight changes of the tongue position, o and u by progressive rounding of the lips. Figure 18 shows simplifications of X-rays of tones, as illustrated in G. Oscar Russell's book, Speech and

Voice. This should help to give the accompanist and coach an idea of the changes in the mouth when different vowels are pronounced. Figure 19 may make the relative position of the Italian, French, and German vowels more understandable. The difference in production between long and short vowels is neglected in Figure 18.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS

Figure 19. Diagram showing relative positions of Italian, French, and German vowels

The consonants are produced by actually putting obstacles in the way of the free flow of the air stream, which deflects, hinders, or interrupts it. If the vowels can be considered the flesh of the sound body, the consonants are the bones that hold the flesh together. There are several possible systems for the classification of consonants. Some consonants are voiced', this means that they carry with them some remnants of voice sound. Others are voiceless; they do not contain voice sound at all. You can "hear" the voiced consonants if you cover your ears and softly articulate [b], [d], [g], [v], and [z]. Using

the same method, you will "hear" nothing while articulating [p], [t], [k], [f], [s], and [/]. Moreover, the consonants can be classified by the location of the speech apparatus in which they are produced. This most widely accepted classification contains the glottal fricative sound, the [h] which is aspirated in the larynx; the labial sounds, produced by the lips, called bilabials if both lips are involved (p and b) and labiodentals if upper teeth and lower lip are used in producing these sounds (f and v). Bilabials and labiodentals are either voiced (b and v) or voiceless (p and f). Yet another method of classification takes into consideration the degree of freedom from obstruction of the air stream in forming consonants. If the obstruction is total, we talk of plosives. Their release requires a slight explosion of the accumulated air pressure. Consonants of this type are [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], and [k]. If the obstruction is not complete but leaves a narrow channel open in which the articulated consonants rub against the channel's borders, we speak of fricative sounds, such as [f], [v], [6], [9], [/], [3], and [h]. The other consonants cannot be produced without the aid of the tongue. They are therefore called linguals. If

tongue and upper gum ridge are involved in producing consonants, their name is lingua-alveolars. Such consonants are [d] (voiced) and [t] (voiceless). By slight modification of the tongue (letting some breath escape through a slight contact between tongue and upper teeth) we get the [s] (voiceless) and the [z] (voiced). Further modifications of this are the [/] (voiceless) and the [3] (voiced), produced by withdrawing the tongue a little from the alveolar ridge, [g] (voiced) and [k] (voiceless) are velar consonants, produced by a meeting of the back of the tongue and the soft palate. Of the nasal sounds, [m] is a bilabial nasal, produced by closing the lips; [n] is an alveolar nasal, made by pressing the forward part of the tongue against the upper gum ridge. [13] is a velar nasal effected by pressing the middle part of the tongue against the hard palate. For all ti.^oe the velum should be arched, unless a French nasal sound is desired, in which case the velum is somewhat lowered. Those consonants which belong to French or German only will be described in their proper place. A special discussion is needed for the [1] which is either dental-alveolar (as in Italian, French, and Ger-

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[11] man), or more guttural (as in English). Some Slavic languages have both of these 1's and use different signs for them: 1 for the guttural (hard) and 1 for the dental (soft) [1] in Russian and in Polish. There are four ways to articulate the [r]. Firstly, it can be flipped by a slight trill of the tip of the tongue against the upper gum ridge. This is the Italian or French (in singing) and English alveolar [r]. Secondly, it can be rolled by a flutter of the soft palate against the back of the tongue. This is the German and Slavic r and with a lesser roll it appears also in the speech of the French,

especially Parisians (but should not be used in singing). The third kind of r is the English way of articulating it by curling the tip of the tongue upward and slightly backward toward the region of the alveolar ridge and hard palate and returning very fast to its initial position. The fourth way is typically American, pronounced very sloppily. The production and pronunciation of semivowels, diphthongs, triphthongs, and consonant combinations will be discussed in the paragraphs concerning the individual languages to which they belong.

Italian Phonetics and Diction

I HAVE said before that the Italian needs only seven different vowel sounds to form words and sentences in his language. These vowel sounds are the purest of any language and the most easily produced. This purity, free from any disfiguring diphthongization, is the main reason for the undisputed position of Italian as the most musical language in the world. Vowels are only infrequently interspersed with consonants. Diphthongization is practically unknown. All this creates the basis for the bel canto style of singing which is predominant today in America. It is quite possible to adjust even French and German words to this style of singing. The seven Italian vowels are shown in Figure 20. Most of these vowels are long. They are short —but not necessarily open — only before a double consonant. This is true only of Italian, which is the sole language where the shortening of a vowel does not automatically mean the opening of that vowel.

Cond[o]tta ell' era in c[e]ppi (VERDI // Trovatore) Povero Rigol[e]tto (VERDI Rigoletto) Buon giorno, Marc[e]llo (PUCCINI La Boheme)

Figure 20. The seven Italian vowels

The [a] sound. The pronunciation of the Italian a is similar to the Boston way of saying father. The a is always bright, except when vocal blending asks for dark-

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ening or adjustment of the vowel. In producing it the tongue should be relaxed and grooved, its tip lightly anchored on the lower teeth ridge. a can be either long or short. It is long in an accentuated syllable, before another vowel or a single consonant, and always short if not accentuated, or before more than one consonant. Amami, oh Alfredo! (VERDI La Traviata) All' armi! (VERDI // Trovatore) a gets a grave accent if it is the final letter of a word and supposed to be stressed. It is always long. Abbiate carita! (VERDI La Forza del Destino) Pieta di me, pieta, Signor! (VERDI La Forza del Destino) The [e] sound. The [e] corresponds exactly to the sound in the English words bed, set, letter. In singing, the [e] is always open when it is the final sound of a word or if it falls on an unaccentuated syllable of a polysyllabic word. E a parlar[e], mi sforza d'amor[e] (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro) L[e] d[e]lizi[e] d[e]ll' amor (VERDI Rigoletto)

In the following words the final e is dosed: che (and combinations, such as perche, poicche, etc.) tre (and combinations), me, te, and se if stressed; re; ne; merce, vende (and other 3rd person singular forms of the absolute past of verbs on -ere). In accented syllables of a polysyllabic word the e can be either open or closed. This is also true if the e precedes a double consonant. No hard and fast rule can be established concerning where to use open or short e's; the accompanist or coach will have to look up the word in a good dictionary. Si, v[e]nd[e]tta, tr[e]m[e]nda v[e]nd[e]tta (VERDI Rigoletto) S[e]mpr[e] lib[e]ra d[e]gg'io foll[e]ggiar[e] (VERDI La Traviata) Sometimes words spelled identically have different meanings, depending upon whether the e is pronounced open or closed. V[e]nti scudi ne da di prodotto (VERDI Rigoletto) La calunnia e un v[e]ntic[e]llo (ROSSINI // Barbiere di Siviglia) La l[e]gge, io non la so (PUCCINI Madama Butterfly) Ei l[e]gge, non vi parla (VERDI Otello)

Susan[e]tta, sei tu (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro) Cont[e]ssa, perdono (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro} All' uso Giappon[e]s[e] (PUCCINI Madama Butterfly) L[e]gg[e]rm[e]nt[e], dolc[e]m[e]nt[e]. (ROSSINI II Barbiere di Siviglia)

Some suffixes with e on stressed syllables are short, as in frat-[e]llo, sor-[e]lla, -[e]nte, -[ejsimo, and -[e]stre. Att[e]ndi, frat[e]llo (VERDI Rigoletto) Buon giorno, sor[e]llina (DONIZETTI Don Pasquale) De miei boll[e]nti spiriti (VERDI La Traviata) The e with grave accent is always pronounced [e], with the exception of the examples above. The [e] (closed e) sound. There are fewer [e]'s in Italian than [e]'s. The e is closed in some accented syllables of a polysyllabic word, sometimes even before a double consonant. O monum[e]nto (PONCHIELLI La Gioconda) Povero Rigol[e]tto (VERDI Rigoletto)

The contraction de'e (from deve) is pronounced [dee]. Both e and e sounds may have to be modified toward [0] and [02] if the vocal line demands it. The i sound. The i sound in Italian is almost always long and is pronounced in exactly the same way as the vowels in the English words sea, see, relieve, feeling, and key. Double consonants following the i do not shorten it, but final i's are usually short. The i has four different functions. It can be syllabic (dominating a syllable): V/ssr d'arte (PUCCINI Tosco)

The sound in e or ed (and) is always long and closed. Some monosyllabic words and some e's with grave accents have the closed sound. (See note above.) Eh or deh (exclamation) is closed as the stretching h indicates. Stressed e's in suffixes are closed, as in diminutives with -etto and -etta, and in forms with -ese, -essa, -evole, -ezza, -mente. Caro il mio Figar[e]tto (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro)

It can be asyllabic (unaccented): POJ m/ gu/dav/ a/ fulg/d/ desert/ (VERDI Otello) It can serve as a semivowel: e m/ele o f/de (PUCCINI La Boheme) [14]

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It can be mute, and it remains unpronounced in the following combinations: cia, cie, cio, ciii, gia, gie, gio, giu, scia, scie, scio, sciu, glie, glio, gliu: mi lasc/o reggere prima di cedere faro giocar (ROSSINI // Barbiere di Siviglia) The i is pronounced in scienza, usually spelled sc'ienza. Con scenica sc'/enza (PUCCINI Tosca) ii is pronounced and sung like one prolonged i. Fug// pur ora da Castel' Sant'Angelo (PUCCINI Toscd) The i in its pure form tends to sound shrill and metallic, especially in top tones. It is advisable to produce the i sound without spreading the lips, or "smiling." The tip of the tongue should again be anchored against the lower teeth ridge. The forward part of the tongue has to arch upward but should not move too high, otherwise it would make the forward cavity of the mouth too small. While the pure metallic i used to be acceptable in provincial Italian opera houses, the great singers of La Scala always modified it toward [e] or [y]. It will be up to the accompanist and coach to discourage spreading the i

and to blend it with the rest of the vowels in a musical phrase. The y in Italian appears mostly in words of Greek derivation and is pronounced like i. It is always a pure vowel and not, as sometimes in English, a semiconsonant. The [o] (open o) sound. The [o] sound in Italian is similar to the English o in provide. It is produced by rounding the lips and lowering the jaw, keeping the cavity of the mouth open and round, and the position of the tongue low. The tendency to diphthongization must be avoided. The lips must be rounded but should not protrude much since this would result in a closed o. German equivalents are S[o]nne, R[o]ss; French equivalents are d[o]nner, t[o]rt. The o in Italian is always pronounced [o] if it is the final sound of a word or if it falls on the unaccented syllable of a polysyllabic word. Un cert[o] n[o]n s[o] che (VIVALDI "Song") Or che mi c[D]n[o]scete (PUCCINI La Boheme) In monosyllabic words the o is always pronounced [o], as in non, con, don.

The o in accented syllables of polysyllabic words may be either open or closed. A non-Italian must look up each such word in the dictionary. La d[o]nna e m|>]bile (VERDI Rigoletto) P[D]C[D], p[o]c[o] (PUCCINI La Boheme)

The 6 (with grave accent) is also always pronounced [o]. The accent indicates only the stress of the word and does not change the sound. L'amerfo], sarfo] c[o]stante (MOZART // Re Pastore) M[o]rr|>] (VERDI La Traviata)

a bright [a] to a covered [a] and thence through different shades to an [o]. All these shades of [a] and [o] are important for the singer in blending vowels and evening out vocal coloring. Another approach for an accompanist or coach to use in showing the English-speaking singer how to produce a pure [o] would be to analyze the production of an English (diphthongized) o, as in no, so. It starts the same way as the pure [o] — with rounded lips. The lips, however, are relaxed as the diphthongization progresses until the sound approaches a [u] (no = no-u, so = so-u). By pronouncing these words very slowly and arresting the rounded lips on the first part without proceeding to the [u] sound, the first part then is the pure [o] sound.

The [o] (closed o) sound. The [o] has no equivalent in English. All similar sounds, as in cold, low, are diphthongized. The [o] is equivalent to the German so, wo, hoch, or the French eau, or rose. The best way of finding the right production for the [o] is to produce an Italian a and round the lips while holding it. While the lips are gradually rounded, the vowel change runs from

The cavity of the mouth should be fully utilized for the resonance of the [o] by keeping the palate high and the tongue low, the latter again lightly anchored on the lower teeth ridge. The jaw is less dropped than in pronouncing the open o. The o is closed in some accented syllables of a polysyllabic word but a dictionary must be used to determine exactly which o is open and which

The o is pronounced [o] before 11, mm, nn, rr, ss, or zz. It can be open or closed before tt. "Oh" as an exclamation is pronounced [o], [D], quant[o] e bella (VERDI Rigoletto)

[16J

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closed. Sometimes an o is closed even before a double consonant. C[o]nd[o]tta ell' era in ceppi (VERDI // Trovatore) BUT: alia l[o]tta (PONCHIELLI La Gioconda) b[o]cca stretta (DONIZETTI Don Pasquale) The word o means "either-or" and like the vocative is always closed. II mi[o] bel I[O]C[D], [o] l[o]ntan[o], [o] vicin[o] (MARCELLO "Song") [O] n[o]tte, [o] Dea (PICCINI "Song") [O] mi[o] Fernandfo] (DONIZETTI La Favorita) Stressed o's in suffixes are always closed, as in nouns and adjectives ending in -ore, -oso, -osa, -ione. Sm[o]rfi[o]sa, malizi[a]sa (MOZART Le None di Fig: aro) Am[o]re mi[o] (PUCCINI Madama Butterfly) Maledizi[o]ne (VERDI La Forza del Destino) The [u] sound. The Italian u is always long, as in the English word doom, but never diphthongized. Its pronunciation creates a difficulty for the English-speaking singer since the written u in English is pronounced like the IPA sounds U or A. And even the oo (as in doom)

is articulated further back in the mouth and is always somewhat diphthongized. The Italian u is a pure vowel and is pronounced forward with rounded and protruded lips (protruded more than in pronouncing a closed o). The lips should be rounded into a pout, almost as if they were about to gently blow away some light object. It is important to impress on the singer the necessity of keeping mouth and throat relaxed as in a closed o position, otherwise the vowel will sound hooty or muffled. The tongue again should be kept low and the jaw be raised more than when pronouncing o. The u in Italian stays long whether it is an initial, medial, or final sound, and even before a double consonant. The grave accent likewise does not change the quality of the u. Twtta la twa tribii (PUCCINI Madama Butterfly) Omai tre volte 1'wpwpa (VERDI Un Ballo in Maschera) II twtor ricwsera (ROSSINI // Barbiere di Siviglia) Una. gran nwbe twrba il senno d'Otello (VERDI Otello) All these examples contain the u as syllabic vowel. It can also be asyllabic or a semivowel.

L'awra che tu respiri (GLUCK "O del mio dolce ardor") Qwesto o qwella (VERDI Rigoletto) SEMIVOWELS

The Italian language has two semivowels (or half vowels), which belong to the class of diphthongs. 1. The i can sometimes become a semivowel — expressed phonetically as [j] and pronounced exactly like the English y in you. In these combinations the [j] can stand before an a, e, o, D, and u sound. It is always a semivowel in its initial form when followed by another vowel as in [jeri] (with the exceptions of some words of Greek derivation where the i stands for the Greek digamma as in iacinto). i is a semivowel between two other vowels (acciaio), in words ending in -iera, -iere (cavaliere); in verbal forms ending in -iamo, -iate (amiamoci, facciate). In words derived from Latin, such as dieci (from decem), chiaro, obietto, the i also is pronounced as a semivowel. S/flte felici (VERDI La Traviata) Datemi vostri f/ori (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro) Diedi i gio/elli alia madonna al manto (PUCCINI Tosco)

Al f/wme (VERDI Rigoletto) An e following a [j] is always pronounced [e]. 2. The u can also at times become a semivowel — expressed phonetically as [w] — and is pronounced exactly as in the English suave, persuasion. The u becomes a semivowel in combination with q, g, and ng and can thus be found before a, e, i, D. An o following a [w] is always pronounced [D]. [Twona] (VERDI Rigoletto) Quant' anni avete (PUCCINI Madama Butterfly) Qwesto worno fido provedera (PUCCINI Tosco) Gw/datemi all' ara (VERDI // Trovatore) Gwerra, Gwerra (VERDI A'ida) Sangue, sangue (VERDI Otello) In all these the accent does not fall on the semivowel but on the preceding or following vowel. The following words have the accent on the i or the u and are therefore not considered semivowels: mio, mia, mie and all nouns with the endings, -io, -ia, and -ie, with the i stressed as in zio, Dio, allegria, osterie. The separation between the two vowels is called hiatus. This rule is most important for the English-speaking singer who tends to put the ac[18]

[19]

cent on the wrong vowel (mio, mia, etc.)- Other vowel combinations which do not contain semivowels due to the accentuated i's and u's are: tuo, suo, tua, siia, tue, sue, due, hue, tui, sui, lui, cui, etc. Musically, the distinction between vowel and semivowel must be very carefully made. Usually the semivowel is expressed by one note only. The note must be divided in such a way that the stressed vowel gets the longer musical value. Figure 21 shows pure vowels of two syllables, and Figure 22 shows monosyllabic semivowels.

Figure 27. Pure vowels of two syllables

Figure 22. Semivowels of one syllable

Italian composers are usually conscious of these pure vowel and semivowel combinations and write their mu-

sic accordingly, as for instance Puccini in La Boheme (Fig. 23). Sometimes, in order to achieve a special effect,

Figure 23. Puccini, La Boheme

composers consciously change the rules of pronunciation. A famous example appears in Verdi's Otello (Fig. 24) where he changes the semivowel in paziente into a pure vowel to emphasize the slow, undermining, suggestive power of lago over Otello. Similarly, in the fourth

Figure 24. Verdi, Otello

act of La Traviata, Verdi treats the word re-li-gi-o-ne as a five-syllable word, stressing thus Violetta's debility. In Desdemona's "Willow Song," he notates as shown in Figure 25. The stress lies on the e, which must therefore be held longer than the a. The right way of separation is therefore as shown in Figure 26. In the next line,

oe, oi, ua, ue, ui, uo. These diphthongs are produced by pronouncing each vowel clearly and separately, without tying them together but without a y sound as in English (li-eto, not li-yeto). This is a frequent error and has to be corrected by accompanists and coaches. Diphthongs in Italian are either vocalic (syllabic vowel plus asyllabic vowel), or semivocalic (semivowel plus syllabic vowel). If the semivowel precedes the syllabic vowel we speak of an ascending diphthong with the accent on the vowel as in words with ia, ie, [ie], io, iu, ua, [ue], ue, ui, uo, [UD]; otherwise the diphthong is called descending. The accent always stays on the vowel (ai, ei, [ei], oi, [oi], au, eu, [eu]).

Figure 25. Verdi, Otello

Figure 26. Verdi, Otello

Figure 27. Verdi, Otello

the vowels e and a fall on one short note and may therefore be divided equally as shown in Figure 27. Puccini separates i and a in the word nuzi'al (II nido nuziial dov'e), (Madama Butterfly).

Figure 28. Ways of singing diphthongs

Of the two vowels of a diphthong, one or the other is accented. The musical accent must conform to the phonetic stress. The accented value gets the longest part of the note under which it stands. If the musical note above a diphthong is very short or the tempo very fast,

DIPHTHONGS

We speak of a diphthong if two vowels appear contiguously in the same syllable. The following vowel combinations are diphthongs if they belong to the same syllable: ae, ai, ao, au, ea, ei, eo, eu, ia, ie, io, iu, oa, [20]

[21]

it is to be divided into equal parts. (See Fig. 28.) Similar diphthongs appearing in musical literature are aere, aiuto, lieto. TRIPHTHONGS

Triphthongs are three contiguous vowels in one syllable. Each of these vowels must be pronounced clearly and separately, connected, however, by a legato. The musical accent must conform to the phonetic stress. The accentuated vowel gets the longest part of the note under which it stands. Triphthongs are formed by the vowel combinations aio, iei, iuo, uai, uia, uoi. Miei can, sedete (VERDI La Traviata) Non ti conoscera, se tu non vuoi (MOZART Don Giovanni) CONSONANTS

The distinction between single and double consonants in Italian is very clear, more so than in any other language. I shall therefore treat them separately. We have seen in the introductory remarks to this chapter that the consonants can be classified in several different ways. This book is written for accompanists and coaches, as an aid in their work with instrumental-

ists and vocalists. The chapter about phonetics concerns singers. For this reason, I shall classify the consonants by their degree of singability and shall start out with the voiced consonants, discussing the voiceless consonants afterwards. The Italian pronounces his consonants just as he pronounces his vowels: clearly and definitely, with a distinct action of the speech apparatus. There is no delaying, no drawl, no muddiness as there sometimes is in English. Unless the vocal line requires some adjustment, the consonants are pronounced crisply, but without the explosive force that characterizes the consonants of some other languages. Single consonants in Italian are — with the exception of some initial consonants with or without connection with final vowels of a preceding word — pronounced crisply but gently. The singer must not hestitate over them but must continue to the next vowel. No undue stress, no explosion must be added to the consonant. A consonant between two vowels must not interrupt the flow of vocal line. Voiced consonants are singable to a greater or less degree. In Italian musical diction the voice does not lin-

ger on voiced consonants but proceeds to the next vowel, unless emotional, poetic, or onomatopoetic reasons demand a longer pause on the particular consonant. The m sound. Phonetically, the m is a bilabial nasal sound (produced by both lips, with air escaping through the nose). The lips close firmly but without pressure. Standing by itself, a sung [m] amounts to a hum, since no tone can emerge from the mouth. A hum is usually sung piano but can be increased to a modest mezzo forte. Great care must be taken to arch the velum highly, to give more resonance to the hum. Otherwise, the nasal quality would be increased, as is sometimes necessary in French. An example is found in the Humming Chorus from Puccini's Madama Butterfly (Fig. 29).

lips not closing tightly. On such rather rare occasions, clarity of diction must be sacrificed for uninterrupted beauty of sound. These exceptions will occur more often in operas than in oratorios or songs (Fig. 30, 31).

Figure 30. Puccini, La Boheme

Figure 31. Mozart, Don Giovanni

Figure 29. Puccini, Madama Butterfly, Humming Chorus

The m between two vowels receives soft stress (amo). The m before or after a consonant receives moderate stress (tempo, calmo). Amarilli, mm bella (CACCINI "Madrigal Amarilli") Caro mio ben, credimi alwen (GIORDANI "Arietta") Selve amiche, ombrose piante (CALDARA "Arietta")

In some bel canto phrases where it is essential that the flow of vocal line from vowel to vowel must not be interrupted, the m should be pronounced weakly, the

An initial m after a one-syllable word ending in a stressed vowel is pronounced like mm. a mme il ferro (VERDI Don Carlo) [22]

[23]

e par che tenti riscattarlo da mme (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro} Similarly, the m of Maria between vowels in a phrase receives strong stress. Ave Mmaria (VERDI Otello) Gesummaria (LEONCAVALLO Pagliacci) The n sound. The n is an alveolar nasal sound, produced by flattening the most forward part of the tongue against the upper alveolar ridge, with the tip of the tongue touching the upper teeth. At the same time the soft palate should be in a raised position to avoid too much nasal sound. Initial n's and n's between two vowels must be produced this way, but care should be taken not to exaggerate the pressure of the tongue and not to explode the n by a too sudden release of the tongue. The n is soft between two vowels (lana), and moderate before or after another vowel (mente, Arno). Tu menti (PUCCINI Madama Butterfly) Enzo adorato (PONCHIELLI La Gioconda) Cruda, funesta smama (DONIZETTI Lucia di Lammermoor) Pronto a far tutto la notte e il giorno, sempre d'intorno (ROSSINI // Barbiere di Siviglia)

Initial n gets added stress. Final n gets moderate stress. Tre giorni son che Nina (PERGOLESI "Nina") II balen del suo sorriso (VERDI // Trovatore) Again, great care should be taken not to lower the velum too much. This would decrease the size of the resonance cavity of the mouth and increase the nasality of the n. The n changes its quality when followed by an f or v. It then assumes a slightly nasal sound. If followed by g or k, the n becomes [rj]. If preceded by a g, the combination becomes [ji]. The ng [rj] sound. The alveolar n followed by a g or k becomes a new velar sound. It is produced by a meeting of the raised back of the tongue and the lowered soft palate (velum). There should be no pressure and the sound must be produced in the back of the mouth, not in the throat. It has a slight nasal quality which should not be overstressed by lowering the velum too much. The n and the following g or k are not molded together as in the German Jung, or the English sing. The tongue simply moves back from the alveolar to the velar position. Fruga ogni angolo (PUCCINI Tosca)

Iwgannata (PUCCINI Tosca) There are no initial or final [n]'s in Italian. The gn sound. The gn ([ji] phonetically) belongs to the n group, although spelled gn in Italian. It is a palatal nasal sound, and is sometimes called a liquid consonant. It is produced by flattening the middle part of the tongue against the hard palate, while the tip of the tongue is anchored against the lower teeth. The uvula is down. In Spanish, the spelling for [ji] is n, in Portuguese nh. It has no equivalent in English or German. The French spelling is the same as the Italian wherever it appears. The nearest sound in English would be the ny as, for instance, in canyon. In Italian, the [ji] can stand before any of the seven vowel sounds. Ogni citta, ogni paese (MOZART Don Giovanni) II feritore? Ignoto (GIORDANO Andrea Chenier) Ma, #naffe a me, non se la fa (VERDI La Forza del Destino)

The 1 sound. The 1 is a dental-alveolar voiced consonant, produced by placing the most forward part of the tongue against the upper teeth near the gum ridge. This 1 is, therefore, produced forward, the breath escaping along the sides of the tongue. It is of the greatest importance that English-speaking singers are taught how to produce a forward 1, since they habitually tend to produce the 1 further back in a more guttural way. This is not good for a forward voice production. After the dental-alveolar placement, the tongue should come down rapidly to the region of the lower teeth in order to form the following vowel, or should proceed to the position of the next consonant, if the 1 is followed by such a sound. The 1 can be given different grades of stress. It is soft between two vowels and moderate before or after a consonant. Non e su /ei, ne/ suo fragi/e petto (VERDI Un Ballo in Maschera) II ba/en de/ suo sorriso (VERDI // Trovatore)

The stress of the [ji] is moderate in the initial position (gnocchi), but strong in the middle of a word (ignoto).

In the words la and li, the 1 receives strong stress. The initial 1 is produced so easily that almost all languages use it for illustrating melodies and rhythms, [24]

[25]

usually followed by an a. In sustained, melodic singing the stress on the 1 is soft. When expressing rhythmical patterns, the stress on the 1 becomes moderate or even strong, approximating 11 (Fig. 32).

Figure 32. Mozart, Don Giovanni

The gl sound. The [X] belongs to the 1 group, though spelled gl in Italian. It is a palatal-alveolar sound produced initially like the 1, but with the center of the tongue pressed against the hard palate. The sides of the tongue are not so free as they are in pronouncing 1, and the air passage is thus narrowed along the side of the tongue. In Spanish, [X] is expressed by 11 (Sevi//a), in Portuguese by Ih (ore//ia). French and German do not have the [X] sound, except in foreign names. Not all sounds spelled gl in Italian are [X]'s. Initial and medial gl's are always in the g class, unless they are followed by i. G/oria all' Egitto, ad Iside (VERDI A'ida)

V eg/oghe dei pastori (GIORDANO Andrea Chenier) But: Nella bionda eg/i ha 1' usanza (MOZART Don Giovanni) The [X] before i gets moderate stress. Ecco i fog/i (VERDI La Foria del Destino) The [X] before i followed by a, e, o, or u gets strong stress. Lo vedremo, veg/io audace (VERDI Ernani) Vog/io piena liberta (PUCCINI La Boheme) Quest' uomo ha mog/ie e sconcie vog/ie ha nel cor (PUCCINI La Boheme) Some initial and medial gli combinations, derived mostly from foreign words, do not take the X sound, as in g//cerina, gerog//fico, and neg//gente and in combinations with n (Ang#a). e sopra tutto questo al mio braccio impresso gerog//fico (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro) The sound, loosely tongue

v sound. The v is a voiced labiodental fricative produced by putting the upper teeth lightly and against the inside part of the lower lip. The should again be in a low position but should be

Initial v is stressed strongly in some cases if emphasis is to be given to the word. e vile, vile (GIORDANO Andrea Chenier)

tongue upwards, its tip almost (but not actually) touching the center of the upper front teeth. This sound should always be pronounced in a relaxed manner, never hurried. It is equivalent to the s sound in the English word has. The z in Italian is pronounced in different ways, according to geographical situation. The northern parts generally pronounce it [z]. Tuscany mixes the pronunciation so that it sometimes sounds s, sometimes [z]; the rest of Italy changes the voiced [z] into a voiceless, though softly stressed, s. No over-all pronunciation rule exists. In singing it will be best always to voice the s when the s stands between two vowels or before another voiced consonant, such as b, d, g, 1, m, n, r, or v. Guidatemi al ridicolo oltraggio d'un rasoio (PUCCINI La Boheme) Sbarazzate all' 1'istante (PUCCINI Madama Butterfly) Una .smania, un pizzicare (ROSSINI // Barbiere di Siviglia) Sgomento io non ho (PUCCINI Tosca)

The voiced s sound. This voiced consonant is sometimes expressed by s, sometimes by [z]. It is an alveolardental fricative sound produced forward by cradling the

The stress is always soft, only very slightly less so before another voiced consonant. s between two vowels of which the first one belongs

relaxed, without touching the lower teeth. Thus a narrow opening is effected through which the sound emerges. The v must always be voiced (it must vibrate a little). The English-speaking singer is prone to neglect the v by failing to bring the lower lip and upper teeth into contact. This should be corrected by the accompanist or coach. The v is stressed softly between two vowels, moderately before or after a consonant. amo tanto la vita (PUCCINI Tosca) Ernani, involami (VERDI Ernani) In some phrases, as in sii via, ho visto, dove vai, e venti, the v receives strong stress (suvvia, ho vvisto). Suvvia, spicciatevi (LEONCAVALLO Pagliacci) Non ho visto compar Alfio (MASCAGNI Cavalleria Rustic ana)

[26]

[27] to a prefix is treated like an initial s, which is always voiceless. Likewise, the reflexive pronoun si, used as a suffix, has a voiceless s. Qui nel cor mi risuono (ROSSINI // Barbiere di Siviglia) Ogni sagezza chiudesi (VERDI Rigoletto} The b sound. The b is a voiced bilabial occlusive sound. This means that the lips must be closed lightly, remain in this position for a split second — but long enough to effect an occlusion, and open to let the air emerge. The lip muscles must not be tightened. In Italian singing diction the occlusion must always be light. In all occlusive sounds, voiced or voiceless, preserving the melodic line may force the singer not to effect complete occlusion — in other words, to fake the occlusion. It is up to the accompanist or coach to decide when this should be done. The b should never be exploded, as it sometimes is in German. It receives soft stress between two vowels and before a consonant, moderate stress after a consonant. La donna e mobile (VERDI Rigoletto}

Dammi un fcacio, o non fai niente (MOZART Le None di Figaro} Ed assoporo allor la bramosia sottil (PUCCINI La Boheme) O dolce viso di mite circonfuso alba lunar (PUCCINI La Boheme} In exclamations, the b can be strongly stressed. Che bbella bambina (PUCCINI La Boheme) The d sound. The d is a voiced dental occlusive sound. The tip of the tongue touches the point where the upper teeth ridge and the hard palate meet. After remaining there for a split second to effect occlusion, the tongue moves on to the next sound suddenly but lightly, with the emergence of some air. The d between two vowels and before another consonant is stressed softly; it receives moderate stress after another consonant. Ah, non credea mirarti (BELLINI La Sonnambula} Ah, Padre mio (VERDI Rigoletto) Come, m'ardon le ciglia (VERDI Otello} The d of Dio between two vowels in a phrase receives strong stress.

it can come after another consonant, as in garza. Even zz can be voiced, as in all verbal suffixes on -izzare, or in words like olezzo. The stress on the initial [dz] and [dz] following another consonant is moderate; [dz] between two vowels gets a strong stress (lo ddzero, Doniddzetti). Che soave zefiretto (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro) Ei gongolava arzillo, pettoruto (PUCCINI La Boheme) Per tener ben fuori le zanzare, i parenti (PUCCINI Madama Butterfly) The g sound. The g and gh consonant in Italian is a voiced velar occlusive sound produced by the contact of the soft palate with the back part of the tongue. This causes a split second of occlusion which has to be resolved smoothly and without explosion. The tip of the tongue should be anchored against the lower teeth. The accompanist or coach should see to it that the meeting point of tongue and soft palate (velum) is not so far back as to make the g sound guttural. g in Italian may be pronounced [g] (gone) or [dz] (Joe). It is pronounced [g] before the vowels a, o, and u. It adds the silent h to keep its sound before e and i

Ah! Dio! (PUCCINI Tosca) The [dz] (z) sound. The z sound expressed phonetically by [dz] can also be voiceless and is, in that case, represented phonetically as [ts]. The [dz] is a voiced dental semiocclusive sound. Its production starts in the same way as the production of the d and is continued by the sides of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge. In this way air can escape through a narrow passage which explains the classification of the [dz] as semiocclusive. The production is fast, and there should be no hissing; [dz] is axgentle sound. There is no hard and fast rule to determine when the Italian z is voiced [dz] and when it is voiceless [ts]. Regional differences exist. A good orthophonetic dictionary will have to be consulted in case of doubt. To students of linguistics I should add that the [dz] usually derives from the Latin voiced d (mediu—> meddzo) or from the Greek zeta (as in the Italian dzona). The Latin voiceless t usually changes into an Italian [ts] (martiu-^ marzo). An initial z may be voiced as in zero, zara. Likewise, a voiced z can stand between two vowels as in ozono, or [28]

[29]

(ghe, ghi). It is also pronounced [g] before an r and sometimes before an 1, as I have said when discussing the gl sound, g and gh have a soft stress between two vowels and before another consonant, and a moderate stress after another vowel. Un' agonia (PONCHIELLI La Gioconda} Ogni borgo, ogni paese (MOZART Don Giovanni) Scrivo ancor tre lighe a volo (PUCCINI La Boheme} Ora sono di g/riaccio (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro} The [d3] sound, ge or gi ([d3]) is a voiced alveolarpalatal semiocclusive sound (as in the English job}, actually a combination of d and [3] sounds. The tongue takes its position at the alveolar ridge and its center touches the hard palate. The sound which results leaves a small space for the breath to escape. The [d3] must be pronounced gently to preserve its full voiced quality. The [d3] is expressed in Italian by the letter g in front of an e or i. If the same sound is desired before an a, o, or u, a mute i must be inserted (as in giardino, gioia, giu). The stress on the [d3] is soft between two vowels, L'agile mandola ne accompagna il suon (VERDI Otello)

lo gelo (VERDI // Trovatore) giro, la cote, gira, gira (PUCCINI Turandot} Dunque in giardin verrai (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro} O gioia (VERDI Rigoletto} moderate after another consonant. Urge 1'opra (PUCCINI Tosca} The j sound. The [j] can sometimes still be found in old Italian scores or books. It is now replaced entirely by i and is either a vowel or semivowel. che tai ba/'e costan poco (VERDI Rigoletto} The r sound. The r, because of the various ways in which it can be produced, has a special position in the Italian consonants. In its pure Italian form, it is a voiced alveolar vibrant produced by keeping the tongue forward with the tip against the upper alveolar ridge, and vibrating it by a flutter or roll which, depending on the stress, is repeated from one to four times. The breath escapes over the tongue, not along its sides. The r is sometimes called dental r, sometimes rolled r. It is used by most Italians and is easy for the English-speaking singer to master. The roll of the r must not be overdone. Some

Italian singers use the uvular (or guttural) r which is rolled or fluttered against the back of the tongue. It is very difficult to change a student's manner of producing the r, but since the English (though not the American) way is similar to the Italian way, the accompanist or coach should have no difficulties with it. The stress on the r, on the other hand, creates difficulties for the English-speaking singer. r between two vowels always receives soft stress — one flutter is enough. Initial and final r and r before and after another consonant are pronounced with moderate to strong stress, mostly the latter. From two to four flutters will be necessary. Italian ears are very sensitive to the pronunciation of the r; a strong r between vowels repels them. The following are examples of soft stress. O mio amore (PUCCINI Tosca) Molto raro complimento (PUCCINI Madama Butterfly)

Ah frate, frate! (VERDI La Forza del Destino) The r fulfills another important vocal function. The trill or flutter enables the singer to shift from one vocal position to another without disturbing the phrase. Such r's act like the neutral gear on a car: it is easy to shift into any position from there. VOICELESS CONSONANTS

Voiceless consonants contain no trace of singability. In Italian lyric diction the voice does not- linger on them but, having sung the preceding vowel, ties the consonant, or group of consonants, to the next vowel. In Italian, voiceless consonants are never aspirated, as in German or English, unless emotional, poetical, or onomatopoetical reasons require it. In operatic singing, where strong projection is more important than in concert singing, some initial voiceless consonants — mostly f, p, and k —must receive strong stress in order to be heard. English-speaking singers must be constantly reminded of this, because they frequently neglect strong stress on these initial sounds. The f sound. The f is a voiceless labiodental fricative

Examples of moderate stress are as follows. All' anni (VERDI // Trovatore) In dietro (ROSSINI // Barbiere di Siviglia) [30]

[31]

sound. It is produced like its voiced counterpart (see p. 24). However, the upper teeth and the inside of the lower lip come together with more firmness. The small amount of air must emerge more suddenly, but without an explosion. The stress on the f is soft between two vowels, and if it precedes another consonant, moderate if it follows another consonant. Urna /atale del mio destine (VERDI La Forza del Destino} O mio Rodol/o (PUCCINI La Boheme} Nin/e! El/i! Sil/i! (VERDI Falstaff) Initial f without a preceding vowel in the same word should, as I said before, be stressed strongly in operatic singing. Finch'han dal vino (MOZART Don Giovanni) Credo con /ermio cuor (VERDI Otello) The f also receives strong stress after exclamations like ah, oh, o, and deh. Ah /rate, /rate! (VERDI La Forza del Destino) The s sound. The s is a voiceless dental-alveolar fricative sound. It is produced exactly as its voiced counter-

part (see p. 26) except that the voiceless s is produced by letting out the stream of air suddenly, although with less explosion than a German or English voiceless s. The initial s in Italian is voiceless before a vowel and before a voiceless consonant. II dolce soiono (DONIZETTI Lucia di Lammermoor} II 5iio Jtemma (PUCCINI Toscd) A te la spada io rendo (VERDI Don Carlo} Sfogati, amazzami (MOZART Don Giovanni} s in the middle of a word is voiceless before a voiceless consonant and following any consonant. Entrando per gli occhi, mi fe' sospirar (LEGRENZI "Che Fiero Costume") Tal pensiero perche conturba ognor (VERDI Rigolettd] The s receives medium stress at the beginning of a word and before and after consonants. Like the z, s does not conform to an over-all rule of pronunciation. It varies according to geographical situations. Mese is pronounced [meze] in northern Italy; in Tuscany the pronunciation varies between [meze] and [mese] according to local ^differences; southern Italy almost always pronounces it [mese] (with soft stress). It

less explosive sound than their German counterparts. The pressure of the lips in forming the p must be firm, no breath should be allowed to escape. The initial p receives a strong stress, the p between two vowels and before a consonant is stressed softly, p after a consonant receives moderate stress. O patria mia (VERDI A'ida) Aperta! Arcangeli! (PUCCINI Tosca) Aprite! Aprite! (VERDI Otello) Empia razza (VERDI A'ida) Some initial p's in phrasal connections are strongly stressed. Fra ppoco alia meco verra (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro) E ppoi? E ppoi? (VERDI Otello)

may be said, however, that modern diction tends to make the s between vowels voiceless, for instance in some root endings on -es and -os as in geloso, mese, spese. But such words as paese and cortese, on the other hand, have the voiced [z]. The words casa, cosa, chiuso, and naso are also usually voiceless, but with very soft stress; otherwise they would sound like cassa, cossa, and so on. Until Italian phoneticists decide on an over-all rule for pronunciation of the s, the accompanist and coach will do well to ignore the regional variations and teach the above rules to their singers; s between two vowels is voiceless and receives moderate stress in the case of word combinations like offriaji, chiudeji that stand for si offria, si chiude. The p sound. The p is a voiceless bilabial occlusive sound. It is produced like the b (see p. 27) but with greater occlusion of the lips. For the operatic singing of initial occlusive voiceless sounds (p, t, k) I advocate slight explosion, since these sounds are sorely neglected by English-speaking singers and get lost in our opera houses and concert halls. They should, however, have a

The t sound. The t is a voiceless dental occlusive sound, produced like the voiced d (see p. 27) except that the removal of the occlusion by the tongue has to be effected with more energy, less softness. The t must never be aspirated, like the German t, but a slight explosion of initial t's is recommended to insure clear diction and projection. [32]

[33]

The initial t and the t after a consonant receive moderate stress; t between two vowels and before a consonant is stressed softly. O terra addio (VERDI A'ida) Vissi d'arfe (PUCCINI Tosca) E Silva non ri/orna (VERDI Ernani} Scorsa fu la notte al fripudio (DONIZETTI Lucia di Lammermoor) Some initial t's in phrasal connections receive strong stress, as in so ttutto, cosi ttardi. The [ts] (z) sound. This [ts] sound is a combination of the voiceless t and s sounds. It is expressed by the letter z, which in Italian can also be voiced and is, in that case, phonetically represented by [dz]. The [ts] is a voiceless, dental, semiocclusive sound. It starts the same way as the t, but the tongue cannot come down to a relaxed s position. The sides of the tongue touch the upper gum ridge, thus allowing the air to escape through a narrow passage. This is the reason why the fts] is called semiocclusive. No hissing must occur in the pronunciation of the [ts]. As we said when discussing the [dz], no over-all rule exists concerning whether a z is pronounced voiced or

voiceless. A good orthophonetic dictionary must be consulted in each case. An initial z may be voiceless as in [ts]itto, [ts]io. z between vowels may be voiceless as in vi[ts]io, a[ts]ione, [ets]io. Likewise, z may be voiceless after consonants, as in sen[ts]a, Pin[ts]a, an[ts]i, al[ts]ati. The stress varies greatly, [ts] between vowels can be stressed strongly, whereas it receives moderate stress after another consonant. Alzati! la tuo figlio a te concedo riveder (VERDI Un Ballo in Maschera) La mia Candida veste nuziale (VERDI Otello} The [k] (c, ch) sound. The c and ch sounds expressed phonetically by [k] are voiceless, velar, occlusive sounds, produced like their voiced counterpart, the [g] (see p. 28) except that the contact between tongue and soft palate must be sudden and more firm. No aspiration is permissible and the resulting slight explosion should not be overdone, except on initial [k]'s for reasons of clarity. The Italian c is pronounced [k] if it stands before a, o, or u. Before an e or i, a silent h is added to effect the

same pronunciation, [k]. c before another consonant (1, r) is also pronounced [k]. [k] is stressed softly between two vowels, and before an r or 1; moderately after another consonant. Caro mio ben (GIORDANI "Caro Mio Ben") Chi va la (MOZART Don Giovanni) Che fai (PUCCINI Tosca) Come va 1'eco della pia campana (CATALANI La Wally) Ell' e una mia cugina (MOZART Le Nozze di Figaro} Perc/ze me ne rimuneri cosi (PUCCINI Tosca) Mi c7ziamano Mimi (PUCCINI La Boheme) E scritto (VERDI La Forza del Destino)

The stress is soft between two vowels, moderate after another consonant. The [ks] (x) sound. The x is a combination of voiceless k and s sounds. In Italian, it appears only in foreign words, as in Xidias. Usually the x is supplanted by z, s, or ss. The [tj] sound. The [tf] sound is a voiceless alveolarpalatal semiocclusive sound, corresponding to the ch in the English words churcA, fetch. Its production is the same as for voiced [d3] (see p. 29) except that the occlusion and subsequent release have to be somewhat firmer. But there must be no explosion. The [tj] sound in Italian is as gentle as its voiceless quality will allow. [tf] is pronounced when a c stands in front of an e or i. If the same sound is desired before an a, o, or u, a silent i has to be interpolated (cia, cio, ciu). [tf] receives soft stress between two vowels, moderate stress after another consonant.

In some phrasal combinations the [k] receives reinforced stress, as in qualche ccosa. The [kw] (qu) sound. The consonant q in Italian appears only in combination with the vowel u and is expressed, phonetically, by the symbol [kw]. The pronunciation corresponds exactly to the pronunciation of the Italian cu.