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The Socialist Economy
The Socialist Economy Theory and prtlctice 10m BoUomore
ΙΙΙΙ HARVESTER
-
WHEATSHEAF
First published 1990 by HIin'ester Wheatsheaf 6δ Wood Lane End, Hemel Hempstead Henfordshire Η Ρ2 4RG Α division of Simon & Schuster International Group ~ Τ om Β. Botιomore
1990
ΑΙΙ rights reserved. Νο part of this publication may be reproduced, stored ίη a retrieval system, ΟΓ transmitted, ίη any form ΟΓ by any means, electronic, mechanical, phoιocopying, recording ΟΓ otherwise, without ΡΓίΟΓ permission, ίη writing, from the publisher.
Typeset ίη 10/12pt Times by WitweII ltd, Southport Printed and bound ίη Great ΒΓίΙθίη by BiIIing and Sons Limited, Worcester
British Library Cata/oguing
ίπ
Publication Data
Bottomore, Tom, /920The socialist economy : theory and practice. Ι. Communist countries. Economic policies Ι. Tίtle
330.91717 ISBN 0-7450-0118-1 ISBN 0-7450-0119-X pbk Ι
2 3 4 5 94 93 92 91 90
Contents
Introduction: Socialist economy and socialist society Ι
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The nineteenth-century vision Marxist conceptions of a socialist economy The experience of planning since the First World War Critiques of socialist planning The state, bureaucracy and self-management Plan and market Problems of socialism today Modes of transition to a socialist economy
9 22 33 52 70 82 121
Bibliography Index
138 147
ΙΟΙ
Introduction: Socialist economy and socialist society
Socialism, as a political doctrine and a social movement, has πeνer set itself purely economic aims. From the beginning its ideal v,'as the creation of a new type of society, ΟΓ, as Gramsci expressed ίl, 'a nev,' civilization'. Some critics indeed have argued that socialist thinkcrs, at any rate υηιίl the 1920s, largely ignored the question ()f hov,' a socialist economy would actually function; and Miscs (1920, 1922). ίη one of the most extrcme and vitriolic attacks, claimed to shov,' that ίι would ηοΙ function , and Marx was more realistic than some other socialist thinkcr~ ΟΓ prophets ίη recognizing that the realm of freedom ... [Iies] ... oυtside the spherc οΓ muteriill production proper. Just as the savage '"T1USt wrcstle with nilιure ill order Ιο satisfy his wants, ιο maintai ι Ind reproduce his ΙίΓι:, 50 also must civilized man, and he must do ίι ίη all forms of socieI) and under any possible mode of ΡΓΟΙ uction. With his dc\'elopmcnI the realm of natural necessity expant ;, because his wants incrcilsc: but at the same time the forces of production, by which thcsc wants are satisfίed, also increase. Freedom ίη tl1is field cannOΙ consist of anything elsc but the fact that socialiled humaniIy.. Illt: associated producers, regulate their exchange wiIh IlaΙUre rationally, bring ίι under their common control, instead οΙ' being rulcd by ίι as by some blind power, and accomplish their task ....'ith Ihc least expenditure of energy and under such condiIions as ,ΙΓΙ: proper and worthy for human beings. Nevertheless, Ihis alwa}'s remains a realm of necessity. (Marx, 1894. νοl. 111. ch. 4Κ) Hence Marx's further contention that a precondition of freedom is the reduction of working hours and that 'a nation is ΙΓυlΥ rich whcn. instead of working twelve hours, ίι works only six' (Marx, 1857 Χ, ρ.
706). Οη
the other hand. Marx certainIy anticipated a continued growth of material wealth. and above all a virtuaII)1 unlimitcd development of human powers of production. ίη socialist socict~': but rhis view raises diffίcult questions, which havc increasingl~ preoccupied socialist thinkers, about the human rclation ιο naIlIrl' and the possibility ΟΓ desirability of setting ουΙ delibcratcl)' ιο satisfy ίη the fullest measure all conceivablc material nccds. J'athcr than encouraging the emergencc of a new slrucΙUrc of nccds ίπ which non-material necds acquire greater importance.' Truc. tI1CI'C are ίη Marx's own writings occasional refercnces Ιο ι11ι? ccοlοgίc;ι1 conditions of human existence, as ίη Ihe passagc ίη ίαμίια/ ( Ι R94. νοl. ΙΙΙ, ch. 46) which he concltJdes b)' saying tl1al T\'cn :ι \\11ι)lc society, a nation, ΟΓ all contemporary societics tHkcn logctl1CΓ. ;11'(' ηοΙ the absolute owners of the earth. Thc)' arc οηl)' its OΙ'l'Iιp;lnι~. its benefίciaries, and lίke a good patcrfan1iliHs 11:Ι\'ι? 1ιl 1c;1\ C ίι ίΙ1 improved condition Ιο succccding gcncrations'; ;1I1d 11ίS SIll'i,11 philosophy as a wholc - particularl)' ίη thc (':ΙΓI)' "Titings. tlHHIgl1
4
Τhe
Socialist Economy
ηοΙ only there - emphasizes human freedom and creativity outside the spherc of work, along with a steady reduction of the time dcvoted to that sphere, rather than the expansion of material production as such. Nevertheless, ίη the actual development of socialist economies ίη Ihe Iwentielh century, as well as ίη socialisl thought more generally, there has undoubtediy been an intense preoccupation with sheer economic growth, and ίη the past decade ΟΓ so with the new prospects for growth opened up by the 'scientific-technological revolution" Many factors have contributed to this particular orientation of socialist thought and practice:
Ι.
The advent of socialism ίπ countries which were, for the most part, economically backward, agrarian and peasant societies, and the perceived need for extensive and rapid industrialization. 2. The extent of poverty ίπ the capitalist societies during the depression of the 1930s and the commitment Ιο eradicate ίι. 4 3. The rapid post-war expansion of 'organized capitaIism', characterized by large-scaIe state intervention, partiaI pIanning and very high rates of growth, and the need for socialist societies (as weII as socialist governments when they come ιο power ίπ capitalist countries) ιο compete effectiveIy with capitaIism ίπ the pro\ision of high material leνeΙs of Iiving. 4. The connict between power bIocs which has led ιο the invesIment of immense resources ίη the deveIopment of ever more sophisticated and expensive weapons. This addiction Ιο growth has, of course, been contested by many thinkers ίπ the socialist movement itself, and ίι has aIways been qualified by the commitment Ιο broader social ideaIs. Within, ΟΓ οπ Ihe fringes of, Marxist thought the 'critical theorists' of the Frankfurl School~ expressed with particular force their opposition 10 the main tendencies of development ίπ advanced industrial society ίπ aIl its forms, arguing that the drive to dominate nature Ihrough science and technoIogy necessarily involves the domination of human bcings and is the major obstacle 10 emancipation. b Ιπ thc past few decades important ecology movements havc emcrged ίη the industrial countries, most prominently ίη West Germany where the Green Party has had significant elcctoral succcss. Thesc movements have been supported by many socialists 7 and have themselves
Socialist economy and socialist society 5 had an important inf1uence οη the ideas and policie~ ο! ~ocialist parties, giving a new salience Ιο aims which had become obscured by the concentration ο! attention οη material prod uction. But ίη recognizing the development οΓ new attitudcs to ecunomic growth we should ηοΙ overlook the fact that socialist thought and practice always envisaged growth :1 the context οΙ a more (;ωη prehensive reorganintion οΓ soci; Ι life, and also largcl)' as>ulΠed that the prob!em οΓ scarcity - ίη t le sense οΓ αη inabilit), to satisf) the basic material needs οΓ all mt mbers οΓ society, αι the Icycl οΙ civilization already attained - would already have been o\'ercome by the development of capita!ism itself. Hence, ίη examining the achievements and problems ο! the present-day socialist societies wc have Ιο consider ηοΙ οηlΥ what is produced. ίη what conditions ίι ί> produced, and the efficiency of the process ο! prod uction as a who!e, but a!so how the product of the social labour process is allocated and distributed. There are, οΓ course, great differences between the socia!ist industria! countries and those socia!ist countries of the Third Wor!d which have οη!Υ recently embarked οη the process of economic deve!opment and industria!ization; but what ί> evident ίη all these societies is the sustained commitment. f rom thc outset, ιο the widest possib!e extension ο! public services education, hea!th care and other we!fare services, the provision ο! housing, pub!ic transport and recreationa! faci!ities within the !imits of their economic resources; and ίη this respect the)' have achieved some notab!e successes. George and Manning (1980) notc that 'socia! po!icy is more ambitious ίη its aims ίη thc Sovict II ηίοη than ίη we!fare capita!ist societies', even though Ώο! always ΠΙ0ΓΙ: comprehensive ίη ίι, achievemcnts' (which will bc affectcd b)' thc rate of economic growth), and that, 'the dominant idcology οΓ ι11Ι: Soviet υηίοη provides a more sccure cnvironmcnt for the growtll οΙ' socia! po!icy' (ρρ. 168-9).R !η the devcloping countries the I110s1 striking successes (for example, ίη Cuba and morc rccentl), ίl1 Nicaragua) have been ίη ovcrcoming illitcracy and providing basil' hea!th care for the mass οΓ tlle population; thc Π1;ψΗ (JrohICI11~ those οΓ meeting tl1e rapidly rising expcctations ο! tllcir l)ιψιllaιίοπs while at the same time invcsting 11cavily ίπ thc infl't thought played an important part ίη the creation and de\-'elopment of new ιyρes of social organίzation: the early form!> οΙ trade unioni!>m; the cooperative factories - descήbed by Marx (CαpifαΙ, νοl. 111, ch. 27) as a new mode of production 'within the old form' - and the broader consumer cooperative movement; and Friendly Societies as a major form of mutual aid. Αι the same time wciaIΊSt ideaι began Ιο be more wίdely and δYιιemaιίcally diffu!oed through the development of πtaSI ροΙίιίαl parties. Some of the\e parties were Marxist; notably those ίη Germany and Austrίa, which were growing rapίdly by the end of the century and had create.d for miIIion!> of workers a distinctive way of Iife that has lxen described as taking οη the character of 'a staιe within a state' (Nettl 1965). Other\ were create.d either as the politicaI arm of the trade υηίοη moνement, concentrating οη piecemeal legίιlative changes ιο improve the conditions of workers - as was largely the caιe with the Βήtίιh Labour Party - or more generaIIy as parties whΊCh conceive.d the attainment of socialism as the outcome of a gradual procesι of economic and social reconstruction rather than a !>udden revolutionary transformation. The growιh of maιs partie,., with their leaders, officials, newspapers, and numerou. 5uι"ίdίary or relate.d organizations, and their continuou,. involvement ίη day-to-day politics, brought about changes ίη the formulation of 50cialist aims. While Utopian ideas continued Ιο provide a general stimulul ιο the socialist movement, the ρolitical parties had necessarily ιο engage ίη struggles for the achieνement of interim reforms which would improve the condition. of the working claι,. - univer!lal !luffrage, trade υηίοη rights, factory kgίslation, the expansion of education and of health and ουμι
The n;neteenth-century
νΊS;oπ
13
the end of ιΜ century ιΜ outcome of ι~ came ιο be r.een by some sociali!>t~ Δ~ "Γι important element ίη ιΜ changes ίη capitaIi!>t societ~' ~h;tj-I required a more 'gradualΊSt' conception of the tran!>ition ιο weIfare
ιerνίces. ΒΥ
reforιning activitίeι
ιociaIίsm.
One of the m05t influential formu' ί ':ons of thi!> \ie~ appeared ίπ of articles οη 'problems of 5
(BoIιornorc
σr ιoι;ιlίΙίIΓί~lπ
Critiques of socia/ist p/anning
63
examined - he wenl οη ιο criticize parlicularly Dickinsun\ ,tatcmenl lhal 'ίη a socialist society lhe distinction, alway~ artificial. between economics and polilics will break down; lhe economic and lhe polilical machinery of sociely will fuse ίηιο onc', concluding lhal 'this is, of course, 'recisely lhe authoritarian doctrine preached by Nazis and Fascists' (ρ. 207). Later, in what becamc a \cr) influentiLlI lracl, The Road 10 SerJdom (1944), Hayek expressed his opposition ιο socialism and central planning in slill stronger lerms. and he has continued, υρ ιο his mosl reccnt work (1982), Ιο advocate a 'spontaneous' ΟΓ 'self-generating' order of societ)' in which the powers of government would be strictl)' delimited and confined. Aron, ίη a similar though more restrained fashion, anal)'sed thc Soviet U ηίοη as a totalitarian regime ίη which a single part)' has a monopoly of political activity, an official slale idcology is imposed by coercion and persuasion, and most economic and professional activities are subject ιο the state, ΟΓ even, ίη a way, part of ίι ([ 1965] 1988, ch. 15); and ίη several essays (notably [1950] 1988, ch. 6) he contrasted the 'unified elite' ίη the Soviet U ηίοη with the plυΓαlίι~, of rival elites ίη the capitalist democracies. Ιη the post-war years, lherefore, a broad agrcement seemed Ιο emerge among social scientists about the nature of the political regime ίη the Soviet U ηίοη and ίη the countries of Eastern Europc (excluding Yugoslavia), although there were many diffcrcnt nuances ίη the critical assessments, and thcse became more pronounced as the Stalinist era receded. But therc was much disagrcement about the relation between central planning, ΟΓ thc socialist project as a whole, and political dictalorship. Sonle, likc Hayck, argucd that ccntral planning and the merging οΓ lhe CCOnOnliC ;Ind political spheres necessarily led Ιο an authoritarian political S)'stCnl and the loss οΓ personal freedom. Olhers, howevcr, saw thc S()\ ict dictatorship as the outcome, rather, οΓ the absence οΓ dClllocratic traditions and experience instead οΓ which tllcrc pcrsistcd ;1 tradition of authoritarian rule (and the idea οΓ thc 'good (s;lr'): οΙ' the forccd industrialization οΓ lhe 1930s inspircd ίη pHrt h)' lhc fC;Ir of capilalist encirclemcnt and the dangcr οΓ military intcr\'cntion: οΓ lhe Cold War ίη the post-war pcriod which revivcd carlicr fcars: and pcrhaps, morc gcncrally, of thc lcndency οΓ all rc"olutions (as well as countcr-revolutions) Ιο institutc, for longcr οΙ' shortcr pcriods, highly authoritarian rcginlcS. FrOll1 lhis pcrspccli"e ίι was
64
The Socialist Economy
possible ω envisage :, London: AIIison & Busby. Hilferding, Rudolf (1910) Finance Capiιa/: Α Stud,l' ΟΙ ιllι:' LarC.H PhG.H' ιι{ Capira/ist Deve/opnIent, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 198 Ι. Hilferding, Rudolf (1927) 'Die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie ίη dcr Republik' (published speech, Berlin). Hilferding, Rudolf (1940) 'State capitalisn1 ΟΓ totalitarian statc economy', Socia/ist Courier, New York, reprinted ίη Modern Rc"iel,', New York, Ι, (1947). Hilferding, Rudolf (194 Ι) 'Das historische Problcm·. unfinishcd manuscript Iϊrst published. cdited and introduced by Bencdikt Kautsk)·, ιπ Zeirsl'hrίjr /iir Polirik (New Series), Ι, 1954. Hindess, Barry (Ι 989) Reac·tions Ιο ιllΙ:' Righr. London: Rouιledgc. Hirsch, Fred (Ι 977) Socia/ LiInits ιο Gro,,'tll, London: Roullcdge & Kcg:ln Paul. Hobhouse, L. Τ. (1918) Thc Merapll.l'Sica/ Thcor.l' ιι{ rhc' 5,ιαιι', ι.οndοn: AIIen & Unwin. Hobhouse, L. Τ. (1922) ΤιΙι:' E/cnIcllIs ο/ SOi';a/ Jιωίι·c. ι.οηdοll: AIlcll & Unwin. HoIIand, Sιuart (cd.) (1983) Our οι Crisi.~: Α Ρrο;cι'Ι .tiJr /:.IJriJ{lNJ11 Recover)', Nottillgham: Spokesman. Horvat. Branko (1982) The Po/itical Et'OIlonI,l' ο{ Sοι'ίαlί.f1I1. Oxford: Martin Robertson.
142
Bib/iogrJphy
Hιιtchi'ι1Il, Τ.
W. (1981) ΤΙιι' Ρ"lιΊίο αιι,/ PIlilosofJIl}' ο/ E('Olloιιιί,',~: .I/ur\ ία,,;, ""ι',Ι'ηΙ',I'ίαιι;' αllΙΙ Α ω-ιrίαll;', ΟχtΌrd: Black well. .Iacohs, Paul and Saul Ιandau (eds) (1966) The Nell' Rα,/ίω/;': Α ReporI ΙΙιιΙι [)Ot,IΙΙIι'nI.l', Ne\\' Υ ΟΓΚ: Random House. Hszi. OsL'ar (1934) 'Socialism', ίπ ΕΙΙΙ·.Ι'Ι·/Οl,αι·,lία (~! the Soi'ia/ Si'ieni'es, Η'Ι. 14, Νι:\\' York: Macmillan. Jessop, Bob (Ι 982) The Capiιa/isI Sιate, Oxford: Martin Robertson. K<Jser, ~I. C. (ed.) (1986) ΤΙΙι' Εωιιοπιίι' Ηί,l'lοη' 0/ Εα;Ίerιι EIιrope, νοl. 3, /,ωίιιιιίΟllα/ Chu",lζt' \I'ithin α P/annc,1 ΕωllOfll,l', Oxford: Clarendon Press. K'Iuιsk)" Karl (1902) ΤΙΙι' Soi'ia/ Revo/uιion, Chicago: Charles Η. Kerr. Kolako\\ski. Leszek and Stu<Jrt Hampshire (eds) (1974) The Socia!ist Idea: ..t Reapprai.\a/. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Komi)'a. Ryutaro (1975) 'Planning ίη Japan', ίπ Bornstein (ed.), Εωnοmίc Ρ/αιιηίιικ, East αιι,1 WesI. Konrad. G. and Szelenyi, Ι. (1979) The Intellectuals οιι the Road 10 C1ass PolI'er, Brighton: Harvester. Kowalik. Tadeusz (1987a) 'Lange, Oskar Ryszard" ίπ The New Pa!grave: Α DicIionaf}' 0/ Economics, νοl. 3, London: Macmillan. Kowalik. Tadeusz (1987b) 'Lange-Lerner mechanism" ίη The New Ρα! .r:ral'e: Α Di('(ionar.l' 0/ Economics, νοl. 3, London: Macmillan. Landauer. Carl (1959) European Socia!ism: Α His1O'J> 0/ Ideas and ,1'/0venIents/ronI the Industria! Revo!uιion ιο Hit!er's Seizure 0/ Power, 2 vols, Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univcrsity of California Press. Lange. Ο. and Taylor. F. Μ. (1938) Οιι the Economic Theory 0/ Socia!ism, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Larrain. Jorge (1986) Α Reconstruction 0/ His1Orica! Materialism, London: Allen & Unwin. Lavoie. Οοη (1985) Riva!r.v and Centra! Ρ!αιιιιίιικ, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Leiss. W. (1972) The Domination 0/ Nature, New York: Braziller. Lowith, Karl (1932) Μα:ι; Weber and Kar! Marx, London: Allen & Unwin, 1982. Marcuse, Herbert (1964) One-Dimensiona! Μαιι, Boston: Beacon Press. Markovii:, Mihailo (1983) 'Human nature" ίη Bottomore (ed.) (1983). Marschak, Thomas Α. (1973) 'Decentralizing the command economy: the study of a pragmatic strategy for reformers" ίη Bornstein (ed.) (1973). Martinez-Alier, Juan (1987) Eco!ogical Economics, Oxford: Blackwell. Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels (1845-6) The German Ideo!ogy. Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels (1848) Communist Manίfesto. Marx. Karl (1857-8) Grundrisse: Foundations 0/ the Critique 0/ Po!itίca! Econom}' (Rough DrajI), Harmondsworth: Penguin Books ίη associaιίοη with New Le/I Review. 1973.
Bib/iography 143 Marx, Karl (1894) CafJiιa/, νοl. 111. McEwan, J. (1977) Who Owns 8("()I/αnd~, Edinburgh: EUSI)B. Meadows, Donella Η., Dennis L. Mcadows, J0rgen Randι::rs and WίlΙί; Weber: Τ/Ιι' lnterpretation ΟΙ Socia/ Rea/ίι.ι·, London: Michacl Joseph, 1970. White, Gordon, Robin Murray and ChrisIine Whitc (eds) (1983) Rc\'(j/utionar)' Socialίst Development ίιι the Third Wor/d, Brighton: Whe;\Isheaf. Wicksteed, Ρ. Η. (1933) The ConInIon Sense ΟΙ ΡοlιΊίca! Ecollon/.l·. 2nd edn, 2 vols, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Wilczynski, J. (1982) The Economic.f ΟΙ Socia/iSIII, 4Ih cdn. Ιοndοn: Allcn & Unwin. WirIh, MargareI (1972) Kapita/isnIlJstheorie ίπ der DDR: l:"nlslC}IUII,fζ υιιιl Entwicklung der TlIeorie de.f Slaal.fmonopo!i.H;'fc}Ien Kapiιa/i.fftllJ.f. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp. WooHon, Barbara (1934) Ρlαη or Νο Ρ/απ, Ιοndοn: Gollancl.
146 Bib/iography γ eo,
Stephen (1987) 'Three socialisms: statism, collectivism, associationism', ίη William Outhwaite and Michae1 Mu1kay (eds), Social Theor.v and Social Criticism, Oxford: B1ackwell. γ sander. Bengt-Christer (1982) 'Income formation ίη a mixed economy', ίη Ryden and Bergstrom (eds) (1982). Zieg1er. Ro1f, Gerhard Reissner and Dona1d Bender (1985) 'Austria incorporated', ίη Stokman, Zieg1er and Scott (eds) (1985).
Index
accumulation, 29 agriculture, 17, 42, 64, 94-5 Aron, Raymond, 61, 63 Austria,39, 113-14, 126 Austro-Marxism, 27 base and superstructure, 2 Bauer, Οιιο, 27, 116 ΒΒνΒΓίΒη Soviet, 24, 36 Bellamy, Edward, 10, 17, 19,84, 104 Bender, Donald, 113 Βergsιrδm, νίllΥ, 112 Ber1iner, Joseph S., 65, 73, 74, 75 Bernstein, Eduard, 13, 14 Besant, Annie, 14, 15 Βδhm-Βawerk, Eugen, 52-3 ΒΓίΙΒίη, 19,39,41,45-6,48,72,79, 112, 114, 115, 124, 126, 129, 131 Βukhaήn, Niko1ai, 28-9, 34, 35 bureaucracy, 57, 60-2, 73-5, 104 capitalism, 19, 36, 45-8, 66-7, 80, 121 China, 43, 93-4 civil society, 73, 97 class, 13, 35 Cole, G. D. Η., 11 collectivization, 29 communism, 9 competition, 59-60, 79, 109 Comte, Auguste, 14 cooperatives, 12, 13, 128, 131 corporatism, 46
councils, 17-18,27-8 Cuba, 5 Czechoslovakia, 42, 94 Darwin, Charles, 14 decentralization, 88, 105, 106. 110. 111, 117, 133 democracy, 13, 14, 18, 111, 117, 122-5 Devons, ΕΙΥ, 41,58 Dickinson, Η. D., 53, 58, 59, 82. 84, 85 DjiIas, ΜίΙονβη, 6 Ι Durbin, Ε. F. Μ., 37. 103 Eastern Europe, 42-4, 89 eco1ogy, 3, 26, 110, 133, 134 economic ca1cu1ation, 52-60 depression, 36, 38 growth, 4,5,42,44,48,67-8, 132 efficiency, 6, 107-8 ~lite, 62, 63, 111 ElIman, Michae1, 95 emp10yee investment funds. 130 Engels, Friedrich, 7, 9, 71 Erlich, A1exander, 42 European Community (EC), 47. 67 financial institutions, 116, 121. 127 Fοuήerίsts, 9 France, 39,46-7. 114. ΙΙ5. 126 Frankfurt School, 4 147
148
Index
fr~~dom.
3. 11. 59. 73
Giιbor. Dcnnis, 67 Gay, Petcr. 13 g~neral will. 103 G~orge, Vic, 5, 45 German Democratic Republic, 42, 83, 96, 107 Germany,39 Golubovii:, Zagorka, 88, 90, 9 Ι Gorbachcv, Mikhail, 43 Gramsci. Αηιοηίο, Ι, 28, 85 green movement, Ι 16, 133
Hare. Paul, 92, 93 Hayek. F. Α., 30, 53, 55, 57, 58-9, 60, 62-3, 82, 84, 103, 104 Hegediίs, Andras, 61 Heller, Agnes, Ι Ι, 12, 16 Hilferding, Rudolf, 23, 27, 30, 40, 52, 62 Hobhouse, L. Τ., 73, 103 Holland, Stuart, 131 Horνat, Branko, 79, 89-90, 92-3 human nature, 10, 104-5 Hungary, 36, 66, 71, 75, 79, 80, 83, 88, 92-3 individualism, 128-9 industrialization, 35-6, 42-3 debate, 28-30 innovation, 65, 67-8 investment, 106 Japan, 47, 85 Kautslιy, Karl, 7, 15-17,23,83, 107
Kollontai, Alexandra, 28 Komiya, Ryutaro, 47 Konrad, G., 110 labour, II Labour Party, 12 labour process, 2, 11 Landauer, Carl, 22, 25, 52 Lange, Oskar, 53, 54-7, 58, 59, 60, 82 Lavoie, Οοη, 59-60, 65 Lenin, ν. 1., 28, 34 Lemer, Α. Ρ., 53, 55 management, 95-6, 125
Manning, Nick, 5, 45 Marschak, Thomas Α., 106 Marshall Plan, 31, 41, 46 Martinez-Alier, J uan, 134 Marx, Karl, 1-3,9, 11, 12, 15, 16,22, 59,71,76,83, 104 Meidner, Rudolf, 130 Michels, Robert, 61, 62 Mises, Ludwig, 1,25,30,53-4,55,57, 59, 60, 106 mode 01' production, 2 money, 16,25 Morris, William, 10, 17,71,84, 104 Murray, Robin, 45 nationalism, 87, 97 nationalization, 14, 126 natural economy, 24 needs, 3, II Nettl, J. Ρ., 12 Neurath, Otto, 24-5, 26, 27, 36, 134 New Deal, 38-9 New Economic Policy (ΝΕΡ), 28, 34, 94 Nicaragua, 5 Nove, Alec, 33, 35, 105 Νυιί, Domenico Mario, 75 Olsen, Gregg, 130 organized capitalism, 4, 40, 85 Owen, Robert, 9 ownership of land, 127 private, 83, 87, 88, 93, 107, 128-9 social, 6, 87-8, 106, 126-8 Paris Commune, 9 parties, 12, 62, 71 peasantry, 29 planning,6, 14, 26-7, 30, 36-7, 40-2, 45-8,62-3,64-7,79,82,84-5, 98-9, 103-4, 106, 117, 125, 134 and markets, 90-1 pluralism, 71, 72-3, 87, 96-7 Poland, 71, 75, 79, 80, 83, 88, 94 Pollock, Friedrich, 30 population, 7, 133 Poverty, 4, 132 Preobrazhensky, Evgeny, 28-9, 34, 44 prices, 55-6 property, 17
Index
149
Radice, Hugo, 92, 93 Reissner, Gerhard, 113 relations of production, 2 Renner, Karl, 18, 23, 26 revisionism, 13 Richet, Χ., 89 R ichta, Radovan, 44, 66 kobbins, Lionel, 53, 55, 57, 58 Roosevelt, Franklin Ο., 38 Russian Revolution, 27, 36 Ryden, Bengι, 112
30,34 Swain, Nigel, 92, 93 Sweden, 38, 83, 112-13, 130 Szelenyi, Ι., 110 Szell, Gyorgy, 77
Saint-Simonians, 9 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 129 Schumpeter, J. Α., 46, 58, 60, 61, 66, 97 science and technology, 16, 22, 44, 57 Second World War, 39, 40 Seibel, CΙaude, 46 self-management, 17, 18-19,76-9,84, 96,112 Shaw, George Bernard, 14 socialism, 1,4,6-7,9, 19-20,22-3,72, 84-5, 101-2, 122 Fabian, 13-14 Guild, 17, 18, 19 ίη Western Europe, 112-17 municipal, 13 Utopian, 9-11, 12, 17, 84, 135 socialist market economy, 40, 54-6, 78, 87, 93, 94-5, 97-8 socialization, 15, 24-5, 126 social policy, 5, 42, 45 Spencer, Herbert, 14 Stalin, J. ν., 29,42,43 State, the, 70, 71, 73 state monopoly capitalism, 40 State Planning Commission (Gosplan),
unemployment, 108, 113, 114, 121 USA, 38-9, 46, 48, 80 USSR, 5, 26, 30, 31, 33-6, 38,40,424,61,62,75,80,83,88
Taylor, Fred Μ., 55, 56, 58 Third World, 5, 40, 45, 132-3 Tinbergen, J., 41, 47 Tomlinson, Jim, 78 totalitarianism, 19, 62, 63, 70
Vienna,27 War Communism, 28, 33 war economy, 23, 24, 36, 41 Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, 14, 18,36, 38, 129 Weber, Max, 25, 60, 61, 62, 73 Welfare State, 38, 48 Western Europe, 19,45-8, 115-16, 129, 131 White, Christine, 45 White, Gordon, 45 Wicksteed, Ρ. Η., 55 Wieser, Frίedrίch, 52 Wilczynski, J., 42 WooIIon, Barbara, 37, 38 Yugoslavia, 18, 31, 40, 43, 75, 76-Q, 80, 82, 83, 86-8, 89-92 Zicgler, Rolf, 113