Our Living World: Earth's Biomes - Volume 7: Forests

7

volume

Forests

T R A D I T I O N A

N E W

Forests

OUR LIVING WORLD: EARTH’S BIOMES B a r b a r a A . S o m e r v i l l

B O O K S

T R A D I T I O N

®

, I N

M A P L E

P L A I N ,

C H I L D R E N ’ S

M I N N E S O T A P U B L I S H I N G

TM



ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Barbara A. Somervill is the author of many books for children. She loves learning and sees every writing project as a chance to learn new information or gain a new understanding. Ms. Somervill grew up in New York State, but has also lived in Toronto, Canada; Canberra, Australia; California; and South Carolina. She currently lives with her husband in Simpsonville, South Carolina.



In gratitude to George R. Peterson Sr. for introducing me to the beauty of creation —George R. Peterson Jr., Publisher, Tradition Books® Published in the United States of America by Tradition Books® and distributed to the school and library market by The Child’s World® [ACKNOWLEDGMENTS] For Editorial Directions, Inc.: E. Russell Primm, Editorial Director; Dana Meachen Rau, Line Editor; Katie Marsico, Associate Editor; Judi Shiffer, Associate Editor and Library Media Specialist; Matthew Messbarger, Editorial Assistant; Susan Hindman, Copy Editor; Lucia Raatma, Proofreaders; Ann Grau Duvall, Peter Garnham, Deborah Grahame, Katie Marsico, Elizabeth K. Martin, and Kathy Stevenson, Fact Checkers; Tim Griffin/IndexServ, Indexer; Cian Loughlin O’Day, Photo Researcher; Linda S. Koutris, Photo Selector For The Design Lab: Kathleen Petelinsek, design, art direction, and cartography; Kari Thornborough, page production [PHOTOS] Cover/frontispiece: Darrell Gulin/Corbis. Interior: Claudia Adams/Dembinsky Photo Associates: 30; Animals Animals/Earth Scenes: 31 (Studio Carlo Dani), 32 (Erwin & Peggy Bauer), 49 (Patti Murray), 52 (Michael Fogden), 57 (Scott W. Smith), 58 (Gerard Lacz), 60 (Peter Weimann), 61 (McDonald Wildlife Photography), 69 (Juergen and Christine Sohns), 70 (Manoj Shah), 72 (ABPL/Martin Harvey), 76 (John Anderson), 81 (OSF/Lon Lauber); Corbis: 8 (Robert Pickett), 22 (Kevin Schafer), 24 (Terry Whittaker; Frank Lane Picture Agency), 28 (Jim Zuckerman), 33 (Layne Kennedy), 41 (Peter Johnson), 48 (W. Perry Conway), 53 (Matt Brown), 66 (Tom Brakefield), 75 (Tim Zurowski), 78 (Patrick Bennett), 82 (Stuart Westmorland), 91 (Buddy Mays); Corbis Sygma: 84 (Ron Garrisson), 88 (Herve Collart); E. R. Degginger/Color-Pic: 62; Digital Vision: 10, 38, 40, 64, 85, 86; Michael & Patricia Fogden/Corbis: 11, 34, 44, 46; Gallo Images/Corbis: 15 (Roger De La Harpe), 43 (Anthony Bannister), 71 (Martin Harvey); Getty Images/Brand X Pictures: 55, 80; Martin Harvey/Corbis: 50, 74; Wolfgang Kaehler/Corbis: 36, 51, 77; Robert Maier/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes: 4, 42, 89; Photodisc: 6, 17, 18, 20, 21, 26, 35, 37, 73; Galen Rowell/Corbis: 9, 56; Keren Su/Corbis: 65, 83; Uwe Walz/Corbis: 29, 45. [ L I B R A RY O F C O N G R E S S C ATA L O G I N G - I N - P U B L I C AT I O N D ATA ] CIP data available

CONTENT ADVISER

Susan Woodward, Professor of Geography, Radford University, Radford, Virginia

4

Table of Contents

Table of Contents [Chapter One]

4 Defining Forests [ C h a p t e r Tw o ]

17 Focus on Key Species [Chapter Three]

30 Predators [Chapter Four]

42 Prey [Chapter Five]

49 Flora [Chapter Six]

58 Herbivores [Chapter Seven]

65 A Cycle of Life [Chapter Eight]

75 The Old-Growth Forest [Chapter Nine]

83 The Human Touch 92

[Chart of Species]

93

[Index]

4

1

[Chapter One]

Defining Forests

Defining Forests

4

above, a crossbill pecks seeds from a cone. A black woodpecker drills the bark in search of wood ants. Red deer browse on grasses in a nearby

4 Beneath a silver fir tree,

valley. A sparrow hawk

a pine marten catches a red

shrieks as it glides above the

squirrel. In the branches

treetops. Chatters, squeaks,

[Defining Forests]

and trills fill Germany’s Black Forest with sounds of life. This is an old forest, with thick groves of spruce and

G

E

R

M

A

N

Y

silver fir. Willows drape over streams, and silver birches rise tall above green-gray

Black Forest

juniper. In grassy meadows, pink rhododendrons turn

 Germany’s Black Forest

toward the summer sun.

greens bear cones. Magnolias,

Heather carpets a hillside

holly, and boxwood are ever-

with purple. This is a forest

greens without

with a long history. One can

cones. Cedars,

only hope it will have an

spruce, cypress, and

broadleaf evergreen (BRAWD-

equally long future.

redwoods produce

leef EV-ur-green) evergreen

cones. Broadleaf

tree with broad leaves instead

trees include

of needles

4 Forest is land covered with

maples, birches,

coniferous (kuh-NIF-ur-uhss)

closely spaced trees. The trees

aspens, elms, oaks,

bearing cones

may be coniferous, broadleaf

beeches, and hicko-

deciduous (di-SIJ-oo-uhss)

evergreen, or deciduous.

ries. Deciduous

annually dropping leaves or

While many coniferous trees

broadleaf trees paint

needles

are evergreen, not all ever-

autumn forests with

Types of Forests

 A pine marten slips beneath the trees in a German forest.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

5

 Red, gold, and yellow color the leaves of a deciduous forest in the fall.

bright yellows, reds, and

ture hot summers and cold

oranges.

winters. Precipitation ranges from 10 to 30 inches (25 to

Temperate Forests

76 centimeters) yearly.

4 Temperate climates fea?

Temperate forests appear

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

precipitation (pri-sip-i-TAYshuhn) all the rain, snow, sleet, hail, or other moisture falling on a region

Tropic of Cancer Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

 The Tropic of Cancer, the equator, and the Tropic of Capricorn

6

[Defining Forests]

in North America, South

Cancer in the Northern

America, Europe, Asia, and

Hemisphere. In the Southern

Africa. On a map, these

Hemisphere, they lie between

forests lie between the Arctic

the Tropic of Capricorn and

Circle and the Tropic of

the Antarctic Circle.

150˚W

N

45˚N 135˚W

Atlantic Ocean

N O R T H A M E R I C A Temperate Forest

30˚N

Pacific Ocean

Gulf of Mexico

15˚N

0 0

120˚W

500 Miles 500 KM

105˚W

90˚W

75˚W

6

 North America’s temperate forests

7

oak, birch, maple, elm, or hickory are common. There are a multitude of these broadleaf deciduous trees in temperate forests. Elk, deer, moose, and wisent (European bison) live in temperate forests. Raccoons, squirrels, rabbits, weasels, foxes, and beavers also make homes there. Taiga is a Russian word that refers to the marsh-filled forests of Siberia. Taiga—also called boreal (“northern”) for Wisent (European bison) live in forests, while American bison prefer the open grasslands.

Temperate deciduous for-

located in northern Asia and North America, too. These

ests grow in eastern North

forests have coniferous trees

America, western Europe, and

as well as broadleaf deciduous

eastern Asia. Areas of temper-

trees. They also contain moose,

ate deciduous forests usually

deer, wolves, and bears.

have only two or three main kinds of trees. Large stands of 8

est—is found in Russia but is

Temperate rain forests are fascinating. These forests

This Roosevelt elk cow and her calf graze in a meadow near Eureka, California.

[Defining Forests]

receive much more yearly rain-

needleleaf trees. They contrast

fall than other temperate

with broadleaf trees. Common

forests. Temperate rain forests

trees in temperate rain forests

stretch from west-central

include Douglas fir, sitka,

California to southern Alaska.

spruce, western hemlock, and

They are also found in south-

redwoods. Moss and lichen

ern Chile. These forests receive

grow on tree trunks. Ferns are

more than 80 inches (203 cm)

common on the forest floor.

of precipitation each year.

Eagles, spotted owls, cougars,

They have tall conifers found

and Roosevelt elk

nowhere else on earth.

travel among the

Conifers are cone-bearing

tall, ancient trees.

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

Redwoods can grow in “fairy rings.” When a mature tree is cut down, new trees sprout from the stump. They form a circle of saplings—a fairy ring— from which new trees develop.

to the equator. Temperatures do not change much throughout the year. Rainfall averages 6.5 to 17 feet (2 to 5 meters) yearly. The climate is warm and wet. There are also deciduous sections of the tropics where there is a short dry season. The trees shed their leaves in the dry season. Both tropical rain forests and tropical dry forests have broadleaf trees. Tropical rain  Plant growth in a rain forest is so thick that little sunlight reaches the forest floor.

forests support incredible numbers of plants and ani-

 READ IT! Read all about the strange and

Tropical Forests

mals. There are so many trees that two of the same species

fascinating world of rain forests

4 Tropical rain

rarely grow next to each

in Toni Albert’s book The

forests are found in

other. Most trees are

Remarkable Rain Forest: An

Australia, Asia,

broadleaf and evergreen.

Active-Learning Book for Kids

South America, and

The tallest trees form a

(Trickle Creek Books, 1996).

Africa. Tropical

canopy that rises high above

rain forests lie close

the forest floor. The topmost

10

[Defining Forests]

layer of the tropical rain forest is the emergent layer. There are two lower canopies that make up the area below the emergent layer. Long vines, called lianas, drape from the upper canopy to the ground. A rain forest supports

PROFILE: EPIPHYTES

hundreds of tree species and

Rain forests support many epiphytes.

thousands of other plants as

These unusual plants grow on trees

well as possibly millions of

and vines and can even grow on

undiscovered species. Tropical

telephone wires in very wet climates.

rain forests support more

Their roots never touch the ground.

than half the world’s plant

They drink

and animal species, while

water and

occupying only 6 to 7 percent

take in minerals

emergent (ih-MURR-juhnt)

of the earth’s surface.

from the air and

appearing above the surface; in

Tropical rain forests have

rain. Epiphytes

this case, above the canopy

evergreen broadleaf trees,

include many

epiphytes (EHP-uh-fites) plants

deciduous conifers, and

orchids, Spanish

that get nutrition and water

needleleaf trees such as tama-

moss, and

from the air and rain

rack and bald cypress.

some ferns.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

11

[Defining Forests]

Forests around the World

Indian Ocean st ore in F l Ra pica Tro

A U S T R A L I A

Indian Ocean

0

along the eastern coast. In the north, tropical rain forests grow

Temperate Rain Forest

0

4 In Australia, forests lie

Temperate Rain Forest

much like the rain forests of Asia or Africa. Toward the

500 Miles 500 KM

south, forests contain scruffy  Australia’s rain forests and temperate forests

pines (casuarina) and eucalyptus (gum trees). A trip from

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

More than a

Canberra to the coast trails

The wettest place on earth is

thousand different

through a temperate pine for-

Assam, India. About 39 feet

types of birds and

est, across dry scrub bush, then

(11.9 m) of rain falls on this

hundreds of mam-

into a dense tree-fern forest.

area every year.

mal species thrive in the wet world of

12

Southern Asia and India have heavy rainfall and dense

the rain forest. Snakes and

rain forests. Southeast Asia has

lizards climb through the

mainly tropical rain forests,

trees. And insect species num-

while India has tropical season-

ber in the tens of thousands.

al forests. Gibbons swing from

Many species in the rain

tree to tree, hooting and howl-

forests have never been seen

ing. Orangutans live solitary

and, as yet, have no name.

lives, feasting on smelly durian

[Defining Forests]

fruit. Lizards, frogs, insects,

There, huge bears and Sibe-

and birds can be found every-

rian tigers share the spruce

where, from the floor to the

and pine forests.

canopy. In northern Asia, boreal forests line the Pacific coast.

Europe has both temperate deciduous forests and taiga.

N 60˚N

Atlantic Ocean

E

50˚N

U

R

O

P

E

Temperate Forest

Black Sea 40˚N

Mediterranean Sea 0

0

500 Miles

500 KM 0˚

10˚E

20˚E

30˚E

 Europe’s temperate forests

13

[Defining Forests]

and fir forest. Across the Ural Mountains in Russia, dark green pines and spruce stand

Boreal Forest

A

S

I

up to bitter, snowy winters.

A

Rain Forest

African tropical rain forest is the stuff of Tarzan movies—

0 0

although not all the animals

1000 Miles 1000 KM

that appear in those movies  Asia’s boreal forests and rain forests

live in the jungle. A dense tan-

Taiga thrives in the

gle of trees, vines, grasses, and

understory (UHN-dur-STOR-ee)

cold weather of

shrubs covers much of western

the plant life that grows be-

Norway, Sweden,

Africa. Because of the heavy

tween the uppermost layer of

Finland, and Russia.

understory, the jungle is con-

the forest and the forest floor

To the south, forests

sidered a disturbed rain forest.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

of birch, maple, and oak cover the Caucasus Mountains and western Europe. A surprising number of native

Boreal Forest

Atlantic Ocean E

azaleas add pinks and reds to

Temperate Forest

the Caucasus in spring. In the Carpathian Mountains, lynxes, bears, wolves, and wildcats hunt through the mixed beech

0 0

500 Miles 500 KM

 Europe’s boreal forests and temperate forests

14

U

R

O

P

E

[Defining Forests]

(In contrast, an intact rain forest has a light understory.) The plant cover is so thick that humans must hack their way through with sharp knives called machetes. Heavy rainfall drums on leaves and branches, creating quite a racket. The African jungle supports dozens of species of monkeys and apes, hundreds of birds, and thousands of insects. South and Central America also support dense

 This lush rain forest in South Africa supports thousands of insect, bird, and mammal species.

tropical seasonal rain forests. They, too, have heavy, pounding rainfall for at least six months each year. Rain forest

A

covers much of the northern

F

R

I

C

A

Rain Forest

half of the continent, between

Atlantic Ocean

the Andes Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon

0 0

1000 Miles 1000 KM

Indian Ocean

River basin of South America  Africa’s rain forests

15

[Defining Forests]

includes Olympic National Park in Washington and

Rain Forest

Tongass National Forest in S

Pacific Ocean

O

U

T

H

Alaska, the largest national for-

A M E R I C A

Atlantic Ocean

0 0

1000 Miles 1000 KM

 South America’s rain forests

est in the United States. Deciduous forest runs along the Appalachian Mountains from northern Georgia to Maine. Most forests in Canada and

is the location of the world’s

central Alaska are boreal

largest rain forest. Monkeys

forests. Boreal forests have

thrive in these forests. Bril-

evergreen needleleaf trees. The

liantly colored parrots and

dense spruce and fir support

macaws feed on fruit and

moose, weasels, and wolves.

seeds throughout the rain forest. They share their home territories with slow-moving Rain Forest

sloths and sleek jaguars.

Boreal Forest

North America has three N O R T H A M E R I C A

types of forests: temperate rain forests, deciduous forests, and boreal forests. Rain forest lies

Deciduous Forest

Pacific Ocean

0 0

500 Miles 500 KM

Rain Forest

along the western coast. It  North America’s boreal forests, rain forests, and temperate forests

16

Atlantic Ocean

2

[ C h a p t e r Tw o ]

Focus on Key Species

Focus on Key Species

approach and bellows. The chase is on. Shots ring out. Two wolves fall dead upon the snow. It is 1925. Predator control agents are rapidly killing off all wolves in the park. It is

4 A gray wolf pack bounds

the job they were hired to do.

through the deep snow of

In 1916, the National Park

Yellowstone National Park.

Service (NPS) began. One

A moose senses the wolves’

of its first acts was to rid

 A wolf pack sets out on a winter hunt.

17

[Focus on Key Species]

Yellowstone of all predators,

predators and prey. Wolves,

which are animals that kill

coyotes, and cougars rid the

and eat other animals.

park of sickly, elderly, or

Wolves, coyotes, and cougars

injured moose and elk.

 WATCH IT! Watch the video Yellowstone

fell to the rifles of

Without those key predators,

the control agents.

the moose and elk popula-

The newly

tions grew out of control.

National Park [ASIN:

formed NPS did

NPS changed its mind in

B00005TNFO] and learn about

not realize that

1933, but it was too late. By

the elk, moose, wolves, gushing

nature provided a

then, gray wolves were gone

geysers, and bubbling mud pots

balance between

from Yellowstone’s forest.

of this park.

[Focus on Key Species]

They had nearly disappeared

PROFILE: POLLINATORS

from all the lower 48 states.

A pollinator is any creature that takes

Keystone Species

pollen from one flower and deposits it in another

4 A keystone species is

flower of the

an animal or plant that is

same type.

biome (BYE-ohm) a large ecosys-

crucial for the survival of

Pollinators are

tem in which the plants and ani-

an ecosystem. The species

keystone species

mals are adapted to a particular

may change the land or

in every land

climate or physical environment

create new habitats. The

biome. Without

ecosystem (EE-koh-siss-tuhm)

species may control prey

pollinators, no

a community of plants and ani-

populations. Or, it may be

flowers, honey,

mals and their relationship with

the main food of predators.

fruit, nuts, or

the surrounding environment

In forests, some keystone

vegetables

species include wolves,

would exist.

quaking aspens, figs, and leaf-cutter ants. Gray wolves are keystone

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

Between 130,000 and 200,000 pollinators live on the earth. Beetles pollinate nearly 90 percent of all flow-

predators. When 33 wolves

ering plants. Other pollinators include

were reintroduced to Yellow-

hummingbirds, bats, ants, wasps, bees,

stone and 35 were released

butterflies, and moths.

in Idaho in 1995 and 1996, they immediately changed  Predators like this cougar help keep deer and elk herds healthy.

19

 Quaking aspens provide a comfortable nursery for caterpillar and beetle larvae.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

the wildlife popula-

Quaking aspens are

larvae (LAR-vee) insects at the

tion mix. Elk and

important trees in many

stage of development between

moose herds act-

North American forests. The

eggs and pupae when they look

ually benefited from

trees support a number of

like worms

being prey. Wolves

animal species. Caterpillars

killed off the weak,

and beetle larvae depend

20

old, and sickly. The remaining

on aspens as a safe “nursery”

healthy animals faced less

where they can grow. Deer,

competition for food.

elk, rabbits, voles, mice, and

[Focus on Key Species]

wood rats eat aspen bark

Rain forest soil

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

during the winter. Even

is extremely poor.

nectar (NEK-tur) a sweet liquid

hungry porcupines feed on

Heavy rains wash

found in flowers

aspen branches. Chickadees,

away nutrients.

nutrients (NOO-tree-uhnts)

warblers, nuthatches, and

Leaf-cutter ants

substances needed by plants,

swallows nest in aspens.

recycle nature’s

animals, or humans for growth;

In tropical rain forests, figs feed countless species. The regions of northeast Australia and many Pacific Islands feature strangler fig plants. Most tropical fruit trees produce fruit once or twice a year. But figs produce fruit all year long. This fruit feeds pigeons, parrots, toucans, monkeys, gibbons, bats, and hornbills. Butterflies and wasps feed on fig nectar. In some forests, nearly

three-quarters of the local wildlife depend on fig trees for food. Porcupines climb trees to eat  bark and branches.

key elements of a food

[Focus on Key Species]

nutrients. The ants

grow for food. In the nests,

endangered (en-DAYN-jurd) on

snip leaves and

dead leaves, fungus, and ant

the edge of being completely

carry them back to

waste deposit nutrients into

wiped out; few members of a

their nests. They

the soil. Leaf-cutter ants

species still surviving

use the leaves to

process about one-fifth of

threatened (THRET-und) at risk

feed fungus they

the leaves in their territory.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

of becoming endangered

Oddly, plants thrive because these ants trim their leaves.

Umbrella Species 4 Governments pass laws to protect endangered or threatened plants and

animals. Legal protection stops people from hunting an animal or digging up or cutting down a plant. Umbrella species of the forests include bears, spotted owls, and rhinos—most especially the Javan and Sumatran rhinos. An umbrella species is a protected animal or plant  When leaf-cutter ants finish trimming this branch, the leaves will grow back.

[Focus on Key Species]

that spreads its legal protection

bears share their habitats with

over other creatures. Usually

tigers, tarsiers, gibbons, and

these species feed over a large

Asian water buf-

territory. Bears qualify as

faloes. Laws set up

umbrella species. Several bear

to protect these

They are fearsome beasts and

species are endangered in the

bears also protect

gentle parents. Learn more

wild. Poaching, overhunting,

the other species in

about bears by reading Kennan

and loss of habitat have affect-

the region.

Ward’s Grizzlies in the Wild

ed bear population growth. Asiatic black bears live in

 READ IT!

Spotted owls

(NorthWood Press, 1994).

nest only in old-

Asia. They suffer from poach-

growth forests.

ers who kill the animals for

They are endan-

poaching (POHCH-ing) hunting

their paws and bile. Bear paws

gered in the Pacific

illegally

are used for medicine and to

Northwest of the

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

make soup. In Korea, Japan, and China, chefs prepare bear soup to serve in restaurants. Bear bile, from the animal’s

Asiatic black bear territory

liver, is used to make medici-

A

nal products. The bile is taken

Asiatic black bear territory

S

I

A

out using painful and cruel methods during which the

0 0

1000 Miles 1000 KM

bear is confined. Asiatic black  The Asiatic black bear’s territory

23

[Focus on Key Species]

 DO IT!

United States.

prosper under the spotted

Help save the rhino! Find out

Protection for spot-

owl’s protective umbrella.

what you can do at http://

ted owls also pro-

www.rhinos-irf.org/how

tects trees that have

rhinos are among the most

youncanhornin/index.htm.

lived for hundreds

endangered species of mam-

of years. Roosevelt

mals. Most Javan rhinos live

Javan and Sumatran

elk and marbled murrelets,

in the Ujong Kulon refuge on

which are small sea birds, also

the island of Java. The refuge

[Focus on Key Species]

supports 50 to 60 Javan rhi-

ASIA

nos. Another 8 to 10 Javan rhinos were found living in

Sumatra Java

the wild in Vietnam. The Sumatran rhino total popula-

Indian Ocean

A U S T R A L I A

tion stands at about 300 animals. Black rhinos are also

0 0

1000 Miles 1000 KM

endangered. The rhino horn is considered very valuable

 The countries of Java and Sumatra

to poachers and is used for

ship species is the “Save the

everything from knife handles

Tiger” fund. This program,

to medicine. Legal protection

started by the National Fish

is one way to save these

and Wildlife Foundation in

species. When the rhinos have

1995, combines efforts from

legal protection, all the other

public businesses, zoos,

plants and creatures in their

national governments, law

habitats survive.

enforcement groups, and

Flagship Species

worldwide conservation groups. All tiger species are

4 Flagship species are those

endangered, including the

that attract the public’s atten-

Siberian tiger that lives in

tion. One of the most active

the remote forests of north-

programs for protecting a flag-

east Asia.

 Zoos help preserve Sumatran rhinos. Loss of habitat has a negative affect on the species.

25

[Focus on Key Species]

Tigers get plenty of attention. Nepal’s Royal Chitwan

 WATCH IT!

are related to zoobred tamarins.

Discover the beauty of the criti-

National Park supports about

The world’s

cally endangered Siberian tiger

120 Bengal tigers. The Nepa-

forests are filled

in National Geographic’s Tigers

lese Army posts soldiers in the

with flagship

of the Snow [ASIN: 6305572194].

park to prevent poaching. The

species. In Australia,

soldiers have been successful

the koala is a popular forest

in protecting the tigers.

animal. In Asia, Asian ele-

A flagship species of the

phants, tigers, orangutans,

rain forest is South America’s

and giant pandas are species

golden lion tamarin. The

that are the focus of major

National Zoo of the United

conservation programs. In

States began a project to save

North America, wolves and

the golden lion tamarin. They

mountain lions receive plenty

ran a captive-breeding program

of attention.

for tamarins. By the end of

The value of flagship

2000, the zoo reintroduced

species is that they generate

120 zoo-bred tamarins to the

interest and money. The inter-

Poco das Antas Reserve in

est helps pass laws to protect

Brazil. Today, nearly 35

flagship species. The money

percent of Brazil’s golden

sets up preserves and main-

lion tamarins were either

tains breeding programs to

bred in the National Zoo or

keep endangered species alive.

 All tiger species are endangered in the wild, including the proud Siberian tiger.

27

Indicator Species 4 Indicator species measure the health of an ecosystem. Many species indicate, or show, biome problems. Pollution, overbuilding, erosion, or too much hunting and fishing change ecosystems. Indicator species measure those changes. Often, indicator species are insects, moths, and butterflies. However, larger species can also be indicator species. The Javan gibbon lives in the rain forest canopy. Gibbons swing from tree to tree and rarely leave their high habitat. What happens when lumber companies cut down trees in the rain forest? The loss of trees breaks the  The success of Javan gibbons tells scientists about the health of Indonesian rain forests.

[Focus on Key Species]

closed canopy. Gibbons cannot travel from one area to another in search of food. When the gibbons die off, scientists know that the rain forest canopy is in danger. Boreal owls serve as indicator species in the taiga of North America. The owls lay eggs in the spring. The number of eggs laid depends on the amount of food available. If boreal owls lay few eggs, that means their food supply is low. The owls eat mice, voles, and shrews. These rodents normally reproduce in large numbers. But rodent populations drop when

 Boreal owls swoop through the trees of Russian taiga in search of mice and voles.

drought limits food or when pollution poisons food in an

forest home, it is because

area. Scientists know that

that home is no longer a

if boreal owls leave their

healthy environment. 29

3

[Chapter Three]

Predators

Predators 4 A beige-and-brown boa constrictor glides slowly along

30

fallen leaves and waits. The snake is too large to move quickly. It relies on patience to bring prey within its reach. A careless white-lipped

the rain forest floor in Ven-

peccary walks by. The snake

ezuela. It is a full-sized adult,

strikes. Boas do not rely on

measuring nearly 20 feet (6.1

poison, but on power, to

m) long. The boa has not eaten

catch their prey. The snake

for a week and is looking for a

wraps itself around the pec-

meal. It coils itself among the

cary and squeezes . . . and

 A male Siberian tiger may weigh up to 500 pounds (227 kilograms).

squeezes . . . and squeezes

when another peccary might

until the animal dies.

happen by.

The boa will eat the peccary whole. Its jaws stretch wide

Big Cats and Canines

enough to take in its prey. The

4 Big cats and canines are

peccary goes down head first,

the top predators of temperate

leaving a large lump in the

and tropical forests. Cat species

snake’s body. The effort

are active, stealthy

involved in swallowing its prey

hunters. Siberian

exhausts the boa. It is time to

tigers prowl the

canines (KAY-ninez) animals

rest. The boa will not need to

taiga of eastern

related to dogs

feed again until next week,

Asia. Their distant

?

 An Amazon tree boa drops from a branch onto its prey. Boas squeeze their prey to death before eating them.

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

31

 This cougar silently stalks its prey.

 WATCH IT!

relatives—mountain

always eat near water and

Sleek and powerful, jaguars are

lions, bobcats, and

often catch fish. Jaguars are

the kings of the rain forest.

lynxes—hunt in the

excellent swimmers. They

Discover their unique and won-

boreal forests of

gladly follow prey into the

derful world in Jaguar: Year of

North America.

water and usually outswim

the Cat [ASIN: 1581991088].

Mountain lions,

their victims.

leopards, and jaguars slip through the dense

prey they hunt depends on the

plant life of the rain forests.

size of the cat. Large cats hunt

Despite their reputation

32

Big cats eat meat. The

deer, elk, moose, wild pigs,

for hating water, big cats actu-

and tapirs. Smaller cats, such

ally swim well. Siberian tigers

as lynxes and bobcats, settle

[Predators]

for rabbits, hares, rodents, and ground-nesting birds. A large tiger would need to eat hundreds of mice to equal the meal provided by one deer. Canines are basically dogs, such as foxes, coyotes, wolves, and bush dogs. Most canines hunt in groups, or packs. Wolves are the top predators

RED WOLVES IN THE NEWS

among canines. A wolf pack

Red wolves are native to the forests and

may prefer elk and moose for

mountains of the southeastern United

dinner, but also consumes

States. Shortly after settlers arrived in

many rodents and hares.

colonial days, they began hunting red

Wolf packs are organized by rank. The pack leader is called the alpha male. His

wolves. By 1960, only about 20 red wolves remained living in the wild. The Red Wolf Recovery Program

mate is the alpha female.

began to breed red wolves in zoos. The

Usually, they are the only

idea was to save the species and reintro-

pack members that have cubs.

duce it to the wild. Today, more than

When wolf packs hunt, the

100 red wolves roam the woods of east-

alpha male eats first. Cubs

ern North Carolina, Mississippi, Florida,

quickly learn their table

and South Carolina.

33

PROFILE: POISON ARROW FROGS

manners. If a cub tries to steal

South America’s poison arrow frogs

food from the pack leader, it

have bright warning colors. These col-

gets a harsh growl and a swat.

ors warn other animals not to take a bite. Each of these tiny creatures packs enough poison to kill 100 humans.

4 Predators do not have to

Even licking the frogs can prove dead-

be large to catch prey. Weasels,

ly. These frogs live on ants and spiders.

mongooses, martens, and

Poison arrow frogs have an unusual

wolverines are successful

means of producing young. They lay about half a dozen eggs. The eggs hatch into tadpoles that quickly climb onto the mother’s back. She deposits each tadpole in a pool of water held in leaves more than 100 feet (30 m) up in the canopy. She feeds her young by providing her own infertile eggs for them to eat. When the tadpole is a full-sized frog, it climbs out of the plant and hops away.

34

Not Quite As Big

 Wolverines store leftovers in underground pantries to eat later when food is scarce.

woodland predators. The mon-

they eat their fill, they bury

goose is a daring hunter that

their prey. When hunting is

specializes in killing snakes

not successful, they dig up last

and scorpions. Martens, stoats,

month’s deer from the under-

and weasels dine mainly on

ground pantry and eat what is

rodents. However, when

left of it.

rodents are scarce, they will

Smaller predators include

eat earthworms, frogs, lizards,

animals that are insectivores—

snakes, ground-nesting birds,

they eat insects. Insectivores

and eggs.

include birds, rodents, and

Wolverines can kill prey larger than themselves. After

lizards. Chameleons are extremely efficient predators. 35

PROFILE: KOMODO DRAGON

They can blend their skin

The largest lizard—the Komodo

color with their surroundings.

dragon—lives on islands in and near

Chameleons have tongues that

Indonesia. These massive lizards grow up

are as long as they are. A hun-

to 12 feet (3.7 m) long and weigh up to

gry chameleon perches in a

300 pounds (136 kg). A Komodo dragon

conveniently hidden spot and

will stalk a water buffalo. It bites the

waits for insects. An unsuspect-

buffalo’s leg. The dragon’s saliva is

ing grasshopper leaps past, and

loaded with deadly bacteria. One bite

the chameleon’s tongue flicks

kills even large animals. It may take the

out to catch dinner.

buffalo a week or two to die, but the

Insect eaters range from

dragon is patient. It will feast for several

large anteaters and armadillos

days off one buffalo.

to tiny spiders. Many birds, such as woodpeckers, warblers, and flycatchers feed on insects. In Australia’s forests, the superb lyrebird rummages under rotting logs to find tasty insects, beetles, and spiders. Tiny shrews shuffle through the undergrowth on the forest floor. They are hunting for mites, beetles,

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

Rain forests are full of bloodsucking critters. Among the common blood drinkers are vampire bats, mosquitoes, and several fly species.  An osprey’s excellent vision allows it to see fish under the surface of lakes and ponds.

earwigs, and woodborers. Centipedes scuttle over dead

Birds That Hunt

Another bloodsucker is the leech. Leeches inject a painkiller when they bite their victims. More than 300 different types

leaves and branches in search

4 Swift, accurate,

of leeches live in rain forests.

of insects and spiders. They

and deadly, birds of

The largest measures more

inject poison into their victims

prey are the premier

than 8 inches (20 cm) long.

to paralyze them.

hunters of the 37

[Predators]

 African spotted eagle owls live on a diet of small rodents.

38

[Predators]

forests. Owls, goshawks, eagles,

PROFILE: A DANGEROUS PREDATOR

and osprey hover above the for-

Once upon a time, flocks of passenger

est on nearly every continent.

pigeons fluttered through the old growth

They feed on fish, rodents,

forests of eastern North America. The

snakes, and monkeys.

pigeons numbered in the millions.

Owls generally hunt at

In 1813, naturalist John James Audubon

night. They use excellent night

described a flock of passenger pigeons in

vision to see mice, voles,

flight: “The light of the noonday sun was

shrews, and other creatures

obscured as by an eclipse. . . . The pigeons

creeping about in the dark.

were still passing . . . for three days in suc-

The eagle owl is one of the

cession. . . . The banks of the Ohio were

largest owls. Eagle owls live in

crowded with men and boys, incessantly

Europe, Asia, and northern

shooting at the pilgrims [pigeons].”

Africa. They eat a variety of

Pigeons were hunted commercially for

prey, including birds, reptiles,

food and sport. At the same time, forests

frogs, toads, fish, and spiders.

were cleared for farms. The flocks

Great gray owls and boreal

decreased rapidly because of all these fac-

owls live in the taiga. They

tors. By 1896, only one major flock existed.

feed mostly on small voles.

Hunters killed 245,000 of the 250,000 birds

Owls eat their food whole, then

in that flock. In 1900, the last passenger

spit up a pellet. The pellet con-

pigeon in the wild was shot. An entire

tains bones, fur, and other indi-

species fell to their most dangerous

gestible parts of their meals.

predator—humans.

39

Goshawks fly the forest skies in North America, Europe, and Asia. Goshawks have amazingly quick reflexes. They can dart through dense forests and scoop up rabbits, squirrels, and pigeons. The harpy eagle dominates the South American rain forest. This predator can weigh up to 15.5 pounds (7 kg). Harpies are fast, fearless, and agile. They dart between trees in search of monkeys, sloths, porcupines, and snakes. In southern Asia, Bonelli’s eagles glide through the air. Bonelli’s eagles often kill prey that weighs as much or more than they do. They are powerful fliers that have no trouble bringing ducks, gulls, herons,  Goshawks are common raptors in Europe, North America, and northern Asia.

[Predators]

and rabbits back to their nests.

eagles hunt in pairs and can

Africa’s main forest eagle is

bring down a young antelope

the crowned eagle. Crowned

or monkey.

 A Bonelli’s eagle can fell prey that weighs more than it does.

41

4

[Chapter Four]

Prey

Prey

food. Shyness helps the wood mouse survive. These mice are

4 A wood mouse emerges

a major food source for foxes,

from its burrow. Although they

weasels, and owls.

are the most common mice in

42

stops them from searching for

Female wood mice breed

Europe, wood mice are rarely

once they weigh about half

seen. Even bright moonlight

an ounce (14 grams). They

[Prey]

produce four litters of young per year. One female delivers four to seven babies per litter, or about 16 to 28 young per year. The high rate of reproduction is necessary. Wood

mice have a life span of about one year. To keep the species

PROFILE: TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS

going, wood mice must pro-

Trap-door spiders are aggressive hunters.

duce enough young to survive

They build burrows that they cover with

predators, long winters, and

trapdoors made of spider silk, soil, and

short life spans.

leaves. When

Prey by the Numbers 4 Predators don’t necessarily need to eat one large ani-

unsuspecting

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

prey pass by, the

reproduction (ree-pruh-DUHK-

spiders pounce.

shuhn) the act of having

These same

offspring

mal to feel full. It’s a matter

spiders become

of how many prey make up a

prey when a spider-hunting wasp comes

complete meal. A weasel may

around. The small wasp can turn the

eat one squirrel, five wood

much larger spider into its victim. It

mice, or hundreds of frog

stings the spider and paralyzes it. Then

eggs. Thousands of insects

the wasp lays a single egg on the spider.

breed millions of potential

The wasp larvae eat the spider alive.

 This tiny wood mouse huddles beneath a woodland mushroom.

43

 Green anoles use their long toes to help them climb trees.

meals for predators.

shrews, and chipmunks, feed

carnivores (KAR-nuh-vorz)

Each insect species

foxes, weasels, and many birds

animals that eat meat

feeds birds, lizards,

of prey.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

frogs, toads, snakes,  WATCH IT! Uncover the links that tie rain forest animals together. Watch

Reptiles and amphibians

rodents, and mam-

make excellent eating. Geckos,

mals.

anoles, nonpoisonous snakes,

Rodents are

frogs, and toads are tasty

National Geographic’s Amazon:

frequently on

treats. They feed mammals,

Land of the Flooded Forest

carnivores’ dinner

birds, and larger reptiles and

[ASIN: 6304473869].

menus. Small ro-

amphibians.

dents, such as mice, 44

Many animals appear to

[Prey]

have no natural enemies, yet

injured mountain lions or

they will become prey at some

wolves.

point in their lives. Sickness

Death turns

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

and age make top predators

every animal into

carrion (CAH-ree-uhn) dead or

open to attack by smaller,

food for others.

rotting flesh

younger predators. Mountain

Carrion feeders,

lions and wolves hunt individ-

such as buzzards and vultures,

ual coyotes. A pair of coyotes

eat dead animals. Insects join

may turn the tables and hunt

the feast and may lay their

 This bird may look like a hawk, but it is actually a Eurasian buzzard.

45

 The enemies of this eyed silk moth of Costa Rica see the eyes of a predator—not the wings of a defenseless moth.

eggs in the flesh. Even bones

forest floor. Goldenrod spiders

provide nutrition. A porcupine

appear to be tiny yellow flow-

will gnaw bones or dropped

ers. Stick insects can barely be

antlers for calcium and protein.

seen among tall grass or twigs

Building Up Defenses

46

of the rain forest. Some animals look or act

4 Coloring and camouflage

like another species. Viceroy

hide prey from their enemies.

butterflies look much like

The leaf or horned frog looks

monarch butterflies. Because

exactly like dead leaves on a

monarchs taste terrible, few

[Prey]

predators try eating viceroys,

PROFILE: ARMY ANTS

either. A Costa Rican eyed

Ants, as individuals, feed dozens of

silk moth looks more like the

creatures. Anteaters, echidnas, and

face of a larger animal. The

chimpanzees attack anthills and settle

moth’s wings feature designs

down for a feast. However, one ant

that look like eyes. The “face”

species is more predator than prey.

frightens potential predators. Poison and bright colors

Army ants of Peru and Brazil typically swarm over spiders, scorpions, bee-

make excellent partners for

tles, and roaches for food. Once they

protection. Fire salamanders

have eaten every critter in their terri-

and poison arrow frogs have

tory, they move camp. Any animal in

bright colors. The coloring

their path becomes prey to the hungry

warns other animals: Don’t

ants. This can include lizards, snakes,

eat me, I’m deadly.

chickens, pigs, and goats. Army ants

When all else fails, smart

swarm in the millions and have been

creatures run away. The

know to devour 100,000 animals in

Malayan flying frog heaves

one day’s march.

itself from a branch high in the rain forest canopy. The frog spreads its toes apart. Skin between the toes makes a parachute of sorts. The frog glides to another tree. Malayan 47

Insects are the most abundant herbivores. Larger insects prey

on smaller insects. Birds and lizards prey on insects regardless of size. Weasels and snakes prey on birds and lizards. Coyotes, bobcats, and leopards prey on weasels, snakes, birds, and lizards. In some regions, coyotes and bobcats may be the top predators. However, where mountain lions and wolves live, coyotes and bob When this coyote dies, his carcass will become part of the food chain that keeps nature in balance.

cats become prey. The food cycle depends

flying frogs can

on prey and predators. With-

herbivores (HUR-buh-vorz)

cover about 100 feet

out predators, prey would

animals that eat plants

(30 m) in one glide.

reproduce in massive numbers.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

The Food Cycle

48

Prey populations would soon take over lakes and streams.

4 Here is an example of how

Predators keep prey population

the food web works. Plants

levels in check. This is another

form the base of the food web.

example of nature’s balance.

5

[Chapter Five]

4 Deep in the rain forests

bud takes 10 months to burst

of Malaysia, rafflesia plants

into flower. When it does,

blossom. The rafflesia is a

the scent stinks like rotting

parasitic plant of the liana,

meat. The stench has earned

a vine that roots in the

the rafflesia the nickname

ground. Because it is para-

corpse flower.

Flora

Flora

sitic, the rafflesia invades the vine and feeds through its roots and stem. The rafflesia

 The rafflesia emits a stench of rotting meat to attract pollinators such as flies and bees.

49

 Every day, about 214,000 acres (86,000 hectares) of rain forest are cut down. This is an area larger than New York City.

The Rafflesia arnoldii

can help a mother recover

is the world’s largest flower. Its

after the birth of a child.

bright red blossom measures

Sellers have harvested so many

up to 36 inches (90 cm) across.

of the buds that few rafflesias

It is a rare, endangered flower.

survive in the wild.

Its rarity increases as Malaysian rain forests are cut down. Another threat to the

50

The Rain Forest by Layers

rafflesia is the sale of its buds

4 Rain forests grow in defi-

in local markets. Malaysian folk

nite layers. At the bottom lies

medicine claims that the buds

the forest floor. Along the tree

The rain forest canopy supports a complete ecosystem 100 feet (30 m) above the  forest floor.

[Flora]

trunks grows the understory.

ering plants and thousands of

A high canopy of branches

ferns and mosses.

and leaves rises above the

The forest floor supports

understory. Still higher grow

countless species of flowers,

the emergent trees. More than

herbs, shrubs, and vines.

50,000 species of tropical trees

Plants at ground level must

live in rain forests around the

grow well in shade. Delicate

world. Add to that more than

ginger, passionflower, and

200,000 species of other flow-

strangely named hot-lips

[Flora]

!

flowers bloom among the rot-

palms, tree ferns, and southern

ting leaves of the rain forest

beeches. Vines wrap around

floor. Lacy ferns and moss

tree trunks. Hibiscus flowers

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

Many rain forest leaves have drip points. Water glides down

grow along the

brighten the understory with

ground in temperate

their bright rose-colored petals.

rain forests.

Orchids of every color bloom

The understory

the leaf and drips off at the

features shrubs and

tip. Without drip points, the

short trees, such as

leaves would hold too much water and rot.

throughout the year. Densely packed leaves and branches form a thick canopy

[Flora]

that hoards rain and sunlight. Trees in the canopy reach from 60 to 130 feet (18 to 40 m) tall. Most have no branches in the understory. Temperate rain forests feature extremely tall evergreens, such as redwoods and Douglas fir. Tropical rain forests have different tree species from temperate rain forests—and more of them. South American tropical rain forests may have as many as 120 trees per acre. One odd tropical tree is the strangler fig. It

 This Douglas fir is one of many extremely tall evergreens that grow in temperate rain forests.

begins as an epiphyte, sending its roots down along

Emergent trees

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

the trunk of its host to the

grow beyond the top

The world’s tallest redwood

ground. As the fig grows, it

of the canopy. They

rises 365 feet (111 m) above

kills the host tree by hogging

may reach heights of

the ground.

its sunlight and nutrients.

240 feet (73 m). The

 Bright scarlet passionflowers attract butterflies and hummingbirds.

53

[Flora]

branches and leaves form an

the ground. Winter trees are

umbrella above the dense rain

like bears—they hibernate, or

forest canopy.

sleep, through the winter.

Deciduous Forests

The floor of a deciduous forest is thick with rotting

4 Temperate deciduous

plant matter. Layers of dead

forests have far fewer plant

leaves and fallen branches

species than tropical forests.

feed nutrients into the soil.

Common trees include elm,

Deep purple violets peep out

maple, oak, aspen, and poplar.

from dark green leaves. Jack-

Temperate forests

in-the-pulpits pop up from

face four distinct

the floor. Honeysuckle vines,

Hike along a forest trail that

seasons. Spring

blackberry bushes, and wild

stretches from Springer

brings tender new

blueberries attract bees, birds,

Mountain, Georgia, to Mount

leaves and blossoms

and bears. Ferns, mosses, and

Katahdin, Maine. Discover the

to barren branches.

lichens cover open ground,

Appalachian Trail at http://www.

In summer, the

rocks, and tree trunks.

fred.net/kathy/at.html.

broad leaves fill

 LOOK IT UP!

out in various

54

Deciduous trees form a broken canopy above the forest

shapes and sizes. Summer is

floor. Trees die or are knocked

when most deciduous trees

down by strong winds. They

grow. In autumn, the leaves

burn in forest fires. The can-

change color, die, and fall to

opy allows sunlight to reach

 An ice storm turns barren tree branches into a lacy winter wonderland.

the forest floor. Breaks in the forest allow grass meadows to

Taiga

develop. The meadows last

4 The taiga, or boreal forest,

only as long as it takes young

also has four seasons. Winter is

trees to reach maturity.

the longest season and presents 55

 Moss covers the floor of this boreal forest.

many demands. Evergreen

the ground spongy and wet.

trees collect snow on their

Summer provides a short

branches. The snow can

growing season, usually no

become so heavy that the

more than six to ten weeks.

branches crack from the

Autumn comes early, and the

 READ IT!

weight. The forest

taiga prepares again for the

floor may be buried

long winter ahead.

Learn more about boreal

several feet deep in

forests. Read Elizabeth Kaplan’s

snow. Spring brings

few flowering plants. Lady slip-

Taiga (Benchmark, 1996).

the thaw. Snow

per orchids, berry bushes, and

melts and leaves

calypso orchids are scattered

56

The taiga forest floor has

[Flora]

throughout taiga forests. Most taiga forest floors feature mosses, fungus, and lichens. Most taiga trees are coniferous. There are 530 species of conifers. (Not all grow in the taiga.) This is far fewer than the 50,000 species of tropical broadleaf trees. Conifers include spruces, firs, pines, cedars, tamarack, and junipers. Taiga trees tend to be

PROFILE: CARNIVOROUS PLANTS

shorter than trees in rain

Meat-eating plants catch insects and

forests or deciduous forests.

spiders for dinner. These plants are

Bitter winters, strong winds,

found in bogs in the taiga. The pitcher

and lower precipitation deter-

plant is like a narrow jar with liquid

mine the types and sizes of

at the bottom. Insects lured onto the

trees in boreal forests. Decid-

pitcher’s edge fall in and drown. Bog

uous aspen, birch, and balsam

violets and sundews (above) have

poplar grow in taiga forests.

sticky goo on their leaves and stems.

In autumn, these trees paint

Insects that touch the glue are stuck.

bands of gold against the dark

The leaves wrap around the prey, and

green of taiga conifers.

the plant digests it.

57

6

[Chapter Six]

Herbivores

Herbivores 4 A tiny newborn koala

the size of a nickel. Once in the pouch, it will drink its mother’s milk. Mom is not disturbed by

pulls itself toward its moth-

the birth. She is nestled in

er’s pouch. The baby is about

the branches of a eucalyptus

 Koalas never drink water. Instead, they get liquid from the eucalyptus leaves they eat each day.

58

[Herbivores]

tree in Queensland, Australia.

es and reeds. Giant pandas of

It is night, which means it is

China eat only bamboo.

feeding time. She slowly

In boreal forests, moose,

munches tender leaves and

elk, and deer graze

sprouting twigs.

in open meadows.

Most people do not know

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

They retreat deep

marsupials (mahr-SOO-pee-uhlz)

much about koalas. They are

into the woods dur-

order of animals in which the

marsupials, not bears. They eat

ing winter and gnaw

young develop in pouches on

eucalyptus, but not all types. Of

tree bark. Beavers

the mother’s body

the 500 varieties of eucalyptus,

chew through tree

omnivores (OM-nuh-vorz)

koalas feed on only 12 of them.

trunks. Always

animals that eat both plants

The name koala comes from

efficient, beavers

and meat

the Australian Aboriginal lan-

use the trunks for

guage. It means “no drink.”

building their

It is a good name for an animal

lodges, and eat the

Follow deer into the deep

that never drinks.

leaves and tender

woods in Carl R. Sams’s

shoots as food.

Stranger in the Woods (self-

Plant Eaters

Bears, although

 READ IT!

published, 2000).

4 Herbivores are among the

usually listed as

largest animals of the forest. In

carnivores, are actually

Asian rain forests, the Asian

omnivores. The diet of many

elephant, Javan rhino, and

bears is about 80 percent

Sumatran rhino feed on grass-

plants and only 20 percent 59

meat. A grizzly in a feeding frenzy may gorge itself on 200,000 berries in one day. Scientists studied brown and black bears in Glacier National Park in West Glacier, Montana. They found that the bears ate mostly grass, cow parsnips, flowering plants, and huckleberries. Pygmy marmosets, the smallest South American primates, suck sap from tree trunks and eat fruit and insects. Tamarins also eat fruit and insects, as well as small lizards, frogs, and snails. Black-bearded sakis eat fruit, nuts, and seeds in the upper canopy. Squirrel monkeys feed on fruit and flowers.  Pygmy marmosets weigh about 3 ounces (85 g). One could fit in the palm of your hand.

[Herbivores]

Fruit, Nuts, Seeds, and Nectar 4 Animals that eat fruit, nuts, seeds, or nectar live in every forest biome. Several bat species feed only on fruit. The Indian flying fox loves mangoes, guavas, and bananas. Bats enjoy soft, overripe fruit. They suck the juice and eat the pulp, spitting out the tough outer skin. In boreal forests, pinecones and needles from spruce and fir trees litter the floor.

 The Indian flying fox—actually a bat—has a wingspan of more than 4 feet (1.2 m).

One cone contains many

sands of acorns to last the long

seeds—a feast for mice and

winter months.

voles. In some years in

Forest flowers attract bees,

temperate deciduous forests,

butterflies, and hummingbirds.

oaks produce bumper crops

They drink the nectar held in

of acorns. Squirrels exhaust

flowers. Hummingbirds are

themselves collecting thou-

attracted by the color red. 61

PROFILE: MORPHOS BUTTERFLY

They will pass by yellow or

The Morphos butterfly (above)

white flowers to zero in on

searches the Amazon rain forest for

red blossoms.

rotting fruit—its favorite meal. These

Many birds feed on seeds

large butterflies have a wingspan of

and fruit. Seed-eating birds of

up to 7 inches (17.8 cm) across. The

boreal and deciduous forests

females are a dull brown, but males

include swallows and pigeons.

are a stunningly beautiful blue.

Compared to their rain forest relatives, these birds are dull in color. Parrots, toucans, cockatoos, macaws, and rosellas

62

[Herbivores]

spread their wings in tropical rain forests. Their startling

New Guinea

Solomon Islands

reds, yellows, blues, and greens Cape York

delight the eye. South American macaw feathers range from

A U S T R A L I A

Indian Ocean

bright green to vivid blue and yellow. Macaws can break open

0 0

1000 Miles 1000 KM

the toughest nuts with their powerful beaks. They also eat

 Cape York, Australia; New Guinea; and the Solomon Islands

fruit and berries. Eclectus parrots come in

and feces. A group

 READ IT!

two distinct shades. Females are

of animals and

Learn more about parrots

blue and bright red. Males are

plants feed on the

in Mark J. Rauzon’s Parrots

brilliant green. Eclectus parrots

trash littering the

around the World (Franklin

live in northern Australia, New

forest floor. They

Watts, 2001).

Guinea, and the Solomon

are called decom-

Islands. They feed on treetop

posers. Decomposers recycle

seeds, nuts, and flowers.

forest trash into fertilized,

Decomposers

healthy soil. Consider a typical forest

4 Every forest floor collects

floor. Worms feast on dead

dead leaves and branches, rot-

leaves. They produce large

ting fruit, fallen animal parts,

amounts of solid waste that 63

 Millipedes are decomposers. They feed on rotting plants and leaves on the forest floor.

deposit nutrients into the soil.

64

Nearby, termites munch

Not all worms are small. The

their way through a fallen tree

largest earthworm measures up

limb. A millipede crawls over

to 11 feet (3.4 m) long. Slugs

the forest litter. It settles on

and snails leave trails of slime

rotting fruit for a meal. Dung

behind them as they search for

beetles collect feces from other

tasty plants. This slime con-

animals. They roll the waste

tains nutrients that are good

into balls and lay their eggs

for plants. They will eat living

inside. Their larvae feed on

plants and freshly fallen leaves.

the dung.

7

[Chapter Seven]

A Cycle of Life

A Cycle of Life

4 A mother orangutan clings to a scrawny female infant. She will be a single parent, raising this youngster for nearly eight

 A baby orangutan practices swinging from a branch.

65

[A Cycle of Life]

years. The mother

Mother is family, teacher, feed-

extinction (ek-STINGKT-shuhn)

already has one

er, and groomer for her young.

the state of having no more

child, a six-year-old

living members of a species

juvenile male. He is

or three young during her life-

juvenile (JOO-vuh-nile)

playful and pokes at

time. This slow rate of repro-

young, not yet having reached

the newborn. His

duction, along with the loss of

adulthood

mother gives him a

habitat and food source, has

gentle swat.

put the species in danger of

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

Orangutans have a long

An adult female has two

extinction. Female orangutans

childhood. The baby will

have been killed so that their

nurse until she is about three.

young can be placed in zoos.

[A Cycle of Life]

Arctic Ocean

Arctic Ocean

?

Arctic Ocean

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

primate (PRYE-mate) an animal order that includes monkeys, Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

apes, and humans prosimians (proh-SIHM-ee-

Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean

uhnz) early or primitive primates, such as lorises,

New World Monkeys

Old World Monkeys

lemurs, pottos, and galagos  The territory of old world monkeys and new world monkeys

simians (SIHM-ee-uhnz) a

The loss of every orangutan is

and apes. Simians

physically advanced group

crucial.

live in Asia, Africa,

of primates, such as monkeys,

and South America.

apes, tamarins, marmosets,

The Great Apes

Monkeys and

and humans

4 Great apes belong to the

apes fall into either

primate family, just like

“new world” or “old

humans. Primates are divided

world” groups. New

Few people can equal Jane

into two groups: prosimians

world primates live

Goodall for her knowledge and

and simians. Prosimians have

in rain forests of

understanding of chimpanzees.

snouts that stick out, much

Central and South

Learn about her efforts to save

like a dog’s. These include

America. Tiny

these creatures in her book

lemurs and lorises, which

pygmy marmosets

My Life with the Chimpanzees

live in Africa and Asia.

and elegant golden

(Aladdin Library, 1996).

Simians include monkeys

lion tamarins are

 READ IT!

 Mother and child orangutans share a special bond—just like human mothers and their babies.

67

[A Cycle of Life]

new world primates. Old world

(180 kg). Males are called sil-

primates live in Africa and

verbacks because the hair on

Asia. They include the great

their backs turns gray in adult-

apes: chimpanzees, gorillas,

hood. Gorillas are peaceful

and orangutans.

creatures. They will groom one

Chimpanzees are the smallest great apes. An average

for hours. This activity is so

male weighs 100 to 175

relaxing that it often puts the

pounds (45 to 79 kg) and

groomed ape to sleep. Gorillas

stands 5.5 feet (1.7 m) tall.

live in family groups with one

Chimpanzees live in African

or more males and up to 30

forests in social groups called

females and their young.

troops. A troop has 25 to 75

Orangutans, also called

individuals. Chimpanzees eat

orangs, live only on the islands

mainly fruit but will snack on

of Borneo and Sumatra. The

ants, termites, and honey.

word orangutan means “man

Chimps also hunt and kill

of the forest.” Indeed, orangs

other primates, including

are the closest apes to humans.

colobus monkeys and baboons.

More than 95 percent of the

Gorillas are the largest

68

another (pick insects from fur)

genes that make up orangs are

apes. They, too, live in Africa.

also found in humans. Orangs

A full-sized adult male can

eat fruit and travel a large ter-

weigh up to 400 pounds

ritory to find their food.

This silverback gorilla is probably the dominant male in his family. 

[A Cycle of Life]

From Birth to Adulthood 4 A newborn great ape begins life clinging to its moth-

are weaned at about three years old. Apes are excellent parents. They take good care of their

er’s belly. It will

children. This is important

nurse at its moth-

because the children depend

Swing with the best—watch

er’s breast for many

on their parents for food,

Dorling Kindersley’s Amazing

months. Orangs

shelter, and protection. A

Animals: Monkeys and Apes

nurse longest and

chimpanzee juvenile will be

 WATCH IT!

[ASIN: 0789421542].

[A Cycle of Life]

totally dependent on its mother for at least two years. Playing is an important part of ape childhood. Play gives young apes practice climbing, swinging, and hanging from limbs. Young orangutans must strengthen their arms and legs for a lifetime in the canopy. Young orangs are particularly open to attack on the ground. They rarely leave

PROFILE: TOOLS AND CHIMPS

their leafy homes in the trees.

Chimpanzees use tools to help them

Lessons Learned

in their daily lives. They use sticks like fishing poles to catch ants and

4 Ape mothers teach young-

termites. The insects hold on to the

sters where to find food. Juve-

stick and end up as a snack. Large

niles must learn what can be

sticks become clubs to fend off enemies

eaten safely and what is poi-

or attackers. Chimps catch water for

sonous. Mothers develop close

drinking by making leaf cups. They

relationships with other troop

also use leaves to make nests for

members. Aunts, sisters, and

sleeping each night. Rocks make

grandmothers may take turns

excellent nutcrackers and fruit openers.

 Chimpanzees are clever, agile, and fun-loving.

71

 Chimpanzees form a social bond by grooming each other.

caring for young gorillas and

and manners are important.

chimpanzees. Orangs, on the

One way apes show closeness

other hand, have few social

is by grooming one another.

relationships.

As apes grow, they learn their

Young apes must learn to recognize danger. Chimpan-

sters must accept the rules of

zees have several natural ene-

the male troop leader.

mies. Leopards attack chimp juveniles. The chimps shout

Adults in the Ape World

warnings and make frighten-

4 Once they reach adult-

ing faces when danger comes.

hood, males and females travel

In ape troops, social rank 72

place in the troop. The young-

separate routes. Males leave The orangutan is Asia’s only great ape.

[A Cycle of Life]

 LOOK IT UP!

the troop and find their own

troop they grew up

territories. A lucky male will

with or move to

What is being done to save the

find a female willing to start

join other troops.

great apes from extinction? Visit

a family away from her troop.

Sometimes a female

the Ape Alliance and find out at

Once a male becomes elderly,

will accept a lone

http://www.4apes.com/gorilla.

other troop members treat

male, and together

him with respect.

they become the founding

Females have very free lives. They may stay with the

parents of a new troop. The female has already learned

the great apes is humans. Gorillas are killed for their hands and heads (which are then sold as souvenirs and ornaments), their meat, and for sport. Orangs are forced from their homes by logging companies. Chimpanzees are captured for use in medical labs and for sale as pets. Worldwide bans on the sale of these animals have had little effect. Poaching pays  Rangers look for gorilla traps and dismantle them. Poaching continues to endanger gorillas.

Central Africa depend on ape

parenting skills by watching

meat for food. Hungry people

the other females in her birth

do not see the value in saving

troop.

apes while they starve. But

Gorillas may live 35 years

74

good money. Many people in

conservation groups are win-

in the wild. Orangs also live

ning the battle. Hopefully,

about 35 years. Chimpanzees

they will win the war before

have a life span of 40 to 50

the great apes are gone for-

years. The greatest threat to

ever.

8

[Chapter Eight]

4 Sunlight trickles through

The Old-Growth Forest

The OldGrowth Forest

ters up the side of a tree that towers nearly 250 feet (76.2 m) high. A blue Steller’s jay darts through the old-growth forest. The jay snatches an egg from the nest of a marbled murrelet. The forest floor lies

giant redwood branches. A

spongy with moss and

plump Douglas squirrel skit-

fallen leaves. A bright

 Steller’s jays depend on old-growth forest for survival.

75

[The Old-Growth Forest]

yellow banana slug

The slug disappears beneath

A mature redwood produces

oozes its way over

wisps of maidenhair fern. Wind

thousands of seed cones each

the dead leaves, leav-

shifts the branches above. A

year. Only one seed in a

ing a trail of slime.

shower of tiny cones drops to

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

million becomes a mature redwood tree.

the ground with soft thuds. Inside the redwood’s trunk, rings record its 1,000year history. Forest fires have left burned scars. Narrow rings tell of periods with little water. Thick rings report years with heavy rainfall. Dark speckles are lasting reminders of insects that crawled on this tree centuries ago.

Defining the Old-Growth Forest 4 An old-growth forest has plants that have grown without human interference. That interference could be from building roads or, most often,  Some redwood trees in Jedediah Smith State Park, California, may be more than 1,000 years old.

 The Ecuadorian rain forest provides a safe haven for this young crested owl.

from logging or clearing land

Ancient forests

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

for farming or housing. Old-

exist on every conti-

Scientists studied 20 marri

growth trees are more than

nent where forests

trees in an Australian old-

250 years old. The forest con-

grow. The Amazon

growth forest. They discovered

tains trees at various stages of

rain forest, forests in

that each tree supported an

growth. Broken tree stumps,

western Australia,

average of 443 insect species.

called snags, stand beneath

the Congo rain

Many of these species were

breaks in the canopy. Fallen

forest, and the

new to the scientists and

trees lie slowly rotting on the

Siberian taiga

hadn’t even been named.

forest floor.

are old-growth 77

[The Old-Growth Forest]

TIME LINE: A redwood seed takes hold.

A.D.

Great Plains Native Americans develop the bow and arrow.

03

500–650

Viking Leif Eriksson lands on North American soil.

1000

Christopher Columbus sails to the “New World.”

1492

The Jamestown colony is settled.

1607

The Declaration of Independence is signed.

1776

The California gold rush occurs.

1849

A 2,000-year-old tree is cut by loggers.

2003

forests. In North America, old-growth forests are a living history of our continent. Trees sprout, grow, and die. In between, they feed rodents, birds, deer, and elk. They shelter sparrows, jays, and endangered marbled murrelets. When they die, they topple to the ground. Dead trees may take 500 years to decay. During that time, countless  Giant redwoods tower over forest activity.

[The Old-Growth Forest]

insects, snails, birds, and mam-

TONGASS FOREST IN THE NEWS

mals feed on, nest in, and shel-

The Tongass National Forest in Alaska is

ter beneath the trunks.

the largest national forest in the United

Why Save Ancient Forests? 4 Some people believe that

States. It covers 17 million acres (6.9 million hectares) and supports deer, moose, bears, wolves, salmon, and bald eagles. Under current plans, only 676,000

a tree is a tree is a tree. They

acres (274,000 hectares)—less than

think that cutting down old

10 percent of the total forest—may be

trees doesn’t matter. People

harvested over the next 100 years. Loss of

can always plant new trees.

old-growth forest is much like a tumbling

This is wrong. It takes nearly

house of cards. Scientists estimate that

1,000 years for the natural

logging will reduce deer populations by

balance of an old-growth forest

three-quarters. This means local wolves

to develop. Loss of that bal-

will lose a major food source. Bald eagles

ance cannot be replaced in

will lose almost all of their nesting and

5 years . . . 50 years . . . or

perching places. They feed on salmon in

even 500 years.

local rivers. Salmon depend on the forest

Humans need forest prod-

to keep river water clean where they lay

ucts. They heat their homes,

their eggs. Without clean water, the

eat food, drink water, build

salmon population will decline. Bears that

furniture, and take medicine.

eat salmon to fatten themselves for their

Forests help them do these

long winter sleep will suffer.

79

[The Old-Growth Forest]

 READ IT!

things. Like wet-

forests may provide food for

Learn more about the bird that

lands, forests clean

people.

may save the old-growth forest.

and renew water

Read Spotted Owl: Bird of the

sources. They pro-

take today come from old-

Ancient Forest by Brenda Z.

vide fruit, nuts, and

growth forest plants.

Guiberson (Henry Holt, 1994).

berries. Animals that roam the

Many medicines humans

Clear-cutting all the trees, burning the undergrowth, and

[The Old-Growth Forest]

logging may destroy animal and plant species that are yet unknown. It is possible that the cure for a deadly disease is growing today in an old-growth forest. That plant may be destroyed before people even know it exists. Ninety percent of North American trees to be cut this year stand in old-growth forests. Conservationists want to stop cutting in oldgrowth forests. They chose one endangered species as a symbol of ancient forests in

 Laws protect this northern spotted owl and its habitat.

North America: the northern

acres (405 hectares) of ancient

spotted owl. Spotted owls

forest are set aside for each

cannot survive without the

breeding pair. Spotted owls

old-growth ecosystem.

are umbrella species of North

Laws now protect up

American old-growth forests.

to 550 pairs of owls in north-

Roosevelt elks, wolves, mar-

ern California. About 1,000

bled murrelets, and other

 About 10,000 bald eagles nest in the treetops of Tongass National Forest.

81

 Clear-cutting in the Tongass National Forest leaves the land vulnerable to erosion.

endangered species fall under

valued rain forest regions.

the spotted owl’s umbrella

Logging continues there at a

of safety.

record pace. Canadian timber

In the United States,

82

companies hold leases for cut-

logging cuts about 175 acres

ting trees in more than 90

(71 hectares) of ancient forest

percent of Canada’s govern-

each day. Nearly 10 percent of

ment-run ancient forests.

South America’s rain forest

Logging in old-growth forests

has fallen under the axe. In

continues at alarming rates.

Malaysia, the minister of the

Legal action takes time and

environment holds the most

cannot always catch up to the

licenses for cutting timber in

logger’s chain saws.

9

[Chapter Nine]

The Human Touch

The Human Touch

eats leaves, shoots, and branches of bamboo for 18 hours a day. As a food, bamboo has little nutrition. Each day, the panda must eat at least 30 pounds (13.6 kg) of bamboo. But they can eat

4 A giant panda lumbers

as much as 85 pounds (39 kg)

through the bamboo forest of

of bamboo shoots daily. They

Sichuan province, China. This

can also weigh as much as

220-pound (100-kg) animal

300 pounds (136 kg).

 Giant panda habitats slowly disappear as China’s population takes over the bamboo forests.

83

 The survival of the giant panda depends on successful births in captivity. Week-old Hua Mei was born in the San Diego Zoo.

 LOOK IT UP!

At one point,

In a joint effort among

Watch the antics of young

the world population

Chinese scientists, the San

Hua Mei or learn about the

of giant pandas

Diego Zoo, and the National

other pandas at the San Diego

dropped below 300.

Zoo in Washington, D.C., peo-

Zoo. Visit the zoo Web site,

With a current world

ple have been trying to breed

http://www.sandiegozoo.

population of about

pandas in zoos. In San Diego,

org/pandas.

1,000, the species is

Hua Mei became the fifth giant

still considered

panda born in captivity in the

84

extremely endangered. Loss of

United States. Her survival

forest habitat is the panda’s

may signal hope for saving this

greatest danger.

rare and amazing species.

Much rain forest timber from Malaysia is turned into disposable chopsticks when it  reaches Japan.

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

Threats to the World’s Forests

ened animals continues on a large scale. Conservation groups try

4 Threats to the world’s

to control these threats. How-

forests are many. Logging,

ever, it is impossible to prevent

clear-cutting, and planned

everything that damages the

burning destroy many acres of

environment. Setting up pre-

forests each day. Pollution kills

serves, national forests, and

plants and animals. The sale of

protected wilderness areas

rare, endangered, and threat-

helps but does not cure

 Logging in the Philippines provides jobs and clears land for crops, but at what cost?

environmental ills. Laws

resources. Governments of

protecting endangered and

those countries often do not

threatened species reduce

think twice about cutting trees.

poaching but do not prevent

Trees equal money. Logs are

poaching completely.

sold for building and furniture

Cutting the Forests

86

making and as pulp for paper. Much of Malaysia’s lumber is

4 Rain forests grow in many

sold to Japan to make dispos-

countries that have few other

able chopsticks.

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

Rain forest is often clearcut to create cattle pastures.

Pollution and the Forests

Loss of habitat affects the

4 Plant matter is burned to

plants and animals of the

clear land. Smoke puts carbon

region. However, rain forest

monoxide and carbon dioxide

grazing produces beef that is

into the air. The smoke results

less expensive than beef from

in polluted air and acid rain,

other countries. Cheap beef

another form of chemical pol-

provides the burgers served

lution. Acid rain also comes

by fast-food restaurants in

from burning fossil fuels, such

North America.

as oil, gasoline, or coal.

Loss of plant growth

Humans use fossil fuels to

increases soil erosion. Topsoil

power cars and

needed for growing plants gets

trucks, heat homes,

washed into local streams and

and run factories.

emissions (i-MISH-uhnz)

rivers. Soil erosion clouds

Burned fuel pro-

things that are sent off or out,

rivers, creating added prob-

duces emissions

such as gases

lems for fish and river plants.

that contain sulfur,

Cloudy water prevents sun-

nitrogen, and chlorine. These

shine from reaching the river

are basic chemical elements

bottom. Plants and animals

found in nature.

living on the riverbed struggle to survive.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

The acid is formed when certain amounts of sulfur, 87

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

 Slag from this iron mine pollutes the soil.

nitrogen, and chlorine combine with oxygen in the air.

Gold mining in the Amazon River has a nasty side

The acids exist with

effect: mercury poisoning.

water vapor in our

Miners use mercury, a liquid

atmosphere (AT-muhss-fihr)

atmosphere. When

metal, to draw tiny gold parti-

the layer of gases that sur-

rain falls, so does

cles from Amazon River silt.

rounds the earth

the acid. Acid rain

Mercury pours back into the

destroys trees, poi-

water, polluting the river and

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

88

sons rivers and lakes, and kills

its neighboring wetlands.

plants and animals.

Mercury poisons people as

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

well as giant river otters, capy-

and other cats are

baras, and tapirs. Amazon

killed for their fur.

The greatest threat to many

River gold comes at a heavy

Poachers slay croco-

primate species is research

cost to the environment.

diles, snakes, and

laboratories. Scientists use

caimans for skins

lab monkeys to test medicines,

to make belts,

makeup, shampoos, and other

4 A huge market exists for

shoes, and wallets.

substances. Conservation

selling exotic animals. Parrots,

In 1973, a

Animals for Sale

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

groups believe this testing is

macaws, rosellas, cockatoos,

meeting was held

cruel. They encourage using

and other tropical birds are

to stop the sale of

products labeled, “No animal

netted and sold as pets. Boas,

endangered and

testing is done to produce

anacondas, and other tropical snakes find themselves living in aquarium tanks instead of rain forests. Boreal forests abound with fur-bearing animals. Minks, ermines, foxes, beavers, and martens are killed for their skins. The furs provide coats, muffs, and hats for fashionable dressers. In rain forests, tigers, leopards, Minks like this cuddly pair belong  in forests—not in cages.

this product.”

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

threatened animals and animal

can earn more money selling a

parts. From that meeting, the

dozen exotic parrots than they

Convention of International

could make in a lifetime of

Trade in Endangered Species of

farming. This is true for every

Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

species poached. In addition,

was formed. By the early 1990s,

laws that try to stop the sale of

107 countries agreed to CITES

animals and animal parts are

rules. Now there are 160 mem-

only partly successful. Smug-

bers. The countries said they

gling rare animals continues

would stop selling ivory, fur, and

because there are willing buy-

parts from endangered animals,

ers. As long as people buy croc-

including many species of live

odile shoes, leopard coats, or

monkeys, apes, and tropical birds.

ivory carvings, poaching will

CITES also supports captive breeding programs in zoos throughout the world.

Forests in Our Future

These breeding programs have

4 The world’s forests face

increased populations of mar-

a bleak future. People need

mosets and Rhesus monkeys.

wood for fuel, building, furni-

CITES has built breeding

ture, and papermaking. Forests

ranches for crocodiles.

provide wood. Replanting

Poaching continues for one main reason: money. Poachers 90

not end.

efforts are important, but newgrowth forests take a long time

 The Ozarks National Forest in Arkansas is one of many forest areas preserved by the U.S. government.

to produce wood. In many

forest destruction takes place

countries, logging companies

so fast that many new species

do not replant forests.

are gone before they are even

There are 2,300 animals and 24,000 plants listed as

named. Saving forests depends on

endangered species. Newly

human interest. People need to

discovered plants and animals

protect our forests before there

are found all the time. Yet,

are no forests left to protect. 91

Chart of Species

[Forests]

KEYSTONE SPECIES

FLAGSHIP SPECIES

UMBRELLA SPECIES

INDICATOR SPECIES

AFRICA

leaf-cutter and other ants, termites, bats, fig trees

lowland gorillas, mountain gorillas, leopards, chimpanzees

gorillas, chimpanzees

bees, butterflies, moths, bats

ASIA

Asian elephants, fig trees, bamboo, bats

Siberian tigers, Bengal tigers, Asian elephants, orangutans, giant pandas

Asiatic black bears, Javan rhinos, Sumatran rhinos, Siberian tigers, Bengal tigers

Javan gibbons, bees, moths, butterflies

AUSTRALIA

strangler fig trees, cassowaries, termites, bats

koala bears, quokkas, musky rat kangaroos, lyrebirds

cassowaries

boreal owls, bees, butterflies, moths

EUROPE

European beavers, beech trees, bees, bats

midwife toads, hazel hens, ladyslipper orchids

capercaillies, stag beetles, great spotted woodpeckers

bats, bees, beetles, moths, butterflies, pine martens, capercaillies

NORTH AMERICA

wolves, quaking aspens, brown bears, oak trees

wolves, mountain lions, bears, northern spotted owls

bears, northern spotted owls, gray wolves, red wolves

Boreal owls, wolverines, Mexican spotted owls

SOUTH AMERICA

leaf cutter ants, bats, fig trees, rain forest trees

golden lion tamarins, jaguars, Andes condors

jaguars, muriqui, Andes condors

bees, hummingbirds, butterflies, moths

CONTINENT

 The above chart gives a starting point for identifying key species. Each forest environment has its own key species. The above chart lists some of those species.

92

[Bold-faced entries are the ones discussed in the text.]