Our Living World: Earth's Biomes - Volume 2: Tundra

2 volume

Tundra

T R A D I T I O N A

N E W

Tundra

OUR LIVING WORLD: EARTH’S BIOMES B a r b a r a A . S o m e r v i l l

B O O K S

T R A D I T I O N

®

, I N

M A P L E

P L A I N ,

C H I L D R E N ’ S

M I N N E S O T A P U B L I S H I N G

TM



ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Barbara A. Somervill is the author of many books for children. She loves learning and sees every writing project as a chance to learn new information or gain a new understanding. Ms. Somervill grew up in New York State, but has also lived in Toronto, Canada; Canberra, Australia; California; and South Carolina. She currently lives with her husband in Simpsonville, South Carolina.



CONTENT ADVISER

Susan Woodward, Professor of Geography, Radford University, Radford, Virginia

4

In gratitude to George R. Peterson Sr. for introducing me to the beauty of creation —George R. Peterson Jr., Publisher, Tradition Books® Published in the United States of America by Tradition Books® and distributed to the school and library market by The Child’s World® [ACKNOWLEDGMENTS] For Editorial Directions, Inc.: E. Russell Primm, Editorial Director; Dana Meachen Rau, Line Editor; Katie Marsico, Associate Editor; Judi Shiffer, Associate Editor and Library Media Specialist; Matthew Messbarger, Editorial Assistant; Susan Hindman, Copy Editor; Lucia Raatma, Proofreaders; Ann Grau Duvall, Peter Garnham, Deborah Grahame, Katie Marsico, Elizabeth K. Martin, and Kathy Stevenson, Fact Checkers; Tim Griffin/IndexServ, Indexer; Cian Loughlin O’Day, Photo Researcher; Linda S. Koutris, Photo Selector For The Design Lab: Kathleen Petelinsek, design, art direction, and cartography; Kari Thornborough, page production [PHOTOS] Cover/frontispiece: Corbis. Interior: Animals Animals/Earth Scenes: 16 (Bradley W. Stahl), 38 (Studio Carlo Dani), 62 (Erwin & Peggy Bauer), 67 (Maria Zorn), 73 (McDonald Wildlife Photography), 81 (Breck P. Kent), 88 (OSF/Doug Allan); W. Perry Conway/Corbis: 41, 57; Corbis: 8 (Liz Hymans), 12 (Andrew Brown; Ecoscene), 15 (Wolfgang Kaehler), 20 (Dave G. Houser), 30 (Arthur Morris), 32 (Steve Kaufman), 33 (Eric and David Hosking), 42 (Charles Mauzy), 47 (Tom Brakefield), 54 (Lowell Georgia), 55 (Scott T. Smith), 59 (Kevin Schafer), 60 (Hubert Stadler), 64 (Joe McDonald), 84 (John Noble); Michael DeFreitas: 75; Dembinsky Photo Associates: 21 (Pekka Parvianinen), 46 (Darrell Gulin), 53 (Dominique Braud); Digital Vision: 28, 50, 83; Patrick Endres/Alaskaphotographics.com: 51, 52, 58, 69, 76, 78; Frank Lane Picture Agency/Corbis: 22 (Philip Perry), 80 (Roger Wilmhurst); D. Robert & Lorri Franz/Corbis: 35, 37; Getty Images/Brand X Pictures: 9; Darrell Gulin/Corbis: 48, 91; Wolfgang Kaehler: 27; A. Kuznetsov/Art Directors & TRIP Photo Library: 7; Photodisc: 18, 24, 26, 36, 39, 43, 61, 68, 70, 77, 90; Robert Pickett/Corbis: 66, 82; Crii Rad/Constantin Blanc/Corbis Sygma: 86; Galen Rowell/Corbis: 5, 11; Gary Schultz: 17, 44, 89; Kennan Ward/Corbis: 23, 34, 49; Peter Weimann/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes: 4, 29. [ L I B R A RY O F C O N G R E S S C ATA L O G I N G - I N - P U B L I C AT I O N D ATA ] CIP data available

Table of Contents

Table of Contents [Chapter One]

4 Defining Arctic and Alpine Tundra [ C h a p t e r Tw o ]

22 Focus on Key Species [Chapter Three]

32 Predators [Chapter Four]

43 Prey [Chapter Five]

51 Flora [Chapter Six]

59 Herbivores [Chapter Seven]

69 A Cycle of Life [Chapter Eight]

74 The Breeding Season [Chapter Nine]

82 The Human Touch 92

[Chart of Species]

93

[Index]

4

1

[Chapter One]

Defining Arctic and Alpine Tundra

Defining Arctic and Alpine Tundra

4

4 A snow leopard leaps over snowdrifts in the Himalaya Mountains. Her thick fur keeps her warm in winter. Like most snow leopards, this female cat lives alone. She is 4 feet (1.2 meters) long and weighs 80 pounds (36 kilograms),

 A herd of Tibetan blue sheep keeps a watchful eye out for hungry snow leopards.

about the size of a big dog.

A herd of Hima-

? WORDS TO KNOW . . .

She hunts with skill and cun-

layan blue sheep

ibexes (EYE-beks-ez) a large

ning. She can bring down

paws the ground

variety of wild goats

Himalayan tahrs and ibexes

nearby. The leopard

tahrs (TARZ) long-haired mem-

equal to her own weight.

keeps downwind of

bers of the wild Asian goat fam-

the sheep. The

ily found only in the Himalayas

Today, her hunt leads her into a valley. The leopard

sheep neither hear

crouches down against the

nor smell her approach. She

snow. Her gray-spotted white

slinks forward, then leaps. The

fur blends in against snow-

herd scatters. They bound onto

capped rocks.

sheer, rocky cliffs to escape.

 A snow leopard prowls the alpine tundra of Asia’s Himalaya Mountains.

5

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

?

The leopard’s

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

Tundra supports fewer

biomes (BYE-ohmz) large

search for food has

types of plants and animals

ecosystems in which the

failed. She’ll try

than most other biomes. It

plants and animals are adapted

again, but next time,

seems like a barren, heartless

to a particular climate or physi-

a hare becomes the

land. Yet it is filled with life.

cal environment

target. Hares are

About 1,700 different plants

ecosystems (EE-koh-siss-tuhmz)

easier to catch than

grow in arctic and subarctic

communities of plants and

sheep. They also

ecosystems. These include

animals and their relationships

make a decent meal.

grasses, sedges, lichens, wild-

with the surrounding environ-

Snow leopards can’t

flowers, and shrubs. The plant

ments

be choosy about

varieties growing within each

what they eat. There

region depend on soil quali-

is too little prey available high

ty, weather, and water supply.

in the Himalayas of Asia.

There are far fewer animal species than plants. The

Two Types of Tundra

number of animals depends

4 Tundra comes from the

on available food. The ability

Lapp word tundar. It means

to adapt to harsh weather

“treeless plain”—an accurate

also limits the variety of

description. Only short, stunt-

tundra animals.

ed trees survive the rugged

6

Tundra exists in two

tundra climate. Those trees are

forms, alpine and Arctic.

hard to find.

Alpine tundra covers A tree like this one is a rarity on Siberian tundra.  Most tundra trees hug close to the ground.

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

mountain areas above

rainfall, and short

the tree line. Arctic tundra

growing seasons.

tree line (TREE LINE) the maxi-

occurs within or near

Few humans live

mum elevation at which trees

the Arctic Circle. Both

in tundra environ-

will grow

feature cold climates, little

ments.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

Alpine Tundra

tudes—about 8,500 feet (2,700 m). Usually, alpine

4 Alpine tundra is found in

tundra starts between 10,000

Africa, Asia, Europe, South

and 11,000 feet (3,050 and

America, and North America.

3,350 m) in altitude.

Tundra begins at

At high altitudes, tempera-

different altitudes

tures drop and high winds

altitudes (AL-ti-toodz) eleva-

in every alpine sys-

whip the landscape. High alti-

tions above sea level

tem, depending on

tudes also have thinner air.

where trees stop

Animals have less oxygen to

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

growing. It starts above the

breathe. Plants make do with

tree line. In the Himalaya

lower levels of carbon dioxide,

Mountains, tundra begins at

the gas they need to live.

about 14,750 feet (4,500 m).

Many animals and plants

Rocky Mountain tundra to the

cannot adjust to thinner air

north may begin at lower alti-

or harsh weather.

 In winter, alpine tundra can present a rather bleak landscape.

All alpine tundra ecosys-

Average alpine tundra

tems endure odd weather

temperatures range from –2°

patterns. Summer mornings

to 50° Fahrenheit (–19° to 10°

might start sunny and warm.

Celsius). Temperatures on

Yet the day could end with a

exposed cliffs and rocky land

snowstorm. Sometimes, the

drop much lower in winter.

snow falls so thick it creates a

Snowfall may be heavy, though

whiteout. People cannot see

the region is usually dry.

more than a few feet in front of them in a whiteout.

Alpine tundra animals find ways to cope with the cold.

 Pikes Peak, Colorado, is one of the most frequently climbed mountains in North America.

9

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

75˚N

Bears hibernate. This means

at lower altitudes. They must

that they fill up on food in the

hunt food through the winter.

fall and sleep through the worst

Most alpine birds, including

winter weather. Wolves and

birds of prey, migrate south.

mountain lions move to forests

They head for warmer weather.

Arctic Ocean

Arctic Ocean

GREENLAND

Arctic Ocean

60˚N

E U R O P E A S I A

45˚N

N O R T H A M E R I C A

Atlantic Ocean

30˚N

15˚N

Pacific Ocean

Pacific Ocean

A F R I C A

0˚

S O U T H A M E R I C A

15˚S

Indian Ocean AUSTRALIA

30˚S

N 45˚S Alpine Tundra

60˚S 165˚W

150˚W

135˚W

120˚W

105˚W

90˚W

75˚W

60˚W

45˚W

30˚W

15˚W

0˚

 Alpine tundra regions of the world

10

15˚E

30˚E

45˚E

60˚E

75˚E

90˚E

105˚E

120˚E

135˚E

150˚E

165˚E

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

Alpine Tundra around the World 4 In Asia, alpine tundra is found in the Himalaya Mountains, the Plateau of Tibet, and on Fuji, the highest mountain in Japan. The Himalayas include Mount Everest and dozens of other peaks rising more than 20,000 feet (6,100 m). The Himalayan alpine tundra provides homes for several unusual animal species, 0˚

 Pink rhododendrons splatter color across the Kama Valley near Mount Everest.

including tahrs, yaks, and

stretch through Italy, Switzer-

snow leopards. Himalayan

land, Lichtenstein, Austria,

alpine shrubs include juniper

and France). In most regions

and rhododendron. Mosses,

of the Alps, the tree line lies

sedges, and lichens also grow

from about 5,000 to 9,000

at tundra heights.

feet (1,500 to 2,740 m). The

European alpine tundra exists in the Alps (which

tree line can lie at different altitudes on parts of the same 11

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

 The Swiss Alps are famous for ski resorts and stunning mountain landscapes.

12

mountain. Lush meadows

grasses. Few large predators

fill high valleys in the Alps.

remain in the Alps. Most have

Clusters of edelweiss sprinkle

been overhunted or forced out

white blooms among meadow

of the region. Golden eagles

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

patrol the skies above alpine

WORLD WILDLIFE FUND IN

meadows. They hunt for

THE NEWS

rodents and small birds.

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is

Loss of predators in a

returning bears, wolves, wolverines,

region such as the Alps de-

and lynx to Europe’s Alps. For many

stroys nature’s balance. With-

years, the Alps had no large predators.

out predators, plant-eater

The WWF blames this on bad rumors.

populations grow out of con-

People in European communities grew

trol. Deer, for example, pro-

up on stories of evil wolves and dan-

duce young every year. Too

gerous bears. Europeans believed that

many deer eat too many plants

it was good to kill these predators.

and damage forests. The Alps

So far, the WWF has reintroduced

need predators, such as bears

two predator groups in Europe. Lynx

and wolves, to reduce the

now live in the Swiss mountains. A

number of plant eaters.

new group of bears prowls the

Only a few places in

Austrian Alps.

Africa have alpine tundra. One of these is Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. Kilimanjaro’s alpine zones contain stumpy scrub trees and giant-sized plants, such as senecios and lobelias. 13

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

Crowned eagles and

cover the land. The most

The earth’s largest herb grows

lammergeiers circle

common grass-eating animals

in the Andes at 13,000 feet

the air looking for

found in the altiplano are

(3,965 m) above sea level. The

prey. Elands and

South American relatives of

herb is the Puya raimondii.

klipspringers,

camels: vicuña, llama, alpaca,

When the plant is about 100

types of antelopes,

and guanaco.

years old, it flowers for the

browse on clumps

first time—then dies. The

of tundra grass.

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

puya plant can reach 35 feet

South Amer-

In North America, alpine tundra occurs in the northern Appalachian Mountains and in

(10.7 m) tall, and the flowers

ica’s Andes Moun-

the Rocky Mountains. Most

can have a diameter of up to

tains spread more

Appalachian mountains lie too

8 feet (2.4 m).

than 4,500 miles

low to have alpine tundra

(7,240 kilometers)

zones. Tundra is limited to

down the western

small patches on the higher

The Rocky Mountains by Larry

side of South

peaks of New England. Mount

Bograd (Benchmark Books,

America. They fea-

Katahdin, Maine, which rises

2001) presents a full picture of

ture the altiplano,

5,268 feet (1,606 m), supports

the Rockies. The author explains

which is Spanish for

tundra lichens, sedges, and

the different ecosystems found

“high plains.” The

mosses above the treeline.

in the mountain range.

altiplano is alpine

 READ IT!

tundra of a slightly

14

The Rockies stretch from Canada to the southwestern

different kind. There are no

United States. Rocky Mountain

trees, but prairielike grasses

tundra supports bumblebees

Strong winds mold snow into drifts on the tundra in Manitoba, Canada. 

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

and butterflies, grizzly bears,

Arctic tundra in January.

mountain sheep and mountain

By then, winter has gripped

goats, marmots, pikas, and

the land for several months.

rosy finches. Each summer,

Sunlight casts a faint

wildflowers sprinkle alpine

glow that lasts barely

meadows with color. Winters

an hour each day.

latitude (LAA-tih-tood) the

find the same landscape blan-

Wind whips the land

distance a point is north or

keted by several feet of snow.

day and night.

south of the equator; lines

Arctic Tundra 4 Nothing is as bleak as

Arctic tundra ranges from 55° to 70° north latitude.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

of latitude run parallel to the equator

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

Tundra lies in Russia, Alaska,

arrival of millions of migrat-

Canada, and Greenland. It is

ing birds, such as tundra

also found in Iceland, Norway,

swans, snow geese, ducks, and

and Sweden.

plovers. Migrating birds come

Arctic tundra has two distinct animal popula-

to lay their eggs and raise their young on the tundra.

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

tions: summer-only

Refrigerator temperatures run

visitors and perma-

swarms. They plague musk

between 32°F and 40°F (0°C to

nent residents.

oxen and caribou with con-

4°C ). Freezers range from 0°F

Summers see the

stant buzzing and biting.

!

to 10°F (–18°C to –12°C ). Arctic tundra temperatures can drop to –60°F (–51°C ). That’s cold!

Insects breed in huge

 Midnight sun makes an eerie appearance over Alaska.

However, the billions of

ground. Their short height

insects feed millions of nest-

protects them from strong

ing birds.

winds and cold temperatures.

About 1,700 different

Summer plants reproduce

kinds of plants live in Arctic

in a hurry. Flowers must

tundra regions. Most are

bloom and produce seeds

sedges, mosses, and lichens.

during the six- to nine-week

Thick clusters of grasses

growing season. Ever-present

sprout up near icy streams.

winds and helpful plant eaters

About 400 types of wild-

carry the seeds across the

flowers huddle close to the

land. Of the millions of seeds

 This Arctic tundra is located in Greenland.

17

 An Arctic fox’s fur turns white in winter. It helps the fox blend in with its surroundings so that prey cannot see the fox approaching.

produced, only

south. Bears and Arctic

National Geographic’s White

a few actually

ground squirrels glut them-

Wolf [ASIN: 6304475993] allows

become plants.

selves with food. Then they

 WATCH IT!

viewers an inside look at life in

Winter comes

sleep in their dens until

a wolf pack. Learn about the

early in the Arctic,

spring. Rodents nestle in

trials and challenges of tundra

usually by Septem-

underground holes called

wolves in their natural habitat.

ber. Migrating birds

burrows to keep warm.

have already fled

Insects and their eggs lie

18

PROFILE: PERMAFROST Plant roots struggle to find space in the

extra-thick winter coats.

thin layer of tundra soil. The roots can-

The fur has two layers. The

not reach deep into the soil. A solid

short fur close to the skin

layer of permafrost blocks their path.

keeps the animals warm.

Permafrost is permanently frozen

Arctic foxes’ white coats blend

rock or soil. Even when summer tem-

with the snow to help them

peratures climb higher, permafrost

hide from the prey they

remains below 32°F (0°C). Permafrost

are hunting.

lies under about one-fourth of earth’s

20

Wolves and foxes grow

Many rodents live in

land. Permafrost in the Siberian region

underground burrows.

of Russia reaches as deep as 5,250

But they can dig only a

feet (1,600 m).

short way. Soil deeper than

[ D e f i n i n g A r c t i c a n d A l p i n e Tu n d r a ]

2 or 3 feet (.6 or .9 m) is

chicks. Life races

frozen solid. Rodents line

against the coming

aurora borealis (uh-ROR-uh

their dens with fur or

winter, when sting-

bor-ee-AL-iss) lights that

plants to add warmth.

ing cold will again

appear in the northern sky

grip the land.

near the Arctic; the aurora is

Insects head underground for the winter,

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

the result of flares on the sun

too. Some insects have a special chemical in their blood. The chemical works like antifreeze in a car. It allows the insects to survive intense cold. When spring approaches on the Arctic tundra, snowdrifts melt and icy streams rush against their banks. The aurora borealis fills the sky with dancing lights. Summer welcomes millions of butterflies, bees, mosquitoes, and flies. Vast flocks of tundra swans, Canada geese, and ducks feed their hungry  The aurora borealis lights up Norway’s nights with nature’s most beautiful light show.

21

2

[ C h a p t e r Tw o ]

Focus on Key Species

Focus on Key Species

22

thousands that will give birth this June. Snow still covers the hillsides, but the doe finds a patch of bare ground. She gives birth

4 It is early June. A female

to twins—a rare occasion. Most

caribou arrives at the spring

caribou births produce only

birthing grounds. She is one of

one calf.

 Caribou herds migrate along the same paths their ancestors used hundreds of years ago.

Within minutes, the twin

The herd’s size offers the

calves rise on shaky legs. After

calves some protection. They

just hours, they walk. By the

are among thousands of calves

next day, they have enough

born to the George River herd

strength to travel with the

in Quebec and Labrador,

herd. Young caribou must

Canada. The herd numbers

keep up with the adults.

about 500,000 animals and

Wolves and grizzly bears look

is one of the three largest

for stragglers. Even golden

caribou herds in the world.

eagles have been known to

Predators will not attack

take caribou calves.

when so many adults surround

 Caribou calves must be able to move with the herd when they are only a few hours old.

23

the calves. Caribou antlers are too dangerous, even for hungry wolves.

Keystone Species of the Arctic 4 Caribou, or wild reindeer, are keystone species of the Arctic tundra. They play a major role in the tundra biome. Without caribou, many other animals would not survive. Wolves and bears hunt young, old, and injured caribou. Predators must eat to live. Caribou provide their food. Predators also keep the herd healthy by weeding out weak animals. Two other predators attack caribou—mosquitoes and flies. As many as 2,000  A male caribou sports huge antlers that become serious weapons in a fight.

[Focus on Key Species]

flies have been counted

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

Keystone Species in Alpine Tundra

carcass (KAR-kuhss) the body

4 A keystone

carrion (CAH-ree-uhn) dead or

species in alpine

rotting flesh

eat their fill, the dead cari-

tundra is the pika.

feces (FEE-seez) solid waste of

bou’s carcass supports other

Pikas belong to the

an animal or human

animals. Blowflies lay live

rabbit family. They

larvae (LAR-vee) insects at the

larvae on dead flesh.

live in the Himala-

stage of development between

Carrion feeders, such as

yas, the Rockies,

eggs and pupae when they

gulls, jaegers, and Arctic

and in most alpine

look like worms

foxes, pick at the remaining

locations. Pikas pro-

meat. No part of a dead cari-

vide wolves with

bou goes unused. Even dis-

about half their food

Caribou travel 800 miles (1,290

carded antlers provide food

supply. Snow leop-

km) a year through an incredi-

for porcupines.

ards, brown bears,

bly demanding ecosystem.

steppe eagles, and

Learn more about caribou at

deposit feces along their

goshawks also

these Web sites: http://www.

paths. This waste carries

stalk pikas.

environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/

on one buck. Flies and mosquitoes suck blood. It is their food. Once wolves or bears

As caribou travel, they

seeds and spores of plants

Pika burrows

of a dead animal

 LOOK IT UP!

fishwild/caribou.shtml and

the caribou ate. The caribou

provide homes for

http://idahoes.fws.gov/Fact/

help spread plant life across

small birds, such as

Caribou.html.

the tundra.

ground jays and 25

The pika’s sharp claws scratch away soil. This action keeps soil fresh and increases plant growth. Pikas eat plants. They collect and store leaves and grasses in small haystacks. Like caribou waste, pika waste spreads plant seeds through the ecosystem. Pocket gophers are a keystone species of the Rocky Mountain alpine tundra. They provide the same services to an alpine biome as Asian pikas. They dig burrows almost continuously. Pocket gophers turn soil and  The pika is a favorite food of many tundra predators.

26

spread seeds through feces. Like squirrels and mice,

snowfinches. Lizards like

gophers are rodents. They’re

pika burrows, as well. These

not much of a meal, but hun-

animals don’t bother pikas.

gry predators do eat them.

A grizzly bear mother must teach her cubs how to find edible berries, nuts, and roots  in the tundra.

[Focus on Key Species]

Umbrella Species

tion over other

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

creatures. For

endangered (en-DAYN-jurd) on

4 Governments pass laws

example, a grizzly

the edge being completely

to protect endangered or

bear’s home area

wiped out; few members of a

threatened species. Legal

ranges from 70 to

species still surviving

protection may outlaw hunt-

400 square miles

threatened (THRET-uhnd) at

ing an animal or digging up

(181 to 1,036 sq

risk of becoming endangered

a plant. It may limit roads

km). Protecting a

that run through a territory.

grizzly bear from hunting or

Laws may punish people for

loss of habitat covers its

killing endangered animals.

entire range. Many other ani-

An umbrella species is

mals and plants live within

a protected animal or plant

that territory. When the

that spreads its legal protec-

bear’s territory is protected,

[Focus on Key Species]

those plants and

umbrella species. So do

Discover everything you need to

animals share in

wolves and caribou. Bears and

know about grizzly bears. Read

that protection.

wolves roam large territories.

 READ IT!

Grizzly Bear by Alvin and

Grizzly bears

Laws protect these predators.

Virginia Silverstein (Millbrook

are not the only

That protection spreads out

Press, 1998).

umbrella species of

like an umbrella over the

the tundra. Other

tundra biome.

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

tundra bears, such

Flagship Species

Most bears are omnivores. That

as Asiatic black

means they eat both meat and

bears and polar

4 Flagship species star in

plants. A hungry grizzly can get

bears, also serve as

television specials. They have

into a feeding frenzy. It may eat 200,000 berries in one day!

 A lone male wolf crosses open ground. He will live alone until he finds a mate, and the pair will then start a pack of their own.

Web sites dedicated to them.

Governments pass laws to

They create interest, emotion,

protect these popular species.

and money. In the tundra,

Flagship species help

flagship species include

preserve an ecosystem. Like

wolves, polar bears, lynx,

an umbrella species, their

and grizzly bears.

protection spreads over a

Saving a flagship species

region. Their problems

interests people in several

become “news.” The more

ways. People form organiza-

people who understand issues

tions to save polar bears and

facing an ecosystem, the

caribou. They “adopt” wolves

more likely those problems

that live in protected habitats.

will end.

 A polar bear and her cub hunt ring seals on the pack ice in Manitoba. They find the seal by scent and then pounce a hole in the ice to catch their prey.

29

[Focus on Key Species]

Indicator Species 4 An indicator species mea-

ner bears are showing scientists how warmer earth temperatures affect the tundra.

sures the overall health of an

Plants make excellent

ecosystem. Scientists believe

indicator species for both

that polar bears are an indica-

Arctic and alpine tundra.

tor species of the Arctic tun-

Some lichens and sedges will

dra. Polar bears live on land

grow only under certain condi-

but hunt and travel in the seas.

tions. They need the right

They pursue ringed seals by

amount of water and sunlight,

walking out on solid ocean

and a specific environment to

ice. They find the seals living

grow. These plants react to

under the ice.

reduced or excess rainfall or

Scientists see a trend

snowfall. They do not grow

toward smaller, thinner, hun-

in polluted environments.

grier polar bears. They believe

Less plant growth shows

this trend results from warmer

problems in an ecosystem.

earth temperatures. Warmer

Most tundra plant eaters sur-

seas mean that solid ice forms

vive on sedges and lichens.

later. Polar bears cannot hunt

If ecosystem problems are

seals until solid ice forms. Less

not fixed, the plants will not

ice means shorter hunting sea-

grow. Animal species that

sons for polar bears. The thin-

eat the plants will suffer.

 Lichens cling to tundra rocks like rust to an old car.

31

3

[Chapter Three]

Predators

Predators

32

birth to larger, healthier babies. A breeding pair of snowy

4 Tundra life spins in an

owls protects its nest in a hol-

ever-widening cycle. Five extra

low. This year, the female laid

warm days in Siberia, Russia,

seven eggs. All hatched into

lengthen the growing season

healthy, squawking owlets.

one year. Plentiful grasses and

Seven hungry owlets demand

wildflowers fatten voles and

constant food. Luckily, the

lemmings. In turn, these

healthy vole and lemming

plump rodent mothers give

populations provide food for

[Predators]

the owl family. Without Siberia’s five extra warm days, it would normally take a breeding pair of snowy owls two years to produce and raise seven healthy fledgling owlets. Snowy owls are birds of prey. They eat animals. Unlike most other owls, snowy owls

PROFILE: GYRFALCONS

hunt in daylight. Successful

Gyrfalcons are the largest falcons. These

hunts at dawn and dusk feed

aggressive hunters may be white, light

hungry mouths.

gray, or brown-gray in color. They live

The owlets grow quickly.

along rocky Arctic coasts, but they catch

By early fall, they have a full

their prey on open tundra. Gyrfalcons

set of feathers and can hunt

hunt gulls, snow geese, ptarmigans,

for themselves. Mild weather

and ducks.

and plentiful food allow snowy

Today, 1,650 to 2,650 breeding pairs

owls to stay on the tundra all

of gyrfalcons live in northern Europe.

winter. This year’s success

Laws protect gyrfalcons in the wild.

came from five extra warm

However, poachers, or illegal hunters,

days.

still capture and sell the birds. Live adult

Other birds of prey also live in alpine and Arctic  Snowy owls find plenty to eat in the tundra, including lemmings, ground squirrels, mice, and hares.

gyrfalcons are sold illegally at prices ranging from $10,000 to $100,000.

33

 A bald eagle fishes for salmon in an icy Alaskan river.

tundra. Hawks, eagles, fal-

animal eats. Predators that eat

cons, jaegers, and merlins fare

a variety of foods have a better

well in the tundra ecosystem.

chance of survival. Snowy owls

There are plenty of small

prefer voles and lemmings,

rodents and birds for them

but also eat ducks, ptarmi-

to eat.

gans, hares, and geese. Bears

Food Supply

34

fish for salmon in icy tundra rivers but will eat berries,

4 The success of a predator

nuts, flower bulbs, insects,

species depends on what the

rodents, and lizards.

[Predators]

Some predators hunt for food but will also eat carrion if they find it. Foxes and wolverines dine on the leftovers of other predators. Polar bears hunt ringed seals, but they eat only the blubber. An Arctic fox happily eats the remaining meat. Eating rotting meat seems disgusting. However, nature

 A wolverine digs a storage pantry for its leftovers. If today’s hunt fails, it will eat last week’s caribou.

does not waste food. Every

food for large cats, bears,

part of a carcass feeds some-

wolves, and foxes.

thing, whether it is fly larvae,

Big cats from

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

foxes, or voles that gnaw on

alpine tundra

Most predators kill only what

bones.

regions include

they can eat right then. This is

snow leopards,

not true of wolverines. They

mountain lions, and

hunt with future meals in mind.

4 At the top of the food

lynx. Big cats hunt

Wolverines store extra meat

chain are large predators.

by stealth. They

underground. When prey is

Other than humans, large

sneak up on their

scarce, they choose a meal from

predators have few enemies.

prey. When in

their underground “freezer.”

The tundra provides enough

range, they leap on

Top of the Food Chain

35

Cougars, also called mountain lions or pumas, live in many different biomes. They are the largest predators in the Andes alpine tundra. In North America, cougars roam the Rocky Mountains. Cougars eat rodents, but they prefer wild sheep or deer. The smallest tundra “big” cat is the lynx. Lynx weigh between 15 and 25 pounds (7 and 11 kg). At one  A cougar takes a refreshing dip in an alpine tundra pool. Cougars, unlike house cats, do not mind a dip in a spring.

time, lynx lived in 21 of the

their targets. Big

than one thousand lynx live

Cougars can spring 18 feet

cats use lightning

in only four states: Washing-

(5.5 m) from the ground to a

quickness to catch

ton, Montana, Colorado, and

cliff. Along the ground, they

prey. Sharp claws

Maine. Other types of lynx

can cover 40 feet (12 m) in

and powerful teeth

exist in Siberia, Spain,

one long jump.

bring the prey to

Europe, and Central Asia.

the ground.

Lynx do well in both Arctic

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

36

lower 48 states. Today, fewer

[Predators]

and alpine tundra ecosys-

about half that weight. Polar

tems. They eat mostly

bears hunt ringed seals and

hares, rabbits, and rodents.

bearded seals by smell. They

Bears, Wolves, and Foxes

pound on the ice above a seal’s home

 LOOK IT UP!

4 Bears come in large, larg-

to break the ice.

Learn more about lynx around

er, and largest. Polar bears are

Polar bears do not

the world. Access lynx links

the biggest land carnivores.

drink water. They

at http://lynx.uio.no/jon/lynx/.

Males average 1,200 pounds

get water from seal

(544 kg), and females are

blubber. At times,

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

carnivores (KAR-nuh-vorz) animals that eat meat

 This lynx is at full stretch as it prepares to pounce on its prey.

37

Tibetan, black bears are tiny compared to polar bears. Adult males usually weigh less than 400 pounds (181 kg). Females weigh from 110 to 275 pounds (50 to 125 kg). Himalayan black bears are omnivores. They eat fruit,

bees’ nests, insects, rodents, and carrion. They travel across alpine tundra only during the summer. Then berries are plentiful, and bees’ nests are filled with honey. In winter months, they live at lower altitudes.  Himalayan black bears are a rare sight. These shy bears live well away from towns and villages in Tibet and Nepal.

Brown bears live in North America, Europe, and Asia.

polar bears also eat

Grizzlies are brown bears.

omnivores (OM-nuh-vorz)

young walruses,

In the Arctic, male brown

animals that eat both plants

grass, seaweed, and

bears weigh between 500 and

and meat

carrion.

1,320 pounds (227 and 600

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

Himalayan, or 38

kg). In alpine regions, brown

These grizzly cubs must learn how to fish for salmon. Grizzlies glut on salmon to  add body fat for a long Arctic winter’s sleep.

[Predators]

bears weigh about 200 pounds

bou. They will also hunt the

(91 kg) less.

young of those species.

Grizzlies fishing for

Wolves live and hunt in

salmon are popular images

groups called packs. Wolves

on tourist posters. However,

inhabit both types of tundra.

most grizzlies eat the carrion

The pack moves toward a

of moose, elk, deer, or cari-

herd of prey. They single out

[Predators]

young, injured, or very old

summer-only lives. Midges,

animals to attack. Wolves

flies, and mosquitoes attack

may also hunt alone when

wild animals and humans

the prey is small, such as

alike. Some tundra insects,

hares, marmots, or voles.

such as wasps and dragon-

Arctic foxes spend sum-

flies, prey on other insects.

mer months alone, but they

At one level, insects are

collect in packs during the

fierce predators. At another

winter. They hunt small

level, they are primary prey

mammals, such as

for birds and rodents. Many

hares and lem-

wading birds and songbirds

insectivores (in-SEKT-uh-vorz)

mings. Arctic foxes

are insectivores.

animals that eat insects

also eat dead fish

Among horseflies and

and carrion. They

mosquitoes, only the females

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

often eat leftovers after bears

suck blood. Males drink

finish with a carcass.

plant juices or eat pollen.

Bloodsuckers

sharp mouths that cut easily

4 The hungriest and

through animal hides. In the

peskiest tundra predators

Arctic, flies and mosquitoes

are swarms of insects. They

plague caribou.

make a serious impact on the ecosystem during their 40

Mosquitoes and flies have

Many flies and beetles eat carrion. They get rid of

[Predators]

 While this scene seems brutal, wolf packs actually keep deer populations healthy. They fell old, sick, or weak deer from the herd.

41

 Mosquitoes swarm around this moose, caught taking a dip to get rid of the pesky insects.

42

rotting carcasses, dung (ani-

their eggs on carrion. The

mal feces), and other animal

young, called maggots, eat

waste from the tundra.

rotting flesh until they

Blowflies, for example, lay

become adult flies.

4

[Chapter Four]

4 A small colony of

main protection from

Prey

Prey

on a boulder overlooking the meadow. The other marmots do not go far. Their

hoary marmots munches on grasses in an alpine

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

meadow. The colony male

colony male (KOL-uh-nee

heads the group. He stands

MALE) the head or leading male of a group of marmots

 Marmots, like pikas, are important members of the tundra community. They provide food for prey and distribute plant seeds.

43

 Hoary marmots in Denali National Park, Alaska, form part of the complex cycle of life in tundra environments.

predators is a quick exit into

a dozen or so animals. If

their burrow.

food is scarce, they live in

Marmots live where

44

small families that consist

alpine meadows provide food

of a male, female, and recent

and rocky slopes offer protec-

young. Marmots hibernate

tion. Where food is plentiful,

during the winter. They begin

marmots live in colonies of

sleeping in September or

[Prey]

October and emerge from

prey. Most birds and insects are

their dens in early May.

summer residents. That leaves

Overhead, a golden eagle

the few birds that live perma-

circles. The colony male spots

nently on the tundra—along

the eagle. He lets out a shrill

with rodents, hares, and pikas—

whistle. Suddenly, the other

as prey.

marmots stop eating and dash

Ptarmigans live comfort-

for the burrow. They know by

ably in tundra ecosystems all

the male’s call that the preda-

year. Their feathers

tor is a golden eagle. Each call

change color with

identifies a different enemy.

the seasons. Winter

camouflage (KAM-uh-flahzh)

white coloring

coloring that blends in with

his watchdog role seriously.

makes them nearly

the surroundings

He shrieks when any other

invisible against the

ptarmigans (TAHR-mih-ganz)

animal comes near, even if

snow. In the sum-

game birds similar to grouse

there is no danger. For mar-

mer, they are speck-

mots, danger comes from

led brown. If they don’t move,

eagles, coyotes, lynx, bears,

they can’t be seen. Camou-

and wolverines.

flage is the ptarmigan’s only

The colony male takes

Limited Fare

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

protection from predators. Rodents make up the

4 Neither alpine nor Arctic

largest year-round prey group.

tundra offers much variety in

Rodents range from small 45

 An Arctic ground squirrel will pass the tundra winter in a warm, underground burrow.

voles to large muskrats and

many as 50 tunnels and

porcupines. Most rodents dig

dozens of rooms.

burrows with several entries,

46

Lemmings are tundra

rooms, and escape hatches.

rodents that produce many

Arctic ground squirrels such

young. A female has her first

as marmots live in colonies.

litter in March. From then on,

Their burrows may have as

she produces five or six more

[Prey]

litters before the next winter.

Snowshoe hares run 27 miles

An average litter has four to

(43 km) per hour in short

eight young. Before female

bursts. They can cover 10

lemmings are a month old,

feet (3 m) in one jump. Like

they can produce litters.

Arctic foxes, snowshoe hares

Within one summer, a male

wear white coats in winter

lemming may be a father,

and brown for the

grandfather, and great grand-

summer. Their col-

father—several times over!

oring helps the

A pair of lemmings and three

hares “hide” on

generations with six females per

open ground.

litter may produce as many as

Most tundra predators eat lemmings. Because lemmings usually weigh only about 2

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

4,000 young in one year.

ounces (57 grams), it takes several lemmings to make a meal. An adult snowy owl eats a dozen lemmings a day. Snowshoe hares, Arctic hares, and pikas are slightly larger prey. Hawks, foxes, lynx, wolves, and coyotes all hunt hares. Hares evade predators by running, hopping, and ducking down their holes.  A snowshoe rabbit’s white coat blends in with the surrounding snow. A quick getaway saves this bunny from becoming breakfast.

47

 WATCH IT! Living Planet: The Frozen Earth with David Attenborough (BBC/Time Life Videos, 2001) takes viewers from the peaks of the Andes to the Arctic.

 An elegant tundra swan stretches its wings on a Canadian tundra pond.

A Summer Buffet

honks, hisses, and serious nips for their trouble. However, eggs or hatchlings are a different

The video explains how plants

4 Few predators

story. Weasels and mink are

and animals can survive such

willingly face an

nest thieves. They steal eggs

extreme weather conditions.

angry mother swan

and young birds while parent

or goose. They’ll get

birds are away hunting for food.

48

[Prey]

Weasels and mink have

per hour. They dive at speeds

plenty of company in hunting

of 230 miles (370 km) per

young birds. Birds of prey

hour. Few songbirds can escape

often hunt chicks and song-

a hunting peregrine falcon.

birds for food. The Arctic pere-

A type of jaeger lets other

grine falcon plucks songbirds

birds do its hunting. When

out of the sky. Falcons can fly

another bird of prey has

at speeds of 60 miles (97 km)

caught a meal, the jaeger

 Can you find the two eggs that belong to these long-tailed jaegers? They are the same color as the ground, which protects them from predators.

49

Billions of insects buzz, click, and hum through the tundra summer. Insects provide food as eggs, larvae, and adults. Jaegers, plovers, buntings, and snow geese feed on insects. The role of prey seems brutal. Prey produce thousands, millions, perhaps billions of young, only to have their offspring eaten. The number of prey available limits the number of  Black-backed gulls hover near a cliff, ready to steal fish from shy puffins.

50

predators in an ecosystem. Less prey equals fewer

grabs it from him in midair

predators. On the other

and eats it. Jaegers are not

hand, predators keep

the only feathered food

prey populations from

thieves. Pushy gulls and

exploding. Without this

skuas regularly rob prey

natural balance, the tundra

from shy puffins and

would be knee-high in lem-

skittish kittiwakes.

mings or grasshoppers.

5

[Chapter Five]

4 A caribou bends to

2,500 different varieties of

browse on low-lying lichens.

lichen that grow in the Arctic.

The lichens cover a rock the

Lichens have no roots and

size of a dinner plate. One

grow very slowly.

Flora

Flora

type of lichen that caribou find delicious is called reindeer moss. It is one of nearly

 Male caribou move through tussocks of tundra grasses on their annual migration.

51

[Flora]

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

Lichens are

to mushrooms, gives lichens

alga (AL-juh) a simple one-

neither alga nor

strength. Lichen colors range

celled plant

fungus, but are

from orange-brown to gray-

fungus (FUHN-guhss) a flower-

instead a strange

green to off-white.

less, leafless type of plant

combination of both plant species.

 READ IT!

Alga, the green

Plants of the Arctic Tundra

Arctic Tundra and Polar Deserts

slime found on

4 Arctic tundra plants face

by Chris Woodford (Raintree/

ponds, produces

serious challenges. Some-

Steck Vaughn, 2002) presents

food for lichens.

times, there are fewer than

a thorough picture of the dry,

The fungus, related

six or seven weeks in a grow-

barren tundra region.

 Stunning saxifrage must bloom and produce seeds during the short Arctic summer.

ing period. Soil is shallow

winds. It also allows snow

and poor. Tundra climate

cover to protect the plants

will not support many types

during winter. Dwarf willows

of plants. There is too much

grow wide rather than tall.

cold and wind, and too little

They may reach only 4 inches

rainfall for most plants.

(10 centimeters) tall, but their

Almost all Arctic tundra

branches spread 15 feet (4.6

plants grow close to the

m) along the ground. The wil-

ground. Their low height

low’s roots stretch out an equal

protects them from bitter

distance underground.

 Low-lying tundra plants hug the ground near this pond.

53

close together on many Arctic plants. Saxifrage, for example, traps a cushion of air within its leaves and stems. The difference between the air temperature outside and the temperature inside the cushion may be as great as 27°F (12°C). Leaves may also be leathery or hairy. Leathery saxifrage leaves retain water. The Arctic  Arctic wildflowers cling to soil caught between rocks. They paint the landscape with yellows, reds, and pinks.

Leaf color and shape are key factors in plant survival. Many Arctic plants have dark green, red, or purple leaves.

climate is very dry. Holding water inside the plant may mean the difference between living and dying. Wildflowers paint the tundra with color during the

Dark leaves absorb

short, sunlit summer. Yellow

heat and light bet-

Arctic poppies and butter-

perennials (puh-REN-ee-uhlz)

ter than pale green

cups, vivid blue lupines, and

plants that have lifespans of

or yellow leaves.

rich, purplish red fireweed

longer than two years

Leaves tend to be

brighten the bare landscape.

thick and grow

Wildflowers are perennials

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

54

 Bears go wild for delicious cloudberries. They can eat thousands in one day’s feeding frenzy.

 DO IT! Plant a tundra garden. If you

with many small blooms. They

dra plants are moss-

live where snow falls, tundra

produce seeds by the millions.

es, sedges, and

wildflowers should grow in

The seeds are carried by birds

lichens. All three

your local soil. Most seed

and insects or by the wind.

grow close to the

catalogs have sections of

ground. Spongy,

wildflower seeds. Next spring,

nagoonberry shrubs sprout

green moss grows

you could have Arctic poppies,

near streams and ponds. Their

in wet areas, such

lupines, or fireweed growing

fruit feeds birds, bears, and

as bogs or marshes.

right outside your door.

hares. Animals spread berry

Sedges look like

seeds in their feces.

wild grass. They grow in thick

Bearberry, crowberry, and

The most common tun-

clumps, which protect fragile 55

[Flora]

roots from the cold. Lichens

gnarly, dwarfed trees to bril-

grow extremely slowly, but

liant wildflowers and dusty

there are plenty of them.

lichens. Like Arctic plants,

Lichens can be crusty or

alpine flora faces challenging

leafy. Caribou and musk oxen

conditions. Surprisingly, there

feed on sedges and lichens.

are far more Arctic tundra

Plants of the Alpine Tundra

Colorado alpine tundra supports just more than 300 types

4 Alpine tundra plants adapt

of plants. Alaskan Arctic tundra

to cold and wind much like

supports 1,400 plant varieties.

Arctic tundra plants. They

A region of stunted,

grow close to the ground with

dwarf trees often lies above

wide-spreading roots. They

the tree line. This region is

often have dark green, red,

called krummholz, which is

or purple leaves to absorb heat

German for “crooked wood.”

and sun. Hairy, leathery, and

Krummholz trees endure

woolly plants are found in

strong winds and bleak

many alpine regions. As in the

weather conditions. The wind

Arctic, wildflowers sprinkle

and weather twist and bend

alpine meadows with yellows,

the trees until they look like

pinks, and purples.

hunched-over skeletons.

Alpine plants range from 56

plants than alpine plants. The

Meadows lie in many

 Wind, cold, and dryness stunt the growth of tundra trees. These trees are called krummholz, which is German for “crooked wood.”

alpine tundra valleys. The

America. The European

meadows have lush growths

Alps are home to soft pink

of grasses, shrubs, and wild-

alpen-roses and pure white

flowers. Rhododendron, an

edelweiss. Africa’s Mount

evergreen with clusters of

Kilimanjaro has supersized

pink, yellow, or white flowers,

wildflowers—giant senecio and

is a common alpine shrub. It

giant lobelia.

grows in Sweden, Norway, the

North America’s Rocky

Himalayas, and parts of North

Mountains have spectacular 57

 Ripe Alaskan blueberries dangle from a branch.

meadows. Yellow buttercups

called tussocks. Grasslike

and dandelions, blue lupines,

sedges feature tiny green,

and bright pink shooting stars

brown, or blackish flowers.

dance among tall grasses. In

Mosses carpet stream banks

late summer, ripe bilberries,

and grow up tree trunks.

blueberries, and thimbleber-

And lichens, as in the Arctic,

ries weigh down branches.

grip tightly to rocks. While

Most alpine tundra has

58

not as beautiful as wildflow-

grasses, sedges, mosses, and

ers, these plants provide

lichens. The grasses grow in

food for alpine plant eaters

meadows and in clusters

throughout the year.

6

[Chapter Six]

Herbivores

Andes plains found at about

4 A bitter wind sweeps

sea level. There is little

across the Andes Mountains

oxygen at this height.

of South America. On a high

Vicuñas have adapted to

plateau, a herd of vicuñas

survive in these conditions.

browses on stunted grasses.

Their extra-large hearts

Vicuñas look like camels with

and lungs distribute oxygen

no humps.

to their blood.

Herbivores

This region is the puna— 13,000 feet (4,000 m) above

 These camel-like creatures are vicuñas. They live in the high plains of the Andes.

59

 Vicuñas graze on sedges in the Andes tundra.

Vicuñas move in small herds with a male leader, several females, and young. The

60

From Guanacos to Grasshoppers

herd feeds on grasses and

4 Herbivores eat plants.

low-lying plants. Vicuñas

The term comes from the

have sharp front teeth, used

Latin words herb (“plant”)

to rip tough grass from its

and vore (“eater”). Tundra

roots. Their top front teeth

plant eaters usually munch

wear down, but their bottom

on any plants they can

front teeth continue to grow.

find. There is not enough

This Dall ram has quite a rack of horns. Despite its size, Dall sheep are agile climbers  on alpine slopes.

[Herbivores]

plant life for herbivores to be

tains. Regardless of their size,

fussy eaters.

cleft-hooved animals walk easi-

Large herbivores roam

ly on the narrowest paths. This

both alpine and Arctic ecosys-

feature helps them avoid preda-

tems. Most are types of cattle,

tors, such as cougars, wolves,

sheep, goats, or camels. Alpine

or bears.

plant eaters often have cleft

Musk oxen and caribou are

hooves. That means their

the Arctic’s biggest herbivores.

hooves are split in the middle.

Caribou travel in vast herds

Split hooves help the animals

along routes carved by their

climb rocky cliffs and moun-

ancestors hundreds of years

[Herbivores]

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

ago. Caribou browse

actually a form of lichen.

extinction (ek-STINGKT-shuhn)

on sedges and lich-

Musk oxen physically

the state of having no more liv-

ens. Their favorite

resemble small bison. They are

ing members of a species

meal is reindeer

broad chested and have long

moss, which is

hair. They prefer eating grass but will graze on most plants. Musk oxen were once plentiful in the Arctic. Their herds nearly fell to extinction in North America. In 1930, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service bought 34 musk oxen from Greenland. These beasts formed a core herd and lived on Nunivak Island, Alaska. By 1980, the musk oxen had divided themselves into three separate herds. Their population reached 400 animals. Today, musk oxen live in Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Siberia. They thrive because their herds have legal  Musk oxen nearly became extinct, but current conservation programs are saving this hairy Arctic dweller.

[Herbivores]

protection from hunters. Alpine tundra herbivores

PROFILE: YAKS Shaggy, scruffy yaks live high on the

differ by location. The Himala-

Plateau of Tibet in Asia. They have

yas have yaks, blue sheep, and

short, thick bodies and even shorter

ibex. Alpine ibex and chamois

legs. Their bodies are shaped to with-

live in Europe’s Alps. The

stand brutal winters at altitudes up to

Andes provide homes for

20,000 feet (6,100 m). Split hooves give

vicuñas and guanacos. Rocky

yaks traction on steep, icy ground. They

Mountain tundra has Dall

are surprisingly graceful when climbing

sheep, bighorn sheep, and

rocky cliffs.

mountain goats.

About 3,000 years ago, Tibetans caught yaks and tamed them. They

 DO IT!

started herds of domesticated, or

Your family, scout troop, or class

tamed, yaks. The herds provided meat

can adopt a musk ox calf from

and skins for clothing. People milked

The Musk Ox Farm in Palmer,

yak cows and made cheese and butter.

Alaska. The calves live on the

Domestic yaks are as different from

farm and are raised by volun-

wild yaks as pet dogs are from wolves.

teers. Visit the Musk Ox Farm

Humans have overhunted wild yaks

Web site (http://www.musk

and have taken away their natural

oxfarm.org) to find out about

habitats. Fewer than 500 wild yaks

adopting a musk ox.

remain. Although laws protect yaks from hunters, poachers still kill them.

63

[Herbivores]

 A delicate rosy finch provides a sweet song amid the tundra’s summer wildflowers.

64

[Herbivores]

Smaller herbivores on the

lect leaves, grass,

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

tundra include birds, rodents,

and seeds through-

Arctic ground squirrels sleep

rabbits and hares, and insects.

out the summer.

through seven months of tun-

These animals eat whatever

They dry plant

dra winter. During warm

they find: grasses, flowers,

matter in cracks

months, they gorge themselves

mosses, lichens, sedges, and

between rocks.

on seeds, leaves, flowers,

seeds. Many store dried grass

Pikas eat heartily

berries, roots, and mushrooms.

and seeds for the long winter.

all winter long.

Arctic ground squirrels collect

Tundra songbirds have

Rodents make

food nearly 18 hours a day.

names as lovely as their songs:

up much of the

They usually eat at around

rosy finches, white-crowned

mammal population

lunchtime. The squirrels need a

sparrows, and snow buntings.

on the tundra. Lem-

thick layer of fat on their bod-

Songbirds prefer seeds and

mings, ground

ies by August if they are to sur-

plants but also eat insects.

squirrels, and voles

vive hibernation. Many ground

Most songbirds migrate south

dig passages

squirrels do not survive. Some

before snow falls.

through the shallow

die because they did not have

Arctic soil. Their

enough body fat. Others are

belong to the lagomorph fami-

relatives—pocket

uncovered and eaten by bears.

ly. Snowshoe and Arctic hares

gophers—do the

eat grasses during the summer.

same in alpine

In winter months, they chew

meadows. Pocket

lagomorph (LAHG-uh-morf) a

on twigs, buds, or bark. Pikas

gophers stuff their

mammal that gnaws plant food

prefer to store food. They col-

cheeks with roots

Rabbits, hares, and pikas

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

65

 Even the coldest, bleakest habitat has it share of hairy, crawling creatures, like this common tundra insect called a springtail.

and scurry into their burrows

feeds some insects. Others

to eat. Voles are not as partic-

prefer young sprouts, bloom-

ular. They eat grass, leaves,

ing flowers, or plant liquids.

bark, or seeds.

Some flies lay eggs on rotting

Individual insects do not eat much food. However,

with animal carcasses, no

there are so many insects that

usable plant matter goes to

tons of plants wind up being

waste. Plants are also used to

devoured. Grasshoppers, may-

build nests.

flies, and several types of bee-

66

wood or plant matter. Just as

Butterflies and moths

tles feast on grasses and

deposit their eggs on leaves

leaves. Rotting plant matter

or plant stems. The eggs grow

A sulfur butterfly lands on a curled tendril from a low-lying vine. 

[Herbivores]

into caterpillars. The cater-

tundra. They carry pollen

pillars eat the plant until they

from one flower to another.

spin cocoons. Weeks later,

The delivered pollen fertilizes

butterflies or moths emerge

wildflowers. Without pollen,

from the cocoons. The cycle

plants could not produce

begins again.

fruit or seeds. Without bees,

Bees drink nectar. They fulfill an important job on the

wildflowers might not grow in the tundra.

 The bobcat seems to be winning the race against this snowshoe hare.

Herbivores play an

68

allow new plants to grow.

important role in tundra

They carry pollen from plant

ecosystems. They eat seeds

to plant. Herbivores also pro-

and spread them across the

vide predators with prey.

land through their feces.

This, too, is part of life on

They clear rotting plants and

the tundra.

7

[Chapter Seven]

4 Tundra wolves are top

ago in search of a mate. It

predators. In a pack, they can

is September. Soft snow fills

bring down a caribou with

the skies. The wolf’s coat

A Cycle of Life

A Cycle of Life

ease. On their own, they must find smaller and easier prey. A three-year-old male tundra wolf travels alone. He left his pack nearly one year

 Hunting must be good for this lone wolf. Its coat is thick and its body is well formed.

69

[A Cycle of Life]

thickens. He needs the extra

vide little food, and the wolf

warmth for the long winter

hunts daily.

ahead. The male settles for

As the male wolf trots

a meal of lemmings. He

over a ridge, he spies two

weighs nearly 125 pounds

adult wolves and three pups

(57 kg), which is large even

drinking at a nearly frozen

for a male. Lemmings pro-

stream. He approaches with

[A Cycle of Life]

care. Male pack leaders do

hare leaps, zigzags, and scur-

not welcome strange males.

ries to escape. The pup is

Both adult wolves are

too inexperienced to deal

female! They whimper as the

with such active prey. After

male crawls toward them.

fifteen minutes, she returns

The pups belong to the

to her mother and flops

alpha, or dominant, female.

down exhausted.

She and her mate began

In midwinter, the pack

their pack only a year ago.

comes upon a small herd

During the past summer, a

of musk oxen.

caribou’s kick broke her

Working together,

mate’s jaw. He died from the

they single out an

dominant (DOM-uh-nuhnt)

wound. The alpha female

elderly bull. The

leading or head

welcomes a new mate.

bull is already

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

The pack roams the

weak from age

tundra looking for prey. Six-

and illness. The

Following the Tundra Wolf

month-old pups are too small

wolves attack.

[ASIN: 6302775418] is a remark-

for pursuing caribou or musk

Wolves use only

able video, worth seeing more

oxen. They begin hunting

their teeth against

than once. It presents a full pic-

lessons with lemmings and

prey. It takes all

ture of the challenges and

snowshoe hares.

their strength and

struggles tundra wolves face in

effort to bring

their daily fight to survive.

A female pup chases a hare through the snow. The  Two young wolf cubs dig in the Arctic snow.

 WATCH IT!

down the bull. 71

[A Cycle of Life]

Wolves play an important role in keeping musk oxen and caribou herds healthy and strong. The wolves prey only on the sick, elderly, or injured. In that way, healthy herd animals survive to mate and produce healthy young. The musk ox provides a feast for the pack. However, wolves eat in a specific order. The alpha male eats first. His mate eats next. A pup tries to muscle in on the carcass. He gets a warning growl from the alpha male. Wolf parents teach their children good table manners. March arrives. It is

72

May or early June. The mother nurses the litter in the

breeding time for wolves.

den. Her mate and other

Only the alpha male and

pack members hunt for food

female produce young. The

and bring meals to her. The

new pups are born in late

pups are never left alone.

The new pack is secure.

will find mates and

It has three adults, three

teach their pups

juveniles, and four new pups.

to hunt lemmings

juveniles (JOO-vuh-nilez)

Next year, the juveniles will

and hares. That is

young, not yet having reached

be old enough to leave and

the cycle of life for

adulthood

start packs of their own. They

tundra wolves.

 A cave between the rocks serves as a den for members of this wolf pack.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

73

8

[Chapter Eight]

The Breeding Season

The Breeding Season 4 Spring comes late to the Arctic tundra. At the end of June, wildflowers sprinkle the land with bursts of color. Insects swarm by the millions. And 15 percent of the world’s bird population

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

arrives to breed.

shorebirds (SHOR-burdz) birds

Arctic tundra pro-

that live at the water’s edge,

vides ideal nesting

such as sandpipers, snipes,

grounds for

wildflowers, and clumps of dry

or plovers

waterfowl, shore-

land on which to nest. As sum-

waterfowl (WAW-tur-foul)

birds, and song-

mer approaches, longspurs

swimming birds, such as ducks,

birds. The area

sing their enchanting tunes

geese, or swans

has plenty of

across the open spaces.

lichens, mosses,

Nesting loons, swans, and

74

Snow geese take flight on their way to their Arctic breeding grounds. 

TUNDRA SWANS IN THE NEWS Cornell University researchers and scientists from Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina are studying the migration routes of tundra swans. Scientists want to know where the swans breed and what flight paths they travel. They also want to know where tundra swans spend winter months. Scientists captured and marked tundra swans. The swans now wear leg bands, neck collars, and radios. Daily locations of different swans are recorded by the scientists. The study will help scientists preserve tundra swans and other birds that migrate along the same routes. Human

snow geese add their hoots

understanding of how swans live holds

and honks to the chorus.

the key to their survival.

Tiny snow buntings and plovers brave the rugged tundra for the breeding season. Snow buntings raise their 75

[The Breeding Season]

young farther north

More than 180 bird

Golden plovers are excellent

than any other land

species breed in the Arctic.

actors. When a parent plover

bird. They prefer

They arrive for the spring

spots danger approaching, it

rocky, rugged

thaw. Building nests and

draws predators away from the

northern coasts,

laying eggs requires urgent

nest. The plover pretends to

where fewer preda-

attention. Eggs usually hatch

have a broken wing. The preda-

tors will attack their

within three weeks.

tor follows the parent but then

young. Plovers lay

is disappointed. As the predator

their eggs in the

Parent birds gorge their

pounces, the plover flies away.

open. However,

young with insects, worms,

they have excellent

and fish. The young must be

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

Then the race is on.

camouflage. Few predators

able to fly before winter

can spot plovers or their eggs

snows begin to fall. Migration

from the sky.

south may start only three or

 A black-browed albatross grooms her young on the Falkland Islands. Albatrosses only come on land when breeding.

four weeks after chicks hatch. Snow geese are regular

arrive in the tundra,

 WATCH IT!

the mates quickly

Discover the remarkable Arctic

summer residents of the tun-

build grassy nests.

in Arctic Refuge: A Vanishing

dra. Their black-tipped wings

Female geese

Wilderness (Audubon, 1991).

stand out against snowy white

lay four or five eggs.

This film presents the lives

bodies. They nest in huge

Females sit on the

of tundra animals and the

colonies with as many as

eggs until they are

effect humans have on

200,000 breeding pairs. Snow

hatched in 22 or

wilderness regions.

geese mate for life. When they

23 days. Snow

 A lesser golden plover migrates thousands of miles each year to reach its favorite nesting area.

77

[The Breeding Season]

 An Arctic tern chick waits with a gaping mouth for dad to bring home dinner.

78

[The Breeding Season]

geese parents take turns pro-

mates dig shallow

tecting and feeding their

holes in the

Arctic terns migrate farther

young. Within a month, the

ground. They line

each year than any other bird.

baby goslings take wing along

the nests with grass

Their annual round trip is about

with the rest of the snow

and leaves. The

21,750 miles (35,000 km).

geese. The goslings must fly

time from egg lay-

several thousand miles to

ing to migration is

their winter homes.

about 45 days.

Arctic terns travel

Many birds of

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

 LOOK IT UP! The Arctic has an amazingly large bird population. Learn

yearly from one end of the

prey also breed on

more about Arctic birds at

earth to the other. That’s

the tundra. Arctic

www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/html/

amazing for a bird that

peregrine falcons,

birds.html.

weighs only 4 ounces (113 g).

merlins, jaegers,

They nest and breed in the

rough-legged hawks, and

Arctic in winter, and they

several types of owls nest on

spend summer on islands

grassy mounds. Long-tailed

near Antarctica.

jaegers lead double lives.

Breeding season finds

During the winter, they live

male Arctic terns zigzagging

at sea, but summers find

through the skies to attract

them nesting happily on

mates. Tern nests are not

land.

quite as comfortable as grassy snow goose nests. The

Swans, ducks, and geese find ample food to support 79

 A long-tailed jaeger guards its eggs from potential predators. Eggs and chicks are easy prey for weasels, foxes, and wolverines.

80

both parents and chicks. This

not enough food to feed the

is not always true for birds of

baby birds.

prey. Hawks, jaegers, and owls

By late August, migrating

depend on voles and lemmings

birds head south. Some adults

for food. If the lemming popu-

leave their chicks. As soon as

lation is low one summer,

they can, the young birds fol-

these birds may not breed

low their parents south. Flocks

during that season. They

of birds fill the skies in neatly

do not bear young if there is

formed V-shapes. Only a few

Winter approaches. The snow geese form a classic “V” formation as they head south  in the early autumn.

[The Breeding Season]

birds, such as the snowy owl

mings are few and winters are

and the gyrfalcon, winter in

harsh, even the snowy owl

the Arctic. Then again, if lem-

heads south for better hunting.

81

9

[Chapter Nine]

The Human Touch

The Human Touch

82

this is no ordinary rain. It does not bring forth delicate white edelweiss or soft pink alpenroses. It does not encourage alpine meadows to grow lush

4 A light spring rain drifts

and green. This rain carries

across the European Alps. But

sulfuric acid and nitric acid.

 Coal burning stations like this one pour pollution into the air.

This is acid rain. It burns

factories. Burned fuel pro-

grasses, lichens, mosses, and

duces emissions.

wildflowers of the tundra.

Emissions can be

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

smoke or clear

emissions (i-MISH-uhnz) things

burning fossil fuels, such as

gases. Fossil fuel

that are sent off or out, such

oil, gas, or coal. Humans use

emissions contain

as gases

fossil fuels to power cars and

sulfur and nitrogen.

trucks, heat homes, and run

These are basic chemical

Acid raid comes from

 What could destroy a pine tree like this? The answer is acid rain, a plague on forests and alpine tundra.

83

 This mine at Longyearbyen on Spitbergen Island, Norway, is in the heart of polar bear country.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

atmosphere (AT-muhss-fihr) the layer of gases that sur-

elements found in

atmosphere. When rain falls,

nature.

so does the acid.

When amounts

Acid rain is only one

rounds the earth

of sulfur and nitro-

form of pollution damaging

radioactive (ray-dee-oh-AK-tiv)

gen combine with

alpine and Arctic tundra.

giving off rays from atoms;

elements in the air,

Factories create pollution

high levels of radioactivity kill

they form acid. The

by the bucketful. Chemical

humans, plants, and animals

acids exist with

pollution, air pollution, and

water vapor in our

radioactive pollution take

84

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

their toll on this surprisingly

to affect the tundra

fragile environment.

happened in 1986.

PCBs chemicals called poly-

A nuclear power

chlorinated biphenyls, which

Islands, polar bears face seri-

plant at Chernobyl,

are poisonous to animals and

ous chemical pollution from

Ukraine, in the for-

humans

PCBs. Scientists think that

mer USSR, released

PCBs from European factories

radioactive particles into the

got into river water and even-

air. Wind carried the radioac-

tually into European seas. Fish

tive particles to the Russian

living in water with PCBs

tundra. This is where the

carry the chemicals in their

Saami people live.

In Norway’s Svalbard

bodies. Polar bears eat large

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

Saami homeland covers

amounts of fish. The PCBs

parts of Russia, Sweden,

collect in polar bear fat.

Finland, and Norway. The

Scientists believe PCBs may

Saami depend on reindeer for

cause strange changes in polar

food and use their hides for

bear bodies. Eventually, they

clothing and shoes. Radio-

can cause death. During the

activity from Chernobyl poi-

1980s, most nations outlawed

soned the plant life on the

the production of PCBs.

Kola Peninsula in Siberia.

The air carries chemical

Reindeer eating the plants

and radioactive pollution. One

became poisoned. The Saami

of the worst polluting events

people could not risk eating 85

 This alpine landscape has been polluted by the radioactive spill at Chernobyl, Russia.

reindeer—even though it was

lution lasts hundreds of years.

their main source of food.

This event has changed the

The government tried to help. However, radioactive pol86

ecosystem for many more years to come.

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

Efforts to

 DO IT!

Oil, Gas, and the Arctic Tundra

reseed Prudhoe

Write letters to your U.S. repre-

Bay’s tundra with

sentatives and senators. Ask

4 Humans use oil and gas

plants have failed.

them to keep the Alaska

in huge amounts. Oil and gas

It takes hundreds

National Wildlife Refuge safe

provide power for cars, boats,

of years for lichens

from oil drilling. You’ll find their

and lawn mowers. They fuel

to grow to the size

names and addresses in the gov-

airplanes and trains. They

of a softball. Deli-

ernment section of your tele-

run power plants and facto-

cate tundra plants

phone book.

ries. The need for oil and

cannot rebound

gas makes oil companies

from pollution with-

look in many places for fos-

in only a few years.

sil fuel sources. One such

Oil companies

 READ IT! Land of Dark, Land of Light: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

place is the North Slope of

now want to drill in

by Karen Pandell (Penguin

Alaska. The drilling spot is

the Alaska National

Books, 1993) takes readers to

Prudhoe Bay.

Wildlife Reserve

one of the last truly wild

(ANWR). The

regions in the world.

Every oil well produces dirty water, sludge, and a dis-

ANWR contains 19

charge called mud. All of that

million acres (7.7 million

gets poured over the tundra.

hectares) of clean, natural

The land cannot absorb the

wilderness. It does not have

huge amounts of muck that

electricity, cars, or garbage.

is dumped there.

ANWR does have 300,000 87

GLOBAL WARMING IN THE NEWS

snow geese that nest there

Global warming is a by-product of rising

each summer. Herds of cari-

earth temperatures over long periods.

bou and musk oxen browse

Car and truck emissions, home and facto-

on Arctic plant life and try to

ry heating, and large cattle farms are

avoid local bears and wolves.

partly to blame for global warming.

Snowy owls and eagles soar

Scientists believe that global warming is changing Arctic ice. Arctic ice sheets

and Arctic ground squirrels

are melting, and shrubs are spreading on

burrow into the shallow soil.

the tundra. Data shows that the area of

This region cannot survive

melting ice has grown by 16 percent in

drilling and the mess that

the past 20 years.

comes with it.

“Shrubs are pushing farther northward, growing in areas of tundra that were void of trees as little as 50 years ago,” says F. Stuart Chapin III of the University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

88

overhead. Lemmings, voles,

 One spill at this Colville River ARCO plant could damage the surrounding tundra for decades.

Saving the Tundra 4 Governments realize that tundra environments teem

Asia’s Himalayas, the European Alps, and South America’s Andes Mountains. Beringia International

with life. Several huge national

Heritage Park is a preserve

preserves have been set aside

run by both Russia and the

for tundra regions. In the

United States. The park pro-

Rocky Mountains, Glacier

tects land and marine animals

National Park (United States)

in Alaska and Russia. Musk

and Banff National Park

oxen, caribou, and polar bears

(Canada) are two large pre-

are among the animals roam-

serves. Similar parks exist in

ing the park. 89

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

International efforts to save flagship species have pre-

affects these species. Overhunting of snow leop-

served many Arctic and alpine

ards, vicuñas, and yaks drastical-

species. Canada, Greenland,

ly reduced the numbers of those

Russia, and the United States

animals. Today, governments

worked together to rebuild

provide protected land for these

musk oxen herds. Today, that

species. They keep a sharp look-

species is no longer endan-

out for poachers who kill those

gered in the wild. Several

animals for their skins.

nations protect polar bears

Native tribes work hard

from hunters. By their actions,

to protect species on their

governments are reducing

tribal lands. Wolves and musk

pollution and habitat loss that

oxen benefit from attentive

 The U.S. Park Service protects this regal landscape, which is found in Denali National Park, Alaska.

native keepers. Native people

not bounce back

still kill some animals for

from human abuse.

meat and skins. They do so

When polar bears,

subsistence living (suhb-SIS-

for subsistence living. Hunt-

snow leopards, and

tents LIV-ing) humans using

ing for subsistence living is

mountain goats no

local plants and animals in

allowed by law.

longer trek the tun-

order to live; when people rely

dra, the loss will be

on what they are able to pro-

not withstand oil and gas

ours. Extinction is

duce themselves instead of a

drilling, overhunting, or pollu-

a problem with no

cash economy

tion. Tundra ecosystems can-

solution.

Tundra is fragile. It can-

 A musk ox grazes on wildflowers in Alaska.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

91

Chart of Species

[ Tu n d r a ]

KEYSTONE SPECIES

FLAGSHIP SPECIES

UMBRELLA SPECIES

INDICATOR SPECIES

AFRICA (MT. KILIMANJARO ONLY)

bees, beetles

lammergeiers, giant lobelias

lammergeiers

lichens, sedges, tussocks, insects

ASIA

pikas, bees, beetles, reindeer, gray wolves

Siberian cranes, marmots, snow leopards, musk oxen

Asiatic black bears, snow leopards, wild yaks, musk oxen

lichens, sedges, tussocks, insects

EUROPE

reindeer, pikas, bees, beetles, gray wolves, chamois, caribou (reindeer), lemmings

polar bears, wolves, chamois, lynx

polar bears, arctic wolves

polar bears, lichens, sedges, tussocks, insects

NORTH AMERICA

caribou, pikas, pocket gophers, bees, beetles, gray wolves, snow geese, lemmings

wolves, polar bears, caribou, grizzly bears, peregrine falcons, musk oxen, Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep

grizzly bears, polar bears, Arctic wolves, Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep

polar bears, lichens, sedges, tussocks, Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, whitecrowned sparrows, insects

SOUTH AMERICA

bees, beetles

guanacos, vicuñas

guanacos, vicuñas

lichens, sedges, tussocks, insects

CONTINENT

 The above chart gives a starting point for identifying key species. Each tundra environment has its own key species. The above chart lists some of those species. Note: Caribou and reindeer are the same species. In North America, the wild species are called caribou. In Europe, they are caribou or reindeer, depending upon the location. In Siberia (Asia), they are called reindeer.

92

[Bold-faced entries are the ones discussed in the text.]