Our Living World: Earth's Biomes - Volume 1: Oceans, Seas, And Reefs

volume

1 L I V I N G

W O R L D :

E A R T H ’ S

B I O M E S

Oceans, Seas, and Reefs

T R A D I T I O N A

N E W

B O O K S

T R A D I T I O N

®

, I N

M A P L E

P L A I N ,

C H I L D R E N ’ S

Oceans, Seas, and Reefs

O U R

Barbara A. Somervill

M I N N E S O T A P U B L I S H I N G

TM



ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Barbara A. Somervill is the author of many books for children. She loves learning and sees every writing project as a chance to learn new information or gain a new understanding. Ms. Somervill grew up in New York State, but has also lived in Toronto, Canada; Canberra, Australia; California; and South Carolina. She currently lives with her husband in Simpsonville, South Carolina.



In gratitude to George R. Peterson Sr. for introducing me to the beauty of creation —George R. Peterson Jr., Publisher, Tradition Books® Published in the United States of America by Tradition Books® and distributed to the school and library market by The Child’s World® [ACKNOWLEDGMENTS] For Editorial Directions, Inc.: E. Russell Primm, Editorial Director; Dana Meachen Rau, Line Editor; Katie Marsico, Associate Editor; Judi Shiffer, Associate Editor and Library Media Specialist; Matthew Messbarger, Editorial Assistant; Susan Hindman, Copy Editor; Lucia Raatma, Proofreaders; Ann Grau Duvall, Peter Garnham, Deborah Grahame, Katie Marsico, Elizabeth K. Martin, and Kathy Stevenson, Fact Checkers; Tim Griffin/IndexServ, Indexer; Cian Loughlin O’Day, Photo Researcher; Linda S. Koutris, Photo Selector For The Design Lab: Kathleen Petelinsek, design, art direction, and cartography; Kari Thornborough, page production [PHOTOS] Cover/frontispiece: Stock Photos/Corbis. Interior: Animals Animals/Earth Scenes: 11 (Gerard Lacz), 28 (Bob Cranston), 52 (W. Gregory Brown), 61 (OSF/ D. Fleetham), 73 (Doug Wechsler), 90 (C. C. Lockwood); Yann Arthus-Bertrand/Corbis: 74, 81; Bettmann/Corbis: 4, 72, 86; Phillip Colla/Oceanlight.com: 46; Brandon D. Cole: 34, 71; Brandon D. Cole/Corbis: 64, 69; Corbis: 8 (David Ball), 9 (Paul A. Souders), 18 (Guy Motil), 23 (Lloyd Cliff), 35 (Alissa Crandall), 47 (Wolfgang Kaehler), 48 (Jeffrey L. Rotman), 49 (Stuart Westmorland), 50 (Robert Pickett), 55 (Lester V. Bergman), 62 (Ralph A. Clevenger), 67 (Amos Nachoum), 78 (Alan Schein Photography), 83 (Sean Sexton Collection), 85 (Joel W. Rogers), 88 (Natalie Fobes), 89 (Nik Wheeler), 91 (Tom Bean); Michael DeFreitas: 26; E. R. Degginger/Dembinsky Photo Associates: 24; Digital Vision: 14, 25, 32, 45, 80, 84; Stephen Frink: 42, 60; Getty Images/Brand X Pictures: 12, 19; François Gohier: 29; Jeff Jacobsen/François Gohier: 38; Breck P. Kent: 43; Jacques Langevin/Corbis Sygma: 56; NASA/GSFC: 6; NOAA/OAR/National Undersea Research Program/National Marine Fisheries Service/Woods Hole Lab: 54; Photodisc: 22, 36; Jeffrey L. Rotman: 15, 21, 63, 66; Tom Stack & Associates: 39 (Jeff Foott), 41 (Brian Parker); Tom & Therisa Stack/Tom Stack & Associates: 58, 65; VWPICS.com: 30 (Villoch), 77 (P. Parks – I3D); James Watt/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes: 37, 40, 87; Ralph White/Corbis: 17, 75, 76; E. Widder/HBOI/Visuals Unlimited: 16, 68.

CONTENT ADVISER [ L I B R A RY O F C O N G R E S S C ATA L O G I N G - I N - P U B L I C AT I O N D ATA ] CIP data available

Susan Woodward, Professor of Geography, Radford University, Radford, Virginia

4

Table of Contents

Table of Contents [Chapter One]

4 Defining Oceans and Seas [ C h a p t e r Tw o ]

24 Focus on Reefs and Key Species [Chapter Three]

35 Predators [Chapter Four]

47 Prey [Chapter Five]

55 Flora [Chapter Six]

61 Herbivores [Chapter Seven]

67 A Cycle of Life [Chapter Eight]

72 Diving Deep [Chapter Nine]

78 The Human Touch 92

[Chart of Species]

93

[Index]

4

1

[Chapter One]

Defining Oceans and Seas

Defining Oceans and Seas

4

4 Sometime in the distant past, humans decided to venture onto the oceans. They went out to sea first in rafts, then in flimsy wooden boats. Over time, brave sailors sailed

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

farther away from land. Many

situation is less clear. The

ships never returned.

ocean holds creatures beyond

Wise men thought about the lost ships. They came up

the imagination: • A dead giant

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

with two possibilities. First,

squid was found

larvae (LAR-vee) insects at the

they thought some ships

in New Zealand

stage of development between

may have reached the ocean’s

waters in 1996.

eggs and pupae when they look

edge and fallen off. Second,

It measured 26

like worms

they believed hideous sea

feet (8 meters) in

tentacles (TEN-tuh-kuhlz) the

monsters may have swallowed

length. That may

long, thin body parts of an

ships whole.

seem enormous,

animal that are used to hold,

but the longest

grab, or touch

Ancient maps tell us what people believed long ago.

squid ever found

Mapmakers of Christopher

was twice that size!

Columbus’s day drew the

• The bell of an Arctic giant

ocean’s edge for sailors to

jellyfish can measure 7 feet

avoid. They also pinpointed

(2.1 m) across. The tentacles

locations of sea dragons. These

of some stretch more than

sites were labeled “Here, there

100 feet (30.5 m) long.

be monsters.” Today, ships sail without

• Conger eel larvae begin life at a little more than 1 inch

fear of falling off the edge of

(2.54 centimeters) long.

the oceans. But the monster

They reach 9 feet (2.75 m)

 In the days of Christopher Columbus, most people believed the seas were filled with monsters.

5

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

If all the ice held in glaciers and ice caps melted, the sea level around the world would rise about 200 feet (61 m). New York City, Los Angeles, and most port cities

 From space, it is obvious that the earth is a watery world.

around the world would be

as adults. Scientists

But earth is really more like a

underwater.

once saw eel larvae

puddle than a rock. Nearly 71

about 6 feet (1.8 m)

percent of earth is covered

long living on the ocean

with water. Of that water, 97

floor. They wondered how

percent fills the oceans, seas,

big that adult eel would grow!

bays, and gulfs. The rest exists

Some people call earth the third rock from the sun. 6

as lakes, rivers, glaciers, and ice caps, or it is underground.

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

(Antarctic). Although all the

The Oceans

oceans are connected, they

4 Earth has five major

each have unique species and

oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic,

features found nowhere else on

Indian, Arctic, and Southern

earth. The Pacific and Atlantic

Arctic Ocean

Arctic Ocean

GREENLAND

75˚N

60˚N

E U R O P E A S I A N O R T H A M E R I C A

45˚N

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

30˚N

A F R I C A 15˚N

0˚

S O U T H A M E R I C A

Indian Ocean

15˚S

N

AUSTRALIA 30˚S

45˚S

Southern Ocean 165˚W

150˚W

135˚W

120˚W

105˚W

90˚W

75˚W

60˚W

45˚W

30˚W

15˚W

0˚

60˚S 15˚E

30˚E

45˚E

60˚E

75˚E

90˚E

105˚E

120˚E

135˚E

 Earth’s five major oceans

7

150˚E

165˚E

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

have north and

the Pacific. Earth’s deepest

reef (REEF) a shallow strip of

south regions, divid-

point is 36,198 feet (11,033 m)

rock, sand, or coral in the ocean

ed by the equator.

under the ocean and is called

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

or another body of water

The Pacific

the Challenger Deep of the

trench (TRENCH) a deep canyon

Ocean holds about

Mariana Trench. The highest

on the ocean floor

half of earth’s water.

mountain is Hawaii’s Mauna

It is the largest,

Loa, which rises about 56,000

deepest ocean. The world’s

feet (17,000 m) from the sea-

deepest trench, highest moun-

floor. Mount Everest, earth’s

tain, and longest reef all lie in

highest mountain measured

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

from sea level (as opposed to seafloor), reaches only 29,035 feet (8,850 m) in height! And no reef compares with the Great Barrier Reef. It stretches about 1,240 miles (2,000 kilometers) along the northeast coast of Australia. The Atlantic Ocean is second in size and also has its share of interesting features. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge runs for 6,215 miles (10,000 km) down the ocean’s center, along the seafloor. It is earth’s longest mountain range. Continents rest on large, slowly moving parts of earth’s

 Dramatic tides change the beach profile in the Bay of Fundy, Canada.

a rate of about 1 inch (2.54 cm) a year. The Atlantic also claims

crust called plates. Two major

the world’s greatest tidal

plates touch at the Mid-Atlantic

change. Tourists flock to the

Ridge. As the plates move away

Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia,

from each other, the seafloor

Canada, to see the changing

spreads apart. It separates at

tides. Water in the Bay of

 Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is an ancient and extensive coral reef habitat.

9

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

Fundy shifts about

safe haven for a fish called

baleen (buh-LEEN) a series

48 feet (15 m) on

the coelacanth. In 1938, fish-

of fringed, bony plates in a

average between

ers pulled up their catch and

whale’s mouth that filter

low and high tide.

found a coelacanth in their

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

food from seawater

The Indian

nets. Until that day, this fish

extinct (ek-STINGKT) having

Ocean borders

was believed to be extinct.

no living members of a

Africa’s eastern

Since 1938, a number of

species remaining

coast and the coast

coelacanths have been found

longitude (LAHN-juh-tood)

of southern Asia,

living in the Indian Ocean.

the distance a point is east or

and then curls in a

Scientists believe that about

west of the Prime Meridian;

C shape around

200 coelacanths live in

meridians, or lines of longi-

Australia. The

underwater caves off the

tude, are imaginary lines on

Ninety East Ridge

Comoros Islands, near

a globe that run north and

runs north to south

Madagascar, Africa.

south from pole to pole

in the Indian

The Arctic and South-

Ocean. It is a series

ern (Antarctic) Oceans are

of underwater

near earth’s poles. Their

Discovery Channel’s

peaks that form a

waters are very cold, yet

Understanding: Oceans (ASIN:

nearly straight line

filled with life. The largest

B00004WG1B) provides insights

along the longi-

population of krill, the

into oceans, currents, tides, and

tude line at 90˚E.

favorite food of baleen

 WATCH IT!

ocean ecosystems.

The Indian Ocean provides a

10

whales, lies under the ice of the Southern Ocean.

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

 Scientists believed the coelacanth had been extinct for eons—until one was caught off the coast of South Africa.

11

between 15,000 and 30,000 icebergs annually. Antarctica creates record-setting icebergs. In March 2000, an iceberg dropped off the Ross Ice Shelf, part of the Antarctic shelf. It measured just less than 6,200 square miles (16,000 sq km), or about the size of Connecticut and Rhode Island combined.

The Seas 4 There is some confusion over what is and what is  Thousands of icebergs create shipping hazards each year.

Glaciers and sea ice

12

not a sea. The word sea can be a synonym for ocean. Seas are also large bodies of

occur in both polar regions.

water partially enclosed by

When edges of glaciers break

land. Every ocean has seas

off at the shore, they make

near landmasses. Major

icebergs by the thousands.

world seas include the

The Arctic Ocean averages

Caribbean, Mediterranean,

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

Bering, Red, North, and the

bodies of water are called seas

South China seas.

but are really lakes because

Some seas are called gulfs

they have no ocean outlet.

or bays, such as the Gulf of

The Caspian and Aral seas

Mexico or Hudson Bay. Other

are misnamed lakes.

Arctic Ocean

Arctic Ocean

GREENLAND

Arctic Ocean 75˚N

Chukchi Sea

Barents Sea

Chukchi Sea

Hudson Bay

Bering Sea

60˚N

North Sea

Bering Sea

Sea of Okhotsk E U R O P E

Black Sea

N O R T H A M E R I C A

Pacific Ocean

Sea of Japan

Mediterranean Sea

Atlantic Ocean

Gulf of Mexico

45˚N

A S I A

East China Sea Red Sea

A F R I C A

Caribbean Sea

Arabian Sea

Pacific Ocean

30˚N

15˚N

South China Sea

Andaman Sea

0˚

S O U T H A M E R I C A

Indian Ocean

15˚S

N

AUSTRALIA 30˚S

Tasman Sea 45˚S

Southern Ocean 165˚W

150˚W

135˚W

120˚W

105˚W

90˚W

75˚W

60˚W

45˚W

30˚W

15˚W

0˚

60˚S 15˚E

30˚E

45˚E

60˚E

75˚E

90˚E

105˚E

120˚E

135˚E

 Major world seas

13

150˚E

165˚E

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

One of the

Sea waters refreshing. Polar

benthic (BEHN-thick) along the

largest seas is the

bears think nothing of a 50-

ocean floor

Bering Sea, which

mile (80-km) swim through ice-

floes (FLOWZ) sheets of floating ice

lies between Russia

filled Bering Sea waters.

haul out (HAWL OUT) move

and the United

from the sea to the beach or to

States. Walruses

a location on the beach; walrus-

compete for space

4 Oceans and seas have

es, seals, and sea lions will do

on Bering Sea ice

“living” zones where different

this as a group

floes. Fur seals and

species live. The regions in-

intertidal (IN-tur-TIE-duhl) of the

sea lions haul out to

clude the intertidal, pelagic,

area between the high and low

breed on islands in

and benthic zones. Few

tide marks on a beach

the sea. Even polar

species cross from one zone

pelagic (peh-LAA-jick) of the top

bears find Bering

to another.

layers of open ocean, particularly the area that gets sun

Who Lives Where

 At low tide, these tide pools along the Oregon coast are exposed to the sun.

The intertidal zone lies

sand show the hiding places of

along the coastline. High and

worms, clams, and tiny crabs.

low tides mark the range of

Birds such as gulls, terns, and

this zone. On a rock-strewn

sandpipers peck at the wet

beach, the intertidal zone

sand to find food.

might contain tide pools.

The pelagic zone is the

Crabs, sea stars, snails,

top layer of open ocean. The

urchins, and barnacles live

pelagic zone ranges from the

among varieties of seaweed

surface to a dark zone. The

in tide pools. Few plants live

most active region is the area

in the sandy intertidal zone.

with the most sunlight. This

However, air bubbles in the

zone provides much of the

 Polar bears hunt ring seals on the Arctic ice pack.

15

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

seafood and fish that

draw the attention of preda-

bioluminescence (BYE-oh-loo-

humans eat. Sun-

tors. The constant movement

muh-NESS-ense) a body’s ability

light allows photo-

of sea life keeps the pelagic

to make light

synthesis to take

zone busy.

chlorophyll (KLOR-uh-fil) a

place. Green plants

green substance plants use that,

can survive by using

the mysteries of the deep sea.

when combined with sunlight,

chlorophyll and sun-

No sunlight reaches the ben-

helps produce food and oxygen

light to make food

thic zone. Water pressure is

marine (muh-REEN) having to

and oxygen. Marine

strong enough to crush a

do with oceans and seas

plants provide food

human body flat. Creatures

photosynthesis (foh-toh-SIN-

and shelter for hun-

of the deep search the ocean

thuh-siss) the process by which

dreds of ocean

floor for food that sinks

plants use sunlight and chloro-

species. Plant eaters

from above.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

phyll to produce food

The benthic zone holds

Many deep-sea dwellers glow in the dark. Fish, squid, and tiny plants and animals create light just like lightning bugs. They use a chemical process called bioluminescence that makes sharks glow green and deep-sea shrimp appear bright red. Despite the darkness, the cold, and the  A deep ocean anglerfish attracts prey with a lure that dangles in front of its face and lights up.

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

immense pressure, the benthic zone teems with life. It is home to crabs and tube worms. Some of the ugliest fish in the world live there, too!

The Ocean in Motion 4 The oceans and seas move constantly. Tides, currents, and waves create an ever-changing seascape. This motion plays an important role in the ocean cycle of life.

 Tubeworms live in the benthic zone— the deepest region of the ocean.

The moon has

 READ IT!

gravity, an invisible

Creatures of the Deep: In Search

force that pulls

of the Sea’s Monsters and the

cause the changes in water

toward the center

World They Live In by Erich Hoyt

levels around earth. These

of a body. The

(Firefly Books, 2001) presents up

changes are tides. The moon

moon moves

close and personal views of

is much smaller than the

around earth,

some of the creepiest, strangest,

sun, but closer to earth. It

pulling on the

and meanest-looking creatures

has more effect on earth’s

water closest to it.

in the oceans.

oceans than the sun does.

The water swells

The sun and the moon

17

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

toward the moon, creating a

away than the moon, so the

high tide. On the opposite side

pull is not as strong. When the

of earth, another swell occurs.

sun and the moon line up on

Two high tides occur each day,

the same side of earth, they

about 12 hours apart.

pull together. This creates very

The sun’s gravity also pulls on earth. It is farther

high tides, called spring tides. Sometimes the sun’s and the

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

moon’s positions form right angles to earth. When this happens, earth experiences lower, or neap, tides.

Currents 4 All water in an ocean or sea does not move in the same direction or at the same speed. Water flows through the oceans like rivers. Currents are the ocean’s rivers. Both surface and under-

 Wind and gravitational forces drive ocean currents.

Labrador, and Humboldt

water currents move ocean

currents carry cold water

water. Surface currents are

from polar seas toward the

influenced by factors such as

equator. The Gulf Stream,

gravitational forces and wind

East Australia, and Equatorial

patterns. The wind pushes the

currents carry warm water

water in the same direction as

away from the equator.

it is blowing. Surface currents can be

Most surface currents move slowly at up to 5 miles

either cold or warm water

(8 km) daily. They follow a

currents. The Kamchatka,

regular pattern that can be

 The moon’s gravity pulls ocean water, producing high and low tides.

19

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

mapped. The Kuroshio

Underwater currents move

Current and the Gulf Stream

frigid water along the ocean’s

are ocean speed demons.

floor. The largest deep ocean

They move at rates up to

current is the Pacific Deep

75 miles (121 km) per day.

Western Boundary Current.

eg ia n No

rw

nd la

E. G r

ee n

75˚N

60˚N L r do

Oyash

io.

ra ab

ska Ala

tla n N. A

N. Pacific

45˚N l Ca

lf Gu

S tr

tic Drift

eam

Pa N.

cific

if o rn ia

an

ar

y

30˚N

rial C o unte r

S. E

Equatorial Counter

0˚

a to

qu

N. Equatorial Ag uih as

N. Equatorial

io

Eq u

K urosh

C

N. Equatorial

15˚N

a t o r i al a uel ng Be

S. Equatorial

N. Equator ial E quatorial Counter

15˚S

S . E q u a t o r ia l

Au str al ia

.A

Eas t

W

Warm Current Cold Current

45˚S

ian S. Ind

South Altan

S . P a c ific

tic

Antarctic Circumpolar Antarctic Su

60˚S 165˚W

us

oz M

Peru

Current

tr a

b iq ue

am

Br az il

30˚S

li a

N

150˚W

135˚W

120˚W

Antarctic Circumpolar

bpolar

105˚W

Antarctic Sub

90˚W

75˚W

60˚W

45˚W

30˚W

15˚W

 Charted ocean and sea currents

20

Antarctic Circumpolar

polar

0˚

15˚E

30˚E

45˚E

60˚E

75˚E

90˚E

105˚E

120˚E

135˚E

150˚E

165˚E

 Although it seems hard and crusty, coral is actually a community of living creatures.

0˚

This current flows north from

Animals attached to rocks

the Southern Ocean along

(barnacles or mussels) or to

eastern New Zealand. It carries

the seafloor (anemones or

about 100 times as much

coral) depend on currents to

water as the Amazon or the

bring them food. Currents also

Nile, which are the earth’s

attract schooling fish such as

longest rivers.

cod, haddock, or pollock that

Currents carry tiny plants and animals in ocean water.

feed on smaller fish. Even whales take part in the all-you21

[Defining Oceans and Seas]

can-eat buffet offered by major

into waves. A profile of a wave

ocean currents.

shows a high spot (the crest)

Waves

and a low spot (the trough). If a weather report describes

4 Waves move water from

waves of 10 to 12 feet (3 to

the open ocean toward the

3.7 m), 10 feet (3 m) is the

shore. Wind produces most

distance between the wave’s

waves. The area of water affect-

crest and trough. Because

ed by a body of wind is called

wind does not blow with the

the fetch. Wind blows across

same strength at all times,

the fetch, causing water to rise

waves vary in height.

 This is all that was left after this community was struck by a tsunami.

Underwater events also

Waves act like blenders

cause waves. Earthquakes, vol-

along the coast. They churn

canoes, and landslides on the

up the ocean floor. Wave

ocean floor produce energy

action shifts beach sand

under the water. The energy

and underwater

pushes the water up into

sand. Waves change

waves. Earthquakes can cause

the profile of a

One of the world’s largest

tsunamis (soo-NAH-meez), or

beach and the

recorded tsunamis struck Lituya

giant waves. An earthquake in

position of sand-

Bay, Alaska, in 1958. The wave

Peru can generate a tsunami

bars. When they

reached more than 1,700 feet

strong enough to travel across

do so, they change

(518 m) high. That is more than

the Pacific Ocean and hit

the habitats of

250 feet (76 m) taller than the

Japan. Four-fifths of all

millions of plants

Sears Tower in Chicago, Illinois.

tsunamis occur in the Pacific.

and animals.

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

 Whales travel in groups called pods. These whales are performing a common activity, called breaching.

23

2

[ C h a p t e r Tw o ]

Focus on Reefs and Key Species

Focus on Reefs and Key Species

24

4 Scuba divers float in the shallow waters of the Great Barrier Reef. The water is clear, warm, and inviting. The divers watch brilliant crimsonand-white clownfish dart

[Focus on Reefs and Key Species]

among the coral polyps below. This, and every other coral reef, began with just one polyp anchored to the seafloor. Coral comes in strange shapes and beautiful colors. Bright red fire coral grows beside green, leaflike cabbage coral. Lacy fan coral hides a seahorse. Nearby, an octopus buries itself beneath a mound of brain coral. Hard coral leaves a skeleton when it dies. The skeleton

 A healthy coral reef has as much traffic as a big city during rush hour.

becomes part of a coral reef.

Keystone species

Soft coral looks much like sea-

make such an im-

ecosystem (EE-koh-siss-tuhm) a

weed or anemones. Coral col-

pact on an ecosys-

community of plants and ani-

ors cover the rainbow, from

tem that the ecosys-

mals and their relationship with

deep purples and spinach

tem cannot survive

the surrounding environment

greens to vivid reds, pinks,

without them. Coral

polyps (POL-ips) small sea ani-

and yellows.

reefs change the

mals with tube-shaped bodies

ocean environment.

and tentacles

Reef-building coral is a keystone species of the ocean.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

Hundreds of plant

 Red polyp coral is noted for its stunning scarlet color.

25

 Mangrove swamps serve as nurseries for many ocean species.

and animal species

and plankton, sea otters,

depend on the

kelp, and mangrove trees.

The Great Barrier Reef video

coral reef for food

They are all groups of key-

(ASIN: 158448134X) reveals the

and shelter.

stone species that live in the

 WATCH IT!

colorful, dynamic, and fragile

Many different

life of animals on the world’s

keystone species

largest coral reef.

affect the ecosys-

ocean, yet there is not one fish among them! The word plankton covers

tems in the ocean

a large number of small

biome. Some live

marine beings. Plant plankton

biome (BYE-ohm) a large ecosys-

in coastal zones,

(phytoplankton) and animal

tem in which the plants and ani-

others in the open

plankton (zooplankton) survive

mals are adapted to a particular

sea. Let’s consider

by floating through the ocean.

climate or physical environment

groups of keystone

They move on currents, tides,

species such as krill

and waves.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

26

[Focus on Reefs and Key Species]

Some phytoplankton are

KRILL IN THE NEWS

small, one-celled, and round

In March 2002, a group of British scien-

like a ball. This shape helps

tists made a fascinating discovery. Their

some phytoplankton float.

robot submarine discovered huge

Zooplankton range from one-

amounts of krill living under the ice in

celled animals to krill and

Antarctica. The Antarctic krill had five

jellyfish. Every ocean animal

times as many individuals per area than

depends on plankton. They

krill in open waters.

either eat plankton directly

The krill feed along the underside

or eat creatures that con-

of sea ice during winter months. Dr.

sume plankton.

Andrew Brierley, of the scientific team,

Mangroves and kelp also

said the discovery was of major impor-

serve as groups of keystone

tance because “it shows that it is the ice

species. The mangrove is an

edge, rather than sea ice generally, that

odd tree. It grows along tropi-

is important for krill.”

cal shorelines and survives in both freshwater and salt water. The trunks and branches grow above the waterline. The roots form a weblike network under the water. Young fish, turtles, and reptiles thrive in their mangrove nursery. 27

roots, called holdfasts, cling to the seafloor. Kelp can grow up to about 200 feet (61 m) long. An air sac at the tip of each frond holds the kelp upright in the water. Kelp forests house 800 different plant and animal species. Kelp forests and sea otters share a close relationship. Without sea otters eating urchins, the kelp forest would die. Urchins chew on kelp holdfasts. Eventually, they  Kelp forests protect small fish and sea creatures from larger predators.

chew through the base, and the frond floats away. Kelp

Kelp forests

forests support hundreds of

Threatened Oceans by Jenny

lie mostly underwa-

species, and the sea otter, in

Tesar (Facts On File, 1991) gives

ter. The beds may

turn, preserves the kelp forest.

a true picture of the environ-

become exposed at

mental problems damaging

low tide. Kelp is a

the oceans.

form of brown algae,

4 Protecting an umbrella

or seaweed. Kelp

species requires protecting

 READ IT!

28

Umbrella Species

 A gray whale cow and her calf head north to the Arctic. The calf stretched nearly 16 feet (4.9 m) at birth.

territory. An umbrella species

other marine animals living

is a plant or animal that, when

there are also protected.

protected, also protects other

Corals can also be um-

species. For example, Pacific

brella species. A protected

gray whales migrate along the

reef includes algae, anemo-

West Coast of North America.

nes, and reef-dwelling

Their territory extends from

creatures. It also safeguards

the Arctic Ocean to Baja,

“visitors” to the reef, such

California. If the gray whales’

as sharks and rays.

territory is protected from net fishing during migration,

Green sea turtles serve as umbrella species in sea grass 29

[Focus on Reefs and Key Species]

 Batlike manta rays are filter feeders, surviving on plankton and shrimp.

30

[Focus on Reefs and Key Species]

beds. Green sea turtles groom

species lack popu-

sea grass beds, keeping the

larity, they still

If ecology interests you, join

grasses and reeds healthy.

need protecting.

the Kids Ecology Corps. It’s

 DO IT!

Laws preserve both the

Flagship

turtles and the sea grass

species represent

about the corps at

beds. Doing so provides

the brightest, most

http://www.kidsecology.org.

a safe haven for manatees,

beautiful, and most

sharks, rays, and dozens

enchanting crea-

of fish species.

tures of a biome.

by-catch (BYE-kach) fish, turtles,

They are valuable

or mammals caught by accident

to the biome, as

while nets fish for specific

4 A flagship species

well. Efforts to

species, such as tuna

brings people’s attention

conserve flagship

to a biome. It is easy to

species make people more

interest people in efforts to

aware of the problems of the

“Save the Whales” or “Save

whole ecosystem.

Flagship Species

the Dolphins.” Both species

free! Access information

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

Here’s an example. For

have drama, intelligence,

many years, dolphins were

and personality. However,

by-catch of tuna fisheries.

few people sign up to “Save

Dolphins got caught in tuna

the Sea Cucumber” or

nets and drowned. An out-

“Save the Portuguese Man-

raged public supported the

of-War.” Though these

dolphins, and ways were 31

 Sleek dolphins used high-pitched sounds to locate schools of fish for dinner.

found to prevent many dol-

32

Dolphins aren’t the only

phin deaths. In the 1970s,

species helped by better

nearly 200,000 dolphins

fishing methods. This effort

died as by-catch each year.

also saved sea turtles, whales,

Today, that number is

seals, sea lions, and otters.

down to about 2,000 in

By-catch victims are surviv-

U.S. waters.

ing because many people

[Focus on Reefs and Key Species]

are willing to pay a little

PROFILE: EL NIÑO

more for canned “dolphin-

El Niño occurs when seawater near the

safe” tuna in order to save

equator in the eastern Pacific becomes

the dolphins.

warmer than normal. El Niño affects

Indicator Species

weather patterns and sea life throughout the world. It is responsible for especially

4 Indicator species mea-

heavy rainfall in some places and

sure the health of a region

drought in others.

or ecosystem. If local fish

In California’s Channel Islands, seals

are found floating belly

and sea lions feed in the kelp forests. A

up, there’s something

recent occur-

wrong. Sometimes, humans

rence of El Niño

create the problems, such as

brought changes

pollution (puh-LOO-shuhn) the

pollution or oil spills. Other

in water temper-

act of soiling or dirtying

problems arise because of

ature, which

an environment

weather or natural changes

reduced the ani-

in the environment.

mal population in the kelp beds. Reduced

The Ocean Alliance, a conservation group, uses sperm whales as an indicator

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

populations meant reduced food and starvation for many marine mammals. Learn more about how El Niño affects

species for the health of

the ocean at the Marine Mammal

earth’s oceans. Sperm whales

Center’s Web site: http://www.tmmc.org/

can be found in every ocean.

learning/comm/el_nino_2002.asp.

33

 Sperm whales are an indicator species of the oceans. Scientists can check a dead sperm whale’s blubber for poison levels.

34

They dive to great depths,

those same poisons collect in

so they can show problems

whale fat called blubber. When

in the upper (pelagic) or

a sperm whale dies, scientists

lower (benthic) ocean zones.

can check how much poison

If poisons collect in the oceans,

is in the whale’s blubber.

3

[Chapter Three]

Predators

Predators

brushes the bottom with his tusks and whiskers. It is an odd hunting technique, but

4 A massive male walrus

it is effective. The walrus

heaves his nearly 4,000-pound

finds clams, worms, and

(1,814-kilogram) body into the

crabs beneath the seafloor

water. Awkward on land, wal-

muck. Like sharks and orcas,

ruses are excellent swimmers

the walrus is a predator. He

and divers. The male heads

lives by hunting and eating

for the seafloor. He gently

other sea animals.

 Alaskan natives called the walrus toothwalker. These 2-ton creatures are awkward on land but are elegant in the water.

35

[Predators]

Animal life in

 READ IT!

place to place. Nekton are

Whales, Dolphins, and

the ocean can be

swimmers that include marine

Porpoises by Mark Carwardine

divided into three

mammals, such as whales,

(Dorling Kindersley, 1992) is

basic groups: plank-

seals, sea lions, dolphins, and

an Eyewitness Handbook.

ton, nekton, and

fish such as sharks, cod, had-

Beautifully illustrated, this

benthos. Plankton

dock, and surgeonfish.

book presents 79 different

are floaters or

Benthos are bottom-feeders,

species in detail.

drifters that have lit-

consisting of animals that are

tle or no means of

stuck to the bottom, such as

self-propulsion. Currents, tides,

clams, mussels, and abalone.

and waves move them from

Other bottom-feeders crawl or slither along the seafloor, such as sea cucumbers, crabs, and lobsters. The marine food chain has both predators and prey. Each plays an important role in keeping the ocean’s natural balance. Top predators, such as sperm whales, sharks, and orcas, belong to the nekton group. They hunt aggressively and successfully  Yellow tang surgeonfish are among the rainbow-colored species that live on coral reefs.

[Predators]

because they can stalk and attack their prey. Sharks find their meals by scent. They have a keen sense of smell that works over long distances and even determines direction. Sharks have two nostrils. When a scent arrives at one nostril before the other, the shark knows where its prey is located. Sharks also hear sound over long distances.

 Great white sharks have attacked humans. They are fierce, dangerous predators.

Because sharks stalk wounded

sonar in a submarine. Sonar is

prey, good hearing helps. They

a device that uses sound waves

pick up sounds of pain or dis-

to locate underwater

tress over many miles.

objects. A pilot whale

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

sends out a series of

echolocation (EK-oh-loh-kay-

toothed whales, such as sperm

clicks. The clicks

shuhn) the process of finding

and pilot whales, have either

strike objects in the

an object by bouncing sound

little or no sense of smell. They

ocean and bounce

off it to determine its size and

locate their prey using sound.

back to the whale.

distance; used by bats, whales,

They have an excellent sense

Using echolocation,

and dolphins

of echolocation that works like

whales can figure

Porpoises, dolphins, and

37

 It is common for dolphins to herd their prey into a bait ball.

out the size, shape,

along the South Carolina

distance, texture,

coast herd fish onto sandy

Killer whales, also called orcas,

direction, and speed

banks. The dolphins wiggle

are not whales at all. They are

of an object.

onto the bank, eat their catch,

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

the largest species of dolphins.

Dolphins and

and return to the hunt.

They are also the fastest dol-

orcas hunt in

Dolphins also force small fish,

phins, swimming at speeds up

groups to find, con-

such as herring or anchovies,

to 30 miles (48 km) per hour.

trol, and capture

into “bait balls.” When the

their prey. Dolphins

dolphins find a school of

38

A hungry orca prepares to catch this young sea lion. 

[Predators]

small fish, they attack from

gray whale and her calf. The

several sides. One dolphin

mother is too large, but the

emits a series of bubbles that

calf makes excellent prey. The

frightens the prey. Small fish

orcas attack and retreat repeat-

huddle in a ball by instinct.

edly. They force the calf under-

This “bait ball” makes feed-

water where it cannot breathe.

ing easy for the dolphins. Orcas also use echoloca-

When hunting seals or sea lions, the orcas lurk in

tion to identify prey. They

the breaking waves. The seals

hunt everything from seal pups

and sea lions must come into

to large whales. A group, or

the water to find food. Orcas

pod, of orcas hunts a female

are waiting.

 Whale sharks are the largest fish, but, like many whales, they feed on plankton and krill.

right, gray, minke, and hump-

Filter Feeders

back), whale sharks, basking

4 Filter feeders take a milder approach to hunting.

40

sharks, and manta rays. The blue whale is the

They simply swim through

largest marine mammal. In

swarms of tiny prey and sift

fact, it is the largest animal

their food from what they

that has ever lived. Blue

don’t want to eat. Filter

whales can grow more than

feeders include baleen whales

100 feet (30 m) long and can

(blue, bowhead, finback,

weigh up to 300,000 pounds

Beware the sea nettle. Its stinging tentacles inflict extreme pain. 

[Predators]

(136,100 kg). What is most

whales. Their open mouths

amazing about blue whales

take in huge amounts of

is that they reach this size on

ocean water, krill, plankton,

a diet of krill (average length:

and small fish.

1 inch, or 2.54 cm). Whale sharks are the

Hide and Seek

largest fish in the oceans.

4 Some predators wait for

They are not whales, just very

prey to come to them. They

large sharks. Whale sharks are

patiently float along. Some use

filter feeders, just like baleen

camouflage. They hide behind

[Predators]

or under seafloor plants or

cles trail behind them. Large

rocks. For both kinds of preda-

jellyfish, such as the Arctic

tors, a meal eventually arrives.

giant or lion’s mane, eat thou-

Jellyfish and the Portuguese man-of-war eat plankton. They drift along waiting for

sands of tiny plankton and fish eggs every day. A Portuguese man-of-war,

prey. A jelly’s medusa, or bell,

also known as the bluebottle,

contains the animal’s main

is actually a colony of individ-

organs. Long, poisonous tenta-

ual polyps. The body consists of a float, organs, and tentacles. The float is a gas-filled bubble that is carried along the water’s surface. A man-ofwar’s tentacles also sting and paralyze prey. Other predators use camouflage. Most flat fish, such as flounder and plaice, have learned to bury themselves under loose seafloor sand. Their coloring blends in with the multicolored sand. They are in a perfect spot to  Creatures are drawn to the deadly Portuguese man-of-war because of its bright, shiny appearance.

 The octopus is a master of disguise. It can hide in cracks along a reef or match its coloring with the sea floor.

wait for prey. Spotted scorpi-

pus slips under rocks, in

on fish look like rocks until

cracks, or in a gravel nest.

their prey swims near. Then

Its coloring matches its hid-

they attack.

ing place. When lobsters,

A master of oceanic

crabs, or shrimp scurry past,

hide-and-seek is the octopus.

the octopus pulls them in

Flexible and agile, the octo-

with its tentacles. 43

PROFILE: LEOPARD SEALS Leopard seals are large mammals that

From Beyond the Sea

prefer living alone. Females are slightly

4 Many of the sea’s most

larger than males and can be 12 feet

successful hunters are not fish.

(3.7 m) long and up to 1,000 pounds

They are marine mammals,

(454 kg).

such as seals, sea lions, and

Leopard seals often eat krill but

walruses. Or, they are seabirds,

would rather feast on penguins. The

such as penguins, albatross,

seals lurk near Antarctic ice, waiting

and puffins.

for penguins to plunge into the water.

Seals and sea lions are

Nervous penguins are aware of the

clumsy on land, yet are sleek

leopard seal’s presence. They avoid

and skilled in the water. Their

diving in as long as they can, but

fat layer of blubber and thick

hunger wins out. The seal attacks,

fur keep them warm in icy

but penguins are good swimmers.

Arctic and Antarctic waters.

The penguins escape about half

Most seals and sea lions eat

the time.

large amount of krill, fish, and squid. Seabirds live extraordinary lives. Albatross, murres, and puffins live on the water and return to land only to breed. Penguins thrive in tempera-

44

Eighteen species of penguins live in  the Antarctic. The largest are king penguins and emperor penguins.

[Predators]

tures colder than humans

Gulls and terns

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

can survive. Pelicans, gulls,

scavenge in the

crustaceans (kruhss-TAY-shuhnz)

and terns choose homes with

intertidal zone,

animals with hard outside shells,

ocean views. These birds all

looking for crabs,

such as crabs

have one thing in common.

worms, and small

They depend on the ocean

crustaceans. They can be seen

for food.

on nearly every shoreline.

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

When hunting for food, murres dive under the surface and swim. They use their short wings to help them move through the water. Like penguins, they are able to “fly” underwater and can swim to

 The puffin’s bright orange beak makes it an odd-looking bird.

depths of nearly 200 feet

They also hunt at

albatross, puffins, frigate

(61 m). This is unusual because

sea, plucking small

birds, and shearwaters can

murres, unlike penguins, can

fish from the

hunt, easily scooping small

also fly in the air.

water’s surface.

fish from schools swimming

Even far out to sea,

along the surface.

46

4

[Chapter Four]

divers. They soar high, and then plunge 20 feet (6 m) into

4 A school of anchovies

the Atlantic Ocean. Hundreds

swims just below the water’s

of shearwaters attack a school

surface. A flock of shearwaters

with millions of anchovies.

flying overhead catches the

If the prey’s numbers were

silver sparkle of the anchovies.

not so great, this species could

The shearwaters barely skim

not survive.

the waves in their rush to reach the school. Shearwaters

Prey

Prey

are daring fliers and skilled

There are thousands, maybe millions, of predators

 The shearwater earns its name from its graceful flight just above the water’s edge.

47

 One gray whale will eat 390,000 pounds (177,000 kg) of amphipods between late spring and early fall.

stalking the seas. Billions,

or Chukchi Sea for five

perhaps trillions, of animals

months, from late spring to

feed those predators. Huge

early fall. During that time,

populations of prey keep

one gray whale eats about

a balance in the ocean

390,000 pounds (177,000 kg)

ecosystem.

of amphipods. Consider the

Krill serves as the main

gray whale and the

meal for baleen whales,

amphipod (AM-fih-pod) a hard-

amphipod, its

dolphins, squid, seals,

shelled sea animal that looks

favorite food.

herring, and penguins. In fact,

like a small shrimp

Pacific gray whales

scientists estimate that the

feed in the Bering

world’s penguins and other

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

48

[Prey]

seabirds eat 39,000,000 tons of krill yearly. Small fish, such as sprats, anchovies, and herring, travel in huge schools. They swim the open seas and have little protection from predators. For them, the only chance of survival is their huge population.

Plankton 4 The word plankton comes from the Greek word planktos, which means “wandering.” Plankton, which include animals and plants, don’t wander as much as they drift. When speaking of prey, however, plankton refers to zooplankton, which are floating animals. Schools of Pacific herring feed  dolphins, seals, and larger fish.

Zooplankton include the protozoa, eggs, and young of larger animals. One type of

[Prey]

plankton includes a variety

 WATCH IT!

Spikes, Poison, and Hidey-Holes

The Blue Planet, Seasonal Seas

amphipods, isopods, and deca-

4 For a sea crea-

gates the effect of plankton

pods. Pod means “foot,” and

ture to reach adult-

on their environment. When

these mini-animals come with

hood, it must not

plankton spawn, sharks, jelly-

plenty of feet. There may be

be eaten. This is

fish, rays, squid, and a host of

10,000 different species of

not as simple as it

fish species show up for the

copepods. They are the most

sounds. It requires

feast. Plankton may be small,

plentiful “pod” in the oceans.

a combination of

but Seasonal Seas captures the

On average, 1 ounce (28.3

luck and good

tiniest details on video.

grams) of copepods includes

defenses. Defenses

250 individuals.

may be a prey’s

of crustaceans with names that end in pod: copepods,

Jellyfish are larger plank-

spines, spikes,

(ASIN: B00005YU7M) investi-

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

toxic (TOK-sik) poisonous

ton. They can push them-

stingers, hard shells,

selves along, but usually they

poisons, toxic mucus, or color

just drift with the currents.

or size changes. When these

The Australian box jellyfish

defenses fail, prey can either

and the Portuguese man-of-

run or hide. Spines, stingers, and

war can be dangerous to humans. Encounters with box

spikes fend off all but the

jellies may end in death if not

bravest predators. Coral

treated immediately.

and anemones use stinging

 Tiny Daphnia copepods are also called water fleas.

51

COMB JELLYFISH IN THE NEWS

tentacles, urchins use spines,

A type of comb jellyfish has taken over

and sponges use chemical

the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. This

secretions to stop hungry ene-

may sound silly, but comb jellyfish spell

mies. Coral and anemones also

disaster for fishers.

use poison as a defense. Sting-

The jellies have no natural predators in the Black or Caspian seas. They do, however, have hefty appetites and

ers can deliver enough poison to paralyze or kill a predator. Many ocean animals sur-

eat everything they can. A typical

vive because of their hard

diet includes zooplankton and fish

shells. Shrimp, crabs, lobsters,

eggs. The comb jellies’ eating habits

clams, and mussels have hard

have reduced the fish population

outer shells that protect them

in the Black Sea by 80 percent. A

from many, but not all, preda-

similar problem is happening in the

tors. Some creatures, such as

Caspian Sea.

hermit crabs, borrow the shell

Some scientists hope to combat the

of another animal such as a

comb jellies with butterfish. Butterfish

snail. Hermit crabs move into

eat their own weight in comb jellies

larger shells as they grow.

every hour. The comb jelly situation

Hermit crabs sometimes fight

shows what happens when nature’s

over quality shells.

balance is disturbed.

Other plants and animals make themselves unappetizing to predators. They emit poison

52

 READ IT! Reef Life by Denise Nielson Multicolored parrotfish protect themselves at night by covering their bodies with toxic mucus.

Tackett and Larry Tackett (Microcosm LTD, 2002) provides

or give off a bad-tasting

Puffer fish have

an in-depth, full-color view of

substance. Parrotfish cover

sharp, irritating

coral ecosystems. Learn how

their bodies with toxic mucus

spines. They bloat

plant and animal species sur-

when resting. Toxic substances

themselves up to

vive amid constant threats in

work like insect repellent.

appear too big for

the eat-or-be-eaten world of

Predators taste or smell the

eating. They taste

a coral reef.

repellent and stay away.

horrible and carry

One species uses just

poison in their bodies. Finally,

about every trick in the book.

they bite with sharp teeth. No 53

among the poison tentacles of a Portuguese man-of-war. They are immune to the poison, but their predators are not. Damselfish and clown fish rarely leave the safety of an anemone’s poisonous tentacles. When nothing else works, hiding provides some level of protection. The ocean floor contains many cracks, jutting rocks, holes, and caves where prey can hide. Eels and crabs scuttle under rocks when not feeding. Some creatures,  The hideous scorpionfish hides in seaweed while it waits for its prey to pass by.

seahorse, blend in with plants

sensible predator would bother

or coral. Flounder, scorpion

with the puffer fish.

fish, and lizardfish hide on

Sometimes, survival

54

such as the pipefish or the

gravelly or sandy seafloors.

depends on help from other

They become nearly invisible

species. A few species of fish,

against the seafloor—as long

including the jack fish, live

as they don’t move.

5

[Chapter Five]

4 Marine flora, or sea

Flora

Flora

grasses. Without marine flora, life on earth would end. Sea plants are the basic stuff of life.

plants, produce 90 percent

Phytoplankton are one-

of the oxygen on earth. Sea

celled, tiny plants that make

plants fall into two categories:

up most of ocean plant life.

phytoplankton and seaweed,

These tiny plants live in the

which includes algae and sea

upper (pelagic) ocean zone,

 Diatoms are living plants that drift on open seas.

55

 DO IT! Next time you go to the beach, collect a jar of seawater. Back

 Even the harsh Arctic Ocean blooms with phytoplankton once winter ice melts.

at home, look at drops of the

where there is

grow to depths of about 400

water through a microscope.

plenty of sunlight.

feet (122 m). Phytoplankton

You’ll be surprised at what’s

In warm, clear

drift through the water. They

living in your jar!

ocean water,

provide food for thousands of

phytoplankton

animal species.

56

ALIEN INVADES MEDITERRANEAN! In the 1970s, the Wilhelmina Zoo in Stuttgart, Germany, added Caulerpa taxifola, a delicate form of seaweed, to its tropical tanks. The zoo provided other public aquariums with samples of caulerpa. Their generosity sparked a nightmare. Bits of caulerpa escaped from aquarium tanks. The seaweed made its way into the Mediterranean Sea. Caulerpa developed into a science-fiction monster. Caulerpa does not belong in the Mediterranean. Mediterranean fish and sea creatures won’t eat the toxic weed. Actually, they won’t even touch it. Mediterranean communities see disaster coming as the seaweed thrives. Caulerpa covers and kills other seaweed.

Even the Arctic Ocean

It also kills off the animals that depend

has its share of phytoplank-

on native plants for survival. Salting, vacu-

ton. During icy winter

uming, and pulling caulerpa out by the

months, the phytoplankton

roots has no effect. Nothing kills the stuff.

stay inactive. When the

What will stop the dreaded caulerpa?

57

[Flora]

summer sun lights the Arctic

may notice a faint yellow-

sky for nearly 23 hours a

green glow on their skin.

day, the phytoplankton

That is phytoplankton. Some

population booms.

of it glows in the dark.

Phytoplankton is invisi-

Occasionally, the phyto-

ble to the human eye. Yet,

plankton population explodes.

people who swim at night

This event is called a bloom.

[Flora]

It results from the ideal

ples are sea lettuce,

mix of light, warmth, and

sea grass, eelgrass,

Into the Deep (ASIN:

plant food. Blooms are visi-

and caulerpa.

B0000687MT) is a video that

ble to humans because the

Some northern

explores the kelp beds of

plants form a thick layer on

European cultures

California’s Channel Islands.

the water.

eat sea lettuce in

Learn about fierce Garibaldi

salads. It is easy to

fish, Spanish mackerel, and

harvest because sea

dozens of other species that

4 Dabberlocks, bladder

lettuce grows in

call the kelp forest home.

wrack, toothed wrack, and

tide pools.

Algae

dulse. These sound like

 WATCH IT!

Kelp, wrack, dabber-

bizarre diseases or magical

locks, and oarweed are

spells. Actually, they are

types of brown seaweed.

types of seaweed. More cor-

Kelp grows in underwater

rectly, they are large, colored

forests along the coast.

forms of algae. Common sea-

Most people eat kelp daily

weed comes in green, brown,

without realizing it. Kelp

or red. Some drift on the

appears in ice cream, tooth-

tides. Other seaweed use

paste, and salad dressings,

holdfasts to anchor them-

and can even be eaten raw

selves to the seafloor.

in salads. Wrack is a com-

Green seaweed grows in most oceans. Typical exam-

mon brown seaweed that floats with the help of air

 Bladder wrack is a type of brown seaweed used to make plant fertilizer.

59

bladders. Types of wrack include knotted, spiral, toothed, bladder, and channeled. Wrack makes excellent natural fertilizer. Red algae has long been popular in preparing different kinds of food. The form called Irish moss, or carrageenan, thickens pudding, soups, and cream cheese. Dulse, another red seaweed, is used in both food and medicine. Dulse attaches itself to rocks in the North Atlantic and Northwest

60

PROFILE: THE SARGASSO SEA

Pacific oceans. As far back

Tiny shrimp, worms, and infant sea tur-

as the days of the Vikings,

tles find safe haven in the Sargasso Sea.

people have eaten highly

This is not a true sea but a large area of

nutritious dulse. Snails,

floating seaweed. Air sacs keep the sea-

urchins, and small, shell-

weed afloat. The Sargasso Sea is found

covered animals called

in the Atlantic Ocean near Bermuda.

limpets like it, too.

6

[Chapter Six]

4 A green turtle munches

Herbivores

Herbivores

As an adult, she eats only plants. In fact, the green sea turtle is the only plant eater among sea turtles.

on eelgrass growing in a quiet

Herbivore comes from the

Brazilian bay. She weeds out

Latin words herb, meaning

dying blades of grass and

“plant,” and vore, meaning

keeps the eelgrass bed healthy.

“eater.” Many

As a hatchling, she ate

of the largest

shrimp, crabs, and jellyfish.

land animals

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

hatchling (HACH-ling) young that has just hatched from an egg

 A female green turtle swims past a bed of coral.

61

 Kelp is a large form of algae—the green stuff that coats home aquariums.

are herbivores. They include

plants grow. Algae and phyto-

elephants, giraffes, buffalo, and

plankton need sunlight, just

rhinoceroses. In the oceans,

like oak trees and grass. As the

green sea turtles and sea cows

ocean gets deeper, colder, and

(dugongs and manatees) are

darker, fewer plants are found.

the only large plant eaters.

In very deep water, there are

Ocean herbivores live in the pelagic and intertidal zones. That’s where marine 62

no plants and no plant eaters. One-celled ocean plants provide food for zooplankton.

[Herbivores]

Copepods eat the most plants

Urchins eat larger sea plants,

because there are more cope-

such as wrack, dulse, and kelp.

pods than any other zooplank-

Colorful urchins protect them-

ton. Both copepods and

selves with sharp spines. They

phytoplankton drift on the seas. Other animals, such as clams or mussels, filter the plankton from the moving water. They eat balanced meals of meat (zooplankton) and vegetables (phytoplankton). Tide pools form on rocky shores. Seaweed clings to the rocks as waves batter the tide pools. Tide pools house several plant eaters. Limpets thrive in tide pools. They move over rocks and vacuum algae from the surface. Like snails, they leave a slime trail behind them. Urchins live in tide pools, kelp beds, and coral reefs. Urchins feast on kelp. Sea otters feast on urchins. They are all part of the oceanic food cycle.

gnaw at kelp holdfasts and do serious damage to kelp beds. Luckily, sea otters, crabs, and wolf fish keep sea urchin populations under control.

Sea Cows 4 Manatees, dugongs, and Steller’s sea cows, a now extinct species, belong to the same PROFILE: COWRIES

family of mammals, often

Cowries are herbivores that graze on

called sea cows. They live in

algae at night. They form remarkably

shallow, warm water with plen-

beautiful shells. Their shells blend in

ty of sea grass. They breathe

with sand and gravel seafloors to

air like dolphins and whales.

protect cowries from predators.

However, their closest natural

In some countries, cowries have been used as money and made into

64

relative is the elephant! Sea cows eat sea grass

jewelry. In Fiji and the Solomon Islands

and flowering plants that

of the South Pacific, the golden cowrie

grow in bays, such as

is a sign of a tribal chief’s power. Some

hyacinths and hydrillas. They

people believe that cowries protect

munch up to 100 pounds

them from evil spells.

(45 kg) of plant matter daily.

[Herbivores]

Pollution and the clearing

ecosystem. Coral

of sea grass from rivers and

builds reefs in

The Save the Manatee Club

bays has reduced the sea

warm, shallow ocean

is dedicated to preserving

cows’ food supply. These

water. Filter feeders,

manatee habitats and keeping

meek creatures are endan-

such as coral and

Florida’s manatees safe. Learn

gered throughout the world.

anemones, keep the

more about manatees from

water clear.

the club’s Web site:

Balanced Nature

Algae grow well

 LOOK IT UP!

http://www.savethemanatee.org.

4 Coral reefs show how

in warm, shallow,

nature balances life in an

clear water. In fact, algae could

 Slow-moving manatees thrive in areas where sea grass is plentiful.

65

 Clownfish live comfortably among the poisonous tentacles of sea anemones. They are immune to the anemone’s sting.

grow so quickly that it might

on algae vigorously to limit its

cover up a reef. The coral

growth. They protect coral

would die. Nature balances

from being overrun by algae.

plant and animal growth so

They live among the poison-

both can live.

ous coral tentacles. The tenta-

Many reef-dwelling fish

66

cles protect the fish from pred-

are herbivores. Blue-and-pur-

ators. The process of two living

ple parrot fish, dainty surgeon-

things working for each other’s

fish, and bold damselfish chew

well-being is called symbiosis.

7

[Chapter Seven]

4 A male sperm whale dies.

A Cycle of Life

A Cycle of Life

and their offspring move in pods throughout the North Atlantic. His sons wait until they will be old enough to mate with females. Sperm whales hunt the

Like other whales, this male

deep ocean for their food.

has played his part in preserv-

They easily dive 4,000 feet

ing his species. He fathered

(1,220 m) deep. Bottom-

more than three dozen calves

dwelling squid are a favorite

during his life. His daughters

food for sperm whales.

 Sperm whales can easily dive 4,000 feet (1,220 m) deep when hunting for squid.

67

[The Ocean Cycle of Life]

Snapper, lobster, and an

sinks to the ocean floor.

occasional shark round out

There, he plays out his final

the menu.

role in the ocean cycle of life.

This male weighs in at about 80,000 pounds (36,288

The first creatures to reach the sperm whale’s

kg). From blowhole

corpse are amphipods. These

to tail, he measures

tiny shrimplike creatures live

carcass (KAR-kuhss) the body of

nearly 60 feet

in the muck on the ocean

a dead animal

(18 m). Upon his

floor. They swarm across the

death, the whale

whale carcass.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

[The Ocean Cycle of Life]

The scent of death travels quickly through the water. Within a short time, hagfish and rat-tails arrive. Both fish are scavengers, scouring the seafloor for food. Hagfish and rat-tails will feed on the carcass until every edible bit is gone. Hagfish look like eels or large worms. They have no teeth. Instead, hagfish bore into a carcass with their powerful tongues and suck out the

 Hagfish rip the flesh from dead fish in the benthic zone.

flesh. They tie their bodies

have large heads with big, dark

into knots to press against

eyes. Their bodies taper to a

their food source. This gives

narrow tail, giving them the

them extra power when suck-

name rat-tail.

ing at tough meat. Rat-tails are one of the

Out of the murky water comes a form from prehistoric

most common fish species liv-

times—a bluntnose sixgill

ing on the ocean floor. Because

shark. The sharks have been

food is scarce in their habitat,

drawn by the smell of death.

they eat anything. Rat-tails

These deep-sea sharks are

 A deep-sea amphipod eats carrion that drifts down to the sea floor.

69

PROFILE: DEEP-SEA SHARKS

more like their early ances-

About 350 shark species live in or travel

tors than the modern sharks

in deep seas. They range from the excep-

found in upper ocean

tionally small pygmy or dwarf shark

waters. They gladly feed

(10 inches or 25 cm) to the slow-moving

on corpses that drift down

sleeper or Greenland shark (23 feet or

from above. Their teeth

7 m). Many deep-sea sharks glow in the

tear at the whale’s flesh.

dark. This bioluminescent ability makes

Once full, they glide back

them glow with an eerie greenish light.

into the darkness.

The bluntnose sixgill shark is related to prehistoric sharks. It is grayish brown in

the sperm whale’s carcass is

color and grows to about 16 feet (4.9 m).

just a clutter of bones on the

The bluntnose swims in all oceans at

seafloor. Still, bones provide

depths reaching 5,900 feet (1,800 m).

nutrition. Within months,

The most common deep-water shark is

clams, mussels, and worms

the spiny dogfish shark. Also called the

take over where the hagfish,

skittledog and the codshark, the dogfish

rat-tails, and sharks left off.

shark may end up on your dinner table.

They build colonies on the

Most shark meat sold in grocery stores is

whale’s bones.

dogfish shark. Dogfish sharks are small,

70

After nearly two years,

A carcass does not fall

averaging about 3 to 4 feet (0.9 to 1.2 m)

to the seafloor every day.

long. They live at depths of up to 2,400

Bottom dwellers can’t be

feet (732 m).

picky eaters. They must eat

[The Ocean Cycle of Life]

everything. When they die,

Their bodies will feed their

they, too, will become part

neighbors in the dark ocean

of the ocean cycle of life.

depths.

 This sixgill shark traces its ancestors back to prehistoric times.

71

Diving Deep

8

[Chapter Eight]

Diving Deep

the sub, two scientists begin a journey only a few miles long. Their trip takes them to a world no one has ever seen before. They explore earth’s

4 A two-person submarine

final frontier—the deep ocean.

rocks in the ocean waves. The

This trip took place in

clamp holding the sub to the

1977. Robert Ballard and John

research ship releases. Inside

Corliss squeezed into the Alvin, a two-person submarine. The sub traveled only 1.5 miles (2.4 km) to the Pacific Ocean floor. There, they found wonders beyond anything they had ever considered. In an article in National Geographic magazine, the two described what they had seen: “Shimmering water streams up past giant tube worms. . . . A crab scuttles over lava encrusted with limpets. . . . These vents, like lush oases in a sunless desert,  The Alvin minisub took scientists on a journey into the deep ocean.

 Hot-water geysers, like Old Faithful in Yellowstone Park, also appear in the deep ocean.

are a phenomenon totally new

Park. The springs gush water

to science.”

at temperatures of 500° to

Ballard and Corliss discov-

600° Fahrenheit

ered a hydrothermal vent.

(260° to 316°

Hot-water vents are underwater

Celsius). The vent

hydrothermal (HI-droh-THUR-

hot springs much like those

they discovered

muhl) relating to hot water

found in Yellowstone National

spewed water so hot

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

73

 Volcanic action in the seas has built islands, like Iceland (shown here) and all of Hawaii.

that it melted the thermom-

way earth’s surface changes.

eters the scientists used

Volcanic eruptions build moun-

to measure the heat.

tains, while earthquakes push

The Deep Ocean Landscape

74

and pull against earth’s crust. Scientists have known for a long time that volcanoes

4 A side view of the ocean

erupt underwater. Continued

floor looks like land. There are

eruptions build islands and

mountains, plains, rolling hills,

seamounts. Hawaii and Iceland

and deep valleys. The ocean

are volcanic islands built by

landscape changes in the same

eruptions. Seamounts are

When deep-sea vents ooze dark chemical compounds, they are called smokers. 

[Diving Deep]

underwater mountains. They

called lava. Super-

are usually inactive, or dor-

heated water bursts

Loihi Seamount is building the

mant, volcanoes and are often

into the deep ocean

newest Hawaiian island. It

cone-shaped. Seamounts rise

like black smoke.

should rise above the ocean’s

3,000 to 10,000 feet (914 to

Many vents are

surface in several tens of thou-

3,050 m) from the ocean floor.

called black smok-

sands of years. The seamount

Thousands of seamounts dot

ers. Scientists dis-

was a dormant volcano that

the seafloor landscape.

covered the first

woke up. Since 2001, scientists

black smoker in

have detected many earth-

1977. The black

quakes and eruptions at Loihi.

4 Deep-sea vents occur

water is not really

The underwater volcano sup-

where the seafloor cracks open

smoking. It is espe-

ports several hydrothermal

and exposes hot, liquid rock

cially salty and full

vents where water tempera-

New Forms of Life

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

tures reach 390°F (199°C).

 Tubeworms and crabs survive near vents despite the lack of sunlight and oxygen.

of minerals, such as sulfur,

squeeze together. Their long,

iron, copper, zinc, and nickel.

white shafts hide a feathery

This mineral “soup” colors the

red fringe, more delicate than

water black.

a rose. Basketball-sized clams

Up until the discovery in 1977, scientists believed that

feet cling to volcanic rocks.

life depended on sunlight. The

Pale pink, blue-eyed fish swim

first black smoker proved them

in water that smells like

wrong. Animals live deeper

rotten eggs.

than sunlight reaches. The ani-

Scientists wondered how

mals had never been seen

these creatures survive. The

before that discovery.

water could burn the flesh off

Near the vent, tube worms measure 7 feet (2 m) long and 76

and mussels as big as human

a human being. The water pressure could crush a person

Deep-sea creatures glow in the dark. Check out this luminous viperfish. 

[Diving Deep]

flat as a pancake. The mineral

Since 1977, deep-sea dives

content in the water is poison-

have given scientists a new

ous to most living things. And

view of ocean life. Scientists

there is no sunlight.

have found hundreds of new

The answer to this puzzle

animal species. New forms of

is bacteria. The bacteria turn

life are discovered

minerals and chemical com-

during nearly every

pounds in the water into food

dive. Only about 1

bacteria (back-TIHR-ee-uh) tiny

and oxygen. Bacteria feed

percent of the ocean

living cells that can be seen only

tube worms, clams, and other

floor has been thor-

with the help of a microscope

sea vent creatures. They allow

oughly explored. No

animals to survive without

one knows what will be found

the sun.

in the remaining 99 percent.

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

9

[Chapter Nine]

The Human Touch

The Human Touch

78

from shore. Workers heave the cargo overboard. The trash is gone . . . or is it? The garbage contained a mixture of paper, plastic,

4 A barge filled with

chemicals, metals, and rot-

garbage chugs out to sea.

ting vegetable matter. The

It goes several miles away

Styrofoam cups will take

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

500 years to decay. Plastic

comes from trash, chemicals,

rings from six-packs of soda

and oil spills. In the book

catch on seabirds and tur-

Sea Change, Dr. Sylvia A.

tles. Soiled diapers and med-

Earle reports, “Prior to

ical needles wash up on local

1988, the world’s fleet

beaches. Long after we die,

of merchant vessels

that load of trash will still

every day dumped at least

be affecting the ocean.

450,000 plastic, 4,800,000

If a keystone species is

metal, and 300,000 glass

one that changes an environ-

containers into the sea. . . .

ment, then humans are key-

Until recently the United

stone species of the oceans.

States Navy has typically

No other species has created

thrown all wastes

more change. No other pred-

overboard. . . . A

ators have killed so many

single large ship

Oceans for Every Kid by Janice

creatures. No other living

may generate

Pratt VanCleave (John Wiley &

beings have created quite

more than 1,000

Sons, 1996) offers dozens of

as much mess in the oceans

pounds [454 kg]

science activities to do at the

as humans.

of plastic trash

beach. No matter where your

a day!”

interests lie, VanCleave provides

Pollution

The govern-

4 Pollution is caused by

ment passes laws

humans. The worst pollution

to prevent trash

 Barges loaded with garbage head out to sea to dump their cargo.

 READ IT!

activities that are educational and fun.

79

 DO IT! Take part in the International Coastal Cleanup. This program, sponsored by the Ocean Conservancy, removes trash from beaches and wetlands. Recent efforts have collected more than 3 million pounds

 Plastic bottles and other trash must be picked up to keep beaches clean.

(1.4 million kg) of garbage from

pollution of oceans

boats. Some states and con-

6,887 miles (11,084 km) of coast.

and seas. However,

servation groups sponsor

To find out about the next

no one can prevent

coastal cleanups. These

cleanup day, access http://www.

people from litter-

events yield thousands of

oceanconservancy.org.

ing beaches or

pounds of plastic, paper,

tossing trash from

glass bottles, metal cans,

80

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

cigarette butts, clothes, sun-

Instead, they enter

glasses, and even Barbie dolls.

streams, then

There are “dead zones” in the

rivers, and finally

seas where there is too little

from factories and farms. A

our oceans and

oxygen to support life. Dead

farmer in Indiana sprays his

seas. A farmer who

zones can be found in the Gulf

soil with liquid fertilizer. He

may have never

of Mexico and the Black Sea.

douses his crops with pesti-

seen the ocean just

Though some dead zones exist

cides to kill off insects. When

poisoned it.

naturally, pollution contributes

Chemical pollution comes

it rains, chemicals are not absorbed into the ground.

The most dra-

!

WOULD YOU BELIEVE?

to the growth of these areas.

matic pollution

 Pesticides sprayed from this helicopter find their way to the ocean along streams and rivers.

81

FOCUS ON: SAVING JACKASS PENGUINS

comes from oil spills. Huge

South Africans reacted immediately

tankers carry tons of oil across

when an oil spill threatened their coast

the ocean. When these tankers

in June 2000. The oil washed up on

crash, sink, or leak, they

Robben Island, the home of 14,000 jack-

spread oil on the seas. The oil

ass penguins. Oil coated the penguins’

covers the water and prevents

feathers, which took away the feathers’

sunlight from reaching marine

waterproof nature.

plants. Oil slicks kill fish and

The cleanup efforts on the island were demanding. Volunteers shoveled

Marine mammals, such as

oily sand from the beach. Special

seals and sea lions, depend on

cleansers were used to wash the rocks.

clean, dry fur to keep them

Volunteers worked on their hands and

warm. When coated with oil,

knees, scrubbing away the oil.

fur loses its waterproofing. The

Twelve thousand volunteers worked

animals also swallow the oil

around-the-clock to save the birds. The

when they clean their fur.

penguins were airlifted by helicopter in

They get sick and die.

cardboard boxes to a safe haven. Every penguin was washed thoroughly to

82

seabirds by the thousands.

Too Much Fishing

remove the oil. After months of care, the

4 Fishing creates its share

jackass penguins received further med-

of problems for ocean envi-

ical checkups. Healthy penguins slipped

ronments. This doesn’t mean

into the ocean and headed home.

a weekend fishing trip with a Fishing has gone high-tech since  these men went to sea.

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

grandparent, but commercial

loaded with fishers

fishing. Human beings have

sets sail into the

commercial (kuh-MUR-shuhl)

harvested food from the

Gulf of Alaska. The

related to business

oceans for thousands of years.

ship hunts school-

technology (tek-NOL-uh-jee)

However, fishing changed

ing fish. On the

the use of science in daily jobs

as technology advanced.

third day, they

Here is a comparison

?

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

locate a school of pollock. The

between fishing in 1910 and

fishers work until the hold, or

fishing today. In 1910, a ship

area of the ship that stores

 Today’s catch will be cleaned, packaged, and displayed in the grocer’s freezer in a matter of days.

cargo, is full. Then the fishers

Finished packages go into

head back to port to deliver

freezers. The ship’s freezers

their fish.

can hold tons of frozen fish.

Today, a fishing ship

The ship will stay at sea,

heads to sea with fishers and

catching fish almost daily,

packers on board. The captain

for three months.

uses sonar to locate schools of

84

The demand for fish in

pollock. As the fishers catch

restaurants and supermarkets

the pollock, the packers clean,

is great. Still, there comes a

cut, and package the fish.

time when a species cannot

There’s hardly room to anchor at this fishers’ marina in Seattle, Washington. 

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

survive so much fishing. On

cod, haddock, and shellfish.

North America’s eastern coast,

Great numbers of turtles have

fishers struggle. They have

also been killed after being

overfished entire species,

trapped and drowned in fish-

meaning there simply are

ing nets. Marine mammals

no more fish to catch.

have not survived any better.

Humans have overfished

Hunting whales, otters, seals,

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

and sea lions reduced many

part of life for New England-

populations to near extinction.

ers in the 1700s and 1800s.

What is worse is that humans

Whale oil was used to light

have not learned from their

lamps before electricity.

mistakes. Action to save

Whalebones supported

endangered species does

umbrellas and a type of

not come until a species can

women’s undergarment

barely survive.

called a corset.

Whaling was an essential

Gray whales no longer

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

live in the Atlantic Ocean. Other species, such as pilot, right, and bowhead whales, have dangerously low populations. There would be no right, pilot, or bowhead whales if the International Whaling Commission (IWC) had not been formed. Thirtyeight nations met in 1946 to discuss the worldwide situation for whales. They created the IWC. The IWC had little success in stopping whaling until 1986. They decided then that people either had to stop hunting or there

 As many as 50,000 pilot whales once swam the waters off Newfoundland, Canada. Whaling drove pilot whales nearly to extinction.

would be no whales left. Now,

tries still continue to hunt

whaling is illegal. Only native

whales illegally.

people, such as the Inuit of

People around the world

Alaska, are allowed to hunt

still depend on fishing.

whales, although some coun-

Making fishing illegal is not

 New England seaports of the 1700s and 1800s depended on whaling to support their economy.

87

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

WORDS TO KNOW . . .

possible. One solu-

and shellfish species are

aquaculture (AH-kwuh-CUHL-

tion to overfishing

“farmed” fish. The fish are

chur) farming fish and shellfish

is aquaculture.

raised in beds. The number

Today, many fish

of fish harvested is managed

?

so that the farm can continue to produce the fish. Common farmed fish include shrimp, crabs, oysters, catfish, tilapia, salmon, and trout. Solutions for problems in our oceans and seas are not easy or simple. Governments pass laws to prevent oil spills and garbage disposal in the oceans. Other laws protect species, such as seals and sea lions, from hunting. International cooperation is necessary to enforce all these laws. The government also sets up national and state  A worker checks the size of salmon at a fish farm.

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

parks and preserves to safeguard natural wonders. The Florida Keys, California’s Channel Islands, and Texas’s Flower Garden Banks are three marine sanctuaries protected by the government. Private groups work to save the environment. Many of the groups deal only with ocean or sea life. The Ocean Conservancy and Greenpeace are two wellknown agencies that defend ocean species. The United Nations named several marine loca-

 California’s Channel Islands are a sanctuary for sea lions and seals.

tions as World Heritage Sites.

Australia, Glacier

These are places of remark-

Bay in Alaska, and

Aquariums offer programs for

able beauty and natural

the Belize Barrier

kids and teens. Learn more

value. World Heritage Sites

Reef System in the

about our oceans and seas. Take

include the Great Barrier

Caribbean.

a class at an aquarium near you.

Reef and Shark Bay in

 DO IT!

Education and 89

[ T h e H u m a n To u c h ]

 Coastal Cleanup draws families who work to keep beaches clean.

90

effort are the keys to preserv-

put their knowledge into

ing ocean and sea ecosys-

action. If not, dead zones

tems. People need to learn

will expand to include entire

how to safeguard species and

oceans. When the oceans

protect ocean life. Then, they

die, so will almost all life

must make the effort to

on earth.

A rumble fills the air as the Muir Glacier calves in Glacier National Park, Alaska. 

Chart of Species

[Oceans, Seas, and Reefs]

OCEANS AND SEAS

KEYSTONE SPECIES

FLAGSHIP SPECIES

UMBRELLA SPECIES

INDICATOR SPECIES

ARCTIC OCEAN

krill, plankton, sea otters

dolphins, whales, fur seals, walruses, polar bears

whales, walruses, polar bears

sperm whales, krill, plankton

ATLANTIC OCEAN

reef-building corals, krill, plankton, mangroves

dolphins, whales, loggerhead turtles

sea turtles, reefbuilding corals, gray whales, walruses

sperm whales, krill, plankton, reef-building corals, sea grasses

INDIAN OCEAN

reef-building corals, krill, plankton, mangroves

dolphins, Siberian cranes, whales

sea turtles, reefbuilding corals

sperm whales, sea grasses, plankton, krill

PACIFIC OCEAN

reef-building corals, krill, plankton, sea otters, kelp, mangroves

dolphins, Pacific gray whales, humpback whales, sea otters, fur seals

sea turtles, reefbuilding corals, walruses, sea otters, kelp

sperm whales, reef-building corals, kelp, dogfish sharks, krill

SOUTHERN OCEAN

krill, plankton,

dolphins, porpoises, orcas, minke whales, fin whales

southern fur seals, penguins, whales, albatrosses

whales, southern fur seals, krill

ARCTIC SEAS: BERING, CHUKCHI, BEAUFORT, LABRADOR

krill, plankton, shellfish

dolphins, orcas, humpback whales, gray whales

whales, walruses, polar bears, fur seals

whales, krill

TEMPERATE/TROPICAL SEAS: CARIBBEAN, MEDITERRANEAN, ARABIAN, GULF OF MEXICO

reef-building corals, krill, plankton, sea otters, mangroves, sea grasses

dolphins, manatees and dugongs, sea turtles, sea stars

sea turtles, reefbuilding corals, manatees and dugongs

reef-building corals, mussels, sea grasses, krill

 The above chart gives a starting point for identifying key species. Each ocean, sea, and reef environment has its own key species. The above chart lists some of those species.

92

[Bold-faced entries are the ones discussed in the text.]

[Index]

A aardvarks, 6: 31 aardwolves, 6: 31–32 acacia trees, 6: 55, 56, 83–84 acid rain, 2: 82–83, 84; 3: 85–86; 7: 87–88 addax, 5: 78–79 African fish hawks, 3: 38 African High Veld, 6: 9, 12, 15 African hunting dogs, 6: 29–30 Agent Orange, 4: 86–87 Ahaggar Mountains, 5: 81 Aïr Mountains, 5: 81 Alaska National Wildlife Reserve (ANWR), 2: 87–88 alevin, 3: 69 algae, 1: 59–60, 62, 65–66; 2: 52; 3: 13, 60; 4: 27 alpha females, 2: 71; 6: 29 alpha males, 6: 29 alien species, 3: 88–89; 4: 52, 90–91 alkali water, 3: 15 alligators, 4: 17, 21–22, 32, 35–36, 75, 82 alpine tundra, 2: 6–7, 8–15, 25–26, 31, 35, 36, 37, 38–39, 56–58, 61, 63, 84 altiplano, 2: 14 Alvin (submarine), 1: 72 Amazon rain forest, 4: 36–37 Amazon River, 3: 18–19, 74–75, 77 Amazon River basin, 3: 74, 75, 77–81; 4: 6; 7: 15–16, 88–89 Amazon wetlands, 4: 29 American Rivers, 3: 84 amphibians, 3: 51; 4: 6; 5: 43–44, 74–75; 7: 44 amphipods, 1: 48, 51, 68 anacondas, 3: 37, 74, 81; 4: 43 anchovies, 1: 47 Andes Mountains, 2: 14, 59 anemones, 1: 51–52, 54 Angel Falls, 3: 20 animal life. See also flagship species; herbivores; indicator species; insectivores; keystone species; predators; prey; umbrella species. deserts, 5: 8–9, 10–12, 66, 69, 73, 79, 83, 86, 91 forests, 7: 4–5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20–21, 22–23, 27, 75, 80, 89, 91 grasslands, 6: 10, 11–12, 13–14, 19–20, 23, 49–50, 69, 70, 73, 75, 86–88, 89, 90–91 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 14, 21, 23, 26, 28, 76, 77, 82, 85–86 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 11–12, 77, 78–79, 88–89 tundra, 2: 4–6, 8, 9–10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 22–23, 24, 25, 27–28, 55, 89, 90, 91 wetlands, 4: 6, 7, 8, 10, 16, 76, 78–83, 90 animal plankton. See zooplankton. ant lions, 6: 80 anteaters. See aardvarks. antelopes, 6: 63, 64 ants, 6: 41 Antarctic Ocean. See Southern Ocean. Appalachian Mountains, 2: 14 Appalachian Trail, 7: 54 apple snail kites, 4: 37–38 aquaculture, 1: 88 aquifers, 5: 90

Arabian oryx, 5: 24–25 Arctic foxes, 2: 35, 40 Arctic giant jellyfish, 1: 5, 42 Arctic ground squirrels, 2: 18, 46, 65, 88 Arctic hares, 2: 65, 71 Arctic Ocean, 1: 7, 10, 12, 57 Arctic terns, 2: 79 Arctic tundra, 2: 6, 7, 15–21, 24–25, 31, 38, 45, 52–56, 61, 74, 84, 87–88; 4: 6 armadillos, 5: 34 army ants, 7: 47 arroyos, 5: 56 Asiatic black bears, 7: 23 aurora borealis, 2: 21 Atacama Desert, 5: 6, 7, 14–15, 65 Atlantic Ocean, 1: 7–8, 9, 47, 60, 87 Audubon, John James, 7: 39 B bacteria, 1: 77 Bactrian camels, 5: 22–23, 63–64 “bait balls,” 1: 38–39 bald eagles, 3: 29–30, 31, 32 baleen whales, 1: 10, 40 Ballard, Robert, 1: 72–73 Baja California, 5: 16–17, 85 bamboo, 6: 52–53; 7: 83 basins, 3: 15, 74, 75, 77–81 baobab trees, 6: 55–56 bats, 4: 28–29, 60; 5: 33–34; 7: 61 Bay of Fundy, 1: 9–10 bayous, 4: 15–17 bays, 1: 13 beard tongue plants, 4: 49 bearded pigs, 4: 59–60 bears, 2: 10, 18, 23, 24, 25, 27–28, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37–39, 85; 3: 36–37; 4: 24, 38–39, 63, 73–74, 81; 7: 59–60 beavers, 3: 24–25, 31, 65, 66; 4: 22, 61; 7: 59 beetles, 3: 48–49; 4: 64 Belize Barrier Reef System, 1: 89 Bengal tigers, 6: 86–88 benthic zone, 1: 14, 16–17, 34 benthos, 1: 36 Bering Sea, 1: 12–13, 14, 48 Beringia International Heritage Park, 2: 89 bighorn sheep, 5: 23–24 bioluminescence, 1: 16, 70 birds deserts, 5: 11–12, 18–19, 26–27, 30, 37–38, 67, 69 forests, 7: 4, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 23–24, 36, 37, 39–41, 62–63, 75, 78, 81 grasslands, 6: 12, 23, 24, 25, 35–37, 38, 43–44, 47–48, 49, 65–67, 71, 73, 75, 81 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 15, 44–46, 47, 48–49 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 12, 13, 29–31, 32, 37–41, 64–65, 79–80 tundra, 2: 10, 16, 17, 18, 21, 25–26, 32–34, 40, 48–50, 65, 74–77, 79–81 wetlands, 4: 6, 7, 8, 14, 17–18, 22, 24–25, 26, 29, 31–32, 43, 60, 61, 63, 72, 74, 78–81 bison, 6: 89 bitterns, 4: 43

black-bearded sakis, 7: 60 black bears, 4: 24, 38, 63, 73, 81 Black Forest, 7: 5 black mambas, 6: 32–33 black rhinos, 6: 4–5, 23, 64 black smokers, 1: 75–76 black swans, 3: 62–63 black-water rivers, 3: 77 bladderworts, 3: 60; 4: 51–52, 77, 78 blowflies, 2: 42 blubber, 1: 34 Blue Nile, 3: 15 blue sheep, 2: 5 blue whales, 1: 40–41 bluebottle. See Portuguese man-of-war. boa constrictors, 7: 30–31 bobcats, 4: 37 bog violets, 7: 57 Bonelli’s eagles, 7: 40–41 boreal forests, 7: 13, 16, 61, 62, 89. See also taiga. boreal owls, 7: 29, 39 Brahmaputra River, 3: 16–17 breeding, 1: 14, 67; 2: 72, 74–77, 79–81; 7: 27, 81, 90 Brierley, Andrew, 1: 27 broadleaf trees, 7: 5, 8, 10, 11, 57 brown bears, 2: 38–39 bogs, 4: 5, 7–8, 88 breeding, 4: 7, 67–68; 6: 24 buffalo weavers, 6: 81 burrowing owls, 5: 26–27; 6: 36 bush babies, 6: 82 bushmasters, 3: 80 butterfish, 1: 52 butterflies, 2: 66–67; 3: 81; 4: 64; 6: 25; 7: 46–47 butterworts, 4: 77, 78 by-catch, 1: 31–33 C cactuses, 5: 54–58 caddis flies, 4: 27 California cougars, 5: 23, 24 Camargue wetland, 4: 59 camels, 5: 62–64 camouflage, 1: 41, 42–43; 2: 76; 3: 49, 81; 4: 43; 6: 46; 7: 46 candelabra trees, 6: 84 cane toads, 5: 74–75 canines, 6: 29–30; 7: 31, 33–34 canopy, 7: 10–11, 28–29, 52–53, 54–55 Cape buffaloes, 6: 61–62, 79 capybaras, 3: 66, 73–74; 4: 43 caracals, 6: 28–29 Caribbean Sea, 1: 12 caribou, 2: 22–24, 25, 28, 51, 61–62, 69, 72, 88 carnivores, 4: 29, 30; 6: 43 carnivorous plants, 4: 25, 77–78; 7: 57 carp, 4: 53 Carpathian Mountains, 7: 14 carrion, 2: 25, 35, 38, 39, 40, 42; 3: 54; 4: 30, 38, 44, 72, 80; 5: 9, 30, 33, 34, 48; 6: 35, 37, 48; 7: 45 Caspian Sea, 1: 52; 3: 13 caterpillars, 2: 67 catfish, 3: 12, 35, 42, 81 cats, 2: 10, 35–37; 4: 36–37; 5: 30–32, 40–41; 6: 26–27, 28–29, 86–88; 7: 31–33 cereus plant, 5: 54 Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, 1: 8

chameleons, 7: 35–36 chemical pollution, 1: 81–82, 88 chimpanzees, 7: 68, 70–71, 72, 74 Chincoteague ponies, 4: 58–59 Chinese water deer, 4: 56–57 Chihuahuan Desert, 5: 15, 16, 21, 34, 59 chinchillas, 5: 66 chlorophyll, 1: 16; 3: 56–57 Chukchi Sea, 1: 48 cichlids, 3: 53–54, 80 clams, 4: 54 Clean Water Act, 3: 83 clear-water rivers, 3: 77 cleft-hooved animals, 2: 61 climate deserts, 5: 4, 5, 6, 10, 13, 16, 22, 51, 76, 82, 87–88 forests, 7: 6, 10 grasslands, 6: 6–7, 10 tundra, 2: 7, 8, 9, 20, 21, 31, 52–53, 54, 88 wetlands, 4: 6, 48 coastal cleanups, 1: 80 coastal deserts, 5: 6 coelacanth, 1: 10 cold deserts, 5: 6, 7, 13, 22, 53 colony males, 2: 43, 45 Colorado River, 3: 12 comb jellyfish, 1: 52 commercial fishing, 1: 82–86 conger eels, 1: 5–6 Congo River, 4: 16 Congo/Zaire river basin, 3: 15 coniferous trees, 7: 5, 8, 9, 11, 57 conservation, 1: 33, 89; 7: 81, 85–86, 89 constrictors, 3: 81 Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 7: 90 coontail plant, 4: 52 copepods, 1: 51, 63; 3: 25, 26–27, 36, 42, 47 coral reefs, 1: 63, 65 corals, 1: 25, 29, 51–52 Corliss, John, 1: 72–73 Corsac foxes, 6: 39–40 Coto Doñana National Park, 4: 31 cottonmouth snakes, 4: 34, 65–71, 75, 83 cougars, 2: 36, 61 cowries, 1: 64 coyotes, 6: 28 crabs, 4: 64 cranes, 3: 40; 4: 78 crocodiles, 3: 38; 4: 33, 35–36 crowned eagles, 7: 41 crustaceans, 1: 15, 45, 52; 4: 22, 64 curlews, 4: 32, 43 currents, 1: 17, 19–22, 26, 36 Cuyahoga River, 3: 82–84 cygnets, 3: 62 cypress trees, 3: 57; 4: 76; 4: 50, 76 D dabberlocks, 1: 59 damselflies, 3: 33, 49; 4: 22, 27, 30 Danube River, 3: 21, 23 date palms, 5: 50, 51 Death Valley, 5: 17 deciduous forests, 7: 5–6, 7–8, 11, 16, 54–55, 61, 62 decomposers, 7: 63–64 DDT, 3: 29, 32

93

[Index]

Dead Sea, 3: 15 decapods, 1: 51 deep-sea sharks, 1: 70 deer, 4: 56–57, 58 deltas, 3: 11–12; 4: 17, 18 derived grasslands, 6: 7 desert tortoise, 5: 66 desertification, 5: 86–89 detritus, 4: 63 detrivores, 4: 63 dippers, 3: 38–39 disturbed rain forests, 7: 14–15 dolphins, 1: 31–32, 37, 38–39; 3: 79 dragonflies, 3: 33–34, 47; 4: 22, 26–27, 30 dredge machines, 4: 46 drip points, 7: 52 dromedaries, 5: 63 dry rivers, 3: 18 ducks, 2: 21; 3: 38; 4: 63, 80–81 duckweed, 3: 55–56 dugongs, 1: 64; 3: 63 dung beetles, 6: 17 dwarf willows, 2: 53 E eagles, 2: 12–13, 14, 23, 34, 88; 3: 29–30, 31, 32 Earle, Sylvia A., 1: 79 earthworms, 7: 64 East Australia Current, 1: 19 echidnas, 5: 35 eclectus parrots, 7: 63 egrets, 3: 40 echolocation, 1: 37–38, 39; 4: 29 El Niño, 1: 33 elephant shrews, 6: 81 elephants, 6: 7, 15–16, 17–18, 60–61, 64, 84, 85 elf owls, 5: 19 elk, 4: 58 emergent plants, 4: 48–49; 7: 11, 51, 53–54 Emi Koussi (peak), 5: 81 emperor dragonflies, 3: 47 emus, 5: 69 endangered rivers, 3: 84 endangered species deserts, 5: 22, 23, 24, 26, 62, 64, 79, 86 forests, 7: 22–25, 86, 90, 91 grasslands, 6: 5, 20, 84, 85, 87 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 86 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 27, 79 tundra, 2: 27 wetlands, 4: 23, 31, 84–85 Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.), 3: 87 epiphytes, 7: 11, 53 Equatorial Current, 1: 19 erosion, 3: 8, 33, 84; 4: 87; 5: 20; 7: 87 eucalyptus trees, 6: 56; 7: 58–59 evaporation, 5: 6, 82 Everglades, 4: 19 evergreen trees, 4: 50–51; 7: 5, 10, 11, 16 F “fairy rings,” 7: 9 falconry, 6: 36 falcons, 2: 33, 34, 49, 81 fangs, 4: 68

94

farming deserts, 5: 21, 26, 83, 86, 87, 88–89, 90, 91 forests, 7: 39, 77, 90 grasslands, 6: 7, 88–89, 90 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 81 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 56 tundra, 2: 88 wetlands, 4: 5, 57, 88 fennec foxes, 5: 83 fens, 4: 5, 10, 46, 48 feral cats, 5: 30, 40–41 ferdelances, 4: 35 ferns, 4: 49–50, 55 fertilizers, 3: 85 fetch, 1: 22 fiddler crabs, 4: 64 filter feeders, 1: 40–41; 3: 34, 64; 4: 27 fire, 4: 83; 6: 10, 70–75 fish, 1: 21, 31, 46, 66, 69, 76; 3: 5, 11, 12, 25–26, 29–30, 31, 41–42, 53–54, 67–72, 81, 83; 4: 10, 17, 18, 20, 22, 53, 80, 90 Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S.), 2: 62 fishing, 1: 87–88 fishing bats, 4: 29 fishing birds, 4: 29 flagship species deserts, 5: 24–26, 63, 66 forests, 7: 25, 27 grasslands, 6: 18, 23–24, 78–80 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 31–33 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 31–32 tundra, 2: 28–29, 90 wetlands, 4: 25–26 flamingos, 3: 13, 40, 41 flash floods, 3: 18 flies, 4: 41 floating plants, 4: 49, 53–54 flooding, 3: 18 forbs, 6: 53–55 forest floor, 7: 50, 51–52, 54, 56–57, 75–76 foxes, 2: 20, 35 Fraser River, 3: 20, 67–68, 70, 71 freshwater, 3: 6, 15, 84; 4: 11, 13, 50 frogs, 4: 22, 41–42, 43, 80; 7: 46 fungus, 2: 52 fur trade, 7: 89 G Ganges River, 3: 17–18, 23, 89 garbage, 1: 78–79, 79–80 gas, 2: 87, 91 “gator holes,” 4: 21–22 geese, 2: 48, 77, 79; 4: 63, 80–81 Geoffroy’s cats, 6: 26–27 George River caribou herd, 2: 23 giant otters, 3: 35–36; 4: 23 giant pandas, 7: 83–84 Giant River Otter Project, 3: 36 giant squid, 1: 5 Gibson Desert, 5: 13, 59 Gila monsters, 5: 35, 36, 37, 75 Gila woodpeckers, 5: 18–19, 38 Glacier National Park, 7: 60 glaciers, 1: 6, 12; 3: 6; 6: 7 global warming, 2: 88 Gobi Desert, 5: 6–7, 13, 22, 24, 63, 89 golden eagles, 2: 12–13, 23, 45 golden lion tamarins, 7: 27, 67–68 golden plovers, 2: 76 gopher tortoises, 4: 84–85 gophers, 2: 26

gorges, 5: 7 gorillas, 7: 68, 72, 74 goshawks, 7: 40 grains, 6: 52 Grand Canyon, 5: 7 grass carp, 4: 53 grasses, 2: 32, 58, 83; 4: 10, 13, 55; 6: 7–8, 13, 19, 50–53, 75, 83–84, 90 grasshoppers, 6: 42–43 gray whales, 1: 29, 48, 86–87 gray wolves, 7: 17–18, 19–20 Great Barrier Reef, 1: 9, 24–25, 89 Great Basin, 5: 6–7, 15, 16, 90 great egrets, 4: 79 Great Lakes, 3: 15, 20, 89 Great Plains, 6: 13, 55, 90 Great Salt Lake, 3: 15 Great Sandy Desert, 5: 13 Great Victoria Desert, 5: 13–14 green adder’s mouth, 4: 49 green sea turtles, 1: 61, 62 greenback cutthroat trout, 3: 5 Greenpeace, 1: 89 grizzly bears, 2: 23, 27–28, 29, 39 groundwater, 3: 6; 4: 11, 87 grouse, 5: 30, 47, 67; 6: 23 Gulf of California, 3: 12 Gulf of Mexico, 1: 13 Gulf Stream, 1: 19, 20 gulfs, 1: 13 gulls, 1: 45–46; 2: 50 gundi, 5: 45 gyrfalcons, 2: 33, 81 H hagfish, 1: 69 hares, 2: 65, 71; 6: 44 harpy eagles, 7: 40 harvest mice, 6: 45 hawks, 2: 34; 3: 38 herbivores. See also animal life; plant life. deserts, 5: 20, 60–67, 69 forests, 7: 58–64 grasslands, 6: 59–68 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 61–66 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 62–66, 78 tundra, 2: 59–63, 65–68 wetlands, 4: 56–61, 63, 64 herbs, 4: 50 hermit crabs, 1: 52 herons, 3: 40; 4: 20, 44 hibernation, 2: 44–45 High Veld, 6: 9, 12, 15 Himalaya Mountains, 2: 8, 11 Himalayan black bears, 2: 38 hoary marmots, 2: 43–45 holdfasts, 1: 28, 59, 64 honey ants, 5: 43 horseflies, 2: 40 hot and dry deserts, 5: 6, 53 houbara bustard, 5: 69 Huang River, 3: 15–16, 23 Hudson Bay, 1: 13 Humboldt Current, 1: 19 hummingbirds, 4: 60, 61; 7: 61–62 hydrilla, 4: 52–53 hydrothermal vents, 1: 73–74, 75 hyenas, 5: 33 I ibexes, 2: 5 ice caps, 1: 6 icebergs, 1: 12; 3: 6

Iguazú Falls, 3: 20 Illinois River, 3: 10 Indian gharials, 4: 35 Indian Ocean, 1: 7, 10 indicator species deserts, 5: 26–27, 66 forests, 7: 28–29 grasslands, 6: 24–25 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 33–34 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 32–34 tundra, 2: 31 wetlands, 4: 26–27 indigo buntings, 4: 60 indigo snakes, 4: 84–85 insect life deserts, 5: 11, 26–27, 29, 34, 42–43, 73–74 forests, 7: 12, 13, 15, 20, 21–22, 36, 37, 43–44, 45–46, 46–47, 48, 61, 77 grasslands, 6: 16–17, 24–25, 38, 40–43, 48, 56, 80–81 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 33–34, 47, 48, 77–78, 81, 85 tundra, 2: 14–15, 16–17, 18–19, 21, 24–25, 40, 42, 65, 66–67, 74 wetlands, 4: 6, 14, 22, 26–27, 28, 29, 30–31, 31–32, 38, 41, 43, 52, 60, 77–78 insectivores, 2: 40; 4: 38; 5: 33–35, 6: 30–32; 7: 35–36; 7: 35–36 International Whaling Commission (IWC), 1: 87 intertidal zone, 1: 14, 15, 62 irrigation, 5: 90 isopods, 1: 51 J jackass penguins, 1: 82 jackrabbits, 6: 44–46 jaegers, 2: 49–50, 79, 80 jaguars, 4: 37 Javan gibbons, 7: 28 Javan rhinos, 7: 24, 59 jellyfish, 1: 42, 51 jewel wasps, 5: 73 Joshua trees, 5: 59 K Kalahari Desert, 5: 5, 13, 34, 59, 69 Kamchatka Current, 1: 19 kangaroo rats, 5: 65; 6: 44 kangaroos, 5: 64–65; 6: 20, 65 Kasai River basin, 3: 15 kelp, 1: 27, 28, 59 keystone species deserts, 5: 20–21, 58–59, 66 forests, 7: 19–22 grasslands, 6: 16–20 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 25–26, 27, 79 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 25–27 tundra, 2: 24–26 wetlands, 4: 20–22, 85 kingfishers, 3: 39 koalas, 7: 58–59 Komodo dragon, 7: 36 krill, 1: 27, 41, 44, 48–49 Kruger National Park, 6: 4, 5 krummholz region, 2: 56 Kuroshio Current, 1: 20

[Index]

L Labrador Current, 1: 19 lagomorphs, 2: 65 Lake Baikal, 3: 18 Lake Disappointment, 3: 18 Lake Erie, 3: 20 Lake Eyre, 3: 18 Lake Huron, 3: 20 Lake Itasca, 3: 9–10 Lake Michigan, 3: 20, 30 Lake Natron, 3: 13, 15 Lake Ontario, 3: 20 Lake Superior, 3: 13, 20, 45 Lake T’ana, 3: 15 Lake Victoria, 3: 15 lakes, 3: 6, 9–10, 12–13, 15, 18, 20, 21, 30, 42, 45, 47, 51, 54, 56, 59–60, 87, 89, 91 lamprey eels, 3: 45 leaf-cutter ants, 7: 21–22 leaves, 2: 53–54 lemmings, 2: 32, 34, 46–47, 65, 70, 80, 81, 88 leopard seals, 1: 44 lichens, 2: 31, 51, 52, 55, 56, 58, 62, 74, 83, 87; 7: 9 limnetic zones, 3: 59–60 limpets, 1: 63 Limpopo River basin, 3: 15 lions, 6: 23 littoral zones, 3: 59–60 locusts, 6: 42–43 logging, 7: 74, 77, 79, 81, 82, 85, 86–87, 91 Loihi Seamount, 1: 75 lynx, 2: 36–37 M macaws, 4: 24–25; 7: 63 Mackenzie River, 3: 20 Madeira River, 3: 19 maggots, 2: 42 manatees, 1: 62, 64–65; 3: 28–29, 63, 79; 4: 20 mangrove trees, 1: 27; 3: 57 mangrove swamps, 4: 17–18, 19–20, 21, 27, 55, 63, 86, 87 manta rays, 1: 40 maras, 6: 59–60 maribou storks, 4: 34 marine plants, 1: 16 marine sanctuaries, 1: 89 marmots, 2: 43–45, 46 marsh harriers, 4: 32 marshes, 4: 5, 11, 13, 17, 18, 24, 40, 43, 50, 64 marsupials, 3: 79; 6: 64–65 Mauna Loa, 1: 8 meanders, 3: 9 medicines, 7: 80 Mediterranean Sea, 1: 12–13, 57; 4: 59 meerkats, 5: 34–35 Mekong River, 3: 16 Mekong River Delta, 4: 87 mercury poisoning, 7: 88–89 Mexican bearded lizard, 5: 35 Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 1: 9 midges, 4: 41 migration, 2: 75, 76–77, 79, 80–81; 4: 5, 6, 8, 61, 80–81 milfoil, 4: 52, 91 millipedes, 7: 64 mining, 4: 84; 5: 90–91; 7: 88–89 mink, 2: 48, 49

minnows, 3: 53 Mississippi River, 3: 9–10, 11, 20 Missouri River, 3: 10, 20 mixed grasses, 6: 13 molochs, 5: 40–41, 47 monarch butterflies, 7: 46–47 mongooses, 7: 34–35 monkeys, 4: 59–60 moose, 4: 58 morphos butterfly, 7: 62 mosquito ferns, 4: 55 mosquitoes, 2: 40; 4: 30, 41 mosses, 2: 55, 58, 74, 83; 7: 9 moths, 2: 66–67 Mount Everest, 1: 8–9; 2: 11 Mount Fuji, 2: 11 Mount Katahdin, 2: 14 Mount Kilimanjaro, 2: 13, 57 mountain lions. See cougars. Murray/Darling river system, 3: 18 murres, 1: 46 musk oxen, 2: 61, 62–63, 71, 72, 88, 90–91 muskrats, 2: 46; 4: 44 mussels, 3: 34, 50, 64, 89; 4: 17, 25, 26, 27, 43–44, 54 N Nafud Desert, 5: 13, 33 naked mole-rats, 5: 60–62 Namib Desert, 5: 7, 11, 13, 28, 30, 33, 54, 59, 69, 77 National Park Service (NPS), 7: 17–18 National Zoo, 7: 27 nectar, 7: 21 needleleaf trees, 7: 11, 16 nekton, 1: 36–37 new world primates, 7: 68 new-growth forests, 7: 90–91 Niger River basin, 3: 15 nigriceps ants, 6: 56 Nile crocodiles, 3: 38; 4: 40 Nile River, 3: 11, 15 Nile River basin, 3: 15 Ninety East Ridge, 1: 10 North Sea, 1: 13 nutrias, 3: 65, 66; 4: 91 nutrients, 7: 21, 64 O oarweed, 1: 59 oases, 5: 50–51, 84 Ocean Alliance, 1: 33 Ocean Conservancy, 1: 89 octopuses, 1: 43 Ogaden Desert, 5: 60 Ohio River, 3: 10 oil, 2: 87, 91 Okefenokee Swamp, 4: 74–85 old-growth forests, 7: 23, 39, 75–82 old world primates, 7: 68 Olympic National Park, 7: 16 omnivores, 2: 38; 4: 29, 63; 7: 59 Orange River basin, 3: 15 orangutans, 7: 65–67, 68, 70, 72, 74 orcas, 1: 36–37, 38, 39 Orinoco River, 3: 20 osprey, 3: 38; 4: 80 ostriches, 5: 69; 6: 66–67 otters, 3: 35–36, 42, 44; 4: 23, 81–82 owls, 2: 32–33; 4: 80, 6: 47–48; 7: 39 P Pacific Deep Western Boundary Current, 1: 20–21

Pacific Ocean, 1: 7–8, 23, 33, 60, 72 Painted Desert, 5: 15 pampas grass, 6: 12, 51–52, 67 pandas, 7: 83–84 pangolins, 6: 82–83 Pantanal wetlands, 4: 23, 28, 29 panthers, 4: 37 papyrus, 4: 40, 48, 49 paraiba, 3: 81 parasites, 4: 71 parrotfish, 1: 53 passenger pigeons, 7: 39 Patagonia Desert, 5: 14, 15 PCBs, 2: 85 peat, 4: 7, 45–46, 74, 75 pelagic zone, 1: 14, 15–16, 34, 55–56, 62 penguins, 1: 44–45, 48–49, 82 pepsis wasps, 5: 70–71 peregrine falcons, 2: 49, 79; 6: 36 perennials, 2: 54–55; 5: 9 permafrost, 2: 20 photosynthesis, 1: 16; 3: 57 phytoplankton, 1: 26, 27, 55–59, 62, 63; 3: 25, 26–27, 57, 60, 63, 64; 4: 53–54 pikas, 2: 25–26, 65 pilot whales, 1: 37 piranhas, 3: 81 pirarucus, 3: 42 pitcher plants, 4: 25, 77–78; 7: 57 plains, 5: 7 plankton, 1: 26, 36, 42, 49, 51; 3: 70 plant life. See also herbivores; indicator species; keystone species. deserts, 5: 9, 18, 19–20, 22, 50–59, 71–72, 86, 89, 90 forests, 7: 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12–13, 14, 19, 22–23, 49–57, 83, 91 grasslands, 6: 7, 19, 48, 49–58, 75 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 15, 16, 21, 23, 25–26, 27–28, 42, 55–60 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 11–12, 55–61, 77, 78, 88–89 tundra, 2: 6, 8, 11, 13, 15, 17–18, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 51–58, 85, 87, 88 wetlands, 4: 6, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 25, 40, 45–55, 72, 76–78, 90 plant plankton. See phytoplankton. Plata-Paraná river system, 3: 19–20 plateaus, 2: 11; 5: 7 plates, 1: 9 Platte River, 4: 4 playas, 4: 89 plovers, 2: 76; 3: 30–31; 6: 49 poaching, 2: 33, 63; 5: 25; 6: 5, 23, 64, 84–85; 7: 23, 74, 89, 90 pocket gophers, 2: 26, 65–66 Pocos das Antas Reserve, 7: 27 pocosins, 4: 9–10 poison arrow frogs, 7: 34 poisons, 1: 52–53, 54, 66; 3: 49–50, 85, 88; 4: 34, 66; 6: 32–33, 53; 7: 34 polar bears, 2: 29, 31, 35, 37–38, 85, 91 pollution, 1: 33, 65, 78–82, 88; 2: 84–86, 90, 91; 3: 21–22, 23, 33, 71, 82–83, 84, 89, 91; 4: 6, 7, 23, 27, 46–47, 87–88, 90; 5: 91; 6: 25; 7: 85, 87–89 pollinators, 7: 19 ponds, 3: 6, 12–13, 25, 47, 58, 60

porcupines, 2: 46 porpoises, 1: 37 Portuguese man-of-war, 1: 42, 51, 54 prairie dogs, 5: 21; 6: 14, 18–19, 44, 46 prairie potholes, 4: 13, 48, 49, 60, 89 prairies, 6: 9, 12–13, 40, 51, 56, 57–58 praying mantises, 4: 43 precipitation, 2: 7, 82–83, 84; 3: 78, 85–86; 4: 11, 75; 5: 5, 6, 16, 82, 87–88; 6: 6–7, 8, 75; 7: 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, 57 predators deserts, 5: 20, 21, 27, 28–39, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48, 71, 73–75, 76, 77 forests, 7: 19, 30–37, 39–41, 48 grasslands, 6: 19, 20, 25, 26–38, 43 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 35–46, 47–48, 53 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 13, 35–42, 44, 54, 70 tundra, 2: 12–13, 32–40, 50, 68, 69 wetlands, 4: 21, 28–38, 40, 44, 58, 68, 70, 91 preserves, 2: 89 prey desert, 5: 10, 40–45, 47–49, 70, 73, 75, 76, 77, 83 forests, 7: 42–48 grasslands, 6: 20, 39–48, 77 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 36, 39, 44, 47–49, 51–54 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 45–54 tundra, 2: 43–50, 68 wetlands, 4: 38, 39–44, 68, 71 preserves, 4: 90 primates, 7: 67–68, 70–74, 89 profundal zones, 3: 59–60 pronghorns, 6: 63–64 prosimians, 7: 67 Przewalski horses, 5: 24 puffer fish, 1: 53–54 pumas. See cougars. puna region, 2: 59 Purus River, 3: 19 pussy toe plants, 4: 49 pygmy marmosets, 7: 60, 67–68 R rabbits, 2: 65; 4: 61, 63; 5: 47; 6: 44, 45, 46 raccoons, 4: 44, 81–82 rafflesia plant, 7: 49–50 rain forests, 7: 8–9, 10–12, 14, 15, 16, 21, 27, 37, 50–54, 53, 77, 86–87 rat-tail fish, 1: 69 rats, 4: 60, 65–66 rattlesnakes, 5: 76–77; 6: 33–34 recluse spiders, 5: 73–74 red algae, 1: 60 red colobus monkeys, 4: 60 Red River, 3: 10 Red Sea, 1: 13 Red Wolf Recovery Program, 7: 33 red wolves, 7: 33 redwood trees, 7: 53, 76 reefs, 1: 8, 9, 24–25 reindeer, 2: 85–86 reindeer moss, 2: 51, 62

95

[Index]

reptilian life, 2: 26; 3: 37, 51, 80–81; 4: 6, 17, 32–36, 82–83; 5: 16, 17, 27, 28, 33, 35–37, 40–41, 45, 47, 48; 6: 20, 23, 32–34, 37, 43–44, 46, 47; 7: 12, 13, 30–31, 35, 36, 44, 48, 89 rheas, 6: 67 Rhine River, 3: 23 rhinoceros beetles, 6: 81 rhinoceroses, 6: 4–5, 23, 84, 85 rhododendron, 2: 57 Rhone River, 3: 21; 4: 59 rhubarb, 6: 53 Rio Grande, 3: 20 Rio Negro, 3: 19, 77 river dolphins, 3: 79 rivers, 3: 4, 5, 6, 8–12, 15–18, 18–20, 21, 22, 23, 34, 42, 49, 51, 56, 58, 67–68, 70, 71, 74–75, 77, 82–84, 85, 87, 88, 89–90, 91; 5: 7, 58, 77; 7: 79, 87, 88, 89 roadrunners, 5: 38, 76 Rocky Mountains, 2: 8, 14–15, 57–58 rodents, 2: 18, 20–21, 26, 32, 34, 40, 45–46, 65–66; 3: 51, 52–53, 65, 66; 4: 34, 37, 42–43; 5: 20–21, 45, 65–66; 6: 20, 38, 46, 67 roseate spoonbills, 4: 20, 32 Ross Ice Shelf, 1: 12 Royal Chitwan National Park, 7: 27 Rub‘ al-Khali Desert, 5: 13, 50 runoff, 3: 7, 8, 10, 82, 85; 4: 6, 87 Russian thistle. See tumbleweeds. S Saami people, 2: 85 sagebrush lizards, 5: 27 sage grouse, 6: 23 sagebrush, 6: 22–23, 55 saguaro cactuses, 5: 18, 19–20, 56 Sahara Desert, 5: 6, 7, 13, 69, 78–84, 86–87 saiga antelopes, 6: 63 Saint Lawrence River, 3: 20 Saint Lawrence Seaway, 3: 20–21 saker falcons, 6: 36 salmon, 3: 25–26, 31, 42, 67–72 salmon ladders, 3: 68 salt water, 3: 6, 15 sand dunes, 5: 7–8, 79, 80–81 sandgrouse, 5: 30, 47, 67 sandhill cranes, 4: 4, 5, 78 Sargasso Sea, 1: 60 sausage trees, 6: 83 savannas, 6: 9–10, 40, 43, 51, 55, 56, 65, 67 “Save the Tiger” fund, 7: 25 saxifrage, 2: 54 scarab beetles, 5: 83 scavengers, 1: 69 scorpion fish, 1: 43 scorpions, 5: 75 sea cows. See manatees. sea ice, 1: 12 sea lions, 1: 39, 44, 88 sea otters, 1: 28 sea stars, 1: 15 seafloor, 1: 9, 72–77 seals, 1: 39, 44, 88 seamounts, 1: 74–75 seasonal wetlands, 4: 14 seaweed, 1: 55, 57, 59, 63 secretary birds, 6: 36–37 sedges, 2: 31, 55–56, 58, 62; 4: 10 seeds, 6: 67–68, 72

96

semiarid deserts, 5: 5, 6–7, 13, 53 Serengeti National Park, 6: 77–85 sewage, 3: 55, 84, 88, 89; 4: 6, 90 sewer systems, 4: 52 Shark Bay, 1: 89 sharks, 1: 36–37, 40, 41, 69–70 shearwaters, 1: 47 shorebirds, 2: 74 short grasses, 6: 8, 13 shrews, 3: 52; 4: 34, 43; 6: 81; 7: 36–37 shrubs, 2: 6, 11, 55, 57, 88; 4: 9 simians, 7: 67 Simpson Desert, 5: 13, 59 sitatungas, 4: 39–40 skuas, 2: 50 slugs, 7: 64, 76 smolts, 3: 69 snags, 7: 77 snails, 4: 27, 38, 43–44, 54; 7: 64 snakes, 3: 36, 37, 74, 80–81; 4: 17, 32, 33–34, 43, 65–72, 83; 5: 36–37, 76–77; 6: 32–34, 37, 43, 47; 7: 12, 30–31, 35, 48, 89 snapping turtles, 3: 51–52; 4: 35 snow buntings, 2: 75 snow geese, 2: 77, 79 snow leopards, 2: 4–6, 90, 91 snowshoe hares, 2: 47, 65 snowy owls, 2: 32–33, 34, 81, 88 soil erosion, 7: 87 songbirds, 2: 65, 74; 4: 31–32 Sonoran Desert, 5: 6, 15, 16, 17, 19, 42, 59, 65 sounders, 6: 63 South China Sea, 1: 13 South Platte River, 3: 4 Southern Ocean, 1: 7, 10, 21 spadefoot toads, 5: 44 Spanish imperial eagle, 4: 31 Spanish lynx, 4: 31 Spanish moss, 4: 17 sperm whales, 1: 33, 67–68 sphagnum moss, 4: 7, 8, 9 spiders, 4: 31 spinifex grass, 5: 53 spiny-bellied orb weaver spider, 4: 31 spotted owls, 7: 23–24, 81 spring tides, 1: 18 squirrel monkeys, 7: 60 squirrels, 2: 18, 46, 65, 88; 4: 61; 7: 61 Steller’s sea cows, 1: 64 steppes, 6: 11–12, 23, 25, 36, 39, 40, 51, 55, 56, 58, 63, 91 stickleback fish, 3: 50 storks, 4: 74 streams, 3: 5, 6, 8, 9–10, 11, 13, 38, 49, 54, 57, 58, 70, 75, 83 Sturt Stony Desert, 5: 14 submergent plants, 4: 49, 51–53 subsistence living, 2: 91 sugarcane, 6: 52 Sumatran rhinos, 7: 24, 59 sundews, 4: 77, 78; 7: 57 surface currents, 1: 19–20 Suwannee River Sill, 4: 83–84 Swainson’s hawks, 6: 35 swallowtail butterflies, 6: 25 swamp antelopes. See sitatungas. swamp rats, 4: 34, 60, 65, 66 swamps, 4: 5, 9–10, 15–17, 17–18, 19–20, 21, 27, 37, 48, 55, 63, 74–85, 86, 87 swans, 2: 48, 74–75; 3: 62–63; 4: 63 symbiosis, 1: 66; 5: 59

T tahrs, 2: 5 taiga, 7: 8, 13, 14, 55–57, 77. See also boreal forests. takhi. See Przewalski horses. Takla Makan Desert, 5: 7, 13, 63 tall grasses, 6: 8, 9, 13 tamarins, 7: 60 tarantulas, 5: 73 temperate forests, 7: 6–10, 13, 16, 53 temperate grasslands, 6: 6, 10–14 temperate wetlands, 4: 48 temperatures. See climate. termites, 5: 42–43; 6: 41–42; 7: 64 terns, 1: 45–46 Thames River, 3: 89–90 thorny devils. See molochs. threatened species, 2: 27; 3: 27; 4: 23; 5: 22; 6: 20 Tibesti Mountains, 5: 81 Tibetan antelopes, 6: 64 Tibetan black bears, 2: 38 tidal marshes, 4: 17, 18, 55, 64 tide pools, 1: 63 tides, 1: 9, 17–19, 26, 36 tigers, 6: 86–87; 7: 25 toads, 4: 43 Tongass National Forest, 7: 16, 79 trap-door spiders, 7: 43 tree ferns, 4: 49–50 tree line, 2: 7, 8, 11–12 trees, 4: 19, 50; 6: 55–58, 72–73, 83–84 trenches, 1: 8 troops, 6: 82 tropical forests, 7: 10–12, 21, 53 tropical grasslands. See savannas. tropical wetlands, 4: 6 trout, 3: 5, 12, 37, 42, 45 tsunamis, 1: 23 tumbleweeds, 6: 54–55 tundra swans, 2: 75 tundra wetlands, 4: 48 tundra wolves, 2: 69–73 turnover, 3: 13 turtles, 1: 29, 31, 61, 62, 85; 3: 51–52; 4: 32, 35 U Ujong Kulong refuge, 7: 24–25 umbrella species desert, 5: 22–24, 66 forests, 7: 22–25, 81–82 grasslands, 6: 20, 22–23 oceans, seas, and reefs, 1: 28–29, 31 rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds, 3: 27–31 tundra, 2: 27–28 wetlands, 4: 23–25 understory, 7: 14, 51, 52 underwater currents, 1: 20–21 ungulates, 6: 62 United Nations, 1: 89 Ural Mountains, 7: 14 urchins, 1: 28, 63–64 V vampire bats, 4: 29 Venus flytraps, 4: 25 viceroy butterflies, 7: 46–47 vicuñas, 2: 59–60, 90 volcanoes, 1: 74 voles, 2: 32, 34, 46, 65, 80, 88; 3: 52–53; 4: 34, 43, 60

Volga River, 3: 23 vultures, 3: 32; 4: 80 W wading birds, 4: 78–79 walruses, 1: 35 warthogs, 6: 63 water buffaloes, 4: 59 water cycle, 3: 6–7 water hyacinths, 3: 58, 89 water lilies, 3: 58, 61, 78 water moccasins. See cottonmouth snakes. water movement, 3: 13 water opossums, 3: 79 water shrews, 3: 52 water treatment facilities, 3: 55; 4: 90 water voles, 3: 52–53 waterbirds, 2: 74; 4: 22 waterfalls, 3: 20 watersheds, 3: 10; 4: 74–75 waves, 1: 17, 22–23, 26, 36 weasels, 2: 48, 49; 7: 43 welwitschia plant, 5: 54 Western diamondback rattlesnakes, 6: 33–34 wet meadows, 4: 13, 60 whale sharks, 1: 40, 41 whales, 1: 21–22, 29, 33, 34, 36–37, 37–38, 40–41, 48, 67–68, 86–87 whaling, 1: 86–87 whirligig beetles, 3: 48–49 whistling thorn acacia trees, 6: 56 white ibises, 4: 79 White Nile, 3: 15 white rhinos, 6: 23, 64 white-tailed deer, 4: 57, 81 white-water rivers, 3: 77 whooping cranes, 3: 31; 4: 26 wild asses, 5: 63 wildebeests, 6: 76–77 wildflowers, 2: 32, 54–55, 57–58, 74, 83; 4: 16, 49, 50, 60; 6: 53–54, 75 willow moss, 3: 57–58 Wingecarribee basin, 4: 45 winged mapleleaf mussels, 4: 25, 26 wolf spiders, 4: 31 wolverines, 2: 35; 7: 34–35 wolves, 2: 10, 20, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 39–40, 69–73, 90–91; 6: 29; 7: 33–34 wood mice, 7: 42–43 wood storks, 4: 74 World Heritage Sites, 1: 89 Word Wildlife Fund (WWF), 2: 13 worms, 7: 64 wrack, 1: 59–60 Y yaks, 2: 63, 90 Yangtze River, 3: 15, 23 Yellow River. See Huang River. Yellowstone National Park, 7: 17–18 Yukon River, 3: 20 Z Zambesi River basin, 3: 15 zebra mussels, 3: 64 zooplankton, 1: 26, 27, 49, 51, 62, 63; 3: 26, 46–47, 63; 4: 40–41, 54

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