The Composition and Redaction of the Book of Amos
Tchavdar S. Hadjiev
Walter de Gruyter
Tchavdar S. Hadjiev The Comp...
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The Composition and Redaction of the Book of Amos
Tchavdar S. Hadjiev
Walter de Gruyter
Tchavdar S. Hadjiev The Composition and Redaction of the Book of Amos
Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Herausgegeben von John Barton · Reinhard G. Kratz Choon-Leong Seow · Markus Witte
Band 393
≥ Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York
Tchavdar S. Hadjiev
The Composition and Redaction of the Book of Amos
≥ Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York
앝 Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines of the ANSI 앪 to ensure permanence and durability.
ISBN 978-3-11-021271-6 ISSN 0934-2575 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. 쑔 Copyright 2009 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, 10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Cover design: Christopher Schneider, Laufen Printing and binding: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen
To my daughter Boriana and my son Alexander
Acknowledgements The present work is a slightly revised version of my doctoral thesis submitted to the University of Oxford in 2007. I would like to take up the oportunity to express my thanks to some of the people who have in various ways contributed to its completion. I am most grateful to my supervisor prof. H. G. M. Williamson whose great erudition and scho‐ larly excellence have stimulated and inspired me all along and who has given me generously his advice, support and time. Dr. S. Gillingham acted as my interim supervisor during the last two terms of my first year and helped me enourmously during the initial stages of my research. Prof. R. Kratz, prof. J. Barton and prof. E. Nicholson were kind enough to read parts of my thesis and share their comments with me. Prof. F. I. Andersen has been a good friend over the last several years and I am thankful for the many emails and books I have received from him. I would like to thank my examiners prof. R. Gordon and prof. J. Day for their helpful comments and suggestions for improve‐ ment and the editors of BZAW for accepting my work for publication in the series. Darena Tzoneva‐Dimitrova, Tania Petrova, Martin Haizmann, Colin Macpherson, Don and Ruth Boyes, Kosta and Nada Milkovi have all in various ways played an important role in my life and study and without their help and support my work would have been much harder. Langham Partners Int, Bulgaria Appeal, the International Fel‐ lowship of Evangelical Students and the United Faculty of the Bulgar‐ ian Evangelical Theological Institute provided the financial support which made my study possible. Steven and Jemima Spare opened their home for me during the last year of my study and I am grateful for their hospitality. My wife, Tsveta, has been my faithful and loving companion. She has had to endure prolonged periods of my absence and cope with the various changes and challenges demanded by my research. For her strength and support, without which this work would have been im‐ possible, I am thankful. Finally, I would like to dedicate this work to
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Acknowledgements
my daughter Boriana and my son Alexander, who was born to us in Oxford during the time of my study. Their presence has admittedly slowed down the speed of my research considerably, but it has also enriched my life beyond what I can express.
Table of contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................ vii Abbreviations .......................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1: Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations ... 1 I. The book comes substantially from the prophet Amos himself ... 2 II. The book is the result of a redactional process ............................ 3 III. The literary and the historical Amos ............................................. 9 1. The creation of the literary Amos by the Amos school or the post‐exilic community ...................................................... 9 2. What can we know about the historical Amos ......................... 12 a. Amos in post‐exilic Yehud ..................................................... 12 b. The cultic and social criticism of the book............................. 17 c. The origin of the prophecy of unconditional doom.............. 20 d. Do we need to prove the ‘authenticity’ of the prophetic oracles? ................................................................... 23 3. Conclusion – the relationship between Amos and his ‘disciples’ ................................................................................ 24 IV. Criteria for redactional intervention .............................................. 25 1. Literary breaks .............................................................................. 26 2. Later linguistic and theological influences ............................... 27 3. Thematic tensions ......................................................................... 30 4. Later historical situations ............................................................ 31 5. Unusual style and ideas .............................................................. 32 6. Literary dependence on later passages ..................................... 33 7. The presence of different structures .......................................... 37 8. Identifying redactional passages belonging to the same layer ..................................................................................... 38 9. Conclusion ..................................................................................... 40 Chapter 2: The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2) ...................... 41 I. Redactional additions to the OAN ................................................. 41 1. The oracles against Judah, Edom and Tyre .............................. 42 2. The additions to the Israel oracle ............................................... 46 3. Conclusion ..................................................................................... 53 II. Purpose and aim of the redactor .................................................... 53 1. The original series ........................................................................ 53
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2. The final version of the series ..................................................... 54 3. Edom and Israel ............................................................................ 55 4. Israel and Judah ............................................................................ 57 5. Conclusion ..................................................................................... 59 Chapter 3: The Visions ........................................................................... 60 I. Introduction ...................................................................................... 60 II. The fifth vision .................................................................................. 62 1. Extent of the passage .................................................................... 62 2. The relationship of the fifth vision to the preceding ............... 65 3. The origin of the fifth vision ....................................................... 68 III. The date of the visions report ......................................................... 73 IV. Conclusion ......................................................................................... 77 Chapter 4: The Narrative after the Third Vision (Amos 7:9‐17) ....... 78 I. The limits of the passage and the place of v. 9 ............................. 78 II. Origin of the narrative ..................................................................... 79 1. The composition of vv 9‐17 ......................................................... 79 2. The provenance of the composer ............................................... 82 a. Am. 7:10‐17 and Dtr thought ................................................. 83 b. Am. 7:10‐17 and passages from DH ..................................... 86 c. The language of Am. 7:10‐17 .................................................. 88 d. Conclusion ............................................................................... 88 3. Provenance of the redactor ......................................................... 89 Chapter 5: The Oracles after the Fourth Vision (Amos 8:3‐14) ......... 96 I. The composite nature and the unity of 8:3‐14 .............................. 97 II. The origin of the oracles in 8:3‐14 .................................................. 102 1. Relation of the oracles to the Amos tradition ........................... 102 2. The provenance of the oracles .................................................... 104 3. Conclusion ..................................................................................... 108 III. Redactional intention ....................................................................... 108 Chapter 6: The Oracles after the Fifth Vision (Amos 9:7‐15) ............. 111 I. Amos 9:7‐10 .......................................................................................... 111 1. Introduction .................................................................................. 111 2. Amos 9:7‐8 ..................................................................................... 113 3. Amos 9:9‐10 ................................................................................... 118 II. Amos 9:11‐15 ..................................................................................... 119 III. The Redactional Unity of vv 7‐15 ................................................... 122
Table of contents
xi
Chapter 7: The Doxologies ..................................................................... 124 I. The Introductory motto (1:2) .......................................................... 124 II. The ‘doxologies’ (4:13; 5:8‐9; 9:5‐6) ................................................ 127 1. Introduction .................................................................................. 127 2. Relationship to the present context ............................................ 128 3. Relationship to the Amos tradition ............................................ 133 III. The compositional function of the hymnic passages ................... 135 IV. The date of the ‘hymnic layer’ ........................................................ 136 Chapter 8: The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6 .............................................. 140 I. Amos 3:1‐4:3 ...................................................................................... 140 1. Amos 3:1‐2 ..................................................................................... 140 2. Amos 3:3‐8 ..................................................................................... 140 3. Amos 3:9‐15 ................................................................................... 143 4. Amos 4:1‐3 ..................................................................................... 145 II. Amos 4:4‐12 ....................................................................................... 147 1. Introduction .................................................................................. 147 2. Amos 4:6‐12 and the Amos tradition ......................................... 148 3. Amos 4:6‐12 and Lev. 26 .............................................................. 148 4. The overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah .................................. 152 5. Amos 4:6‐12 and 1 Kings 8 .......................................................... 155 6. Amos 4:6‐12 and Dtr theology .................................................... 156 7. Amos 4:6‐12 and the present literary context ........................... 160 8. Conclusion ..................................................................................... 161 III. Amos 5:1‐27 ....................................................................................... 161 1. Amos 5:4‐6, 14‐15 .......................................................................... 162 2. Amos 5:25‐27 ................................................................................. 166 IV. Amos 6:1‐14 ....................................................................................... 169 1. Amos 6:1‐7 ..................................................................................... 169 2. Amos 6:8‐14 ................................................................................... 175 Chapter 9: The Literary History of the Book of Amos ....................... 179 I. The Oracles in chs 3‐6 ...................................................................... 179 1. The supposed ring structure of chs 3‐6 ..................................... 179 2. The first edition of the Repentance Scroll (4:1‐6:7) ................. 184 3. The second (Judean) edition of the Repentance Scroll (3:9‐6:14) ........................................................................................ 187 4. Amos and repentance .................................................................. 191 II. The Polemical Scroll ......................................................................... 193 1. Extent and structure ..................................................................... 193 2. Date ................................................................................................ 197
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III. The Combination of the Repentance and the Polemical Scrolls: The Composition of the Book of Amos ......................................... 198 IV. The exilic redaction of the book ..................................................... 201 1. The extent and theological profile of the redaction ................. 201 2. The provenance of the redaction ................................................ 204 V. Summary and conclusion ................................................................ 207 Bibliography ............................................................................................ 211
Abbreviations AASOR AB AJA AnBib ABD ABR ABRL ABS AGJU AJSL AMT ANE AOAT ATANТ ATD AUSS BASOR BAR BBB BDB BEATAJ BET BHK BHS
Bib BibEn
Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research The Anchor Bible American Journal of Archaeology Analecta Biblica Anchor Bible Dictionary, edited by D.N. Freedman. 6 vols (New York, 1992) Australian Biblical Review The Anchor Bible Reference Library Archaeology and Biblical Studies Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures Athenäums Monografien. Theologie Ancient Near East Alter Orient und Altes Testament Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments Das Alte Testament deutsch Andrews University Seminary Studies Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Biblical Archaeology Review Bonner biblische Beiträge F. Brown, S.R. Driver and C.A. Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon (Oxford, 1907) Beiträge zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des antiken Judentums Beiträge zur biblischen Exegese und Theologie Biblia hebraica, edited by R.Kittel (Stuttgart, 1937) Biblia hebraica stuttgartensia, edited by K. Elliger and W. Rudolph (Stuttgart, 1990) Biblica Biblische Enzyklopädie
xiv BibInt BibSt BK BN BO BSc ВТВ BTS BWANT BZ BZAW CahT CAT CB CBQ CBR CBSC CC CnBib COS CR:BS EncJud DBSup DH Dtr EBib EuHS ETR ET Expd ExpTim EvTh FAT FB
Abbreviations
Biblical Interpretation Biblische Studien Biblischer Kommentar Biblische Notizen Biblica et Orientalia Bibliotheca Sacra Biblical Theology Bulletin Biblisch‐theologische Studien Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament Biblische Zeitschrift Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Cahiers Théologiques Commentaire de lʹAncien Testament The Century Bible Catholic Biblical Quarterly Currents in Biblical Research Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges Continental Commentary Coniectanea biblica The Context of Scripture, edited by W.W. Hallo and K.L. Younger. 3 vols (Leiden and Boston, 2003) Currents in Research: Biblical Studies Encyclopedia Judaica. 16 vols (Jerusalem, 1972) Dictionaire de la Bible: Supplément, edited by L. Pirot and A. Robert (Paris, 1928‐) The Deuteronomistic History Deuteronomist/Deuteronomistic Etudes bibliques Europäische Hochschulschriften Études théologiques et religieuses English Translation Expedition Expository Times Evangelische Theologie Forschungen zum Alten Testament Forschung zur Bibel
FF FOTL FRLANT FS GesHAH
GKC JAOS JBL JBQ JBT JETS JNES JNSL JPSTC JSOT JSOTSup JSS JTSA Jud HAL
HAR HAT HBT HCOT Hen HKAT HSM HTR HUCA
Abbreviations
xv
Forschungen und Fortschritte The Forms of the Old Testament Literature Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments Festschrift Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament, Gesenius, W., Meyer D.R., and Donner, H. 18 ed. (Berlin and Heidelberg, 1995) Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, edited and enlarged by E. Kautzsch, translated by A.E. Cowley (Oxford, 1910) Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of Biblical Literature Jewish Bible Quarterly Jahrbuch für Biblische Theologie Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Journal of Near Eastern Studies Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages The Jewish Publication Society Torah Commentary Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series Journal of Semitic Studies Journal of Theology for Southern Africa Judaica Hebräisches und aramäisches Lexicon zum Alten Testament, 3rd edition, edited by L. Koehler, W. Baumgartner, J.J. Stamm. 5 vols (Leiden, 1967–1990) ET The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. 5 vols (Leiden, 1994–2000) Hebrew Annual Review Handbuch zum Alten Testament Horizons in Biblical Theology Historical Commentary on the Old Testament Henoch Handkommentar zum Alten Testament Harvard Semitic Monographs Нarvard Theological Review Hebrew Union College Annual
xvi
Abbreviations
ICC IEJ Int ITC KAT KB
KGUAS KHC LHB/OTS MC NASB NCBC NEchtB NIBC NIDOTTE
NRSV OAN OBO OLA OT OTE OTG OTL OTS PEQ PFTUG QD RB Rhb RevEx RevScRel RSR StBL
International Critical Commentary on the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments Israel Exploration Journal Interpretation International Theological Commentary Kommentar zum Alten Testament Koehler and Baumgartner, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti libros (Leiden, 1958) Kwansei Gakuin University Аnnuаl Studies Kurzer Hand‐Commentar zum Alten Testament Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies Mentor Commentary New American Standard Bible The New Century Bible Commentary Die Neue Echter Bibel New International Biblical Commentary New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, edited by W.A. VanGemeren. 5 vols (Grand Rapids, 1997) New Revised Standard Version Oracles against the nations Orbis biblicus et orientalis Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta Old Testament Old Testament Essays Old Testament Guides Old Testament Library Oudtestamentische studiën Palestine Exploration Quarterly Publications de la Faculté de théologie de lʹUniversité de Genève Quaestiones disputatae Revue Biblique Rhétorique biblique Review and Expositor Revue des sciences religieuses Recherches de science religieuse Studies in Biblical Literature
SBLDS SBLSP SBLSS SBLMS SBS SBT Sem SHANE SHCANE SJT StBL STR TA TB THAT
TQ TL TRE
TSK TTZ TW TynBul TZ UF UTB WBC VT VTSup WEC WMANT WO
Abbreviations
xvii
Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series Stuttgarter Bibelstudien Studies in Biblical Theology Semitics Studies in the History of the Ancient Near East Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East Scottish Journal of Theology Studies in Biblical Literature Studies in Theology and Religion Tel Aviv Theologische Bücherei Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament, edited by E. Jenni and C. Westermann. 2 vols (München, 1971, 1976) ET Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. 3 vols (Peabody, 1997) Theologische Quartalschrift Theologische Literaturzeitung Theologische Realenzyklopädie, edited by G. Krause and G. Müller (Berlin, 1976‐) Theologische Studien und Kritiken Trierer theologische Zeitschrift Theologische Wissenschaft Tyndale Buletin Theologische Zeitschrift Ugarit‐Forschungen Uni‐Taschenbücher Word Biblical Commentary Vetus Testamentum Supplements to Vetus Testamentum Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament Die Welt des Orients
xviii ZAH ZAW ZDPV ZTK
Abbreviations
Zeitschrift für Althebräistik Zeitschrift für die Alttestanentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina‐Vereins Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche
Chapter 1: Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations The present work is an investigation into the history of the book of Amos, and since this history is defined in the title as ‘composition and redaction’ it might be worth first attempting to define these two terms whose meaning is not entirely agreed upon in scholarly literature.1 I use the terms ‘composition’ and ‘redaction’ as closely related but not entirely synonymous. ‘Composition’ is the initial stage(s) of the crea‐ tion of a prophetic book when various disparate (literary and/or oral) traditions are brought together to form one larger literary whole. Com‐ position is therefore more than collection; it creates a literary piece with its own structure, thought‐flow and theme. ‘Redaction’, on the other hand, is a subsequent literary activity in which tradents insert new material into a pre‐existing work, or change, rearrange or omit already existing material.2 If I may use an example from the Deuteronomistic History, composition would be the initial stage of creating the work either by Dtr1 in the time of Josiah (following the model of Cross) or by the exilic ‘DtrG’ (following the model of Smend). ‘Redaction’ is the 1
The difficulty comes from the fact that we are dealing with composite texts, which did not come about as original compositions authored by a single individual but were the product of a process of compilation, modification and rearrangement of traditional material; Barton, ‘Redaction Criticism,’ 645. For some, composition is part of the work of a redaction (Perrin, Redaction Criticism, 1; Kratz, ‘Redaktionsge‐ schichte,’ 369‐370) whilst for others the two are to be sharply distinguished (Van Se‐ ters, ‘Ironic Circle,’ 487‐500). For Richter, Exegese, 166 n. 4, 169 ‘redaction’ has to do more with simply bringing different unrelated pieces together or inserting isolated additions, while ‘composition’ implies a stronger intervention in the pre‐existing text. For a survey and discussion see Knierim, ‘Criticism of Literary Features,’ 150‐ 153. On the role of redactors as interpreters of tradition see Clements, ‘Prophet and His Editors,’ 217‐229 and on the question of redaction criticism as a bridge between diachronic and synchronic approaches see Stone, ‘Redaction Criticism,’ 85‐87. For a criticism of some of the methods and presuppositions of redaction criticism see Van Seters, Edited Bible. His attention, however, is focused mainly on the Pentateuch, not on prophetic texts. 2 Fohrer et al., Exegese, 135‐139.
2
Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
subsequent literary activity which is defined by Cross as Dtr2 and by Smend as DtrP and DtrN.3 Of course this model might be too simplistic insofar as the process of ‘composition’ could be much more complicated and involve several stages of collection and growth of existing traditions. The boundary between these two terms might turn out to be not as clear‐cut as one might wish and may in fact vary from book to book. Although there are a number of fine surveys of Amos research,4 it will be useful to sketch the scene briefly in order to place the present investigation into its context and to raise in a more general manner some methodological issues which will be of significance later on.
I. The book comes substantially from the prophet Amos himself There are a number of commentators who ascribe all, or almost all, of the book’s content to Amos himself but do so for very different reasons. They would also have quite distinct ideas on what Amos actually was and did: a Northern government official;5 a Judean nationalist;6 a per‐ son who was interested in a specific historical situation and the political developments of his time;7 a cultic prophet;8 a preacher of the cove‐ nant,9 etc. There are also differences of opinion on how the book actually came to be written. Andersen and Freedman attempt to link all the material from the book to the actual ministry of the prophet which, they believe, went through three phases: (i) calling Israel to repent (chs 5‐6 and the first two visions in 7:1‐6); (ii) announcement of inevitable judgment after the call was not heeded (chs 3‐4; 1‐2 and the next two visions in 7:7‐9; 8:1‐3); (iii) judgment on the leadership (8:3‐14 and the fifth vision in 9:1‐6). The book in its present form is a reworking of ser‐ mons Amos would have given on various occasions. Andersen and Freedman suggest that chs 1‐6 are the text of the last sermon, utilizing various themes and motifs from the prophet’s career, which he 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cross, ‘The Themes of Kings,’ 274‐289; Smend, Entstehung, 123‐124. Cf more recently Melugin, ‘Amos in Recent Research,’ 65‐101; Carroll R, The Prophet and His Oracles. Rosenbaum, Amos of Israel, 73‐84. Sweeney, 193‐195, 200. Hayes, 38‐39. Reventlow, Amt. Stuart, 288‐289; Niehaus, 316‐324. Cf further ch. 8 §II. 6 p. 156 n. 71.
II. The book is the result of a redactional process
3
preached at Bethel and which provoked the violent reaction of Amaziah.10 Watts saw just two phases in Amos’ career, a Northern and a Southern. Chs 1‐6 are the literary deposit of Amos’ preaching in Israel up until the time of his expulsion (7:10‐17) whilst chs 8‐9 reflect his preaching in Judah after his extradition, when he also received his fourth and fifth visions. The two books existed independently and were combined to form a single whole in the postexilic period at the time when Amos was incorporated into the book of the Twelve.11 Without coming up with such elaborate historical reconstructions of the prophet’s career, a number of other scholars have also defended the Amosian character of the material found in the book.12 Paul is con‐ tent simply to state that ‘the book [of Amos] itself is a composite of independent collections with a well organized structure’.13 Rudolph envisages a more complex process of compilation of the words of Amos but, with the exception of a handful of glosses, does not see evidence for any thorough redactional reworking.14 For Möller the book is a lit‐ erary work which aims to present the debate of the prophet with his audience using various oracles and summaries of prophetic sermons by Amos.15
II. The book is the result of a redactional process Modern redaction‐critical study of Amos begins with the influential thesis of Wolff who identified six stages in the literary development of the book: (i) a collection of oracles (chs 3‐6*) and (ii) a scroll containing five OAN (against Damascus 1:3‐5; Philistia 1:6‐8; Ammon 1:13‐15; Moab 2:1‐3 and Israel 2:6‐16* henceforth abbreviated 5 OAN) plus the five visions (7:1‐8; 8:1‐2; 9:1‐4) (iii) were combined by the disciples of 10 Andersen and Freedman, 5‐9; 83‐88; 360‐369, 590‐608. 11 Watts, ‘Origin of the Book of Amos,’ 109‐112; idem, Vision and Prophecy, 85‐86. Cf also Gordis, ‘Composition and Structure,’ 222‐225; idem, ‘Studies,’ 252‐253; idem, ‘Edom, Israel and Amos,’ 121. The ‘two‐book hypothesis’ owes a lot to the work of Weiser who postulated two originally separate collections: the visions report (chs 7‐ 9) and the collection of oracles in chs 1‐6, ending originally with the narrative now found in 7:10‐17. However, he also assumes a number of interpolations by later hands (1:9‐12; 2:4‐5; 4:13; 5:8; 9:8‐15 etc): Weiser, 129‐131. 12 Hammershaimb; McComiskey, 270‐274; Finley; Smith. 13 Paul, 6. 14 Rudolph, 100‐102. 15 Möller, Prophet in Debate, 18, 105‐106.
4
Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
the prophet (c. 735 BC) who also inserted a few more oracles (5:14‐15; 6:2, 6b; 7:9; 8:3‐10, 13‐14; 9:7‐10) and the narrative in 7:10‐17. (iv) ʹThe Bethel‐Exposition of the Josianic ageʹ (3:14bα; 5:6; 4:6‐12 and the dox‐ ologies in 4:13; 5:8‐9; 9:5‐6 as well as 1:2) aimed to support the destruc‐ tion of the Bethel sanctuary by Josiah and (v) a Deuteronomistic redac‐ tion (1:9‐12; 2:4‐5, 10‐12; 3:1b, 7; 5:25‐26; 6:1aα, 1bβ; 8:11‐12?) sought to apply the prophetic word to Judah during the time of the Babylonian exile. Finally, (vi) a postexilic addition of the epilogue in 9:11‐15 sup‐ plied the missing message of salvation.16 Wolff’s reconstruction has been accepted in broad outline by a number of scholars.17 The presence of a Deuteronomistic redaction in the book of Amos was proposed originally by Schmidt18 and has been further developed by Vermeylen who argued for two successive Dtr redactions and assigned a larger number of passages to them.19 Dtr redaction is accepted also by Weimar, who thinks it was preceded by a Judean redaction, interpreting Amos’ absolute message of judgment as an ultimative exhortation (i.e. 4:4‐5; 5:4‐5*; 9:8‐10* etc), and was fol‐ lowed by two post‐exilic redactions.20 The most influential follower of Wolff in recent times is Jeremias who, however, differs in several im‐ portant aspects. With respect to Amos’ disciples, Jeremias adds the suggestion that they were influenced by the Hoseanic tradition (Am. 2:8; 3:2; 5:25; 6:8; 7:9); they extended the proclamation of Amos to en‐ compass all Israel, not just its original addressees, the ruling class; and they added a call to the people for a new beginning (5:6, 14‐15). Jere‐ mias also does not accept a ‘Bethel redaction’ in the time of Josiah.21 He assigns the passages from that layer either to the exilic Dtr redaction (3:13‐14) or to additions which were influenced by the exilic liturgies of penance (4:6‐12 and the doxologies).22 16 Wolff, 129‐138 ET 106‐113. This hypothesis nicely illustrates the difficulty in making a clear cut distinction between ‘composition’ and ‘redaction’ since the third stage, postulated by Wolff, combines features of both. 17 Schottroff, ‘Amos,’ 30‐31; Soggin, 16‐18; Blenkinsopp, History of Prophecy, 74‐78. 18 Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 168‐193. 19 Vermeylen, 568‐569. 20 Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 95‐100. 21 Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 374; Rottzoll, 138‐140; Sweeney, Josiah, 282 are also sceptical about the attempt to link passages from Amos to the reform of Josiah; cf most recent‐ ly Gomes, Bethel, 142‐143. Mays, 13‐14 assigns the doxologies to a ‘cultic source in Judah’ and takes 3:14 and 4:6‐12 as coming from Amos. Koenen, Bethel, 70‐71 accepts the ‘Bethel‐Redaction’ theory but modifies it in a number of ways. For a discussion of Wolff’s hypothesis see below ch. 7 §IV. 22 Jeremias, xix‐xxii ET 5‐9; idem, ‘Beobachtungen zur Enstehunggeschichte,’ 142‐156 ET 217‐229; idem, ‘Anfänge des Dodekapropheton,’ 34‐54 ET 171‐186.
II. The book is the result of a redactional process
5
Not all redactional proposals follow the guidelines laid down by Wolff. According to Willi‐Plein there was an 8th century collection of ‘words of Amos’ which encompassed chs 1‐4. Separate from it was the creation of the visions plus narrative (7:10‐17) account still during the lifetime of the prophet or shortly after his death. During the reign of Manasseh there was a ‘ringbildende Sammlung, Redaktion und aktual‐ isierende Weitergestaltung’ of oracles or fragments of oracles of Amos which took the visions‐narrative account as its core and produced chs 5‐9. These two separate collections were joined together and further interpolated by an exilic redactor. Subsequently, there were a number of post‐exilic and even apocalyptic glosses.23 Fleischer suggests that the oracles of Amos underwent two early North‐Israelite reworkings, the first c. 740 and the second in 733‐722 BC. Then there was a Judean, a Dtr and a post‐exilic redaction followed by some apocalyptic glosses.24 Another scholar whose model is very different from Wolff’s is Klaus Koch. He suggests that the book is the result of a single composi‐ tion which took place in Judah in the 7th cent. BC in circles associated with the Jerusalem Temple. The composer(s) took various already formed tradition‐complexes (i.e. 3:9‐4:1; 7:1‐9+8:1‐3* etc.) as well as other Amosian traditions, some of which were oral, and formed them into a new comprehensive whole with an elaborate, well‐conceived structure aiming to actualise the Amos tradition. The epilogue (9:7‐15) was added later.25 Perhaps the most complex redactional analysis of the book of Amos is that of Rottzoll who recognizes no less than 12 different layers. The Grundbestand comprised the 5 OAN (chs 1‐2*) and the 5 Visions (chs 7‐ 9*) framing a collection of oracles which proclaimed judgment in the form of an earthquake and contained social and cultic criticism (chs 3‐ 6*). Two Judean redactions introduced the themes of judgment in the form of military catastrophe (shortly after 722 BC) and a more peda‐ gogical tone (in 711 BC). After a minor exilic‐Dtr reworking and an early post‐exilic redaction (which contains passages like 3:13‐14 and 4:6‐12 attributed by Wolff to the ‘Bethel exposition of the Josianic age’) there comes a very significant redactor (RRK) who formed the existing tradi‐ tion into an elaborate ring‐composition. Following this, there was a priestly‐deuteronomistic redaction (2:4‐5; 3:7; 7:9, etc), and several other
23 Willi‐Plein, 58‐69. 24 Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 253‐258. 25 Koch, Amos, 2:105‐106, 120‐125.
6
Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
layers including the Edom and Tyre oracles (1:9‐12), the narrative in 7:10‐17 and the oracles in 8:4‐14.26 Lescow believes that Amos was a cultic prophet from Jerusalem whose words were combined with other anonymous oracles and in c. 680 BC were formed into the first composition of his book (K1) which interpreted the earthquake he announced as the catastrophe of 722 BC. In 600 BC there was a second edition (K2) directed against Jehoiakim. This was followed by two post‐exilic redactions (K3 and K4), the first one displaying a liturgical interest and the second centred around the theme ‘exodus from Egypt’ and motivated by anti‐Samarian senti‐ ments.27 According to Albertz the book of Amos, which originally began with 5 OAN, ended with the four visions (7:1‐8:3*) and included most of chs 3‐6, was composed between 711 and 701 BC. It underwent one pre‐exilic redaction (end of 7th/beginning of 6th cent.) responsible for 1:2; 3:13‐14; 5:26; 8:4‐10, 13‐14 and the fifth vision (9:1‐4); two exilic redac‐ tions: one liturgical (4:6‐13 and the doxologies) and the other Dtr; and one early post‐exilic redaction (9:11‐15).28 In contrast to most theories offered in the German‐speaking world, Anglo‐Saxon scholarship has tended to go for simpler redactional models. Coote reconstructed the redactional history of the book in only three stages. First comes an 8th cent. BC poetic collection of oracles (Stage A) criticizing the ruling elite of Israelite society for their oppres‐ sion of the poor. In the 7th cent. BC this collection underwent a radical and extensive revision (Stage B) which is responsible for a large amount of additional material and the present structure of the book of Amos. Finally, a scribe at the end of the 6th cent. BC updated the work intervening mainly at the beginning (OAN) and at the end (9:7‐15) of the book (Stage C).29 Park also has three editions though in all other respects his analysis is very different from that of Coote. The final form of the book (‘the restoration edition’) was completed shortly after the reforms of Josiah and its aim was to promote Judean expansion into the north. The ‘pre‐ restoration edition’ was produced after the fall of Samaria and the Grundschrift, which according to Park is practically impossible to recon‐ struct, took shape c. 750‐745 BC.30 26 27 28 29 30
Rottzoll, 285‐290. Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 23‐55; idem, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 69‐101. Albertz, Exilszeit, 177‐178 ET 226‐227. Coote, Amos. Park, Amos, 110‐117.
II. The book is the result of a redactional process
7
Peckham has reduced the stages of literary development to two. The original book of Amos was a ‘long narrative poem’ composed after the fall of Samaria (c. 670 BC) as a lesson for Judah. The placing of Amos in the years of Jeroboam II and the impression that the direction of his prophecy was mainly towards Northern Israel is due to the work of a later scholar (c. 535‐530 BC) who wanted to bring Amos’ prophecy in line with Dtr opinion and to limit its effect to those who worshipped at Bethel.31 Peckham’s student Wood concurs with this two‐stage model adding the suggestion that the original song‐cycle was composed by Amos to be performed at the Judean marzeah‐feast.32 In the last two or three decades there has been a shift in interest from the origin of the individual prophetic books, taken in isolation, to their development as part of a larger literary whole – the Minor Proph‐ ets. It has been argued that ‘the Twelve’ ought to be regarded and read as a single book like Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel. This has implications for the redactional history of Amos insofar as it has been tied up in various ways with the redactional growth of the Twelve. Already in 1935 Wolfe put forward the thesis that the book of the Twelve underwent a number of redactional interventions.33 Nogalski suggested that an exilic Deuteronomistic redaction brought together the books of Hosea, Amos, Micah and Zephaniah into a single whole. At a later period 9:12a and 9:13 were added to Amos to provide literary connections with Obadiah and Joel respectively.34 Schart has recently attempted a hypothesis which relates much more closely the literary history of Amos and of the Twelve. There are, according to him, six stages in the growth of the book. In the beginning was a Wortesammlung (chs 3‐6*). Next came the Tradentenfassung (chs 1‐9*) when the 5 OAN and the 5 Visions were added on to the initial collection. At that point Amos and Hosea were joined together to form a Zweiprophetenbuch‐ Rolle. The third stage was the D‐Schicht which had affinities with Deu‐ teronomistic language and thought and brought together Hosea, Amos, Micah and Zephaniah into a single composition. The insertion of the doxologies represents a Hymnen‐Schicht and at this point Nahum and Habakkuk were reworked and added to the composition. Finally, there are a Heilsschicht and an eschatologische Schicht (both to be found only in 9:11‐15) corresponding respectively to a Haggai‐Zechariah and a Joel‐ Obadiah corpus.35 31 32 33 34 35
Peckham, History and Prophecy, 158‐183. Wood, 15‐23, 104‐111. Wolfe, ‘The Twelve,’ 90‐129. Nogalski, Precursors, 84‐89, 113‐116, 276‐280. Schart, 98‐100.
8
Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
The most recent attempt in that direction is that of Wöhrle. Like Schart he starts with a Grundbestand of Amos’ words consisting of some of the oracles now found in chs 3‐6. It already had a fine literary struc‐ ture and was compiled sometime in the second half of the 8th cent. BC. After two additions (3:3‐6, 8 and 5:6*, 14‐15), the second one shortly after 722 BC, the work underwent the first comprehensive redaction (kultkritische Überarbeitung) which added the words against the sanctu‐ aries in 3:13‐14, 4:4‐5 and 5:4‐5, other oracles concerning exile (i.e. 5:21‐ 22*, 27), the 5 OAN plus the four visions in 7:1‐8:2* and the oracles in 8:3‐14* as a new conclusion. This late pre‐exilic reworking is especially significant for it was responsible to a large degree for the present shape of the book’s structure as well as for the theme of Israel’s relationship to the nations. The addition of the doxologies, 4:6‐12 and the fifth vision go back to a Hymnenschicht from the time of the exile. However, unlike Schart, Wöhrle finds no indications of pre‐Dtr prophetic collections in which Amos was joined to other prophetic books. It is the Dtr redac‐ tion, to which Wöhrle adds Am. 7:10‐17, 8:11‐12 and 9:7‐10, that for the first time brought together Hosea, Amos, Micah and Zephaniah in a ‘Four Prophetic Books’ composition. Following it were the Joel‐Schicht (9:13aα, 14‐15), the Davidsverheißung (9:11,12b) and the Fremdvölker‐ schicht II (1:9‐12 and 9:12a, 13*) as well as various other individual in‐ terpolations.36 Discussing the question of the relationship between Amos and the Twelve goes beyond the confines of the present study. Below I will take up briefly aspects of the above‐mentioned proposals and point out what seem to me to be some of the methodological problems involved in them. At present it will suffice to register some of my doubts about the overall theory that the Minor Prophets need to be considered as part of a single ‘Book of the Twelve’.37 From the point of view of con‐ tent or structure there is nothing which marks the ‘Twelve’ as a sepa‐ rate composition. Unlike the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the Twelve are not unified by a single prophetic figure or by a common superscription, nor do they have a recognizable structure or a characte‐ ristic enough overarching theme.38 The stark individuality of the pro‐ phetic books with their separate superscriptions, distinctive style and
36 Wöhrle, 125‐137. 37 Cf also Hadjiev, ‘Zephaniah and the “Book of the Twelve” Hypothesis’. 38 For attempts to find some structural or thematic coherence in the ‘Twelve’ see House, Unity of the Twelve; Collins, Mantle of Elijah, 65; Schart, ‘Redactional History of the Twelve,’ 38‐41; Redditt, ‘Formation of the Twelve,’ 3‐12.
III. The literary and the historical Amos
9
memorable endings contributes to the impression that we have twelve different compositions rather than a single one.39 It is impossible within the confines of the present study to deal in detail with all the different views sketched above. I will engage many of the arguments used to support them in the following chapters when discussing the text of Amos. Within the limits of this introductory chap‐ ter it will be more helpful to examine in a more general way some of the criteria used by scholars to identify redactional passages in Amos. However, before I proceed to do that another much debated issue needs to be briefly addressed: that of the relation between the historical figure of the prophet Amos and the book which now bears his name. This question cannot occupy the focus of attention for long because the present work is not an attempt to reconstruct the ministry of the histor‐ ical Amos but an investigation into the literary history of the book of Amos. Yet, since the composition of this book may in some way be bound to the personality of the prophet the question about the histori‐ cal Amos cannot be evaded completely.
III. The literary and the historical Amos 1. The creation of the literary Amos by the Amos school or the post‐exilic community Already in 1991, in relation to the book of Zephaniah, Ben Zvi argued that the attention of commentators should be directed not towards the personalities of the historical prophets but towards the prophetic books which are products of ‘different kinds of “prophet”, namely the tradent’ (p. 9).40 According to him the tendency to consider more and more elements in a prophetic book pos‐ terior to the historical prophet mentioned in the superscription demands a tradents centred interpretation (p. 10, italics original).
Working with a similar sort of approach a number of scholars have come to see a radical break between the activity of the historical figure of Amos and the contents of the book which now bears his name. Major 39 Ben Zvi, ‘Twelve Prophetic Books,’ 125‐156; Barton, Joel, 117 (cf also Barton, ‘Canoni‐ cal Meaning of the Twelve,’ 59‐73); Beck, Tag YHWHs, 16‐23. Petersen, ‘Book of the Twelve,’ 10 terms the ‘Twelve’ a ‘thematized anthology’. On this see also Beck, ‘Do‐ dekapropheton als Anthologie’. 40 Ben Zvi, Zephaniah, 8‐14. For a general discussion of the problems involved in histor‐ ical reconstruction of the prophetic figures see Melugin, ‘Prophetic Books,’ 63‐78.
10
Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
themes that were once thought to reflect emphases from the preaching of the prophet have now been assigned to later redactors. Thus for ex‐ ample, Wöhrle attributes all the passages critical of the cult, together with the 5 OAN and the visions (7:1‐8; 8:1‐2 plus the conclusion in 8:3‐ 14*), to a late pre‐exilic redaction (kultkritische Überarbeitung).41 Levin has suggested that the theme of social criticism did not originate with the 8th century prophet but is a reflection of late post‐exilic piety among the Anavim who reworked the book somewhere in the 2nd or 3rd cent. BC.42 Most far‐reaching have been the conclusions of Fritz. According to him only two visions (7:1‐6) and two oracles (3:12* and 5:3) go back to the historical Amos. Most of the other the material in the book actually comes from the Amos school, active in c. 750‐720 BC, which sharpened Amos’ general threats in view of subsequent history (the Assyrian ad‐ vance), interpreted them as announcement of divine judgment and provided the social and cultic criticism in order to account for that judgment.43 This line of approach is continued by Kratz. With the help of redac‐ tion and form‐critical analysis he isolates a small number of independ‐ ent oracles and fragments which may be regarded as coming from Amos.44 These consist mainly of general threats whose meaning must have been defined by the specific historical situations of their origin. Their collection into a larger literary whole (the prophetic book) al‐ ready implies a fundamental change (‘grundlegende Wandel’) in their meaning due largely to the different context into which they are reinte‐ grated. The important point is that these isolated fragments imply that Amos was no different from his ANE counterparts. He was affirmative of the institutions of his society in spite of whatever criticisms and threats he might have voiced. No prophet in the ANE proclaimed the final and inescapable end of his nation and neither did Amos. Only after the destruction of Northern Israel by the Assyrians, and the result‐ ing necessity to explain the catastrophe of a sister nation, which wor‐ shipped the same God as Judah, theologically, were his words reinter‐ preted as a proclamation of inescapable judgment. The historical Amos criticised the sins of the Samarian aristocracy and was able to predict the coming military threat to Israel. The tradition transformed that fig‐ ure into the literary Amos – an uncompromising prophet of doom who 41 42 43 44
Wöhrle, 129‐133. Levin, ‘Amosbuch der Anawim,’ 265‐290. Fritz, ‘Amosbuch,’ 29‐43. These are Bildworte (3:12abα; 5:2, 3, 19); Weherufe (3:12bβ; 4:1*; 5:7; 5:18a, 20); ‘vieleicht noch einiges in 6:1a, 3‐6a, 13’: Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 80.
III. The literary and the historical Amos
11
proclaimed Yahweh’s coming judgment on Israel on behalf of their sins.45 Whilst Fritz and Kratz would date the creation of the ‘literary Amos’ still in the pre‐exilic period some scholars are willing to push the boundary further down. Just over a century ago Day and Chapin ar‐ gued that the book of Amos in its entirety should be regarded as a post‐ exilic composition.46 In more recent years such an approach is gradually gaining in strength. Linville, for example, co‐mments that: Regardless of the possibility that an Amos of Tekoa did preach to Israel of Jeroboam II’s time, the extant book that now bears his name is first and foremost a literary product of (most likely) a post‐monarchic time… What the ‘real’ or ‘historical’ Amos said and meant is virtually immaterial. (italics original).47
Loretz argues that the book of Amos is a midrashic composition of the postexilic community which reflects Dtr theology and social concerns and aims to deal with the crisis of the Babylonian exile. Its picture of the prophet Amos is at odds with pre‐exilic prophecy which, according to Loretz on the basis of ANE parallels, prophesied only in short ora‐ cles and did not seek to ground theologically or ethically its proclama‐ tions of doom.48 Davies imagines that in the fifth century BC there were five scribal colleges in Yehud one of which dealt particularly with poli‐ tics and it was that college which composed Amos (along with all the other prophetic literature).49 The starting point was a collection of ‘words of Amos’, denouncing Israelite transgressions, that was pre‐ served at Bethel. At a later time it was taken up and used to produce a work which justified the political hegemony of Judah and Jersualem over Bethel and the ‘old Israel’.50 Coggins also prefers to see the book of Amos as a product of the Second Temple period and reads it against that context.51 This approach is further supported by the contention that most of the literature of the Hebrew Bible was written during the Per‐ sian period52 and that the phenomenon of the ‘prophetic book’ (as op‐ 45 Kratz, ‘Redaktion der Prophetenbücher,’ 19‐22; idem, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 60‐67, 81‐ 87. On the Ur‐Amosbuch as a theological reflection of the events of 722 BC see also Köhlmoos, ‘Tod als Zeichen,’ 73 n. 40, 75. 46 Day and Chapin, ‘Book of Amos,’ 65‐93. 47 Linville, ‘What Does “It” Mean,’ 402. 48 Loretz, ‘Entstehung,’ 178‐215; idem, ‘Exodus,’ 218‐221. 49 Davies, ʹAncient Israelʹ, 121, 123‐125. Cf also Linville, ‘Amos Among the “Dead Prophets Society”,’ 59‐62 and more generally Thompson, Bible in History, 388‐391. 50 Davies, ‘Amos, Man and Book,’ 129‐131. 51 Coggins, 76, 78‐80. 52 Ben Zvi, ‘Urban Center,’ 194‐209; idem, ‘Whatʹs New,’ 37‐38.
12
Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
posed to various disparate traditions connected with the name of a certain prophet) only appeared at that time.53
2. What can we know about the historical Amos a. Amos in post‐exilic Yehud Taking the last point first, it is in my opinion highly unlikely that in its present shape the book of Amos was for the first time composed in the post‐exilic period because its overall shape and direction do not en‐ tirely fit post‐exilic circumstances and concerns. First, the description of punishment is too general and does not seem to reflect the experience of later times. The enemy (Assyria, Babylon?) is never mentioned by name (on this point see in more detail below), exile is only one of the aspects of the coming calamity and the earthquake threats are difficult to understand in the context of a post‐exilic attempt to make sense theologically of the Babylonian advance and the destruction of Judah. The economic difficulties of the post‐exilic community are presupposed in the redactional 9:13‐14 but are never included as part of the an‐ nounced judgment elsewhere in the book. The challenges of dealing with foreigners, their cultures and their gods against the background of recently experienced humiliation and defeat are not reflected at all in Amos. It is Israel’s power, not Israel’s weakness that is usually the problem. Second, it is hard to imagine that the OAN (chs 1‐2) were composed during or after the exile. If Amos’ OAN were an exilic composition it seems strange that the series should begin with an oracle against Da‐ mascus and end with an oracle against Northern Israel. The prominent presence of Aram fits better the period when it was still an independent nation and was not yet turned into an Assyrian province (732 BC).54 Because of its loss of political independence, Damascus was not of such an interest to later prophets and does not feature prominently in late 53 Floyd, ‘Production of Prophetic Books’; Ben Zvi, ‘Whatʹs New,’ 46. On the book of Hosea as a post‐exilic phenomenon see Trotter, Reading Hosea, 183‐184; Ben Zvi, Ho‐ sea, 12‐19. Contrast, however, Jeremias, ‘Anfänge der Schriftprophetie,’ 481‐499 who argues that the development of the phenomenon ‘prophetic book’ was the expres‐ sion of a change in the understanding of the prophetic function which took place in the 8th century BC and is reflected already in the visions report of Amos. 54 Jeremias, ‘Enstehung,’ 180‐181. Cf also Coote, 67 (‘an oracle against Aram makes historical sense only before 732 BC‘).
III. The literary and the historical Amos
13
pre‐exilic and exilic OAN.55 The focus on the kingdom of Israel (2:6‐16), as distinct from Judah (2:4‐5), also implies a date prior to 722 BC. The shape of Amos chs 1‐2 presupposes a composition directed at a North Israelite audience and reflecting their point of view and interests. Geyer has attempted to argue that Amos’ OAN were composed during the exile pointing out that Am. 1‐2 and Ezek. 25 share a com‐ mon form different from the OAN in all other prophetic books which must be taken as a late innovation.56 This is a questionable conclusion since the basic structure of the OAN in Amos can be explained with a reference to the judgment oracle, which consists of indictment and an‐ nouncement of judgment.57 Barton, after a thorough examination of the issue, concluded that the OAN in Amos are a distinctive genre which drew on many different aspects of Israelite life and are to be regarded as a free creation of the prophet.58 The appearance of a similar form in one of the chapters in Ezekiel is not sufficient ground to deny the ora‐ cles to Amos since the phenomenon can be as easily explained with the suggestion that Amos influenced Ezekiel at this point. Third, the unbalanced stress on Israel’s sin and judgment in the book of Amos and the almost complete lack of hope for restoration and return also do not fit well post‐exilic concerns. Most of the material in the book deals with proving and describing Israel’s guilt and future punishment. The placement of the OAN at the beginning of the book also serves this purpose.59 This corresponds to the fact that the foreign nations in Amos are not primarily condemned for their crimes against Israel60 and their judgment is not related to Israel’s salvation and resto‐ 55 Damascus does not feature at all in the OAN of Zephaniah ch. 2 and in Ezekiel and it is present in the OAN of Jeremiah in a very brief and insubstantial oracle (49:23‐27) which contrasts starkly with the treatment received by Philistia, Moab, Ammon and Edom. 56 Geyer, ‘Mythology and Culture,’ 131‐132, 139‐140; Dicou, Israelʹs Brother, 85‐87, 168. 57 Mays, 26‐27; cf 22, 25; Allen, Ezekiel, 66. 58 Barton, Amosʹs OAN, 15; cf also Clements, Prophecy and Tradition, 66‐72. On the suggestion that OAN follow the pattern of Egyptian Execration Texts see Bentzen, ‘Ritual Background,’ 89‐95 and the criticisms of Wolff, 175‐178 ET 144‐147. Gottwald, Kingdoms, 103‐107, 112 thinks of a pre‐Amosian prototype of the OAN linked with the New Year festival curse on the nations, from which Amos freely borrowed. Oth‐ ers have looked to war oracles in cultic rites before or during a military campaign as possible background (Hoffman, ‘From Oracle to Prophecy,’ 80‐81; Christensen, Prophecy and War, 71; Polley, Davidic Empire, 57‐59; Sweeney, 201‐202). Hayes, ‘Usage of OAN,’ 81‐92 thinks of rituals for preparation for warfare, lamentation services and royal ritual but see the comments of Barton, Amosʹ OAN, 9‐10. 59 Its placement there is unique and contrasts with post‐exilic practice where they are placed in between the judgment and the restoration of Israel (cf Ezekiel). 60 Contra Toy, ‘Amos i.3‐ii.3,’ 25‐28.
14
Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
ration. Their judgment serves to introduce the judgment of Israel and their sins serve to underline the severity of Israel’s transgressions. Hope surfaces only in the epilogue (9:11‐15) which is in some tension with the content of the rest of the book, as indicated below (§IV. 3 & 4), and is commonly taken to be a later addition. Therefore, the whole structure of Amos does not reflect the post‐exilic schema judgment on Israel (in the past/present) moving to salvation for Israel (in the future), although the addition of the epilogue is an attempt to move the book in that direction. Fourth, there are a number of elements in the text of the book of Amos which do not fit easily with post‐exilic practices and conditions of living whilst at the same time making excellent sense against pre‐ exilic background. There is no hint of a foreign overlord in the book of Amos. Israel’s pride in relation to the nations, which is especially prominent in ch. 6 (see the ironic designation ‘the first of the nations’ in 6:1), does not correspond to the conditions in which the community in the Persian province of Yehud was living. The fact that Israel has an army (2:14‐16; 5:3) fits better the circumstances of the monarchic period as do the allusions to the capture of Lo‐Debar and Karnaim in 6:13. The mention of the latter provides a strong case for dating this particular oracle prior to 732 BC when Karnaim was made a capital of an Assyrian province.61 Several details in passages critical of the cult suggest that Amos may be alluding to practices that were typical of the pre‐exilic cult but were either obsolete or transformed in post‐exilic times.62 So, for exam‐ ple, the command to bring the tithe on the third day (4:4) presupposes an otherwise unattested custom of worshippers staying for three days at the sanctuary and bringing a sacrifice on the morning after arrival and the tithes on the third day.63 The command ‘burn thank offering from leaven’(4:5)64 is contrary to the prohibition of Lev. 2:11 (cf also 61 It is usually assumed that Amos is referring here to Jeroboam II’s victories against the Arameans; cf Soggin, ‘Amos 6:13‐14,’ 433‐442. Contrast Fritz, ‘Amosbuch,’ 38‐39 who offers the unlikely suggestion that 6:13 refers to the battles of Israel with Assy‐ ria and Wolfe, ‘Editing the Twelve,’ 110 who mistakenly takes v. 13 as anti‐idol po‐ lemic. 62 For what follows see Williamson, ‘Pre‐exilic Isaiah,’ 181‐206. 63 Paul, 140; Andersen and Freedman, 434‐435; Jeremias, 49 ET 68 among others. Alter‐ natively, lamed is taken as distributive (‘every morning… every three days’) and 4:4 understood as hyperbole: Harper, 92, 94; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 263‐264; Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 89 n. 3 & 4. 64 Taking the preposition min as partitive (Wolff, 259; Rudolph, 170; Paul, 141, n. 20). Contrast Andersen and Freedman, 433 who understand it as privative (‘without lea‐ ven’).
III. The literary and the historical Amos
15
Lev. 6:10 [17]; Ex. 23:18) and probably also reflects pre‐exilic cultic prac‐ tice.65 Williamson points out that the word מריאיכם (5:22) is nowhere mentioned in legislative texts but only in passages which reflect pre‐ exilic cultic practice and that עצרה (5:21) fits earlier pre‐exilic usage of a more general kind of feast rather than the technical term עצרת which is used in the calendars to denote the last day of some feasts characterised particularly by restraint from work.66 It is possible, though not com‐ pletely certain, that מנחה in 5:22 carries its earlier more general meaning of ‘offering, gift’ rather than the later more specialised sense of ‘cereal offering’. There are two other indications that Amos already existed as a pre‐ exilic collection.67 The redactional additions in the book, which can be dated to the time of the exile and aim to reinterpret the prophecies in that particular historical setting, presuppose the existence of an older book in need of reinterpreting.68 The date, scope and provenance of these additions will be the subject of the next few chapters. Allusions and quotations in other prophetic literature as well as in redactional passages within Amos itself are also a sign of the existence of the text of Amos and its influence on later writers. Some of the issues involved here will be touched upon briefly in the next section (§IV. 6) and will be taken up again at the appropriate places in the following investigation. The original form of the superscription strongly favours the opin‐ ion that there was an early version of the book of Amos already in the eighth century BC. The exact wording of this original superscription is indeed disputed with proposals ranging from ‘The words of Amos from Tekoa, which he received/prophesied concerning Israel two years before the earthquake’69 to just ‘The words of Amos from Tekoa’.70 The 65 Paul, 141; Mays, 75; cf Rudolph, 176, n. 11; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 264‐265; Harper, 94. The alternative explanation that Amos accuses the Israelites of breaches of ritual practice (Stuart, 338; Coggins, 118; Vuilleumier, tradition cultuelle, 50‐51) or of copy‐ ing Canaanite worship (Vermeylen, 550 and Driver, 170‐171) has no basis in the text as it does not seem to be concerned with issues of right ritual. A survival of this an‐ cient practice is probably also found in Lev. 7:13 (Noth, Leviticus, 50 ET 61). 66 Williamson, ‘Pre‐exilic Isaiah,’ 190; idem, Isaiah 1‐5, 95. 67 On what follows see Williamson, ‘Pre‐exilic Isaiah,’ 191‐197. 68 Vawter, ‘Prophecy and the Redactional Question,’ 136 comments that ‘while some additions to the book of Amos may be ascribed to the influence which we customari‐ ly call deuteronomic, there was never any attempt to bend either its content or for‐ mat into the well know deuteronomic pattern; and the same may be said of other re‐ cognizable redactional influences’. 69 Weiser, Profetie, 254; Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 170‐171; Mays, 18‐19; Tucker, Form Criti‐ cism, 72; idem, ‘Superscriptions,’ 69‐70. 70 Wolff, 149‐150 ET 119‐120; Schart, 51‐53; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 57‐58.
16
Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
identification of Tekoa as the hometown of Amos is not based on any‐ thing in the book and is most naturally explained as a reflection of ac‐ curate historical information.71 The other important element which is almost universally regarded as early is the reference to the earth‐ quake.72 A number of scholars argue that the mention of ‘the earth‐ quake’ would have had sense mainly for those who lived through it and still remembered it.73 Fuhs thinks that because of the frequency of earthquakes in Palestine its mention in Amos would have served as orientation for date only for a very limited amount of time.74 However, it is doubtful that the mention of the earthquake served mainly to pro‐ vide chronological information to the original readership. It is much more probable that its presence in the superscription is a way of valida‐ tion of the prophecy of Amos.75 When we consider that the book gives us evidence that Amos’s ministry was marked by controversy and re‐ jection the need for a prophetic validation is easily understandable. It is, therefore, likely that a compilation of Amos’s words was effected shortly after this earthquake for an audience which was aware of his earthquake prophecy and was familiar with and sceptical about his overall ministry. It presupposes a collection of Amos’ oracles which was significant enough to require a superscription and which was done at a time when the ministry of the prophet was still within living mem‐ ory. Finally, it seems to me inherently improbable to imagine post‐exilic Judah as the community which wrote up most or all of the biblical lit‐ erature. It is agreed that during the 6th century Judah suffered a sharp demographic decline and its size in terms of people and territory in the 71 The only other possible explanation of its appearance in 1:1, that I have come across, is that it is based on a word play with תקע from 3:6 (R.P. Gordon, personal communication). 72 Contrast Marti, 155‐156 who takes the phrase as a gloss based on 8:8 and 9:5; cf also Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 57. However, if a later glossator wanted to include in the superscription information of this kind it is much more likely that he would have re‐ ferred to Israel’s defeat and exile since this is a much more prominent theme in Amos’ predictions than the few cryptic earthquake passages. Wolff who does not in‐ clude the phrase in his original superscription still thinks it is a very early addition. 73 Wellhausen, 67; Weiser, Profetie, 253; Rudolph, 110; Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 170; Tucker, ‘Superscriptions,’ 70; Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 10; Soggin, ‘Erdbeben,’ 117; Andersen and Freedman, 193; Rottzoll, 15‐16. The destruction of Hazor Stratum VI is thought to provide archaeological evidence for this earthquake; Yadin, Hazor II, 181; Freedman and Welch, ‘Amosʹs Earthquake,’ 188. 74 Fuhs, ‘Amos 1,1,’ 274. 75 Paul, 36; Freedman and Welch, ‘Amosʹs Earthquake,’ 190‐191; Jeremias, ‘Zwei Jahre,’ 187, 197.
III. The literary and the historical Amos
17
5th century was nothing compared to the situation in monarchic times.76 Therefore, the resources of the post‐exilic community must have been fairly limited in comparison with those of monarchic Judah. I do not mean to say that post‐exilic Yehud could not have produced all the bib‐ lical literature. My contention is simply this: when one considers the great diversity of style and theology among the OT books, the numer‐ ous indications of pre‐exilic origin found within them, and the reduced economic and demographic potential of the post‐exilic community it seems much more acceptable to begin with the assumption that a large number of those books were created in pre‐exilic times.77
b. The cultic and social criticism of the book A number of authors regard the cultic criticism in the book of Amos as the product of a later time. Criticism of Bethel and other sanctuaries in 4:4‐5, 5:4‐6 (cf also 5:21‐24) has been read as implicit pro‐Jerusalemite polemic by various scholars who on that ground date these passages either to the post‐exilic period78 or to the 7th /6th cent. BC.79 Some, in fact, would argue that since Amos was from Judah it is not at all surprising to find in his words pro‐Jerusalemite sentiments80 but most are con‐ vinced that such a bias is more plausibly explained as the work of later Dtr or Judean circles. However, this argument is not based on a plain 76 The recent analysis of Lipschits indicates that the population of Judah fell from 108,000 people at the end of Iron Age II to 30,000 in the Persian period: Lipschits, ‘Demographic Changes,’ 364. Albright, Biblical Period, 87, followed by Bright, History, 324 estimated the population in the Persian period to c. 20,000 people. Carter, Emer‐ gence of Yehud, 200‐201 holds that in Persian I period the population of Yehud was only 13, 350 which rose in Persian II period (from 450 BC onwards) to 20, 650. 77 So also Schniedewind, ‘Jerusalem and Composition of Texts,’ 275‐278. 78 Coggins, 118, 124; Davies, ‘Amos, Man and Book,’ 120‐121, 125‐129. 79 Vermeylen, 550; Coote, 52‐53; Blenkinsopp, History of Prophecy, 76 (Dtr circles); Wolfe, ‘Editing the Twelve,’ 92‐93; Lust, ‘Redaction of Amos V,’ 146; Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 87 n. 105, 98 (pre‐Dtr Judean redaction); Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 72; Les‐ cow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 33‐34, 41 (5:5 is an anonymous oracle stemming from after 722 BC, which in the later pre‐exilic period was actualised with the addition of v.4); Wöhrle, 63‐65, 67‐68 (vv 4‐5 are a secondary addition to 5:6). Differently, Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 101‐104, 124 esp. n. 127 (redaction from Northern Israel before 722 BC). 80 Davies, ‘Prophet of Re‐Uniоn,’ 198‐199; Polley, Davidic Empire, 154; Sweeney, 232, 234. Robinson, 75 does not deny 1:2 to Amos and interprets it as expressing pre‐Dtr, 8th cent. BC Judahite sentiments. The presence of Jerusalemite cultic traditions in Amos is also affirmed by Zobel, ‘Prophet in Israel und Judah,’ 293, 297; Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 219 n. 226.
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Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
reading of the text where neither Jerusalem nor idolatry is mentioned at all in the immediate literary context of 4:4‐5 and 5:4‐6. There is no hint that Bethel and Gilgal are illegitimate in and of themselves and a men‐ tion of an alternative, legitimate sanctuary is nowhere to be found in these verses.81 The reason for cultic criticism in 4:4‐5 is stated at the end of 4:5 (‘for so you love to do, sons of Israel’), implying that the cult is not what it should be ‐ worship of Yahweh, but a means for the gratifi‐ cation of Israel.82 Rottzoll perceptively observes that, unlike the Dtr condemnation of Bethel, in 4:4‐5 the focus of criticism is not so much on the sanctuaries themselves but on the worshippers and their actions.83 Likewise in 5:4‐6 nothing indicates that ‘to seek Yahweh’ means to go to worship in Jerusalem. In the light of 5:14‐15 it is best understood to mean live in obedience to the will of Yahweh.84 The most likely inter‐ pretation 5:4‐5, in view of their present context, is that the sanctuaries are condemned because of the social evils described in 3:9‐10; 4:1; 5:7‐ 12. Finally, 5:21‐24 clearly indicates that there is a direct connection between the lack of justice and righteousness and the criticism of the cult. Such a connection is also perceived in 2:6‐8 where participation in the cult increases the gravity of the social crimes committed. It is, there‐ fore, preferable to interpret the other cultic passages along the same lines all the more when one bears in mind that they are found grouped together with other criticisms which have to do with social justice. The only place where the temple of Jerusalem is clearly and expli‐ citly referred to is in the redactional motto of 1:2 (ch. 7 §I). Yet even this mention does not seem to me to be sufficient enough to convert 4:4‐5 and 5:4‐5 into a Dtr‐like pro‐Jerusalemite polemic. First, 1:2 is too far 81 Hammershaimb, 78; Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 35‐38, 78. 82 Rudolph, 177; Amsler, 197‐198; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 265. Hayes, 145 and Bovati and Meynet, 140 see social transgressions as the reason for criticism; Andersen and Freedman, 434 point to the use of religion to legitimise militarism and oppression of the poor. 83 Rottzoll, 185‐187. 84 The meaning of the phrase ‘seek me’ has been understood in several different ways: seeking of Yahweh equals (i) worship in Jerusalem: Wolfe, ‘Editing the Twelve,’ 93; Lust, ‘Redaction of Amos V,’ 140; Polley, Davidic Empire, 154; Sweeney, 232, 234 (con‐ trast Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 105‐107, who argues that the phrase דרש יהוה can‐ not mean ‘seek Jerusalem’); (ii) seeking an oracle from a prophet, i.e. Amos sum‐ mons his audience to ask the word of Yahweh mediated through him: Wolff, 280 ET 238; Jeremias, 65‐66 ET 87‐88; (iii) obedience to Yahweh’s will and life in accordance with his commands: Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 105‐107; Berridge, ‘Botschaft des Amos,’ 326; Martin‐Achard, 40. Lust, ‘Redaction of Amos V,’ 138‐140 argues that the ‘moral seeking of Yahweh’ is a late development but this is questionable in view of Is. 1:17; 9:12 [13] and Hos. 10:12, as well as in view of the ANE parallels of such a usage cited by Tångberg, Mahnrede, 191‐192.
III. The literary and the historical Amos
19
removed from the cult‐critical passages to override the very tight con‐ nection which exists between the criticism of the sanctuaries and the criticism of the oppression of the poor. Second, 1:2 does not in fact say that Jerusalem is the only temple where Yahweh is to be worshipped and all other sanctuaries are illegitimate. Wellhausen ascribed this verse to Amos on the understanding that it does not presuppose that Yahweh lives and is to be worshipped only in Jerusalem.85 No direct link with the holy places of Northern Israel is established in 1:2. When Yahweh roars from Zion it is the top of Mt Carmel, not the temple of Bethel, that withers and mourns. Taking 4:4‐5 and 5:4‐6 as post‐exilic, pro‐Jerusalemite polemic, or as additions from Josiah’s time, requires the unlikely hypothesis that a redactor wanted to condemn the northern shrines because of his alle‐ giance to Jerusalem but when he was formulating his thoughts he failed to make that clear. He omitted all mention of the one and true place for Yahweh worship and placed his criticisms in their present context which suggests a completely different interpretation.86 One might of course argue that Judean readers were bound to understand the Bethel criticism in this way because their reading would be governed by their own understanding of the relationship between Bethel and Jerusalem. However, this point is irrelevant for the present discussion. How later circumstances would have affected the interpretation of these verses has no bearing on their original meaning. The most important point is that the actual way in which 4:4‐5 and 5:4‐6 (as well as 5:21‐24) are worded and the context in which they are placed at present suggests a North‐Israelite 8th century cultic polemic, not a 7th or 5th century Judean one. The passages dealing with social issues have been denied to Amos less frequently but the defence of their 8th cent. origin is much harder than with the cultic criticism. The problem is that a major source of information for the social conditions of the 8th cent. BC are the prophetic books of Amos and Hosea so if the 8th cent. origin of these books is put into question our knowledge of the period is diminished to an even greater extent. An additional factor is the ever present danger of circu‐ 85 Wellhausen, 67. 86 In Dt. 12 the ‘place where Yahweh will cause his name to dwell’ is also not explicitly identified with Jerusalem but this has no bearing on the present discussion because, on one hand, Deuteronomy has to avoid explicit mention of Jerusalem in order to preserve the fiction of Mosaic authorship, a concern which the redactors of Amos obviously did not have, and, on the other, Dt. 12 makes clear that there is only one place where Yahweh can be properly approached. Such stress of the ‘one place only’ is absent from Amos.
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Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
larity into which one may fall if tempted to argue that the book of Amos fits the situation of North Israel which has been already recon‐ structed with the help of Amos. It is hard, therefore, to arrive at any firm conclusions given our present state of knowledge. The issue has been investigated recently by Houston who has endeavoured to dem‐ onstrate that on the basis of the literary and archaeological evidence we now possess it is not impossible to imagine a social crisis during the course of the 8th century which is reflected in the oracles of Amos, Mi‐ cah and Isaiah.87 Therefore, there are no compelling arguments which demand the social criticism of Amos to be relegated to the post‐exilic period. This leads us to one of the most controversial and difficult me‐ thodological points in the whole debate: on whom does the burden of proof lie? Should we be content to show that there are no compelling reasons against the Amosian origin of a certain theme or passage in order to assign them to Amos or do we need to present positive proof before we can accept them as coming from the prophet? This question will be addressed in the last part of this section.
c. The origin of the prophecy of unconditional doom As pointed out above, Fritz and Kratz have argued that the idea of un‐ conditional prophecy of doom did not originate with the historical Amos but with his disciples a few decades later and was necessitated by the theological crisis caused by Israel’s demise in 722 BC. This posi‐ tion is considerably strengthened by the contention that a proclamation of inescapable doom would seem to have had little positive function in pre‐722 BC preaching of Amos and by the observation that there is no‐ where in the ANE an analogy of prophets with a similar proclamation. Several different attempts have been made to answer Kratz’s chal‐ lenge. Scherer points to the Balaam texts from Deir Alla as a possible parallel outside Israel for a message of unconditional doom but the text is too fragmentary to serve as a firm basis for such a conclusion.88 Gertz has argued that the four visions (7:1‐8:2) reflect the actual experience which led Amos to the new, revolutionary idea of God who is about to 87 Houston, ‘Was There Social Crisis,’ 130‐149. Ringgren, ‘Israelite Prophecy,’ 208 makes the interesting observation that the social criticism of Amos is not couched in Dtr language. Although this is perfectly in line with the pre‐Dtr origin of this criti‐ cism, as Ringgren himself wants to argue, we cannot place too much weight on this argument alone for it is not inconceivable to imagine a post‐exilic author sharing Dtr social concerns but using non‐Dtr language. 88 Scherer, ‘prophetischer Gerichtsverkündigung,’ 7‐10
III. The literary and the historical Amos
21
bring total judgment on his worshippers and therefore can be seen as the genesis of the unconditional prophecy of doom of Amos.89 He also points out that Amos’ message of unconditional judgment provides a fairly convincing reason why he was remembered and other prophets were not.90 Beck adds that the rejection which Amos experienced would be easily explicable if there was a radical and unacceptable element in his proclamation, such as the announcement of unconditional doom, which did not square with his audience’s ideas and preconceptions.91 There is possibly some truth in these points but I would like to ex‐ plore a slightly different route and question to what extent we can speak of a prophecy of unconditional doom in Amos. There is an ongo‐ ing debate whether Amos and the other classical prophets preached repentance or proclaimed unavoidable judgment. I discuss this issue in more detail in the last chapter (ch. 9 §I. 4) after I have been able to look at the relevant passages (4:4‐12; 5:4‐6, 14‐15; 5:21‐24) and my conclusion is that Amos did issue a genuine call for repentance.92 Within this con‐ text the ‘unconditional’ prophecies of doom could have functioned as implicit calls for repentance as they do in other parts of the OT (cf ch. 9 §I. 4 for details). Did Amos preserve the hope that Israel might heed his call and avert the disaster right to the very end of his public ministry? Or did he give up that hope at some point and arrive at the conviction that the end is inevitable? These are questions we cannot answer with any degree of certainty though the second option is a distinct possibil‐ ity if the visions are taken to indicate a development of Amos’ under‐ standing and emphasis during the course of his preaching. The impor‐ tant point is that the announcements of judgment have a positive role to play in the pre‐722 BC situation and their origin with the historical Amos cannot be ruled out from the start. After Samaria fell these 89 Gertz, ‘unbedingte Gerichtsankündigung,’ 160‐167. Cf also Andersen and Freed‐ man’s reconstruction of the development of Amos’ preaching (above). Others who have seen development in the ministry of Amos (mainly on the basis of the vision report in chs 7‐9) from preaching of repentance to message of unconditional doom are Monloubou, ‘Amos,’ 719‐720; Koch, Profeten, 121 ET 42; Gillingham, The Image, 87, cf 104‐105; Paas, ‘Seeing and Singing,’ 269‐271. Würthwein, ‘Amos‐Studien,’ 29‐ 30 argued that the visions reflect Amos’ development from a prophet of salvation in‐ to a prophet of doom. Contrast Martin‐Achard, Amos, 154 who points out that in the present arrangement of the oracles the exhortations are placed in the context of the destruction of the guilty people and therefore give no indication of coming from a different stage of the prophet’s career. 90 Gertz, ‘unbedingte Gerichtsankündigung,’ 170; Beck, Tag YHWHs, 55‐56. 91 Beck, Tag YHWHs, 56. 92 The uncertainty expressed in 5:15 seems to come from Amos’ disciples and reflects a slightly later historical period (cf ch. 8 §III. 1).
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Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
threats would have been naturally interpreted as predictions of what would happen. So Kratz might be right that the origin of the idea of unconditional doom is to be sought in the situation post 722 BC but it could have arisen by simply reinterpreting Amos oracles against the background of later historical developments, not necessarily by com‐ posing new ones. I conclude with an observation which might be taken to provide some additional support for the above hypothesis. The actual shape of Amos’ judgment predictions does not easily read like a post‐factum description of the Assyrian advance. For one thing, in contrast to the book of Hosea, Assyria is not mentioned in the text of Amos and it is possible that it was not within the prophet’s horizon at all.93 Some pre‐ dictions like 6:14, which with hindsight are usually taken to refer to Assyria, may in fact originally have had other enemies in mind (Da‐ mascus?). One may argue that by such a silence the tradents wished to preserve the illusion of authenticity but the LXX translator did not re‐ sist the temptation to mention Assyria in 3:9 and the tradents of Micah had no problem in referring to Babylon (Mic. 4:10) although the Baby‐ lonian threat to Judah came a century after the life of the historical Mi‐ cah. Also, as Gottwald has argued, the political threats of Amos reflect practices from the ninth century BC when on rare occasions the total population of a town or a city was carried into exile.94 The new element introduced by Tiglath‐pileser was a deliberate exchange of populations among the various conquered regions and Amos does not allude to deportations in this latter more highly developed sense. There is no suggestion in his oracles that the devastated land of Israel will be pos‐ sessed by non‐Israelites.95 The threats of exile are usually directed at specific groups like the ‘cows of Bashan’ (4:1‐3) or the sanctuary of Gil‐ gal (5:5).96 In fact exile is neither the only, nor even the major, threat in the proclamation of Amos. Quite often the future disaster is depicted either as an earthquake (3:15; 6:11; 9:1) or simply as a major military 93 Tucker, ‘Amos the Prophet,’ 93. 94 Gottwald, Kingdoms, 100 n. 13 & 14. For a much fuller list of recorded ‘exiles’ starting from the beginning of the second millennium onwards see Kitchen, Reliability, 301‐ 302. For an argument that the root גלה is used in Amos in an earlier more general sense of ‘remove’ and only subsequently, during the 7th and 6th centuries, it devel‐ oped the more technical meaning of ‘exile’ see Gowan, ‘Beginnings of Exile‐ Theology,’ 204‐207. 95 Gottwald, Kingdoms, 100‐102. 96 Only once is the whole of Israel explicitly threatened with exile (7:11,17) but this is done in the narrative concerning Amaziah (which may or may not reflect the charac‐ teristic features of Amos’ proclamation), never in the oracles.
III. The literary and the historical Amos
23
defeat taking place within the borders of Israel (2:14‐16; 3:9‐11; 5:2‐3; 5:11; 5:16‐17; 6:8‐10; 6:14) with general language and hyperbolic im‐ agery. All this, of course, does not prove that the judgment oracles come from Amos but it increases the probability of the hypothesis of their pre‐722 BC origin.
d. Do we need to prove the ‘authenticity’ of the prophetic oracles? Traditionally scholars who have dealt with prophetic literature have assumed that the material within a given prophetic book must be re‐ garded as ‘authentic’ unless proven otherwise. However, the picture begins to look quite different if one starts from the premise that it is the authenticity, not the secondary origin, of a given saying that needs to be proven.97 Schottroff, for example, has questioned the assumption that the early tradents give us reliable access to the historical situation of the prophet. He points out that later redactors, who contributed the numerous glosses and interpretative interpolations now found in pro‐ phetic books, were guided not by historical concerns; it was the rele‐ vance and applicability of the oracles to their own situation that was the driving factor in their interaction with the prophetic tradition. Schottroff then asks the question how much we can distinguish be‐ tween the methods and aims of the early and the later tradents in this respect and comes to the conclusion that even those early disciples who initially committed the words of the prophet to writing were guided more by the demands of their own circumstances rather than by desire to record and preserve the original historical situation and message of the prophet.98 It is not my intention here to discuss the question in general and to arrive at conclusions which would be valid for all prophetic books. As far as Amos is concerned, the following work will show that there is some truth in Schottroff’s analysis. The people responsible for the first two Amos collections do not seem to have had the concern to preserve a general outline of the prophet’s ministry or even to provide us with a summary of his message. They wrote to address their own specific situations and needs.99 However, that still does not mean that we need 97 Kaiser, Einleitung, 164 ET 209; Kratz, ‘Redaktionsgeschichte,’ 375‐376. 98 Schottroff, ‘Jeremia 2, 1‐3,’ 281‐284. 99 My hypothesis, which can not be fully explored before the last chapter of this work, is that the first collection (the Polemical Scroll) was done to serve the ongoing debate with opponents of Amos’ disciples while the second collection (the Repentance
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Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
to take as our starting point the assumption that they composed every‐ thing unless it can be proven that it comes from Amos. This assumption is made unlikely by the strong polemical flavour of the Amos tradition. A number of passages breathe the atmosphere of controversy and de‐ bate and, as I argued above, the reference to the earthquake in the su‐ perscription is also best understood within a polemical context which necessitated Amos’ message to be defended and authenticated (§ III. 2.a). In fact, according to my reconstruction of the literary history of the book, the very first composition of Amos material is a ‘Polemical Scroll’ whose dating may tentatively be placed before 733 BC and which was produced in the context of controversy with opponents of Amos’ mes‐ sage. This would suggest that at the early stages of the development of the tradition Amos was not a revered legendary figure from the past whose name was used to legitimise the preaching and ideas of the real authors of the prophetic book which bears his name. He was rather a still controversial figure whose ministry had elicited contrasting re‐ sponses: some people were impressed, others were scandalised. Admittedly other scenarios are also possible to imagine. We must recognise that we are in the realm of assumptions which are almost impossible to prove; we must be content with deciding the degrees of their probability and plausibility. Amos could have been some vague figure whose name was picked up at random after the events of 722 BC and used for the purposes of an elaborate theological explanation of the disaster by creating the fiction of the prophet of judgment rejected by Israel. However, although possible, this picture seems to me less likely than the option I have outlined above. I have tried to demonstrate that none of the major components of Amos’ preaching now found in the book are impossible to place during the reign of Jeroboam II and the controversy surrounding his message is most plausibly explained with the suggestion that the major cause behind the beginning and devel‐ opment of the Amos tradition is the figure of the prophet Amos him‐ self.
3. Conclusion – the relationship between Amos and his ‘disciples’ The people responsible for the first stages of the composition of the book are usually termed Amos’ ‘disciples’ or ‘school’.100 The evidence Scroll) was issued in the period between 733‐722 BC as an urgent call to Israel to re‐ pent and avert the impending doom. 100 Cf Wolff and Jeremias above. On prophetic disciples see also Lindblom, Prophecy, 69‐ 70, 160‐163, 222, 239; Engnell, ‘Prophets,’ 153, 168; Mowinckel, Prophecy and Tradition,
IV. Criteria for redactional intervention
25
for the existence of such a group is scant and the nature of their ‘disci‐ pleship’ is not completely clear101 but for the lack of a better model I will continue to use the term for now with certain reservations. Unlike Wolff, I do not believe that it is possible to make a fine distinction be‐ tween the style and thought of Amos and his ‘school’. I am inclined to treat the words which the ‘Amos’ school’ wrote down, collected and edited more or less as a faithful representation of the words of Amos himself. This is not to say that during that process the actual formula‐ tion of the oracles was preserved without any change. I am simply sug‐ gesting that it is usually extremely speculative if not impossible to go behind the written text to the exact original oral proclamation of the prophet.102 Some oracles may have been remembered verbatim, others may have been altered, abbreviated, conflated, paraphrased, reformu‐ lated and so the writing stage is not simply a one to one representation of the oral proclamation of Amos.103 The literary qualities of the book of Amos testify to the fact that we have here more than an anthology of oracles. However, I do not see any reason to suppose that there was any radical break in terms of themes, direction and general content between the preaching of the historical prophet and the literary activity of his ‘disciples’ who preserved and collected his words.
IV. Criteria for redactional intervention In this final section I will look at the methods used by scholars to iden‐ tify redactional passages in prophetic books. The value of this exercise 67; Vawter, ‘Prophetic Literature,’ 199; Emmerson, Hosea, 5; Naumann, Hoseas Erben, 158‐160; Jones, ‘Traditio,’ 236‐237. 101 Cf the reservations of Clements, Prophecy and Tradition, 45‐46, 28; Pfeifer, Theologie, 19‐20. Fuhs, ‘Amos 1,1,’ 276, n. 21 talks about ‘ein Kreis von Gleichgesinnten’ and Niditch, Oral World, 119 of a ‘support group’. It is not impossible that at least some prophecies were kept in temple circles (cf Kaiser, Grundriß, 22); in ’scribal academies’ (Floyd, ‘Prophecy and Writing,’ 480); or in anti‐establishment communities similar to the sect in Qumran (Kratz, Oxford OT Seminar, Nov. 2006). 102 This difficulty is strongly emphasized by Yee, Composition and Tradition, 35‐39; cf also Tucker, ‘Historical Prophet,’ 147‐150. Boadt, ‘Poetry of Prophetic Persuasion,’ 1‐21 suggests that if a prophetic text bears the marks of oral delivery it probably comes form the historical prophet. On some of the changes which take place at the point of writing down oral tradition see Stone, ‘Redaction Criticism,’ 82‐84; Clements, ‘Prophecy as Literature,’ 206; Jeremias, ‘Prophetenwort und Prophetenbuch,’ 20‐23; idem, ‘Neuere Tendenzen,’ 129‐130. For an overview and discussion see Floyd, ‘Prophecy and Writing,’ 462‐481 who argues that in some cases writing may have been an integral component of prophetic activity. 103 Cf similarly in relation to Hosea Naumann, Hoseas Erben, 156‐157.
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is twofold. On one hand, it can indicate if it is reasonable at all to think of the book of Amos as the work of a single author, or as a collection reflecting in its entirety the preaching of the historical prophet. On the other hand, it is important to consider not just what methods are em‐ ployed but also how are they handled and applied, since a perfectly good method can be misused and so lead to unsatisfactory results. Al‐ though for the sake of convenience I have separated the various criteria under separate subheadings they do not work in isolation but need to be taken together in order to reach a conclusion about a given passage. Some overlap between the following subsections is consequently inevi‐ table.
1. Literary breaks The presence of some unevenness in a text is an initial indication that there may have been different hands at work. The clearest and most convincing example of that phenomenon in the book of Amos is the narrative in 7:10‐17. It is true that some authors have attempted to pre‐ sent 7:1‐8:3 as a ‘well integrated harmonious whole’ but these attempts are in my view unsuccessful.104 The change of genre (vision report – narrative – vision report), the change of first (7:7‐8) – third (7:10‐17) – first (8:1‐2) person speech, the close structural similarities between the third (7:7‐8) and the fourth (8:1‐2) visions as well as the structural ar‐ rangement of the whole visions report (7:1‐8 + 8:1‐2), in which the first two and the second two visions go in pairs, clearly demonstrate that 7:10‐17 is intrusive in its present context. The same can be said of some smaller units like 3:7; 5:8‐9; 6:2. It is most significant that in all these cases when the intrusive material is removed the text flows seamlessly. The presence of an intrusive passage does not yet tell us a lot about redactional intervention because literary unevenness may be due sim‐ ply to the fact that an editor has combined two originally separate ora‐ cles (from Amos?). With literary breaks we may still be in the realm of ‘composition’. A skilful redactor may, on the other hand, integrate a redactional passage into its context in such a way as to avoid any liter‐ ary friction.105 Therefore, this first criterion needs to be supplemented with other arguments. 104 Eslinger, ‘Education,’ 35‐55; Noble, ‘Amos and Amaziah,’ 423‐439. Cf Landy, ‘Vision and Speech,’ 159. For a different attempt to find a literary explanation for the pres‐ ence of 7:10‐17 see O’Connell, ‘Telescoping Patterns,’ 60‐61. 105 On this dilemma in redaction‐critical study, which has been memorably labelled ‘the trick of the disappearing redactor’, see Barton, Reading OT, 56‐58.
IV. Criteria for redactional intervention
27
2. Later linguistic and theological influences If a passage from the book of Amos can be shown to exhibit signs char‐ acteristic of the language or thought of a later era this would provide strong evidence for it being composed and inserted into the book at a subsequent stage of its development. In practice scholars have worked mainly with two kinds of criteria. One is the identification of late words and the other of Dtr style and theology. The clearest example of a passage which betrays the influence of Dtr language and thought patterns is the Judah oracle in 2:4‐5.106 This is contested by Lohfink who has examined the language of 2:4‐5 and con‐ cluded that it is not Deuteronomistic at all.107 It is, therefore, worth hav‐ ing a brief look at the evidence. The frequent occurrence of the phrase חק שמר in Dtr literature (see the references in Wolff) and its link to the significant Deuteronomistic theme of the importance of the observance of the Law make it a clear mark of Dtr presence. Its appearance in later texts demonstrates that with time it must have exercised influence on a wider circle of writers but this cannot put into question its Dtr origin.108 Similar is the situation with the phrase ‘to walk after X’. It can mean simply ‘to follow someone’ (1 Sam. 17:14) but when used to express the idea of following Yahweh or practising idolatry it is characteristically Deuteronomistic.109 Here, although it is not certain that it describes idolatry (see below), it is used to indicate behaviour opposite to obey‐ ing the law of Yahweh. What is most significant, however, is not just the presence of a few linguistic peculiarities but the combination of stylistic features and theological ideas both of which are typical of Dtr. The central theme of the passage is that the sin of Judah is disobedience to the will of Yahweh revealed in the Torah (expressed by the parallel phrases ‘the law’ and ‘the statutes’, another typical Dtr phrase), an idea which is at odds with the other OAN in Amos 1‐2 and is not found anywhere else in the book but is a hallmark of Dtr theology. 106 Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 177; Wolff, 198‐199 ET 163‐164; Vermeylen, 533‐535; Mays, 41‐ 42; Gosse, ‘oracles contre les nations,’ 29‐30; Jeremias, 28‐29 ET 44; Schart, 164. 107 Lohfink, ‘deuteronomistische Bewegung,’ 329‐333 ET 44; similarly Andersen and Freedman, 296‐306; Bons, ‘Lügen,’ 206‐21; cf also Farr, ‘Language of Amos,’ 317‐320; Haran, ‘Rise and Decline,’ 274; Hammershaimb, 46; Davies, ‘Prophet of Re‐Uniоn,’ 198; Hayes, 102‐104. 108 Some difficulties are presented by Pentateuchal texts whose origin is disputed: on Gen. 26:5 contrast Fohrer, Alte Testament, 49 (E); Smend, Entstehung, 65 (Dtr); Wes‐ termann, Genesis 12‐36, 517‐518 ET 424‐425 (post‐Dtr). On Ex. 13:10 and 15:26 see the survey in Propp, Exodus 1‐18, 374, 380, 574‐575. 109 Weinfeld, Deuteronomic School, 320, 332. It is occasionally attested in other writings: Hos. 5:11; Ezek. 20:16.
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Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
There are also a number of features of the style of 2:4‐5 which differ from normal Dtr usage. The phrase את התורה מאס does not appear in Dtr literature but comes up in Is. 5:24110 and Jer. 6:19111 whilst the phrase תורת יהוה appears in Is. 30:9; Jer. 8:8; 2 Kings 10:31. The root כזב is not attested in Deuteronomy or Jeremiah at all and comes up 3 times in DH with its usual meaning ‘to lie’112 without any specific Deuteronomistic overtones. The word is never used to mean ‘foreign gods’ elsewhere (with the possible exception of Ps. 40:5 [4]) and so here it can as well mean false prophets and other leaders.113 The phrase to ‘lead astray’ is also not Deuteronomistic. It is found once in DH with Manasseh as a subject (2 Kings 21:9) and also in a wide variety of other texts. There‐ fore, it is not possible to describe the redactor at work in these verses simply as ‘the Deuteronomist’. He was aware of and influenced by Dtr thought and language whilst not necessarily being a ‘Deuteronomist’ as such. The question of his precise identity will have to be discussed fur‐ ther in the following chapters. What is significant for our present pur‐ poses is that in 2:4‐5 we have evidence of linguistic and theological influences which come at least a century after Amos. Paul accepts the Dtr flavour of our passage but argues that it is in fact ‘proto‐Deuteronomistic’ and therefore consistent with the time of Amos.114 This is, however, unconvincing because the Dtr features are not shared with a wider variety of Amosian oracles but are concen‐ trated in few places that usually clearly stand out from their immediate context. The oracle against Judah (2:4‐5), with its stress on the Law, differs radically from all the other OAN which deal with crimes against humanity. Similar is the situation with 3:7 which contains the typical Dtr phrase ‘my servants the prophets’. It looks like a prosaic addition which picks up the language of its immediate context (עשה from v. 6; אדני יהוה דבר from v. 8) and interrupts the flow of the series of rhetori‐ 110 However, there is some doubt about the Isaianic origin of the last part of Is. 5:24; cf Clements, Isaiah, 66; Williamson, Isaiah 1‐5, 390‐391. 111 Similar phrases appear in Lev. 26:15, 43, Ezek. 20:24 (object ;)חקות Ezek. 5:6; 20:13, 16 (object ;)משפטים Hos. 4:6 (object דעת, in parallel to תורת אלהיך in the next line). 112 Jud. 16:10, 13; 2 Kings 4:16. 113 Andersen and Freedman, 302‐306; Bons, ‘Lügen,’ 211‐213; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 192, n.182; Hayes, 103. See most recently Brettler, ‘Redaction, History,’ 108‐110 who uses this as a major argument for the secondary nature of 2:4‐5. 114 Paul, ‘Literary Reinvestigation,’ 195‐196. Cf also Rudolph, 121; Stuart, 315. Sweeney, Josiah, 280, 285 suggests that an original Amosian oracle concerning Judah may have been reworked in the Josianic period (cf also Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 29‐30). Ru‐ dolph, 121, 137 and Koch, Amos, 2:11 recon with Dtr additions to v. 4 (cf also Harper, 44‐46; Fosbroke, 786).
IV. Criteria for redactional intervention
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cal questions with its blunt categorical statement. In this case literary discontinuity and Dtr phraseology combine together to suggest that 3:7 is also an insertion.115 The other popular argument often used to identify certain passages as secondary is the contention that their language is later than the time of Amos. The conviction behind this approach is stated in general terms by Fohrer when he writes that das hebräische Vokabular des Alten Testaments weist eine gewisse zeitliche Schichtung auf, aus deren Auftreten in einem alttestamentlichen Buch sich manchmal Hinweise auf seine Entstehung ergeben.116
While this criterion is on the whole sound there are dangers inhe‐ rent in it due to our limited knowledge of the development of the He‐ brew language in the Biblical period. A recent example of the uncertainty of its results is Grätz’s treat‐ ment of 4:6‐12.117 He argues that the language of 4:6‐12 is late because it contains a number of words and expressions attested only in later lite‐ rature: שדפון וירקון in Dt. 28:22; 1 Kings 8:37 and Hag. 2:17; הגזם in Joel 1:4 and 2:25 (and as a name of a family in Ezra 2:48 = Neh. 7:51); בדרך מצרים in Is. 10:24; ‘the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah’ in Is. 13:19, Jer. 50:40; cf Jer. 49:18, Dt. 29:22[23]; ‘brand plucked from fire’ in Zech. 3:2. However, these expressions fall in two categories: we are either dealing with what seem to be fixed, proverbial phrases (blight and mildew; Sodom and Gomorrah; brand plucked from fire) or we have words and phrases which appear only twice – in Amos and in a later text (in the manner of Egypt; )הגזם. Neither of these provides good evi‐ dence for dating a passage. Proverbs and sayings can remain in use for a very long time and we cannot be certain of the time of origin and usage of words that are poorly attested in our sources. The fact that one word or expression appears once or twice in a late text cannot mean that Amos 4 must also be late. When identifying the language of a certain passage as late we need more rigorous criteria in order to avoid uncontrolled speculation. Hur‐ vitz has suggested that to identify a linguistic feature as late, on one hand, it must occur predominantly in biblical and extra‐biblical texts which are of undisputedly late origin and, on the other, there must be a 115 The interpolation is judged to be Dtr by Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 185‐188; Mays, 61‐62; Wolff, 218‐219 ET 181; post‐Dtr by Werner, Plan Jahwes, 178; and priestly‐Dtr by Rottzoll, 120‐122. Among those who wish to retain v. 7 as part of the original peri‐ cope are Reventlow, Amt, 26‐28; Hammershaimb, 59‐60; Hayes, 126‐127; Paul, 112‐ 113; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 226. 116 Fohrer et al., Exegese, 145. 117 Grätz, strafende Wettergott, 248‐252.
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corresponding expression/word in earlier biblical texts which conveys the same meaning. Moreover, a text should be considered late on lin‐ guistic grounds only if it contains a number of words or expressions characteristic of late Biblical Hebrew.118 Therefore, we have a potential‐ ly fruitful method but it has to be applied with more care and restraint than is sometimes done in Amos studies.
3. Thematic tensions Sometimes there is tension in content between certain passages within the book of Amos. Although it is not impossible for a person to contra‐ dict himself, when we are faced with such thematic tension it is worth asking the question whether it does not reflect the viewpoints of differ‐ ent people. For example, the conditional promise of deliverance in 5:14‐ 15 stands in contrast to the unconditional and confident hope expressed in 9:11‐15 (on this see next section).119 In 3:2 the exodus from Egypt marks Israel as special among the na‐ tions and this special status provides the grounds for a special and more severe punishment. On the other hand, in 9:7 the exodus does not mark Israel as special and consequently it is going to be punished be‐ cause it stands in principle on a par with the other peoples of the world. Barton suggests that, in spite of the tension between them, both 3:2 and 9:7 may come from Amos and offers two possible explanations for their differences.120 One is that we have here two alternative answers to one and the same objection against Amos’ preaching, namely that evil cannot come to Israel because of the special relationship which com‐ menced at the exodus from Egypt. Amos’ response to that in 3:2 and 9:7 can be paraphrased in the following ways: ‘if you are elect you are damned and if you are not elect you are equally damned’. However the difference in wording and form of the two answers (3:2; 9:7) as well as the fact that they are now found in different places in the book argues 118 Hurvitz, ‘Historical Quest,’ 307‐314; idem, ‘Biblical Texts Dated Linguistically,’ 143‐ 160; Wright, ‘North Israelite Contributions,’ 130. 119 Kellermann, ‘Amosschluß,’ 175, n. 27. 120 Barton, ‘Theology of Amos’. The difference is explained by Hammershaimb, 135; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 139 by appeal to the polemical context of the sayings which presupposes exaggeration and shocking statements. The tensions are ironed out by Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 40 by interpreting 9:7 in the following way: ‘Yahweh had once chosen them, but they did not adhere to their obligations in the covenant, so now they mean nothing more to him than any other people’ (cf also Rudolph, 273‐ 274; Vermeylen, 547).
IV. Criteria for redactional intervention
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against such an interpretation. More plausible is Barton’s other sugges‐ tion, that 3:2 and 9:7 reflect different periods in the ministry of the prophet. Amos, with the passing of time, hardened his position and so 9:7 is a later and harsher treatment of the same theme. Although this is a possible solution to the problem, one other con‐ sideration tips the balance of probability in favour of a different ap‐ proach, i.e. that 9:7 is Amosian and 3:2 comes from a later hand.121 There is a high concentration in 3:2 of vocabulary that is unusual for the book of Amos. The word for ‘sin’ is עון (only here in the book) rather than the more common Amosian term פשע, משפחות occurs only in the redactional 3:1b which is probably dependent on 3:2 and the use of the term ידע to describe the relationship between Israel and Yahweh is also peculiar in the book. In its present place v. 2 plays a programmatic role, introducing in a general way the theme of Israel’s punishment122 and connecting the new section which starts with ch. 3 to the preceding OAN through the theme of Israel being chosen from ‘all the tribes of the earth’. It seems to have been composed especially for its present context by someone other than the prophet Amos.
4. Later historical situations Another indication for redactional activity is when we are faced with a passage whose presumed historical background is clearly different from the background of the rest of the material found in the book. The clearest example of this in Amos is the so called Epilogue in 9:11‐15.123 The destruction of the nation is already a reality, the cities are in ruins and in need of rebuilding, the Israelites have planted vineyards and gardens but have not been able to eat their produce (presumably be‐ cause an invader has done that). The promise not ‘again’ to uproot the people from the land in v. 15 takes for granted that they have been al‐ ready once uprooted. This presupposes a situation very different from the peaceful and secure existence of Israel which must have prodiced the false confidence attacked in chs 5‐6. To get a fuller picture one must also note that there is a tension between the thought of this passage and 121 3:2 is considered secondary by Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 381; Jeremias, ‘Anfänge des Dodekapropheton,’ 43‐45; Vermeylen, 542‐544; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 72‐73; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 71; Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 37; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 247 n. 8; Wöhrle, 79‐80, 83. 122 This programmatic role is recognized by Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 69. 123 Harper, 196; Cripps, 74‐75; 276‐277; 321‐322; Fosbroke, 853; Mays, 164, 166; Kape‐ lrud, Central Ideas, 56‐57.
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Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
the rest of the book of Amos. The difference between the unconditional promise of salvation here and the conditional call in 5:14‐15 has already been noted. Another striking discrepancy is caused by the fact that the description of restoration contains no reference to the establishment of righteousness and justice, a central theme in the proclamation of Amos. Because of this, Cripps thinks 9:11‐15 presents us with an anticlimax: ‘here… neither does repentance usher in the new era, nor is righteous‐ ness characteristic of it’.124
5. Unusual style and ideas Sometimes a passage has been judged secondary because it exhibits a style not typical of the prophet. This usually concerns stylistic features that occur only once in the book of Amos. For example, Wolff argues that the style of 4:6‐11 is not typical for Amos. He points out that the expression וגם אני is unusual since Amos nowhere else uses the personal pronoun אני and nowhere else connects oracles with the help of the particle וגם.125 These sort of arguments, when used on their own, are hardly persuasive. A book of so small a size cannot be treated as a sure and comprehensive guide to the style of the prophet and besides we must allow Amos the possibility of stylistical variety.126 Another argument is the contention that a passage contains ideas uncharacteristic of the prophet. A fine illustration of the problems in‐ volved in this method is the treatment 5:3 receives from three different scholars interested in redactional issues. Rottzoll denies the verse to Amos because it speaks of military disaster. Rottzoll believes that orig‐ inally Amos predicted only an earthquake and the theme of military disaster is a secondary development within the Amos tradition.127 Wood also takes v. 3 as redactional but only because it talks of the pos‐ sibility of a small remnant beyond the punishment which, according to her, is a thought foreign to Amos.128 Fritz, on the other hand, takes v. 3 as coming from Amos and v. 2 as a Nachinterpretation of the Amos’ school. His reason is that anything which proclaims total and unavoid‐ able judgment (5:2) must reflect the events of 722 BC whilst oracles 124 Cripps, 72. For an unsuccessful (in my view) attempt to refute that argument see Smith, 375. 125 Wolff, 251 ET 213. 126 Andersen and Freedman, 439; Pfeifer, Theologie, 19. Cf also Emmerson, Hosea, 6, 21, 31 etc. 127 Rottzoll, 222. 128 Wood, 64.
IV. Criteria for redactional intervention
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which proclaim only partial judgment and are sufficiently unspecific (5:3) can be attributed to Amos.129 Such arbitrary thinking will only lead to a vicious circle where one already assumes what he/she sets out to prove. If after a critical investigation of the book one is able to show that on other grounds all passages which contain a certain theme (war and exile; survival of a remnant; total disaster, etc) are later one may conclude that this theme was not characteristic of Amos’ preaching. It is, however, inadmissible to begin with the assumption that Amos did not speak on a certain subject and to use this as an argument when discussing the secondary nature of a given text. The above discussion should not be taken to indicate that unusual style and ideas must not be mentioned at all or taken into account. In fact I do take as redactional 6:1aα with its unusual mention of Zion and 8:14 with its unusual condemnation of idolatry. In my discussion of 3:2 above I used ‘unusual style’ as an additional argument for its second‐ ary nature. I am simply concerned with making the point that ‘unusual style or ideas’ must not be used as the starting point of discussion or the main part of an argument. It provides secondary, supporting evi‐ dence which can only slightly tip the balance of probability in a certain direction. One must, however, never presume to know from the start what Amos would have thought on a particular point or how he could have expressed himself.
6. Literary dependence on later passages If a passage from the book of Amos quotes or alludes to a later text this will again provide a fairly convincing ground to identify it as redac‐ tional. There are a number of places in Amos that arguably have some point of contact with other OT literature. However, it is not always easy to interpret the nature and significance of such links. The commentator must first of all address the question what actually constitutes a literary connection. The repetition of one or two words cannot be taken as a sign of literary dependence. For this we need the exact repetition of longer phrases or the concentration of several items. At least some of them need to be characteristic enough to ensure that we are not simply faced with a coincidence due the to use of wide‐spread vocabulary. For example both Fey and Becker believe there is a link between Am. 9:1 and Is. 6:1, 4, though they see the relationship of dependence going in 129 Fritz, ‘Amosbuch,’ 35‐37.
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Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
opposite directions.130 Yet one wonders whether there is sufficient con‐ nection between the two passages in order to postulate literary depen‐ dence between them. The phrase ‘I saw the Lord’ is common enough in vision reports and in Is. 6:1 the verb is imperfect in contrast to Am. 9:1 (perfect). The other item which Is. 6:4 and Am. 9:1 share is the motif of shaking thresholds ()סף. However, Isaiah uses a different verb ()נוע and what shakes is actually the אמה of the thresholds (usually translated here as something like ‘doorposts’ or ‘foundations’). The ‘capital’ which in Amos is in parallel to the ‘threshold’ finds no echo in Isaiah and con‐ versely the smoke which follows the shaking in Isaiah has no equiva‐ lent in Amos. The use of the image by the two prophets could as well be explained as similar borrowing of the common theophanic motif of earthquake in both visions.131 Even when there is sufficient common ground between two pas‐ sages to allow us to postulate a literary link it is notoriously difficult to establish the direction of dependence and the precise nature of the link. For example, there is certainly a literary relationship between Am. 9:13 and Joel 4:18 [3:18]. Nogalski argues that Joel here is primary and Am. 9:13 is subsequently added to Amos in order to connect the book with Joel in the context of the development of the Scroll of the Twelve.132 However, within the book of the Twelve Joel is found before Amos, not after it, and so it is strange that a redactor would want to link Amos with Joel by providing a ‘Joel addition’ at the end of the book of Amos. Moreover the two books are already clearly linked by the repetition of Am. 1:2 in Joel 4:16 [3:16] (cf below ch. 7 §I) so an attempt to provide a second link between them seems unnecessary. If there is a direct borrowing from one prophet to the other an ob‐ vious place to start evaluation of the question in which way the depen‐ dence goes would be the literary connection of each passage with its present context. A number of scholars have argued that Am. 9:13 fits ill into 9:11‐15 and must be understood as an addition (cf ch. 6 §II). How‐ ever, as I shall argue later on, this does not seem to be the case; in my opinion it is better to regard Am. 9:11‐15 as a unified composition uti‐ lizing a number of fixed expressions and other traditional materials (ch. 6 §II). Since the book of Joel contains many allusions to and citations 130 Isaiah used Amos 9:1: Fey, Amos und Jesaja, 109‐110, 114; Pschibille, Löwe, 38 n. 85. Am. 9:1 is dependent on Is. 6: Becker, ‘Prophet als Fürbitter,’ 147; Behrens, Visionsschilderungen, 104; Gertz, ‘unbedingte Gerichtsankündigung,’ 160 n. 24. 131 ’Something like Psalm 99 with its threefold reference to Yahweh’s holiness (vv 3, 5, 9), in the context of Yahweh’s kingship and the quaking of the earth (v. 1), seems to lie behind Isaiah’s call vision in the temple (Isa. 6:1‐4)’: Day, Psalms, 73. 132 Nogalski, Precursors, 113, 116‐118; Rottzoll, 283; Schart, 97, 261.
IV. Criteria for redactional intervention
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from other prophetic books it is likely that Joel took the verse from Amos especially in view of the fact that in the immediate context there is another quotation from Amos (Joel 4:16 [3:16]).133 It is, however, quite possible that the two prophets (or their redactors) are making use of a common tradition134. Barton suggests that ‘this may be another piece of “floating” prophecy that was used by the editors of both books’.135 Another illustration of the difficulties involved in determining the direction of dependence is the link between Am. 3:3‐11 and Jer. 6:1‐8. It was originally noticed by Berridge who has pointed out a number of thematic and linguistic connections between the two passages: the judgment involves attack on the ארמנות (Am. 3:11; Jer. 6:5) and the ene‐ my surrounding ()סבב the city (Am. 3:11; Jer. 6:3); the transgressions are described with the phrases חמס ושד (Am. 3:10; Jer. 6:7) and עשוקים בקרבה (Am.3:9) / עשק בקרבה (Jer.6:6), the last phrase attested only in Amos and Jeremiah; the sound of the trumpet ()תקע שופר announcing disaster ()רעה comes up in Amos (3:6) and in Jeremiah (6:1; 4:5‐6).136 Here the concen‐ tration of common motifs and expressions does suggest that one author was familiar with the other but the question is who was the borrower. Berridge, followed by Holladay, assumes the temporal priority of Amos.137 Rottzoll, however, argues that Am. 3:9‐11 is a redactional pas‐ sage dependent on Jer. 6:1‐8 because in Am. 8:11‐12 and 9:13‐15 we have two other redactional passages exhibiting a relationship to Jere‐ mianic tradition and therefore together with 3:9‐11 they all come from the same redactional hand.138 However, Am. 8:11‐12 and 9:13‐15 are different from 3:9‐11 in that they have a number of connections with Dtr thought and language that 133 For a discussion of the quotations in Joel see Gray, ‘Parallel Passages in “Joel”,’ 214‐ 225; Coggins, ‘Interbiblical Quotations,’ 78‐84; Crenshaw, Joel, 26‐28. 134 Andersen and Freedman, 922. Robinson, 108 suggests that this is ‘ein Bruchstück aus einem Gedicht, das die wunderbare Fruchtbarkeit schildert (cf Lev. 26:5; Jo. 4:18)’. A number of commentators have entertained the idea that the phrase may come from the cult and may be influenced by Canaanite patterns: Ahlström, Joel, 87‐88; Ham‐ mershaimb, 142; Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 57. For the cultic background of some of Joel’s sayings see Coggins, ‘Alternative Prophetic Tradition,’ 89‐90; idem, ‘Interbib‐ lical Quotations,’ 81‐84. 135 Barton, Joel, 108. 136 Berridge, ‘Jeremia und Amos,’ 337‐339. Other evidence that Jeremiah knew Amos 3:3‐8 Berridge (p. 333) finds in the phrases אריה ביער (Am. 3:4; Jer. 5:6, 12:8 also found in Mic. 5:7) and יתן כפיר קולו (Am. 3:4; Jer. 2:15). He supports this hypothesis also with the observation (p. 336) that Jer. 4:5 together with the relatively common verbs הגידו and השמיעו (cf Am. 3:9, 13) uses also the phrase תקעו שופר (Jer. 6:1 and Am. 3:6) and the much rarer command האספו preceded with אמרו (cf Am. 3:9). 137 Holladay, Jeremiah, 1:205, 207‐208. 138 Rottzoll, 131‐132.
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Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
are missing from 3:9‐11. It is, therefore, much more likely that Am. 8:11‐ 12 and 9:13‐15, on one hand, and Am. 3:9‐11, on the other, belong to different diachronic planes. Several considerations make it probable that it is Jeremiah who is the borrower, as Berridge originally assumed. First, there are a number of other instances where Jeremiah and his tradents apparently used the Amos tradition, most notably the visions reports (Jer. 1:11‐14; 24).139 Second, the connections of Jer. 6:1‐6 are not just with Amos 3:9‐11 but with the whole of 3:3‐11. Since in Amos the passage is composed of two originally independent pieces (Am. 3:3‐8* and 3:9‐11; cf below ch. 8 §I. 2 & 3; ch. 9 §I. 3) the simplest hypothesis is to suppose that Jeremiah knew and used a text where the two units were already combined.140 Third, Am. 3:9‐10 is permeated with the characteristic preoccupation of the prophet with social justice and be‐ trays none of the characteristic concerns of Jeremiah. It also uses the term ארמנות which, on the basis of its pride of place in OAN, was important to Amos (cf also 6:8) but appears in the book of Jeremiah in only four other places (9:20; 17:27; 30:18; 49:27) at least two of which are commonly regarded as redactional (17:27; 49:27). The above examples demonstrate that whilst this method sounds appealing in theory its practical value in relation to the book of Amos is rather more limited. The reason is that its use is beset with a number of difficulties which are often hard to overcome. In order to argue that a passage from Amos is late on the basis of its connection with another OT text one must first of all establish convincingly the existence of a literary relationship between the two units. Secondly, one must give reasonable arguments why the literary dependence should go in a cer‐ tain direction (i.e. from Amos to the other text) and not vice versa. Of‐ ten very little certainty can be achieved in this area. Third, the date of the other text must also be taken into consideration. This poses no spe‐ cial problems when we are dealing with books, like Jeremiah, which clearly post‐date Amos but gets much more complicated if we want to use Psalms or Pentateuchal texts whose dating can be hotly disputed.
139 On this compare most recently Pschibille, Löwe, 40‐47; Schart, ‘Jeremiavisionen,’ 185‐ 202. On the relationship of Jeremiah to the Amos tradition see more generally Ber‐ ridge, ‘Jeremia und Amos,’ 321‐341. 140 In order to explain the connection of the whole of Am. 3:3‐11 with Jer. 6:1‐8 Rottzoll needs to suggest a fairly complicated and therefore not entirely convincing scenario: because of the accidental similarity between Jer. 6:1 and Am. 3:6 a redactor decided to compose Am. 3:9‐11 directly after Am. 3:3‐6, 8 using other motifs from Jer. 6:1‐8.
IV. Criteria for redactional intervention
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7. The presence of different structures With the advance of modern literary approaches to the Bible the struc‐ ture of individual pericopes as well as of larger units has begun to at‐ tract increasing attention. One particular aspect of structural analysis is especially significant for our purposes. Sometimes in one and the same passage different structural arrangements and principles seem to be at work. This phenomenon may have a purely literary explanation, i.e. the sophistication of a single author who for artistic purposes arranged his material so as to reflect simultaneously different structures. However, it is also possible that a later redactor superimposed on an already exist‐ ing material a different structure in accordance with his new vision for the shape of the book he edited. A fine example of this phenomenon is provided by Amos chs 3‐6. At the heart of the book of Amos there is a ring composition which encompasses 4:1‐6:7, as recognized by Lust.141 The central passage, which itself possesses a clear concentric structure (5:1‐17)142, is flanked by two sections dealing with cult criticism (4:4ff and 5:18ff) and two sections attacking the luxurious lifestyle of the aristocracy (4:1‐3 and 6:1‐7). However, parallel to this ring structure there is another, linear arrangement. The opening calls to hear in 3:1 and 5:1 clearly divide the inner section of the book in two sub‐parts, chs 3‐4 and 5‐6. The first part uses consistently the phrase ‘sons of Israel’ (3:1, 12; 4:5) whilst the sec‐ ond – ‘house of Israel’ (5:1, 3, 4, 25; 6:1, 14).143 The two structures do not seem to be compatible insofar as the linear structure disrupts the con‐ centric arrangement.144 It is, therefore, probable that they reflect the work of two different people. The most far reaching use of this method has been made by Rottzoll. He suggests that a post‐exilic redactor structured the inherited Amos tradition into one large ring composition. The hypothesis has big ramifications for Rottzoll because he then goes on to argue that every passage which does not fit this ring structure must be a later inser‐ tion.145 Yet this is exactly the point at which his argument runs into 141 Lust, ‘Redaction of Amos V,’ 153‐154 n. 103. 142 Waard, ‘Chiastic Structure,’ 170‐177. 143 Jeremias, ‘Beobachtungen zur Enstehunggeschichte,’ 149‐153 ET 221‐225; Koch, Amos, 2:112. 144 This argument will not be substantially affected if one divides the chapters into 3:1‐ 15; 4:1‐13 and 5:1‐27, treating the call in 4:1 on a par with the other two. The impor‐ tant point is the clash between this linear structure and the ring composition it seeks to destroy. 145 So for example 3:9‐11 on which see Rottzoll, 131‐132 and the previous section §IV. 6.
38
Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
problems. If a number of passages do not fit a reconstructed ring com‐ position one has to ask – is the problem with the Amosian origin of these passages or with the concentric structure hypothesis? The tempta‐ tion in this case would be to force all the material into a pre‐conceived straight‐jacket and this in turn creates some doubts whether Rottzoll has indeed discovered the ring composition in the text or has simply created it by removing everything which does not fit in. This should be enough to demonstrate that it is not advisable to use structural considerations as the starting point of an argument for the redactional character of certain passages. These considerations must come at a later stage of the investigation and must be used with a great deal of care only as a secondary, supporting evidence. In any case, once the redactional material has been identified it is worth asking if it alters in any way the pre‐existing structure of the text. This would provide additional confirmation for the preceding redactional analysis as well as valuable indication about the linkage of various additions into a single redactional layer and clues concerning the possible aims and theological stance of the redactor(s).
8. Identifying redactional passages belonging to the same layer After determining which passages are redactional, the next step is to attempt to link them in separate redactional layers and hopefully to assign those layers to specific historical periods. Relating various addi‐ tions together as parts of a single editorial reworking can be done if we can demonstrate that they share a common outlook, vocabulary or structuring role. As an example I will take the ‘Book of the Four’ hypothesis recently developed by Albertz who builds on the earlier suggestions of Nogals‐ ki and Schart. Albertz argues that the most characteristic feature of this redaction was the interpretation of the exile as purification. Zeph. 3:11‐ 13 formed the conclusion of the composition, which was structured by a chain of redactionally formulated passages modelled on Hos. 3:1‐5. These passages were inserted in key positions and focused on the theme of purifying judgment, criticism of idolatry, the monarchy and trust in military might (Am. 9:7‐10; Mic. 5:9‐13 [10‐14]; Zeph. 1:4‐6).146 146 Albertz, ‘Exile as Purification,’ 237‐251; cf also Albertz, Exilszeit, 169‐173 ET 214‐220. On the other hand Bosshard‐Nepustil, Rezeptionen von Jesaia 1‐39 im Zwölfpropheten‐ buch, 408 suggests that exilic redactor took a pre‐existing corpus consisting of Hosea, Amos and Micah+Nahum and added to it Joel, Habakkuk and Zephaniah.
IV. Criteria for redactional intervention
39
These key passages are, however, quite different and do not sug‐ gest a common unified attempt to structure a ‘Book of the Four’. The theme of idolatry, for example, is strangely missing from Am. 9:7‐10 and whilst it is prominent in Mic. 5:9‐13[10‐14] and Zeph. 1:4‐6 there is very little overlap between them in terms of vocabulary.147 Likewise, the condemnation of military might features only in Mic. 5:9‐13[10‐14] but not in Am. 9:7‐10 or Zeph. 1:4‐6. The purification through judgment in these passages is portrayed quite differently. In Amos it is the de‐ struction of the sinful kingdom and the removal of sinners, in Mic. 5:9‐ 13[10‐14] it is the removal of false objects of trust and worship. The theme of the exodus from Egypt and the comparison of Israel with the other nations (Am.9:7‐10) does not surface in Mic. 5:9‐13[10‐14] and Zeph. 1:4‐6 but elegantly ties in Am. 9:7ff with the rest of the book of Amos. It is also peculiar that Zeph. 3:11‐13, which served allegedly as the conclusion of the ‘Book of the Four’, does not pick up the motifs from the other redactional passages and so in no way underlines their major structuring function. The theme of the ‘proudly exultant ones’ who ‘walk haughtily in my holy mountain’ may with a little bit of good will be taken as continuation of the theme of criticism of kingship (Am. 9:8) and military might (Mic. 5:9ff) but the formulation of Zeph. 3:11 is so significantly different as to preclude any intentional allusion back to these other passages. The theme of idolatry is completely missing, the sin of those punished is possessing a false tongue. In view of all these differences, it seems to me extremely unlikely that the passages put forward by Albertz should be regarded as the work of the same redac‐ tor who composed and inserted them in order to structure the composi‐ tion of the Book of the Four.148 Albertz is right in his attempt to identify redactional passages from the same layer in key positions within the structure of a given prophet‐ ic book. It is only logical to assume that if a redactor wanted to rein‐ terpret the existing composition he would have paid attention to its structure and intervened in suitable places (the beginning, the end, key junctions etc.). It is also to be expected that in such cases some overlap and even tension between different structural arrangements would be evident. I find very convincing Albertz’s general approach first to look for passages that are already on some grounds identified as redactional and only afterwards to investigate possible relationships between those 147 Albertz is able to point out only the repetition of the verb והכרתי and השתחוה. The interest in objects associated with idolatry in Mic. 5:9‐13 [10‐14] is missing from Zeph. 1:4‐6. 148 Cf also Hadjiev, ‘Zephaniah and the “Book of the Twelve” Hypothesis.’
40
Survey of Research and Methodological Considerations
passages. I am also in full agreement that the redactional passages should share a certain measure of common vocabulary, motifs and have the same theological outlook. My contention is that more rigour needs to be exercised when such connections are actually postulated. The overlap needs to include a critical minimum of characteristic ex‐ pressions and ideas and one needs to pay sufficient attention not just to similarities but also to the differences of the passages in question.
9. Conclusion The above investigation has demonstrated that it is not viable to regard the book of Amos simply as a compendium of the preaching of the historical prophet or the literary product of a single mastermind. Using the criteria outlined above it is possible to argue that at least some pas‐ sages have been inserted at later historical periods and that the book has undergone some sort of literary development. On the other hand, I have endeavoured to show that each of the cri‐ teria needs to be applied to the text in a very careful manner. Other explanations, besides redactional intervention, need to be considered and the limitations and pitfalls of each individual method have to be clearly recognized. Each of these criteria on its own often provides only a very insecure ground for identification of a given passage as redac‐ tional. Only when they are used in combination does their cumulative force carry the case into the realms of probability. It is my impression that the great diversity of redactional hypotheses, relating to the book of Amos, stems in part from careless handling of redactional methods. Throughout this section I have attempted to outline some of the precau‐ tions and safeguards one needs to observe when redactional criteria are applied. Otherwise, the risk is to build a case on too speculative and insecure a foundation and consequently to diminish its ability to con‐ vince. Finally, one practical consequence for the following investigation needs to be mentioned. Since limitations of space will not allow me to interact in the next chapters with all possible views and proposals sometimes I will have to bypass without much discussion arguments that are based on inappropriate use of criteria as defined in this section.
Chapter 2: The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2) I. Redactional additions to the OAN There is a general agreement among scholars on a number of points relating to the OAN in the first two chapters of the book of Amos. Most would take the oracles against Tyre, Edom and Judah as later additions to the cycle.1 The remaining five oracles are usually ascribed to Amos himself,2 though there is no lack of alternative proposals. The oracle against the Philistines has sometimes been considered an interpolation.3 Jeremias argues that the original Amosian sequence consisted of the prophecies concerning Aram, Ammon and Israel, with the Philistine and Moabite passages being an early Judean actualisation.4 Some argue that the Israel oracle was originally separate from the rest.5 Coote thinks that the series of OAN was built by a 7th century BC redactor, who took the four OAN (Damascus, Philistia, Ammon and Moab) from the nationalistic celebrations of military victories in the Bethel cult and prefixed them to the Amosian oracle in 2:6‐16*.6 Others deny the whole
1
2 3
4 5
6
Cf already Wellhausen, 69‐72 and most recently Jeremias, 16‐17, 28‐29 ET 29‐31, 44; Strong, ‘Tyreʹs Policies,’ 207‐215; Schart, 56‐57; Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 77‐78; Albertz, Exilszeit, 178 ET 227; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 68; Houston, Justice, 59; Wöhrle, 93‐97. For a summary of the arguments see Rottzoll, 22‐23. Weiser, Profetie, 86‐89, 109; Fohrer, Propheten, 26‐29; Gese, ‘Komposition,’ 86‐94; Barton, Amosʹ OAN, 24; Vieweger, ‘Herkunft der Völkerworte,’ 118‐119. Marti, ‘Komposition von Amos 1:3‐2:3,’ 325‐330; Duhm, ‘Anmerkungen,’ 2; Nowack, 123; Haupt, ‘Peaceful Colony,’ 288‐292; Fosbroke, 780‐781; Pfeifer, ‘Amos 1:2‐2:16,’ 61‐62; Dietrich, ‘Israel und die Völkеr,’ 317; Gertz, ‘unbedingte Gerichtsankündigung,’ 158 n. 19. Contrast, however, Weiser, Profetie, 86‐87; Barton, Amosʹ OAN, 23; Paul, 16‐17. Jeremias, ‘Enstehung,’ 176‐178. Nowack, 127; Würthwein, ‘Amos‐Studien,’ 35‐38; Koch, Amos, 2:12‐13; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 18‐25; Rösel, ‘Entwicklung,’ 90. Reventlow, Amt, 57‐58 suggests that 2:6 belonged to the preceding but with 2:7 a new, originally independent, piece begins. Coote, 11‐12, 66‐70. Cf Niemann, ‘Theologie in geographischem Gewand,’ 177‐195; Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 26‐27.
42
The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2)
series to Amos altogether.7 At the other end of the spectrum are those who attribute all the OAN to the prophet.8 Cazelles argues for two se‐ perate series of OAN stemming from different times of Amos’ career and later on combined by his disciples.9
1. The oracles against Judah, Edom and Tyre Since space does not allow detailed discussion of all of the above pro‐ posals I will restrict myself to the oracles against Edom and Tyre. The indications concerning the late origin of 2:4‐5 (Judah) were already discussed above in ch. 1 (§ IV. 2). The main reason for regarding the oracle against Edom (1:11‐12) as redactional addition is historical and is based on the strong anti‐ Edomite feeling expressed in it. The idea of Edom and Israel’s brother‐ hood, reflected in the Genesis narratives, and the tradition of Yahweh coming from Seir (Dt. 33:2; Hab. 3:3, Judg. 5:4‐5),10 which may reflect an ancient religious11 and/or racial12 connection between Edom and Judah, suggest a basically positive stance towards Edom in the pre‐exilic pe‐ riod.13 This is not to suggest that all Israelites all the time liked Edom but that there were no grounds for any radical and unusual hatred of 7
8
9 10 11 12 13
Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 383‐384; Fritz, ‘Fremdvölkersprüche,’ 26‐38; idem, ‘Amosbuch,’ 34; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 69‐70; cf Wöhrle, 100‐102. Levin, ‘Amos‐ buch der Anawim,’ 275‐276 suggests that the oracles against Damascus and Gaza are the (exilic) core from which the rest of the series, including the Israel stophe, devel‐ oped later on. On the suggestion that OAN are an exilic composition see above ch. 1 § III. 2.a. For criticisms of Fritz see Pfeifer, ‘Amos 1:2‐2:16,’ 61, 64‐65; idem, ‘Fremdvölkersprüche,’ 230‐233; Vieweger, ‘Herkunft der Völkerworte,’ 103‐117; Rottzoll, 40. Botterweck, ‘Authentizität,’ 179‐181; Hammershaimb, 35, 37‐39, 45‐46; Rudolph, 118‐ 121; Paul, ‘Literary Reinvestigation,’ 191‐197; Stuart, 309, 312‐313, 315; Hayes, 52‐55; Andersen and Freedman, 206, 344‐346; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 186‐187. Robinson, 76 suggests that the OAN were originally independent pieces and all except the Ju‐ dah oracle come from Amos but see the criticism of Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 32. Only the Judah oracle is judged to be an addition by Sellin, 201‐202; McCullough, ‘Sugges‐ tions,’ 248; Polley, Davidic Empire, 55‐57; Christensen, ‘Prosodic Struсturе,’ 427‐436; Achtemeier, 179, 183. Cazelles, ‘L’Arriere‐Plan Historique,’ 71‐76. Bartlett, ‘Nonprophetical Corpus,’ 15. Bartlett, Edom, 184, 195‐200; Dearman, ‘Edomite Religion,’ 127. Cripps, 129. Haller, ‘Edom,’ 109‐110; Marti, 163; Vermeylen, 532. Contrast Botterweck, ‘Authenti‐ zität,’ 180; Paul, ‘Literary Reinvestigation,’ 193 who stress the incompleteness of the information and paucity of sources for Edomite history.
I. Redactional additions to the OAN
43
the neighbouring nation. Even Num. 20:14‐21, where Edom is por‐ trayed as hostile towards Israel, does not reflect any unusually strong resentment on Israel’s part.14 In stark contrast to that we find a number of passages from the exilic period onwards which are extremely nega‐ tive towards Edom.15 During the first decades of the 6th cent. BC Edom cooperated with the Babylonians taking some part in the destruction of Jerusalem (Ob. 11‐14; Lam. 4:21‐22) and annexing the southern Judean territories as far north as Beth Zur.16 It is, therefore, logical to assume that the Judean extreme anti‐Edomite sentiment developed only in the 6th century as a result of Edom’s behaviour during the Babylonian cam‐ paigns.17 There are no adequate historical causes for the rise of such widespread and radically negative attitude in the pre‐exilic period.18 Various possible historical backgrounds prior to the time of Amos have been proposed for the events alluded to in 1:11‐12: clashes in the pre‐settlement period (Num. 20:14‐21);19 the reaction of Tyre, Edom and Judah to the new pro‐Assyrian policy of Israel after Jehu’s coup in 841 BC;20 Edomite actions during the war for independence mentioned in 2 Kings 8:2021 or during/after Amaziah’s campaign in 2 Kings 14:7;22 unat‐ tested defeat by Edom in c. 780‐700 BC between the victories achieved by Amaziah and Uzziah against Edom, after the capture of Jerusalem 14 The story is often assigned to JE (cf Gray, Numbers, 264‐265 among others). Budd, Numbers, 222‐224 (with good overview of earlier discussion) ascribes it to a 7th cent. J. Levine, Numbers, 92 sees it as reflection of 8th cent. circumstances. Seebass, Numeri, 289‐293 argues for an earlier core of tradition reworked towards the end of the 7th cent. 15 For a survey of such passages see Mathews, Defending Zion, 75‐116; Cresson, ‘Con‐ demnation of Edom,’ 133‐141; Raabe, Obadiah, 33‐47. 16 Lindsay, ‘Babylonian Kings,’ 29; Mazar, Archeology, 460; Myers, ‘Edom and Judah,’ 390‐392; Beit‐Arieh, ‘Relationship between Judah and Edom,’ 125‐131. This historical reconstruction has been challenged by Bartlett, Edom, 150‐157 who has been followed by Ben Zvi, Obadiah, 236, n. 22; Mathews, Defending Zion, 89ff; and Rottzoll, 33‐34. Cf however the criticisms of Glazier‐McDonald, ‘Prophetical Corpus,’ 28; Dicou, Israelʹs Brother, 186‐187; Raabe, Obadiah, 52; Barton, Joel, 122, 149; Renkema, Obadiah, 33‐34. 17 Wellhausen, 70; Vermeylen, 532; Glazier‐McDonald, ‘Prophetical Corpus,’ 31; Cres‐ son, ‘Condemnation of Edom,’ 143‐144. 18 So rightly Myers, ‘Edom and Judah,’ 377. Edom’s fight for independence, her pros‐ perity or her survival during Nebuchadnezzer’s campaigns as suggested by Lapp, ‘”Who Is This That Comes from Edom”,’ 217‐219 and Bartlett, Edom, 156‐157 are hardly sufficient to account for such strong emotions. 19 Stuart, 313; Sellin, 201, 205. 20 Schoville, ‘Note,’ 62‐63. 21 Bartlett, ‘Brotherhood of Edom,’ 15. 22 Glazier‐McDonald, ‘Prophetical Corpus,’ 25‐26.
44
The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2)
by Jehoash;23 otherwise unattested border raid in the early years of Jeroboam II;24 the continuing situation of conflict between Edom and Judah;25 Edom’s actions during the Syro‐Ephramite war.26 However, whilst any of these periods is logically possible the exilic background of Am. 1:11‐12 is the most probable one. Amos 1:11‐12 seems to breathe the same air as the other OT passages against Edom coming from the exilic and post‐exilic period.27 The unusually long deliberation of Edom’s guilt, in contrast to the preceding OAN, and the reference to his wrath tearing and keeping watch ‘forever’ seem to reflect a notable outrage like the one committed in the 6th cent.28 Nothing of that sort is attested for the 9th and 8th century when Judah was usually the oppressor29 and had the upper hand. In the first half of the 8th century BC Edom was relatively weak;30 active Edomite hostility is attested for the first time during the Syro‐Ephramite war (2 Kings 16:6 emended text; 2 Chr. 28:17) and during Sennacherib’s invasion,31 both of which are too late for Amos anyway. Moreover archaeological evidence suggests that Edom’s state consolidated only in the 8th century BC and Edomite pros‐
23 24 25 26 27 28
Andersen and Freedman, 279‐280; cf also 264‐265, 274‐276. Haran, ‘Historical Background,’ 211; Rudolph, 134; Paul, 63. Sweeney, Josiah, 284; Achtemeier, 182; McComiskey, 288; Smith, 89. Cazelles, ‘L’Arriere‐Plan Historique,’ 75‐76. Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 176; Mays, 35‐36; Vermeylen, 532. The understanding of the exact nature of Edom’s offence is complicated by several translation difficulties. רחמיו is variously taken to mean: (i) ‘compassion’ (Hammershaimb, 36; BDB, 933); (ii) ‘Brüderlichkeit’ (Rudolph, 125, 127); ‘brotherly feeling’ (Fosbroke, 782); ‘Verwandtschaftsgefühl’ (Marti, 162‐163); (iii) ‘allies/friends’ (Fishbane, ‘Treaty‐Background,’ 313‐318; idem, ‘Additional Remarks,’ 391‐393; Andersen and Freedman, 266‐267); (iv) ‘friends/kinsmen’ (Gordis, ‘Studies,’ 211); (v) ‘covenant‐mercy’ (Coote, ‘Amos 1.11,’ 206‐208); ‘his [treaty] obligations’ (Barton, Amosʹ OAN, 17, 21); (vi) ‘maidens/young women’ (Paul, 64‐65; Hayes, 93); (vii) ‘his wombs, i.e. pregnant women’ (quoted by Harper, 33). It is also debated whether in the last two lines the subject is Edom (Andersen and Freedman, 268) or ‘his wrath/his fury’ (Paul, 66) and correspondingly שמרה is repointed as Qal perfect 3rd fem. sg. (Paul, 67); mappiq is added to the final He making שמרה 3rd masc. sg. with resumptive feminine suffix referring back to ‘his fury’ (Harper, 34); or the final He is deleted (BHS). On the suggestion to emend טרף (to tear) to נטר (to keep) see the discussion in Andersen and Freedman, 269‐274. 29 Deissler, 97. 30 Bartlett, Edom, 124‐126. 31 See the enigmatic reference to the ‘evil which the Edomites have done’ in ostracon no. 40 from Arad (Aharoni, Arad Inscriptions, 70‐74) and contrast the interpretations of Bartlett, Edom, 131 and Mazar, Archeology, 440, 444‐446.
I. Redactional additions to the OAN
45
perity and growing power was a direct result of the establishment of Assyrian control over the area.32 The case against the eighth century origin of the oracle against Tyre (1:9‐10) is based on a combination of historical and literary considera‐ tions. Tyre is accused of breaking the ‘covenant of brothers’ by deliver‐ ing whole communities to Edom. It is difficult to be certain what is the covenant which Am. 1:9 refers to.33 The most natural explanation is that it describes the relationship between Israel and Tyre initially estab‐ lished under David and Solomon and later renewed under the Omride dynasty.34 This interpretation, however, runs up against two difficulties. First, the treaty between Israel and Tyre was terminated during Jehu’s revolt in 841 BC with the murder of the Tyrian princess Jezebel so at the time of Amos it had been annulled for several decades. It is strange that Amos would accuse Tyre of breaking the covenant when in fact it was Israel who had already done that a century or so ago.35 Second, if the treaty was between Israel and Tyre, it would be difficult to explain why Tyre sold Israelites to Edom. During the 9th or 8th centuries BC this would have meant going around Israel’s territory in order to deliver 32 Bartlett, Edom, 132‐137; Bennett, ‘Buseirah,’ 9‐17; Bienkowski, ‘Edomites,’ 61‐62; Hübner, ‘Neue Entdeckungen in Edom,’ 263‐264. On the question of Edomite movement westwards into the Negev in the 7th cent. BC see Beit‐ Arieh, ‘Edomites in Cisjordan,’ 36‐38; idem, ‘Edomites Advance into Judah,’ 30‐36; Ahlström, History, 698, 715‐717, 722‐724, 795; Stern, Archaeology, 276‐279; Mazar, Archeology, 451, 498‐ 499; Finkelstein, ‘Horvat Qitmit,’ 156‐170. 33 For a survey of interpretations see Amsler, 174. 34 Sellin, 204; Priest, ‘Covenant of Brothers,’ 404; Fensham, ‘Treaty,’ 81; Hammer‐ shaimb, 34; Katzenstein, Tyre, 196; Martin‐Achard, 18; Stuart, 313; Hayes, 87‐88; Pol‐ ley, Davidic Empire, 78‐79; Andersen and Freedman, 261; Niehaus, 348; Glazier‐ McDonald, ‘Prophetical Corpus,’ 24; Sweeney, 208‐209. It is unlikely that it describes the relationship between Edom and Israel (contra Wellhausen, 70; Fosbroke, 781; Wolff, 194 ET 159; Vermeylen, 530; Deissler, 96) since responsibility for breaking a treaty must be assumed by one of the parties involved not by a third party. Greßmann, 335 suggests that Tyre’s actions were directed against people from some of the other Phoenician towns. Accroding to Cazelles, ‘L’Arriere‐Plan Historique,’ 75‐76 the oracle speaks of the actions of Tyrian merchants who after 735 BC were al‐ lied with the Assyrians. Barton, Amosʹ OAN, 20 believes we cannot identify with cer‐ tainty the treaty partner of Tyre. 35 Cripps, 128 entertains the possibility that ‘Amos, as a patriotic Hebrew, ignoring the political significance of the Jezebel and Athaliah episodes, thought only of the bro‐ therliness and good understanding which had existed, and which just possibly may have been renewed by a treaty or ‘covenant’ within the memory of the Prophet’s contemporaries.’ Rudolph, 134; Hayes, 88‐89 think that Jeroboam II had renewed the covenant with Tyre. Some take this note as a gloss (Marti, 162; Praetorius, Gedichte, 3; Reventlow, Amt, 56; Fosbroke, 781).
46
The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2)
the captives to Edom which would make Edom a somewhat illogical choice for a trading partner in this operation.36 These historical difficulties are not insurmountable. On one hand, it is possible that the treaty which Tyre ‘did not remember’ was not with Israel and, on the other, the Philistine oracle (1:6‐8), which I assume comes from the 8th century, provides a historical parallel to the action of delivering captured communities to Edom. However, in addition to the historical problems, it seems that the language of the Tyre oracle is almost entirely taken from its immediate literary context.37 The an‐ nouncement of judgment has only the conventional ‘I will send fire’ formula whilst most of the accusation repeats what has been said in the previous Philistine oracle. The only characteristic phrase within 1:9‐10 is ‘he did not remember the brotherly covenant’. The combination of these literary peculiarities with the historical difficulties involved in identifying the referent to the ‘brotherly cove‐ nant’ may suggest that the author was not so much interested in con‐ demning Tyre for some specific wrong as in providing an oracle to go with the following Edom oracle and to strengthen the correspondence with the other key pair in the series – Judah and Israel.38
2. The additions to the Israel oracle The oracle against Israel falls naturally into three parts: accusation (vv 6‐8), elaboration of the accusation with the help of historical traditions
36 Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 176; Gordis, ‘Edom, Israel and Amos,’ 123‐124. For discussion of the possible routes from Tyre to Edom see Andersen and Freedman, 293‐294. A number of scholars emend ‘Edom’ to ‘Aram’ (Maag, 5, 7; Robinson, 75, 77; Haran, ‘Historical Background,’ 203‐207; Katzenstein, Tyre, 196‐197). Reventlow, Amt, 68‐69 and Paul, 59‐60 suggest that the captives were not Israelites; Gordis, ‘Studies,’ 206‐ 210; idem, ‘Edom, Israel and Amos,’ 128‐129 interprets Edom as the victim of the slave trade, taking the preposition in לאדם as Lamed accusativus. A number of scho‐ lars date the actions of Tyre during the 6th or 5th cent. BC when the Israelite and Ju‐ dean states were no longer in existence (Müller, ‘Phönizien und Juda,’ 189‐204; Vermeylen, 530). During that period we have explicit evidence for Phoenician slave trade involving Judeans (Joel 4:8) and for commercial contact between Tyre and Edom (Ezek. 27:16 emended text). For the history of Tyre during the 6th cent. BC see Jidejian, Tyre, 54‐57; Katzenstein, Tyre, 329‐347; Markoe, Phoenicians, 47‐52. 37 Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 176; Barton, Amosʹ OAN, 22; Jeremias, 16 ET 29; Praetorius, Gedichte, 2‐3. Sellin, 204‐205 contests that, by emending MT to read ‘das Grenzgebiet Salomos Aram preisgegeben’. 38 Jeremias, 17 ET 30.
I. Redactional additions to the OAN
47
(vv 9‐12) and announcement of judgment (vv 13‐16). Various parts of the opening accusation have been deleted as secondary additions.39 Most suspicious is the last phrase of v. 7 because of its priestly vo‐ cabulary and possible dependence on the Dtr ‘name theology’.40 The language so clearly reminds one of the priestly vocabulary that Ru‐ dolph’s suggestion that this could be the oldest attestation of the phrase, and therefore Amosian, although possible is not likely.41 Ru‐ dolph also objects to the deletion both on formal grounds and also be‐ cause of the fact that the colon expresses a very significant thought in the passage – that all oppression against people is ultimately an attack on Yahweh himself, which corresponds closely to the proclamation of Amos. However, Amos nowhere else directly identifies Yahweh and the poor and the addition of v. 7b is in fact closer to the thought of the (secondary) Judah oracle. The phrase ‘to profane my holy name’ func‐ tions in exactly the same way as the reference to the Law in 2:4. It interprets the actions described in the surrounding context (2:6‐8) as di‐ rect offence against Yahweh.42 This brings us to a second, not generally recognized reason for the supplementary character of v. 7b. Paul ob‐ served that the oracles in chs 1‐2 are linked by a ‘concatenous literary pattern’ in which each oracle is related to the following one by means of a repetition of a characteristic phrase.43 He limited his investigation only to the first six foreign nations and for some reason left the Judah 39 The whole of vv 7‐8 are excluded from the original oracle by Dietrich, ‘Israel und die Völkеr,’ 321‐322; Soggin, 50‐51; Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 82 n. 88, 95, 98‐100 (vv 7‐9); Kais‐ er, Grundriß 2, 124‐125; Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 26‐29. A number of scho‐ lars take the Grundstock of v. 8 (and v. 7) as Amosian and only the phrases in 8aβ and 8bβ as additions: BHS; Wolff, 163 ET 134; Market, Struktur, 72; Jeremias, 24 ET (Ho‐ seanic) 38; Schart, 59, 131 (Amos tradents); Coote, 71 (B Stage); Rottzoll, 66 (priestly‐ Dtr). On the unity of v. 8 see Thiel, ‘Amos 2,6‐8,’ 392‐394; and also the interpreta‐ tions offered by Beek, ‘Religious Background,’ 137; Fosbroke, 788; Mays, 47; Finley, 162; Rudolph, 144‐145; Paul, 86‐87. There is little reason to see in v. 8 condemnation by Amos of idolatry or Canaanite influence on worship (contra Oesterley, ‘Amos 2:8,’ 40‐41; Hammershaimb, 49‐50; Stuart, 317; Achtemeier, 185). 40 Wolff, 163, 203 ET 133‐134, 167 n. 294; Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 178 n. 31; Market, Struktur, 72; Vollmer, Geschichtliche Rückblicke, 22; Deissler, 99; Fleischer, Menschen‐ verkäufern, 32, 42; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 39, 71, 73; Jeremias, 24 ET 38; Rottzoll, 64‐65; Schart, 58; Houston, Justice, 68. BHS deletes the whole of 7b (cf also Loretz, ‘Exodus,’ 223; Levin, ‘Amosbuch der Anawim,’ 277). 41 Rudolph, 143‐144. Cf also Gese, ‘Komposition,’ 92, n. 55; Barstad, Religious Polemics, 19 n. 32; Paul, 83; McLaughlin, Marzeah, 122. 42 So also Thiel, ‘Amos 2,6‐8,’ 391‐392 who argues on this basis for the Dtr provenance of the addition. 43 Paul, ‘Concatenous Literary Pattern,’ 397‐403; cf also Rösel, ‘Entwicklung,’ 88‐89; Jeremias, ‘Völkersprüche und Visionberichte,’ 159.
48
The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2)
and Israel oracles out of consideration. Like the other oracles in the series, however, these two are also linked by the repetition of a key phrase: ‘after whom their fathers walked’ (2:4 )אשר הלכו אבותם אחריהם – ‘a man and his father go to the girl’ (2:7 )ואיש ואביו ילכו אל הנערה. Therefore, 7b was probably added by the redactor, who inserted the oracles against Edom, Tyre and Judah and the words ʹman and his father goʹ were used to make a link with the secondary Judah oracle.44 Finally, the deletion of 7b results in a unit with four bicola: (i) v. 6b, (ii) v. 7a, (iii) v. 8a, (iv) v. 8b, corresponding to the ‘for three, for four crimes’ formula. This may be taken as another supporting argument for the secondary character of v. 7b. Vv 10‐12 are regarded as later addition by a number of scholars.45 Four considerations combine to suggest that this opinion is probably correct. First, there is an abrupt change from third to second person address after v. 9. This is not always necessarily a sign of editorial ac‐ tivity and in certain cases may be a rhetorical tool or a structuring de‐ vice.46 However, this does not seem to be the case here since the change of person comes right in the middle of the section dealing with Israel’s past (vv 9‐12) and does not seem to play any significant literary function. Second, it is often noted that the events from Israel’s history are narrated in a somewhat unusual order with the Exodus (v. 10) coming after the conquest of the land (v. 9).47 Paul argues that this is done on
44 This might also explain the presence of the somewhat strange phrase ‘a man and his father’ instead of the expected ‘a man and his son’. 45 Weiser, Profetie, 94‐95; Hobbs, ‘Amos 3:1b and 2:10,’ 387 (Amos school); Zobel, ‘Wustenwanderung,’ 195 (Amos school); Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 180‐183 (Dtr); Voll‐ mer, Geschichtliche Rückblicke, 24‐25; Vermeylen, 537‐539 (Dtr); Melugin, ‘Forma‐ tion,’ 386‐387 (Dtr); Coote, 70‐73 (B stage); Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 82 n. 88 (Dtr with 11b a later addition); Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 28‐29, 71,73; Köckert, ‘Gesetz und Propheten,’ 147‐149 (Dtr); Jeremias, 24 ET 39 (Dtr); Rottzoll, 56‐61 (v. 12a originally belonged to 6‐8*); Schart, 157 (D); Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 79‐80 (K4); Wöhrle, 99 (Dtr). Some delete vv 10 and 12 and link v. 11 to v. 9: Marti, 169; Duhm, ‘Anmerkungen,’ 4; Fohrer, Propheten, 26. Only v. 12 is taken as an interpolation by Ehrlich, Randglossen, 232‐233; Rudolph, 147‐148; Robinson, 80; Amsler, 183; Deissler, 101 but contrast Albert, ‘Bemerkungen,’ 267‐269 who prefers to do away only with the rhetorical question in v. 11b. The whole passage is retained by Harper, 53‐59; Mays, 44‐45; Paul, 90‐94; Smith, 112‐113. Andersen and Freedman, 327‐329 argue against the separation of vv 10‐12 as Dtr addition but later on suggest that the whole of vv 9‐13 is an editorial supplement (pp 342‐344). 46 Möller, Prophet in Debate, 205‐207; de Regt, ‘Person Shift,’ 214‐231. 47 Harper, 53‐54 and Procksch, Prophetischen Schriften, 69 transpose v. 10 before v. 9.
I. Redactional additions to the OAN
49
purpose and ‘Amorites’ form an inclusio in vv 9‐10.48 However, that fails to convince because vv 10‐12 seem to narrate a continuous histor‐ ical development which begins with the Exodus and stretches to the present time. An inclusio would be expected at the end of the section (v. 12) not in the middle of it (v. 10). The climax and real point of vv 10‐12 is the raising and rejection of prophets. The prophets are the last benevolent act of God towards Israel, the real continuation of the salvation history which began with the exodus and manifested itself in the guidance through the wilder‐ ness and the dispossession of the Amorites. Within that scheme the destruction of the Amorites and the gift of the land seem to play no special role. The stress is on Israel’s relationship with Yahweh and on her unresponsiveness and lack of gratitude against the background of all the blessings she has received. Therefore, there is a shift of emphasis beginning with v. 10, the sin of Israel is no longer the social evils, con‐ demned in 2:6‐8 but the rejection of God’s Word.49 On the other hand, the emphasis on the power of the Amorites and their destruction in v. 9 is closely related to and continues from the accusations in vv 6‐8. The implication is that God aids the weak by warring against the strong and the arrogant. The tragedy now is that Israel has taken the place of the Amorites. This is a different way of making the same point which the entire 5 OAN series is concerned to establish. Israel’s sin has reduced her to the status of other foreign na‐ tions and has turned her into an enemy of Yahweh. Therefore the real problem is not so much the ‘wrong’ chronological order of vv 9 and 10, as is often asserted. The discrepancy goes deeper and is related to the different emphases in v. 9 and vv 10‐12 and the different ways histori‐ cal traditions are used. This by itself is not sufficient to cast doubt on the Amosian origin of vv 10‐12 but it supports the case for their redac‐ tional character when combined with other arguments. Third, a number of phrases in vv 10‐12 allude to various parts of the book of Amos. ‘I brought you up from the land of Egypt’ (v. 10) appears almost word for word in 9:7; the forty years in the wilderness motif (v. 10) comes up in 5:25; the command ‘you shall not prophesy’ clearly alludes to 7:16; the motif of wine ()יין drinking is present in vv 8 and 12, though in quite different sense. These connections suggest that vv 10‐12 is composed partly under the influence of motifs and phrases found in the immediate and the larger context of the Israel oracle. As I 48 Paul, 90‐91; cf Hoffman, ‘Exodus,’ 178. Mays, 50 suggests that the unusual order of events in vv 10‐11 serves to emphasize the gift of the land, but see the discussion be‐ low. 49 Köckert, ‘Gesetz und Propheten,’ 148‐149.
50
The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2)
shall argue below this passage plays an important role in an overall redactional attempt to provide the book of Amos with a new theologi‐ cal emphasis and a new structural pattern. Although this third point has not played a significant role in the discussion of the redactional nature of the section, to me it is the most convincing argument for its secondary origin. Fourth, it has been suggested by a number of scholars that these verses, like 2:4‐5, display some influence of Dtr language and thought.50 The suggestion, made above, that vv 10‐12 are composed under the influence of material from the rest of the book of Amos invalidates some of the arguments for Dtr influence. For example, the formula ‘I led you up from the land of Egypt’ would be at home in Dtr texts but it appears also in Am. 9:7 and the most logical explanation for its wording is not Dtr influence but literary dependence on 9:7. Indeed in 9:7 we have ‘did I not lead Israel out’ whilst 2:10 reads ‘I led you out’. The change from third to second person may seem strange at first hand, especially bearing in mind that 2:9 is formulated in third person, but it may have been influenced by the direct address found in 9:7a. On the other hand, it is hard to deny that the themes of the exodus from Egypt and the rejection of prophetic voice are important elements in Dtr thought and they are juxtaposed in Judg. 6:8‐10 and Jer. 7:25‐26 (cf 2 Kings 17:7‐14). It has been argued that the specification of the wil‐ derness period as forty years is of Dtr origin51 but this is less certain.52 These traits are hardly sufficient to identify the passage as ‘Deutero‐ nomistic’ but they do seem to show, like 2:4‐5, awareness and influence of Dtr modes of expression and ideas.
50 Cf the authors cited in n. 45 above. Contrast Rudolph, 146. Köckert, ‘Gesetz und Pro‐ pheten,’ 149‐152 suggests that by juxtaposing the themes of Exodus, Wilderness and Prophets the redactor was influenced by the Dtr picture of the prophets as bearers of Yahweh’s Word standing in the footsteps of Moses. However, the lack of explicit mention of Moses makes this point somewhat uncertain. 51 Vermeylen, 538. See especially Dt. 29:4. 52 Although the forty years motif is most prominent in Dtr and priestly texts it comes up also in Ps. 95:10 whose dating is unfortunately disputed: cf Day, Psalms, 72 (pre‐ exilic); Hilber, Cultic Prophecy, 179‐185 (pre‐exilic?); Jeremias, Kultprophetie, 126‐127 (post‐exilic); Kraus, Psalmen, 2:661 ET 2:246 (post‐exilic); Tate, Psalms 51‐100, 500 (post‐exilic); Haglund, Historical Motifs, 20 (late). Zobel, ‘Wustenwanderung,’ 200 sees in 2:10 a reflection of pre‐Dtr North‐Israelite tradition, so also Paul, 91; Rudolph, 146, n. 22. The issue is further complicated by the suggestion that the phrase ‘forty years’ might be a gloss: Nowack, 130; Mays, 51.
I. Redactional additions to the OAN
51
V. 9 is also regarded as secondary by many commentators.53 Fleischer argues that the continuation from v. 9 directly to v. 13 (taking for granted that vv 10‐12 are an addition) is problematic. There is a change of time perspective from past to future which is not signalled in any way (one would expect something like )עתה.54 However, the transi‐ tion from v. 9 to v. 13 is not intolerably rough. V. 13 begins with הנה which is often used to introduce the judgment section in prophetic oracles (Jer. 25:9; 49:5; Joel 4:7 [3:7]). Moreover, v. 9 is closely related to its present context and plays an important role there.55 It serves as a bridge between the accusation and the announcement of judgment. As pointed out above, it is related thematically to the preceding accusation and intensifies it with the implied suggestion that Israel has become like the Amorites. Formally it is linked to the following announcement of judgment. Like v. 13 it begins with the personal pronoun אנכי and has Yahweh as the subject of the verbs. His destruction of the Amorites prepares the ground for his actions against Israel, depicted in v. 13.56 Another reason given for the lateness of v. 9 is that it seems to por‐ tray the Amorites as the sole inhabitants of the Promised land. This concept occurs most frequently in Dtr literature and is thought to be late. However, it is unlikely that we can detect here a well‐defined doc‐ trine of the Amorites as the sole inhabitants of Palestine. One hardly expects in a brief oracle the full list of nations defeated by Yahweh so the choice of the Amorites as a vague and general term is not surpris‐ ing.57 It is also worth considering the possibility that Amos may be al‐ luding here to some northern traditions.58 53 (i) Old addition: Soggin, 50; Jeremias, 25 ET 39‐40 (Hoseanic); Fleischer, Menschen‐ verkäufern, 35; (ii) Dtr: Vermeylen, 536‐537; Dietrich, ‘Israel und die Völkеr,’ 320‐321; Coote, 71‐72 (B editor); Kaiser, Grundriß 2, 120; Wood, 54 (exilic); Wöhrle, 99‐100; (iii) postexilic: Rottzoll, 52‐55; Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 79‐80 (K3); (iv) not as‐ signed: Willi‐Plein, 19; Vieweger, ‘Herkunft der Völkerworte,’ 118 n. 70. 54 Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 35; Rottzoll, 52. The linguistic arguments of Vermey‐ len against the Amosian origin of v. 9 are examined and refuted by Bjørndalen, alle‐ gorischen Rede, 135‐137. 55 So also Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 182; Jeremias, 24‐25 ET 39; Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 80. The link of v. 9 with the following v. 13 is especially emphasized by Weiser, Profetie, 95‐96, 107; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 29, 54. 56 It is also worth considering the possibility that originally the rhetorical question, now found in 2:11b, stood immediately after v. 9 (Weiser, Profetie, 95). Its style is in line with that of Amos and it is particularly close to 9:7, which on other grounds I will argue came immediately after 2:16. 57 Bjørndalen, allegorischen Rede, 135. On the term ‘Amorite’ see Noth, ‘Gebrauch,’ 184‐ 187; Van Seters, ‘Terms “Amorite“ and “Hittite“,’ 64‐81; Liverani, ‘Amorites,’ 100‐ 133. It comes up sometimes in earlier historical traditions (Josh. 10:5‐6; 2 Sam. 21:2) and so could be pre‐Dtr (so Rudolph, 146; Paul, 87). It is also attested in some Pen‐
52
The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2)
It seems to me that there are no strong arguments against the au‐ thenticity of v. 9. It is well integrated in its present context and seems to be presupposed by the later addition in vv 10‐12. The theme of God’s action against the strong fits with Amos’ preaching and the ironic re‐ versal of tradition (what used to be a salvation for Israel now becomes illustration and ground for her doom) is also a characteristic Amosian feature. It is, therefore, best to take the verse as an integral part of the original oracle.59 The final passage (vv 13‐16) has attracted numerous redactional proposals.60 However, the various repetitions within it, which bother modern scholars,61 do not give us sufficient ground for detecting redac‐ tional intervention. Recent literary analysis of the passage has demon‐ strated that it is well constructed and organized. It consists of seven clauses, the first and the last are the only ones formulated without the negative particle לא and contain the root נוס. The final clause forms not only an inclusio with the first but also a very effective conclusion as it repeats one word from each of the first three lines, thus giving a sense of completion. There are seven groups of military personnel, the first three described with one word each, the next three with two words each and the last with three words. The lines ending each of these groups (the third and the sixth) end in לא ימלט נפשו.62 This literary struc‐ ture makes it unlikely that the passage resulted from gradual accretion
58 59
60
61 62
tateuchal texts usually ascribed to E, Gen. 15:16; 48:22 (Eissfeldt, Einleitung, 217 ET 183). Sellin, 209 sees here influence from the Elohist on Amos. However, in addition to the continual doubts about the existence of E, contrast more recently Graupner, Elohist, 186‐187, 362 who denies both Genesis verses to E and argues that the designation of the inhabitants of Canaan as ‘Amorites’ is not a characteristic of that document. Jeremias, 25 ET 39. Together with Weiser, Profetie, 95‐96; Fosbroke, 788‐789; Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 179; Wolff, 204‐205 ET 168‐169; Vollmer, Geschichtliche Rückblicke, 25‐28; Bjørndalen, allegorischen Rede, 135‐137; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 29, 54; Albertz, Exilszeit, 178 ET 226. Also Market, Struktur, 73 who takes only the last phrase as an addition. Vv 14b and 15aβ are taken as interpolations by Wolff, 164 ET 134‐135; Market, Struk‐ tur, 73; Jeremias, 28 n. 32 ET 44 n. 32; Rösel, ‘Entwicklung,’ 91‐92. Dietrich, ‘Israel und die Völkеr,’ 235 leaves vv 14 + 15aα and deletes the rest. Löhr, Untersuchungen, 6 takes v. 15 as addition. Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 39‐41 removes vv 15 and 16 and has vv 13‐14 as the original oracle. For Soggin, 50‐51 the original is to be found only in v. 13, vv 14‐16 being exilic (cf also Pfeiffer, Introduction, 579). Rendtorff, ‘Amos 2,14‐16,’ 226‐227, driven by desire to achieve a ‘better structure’, proposes rearrangement of the lines (followed by Möller, Prophet in Debate, 210‐212). Cf especially Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 39. Andersen and Freedman, 339‐340; Paul, 95. For a different approach see Richardson, ‘Amos 2.13‐16,’ 363‐365.
II. Purpose and aim of the redactor
53
accretion and provides an explanation for features which have been previously taken as signs of editorial activity.
3. Conclusion It seems that the oracles against Tyre, Edom and Judah (1:9‐12; 2:4‐5) together with some parts of the final Israel oracle (2:7b, 10‐12) were added by a redactor to the original series. In what follows I will attempt to analyse the purposes of this intervention by looking at the overall structure of chs 1‐2 and the special role which the editorial interpola‐ tions play in restructuring and changing the emphasis of the original series.
II. Purpose and aim of the redactor 1. The original series The original series of OAN consisted of proclamations against five na‐ tions: Damascus, Philistia, Ammon, Moab and Israel (2:6‐7a, 8‐9, 13‐16). This in itself was an artfully constructed composition of five members just like the visions report in 7:1‐8; 8:1‐2; 9:1‐4. In it the nations were arranged according to several interlocking patterns. Aram and Philistia, on one hand, and Ammon and Moab, on the other, obviously formed two pairs. In the first pair the accusation is introduced with a reference to a city (Damascus; Gaza) whilst in the second pair the nation itself is mentioned (the Ammonites, Moab). Both pairs are linked by verbal repetition: ‘I will cut off the one enthroned in X and the sceptre‐holder in Y’ (1:5; 1:8); ‘with a war cry’ (1:14; 2:2); ‘the king/judge… and his princes’ (1:15; 2:3).63 The first and the third oracles (Aram – Ammon) were linked by virtue of the mention of Gilead (1:3; 1:13) and exile (1:5; 1:15) while the second and the fourth (Philistia and Moab) mentioned Edom and predicted total annihilation (1:8; 2:3).64 The original series culminated in the oracle against Israel which is formally distinct and longer than the preceding oracles but is closely related to them by the same standard introduction (2:6a) and the type 63 In the second pair the accusations are concerning crimes committed against people not yet born (Ammon) and already dead (Moab). 64 Gese, ‘Komposition,’ 88‐89; Jeremias, ‘Enstehung,’ 176.
54
The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2)
of crimes mentioned in the indictments (oppression of weak and de‐ fenceless people).
2. The final version of the series Analysis of the final form of chs 1‐2 gives us reason to believe that the redactor recognized the literary qualities of the original OAN and uti‐ lized them to serve his own ends. First, he noticed that the first two oracles are addressed to cities and the second two to whole nations and therefore addressed his first oracle to Tyre (1:9) and the second to Edom (1:11), thus achieving the effect Damascus – Gaza – Tyre (cities); Edom – Ammon – Moab (nations).65 Second, it has been long recognized that the editorial oracles exhibit a different form from the rest. They have a more elaborate accusation, much shorter description of punishment, consisting only of the formula ‘I will send fire on X and it will devour the palaces of Y’ and lack the final concluding formula ‘says (lord) Yahweh’. On the basis of these differences two kinds of oracles have been postulated – ‘A type’ (with long description of punishment) and ‘B type’ (with shorter description of punishment and longer accusation).66 By inserting the three addi‐ tional oracles in their present positions and by deviating slightly from the form of the original oracles the redactor achieved the following sequence: A type (Damascus) + A type (Gaza); B type (Tyre) + B type (Edom); A type (Ammon) + A type (Moab); B type (Judah). By doing this he built on the tendency of the original series to have oracles go in pairs. He also created a structural relationship between the Tyre‐Edom and the Judah oracles for these not only shared a common distinctive form but also came after the Aram‐Philistia and the Ammon‐Moab oracles respectively which already had a number of common characte‐ ristics. Since the Tyre and the Judah oracles share the same characteristic form and since they come immediately after the first, respectively the second, pair of A‐type oracles the reader is invited to see some connec‐ tion between them which may affect the interpretation of the phrase ‘covenant of brothers’ (1:9). On the surface this refers to a political 65 Andersen and Freedman, 208; Steinmann, ‘Order of OAN,’ 687; Hayes, ‘Amosʹs OAN,’ 154. 66 Paul, ‘Literary Reinvestigation,’ 200‐201; Andersen and Freedman, 202‐205; Stein‐ mann, ‘Order of OAN,’ 684‐685; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 172‐173. The connections between each of the three pairs of oracles are graphically brought out by Bovati and Meynet, 46‐47, 52‐53, 58‐59.
II. Purpose and aim of the redactor
55
treaty but in the light of the Judah oracle which talks about the Torah (2:4) the ‘brotherly covenant’ reminds the reader also of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel.67 Third, the redactor integrated his oracles by extensive use of verbal repetition, observing that in the original series the two pairs were re‐ lated to each other in a similar manner. So the Tyre oracle picks up in 1:9 almost verbatim the accusation from 1:6, the Tyre and Edom oracles are linked by the word ‘brother’ (1:9, 11) and Judah and Israel by repe‐ tition of ‘father’ and ‘walk’ (2:4, 7). This creates a chain of verbal repeti‐ tion in the series recognized by Paul (cf above). In the present series the chain breaks in two places: after the 4th oracle (Edom) and after the 6th (Moab).68 If these breaks are not due to pure coincidence they may serve to place a special emphasis on the Edom and the Judah‐Israel oracles.69 The discovery of intricate literary patterns in chs 1‐2 has led some scholars to the conclusion that the whole of 1:3‐2:16 is the composition of a single individual70 and Paul hails it as a ‘unique creation of the first of the literary prophets.’71 Perhaps the above analysis has served to invalidate to a certain degree the strength of this argument by attempt‐ ing to demonstrate that it is not impossible to conceive the present lit‐ erary qualities of the text as the result of redactional work. It also seems to me to tip the balance of probability towards the opinion that the oracles against Tyre, Edom and Judah belong to a single redactional layer, rather than to different ones because of their similar roles in the new structure of the series.72
3. Edom and Israel A key rhetorical feature of the series, which has not been generally recognized, is the relative emphasis placed on Edom within the OAN. 67 Bovati and Meynet, 96 see two kinds of literary links between the Tyre‐Edom and the Judah‐Israel oracles. One is found in repetition of family terminology: brother (1:9, 11), fathers (2:4), sons (2:11); the other in religious terminology: covenant (1:9), law (2:4), prophets (2:11‐12). It is interesting to observe that all of these connections are found between passages which have been identified above as secondary. 68 Carroll R., ‘God and His People,’ 61. 69 Möller, Prophet in Debate, 184‐185 suggests that the Edom and Judah oracles form two ‘pseudo‐climaxes’ before the Israel strophe which is the real (unexpected) cli‐ max of the series. 70 Steinmann, ‘Order of OAN,’ 688‐689. Contrast Nogalski, Precursors, 92. 71 Paul, ‘Literary Reinvestigation,’ 201; cf also Rudolph, 118; Stuart, 309. 72 Contra Wöhrle, 96.
56
The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2)
The Edom oracle comes fourth in the series and, unlike most of the other OAN, the crime in it is elaborated in a series of four cola. All this receives added significance in view of the graded numerical formula “for three, for four crimes”.73 Edom is the one foreign nation which in Amos chs 1‐2 is linked in a more special way to Judah and Israel. It is linked to the oracle against Judah by means of similarity of form and the fact that both oracles have accusations consisting of four cola. On the other hand, in its position as the fourth oracle it stands parallel to Israel which is the eighth nation in the series. At the end of the book there is also an emphasis on Edom which is especially mentioned in 9:12 in parallel to ‘all the nations’ over which Yahweh’s name is to be called. Therefore, we have at the begin‐ ning and at the end of the book of Amos redactional sections which seem to display some particular interest in Edom. There are a number of passages in the OT where Edom is singled out from among the nations for a special attention. Some of these are condemnations of Edom followed by promises of the restoration of Zion (Obadiah; Ezek. 35:1‐36:16; Is. 34). The most intriguing feature of this anti‐Edomite polemic is the tendency to place Edom in parallel with other nations. In Ps. 137:7‐8 Edom is coupled with Babylon and in Joel 4:19 [3:19] with Egypt. A more subtle parallel between Edom and Babylon is present in Is. 34, which has certain links with Is. 13.74 In a number of passages Edom is placed in parallel to the ‘nations’ in gen‐ eral (Obadiah; Is. 34, 63; Ezek. 36:5). Therefore some scholars have sug‐ gested that at some point Edom became a general symbol for the ene‐ mies of Yahweh and Israel.75 However in all of the above mentioned texts the portrayal of Edom is too specific and rooted in history to be taken simply as a code word which has lost all its ties to the historical nation of Edom.76 It is much better to regard it in those cases as one specific nation which is particularly suited to serve as an illustration, a specific manifestation or a representation of the other nations in their sin and above all in their judgment.77 73 Edom is the only nation which is mentioned four times in the series (1:6, 9, 11; 2:1), although this may be the result of pure coincidence. 74 Williamson, Book Called Isaiah, 216‐217; Mathews, Defending Zion, 55‐68. 75 Cresson, ‘Condemnation of Edom,’ 136, 147‐148; Pope, ‘Isaiah 34,’ 243; Dicou, Israelʹs Brother, 109‐110; Childs, Isaiah, 255‐257. 76 Raabe, Obadiah, 44; Renkema, Obadiah, 39. 77 Raabe, Obadiah, 45‐46; Mathews, Defending Zion, 61, 102‐103. The historical roots of this development are to be sought in the events of the 6th century BC though cultic, literary and tradition‐historical factors may also have played a part; cf Dicou, Israelʹs Brother, 188‐197; Mathews, Defending Zion, 80‐86; Raabe, Obadiah, 36, 46‐47; Ben Zvi, Obadiah, 240‐246.
II. Purpose and aim of the redactor
57
If Edom could be used as a representative of the nations in general its link with Israel in Amos chs 1‐2 becomes very meaningful. The whole argument of Amos’ OAN is based on a comparison of Israel’s sin and judgment to the sin and judgment of the other surrounding na‐ tions. Edom is singled out as a representative of those nations. Israel has become in her sin like Edom and the rest of the nations and there‐ fore she will be punished like Edom and the nations. She has betrayed her identity and become the very opposite of what she used to be.
4. Israel and Judah It is widely recognized that the final oracle against Israel is the climax of the whole series. Many commentators explain the rhetorical impact of the oracles by appeal to the surprise by which Amos’ original North‐ ern Israelite audience would have been taken when he did not finish his proclamation with enumeration of Israel’s enemies but went on to address and pronounce judgment on his listeners.78 This is all very well but it misses one significant fact: although the original proclamation of the prophet was addressed to the Northern Kingdom the present liter‐ ary text is directed towards a later Judean audience. Therefore, we can‐ not limit ourselves to the impact of the series in their original historical presentation but also must ask the question how it functions in its pre‐ sent literary context – as part of the book of Amos which was written for and read by Judeans. From this point of view the mention of North‐ ern Israel after Judah would serve more as an anticlimax than anything else. When we approach the issue from this direction it becomes appar‐ ent that the oracles against Judah and Israel should not be distin‐ guished too sharply. It is true that they are formally separate and quite independent79 and that they address two different kingdoms but it also must be kept in mind that after the collapse of the Northern kingdom it is Judah that remained as the ‘true Israel’ and what was said in former times of the Northern kingdom was seen as applicable in some way to the Southern. This general supposition is strengthened by several tex‐ tual considerations. First, the oracles in the series are clearly presented in pairs linked by repetition of key words (Aram/Philistia; Tyre/Edom; Ammon/Moab; Judah/Israel). Second, the mention of the Law in 2:4 78 Martin‐Achard, 16‐17; Barton, Amosʹ OAN, 3‐4, 36‐38; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 191‐ 199; Sweeney, Josiah, 277; Rudolph, 140. 79 Contra Noble, ‘Israel among the Nations,’ 67‐68 who sees 2:9‐16 as applying to both Judah and Israel.
58
The Redaction of the OAN (Amos chs 1‐2)
serves to unite 2:4‐5 and 2:6‐16 for the crimes in 2:6‐8 are in fact breaches of Israelite legal customs and traditions, which found their way later into the Torah.80 Third, the mention of the Exodus and the gift of the land (2:10) is a tradition which applied to both Judah and North‐ ern Israel and serves to strengthen the ‘pan‐Israelite’ perspective of the oracles. It is also at this time that the Torah (mentioned in 2:4) was given. The very idea of the historical recital in 2:10 is to show that Israel with her actions has rejected what Yahweh had done for them in the past. Therefore, it is quite probable that for the Judean readership of the book 2:4‐5 and 2:6‐16 were seen as the two sides of a single coin and to be interpreted in the light of each other.81 If we take 2:4‐5, 6‐16 as two elements of a single whole we notice that they speak of two rejections. The reference to the rejection of the Torah (2:4) is followed in 2:11‐12 with the accusation that Israel has rejected the prophets. A very similar idea is expressed in 2 Kings 17:13‐ 16; the exile of Northern Israel is the result of their ‘rejecting the stat‐ utes’ ()וימאסו את חקיו of the Lord and not heeding the prophets he sent. Thus according to Am. 2:4‐12 the descent of Israel into the depths of sin is accomplished in two stages. First, Israel spurns the Torah by follow‐ ing lies and oppressing the poor. Then they spurn Yahweh’s word again by prohibiting the prophets to prophesy. Judgment comes only after the second rejection. 82 This double accusation mirrors and anticipates the development of the book of Amos as a whole. In the following chapters we have first oracles dealing with social and cultic evils (chs 3‐6) which correspond to the accusations in 2:6‐8. This theme recedes into the background in chs 7‐9 where another theme appears – the rejection of Amos the prophet (7:10‐17). It is, therefore, possible that the redactor wanted to use the Judah/Israel oracle as a suitable introduction to the book as a whole in its final form. To this end he split the accusation in the Israel oracle in two parts: 2:6‐8 focused on social and cultic sins and was rein‐ terpreted with the help of 2:4 as a rejection of the Torah. 2:11‐12, on the other hand, depicts the second stage, the rejection of the prophets. This foreshadows the two other major sections of the book: chs 3‐6 dealing predominantly with social and cultic issues and chs 7‐9, dealing with Israel’s disbelief (9:10), the rejection of the prophetic message (7:9‐17) and the resulting withdrawal of the divine Word (8:11‐14). It seems that 80 Mays, 48‐49 finds a number of allusions in 2:6‐8 to the legal tradition from the Book of the Covenant. 81 Vermeylen, 541‐542; Albertz, Exilszeit, 178 ET 228. 82 After the outline of this study was completed I discovered that I was anticipated at this point by Köckert, ‘Gesetz und Propheten,’ 153‐154.
II. Purpose and aim of the redactor
59
the main aim of the additions in 2:4‐5, 7b, 10‐12 as well as the additions to the visions cycle (chs 7‐9) was to restructure to some degree and to reinterpret the book of Amos along the lines of Dtr theology and to apply its lessons to the kingdom of Judah.
5. Conclusion One may summarize the theological idea behind the redactional work in chs 1‐2 in the following way: ‘by rejecting the Law and the prophets Israel (and Judah) has become like Edom (= the nations).’ It seems that the redactor tried to reinterpret the oracles of Amos in the light of two notions that were developing in his time. The first one was the use of Edom as a representative of the foreign nations and the second one was the Deuteronomistic insistence that the destruction of Jerusalem was the result of the rejection of the Torah and the prophets. The compari‐ son between Edom and Israel did not alter in any way the original mes‐ sage of the series. Amos himself had contended that Israel’s sin had reduced her to the level of the other nations. With the Edom compari‐ son the redactor simply sought to sharpen the expression of this idea and to give it a contemporary ring. The idea that the catastrophe re‐ sulted from the rejection of the Law and the prophets is not found in the original series of OAN. It shows that the redactor wanted to inter‐ pret the oracles of Amos under the influence of his own theology. As far as the provenance of the redaction goes it is clear that the redactor was influenced by Dtr thinking and style. However, it would be rash to describe him as a Deuteronomist, because his view of Edom seems to deviate from the much more positive Dtr attitude which is evident in Dt. 2:1‐8 and 23:8[7] and some of the language in 2:4‐5 is not typical of Dtr mode of expression (ch. 1 §IV. 2). The use of the expression ‘to profane my holy name’ in 2:7b indicates that perhaps some priestly influence can also be detected behind his work.
Chapter 3: The Visions I. Introduction Most exegetes are convinced that there used to be a ‘visions report’ which forms the basis of the present text of Amos chs 7‐91 and this con‐ viction will form the starting point of my investigation. The literary characteristics of this visions report are well known and do not need to be rehearsed again here.2 It is commonly recognized that the first four visions are presented in two contrasting pairs and that there is a certain development and progression between them.3 This leads to the sugges‐ tion that, although separate experiences may stand behind the individ‐ ual visions, in their present literary form the visions need to be taken as a whole and they form a single composition with its own message which can be discerned only when the separate elements are viewed together in their interrelationship.4 Two issues, however, are hotly disputed in scholarly literature. First, the place and role of the fifth vision has never been agreed upon. Many see it as an integral part and climax of the visions report.5 Others are persuaded that the original report encompassed only the first four visions (7:1‐8[9]; 8:1‐2[3]).6 Those who still think that the fifth vision had some basis in the preaching of Amos account for its different char‐ 1 2
3 4 5
6
Contrast, however, Lindblom, Prophecy, 240; Hayes, 199. Cf Gese, ‘Komposition,’ 75‐77; Paul, 223‐225; Behrens, Visionsschilderungen, 77‐83. On the form of the visions see Niditch, Symbolic Vision, 23‐25, 37‐39; Horst, ‘Visions‐ schilderungen,’ 193‐205; Long, ‘Reports of Visions,’ 353‐365. Contrast, however, Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 214 for whom the first two and the following three visions are addressed to different social groups. Jeremias, ‘Rezeptionsprozesse,’ 29‐44. Budde, ‘Техt und Auslegung 2,’ 99; Weiser, Profetie, 41, 51, 60‐65; Wolff, 388 ET 338; Rudolph, 228, 243; Gese, ‘Komposition,’ 75‐85; Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 78‐83; Deissler, 131; Paul, 223; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 201; Auld, Amos, 21; Jeremias, 123‐124 ET 154‐155; Mathias, ‘fünften Vision,’ 156‐165; Ruprecht, ‘Zepter Jahwes,’ 68; Hartenstein, Unzugänglichkeit Gottes, 110; Schart, 84‐85; Koenen, Bethel, 169; Irsigler, ‘Keine Flucht,’ 196‐197. Löhr, Untersuchungen, 25; Maag, 43‐47; Willi‐Plein, 48; Bartczek, Prophetie und Vermittlung, 15‐17, 90; Rösel, ‘Auslegung,’ 18; Becker, ‘Prophet als Fürbitter,’ 147.
I. Introduction
61
acter by supposing that it was either proclaimed by the prophet sepa‐ rately from the other four or was transmitted as part of a different tra‐ dition complex.7 Reventlow argues that this is not a vision at all but a command to perform a symbolic action.8 Waschke, on the other hand, sees the fifth vision as a Nachinterpretation of the message of Amos from the time of the exile.9 Bergler thinks that the original sequence com‐ prised only the first, second and fourth visions, the third and fifth being a later addition perhaps from the 7th century BC.10 Pfeiffer and Fritz think that only the first two visions go back to Amos and the following three are later supplements.11 Recently doubts concerning the date of the whole visions report have been expressed. The first person speech in 7:1ff has been tradi‐ tionally taken by most scholars at face value as an indication that the composition of the visions goes back to Amos himself.12 However, Becker and Stein have argued that the visions represent a theological reflection which comes from the exilic or post‐exilic times.13 These two problems, the place of the fifth vision and the date of the whole visions report, will provide the main focus of the discussion in this chapter.
7
8 9
10
11 12
13
Mays, 152; Fuhs, ‘Amos 1,1,’ 285‐288; Schmidt, Zukunftsgewißheit, 17 n. 5, 71. On 8:4‐ 9:6 as seperate transmission complex see Koch, Amos, 2:89; Fohrer, Propheten, 23. Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies I,’ 120‐130 suggests Amos received the vision after his address at Bethel was over. Reventlow, Amt, 49‐50. For a criticism see Wolff, 387‐388 ET 337‐338; Rudolph, 243. Waschke, ‘fünfte Vision,’ 443‐445; followed by Wood, 82; Köhlmoos, ‘Amos 9,1‐4,’ 169‐178; Albertz, Exilszeit, 178 ET 226‐227; Wöhrle, 114‐117; Gertz, ‘unbedingte Gerichtsankündigung,’ 158‐160. Few would date this redaction earlier: Behrens, Vi‐ sionsschilderungen, 100‐104 (post 722 BC) and Paas, ‘Seeing and Singing,’ 273 esp. n. 68. Recently Zalcman, ‘Philistines on the Threshold,’ 481‐486 has argued that 9:1‐4 was originally an orcale against the Philistines reworked by Amos or a later redactor into a prophecy against Israel. Bergler, ‘Auf der Mauer,’ 461‐471. Contrast Steins, ‘Geburtsprotokoll,’ 600‐601 who sees in the third and fifth visions fragments of an older text with 7:1‐6 and 8:1‐2 be‐ ing a later reworking. Pfeiffer, Introduction, 580, 583; Fritz, ‘Amosbuch,’ 30‐33. Weiser, Profetie, 250; Wolff, 130, 339 ET 107, 294; Mays, 125; Schart, 85; Willi‐Plein, ‘geschaute Wort,’ 42; Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 28; Albertz, Exilszeit, 178 ET 226; Pschibille, Löwe, 34; Irsigler, ‘Keine Flucht,’ 213 n. 78 (Amos and his first tra‐ dents). Contrast Coggins, 138 (simply a literary device). Becker, ‘Prophet als Fürbitter,’ 141‐165; Steins, ‘Geburtsprotokoll,’ 585‐608.
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II. The fifth vision 1. Extent of the passage To be able adequately to address the first question we need to decide where the fifth vision ends. A number of scholars hold that most of the material beyond v. 1a was not originally part of the vision report.14 Some see 9:1‐4 as a composition out of originally unrelated pieces.15 Irsigler takes only v. 4a as a post 722 BC addition.16 Willi‐Plein argues that the whole of vv 2‐4a is an interpolation.17 Lescow sees the original core of the vision as consisting of 9:1a + 2:6, 13‐15*. After 2:6, 13‐15 was separated from the vision we have two redactional layers, the first to be found in v. 2, 4b, the second in 1b, 3, 4a.18 Weimar postulates three stages in the development of the text. The oldest layer consists of a vision report found in 9:1aαβ+4b, to which an early post‐exilic redactor added v. 2 whilst vv 1aγ and 3‐4a came from a later hand.19 Reimer thinks that the oral vision comprised 9:1a. Vv 2‐4a were added at the time of the writing down of the visions complex and vv 1b and 4b were inserted when chs 7‐9* were first joined to chs 1‐6 to form the Urbuch of Amos (prior to 722 BC).20 Rottzoll comes up with four different strata: 1b was added to the vision after 722 BC; 4b is a postexilic addition influ‐ enced by JerDtr; v. 2 comes after it and then finally vv 3+4a were added copying material from the surrounding verses and the rest of the book of Amos.21 The bases for these reconstructions are the various tensions which arguably exist within the section: in v. 1a ‘all’ are killed but then the ‘rest’ will be killed by the sword; v. 1a talks about a natural disaster (earthquake) whilst 1b has a military catastrophe in mind; there is a sudden transition from imperatives to first person divine speech within v. 1; the sword is used as a mythical entity in v. 4 in contrast to its use
14 Robinson, 71, 104‐105; Bergler, ‘Auf der Mauer,’ 468‐471; Köhlmoos, ‘Amos 9,1‐4,’ 171; Steins, ‘Geburtsprotokoll,’ 601. 15 Löhr, Untersuchungen, 7‐8, 14, 21; Lindblom, Prophecy, 126; Bartczek, Prophetie, 82‐90. 16 Irsigler, ‘Keine Flucht,’ 193‐194, 213 n. 78. 17 Willi‐Plein, 52‐54. Cf also Winter, ‘Analyse,’ 361; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies I,’ 109‐ 112; Rösel, ‘Auslegung,’ 18. 18 Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 27‐28, 45. 19 Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 64‐67. 20 Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 209‐211, 214, 223. 21 Rottzoll, 100‐104.
II. The fifth vision
63
in v. 1; there is metrical difference between v. 2 and vv 3+4a; the use of the preposition min is not really appropriate with שם in vv 3b‐4a.22 The tensions perceived by scholars in 9:1 rest on the particular way in which the phrase ובצעם בראש כלם is translated. I have argued that the line is to be rendered ‘kill those (who are) at the head of them all’, which incidentally removes the tension and necessitates the integral connection between this colon and the following one.23 The line does not describe the death of everybody gathered at the sanctuary but de‐ picts only the beginning of the process which starts with the people who are ‘at the head’ of all the others. The rest of the section describes how the job is completed. Most other ‘tensions’ within the passage hardly qualify as signs of redactional intervention. It is not clear to me why fusion of images of natural and military disaster, different uses of the concept of sword or transfer from imperatives to first person divine speech should point to two different authors. The most serious difficul‐ ty is the awkward use of משם in 9:3b, 4a but it is possible that here it ‘would emphasize in a stereotyped way the violent removal from every supposed place of refuge’ (‘würde die gewaltsame Entfernung von jedem vermeintlichen Zufluchsort stereotyp betonen’), as Wolff sug‐ gests.24 On the other hand, thematic and structural considerations suggest that vv 1‐4 need to be taken as a single unit.25 The vision begins with the shaking of the capital and the threshold of an unnamed temple.26 To 22 Winter, ‘Analyse,’ 361; Robinson, 104‐105; Willi‐Plein, 53; Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 65‐66; Rottzoll, 100‐104; Bergler, ‘Auf der Mauer,’ 470‐471 n. 88; Köhlmoos, ‘Amos 9,1‐4,’ 171; Steins, ‘Geburtsprotokoll,’ 601. 23 Hadjiev, ‘Kill all who are in front,’ 386‐389 (with discussion of other alternatives and further literature). 24 Wolff, 386 ET 336. Alternativelly cf Marti, 222. 25 So also Irsigler, ‘Keine Flucht,’ 194 n. 25. 26 Most commentators agree that 9:1 describes the destruction of the temple at Bethel by an earthquake, which results in the death of the people gathered there for wor‐ ship: Hammershaimb, 130‐131; Harper, 188‐189 among others. Contrast Ouellette, ‘Shaking the Threshholds,’ 24; Hayes, 217; Paul, 275‐276. Hartenstein, Unzugänglich‐ keit Gottes, 135‐136 argues that the shaking of the temple’s door symbolises the end of contact with God, though contrast Willi‐Plein, ‘geschaute Wort,’ 43 who holds that the temple is destroyed, not defiled, and so no end of cultic services is implied by the vision. Hayes, 217 suggests that the language is simply used to produce emo‐ tional reaction rather than to define the nature of the calamity. However, desire to achieve emotional impact does not necessarily mean that 9:1 does not depict an earthquake. The command ‘kill those who are in front’ clearly relates to the previous imperative ‘strike’, suggesting that the result of the striking of the capitals and the shaking of the thresholds is the death of those at the head of the crowd. The shaking of the temple, therefore, is portrayed not just as means of canceling its sacral charac‐
64
The Visions
appreciate the full significance of this act we need to take into consider‐ ation the cosmic dimensions which the temple had in Israelite thought. Because of the temple’s cosmic significance, its shaking initiates a catas‐ trophe with cosmic proportions which amounts to the shaking of the stability of the whole world.27 The cosmic aspect of the temple ideology finds a very appropriate continuation in the cosmic picture of the flight in vv 2‐4 where the whole world is not sufficient to provide a safe hid‐ ing place from God.28 On the structural level vv 1‐4 look like a single literary unit, which is crafted with a considerable literary skill. The divine speech in v. 1a is carefully structured in two cola containing two words each (verb – noun // verb – noun): הך הכפתור וירעשו הספים This is followed by two cola with three words each which have a chias‐ tic structure (verb – noun with beth – noun with 3 pers. masc. pl. suffix // noun with 3 pers. masc. pl. suffix ‐ noun with beth – verb):29 ובצעם בראש כלם ואחריתם בחרב אהרג The verb sequence alternates between imperative (strike), indicative (will shake), imperative (cut them), indicative (I will kill). The final bicolon of v. 1 serves as a general subject heading for what follows by introducing the idea of the impossibility of escape. The central unifying factor of the divine speech in v. 1 is two pairs of contrasting concepts: capital – thresholds; בראש כלם – אחריתם. These pairs express the idea of all‐inclusiveness, the whole temple shakes, all the people die. This cha‐ racteristic feature of the opening lines is central to the sequence in vv 2‐ 4. The use of paired concepts designating the highest and the lowest point (heaven – Sheol; top of Carmel – bottom of the sea) expresses the idea of the all‐inclusive nature of God’s presence from which Israel ter but as the action which initiates the execution of the Israelites. The most coherent interpretation of that is to picture the worshippers as being killed by the collapsing temple. The mention of ‘the earthquake’ in the superscription may be taken to imply that this is how the early collectors of Amos’ oracles understood 9:1. 27 Jeremias, ‘unzugängliche Heiligtum,’ 248‐256; idem, 124‐125 ET 156‐157; Harten‐ stein, Unzugänglichkeit Gottes, 112‐114; Heyns, ‘Space and time in Amos 7,’ 32; Schart, 123; Koenen, Bethel, 170‐171. On the cosmic dimentions of the temple ideology see Clements, God and Temple, 65‐68; Hartenstein, ‘Wolkendunkel und Himmelsfeste,’ 125‐126. 28 It is also interesting to note that the word used for the ‘bottom’ ()קרקע of the sea is otherwise usually used of temple floors. 29 Waschke, ‘fünfte Vision,’ 440.
II. The fifth vision
65
cannot hide. The pairs are a merismus for the universe and reflect the use of the capital and the thresholds which in v. 1a in a similar way depict the shaken temple. V. 1a is closely related to the following: the phrase ‘to kill by the sword’ is repeated in v. 4 and serves as an inclu‐ sion; there is a play on words between בראש in v. 1 and the ‘top of Car‐ mel’ in v. 3.
2. The relationship of the fifth vision to the preceding Whilst the first two visions are presented in pairs, the fifth vision stands apart both by reason of its different introduction and its differ‐ ent structure. On the other hand, there are a number of connections with the third vision (7:7‐8). In contrast to the other three visions where אדני יהוה is used, both the third and the fifth visions begin with the Lord ()אדני, who is ‘standing on/at’ ()נצב על the wall/altar and both use the verb שים (‘to set’) in the description of judgment (7:8, 9:4).30 Further‐ more whilst the first, second and fourth visions have reference to dif‐ ferent seasons of the year (spring, summer, early autumn),31 the third and fifth visions lack such a reference. Thematically 9:1‐4 is related to 8:1‐2 because in both passages an initial picture of blessing (basket of fruits; Yahweh at the altar) is transformed into a proclamation of doom.32 The basket of summer fruits in 8:1‐2 is related by a number of commentators to the autumn harvest festival33 and if this is true it would provide one more link with 9:1 where Yahweh is standing at the altar, again presumably on some festive occasion. Finally, as is often noted, there are five conditional clauses commencing with אם in 9:2‐4. In view of the fact that there are a number of passages in the book of Amos where we have series of five elements (an original series of five OAN in chs 1‐2; fivefold repetition of the refrain in 4:6‐11; five visions in chs 7‐9) this fivefold sequence in 9:2‐4 seems significant. It is proba‐ ble that it presupposes and is intended to reflect the sequence of five visions.34 The clauses in vv 2‐4 are arranged in two pairs culminating in a final fifth element much like the visions. Therefore, since it was ar‐ gued earlier that vv 2‐4 are an integral part of the vision, it is hard to escape the conclusion that whoever wrote 9:1‐4 intended them to be 30 יד also appears in both places: 7:7, 9:2. 31 Talmon, ‘Gezer Calendar,’ 183‐184. 32 This relationship was clearly seen by the author of Jer. 24 who combines the last 2 visions of Amos. There Jeremiah sees two baskets of figs placed before the temple. 33 Reventlow, Amt, 55; Hammershaimb, 120 among others. 34 Gese, ‘Komposition,’ 84; Auld, Amos, 21.
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them to be seen as the conclusion and climax of a five part visions report. This leaves us with two options: either the fifth vision was conceived from the start as part of the same composition or it is a later Fortschreibung of the four visions report. Those who take the second view base themselves on the formal and thematic differences between 9:1‐4 and the preceding visions. The fifth vision has a different introduction (‘I saw’ instead of ‘thus the Lord Yahweh showed me’) albeit using the same verb ()ראה but in Qal rather than in Hiphil. There is no dialogue between Yahweh and the prophet and the focus of the visionary event is not an object or an action which Yahweh shows the prophet, but the person of Yahweh himself. Finally, not only can the fourth vision (8:1‐2) form a satisfactory and effective climax to the series, which requires no continuation or further explana‐ tion, but with 9:1‐4 we have a change of focus from the unavoidability of Israel’s end (‘I will no longer pass by them’) to the new theme that no one will be able to escape in the day of disaster.35 It is, however, questionable that a major change of theme and direc‐ tion takes place with the final vision. The idea of inescapability of judgment permeates the whole visions report. The first four visions deal with one aspect of it. Israel cannot escape judgment because her sins have reached their limit. Judgment is unavoidable because pro‐ phetic intercession as a way out is not an option any more. The fifth vision deals with another aspect: judgment is unavoidable because no one can hide from Yahweh. As a whole the five visions stress both the resolve and the ability of Yahweh to punish his people. God’s grace has ended (7:1‐8; 8:1‐2) but his ability to seek and destroy has not (9:1‐4). The graphic portrayal of panic and slaughter in 9:1‐4 is a necessary continuation of the otherwise pale and general statement of 8:2 which theoretically could be taken as a conclusion to the sequence but which hardly possesses the emotional charge to bring home effectively the point that the end has indeed come for ‘my people Israel’. The formal peculiarities of the fifth vision must be taken against the background of its clear connections with 7:7‐8 outlined above. These connections show that the author of 9:1‐4 wrote his passage with an eye on the preceding visions. If that was the case there must be some inten‐ tion and purpose behind the differences in the introduction and struc‐ ture of the fifth vision. These differences are most plausibly explained with a reference to the concluding, climactic function of 9:1‐4 and the necessity to draw out in a more explicit and graphic way the terrible 35 Maag, 47; Köhlmoos, ‘Amos 9,1‐4,’ 169‐170; Steins, ‘Geburtsprotokoll,’ 590; Behrens, Visionsschilderungen, 102.
II. The fifth vision
67
consequences hinted by the otherwise peaceful images of the plumb‐ line and the basket of summer fruits in 7:7‐8 and 8:1‐2. The explicit presence of Yahweh in the vision and the lack of a dialogue between him and Amos is probably the final stage of a thematic development within the visions report in which the increasing stress on the judgment of Israel goes hand in hand with the decreasing role of the prophet. Amos leaves the stage, Yahweh steps in and the inevitable end of Israel becomes a reality. The different introduction may be related to the fact that in the fifth vision the attention is turned directly towards the per‐ son of Yahweh himself and not to an object he holds or an event he initiates.36 It may be the means to prepare the reader for the fact that what Amos sees now is God himself. This exclusive focus on the person of Yahweh in turn is related to the depiction of all inclusive and terrible judgment.37 So far I have endeavoured to demonstrate that, on one hand, there is no thematic discontinuity with the fifth vision and, on the other, the formal differences allow but do not necessitate the hypothesis of differ‐ ent authorship for 9:1‐4. A positive argument in favour of the position that the author of 9:1‐4 and the other four visions is one and the same person is provided by the introduction of the third vision (7:7). This introduction differs from those of the other visions (7:1, 4; 8:1) in that the phrase אדני יהוה is somewhat awkwardly missing after the initial verb הראני whilst after הנה the subject of the participle (‘standing’) is explicitly identified as אדני. This peculiarity has led to a number of pro‐ posed emendations of the text, some of which claim the support of LXX where the introduction in 7:7 is the same as that of the other visions.38 However, a simple explanation of the shape of the MT is at hand. The author of the visions wanted to emphasise the central place and the 36 So also Weiser, Profetie, 41, 48 who in addition points out that the fact that Amos sees Yahweh makes the question ‚What do you see, Amos?’ and the ensuing dialogue re‐ dundant. The word ראיתי is often used to describe a visionary experience of God (the perfect: Gen. 32:31; Judg. 6:22; 1 Kings 22:19; cf also 1 Sam. 28:13; the imperfect with waw‐consecutive: Is. 6:1; Ez. 8:2; 10:1; cf Ps. 42:3[2]). 37 It is possible that there is some development within the visions: the first two visions concentrate on the agents of Yahweh’s judgment (locusts and fire); in the third and fourth vision the refrain ‘I will no longer pass by them’ shifts the attention towards Yahweh’s personal involvement in Israel’s punishment and this finds its climax in the fifth vision where it is Yahweh who is the sole focus of the vision. 38 (i) Niditch, Symbolic Vision, 21 transposes אדני after ‘showed me’ and then has ‘and behold a man ()איש stationed at the wall’; cf also Amsler, 225. (ii) Reventlow, Amt, 32,37 reads ;כה הראני אדני יהוה והנה נצב cf Löhr, Untersuchungen, 26; Rudolph, 234; Mays, 131. (iii) Jeremias, 94‐95 ET 123‐124 argues that the second occurrence of the phrase אדני יהוה in 7:4 originally stood in v. 7 from where it was subsequently moved to v. 4. (iv) Wolff, 338 ET 293 suggests: ;כה הראני יהוה והנה נצב cf Willi‐Plein, 46.
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importance of the third vision, because in the original sequence it not only stood right in the centre of the composition but with the image of the plumb‐line (cf below ch. 4 §II. 3) it served as an explanation of the transition between the first pair where Yahweh repents of his plans to destroy Jacob and the following visions where the end of Israel is un‐ compromisingly announced. To do that the author endeavoured to link the third vision simultaneously with 8:1‐2 and 9:1‐4. The third and fourth visions are clearly and firmly connected by virtue of their com‐ mon structure and repeating refrains. The connection between the third and the fifth visions is provided by the use of imagery which does not refer to the agricultural cycle of the year (in contrast to 7:1‐6; 8:1‐2) and by the repetition of the phrase אדני נצב על in 7:7 and 9:1. To achieve the desired verbal repetition in 7:7 the author omitted אדני יהוה, which is otherwise typical for the visions, and transferred אדני behind הנה.39 If this hypothesis is correct then the whole visions report must be the work of a single author.40
3. The origin of the fifth vision Another line of argument for the separation of 9:1‐4 from 7:1‐8; 8:1‐2 is the supposition that the first four visions come from Amos whilst the fifth bears the marks of a later age. Apart from the contention that Am. 9:1‐4 is dependent on Is. 6:1‐4, which was briefly touched upon above (ch. 1 §IV. 6), the main arguments for the lateness of the passage centre around its style, its relation to the present book of Amos and the my‐ thological motifs found in vv 2‐4. Unusual (= unamosian) style is de‐ tected in the use of hyperbole and conditional sentences introduced with ;אם the phrase הלך בשבי occurs only in texts which refer to the Baby‐ lonian exile, Amos uses the root ;גלה ‘set my eyes on them for evil and not for good’ is influenced by JerDtr. The cosmic and mythical motifs of 39 MT here is defended by Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 101 n. 2 on the basis of the suggestion that the shorter introduction can be explained by the fact that the Lord is present in the third vision unlike in the other three cases and by Barthélemy, Critique textuelle, 679 who argues that the divine title before הנה was omitted in order not to overburden the line. 40 The hypothesis of Bergler, ‘Auf der Mauer,’ 445‐471, namely that the third and fifth visions are later additions, is another possible explanation of the outlined literary phenomena. However, I prefer not to take this road because, on one hand, it is based on the conviction (which I do not share; cf the discussion below) that the fifth vision is a later composition, and, on the other, because, as Koenen, Bethel, 170 n. 99 rightly notes, the third and fifth visions do not exhibit any tensions with the rest of the vi‐ sions which demand different authorship.
II. The fifth vision
69
vv 2‐4 do not appear elsewhere in the book of Amos but are encoun‐ tered in late texts (Ps. 139; Job 11:8‐9) and the belief in Yahweh’s power over Sheol is attested only in later times. Finally, a number of phrases in these verses suggest that the redactor(s) were copying from / trying to allude to texts from the book of Amos: ‘escape’ ()נוס and ‘rescue’ ()מלט 2:14‐16; ‘top of Carmel’ 1:2; ‘snake bites’ 5:19; ‘go to captivity’ 1:15 (with גולה instead of ;)שבי ‘evil and not good’ (5:14‐15).41 The phrase ‘set my eyes for evil and not for good’ is best regarded as evidence of Amosian influence on the Jeremiah tradition.42 The fact that the phrase ‘to walk into captivity’ in the OT usually refers to the Babylonian exile does not automatically necessitate a late dating of our passage. שבי in itself is not a late word (cf Judg. 5:12) and nothing in the phrase itself makes it impossible as coming from Amos. However its frequent appearance in later texts might be an indication that it was a cliché, particularly common in a later period, and its presence in Am. 9:4 can very well betray a redactor, using the language of his time. This argument against Amosian authorship could have some limited force but only as part of cumulative evidence (ch. 1 §IV. 5). The appearance of motifs similar to Am. 9:2‐4 in later texts like Ps. 139 and Job. 11:8‐9 does not militate against the Amosian authorship of vv 2‐4. It is unlikely that there is a literary relationship between Amos and Ps. 139,43 rather we seem to have variations of a common tradition‐ 41 Willi‐Plein, 52‐54; Robinson, 105; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies I,’ 109‐112; Rottzoll, 100‐104; Bergler, ‘Auf der Mauer,’ 452‐454; Steins, ‘Geburtsprotokoll,’ 601; Löhr, Un‐ tersuchungen, 14; Waschke, ‘fünfte Vision,’ 438‐443 for whom however, in contrast to Rottzoll, the tensions and the ‘Kopierungsmerkmalen’ are a sign of one late redactor composing the whole of 9:1‐4. Nowack, 165 thinks Am. 9:4b is a gloss influenced by Jeremiah. 42 In Jer. 24:6 (‘I will set my eyes on them for good’) the phrase is part of the vision report which is clearly dependent on the visions of Amos: Thiel, Redaktion Jeremia 1‐ 25, 259‐260; Beyerlin, Amosvisionen im Jeremiabuch, 68‐85; Berridge, ‘Jeremia und Amos,’ 325‐328; Pschibille, Löwe, 40‐47 (esp. 46); Schart, ‘Jeremiavisionen,’ 194‐195; Holladay, Jeremiah, 1:658. It is possible that the expression in Jer. 21:10 is the result of the combined influence of Amos 9:4 (‘set my eyes against them for evil and not for good’ so Berridge, ‘Jeremia und Amos,’ 328; Lundbom, Jeremiah, 106) and the typical for Ezekiel phrase (‘set my face against them’ so Holladay, Jeremiah, 1:574). 43 Contra Deissler, 132 who thinks Ps. 139 was inspired by Amos and Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies I,’ 109 who is of the opinion that Am. 9:2‐4 is dependent on Ps. 139. In Ps. 139 the sequence is heaven – sheol – ends of the sea – darkness, in contrast to Amos: sheol – heaven – top of Carmel – the bottom of the sea. There is little vocabu‐ lary overlap. Some of the differences could be explained away as due to adaptation to the different context in Amos but not all: cf עלה (Am. 9:2) with the hapax סלק ‘as‐ cend’ (Ps. 139:8); the use of ברח in Ps. 139:7 to describe the flight in comparison with נוס, חתר, חבא and סתר in Am. 9:1‐3. Whilst in Ps. 139:7 it is from the spirit and the face of Yahweh that the psalmist cannot hide, in Am. 9:1‐4 we encounter ‘the serpent’
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al motif, which is quite probably early.44 The presence of mythical lan‐ guage in the mouth of an 8th century BC Israelite should not be surpris‐ ing, and in any case mythical conceptions lay behind some of the other visions of Amos.45 In Hos. 13:14 Sheol is personified as Yahweh’s ser‐ vant46 in a way not dissimilar to that of the sword and the snake/the chaos monster in Am. 9:3‐4, implying that belief in Yahweh’s power over the realm of the dead was not unthinkable in pre‐exilic Israel.47 The mythical background behind vv 2‐4 has been most recently ex‐ amined by Irsigler who argues that the opposition between vertical opposites in the fifth vision (heaven‐underworld) reflects polemically the traditions of the Bethel temple (Gen. 28:12‐17) and that the mytho‐ logical substratum of the vision comes from ANE ideas associated with the sun‐god which were already current in Israel in the 8th century BC.48 Finally, the parallels with other parts of the book must be ex‐ amined. The link between 9:3 and 1:2 is particularly striking. However, it must be observed that 1:2 relates also to 3:8 ()שאג and to 9:5 ()אבל and is to be regarded as the later text. The repetition of the roots נוס and מלט in 2:14‐16 is also probably the result of dependence of 2:14‐16 on 9:1‐4. The conclusion of the Israel oracle (2:6‐16*) deviates strikingly from the announcements of judgment of the other 4 OAN in that the punishment
44
45
46
47 48
and ‘the sword’ as his agents, only the ‘hand’ ( )יד appears in both passages. Heaven, earth, the underworld, the mountains and the sea are the stock elements in various cosmological formulas not only in ancient Israel but also in Mesopotamia and Egypt; cf the survey in Krüger, ‘Himmel,’ 65‐83 (who, however, dates Am. 9:2‐4 to the post‐ exilic period; cf p. 71 n. 7). The parallel expression in the Amarna letter no. 264.15 (Knudtzon et al, El‐Amarna‐ Tafeln, 1:827) is noted by a number of scholars: Knudtzon et al, El‐Amarna‐Tafeln, 2:1323; Sellin, 266; Weiser, Profetie, 45; Kraus, Psalmen, 2:919 ET 2:516; Crenshaw, Hymnic Affirmation, 133 n. 80; Mays, 154 who concludes that it is rooted in ‘wide‐ spread hymnic tradition’ in the ANE. Schmidt, ‘Mythos,’ 628‐629; on the mythical background of the second vision (7:4‐6) see Reventlow, Amt, 39; Hillers, ‘Amos 7,4,’ 221‐225; Wolff, 344‐345 ET 298‐299; Ru‐ precht, ‘Zepter Jahwes,’ 62. Contrast Rudolph, 233. The text is difficult (Ben Zvi, Hosea, 274‐275) but if we interpret the two initial claus‐ es as interrogative then the verse can be taken to proclaim Yahweh’s resolve to pu‐ nish his people (Davies, Hosea, 295‐296). Mays, Hosea, 182; Rudolph, Hosea, 245. Irsigler, ‘Keine Flucht,’ 196‐216. On the connections between Am. 9:1‐4 and Bethel’s cosmological conceptions see further Hartenstein, ‘Wolkendunkel und Himmels‐ feste,’ 153‐160. The links of the sun deity with heaven and the underworld can be clearly seen in the Shamash hymn (Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, 121‐138; cf lines 2, 4, 26, 31, 37, 38) as well as in Ugaritic (Healey, ‘Sun Deity and Underworld,’ 239‐240) and Egyptian literature (Krüger, ‘Himmel,’ 74‐75). On the influence of solar concepts on Yahwism in pre‐exilic times see Janowski, ‘JHWH und der Sonnengott,’ 214‐241.
II. The fifth vision
71
described in it is much weaker. It does not have the usual ‘I will send fire’ formula and it talks neither about exile (cf Damascus and Ammon oracles), nor about total death (cf Gaza and Moab oracles) but only about a serious military defeat from which no one will be able to es‐ cape. Within the context of the 5 OAN this punishment might appear to be somewhat anti‐climactic if the OAN are taken on their own. Most probably, however, they were not meant to be taken as a separate com‐ position but rather 2:14‐16 refers to and prepares the way for 9:1‐4 where exile and total death are in store for Israel. It is doubtful that ‘for evil and not for good’ is a conscious allusion to 5:14‐15. If this was the case it would be difficult to explain why the editor decided to use the feminine form of the adjectives rather than the masculine, which is used in ch. 5 (cf the feminine in 3:6).49 The phrase ‘snake bites’ (9:3) is an exact verbal repetition of the same expression in 5:19 and there is no reason to think that 5:19 is de‐ pendent on 9:3. The word נחש in our passage refers not to an ordinary snake (unlike 5:19) but to the mythical sea dragon. For Waschke this is undoubtedly an indication of different authorship.50 The unspoken assumption behind that argument is that no author would use exactly the same phrase with two different meanings. I have some doubts about the validity of this assumption.51 For example in Am. 5:17 and 7:8, 8:2 (passages generally regarded as Amosian) the verb עבר is used in two quite different senses. In the first case, used with the preposition ב, it describes the ‘passing’ of Yahweh in Israel’s midst in judgment. In the visions, used with a different preposition ()ל, it signals the fact that Yahweh will no longer ‘overlook’ (i.e. pass over) the transgressions of Israel (the full idiom is found in Mic. 7:18; cf Pr. 19:11). In 2:6‐8 the verb נטה is used twice within the same passage with two different meanings: to ‘pervert’ the way of the poor (7) and to ‘recline’52 on cloaks (8). Play on words may be achieved not only by using different words that sound similar but also by using the same word with different mean‐ ings. If נחש נשך, a phrase which in itself contains an element of wordplay, was a favourite expression of Amos, there is no reason why 49 That the masculine adjectives could have been used here is shown by the compara‐ ble phrase which comes up in the parallel passages 1 Kings 22:8 and 2 Chr. 18:7, the first of which uses the masculine and the second, the feminine form of the two adjec‐ tives. 50 Waschke, ‘fünfte Vision,’ 443. 51 As does also Koenen, Bethel, 169 n. 99. 52 Wolff, 163 ET 134 translates ‚spread out’ (ausbreiten) and takes the cloaks to be the object of the verb. The alternative is to take the verb here as intransitive; cf Amsler, 179, n. 3 among others.
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he could not have used it with a different meaning on a different occa‐ sion, perhaps alluding to some of his other oracles which treat a similar subject (5:18‐20). Therefore, while the different sense of נחש in 5:19 and 9:3 is perfectly compatible with the hypothesis that these passages stem from different people, it does not absolutely demand that conclusion. To summarise, the arguments from the contents and style of vv 2‐4 do not necessitate the conclusion for their redactional character. Most of the allusions in the vision are actually in the other direction, of other texts from the book alluding to the vision. Two points have some li‐ mited value as arguments against the authenticity of 9:2‐4: the phrase ‘to go into captivity’ and ‘snake bites’. Both of these, however, could serve at best as supporting evidence and cannot carry the weight of the case on their shoulders. On the other hand, all these arguments need to be considered against the background of the number of indications of the Amosian authorship of these verses.53 The sanctuary as the scene of judgment relates well and continues the theme of cultic criticism found elsewhere in the book (4:4‐5; 5:21‐24). In fact it has much in common with Am. 3:14‐15 where the horns of the altar of Bethel are cut off and following that there is a divine blow on the houses of the rich, which may well be an allusion to an earthquake. The central idea of 9:1b‐4, the impossibili‐ ty of escape, comes up also in 5:18‐20. The deadly effect of the divine presence is a motif which appears (polemically) in 5:16‐17. The tech‐ nique of taking a positive image and turning it into a negative picture of judgment (2:13 loaded cart; 8:1‐2 basket of summer fruits) as well as turning the expectations and beliefs of the audience on its head (9:7 the exodus from Egypt; 5:14 the reality of the presence of Yahweh and its implications; 5:18‐20 the day of Yahweh) is typically Amosian. In 9:1 Amos sees Yahweh standing by the altar, but his presence in the temple is not intended to bring Israel blessing and assurance but judgment and death.54 Likewise the phrase ‘to set my eyes over’ (9:4), which usually has positive overtones,55 is here used in a negative sense. Finally, from the superscription of the book it is clear that Amos was remembered among other things as predicting an earthquake. There are a number of 53 This is recognized by Willi‐Plein, 53‐54 who interestingly enough, after arguing for the secondary character of vv 2‐4, includes the following comment: ‘die Einfügung [i.e. vv 2‐4] theologisch vollkommen sachgemäß die Botschaft des Amos entfaltet und nicht nur gut in den vorliegenden Spruch paßt, sondern auch fest im Amosgut verankert ist.’ 54 Fuhs, ‘Amos 1,1,’ 283; Soggin, 123. 55 Gen. 44:21; Jer. 39:12; 40:4; without the verb: Dt. 11:12; 1 Kings 9:3; 2 Chr. 7:15‐16; Ps. 32:8; 34:16; Pr. 22:12 (cf Ps. 101:6 and Is. 1:15).
III. The date of the visions report
73
verses in the book which could be understood to refer to an earthquake (2:13; 3:15; 6:11) but none of them is as explicit as the fifth vision, which talks about the shaking of the temple and is the only passage using the verb רעש apart from 1:1. It is not unreasonable to conclude that it is in fact this vision which made Amos’ contemporaries remember him as the ‘prophet who predicted the earthquake’.
III. The date of the visions report Recently the proposal has been put forward to down‐date the whole visions report to the exilic/post‐exilic period. The two main arguments presented by Becker in support of this thesis are, on one hand, the al‐ leged dependence of 7:1‐8; 8:1‐2 on (late) Pentateuchal texts56 and, on the other, their literary dependence on Amos chs 3‐6.57 First, Becker holds that Amos 7:1‐8:2* alludes to Gen. 6:5‐8, 8:21‐22 and attempts, with the help of creation and flood traditions, to depict the end of Israel as a cosmic event.58 The specific verbal links between Amos and Genesis are as follows: (i) Yahweh repents ()נחם for creating man (Gen. 6:6, 7) – he ‘repents’ ()נחם of the evil he plans against Israel (Am. 7:3, 6); (ii) Yahweh will ‘no longer’ ()לא אסף עוד bring destruction on the earth (Gen. 8:21) – he will no longer overlook Israel’s transgres‐ sions (Am. 7:8; 8:2); (iii) Yahweh swears that ‘summer ()קיץ and winter’ will not cease (Gen. 8:22) – see the play on words between ‘end’ and ‘summer fruits’ ()קיץ in Am. 8:2. However, all these are so common‐ place that they hardly suggest any particular connection between the two sets of texts. The idea of Yahweh repenting is encountered in a number of OT texts.59 Moreover, in Genesis Yahweh repents of some‐ thing good (the creation of man), while in Amos he repents of the evil he plans to bring on Israel. The combination of עוד and יסף meaning ‘again’ is also common enough to make its appearance in Amos and Genesis practically useless for literary‐critical purposes.60 Finally, it is 56 Becker, ‘Prophet als Fürbitter,’ 150‐155. Cf also Steins, ‘Geburtsprotokoll,’ 596‐599 who argues that the visions are a theological reflection in the light of the Sinai peri‐ cope (Ex. 32‐34). Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 172‐173 suggests that there is a literary relationship with 1 Kings 8:37‐38 where locusts and plea for forgiveness ()סלח also go together though he thinks Amos is the earlier text. 57 Becker, ‘Prophet als Fürbitter,’ 158‐161. 58 Becker, ‘Prophet als Fürbitter,’ 151‐152. 59 Cf the thorough study in Andersen and Freedman, 638‐679. 60 I have counted 24 verses in all where the expression ‘not again’ ()לא יוסיף עוד appears: Gen. 8:12; 8:21; 38:26; Ex. 10:29; 14:13; Dt. 17:16; 28:68; Judg. 13:21; 1 Sam. 7:13; 27:4; 2
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Finally, it is not certain that any link can be postulated between the ‘end/summer fruits’ word‐play in Amos and Gen. 8:22 where the ‘summer’ is not particularly emphasised and is not related in any way to the idea of the end.61 Second, Becker thinks that exodus traditions also stand in the back‐ ground of the visions. More specifically he asks: ‘sollte die Heu‐ schreckenplage in Ex. x dem Verfasser der Amos‐Vision als direktes Vorbild gedient haben?’62 A careful examination of Amos 7 and Ex. 10 shows that the answer to this question is negative. Both texts speak of the coming of locusts which ‘eat up the grass of the earth’ and are then followed by intercessory prayer. These similarities, however, are far less than the differences. The word for locusts is different in both places (ארבה in Exodus; גבי in Amos). In Amos Yahweh creates the locusts, in Exodus he brings them with the help of the east wind. The characteristic motifs of the plague account – the unmatched severity of the locust plague and Pharaoh’s confession of sin and hardening of heart ‐‐ are completely missing from Amos’s vision. In Exodus Pharaoh pleads for mercy and intercession, Moses’ prayer is not actually record‐ ed and there is no mention of any change ()נחם on Yahweh’s part. The motivation of Amos’ request (‘for Jacob is so small’) has no basis in the Exodus story. The vocabulary used for forgiveness is different: שא נא חטאתיin Ex. 10:17; סלח in Am. 7:2. Finally, one needs to keep in mind the fact that fire, which is the subject of the second vision, plays no sig‐ nificant role in the plague tradition (though see Ex. 9:23). The general thesis that creation theology stands in the background of the visions seems to me plausible enough. It is suggested not only by the picture of Yahweh forming locusts but also by the fifth vision where the whole world is portrayed as under his sovereign control. The Sam. 2:28; 14:10; 2 Kings 6:23; 24:7; 1 Chr. 14:13; Is. 10:20; 23:12; Jer. 31:12; Ezek. 36:12; Hos. 1:6; Amos 7:8, 13; 8:2; Nah. 2:1; cf also Ps. 10:18 which uses בל instead of לא. The number of times the expression comes up without the negative particle is compara‐ ble. It is interesting to observe that this expression is rarely used in undisputably post‐exilic texts. 61 ‘The end ()קץ of all flesh has come ()בא before me’ (Gen. 6:13; cf also Ezek. 7:2,6; Jer. 51:13; Lam. 4:18) is part of P and does not belong to the same layer as 8:21‐22. In any case the two texts are too far apart for a meaningful wordplay between them to be discerned. Becker, ‘Prophet als Fürbitter,’ 153‐154 wants to argue that Amos in 8:2 is dependent on P but the relationship here is more probably in the opposite direction (Smend, ‘Ende,’ 67‐72; Greenberg, Ezekiel, 160). On the wordplay in 8:1‐2 see also Rahtjen, ‘Amos 8:1‐2,’ 417 who argues that it is already to be found in the Gezer ca‐ lendar and Wolters, ‘Wordplay and Dialect,’ 407‐410 who suggests that the word‐ play is based on Israelite and Judahite dialiectical differences. 62 Becker, ‘Prophet als Fürbitter,’ 151.
III. The date of the visions report
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mention of the ‘Great Deep’ in 7:4 may also point in this direction.63 We cannot be certain, however, that the source of these concepts was pre‐ cisely the creation account of Genesis, which we now possess. Creation theology was common in the ANE and probably various creation tradi‐ tions existed in pre‐exilic Israel.64 It is not impossible that the visions of Amos reflect polemically some of the traditions of the Bethel temple65 and it is a priori likely that some creation myths were current there as they were current in Jerusalem. Moreover, in ANE treaties the natural calamities of drought and locusts are often mentioned and are closely linked together.66 This may prove to be a more likely source of the im‐ agery of Am. 7:1‐6. Creation theology and other ANE traditions67 seem to provide sufficient background for the imagery behind 7:1‐6 without recourse to the unlikely hypothesis that Amos is dependent directly on Genesis and Exodus texts.68 Finally, Becker’s argument is entirely dependent on the late dating of Gen. 6:5‐8, 8:21‐22 and Ex. 10, which are usually ascribed to J. With‐ out wishing to enter into the complex debate surrounding the dating J in particular and of Pentateuchal traditions in general,69 it is worth pointing out that this assumption somewhat weakens his whole argu‐ ment.70 Becker’s second argument for the lateness of the visions report is its alleged literary dependence on Amos chs 3‐6. He takes the silence in the visions on the theme of Israel’s guilt as an indication that they pre‐ suppose the material in chs 3‐6. In addition 7:1‐6 reflect 4:6‐13, the men‐ 63 Rüterswörden, Dominium terrae, 43‐47; Rossier, Lʹintercession, 330; Heyns, ‘Space and time in Amos 7,’ 31. 64 Emerton, ‘Yahwist,’ 110‐111. 65 Koenen, Bethel, 169‐175; cf also n. 273 above. 66 Fensham, ‘Common Trends,’ 168‐169; Rüterswörden, Dominium terrae, 50‐51. 67 Hillers, ‘Amos 7,4,’ 223‐224; Wolff, 344‐345 ET 298‐299 point out the similarities of Am. 7:4 with the stories in Hesiod’s Theogony. Ruprecht, ‘Zepter Jahwes,’ 62‐63 sees some connections with Gen. 19:24 and the Flood traditions. The motif of Yahweh’s anger consuming Sheol as fire and then going up to destroy the earth, appears also in Dt. 32:22 though the difference in formulation is significant enough to preclude and direct literary relationship. 68 Cf also Gertz, ‘unbedingte Gerichtsankündigung,’ 165. 69 Cf Nicholson, Pentateuch, 95‐248; Kaiser, ‘Pentateuch and DH,’ 291‐307; Collins, Introduction, 59‐64. 70 For a recent argument for a pre‐exilic date of J see Emerton, ‘Yahwist,’ 107‐129. Schmidt, Exodus, 445‐446 reckons that the J version of the plagues predates the ‚clas‐ sical prophets’. In this respect Wöhrle, 104 rightly comments with regard to Becker’s arguments: ‚zur Datierung einer Stelle Hypothesen über die Datierung anderer voraussetzen’.
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tion of Jacob (7:2, 5) is a polemical reference to 6:8 and the repetition of the verb עבר in 7:8 and 8:2 evokes 5:17.71 However, these links do not seem to be sufficiently strong or nu‐ merous to allow us to treat 7:1‐8, 8:1‐2 as Fortschreibung or as ‘exegesis’ of chs 3‐6.72 If 7:1‐3 was meant to allude to 4:9 it is inexplicable why both passages use different words for locusts (גזם in 4:9; גבי in 7:1) and the vegetation attacked by the locusts is different (the grass of the earth in 7:2 as opposed to gardens, vineyards, figs and olives in 4:9). There is some remote connection between the fire which engulfs the ‘Great Deep’ in 7:4 and the plagues in 4:6‐8 in that if the fire is interpreted as drought the end result of both events would be thirst and hunger. Yet the two passages have significantly different focus, concerns and fla‐ vour. In contrast to 7:4‐6, 4:6‐8 lacks any mythological overtones. In 7:4‐ 6 it is the destruction of the land by a fire coming from below and possi‐ bly the drying out of the springs that is in view. In 4:7‐8 it is the lack of rain which causes the crop failure and lack of water in the cities. These differences seem to be too great for any intentional connection to be posited between 4:7‐8 and 7:4‐6. The image of אנך in 7:7‐8, whether it is interpreted as a plumb‐line or as tin, has no basis whatsoever in the preceding chapters and the same is true of the basket with summer fruits in 8:2. It seems, therefore, that the links of 7:1‐8:2* with the pre‐ ceding are both too meagre and too weak to support the hypothesis that the visions are ‘exegesis’ of the preceding chapters. In that connection it is also to be questioned if the lack of discussion of Israel’s sin in the visions indeed necessitates the conclusion that they were written originally to stand after chs 3‐6. If the visions were first written within the context of the oral preaching of Amos or his dis‐ ciples or if some other text like the 5 OAN stood initially before them then it would not have been strange that knowledge of Israel’s guilt is presupposed. It is only when 7:1‐8:2* are taken in total isolation that the lack of mention of Israel’s transgressions becomes a problem.73
71 Becker, ‘Prophet als Fürbitter,’ 158‐159. 72 Wöhrle, 104‐105 finds no meaningful parallels or close connection between chs 3‐6 and 7‐9*. Behrens, Visionsschilderungen, 95 n. 55 sees no evidence for literary depen‐ dence and points out that the connections could be explained as the result of com‐ mon authorship. 73 For an alternative explanation see Schmidt, Zukunftsgewißheit, 17‐18: Amos received initially in the visions a certainty about Israel’s coming end and then only in the course of his preaching did he work out the reason for the coming judgment.
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IV. Conclusion It seems that, in spite of current challenges, the traditional view which holds to the original existence of a visions report, including 7:1‐8; 8:1‐2; 9:1‐4, still has much to commend it. The result of the present investiga‐ tion must not be understood as a claim to prove the Amosian author‐ ship of this report. My aims have been much more modest. I have endeavoured to show that the arguments brought in favour of separating parts of 9:1‐4 from the visions report, and for the later dating of the fifth vision or of the whole visions report are not sufficiently strong. The report makes good sense as a unified composition which displays a number of connections with the other oracles found in the book of Amos. This still does not prove that Amos wrote down the visions we now possess but it makes the assumption that he did so a perfectly reasonable one. The belief that the five visions formed at one time a single composi‐ tion means that the material in 7:9‐17 and 8:3‐14, as well as probably the oracles found after the fifth vision, were inserted in their present position at a later time. The literary history of these passages, therefore, would seem to be of primary interest in the redactional analysis of the book of Amos.
Chapter 4: The Narrative after the Third Vision (Amos 7:9‐17) I. The limits of the passage and the place of v. 9 There is considerable disagreement concerning the place and nature of v. 9. It has been variously identified (i) as an integral part of the third vision;1 (ii) as an independent fragment;2 (iii) as an editorial interpreta‐ tive expansion of the vision;3 (iv) as part of the narrative;4 (v) as a piece composed to provide a link between the narrative and 7:7‐8.5 In terms of language, content and poetic style v. 9 is quite different from the preceding vision which reaches a satisfactory conclusion with the proclamation ‘I will no longer pass by him’ in v. 8.6 While the vision speaks of ‘my people Israel’ (v. 8) the oracle in v. 9 has a different focus: Yahweh’s action is directed towards the Jehu dynasty and the cult places, neither of which features explicitly in 7:7‐8.7 On the other hand, there is a very strong link between v. 9 and the following narrative. Two of the words in that verse (ישחק and )מקדש do not appear elsewhere in Amos apart from 7:13, 16 and ישחק is spelt in an unusual way (with ש 1
2 3
4
5
6 7
Greßmann, 350‐351; Mays, 133; Rudolph, 237; Gese, ‘Komposition,’ 78‐83; Niditch, Symbolic Vision, 22‐23; Paul, 236 n. 86; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 183‐186; Auld, Amos, 20; Wood, 38‐40. Robinson, 99 (8c‐9); Amsler, 227; Maag, 47‐48; Watts, Vision and Prophecy, 61, 65; Willi‐Plein, 46 (v. 9a from Amos, 9b redactional). Koch, Amos, 2:48; Clements, ‘Politics of Israel,’ 27‐30 (the years after the fall of Jehu dynasty); Gillingham, The Image, 92‐93 n. 26 (Amos’ disciples after the end of Jehu dynasty and rise of Tiglath‐pileser); Levin, ‘Amos und Jerobeam I,’ 309 (late). Winter, ‘Analyse,’ 356‐358; Dijkstra, ‘Neither a Prophet,’ 113‐115; Ackroyd, ‘Judg‐ ment Narrative,’ 73. Lombaard, ‘What is Isaac doing,’ 435‐442 suggests that v. 9 orig‐ inally stood at the end of the narrative from where it was subsequently moved to its present position. Wöhrle, 113 thinks that v. 9 is a later isolated gloss on vv 10‐17. Weiser, 185; Fosbroke, 833; Schmidt, ‘Amazja‐Erzählung,’ 225; cf also Bjørndalen, ‘Zukunft des Amazja,’ 237‐238 n. 3. Those responsible for the addition are identified either as (i) the Amos school: Wolff, 340, 348 ET 295, 301‐302; (ii) Amos tradents in‐ fluenced by Hoseanic traditions: Jeremias, 111‐112 ET 142; Schart, 86‐88; Behrens, Vi‐ sionsschilderungen, 89 n. 37; (iii) Dtr: Vermeylen, 565‐567; Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 387; Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 79 n. 74; (iv) post‐exilic priestly‐Dtr: Rottzoll, 253‐254. Wolff, 340 ET 295. Schart, 86; Lombaard, ‘What is Isaac doing,’ 437‐438.
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rather than with )צ which outside our present passage comes up in only two other places in the OT (Jer. 33:26 and Ps. 105:9).8 Some of the voca‐ bulary of v. 9 can perhaps be explained by the desire to achieve wordplays with the following narrative.9 Apart from the superscrip‐ tion, 7:9 and 7:10‐17 are the only places in the book of Amos to mention king Jeroboam by name or even to refer directly to an Israelite king. Beyond the linguistic affinities there is also a strong thematic link be‐ tween v. 9 and the narrative. In 7:9 two twin themes are introduced: condemnation of the cult and the monarchy of Israel. These themes are developed and explored in the following story through the characters of (the indirectly present) Jeroboam and Amaziah. At the same time, formally v. 9 does not look like an introduction to the following narrative but reads most naturally as a conclusion of the vision, much like its parallel piece in 8:3. Whilst on the diachronic plane v. 9 belongs to the narrative, from a synchronic perspective it should be taken together with vv 7‐8. When the redactor inserted the narrative after the third vision he provided the vision with a poetic conclusion (v. 9) in order to smooth the transition to the narrative.10
II. Origin of the narrative 1. The composition of vv 9‐17 Traditionally most scholars believe that the narrative had an indepen‐ dent prior existence and was only secondarily moved to its present position,11 though the reasons for its displacement were either shroud‐ 8
Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 103‐104; Dijkstra, ‘Neither a prophet,’ 114; Vermeylen, 565‐566; Andersen and Freedman, 755. 9 Cf במות with ימות (v. 11) and תמות (v. 17); בחרב and יחרבו with בקרב (v. 10) and בחרב (vv 11, 17); ‘to rise ()קום with the sword’ forms an effective contrast to ‘fall ()נפל by the sword’ (v. 17) which reminds the reader of the juxtaposition of the two verbs in 5:2. This picks up a concern voiced in the intercession of Amos ‘how will Jacob rise’ (7:2, 5; )קום. 10 Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 189 points out that v. 9 plays the role of a literary bridge between the vision and the narrative. 11 Cf among others Tucker, ‘Prophetic Authenticity,’ 425‐426; Ackroyd, ‘Judgment Narrative,’ 81‐82; Schmidt, ‘Amazja‐Erzählung,’ 224‐226; Dijkstra, ‘Neither a proph‐ et,’ 115‐116. Fosbroke, 834 suggests that we have here an excerpt from a ‘longer ac‐ count of Amos’ ministry’; cf also Winter, ‘Analyse,’ 356 (part of a prophetic biogra‐ phy). Blenkinsopp, History of Prophecy, 77 thinks it was part of an alternative account of the reign of Jeroboam II more critical than the one we find in 2 Kings 14:23‐29.
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The Narrative after the Third Vision (7:9‐17)
ed in mystery,12 explained as an accident13 or most often explained on the basis of the catchword principle with 7:9.14 Pfeifer has argued that the narrative was written by Amos himself15 but most would attribute it to a contemporary or a disciple of the prophet16 and would date its composition within the 8th century BC.17 The belief in the early origin and independent existence of 7:10‐17 has led to a second, widely held conviction, namely that it gives us access to reliable information con‐ cerning the prophet.18 In more recent years both of these assumptions have been strongly challenged. An increasing number of scholars argue that 7:10‐17 did not circulate at any one time independently but was especially com‐ posed for its present context.19 Clements thinks it represents an inter‐ pretation of the third vision which aims to show that it was fulfilled in the collapse of the Northern kingdom under Assyria.20 There are also increasing doubts about its historical value.21 There are a number of striking literary connections between the narrative and the visions. The most important ones are: ישראל בקרב עמי (v. 8) ‐ ישראל בקרב בית (v. 10); ‘my people Israel’ comes up in v. 8 and v. 15 (cf 8:2; outside the visions and narrative report it occurs only in the late 9:14); לא אוסיף עוד in v. 8 is repeated by Amaziah in v. 13 and this repetition creates a very powerful ironic contrast: the Lord will no more pass by Israel; Amos is no more to prophesy at Bethel. Behrens sees also a syntactical link between 7:2, 5 ()כי קטן הוא and 7:13 ( כי מקדש מלך הוא ובית 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19
20 21
Fosbroke, 834. Amsler, 228. Rudolph, 252; Paul, 238 among others. Pfeifer, ‘Amos 7:10‐17,’ 116‐118; idem, Theologie, 75; cf Fohrer, Propheten, 53. Wolff, 355‐356 ET 308‐309; Cripps, 228; Weiser, 190; Mays, 134; Deissler, 125; Park, Amos, 103‐104; Schart, 87‐88. Wolff, 355‐356 ET 308‐309 (Beersheba, c. 735 BC); Paas, ‘Seeing and Singing,’ 264 (inserted in Judah shortly after 722 BC); Tucker, ‘Prophetic Authenticity,’ 431 (‘very soon after Amos…in Judah’); Hayes, 240 (750s to 734/733 BC); Sweeney, Josiah, 283 (the reign of Hezekiah); Schmidt, ‘Amazja‐Erzählung,’ 226‐230 (in Judah when Jero‐ boam II was still alive or very shortly after his death). Cripps, 227; Weiser, 190; Hammershaimb, 114; Rudolph, 252 among others. For a recent discussion of this issue see Schmidt, ‘Amazja‐Erzählung,’ 230‐234. Utzschneider, ‘Amazjaerzählung,’ 76‐101; Jeremias, ‘Rolle des Propheten,’ 277; Noble, ‘Amos and Amaziah,’ 432, n. 27; Wood, 73; Werlitz, ‘Amos und sein Biograph,’ 244‐245; Behrens, Visionsschilderungen, 88‐91; Gertz, ‘unbedingte Gerichtsankündigung,’ 156‐157; Wöhrle, 111. Clements, ‘Politics of Israel,’ 30‐31. Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 23; Coggins, 142‐146; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 58; Ackroyd, ‘Judgment Narrative,’ 80; Auld, Amos, 28‐29.
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)ממלכה הוא.22 Of course if v. 9 is included in the vision report the number of connections will be dramatically increased but as I have argued above this verse belongs with the narrative, not the vision. It seems to me that the most logical and simple explanation of these links is to concede that the narrative has some sort of literary connec‐ tion with the visions report from the time of its written composition.23 However, this needs to be balanced with a recognition of its intrusive nature within chs 7‐8. If 7:10‐17 was composed originally to stand after the third vision the least its author could have done was to preserve the first person narration of 7:1‐8 and 8:1‐2. The intrusiveness of the story is even more evident when it is considered in connection with 8:3‐14, a similarly intrusive collection of oracles which now stands between the fourth and the fifth vision. It is not impossible that 7:10‐17 and 8:3‐14 were inserted after the third and the fourth vision respectively as part of the same redaction with the aim to reinterpret and restructure the original five‐visions report. The narrative’s literary connections are with the visions report as a whole, not just with the third vision. The phrases ‘my people Israel’ and לא אוסיף עוד come up in 8:2 as well as in 7:8 and so connect 7:10‐17 simultaneously with the third and the fourth visions. There are also a number of connections with the fifth vision (9:1‐4). The motif of death by the sword (;חרב 7: 11, 17) would follow nicely from 9:1, 4 and the theme of Yahweh standing at the altar (9:1) finds its natural continua‐ tion in the confrontation at the Bethel sanctuary (7:13). The twice re‐ peated ‘there’ ()שם in 7:12 would have echoed the fivefold ‘from there’ ()משם of 9:2‐4 and the theme of Yahweh taking ()לקח Amos from behind the flock to prophecy (7:15) contrasts with his determination to ‘take’ ()לקח the Israelites from their hiding places in order to punish them (9:2, 3). This conclusion would be further strengthened if the original visions report ended with 9:9‐10, as I will argue later on. The phrase ‘die ()מות by the sword’ is repeated in 9:10 and 7:11, 17. The combination of ‘house ()בית Israel’ and ‘my people’ ()עמי found in 9:9‐10 is echoed in 7:10, 15. In view of the fact that the five visions report ends with a five cola oracle (9:2‐4) it is interesting to note that the conclusion of the narrative is also an oracle with five cola (7:17). The most economical hypothesis which does justice both to the dis‐ ruptive nature of the narrative within chs 7‐8 and the literary connec‐ 22 Behrens, Visionsschilderungen, 91. 23 Koch, Amos, 2:49 thinks of an oral narrative whose wording was conformed to fit the present context when it was committed to writing; cf also Schart, 87‐88; Vincent, ‘Vi‐ sionnaire,’ 245‐248; Jeremias, ‘Rolle des Propheten,’ 278; Lombaard, ‘What is Isaac doing,’ 439‐440.
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The Narrative after the Third Vision (7:9‐17)
tions it has with the visions is to suppose that originally the narrative was composed to stand at the end of the visions report. It was subse‐ quently moved to its present position by the redactor who added 7:9 and inserted 8:3‐14.
2. The provenance of the composer If the narrative we are dealing with was originally composed to stand after the fifth vision and was subsequently transposed to its present position we are dealing with two different people – the original author, responsible for its content, and a later redactor, responsible for its present position (and for 7:9). In this section I will tackle the first ques‐ tion which requires analysis of the language and thought of the text. In the following section the second question which necessitates an inves‐ tigation into the role of the story in its present context, and the thought and language of 7:9, will be addressed. There is a strong scholarly tradition which sees the purpose of the narrative in historical‐biographical terms. Commentators have sug‐ gested that it sets out to explain the reasons for the end of Amos’ minis‐ try in the North.24 The ‘biographical approach’ finds its extreme repre‐ sentatives in Gordis and Watts, who suggest that the present order of chs 7‐8 simply reflects the chronology of events in the life of Amos.25 In more recent years students of the text have begun increasingly to rec‐ ognize that whatever historical information lies behind 7:10‐17 its main purpose is not to convey biographical information about the prophet.26 Some argue that the story is given to explain the origin and meaning of the prophetic oracle at the end.27 Others have interpreted its central concern as an attempt to establish the authority of the prophet28 and/or to explain the transition to irreversible judgment within the visions.29 Bjørndalen adds the interesting suggestion that the narrative functions 24 Watts, Vision and Prophecy, 66; Soggin, 130. 25 Gordis, ‘Composition and Structure,’ 222‐225; Watts, Vision and Prophecy, 64‐68; Stuart, 368‐70. 26 Cf already Amsler, 228 (‘intention kérygmatique’). 27 Rost, ‘Amos 7:10‐17,’ 231; Würthwein, ‘Amos‐Studien,’ 23‐24; Reventlow, Amt, 20; Wolff, 354 ET 308. 28 Tucker, ‘Prophetic Authenticity,’ 431‐434; Ackroyd, ‘Judgment Narrative,’ 85; Vin‐ cent, ‘Visionnaire,’ 246; Paas, ‘Seeing and Singing,’ 262‐265. Hardmeier, ‘OT Exege‐ sis,’ 75‐76 thinks it was written to encourage Amos’ disciples in the face of the con‐ tinuing opposition to the prophetic message. 29 Vincent, ‘Visionnaire,’ 246; Willi‐Plein, 47; Jeremias, 107 ET 137; Behrens, Vi‐ sionsschilderungen, 88, 91; Paas, ‘Seeing and Singing,’ 262‐65.
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as a warning to the readers not to reject the prophetic word as Amaziah did.30 If the narrative originally stood after the fifth vision then its func‐ tion must have been to sharpen and personalize the message of the visions report, using the character of Amaziah, and to provide an im‐ plicit call for repentance. Judgment cannot be avoided by prophetic intercession or hope to escape from the hand of Yahweh (the visions). If readers choose to act as Amaziah did then their fate would be sealed. As far as the author of vv 10‐17 goes, the debate has centred mainly around the traces of Dtr influence detected there but those have been variously evaluated and explained. Whilst Wöhrle prefers to see vv 10‐ 17 as a Dtr31 and Werlitz as a post‐Dtr composition32 many are inclined to see in the narrative a prophetic, proto‐Dtr tradition33 which may have been only inserted in its present place by a Dtr redactor.34 The Dtr hypothesis is based on two sets of evidence – the perceived connection of the narrative with Dtr theology and with various passages in DH.
a. Am. 7:10‐17 and Dtr thought Among the connections between Am. 7:9‐17 and Dtr thought35 the most striking one is the idea that the fall of Israel is the direct result of the rejection of the prophetic message. The portrayal of Amos in 7:9‐17 accords well with the Deuteronomistic concerns about the role and function of the prophets, expressed in Dt. 18:15‐19 and the summary statements throughout DH. The link between the conduct of the king 30 Bjørndalen, ‘Zukunft des Amazja,’ 250‐251; cf Koch, Amos, 2:49. 31 Wöhrle, 112‐113. Dijkstra, ‘Neither a prophet,’ 119‐128 also thinks of an older core, consisting of Amos’ word against Jeroboam II, Amaziah’s interference and Amos’ reply that he is not a prophet, which later underwent a Dtr reworking in the late pre‐ exilic period. 32 Werlitz, ‘Amos und sein Biograph,’ 246‐249. 33 Utzschneider, ‘Amazjaerzählung,’ 99‐101; Clements, ‘Politics of Israel,’ 27‐29; Jere‐ mias, 112 ET 142 esp. n. 16; idem, ‘Rolle des Propheten,’ 279; Schart, 101‐120; Vin‐ cent, ‘Visionnaire,’ 249. 34 So Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 113‐121; Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 387; Wei‐ mar, ‘Schluss,’ 98‐99. Vermeylen, 565‐567 argues that the original narrative consisted of vv 10‐15 and vv 9 and 16‐17 came from the Dtr redactor. Similarly Rottzoll, 254‐ 256 but with the suggestion that the redactor was post‐exilic priestly‐Dtr. 35 On what follows see Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 113‐121; Dijkstra, ‘Nei‐ ther a prophet,’ 121‐127; Wöhrle, 112‐113. In addition to that Werlitz, ‘ Amos und sein Biograph,’ 248‐249 sees connections between the judgment against Amaziah (7:17) and various judgment oracles in DH (1 Kings 21:17‐19; 2 Kings 1:3‐4; cf also Vermeylen, 566), and a link with the Dtr narratives of prophetic conflicts in Jer. 26‐ 29.
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The Narrative after the Third Vision (7:9‐17)
and the fate of the nation is important to DH whilst not being present elsewhere in the book of Amos. It is, however, questionable that the affinity of 7:9‐17 with Dtr thought is so close as to demand a Dtr provenance for our passage be‐ cause, besides the similarities, there are also a number of differences in focus and emphasis between Am. 7 and DH. The portrayal of Bethel in vv 10‐17 differs significantly from the view of DH. There is no interest in the idolatrous cult, the calf or the illegitimate priesthood. On the contrary, the unspoken assumption behind the confrontation is that Amaziah is a legitimate priest of Yahweh and the tragedy of his pu‐ nishment (v. 17) involves a negation of his priestly status. The main problem of the Bethel sanctuary is that from being a ‘house of God’ (בית )אל it has become a royal chapel and a temple of the kingdom ( בית )ממלכה,36 which now answers to human rather than to divine authority.37 The fate of Amaziah, as prophesied in 7:17, is not linked to the destruc‐ tion of the illegitimate northern sanctuary and is quite different from what happened to the priests in Bethel according to 2 Kings 23.38 In contrast to DH, the prophetic conflict in Amos is not with the king but with a priest. Jeroboam is not present at the scene but more importantly he does not seem to engage the attention of the narrator very much. This is evident from the fact that the king’s response to Amaziah’s report in vv 10‐11 is not recorded, leaving commentators to wonder whether Amaziah suddenly took matters into his own hands and acted without waiting to receive instructions,39 whether he gave Amos friendly advice to leave the country before it is too late,40 or whether he was carrying out the orders of the king, which for reasons of narrative economy are not explicitly mentioned.41 The truth is that this question remains without clear answer most likely because it was of no consequence to the narrator.42 The main function of vv 10‐11 is to 36 The phrase בית ממלכה is taken by most to mean ‘temple of the kingdom/Reichstempel’ (cf the authors cited by Koch, Amos, 1:208). It is less likely that it denotes ‘royal city’ (Cripps, 232) or ‘royal residence’ (Harper, 171). 37 Miller, ‘Prophetic Critique,’ 532; Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 194‐195, 198. 38 Utzschneider, ‘Amazjaerzählung,’ 99‐101. He also argues that there is no suggestion in Am. 7 that Amos’ function was to warn the Northern Kingdom so that exile could be avoided and there is no explicit link here between the prophecy of Amos and the Law and the covenant. 39 Mays, 136; Achtemeier, 222; Sellin, 254. 40 Cripps, 230‐231; Weiser, 191; Würthwein, ‘Amos‐Studien,’ 19‐22; Reventlow, Amt, 15. 41 Harper, 170; Hammershaimb, 115‐116; Fosbroke, 835; Rudolph, 254‐255; Deissler, 125; Pfeifer, ‘Ausweisung,’ 113; Soggin, 132. 42 Hardmeier, ‘OT Exegesis,’ 71.
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further characterise Amaziah,43 the main opponent of Amos, whose actions and fate represent and embody the sins and the fate of Israel. Such clashes between a prophet and a priest are, on one hand, com‐ pletely absent from DH and, on another, are historically more plausible than a direct confrontation between prophet and king.44 The central role of the priest, therefore, distances somewhat the narrative in Am. 7 from the prophetic stories found in DH. Finally, Amos’ statement in v. 14 לא נביא אנכי ולא בן נביא אנכי could pos‐ sibly provide another argument against the Dtr authorship of the pas‐ sage, if it is interpreted to mean that Amos denies being a prophet. The value of this argument is somewhat limited since there is no agreement among scholars whether the statement is to be translated in the past (‘I was not a prophet [but now I am]’)45, in the present (‘I am not a proph‐ et’)46 or in some other way.47 However, if it is translated in the present it
43 Bjørndalen, ‘Zukunft des Amazja,’ 240. 44 The story of Am. 7 is reminiscent of Jer. 20:1‐6 which is usually taken to reflect an incident from Jeremiah’s life: Rudolph, Jeremia, 117 (Baruch biography); McKane, Je‐ remiah, 1:462, 465‐467 (vv 4‐6 exegesis of the original story); Thiel, Redaktion Jeremia 1‐ 25, 226‐228 (preexistent tradition used by Dtr redactor). Contrast Carroll, Jeremiah, 395. 45 Rowley, ‘Was Amos a Nabi?’, 209‐212; Würthwein, ‘Amos‐Studien,’ 16‐18; Gunneweg, ‘Erwägungen zu Amos 7,14,’ 1‐16; Reventlow, Amt, 16‐20; Jeremias, 109‐ 110 ET 139‐140. 46 Baumann, ‘Einzelheit,’ 62; Lehming, ‘Erwägungen zu Amos,’ 162‐169; Wolff, 359‐361 ET 312‐313; Rottzoll, ‘II Sam 14,5,’ 413‐415. Most often the explanation of the present tense translation is that Amos was rejecting the suggestion that he was a professional prophet (Deissler, 126 ‘er sei also nicht Berufs‐ sondern Berufungs‐ prophet’) working for money (Tsevat, ‘Amos 7:14 ‐ Present or Preterit?’, 256‐258); cf also sections ii, iii and iv in the following note. On the other hand, according to Hoffmann, ‘Amos Re‐ gard Himself,’ 212 ‘Amos’s answer reflects…a very serious inner conflict and his ambiguous feelings regarding his own identity’. Cf further Vawter, ‘Were the Prophets nabiʹs,’ 206‐219. Garcia‐Treto, ‘The Case of Amos 7.10‐17,’ 122‐123 sees Amos’ denial as part of his ‘rhetorical, performative strategy’ and Schmid, ‘Nich Prophet bin ich,’ 73‐74 relates it to Amaziah’s charge of conspiracy. 47 (i) ‘Am I not a prophet? Am I not the son of a prophet’; Driver, ‘Amos vii.14,’ 91‐92; Ackroyd, ‘Amos vii.14,’ 94; contrast MacCormack, ‘Amos vii.14,’ 318. (ii) ‚No I am no nabi, that is, I am no ben‐nabi’; Vogt, ‘The Waw explicative in Amos vii.14,’ 301‐302. (iii) ‘No! I am indeed a prophet, but not a professional prophet’; Cohen, ‘Amos Was a Navi,’ 175‐178; cf also Zevit, ‘Misunderstanding at Bethel,’ 789‐790: ‘No, I am not a חזה [= prophet enjoying royal patronage], I am an independent prophet []נביא, nor am I a disciple of any prophet’ but see the criticisms of Hoffmann, ‘Amos Regard Him‐ self,’ 209‐212. (iv) ‘I am surely (asseverative )ל a נביא but not a member of the pro‐ phetic guild’; Richardson, ‘Critical Note,’ 89.
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The Narrative after the Third Vision (7:9‐17)
would provide a very clear indication of the non‐Dtr charater of the narrative.48
b. Am. 7:10‐17 and passages from DH There are a number of links between Am. 7:9‐17 and some passages in DH.49 A most striking connection is the appearance of the phrase ‘Israel will go into exile from its land’ in key positions in both books. In Amos it frames the narrative in 7:11,17. In Kings it sums up the end of the Northern (2 Kings 17:23) and the Southern (2 Kings 25:21) kingdoms.50 1 Kings 13 relates a clash between a king named Jeroboam and an ano‐ nymous Judean prophet at Bethel and includes the phrase ‘eat bread’ used also in Am. 7:12. Amos’ claim that Yahweh has taken him ‘from behind the flock’ (7:15) mirrors the call of David (2 Sam. 7:8). Other possible links include the theme of ‘conspiracy’ (2 Kings 9:14; Am. 7:10) in relation to a prophetically inspired revolt51 and 2 Kings 21:10‐15 where God’s ‘servants the prophets’ announce judgment over Jerusa‐ lem and the image of plumb‐line is used. As pointed out above (ch. 1 §IV. 6), the practical usefulness of such links in redactional analysis is rather limited for in a number of cases it would be very difficult to be certain whether there is any literary de‐ pendence at all (is the phrase ‘to take from behind the flock’ evidence of a literary connection between Amos and Samuel or just a case of com‐ mon use of a widespread proverbial expression?) and if there is in which direction the dependence goes.52 In the case of 1 Kings 13 a
48 See Schmidt, ‘Amazja‐Erzählung,’ 226‐228 for a detailed recent development of this argument. 49 On what follows see Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 119‐121; Dijkstra, ‘Nei‐ ther a prophet,’ 123‐126. 50 On the phrase in Kings, see Rose, ‘Deuteronomistic Ideology,’ 434. In Am. 7:17 it is judged an addition to the original oracle by the author of the narrative by Willi‐ Plein, 47. Marti, 214; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies I,’ 37 treat the line as a gloss; Win‐ ter, ‘Analyse,’ 357 suggests it originally stood at the end of 7:9. 51 Cf Ackroyd, ‘Judgment Narrative,’ 75, 77‐78. 52 For an argument that the phrase ‘Israel will go into exile from its land’ was taken up by the author of 2 Kings 17 from Amos 7 see Gowan, ‘Beginnings of Exile‐Theology,’ 206‐207. The possibility that the phrase picks up the wordplay from Am. 5:5 (Gilgal will surely go into exile) further supports the contention that it had its prior exis‐ tence within the Amos tradition rather than it was borrowed into Am. 7 from 2 Kings 17.
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number of contradictory explanatory models have been advanced.53 An explanation which seems quite probable to me is that, although sepa‐ rate historical incidents may have given rise to the traditions in Amos 7 and 1 Kings 13, in the course of transmission Am. 7:10‐17 had some influence on the development of the tradition behind 1 Kings 13.54 It is quite probable that at least one of the major connections between the two narratives, the name of king Jeroboam, is a secondary insertion into 1 Kings 13 where originally the king was anonymous.55 It is also worth noting that those who argue for some sort of connection between the two passages often do not confine themselves to Am. 7:10‐17. Utz‐ schneider makes a connection between 1 Kings 13:5 and Am.9:1 (speech against the altar [at Bethel?]) and between 1 Kings 13:6 and Am. 7:1‐6 (prophetic intercession);56 Auld sees in the lion who kills the man of God in 1 Kings 13 a reflection of the lion motif from the book of Amos (1:2; 3:4, 8; 5:20).57 If all this is more than mere coincidence then the Amos tradition must have been known to the tradents of 1 Kings 13.
53 (i) The story in 1 Kings 13 preserves a reminiscence of Amos’ appearance at Bethel: Eissfeldt, ‘Amos und Jona,’ 138‐139; Gray, Kings, 295; Crenshaw, Prophetic Conflict, 42; Ahlström, ‘King Josiah,’ 9 n. 5; Gunneweg, ‘Prophetenlegende I Reg 13,’ 78; Schart, 96, n. 164. (ii) Am.7 is a later development of a tradition, found already in 1 Kings 13: Ackroyd, ‘Judgment Narrative,’ 80; Auld, Amos, 28‐29; Peckham, History and Prophecy, 182; Wood, 194‐199, 211. (iii) I Kings 13 is a later composition depen‐ dent on Amos 7: Werlitz, ‘Gottesman aus Juda,’ 109‐123. (iv) The two passages are not related in any way: Gomes, Bethel, 158. The date and development of the narra‐ tive in 1 Kings 13 are too controversial and unclear to provide any secure grounds for a hypothesis concerning Amos 7. It is debated if the narrative is an early North‐ Istraelite tradition (Noth, Könige, 294‐295; Dietrich, Prophetie und Geschichte, 118; De Vries, Kings, 167‐169) inserted in its present position by the Dtr editor (Jones, Kings, 1:262; Knoppers, Two Nations under God, 50‐55; Cogan, I Kings, 373‐375) or a post‐ exilic composition (Rofé, Prophetical Stories, 172‐173; Gomes, Bethel, 40). Another point of contention is the question if we are faced with an original unity (Noth, Könige, 291‐292; Jones, Kings, 1:261; Gunneweg, ‘Prophetenlegende I Reg 13,’ 78‐81; Cogan, I Kings, 373‐374) or a combination of several originally independent tradi‐ tions (Gray, Kings, 293‐303; Würthwein, ‘Erzählung vom Gottesmann aus Judah,’ 93‐ 101; Gomes, Bethel, 38‐39). 54 So McKenzie, Trouble with Kings, 56. 55 Noth, Könige, 290, 292‐293; Dietrich, Prophetie und Geschichte, 119; Würthwein, Könige, 1:168‐169; Jones, Kings, 1:263‐264. 56 Utzschneider, ‘Amazjaerzählung,’ 94; Ackroyd, ‘Judgment Narrative,’ 79. 57 Auld, Amos, 28‐29; see, however, the reservations of Jones, Kings, 1:262; Cogan, I Kings, 370.
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The Narrative after the Third Vision (7:9‐17)
c. The language of Am.7:10‐17 As far as the language of the narrative goes, there are no recognizable Dtr features in it.58 The use of the root נטף with the meaning ‘to prophe‐ sy’ (Mic. 2:6,11; Ezek. 21:2,7) or the designation ‘sanctuary’ ()מקדש are not typical of Dtr style. The title ‘seer’ ()חזה which occurs only twice in DH (2 Sam. 24:11; 2 Kings 17:13) is more characteristic of Chronicles and prophetic literature (Mic. 3:7; Is. 29:10; 30:10). ‘Sanctuary’ is par‐ ticularly frequent in priestly literature and the word ‘unclean ()טמאה [land]’ also adds some priestly flavour to the passage, but in view of the fact that the subject matter of the story is a confrontation with a priest at a sanctuary it is doubtful that any useful redactional conclu‐ sions can be drawn from this fact. The reference to Isaac in vv 9 and 16 is strange and unexpected not least because it is a southern tradition applied here to the northern kingdom.59
d. Conclusion In view of the above arguments it seems unlikely that vv 10‐17 are an ad hoc Dtr composition. The connections with Dtr thought and litera‐ ture can be explained either by the supposition that the narrative is a proto‐Dtr tradition or a post‐Dtr creation. Several considerations seem to favour the first position. The personal threat against Jeroboam in v. 11 seems to have been widened in v. 9 to include the whole dynasty and this has been taken by a number of scholars as a sign that in v. 11 we have a reflection of an earlier tradition which comes from the time before Jeroboam’s death.60 The combination of some Dtr‐like ideas with the complete lack of influence of Dtr expressions (contrast 2:4‐5) is easy to account for if the narrative was earlier. The difference between the threats against Amaziah in 7:17 and the fate of the sanctuary and 58 For an argument that the language of the narrative is late see Ackroyd, ‘Judgment Narrative,’ 74‐77; Auld, Amos, 29; Levin, ‘Amos und Jerobeam I,’ 309 and Rottzoll, 253‐255 (only for vv 16‐17). 59 For a survey of various traditio‐historical solutions to this puzzle see Rudolph, 237 n. 3. Lombaard, ‘What is Isaac doing,’ 439‐441 argues that the references to Isaac were subsequently inserted into the narrative as part of a Judean reinterpretation. 60 Wolff, 357 ET 310; Soggin, 131; Rottzoll, 252‐253; Sweeney, Josiah, 283; Schmidt, ‘Amazja‐Erzählung,’ 229. The presupposition behind this argument is that an au‐ thentic Amos oracle which has not been preserved in the book stands behind 7:11. Rost, ‘Amos 7:10‐17,’ 232‐235 argued that it originally stood after 2:6 and formed the conclusion of the Israel strophe of the OAN in chs 1‐2.
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priesthood at the hands of Josiah described in 2 Kings 23 points in a similar direction.
3. Provenance of the redactor In attempting to provide an answer to the question about the prove‐ nance of the redactor who moved vv 10‐17 to their present position our attention must first and foremost be directed to the purpose which they serve in their immediate literary context and the way in which they reinterpret and restructure the pre‐existing visions report. In order to appreciate fully the function of vv 9‐17 within the vi‐ sions report some discussion of the interpretative problems involved in 7:7‐8 is required. These problems center around the meaning of the vision which is tied up with the translation of the word אנך. Unfortu‐ nately the word does not occur anywhere else outside our passage and its meaning is disputed. The common translation ‘plumb‐line’ was de‐ pendent on the understanding that, on the basis of an Akkadian cog‐ nate, אנך means ‘lead’ and therefore depicts the lead weight used in plumb‐lines. In 1965 Landsberger argued that the meaning of the cog‐ nate Akkadian word was not ‘lead’ but ‘tin’.61 His thesis has been ac‐ cepted by a number of scholars who consequently have rejected the translation ‘plumb‐line’ in Amos 7:7‐8 because tin is not used in plumb‐ lines.62 However, the image of Yahweh standing on a wall of tin, holding tin in his hand and then putting tin in the midst of his people Israel as a sign that he will forgive no more makes little sense on a first reading. Some exegetical imagination, therefore, has to be exercised to explain the vision. The most popular interpretation of the phrase ‘tin in his hand’ starts from the fact that tin, combined with copper, is used in the production of bronze. Since bronze in turn is used to make weapons the phrase ‘tin in his hand’ is taken to mean something like ‘sword’, ‘weapons’ or more generally warfare.63 This, as Williamson has rightly noted, is far‐fetched to say the least. Tin may be used to obtain bronze 61 Landsberger, ‘Tin and Lead,’ 285‐296. On the subject of tin generally see Maddin et al, ‘Tin in ANE,’ 35‐47; Muhly, ‘Sources of Tin,’ 275‐291. 62 Cf for example Paul, 233‐34, n. 64. For a survey see Weigl, ‘unendliche Geschichte,’ 343‐387. 63 Brunet, ‘vision de lʹetain,’ 390‐395; Holladay, ‘Once More )anak,’ 493‐494; Hayes, 205‐ 206; Baltzer, ‘Bild und Wort,’ 11; Auld, Amos, 20; Clements, ‘Politics of Israel,’ 24‐25; Jeremias, 101 ET 131; Behrens, Visionsschilderungen, 81 n. 14, 86; Ruprecht, ‘Zepter Jahwes,’ 65; Koenen, Bethel, 172.
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The Narrative after the Third Vision (7:9‐17)
but tin and bronze are clearly not the same thing and moreover bronze is used in the manufacture of other items besides weapons. The context of the first four visions is not military at all. The first two (7:1‐6) deal with natural disasters and 7:9 is a later addition. Therefore, it is not clear what exactly would prompt the reader/listener of the vision to interpret a weak and soft metal, such as tin, in military terms. The metal which would more readily produce association with bronze is copper, as indicated by the fact that the same Hebrew word נחשת ap‐ plies to both. In addition, the verb used in v. 8 ‘I will put ()שם tin in their midst’ works against the identification of אנך with a sword for one does not ‘put’ a sword in the midst of his enemies.64 The ‘wall of tin’ is even more puzzling. We may safely discard at‐ tempts to interpret it as a signification of the enormous supply of tin at God’s disposal65 or as a demonstration of the immeasurable riches and the splendour and dominion of the one who stands on the wall66 be‐ cause these do not explain why it is a wall (rather than say a heap) that is used in the vision.67 Beyerlin’s suggestion that the tin wall is to be linked with the ideas of transcendence and theophany68 has been deci‐ sively rejected by Uehlinger who pointed out that tin is never used in Akkadian or Biblical texts to denote such ideas.69 The most promising approach is to interpret the wall in military terms, it is an impregnable wall (because it is made of tin), symbolizing either Israel’s protection and security which is about to be overcome by God70 or Yahweh’s of‐ fensive weaponry used in his attack against Israel.71 However, whilst the phrases ‘wall of bronze’ and ‘wall of iron’ are attested in OT and in the ANE72 there is a significant difference between them and a ‘wall of tin’ since, in contrast to bronze and iron, tin is a soft metal not resistant to fire.73 It is unlikely then that a wall of tin could be used as a symbol 64 65 66 67
68 69 70 71 72 73
Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 109‐110; Paul, 234. Brunet, ‘vision de lʹetain,’ 391. Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 182‐186. In Is. 1:25 בדיל is used in parallel to ‘dross’ ()סיג meaning something like ‘tin impurities’ so it is not clear that ‚tin’ could be used as a symbol of riches and splendour. Beyerlin, Bleilot, 27‐28. Uehlinger, ‘Der Herr auf der Zinnmauer,’ 92‐93. Beyerlin, Bleilot, 40‐46; Uehlinger, ‘Herr auf der Zinnmauer,’ 93; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 182; Jeremias, 102 ET 132; Koenen, Bethel, 172‐173. Gese, ‘Komposition,’ 81 (Zwingburg; Belagerungsmauer). Cf Beyerlin, Bleilot, 42‐44. Landsberger, ‘Tin and Lead,’ 287: ‚this metal being a symbol of (a) softness, (b) uselessness… (c) perishability’. Cf also Uehlinger, ‘Herr auf der Zinnmauer,’ 101‐102
II. Origin of the narrative
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of protection or attack. In addition, Williamson points out that the use of the image of Yahweh standing on/by ()נצב על a wall in the third vi‐ sion (7:7) and an altar in the fifth (9:1) would suggest, in view of the close connections between the two visions, that Yahweh in the third vision acts against the wall as he acts against the altar/temple in the fifth.74 All this may seem to support Paul’s interpretation of the wall of tin as a symbol of perishability and as such a depiction of Israel itself which is about to be destroyed.75 However, in this case it would be hard to explain why Yahweh holds tin in his hand and why he puts it in Israel’s midst. If a wall of tin is to be destroyed fire, not more tin, is needed. In view of the unconvincing interpretations based on the transla‐ tion of אנך = tin and the lack of other attractive alternatives76 the older proposal ‘plumb‐line’ is worthy of reconsideration.77 Williamson has demonstrated that the meaning of ‘tin’ for the Akkadian cognate still does not preclude the translation of ‘plumb‐line’ in Amos. For one thing, the Akkadian anaku does not establish conclusively the meaning of the cognate Hebrew word אנך as ‘tin’. Tin and lead were sometimes confused in antiquity and the cognate Arabic )anuk was used for both.78 On the other hand, the translation ‘plumb‐line’ may be possible even if אנך in Amos means ‘tin’. Williamson points out that the admittedly difficult phrase ‘the stone, the tin (’)בדיל in Zech. 4:10 was understood as a plumb‐line by some of the ancient Versions and on that basis con‐ cludes that ‘a number of writers in antiquity saw no problem in using
74 75 76
77
78
who draws attention to a curse in an Assyrian treaty which involves the comparison ‘as tin does not stand before the fire so may you not stand before your enemy’. Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 108. Paul, 235; Konkel, ‘אנך,’ 461. Other proposals include: (i) ʹBrecheisen’: Rudolph, 234‐235; ʹBrechstange; Kreuz‐ hacke’: Fritz, ‘Amosbuch,’ 30‐31; (ii) ‘plaster’: Sweeney, 254‐255; (iii) ‘tin’ is an image drawn from ancient rituals signaling bad future (mauvais présage) for Israel: Ouel‐ lette, ‘Le mur dʹétain,’ 321‐331; (iv) the meaning of the word ‘tin’ is immaterial, its importance is confined to the wordplay it achieves (on which see below): Stuart, 373; Cooper, ‘Amosʹs Third Vision,’ 18; (v) to ‘place tin in their midst’ means to create a crisis: Willi‐Plein, ‘Das geschaute Wort,’ 46‐47; (vi) ankh ‐‐ an Egyptian symbol of death and rebirth: Pinker, ‘Cruxes V,’ 53. Among those who adopt it are: Wolff, 346‐347 ET 300; Niditch, Symbolic Vision, 22; Deissler, 124; Soggin, 115; Eslinger, ‘Education,’ 41, n. 14; Barré, 214; Landy, ‘Vision and Poetic Speech,’ 165, n. 13; Heyns, ‘Space and time in Amos 7,’ 27‐38; Noble, ‘Amos and Amaziah,’ 427, n. 13; Wood, 39‐40. Cf also Coggins, 140. Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 111. Cf also Hoffmeier, ‘Plumb‐line Vision,’ 314.
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The Narrative after the Third Vision (7:9‐17)
tin as part of a plumb‐line – and if they did not, presumably Amos need not have either’.79 The adoption of the translation ‘plumb‐line’ alters significantly the interpretation and focus of the vision. It would then be not an image of the impending destruction but only a prelude to the announcement of the end of Israel in the fourth vision. Yahweh stands on a wall, repre‐ senting Israel, which was originally straight, i.e. built according to a plumb‐line.80 He inspects the present condition of the wall by placing a plumb‐line next to it.81 The implication is that now the wall is found to be leaning and needs to be pulled down. This understanding of 7:7‐8 has been challenged both as reading too much into the text and as in‐ appropriate to the context of the visions report.82 Nothing is explicitly said in vv 7‐8 about examination of the wall and the result of this ex‐ amination is not reported; the wall is not explicitly identified with Is‐ rael; the placement of the אנך ‘in the midst of’ ()בקרב the people does not suggest the use of a plumb‐line. Moreover, it is argued that the plumb‐ line is an instrument for building not for subsequent checking or demo‐ lition of walls and in any case the idea of examining the wall (= Israel) seems out of place here because the guilt of ‘my people’ has long been established. These arguments are hardly persuasive. If אנך was originally under‐ stood to mean plumb‐line then the very idea of testing the straightness of the wall would be implied by it clearly enough. Although plumb‐ lines are used predominantly in building, walls in ancient Israel did become out of line and it is logical to assume that the best way to estab‐ lish this (and the consequent need to pull such walls down) was to use a plumb‐line. The use of קו and משקלת in 2 Kings 21:13 suggests that plumb‐lines could be used in the context of subsequent examination of walls prior to their demolition (cf Is. 34:11; Lam. 2:8).83 The wall may 79 Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 111‐112. 80 Many hold that the phrase חומת אנך cannot mean that (Holladay, ‘Once More )anak,’ 493 among others) and so those who do not subscribe to the translation ‘wall of tin’ feel compelled either to emend אנך to אבן = stone [wall] (Sellin, 249; Rudolph, 234) or delete it and read just חומה (Robinson, 98; Amsler, 225, n.5; Hammershaimb, 111). However, see BDB, 59 (‘a vertical wall’) and the comments of Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 112. 81 Achtemeier, 221 among others. Hoffmeier, ‘Plumb‐line Vision,’ 304‐ 319 argues that in Egypt plumb‐lines were associated with justice. 82 On what follows see Beyerlin, Bleilot, 12‐16; Gese, ‘Komposition,’ 80; Rudolph, 235. 83 Cf Provan, Lamentations, 68; Gray, Kings, 645. Barré, 214 points out that plumb‐lines were used as instruments of demolition as well as construction; cf also similarly Soggin, 115; Wood, 39‐40. According to Deissler, 124 the measuring of the wall with
II. Origin of the narrative
93
not be said to be Israel but the last two lines of v. 8 establish the link between them beyond any reasonable doubt. This is seen most clearly in the phrase ‘I will set a plumb‐line in the midst of my people Israel’ which represents a fusion of the two images, the wall and the people of Israel. Finally, the contention that by the time we have reached the third vision the guilt of Israel has become perfectly obvious has force if we read the visions within the present form of the book of Amos. How‐ ever, if the visions report existed at one stage independently and with‐ out 7:9‐17 it must have been necessary to establish Israel’s condition at this point. Before the insertion of vv 9‐17 the transition from Yahweh’s repentance in 7:1‐6 to the announcement of inevitable doom in 8:1‐2 would be inexplicable. The third vision in fact provides the grounds for what happens in the fourth and the fifth. Therefore, although on the formal level it is paired with the fourth vision, thematically it stands on its own as the centre of the five visions which holds the whole composi‐ tion together. This is further emphasised by the fact that it displays literary connections not only with the fourth but also with the fifth vision (see above ch. 3). It remains to be asked why the vision has the unusual word אנך for ‘plumb‐line’. We may not be able to find the definitive answer to that question because it is quite possible that אנך is unusual only for us and not for the people of Northern Israel in the 8th cent. BC. In any case it is worth raising as a possibility an alternative explanation, namely that the word was chosen because of a desire to achieve some sort of word‐ play, as is the case in 8:1‐2. Some scholars argue that אנך evokes associa‐ tion with with אנח (to sigh in grief).84 Others have seen a play on the first person personal pronoun ()אנכי.85 If this is true then the vision would have another dimension added to it. As a consequence of the test, God himself will come to meet and punish Israel. The third vision then not only explains the transition to unavoidable punishment in 8:1‐ 2 and 9:1‐4 but alludes to the ultimate theological reality behind that punishment, reality which is explicitly and extensively stressed in 9:1‐4, where God is the one who attacks and pursues. This would provide one more connection between the third and the fifth visions, since in both the Lord is explicitly a part of the visionary experience. a plumb‐line was a Souveränitätsgeste of the conquerors before they destroyed the walls of the enemy’s fortifications. 84 Stuart, 373; see also Horst, ‘Visionsschilderungen,’ 201; Ruprecht, ‘Zepter Jahwes,’ 64. 85 Baltzer, ‘Bild und Wort,’ 12; Jeremias, 103 ET 133; Cooper, ‘Amos 7:7‐9,’ 13‐21; Schart, 104‐105; Linville, ‘Visions and Voices,’ 31; Behrens, Visionsschilderungen, 81 n. 14; Koenen, Bethel, 173 n. 112; cf Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 117, n. 69.
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The Narrative after the Third Vision (7:9‐17)
We may now return to the main question of this section, namely what is the purpose of the transposition of the narrative to its present place. The careful reader will not fail to notice the word play between the fourfold repetition of ‘plumb‐line’ ()אנך of the vision and the em‐ phatic repetition of the pronoun ‘I’ ()אנכי by Amos in 7:14. More impor‐ tantly, on the thematic level the presence of vv 10‐17 after the third vision suggests to the reader that it is the rejection of the prophet that constitutes the final and decisive step to the place of no return for Is‐ rael. It is not primarily because of their many sins but because of the lack of repentance and response to God’s word brought to them by Amos that the Israelites can be forgiven no more. In view of all this, Williamson has made the suggestion that the aim of the redactor who positioned the narrative in its present place was to identify the plumb‐ line of the third vision with the prophet Amos.86 The reaction of Israel, represented in the person of Amaziah, to the preaching of Amos is the final test of the spiritual condition of the nation. The extradition of the prophet shows that the wall is perverted beyond repair and needs to be torn down. By sending away Amos from Bethel Israel effectively sealed her fate. It is important to note that a similar thought lies behind the redac‐ tional insertions (2:10‐12) within the oracle against Israel in 2:6‐16, where the words ‘you shall not prophesy’ (2:12) are a clear literary allu‐ sion to 7:16. There also it is not the social and cultic sins, described in 2:6‐8, that are the ultimate ground for punishment. It is the rejection of the prophets in v. 12 which is the final and climactic sin leading to the announcement of judgment. In view of that one might speculate that the threefold repetition of אנכי in 7:14 is the reason why the redactor began 2:10 also with אנכי thus bringing the number of the first person personal pronoun in 2:9‐13 also to three. It is not possible to say much about the provenance of the redactor behind 7:9‐17, if one accepts that most of his work utilized an already pre‐existent tradition. The reasoning behind the transposition of the narrative is in line with Dtr theology which saw the fall of the Northern and Southern kingdoms ultimately as the result of the rejection of pro‐ phetic messages of warning.87 Therefore, the redactor may have been influenced by Dtr thinking. The negative view of the ‘high places’ in v. 9 has been compared with the Dtr view88 but it is not clear from this
86 Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 116‐117. Cf also Schart, 105. 87 Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 115‐116. 88 Clements, ‘Politics of Israel,’ 27‐29; Levin, ‘Amos und Jerobeam I,’ 309; Rottzoll, 253.
II. Origin of the narrative
95
brief oracle why the high places and the sanctuaries of Israel are to be destroyed and there is no hint that they are viewed as idolatrous.89 Rottzoll points out the closeness of Am. 7:9 to Lev. 26:30‐31 and the fact that the verb שמם occurs predominantly in priestly literature.90 Therefore, it is possible that we are faced here with a redaction which exhibits traces of both priestly and Dtr influence. In view of the similar‐ ity of thought behind 2:10‐12 and 7:9‐17 and the literary link between 2:12 and 7:16, it seems logical to suppose that the same redactor is at work in both places. It might be, therefore, significant that both in 2:7b, 10‐12 and in 7:9‐17 there is a combination of Dtr concerns and some priestly vocabulary.
89 Budde, ‘Техt und Auslegung 2,’ 77. 90 Rottzoll, 253.
Chapter 5: The Oracles after the Fourth Vision (Amos 8:3‐14) In 8:4‐14 we have a collection of oracles. Their position between the fourth and the fifth vision is odd and one can safely assume that they were secondarily inserted into the pre‐existing visions report at some a stage. This insight does not yet decide the question concerning their provenance. Many scholars accept the oracles in 8:4‐14 as essentially coming from Amos himself1 and account for their separation from the material in chs 3‐6 with recourse either to the historical context of the preaching of the prophet or to hypotheses about the oracles’ transmis‐ sion history. Watts puts forward the thesis that in 8:3‐14 we have ora‐ cles from Amos arising from and related to his fourth vision (8:1‐2) which took place in Judah after his expulsion from the North.2 Smith suggests that Amos is presenting here a summary of his sermons, originally given in Samaria, to a different audience (Bethel).3 Andersen and Freedman hold that this passage gives us an example of Amos’ message against the corrupt leadership of the country.4 Rudolph thinks that chs 7‐9 once circulated separately from the rest5 and Koch suggests that in 8:4‐9:6 we have a separate collection of individual originally independent oracles of Amos.6 Many of those who accept the Amosian origin of the passage have identified various verses as glosses and additions: v. 6;7 v. 8 (cf below); vv 11‐12;8 vv 11b and 12b;9 v. 14b;10 vv 13‐14;11 vv 11‐14.12 1
2 3 4 5 6 7
This is assumed by Robinson, 101‐104; Mays, 142‐150; Hammershaimb, 121‐130; Andersen and Freedman, 800‐832; Paul, 256‐272; Stuart, 382‐388; Eissfeldt, Einleitung, 488 ET 400; Sweeney, 263‐268 among others. A more detailed defence of 8:4‐10 as coming from Amos can be found in Gese, ‘Amos 8:4‐8,’ 69‐71. Watts, Vision and Prophecy, 68‐86; cf Gordis, ‘Composition and Structure,’ 223. Smith, 331. Mays, 143, on the other hand, locates 8:4‐8 in the market in Samaria. Andersen and Freedman, 802. Rudolph, 260. Koch, Amos, 2:89. Marti, 216‐217; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 322; Market, Struktur, 181‐182; Gese, ‘Amos 8:4‐8,’ 62; BHK; BHS. Only v. 6a is a gloss according to Sellin, 257‐58; Greßmann, 352; Cripps, 244‐245; Robinson, 100‐102; Deissler, 128. Only v.6b is de‐ leted by Willi‐Plein, 50; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 179‐180. On the other hand
I. The composite nature and the unity of 8:3‐14
97
Others have rejected altogether the oracles in vv 4‐14 as coming di‐ rectly from the prophet.13 Wolff attributes them to the ‘Old School of Amos’ which utilised oral tradition going back to Amos.14 Williamson detects in this passage Dtr influence.15 Jeremias holds that the verses were composed and inserted between the time of Jeremiah and the postexilic period.16 Lescow sees three stages of development: vv 3, 4, 7 (K2 = late pre‐exilic); vv 5‐6a, 8, 9‐10, 11‐12 (K3 = post‐exilic); vv 13‐14 (K4).17 Schart assigns vv 3, 13‐14 to Amos’ disciples, vv 4‐7, 11‐12 to the D‐Schicht, v. 8 to the Hymnic redaction and takes vv 9‐10 as an isolated interpolation.18 Wöhrle discerns two redactional layers: Kultkritische Bearbeitung (vv 3‐4, 6a, 7, 9‐10, 13‐14) and a Dtr redaction (vv 5, 6b, 11‐ 12), plus an isolated gloss in 8:8.19 Rottzoll dates only 8:11‐12 to the exilic period and assigns the rest to postexilic times.20
I. The composite nature and the unity of 8:3‐14 On the synchronic plane 8:3 seems to function as a conclusion to the fourth vision and vv 4‐14 are an extended judgment oracle, following the vision. Looking from a diachronic perspective, v. 3 should be taken together with the following. It seems to be a parallel piece to 7:9 and it provides the fourth vision with a poetic conclusion much in the same way as 7:9 does with the third. Since in the previous chapter I argued 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20
Rudolph, 262; Bohlen, ‘Sozialkritik,’ 288 transpose v. 6b before v. 6a and Wolff, 371 ET 322 places it between v. 5a and 5b. Wellhausen, 93; Koch, Amos, 2:52‐55. Marti, 218‐219; Hammershaimb, 127; Fohrer, Propheten, 46‐47; Market, Struktur, 189‐ 192. Olyan, ‘Oaths,’ 122 n. 1; cf Koch, Amos, 2:56. Rudolph, 264‐265; 269‐270; Willi‐Plein, 50‐52. Deissler, 91, 128‐130; Wood, 77‐82; cf Coote, 14‐15, 93, 104 who is inclined to see words of Amos in vv 4‐7, 9‐10. Weiser, Profetie, 26‐40. Cf somewhat differently Weiser, 194. Wolff, 372‐374 ET 324‐326. Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 118; cf Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 387. Jeremias, 114 ET 145; idem, ‘Am 8,4‐7,’ 242‐243. Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 30, 45; idem, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 92‐96. Schart, 88‐93, 98‐100. Wöhrle, 105‐110. This is not far removed from the hypothesis of Albertz, Exilszeit, 178 ET 226‐227 who takes the bulk of the passage (vv 4‐7, 9‐10, 13‐14) as belonging to a late pre‐exilic reworking and assigns v. 8 to the hymnic and vv 11‐12 to the Dtr re‐ daction of the book. Rottzoll, 258‐269.
98
The Oracles after the Fourth Vision (Amos 8:3‐14)
that 7:9 is redactional, it is logical to conclude that the same redactor added 8:3 behind the fourth vision guided by the desire to develop the structure of the second pair of visions in a similar manner and perhaps to provide a smoother connection between the fourth vision and the oracles that follow in 8:4‐14.21 The formula ביום ההוא נאם אדני יהוה from v. 3 comes up in v. 9; see also vv 11 and 13 where parts of it are used. The motif of songs turned into wailing/laments and death on a large scale prepares the way for vv 9‐10. The following piece (vv 4‐8) contains some signs of disunity. There is friction between vv 5 and 6a. They depict in a single breath two quite different commercial activities ‐ v. 5 talks about using false scales in the sale of corn whilst v. 6a, in a clear allusion to 2:6, condemns (the same people?) for buying the needy with money.22 The connection between the two, although not completely impossible, is not readily apparent.23 The problem is complicated by v. 6b which returns to the theme of sell‐ ing corn and describes another dishonest commercial practice, selling the refuse of wheat. With its first person speech it makes a very suitable continuation of v. 5 thus making v. 6a stand out even more sharply from its present context.24 V. 8 is variously taken as the conclusion of vv 4‐8; 25 linked with v. 26 7 as standing on its own27 or as a bridge between 4‐7 and 9‐10.28 The 21 The connection between 7:9 and 8:3 is not only structural but also thematic. The expression שירות ההיכל which may be translated ‘the songs of the palace’ or the ‘songs of the temple’ may be deliberately ambiguous, reflecting the combination of the mo‐ narchy and cult, found also in 7:9. 22 For a survey and discussion of the various interpretations of these verses see Kessler, ‘angeblichen Kornhändler,’ 14‐20. 23 According to the analysis of Jeremias, ‘Am 8,4‐7,’ 235‐242 vv 4b and 6a describe the aim of the actions of the accused whilst v. 5 depicts the means by which this will be achieved. 24 The number of different literary‐critical solutions to these problems is overwhelm‐ ing. Many delete parts or the whole of v. 6 as a gloss: see above p. 96 n. 7. The possi‐ bility that behind v. 5 may lie an oracle from Amos, framed now by redactional ma‐ terial in vv 4 and 6‐7, is contemplated by Weiser, Profetie, 30; Willi‐Plein, 49; Rösel, ‘Entwicklung,’ 99. Veijola, ‘Sabbatgebots,’ 253‐254 takes vv 5a and 6b as post‐exilic insertions; see also Wöhrle, 107 (v. 5 and 6b). Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 98‐100 assigns vv 4, 7 to a Judean redaction; v. 5 to a Dtr and v. 6 to a post‐exilic reworking. Levin, ‘Amosbuch der Anawim,’ 271‐275 takes vv 4* and 5a as a post‐exilic woe oracle which was later interpolated (5b and 6b) and after that reworked by the Anawim (2nd or 3rd century BC) who added vv 6a, 7, 8 and parts of v. 4. 25 Gese, ‘Amos 8:4‐8,’ 63‐65; Sellin, 256‐263; Mays, 142‐150; Robinson, 101‐102; Ru‐ dolph, 260; Paul, 256‐272. 26 Watts, Vision and Prophecy, 74‐75; Hayes, 209; Coggins, 147‐151. 27 Wöhrle, 109 takes v. 8 as an isolated gloss.
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disagreement concerning its place clearly underlines the awkward po‐ sition of this verse within its immediate literary context. After the oath in v. 7 one expects to find a description of what will happen to those addressed and described at such length in vv 4‐6 (as is the case in 4:2‐3, which displays a number of similarities to 8:4‐7). Instead we have a general description of the shaking of the earth. This is indeed linked to the preceding with the help of the introductory העל זאת so that the ac‐ tions of the ‘tramplers of the needy’ which Yahweh will never forget (v. 7) are the cause for the cosmic shaking. Yet this link is rather loose. The singular feminine demonstrative pronoun ()זאת does not refer directly to the ‘deeds’, which are masculine plural, but in a more general way to the contents of the whole of vv 4‐6. There is a definite change of focus and theme as well as in style ‐ the first person divine speech in v. 7 is not continued in v. 8 and instead of proclamation of judgment we have in v. 8 a rhetorical question.29 The specific accusations against the cheat‐ ing merchants within Israel give way to a general punishment which encompasses ‘all the inhabitants’ of the earth.30 In addition, v. 8 almost verbatim repeats 9:5 which is part of the last hymnic piece in the book of Amos. The major differences between the two texts are found in the first line where העל זאת from 8:8 is absent from 9:5 and the verbs are not the same. These differences are easily explained on the supposition that the redactor who copied 8:8 from 9:5 wanted to tie it in more closely to its context: the introductory phrase in 8:8 connects the verse with vv 4‐7 by the repetition of זאת from v.4; the use of the verb רגז in 8:8 may have been introduced with a view to the following 8:9‐10, since shaking of the earth and darkening of the sun form an effective pair (cf Joel 2:10; Zech. 14:5‐6). The loose thematic connection of 8:8 with its context also argues in favour of the supposi‐ tion that 8:8 is dependent on 9:5. Synchronically v. 8 belongs with vv 4‐ 7 but this unity is better judged as redactional rather than original. It is significant that in the case of both 8:6a and 8:8 we have texts which are loosely connected to their present context and which at the same time seem to be dependent on another verse from the book.31 28 29 30 31
Jeremias, 118 ET 149. Rottzoll, 261‐262; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 174‐175. Crüsemann, Hymnus und Danklied, 101‐102. The dependence of v. 8 on 9:5 is accepted by Cripps, 242, 246 n. 2; Budde, ‘Техt und Auslegung 2,’ 92; Crüsemann, Hymnus und Danklied, 101‐102; Willi‐Plein, 50; Jeremias, ‘Zwei Jahre,’ 195‐196; Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 73, 94; Rottzoll, 261‐262. Marti, 217 argues for two glosses (v. 8a and 8b) the second being dependent on 9:5. Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 69 n. 37 assigns 9:5b and 8:8b to the same redactional hand (cf also Schart, 89, 99). Maag, 53; Amsler, 235 and Mays, 145‐146 think that Amos is
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That a single hand was trying to bind vv 4‐8 together is suggested not only by the use of the framing זאת in vv 4 and 8 but also by the un‐ mistakable wordplay between לשבית (v. 4) and והשבת (v. 5) which can be more fully appreciated against the background of the dense repetition of the combination of ש and ב sounds throughout this section: לשבית (v. 4); ונשבירה שבר (v. 5); והשבת (v. 5); נשביר (v. 6); נשבע (v. 7). These intercon‐ nections, together with the signs of disunity, suggest a redactor who was trying to weave into a single whole various pre‐existing materi‐ als.32 Vv 9‐10 do not exhibit any inner tensions or friction with their pre‐ sent context. They in fact follow very well from vv 3‐8. The cosmic as‐ pect of the judgment evident in v. 8, where the shaking of the land is compared to the rising of the Nile, is continued in v. 9 with the motif of the darkening sun (v. 9).33 In both sections the universality of this judgment is expressed with similar vocabulary: the ‘earth’ ()ארץ is shaken (v. 8)/darkened (v. 9) and ‘all’ ()כל people ‘mourn’ ()אבל. Both units also end with cola containing the verb עלה (8b; 10aβ) and double repetition of the preposition כ (8b; 10b).34 There is also a word‐play between יאור (the Nile; v. 8) and ביום אור (in day of light; v. 9). If the suggestion that vv 4‐8 are a redactional unity is correct then, in view of the outlined connections in language and thought, it would seem logical to suppose that the same redactor is responsible for vv 9‐ 10 as well. These connections seem to be of a literary nature and it is impossible to say if any pre‐existent material stands behind vv 9‐10. Within vv 11‐14 there are several peculiarities which could be con‐ strued as tensions. The problem most often noted is that the thirst in vv quoting here a well known hymn. Others think that 9:5 is dependent on 8:8: Gese, ‘Amos 8:4‐8,’ 64‐65; Robinson, 104‐105; Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 320‐321; Crenshaw, Hymnic Affirmation, 135; Wolff, 255, 387 ET 216, 336; Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 525; Paas, Creation and Judgement, 255. 32 Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 180‐183 argues that, with the exception of v. 6b, we have in vv 4‐7 a unified composition where a single author, who wanted to emphas‐ ize especially the crimes mentioned in v. 5, framed the reproach against the dishon‐ est merchants with citations from Amos (2:6‐7). He assigns this piece to a pre‐Dtr, Judean redaction (pp 185‐186). 33 On the cosmic aspects of v. 8 see Jeremias, 118‐119 ET 149. The slow rising of the Nile is not a suitable image for an earthquake as is often noted (Weiser, 196 among others). Its choice here is probably governed by its mythical connotations since it evokes associations with the primordial chaos and gives the whole picture a cosmic dimension; cf Hayes, 209; Gese, ‘Amos 8:4‐8,’ 64. Less convincing is the interpreta‐ tion of Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 209‐215, 223, who thinks Exodus imagery permeates the entire section from v. 8 onwards. 34 This repetition of the verb עלה needs to be seen against the background of the recur‐ ring sound pattern created by העל (v. 8); ועלתה (v. 8); והעליתי על (v. 10).
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11‐12 is spiritual whilst in vv 13‐14 it seems to be physical. In vv 11‐12 we have the phrases ‘the word(s) of Yahweh’ within a first person di‐ vine speech.35 The people who are judged in vv 11‐12 are an unspeci‐ fied ‘they’ but in vv 13‐14 they are narrowed down to the young men and women of the population. In vv 11‐12 the issue is absence of the word of Yahweh, in vv 13‐14 ‐ idolatry. The phrase ‘from sea to sea’ in v. 12, which following the cosmic judgment in vv 8‐10 is most naturally taken as a reference to the whole earth (Ps. 72:8; Zech. 9:10),36 is implic‐ itly narrowed down in v. 14 to Palestine by the mention of Dan and Beersheba.37 However, most of these ‘tensions’ can be understood as deliberate interpretative strategy on the part of the redactor. The nar‐ rowing down of the scene in v. 14 to Palestine may be motivated by the desire to interpret the particular historical judgment, which has been in view all along, with the help of cosmic categories in vv 8‐12. The play between the physical and spiritual thirst underlines the severity and pain of the spiritual deprivation to come. The different focuses in vv 11‐ 12 and 13‐14 are not mutually incompatible – it is the idolatry of v. 14 which constitutes the rejection of Yahweh and motivates the with‐ drawal of his word in vv 11‐12. The final section (11‐14) continues the motif of the earth ()ארץ, which is central to the previous oracles (8, 9, 11). Shaken and darkened, the earth now becomes the cage where the futile search for God takes place. Most of the connections, however, are with the introductory sec‐ tion (4‐7).38 There is a return to the accusation (only in vv 4‐6 and 14) which in both cases has some religious element to it. Both times the accused are described by means of participles (4, 14) and in both cases the accusation is presented with the help of quotation (cf אמר in v. 5 and 14). The oath of the people in v. 14 echoes Yahweh’s oath in v. 7 (both use )נשבע. It seems, therefore, that the initial oracle (4‐8) is developed further with two different descriptions of judgment (9‐10 and 11‐14), each of which is introduced with a separate formula and is related to vv 4‐8 by means of common motifs and verbal repetition. The accusation frames the whole section and the final verse underlines its historical particular‐ ity. These interconnections seem to suggest that the whole of vv 4‐14 was assembled as part of a single redactional effort rather than being 35 On both of these points see the authors cited above in n. 8 and 9 on p. 97. 36 Fosbroke, 843; Wolff, 380 ET 330‐331; Jeremias, 120 ET 151. 37 The two seas can be interpreted as the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean (Mays, 149; Paul, 266; Stuart, 386) though in Joel 2:20; Zech. 14:8 where this is the case the seas are more precisely identified. 38 Cf also Andersen and Freedman, 829.
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the result of gradual accretion. One further consideration points also in a similar direction. As will be shown in the following section, vv 4‐14 exhibit literary dependence on a number of passages from Amos chs 1‐ 6. This phenomenon suggests that a single method and perhaps a uni‐ fied purpose stands behind the composition of 8:4‐14.
II. The origin of the oracles in 8:3‐14 1. Relation of the oracles to the Amos tradition 8:4‐14 allude to a number of phrases and motifs from the rest of the book of Amos.39 From the present investigation I will discard all repeti‐ tions of themes and motifs which do not contain any element of verbal repetition40 as well as all verbal repetitions which do not pick up major themes and could therefore be quite coincidental. There are, however, a number of cases where themes and motifs from chs 1‐6 are picked up and the same vocabulary is used. In such cases we have better assur‐ ance that the allusion is intentional and the link between these passages is one of literary dependence. These cases are: 1) the portrayal of mass death linked with the command to be silent ()הס in v. 3 (6:9‐10); 2) accu‐ sations of oppression in vv 4, 6 (2:6‐7); 3) the use of the ‘pride of Jacob’ ()גאון יעקב in the oath ()נשבע of Yahweh in v. 7 (6:8; 4:2); 4) light ()אור and darkness (חשך/)החשכתי in v. 9 (5:18‐20); 5) lamentation (;אבל )קינה in vv 8, 10 (5:1, 16); 6) feasts ()חגיכם and songs ()שיר in vv 8, 10 (5:21‐23); 7) the day [of Yahweh] vv 9‐10 (5:18‐20); 8) staggering ()נעו due to lack of bread and water in vv 11‐12 (4:6‐8); 9) the falling ()נפל and rising ()קום of young women in vv 13‐14 (5:2).41 These connections suggest that we are faced with a literary reworking of older Amosian sayings found in the previous chapters of the book. Some would argue that we have simply a collection of themes and expressions typical of the prophet Amos. The connections then could be used as a support for the Amosian origin of the oracles in ch. 8.42 However, the sheer density of allusions found in this one passage is quite unlike anything else we have in the book apart form the clearly 39 Cf Jeremias, ‘Am 8,4‐7,’ 232‐233. 40 Like, for example, the motif of seeking (the word of) Yahweh in 8:12 ()בקש and in 5:4‐ 6,14‐15 ()דרש. 41 The different expressions for ‘again’ used in 5:2 and 8:14 make the case for a literary connection here less certain. 42 As does Sellin, 259‐260. The connection between 8:6a and 2:6 is interpreted by Maag, 52 as evidence for an expression typical for Amos.
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redactional 9:11‐15. In addition, in some cases the connections are fairly likely to be of a literary nature. Jeremias, for example, rightly points out that 8:4, 6 picks up verbatim 2:6‐7 in a way which suggests a literary relationship. The word ‘trample’ ()שאף is copied with its unusual or‐ thography, the prepositions from 2:6 are kept in 8:6, although their meaning has changed, and the designations of the oppressed are copied from 2:6‐7 which results in the unusual parallelism between the singu‐ lar ‘needy’ ()אביון and the plural ‘oppressed’/’poor’ (ענוי/)דלים in 8:4, 6.43 Another example is found in v. 7 where Yahweh takes an oath by ‘the pride of Jacob’. This verse seems to be dependent on 6:8 where Yahweh swears by his soul that he abhors the pride of Jacob, i.e. his arrogance and self‐reliance. This results in the somewhat strange declaration (in 8:7) in which Yahweh swears not by himself, as he does in 4:2 and 6:8, but by Israel’s sin.44 The relationship to Amos’ words goes sometimes beyond the links of vocabulary and motifs to the actual form of the oracles in ch. 8. 8:4‐7 are modelled on 4:1‐3: they both begin with an introduction containing the call to listen, followed by a participle, the guilt of those addressed is established by means of quotation of their words which then leads to an oath by Yahweh.45 Vv 11‐12 are modelled on 4:7‐8: first comes the action of Yahweh described with a first person singular perfect verb ()והשלחתי, then the consequence is described beginning in both cases with the verb ונעו followed by ל plus infinitive ()לבקש and then finally the failure of the search is described with לא followed by imperfect ()ימצאו.46 The above considerations suggest that whoever was responsible for the final form of 8:4‐14 had before him chs 1‐6 and made a point con‐ sciously to allude to them. Yet, in spite of the extensive links with the previous material, vv 4‐14 breathe an atmosphere which is different from the rest of the Amos oracles preserved in the book. In v. 14 Israel is accused of swearing by ‘the Shame of Samaria’47, ‘the god of Dan’ 43 Jeremias, 116 n. 14 ET 146 n. 14; idem, ‘Am 8,4‐7,’ 233. 44 The oath contains a certain measure of sarcasm: Paul, 260; Wolff, 377 ET 328; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 138, n. 118; Andersen and Freedman, 808, cf 815‐816; Pschibille, Löwe, 88‐90. Some would interpret ‘Pride’ as an epithet for Yahweh: Hammershaimb, 125; Fosbroke, 840‐841; Mays, 145; Smith, 343. Hayes, 209 interprets it as a reference to the city of Samaria; Stuart, 385 – to the land of Israel. Rudolph, 264 sees here an ironic ambiguity, the Pride of Jacob should be Yahweh himself but in fact (in the light of 6:8) is the people’s arrogance. 45 Marti, 215; Weiser, Profetie, 29; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 98. 46 Weiser, Profetie, 36. 47 באשמת שמרון is emended to (i) אשם ביתאל = ‘Asham‐Bethel’: Robinson, 103; (ii) אשרת = ‘Asherah’: Market, Struktur, 189‐190; (iii) באל ביתאל = ‘dem Gott von Bethel’: Nowack,
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and ‘the way to Beersheba’.48 These are taken by the majority of com‐ mentators as appellations of deities other than Yahweh or as syncretis‐ tic titles of Yahweh.49 Such criticism of idolatry is not characteristic of Amos. It does not feature at all in the book with the single exception of the secondary 5:26. The theme of v. 5 (deceit in commerce) is also com‐ pletely new in the book as is the mention of the Sabbath and the New Moon. The description of judgment in Amos usually centres around the themes of military defeat, exile or earthquake. Nowhere else does the withdrawal of the Word of Yahweh feature as part of such a punish‐ ment (vv 11‐12) nor is Amos prone to depict this judgment as a cosmic event. On their own such points prove little. However, within the con‐ text of the present investigation they are sufficient to demonstrate that, in spite of the connections this passage exhibits with the preceding material, it has a different focus and possibily different origin.
2. The provenance of the oracles The reference to Dan in v. 14 suggests to Wolff that the oracles in vv 4‐ 14 must have been spoken before the invasion of Tiglath‐pileser in 733 BC.50 This argument is based on the presupposition that the sanctuary was in existence only until Tiglath‐pileser’s campaigns in 733 BC (2 163; (iv) revocalised to read ‘Ashimah’: Barstad, Religious Polemics, 157‐166; (v) taken as a polemical reference to the calf worship at Bethel: Paul, 269‐270; Rudolph, 270 or to (vi) the (supposed) calf worship of Yahweh in Samaria: Hammershaimb, 128; (vii) interpreted as polemical condemnation of the idolatry of Samaria: Wolff, 381‐382 ET 331‐332; Rottzoll, 267‐268; (viii) satirical twist of epithets used for Yahweh in the cult: Schart, 125. 48 דרך באר שבע is (i) interpreted as a cultic pilgrimage to the sanctuary in Beersheba: Wolff, 382 ET 332; Rudolph, 268, 271; Mays, 150; Paul, 272; (ii) emended to דדך = ‘deinem Freunde’ (Robinson, 102, 104); ‘dein Schtutzgott’ (Market, Struktur, 189‐190); ‘your tutelary deity’ (Hammershaimb, 129‐130); ‘your kinsman’ (Olyan, ‘Oaths,’ 122‐ 135); ‘the Dod [divine proper name] of Beersheba’: Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 49‐50, 77; (iii) דד = either an epithet of Tammuz of a shortening of the name Adad: Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 322‐323; (iv) repointed as deriving from דר = ‘assembly’ plus second person suffix ()ך and interpreted as reference to the pantheon of Beersheba: Andersen and Freedman, 830 (cf Ackroyd, ‘Meaning of Hebrew דר,’ 3‐ 10); (v) translated ‘the Power of Beersheba’ on the basis of Ugaritic cognate: Stuart, 382; Soggin, 140‐141; Barstad, Religious Polemics, 191‐198. 49 Contrast Bartusch, Dan, 230‐242 who argues that the problem addressed in these verses is worship of Yahweh outside of Jerusalem and cult without justice and righ‐ teousness. Cf also Hammershaimb, 128‐130; Olyan, ‘Oaths,’ 144‐145. For a complete‐ ly different interpretation see Hayes, 212‐215. 50 Wolff, 374 ET 325‐326; cf also Stuart, 383; Olyan, ‘Oaths,’ 147‐148.
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Kings 15:29) when it was destroyed51 and the priesthood was exiled (Judg. 18:30).52 However, even after the Assyrian invasion the sanctuary seems to have continued to function53 and in any case the memory of its cult continued to live on.54 The mention of Dan, therefore, cannot be regarded as a firm basis for an early date of Am. 8:14. The particular choice of towns in v. 14 is intriguing bearing in mind that Bethel and Gilgal (4:4; 5:5) are omitted, that Dan, which does not appear elsewhere in the book, is mentioned and that Samaria is here for the first time in the book mentioned as a religious rather than as a po‐ litical centre. The most likely explanation for this choice is that the men‐ tion of Dan and Beersheba is related to the phrase ‘from Dan to Beer‐ sheba’ which describes the extreme boundaries of the promised land in DH.55 Unfortunately, this provides little help with dating. Bartusch argues that we have a pre‐Dtr expression which originated in the time of David56 but in a number of cases the phrase seems to be part of later redactional material.57 Veijola suggests that the mention of the Sabbath in 8:5a points to the post‐exilic period.58 He argues that the verse presupposes the post‐ exilic transformation of this festival from a monthly to a weekly cele‐ bration because it would be easier to account for the frustration of the merchants if the market had to be closed five times a month rather than only twice a month (at the New Moon and at the full moon = Sabbath). In addition to that, the command to abstain from trade on the Sabbath, which is presupposed in Am. 8:5, is attested only in late sources (Neh. 13:15‐22). Neither of these arguments seems to be particularly convinc‐ ing. The command to rest on the seventh day is found in Ex. 23:12 and 34:21 and although these laws do not deal with commerce but with abstinence from agricultural work the link with the custom reflected in 51 52 53 54 55 56
Biran, Dan, 203‐204; Mazar, Archeology, 495; Avi‐Yonah, ‘Dan,’ 1259‐1260. Soggin, Judges, 269. Biran, Dan, 210‐214. Mazar, Archeology, 495; Schart, 93. Judg. 20:1; 1 Sam. 3:20; 2 Sam. 3:10; 17:11; 24:2, 15; 1 Kings 5:5 [4:25]. Bartusch, Dan, 216‐217. This raises the question whether there was a united mo‐ narchy in the time of David and consequently a notion of ‘all Israel’ prior to the time of Dtr but this question goes beyond the limits of the present study; cf Knoppers, ‘Vanishing Solomon,’ 19‐44 and the various contributions in Handy (ed.), Age of So‐ lomon and Vaughn and Killebrew (eds), Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology. 57 On Judg. 20:1 see Gray, Joshua, Judges and Ruth, 380‐381; Soggin, Judges, 301‐302. On 1 Kings 5:5 [4:25] see Burney, Kings, 47; Montgomery, Kings, 127‐128; Gray, Kings, 135; Mulder, Kings, 187. 58 Veijola, ‘Sabbatgebots,’ 252‐255; Rottzoll, 260‐261; Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amos‐ buch,’ 93.
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Am. 8:5 is easy to see. Moreover v. 5 does not say that it is forbidden to trade during New Moon and Sabbath, simply that it was not happening (because people were involved in religious festivities?). The discussion whether in pre‐exilic times the Sabbath was a full moon festival or a weekly celebration59 seems to be irrelevant to the present passage which provides no hints for the frequency of its observance. 8:5 is a fictive citation which ridicules the religious hypocrisy and extreme avarice of the merchants and its effect would be the same no matter if they were unable to trade twice or five times a month. Approaching the matter from a different angle we note that in pre‐ exilic texts the New Moon consistently comes before the Sabbath (2 Kings 4:23; Is. 1:13 and Hos. 2:13[11]).60 In the frequently employed formula in Chronicles the order is reversed: ‘Sabbaths and New Moons’ (1 Chr. 23:31; 2 Chr. 2:3[4]; 8:13; 31:3; cf Neh. 10:34[33]; Judith 8:6). It would seem that ‘New Moon and Sabbath’ was a pre‐exilic phrase which in postexilic times was modified by reversal of the order of the words, reflecting the increased importance of the Sabbath.61 If this sug‐ gestion is correct then Am. 8:5, which places the New Moon before the Sabbath, has in its background a formula which was more at home in pre‐exilic or early exilic times. The shaving of the head as part of the mourning ritual (vv 9‐10) points in the same direction for it must come from a time when the ban on this practice was not universally enforced (Is. 22:12; Mi. 1:16; Ezek. 7:18; 27:31; cf Lev. 21:5 and Dt. 14:1).62 The description of a futile search for the word of Yahweh fits well the exilic situation. The idea of the withdrawal of the Word of Yahweh comes up in Ps. 74:9, Lam. 2:9, Ezek. 7:26 which are generally dated to that period. Williamson suggests that in our passage we have ‘reapplication of authentic words of Amos by the Deuteronomists.’ He offers three in‐ stances of such reapplication: vv 11‐12 reinterpret 4:6‐8 in the light of Dt. 8:3; vv 4‐6 reinterpret 2:6‐7 in a ‘spiritualised’ sense (adding the concept of the Sabbath and New Moon) and add the crime of using 59 Cf Hasel, ‘Sabbath,’ 849‐856; Williamson, Isaiah 1‐5, 94 (with further literature). 60 Cf also Lam. 2:6 where we have ‘the appointed feast and sabbath’. 61 The fuller phrase in Hos. 2:13[11] is Feasts‐New Moons‐Sabbaths; in postexilic texts this is reversed to Sabbaths‐New Moons‐Feasts (1 Chr. 23:31; 2 Chr. 2:3[4]; 31:3). Ezekiel stands in the transition period: in 45:17 ‘the New Moons’ come before ‘the Sabbaths’ but in 46:1‐3 the Sabbath comes first. Exceptional is Is. 66:23 which is post‐ exilic but has the New Moon before the Sabbath but the wording there is quite dif‐ ferent. A similar line of argument is employed by Jones, ‘Traditio,’ 239 in relation to the reversal of order of ‘Judah and Jerusalem’ in phrases coming from pre‐exilic and post‐exilic times. 62 Mayes, Deuteronomy, 238; Rudolph, 266, n. 2; Soggin, 138; Deissler, 129.
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false weights and measures (Dt. 25:13‐15); vv 13‐14 pick up the motif of the fall of the nation from 5:2 but justify it on the religious ground of idolatry (another typical Dtr theme).63 Wolff has pointed out that the phrase ‘to hear the words of Yahweh’ is found elsewhere only in the narratives in Jeremiah.64 In this respect it may be significant that the phrase ימים באים הנה (v. 11) although occurring in Am. 4:2, and therefore not impossible in an oracle original to the prophet, is found predomi‐ nantly in the book of Jeremiah. Not all of the above connections are equally unequivocal in sug‐ gesting a Dtr origin for vv 4‐14. The Sabbath is not a central Deuter‐ onomistic concern. Apart from its mention in the Decalogue (Dt. 5) it does not appear elsewhere in the book of Deuteronomy and is rarely mentioned in DH (in contrast to Chronicles). On the other hand, it func‐ tions prominently in priestly literature. The theme of idolatry, although characteristic of Deuteronomistic literature, appears also in Leviticus. The same can be said of the false weights and measures. Am. 8:5 seems to be equally close to Dt. 25:13‐15 which talks about large and small ephah and large and small weight (אבן in contrast to שקל in Amos) but does not mention the just balance and to Lev. 19:36 which has the three elements: just weight (like Dt. )אבן, just ephah and just balance (but lacks the words for large and small which appear in Amos and Dt.). The word אשמה is a term which seems to be more at home in priestly literature. Another possible indicator for the presence of some priestly influence on 8:3‐14 is the text’s extensive interest in cultic matters: it talks about the ‘songs of the היכל (temple/palace)’ in v. 3 and cultic songs in v. 10; New Moon, Sabbath and festivals ()חג in v. 5, 10; illegal worship in 8:14 and seeking the word of the Lord in vv 11‐14 which
63 Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 118; cf also Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 387. For vv 4‐7 as work of Dtr see also Schart, 90‐91 (Dtr understanding of the Sabbath as a cen‐ tre of the cult and as a means for social justice); Wöhrle, 107, 110 (v. 5, 6b only); Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 98 n. 149 (v. 5 only). For vv 11‐12 as Dtr see Wolff, 374‐375, 379‐ 380 ET 326, 330; Koch, Amos, 2:54‐55; Deissler, 129; Rottzoll, 263‐265; Albertz, Exils‐ zeit, 177 ET 225; Wöhrle, 110. For vv 13‐14 see also Vermeylen, 567‐568. The propos‐ als for dating vv 13‐14 range from the time of Amos’ disciples (Deissler, 130; Schart, 92‐93) or the 7th century BC (Willi‐Plein, 51‐52), to the postexilic period (Jeremias, 120‐122 ET 151‐153; Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 95‐96; Coggins, 150‐151). Rudolph, 270‐271 sees a link to the thought of Hosea and Dtr in the criticism in these verses of the cult of the northern kingdom (especially the calf worship in Bethel and Dan) and the favouritism towards Jerusalem, implied by the criticism of pilgrimages to Beersheba. Those who place the verses in the 5th century naturally see in them an‐ ti‐Samarian polemic. 64 Wolff, 379‐380 ET 330.
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was a cultic activity (in Ps. 74 and Lam. 2 there is no prophetic vision because the sanctuaries are destroyed and the cult is not functioning). The motif of seeking the Lord also possibly argues for some dis‐ tance from Dtr thought. In Dt. 4:29 it is used in the context of an exhor‐ tation to repent and the emphasis is on the certainty that the Israelites will find God when they seek him (cf also Jer. 29:13; 50:4‐5 and Hos. 3:5). In Am. 8:11‐12 and Hos. 5:6 the seeking of God motif is within the context of accusation and judgment and the idea is exactly the oppo‐ site: the Israelites will not be able to find Yahweh.65
3. Conclusion The cumulative evidence presented above would suggest that in 8:3‐14 we have a unified redactional composition secondarily inserted into the visions report and utilising some pre‐existing traditions, found mainly in the first part of the book of Amos (chs 1‐6). The overall direction and concern of the passage is somewhat different from the preaching of Amos and the indications for dating, inconclusive as they are, point to the exilic period. Like some other redactional passages in the book of Amos, identified so far, there is a fusion of Dtr and priestly terminol‐ ogy and concerns. If the passage was composed and inserted at such a late stage, it is unlikely that we can expect to find behind it any surviv‐ ing oral tradition coming from Amos, though it is not impossible that some later oracles which were generated in the course of reading, preaching or debating the Amos tradition may have been incorporated in the making of 8:3‐14.
III. Redactional intention In scholarly literature the present position of 8:4‐14 is usually explained with reference either to the preceding or to the following vision. Thus according to Jeremias, vv 3‐14 offer a commentary on the fourth vision by a new demonstration of culpability (4‐7, 14) and a description of the end (3, 8‐14).66 Weiser on the other hand suggests that the oracles serve to paint different pictures of the end and to prepare and ground the
65 Zobel, Prophetie und Deuteronomium, 90‐107. 66 Jeremias, 114 ET 144; cf Wolff, 372 ET 324.
II. The origin of the oracles in 8:3‐14
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final punishment announced in the fifth vision.67. A mediating position is taken by Williamson who holds that the insertion of the oracles serves ‘to explain and justify to a later Judean audience the transition from the announcement of the end (8:1‐2) to description of the destruc‐ tion of the sanctuary (9:1ff)’.68 8:4‐14 is related also to the narrative in 7:9‐17. The fact that both passages follow after the third and the fourth vision makes it reasona‐ ble to try to see if there is any connection between them. The most sig‐ nificant link is the theme of the Word of Yahweh. In ch. 7 this word is rejected and in ch. 8 (as a consequence of this) it is withdrawn.69 The phrase שמע דבר יהוה/ לשמע את דבר יהוה appears in both passages (7:16, 8:11, 12). The result in both places is the fall of the nation, symbolized by the young men and women and described with the verb נפל. In 7:17 Ama‐ ziah’s sons and daughters will fall by the sword, in 8:14 the young men and women of Israel will fall not to rise again, and in 8:10 there will be mourning as for the death of the only child.70 Both passages also devel‐ op the theme of Israel’s corrupt religion. In ch. 7 Amaziah, the chief priest of Bethel, demonstrates the corruption of this religion by his atti‐ tude to the Word of Yahweh and his subservience to the king. In ch. 8 the corruption of idolatry is explicitly stated (14) but also the reversal of Israel’s feasts is mentioned (8:9‐10) in explicit reference to the cultic critique in 5:21‐24.71 In both passages the Word of Yahweh stands in opposition to the corrupt religion of Israel. The two passages have also similar relationships to the expansions of the visions in 7:9 and 8:3. The themes and vocabulary of these verses are picked up and developed in the following passages. Finally, as argued above, 8:4‐14 draw extensively on earlier mate‐ rial from the book. This would suggest that the commentator must also 67 Weiser, Profetie, 30; cf Andersen and Freedman, 716, 723‐724; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 137‐138. 68 Williamson, ‘Prophet and Plumb‐line,’ 119. Wöhrle, 108‐109 suggests that the inten‐ tion of vv 4‐14* was to apply and direct the words of Amos from chs 1‐6 to a new circle of addressees. 69 Rudolph, 271, 267; Jeremias, ‘Rolle des Propheten,’ 281; Heyns, ‘Space and time in Amos 8,’ 244. 70 There are some other verbal repetitions (‘send’ [7:10; 8:11]; ‘bread’ [7:12; 8:11]) which are perhaps less significant. 71 In the previous chapter I argued that 7:10‐17 was an early composition moved by the redactor to its present position. If, as it seems likely, this was the same redactor who composed 8:3‐14 then the connection between the two insertions in chs 7 and 8 served to add another dimension to the interpretation of the narrative in 7:10‐17. The rejection of the word of Yahweh, which in ch. 7 consisted of the refusal to listen to the word of Amos, now includes also participation in illicit cults (8:11‐14).
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The Oracles after the Fourth Vision (Amos 8:3‐14)
look beyond the immediate context of vv 4‐14 in order to discover the function of this passage. Therefore, the passage seems to play simulta‐ neously three different roles. First, it expands on the fourth vision and paves the way for the fifth final vision. Second, it is parallel to the nar‐ rative in 7:10‐17 and the two passages complement and mutually inter‐ pret each other. Third, it sums up the argument of the book so far and serves as a sort of preliminary conclusion. It narrates again briefly the sin of Israel and emphasises the punishment utilizing the motifs of darkness, mourning, earthquake, death, reversal of the good life. The two accusations (4‐6, 14) in fact sum up the two major aspects of Amos’ criticism – social evils and the cult, although the focus of those accusa‐ tions is different from what we see earlier in the book (i.e. idolatry and cheating of merchants).
Chapter 6: The Oracles after the Fifth Vision (Amos 9:7‐15) I. Amos 9:7‐10 1. Introduction A number of scholars take part or all of vv 7‐10 as coming from Amos. V. 7 is often regarded as a disputation saying1 in which the prophet opposes the arrogance or the false security of Israel stemming from her election faith.2 Attempts to find the original context of the oracle led Sellin to place 9:7 after 3:2,3 Achtemeier to connect 9:7‐10 with 7:10‐17,4 and Harper to link vv 7‐8a with the fifth vision as an answer to objec‐ tions arising from it.5 Rudolph interprets the whole unit (vv 7‐10) against the background of a debate in which Amos was involved and understands it as answers to objections voiced by the prophet’s au‐ dience.6 Vv 9‐10 are seen by a number of scholars as evidence that Amos did distinguish between the fate of the righteous and the wicked or the rich and the poor.7 According to Andersen and Freedman the saying is directed at the exploiting classes, identical with the ‘sinful kingdom’, i.e. the Bethel temple staff and the monarchy.8 Wolff regards vv 7‐10 as a ‘literary distillate’ of an oral discussion which took place in the context of the preaching of the school of Amos, few decades after the ministry of the prophet.9 Nägele suggests that vv 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mays, 156‐159; Fohrer, Propheten, 29; Soggin, 143; cf also Jeremias, 130‐131 ET 162‐ 163; Deissler, 134; Paul, 282. Amsler, 241‐242; Vuilleumier, Tradition cultuelle, 48. Sellin, 267‐268. Achtemeier, 232‐233. Harper, 186‐187. Weiser, Profetie, 46‐47 transposes v. 7 between v. 4a and 4b. Rudolph, 272‐278; cf also Vuilleumier, Tradition cultuelle, 26‐27, 15. Vuilleumier, Tradition cultuelle, 26‐27; Stuart, 390, 393‐395; Hayes, 220‐221; Deissler, 133‐134; Paul, 286; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 139‐145; Smith, 366‐367. Andersen and Freedman, 871, 879‐883. Wolff, 396‐398 ET 345‐347 followed by Rösel, ‘Entwicklung,’ 100‐101. A number of scholars see these verses as a ‘discussion’ of the vision: Schullerus, ‘Am 9,7‐10,’ 62; Nogalski, Precursors, 121). Kellermann, ‘Amosschluß,’ 171‐172 attributes v. 8b to the disciples of Amos after the end of the Northern kingdom.
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The Oracles after the Fifth Vision (Amos 9:7‐15)
8‐10 are an exegesis by the Amos school on 9:4 under the influence of the oracle in v. 7.10 Reimer suggests that 9:7‐10 was from the start a literary product which formed the conclusion of the Urbuch of Amos by way of allusion to the various blocks which came to be incorporated into it.11 Schart takes vv 7‐10 as the conclusion of the D corpus of Amos, which united together the books of Hosea, Amos, Micah and Zepha‐ niah.12 Willi‐Plein thinks vv 8 and 10 are an actualisation of an oracle of Amos (in v. 9) during the reign of Manasseh.13 Weimar14 argues that vv 8a+9‐10 are a redactional commentary on 9:4b from the time of Manas‐ seh, v. 7 is a Deuteronomistic addition15 and v. 8b a late post‐exilic in‐ terpolation.16 The whole of vv 8‐10 is considered post‐exilic by Jere‐ mias.17 Lescow takes vv 8a, 9‐10 to be late, pre‐exilic conclusion of the book (K2) and the rest of vv 7‐15 to be the work of a post‐exilic editor (K4).18 Likewise, vv 9‐10 are seen by many as a later addition to the book,19 attributed variously to the Amos School,20 exilic21 or postexilic times.22
10 Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 190‐191, cf 177‐183. Koenen, Heil, 11‐18 assigns vv 7‐8a to Amos and treats vv 8b‐10 as a redactional Fortschreibung. 11 Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 223‐225. 12 Schart, 95‐96 followed by Albertz, Exilszeit, 177 ET 226; Wöhrle, 117‐119. 13 Willi‐Plein, 56. 14 Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 71‐77, 84‐89, 92‐93. 15 Dtr origin of v. 7 is argued by Gese, ‘Amos 9,7,’ 36‐37; Vermeylen, 545‐547 (7‐8a); cf also Soggin, 143‐145; Fritz, ‘Fremdvölkersprüche,’ 35‐36; Würthwein, Könige, 2:388 n. 17. The contradiction of 9:7 with 3:2 has led Fosbroke, 848‐849 to deny 9:7 to Amos; cf similarly Wood, 89‐90. 16 V. 8b is commonly regarded as a gloss: Cripps, 265; Nowack, 166; Maag, 59; Jozaki, ‘Secondary Passages,’ 86‐87; Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 53; Amsler, 243; Market, Struk‐ tur, 199‐200; Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 179‐181; Achtemeier, 232‐233; Mays, 157, 160; Kellermann, ‘Amosschluß,’ 171‐172. Weiser, Profetie, 54 thinks the whole v. 8 is an addition. 17 Jeremias, 131‐133 ET 164‐166. 18 Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 96‐98. 19 Wellhausen, 95; Marti, 224‐225; Harper, 196; Amsler, 244; Fosbroke, 849‐850; Hoffmann, ‘Echtheitsfrage von Amos 9:9f,’ 121‐122; Market, Struktur, 206‐207; Pfeifer, Theologie, 86; Wood, 87‐88. 20 Kellermann, ‘Amosschluß,’ 172‐173, 177. 21 Robinson, 107. 22 Rottzoll, 272‐276; Zenger, Einleitung, 392‐393 (vv 7‐10); Collins, Introduction, 295.
I. Amos 9:7‐10
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2. Amos 9:7‐8 H. Gese has argued that v. 7 is Deuteronomistic on the ground that its theology is similar to the theology of Dt. 1‐3.23 According to him, v. 7 does not deny the special relationship of Israel and Yahweh, only any claim to natural or historical privilege of Israel. In this it is parallel to Dt. 1‐3 which affirms that the migrations of the nations as a result of which they have acquired their land are the work of Yahweh. Likewise the comparison of Israel to the Cushites reflects, according to him, the common Deuteronomistic idea that Israel had not been chosen because of its strength or righteousness in comparison with other people (Dt. 7:7‐8). Such an interpretation of the verse, however, is questionable. The implication of v. 7 is not that Israel was different from the Cushites only before Yahweh’s choice. This understanding is possible only if v. 7b is taken out of consideration and v. 7a is interpreted in isolation.24 When we put the two statements of v. 7 together the overall claim is that Israel is not different from the Cushites because the Exodus is not different from the Philistine and Aramean migrations. Both Israel’s status and the Exodus event are radically relativized. This is not consis‐ tent with the Dtr stress on the election of Israel and the unique signific‐ ance of the Exodus (cf Dt. 4:32‐34). Therefore, while the underlying idea that Yahweh is in charge of the historical migrations of various people has some points of contact with Dt. 1‐3 the way this idea is used here is quite different from Dtr thought.25 There are several indications which suggest that the distance of 9:7 from the Dtr treatment of the Exodus motif is most logically explained by the hypothesis of the pre‐Dtr origin of 9:7. First, the denial of Israel’s special status is an attack on an attitude of self‐confidence similar to the one presumed in 6:1‐7. This points to a pre‐exilic background of the oracle because the people addressed seem to be convinced that bad things cannot happen to them since they are the elect. Such a radical (some would even say ‘heretical’) attack on the Exodus tradition seems pointless during the exilic or post‐exilic period. Second, the formula ‘I led up Israel from the land of Egypt’, using the verb עלה in contrast to יצא which is more common in Dtr texts, is thought by some to be of pre‐ Deuteronomistic origin; the similar expressions found in Ps. 81:11[10], Hos. 2:17[15] and 12:14[13] may be taken to imply that this was origi‐ 23 Gese, ‘Amos 9,7,’ 36‐37. 24 On the unity of v. 7 see Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 178. 25 Also the language of v. 7 does not exhibit traces of Dtr speech forms; cf Koenen, Heil, 12 n. 9.
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The Oracles after the Fifth Vision (Amos 9:7‐15)
nally a northern idiom.26 Pfeiffer thinks that its occurrence in 1 Kings 12:28 reflects an expression used in the northern cult27 and Koenen sees in Am. 9:7 a reflection of the theology of the Bethel sanctuary where the exodus faith would have provided the grounds for future expectations of deliverance.28 Third, the interest in Aram shown by 9:7 is more rea‐ dily understandable in the 8th century, against the background of the recent clashes between Damascus and Israel, than in later times when the kingdom of the Arameans was no longer in existence. Finally, the way the argument is construed is typical for Amos. The beliefs of the audience are seemingly accepted but then radically reversed and ulti‐ mately the exactly opposite implications are derived from them.29 Since in the present context v. 7 is closely linked with the following v. 8 it seems wise to discuss both verses before drawing final conclu‐ sions on their provenance. As many commentators have rightly noted there is tension within v. 8 since the first part states that Yahweh will destroy the sinful kingdom but then the second part of the verse goes on to proclaim that he will certainly not destroy the house of Jacob.30 This raises the question whether the phrases ‘the house of Jacob’31 and 26 Wijngaards, ‘הוציא and העלה,’ 91‐102; Hobbs, ‘Amos 3:1b and 2:10,’ 384‐387; Wehmei‐ er, ‘עלה,’ 288‐289 ET 894‐895; Zobel, ‘Wustenwanderung,’ 195; Hoffman, ‘Exodus,’ 179; Preuss, Theologie, 1:50 ET 1:46; Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 178‐179; Rudolph, 146, n. 21; Paul, 90. Contrast Rottzoll, 56‐57. On the Northern provenance of Ps. 81 see Davies, Hosea, 31‐32; Kselman and Barré, ‘Psalms,’ 539; Goulder, ‘Asaphʹs History,’ 71‐81; Gillingham, ‘Exodus Tradition,’ 32‐34; slightly differently Weber, ‘Asaph‐ Psalter,’ 131; cf 133 (7th century, by Levites from the North). Day, Psalms, 82‐85 thinks it is late monarchic. Contrast Jeremias, Kultprophetie, 126‐127 (post‐exilic); Kraus, Psalmen, 2:563‐564 ET 2:148‐149 (post‐exilic); Seybold, Psalmen, 322 (exilic oracle in vv 6ff with vv 2‐5 added in a diaspora setting). For a recent defence of the pre‐exilic provenance of Ps. 81 and criticism of the hypothesis of its Dtr character see Hilber, Cultic Prophecy, 150‐161. 27 Pfeiffer, Heiligtum von Bethel, 35‐42. 28 Koenen, Bethel, 175; Collins, Introduction, 294. Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 179 also points out that 9:7 does not use the exodus doctrine in a military context which is usually the case in Dtr texts and the redactional Am. 2:10. 29 Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 179. 30 This interpretation also requires that the infinitive absolute in the phrase אפס כי לא השמיד אשמיד be translated ‘However I will surely not destroy’ (Cripps, 319‐320; Jere‐ mias, 128 n. 1 ET 160 n. 1; Schart, 95, n. 160). Some would prefer the alternative translation ‘However I will not destroy completely’ (GKC, 113n; Hammershaimb, 139; Andersen and Freedman, 869‐870; Koenen, Heil, 10 n. 2; Soggin, 142; Smith, 366; Sweeney, 272). 31 In the OT Jacob is used to refer both to the Northern kingdom (Is. 9:7[8]; Am. 3:13; 6:8; 7:2, 5) and to the kingdom of Judah (Jer. 5:20; Ob. 17, 18) as well as to the Baby‐ lonian exiles (Is. 46:3; 48:1). Therefore, commentators have understood it here as a reference to: (i) the kingdom of Northern Israel: Harper, 193; Rudolph, 275; (ii) the
I. Amos 9:7‐10
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the ‘sinful kingdom’32 must be understood as identical or different enti‐ ties.33 A survey of the places in Amos where the term ‘Jacob’ appears suggests that there definitely must be some connection between it and the ‘sinful kingdom’. In 3:13 and 6:8 (cf also 8:7) Jacob is condemned for his sin and arrogance and is associated with the destruction of the altars of Bethel (3:14) and the destruction of the strongholds and ‘the city’ (perhaps Samaria; 6:8). In those places because of its link with the cult, capital and (administrative/military?) buildings (cf the use of ארמנות in 1:3‐2:6 and in 3:9‐11) the term is close in meaning to ‘royal house’. In 7:2, 5 ‘Jacob’ may have a slightly wider meaning but it is still the subject of Amos’ intercession and by implication of God’s wrath. In view of all that the most logical interpretation of 9:8 is that the ‘house of Jacob’ is the sinful kingdom and v. 8b is, therefore, a correcting gloss inserted to qualify the harsh and uncompromising statement of v. 8a. There are three different possible answers to the question what was the original shape of vv 7‐8a before the insertion of v. 8b: (i) these were two independent oracles; (ii) they constituted a single oracle; (iii) v. 7 existed independently and v. 8a was the introduction of vv 9‐10. Of these the first suggestion is in my opinion the least satisfactory because it leaves us with two pieces that are too short and fragmentary. The third option is a definite possibility but I prefer the second one because v. 8a seems to function very well as the conclusion and climax of v. 7 drawing out the practical consequences of the argument in that verse. While v. 8a can play equally well the role of an introduction to vv 9‐10 people of the northern kingdom, as opposed to the kingship: Wolff, 400 ET 348; (iii) a remnant of faithful Israelites from the Northern Kingdom: Polley, Davidic Empire, 71; (iv) Judah: Cripps, 265; (v) the whole of Israel: Sellin, 268; Hammershaimb, 139; An‐ dersen and Freedman, 870, 900; (vi) the people of God (a non political entity) who will continue to exist after the kingdom is destroyed: Coote, 120‐121; Hayes, 220‐221; Schullerus, ‘Amos 9:7‐10,’ 61; Jeremias, 132‐133 ET 164‐165; Schart, 168. 32 It is taken to mean: (i) the ‘royal house’: Weiser, Profetie, 53‐54; Wolff, 400 ET 348; (ii) the leadership of the nation: Andersen and Freedman, 870, 900; or (iii) the state: Ru‐ dolph, 275‐276. In addition there is a debate as to whether the ‘sinful kingdom’ here refers specifically to Israel (Rudolph, 275; Soggin, 144; Stuart, 393‐394); to Judah (so Willi‐Plein, 56 because she dates v. 8 to the 7th century); or to any sinful kingdom, taking the article as ‘generic’ and interpreting the phrase as a description of the gen‐ eral policy of Yahweh towards all nations (so Sellin, 268; Cripps, 264; Mays, 159; Paul, 284, n. 20; Andersen and Freedman, 900; Smith, 366). The mention of Yahweh’s dealings with several different nations in the immediate (v. 7) as well as the broader (chs 1‐2) context tips the balance in favour of the last option. 33 Andersen and Freedman, 875‐876, for example, elevate the contradiction by arguing that the ‘sinful kingdom’ is not the ‘house of Jacob’ but only a group within it – the leaders and oppressors, i.e. ‘sinners of my people’.
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The Oracles after the Fifth Vision (Amos 9:7‐15)
these verses do not require such an introduction and can stand quite happily on their own. On the other hand, without a continuation v. 7 stands somewhat incomplete and enigmatic. The connections of vv 7‐8a with the OAN (see next paragraph) further confirm this conclusion. Vv 7‐8a are related to the fifth vision by the catchword כפתור (v. 7 – 9:1) and by the phrase ‘the eyes of the lord Yahweh’ (v. 8 ‐ 9:3, 4).34 They also have a number of connections to the OAN in the beginning of the book. 9:7 speaks of Israel, Philistia, and Aram which come up in chs 1‐2 as the first two and the last nations in the series. Moreover in 9:7 their order (Israel, Philistia, Aram) is the reverse of the order in which they appear in OAN (Aram, Philistia, Israel).35 The connection is streng‐ thened by the statement that Aram is going to/has come from Kir (1:5; 9:7). It is only in Am.1:5 and here (and possibly in 2 Kings 16:9) that Aram is linked with Kir in the OT.36 The use of the root שמד in v. 8a recalls the destruction of the Amorites in 2:9. The general term ‘the sinful kingdom’ which could apply equally well to Israel as to the Amorites strengthens the link with that verse, as does also the fact that ‘did I not bring up Israel from the land of Egypt’ (9:7) appears almost verbatim in 2:10 and a rhetorical question addressed to the ‘sons of Israel’ is to be found both in 9:7a and in 2:11b. The connections between the two passages come in inverted order: destroy ()שמד – exodus from Egypt – rhetorical question in 2:9‐11; rhetorical question – exodus from Egypt – destroy ()שמד in 9:7‐8. The expression מעל פני אדמתה in 9:8 is repeated with slight variation in 7:17 ()מעל אדמתו.37 The closeness of this expression in Am. 9:8aβ to 1 Kings 13:34 is particularly striking and may be taken as evidence of Dtr influence on Amos.38 However, the possibility, which was suggested 34 A number of commentators emend the expression in v. 8 to ‘my eyes’ to make the connection even stronger: Robinson, 106; Amsler, 243, n. 1 among others. 35 Andersen and Freedman, 907. 36 Because Kir is missing from LXX of Kings 16:9 it is commonly believed to be a gloss based on the text of Amos: Burney, Kings, 326; Montgomery, Kings, 459; Jones, Kings, 537; Würthwein, Könige, 2:388 n. 17. Gray, Kings, 574 translates קיר in Kings ‘the city’ (a reference to Nineveh) and sees no connection with Amos 9:7. 37 It is interesting to observe that both 7:10‐17 and 9:7‐15 are framed by the phrase ‘from (the face of/his) land’(אדמה 7:11, 17; 9:8, 15). In addition Kellermann, ‘Amosschluß,’ 177 n. 41 suggests that these two passages are linked by the theme of the kingdom. 38 The phrase ‘to destroy from upon the face of the earth’ occurs in variety of contexts with different verbs for ‘destroy’: Gen. 6:7 (מחה = wipe out); Ex. 32:12 (כלה = annihilate); Jer. 28:16 (שלח = send off//die); Zeph. 1:2, 3 (אסף = gather; כרת = cut off); 1 Sam. 20:15 (כרת = cut off); but it is only in Dt. 6:15 and 1 Kings 13:34 that it is used with שמד in Hiphil.
I. Amos 9:7‐10
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above in ch. 4 §II. 2.b, that 1 Kings 13 was influenced by Amos tradition may mean that Am. 9:8 was also part of that influence, though of course a more complicated solution is not out of the question. Vv 7‐8a stand out as relatively isolated in their present context. Thematically neither the exodus from Egypt, nor the migrations of Aram and Philistia and the implied issue of Israel’s relationship to the foreign nations seems to continue any major motif from the fifth vision or the visions complex as a whole or to introduce in a significant way any of the following material (except perhaps 9:12).39 In contrast to that, v. 8b is indissolubly bound to its present context because it introduces the following section by bringing in the central theme which will occu‐ py the reader’s attention from now on: salvation beyond judgment. How the sinful kingdom is destroyed but the house of Jacob is certainly not to be destroyed is explicated in vv 9‐10 and 11‐15 respectively with the pictures of selective judgment and subsequent restoration. In view of the above I want to suggest the following hypothesis. 9:7‐8a stood originally directly after 2:16 in the place now occupied by the redactional 3:1‐2. This is suggested by the strong thematic connec‐ tion of 9:7‐8a with the OAN.40 The idea of the composition in its earlier form was that the provocative statements of the 5 OAN, with the impli‐ cation that Israel was no different from its neighbours, led to a discus‐ sion in which the exodus from Egypt was cited as evidence to the con‐ trary. 9:7‐8a is Amos’ answer to that objection. Its first person divine speech and direct second person masculine address to Israel follows well from 2:9, 13 and its polemical tone is continued in 3:3‐8*. The im‐ plication of this transposition is that after preaching the 5 OAN Amos answered one objection of his audience based on the Exodus from Egypt (9:7‐8a) and then answered a second statement which was in effect a prohibition to speak any further (3:3‐8*).41 From its place be‐ tween 2:16 and 3:3, 9:7‐8a was moved to a position following the fifth vision (perhaps because of the catchword )כפתור by the composer who formulated 3:2 as a programmatic statement introducing in a more general way the material in chs 3‐6 and serving as a bridge with the 39 A minor formal detail which is in line with this observation is that in 9:1‐4 and in the following vv 8‐10 Israel is spoken of in the third person whilst in 9:7a it is directly addressed in second masculine plural. 40 Fritz, ‘Fremdvölkersprüche,’ 34‐36 argues that the reference to Kir in 1:5 is depen‐ dent on 9:7 (cf also Maag, 7) and Rottzoll, 40, 272 sees the dependence going the oth‐ er way (cf also Rösel, ‘Entwicklung,’ 100 n.29). A third and more likely hypothesis is that both go back to the same hand. 41 I am neither arguing here that this was a real event in the life of Amos, nor that it is a completely artificial construct. Either is a possibility. My major concern here is the shape and intention of the Erstverschriftung.
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The Oracles after the Fifth Vision (Amos 9:7‐15)
preceding OAN. On the other hand, 9:8b must have been composed by someone who already found 9:7‐8a in its present position and who wanted to provide a suitable thematic introduction to the material which follows in 9:9‐15.
3. Amos 9:9‐10 Most interpreters understand these verses as speaking of selective judgment whereby only the sinful perish and the righteous are saved and deny them to Amos on the grounds that such a doctrine is foreign to him.42 However, there are a few who argue that v. 9 is concerned only about judgment of the sinful (cf Is. 30:28) not about the separation of just and unjust.43 The actual phrasing of the metaphor of the sieve supports that second view insofar that nowhere in the passage are the righteous mentioned at all. The point of the sieve is that no one will be able to escape, an idea that vv 9‐10 share in common with 2:14‐16 and 9:1‐4. However, the present context, namely the salvation promises of vv 8b and 11‐15, forces the reader to think also of the survivors and this brings an additional dimension to the metaphor. The sieve is not only an instrument which precludes any possibility of escape from Yahweh but also a means of separation of the sinners from the rest. Thus the context brings out a meaning which is only potentially present but not explicitly expressed in vv 9‐10.44 Taken in isolation, vv 9‐10 proclaim certain, inescapable judgment to people who feel secure and do not respond with respect to the pro‐ phetic proclamation. This is entirely consistent with the situation of Amos as known to us from the rest of the material in the book.45 The 42 For an attempt to discern a doctrine of ‘remnant’ in Amos Berridge, ‘Botschaft des Amos,’ 321‐333. Hasel, Remnant, 173‐215 finds a dual use of the remnant idea in Amos, connected both with his message of judgment and salvation. Cf differently Müller, Rest, 58‐62. 43 Volz, ‘Amos 9:9,’ 105‐111; Nowack, 167‐168; Cripps, 268; Jozaki, ‘Secondary Passag‐ es,’ 87; Mays, 161‐162; Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 180‐182; Achtemeier, 232‐233; Noble, ‘Absolute ʺNoʺ,’ 335‐338. Weiser, Profetie, 55‐56 also sees the point of vv 9‐10 as stressing the absolute judgment but on the basis of a different interpretation of the image. According to him the nature of the sieve and the translation of צרור are beside the point. The reference in v. 9a is to an earthquake and the comparison with the sieve simply underlines this idea – Israel will be shaken in an earthquake and none will escape. It is interesting to note that even on this interpretation Weiser does not ascribe the verses to Amos. 44 Hadjiev, ‘Context,’ 664‐667. 45 Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 53‐54. According to Amsler, 244 the style of the oracle comes close to that of Amos himself; cf also Mays, 161.
II. Amos 9:11‐15
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objection ‘this evil will not come to us’ most probably comes from pre‐ exilic times.46 A similar attitude is attacked in Mic. 3:11 whose wording is sufficiently different to preclude any direct literary relationship with Am. 9:10.47 It is very unlikely that such a statement could have been made (or rather would need to have been attacked) after the events of 587 BC or even in post‐exilic times when Judah was pressed by hostile neighbours and the painful memory of the exile was still fresh. It is, therefore, likely that in vv 9‐10 we have a disputation saying of Amos which has been reused and reinterpreted by a redactor. The rein‐ terpretation is achieved by providing the saying with a new context (vv 8 and 11‐15) which exploits the potential of the sieve metaphor. The language ties vv 9‐10 especially close to the visions report, particularly to the last vision: מצוה (9:3, 4); בחרב (9:1, 4); עמי (7:8; 8:2); הרעה (9:4). The image of the shaking sieve follows nicely from the description of quak‐ ing thresholds in 9:1. The attitude quoted in 9:10 is the same one which 9:1‐4 seeks to address, namely that the promised calamity will not over‐ take the people to whom the prophetic word comes. All this makes it reasonable to assume that 9:9‐10 was once attached directly to 9:4.
II. Amos 9:11‐15 In spite of continued attempts to assign this passage to the ministry of Amos himself48, there is wide agreement among scholars that it comes
46 Vuilleumier, Tradition cultuelle, 27. The quote does not imply a belief in the power‐ lessness of Yahweh on the part of the audience (contra Willi‐Plein). Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 218 places this conviction in the aftermath of the 701 BC siege of Je‐ rusalem. 47 Only רעה is common to both verses. It is interesting that Mi. 3:11 reflects two convic‐ tions that are logically linked to each other – (1) Yahweh is among us; therefore, (2) no evil will come against us. Amos attacks both (cf Am. 5:14) but in different places. This suggests a widespread attitude in Judah and Israel in the 8th century BC. Cf also Is. 9:9[10]. 48 For extensive lists of authors who hold to the Amosian origin of vv 11‐15 see Hasel, ‘Alleged ʺNoʺ,’ 15‐16; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 116‐117 n. 58. Attempts to find a suitable setting within the ministry Amos include: Watts, Vision and prophecy, 82‐85; idem, ‘Origin,’ 111 (New Year festival on the second anniversary of Amos’ expulsion from the north); Andersen and Freedman, 198 (the very last words of Amos pro‐ duced after the first edition of the book (1:2‐9:6) and added to it after his death); Ru‐ dolph, 286 (a revelation addressed personally to Amos); Sellin, 271 (part of the clash between Amos and Amaziah); cf similarly Yeivin, ‘Divided Kingdom,’ 164; Firth, ‘Promise as Polemic,’ 374, 378‐381 (polemic against the house of Jeroboam).
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The Oracles after the Fifth Vision (Amos 9:7‐15)
from a later period.49 Although the time of Josiah has been occasionally suggested,50 it is most commonly dated to the exilic or the post‐exilic period,51 a position which I also share. Kellermann argues for a Dtr provenance on the basis of the pres‐ ence of Dtr themes and parallels with DH, Jeremiah and the Dtr pas‐ sages of Amos.52 However, the presence of such themes and parallels is less persuasive than Kellermann believes. First, if 9:11 was meant as an affirmation of Davidic theology it is somewhat surprising that it speaks of the ‘hut of David’ instead of the more usual ‘house of David’.53 Second, the attitude to Edom in 9:12 is not consistent with the Dtr atti‐ tude which is generally quite positive as Edom’s neutral treatment in DH and positive handling in Dt. 23:8[7] demonstrate.54 Third, some of the allegedly Dtr themes appear in Ezekiel as well (28:25‐26; 34:25‐27; 36:8‐12, 28‐38). Finally, in Am. 9:11‐15 the salvation is unconditional and not contingent upon return to Yahweh and obedience to his word which differs from the standard expression of Dtr hope.55 Some points of contact between the language of vv 11‐15 and Dtr idiom and thought 49 Some of the fullest discussions include Harper, 195‐196, 198; Weiser, Profetie, 284‐ 289; Cripps, 67‐77; Pomykala, ‘Fallen Booth,’ 275‐282. 50 Park, Amos, 51‐67, 69‐70, 108‐109, 111‐112, 129‐130, 132‐136; Sweeney, ‘Formation and Form in Prophetic Literature,’ 124‐125. For a later modification of his position cf Sweeney, 193, 195, 273‐274; also Sweeney, Josiah, 281. On the other hand, Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 214 places Am. 9:11‐15 in the time after 701 BC. 51 Marti, 226‐227; Kellermann, ‘Amosschluß,’ 178‐182; Robinson, 70, 108; Amsler, 245; Wolff, 406 ET 353; Willi‐Plein, 57; Coote, 110; Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 89‐94; Martin‐ Achard, 66; Soggin, 147‐150; Deissler, 91, 136; Nogalski, Precursors, 104, 107; Dicou, Israelʹs Brother, 82, 102‐104; Jeremias, 129 ET 162; Rottzoll, 278‐279, 282‐283; Schart, 252‐256. 52 Kellermann, ‘Amosschluß,’ 178‐182. 53 There is a debate as to the actual meaning of the phrase. The most popular sugges‐ tions include: ‘the Davidic dynasty’, ‘the Davidic kingdom’ and ‘the city of Jersua‐ lem’. Cf the survey of research in Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 150‐158. For a good, re‐ cent defence of the view that the hut of David is Jerusalem see Pomykala, ‘Fallen Booth,’ 282‐291. 54 Kellermann gets around the difficulty by interpreting 9:12 in a rather positive man‐ ner (Edom through its integration in the Davidic kingdom participates in its bless‐ ings); similarly Raabe, Obadiah, 42. However, the interpretation of the possession of Edom as means to participate in the blessings of Israel is a little forced. To ‘possess’ here means to ‘conquer, rule’ (Ob. 19‐20) and therefore the militaristic tone of the passage should not be downplayed. Cf also Dicou, Israelʹs Brother, 30‐31. 55 This point is similar to Ezek. 37; Is. 55:1‐5. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40‐55, 370 thinks that this there is a subversion in Is. 55 of the Deuteronomistic view where the covenant is dependent on obedience of the law and suggests that it results from a strong convic‐ tion of moral inadequacy, a conviction which resulted from the experience of the ex‐ ile.
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(especially in relation to Jeremiah; cf below) may be explained with the hypothesis that the redactor was familiar with and partly influenced by Dtr works. Some think vv 11‐12 and vv 13‐15 are two distinct oracles as the concluding formula in v. 12 and the opening formula in v. 13 would indicate.56 According to Rottzoll, these oracles also underwent some inner development: v. 12 was a later addition to v. 11;57 and the basic oracle in vv 13‐15 (13aα + 14aα + 15bγ) was borrowed from Jer. 30:3 and developed with phrases and motifs from other parts of Jeremiah (15bβ; 15a and 15bα) in the second half of the 5th century. It was subse‐ quently supplemented with 14aβγ,b and later (c. 400 BC) with 13aβγ,b.58 Others treat vv 11, 14 and 15 as the original oracle, into which v. 12 (or 12a) and v. 13 were later inserted.59 This thesis has been further compli‐ cated by Wöhrle who suggests that v. 11 and vv 14‐15 are two different additions, independent of one another.60 A detailed discussion of these proposals is not necessary at this point as neither of them would have a significant bearing on the redac‐ tional history of the book as a whole. Moreover, an examination of the phraseology of vv 11‐15 suggests an alternative and less complicated view of the origin of our unit. First, these verses contain a number of phrases and motifs that are fairly frequent in exilic literature. The me‐ taphor of planting and uprooting is often used in the book of Jeremiah to describe the events of 587 BC and the promised restoration after‐ wards (Jer. 1:10; 12:14; 24:6; 18:7‐9; 31:28; 32:41; 42:10; 45:4; cf 1 Kings 14:15).61 The phrase ‘the land which I gave to them/their fathers’ is cha‐ racteristic of the diction of Deuteronomy, Jeremiah and Kings. The phrase שוב שבות is frequently used in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (Jer. 30:3; 33:7, 11; 49:6, 39; Ezek. 16:53; 29:14; 39:25). V. 13a has some points of contact with Lev. 26:5. The wording and the particular shape of the metaphor in both places are sufficiently different to preclude any direct literary relationship between the two texts. Both, however, share the same underlying thought, they are descriptions of agricultural abun‐ 56 Rudolph, 280; Wolff, 404 ET 351; Amsler, 245‐247; Willi‐Plein, 57; Zimmerli, ‘Prophetenwort,’ 490‐491; Deissler, 134; Andersen and Freedman, 886; Martin‐ Achard, 68. According to Robinson, 107‐108: vv 11‐12 and v. 13 were independent oracles and vv 14‐15 were written especially for their present context. 57 Rottzoll, 276‐279. Cf also Maag, 61. 58 Rottzoll, 280‐283. 59 Kellermann, ‘Amosschluß,’ 177; Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 75‐76, 89‐94 Nogalski, Precursors, 107; Jeremias, 134‐137 ET 167‐170; Schart, 97 (for v.13aβγ,b). 60 Wöhrle, 119‐122. 61 Often in these texts נטע is in parallel with בנה as here in Amos.
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The Oracles after the Fifth Vision (Amos 9:7‐15)
dance in which the produce of the land is so abundant that various agricultural activities usually conducted in different seasons need to overlap. V. 13b is a quotation of an originally independent tradition, as the comparison with Joel 4:18[3:18] demonstrates (ch. 1 §IV. 6). Second, vv 11‐15 constantly allude to various passages from the book of Amos. The presence of these allusions is now widely recog‐ nized and does not need to be spelt out in detail.62 Some of the most striking instances include the blessings of the coming age in v. 14 (cf 5:11), the fallen‐to‐be raised hut of David in 9:11 (cf 5:2; 8:14), the use of the root שוב in v. 14 (cf OAN; 4:6‐11), the designation ‘my people Israel’ in v. 14 (cf 8:2; 7:8) and the mention of Edom and all the nations in v. 12 (cf OAN in chs1‐2). The combination of these two observations sug‐ gests that vv 11‐15 were composed by a single redactor, who utilized various traditions and clichés common in his time, in order to provide the book of Amos with an interpretative conclusion. The suggestion that vv 11‐15 are the result of a single editorial effort receives further confirmation from the relationship of these verses to the preceding unit (vv 7‐10), to which I now turn.
III. The Redactional Unity of vv 7‐15 At first glance vv 7‐10, on one hand, and 11‐15, on the other, look so different and the break between them is so sharp that it would seem logical to regard them as two completely different sections coming from different hands.63 Several considerations argue against such a conclusion. First, there are some formal and literary links between the two passages. Both are given as a first person Yahweh speech (except v. 8a) and throughout Israel is referred to in the third person. Only at the beginning and the end we have direct address (second person plural in v. 7 and singular in v. 15) which frames the entire section.64 Certain key phrases appear in both sections and link them together: מעל פני האדמה/ מעל אדמתם (8, 15); כל הגוים (9, 12);65 עמי/עמי ישראל (10, 14).66 Another possible 62 Cf Groves, Actualization and Interpretation, 181‐188; Andersen and Freedman, 888, 892, 909; Schart, 253; Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 258‐260. 63 Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 56; Vuilleumier, Tradition cultuelle, 26; Nogalski, Precursors, 112; Jeremias, 134 ET 166. 64 Andersen and Freedman, 926. 65 ‘Among all the nations’ in v. 9 is commonly thought to be a gloss: Cripps, 265‐66; Sellin, 268; Budde, ‘Техt und Auslegung 2,’ 111; Maag, 59; Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 53; Willi‐Plein, 56; Rudolph, 277; Market, Struktur, 198; Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 74; Schul‐ lerus, ‘Amos 9:7‐10,’ 60‐61; Koenen, Heil, 12‐13 n.12; Nägele, Laubhütte Davids, 181;
III. The Redactional Unity of vv 7‐15
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link between the two sections is the implied contrast between Jacob (8) and Edom (12). Jacob and Edom are linked and contrasted not only in the patriarchal stories in Genesis but also in later prophetic literature (Ob. 10, 17, 18; Mal. 1:2‐3). The theme of Israel’s relation to the nations in v. 12 and v. 7 also connects the two sections.67 Second and more importantly, the verses are held together themati‐ cally. Vv 7‐8 present the reader with a contradiction: Yahweh destroys the sinful kingdom (7‐8a) but he will not destroy the sinful Jacob (8b). The tension created by this contradiction is resolved in vv 9‐15. The house of Jacob is shaken among the nations and the sinners are killed by the sword (9‐10) but then it is reconstituted (11‐15). So paradoxically it is both destroyed and continues to exist. Both 9‐10 and 11‐15 are im‐ portant in the answer to the contradiction, introduced by vv 7‐8. Vv 9‐ 10 develop 7‐8a while vv 11‐15 develop 8b. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that a redactor used the pre‐existent materials in vv 7‐8a and 9‐10 and composed vv 8b, 11‐15 to form a single section as an epilogue to the book of Amos.
Schart, 95, n. 159. Kellermann, ‘Amosschluß,’ 172‐174, 177 argues the glossator in v. 9 was also responsible for v. 12. 66 Less significant is the repetition of ( נפל9, 11) and נגש (10, 13). 67 Andersen and Freedman, 895‐896. Another interesting pointer to the unity of the passages is the fact that it summarises all the main terms for Israel used in the book: Israel (v. 7); sons of Israel (v. 7); house of Israel (v. 9); my people Israel (v. 14) (p. 897).
Chapter 7: The Doxologies I. The Introductory motto (1:2) Although 1:2 is attributed by some scholars to Amos who is thought either to have coined or quoted it,1 it is usually taken as a later redac‐ tional addition from pre‐exilic,2 exilic,3 or post‐exilic times.4 The verse plays an important compositional role within the book (cf below §III) and it contains a number of motifs which form allusions to other pas‐ sages: the image of Yahweh as a roaring and destroying lion (3:4, 8, 12; cf the repetition of שאג and נתן קולו in 3:4); the top of Carmel (9:3); the mourning of the earth’s inhabitants (9:5; cf repetition of )אבל. At the same time v. 2 is loosely connected to its present context and its remov‐ al harms in no way the structure of the following OAN or the preced‐ ing superscription.5 The mention of Jerusalem as the place of Yahweh’s habitation and the closeness to Jerusalemite cultic traditions (cf Ps. 50:1‐ 3), although not unthinkable in the preaching of a Judean, seem to be unusual of Amos if the rest of the material within the book is taken into account.6 It is, therefore, best to take 1:2 as a redactional motto presup‐ posing a large part of the material now found in the book of Amos.7 1
2
3 4 5 6
Wellhausen, 67; Bentzen, ‘Ritual Background,’ 95‐96; Maag, 4; Jozaki, ‘Secondary Passages,’ 33; Botterweck, ‘Authentizität,’ 177‐178; Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 17‐19; Weiser, 132; Clements, God and Temple, 80; Farr, ‘Language of Amos,’ 313‐314; Hammershaimb, 19‐21; Rudolph, 117; Willi‐Plein, 15; Weippert, ‘Amos: Seine Build‐ er,’ 17‐18; Gordis, ‘Edom, Israel and Amos,’ 119; Hayes, 63‐66; Finley, 132; Paul, 36‐ 38, 42; Pfeifer, Theologie, 25. Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 171‐172 n. 9; Wolff, 151‐152 ET 121‐122 (Josiah’s time); Coote, 52, 55‐56, 58‐60 (B Stage); Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 71, 225 (Judean redaction prior to Josiah); Nogalski, Precursors, 83‐84 (Josiah’s time); Albertz, Exilszeit, 178 ET 226‐227 (late pre‐exilic). Jeremias, xxii, 3 ET 8, 13; Zenger, Einleitung, 392‐393; Wöhrle, 133‐134. Marti, 157‐158; Harper, 9‐10; Pfeiffer, Introduction, 582; Rottzoll, 20‐21, 288; Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 73; Collins, Introduction, 295. On the question of the relation of v. 2 to its immediate and larger context cf the survey of Paul, 36 n. 39 and the authors cited there. Schart, 55 thinks that the royal Jerusalemite theology reflected in 1:2 would have been irrelevant for the prophet coming from the periphery of Judah. On the other hand, Andersen and Freedman, Amos, 223‐224 speculate that Amos received his call
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This places before us the question to which redactional layer does v. 2 belong. Vermeylen argues for a Dtr provenance8 but the verse lacks any specific Dtr vocabulary9 and the importance of Zion with regard to the worship of Yahweh was not the exclusive property of the Deutero‐ nomists. The similarity between Am. 1:2a and Joel 4:16a [3:16a] could be used as an argument that the verse somehow belongs to a ‘twelve prophets book’ redaction, if Amos here is taken to be dependent on Joel10 or at least on the same level of redaction. However, the fact that Joel is usually the borrower argues in favour of the dependence going the other way.11 This is supported by the fact that in Joel the saying from Am. 1:2a is followed by a prediction that heaven and earth will shake ()רעש. It is possible that this is an allusion to the earthquake ()רעש of Am. 1:1 in which case the author of Joel 4 condensed in one verse allusions to Am. 1:1‐2,12 interpreting the roar of Yahweh as the cause of an apocalyptic, cosmic earthquake. It is highly unlikely that the refer‐ ence to shaking of the heaven and the earth (Joel 4:16[3:16]) would have been omitted by the redactor of Am. 1:2 in favour of the line ‘the pas‐ tures of the shepherds shall mourn’ because the pair ‘heaven and earth’ would have strengthened even further the link with the end of the book (cf. 9:6) which was already provided by the repetition of the phrase ‘the top of Carmel’ in 1:2 and 9:3. It is more likely that Joel omitted the second part of Am. 1:2 in favour of a line which provided a more cos‐ mic perspective for his saying. A number of scholars take 1:2 as part of the same redaction which added the hymnic passages in 4:13, 5:8‐9 and 9:5‐6.13 Against this thesis one could argue that 1:2, unlike the hymnic fragments, begins with
7 8 9 10 11
12 13
to prophesy in the Jerusalem temple much like Isaiah. Davies, ‘Prophet of Re‐Uniоn,’ 196‐200 takes 1:2 as a key for understanding the whole of Amos’ message and minis‐ try: ‘Amos believes in Jerusalem…This belief is surely the touchstone whereby the successive themes and ideas of the book are to be judged’ (p. 197). Fosbroke, 778; Fohrer, Propheten, 23; Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 384; Wöhrle, 92. Vermeylen, 520‐525. So also but less confidently Schart, 99. Cf Coote, 52, 60. It is for this reason that Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 172 n. 9 hesitates to ascribe v. 2 to the Dtr redaction of the book. Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies I,’ 137‐139 n. 144; Cripps, 115. So Jozaki, ‘Secondary Passages,’ 33; Wolff, 152 ET 122; Willi‐Plein, 15 among others. The other option would be that both authors/redactors made independent use of tradition: Robinson, 75 (größeren Gedicht); Fosbroke, 778 (longer poem); Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 17‐18 (oral cultic tradition); Barton, Joel, 106 (‘a piece of “floating” tradi‐ tion – perhaps a liturgical formula’). Paul, 41 n. 77. Wolff, 136‐137 ET 112; Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 531‐534; Coote, 55‐56; Jeremias, xxi‐xxii ET 8; Rottzoll, 248‐249, 288; Zenger, Einleitung, 392‐393; Wöhrle, 92‐ 93, 133‐134.
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infinitives rather than with participles,14 that the creation theme is miss‐ ing from it as is also the concluding refrain ‘Yahweh (God of Hosts) is his name’, and that the other hymnic pieces do not mention Zion and Jerusalem. On the other hand, 1:2 is linked to the doxologies in a num‐ ber of ways, both formally and thematically. Like them it is relatively isolated from its immediate context and its position at the beginning of the book matches the placement of 9:5‐6 towards the end. All the pas‐ sages are formulated in the same regular meter (3x3). Thematically the hymnic passages are united by the common idea of judgment mani‐ fested in the disruption of natural order15 (rather than in historical cate‐ gories like exile) and resulting from the personal action of Yahweh, without the help of any intermediaries (armies, sword, fire). The idea of Yahweh speaking runs through all the texts: Yahweh roars and gives his voice (1:2), declares to man his thought (4:13), and calls the waters of the sea (5:8, 9:6). In addition there seem to be some connections be‐ tween individual passages, though they are stronger and clearer in some cases than in others. 5:8 and 9:6 are undoubtedly related by the verbal repetition of 5:8b and 9:6b. Also 5:8 links back to 4:13 through the motifs of light and darkness (without any verbal repetition!). 1:2 is related to 4:13 by the mountain theme16 and by the possible use of theophanic motifs.17 Finally, 9:5‐6 and 1:2 are connected by the convul‐
14 Schart, 56. 15 The references in 5:9 and 9:5 clearly demonstrate Yahweh’s ability to disrupt the natural order which he has created and sustains. The outpouring of waters in 5:8 and 9:6 is usually understood as a reference to destructive storms or the deluge (Robin‐ son, 89‐90; Weiser, 189; Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 518; Andersen and Freed‐ man, 453, 489, 845; Jeremias, 68 ET 91; Lang and Messner, ‘Am 9:6,’ 95‐96 [‚Inversion der Schöpfung’]. Contrast Marti, 191 [‘fruchtbringenden Regen’]; Rudolph, 200 and Pfeifer, ‘Jahwe als Schöpfer,’ 478). Thus Gillingham, ‘Makes Morning Darkness,’ 172 concludes that ‘the purpose of all three doxologies was to proclaim in hymnic form that Israel’s God was able both to create and to destroy’ and Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 528, 536 suggests that the aim of the hymnic redaction was to actualise Amos’ eschatology by depicting the future manifestation of God as a cosmic destruc‐ tive blow on the whole earth. Cf also Harper, 116. 16 Zion‐Carmel in 1:2 and ‘the mountains – the high places of the earth’ in 4:13: cf Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 531. 17 The similarities and differences between 1:2 and theophanic traditions are analysed by Wolff, 147‐148, 152 ET 118‐119, 122 who explains the present shape of v. 2 by suggesting that old theophanic motifs have been accommodated to the language and message of Amos by the redactor who placed the motto here. For an argument that 4:13 comes from theophanic rather than from creation tradition‐historical back‐ ground see Dijkstra, ‘Amos 4:13,’ 245‐253. Cf Crenshaw, ‘Theophanic Tradition,’ 211‐ 212 who wishes to extend that link to all the ‘doxologies’.
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sive reactions of nature to Yahweh’s actions (cf the repetition of the motif of mourning = )אבל. It seems, therefore, that there are both connections between 1:2 and the ‘doxologies’ as well as differences. A plausible hypothesis which may explain these facts is that 1:2; 4:13; 5:8‐9 and 9:5‐6 were all inserted by the same redactor who perhaps preferred to use and adapt some pre‐existing hymnic materials rather than contribute completely free editorial compositions.
II. The ‘doxologies’ (4:13; 5:8‐9; 9:5‐6) 1. Introduction There are three passages in the book (4:13; 5:8‐9; 9:5‐6), often called ‘doxologies’, which stand out sharply from the rest of the material by virtue of their style and content. They are characterised by use of parti‐ ciples, in some instances followed by finite verbs, which describe the actions of Yahweh in creation and control of nature. In each case they also contain the formula ‘Yahweh (God of hosts) is his name’.18 These unique characteristics bind the ‘doxologies’ sufficiently strongly to‐ gether in order to necessitate their common treatment in spite of the fact that they are found in different places throughout the book. Within these passages a number of glosses and redactional layers have been identified by some scholars. 5:9 is suspected by many on account of its placement after the refrain ‘Yahweh is his name’ in 5:8 and of its different subject matter (destruction of strongholds rather than creation).19 Berg, who arrives at his conclusions via a very full discussion and survey of prior research, suggests that 4:13* and 5:8a (+ ‘Yahweh is his name’ in 8b) stem from one redactor whilst 9:5‐6 come from a different hand.20 He identifies as post‐exilic glosses the lines
18 Cf Crüsemann, Hymnus und Danklied, 104‐105 who suggests that these formal charac‐ teristics reflect the appropriation of a characteristic type of ‘participial hymn’. 19 Cf the survey and discussion in Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 69‐71, 82‐83, 85‐87, 89‐91, 103 who remains undecided on this issue and ultimately excludes 5:9 from his re‐ construction. Andersen and Freedman, 494 describe it as a ‘loose fragment’ which has more in common with the threats of Amos rather than with the hymns. A strong connection between vv 8 and 9 is perceived by Story, ‘Prophet of Praise,’ 71, 73‐74. 20 Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 116‐117, 265‐267.
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‘and declares to man what is his thought’ in 4:1321 and ‘who calls the waters of the sea and pours them on the face of the earth’ in 5:8.22 How‐ ever, this reconstruction seems to be based on too rigid an expectation for consistency in thought and style on the part of ancient Hebrew re‐ dactors. The hymnic fragments do not display any significant contra‐ dictions or problems that would allow us to stratify them with any degree of confidence into different editorial layers so it is best to treat them as part of a single reworking which probably used and adapted some pre‐existent material.23
2. Relationship to the present context The relationship of 4:13 to the preceding passage is in no way awkward or difficult. V. 13 is in fact closely connected to v. 12 where Israel is commanded to prepare to meet her God.24 The series of participles in v. 13 elaborates on that command by depicting what kind of God it is exactly that Israel is about to meet. The verse, therefore, forms a fitting conclusion to the passage as a whole.25 On the other hand, it must be emphasised that, whilst appropriate, v. 13 is in no way indispensable to its present literary context. V. 12 might as well have formed the conclu‐ sion of the pericope at one time with v. 13 being a later redactional ela‐ 21 Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 85, 118‐119, 319. Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 522 thinks this line comes from the redactor who inserted the hymn. Wöhrle, 76 takes it as Dtr gloss, similar to 3:7. 22 Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 115‐116. A more simple and elegant approach is adopted by Schart, 74, 76‐77, 93, 99 ‐‐ 4:13; 5:8 and 9:6 were pre‐existing hymnic fragments, 4:12, 5:9 and 9:5 were formulated by the redactor who inserted them into the present con‐ text. 23 Interestingly enough, Berg himself discovers a number of thematic and stylistic ‘tensions’ and differences between 9:5 and 9:6 (cf pp 87‐88, 114‐115; cf also Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 68‐70 who isolates 5b and 6b as expansions) but at the end concludes that these verses ‘von nur einem Verfasser stammt, der verschiedene Aussagen der Tra‐ dition verbunden hat’ (p. 325). This conclusion could be extended to all the hymnic passages as does, for example, Paas, Creation and Judgement, 250‐258. 24 Some in fact would take v. 12b together with v. 13 either as an original introduction of the hymn (Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 515‐516) or as part of the same redac‐ tional addition (Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 242 n. 3). In view of the fitting function of v. 12 as a conclusion and climax of the preceding, the difference of style and theme be‐ tween vv 12 and 13, and the redactional introduction of v. 13 ()כי הנה this is unlikely (cf Crüsemann, Hymnus und Danklied, 99). 25 Crenshaw, Hymnic Affirmation, 5‐6; Rudolph, 181; Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 78‐79, 250‐ 252.
II. The ‘doxologies’ (4:13; 5:8‐9; 9:5‐6)
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boration.26 So although the contextual placement of 4:13 does not sup‐ port a theory for its redactional origin it also does not provide strong grounds against it. One other factor needs to be taken into account. There is surprising‐ ly little correspondence between the contents of v. 13 and the kind of plagues that are enumerated in 4:6‐11. Hunger and lack of rain play an important role in 4:6‐8 and Yahweh’s authority over the pouring waters is mentioned in 5:8 and 9:6 but not in 4:13. In 7:1 Yahweh is the ‘former’ ()יוצר of locusts, a plague coming up also in 4:9, but in 4:13 he is a ‘for‐ mer’ ()יוצר of mountains; nothing about locusts or anything else remote‐ ly related to that comes into view.27 Schart also points out that whilst vv 4‐11 address Israel v. 13 speaks more generally of ‘mankind’ ()אדם.28 Yet, although the contents of the hymn do not relate in any way to the kind of plagues listed in vv 6‐11, the five participles in v. 13 correspond to the fivefold repetition of the refrain ‘you did not return to me’. The threatening overtones of the fifth colon (the one who walks on the high places of the earth) provide a fitting continuation of the vague and threatening command ‘prepare to meet your God’ in v. 12. The most plausible explanation of these somewhat contradictory phenomena is that pre‐existing material has been used and adapted in v. 13 with an eye on the present context (4:6‐12). The situation is quite different with the second hymnic fragment (5:8‐9). Its awkward place in ch. 5 is universally recognised.29 In v. 7 an initial participle ()ההפכים describes the guilty who turn justice into wormwood. V. 8 begins with another participle ()עשה which clearly refers to Yahweh. The transition is sudden and unexpected. The syntac‐ tical awkwardness is matched by a sharp break of theme between vv 7 and 8. A similar break is observed at the end of the unit, between vv 9 26 Another instance of Barton’s ‘disappearing redactor’. 27 Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 514‐515 argues that the mountains of v. 13 relate back to the mountain of Samaria in 4:1, the ‘high places of the earth’, which he inter‐ prets in the sense of ‘cultic high places’, point to the sanctuaries mentioned in 4:4‐5, and the ‘considerations’ of Yahweh ()שחו revealed to men in v. 13 forms an inclusion with the word ()דבר proclaimed in 4:1. 28 Schart, 73. Cf the more general and categorical comment of Weiser, 156: ‘Form und Inhalt verbieten es, in dem Vers die unmittelbare Fortsetzung des vorausgehenden Gedichts zu sehen’ (on v. 13 as a self‐contained form‐critical unit see Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 80‐81). 29 Cripps, 184; Gordis, ‘Studies,’ 224; Crenshaw, Hymnic Affirmation, 6‐8 among others. Contrast Story, ‘Prophet of Praise,’ 71‐72, 74; also McComiskey, ‘Hymnic Elements,’ 144‐147 who argues that the intrusive nature of the passage is a characteristic mark of Amos’ style. More often it is suggested that vv 8‐9 have been misplaced: see Ru‐ dolph, 184 with a survey of proposals.
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and 10. A number of commentators have observed that if the hymnic portion is removed v. 10 follows seamlessly from v. 7. The two verses correspond to each other both in content and form. The subject matter, lack of justice, is the same. In both places we have a bicolon with three words in each cola arranged chiasticly (the verbs/participle forming the outer limits of the chiasmus) and in both verses the guilty are ad‐ dressed in third person masculine plural. It is, therefore, quite likely that originally they formed a single oracle.30 It has also been long recognized that 5:8‐9 would have connected much more naturally with 5:6.31 The command to seek Yahweh in v. 6 would have found a fitting continuation in the participial descriptions of God in vv 8‐9 much in the same way as 4:12 is continued in 4:13. However, attempts to transpose 5:8‐9 to follow 5:6 have been rightly abandoned due to the recognition that 5:1‐17 forms a well crafted ring composition with vv 8‐9 standing at its centre (see below ch. 9 §I. 1). Ironically, their position following v. 7, although awkward from a syn‐ tactical and thematic point of view, is necessary on literary grounds. The hymnic fragment is also related to v. 7 with the help of the cat‐ chword ‘turn’ ()הפך. It seems that its present position is quite deliberate and well thought through. There is no need to date the insertion of vv 8‐9 to the same period as the formation of the ring composition in 5:1‐17. The removal of the hymn in no way destroys the composition. It is possible that originally vv 7+10 formed the centre of the passage, vv 8‐9 being a later interpola‐ tion.32 Two considerations make this possibility fairly likely. On the one hand, the syntactical awkwardness of vv 8‐9 would suggest that the redactor who inserted vv 8‐9 was different from the one who wove together the rest of vv 1‐17, since the connections between all the other pieces are much smoother. On the other, thematically vv 8‐9 do not fit very well within vv 1‐17*.33 The three major themes in the passage are 30 Wolff, 273 ET 233. Other reconstructions of the original oracle include: Amsler, 204‐ 205, 208‐209 (7, 10‐12, 16‐17); Jeremias, ‘Tod und Leben,’ 224‐226 (7, 10, 12, 16‐17); Crenshaw, Hymnic Affirmation, 8 (4‐7, 14‐15); Berridge, ‘Botschaft des Amos,’ 321‐333 (7, 10, 15); Rottzoll, 215‐241 (12a, 7, 10, 12b); Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 119‐130 (7, 10, 16, 17b); Ernst, Kultkritik, 133‐139 (4‐5, 7, 10); Maag, 30‐31 (7, 10‐12); Mays, 90‐95 (7, 10, 11). 31 Marti, 191; Winter, ‘Analyse,’ 345; Fosbroke, 813; Hammershaimb, 80; Mays, 95; Wolff, 135‐136, 273 ET 111, 232; Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 261‐265. 32 So also Jeremias, 63 ET 85; Schart, 76; Wöhrle, 60‐61. 33 Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 523‐525 argues, on the basis of Babylonian and Assyrian parallels, that the two stars in 5:8 were related with the ideas of ‘justice and righteousness’ (v. 7), that כסיל (translated by him Sirius) was connected with fire (v.
II. The ‘doxologies’ (4:13; 5:8‐9; 9:5‐6)
131
the guilt of the addressed, a call to seek Yahweh, and a description of punishment emphasising death and mourning. Vv 8‐9 do not relate particularly well to any of them. V. 9 which speaks of Yahweh bringing destruction on the ‘strong’ ()עז and on the fortress ()מבצר is the closest thing to a hint within vv 8‐9 of Israel’s sin. This sin, however, is more likely the arrogance of Israel implied by the suggestion of military might (cf 6:2, 13)34 but not the oppression of the weak and the perver‐ sion of justice which is central to our passage (5:7, 10‐12). The call to seek Yahweh is defined in terms of ethical behaviour rather than cultic actions, as vv 14‐15 make clear. However, this ethical dimension is lack‐ ing from the description of Yahweh in vv 8‐9 where the stress is on his power over nature. It does not seem appropriate, therefore, to say that the hymn explains what kind of God Israel is called to seek in 5:4‐6 and 14‐15. Finally, the hymn depicts a threatening and destructive dimen‐ sion in Yahweh’s actions and so corresponds to the outer frame of the composition which speaks of judgment (vv 1‐3 and 16‐17). However, none of the major motifs of vv 1‐3, 16‐17, which focus on death, wailing and the personal presence of Yahweh as the ultimate cause for the ca‐ tastrophe, are at all reflected in the hymnic portion. It is just possible that 5:8‐9 have also the larger context of ch. 5 in view. The concept of Yahweh turning day into night and vice versa echoes to a certain extent the ‘day of Yahweh’ saying in 5:18‐20, though only יום and חשך are repeated in both places. The reference to justice and righteousness in v. 7 followed by a description of Yahweh calling and pouring waters on the face of the earth in v. 8 anticipates the call in 5:24 to let justice and righteousness roll down like waters/a river. If these connections are not purely coincidental they would suggest that the redactor who inserted 5:8‐9 had before him not only the ring composi‐ tion in 5:1‐17 but the whole text of 5:1‐24 already assembled in its present form. From a literary point of view, the connection of the hymnic portion in 9:5‐6 to its context is somewhat loose. Unlike 4:12 (and also 5:6), there is no overt mention of the person of God in 9:2‐4 to which 9:5‐6 can hark back and which it might be said to elaborate on. This defi‐ ciency is rather mechanically compensated for with the introductory phrase of v. 5 ‘and the Lord Yahweh of Hosts’ which is probably a re‐ dactional addition designed to smooth out the transition between the 6), and that both were associated also with warrior gods (vv 1‐3). Thus according to him the passage looks back on and binds together the whole of 5:1‐7. 34 Cf the comment of Paas, Creation and Judgement, 291: ‘in the word מבצר there is often a sense of human self‐reliance’.
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vision and the hymn.35 The change from first (9:4) to third (9:5) person divine speech is unexpected and sudden, all the more when 9:7 returns to first person address by Yahweh. The abruptness of these transitions remind the reader of 5:8‐9 although they are not as harsh as is the case with the second hymnic fragment. This abruptness, however, is compensated for to a degree by the‐ matic continuity between the fifth vision and the third hymnic piece. Vv 5‐6 continue the cosmic dimension of the vision.36 The polar oppo‐ sites in vv 2‐4 (heaven – Sheol; top of Carmel – bottom of the sea) find their correspondence in the juxtaposition of heaven and earth in vv 5‐6 and the flight upwards and downwards of the fleeing Israelites is mir‐ rored to an extend by the rising ()עלה and the sinking ()שקע of the Nile/the earth in v. 5. Likewise, the earthquake motif in v. 5 picks up on the earthquake imagery in v. 1 though without any verbal repetition.37 If those who see in 9:6 a reference to the building of Yahweh’s heavenly temple38 are correct, then this would provide another point of corres‐ pondence with the preceding vision (9:1). However, v. 6 talks about Yahweh building his ‘stairs’ in heaven which does not immediately suggest a temple.39 Even without a reference to a temple in 9:6, there are enough connections with the fifth vision. The hymnic fragment thus reinforces and substantiates the claim of vv 2‐4 that no one will be able to escape judgment because the whole world is under the control of Yahweh. It is firmly related to the central thrust of the preceding pas‐ sage. As is the case with 4:13, however, there is again here very little continuity in terms of vocabulary. The heaven/Sheol pair of the vision give way to the heaven/earth pair of the hymn, the sea is mentioned in both places but in quite different contexts and with completely differ‐ 35 BHK; Wolff, 386 ET 336; Crüsemann, Hymnus und Danklied, 101 n. 3; 103 n. 4; Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 68. 36 Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 266‐267; Jeremias, 127 ET 159; Hartenstein, ‘Wolkendunkel und Himmelsfeste,’ 154‐156, 160‐161; Paas, Creation and Judgement, 267‐268. 37 As Rudolph, 247 points out, however, the effects of the earthquake are different – in v. 1 all die, in v. 5 all lament. 38 Andersen and Freedman, 845; Lang and Messner, ‘Amos 9:6,’ 96‐97. 39 Paas, ‘Amos 9:6a,’ 319‐325; idem, Creation and Judgement, 294 has argued that מעלותו refers to the steps of God’s throne and the whole picture of 9:6 is that of the throne pavilion which in Egypt had cosmic significance. Lang and Messner, ‘Amos 9:6,’ 97 interpret the steps as a reference to the whole temple (‘die Stufen des himmlischen Heiligtums, die pars pro toto für das Heiligtum insgesamt stehen’). Koch, ‘hymnis‐ chen Abschnitte,’ 526 suggests the term is related to theophany and thinks Jacob’s ladder (Gen. 28:12) provides a parallel. The popular emendation to עליתו (‘his upper room’), on which see BHS; Mays, 151; Hammershaimb, 134; Wolff, 387 ET 336‐337; Soggin, 121 among others, is unwarranted.
II. The ‘doxologies’ (4:13; 5:8‐9; 9:5‐6)
133
ent function, there are no mountains in vv 5‐6 (contrast 4:13 and the top of Carmel in 9:3) and the pouring of the sea’s waters on the face of the earth in v. 6 corresponds to nothing in the fifth vision. Unlike 4:13 which follows the five refrains in 4:6‐11 with five participles, 9:5‐6 do not match the five places where the running people cannot hide, listed in 9:2‐4.40 This confirms the suspicion that 9:5‐6 was placed by a careful and sensitive redactor who was in some way restrained by the use of pre‐existing materials. In this case, however, he is a ‘semi‐disappearing’ redactor because the roughness of the literary transition from 9:1‐4 to 9:5‐6 gives him away. The above investigation has demonstrated that 4:13 is both themati‐ cally and literarily well integrated (although not absolutely indispensa‐ ble) in its present context, 5:8‐9 is clearly intrusive and 9:5‐6 is themati‐ cally suitable but awkward from a literary point of view.
3. Relationship to the Amos tradition The idea, central to the ‘doxologies’, that Yahweh is sovereign over the forces of nature has some resemblance with the conviction, expressed elsewhere in the book of Amos, that he is in control of the destinies of the nations who are accountable before him (chs 1‐2; 9:7). The relation‐ ship is even stronger with the visions where he is portrayed as a ‘for‐ mer of locusts’ (7:1‐3), a sender of cosmic fire to consume the great deep (7:4‐6) and as the one who holds sway over the entire creation (9:1‐4).41 The destructive actions of Yahweh, which come into view especially in 5:9 and 9:5, correspond with the pervasive proclamation of judgment throughout the book.42 Therefore, although the doxologies’ focused interest in Yahweh’s acts in creation and control of the world is unique within the book, the way that these themes are used is entirely in ac‐ cordance with the theology and thematic thrust of the rest of the mate‐ rial in Amos. The same cannot be said concerning the style of the hymnic por‐ tions. There is a high concentration of terms which are not used in the rest of the Amos material.43 Some of these are so commonplace that 40 There are indeed five verbs in 9:5‐6 whose subject is Yahweh but these do not form any clearly recognizable fivefold structure as the five participles in 4:13 do. 41 Andersen and Freedman, 491‐492, 494. 42 Gillingham, ‘Makes Morning Darkness,’ 165‐184; Jeremias, 57 ET 77. 43 In 4:13: ‘to create’ ()ברא, ‘spirit/wind’ ()רוח, ‘to tell’ (נגד Hiph.), ‘human’ ()אדם, ‘musing’ ()שח, ‘dawn’ ()שחר, ‘darkness’ (;)עיפה in 5:8‐9: ‘Pleiades and Orion’ ()כימה וכסיל, ‘deep darkness’ ()צלמות, ‘night’ ()לילה, ‘pour’ (also in 9:6; )שפך, ‘flash’ ()בלג, ‘fortress’ (;)מבצר
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their omission from the oracles of Amos must be regarded as a coinci‐ dence (i.e. )לילה whilst others are so rare that one would not normally expect them to appear in Amos (i.e. )כימה וכסיל. Yet the sheer concen‐ tration of unusual terms in these few verses is suggestive. The combi‐ nation of unusual themes and vocabulary in the hymnic fragments makes it unlikely that they come from Amos himself.44 The close corre‐ spondences between 4:13 and 5:8, on one hand, and Job 9:5‐10, on the other, further supports this conclusion as they most likely imply that a common hymnic tradition stands behind the hymnic portions used in both books.45 One possible explanation would be that Amos quoted or adapted a hymn (or various hymnic bits) which was known to him and his audi‐ ence.46 Yet, two considerations argue against this solution. First, it is only possible for 4:13 but not tenable for the second hymnic fragment (5:8‐9) which is clearly redactional in its present context, as was demon‐ strated above. It is also unlikely in the case of the third hymnic passage (9:5‐6) whose unmistakable links with the preceding suggest a skilful redactor rather than a common author. The awkwardness of the transi‐ tion from 9:4 to 9:5‐6 favours the view that vv 1‐4 were already in a fixed form when vv 5‐6 were added to them. If all the three pieces are placed on the same diachronic level then 5:8‐9 and 9:5‐6 would argue in favour of the secondary character of 4:13 as well, and as I pointed out above it is not indissolubly linked to its literary context.47
44
45
46
47
in 9:5‐6: ‘to touch’ ()נגע, ‘stairs’ ()מעלות, ‘vault’ ()אגדה, ‘to establish’ ()יסד. In 9:5 there are two words, ‘to melt’ ()גומ and ‘the Nile’ ()יאר, which come up only in 9:13 and 8:8 re‐ spectively and ‘the high places’ ()במתי in 4:13 occurs in 7:9, i.e. in passages which are later additions to the book of Amos. Contra Gordis, ‘Studies,’ 226; McComiskey, ‘Hymnic Elements,’ 154 (‘poetical repre‐ sentations of theological truth written by Amos’); Pfeifer, ‘Jahwe als Schöpfer,’ 475‐ 481 and Andersen and Freedman, 463‐464, 491‐492. Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 521; Paas, Creation and Judgement, 202, 249‐250. Differently Crenshaw, ‘Influence of the Wise,’ 49‐50 (Job influenced Amos tradition) and Dhorme, Job 118 ET 130 (Job is dependent on Amos). Story, ‘Prophet of Praise,’ 67‐80; Farr, ‘Language of Amos,’ 321‐323; Robinson, 70, 87; Rudolph, 182, 200, 247; Barstad, Religious Polemics, 80; Stuart, 347, 392; Hayes, 150, 217; Gillingham, ‘Makes Morning Darkness,’ 171‐172; Paas, Creation and Judgement, 244‐245, 310‐326; Watts, Vision and Prophecy, 22‐27; Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 38‐39; Dijkstra, ‘Amos 4:13,’ 246. Mays, 83‐84 thinks the hymn was quoted by Amos in 8:8 and then his ‘earliest tradents’ inserted the hymnic portions from the same hymn as climax of several oracles of Amos; cf also Maag, 57. A survey of various reconstruc‐ tions of this hypothetical hymn is provided by Crenshaw, Hymnic Affirmation, 47‐60 (cf pp 73‐74 for his own reconstruction) and Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 55‐68. A possible alternative hypothesis would be that Amos quoted part of a hymn in 4:4‐ 13 and then a redactor influenced by that added 5:8‐9 and 9:5‐6, as well as 1:2.
III. The compositional function of the hymnic passages
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Second, the hymnic portions seem to play an important composi‐ tional role within the book of Amos as a whole. This issue will be inves‐ tigated in more detail in the next section. At present it will suffice to say that the recognition of such a role makes it more probable that the hymns are redactional insertions which presuppose more or less the present editorial ordering of the Amos material. Paas recognises the compositional role of the hymnic fragments but he still does not think that this necessarily demands the conclusion that they do not come from Amos. His reasoning is that ‘they…are sufficiently interwoven with their direct context that we may safely assume that from their origin they belonged with the passages to which they are now con‐ nected’.48 The above investigation into the relationship of the fragments to their present context has, however, demonstrated exactly the reverse.
III. The compositional function of the hymnic passages The idea that the hymnic portions may play some role in the overall compositional design of Amos owes a lot to the work of Koch who suggests that the hymns are used as major structural markers in the book.49 He argues that the book of Amos, excluding the late addition in 9:7‐15, consists of three major sections: chs 1‐2; 3‐4 and 5:1‐9:6. Of these, the first section is introduced by the hymnic piece in 1:2. The second and the third sections begin with a call to listen in 3:1 and 5:1 ()שמעו and end with a hymnic fragment (4:13 and 9:5‐6 respectively).50 This analysis suffers from one major problem. It does not treat all the hymnic portions in the same way. As Melugin rightly noted, it is not clear why 4:13 and 9:5‐6 should form the conclusions of major sec‐ tions in the book whilst 5:8 would end only a small subsection (5:1‐7).51 In addition, if the aim of the composer of the book was to conclude the main parts with hymnic fragments it is inexplicable why he failed to do so at the end of the first subsection (chs 1‐2). In view of the close paral‐ 48 Paas, Creation and Judgement, 324. 49 On the compositional role of the psalm in Is. 12 and the so called ‘eschatological hymns’ in Second Isaiah see Westermann, ‘Sprache und Struktur,’ 157‐165; William‐ son, Book Called Isaiah, 118‐123; Koole, Isaiah III, 15. 50 Koch, Amos, 2:95, 107‐108, 111‐112. Wöhrle, 116, 134 attributes also 4:6‐11 and 9:1‐4 to the Hymnic layer and argues that the redactor, by inserting not just the hymns but the whole of 4:6‐13 and 9:1‐6, wanted to divide his composition into two parts: chs 1‐ 4 and chs 5‐9. 51 Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 376; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 62; cf Koch, Amos, 2:111.
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The Doxologies
lels between 2:14‐16 and 9:1‐4, a hymnic piece after 2:16, parallel to 9:5‐ 6, would have been entirely appropriate. A more fruitful approach is to begin the evaluation of the composi‐ tional role of the hymns with an investigation of the connections be‐ tween the beginning and the end of the book. A number of motifs from chs 1‐2 are picked up again in ch. 9: mourning ()אבל in 1:2 and 9:5; the top of Carmel ()ראש הכרמל in 1:2 and 9:3; the mention of Aram, Kir, Phi‐ listia, Israel and the exodus from Egypt in OAN and 9:7. In this frame‐ work 1:2 and 9:5‐6 play an important role not just through the specific verbal links which they provide but also through the repetition of theophanic motifs and through their hymnic style. It is logical to as‐ sume that they were placed at the beginning and the end of the book respectively to serve as an outer frame.52 On the other hand, 4:13 and 5:8‐9 stand in close proximity to the centre of Amos. Jeremias has persuasively argued that the aim of the insertion of the doxologies in chs 4 and 5 was to build the middle of the book of Amos into two closely interrelated compositions: 4:4‐13 and 5:1‐17.53 The difference between them consists of the fact that whilst 4:13 comes at the very end of the pericope 5:8‐9 stand right in the centre of the ring composition. This difference must be accounted for by the fact that both passages existed already in written form and the redac‐ tors simply added the doxologies at appropriate places in each section as closely to one another as the context allowed. The role of the hymnic fragments, therefore, seems to be not to mark off the limits of various sections but to provide the book with a ‘hymnic superstructure’ by standing in key positions at the beginning (1:2) middle (4:13 and 5:8‐9) and end (9:5‐6) of the composition. It is possible that this ‘hymnic su‐ perstructure’ was related to some cultic use of the book of Amos, as many commentators have thought.54
IV. The date of the ‘hymnic layer’ As far as the time of the redactional activity which resulted in the addi‐ tion of the hymnic fragments goes the pre‐exilic,55 the exilic,56 and the post‐exilic57 periods have all been suggested. 52 Zenger, Einleitung, 392. 53 Jeremias, ‘Mitte,’ 199, 210‐211. 54 Lindblom, Prophecy, 116‐117, 284; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 344‐345 (early Synagogue readings) among others. 55 Mays, 84 (Amos’ ‘earliest tradents’); Wolff, 135‐136 ET 111‐112 (reforms of Josiah); Coote, 54‐56 (B Stage).
IV. The date of the ‘hymnic layer’
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The main argument for exilic/post‐exilic date, apart from the use of creation theology58 and some supposedly late vocabulary,59 is the re‐ frain ‘Yahweh (God of hosts) is his name’ which otherwise comes up predominantly in later literature, namely Second Isaiah and Jeremiah.60 Crenshaw argues that the refrain is found in contexts where four themes frequently appear: creation, judgment, idolatry and oaths. He argues that the refrain was used by the exilic community as a polemical confession of faith in Yahweh as a Creator and Judge in the light of the events of 587 BC which seemingly had demonstrated his impotence. It is a prophetic response to the temptation, to which Israel succumbed after her contact with Assyrian and Babylonian religions, to swear by the names of foreign deities.61 However, Crenshaw’s interpretation of the refrain and the doxologies as an ‘attack on idolatry’ seems to be a little far‐fetched in view of the fact that in the passages in Second Isaiah and Jeremiah the theme of idolatry comes up relatively infrequently and when it does it is usually the idolatry of other nations, not of Israel, that is the issue (Jer. 10:3‐15; 50:35‐38; 51:52).62 More importantly, Crenshaw’s use of the term ‘judgment’ obscures a major difference between the use of the refrain in Amos, on one hand, and in Jeremiah and Second Isaiah, on the other. In Amos the doxologies are invariably connected with the idea of Yahweh’s judgment on Israel. In Second 56 Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 319 (for 4:13 and 5:8a); Deissler, 132; Jeremias, xxi‐xxii, 56 ET 8, 76‐77; Hartenstein, ‘Wolkendunkel und Himmelsfeste,’ 152‐153, 160, 164, 167; Zenger, Einleitung, 392‐393; Albertz, Exilszeit, 178 ET 227; Wöhrle, 134. 57 Marti, 152; Horst, ‘Doxologien,’ 54; Weiser, 131, 157, 189; Willi‐Plein, 65‐66; Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 319 (for 9:5‐6); Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 89‐90, 92, 99; Rottzoll, 248‐250 (515‐430 BC); Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 71‐74; Levin, ‘Amosbuch der Anawim,’ 285‐286. 58 Crenshaw, ‘YНWН,’ 168‐169 argues that the emphasis on creation as heilsgeschich‐ tliche concept is a mark of exilic and post‐exilic times when the idea of creation moved from the periphery to the centre of the Israelite faith (cf also Berg, Hymnen‐ fragmente, 180‐185; somewhat differently Crenshaw, Hymnic Affirmation, 93‐97); on this, however, contrast Gillingham, ‘Makes Morning Darkness,’ 165‐184. 59 The use of the words ברא and שחו in 4:13, the star names and צלמות in 5:8 and אגדתו in 9:6 (Crenshaw, Hymnic Affirmation, 12‐23; Berg, Hymnenfragmente, 285, 287, 316‐319). Contrast, however, Botterweck, ‘Authentizität,’ 186; Rudolph, 182 n. 23; Paul, 154, n. 143. 60 Jozaki, ‘Secondary Passages,’ 76; Fosbroke, 809; Rottzoll, 249‐250. 61 Crenshaw, ‘YHWH,’ 156‐175; idem, Hymnic Affirmation, 75‐114, 123. 62 It is doubtful that a close connection can be established between the use of the re‐ frain in Jer. 32:18 and the mention of Israel’s idolatry in 32:35 which is too far re‐ moved from it. Only in Is. 48:2, 5 can such a link with Israel’s idolatry be seen but there are some doubts whether these belong to the same diachronic plane; cf Wes‐ termann, Jesaja, 158‐159 ET 194‐196.
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The Doxologies
Isaiah and Jeremiah the refrain is related to the thought of Yahweh as Israel’s redeemer or as judge and warrior against other nations, never against Israel.63 These differences should caution us against assigning too hastily an exilic date for the doxologies in Amos on the basis of the refrain, especially when one bears in mind that it is occasionally used in earlier texts as well (Ex. 15:3; Ps. 68:5[4]).64 Crüsemann has argued that the form of a row of hymnic participles followed by the refrain ‘Yah‐ weh is his name’ was current in pre‐exilic Israel.65 The indications for the dating of 1:2 are slim. The notion that Yah‐ weh dwells in Zion seems to presuppose that the Jerusalem temple is still in existence. This would rule out the exilic period (contrast Jer. 25:30 where Zion and Jerusalem are substituted with heaven as Yah‐ weh’s abode).66 Although the post‐exilic period is not out of the ques‐ tion, as Joel 4:16 [3:16] also shows, the fact that the judgment is directed at the northern kingdom rather than at foreign enemies is suggestive of pre‐exilic times.67 In contrast to Amos, in Jer. 25:30 and Joel 4:16 [3:16] the verse is connected with judgment against the nations, a theme which would have fitted Am. 1:2 admirably in view of the fact that it is directly followed by the OAN in chs 1‐2. It must be acknowledged that this argument is rather tenuous. It only makes pre‐exilic provenance slightly more plausible without settling the issue conclusively. In terms of relative chronology the hymnic layer comes before 9:11‐ 15. This is suggested by the numerous links between the epilogue and the last hymnic fragment in 9:5‐6: melt (v. 5 – 13); build (v. 6 – v. 11, 14); ישב (v. 5 – v. 14); call (v. 6 – v. 12); Yahweh’s name (v. 6 – v. 12). It seems that the salvation actions of Yahweh in the epilogue are formulated with an eye for his actions in the hymn. The melting of the earth in judgment is transformed into the melting of the hills under the blessing of Yahweh. The building of David’s hut (9:11) and the ruined cities (9:14) corresponds to Yahweh’s building of his stairs in heaven (9:6). If 9:11‐15 was part of the exilic redaction of the book this would offer further support for the view of the pre‐exilic origin of the doxologies. A pre‐exilic dating for the hymns begs the question whether Wolff was not right after all to suggest that the doxologies belonged to a ‘Be‐ 63 Story, ‘Prophet of Praise,’ 67‐68, 78. 64 Gillingham, ‘Makes Morning Darkness,’ 171 n. 9. 65 Crüsemann, Hymnus und Danklied, 103‐106; followed by van der Woude, ‘שם,’ 960 ET 1365. For a recent argument for the antiquity of the refrain and an alternative histori‐ cal reconstruction of its development see Paas, Creation and Judgement, 222‐230. Cf al‐ so the criticism of Crenshaw in Rudolph, 182. 66 Koch, ‘hymnischen Abschnitte,’ 535. 67 Nogalski, Precursors, 84 n. 31.
IV. The date of the ‘hymnic layer’
139
thel‐Exposition of the Josianic Age’. His thesis is based on the argument that the mention of Bethel in 3:14 and the whole of 5:6 are on literary‐ critical grounds to be regarded as later additions and that originally the hymnic portion in 5:8‐9 followed immediately after 5:6. The whole of 4:6‐13 is also later than Amos and comes from the same hand. Wolff’s hypothesis then is that at various points in the book of Amos where there is a mention of Bethel (4:4‐5; 5:4‐5) or even an altar, which could be understood as referring to the altar at Bethel, (9:1) a redactor in‐ serted material which sought to legitimise Josiah’s actions in destroying that northern temple.68 However, the literary‐critical conclusions which serve as basis for this reconstruction are not sufficiently sound. As I will seek to demon‐ strate in the following chapter, there are no solid grounds to regard 3:14 and 5:6 as later additions, or to deny 4:6‐12 to Amos. Likewise, as pointed out above (ch. 7 §II. 2), the chiastic structure of 5:1‐17 makes it unlikely that 5:8‐9 ever stood before 5:7. These literary‐critical decisions have far‐reaching consequences for, on one hand, they remove a major argument for postulating a ‘Bethel redactor’ who wanted to focus Amos’ general criticism against the northern sanctuaries into a procla‐ mation specifically against Bethel and, on the other, they show that the hymnic portions were not necessarily inserted immediately after threats against Bethel. Moreover, there is nothing in the fragments themselves which directly and clearly legitimises Josiah’s actions.69 Indeed they speak of judgment and destruction but it is the ‘fortified city’ (5:9) and ‘the earth… and all who dwell in it’ (9:5) that are affected, not the altars of Bethel.
68 Wolff, 135‐136 ET 111‐112. Cf above ch. 1 §II esp. n. 21. 69 Cf interestingly Koenen, Bethel, 70‐71 who is inclined to assign 3:14 and 5:6 to such an ‘anti‐Bethel’ redaction but still does not think that the doxologies should be re‐ lated to it.
Chapter 8: The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6 Limitations of space do not allow a full treatment of all redactional proposals concerning the oracles in chs 3‐6. Consequently, I will con‐ centrate on those passages that have attracted most the attention of commentators. I will have to exclude completely from consideration minor glosses within chs 3‐6, especially when they have no significant bearing on the redactional history of the book.
I. Amos 3:1‐4:3 1. Amos 3:1‐2 Schmidt has persuasively demonstrated that 3:1b is to be deleted as a gloss.1 Of the remaining, v. 2 is a redactional formulation made for its present context (ch. 1 §IV. 3). It is highly unlikely that v. 1a introduced originally the pericope in 3:3‐8 which is not formulated as a word from Yahweh. On the other hand, it fits perfectly as an introduction of v. 2 and therefore is also to be regarded as part of the work of the same redactor who modelled the call to attention on 5:1.
2. Amos 3:3‐8 It is widely believed that 3:7 is a later addition to the pericope (cf above ch. 1 §IV. 2). Concerning the rest of 3:3‐8, there are a number of redac‐ tional proposals centred mainly around vv 3 and 8. Marti suggests that v. 3 is a later addition designed to link v. 2 with vv 4ff,2 Mittmann as‐ signs vv 3 and 7 to the same redactional hand,3 Werner thinks that vv 3 1 2 3
Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 172‐173; Paul, 100; Wöhrle, 79 (with further literature). Marti, 173; Gese, ‘Kleine Beiträge,’ 425; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 72; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 71 n. 48; cf Eichrodt, ‘Vollmacht,’ 125. Mittmann, ‘Gestalt und Gehalt,’ 136; cf Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 98 n. 149 (Dtr). Bovati and Meynet, 109 see them related on the literary level.
I. Amos 3:1‐4:3
141
and 8 were placed around the original nucleus (vv 4‐6) as a redactional frame dealing with the theme of prophecy,4 and Vermeylen argues that vv 3, 7‐8 are Dtr.5 Rottzoll stresses the connection between v. 1a and v. 8 ()דבר and suggests that they came from the same redactor.6 Both he and Vermeylen think 3:12 formed originally the conclusion of 3:(3)4‐6.7 Reimer argues that 3:8 and 1:2 are a redactional framework around 1:3‐ 3:6.8 Wood takes vv 7‐8 to be a interpretative insertion into a poem whose original shape was 3:1a‐2, 3‐6, 9‐11.9 Kratz suggests v. 6 was interpolated into vv 4‐5+8 as a prelude to 3:9‐11.10 A number of scholars take vv 3‐6* and v. 8 to be two originally independent units secondarily combined.11 According to Renaud vv 3 and 6a were composed by the redactor who combined the two units.12 However, it is questionable that the literary variations within vv 3‐ 6, 8, which are usually cited in support of proposals such as these, need to be taken as indicators of different authorship or provenance. They are more likely to be interpreted as evidence of literary skill. Thus, al‐ though v. 8 deviates in some ways from the preceding questions this is due to its climactic function, rather than to its different origin.13 The introductory v. 3 can be similarly assessed, all the more when one bears in mind the fact that it is so firmly embedded in the overall structure of the pericope that its separation from it is unwarranted.14 It is generally agreed that the polemical tone of vv 3‐8* presupposes a hostile setting in which Amos argues with his audience who have challenged his mission and message.15 However, there is one major difficulty with the hypothesis that these words were spoken by Amos 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14
15
Werner, Plan Jahwes, 168‐176; cf Pschibille, Löwe, 130‐131. Vermeylen, 526‐528. Rottzoll, 122‐124. Vermeylen, 527‐528; Rottzoll, 141. Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 71‐73. Wood, 55‐56. Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 71 n. 48. Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 184‐185 (vv 4‐6); Fohrer, Propheten, 50‐51 (vv 3‐6); Market, Struktur, 88‐89 (vv 3‐6); Renaud, ‘Genèse et Théologie,’ 360‐363 (vv 4‐5+6b); Lindström, Origins of Evil, 203‐204 (vv 3‐6); Jeremias, 34 n. 14, 36 ET 51 n. 14, 53; idem, ‘Rolle des Propheten,’ 276‐277; Rösel, ‘Auslegung,’ 9. Renaud, ‘Genèse et Théologie,’ 357‐359, 363, 368‐370. Mittmann, ‘Gestalt und Gehalt,’ 140‐141; Gese, ‘Kleine Beiträge,’ 426‐427; Wöhrle, 82 n.96. Wolff, 217‐219 ET 180‐181; Jeremias, 34 n. 15 ET 51 n. 15; Market, Struktur, 87; Ru‐ dolph, 152; Rottzoll, 114‐115. For some additional arguments for the unity of the pe‐ ricope see Auld, Amos, 34. Mays, 60; Wolff, 221‐222 ET 184; Rudolph, 151‐152; Schart, 66.
142
The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
during a debate. They do not give the impression of a heated polemical outburst but of a well‐thought through and skilfully structured literary composition.16 For this reason Fritz argues that 3:3‐8* do not go back to oral tradition from Amos but are the literary production of the ‘Amos school’.17 I do not see that as a necessary conclusion because a fine lite‐ rary piece of work may still be based on something that Amos said or did, although it may not preserve verbatim his original words. It seems clear enough that Amos was involved in controversies and did engage in debates. In fact the situation presupposed by 3:3‐8* seems to be ex‐ actly the same as the one depicted in 7:10‐17.18 The passage does not present an apologia or authentication of the prophet’s calling19 but an assertion that no matter what, the prophet must continue to prophecy, because when Yahweh speaks he has no choice. This would suggest that the context of 3:3‐8* is a prohibition to prophecy.20 The first colon of 3:8 also implies that the reaction of his audience was something op‐ posite to fear, perhaps indifference, ridicule or disbelief (cf 9:10). Vv 3‐ 8* is thus also an implicit call to repentance.21 Therefore, whilst 3:3‐8* might be a free literary creation by the dis‐ ciples of the prophet, there is no compelling reason why these verses could not go back to a memory of an event from the life of Amos or even be based on some words he had uttered on that occasion. The words fit generally into what we know about Amos’ ministry, although 16 On the literary features of this passage see among others Paul, 105‐108; Mittmann, ‘Gestalt und Gehalt,’ 138‐140; Market, Struktur, 89‐93; Renaud, ‘Genèse et Théologie,’ 355‐356. 17 Fritz, ‘Amosbuch,’ 39; cf Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 37. Others who see vv 3‐ 8* as redactional are: Weimar, ‘Schluss,’ 96 n. 140, 98 n. 147; Coote, 58‐60, 66‐70; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 71‐72; Wöhrle, 81. 18 Cf Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies I,’ 33‐34, 61‐67 (who actually inserts 3:3‐8 between 7:15 and 7:16); Reventlow, Amt, 28‐29; Mittmann, ‘Gestalt und Gehalt,’ 145, n. 38; Renaud, ‘Genèse et Théologie,’ 368. 19 Contra Paul, 104; Mays, 59; Finley, 179; Weiser, 144‐145. 20 Condamin, ‘Amos 1,2 ‐ 3,8,’ 303, 305; Stuart, 324. Eichrodt, ‘Vollmacht,’ 128‐131 argues that Amos here responds to the crowd’s demand for legitimation by refusing to give them ‘signs and wonders’; he simply asserts his prophetic vocation and calls them for an inner change of heart. 21 Bovati and Meynet, 111‐112. Naturally those who see the end of the original unit in v. 6 interpret it differently: (i) attempt to persuade the audience that it is the hand of Yahweh which is behind a resent disaster which has befallen them (Lindström, Ori‐ gins of Evil, 205‐208; cf also Hayes, 125‐126); (ii) answer to objections that Yahweh cannot bring evil on Israel in view of the special relationship which exists between them (Market, Struktur, 88, n. 39; Jeremias, 36 ET 53); (iii) a proclamation of judg‐ ment if v. 6 is translated ‘Geschieht Schlechtes in der Stadt, und sollte JHWH nicht reagieren?’(Mulder, ‘Amos III 6b,’ 107; Rottzoll, 116‐118).
I. Amos 3:1‐4:3
143
this is no hard proof for their ‘authenticity’. We simply do not know and we have no means to go behind the written text. The important point is that literary craft does not need to exclude automatically prior oral tradition. From a redaction‐critical perspective it is important to observe that controversy marked not only the ministry of Amos but was also apparently an important concern among those who preserved his words. This would suggest that debate and opposition continued to play an important role in the development of Amos tradition and in its literary fixation.
3. Amos 3:9‐15 3:9‐15 is commonly divided into three separate subsections: vv 9‐11, 12 and 13‐15.22 V. 12 is a self‐contained oracle which comes from Amos.23 Vv 9‐11 are also traditionally assigned to the prophet Amos though in more recent times this consensus has been challenged. Schart, for ex‐ ample, ascribes the unit to Amos’ tradents because of the relationship with the OAN evident in the use of the motif of ‘palaces’. He assigns the passage to the same redactional level as 3:2 and 3:14‐15 and thinks it was composed when the collection of oracles in chs 3‐6 was joined to the OAN.24 However, the choice of the two foreign places in v. 9 (Ashdod and Egypt) does not suggest that this verse was especially composed with an eye for the preceding OAN. In the Philistine oracle in 1:6 it is Gaza that heads up the list of Philistine cities, not Ashdod. Egypt is not ad‐ dressed at all, it is only mentioned in passing in the redactional addi‐ tion of 2:10 which Schart dates later than the Tradentenfassung to which 22 Marti, 175‐178; Wolff, 228‐240 ET 189‐202; Mays, 62‐71; Willi‐Plein, 22‐25; Market, Struktur, 95, 100‐101; Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 378‐379; Deissler, 104; Stuart, 329; Andersen and Freedman, 369‐370, 372‐373; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 74; Sweeney, 221‐224. Disagreements arise sometimes concerning the place of v. 11 and v. 13. Whilst v. 11 is usually regarded as a conclusion of the preceding verses Robin‐ son, 83‐84 takes it as a separate unit and Fosbroke, 796‐798 attaches it to v. 12. As for v. 13, Rösel, ‘Entwicklung,’ 94 sees in vv 9‐13 a chiastic composition to which vv 14‐ 15 were added and Rudolph, 162‐163 thinks v.13 was a redactional addition to v. 12. Duhm, ‘Anmerkungen,’ 5 takes the whole of vv 12‐15 as a single unit. 23 For a detailed discussion of this verse see Hadjiev, ‘Context,’ 656‐664 (with further literature). 24 Schart, 68, 98. Others who take 3:9‐11 as redactional include: Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 72; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 202‐209 (shortly before 722 BC); Rottzoll, 128‐132 (post‐exilic); Levin, ‘Amosbuch der Anawim,’ 287 (post‐exilic); Lescow, ‘vo‐ rexilische Amosbuch,’ 30 (late‐pre‐exilic).
144
The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
3:9‐11 belongs, according to him. Altogether the pair ‘Ashdod and Egypt’ does not point unequivocally backwards to OAN as for example ‘Damascus and Gaza’ would have done. Beyond that there are no other verbal links with the OAN even though the subject of vv 9‐11 provides plenty of opportunities. On the lexical level nothing in the description of the sin of Israel or her punishment refers the reader back to 2:6‐16 or any of the other oracles in chs 1‐2. The section which is most hotly disputed is 3:13‐15. Many see here the signs of some later intervention but its extent and date are not agreed upon. Wolff isolates only v. 14bα as an addition,25 Wellhausen prefers to delete the whole v. 14b,26 Marti suggests 13‐14a are redac‐ tional,27 Jeremias strikes out vv 13‐14,28 and Peckham would do away with vv 13‐15.29 Proposals for the dating and identity of the editors include Amos’ disciples (Schart), the reforms Josiah (Wolff), post‐Dtr (Willi‐Plein) and post‐exilic (Rottzoll). The major reason for these theories is reference to Bethel in v. 14 which comes somewhat unexpectedly in the context of oracles dealing predominantly with Samaria. Fleischer argues that the two different judgments directed in two different directions (the altars of Bethel/the houses of Samaria) and presupposing two different kinds of sins do not belong originally together.30 25 Wolff, 237, 135 ET 199, 111; Willi‐Plein, 24‐25; Market, Struktur, 100; Ernst, Kultkritik, 119 n. 105; Rottzoll, 140. 26 Wellhausen, 77‐78; Löhr, Untersuchungen, 12; Baumann, Aufbau, 33; Duhm, ‘Anmerkungen,’ 6; Weiser, Profetie, 151‐152; Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 382. 27 Marti, 177‐178; Nowack, 134‐135 and Fosbroke, 799. Marti would take 14b‐15 as fragment of an Amosian oracle whilst Nowack links them with v. 11. 28 Jeremias, 42‐44 ET 61‐63; idem, ‘Jacob,’ 268‐269; Rottzoll, 137‐140; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 85; Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 84; Schart, 68‐69; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 72; Koenen, Bethel, 182‐183; Wöhrle, 69. 29 Peckham, History and Prophecy, 167‐168 n. 136; Wood, 57‐58; Levin, ‘Amosbuch der Anawim,’ 287. So also Coote, 76‐77 though he allows the possibility that ‘some phrases’ from v. 15 may go back to Amos. 30 Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 246‐249; Wellhausen, 77‐78; Weiser, Profetie, 151; Park, Amos, 87. Koch, Amos, 2:21‐22 thinks we have an Amosian oracle in v. 14bβ which originally referred to the altar in Samaria and was subsequently redactionally inter‐ preted as a reference to Bethel. Procksch, Prophetischen Schriften, 73‐74 (who deletes only 14bα) also thinks we have in 14bβ reference to altar in Samaria and Robinson, 84 takes the whole 14‐15 to refer to Samaria and the altars (to the god Bethel) there. Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 342‐344 takes vv 14b‐15 to have been originally part of Amos’ oracle against Amaziah and inserts them in 7:17. Such a historical context for the oracle is quite suggestive though the proposed displacement itself is too spe‐ culative to be convincing. In his earlier treatment he argues that 14b‐15 were part of the fifth vision: Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies I,’ 116‐120.
I. Amos 3:1‐4:3
145
However, it is questionable that the juxtaposition of Bethel and Samaria implies a contradiction which requires a literary‐critical solu‐ tion. Bethel (the main national shrine) and Samaria (the capital of the kingdom) are connected here to the themes of cultic and social criticism respectively. These two themes are closely related because the con‐ demnation of the cult, as most commentators have long recognized, is motivated by the social crimes of the leading class (5:21‐24; 2:6‐8). The narrative in 7:10‐17 also shows how closely the high‐priest (in Bethel) and the king (in Samaria) were linked together. Vv 13‐15, therefore, portray an attack on the two chief centres of power in Northern Israel and this does not imply the presence of any inner tensions within the oracle.31
4. Amos 4:1‐3 One problem in this unit, which has long been noted by commentators, is the odd interchange of masculine and feminine forms. The speech begins with masculine plural imperative ()שמעו then continues with three feminine participles followed by אדניהם (their lords) with a mas‐ culine suffix. In v. 2 we have the masculine plural עליכם and אתכם fol‐ lowed by אחריתכן with feminine suffix and then two feminine verbs in v.3 describing the actions of ‘each woman’. Lescow has attempted to draw redaction‐critical conclusions from this phenomenon. He suggests that the kernel of the unit is a tricolon found in 1aβ, 2aβ, bα (‘Cows of Bashan on the mountain of Samaria / Behold days are coming upon you / and they will carry you with hooks’) originating c. 722 during the siege of Samaria and addressed to the men in the citadel32 who were unconcerned about the military developments. The rest of vv 1‐2 is a late pre‐exilic addition which interpreted the ‘cows of Bashan’ as women.33 31 Mays, 69; Harper, 83; Hayes, 136; Andersen and Freedman, 370. Others who take the whole of v. 14 as coming from Amos are: Cripps, 163‐164, 292; Maag, 18; Hammer‐ shaimb, 63‐64; Rudolph, 165‐166; Stuart, 331; Paul, 123‐124. 32 The phrase ‘cows of Bashan’ is usually taken as a reference to the female part of the Samariain elite (cf the authors listed in Möller, Prophet in Debate, 252 n. 4). Finley, 198 thinks the female forms are figurative and the reference is to ‘wealthy Israel’; simi‐ larly Bovati and Meynet, 124; Barstad, Religious Polemics, 37‐40. For a useful survey and discussion see McLaughlin, Marzeah9, 116‐118 and Möller, Prophet in Debate, 252‐ 256. 33 Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 33, 38‐39. An alternative reconstruction is offered by Levin, ‘Amosbuch der Anawim,’ 279‐281 and Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 78‐79: the original core was a woe oracle to be found in 1aβ, b (‘cows of Bashan on the mount
146
The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
This suggestion, however, does not do justice to all the data be‐ cause it leaves out the masculine imperative in v. 1 and the masculine suffix in אדניהם, both of which are part of the interpolation whose aim was supposedly to interpret the addressees as females. If a redactor wanted to interpret the cows as women why did he not use feminine forms throughout? In fact it is questionable that the interchange of masculine and feminine forms could provide much help in redactional analysis because the two are so closely linked that it is impossible to separate them with the help of literary‐critical procedures. In the last two lines of v. 2, which clearly stand in parallel to each other, we have the masculine אתכם in the first and the feminine suffix in אחריתכן in the second. The connection is even stronger in v.1 where the phrase ‘who say to their lords’ has a masculine suffix and a feminine participle. Many are tempted to change the masculine suffixes to feminine34 but this would have been more convincing if we had to emend only one rather than three different words. Fleischer suggests that we have here two groups addressed – the women (cows of Bashan) and their husbands (the lords). The masculine suffix of ‘their lords’ refers to the poor and oppressed in v. 1a and the interchange of masculine and feminine forms in v. 2 points to the fact that both men and women are condemned.35 This proposal is interesting but v. 3 makes it unmistaka‐ bly clear that it is only the women who go out of the breaches and this ties in very neatly with the addressees in v. 1 identified as the ‘cows of Bashan’ and described with feminine participles. Most convincing is the explanation of McLaughlin which relies on the grammatical peculi‐ arities of the Hebrew language: the masculine imperative addressing females can be explained on three principles: the tendency to avoid 2nd person plural feminine verbs, the preference for a masculine verb in the initial position of a sentence, and the use of masculine imperatives elsewhere to address females. This leaves the masculine pronominal suffix in vv 1‐2 which can also be explained by sub‐ stitution of a masculine pronoun where a feminine one is expected.36
With regard to the opening imperative Morgenstern also notes that ‘this is one of the two customary words of warning or alarm with of Samaria who say to their lords bring us to drink’); the announcement of punish‐ ment in vv 2‐3 and the second person address together with participles in 1aα, γ, δ were added later. Rottzoll, 145, 150‐152 argues that an Amos oracle proclaiming earthquake was subsequently reinterpreted in terms of military disaster. 34 Cf BHS and the authors cited in Rottzoll, 143‐144. 35 Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 82‐83. 36 McLaughlin, Marzeah9, 111 with examples. Cf also Robinson, 84; Market, Struktur, 106‐107.
II. Amos 4:4‐12
147
which the prophet begins each denunciation, and so it is used here regardless of the resultant awkward syntax’.37 It is, therefore, best to take 4:1‐3 as an oracle from Amos criticising the women of Samaria’s aristocracy for their social abuses motivated by a desire for luxury.38
II. Amos 4:4‐12 1. Introduction Whilst 4:4‐5 is usually ascribed to Amos there have been some serious challenges to the Amosian character of 4:6‐12. The passage was as‐ signed by Wolff to his Bethel redaction in the time of Josiah.39 Jeremias argues for a setting in the exilic liturgical services,40 Grätz also prefers exilic provenance but on the basis of vv 6‐12’s Deuteronomistic charac‐ ter,41 whilst Lescow would push the date into the post‐exilic period.42 The arguments in support of these proposals centre around the peri‐ cope’s relationship to Amos tradition, on one hand, and to various OT texts and traditions, on the other. The contention that 4:6‐12 exhibit traces of later linguistic usage was discussed above in ch. 1 §IV. 2. So far as I am aware, in spite of the strong challenges to the authenticity of vv 6‐12, there has been no systematic rebuttal by those who continue to hold on to the Amosian character of this passage43 and so a fuller treatment of the issues involved is necessary. 37 Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 324. 38 Several commentators have attempted to detect religious overtones in the event described here. Barstad, Religious Polemics, 41‐44 sees a reference to the idolatrous Samarian marzeah9 banquet and Williams, ‘Amos 4:1‐3,’ 209‐211 finds an allusion to participation in the fertility cult. Koch, Profeten I, 130 ET 46; idem, Amos, 2:23 fol‐ lowed by Jacobs, ‘Cows of Bashan,’ 109‐110 and McLaughlin, Marzeah9, 115‐116 takes ‘cows of Bashan’ as a religious title which the female worshippers, taking part in the bull cult of Yahweh, may have used. 39 Wolff, 256‐258 ET 217‐218; Perlitt, Bundestheologie, 135; Coote, 77‐78. Also Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 385; Fritz, ‘Amosbuch,’ 39 n. 29; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 154 see vv 6‐12 as redactional but decline to specify the historical situation from which it origi‐ nated. Soggin, 78‐80 thinks of a late composition utilizing early (Amosian?) material. 40 Jeremias, 50‐52 ET 70‐72; idem, ‘Mitte,’ 212‐213; Rottzoll, 206‐207; Albertz, Exilszeit 161‐162 ET 201‐202; Wöhrle, 72‐76, 78, 133‐134 (part of the ‘Hymnic layer’). 41 Grätz, strafende Wettergott, 240‐241, 246‐253; Schart, 72; Wood, 61‐63. 42 Lescow, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 76. 43 Vollmer, Geschichtliche Rückblicke, 8, n. 1 and Market, Struktur, 124 simply register their disagreement with Wolff. Barstad, Religious Polemics, 59, n. 128 characterises his arguments as ‘vague and superficial’ but does not elaborate further. Paul, Andersen and Freedman, Sweeney treat the passage as Amosian without much discussion of
148
The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
2. Amos 4:6‐12 and the Amos tradition Wolff holds that the proclamation of vv 6‐11 is foreign to Amos. Amos’ references to history always refer to God’s acts of deliverance (2:9, 3:2), not judgment, and Israel’s guilt is never described as her refusal to repent but as transgressions against fellow human beings.44 It seems that Wolff’s argument is partially based on his conviction that Amos did not envisage the possibility for repentance on Israel’s part. In contrast to that I will argue in the next chapter that repentance was a real concern of Amos. Therefore, the accusations for not respond‐ ing to Yahweh’s work do not seem so far removed from his ministry. The ironical twist of cultic language and motifs both in the reproach in vv 6‐11 and in the announcement of judgment in v. 12 is a trademark of Amos and reminds one very much of his use of the ‘day of the Lord’ expectation in 5:18‐20.45 The thought of the whole section is very similar to 5:14‐17 where Israel mistakenly thinks Yahweh is among them and where God’s future visitation is described as the ultimate judgment upon his people. The thought and method of 4:6‐12 is much closer to Amos than Wolff seems to recognize.
3. Amos 4:6‐12 and Lev. 26 Reventlow, Wolff and Jeremias have pointed out that Amos 4:6‐12 has a certain resemblance to Lev. 26. The links are numerous and they extend issues of authenticity. Park, Amos, 86‐88, 115‐117 stresses the problematic and uncer‐ tain nature of Jeremias’ suggestion that the liturgy behind 4:6‐11 was tied solely to the exilic period and includes the passage in his Grundschrift of the book of Amos, which he dates to 750‐745 BC. Pfeifer, Theologie, 53‐56 thinks that there are no grounds to deny it to the prophet. Quite unique is the position of Vermeylen, 550‐ 551 who contrary to almost all commentators takes 4:6‐5:3 as Amosian and 4:4‐5 as Dtr. 44 Wolff, 253 ET 214. Also he thinks the style is not typical of Amos (cf p. 250‐251 ET 212‐213). Contrast the reservations of Rudolph, 174. 45 Vv 6‐11 are a parody of salvation history (cf Weiser, 154; Martin‐Achard, 36; Cren‐ shaw, ‘Liturgy,’ 29, 31). The bitter irony of the announced judgment in v. 12 exploits the ambiguity of the verbs ‘to prepare’ and ‘to meet’ which can be taken both in a cultic as well as in a military sense (cf below § II. 6). The technique of reversal of cul‐ tic language and motifs continues from 4:4‐5 which are widely agreed to be a parody of the ‘priestly torah’: Begrich, ‘priesterliche Tora,’ 73‐78; Mays, 74; Weiser, 151; Amsler, 196; Wolff, 250, 258 ET 211, 218; Jeremias, 48‐49 ET 67‐68; Paul, 138; Swee‐ ney, 227‐228; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 263. More generally on this subject see Dell, ‘Misuse of Forms in Amos,’ 45‐61.
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to the content, wording and structure of the two passages.46 Lev. 26, which forms the conclusion of the ‘Holiness Code’, is usually dated to the period of the exile.47 Therefore if Am. 4:6‐12 is judged to come from the same milieu, or be dependent upon it, its redactional character would be well established. It is generally thought that Amos has 7 plagues: famine (6), drought (7‐8), crop diseases (9a), locusts (9b), pestilence (10a), sword (10b), ‘overthrow’ (11).48 Of these famine (Lev. 26:26), sword (Lev. 26:25, 33, 36‐37) and pestilence (Lev. 26:25 with similar wording: )שלחתי דבר are clearly referred to in Leviticus. The curses of blights and locusts (v. 9) may be remotely related to Lev. 26:20 insofar as the latter refers quite generally to the land not giving its produce, but no reason for that is specified so the focus of the two passages is quite different. The themes of thirst and ‘overthrow’ are missing from Lev. 26.49 Therefore of the seven plagues in Amos only three have a parallel in Lev. 26. Some of the missing parallels are arguably found in Dt. 28 and 1 Kings 8. A closer look at them, however, raises some doubts as to whether any real link could be posited with these chapters. The phrase בשדפון ובירקון in‐ deed appears in Dt. 28:22 (and 1 Kings 8:37) but there it is in the context of various diseases which will pursue the Israelites. No mention is made of locusts, gardens, vineyards, figs and olives there (cf Dt. 28:39‐ 40). This is most likely a standard proverbial phrase independently used in Amos and Dt. Thirst is mentioned in passing in Dt. 28:48 but in a completely different context (serving the enemies) and the lack of rain (Dt. 28:24) is not linked to it. The only place where the lack of rain has as prominent a place as it does in Am. 4 is 1 Kings 8:35‐36. In Kings, however, the vocabulary is completely different from Amos: מטר is used instead of גשם and the cause is said to be Yahweh’s ‘closing of heaven’, 46 Reventlow, Amt, 82‐86; Wolff, 251‐252 ET 213‐214; Jeremias, ‘Mitte,’ 203‐204; cf also Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 101. 47 Eissfeldt, Einleitung, 283‐286 ET 237‐239; Smend, Entstehung, 62; Levine, Leviticus, 275‐281; idem, ‘Leviticus: Its Literary History,’ 13‐15; Budd, Leviticus, 16, 19, 374‐375. Grünwaldt, Heiligkeitsgesetz, 379‐381 prefers the early post‐exilic period. Milgrom, Leviticus 23‐27, 2363‐2365 argues for an 8th century date. On the question of the date and origin of Lev. 17‐26 see the surveys of Joosten, People and Land, 5‐15; Hartley, Le‐ viticus, 251‐260; Massmann, Ruf in die Entscheidung, 8‐27 with further literature. On the redactional history of Lev. 26 see the survey of Grünwaldt, Heiligkeitsgesetz, 112‐ 121, who argues that it is a unified composition heavily dependent on traditional materials (cf also pp 348‐365). 48 Gordis, ‘Studies,’ 221; Crenshaw, Prophetic Conflict, 81; Hayes, 146; Andersen and Freedman, 440; Paul, 151; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 269. 49 The mention of ‘rains’ in the blessing of 26:4 is clearly related to the theme of food, not to thirst.
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not ‘withholding the rain’. The parallels with Dt. 28 and 1 Kings 8 are too remote to enable us to suppose that the author of Am. 4:6‐11 took Lev. 26 as his base model and supplemented it with motifs taken from Dt. 28 and 1 Kings 8. Turning now to linguistic points of contact, the verb נתן, from Am. 4:6, is repeatedly used in Lev. 26 (4, 6, 11, 17, 19, 30‐31). Two of the oth‐ er verbs used in Amos 4 to describe divine action against Israel appear also in Lev. 26: הכיתי (v. 9 – Lev. 26:24) and שלחתי (v. 10 – Lev. 26:25). In addition to that the phrase ולא ישבעו (v. 8) appears in Lev. 26:26 and וגם אני (v. 6) appears in Lev. 26:24 (cf also the more frequent use of the ex‐ pression אף אני in Lev. 26:16, 24, 28, 41). The frequent use of קרי in Lev. 26:21, 23, 24, 27, 28, 40, 41 which describes a hostile encounter between God and Israel echoes the final call ‘prepare to meet ()לקראת your God’ from Am. 4:12. Finally, on the structural level we note that Amos ch. 4 has 5 strophes, clearly delineated by the fivefold repetition of the re‐ frain and these strophes probably depict seven plagues altogether. A similar five/seven pattern may be visible in part of Lev. 26. In Lev. 26:14‐33 there are five sections each beginning with the conditional אם and related to each other by repetition of similar phrases (‘you do not listen to me’; ‘walk contrary to me’; ‘punish you sevenfold’) and there is also the threat to repay Israel’s sins ‘sevenfold’ which may corres‐ pond to the seven plagues in Amos. In both Lev. 26 and Amos the five‐ fold structure of the pericope is grounded in the theme of Israel’s lack of responsiveness to Yahweh and the sevenfold motif (less clear in Amos than in Leviticus) is linked to Yahweh’s punishment. As was already noted above, all these connections have led scholars to believe that Amos 4:6‐11 was either literarily dependent on Lev. 26 or was at least created in the same milieu. Yet, if this was the case it is strange that Amos does not reflect some of the more characteristic themes and vocabulary of Lev. 26, which contribute to its peculiarity and reflect its historical situation. If Amos was an exilic composition it is inexplicable why it omits the theme of ‘serving the enemy’ and ‘being defeated by the enemy’, which plays important role both in Lev. 26 and Dt. 28 and is obviously extremely relevant to the exilic times. No ene‐ mies are mentioned in Amos even in v. 10 which has to do with war. It is also strange that all the references to ‘listening to Yahweh’s statutes’ and to his ‘covenant’, prominent in Lev. 26, are missing from Amos. The theme of hunger in Amos is treated from the point of view of natu‐ ral disasters, there is no suggestion that hunger is caused by military action, in contrast to Lev. 26:26 for example, or that the harvest is con‐ sumed by the enemy, as in Lev. 26:16. The relative importance of natu‐ ral disasters in Amos can be seen in the space devoted to them: vv 6‐9.
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The military operation in v. 10 talks of a ‘camp’ and is more naturally explained as a reference to one of the wars of Israel with her neigh‐ bours rather than as a description of invading armies in the land of Judah which besieged cities not camps (contrast Lev. 26:25 and 1 Kings 8:37). The ‘overthrow’ in v. 11 is a little elusive and can refer either to a natural calamity or military action: in view of the importance of v. 11 for the dating of the pericope a separate section will be devoted to it below. In all, however, it is striking that there are no explicit references to invading armies, to exile and to the specific hardships associated with it. In other words, to take Amos 4:6‐11 as an exilic composition we must accept the unlikely hypothesis that its author made every effort to conceal his real historical situation and was content simply to allude to it almost in passing at the end of his discourse by the brief and enig‐ matic phrase ‘I overthrew you as God overthrew Sodom and Gomor‐ rah’ (if that phrase can at all be taken as such an allusion, which in my view is quite unlikely; cf below). The problem is not only with what is missing from Amos 4 in com‐ parison with Lev. 26 but also with the nature of the links between these two passages. As was observed above, the three overlapping plagues are hunger, pestilence and sword. Yet these were so common in the ancient world that their appearance in both texts is hardly surprising.50 It is also striking that almost all the meaningful parallels with Amos 4 are concentrated in just three verses in Lev. 26 (vv 24‐26).51 It is interest‐ ing to observe that it is within these three verses (26:24) where Lev. 26 deviates from the usual expression אף אני, consistently used elsewhere in the chapter, and has וגם אני instead, just like Am. 4:6. If a literary rela‐ tionship between these texts exists we are faced with two possible sce‐ narios: either the author of Amos 4:6‐11 when using Lev. 26 decided to limit himself mainly to vv 24‐26 and not to borrow material from any‐ 50 It is unlikely that Amos is here dependant on the frequent formula found in Jere‐ miah and Ezekiel ‘famine, sword, plague’ since in 4:6‐11 these plagues are not put together but are separated by vv 7‐9. 51 This is the text of Lev. 26:24‐26. The words in intalics have a parallel in Am.4. ‘Then I too will continue hostile (Am. 4:12) to you: I myself (Am. 4:6) will strike you (Am. 4:9) sevenfold for your sins. I will bring the sword (Am. 4:10b) against you, executing vengeance for the covenant; and if you withdraw within your cities, I will send pesti‐ lence among you, (Am. 4:10a) and you shall be delivered into enemy hands. When I break your staff of bread, (Am. 4:6) ten women shall bake your bread in a single oven, and they shall dole out your bread by weight; and though you eat, you shall not be satisfied.’ (Am. 4:8). The only exception is the phrase in Lev. 26:16 אף אני אעשה זאת לכם, which is allegedly the model for Am. 4:12 לכן כה אעשה לך זאת אעשה לך. In this case the common curse formula כה יעשה אלהים לי is as likely a model for Am. 4:12 as Lev. 26:16.
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where else in the chapter, in spite of the fact that there was much that was relevant to his exilic situation, or alternatively, the author of Lev. 26 took over the fivefold structure from Am. 4:6‐11 and the motif of hostile encounter between God and Israel ()קרי from Am. 4:12 and de‐ cided to use the rest of Amos 4:6‐12 in one of his five sections. The second explanation seems to me to be by far the more likely one. There‐ fore, Am. 4:6‐11 is probably the earlier text and the author of Lev. 26 had it before him.
4. The overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah The phrase looks peculiar in Am. 4:11 because within the context of divine speech it refers to God in the 3rd person and אלהים is not typical of Amos who prefers the divine name יהוה (though see 2:8 and 4:12).52 It seems, therefore, that the author of 4:6‐12 has used a fixed proverbial expression.53 It occurs verbatim in several exilic texts (Is. 13:19, Jer. 50:40; cf Jer. 49:18, Dt. 29:22[23]) which has led some to believe that it was a cliché current during the time of the exile and that here it depicts the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in 587 BC.54 There are, therefore, two separate issues involved: the age of the expression and its meaning in Am. 4:11. Concerning the date of the proverb, Ezek. 16:56 would seem to suggest that there was in pre‐exilic times a ‘Sodom‐curse’ in Israel: ‘Was not your sister Sodom a byword in your mouth in the day of your pride, before your wickedness was uncovered?’55 This is confirmed by Is. 1:9, 10 where the Sodom and Gomorrah motif is used.56 It is logical to assume the use of the root הפך within the context of such a curse. On 52 Rottzoll, 205. 53 Rudolph, 180; Hammershaimb, 73; Bovati and Meynet, 144. This seems a better solution than regarding the whole verse as an interpolation (Ehrlich, Randglossen, 239), or just the phrase כמהפכת אלהים את סדם ואת עמרה (Reventlow, Amt, 85‐86; Duhm, ‘Anmerkungen,’ 7), or only ( אלהיםMarti, 184; cf also Vollmer, Geschichtliche Rück‐ blicke, 12). 54 Jeremias, 53 ET 73; Rottzoll, 205‐208; Grätz, strafende Wettergott, 241, 246. 55 Cf Hillers, Treaty‐Curses, 74‐76 (conventional curse in Israel) and Paul, 149; less convincingly O’Rourke Boyle, ‘Amos 3:1‐4:13,’ 352‐353 (classic punishment of the breach of the covenant). 56 It is probable that in Is. 1:7 the text originally read סדם כמהפכת but the phrase is often regarded as a (undatable) gloss based on v. 9 and so of little help for our purposes; Williamson, Book Called Isaiah, 245; Clements, Isaiah, 31; Fields, Sodom and Gomorrah, 162, n. 25.
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one hand, the root is used in Aramaic and Ugaritic curses57 and, on the other, it is linked to the Sodom and Gomorrah tradition in several texts. It is prominent in the Genesis account (Gen. 19:21, 25, 29) and comes up also in Jer. 20:16 where the man who announced Jeremiah’s birth is cursed to become ‘like the cities which Yahweh destroyed (’)הפך. In Hos. 11:8 there is quite probably a play on the Sodom and Gomorrah / Admah and Zeboiim curse formula using the verb הפך.58 Therefore, it is possible that the proverbial expression in Am. 4:11 was popular not just in exilic but also in pre‐exilic times.59 Turing now to the event described as the ‘Sodom overthrow’, it is important to observe that nothing in the expression itself suggests that the events of 587 BC are in view. This interpretation is based solely on the presumed historical background of the passage rather than on the actual meaning of the Sodom motif. Within the exilic period ‘Sodom and Gomorrah’ are by no means a cipher for Jerusalem and her fate.60 The verb הפך can be used to describe devastations caused both by natu‐ ral disasters (Job 9:5) and military action (2 Sam. 10:3). Marti thinks of the devastations caused by the Aramean wars in the 8th century,61 Wolff argues it reflects the fall of the northern kingdom,62 but most scholars have taken this as a reference to an earthquake63 since Sodom and Go‐ morrah were destroyed by some sort of natural disaster.64 57 Cf the references given in Gevirtz, ‘West‐Semitic Curses,’ 144, 146‐147. 58 Here Yahweh decides not to make Israel like Admah and Zeboiim because his heart ‘is turned’ ()הפך within him; cf Wolff, Dodekapropheton 1: Hosea, 260‐261 ET 201; Ru‐ dolph, Hosea, 218; Fields, Sodom and Gomorrah, 165. Hosea is obviously using here a slightly different tradition than the one found in Gen. 19 which does not mention Admah and Zeboiim. These were neighbouring cities of Sodom and Gomorrah and all four are mentioned in Dt. 29:22[23] which may also have had access to that va‐ riant tradition. Mayes, Deuteronomy, 366 suggests that in Dt. 29 we have a conflation of a northern tradition, appearing in Hosea, and a southern, appearing in Amos and Isaiah. These cities are also probably alluded to in the Jeremianic formula ‘Sodom and Gomorrah and their neighbour cities’ (49:18; 50:40). 59 If Wellhausen, 80 and Rudolph, 180 are correct that the use of אלהים betrays an old non Israelite (Canaanite) form of the tradition the expression could be even older. Ramsey, ‘Amos 4.12,’ 190 suggests that in the formula here the reference was to the destruction caused not by Yahweh but by another deity. 60 In exilic times it is more often used to describe the fate of the foreign nations (Is. 13:19; Jer. 49:18; 50:40; and see the earlier Zeph. 2:9). Only Dt. 29:22[23] describes the devastation of the land Judah with the help of that simile (cf also Lam. 4:6 which is, however, quite different). 61 Marti, 184; Fosbroke, 808. 62 Wolff, 262 ET 221‐222. 63 Wellhausen, 80; Nowack, 139; Harper, 101; Budde, ‘Техt und Auslegung 1,’ 99; Driver, 174‐176; Cripps, 175; Robinson, 87; Weiser, 154; Amsler, 200; Hammer‐
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The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
Two considerations may provide some help in that matter. First, Am. 4:11 has only a partial judgment in mind. It is only a part of the chain of disciplinary measures meant to bring about repentance. The final and climactic judgement still lies in the future (v. 12). This is con‐ firmed by the opening phrase הפכתי בכם which means ‘I made an overth‐ row among you’, in other words ‘I caused destruction in your midst’.65 It is true that the NASB translates it ‘I overthrew you’ implying that בכם is the direct object of the verb. However, the preposition beth is never used with הפך to indicate the direct object66 so it is better to translate בכם ‘among you’ and to take הפך as an intransitive verb meaning ‘to make an overthrow’.67 Incidentally this distinguishes Am. 4:11 from all later texts where Sodom is always given as an example of complete (Dt. 29:22[23]; Jer. 49:18; 50:40) or perpetual (Is. 13:19; Zeph. 2:9) destruction. Second, the ‘destruction like Sodom and Gomorrah’ is used most frequently to describe the condition of the land resulting from the di‐ vine punishment, regardless of the specific instrument through which punishment is achieved. The land is burned with sulphur and salt, so becoming impossible to cultivate anything and unsuitable for habita‐ tion (Dt. 29:22[23]; Zeph. 2:9; Is. 13:19; Jer. 49:18; 50:39‐40; Is. 1:7). Such a condition could be the result of an enemy overturning the land, as in all of the exilic passages, or the result of a natural disaster, as in the story in Gen. 19. I suggest that in view of the prevailing agricultural back‐ ground of Am. 4:6‐11 and the relative lack of interest in the theme of enemies and invaders, the traditional interpretation that we have a reference in v. 11 to a major earthquake, which devastated the land, is 64
65 66
67
shaimb, 73‐74; Rudolph, 180; Market, Struktur, 122; Deissler, 110; Hayes, 147; Ander‐ sen and Freedman, 444; Paul, 148‐149; Ogden, ‘Earthquake Motif,’ 73; Sweeney, 230. Crenshaw, ‘Liturgy,’ 32; Maag, 24 suggest Amos was acquainted with a different form of tradition, than the one found in Genesis, in which Sodom had been de‐ stroyed by an earthquake. Cf NRSV; Stuart, 335‐336; Wood, 62 n. 30 (‘Since ב has the partitive value of מן, the overthrow refers to part of the population’); cf Harper, 101. Beth is used in a number of ways with הפך: locative (Judg. 7:13 ‘tumbled into the camp’; Job 20:14 ‘their food is turned in their stomachs’); circumstantial (Judg. 20:39 ‘the men of Israel turned in battle’; Ps. 78:9 ‘turned back on the day of battle’); adver‐ sative (Job 19:19 ‘those whom I loved have turned against me’; Lam. 3:3 ‘against me alone he turns his hand’); manner (or instrumental? Dt. 29:22[23] ‘[the cities] which the LORD overturned in his anger’; Job 9:5 ‘when he overturns them (the mountains) in his anger’). On the other hand the direct object is either not marked formally (Job 12:15; 28:9; Hag. 2:22), or a verbal suffix is used (2 Sam. 10:3; Job 9:5) or nota accusativi (Gen. 19:21, 25, 29). The verb is not used intransitively with the meaning to ‘overthrow’ but intransitive use with the meaning ‘turn’, of which ‘overthrow’ is an extension, is well attested: cf Judg. 20:41; 1 Sam. 25:12; 2 Kings 5:26.
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still the preferable option. This provides a good explanation why in contrast to most other passages the destruction here is partial and not total and why it is said to occur ‘among you’ ()בכם. In conclusion, it is unlikely that the expression refers to the fate of Jerusalem in 587 BC. There is sufficient evidence to suggest that it may have been in use already in pre‐exilic times so it is not impossible that in Am. 4:11 we have its first attestation.
5. Amos 4:6‐12 and 1 Kings 8 Jeremias supports the thesis for the exilic date of Am. 4:6‐13 with the additional argument that an important link exists between it and 1 Kings 8:33ff., the only other text which portrays the customary series of curses as something which has already occurred. In 1 Kings 8 the pla‐ gues are linked to the theme of return and this return is imbedded into a liturgical progression with which the readers of Amos 4 are arguably familiar. The basis for the requested forgiveness are three acts on the part of Israel, which although closely related are clearly distinguishable from each other. These are (i) repentance, (ii) praise of Yahweh’s name, and (iii) plea for compassion (1 Kings 8:33, 35). In Amos we also have repentance in vv 6‐11, praise in v. 13, and v. 12b is to be seen as related form‐critically to the pleading in 1 Kings 8:33, 35, 38.68 Jeremias’ presupposed ‘liturgical pattern’ which Amos allegedly shares with 1 Kings 8 is, however, a doubtful link between the two sections. First, the order is different. In Kings we have repent, praise, pray (v. 33), whilst in Amos it is repent (6‐11), pray (? v. 12), praise (v. 13). Second, the prayer for forgiveness in Kings comes as consequence and follows the repentance of the nation (cf especially v. 38). In Amos the author allegedly calls Israel in v. 12 to pray after she has repeatedly refused to repent in vv 6‐11. Third, it is actually doubtful that in v. 12 there is a call for prayer. ‘Prepare to meet your God’ sounds quite diffe‐ rently from ‘pray and plead with you in this house’ (v. 33). It is best understood as the final climactic threat in the announcement of doom in the passage (meet God who comes to judge).69 Even on Jeremias’ own interpretation v. 12 must mean both repent and pray. Fourth, the 68 Jeremias, ‘Mitte,’ 201‐203. 69 Kapelrud, Central Ideas, 51; Hammershaimb, 74; Gordis, ‘Studies,’ 224; Crenshaw, Prophetic Conflict, 82; Ramsey, ‘Amos 4.12,’ 191; Martin‐Achard, 37; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies I,’ 106; Soggin, 77; Stuart, 339; Hunter, Seek the Lord, 118‐121; Park, Amos, 86; Houston, Justice, 58 n.26. Alternatively, it is interpreted by some as a call to Israel to repent: Harper, 104; Driver, 176; Wood, 62; Jeremias, ‘Mitte,’ 206.
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very existence of this pattern in 1 Kings 8 is somewhat doubtful. As Jeremias himself concedes, it is found only in vv 33 and 35 but is miss‐ ing from v. 38 (where only prayer is mentioned and arguably repen‐ tance but without the use of )שוב and from v. 48. Finally, if v. 13 is a later addition to Am. 4:4‐12, as many scholars believe, the whole argu‐ ment falls to the ground. A comparison between these two texts seems rather to confirm the opposite conclusion, that Am. 4:6‐11 is earlier than 1 Kings 8. Kings is concerned with two main issues – the enemy and forgiveness. Lack of rain is referred to in 1 Kings 8:35‐36 and all the other natural disasters (culminating with the enemy besieging the cities!) are squeezed into v. 37. The rest of the section is devoted to the question of being defeated before the enemy (the opening disaster in v. 33 and see v. 44), the ene‐ my coming into the land (v. 37) and going into exile into the enemy’s land (vv 46ff). Most of the space is taken up with the mechanics of how to get out of this situation and terms like ‘forgive’, ‘sin’, ‘hear’ predo‐ minate. None of this is evident in Am. 4:6‐11. Therefore, 1 Kings 8, much like Lev. 26, reflects clearly an exilic background. The compari‐ son with Amos 4 again underlines the fact how much the specifically exilic motifs and concerns are missing from the text of Amos.
6. Amos 4:6‐12 and Dtr theology According to Grätz the Deuteronomistic character of 4:6‐11 is evident in the depiction of the covenantal curses which befell the community and in the important role of the theme of return evidenced in the constant allusion to the past warnings of Yahweh which went unheeded.70 A number of commentators have attempted to understand Amos’ preaching against the background of the covenant71 basing themselves on the view that the covenant was an early institution within Israel.72 It 70 Grätz, strafende Wettergott, 240‐241, 246‐253. 71 Amsler, 200‐201; Mays, 79‐80; Brueggemann, ‘Amos 4:4‐13,’ 1‐15; Huffmon, ‘Treaty Background,’ 34‐35; Sinclair, ‘Courtroom Motif,’ 351‐353; Seilhamer, ‘Role of Covenant,’ 435‐451; Stuart, 338; Paul, 142; Andersen and Freedman, 442; McConville, ‘ברית,’ 751. Cf the recent attempt by Bramer, ‘Literary Genre,’ 45‐49 to understand the book of Amos as a ‘covenant enforcement document’ as well as the suggestion of O’Rourke Boyle, ‘Amos 3:1‐4:13,’ 338‐362 that chs 3‐4 are a ‘covenant lawsuit’. Re‐ ventlow, Amt, 89‐90 placed the proclamation of vv 6‐12 within the context of the co‐ venant festival. 72 Hillers, Treaty‐Curses, 83‐85; Clements, God and Temple, 17‐22. For the later develop‐ ment of the views of Clements see next note. For a survey and discussion see Nichol‐
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is impossible to give the subject of the date of the covenant concept a full treatment here but it is worth pointing out that the thesis for its early origin has come in the last several decades under strong attack.73 Although, it is quite probable that the notion of the covenant was al‐ ready in existence in pre‐Dtr times74 and it is possible that various co‐ venantal traditions were kept in different local cultic centres75 the fact remains that any argument which seeks to establish the authenticity of Am. 4:6‐12 on the basis of an early date for the covenant tradition is bound to be extremely shaky at the present time. As Grätz also rightly notes, there is no recognizable covenant ter‐ minology in 4:6‐11 and so there are only two arguments for the cove‐ nantal background of this passage. The first is the closeness of the enumerated plagues to the curses found in the covenant tradition.76 However, it is questionable that the list of curses in Amos ch. 4 auto‐ matically leads to the notion of covenant. Employment of curses is a widely spread phenomenon in ANE culture; apart from international treaties they are encountered in Akkadian kudurru‐inscriptions, tombs inscriptions, the cult, and popular speech.77 ‘When we consider how widespread this phenomenon in fact was, it is only natural that also the prophets of Israel make use of such forms in their speech.’78 General conditions in Palestine and popular idiom are sufficient to explain the 73
74 75
76 77
78
son, Exodus and Sinai, 1‐52. For a recent statement of the view of early origin of the covenant see Mendenhall, ‘Covenant,’ 1183‐1187; Kitchen, Reliability, 283‐294. Cf Perlitt, Bundestheologie, 279‐284 and the surveys and discussion in Nicholson, God and His People, 3‐117 and Hahn, ‘Covenant (1994‐2004),’ 263‐278. On the existence of the amphictiony with a central shrine, where the covenant festival was supposed to have been celebrated see Mayes, Period of the Judges, 15‐83; Lemche, ‘The Greek ʺAmphictyonyʺ,’ 48‐59; Auld, ‘Amphictyony,’ 26‐32. On the return to the view that the prophets were forerunners of the covenant tradition rather than preachers of the covenant see Clements, Prophecy and Tradition, 8‐23; Barstad, Religious Polemics, 61‐63; similarly but more cautiously Collins, Introduction, 290. Mayes, Deuteronomy, 67; Day, ‘Pre‐Deuteronomic Allusions,’ 1‐12; Nicholson, God and His People, 165‐188. As is suggested by McCarthy, Treaty and Covenant, 243, 264. On Shechem as possible place of origin of pre‐Dtr covenant traditions see Nielsen, Shechem, 85, 339‐345; Mayes, Period of the Judges, 37‐41; idem, Deuteronomy, 67‐68; Rofé, Pentateuch, 75. Contrast Naʹaman, ‘Law of the Altar in Deuteronomy,’ 141‐161. Grätz, strafende Wettergott, 248. Cf Gevirtz, ‘West‐Semitic Curses,’ 141‐152. On the curses of famine, drought and locusts (Am. 4:6‐9) and of unburied corpses (Am. 4:10) in kudurru‐inscriptions and treaties see Fensham, ‘Common Trends,’ 168, 161‐163. Kitchen, Reliability, 293‐294 talks about a ‘broad pool of traditional curse topics and formulae that had long ex‐ isted.’ Barstad, Religious Polemics, 64.
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background of Am. 4:6‐11.79 The distance of Am. 4:6‐12 from covenant tradition is even more clearly seen when we place it alongside Lev. 26 where ‘keeping the statutes’ and ‘breaking the covenants’ are so strong‐ ly emphasised. Not only is the term ברית entirely missing from the text of Amos but so are also the ideas of obeying the Torah and the result‐ ing blessings which follow it. The second argument for the covenantal background of our peri‐ cope would be valid only if v. 12b is regarded as an integral part of it. Brugemann pointed out that the two key terms in v. 12, “prepare to meet”, are used in OT both in a military sense (prepare to meet some‐ one in battle) and in a cultic sense (prepare to meet God at the sanctu‐ ary). The second sense is attested especially in the Sinai tradition where the Israelites are called to prepare (Ex. 19:11, 15) to meet (Ex. 19:17) with God at the mountain.80 This suggestion is illuminating, although contra Brueggemann’s own interpretation, v. 12 is not to be understood as a call to covenant renewal but as an announcement of judgment which in a typically Amosian fashion invests cultic terminology with a different meaning. In any case, this places before us the question concerning the rela‐ tionship of Am. 4:12 to Ex. 19 and the date of the traditions preserved there. The traditional source‐critical approach distributes the references to ‘prepare’ and ‘meet’ God between J (Ex. 19:11, 15) and E (Ex. 19:17),81 though some would attribute all the verses to E.82 Childs, whilst not discarding source analysis altogether, prefers to work with two differ‐ ent, institutionally grounded traditions which were already fused at the oral level. The more dominant tradition, to which the talk of preparing to meet God belongs, stems from the covenant renewal festival.83 More recently this has been challenged with the proposal that the Sinai peri‐ cope is basically a Dtr composition, perhaps utilizing some early tradi‐ tions.84 Dozeman, who subscribes to this view, has made an attempt to study the pre‐Dtr tradition incorporated into Ex. 19. The end result of 79 Clements, Prophecy and Tradition, 16‐17, 19; Hayes, Amos, 148; cf Sweeney, 229‐230. 80 Brueggemann, ‘Amos 4:4‐13,’ 1‐6. 81 Noth, Exodus, 127‐128 ET 158‐160; Eissfeldt, ‘Sinai‐Erzählung,’ 213‐215; Hyatt, Ex‐ odus, 196‐202; Graupner, Elohist, 119‐125; Propp, Exodus 19‐40, 143‐144. 82 Driver, Introduction, 29‐30; Preuss, Theologie 1:72 ET 1:65 (following Zenger). 83 Childs, Exodus, 344‐360. For the suggestion that the originally independent Sinai tradition formed the cultic legend of the covenant renewal festival see von Rad, ‘formgeschichtliche Problem,’ 28‐33, 41‐43. 84 Johnstone, ‘Reactivating Chronicles Analogy,’ 16‐37; Blenkinsopp, Pentateuch, 186‐ 197. For a survey and discussion see van Seters, ‘Sinai Pericope,’ 160‐170 and on a more general level Vervenne, ‘Question of ʺDeuteronomicʺ Elements in Genesis to Numbers,’ 243‐269.
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his analysis is that the original core of the chapter consists of a ‘Moun‐ tain of God’ tradition which includes vv 11a, 15a and 17.85 Therefore, it seems that whatever approach one might take to the questions concern‐ ing the origin and development of the Sinai tradition there is still a fair amount of possibility that the cultic language in Ex. 19:11, 15, 17 could be pre‐Dtr. In any case the phrase ‘prepare to meet’ does not belong to the characteristic Dtr vocabulary. It is unlikely that Am. 4:12 is directly dependent on the present text of Exodus. More probably in both places we have a reflection of cultic terminology which was current in pre‐ exilic Israel and Judah. Since neither the plagues nor the language of v. 12 seem inconsis‐ tent with the time of Amos it remains to be seen if the reproach that Israel did not return to Yahweh does not point us to a Dtr provenance for Am. 4:6‐12. The theme of the return to the Lord is a characteristic Dtr motif (Dt. 4:27‐31; 30:1‐10; 1 Kings 8:46‐53; 2 Kings 17:13; 23:25) but that does not mean that it originated with the Dtr movement. Calls to turn to Yahweh are found in Hos. 12:7[6];86 14:2‐3[1‐2] (cf also Hos. 6:1; 10:12; Is. 1:16‐20) and reproaches for not turning to Yahweh in Hos. 5:4; 7:10, 16; 11:5; Is. 6:10; 9:12[13].87 This theme is not foreign to the 8th cen‐ tury prophets and so the reproach ‘you did not return to me’ in Amos 4 does not necessarily need to be taken as evidence of Deuteronomistic influence. Moreover, there is some difference between the way the theme is used in Dtr literature and in Amos. In Dtr it is usually the prophetic preaching that is not heeded by Israel (2 Kings 17:13‐14). In Amos 4 Israel does not respond to natural disasters which were sent by 85 Dozeman, God on the Mountain, 19‐35. He connects this tradition with pre‐exilic Zion theology. On the other hand, Smith, Pilgrimage Pattern, 232‐244 argues that Ex. 19‐20 + 24 lack the characteristics of a Deuteronomistic redaction and uses the ‘old ele‐ ments of covenant meal associated with law and covenant of pilgrimage feasts’. 86 In Hos. 12:7[6] the verb שוב is in the indicative (‘you shall return’) and so most natu‐ rally taken as a promise (a quotation of the original promise to Jacob to return to the land?), not a command (Rudolph, Hosea, 222, 229‐230; Davies, Hosea, 276‐277). How‐ ever, it is possible that Hosea is here reusing the Jacob tradition (Gen. 28:15) to ground and formulate his call for repentance to his contemporaries; cf Mays, Hosea, 165; Macintosh, Hosea, 489, 492‐493. 87 Raitt, ‘Prophetic Summons to Repentance,’ 30‐49 argues for the existence of a genre ‘Prophetic Summons to Repentance’ derived from the covenant renewal ceremonies. More convincing is the approach of Tångberg, Mahnrede, 169‐199 who argues that the prophetic exhortation is ‘eine sehr flexible Redeform’ which utilises elements from various genres but is especially indebted to cultic terminology (pp 188‐189). His conclusion is that ‘die ganze Geschichte alt. Schriftprophetie wird vom Anfang bis zum Schluß von der Verwendung der Mahnrede begleitet’ (p. 198). In a similar vein Weinfeld, Deuteronomy 1‐11, 217‐221 suggests that the roots of the Dtr theology of repentance can be found in ancient penitential prayers.
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The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
God and which were to be interpreted as signs of the divine displea‐ sure.88 There is little in Am.4:6‐12 which can be successfully interpreted as bearing the marks of Dtr theology.
7. Amos 4:6‐12 and the present literary context Jeremias, who is perhaps the most significant contemporary proponent of the exilic date of vv 6‐12, has offered the following hypothesis for the origin and purpose of this piece. The tradents who composed and in‐ serted the passage wanted to make 4:4‐13 and 5:1‐17 the two intercon‐ nected central sections of the book of Amos. ‘Genetisch wird 5,1‐17 das Vorbild für die Komposition 4,4‐13 gebildet haben, literarisch ist 5,1‐17 jetzt jedoch als Parallelperikope von 4:4‐13 her zu deuten.’89 In addition to that the five fold structure of 4:6‐11 presupposes and reflects the visions, which served as a model for this composition.90 If this was indeed the case it is strange that the redactor who com‐ posed 4:6‐12 missed almost every possible opportunity he had to better reflect and tie in more closely his new composition to the existing Amos material and especially to the passages, which allegedly served as his model. Both the visions and ch. 4 talk about devastation caused by locusts but use different words – גבי in 7:1 and גזם in 4:9. In ch. 7 the locusts devour ‘the grass of the land’, while in 4:9 they attack gardens, vineyards, figs and olive trees. Fire is a prominent motif both in the second vision and in 5:6, yet when the author of 4:11 uses this motif he chooses not the word אש found in those texts but שרפה. The futility curse of 5:12 or the picture of universal mourning of 5:16‐17 are not alluded to at all in 4:7 and 4:10. The only two vocabulary connections are the occurrence of חלקה/חלק in 4:7 ‐ 7:4 and הפך in 4:11 – 5:7. One may object that the redactor was free to do things differently from what we expect and was not obliged to use all possible opportuni‐ ties to plant in his passage allusions to other texts. This is true but then we must ask how strong is the evidence that we are dealing here with a redactor who used the visions and 5:1‐17 as a model for his composi‐ tion? Is it not better to accept the fivefold scheme of vv 6‐11 as another occasion of the use of a favourite Amosian device which is also in evi‐ 88 In Jer. 5:3, 2:30 and 3:3 we encounter the similar idea of refusal to repent in spite of Yahweh’s disciplinary actions in the past and even a similar use of שוב in 5:3. Ber‐ ridge, ‘Jeremia und Amos,’ 328‐330 takes this as evidence for the influence of Amos on Jeremiah. 89 Jeremias, ‘Mitte,’ 213. 90 Jeremias, 50 ET 70.
III. Amos 5:1‐27
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dence in the visions and the original 5 OAN? And is it not more logical in this case to accept 4:4‐12 as a composition, originally independent from 5:1‐17 and the visions?
8. Conclusion The implied historical background of Am. 4:6‐12 and the significant differences in focus and concern from the exilic Lev. 26 and 1 Kings 8:33ff suggest that we are dealing with a pre‐exilic text. The connections with Lev. 26 may imply that the author of this chapter was dependent on Am. 4.91 The way that cultic language is used and the treatment of the theme of ‘meeting with God’ are typically Amosian. The concern for Israel’s lack of repentance is also thinkable within the context of the ministry of the prophet. Vv 6‐12 do not look as if they have been com‐ posed especially with an eye to their present context in the book. The combination of these factors provides a strong case against the hypo‐ thesis that 4:6‐12 is a later redactional composition. Weiser and Ru‐ dolph thought vv 4‐5 and 6‐11 were two originally independent pieces secondarily brought together by a redactor.92 However, in view of the opening וגם אני in v. 6 which seems to link vv 6ff with the preceding,93 the common theme of meeting with God which runs though vv 4‐5 and 6‐12 and the common ironic use of cultic language and motifs it is best to take vv 4‐12 is an original unity.94
III. Amos 5:1‐27 Most of the material in ch. 5 is usually ascribed to Amos. Apart from the hymnic piece in 5:8‐9 (cf ch. 7 above) and 5:13 which is usually re‐ garded as an addition,95 the only two passages that cause serious prob‐ lems are 5:4‐6, 14‐15 and 5:25‐27.96 91 The question whether the social concerns of the Holiness Code could in part also be the result of this influence of the Amosian tradition is interesting but cannot be pur‐ sued further here. 92 Weiser, ‘Amos 4 6‐13,’ 51‐53; Rudolph, ‘Amos 4,6‐13,’ 27‐28. 93 On גם see Labuschagne, ‘Emphasizing Particle ʺGamʺ,’ 193‐203. 94 Marti, 180‐181; Harper, 90; Driver, 169; Budde, ‘Техt und Auslegung 1,’ 94‐95; Willi‐ Plein, 27; Vollmer, Geschichtliche Rückblicke, 13‐15; Stuart, 336; Paul, 141‐142; Bovati and Meynet, 137, 155‐156; Sweeney, 226. 95 Wolff, 274, 293‐294 ET 233, 249‐250 (from a disciple of Amos); Vermeylen, 554 (Dtr); Willi‐Plein, 35‐36 (late apocalyptic); Wolfe, ‘Editing the Twelve,’ 103 (Day of Yahweh
162
The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
1. Amos 5:4‐6, 14‐15 5:4‐5 are rarely denied to Amos (cf above ch. 1 §III. 2.b) though some parts of these verses have occasionally been identified as glosses.97 More often it is v. 6 that has attracted the suspicion of being the work of a later redactional hand.98 The change from first to third person divine speech that takes place with v. 6 has been explained with the sugges‐ tion that in v. 6 we have Amos’ own interpretation and development of the divine oracle he quotes in the preceding verses99 and, therefore, this does not need to be taken as an indication of editorial intervention. The decisive issue is whether any tension can be perceived between the contents of vv 4‐5 and v. 6, as some claim. Vv 4‐5 seem to state that the judgment on Bethel and Gilgal is certain. In contrast, v. 6 implies that the sending of fire is contingent on the heeding/rejection of the exhorta‐ tion in v. 6a and therefore the judgment is not unavoidable but condi‐ tional. This raises the question to whom v. 6 is addressed. Two different entities are mentioned: the house of Joseph and Bethel, but it is not
96
97
98
99
editor in 325 BC); Rottzoll, 242; Schart, 78‐79. Cf the list of arguments by earlier au‐ thors summarised by Harper, 121 who, however, does not seem totally convinced by them. For defence of the authenticity of the verse see Jackson, ‘Amos 5,13,’ 435; Hammershaimb, 84; Sweeney, 236; Amsler, 211; Smith, ‘Amos 5:13,’ 291. Exceptions include: Fritz, ‘Amosbuch,’ 37‐39 who accepts only 5:3 as an oracle from Amos; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 72‐73, 76‐77 who ascribes to Amos only vv 2‐3, 7, 19, 18+20* (cf also Levin, ‘Amosbuch der Anawim,’ 282‐284; Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 31, 34, 41‐42). On v. 11 as Dtr addition see Schart, 77‐78; Vermeylen, 552‐ 554 (for 11‐12a + 13). 5:18‐20 are seen as redactional by Bosshard‐Nepustil, Rezeptio‐ nen, 344‐345. ’And do not cross over to Beersheba’ is deleted by Löhr, Untersuchungen, 18; Baumann, Aufbau, 44; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 319; Wolff, 269, 281 ET 228, 239; Market, Struktur, 126; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 107; Rottzoll, 227‐228 (cf also Willi‐Plein, 32; Jeremias, ‘Tod und Leben,’ 223). Cf, however, the counter‐ arguments of Rudolph, 191. V. 5b is taken as a gloss by Marti, 189; Winter, ‘Analyse,’ 343; Robinson, 88‐89. Weiser, Profetie, 183‐185; Wolff, 272‐273 ET 232; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 345; Market, Struktur, 129, 140; Warmuth, Mahnwort, 31‐32; Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 386; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 108‐109; Ernst, Kultkritik, 136‐137; Jeremias, ‘Tod und Leben,’ 225‐226; idem, 67 ET 89; Rottzoll, 228‐229; Schart, 75‐76; Köhlmoos, ‘Tod als Zeichen,’ 74 n. 44; Koenen, Bethel, 183. Some regard only 6b (after )פן as addition (Löhr, Untersuchungen, 18). Maag, 28‐29; Hesse, ‘Amos 5 4‐6. 14f.,’ 3‐7; Amsler, 206; Neubauer, ‘Erwägungen zu Amos 5,’ 309; Berridge, ‘Botschaft des Amos,’ 327; Martin‐Achard, 40. Mays, 87 thinks we have in v. 6 an independent prophetic saying.
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clearly explained how these two are to be related to each other.100 If Bethel is the true goal of the divine punishment and the important point in the whole saying101 then it would be hard to escape the impres‐ sion that there is some contradiction between v. 6 and the preceding. Yet, this seems unlikely for in this case the mention of the house of Joseph remains somewhat superfluous and confusing. It seems to me more plausible to take the end of v. 6 as a reference to Bethel’s future inability to stop the coming judgment – at Bethel102 there is no one who can stop the judgment which Yahweh sends to the house of Joseph. V. 6b then is a development of the thought of v. 5b. The people are admo‐ nished not to go to the sanctuaries because, on one hand, they are ob‐ jects of God’s judgment and, on the other, they have no power to pre‐ vent that judgment. The verse makes good sense as coming from Amos himself and belonging originally to vv 4‐5. There is even more debate concerning the origin of vv 14‐15. Some take 5:4‐6+14‐16 as a single unit coming from Amos.103 Others have also subscribed to their Amosian origin, though the limits of the original unit have been estimated differently.104 Wolff ascribes these verses to Amos’ disciples;105 Weiser interprets them as later exegesis on 5:4‐5;106 Wood dates them to the exilic107 and Pfeiffer to the post‐exilic period.108 Rösel suggests that the original oracle consisted of v. 15a, followed by 100 Baumann, Aufbau, 45; BHK; Jozaki, ‘Secondary Passages,’ 59 n. 2; Gordis, ‘Studies,’ 229, following LXX, emend לבית אל to ‘the house of Israel’. Robinson, 89 suggests it used to be part of the introduction of v. 7. Many regard it as gloss: Wellhausen, 81; Winter, ‘Analyse,’ 368; Greßmann, 345; Nowack, 142‐143; Amsler, 205; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 446; Pfeiffer, Introduction, 579; Mays, 86; Koenen, Bethel, 183; Wöhrle, 63; Hunter, Seek the Lord, 69 (with further literature). 101 Wolff, 269 ET 228. This also seems to be implied in the suggestion of Gordis, ‘Stu‐ dies,’ 209‐210 to take the preposition as Lamed accusativus and to translate ‘and it will consume (with none to extinguish it) Beth El’. 102 Taking lamed as locative. 103 Marti, 187‐190; Willi‐Plein, 31; Amsler, 204‐205; Hunter, Seek the Lord, 56‐105. Ru‐ dolph, 191, 193‐194 places v. 6 after vv 14‐15. 104 (i) 5:4‐7+10‐12+14‐15: Neubauer, ‘Erwägungen zu Amos 5,’ 312‐315; (ii) two different oracles, one in 1‐6 + 14 and another in 7, 10 + 15: Berridge, ‘Botschaft des Amos,’ 328, 330; (iii) two distinct units in vv 1‐6 and 14‐15: Maag, 27‐32; (iv) two oracles in vv 4‐6 and 14‐15: Greßmann, 344‐345. Cf also Jozaki, ‘Secondary Passages,’ 62‐63; Botter‐ weck, ‘Authentizität,’ 186‐187; Mays, 99‐102; Deissler, 114‐115; Tångberg, Mahnrede, 46; Pfeifer, Theologie, 62‐63. 105 Wolff, 274, 276 ET 234, 235; Jeremias, 71‐73 ET 94‐96; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 116‐118, 121. 106 Weiser, Profetie, 185‐189. 107 Wood, 66‐67. 108 Pfeiffer, Introduction, 583.
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14b and the redactor transposed the places of the two lines and sup‐ plied 14a and 15b.109 Wöhrle takes vv 6, 14‐15 as an early Northern Israelite addition to 5:1‐17* shortly after 722 BC.110 Rottzoll ascribes v. 15 to a redactor working shortly after 722 BC and dates v. 14 to the post‐ exilic period (RRK).111 V. 14 makes a good continuation of v. 6 and might plausibly be un‐ derstood as the second part of the explanation which Amos provides for the divine oracle quoted in vv 4‐5. Formally, it is like v. 6 in its third person reference to Yahweh. Thematically, it explains further the mean‐ ing of the command ‘seek Yahweh’ and it gives another supplementary argument for obeying that command. V. 14a defines seeking of Yahweh as seeking good and not evil. The second half gives a positive reason for doing what is urged in the first. This reason is an implicit and ironic rejection of the cultic certainty of Yahweh’s closeness to and presence with Israel. As such it implies a measure of cultic‐polemic which is also evident in vv 4‐6. The whole unit 4‐6+14 then is structured in the fol‐ lowing way. The exhortation to seek Yahweh is explained in two ways – negatively it does not mean going to Bethel and Gilgal (v. 5), positive‐ ly it means seeking good and not evil (v. 14). This exhortation is sup‐ ported by three different motivations. V. 5b provides the motivation for the prohibition (do not go to Bethel because it is under judgment), v. 6 provides a negative motivation for the exhortation (seek Yahweh oth‐ erwise the judgment will spread from the sanctuaries to the whole house of Joseph), v. 14 gives a positive motivation for the exhortation (seek Yahweh and then he will be with you). V. 14 fits nicely within the oracle as a whole. The arrogant confidence of the presumed audience corresponds to what we know from other Amos material concerning the reaction he encountered (9:9‐10) and the anti‐cultic polemic and the reversal of his opponent’s theological presuppositions seems to be typi‐ cal for the prophet.112 109 Rösel, ‘Entwicklung,’ 97‐98. 110 Wöhrle, 64‐65, 67‐68, 129; Pschibille, Löwe, 168. 111 Rottzoll, 232‐234. Cf Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 114‐115 who thinks v. 14 is a later addition to v. 15. 112 Jeremias, 72 ET 95 thinks that the salvific faith attacked in v. 14 is the Zion theology (Mic. 3:11; Jer. 7; Ps. 46). The phrase ‘Yahweh is with us’, however, is not confined to the Jerusalem cult but is attested in a wide variety of historical, cultic and prophetic literature; cf the overview of Neubauer, ‘Erwägungen zu Amos 5,’ 295‐302, who ar‐ gues that here Amos is referring to the phrase ‘do not fear for I am with you’, typical of the Heilsorakel. The slogan is found in Jacob’s dream at Bethel (Gen. 28:15) and in Joseph’s story (Gen. 39:2, 3, 21, 23). It is therefore not impossible that a theology, similar to the one known from the Zion Psalms, was also characteristic of the Bethel sanctuary and was the basis for the arrogant attitude, which Amos encountered. For
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V. 15 seems to presuppose a different audience and perhaps a dif‐ ferent historical situation.113 First, the concept of the ‘rem‐ nant/survivors’ of Joseph leads one to assume that some judgment has already, at least partly, taken place. Therefore, the verb חנן, which may have the connotation of not only showing mercy but also ‘being kind and generous’, here is best understood against the background of the complaints, in which the psalmists pray to God to have mercy on them and deliver them from the troubles they experience.114 Second, there is contrast between the more confident promise ‘so that Yahweh will be with you’ in v. 14 and the much more uncertain ‘perhaps Yahweh will have mercy’. It is true that this tension is largely dependent upon the way the jussive ויהי in v. 14 is translated. It can be rendered as subjunctive (‘then it may be so that Yahweh…may be with you’) in which case the mood in vv 14 and 15 would be very similar and the tension disappears115 or it can be viewed as indicative (‘so that Yahweh will be with you’). Although ויהי may be used to express a wish (1 Sam. 20:13 ‘may Yahweh be with you’), it can also describe a certain future event (1 Kings 14:5; Ps. 81:16[15]; Jer. 13:10; Hos. 14:7[6]) and when it is used following an imperative it usually describes the conse‐ quence of an action commanded by that imperative (Ex. 9:22; 10:21; 1 Sam. 28:22; 1 Kings 21:2; Mal. 3:10 though see Ex. 18:19). This would lean the balance of probability towards the second option.116 V. 14 then shares the optimism of v. 6: if Israel seeks the good then fire will not break out on the house of Joseph and Yahweh will be with them as they now mistakenly think he is. V. 15 is much more cautious in its ap‐ proach to the future but this caution is not linked to the issue if Israel is able to repent or not. Rather there is uncertainty as to what Yahweh’s reaction would be if Israel chooses to repent. This provides an addi‐ tional confirmation that in v. 15 we are dealing with a somewhat differ‐ ent historical period when judgment was already under way. The redactional character of v. 15 is supported also by the observa‐ tion that some of its vocabulary was perhaps picked up from the present literary context: ‘good and evil’ (v. 14), ‘hate’ (v. 10), ‘the gate’ other proposals see Wolff, 294‐295 ET 250‐251 (Holy war) and Lust, ‘Redaction of Amos V,’ 131‐132 (patriarchal tradition). 113 V. 15 is judged a later addition to v. 14 by Nowack, 145. Contrast Rottzoll and Rei‐ mer n. 111 above. 114 Cf Neubauer, ‘Erwägungen zu Amos 5,’ 302‐304. 115 Hunter, Seek the Lord, 84 n. 2. 116 Maag, 31‐32, 157‐158 would like, contrary to MT punctuation, to attach the phrase to the preceding line and translates it ‘und es recht komme’ (cf also Koch, Amos, 2:37). Winter, ‘Analyse,’ 343 deletes v. 14b as a gloss.
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(v. 10, 12), ‘justice’ (v. 7), ‘Joseph’ (v. 6); ‘love’ may possibly be an allu‐ sion to the somewhat more distant 4:5.117 It would seem that the redac‐ tor who composed v. 15 also spilt the original oracle (4‐6+14) and was responsible for the present shape of the ring composition in 5:1‐17.
2. Amos 5:25‐27 Many scholars would argue that we have evidence for the presence of later material in vv 25‐27. The interpolations have been identified diffe‐ rently: only v. 26;118 vv 25‐26;119 vv 26‐27;120 vv 25‐27.121 The arguments for the redactional character of these verses are closely intertwined with the interpretative and textual problems to be found in them. Limi‐ tations of space do not allow a full discussion so all I can do here is briefly sketch my own perspective. The rhetorical question in v. 25, expecting a negative answer, con‐ tinues the theme of sacrifices from 5:22. The word order (beginning with the object rather then with the verb) also suggests that the stress is on the practice of offering sacrifices, not on the question to whom they are offered.122 Against the background of opposition between various cultic activities and justice and righteousness in vv 21‐24, v. 25 is most naturally taken to mean that during the wilderness period Israel of‐ 117 Tromp, ‘Amos V 1‐17,’ 69; Jeremias, ‘Tod und Leben ,’ 225; idem, 71 ET 94. 118 Wellhausen, 84; Marti, 197; Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 189‐190 (Dtr). 119 Wolff, 304, 309‐311 ET 259‐260, 264‐266 (Dtr); Warmuth, Mahnwort, 33‐34; Würthwein, ‘Amos 5, 21‐27,’ 150‐151; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 132 n. 447; Ernst, Kultkritik, 104‐105 (Dtr); Schart, 81‐82 (Dtr); Pschibille, Löwe, 168 n. 62; Gillingham, The Image, 93 n. 29 (Amos tradents); Jeremias, 80‐81 ET 104‐105 (v. 25 Amos tradents; v. 26 exilic). 120 Willi‐Plein, 39. 121 (i) Vv 25‐27 are a single Dtr addition: Berridge, ‘Botschaft des Amos,’ 336‐339; Polley, Davidic Empire, 154‐155; Wood, 32‐34, 68. (ii) Two different Dtr additions: an earlier in vv 26‐27 and a later in v. 25: Vermeylen, 555‐559. (iii) V. 25 is late pre‐exilic; vv 26‐ 27 are exilic: Jozaki, ‘Secondary Passages,’ 65‐67. More complicated scenarios are of‐ fered by: (i) Rottzoll, 198: v. 27 is an early post 722 addition; vv 25‐26 are exilic; (ii) Wöhrle, 85‐86: vv 21‐22*+27 belong to the early cult‐critical redaction; vv 25‐26 are a Dtr addition; vv 23‐24 – a later interpolation; (iii) Loretz, ‘Sukkut und Kajjamanu,’ 288‐289: v. 25 is a commentary on vv 21‐22* (seperated from them by the addition of vv 23‐24); vv 26‐27 are a later (post‐exilic) addition. Rudolph, 212‐213 interprets vv 21‐24 as a self‐contained unit at the end of which other oracles from Amos (vv 25‐27) were attached by an editor (similarly Mays, 105‐113). Greßmann, 348 takes vv 21‐25 and 26‐27 as two distinct oracles. Weiser, Profetie, 222‐223 transposes v. 25 before v. 24. 122 Contra Vollmer, Geschichtliche Rückblicke, 38, n. 132; Sweeney, 241; Wood, 68.
III. Amos 5:1‐27
167
fered no sacrifices or only very modest sacrifices to God but her faith‐ fulness to him was all that mattered.123 This is a historical argument in favour of the thesis in 5:21‐24 that justice is more important to God than cult. V. 26 could be taken as a reference to the past (idolatry in the wil‐ derness)124 or to the future (description of the coming punishment)125 but it seems best to translate it as a question, which continues the one from v. 25 (or did you carry [in the wilderness] סכות your king [as you do now])126 and take it as a reference to the present.127 V. 26 is then serves as a further accusation related to the cult and additional grounds for the coming judgment.128 The precise nature of the accusation is somewhat obscure. Most scholars see in v. 26 reference to two Mesopotamian deities: Sakkuth and Keiwan though it continues to be a mystery why these particular gods should have been singled out for mention in Amos. The text of v. 26, however, is not in good shape. The phrase ‘the star of your gods’ stands awkwardly in its present position and looks very much like an interpretative gloss.129 The phrase ‘Sakkuth your king’ suggests that in the following parallel expression ‘your images’ must modify the im‐ mediately preceding word. However, this is not possible because כיון is singular whilst ‘your images’ is plural ‐ ‘Keiwan your images’ is ob‐ viously incorrect. Most take ‘your images’ as referring to both Sakkuth and Keiwan which is syntactically acceptable but unlikely in view of the parallelism between the two phrases. I am inclined to take the two waws in סכת and כין and the phrase ‘the star of your gods’ as additions by a later scribe, who was well versed in Mesopotamian religion and who identified these two words with Babylonian gods. In that case the original could have been: סכת מלככם ואת כין צלמיכם אשר עשיתם לכם. The first
123 Andersen and Freedman, 531‐532; Paul, 193‐194; Hammershaimb, 91‐92; Harper, 136‐137 (‘was it [only] sacrifices…’). 124 Beek, ‘Religious Background,’ 140. 125 Andersen and Freedman, 533, 543; Rudolph, 207; Mays, 112; Paul, 197; Hentschke, Stellung zum Kultus, 87; Weiser, Profetie, 224; Bovati and Meynet, 194. 126 Wolff, 310 (303 for the translation) ET 265 (260); Amsler, 214‐215; Hammershaimb, 94; Vollmer, Geschichtliche Rückblicke, 41‐42; Market, Struktur, 158. 127 So Harper, 137‐138; Gevirtz, ‘Amos 5:26,’ 276 who translate the verb in the present tense. 128 Willi‐Plein, 39; Market, Struktur, 160; Barstad, Religious Polemics, 121; Jeremias, 81 ET 105; Sweeney, 241. 129 BHK; BHS; Baumann, Aufbau, 43; Weiser, Profetie, 225; Day, Molech, 79. Wellhausen, 84; Marti, 197 and Maag, 34‐35 identify צלמיכם and כוכב as glosses and so achieve an original ‘your God Kewan’. Rudolph, 208 deletes the whole of v. 26b.
168
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phrase yields the meaning ‘the shrine/tabernacle of your king’130 and the second can be rendered ‘the pedestal of your images.’131 Thematically vv 25‐26 are closely related to the preceding verses in continuing the subject of worship and sacrifice. However, they stand awkwardly in their present position after the exhortation in v. 24 which gives every impression of being the climax, conclusion and main point of the pericope. The strong statement of the rejection of the cult, fol‐ lowed by a positive indication of Yahweh’s will, requires no further justification or argumentation.132 Vv 25‐26 also take the argument in a somewhat different direction. V. 26 introduces the accusation of idola‐ try which is otherwise foreign to Amos and mentions the king, which is also slightly unusual. In its present form the text seems to suggest that social injustice and idolatry are somehow related though this relation‐ ship is not explicitly explored or further clarified. Nothing in the open‐ ing verses of the unit gives the slightest reason to think that the cult rejected by Yahweh is in any way ritually improper. It is clearly im‐ plied that the worship described in vv 21‐23 is offered to Yahweh so the notion of idolatry brought in by v. 26 is out of place. Finally, there is some tension between the call to let justice flow like a river in v. 24 and the prediction of exile in v. 27.133 The call in v. 24 implies a possibility for change, the announcement in v. 27 assumes exactly the reverse. Although unconditional statements of doom, standing on their own, can be interpreted as implicit calls for repentance, an unqualified pre‐ diction of judgment coming directly after an exhortation without any
130 Harper, 137; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 313, 329; Maag, 34‐35, 157 Amsler, 214; Berquist, ‘Dangerous Waters,’ 58‐59; Hentschke, Stellung zum Kultus, 87. Cf Isbell, ‘Amos 5:26,’ 97‐99 ‘tabernacle of Moloch’ following the lead of LXX but contrast Day, Moloch, 79‐80. 131 Taking כין as equivalent to כן = ‘base’ or alternatively a corruption of it (HAL, 450 ET 472; Maag, Text, 157 postulates the existence of a word כיון = Gestell). 132 Vollmer, Geschichtliche Rückblicke, 39; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 346; Rottzoll, 188‐189. 133 Most take the initial verb of v. 24 as jussive and the waw as adversative (but let justice roll down) and therefore interpret the verse as a command or an exhortation: Harper, 136; Hentschke, Stellung zum Kultus, 78‐81; Hammershaimb, 90‐91; Berridge, ‘Botschaft des Amos,’ 336‐337; Wolff, 309 ET 264; Vollmer, Geschichtliche Rückblicke, 42; Tångberg, Mahnrede, 48‐49; Paul, 192‐193; Weiss, ‘Amosʹ Repudiation of the Cult,’ 209; Rottzoll, 196‐197; Gillingham, The Image, 87; Hyman, ‘Amos 5:24,’ 232‐233; Ver‐ meylen, 558 (with further literature). This is to be preferred to the minority opinion which sees in v. 24 a proclamation of judgment (Weiser, 173‐174; Würthwein, ‘Amos 5, 21‐27,’ 150; Berquist, ‘Dangerous Waters,’ 54‐63), or a promise of salvation (Hyatt, ‘Amos 5:23‐24,’ 24).
IV. Amos 6:1‐14
169
further explanation or modification is most difficult and strange.134 The most logical explanation of these phenomena is that the original unit consisted only of vv 21‐24 with vv 25‐27 being a later editorial inser‐ tion.135
IV. Amos 6:1‐14 1. Amos 6:1‐7 The Grundbestand of 6:1‐7 is, with few exceptions, almost unanimously attributed to Amos himself.136 The starting point of modern redactional‐ critical study of the passage is the work of Wolff who distinguished in vv 2 and 6b additions from the disciples of Amos from the time 738 and 733 BC and in 1aα and 1bβ Dtr additions.137 A more complex analysis is offered by Fleischer, who isolated four levels of redaction: v. 2* was inserted between 738 and 733; 1aα, 2bα (Gath line), 3, 6b, 7 is a Judean reworking of the speech after 722; 1bβ is an exilic Dtr gloss and v. 5 a gloss from the times of the Chronicler.138 In similar vein are the more recent proposals of Rottzoll and Lescow. Rottzoll confines himself only to three redactions: a major Judean reworking of the speech between 722 and 711 (1aα,bα, 6aβ,b,7); a second one soon after the first (1bβ, 2, 3b) and a postexilic gloss (5b).139 Lescow on the other hand sees an orig‐ inal word of Amos in 1aα+3a against Zion, which in 722 was expanded and applied to Samaria with the additions of 1aβ, 4, 5a, 7a. In late pre‐ exilic times it was again reworked (1b, 3b, 5b, 6a, 7b) and then finally few post‐exilic glosses were added (2, 6b).140 In contrast to these pro‐ 134 The solution of Warmuth, Mahnwort, 34‐35; Ernst, Kultkritik, 122‐123; Pschibille, Löwe, 172 is to regard the exhortation in v. 24 as an accusation which grounds the announcement in v. 27. In contrast Tångberg, Mahnrede, 47 interprets v. 27 as a moti‐ vation for the exhortation in v. 24. 135 These considerations are strengthened by the fact that vv 25‐26 are in prose in con‐ trast to the clear poetic structure of vv 21‐24. Those who take vv 21‐24 as the original unit include Vollmer, Geschichtliche Rückblicke, 39; Market, Struktur, 162‐164; Weiss, ‘Repudiation of the Cult,’ 199‐203. 136 An exception is von Soden, ‘Ortsbenennungen,’ 216 (anonymous northern prophet from the time of Hosea and the Amos school). 137 Wolff, 314‐318 ET 269‐274; followed by Wittenberg, ‘Amos 6:1‐7,’ 66‐68. 138 Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 243‐244. Cf Loretz, ‘Marzih9u,’ 132‐138. The end result of Fleischer’s analysis is similar to the earlier proposal of Praetorius, Gedichte, 21‐22 who isolated an original unit consisting of 1a, 4, 5a, 6. 139 Rottzoll, 166‐168. 140 Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 34, 43‐44; idem, ‘nachexilische Amosbuch,’ 88‐91.
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posals Vermeylen and Blum have offered much simpler hypotheses. Vermeylen argued that the reworking evident in v. 1aα, 2, 6b and 7 was the result of an exilic‐Dtr redaction.141 Blum attributes 1aα,bβ, 2, 6b to a major Judean redaction of the original speech which took place be‐ tween 711‐705.142 It makes sense to begin the analysis of this passage with v. 2 since it has long been recognized by a vast number of commentators as an in‐ sertion.143 The two main reasons for this are of a literary and historical nature. On the literary level v. 2 stands out clearly from its present con‐ text. The three imperatives followed by two rhetorical questions inter‐ rupt the series of participles which characterises the woe oracle. The first half of the verse is a tricolon unlike the surrounding bicola (though see v. 6) and the second half of the verse is, according to Andersen and Freeman, ‘clearly prosaic’.144 The intention of the verse seems to be to undercut the sense of false security which is attacked in v. 1. This is achieved with the help of three historical examples of cities (Calneh, Hamath and Gath), who presum‐ ably must have been defeated or even destroyed within the living memory of the audience. According to such an interpretation, v. 2 is a historical argument of the type found in Nah. 3:8; Jer. 7:12, etc. This understanding necessitates a change of the suffixes of the last two words of v. 2 resulting in the reading ‘is your territory greater than theirs’ (cf BHS).145 This leads us to the historical problem presented by v. 2. According to our present knowledge Calneh was conquered by Assyria in 738, the same year Hamath was stripped of its territories and in 720 was also incorporated into the Assyrian empire, and Gath was
141 Vermeylen, 559‐564. 142 Blum, ‘ʺAmosʺ in Jerusalem,’ 35‐36. 143 Wellhausen, 85; Löhr, Untersuchungen, 19; Baumann, Aufbau, 48; Marti, 199; Harper, 142, 146; Procksch, Prophetischen Schriften, 85; Nowack, 150; Budde, ‘Техt und Ausle‐ gung 1,’ 123; Praetorius, Gedichte, 21; Wolfe, ‘Editing the Twelve,’ 116; Fosbroke, 823; Wolff, 318‐319 ET 274‐275; Fey, Amos und Jesaja, 11, n. 2; Willi‐Plein, 40‐41; Krause, ‘profetische Leichenklage,’ 26 n. 47; Market, Struktur, 166‐167; Deissler, 119; Fritz, ‘Amosbuch,’ 38; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 226‐228; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 136‐137; Loretz, ‘Marzih9u,’ 135; Blum, ‘ʺAmosʺ in Jerusalem,’ 31‐34; Jeremias, 89 ET 114‐115; Rottzoll, 155‐156; Schart, 83; Maier and Dörrfuß, ‘Am 6,7; Jer 16,5,’ 47; McLaughlin, Marzeah9, 84‐85; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 79. 144 Andersen and Freedman, 546. 145 For an argument that MT should be preserved and the rhetorical questions ans‐ wered affirmatively see Gordis, ‘Studies,’ 239‐242; idem, ‘Composition and Struc‐ ture,’ 220.
IV. Amos 6:1‐14
171
destroyed by Sargon in 711.146 This is obviously too late for the ministry of Amos which is conventionally dated c. 760 BC. Attempts to defend the authenticity of the text have taken several different directions: (i) taking v. 2 as a quotation of the words of the leaders who boast that Israel is larger than the mentioned nations;147 (ii) interpreting it as an argument that Israel is not different from the other nations148 or as a call to imitate the prudence of the mentioned cities;149 (iii) down‐dating Amos’ activity;150 (iv) assuming the verse’s reference to be to the ‘political and economic decadence’ of the cities not to their destruction;151 (v) suggesting that the destruction of the cities still lies in the future;152 (vi) conjecturing that Amos must be referring to otherwise unknown to us defeats of Calneh and Hamath shortly before his time.153 Robinson argues that in 6:2 we have a reference to Shalmaneser III’s campaigns against Calneh and Hamath in the middle of the 9th cen‐ tury.154 Recently Maeir has argued that 6:2 preserves the memory of Gath’s destruction by Hazael which turned Gath from one of the larg‐ est and most important cities in the region into an insignificant vil‐ lage.155 This suggestion has one definite merit, it would provide a plausible explanation for the mention of Gath in 6:2. It is difficult to see why Gath of all Philistine cities should be singled out if the author of 6:2 was referring to the events of 734‐733 BC, when Gaza and Ashkelon were the main targets of Tiglath‐pileser,156 or to the revolt in 711, which was organized and led by Ashdod157 bearing also in mind the fact that 146 COS 2.117A; 118B; 118C; 118I. 147 Mays, 115; Sellin, 242; Maag, 39. 148 Stuart, 359. 149 Smith, 271‐272. 150 Coote, 20‐22. Wood, 49‐50; Roberts, ‘Amos 6:1‐7,’ 158‐159. 151 Soggin, 105; Rudolph, 219. Both assume that Gath is a later addition to the verse. 152 Andersen and Freedman, 558‐559: the oracle belongs to a ‘pattern of prophetic threats describing the line of march of an enemy’ (Is. 10:5‐11). 153 Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 325; Paul, 203; Weiser, Profetie, 233; Torrey, ‘Text of Amos,’ 63; cf Gordis, ‘Studies,’ 237‐239 (the earlier phases of the Assyrian advance). 154 Robinson, 94; Hammershaimb, 99. 155 Maeir, ‘Amos VI 2,’ 319‐334; Haran, ‘Rise and Decline,’ 269, n. 1. Naʹaman, ‘Boun‐ dary System of Gaza,’ 60 also traces Gath’s decline to the Aramean attack at the end of the 9th cent. BC. On the archaeology of the site see more generally Uziel and Mai‐ er, ‘Scratching the Surface at Gath,’ 50‐75 and on Hazael’s campaign see Ehrlich, Phi‐ listines, 72‐74. Contrast Schniedewind, ‘Philistine Gath,’ 74‐75 who thinks Gath lost its prominence after its capture by Sargon in 712 BC. 156 For the events of 734‐733 in relation to Philistia see Ehrlich, Philistines, 94‐104. 157 COS 2.118A lines 249‐262; 118E lines 90‐112; Wildberger, Jesaja 13‐27, 752‐753 ET 289‐ 290; Ahlström, Ancient Palestine, 692‐693. The hypothesis that the line is a gloss actu‐ alising v. 2 for later Judean readers after the rebellion in 711 (Robinson, 94; Rudolph,
172
The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
during the 8th century Gath was probably no longer independent and consequently fairly insignificant. However, the proposal which sees 6:2 as reference to events that took place from the middle to the end of the ninth century has its own difficulties. A distance from events of about a century would diminish the rhetorical impact of the saying, especially if Hamath and Calneh were independent and prosperous at the time. There are unfortunately large gaps in our knowledge of the history of Hamath and Calneh but we know that in the beginning of the 8th century Hamath was somehow able to withstand a large coalition of states led by Damascus and Arpad and in the time of Tiglath‐pileser Hamath controlled 19 districts which in 738 BC were annexed by Assyria (COS 2.117A).158 It seems, therefore, that our present state of knowledge would suggest placing v. 2 some‐ time after 720 BC when Hamath was conquered by the Assyrians.159 In any case, whatever is decided on the historical front, it must be born in mind that this is only half of the picture and the literary argu‐ ment for the secondary character of v. 2 must still be addressed. Janzen has indeed tried to do just that by pointing out ‘the frequency of rhetor‐ ical question in Amos… and the common occurrence of such questions in close succession to ’הוי.160 However, none of the examples he cites (Am. 5:18‐20; Is. 1:5; 10:3; 10:8‐9; 29:16; 45:9, 11; 55:2; Jer. 47:3; Ezek. 13:7, 18; 34:2; Hab. 2:7, 13) provides an exact parallel for not only do the rhetorical questions function differently from Am. 6:2 (i.e. continue the accusation or announce judgment) but nowhere do we have a resump‐ tion of the series of participles after the rhetorical question in a way parallel to Am. 6:3. In contrast to all these passages, if v. 2 is removed from Am. 6:1‐7 v. 3 would follow seamlessly from v. 1.161 The mention
216; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 228‐229; Loretz, ‘Marzih9u,’ 135) still cannot solve the problem why the redactor did not refer to the leading city of the revolt, namely Ashdod, rather than picking up one of its satellites. 158 Buhl, ‘Hamath,’ 33‐36; Pitard, Ancient Damascus, 171‐172; Ahlström, Ancient Palestine, 611‐613. Lipiński, Aramaeans, 311‐313 suggests that the Assyrian campaigns in Syria between 772 and 755 BC imply that the situation there was unstable and the position of Hamath was weakened. 159 Wolff’s proposal that v. 2 was inserted by a disciple of Amos in the period 738‐733 BC has been effectively countered by Paul, 203. 160 Janzen, Mourning Cry, 47 n. 18. 161 It is for that reason that Andersen and Freedman, 558‐559, who still regard v. 2 as an authentic oracle of Amos, suggest that it was added later on at the time of the writ‐ ing down of Amos’ scroll (p. 546). Later on they characterise the verse as ‘intrusive material’ (p. 552) and ‘radical intrusion’ (p. 556).
IV. Amos 6:1‐14
173
of Hamath in v. 2 creates an inclusio with v. 14 which further streng‐ thens the suspicion of its redactional character.162 In the opening verse of the passage we have two sets of difficulties: the mention of Zion in the first line and the translation problems in the last colon. Starting from the second issue, one notes that in 1bβ it is not clear who the subject of the verb בא is – the house of Israel or the nobles previously addressed. Likewise להם could be translated ‘for themselves’ (ethic dative) or ‘towards them’ (indicating direction). Finally the ‘house of Israel’ could be either subject, accusative of direction or voca‐ tive. At least two different pictures are therefore possible – the nobles come to the house of Israel for their own benefit or the house of Israel comes to them (the nobles). The most widely accepted interpretation states that the house of Israel comes to the leaders for advice, for justice or to honour or serve them.163 However, this is not explicitly stated in the text and so the purpose of the coming remains somewhat enigmatic and unclear.164 Wolff understands the last line of v. 1 as a Dtr gloss on the ‘nations’ in the previous colon.165 According to his interpretation the house of Israel comes not to its leaders but to the nations (להם refers to )גוים and the line is a criticism of Israel’s inclination to follow foreign nations instead of Yahweh. However, in this case the line is doomed to remain completely meaningless within its present context, allusively introducing a thought which is completely foreign to the passage under consideration and to the book of Amos as a whole. Blum takes the verse to describe the flight of Israelites to Jerusalem after the demise of the Northern kingdom.166 This proposal has two advantages. First, it offers an interpretation of the plain meaning of the 162 It is possible that עברו reflects the use of the same verb in 5:17 and כלנה is a play on the three times repeated כל in 5:16‐17 but these points are less convincing. 163 Harper, 143; Hammershaimb, 96; Paul, 201; Carroll R, Contexts for Amos, 255; Mays, 115; Jeremias, 87 ET 112; Bovati and Meynet, 204 n. 4. But see the criticisms of Cripps, 203 and Rudolph, 216. For alternative interpretations see Hayes, 183; Ander‐ sen and Freedman, 550‐551. 164 A number of proposed emendations have attempted to eliminate the difficulty: cf the survey in Koch, Amos, 1:185 and the different proposals in Weiser, Profetie, 241‐ 242; Holladay, ‘Amos 6:1bb: A Suggested Solution,’ 107‐110; Rudolph, 216; Sellin, 242; Ehrlich, Randglossen, 243; Wolfe, ‘Editing the Twelve,’ 115; Roberts, ‘Amos 6:1‐ 7,’ 155‐158; Torrey, ‘Text of Amos,’ 63. 165 Wolff, 315‐316 ET 270‐271. Others who take v. 1bβ as a gloss include Market, Struk‐ tur, 165; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 226; Loretz, ‘Marzih9u,’ 134‐135; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 136‐137; Rottzoll, 165‐166. 166 Blum, ‘ʺAmosʺ in Jerusalem,’ 34; Maier and Dörrfuß, ‘Am 6,7; Jer 16,5,’ 47. On the expansion of Jerusalem and its possible connection to the waves of refugees from Northern Israel after 722 BC see most recently Faust, ‘Settlement of Jerusalem’s Western Hill,’ 97‐118.
174
The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
Hebrew text which does not necessitate emendations or postulating different meaning for the verb בא or the presence of otherwise unat‐ tested idioms. Second, it explains both how the line was meaningful to the glossator at the time of its insertion and why it became unintelligi‐ ble later on. Once the specific historical situation to which it referred, the flight of Israelites to Judah after 722 BC, is lost sight of then it is dif‐ ficult to understand what coming is spoken of here. It is therefore logi‐ cal to conclude that 1bβ was added by the same person who also intro‐ duced v. 2 during a late 8th century Judean reworking of the oracle of Amos. The presence of the term ‘Zion’ in v. 1 is also slightly surprising since Amos does not usually mention the Southern kingdom in his oracles. Many assume that Amos had both kingdoms in view here al‐ though his attention may have been directed mainly towards the North.167 McCullough goes further than that in his suggestion that ‘most of his [Amos’] words were in fact directed to the whole of Israel, North and South, and it is fair presumption that part of his ministry was spent in Judah’.168 I fully agree with those who argue that it is not impossible to imagine Amos referring to his own country in the course of his preaching. The fact that he does not usually speak about Judah does not yet mean that he could not have mentioned it once. The diffi‐ culty in this particular passage is that 6:1‐7 seems to be directed at Northern Israel as the mention of the ‘breaking of Joseph’ in 6:6b clear‐ ly implies.169 This, coupled with the presence of Judean insertions in v. 2 and 1bβ, tips the balance in favour of the opinion that Zion in v. 1 is due to a redactional intervention.170 This also provides a convincing 167 Cripps, 13, 202; Procksch, Prophetischen Schriften, 85; Sellin, 241; Robinson, 94; Mays, 114‐115; Fey, Amos und Jesaja, 11, 40; Hammershaimb, 96; Gordis, ‘Composition and Structure,’ 220, 224; Willi‐Plein, 43; Roberts, ‘Amos 6:1‐7,’ 157; Stuart, 358‐359; Finley, 259‐260; Paul, 200; Andersen and Freedman, 550, 553‐554, 559. 168 McCullough, ‘Suggestions,’ 249. For a Judean provenance of Amos see Peckham, History and Prophecy, 174; Wood, 34‐38, 74; Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 34. Je‐ remias, 83 n. 1 ET 107 n. 1 assumes a Judean provenance for the written composition of 6:1‐7. Hayes, 182‐183 and Möller, Prophet in Debate, 130 offer different rhetorical explanations for the introductory ‘Zion’. 169 Rudolph, 215; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 226. 170 Fosbroke, 823 is of the opinion that the warning in v. 2 was addressed to the South‐ ern kingdom and was added at the time with the reference to Zion was introduced in v. 1. 6:1aα without הוי is taken as addition by Marti, 198; Wolff, 314‐315 ET 269‐ 270; Koch, Amos, 2:42; Zimmerli, ‘Prophetenwort,’ 490; Market, Struktur, 164; Deissler, 119; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 226; Loretz, ‘Marzih9u,’ 134‐135; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 136‐137; Blum, ‘ʺAmosʺ in Jerusalem,’ 28, 29, 35; Rottzoll, 154‐ 155. Schart, 82‐83 takes the whole first bicolon of v. 1 as addition and suggests that הוי originally introduced v. 1b. Others think ‚Zion’ is substitution of a term refering
IV. Amos 6:1‐14
175
explanation of why Zion is mentioned first, before Samaria, reminiscent of the placing of the Judean king before the king of Israel in the super‐ scription in 1:1.
2. Amos 6:8‐14 There are two main approaches to this passage. One is to understand it as a collection of oracles, or fragments of oracles. Rudolph reconstructs the first oracle by transposing v. 11 before v. 9. According to him in vv 8, 11, 9‐10 we have a unit in which the initial divine word (v. 8) is clari‐ fied and interpreted by the prophet in vv 11+9‐10.171 Maag also takes vv 8‐11 as a unit, without transposing v. 11 after v. 8, but he interprets vv 8,9,10a,b as the divine oracle and only v. 10c (from כי לא onwards) and v. 11 as ‘theologische Erklärung’ by the prophet.172 Willi‐Plein takes vv 8+11 to be a self‐contained unit in which another Amos‐fragment (vv 9‐ 10) is inserted.173 Many think v. 11 is preserved only partially because the beginning with perfect consecutive and the presence of an an‐ nouncement of judgment without corresponding accusation would suggests that its beginning would have been lost.174 V. 12 is judged to be a self‐contained independent piece by most commentators175 and vv 13‐14 to be a fragment whose opening has been lost.176 Many take vv 9‐ originally to Samaria: Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 325; Vermeylen, 560‐561; Soggin, 102, 104; Nowack, 148‐150. Earlier commentators often regarded ‘Zion’ as a scribal mistake and sought to improve the text with the help of emendations; cf the surveys in Paul, 199 n. 2; Rottzoll, 153‐154; McLaughlin, Marzeah9, 100 n. 102 & 103. Weiser, Profetie, 229‐231 suggested the translation ‘die stolz sind auf Zion’ taking it as a reference to Israelite capture of Jersualem. For a discussion of other proposals see the useful survey of McLaughlin, Marzeah9, 99‐103 who attempts to revive Fohr‐ er’s thesis that Zion here is a technical term for Samaria. 171 Rudolph, 214, 223‐224. For the same transposition see Nowack, 152‐153; Pinker, ‘Amos 6,10,’ 424. 172 Maag, 40. 173 Willi‐Plein, 43; cf Cripps, 213. Weiser, Profetie, 214‐217 moves 6:9‐10 between 5:19 and 5:20. 174 Wolff, 326 ET 281; Market, Struktur, 175; Robinson, 96; Fosbroke, 826; Coote, 14, 86. Rottzoll, 175 suggests that 6:11 and 3:15 were originally part of the same oracle split by the redactor who wanted to create a ring composition for the whole book. Weiser, Profetie, 199‐201 places 6:11 after 5:11 (5:7, 10 + 6:12 + 5:11b + 6:11). 175 Nowack, 153; Budde, ‘Техt und Auslegung 1,’ 128‐129; Maag, 41; Wolff, 328‐329 ET 284‐285; Mays, 120‐121; Rudolph, 226; Willi‐Plein, 44; Market, Struktur, 175; Jeremias, 91 ET 117. The verse is considered a fragment by Robinson, 96; Fosbroke, 827. 176 Wolff, 332 ET 286; Market, Struktur, 172, 175‐176; Soggin, 110. Some insert הוי in front of the participle: Baumann, Aufbau, 50; Maag, 42; Robinson, 96; Rudolph, 226. But
176
The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
10 to be an insertion into the present context,177 and some would also suspect v. 14 to be of later origin.178 The other approach is to interpret the passage as a series of redac‐ tional Fortschreibungen.179 According to Jeremias 6:8 is a literary creation which continues the theme of 6:1 (false security > pride) by picking up the language of chs 3 and 5,180 v. 11 was developed as an intensification of 3:15,181 and vv 9‐10 are a composition by Amos’ tradents which serves as a bridge between the oracles in vv 8 and 11.182 6:12 is consi‐ dered by some to be an imitation of 5:7.183 Fleischer suggests that vv 13‐ 14 are secondary expansion related to vv 8, 11 which pick up the intro‐ duction of v. 11 and specify the judgment announced there. 184 Space does not permit a more detailed discussion of these propos‐ als. It will suffice to say that I do not see any reason why the connec‐ tions in language and thought of 6:8, 11, 12 with the rest of the Amos material should not be seen as evidence of the characteristic style and thought world of the prophet. The historical background of v. 13 points to a time before the Assyrian advance and is thus consistent with Amo‐ sian origin of the saying.185 V. 14 is hardly dependent on 2 Kings 14:25,186 in my opinion the older suggestion of Eissfeldt that Amos here is using polemically an oracle of the salvation‐prophet Jonah, recorded contrast Market, Struktur, 172 n. 320. Weiser, Profetie, 231‐232 transposes v. 13 after 6:1. Nowack, 151; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 79‐80 think v. 13 originally followed 6:6a. Koch, Amos, 2:46; Carroll R, Contexts, 269 regard vv 12‐14 as a unit. 177 Wellhausen, 87; Löhr, Untersuchungen, 20; Harper, 151; Praetorius, ‘Bemerkungen,’ 20; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 346‐347; Fosbroke, 826; Market, Struktur, 173‐ 174; Melugin, ‘Formation,’ 387; Soggin, 108; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 145‐146. Ahlström, ‘King Josiah,’ 8 suggests 6:9‐10 refer to the events around Josiah’s desecra‐ tion of Bethel. 178 Robinson, 96; Coote, 88; Nowack, 153‐154; Wolfe, ‘Editing the Twelve,’ 110; Naʹaman, ‘Lebo‐Hamath,’ 429; Wood, 71‐72. Less confidently Fosbroke, 828. 179 Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 79‐80. 180 Jeremias, ‘Jacob,’ 264‐265; Rottzoll, 168‐170; Schart, 83‐84; Coote, 87; Melugin, ‘For‐ mation,’ 387 n. 78; Wood, 70. 181 Jeremias, 90 ET 116. 182 Jeremias, 91 ET 116‐117. 183 Rottzoll, 176‐177; Vermeylen, 565; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 80. V. 12 is judged non‐ Amosian also by Praetorius, Gedichte, 23 and Lescow, ‘vorexilische Amosbuch,’ 32. Coote, 87 is dubious but does not include v. 12 in his reconstruction of the original oracles of Amos (p. 14). 184 Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 222 n. 104. Peckham, History and Prophecy, 181 n. 193 thinks 6:14a is modelled on Jer. 5:15a and together with 6:8‐11 describes the destruc‐ tion of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. 185 Rottzoll, 178‐179. 186 Contra Robinson, 96.
IV. Amos 6:1‐14
177
in 2 Kings 14:25, has still much to commend it.187 V. 14 speaks of op‐ pression within the land of Israel, not of exile, and so like v. 13 is most consistent with a time prior to 733 BC. The greatest challenge is presented by vv 9‐10 not only because of the interpretative difficulties involved188 but also because of the uneasy relationship they have to their present context. It is not immediately clear whom do the suffixes of the first three words of the verse refer to.189 Noble, starting from the recognition of GKC 145m that it is possi‐ ble for a suffix in the singular to refer to plurals (i.e. the suffix in נשאו points back to the ten people in v. 9) suggests that ‘the singular pro‐ noun can pick up one of the items from the plurality as in some way characteristic or representative of the group as a whole’ and translates: ‘And if ten men are left in one house, they shall die. And when the next of kin of one of the men, together with his undertaker, lifts him up in order to bring out [his] remains from the house…’190 This would sug‐ gest that vv 9‐10 are continuation of the announced in v. 8 ‘giving up of the city’ by illustrating its consequence. Koch has also pointed out that 187 Eissfeldt, ‘Amos und Jona,’ 140‐141; Wolff, 336 ET 289; Rudolph, 228; Gordis, ‘Stu‐ dies,’ 248; Soggin, 111; Paul, 221. Halpern, ‘Taking of Nothing,’ 186‐204 argues that Kings is dependent on Amos. Andersen and Freedman, 588 suggest that 2 Kings 14:25‐27 ‘hails the achievements of Jeroboam II as cancelling and condemning the words of Amos’ following the lead of Crüsemann, ‘Kritik an Amos,’ 57‐63 who takes 2 Kings 14:25‐27 as evidence of Dtr rejection of Amos’ message (contrast Würthwein, Könige, 2:376). Rottzoll, 180‐184, after a long discussion, concludes that there is no li‐ terary connection between these two verses and suggests that the phrase ‘from Lebo‐ Hamath to the sea of Arabah’ is a technical expression (formelhaften Wendung – ital‐ ics his) describing the former extend of Israelite territory which was won back by Je‐ roboam II. 188 The meaning of the term מסרפו is hotly disputed. Apart from the numerous emenda‐ tions proposed (see the survey in Barthélemy, Critique textuelle, 670) there are three main ways to understand MT: (i) his burner i.e. one who burns the body or burns aromatic spices in his honour: Cripps, 211‐212; Hammershaimb, 103‐104; Hayes, 189‐ 190; Szabo, ‘Textual Problems,’ 506; (ii) ‘the one who anoints with resins (aromatic spices)’ = ‘the embalmer’: Driver, ‘Hebrew Burial Custom,’ 314‐315; Paul, 215‐216; (iii) ‘his uncle/his close relative’: Barthélemy, Critique textuelle, 670‐671; Maag, 85, 164‐166; Robinson, 94; Stuart, 362. In addition to that, since LXX has a slightly differ‐ ent text, a number of commentators argue that something has fallen out from MT at the end of v. 9 or the beginning of v. 10: Praetorius, Gedichte, 23; Budde, ‘Техt und Auslegung 1,’ 127; Sellin, 246; Rottzoll, 172‐173; Weiser, Profetie, 215. 189 Proposed solutions include: (i) repoint ונשאו at the beginning of v. 10 as a 3rd person masculine plural verb: Willi‐Plein, 43; Pinker, ‘Amos 6,10,’ 426; (ii) the suffix of דודו refers back to בית meaning ‘family’: Koch, Amos, 1:192, 2:44; Wolff, 325 ET 280; (iii) the suffix refers to unit of ten men in v. 9: Hayes, 189; (iv) suffix is translated simply ‘someone’s’: Stuart, 361 (cf Harper, 158). 190 Noble, ‘Amos 6,10,’ 422; cf similarly Hammershaimb, 103; Paul, 216.
178
The Oracles in Amos chs 3‐6
the houses in vv 9‐10 correspond to the palaces in v. 8 and that in some passages ‘mentioning’ the name of God (10b) and swearing (8) are put in parallel (Josh. 23:7; Is. 48:1).191 Whether this means that vv 9‐10 are the original continuation of v. 8 in which Amos explicated the divine word, or they were a later redactional development of the oracle in v. 8 is difficult to say and perhaps immaterial. The structure into which the compiler built his material consists of two subsections: vv 8‐10192 and 11‐14. In vv 8‐10 we have an elaborated announcement of judgment in which the introductory v. 8 provides the general statement while vv 9‐10 depict the consequences of Yahweh’s action. V. 11 provides a bridge between these sections by continuing the motif of the ‘houses’ from v. 10, on one hand, but serving as an introduction to the next section, on the other. Not only does the open‐ ing formula of v. 11 suggest the beginning of a new subsection but we have in vv 11‐14 a chiastic structure in which the announcements of judgment, each beginning with כי הנה/כי הנני (vv 11 and 14), frame the two different accusations in vv 12 & 13.193 The whole section is orga‐ nised around three announcements of Yahweh’s actions: ‘I will deliver the city’ (v. 8), ‘He will strike the house’ (v.11), ‘I will raise up a nation’ (v. 14). The passage is framed by actions of Yahweh formulated in first person divine speech and right in the middle we find the third action where Yahweh is spoken of in third person.194 It seems that 6:8‐14 are a concluding collection of oracles brought together in a single editorial effort and placed after 6:1‐7 to serve as a concluding statement of judgment.
191 Koch, Amos, 2:44. 192 These verses are taken as a unit by Marti, 203; Sellin, 246‐247. 193 Park, Amos, 91‐92; Carroll R, Contexts, 267. 194 Corresponding to that is the formula נאם יהוה אלהי צבאות which comes up in vv 8 and 14 and serves as an inclusio: Koch, Amos, 2:85; Paul, 213, 221; Carroll R, Contexts, 263, 270; Bovati and Meynet, 223; Rösel, ‘Entwicklung,’ 98‐99. The formula is often moved after v. 7 or deleted. For a useful discussion and survey see Carroll R, Con‐ texts, 263‐264 n.1.
Chapter 9: The Literary History of the Book of Amos The purpose of this chapter is to draw together the various conclusions reached so far concerning the individual passages in Amos into a single comprehensive hypothesis about the literary development of the book. So far I have isolated within the OAN 1:9‐12, 2:4‐5, 7b, 10‐12 as interpo‐ lations. The three longer passages in the visions complex, 7:9‐17, 8:3‐14 and 9:7‐15, have also been judged secondary in their place though the materials from which they are comprised differ with regard to their origin. The hymnic sections in 1:2, 4:13, 5:8‐9 and 9:5‐6 were also added to the book at some late point in time. Within the oracles in chs 3‐6 I have not found reason to identify many passages as interpolations. Apart from the presence of isolated glosses only 3:1‐2, 5:15, 5:25‐27 and 6:1aα, bβ, 2 (possibly 6:9‐10) were judged to be secondary.
I. The Oracles in chs 3‐6 1. The supposed ring structure of chs 3‐6 With the advance of literary approaches in Biblical studies interpreters have begun to discover various ring structures and other intricate lite‐ rary arrangements in the Biblical texts. Unfortunately, as subsequent discussions have demonstrated, some of these are visible only to the scholars who claim to have discerned them and fail to convince most other readers. Therefore, it has become increasingly important to reflect more seriously on the methodological issues involved in determining the structure of a given passage.1 It seems that for any suggestion of a ring structure to be convincing it must be based on the convergence of the following factors: (i) it must use as main building blocks self‐ contained and clearly discernable units; (ii) each unit must have a sin‐ gle, characteristic and easily identifiable theme; (iii) the correspondence between the units must revolve around these major themes, and should not be based on repetition of obscure terms or secondary, peripheral 1
Cf Boda, ‘Chiasmus,’ 55‐70; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 68‐74.
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The Literary History of the Book of Amos
ideas; (iv) there must be no other units in the immediate context which might reasonably claim the role of a parallel piece. One proposal which meets all of the above criteria, and has conse‐ quently found wide acceptance among scholars, is the suggestion that Am. 5:1‐17 is organized in the following way:2 A. 1‐3 Prediction of Israel’s demise (death) B. 4‐6 Call to seek Yahweh and live C. 7 Accusation (injustice) D. 8‐9 Hymn C’. 10‐13 Accusation (injustice) B’. 14‐15 Call to seek good and live A’. 16‐17 Prediction of Israel’s demise (death) It is in fact possible to extend the suggestion to include the whole of the material in 4:1‐6:7. The two blocks flanking 5:1‐17 (4:4‐12; 5:18‐27) deal with the themes of cultic criticism and the related future destructive encounter with Yahweh. The outer units 4:1‐3 and 6:1‐7 are linked in their common attack on the aristocracy ‘on the mountain (sg!) of Sama‐ ria’ ()בהר שמרון which indulges itself in feasting characterised by drink‐ ing. Both passages use participles to characterise those addressed and both end with the threat of punishment with exile, though the actual word גלה is not used in 4:3. Rottzoll, Noble and Widbin have all gone a step further and argued that the whole of chs 3‐6 should be analysed as a single elaborate ring composition.3 The redaction‐critical significance of this proposal has been exploited most profitably by Rottzoll who suggests that an early post‐exilic redactor reshaped the existing Amos material into this ring structure. Since these three scholars have arrived at their theories ap‐ parently completely independently from each other it would be inter‐ esting to compare their analysis. 2
3
The theory was originally developed de Waard, ‘Chiastic Structure,’ 170‐177 and independently of him with regard to the whole of 4:1‐6:7 by Lust, ‘Redaction of Amos V,’ 153‐154 n. 103; cf also Coulot, ‘Propositions pour une structuration,’ 179‐ 180. See above ch. 1 §IV. 7. Noble, ‘Literary Structure,’ 211; Widbin, ‘Center Structure,’ 181; Rottzoll, 3, 174. This proposal is given sympathetic treatment by Gillingham, The Image, 107‐108. Bovati and Meynet, 102, 249‐261 have also seen a concentric composition in chs 3‐6 but they work with larger blocks. Most recently a similar view is presented by Steins, ‘Chaos,’ 35‐43.
I. The Oracles in chs 3‐6
Widbin A. 3:1‐11 B. 3:12 C. 3:13‐15 D. 4:1‐3 E. 4:4‐5 F. 4:6‐13 G. 5:1‐17 F’. 5:18‐20 E’. 5:21‐27 D’. 6:1‐7 C’. 6:8 B’. 6:9‐10 A’. 6:11‐14
Rottzoll A. 3:1‐2 B. 3:3‐8 (+12) C. 3:15 D. 3:13‐14 E. 4:1‐3 F. 4:4‐5 G. 4:6‐12 H. 5:1‐17 G’. 5:18‐20 F’. 5:21‐27 E’. 6:1‐7 D’. 6:8 C’. 6:11 B’. 6:12 A’. 6:13‐14
181 Noble x. 3:9‐11 y. 3:12 z. 3:13‐15 A. 4:1‐3 B. 4:4‐5 C. 4:6‐12 F. 5:1‐17 C’. 5:18‐20 B’. 5:21‐27 A’. 6:1, 3‐7 x’. 6:2, 8 y’. 6:9‐10 z’. 6:11‐14
As the above table shows, while all three agree as far as 4:1‐6:7 goes (the original proposal of Lust) when they come to 3:1‐15 and 6:8‐14 their analyses begin to differ considerably. So for example Wibdin at‐ tempts to work with the text of the whole of ch. 3 in its present form while Noble excludes 3:1‐8 from the concentric structure. Rottzoll, on the other hand, attemps to integrate vv 1‐8 but excludes 3:9‐11 (which was added, according to him, later and has no parallel passage in ch. 6)4 and rearranges the rest (3:12 forms the conclusion of 3:3‐8; 3:15 stands before vv 13‐14). These divergences illustrate eloquently the fact that 3:1‐15 cannot be correlated very easily with 6:1‐14. In order to retain 3:3‐8 as part of the ring structure Widbin and Rottzoll have to link it to 6:12 arguing that we have in both passages rhetorical questions using animal metaphors and the construction ה אם.5 This ignores the fact that the metaphors are used in very different ways, the animals mentioned are different as is the main thrust and idea of the two passages. Rhetor‐ ical question with the construction ה אם is used also in 6:2 and by that logic it can also claim the role of parallel piece to 3:4‐8.6 4 5 6
Rottzoll, 130, 176. Rottzoll, 176; Widbin, 182‐183. Also in 6:12 we have the characteristic expression ‘justice and righteousness’ which immediately reminds the reader of 5:7, 24, verses which on this basis would have a better claim to be ‘parallel pieces’ to 6:12 than 3:3‐8. It is instructive to note that van der Wal, ‘Structure of Amos,’ 110‐111 takes 5:7‐6:12 to be a single unit on the basis of the inclusio formed by 5:7 and 6:12 and that Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 149‐157
182
The Literary History of the Book of Amos
3:9‐11 presents the defenders of the hypothesis with particular problems. Noble connects it primarily with 6:2 since in both places we have address to foreign nations and imperatives designed to vindicate Yahweh’s punitive actions. However, the nations are different and the nature of the vindication is different. Moreover, 6:2 is found in the midst of a passage which according Noble correlates with 4:1‐3 and this necessitates the transposition of 6:2 after 6:7. 7 Widbin relates 3:9‐11 to 6:13‐14 since both sections talk about enemies of Israel and to 6:11 which talks about the demolition of houses8 but the cited correspon‐ dences are so general that they provide no convincing ground for his view. Rottzoll, as pointed out above, takes 3:9‐11 as later addition part‐ ly on the ground that it finds no correspondence to any passage within ch. 6. Noble seeks the parallel of 6:11‐14 in 3:13‐15.9 These two passages indeed share the motif of Yahweh striking the houses (cf 3:15 and 6:11) but differ considerably in all other respects. The cultic overtones of 3:14 (horns of the altar; Bethel) are missing from 6:11‐14 while the joy over military victories, the issues of justice and righteousness and the pre‐ diction of the raising of a nations in 6:12‐14 find no echoes in 3:13‐15. Widbin, on the other hand, attempts to link 6:13‐14 with 3:1‐2 on the basis that both deal with the theme of ‘raising a nation’ and are addressed to ‘you, house of Israel’.10 These connections are quite slend‐ er and are outweighed by the differences between the two sections. 3:1‐ 2 is centred around the theme of Israel’s responsibility based on Yah‐ weh’s knowing her and bringing her out of Egypt. In contrast 6:13‐14 censors Israel’s unfounded joy in her recent military victories and pre‐ dicts a military invasion by an unspecified nation. The two sections differ not only in their main themes but also in their choice of vocabu‐ lary. The main problem with all of the above three proposals is that when they come to 3:1‐15 they rely on vague or unconvincing corres‐ pondences between the passages in question whilst ignoring other im‐ portant textual relations which do not fit the theory. These criticisms takes chs 5‐6 as a single unit in which 5:7 – 6:12 build an inner frame and 5:2‐3 – 6:13‐ 14 an outer frame. 7 Noble, ‘Literary Structure,’ 215, 217. 8 Widbin, 184‐185. 9 Noble, ‘Literary Structure,’ 215. 10 To achieve this reading Widbin has to emend בני ישראל in 3:1 to בית ישראל. Cf also Bovati and Meynet, 257; Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 164 and Steins, ‘Chaos,’ 40 with the unconvincing suggestion that we have in 6:13‐14 an ‘exodus motif’ which points back to 3:1‐2.
I. The Oracles in chs 3‐6
183
should not be taken to imply that there are no links at all between 3:9‐ 15 and ch. 6. On the contrary, the pair מטה and ערש comes up in the book of Amos only in 3:12 (singular) and 6:4 (plural) both times in the same order. Outside of the OAN in chs 1‐2 the word ‘palaces’ ()ארמנות comes up only in 3:9‐10 and 6:8. The oath formula connects 4:2 and 6:8 and the repetition of the word ‘ivory’ ()שן links 3:15 and 6:4. All this is taken into consideration in Steins’ most recent proposal which takes the whole of 3:9‐4:3 and 6:1‐11 as parallel passages. Thus he is able to ex‐ ploit not only the links between 4:1‐3 and 6:1‐7 but also the connections of 3:9‐15 with 6:1ff outlined above.11 However, this also fails to con‐ vince because taking 6:1‐11 and 6:12‐14 as two separate units seems quite arbitrary. 6:7 clearly marks the end of the pericope and 6:8‐11 are best taken as part of the following passage. It is obvious that a more nuanced theory is necessary to accommo‐ date all the data. Observations on the structural patterns of chs 3‐6 re‐ veal the following phenomena. The core of these chapters consists of material which is structured in a concentric manner (4:1‐6:7). Beyond that there is further material in 3:1‐15 and 6:8‐14 which cannot be inte‐ grated so easily into that ring structure. Of these 3:1‐8 contains no clear allusions to ch. 6. The themes of fear and necessity to prophesy (3:3‐8) do not come up at all in ch. 6 and the appearance of rhetorical questions and animal metaphors in 3:3‐8 and 6:12 is best explained as coincidence or marks of the style of the same author rather than as an attempt to establish a literary link. 3:2 is a statement introducing the theme of Israel’s responsibility and coming judgment and is intended to function as a general introduction to the whole of the material in chs 3‐6 rather than as a piece which establishes a link with the end of ch. 6. In contrast to 3:1‐8, the following 3:9‐15 exhibits some attempt to establish connec‐ tions with ch. 6: 3:10‐11 relate to 6:8 (palaces); 3:12 to 6:4 (beds and couches) and 3:15 connects simultaneously to 6:11 (strike the houses) and to 6:4 (ivory). However, this attempt is not as systematic and une‐ quivocal as is the case with 4:1‐6:7. Some of the sections remain com‐ pletely outside of this arrangement (i. e. 6:12‐14) while others are re‐ lated to more than one passage (i. e. 3:15). Most importantly the correspondence is often on the level of individual words and motifs rather than on the level of the central ideas of identifiable, self‐ contained units. If all of chs 3‐6 came into being as a single collection of oracles, as Wolff envisages, it would be hard to explain why the editor chose to structure most of it as a ring composition but left the beginning and the 11 Steins, ‘Chaos,’ 40.
184
The Literary History of the Book of Amos
end outside of it. A more logical diachronic explanation would be that the concentric composition in 4:1‐6:7 formed originally an independent collection which was then supplemented with additional material at the beginning and at the end. To investigate further this hypothesis one needs to ask, on one hand, if 4:1‐6:7 make sense as a composition in their own right, and, on the other, if the additional material in ch. 3 and 6:8‐14 can be explained as an editorial supplement to that collection. These questions will be investigated in the next two sections.
2. The first edition of the Repentance Scroll (4:1‐6:7) Three independent lines of argument combine to increase the plausibil‐ ity of the hypothesis that 4:1‐6:7 existed once as an independent com‐ position. First, 4:1‐6:7 has a meaningful self‐contained structure, second, it possesses thematic consistency, and third, it can be explained against the background of a definable historical situation. The structure of 4:1‐6:7 was examined in the section above. It is ele‐ gantly arranged in three layers, each of which is focused on one major criticism against Israel. The middle (5:1‐17) deals predominantly with lack of justice and righteousness, the second circle (4:4‐12 and 5:18‐24) with cultic criticism12 and the outer ring (4:1‐3; 6:1‐7) with the lifestyle of the aristocracy. The two outer sections serve as a fitting introduction and conclusion with their initial call to attention in 4:1 and final an‐ nouncement of judgment in 6:7. They frame and hold together the whole composition. The function of 6:1‐7 as a conclusion to the composition is served not only by it forming an inclusio with 4:1‐3 but also by its close con‐ nections with 5:18‐24, the passage which immediately precedes it.13 Both passages begin as woe‐oracles addressed against the secure and 12 Cultic criticism proper is confined to 4:4‐5 and 5:21‐24 while the other major compo‐ nents of these passages deal with Israel’s false interpretation of her past (4:6‐11)/her unfounded hopes for the future (5:18‐20) and culminate in her impending destruc‐ tion. 13 Cf Bovati and Meynet, 239‐240; Park, Amos, 88‐89. Jeremias, ‘Beobachtungen zur Enstehunggeschichte,’ 153 ET 224‐225 argues that 5:18‐27 and 6:1‐14 are meant by the redactor to be taken as two parallel compositions (also Coulot, ‘Propositions pour une structuration,’ 180‐181) but a careful examination reveals that the corres‐ pondences with 5:18ff are concentrated mainly within 6:1‐7. There is, for example, little in common between the rhetorical questions in 5:25 and 6:12 in terms of content and aim to allow us to see them as parallel pieces, as Jeremias proposes. Similarly unconvincing is the suggestion of Finley, 245 that we the parallel structures run through 5:18‐27 and 6:1‐11.
I. The Oracles in chs 3‐6
185
self‐confident. In both we have the theme of music and rejoicing (5:23; 6:5; cf the common use of ‘song’ []שיר and ‘lyre’ [)]נבל, which appre‐ ciates neither the gravity of the present, nor the bleakness of the future. The reference to an ‘evil day’ (6:3) corresponds to the ‘day of Yahweh’ in 5:18‐20; in both places animals are mentioned (although different terms are used) – in 5:22 for sacrifice and in 6:4 providing meat for the feast. 6:7 ends with the prediction of exile ()גלה which achieves an effec‐ tive wordplay with the call to let justice ‘roll down’ ()ויגל. The possible cultic character of the feast described in 6:1‐7 strengthens further the connections with the cultic criticism in 5:21‐24.14 There is an indissoluble link between the structural patterns and the thematic development of the collection. Thus we have a literary work whose main aim is devastating criticism of the aristocracy of Northern Israel, focusing on their lifestyle (4:1‐3; 6:1‐7), attitude to‐ wards the cult (4:4‐12; 5:18‐24) and social and judicial abuses (5:1‐17), exploring the interrelationship of these three leadership failures as well as their inevitable theological consequences – the impending destruc‐ tion. It is also instructive to observe that most of the references to re‐ pentance in the book of Amos are confined to the inner core of that composition (4:4‐5:24).15 This inner core is also held together by the three main cult‐criticism passages in the book of Amos which appear towards the beginning (4:4‐5), the middle (5:4‐6) and the end (5:21‐24). The reconstructed composition makes excellent sense within the fi‐ nal decade of the existence of the Northern kingdom (733‐722 BC). With the exception of the later Judean gloss in 6:1a (cf below), it is exclusive‐ ly interested in and directed towards Northern Israel which would be a prima face reason to look to the 8th century for its possible historical situ‐ ation. Three times the addressees are identified as ‘Joseph’ (5:6; 15; 6:6 – only here in the book of Amos). This term refers clearly to Northern Israel (Judg. 1:22, 23, 35; 2 Sam. 19:21; 1 Kings 11:28). In exilic/postexilic texts it never designates Judah but is always juxtaposed to it to refer to 14 A number of commentators see this meal as a cultic event: Harper, 150; Cripps, 202 (sacrificial banquet); Sellin, 241‐244; Maag, 168‐169; Krause, ‘profetische Leichen‐ klage,’ 27; Koch, Amos, 2:42; Andersen and Freedman, 550‐552 (the leaders of Israel and Judah celebrating a festive occasion at Bethel); Zevit, Religions of Ancient Israel, 576 (the aim of the marzeah9 banquet was to ward off evil events); Bovati and Meynet, 210 (Baal cult). On the cultic terminology and elements in 6:1‐7 see Barstad, Religious Polemics, 127 n. 5, 6; Andersen and Freedman, 564, 567; Krause, ‘profetische Leichen‐ klage,’ 26‐27; Carroll R, Contexts, 260‐261; McLaughlin, Marzeah9, 103; King, ‘ Marzeah9,’ 41 and on the possible cultic character of the marzeah9 see McLaughlin, Marzeah9, 9‐65; Paul, 210‐212; Jeremias, 85‐86 ET 110‐112. 15 The only exception is 3:13 where העידו בבית יעקב is to be translated ‘and warn the house of Jacob’.
186
The Literary History of the Book of Amos
the former Northern kingdom and its descendants (Ob. 18; Ez. 37:16; Zech. 10:6). This consideration rules out later Judean provenance for these verses.16 The phrase ‘the remnant of Joseph’ ()שארית יוסף in 5:15 has often puzzled commentators for during the reign of Jeroboam II, when Amos preached, Northern Israel could hardly be described as a ‘rem‐ nant’ in need of Yahweh’s mercy.17 The term ‘remnant’ seems to imply a drastic reduction of Israel’s population and/or territory so it is most logical to interpret the phrase as a reference to the rump state which was left after Tiglath‐pileser transformed large parts of Israel’s territory into Assyrian provinces.18 The ‘breaking of Joseph’ in 6:6 is an obvious reference back to 5:15 and implies the same audience and the same historical experience.19 The exhortation to establish justice at the gate is not impossible to envisage after 722 BC. However, it seems to make more sense in the period between 733 and 722 BC. Israel, although reduced to a remnant, is still in charge of its land, worshipping in its sanctuaries and respon‐ sible for social justice. The uncertain glimmer of hope and the urgent 16 Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 124, n. 127. 17 Attempts to explain the phrase ‘the remnant of Joseph’ as coming from Amos take it as a reference to: (i) the current condition of Israel after the plagues of 4:6‐11; cf also the ‘small Jacob’ of 7:2, 5: Harper, 125‐126; Cripps, 190‐191; Andersen and Freedman, 509‐510; (ii) a future group of survivors after the announced judgment has taken place: Mays, 102; Finley, 242; Niehaus, 423; (iii) the few people who will repent and escape destruction: Hammershaimb, 85; Smith, 232‐234; (iv) Israel’s vulnerability and insignificance in the world of her day: McComiskey, 313‐314; (v) Israel’s condi‐ tion during the war with Aram and Ammon in the latter part of the reign of Jero‐ boam II: Cohen, ‘Political Background,’ 156; (vi) fixed expression in popular and cul‐ tic usage describing Israel as the descendants of Joseph (cf. Gen. 45:7): Hunter, Seek the Lord, 85‐94; cf Hasel, Remnant, 200‐201. 18 Wolff, 295 ET 251; Jeremias, ‘Tod und Leben ,’ 222‐223; Soggin, 87‐88; Cripps, 191 n.1 (?). It is interpreted as a reference to Israel after 722 BC by Morgenstern, ‘Amos Stu‐ dies IV,’ 346; Rottzoll, 234; Wöhrle, 129. 19 The ‘breaking’ is interpreted as a reference to the already experienced destruction by Israel at the hands of Assyria by Wolff, 321‐322 ET 277 (dated between 738 and 733 BC); Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 233‐234, 243; Maier and Dörrfuß, ‘Am 6,7; Jer 16,5,’ 47 (after 722 BC); Blum, ‘ʺAmosʺ in Jerusalem,’ 34‐35 (711‐705 BC); Jeremias, 89 ET 115 (after 733 or 722 BC); Rottzoll, 160‐161, 167 (between 722‐711 BC); cf Vermey‐ len, 563 (after 586 BC). Other proposed interpretations include: (i) a description of the social, moral and political conditions of Israelite society of Amos’ day: Mays, 117; Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies IV,’ 324; Robinson, 95; Willi‐Plein, 43; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 144‐145; McLaughlin, Marzeah9, 96‐97; Snyman, ‘Amos 6:1‐7,’ 206‐207; (ii) the coming destruction caused by the present sinful ways of Israel: Harper, 149; Sellin, 245; Fosbroke, 824; Paul, 209; Smith, 277; Stuart, 360; Cripps, 208; Andersen and Freedman, 565; Sweeney, 245; (iii) the division of the Davidic Empire: Hammer‐ shaimb, 101‐102; (iv) the political strife in the Northern kingdom occasioned by the civil war of Pekah against Jeroboam II: Hayes, 187.
I. The Oracles in chs 3‐6
187
appeal to amend its ways so that the catastrophe might perhaps be averted also fits the period before the final demise of the state. Therefore, it is possible that 4:1‐6:7 were composed in the period 733‐722 BC as a desperate call to Israel to repent and heed the teaching of Amos with the hope that such a repentance might avert the fate which Amos predicted and which seemed at that point inevitable. For this reason I have suggested the term the ‘Repentance Scroll’ for this composition.
3. The second (Judean) edition of the Repentance Scroll (3:9‐6:14) The discussion so far has hopefully demonstrated that it is feasible to interpret 4:1‐6:7 as an originally self‐contained composition. The next step is to see if this hypothesis can offer a viable explanation for the presence of the material in ch. 3 and 6:8‐14. The call to attention in 3:1 which clearly introduces a new major di‐ vision in the present text of the book and matches the similar calls in 4:1 and 5:1 has led many scholars to believe that 3:1‐15 forms a unified single whole.20 This is undoubtedly true if the text is read synchronical‐ ly. Since, however, 3:1‐2 are to be regarded as an introduction to chs 3‐6 coming not from Amos but formulated by the composers especially for its present context (ch. 1 §IV. 3; ch. 8 §I. 1) there is a need to probe be‐ hind the surface of the final form of the text and see if any prior collec‐ tions may still be discerned behind it. Once 3:1‐2 is removed it becomes immediately obvious how differ‐ ent is the material in vv 3‐8 from that found in vv 9‐15. The style is dif‐ ferent, rhetorical questions in the first instance and proclamation of judgment in the second. The theme in vv 3‐8 is Amos’ resolve to con‐ tinue to prophesy whilst in vv 9‐15 it is the sin and coming punishment of Israel. Finally, another most striking discrepancy exists between 3‐8 and 9‐15 if I am correct in my interpretation of vv 3‐8 as reflecting the rejection of Amos’ message and a prohibition to prophesy. In that case the sin of Israel in 3:3‐8 would be the rejection of Yahweh’s messenger, a thought that is not reflected in any way in what follows (vv 9‐15) where the sin of Israel is still their oppression of the poor. All this sug‐ gests that there existed no original connection between 3:3‐8 and 3:9‐15 20 Gitay, ‘Amos’s Art of Speech,’ 293‐309 takes it as the record of an original discourse by Amos. Most commentators prefer to stay on the literary plain: Dorsey, ‘Literary Architecture,’ 308‐311; Bulkeley, ‘Amos 3,’ 16‐28; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 89‐97; Dempster, ‘The Lord is His Name,’ 178; Limburg, ‘Sevenfold Structures,’ 217.
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The Literary History of the Book of Amos
and these sections were artificially brought together by the composer who inserted 3:1a,2. Was the person who composed 3:1‐2* the same one who collected all the material now found in ch. 3 and placed it before 4:1? I do not believe so for two reasons. First, 3:1‐8 does not relate to any of the ma‐ jor themes from the collection in chs 3‐6. The implied call to fear the lion roar of Yahweh in 3:8a is the only possible thematic connection with the repentance scroll but the major point of this pericope is found in 3:8b – the necessity to prophesy, not in 3:8a. The strong polemical flavour of 3:3‐8 is more in line with passages like 7:9‐17; 9:7, 9‐10 all of which are outside chs 3‐6. The reverse side of this coin is the contention that 3:9‐15 serves admirably as a new introduction to a revised and updated edition of the Repentance Scroll. All three major themes which provide the backbone of the Repentance Scroll (4:1‐6:7) are found summarised here. 3:9‐11 deals with oppression (5:1‐17), 3:14 with the condemnation of the cult (4:4‐12, 5:18‐24) and 3:15 alludes to the houses of the upper class (4:1‐3; 6:1‐7). The idea of the coming judgment, which is the natural result of these various transgressions, permeates 3:9‐15. In fact the oracles are arranged in such a way as to portray the successive stages of the unfolding judgment depicted as a military invasion. In 3:11 an enemy invades the land and plunders the palaces, in 3:12 those who have survived the attack try to escape, in 3:14‐15 we have the de‐ struction of the buildings in the conquered cities. As far as the judg‐ ment is concerned there is also an alteration of the objects of the mili‐ tary action: in the first and third unit (3:9‐11 and 3:13‐15) it is the palaces/houses that are plundered and destroyed; in the second unit (3:12) the people are in view. Therefore, 3:9‐15 possesses a striking overall thematic consistency which is indissolubly related to the mate‐ rial that follows in chs 4‐6. The second reason for excluding 3:1‐8 from this editorial work is the discovery that if we assume 3:9‐15 and 6:8‐14, plus the glosses in 6:1‐2, were added by one and the same redactor to 4:1‐6:7 we may see in both places the same method of attaching the new material to the pre‐existing core. In the beginning, 3:9‐15 is closely attached to the im‐ mediately following passage (4:1‐3) and forms together with that pas‐ sage a larger whole. That new pericope begins (3:9‐11) and ends (4:1‐3) with units condemning the oppression ()עשק which is practised on the ‘mountain(s) of Samaria’ (3:9, 4:1). The placement of calls using the
I. The Oracles in chs 3‐6
189
verb שמע in the beginning (3:9), middle (3:13) and end (4:1) also holds the passage together.21 At the end of the collection one can discern a similar attempt to at‐ tach the added 6:8‐14 to the immediately preceding 6:1‐7 and bind them into a single whole. The theme of ‘the nations’ frames 6:1‐14. The three mentioned nations in v. 2 parallel the unnamed future oppressor in v. 14 and the word גוי/הגוים is found in vv 1 and 14. The phrase בית ישראל (1, 14), the mention of חמת (2, 14) and the use of second person plural ad‐ dress (2‐3; 12‐14) also link the beginning and the end of ch. 6.22 Less certain is the possible play on words between עברו (2) and ערבה (14) and ובאו (1) and מלבוא (14). It is noteworthy that a lot of these connections are achieved by the insertion of the redactional v. 2 and 1bβ. A third and admittedly less significant point is the way in which judgment is depicted in 3:9‐15 and 6:8‐14. It is noteworthy that 6:8‐14 depicts the coming punishment as an invasion of a foreign oppressor within the land. This is expressly stated in 6:14 but even the enigmatic images in vv 8‐10 also point to that direction. The theme of exile, so typical of other parts of the book, is completely missing from here. In 6:11 what might have been originally an oracle predicting an earth‐ quake23 is now placed into this new context and also reinterpreted in a military light. The same picture is presented by 3:9‐15 where judgment means the advance and total success of an unidentified foreign nation. In both passages Yahweh’s judgment is directed against the palaces ()ארמנות in the city (of Samaria; cf 3:9‐10; 6:8). This argument, however, is slightly weakened if 4:1‐3 is read together with the preceding. It pro‐ vides another final scene of the executed judgment which many inter‐ pret as a threat of exile.24 21 Among those who see in 3:9‐4:3 a major section in the book are: Wellhausen, 76 (Standrede against the aristocracy in Samaria); Stuart, 329; Cripps, 165 (poetic dis‐ course delivered on the same occasion); Rudolph, 162 (editorial composition out of originally independent units); Fosbroke, 796; Koch, Amos, 2:76, 79 (a pre‐literary col‐ lection of Samaria‐oracles); Wolff, 238, 243 ET 200, 205 (outline of the prophet’s words delivered on one particular occasion). Cf also Harper, 74; Sellin, 215ff; van der Wal, ‘Structure,’ 109‐110; Reimer, Richtet auf das Recht, 74; Carroll R, Contexts, 192; Bovati and Meynet, 113, 132‐133; Jeremias, 38‐39 ET 56‐57; Smith, 156ff. 22 Koch, Amos, 2:85; Carroll R, Contexts, 270‐271. 23 Weiser, 166; Praetorius, ‘Bemerkungen,’ 20; Fosbroke, 826; Robinson, 96; Mays, 118; Wolff, 328 ET 283; Fleischer, Menschenverkäufern, 222 n.104; Rottzoll, 175; Pinker, ‘Amos 6,10,’ 424. 24 Sellin, 218‐219; Wolff, 244‐245 ET 206‐207; Hammershaimb, 66‐67; Koch, Amos, 2:23; Market, Struktur, 110‐111; Soggin, 68; Paul, 136; Jeremias, 45‐46 ET 64‐65. Some argue that the women are already dead and their corpses are carried out of the city: Fo‐ sbroke, 802; Robinson, 85; Hayes, 140‐141. A middle way is to suggest that in 4:2‐3 there is a mixture of the two images of death and exile (Stuart, 333; Sweeney, 226).
190
The Literary History of the Book of Amos
It is therefore possible to suggest that the addition of 3:9‐15 and 6:8‐ 14, together with the editorial material identified in 6:1‐2, represent the first major reworking of the repentance scroll. Apart from the literary function of these new passages as a new introduction and conclusion to the collections the redactor contributed two new themes to the then existing collection. The first one is the reference to Judah in 6:1, the second is the marked emphasis on the criticism of the arrogance and feeling of security of the ruling class especially in their relationship with the foreign nations. Based on the interpolations in 6:1‐2 one may guess that the redactor worked in Judah and aimed to apply the oracles of Amos to his coun‐ try. His distance from the prophet is indicated by the fact that he had no interest in the earthquake prediction of Amos but only in the judg‐ ment announced as military disaster. Even oracles which originally referred to the earthquake (3:13‐15; 6:11) are now reinterpreted in the context of military invasion. The major focus of the collection which concludes his scroll (6:8‐14) is not so much on exile as on attack and oppression within the land. This is not to suggest that Amos predicted only an earthquake and the redactor added the predictions of military disaster. It seems that Amos envisaged the judgment as a combination of earthquake, exile of certain groups of the population and military defeat but the redactor concentrated only on the last group of threats because it was the one which was most relevant to his immediate con‐ cerns. Another difference of emphasis is the relative disinterest in the issue of repentance so central to the ‘Repentance Scroll’ which the re‐ dactor took as his basis. Both the introduction and the conclusion stress the certainty of punishment. Such a lack of interest in the issue of re‐ pentance corresponds to the emphasis on the ‘Pride of Jacob’ and is probably to be explained by the historical circumstances in which the redactor worked. It is, however, difficult to determine this historical period with more precision. The redactor obviously worked after the events of 722 BC. The carefree attitude and arrogance of the ruling class which were of major interest to him might be taken as an indication that he is working before the time of Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BC although the unexpected withdrawal of the Assyrian armies might have resulted in euphoria and a feeling of confidence which were seen by the redactor as sinful and unfounded.
Most see the described calamity as the aftermath of a military invasion though Wil‐ liams, ‘Amos 4:1‐3,’ 211 and Rottzoll, 145, 150‐152 interpret it as an earthquake.
I. The Oracles in chs 3‐6
191
4. Amos and repentance The term ‘Repentance Scroll’ raises a contested issue which so far I have not addressed, namely can we envisage Amos as preaching repen‐ tance? It is hard to reconcile the urge to repentance with the uncom‐ promising announcement of doom elsewhere in Amos. Some argue that, although Amos calls the people to seek Yahweh, he does not ex‐ pect any positive response on their part and his intention is not to offer them in reality a way out of the announced judgment.25 The various attempts to reconcile the call to repentance and the announcements of doom in Amos have been helpfully surveyed by Hunter.26 His own solution is to argue that 5:4‐6, 14‐15 do not in any way envisage a pos‐ sibility for salvation because they pick up a number of phrases and motifs from cultic ceremonies and ironically subvert them.27 The com‐ mand ‘seek me and live’ is deprived of any real positive meaning by the prohibitions and threats in v. 5; v. 6 is a parody of lament which counters the easy expectations of the audience derived from the lament liturgies by pointing out that it is not the enemies but Yahweh who is the real foe; vv 14‐15 are a parody of salvation oracle, which denies the worshippers the possibility of any real certainty in salvation and deli‐ verance.28 Hunter’s contention that v. 5 deprives the call in v. 4 of any positive meaning does not stand under closer scrutiny. It assumes that the phrase ‘to seek Yahweh’ can only mean to seek an oracle from a cultic prophet at an established sanctuary and so when the sanctuaries are destroyed the seeking of Yahweh will not be possible. This flies in the face of vv 14‐15 where the call is clearly interpreted as seeking and loving good and establishing justice at the gate. It seems, therefore, that the intention of the prohibition and threat of v. 5 is not to subvert the call in v. 4 but to point the listeners to the right meaning of this call.29 V. 6 clearly implies the possibility of escaping judgment if the call is 25 Schmidt, Zukunftsgewißheit, 21‐22, 39‐54; Warmuth, Mahnwort, 29‐31, 35‐36; Smend, ‘Das Nein des Amos,’ 415‐416; Martin‐Achard, 41; idem, Amos, 154‐156; Löhr, Untersuchungen, 15, 18; Wolff, 278‐282 ET 237‐240; Ernst, Kultkritik, 141‐152. 26 Hunter, Seek the Lord, 60‐67. 27 On the cultic background of these verses see also Neubauer, ‘Erwägungen zu Amos 5,’ 292‐316; Tångberg, Mahnrede, 46, 186‐189. Rudolph, 190 interprets 5:4‐5 against the background of a polemic between Amos and his audience and takes the call in v. 4 not as a positive exhortation by Amos but as a quotation of the opponents’ objec‐ tion. 28 Hunter, Seek the Lord, 70‐85. 29 This reinterpretation is continued in the opening call of v. 14. Whilst v. 5 says what ‘seek Yahweh’ does not mean v. 14 tell us what it does mean; cf Hasel, Remnant, 195.
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The Literary History of the Book of Amos
heeded. Hunter is aware of this and attempts to get around the difficul‐ ty by claiming that ‘this contingency flavour may only be a carry‐over from the form Amos is borrowing [lament] and not so much an essen‐ tial ingredient in Amos’ message’ (p .79) and again ‘that impression [that it is possible to avert the judgment] may stem more from the lim‐ its imposed by the form Amos is mimicking than from his own overall intention’ (p. 100). This is extremely unsatisfactory because it implies that Amos could not convey exactly what he wanted to say. It begs the question how Hunter knows Amos’ intention apart from the text of the book which is now before us. The threefold repetition of the call ‘seek and live’ unites the whole unit and by playing the role of a Leitmotif points the reader to the main thought of the oracle.30 The threats accompanying that call serve to underline its urgency and motivate the audience to follow it rather than deprive the call of real meaning. The borrowing of cultic motifs may be part of Amos’ cultic criticism but the attempt to deny the hope that salvation can be found in the cult of Northern Israel does not yet mean that salvation cannot be found anywhere else. The exhortations in 4:4‐6, 14 and 5:21‐24, as well as the accusation in 4:6‐11, show that a call and the expectation of repentance were part of Amos’ ministry.31 First, as Tromp rightly notes, it is ‘hard to under‐ stand for what reasonable purpose a reasonable person can announce to his audience that the end is inevitably at hand’.32 Second, the proc‐ lamation of judgment can be understood as a hyperbole, intended to shock Amos’ hearers and influence them to take the right decision.33 We know that in ancient Israel there was the belief that prophetic pre‐ diction of death could be averted through prayer; we might compare David’s fast on behalf of his child in 2 Sam. 12:13‐23 and Hezekiah’s prayer in 2 Kings 20 = Is.38. The book of Jonah is a classic example of a prophecy of unconditional and certain doom which can be averted through repentance. The same attitude lies behind Daniel’s exhortation to Nebuchadnezzar in Dan. 4:24[27]. Therefore, whilst it is by no means sure that calls to repentance can function as accusations we have ample 30 Lang, Gott und Gewalt, 135 comments: ‘innerhalb von 4‐6 und 14‐15 gibt es bei aller Meditation des Todes in c5 eine Entwicklung hin zu Hoffnung die im dreimaligen Aufruf zum Leben (4c.6c.14b) zum Vorschein kommt’. 31 Fohrer, Propheten, 35‐37; Amsler, ‘Amos,’ 207; Hasel, Remnant, 190, 198‐199; Paul, 161‐162; Preuss, Theologie, 2:292 (esp. n. 126) ET 2:270‐271; Maag, 29‐30 (on 5:1‐6). Cf slightly differently Polley, Davidic Empire, 147‐154. Cf also above ch. 8 §II. 6. 32 Tromp, ‘Amos V 1‐17,’ 72. 33 Harper, 106; Sweeney, 237; Houston, Justice, 54; Deissler, 112‐113; Bovati and Mey‐ net, 181.
II. The Polemical Scroll
193
attestation for the opposite – that threats can serve or be understood as calls to repentance. One possible way to account for the relative scarcity of the exhorta‐ tions in the book is the hypothesis that Amos underwent some devel‐ opment in his preaching and as a result of rejection of his message with time hardened his position and lost hope that there is any chance for Israel to repent. The lack of data on the life of the prophet makes it hard to be certain that this was the case. More likely is the explanation that the polemical atmosphere in which Amos was forced to prophesy made it necessary to stress more the reality of the coming judgment without necessarily supposing that Amos changed his views on the ultimate goal of his mission.
II. The Polemical Scroll 1. Extent and structure With the exception of the redactional additions, identified above (cf chs 2‐7), we have the following material which was not part of the second edition of the repentance scroll: 5 OAN, the five visions, the narrative in 7:10‐17, and the oracles in 3:3‐8*, 9:7, 9‐10. Wolff and more recently Jeremias, observing the similarities be‐ tween the five original OAN and the five visions, have suggested that they were written together as part of a single composition. The similari‐ ties include not only the fivefold structure consisting of two pairs cul‐ minating in a final fifth element but also specific verbal and conceptual links. Both the Israel strophe and the visions conclude with a passage referring to an earthquake (2:13;34 9:135), use the figure of the harvest as an image for judgment (2:13; 8:2), emphasise the impossibility of escap‐ ing the divine judgment and use of the roots נוס and מלט (2:14‐16; 9:1b‐ 4). The concluding formula אמר יהוה is common to both complexes and their introductory formulas are also similar. Moreover the Leitmotif of chs 1‐2 ‘I will not turn it back’ is seen as a reference to the progression 34 This is a widely accepted interpretation of the verse, although the particulars are hotly debated since the meaning of the hapax legomenon עוק or עיק is unclear. The pro‐ posals include: (i) to hinder (as a wagon is hindered): Paul, 94; Amsler, 183; (ii) to press: Hayes, 118; (iii) to shake: KB, 690; Rudolph, 139‐140, 149; (or emend the verb to פוק with the same effect: Wellhausen, 74; BDB, 734); (iv) to split open: Gese, ‘Kleine Beiträge,’ 421‐424; (v) to groan: Harper, 60‐62; Andersen and Freedman, 334; Müller, ‘Wurzeln,’ 556‐557. 35 On the question whether 9:1 describes an earthquake see above p. 63 n. 26.
194
The Literary History of the Book of Amos
in the visions, where Yahweh initially ‘repents’ of his intention to bring destruction on Israel and only later proclaims his decision not to for‐ give. Jeremias has emphasised the fact that the phrase ‘I will not turn it back’ on its own and directed against the foreign nations in chs 1‐2 is difficult to comprehend.36 Only as leading to the climax of 2:6 and pre‐ supposing the description of the vision report does it make sense. However, whilst Wolff thinks of Amos himself as the author of the complex, Jeremias is inclined to treat the visions and oracles as a somewhat later literary composition which in no way reflects directly the oral preaching of the prophet.37 I believe that this approach, whilst basically correct, needs to be re‐ fined. I agree that the writing down of the OAN was done within the context of a larger composition which had the visions report as its other major part. However, there is a peculiarity to the OAN that has not been emphasised sufficiently enough – most of the links with the vi‐ sions report are concentrated at the end of the OAN, namely in the Israel strophe. Within the first four OAN only the formula ‘I will not bring it back’, the motif of the devouring fire (7:4‐6) and the concluding formula אמר יהוה relate in some way to the visions report. As Knierim has rightly observed, the two formulas ‘I will not take it back’ in chs 1‐2 and ‘I will no longer pass by him’ in chs 7‐8 are actually quite distinct.38 They use different key verbs (;עבר )שוב, they are related to different groups of people (the nations in chs 1‐2; Israel in chs 7‐8) and most importantly they depict the judgment in different ways. In chs 1‐2 Yahweh will not cause it to return: the judgment (or the decree about it) is portrayed in an impersonal way as proceeding from Yah‐ weh to accomplish his purpose. In chs 7‐8 it is Yahweh himself who will no longer overlook Israel’s sin. He is now directly involved with Israel’s judgment and the visions portray him as standing in Israel’s midst in order to accomplish his purpose (7:7; 9:1). So therefore, whilst on the level of content the phrase ‘I will not bring it back’ presupposes the development in the visions, as Jeremias has (correctly in my view) argued, on the level of actual literary formulation the two phrases are distinct. 36 For a survey and discussion of the various proposals as to the referent of ‘it’ see Wolff, 160, 186‐187 ET 128, 153‐154; Barton, Amosʹ OAN, 18; Knierim, ‘I Will Not Cause It to Return,’ 163‐168; Noble, ‘I Will Not Bring ʺItʺ Back,’ 105‐108; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 178‐180; Linville, ‘What Does ʺIʺ Mean,’ 403‐404, 409‐421; Barré, ‘The Meaning of לא אשיבנו,’ 613‐622; Paul, 46‐47. 37 Wolff, 130, 184 ET 107, 151; Jeremias, ‘Völkersprüche und Visionberichte,’ 157‐171. 38 Knierim, ‘ I Will Not Cause It to Return,’ 164.
II. The Polemical Scroll
195
Another minor point, which confirms the above analysis, is that the suffix in אשיבנו does not refer to anything in the visions report. It cannot relate to זאת in 7:3, 6, which refers to the calamities described in the visions, because נו is masculine, while זאת is feminine. The ‘end’ in 8:2 is masculine and if, as Jeremias suggests, the visions were once in front of the OAN, then the ‘it’ could as well have referred to the end an‐ nounced in the fourth vision. This is, however, unlikely because even in that case the fifth vision would have stood between the announcement of the end in 8:2 and the first occurrence of the refrain in 1:3. More im‐ portantly in 8:2 the end is specified as the ‘end of my people Israel’. This would have tied very awkwardly with 1:3 where the talk is about Damascus’ sin and Aram’s punishment. The ‘evil’ with which the fifth vision concludes (9:4b) and which is sufficiently general to be able to have been applied to the ‘it’ in 1:3, is like זאת in ch. 7 in the feminine. There are no good candidates within the visions report for an antece‐ dent of the suffix in אשיבנו. The explanation for this phenomenon is most probably to be sought in the fact that both refrains are grounded in the experience and preaching of Amos and whilst they presuppose his conviction of the inevitability of the coming judgment, they were originally formulated and used in different contexts. If the whole OAN was an ad hoc literary creation presupposing and reflecting the visions report then one would expect that its refrain would be more closely tied up with the visions. The fact that this is not so reinforces the impression that in composing OAN the redactor was relying heavily on the Amosian tradition, which he had received. The fire motif is so deeply embedded in the OAN that if it turns out to be inspired by the second vision, one might need to revise the above conclusion. However the occurrence of the same motif in 5:6 (again together with the verb )אכל opens up the possibility that here we are simply dealing with a favourite Amosian expression. The only other remaining link, the formula אמר יהוה, proves to be of little usefulness in the present discussion. It could be another characteristic Amosian expression. Alternatively, it could have been added by the redactor of the OAN to bring them closer to the visions. Its absence from chs 1‐2 would not disturb significantly the shape of the composi‐ tion. On the other hand, as indicated above (ch. 3 §I. 3), 2:14‐16 seems to be anticlimactic within the context of the 5 OAN and points beyond the OAN to the fifth vision in 9:1‐4. In OAN Aram and Ammon are exiled and Philistia and Moab are exterminated. Israel experiences only a de‐ vastating military defeat from which no one can escape. It is only in 9:2‐ 4 that Israel is actually exiled and exterminated and so meets the same
196
The Literary History of the Book of Amos
fate as the other foreign nations. This, coupled with the clear literary links between 2:14‐16 and 9:1‐4, would suggest that the Israel strophe is properly concluded only when the fifth vision reaches its climax. Therefore, the 5 OAN in their present literary shape must be regarded as a deliberate literary composition which from the start was composed within the context of a larger literary whole including the visions. This would suggest that the visions themselves were already in written form and the redactor who composed the 5 OAN conformed the tradition standing behind them to fit as an introduction to the visions complex. Recovering the prior shape of the tradition behind 5 OAN would seem to be an extremely hard and speculative exercise which for the purpos‐ es of the present investigation is also unnecessary. This makes it possible to attempt to reconstruct the possible origi‐ nal shape of this composition. I have argued above that 5 OAN were originally followed by 9:7 and 3:3‐8* (ch. 6 §I. 2) whilst 9:9‐10 (ch. 6 §I. 3) and 7:10‐17 (4 §II. 1) stood after the visions. The first part of the scroll (OAN) outlines the sin of Israel and provides a basis and a reason for the announced judgment. The rest of the scroll is dedicated to demo‐ lishing every possible objection which might provide hope for security or in any way reason to think that one might evade the judgment. 9:7 begins with the view that Yahweh will not punish because of his spe‐ cial relationship with Israel based on the exodus from Egypt. 3:3‐8 ad‐ dress the idea that because Yahweh’s messenger has been silenced,39 the judgment he proclaimed has also been annulled. The passage points out that the prophetic voice cannot be stopped, because it is the neces‐ sary consequence of Yahweh speaking. In fact the actual writing down of the prophetic words might be considered as another result of 3:8b – Yahweh has spoken and Amos cannot stop prophesying. If he is for‐ bidden to do that orally in Northern Israel, he will do it in writing. The visions demonstrate that judgment is inevitable by taking away two traditional sources of security and protection related to the cult – prophetic intercession and the temple as place of asylum. Intercession does not provide hope for escaping the coming judgment; it has al‐ ready exhausted its potential. The temple also cannot provide shelter from the coming disaster, for it will be actually its starting place. The visions report undermines the hope for escaping the judgment also by its portrayal of God. It deals with two attitudes, hope in Yahweh’s pa‐ tience and doubts about his power. The visions proclaim that Yahweh’s patience has come to an end and that no one can escape his power. The 39 I assume the common view that Amos was expelled from the north after his encoun‐ ter with Amaziah.
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197
visions therefore seek to address the attitude explicitly expressed in 9:9‐ 10 – ‘this evil will not come to us’. The whole complex is an elaborate challenge to the statement, quoted in 9:10. The narrative in 7:10‐17 may have stood as a conclusion to the col‐ lection with a story from the life of Amos which must have had relev‐ ance to the original readers of the scroll. It is closely related to the lan‐ guage and thought of the visions complex (ch. 4 §II. 1) and corresponds to the polemical tone of the oracles in 3:3‐8*, 9:7, 9‐10. It follows particu‐ larly well after 9:9‐10 since in these passages the sin of the ‘sinners of my people’ is disbelief (9:9‐10) respectivelly rejection of the prophetic message (7:10‐17), not social or cultic transgressions. As such the ac‐ count of Amaziah may be read as a real‐life illustration of the general statement in 9:10. Probably its function was to provide the readers with a negative example of the way one could react to the preaching of Amos (and to the message of the scroll) and to point out the dire conse‐ quences of such a reaction. As such the story, therefore, serves as an implicit call to respond to the prophetic word and accept its truth.
2. Date The note of controversy which seems to permeate the materials that were part of such a composition would seem to indicate that the occa‐ sion of its writing must have been some sort of confrontation between the authors of the collection and the opponents of the prophet. For this reason I have also chosen to term their work the ‘Polemical Scroll.’ The very existence of such a polemic concerning the message of Amos would suggest a date not too distant from the ministry of the prophet when his statements were not as yet confirmed by the historical devel‐ opments culminating in the destruction of Northern Israel. A pre‐722 BC date is supported by the exclusive orientation of the scroll towards the Northern Kingdom, evidenced by the lack of references to Judah, the choice of foreign nations in chs 1‐2 as well as the attack on the ex‐ odus tradition which was more important in the north than in Judah. This conclusion is confirmed by the way Israel’s judgment is por‐ trayed in the Polemical Scroll. In the OAN the fate of the four foreign peoples is envisaged as military invasion and exile. As far as Israel is concerned we have a mixture of military disaster and exile (2:14‐16; 9:1, 4; 7:17), on one hand, and earthquake predictions, on the other (2:13; 9:1). It is possible that a version of the superscription, including the phrase ‘two years before the earthquake’ stood at the head of this com‐ position because, as demonstrated above, the earthquake predictions of
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The Literary History of the Book of Amos
Amos did not seem to be of any special consequence to the redactors of the Repentance Scroll. In the light of this one can speculate that the Polemical Scroll was composed sometime after the event of the earth‐ quake which Amos predicted but before the fulfilment of his military disaster predictions (in 722 BC). The way in which the movement goes from earthquake to defeat and exile, with the stress being placed on the second, carries the implicit argument that the fulfilment of the first prediction of Amos is a sure proof that his other predictions concerning the defeat and exile will also come true. The aim of the compilers may have been to interpret the earthquake announced by Amos as the initial manifestation of Yahweh’s judgment which was going to manifest itself in the future in the military defeat and exile which were also foretold by Amos. This movement can be clearly perceived in 9:1‐4 where the earthquake in v. 1 marks the beginning and the captivity in v. 4 the climax of God’s punishment. The fact that the scroll finished with a repeated emphasis on the ‘sword’, by which the Israelites (9:1, 4, 10) and Amaziah (7:17) will die, also confirms this impression. Two other considerations may be of help if we wish to narrow down even further the time span of the composition. The stress on wholesale deportations of people reflected in the OAN and the narra‐ tive (7:11, 17) would suggest a period after the rise of Assyria under Tiglath‐pileser III from 745 BC onwards. On the other hand, the confi‐ dent attitude of the audience addressed by the Polemical Scroll breathes a different air from the Repentance Scroll (cf 5:15). This leads us to two possible historical situations: either the years shortly before Tiglath‐pileser’s attack on Palestine in 734‐732 BC as a result of which large territories of Israel were cut off and turned into Assyrian provinc‐ es or the period of Hoshea’s rebellion against Shalmaneser which ulti‐ mately led to the destruction of Samaria in 722 BC.
III. The Combination of the Repentance and the Polemical Scrolls: The Composition of the Book of Amos If the Amos tradition began its literary existence within the realm of two independent works, they must have been combined at some point. The composer who combined the two obviously transposed 9:7 from its original position behind the OAN to its present place and composed 3:1a,2. It seems logical to assume that it is at this point that the hymnic passages (1:2; 4:13; 5:8‐9; 9:5‐6) were added to the book since they pre‐
The Composition of the Book of Amos
199
suppose a larger collection which includes materials both from both scrolls. There is little by way of theological emphasis that can be discerned in his work apart from the widely circulated conjecture that the addi‐ tion of the hymnic fragments was partly influenced by a desire to use Amos in worship. The major effort of the collector was more in the literary direction and his interventions seem to have had the aim of integrating more fully the two collections. The insertion of 1:2 and 9:5‐6 and the transposition of 9:7 were aimed at strengthening the frame of the book of Amos by providing a number of interconnections between the beginning of the OAN and the end of the visions. The composition of 3:1a,2 serves four purposes. By copying the style of 5:1 it divides the middle part into two major sections: chs 3‐4 and chs 5‐6. It provides an introductory motto for the ensuing material with the general proclama‐ tion of Yahweh’s resolve to punish Israel in v. 2. It also serves as a means of integrating 3:3‐8 into its new literary context. Finally, with its reference to Israel being chosen from among all the tribes of the earth it reflects in a general way the contents of the preceding OAN and so serves as a transition between them and chs 3‐6. The two middle sec‐ tions (chs 3‐4 and 5‐6) are brought closer together by the insertion of the two hymnic fragments in close proximity within them (4:13 and 5:8‐ 9). The origin of this composition is undoubtedly Judah as 1:2 seems to indicate. The date is harder to determine. The clues for dating the hymns are inconclusive (cf ch. 7 §IV). On the basis of the relative chronological priority of this work in comparison with the exilic editing of Amos and the suggestion of 1:2 that Jerusalem is still in existence one may tentatively suggest the 7th century BC. So far I have refrained from discussion of the superscription of the book, although this is the one piece of text which is undoubtedly redac‐ tional. Apart from the note on the kings of Israel and Judah on which see below, various phrases have been regarded as interpolations but none of them has any major significance for the reconstruction of the literary history of the book as a whole.40 The most significant contribu‐ tion of the superscription to the understanding of the redactional histo‐ 40 The first relative clause who was among the shepherds ()אשר היה בנקדים is taken as a later addition by many (cf Marti, 156; Wolff, 146 ET 117 among others) but see the criti‐ cisms of Koch, ‘Profetenbuchüberschriften,’ 178‐179. On the other hand, Willi‐Plein, 15 and Wöhrle, 92 take the first relative clause as original and the second as interpo‐ lation. The phrase concerning Israel is suspected also by Watts, ‘Superscriptions,’ 117, 122. On the superscription see also Pfeifer, ‘Amos 1,1,’ 166‐168; Freedman, ‘Head‐ ings,’ 9‐26; Gevaryahu, ‘Biblical Colophons,’ 42‐59; Isbell, ‘Amos 1:1,’ 213‐214.
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The Literary History of the Book of Amos
ry of Amos is the repeatedly made suggestion that the present form of 1:1 is the result of the conflation of two different superscriptions which originally introduced two separate books of Amos material. Watts thinks that the two books were chs 1‐6 which was introduced by ‘the words of Amos’ and chs 7‐9 at the beginning of which stood ‘the vision of Amos which he saw concerning Israel’.41 According to Fuhs the orig‐ inal superscription ‘Die Worte des Amos aus Thekoa’ introducing chs 1‐4 was conflated with the old introduction ‘Spruch (נאם/)?דבר des Seh‐ ers Amos aus Thekoa’ which introduced (orally) the fifth vision from where it was placed in front of the whole vision cycle.42 According to Jeremias the two different superscriptions were: ‘the words of Amos of Tekoa’ which originally served as the introduction to chs 3‐6 and ‘the word that Amos saw concerning Israel’ which stood before the visions account (probably with the narrative in 7:10‐17) and the OAN.43 It is obvious that such a theory would fit in very nicely with the hypothesis advanced above. I think it is a perfectly logical explanation which can boast of a certain measure of probability although I would hesitate to endorse it with full confidence because its sole basis is the contention that there exists a tension between the phrases ʹthe words of Amosʹ and ‘which he saw’, i.e. it is strange to say that Amos saw his own words.44 This may be so but it is wise to bear in mind that there are other alternative explanations available.45 41 Watts, ‘Origin of the Book of Amos,’ 109; idem, ‘Superscriptions,’ 117; Amsler, 167. 42 Fuhs, ‘Amos 1,1,’ 281‐283, cf 286‐288. 43 Jeremias, 2 ET 12; idem, ‘Völkersprüche und Visionberichte,’ 170; cf Schart, Entstehung, 53. This is a development of Wolff’s thesis that ʹthe words of Amos from Tekoaʹ originally introduced the collection of oracles in chs 3‐6, and an editor, work‐ ing very closely to the time of Amos, combined this collection with the 5 OAN plus the five visions report and added the relative clause ʹwhich he saw concerning Israel two years before the earthquakeʹ: Wolff, 149‐150 ET 119‐120. 44 Wolff, 146‐147 ET 117‐118; Fuhs, ‘Amos 1,1,’ 277‐280; Kratz, ‘Worte des Amos,’ 57. 45 The perception of tension is based on the understanding that חזה is a technical term describing the reception of prophetic revelation (GesHAH, 334: ‚eine prophetische Of‐ fenbarung empfangen, term. tech.’) with the visual element playing an important role in that process (Mays, 20). However, first it should be pointed out that there are some who think that the revelation could be purely verbal (Stuart, 298; Möller, Prophet in Debate, 156‐157 ). Second, it is possible that the verb חזה may also include in its range of meaning the nuance ‘to prophesy’ (Soggin, 24‐26; this meaning is recog‐ nized by Fürst, Lexicon, 431 and Morgenstern, ‘Amos Studies I,’ 132). Such a usage can probably be supported by Is. 30:10 where חזה is used twice in parallel with the verb דבר to describe the process of relating the prophetic message to the audience (cf also Is. 2:1). Finally, there are those who connect the relative clause אשר חזה to Amos rather than to ‘the words’ resulting in the translation ‘[the words of Amos] who had visions’. The problem with this translation is that חזה is never used intransitivelly in that sense though Andersen and Freedman, 189 argue that ‘it only requires the omis‐
IV. The exilic redaction of the book
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IV. The exilic redaction of the book 1. The extent and theological profile of the redaction It is possible that the pre‐exilic book of Amos underwent a comprehen‐ sive reworking during the exile which focused mainly on the beginning (OAN) and the end (the visions) of the book. The exilic redactor com‐ posed and inserted three more oracles in chs 1‐2: against Tyre, Edom and Judah (1:9‐12; 2:4‐6) and added 2:7b, 10‐12 to the Israel oracle. At the same time he transferred the narrative (7:10‐17) to follow the third vision and composed 7:9 to smooth the transition between the two. He was also responsible for the collection following the fourth vision (8:3‐ 14) and the epilogue after the fifth (9:7‐15). These passages have been long recognized in Amos research as secondary in their present posi‐ tion but have been usually assigned to different layers. It is true that some of them have quite different feel and shape. However, it is possi‐ ble to read them as part of a single redaction because they have certain thematic and literary connections.46 The purpose of the editorial contributions in OAN was discussed at length in ch. 2 above and does not need to be repeated here in detail. The redactor wanted to interpret the theological causes behind the events of 587 BC. Judah suffered destruction because it had rejected the Law and the prophets and in doing so it had become like Edom and the other nations – an embodiment of the enemies of Yahweh. The same reasoning is evident behind the interpolations in the visions complex. It is disbelief (9:9‐10) and the rejection (7:10‐17) of the prophetic word which ultimately leads to disaster and to the consequent withdrawal of the divine word from Israel (8:11‐14). The theme of the word of Yah‐ weh/Amos runs through and binds together the supplementary pas‐ sages in the visions complex (7:9‐17; 8:3‐14). That this theme is picked up from the OAN into the expansions of the visions complex is made clear by the verbal repetition of the command ‘you shall not prophesy’ in 2:12 and 7:16. The second major theme of the introduction, the com‐ sion of the implied redundant cognate object to obtain the absolute usage’ (cf also Rudolph, 112: ‘der Seher war’). 46 The connections between these passages have been occasionally noticed but to my knowledge no one so far has attempted to integrate all of them into a single redac‐ tion. Wolff attributed 7:10‐17; 8:3‐14 and 9:7‐10 to the same redactional layer: the Amos school. Melugin and Williamson assign 7:9‐17 and 8:3‐14 to the Dtr redaction of the book. This connects these passages to the Dtr redaction in the OAN but leaves out 9:7‐15. Coote assigns the oracles against Tyre, Edom and Judah to the same re‐ dactional level C in which he also places 9:7‐15, but does not consider 7:9‐17 and 8:3‐ 14 to be part of that redaction as well.
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The Literary History of the Book of Amos
parison between Israel/Judah and Edom, is picked up in the restoration promise in 9:12. There the theme is reversed: after the restoration Israel is no longer going to be like Edom and the nations; she is going to con‐ quer and rule them. The structural significance of the interpolations can be seen in the desire of the editor to reinterpret the descent of Israel into the depths of sin as an event which took place in two phases. The first phase was Israel’s rejection of the Law which was evidenced in the social and cul‐ tic transgressions depicted by Amos in chs 3‐6. The second phase was the rejection of the prophetic warning and call to repentance, exempli‐ fied in Amos’ expulsion from the North (7:10‐17). It is only after that second act that punishment becomes inevitable. This theological posi‐ tion led the editor to an attempt to restructure the book of Amos in a way which reflects these two stages. This double structure is first of all evident in the introductory Israel oracle: 2:4‐5 and 2:6‐8 describe the first act, the rejection of the Law; in 2:10‐12 we have the second phase – the rejection of the prophets. It is possible that the interpolations of large complexes into the five visions report was undertaken with the desire to achieve the same structure for the book as a whole. This is seen most clearly in the transposition of the narrative (7:10‐17) from its original position following the visions report to its present place after the third vision. The effect of this transposition is to interpret the plumb line of 7:7‐8 as the prophet Amos himself and to interpret the visions report as saying that the rejection of Amos sealed Israel‘s fate and made judgment inevitable. Consequently as it stands now, the book of Amos can be interpreted as consisting of three parts: introduction (OAN in chs 1‐2), Israel’s social and cultic sins amount to rejection of the Law (the oracles in chs 3‐6), Israel’s rejection of Amos and the prophetic word leads to the final inescapable judgment (the visions complex in chs 7‐9). Beyond these connections between the redactional material from the beginning and the end of the book, there are also some more specif‐ ic links between 7:9‐17, 8:3‐14 and 9:7‐15 which further support the hypothesis that these belong to the same redaction. Their current posi‐ tion, following the final three visions of the visions complex, is a prima face reason to suspect the work of a common hand which for some rea‐ son decided to sacrifice the original unity of the five visions in order to achieve an alternative structural pattern. The motif of Israel’s rise and fall runs through the three passages. This motif is based on 5:2 and is clearly present in 8:14 as well as in 9:11 where we have its reversal. Its presence is less obvious in ch. 7, perhaps because of the independent prior existence of 7:10‐17, but nevertheless it can still be discerned in
IV. The exilic redaction of the book
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the reference to Yahweh’s rising with the sword (7:9) and the (result‐ ing?) fall of Amaziah’s children (7:17). In ch. 7 the ‘rise and fall’ motif functions in the same way as it does in 8:14: it underlines and illustrates the judgment on Israel. When we narrow down our attention to the last two redactional passages (8:3‐14; 9:7‐15) we can appreciate another theological and structural goal which the editor seems to have achieved. These two passages, which I have argued above need to be regarded as unified redactional compositions, are alike in their similar structural patterns and compositional methods. First, the formulae in 9:11a ()ביום ההוא and 9:13a ()הנה ימים באים נאם יהוה correspond to 8:11, 13 in reverse order and produce a similar structure for 8:4‐14 and 9:7‐15: after each vision comes first an independent pericope (8:4‐8; 9:7‐10) followed by two further pericopes with similar introductions (8:9; 9:11 and 8:11; 9:13).47 Second, both passages pick up extensively motifs and vocabulary from the book of Amos (cf above ch. 5 §II. 1 and ch. 6 §II) but to different ends. 8:4‐14 seems to be a summary and restatement of the judgment message of Amos, emphasising particularly its cosmic dimensions. 9:7‐ 15 is a reversal of that judgment and announcement of the future which lies beyond it. The intentional literary allusions within 8:4‐14 and 9:7‐15 to the book of Amos as a whole as well as their position right at the very end serve to underline their character as conclusion which pro‐ vides interpretative summary (and development) of the prophet’s mes‐ sage. I have so far excluded from discussion 5:25‐27, which is also to be regarded as an editorial insertion into the book. Its conclusion ‘Yahweh God of hosts is his name’ might at first sight suggest that it should be related to the hymnic passages. However, the four hymnic fragments are placed in strategically important positions within the composition whilst the same cannot be said for 5:25‐27. If it is taken as part of the ‘Liturgical composition’ it would be difficult to explain the reasoning behind its content and placement here in the book. On the other hand, the motif of the forty years in the wilderness comes up also in 2:10 whilst the only other place that we have condemnation of idolatry is 8:14. In terms of content, therefore, 5:25‐27 relates to other passages from the exilic redaction. I have attempted to demonstrate above that 8:3‐14 provides a summary of the prophet’s message with the themes of social and cultic criticism right at its very beginning (8:4‐6) and end (8:14) but with one major difference – cultic criticism is not understood in the light of Israel’s social transgressions but is connected to the 47 Jeremias, 133‐134 ET 166; Paul, 262, n. 1; Groves, Actualization, 181‐182.
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The Literary History of the Book of Amos
theme of worship of other gods. 5:25‐27 serves the same reinterpreta‐ tive function for the criticism in 5:21‐24. It is possible that this is how the redactor interpreted Amos’ cultic diatribes and 5:25‐27 was added to explicate his understanding in preparation for the summary of Amos’ message found in 8:3‐14.48 The note concerning the two kings in the superscription (1:1) is commonly judged to be a later addition because it implies an audience standing at a greater time distance from the prophet. It is possible that this note was also the work of the exilic redactor though it is questiona‐ ble that the mere juxtaposition of the kings of Israel and Judah provides sufficient grounds to describe this addition as ‘Deuteronomistic’49 or to see here the hand of the same redactor that was also responsible for the superscriptions of Hosea, Micah and Zephaniah.50 Therefore, the redactor who intervened at the beginning and the end of the book of Amos seems to have had his eye on the past and the future simultaneously. On the one hand, he affirmed the reality of Yahweh’s punishment and provided a theological explanation for it. On the other, he looked beyond the judgment to the hope which Yah‐ weh offered his people.
2. The provenance of the redaction The analysis of the redactional passages has demonstrated in a number of places the influence of Dtr modes of thought and expression. The theme of the rejection of the Word of the Lord took on a special signi‐ ficance during the exilic age due to the work of the Dtr movement. Clements shows that it has a prominent place in the Dtr interpretation of the role and function of the prophets in 2 Kings 17:13‐14 as well as having become a standard feature of the prophetic call narratives.51 However, in contrast to Schmidt and Wolff, it is not possible to describe the redactional passages in Amos simply as Dtr because in a number of ways they exhibit also various differences from standard Dtr texts. All one can say is that the editor was aware of and was influenced by the 48 The fact that there are seven verses in the book of Amos (2:7; 4:13; 5:8; 5:27; 6:10; 9:6; 9:12) that speak of Yahweh’s name ()שם might explain the reappearance of the refrain ‘Yahweh God of hosts is his name’ in 5:27, if this is more than a pure coincidence. 49 Contra Schmidt, ‘Redaktion,’ 170; Mays, 18; Wolff, 150‐151 ET 120‐121; Vermeylen, 520; Tucker, ‘Superscriptions,’ 69; Soggin, 26. 50 Contra Nogalski, Precursors, 76‐77, 84‐89; Schart, 42‐54; Albertz, Exilszeit, 166‐167 ET 209‐211; Wöhrle, 90‐91, 245‐246. 51 Clements, Prophecy and Tradition, 34‐36, 49‐52.
IV. The exilic redaction of the book
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work of the Dtr school. It is also possible to postulate a second, less pervasive influence on the redaction of Amos, one from the priestly tradition. This can be seen in the use of expressions like ‘profane my holy name’ in 2:7 and אשמה in 8:14, as well as the emphasis on cultic matters in 8:3‐14, especially the mention of the Sabbath (8:5). Some of the imagery and language in 9:13 may also derive from the cult. The redactional passages in Amos relate to the conditions in exilic Judah as well as to various themes found in the literature of the exilic period. The description of dead bodies, unburied because of their great number, is common to Ps. 79:2‐4 and Am. 8:3 (cf also Lam. 2:21 with Am. 8:13‐14 and Am. 7:17). The cessation of cultic festivals and their substitution with mourning rituals (Am. 8:9‐10) reflects the situation at the site of the temple. The animosity against Edom and the tendency to treat Edom as a representative of the hostile nations has its roots in the exilic period. Particularly striking is the announcement of the with‐ drawal of the Word of Yahweh as the ultimate expression of judgment (Am. 8:11‐14). This corresponds to the complaints in Ps. 74:9 and Lam. 2:9 that there is no prophetic guidance of the community (though see 1 Sam. 3:1). This bewilderment may also be reflected in the remark in Am. 3:7 which can be compared to Lam. 2:17, i.e. the catastrophe has been planned and announced, there is no reason to be surprised. The extreme poverty, which Lam. 5:1‐10 describes, may be the background of the promises of restoration in Am. 9:11‐15. The unconditional prom‐ ise of restoration found in 9:11‐15 represents the same general attitude encountered also in Second Isaiah. Therefore, there can be little doubt that the redaction of Amos pre‐ supposes the events of 587 BC. It remains to be seen if we can narrow down its dating by investigating the question whether it comes from the golah community or the people left behind in Judah and if it comes from the ‘exilic period’ proper or presupposes the beginning of the process of return from 539 BC onwards. It is striking that in 8:3‐14 which presents the summary of Amos’ judgment message there is in fact no mention of exile whatsoever. Var‐ ious images depicting judgment are picked up from chs 1‐6 but the theme of exile, prominent as it is in the preceding chapters, is complete‐ ly missing from ch. 8. The suffering portrayed in ch. 8 is the suffering of those in the land: there is wailing and there are many corpses flung everywhere (v. 3) plus the shaking of the land (v. 8) and the darkening of the sun (v. 9); festivals and songs are transformed into mourning (v. 10; very relevant to those who attended the mourning services at the ruined temple site); there is famine in the land and thirst for the Word of Yahweh (v. 11); people go from north to east and from sea to sea and
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The Literary History of the Book of Amos
cannot find that word (v. 12); they seem to be locked in the land like a bird in a cage, without access to Yahweh now. Samaria, Dan and Beer‐ sheba are mentioned, reminding the reader of the ideal borders of the land (from Dan to Beersheba). It seems that this is a comprehensive picture of judgment but from the perspective of those who were left behind in Judah, not those who were taken away. The picture of restoration in ch. 9 is also predominantly focused on restoration of the land. It is the building up of David’s hut (v. 11), the conquest of the surrounding nations (v. 12), agricultural abundance (v. 13), rebuilding of the ruined cities and houses (v. 14), and continuing security (v. 15) that seem to be the main concerns of the redactor. These are the concerns of people living in poverty in a ravaged country among hostile neighbours. All this would seem to point to the Judean community during the exilic period as the context for the last redaction of Amos. There are two expressions which present a strong challenge to the above conclusion: the promises in 9:14‐15 to ‘restore the fortunes/return the captivity of my people Israel’ ()שבתי את שבות and ‘never again to uproot them from the land.’ These seem to presuppose a return from exile and may be taken as an indication that the redaction of Amos was the work of the golah community in the early years after their return to Judah. It is true that these two phrases create great difficulties for the ‘exilic‐Judean’ hypothesis. However, it is possible that they do not un‐ dermine it entirely. There is wide agreement that שבתי את שבות should be translated to ‘turn the fate; restore the fortunes’ of my people.52 Al‐ though in most of its occurrences it probably does include the idea of return from exile it has a much wider meaning than that. It depicts the process of restoration of the nation and it can be addressed to people who are in the land not outside of it and so in no need of return (cf Joel 4:1[3:1]). The promise that Yahweh will not exile again his people comes up in Lam. 4:22 which is widely believed to have been written in Judah.53 This demonstrates that promises for the end of the exile and pledge that exile will not happen again are thinkable in the context of those who were left in the land, not just those who had been deported. The promise ‘I will plant you, and not pluck you’ can also be addressed to the people in Judah as Jer. 42:10 demonstrates. It must be acknowledged that certainty is impossible on that matter and 9:14‐15 may very well come from the early post‐exilic period. However, I still prefer the alternative hypothesis because it seems to me 52 Soggin, ‘שוב,’ 887 ET 1314‐1315; Bracke, ‘s]u=b s]ebu=t,’ 233‐244. 53 Cf the comments on this verse in Gottwald, Lamentations, 109.
V. Summary and conclusion
207
to explain better the fact that in the redactional passages in Amos exile and return do not take the centre stage. There is not much interest in the fate of those who are deported. The attention is centred on those who are left to mourn and bury the dead. The restoration does not be‐ gin with a grand return. It begins with a rebuilding of the hut, conquest of the nations and agricultural abundance. Therefore, the overall shape and focus of 8:3‐14 and 9:11‐15 would seem to suggest that the redac‐ tor(s) is to be sought among the 6th century BC Judean community.
V. Summary and conclusion The present work is an attempt to unravel the literary history of the book of Amos. I have chosen to term the initial stages of this history, when individual written and/or oral sayings were collected into larger literary works, composition and the later stages, when editors inserted new material into the already pre‐existent literary whole, redaction. However, the transition between ‘composition’ and ‘redaction’ is not as clear cut as one might wish since I have postulated that initially there were two independent Amos scrolls which were subsequently com‐ bined. The act of their combination might arguably be called ‘redac‐ tion’, though it seems to me that it still stands closer to ‘composition’ because the end result is a new work of literature with a different shape and direction from the two pre‐existing scrolls. It will be obvious to all who are acquainted with the state of Amos research that my hypothesis is dependent on the work of Wolff and Jeremias who argue that the oracles in chs 3‐6, on one hand, and the five OAN (chs 1‐2*) plus the five visions (chs 7‐9*), on the other, formed initially two separate collections. However, my work differs from theirs in several important aspects. First, I delineate the two collections somewhat differently. I have argued that 3:3‐8 did not belong originally with the oracles in chs 3‐6 but was part of the collection which began with the 5 OAN and contained the five visions. I have also included in that collection 9:7‐8a, 9:9‐10 and the narrative in 7:10‐17. Second, I have suggested that the collection of oracles in chs 3‐6 underwent two phas‐ es of development. It was initially composed in North Israel (4:1‐6:7) prior to 722 BC and was later reworked in Judah when an introduction (3:9‐15) and a conclusion (6:8‐14) were added on to it. Third, I have attempted to define more clearly not just the literary structure but also the thematic development and major emphases of each collection and on that basis to offer a hypothesis as to the aims of the people who pro‐ duced these collections and the historical circumstances in which they
208
The Literary History of the Book of Amos
found themselves. The first composition was the Polemical Scroll (1:1*, 1:3‐8, 1:13‐15, 2:1‐3, 2:6‐16*, 9:7‐8a, 3:3‐8*, 7:1‐8, 8:1‐2, 9:1‐4, 9:9‐10, 7:10‐ 17). It reflects the ongoing debate between Amos’ followers and his opponents concerning the validity of the prophet’s message and it is intended as a strong statement that the fulfilment of Amos’ earthquake prediction is only the beginning of God’s judgment which will reach its climax with the devastating military defeat and exile of Israel. The Re‐ pentance Scroll (4:1‐6:7) must have been written between 733 and 722 BC as an urgent and desperate call for repentance. It was later reworked in Judah and its message applied to the Southern Kingdom (3:9‐6:14). Some time later, perhaps during the 7th century BC, the two scrolls were combined and the hymnic portions (1:2; 4:13; 5:8‐9; 9:5‐6) added. The nature of this reconstruction is of necessity highly hypothetical but my hope is that the literary analysis of the text has demonstrated that it possesses at least a certain measure of plausibility. My view of the redaction history of the book, after the initial stages of its composition, is fairly simple. Unlike most redaction critics, I do not envisage multiple stages of redaction and argue that Amos was edited only once, during the exilic period. The passages ascribed to this exilic redaction have long been recognized as secondary. My contribu‐ tion is to suggest that they all belong to a single comprehensive attempt to understand the relevance of the book of Amos after the events of 587 BC and that they can be seen as working together both on the thematic and on the literary level. I have also argued that it is possible, though by no means certain, that those responsible for the exilic redaction were the people left in Judah, rather than the golah community and that the various Dtr and priestly features reflected in the style and thought of the redactional passages must not be understood as evidence of sepa‐ rate ‘Deuteronomistic’ (or ‘priestly’) redactions but rather as evidence that Dtr and priestly traditions were known to the redactors who were to a greater or lesser degree influenced by them. Finally, in contrast to Wolff, I do not believe that a clear distinction can be maintained between Amos and his ‘disciples’ who wrote down his words. We know Amos only through the portrait painted for us by his followers. On the other hand, I believe that this portrait follows in basic outline the original contours of the figure of the historical proph‐ et. In my view there is no sufficient evidence to deny to Amos any of the major themes found in the book: the social and cultic criticism, the debate with Israel’s understanding of her traditions, the announcement of the coming judgment. Likewise, I have found unconvincing the at‐ tempts to down‐date important blocks of text (i.e. the 5 OAN; 4:6‐12; the visions) to the late monarchic or the exilic period.
V. Summary and conclusion
209
Tracing the literary history of a prophetic book helps us to see more clearly how the prophetic words were received and applied by subse‐ quent generations. In the case of the book of Amos it takes us from the initial stages of debate and controversy concerning the validity and truth of Amos’ mission (the Polemical Scroll), to an urgent and despe‐ rate call to heed this word when the announced doom was fast becom‐ ing a historical reality (the North Israelite Repentance Scroll); then to an application of this word to the arrogant and self‐secure sister nation of Judah (the Judean edition of the Repentance Scroll); to the use of the prophetic word in liturgy (the combination of the two scrolls and the addition of the hymnic portions); and finally to the attempt to use Amos’ prophecies when copying with the crisis of the Babylonian exile. Looking at the beginning and the end of this process we can perceive how a message directed at a certain group of people (Northern Israel during the 8th century BC) with the aim to convict and change them, or perhaps to prepare them for the coming disaster, was used by a differ‐ ent group (Judah in the 6th century BC) to help them cope with a differ‐ ent disaster by offering them an explanation for the past, an under‐ standing for their present and a hope for the future. This is an eloquent testimony to the richness, power and vitality of the prophetic word of Amos.
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Register Index of Authors Achtemeier, 42, 44, 47, 84, 92, 111, 112, 118 Ackroyd, 78‐80, 82, 85‐88, 104 Aharoni, 44 Ahlström, 35, 45, 87, 171, 172, 176 Albert, 48 Albertz, 6, 38‐39, 41, 52, 58, 61, 97, 107, 112, 124, 137, 147, 204 Albright, 17 Allen, 13 Amsler, 18, 45, 48, 67, 71, 78, 80, 82, 92, 100, 111‐112, 116, 118, 120‐121, 130, 148, 153, 156, 162‐163, 167‐168, 192‐ 193, 200 Andersen and Freedman, 2‐3, 14, 16, 18, 21, 27‐28, 32, 35, 42, 44‐46, 48, 52, 54, 73, 79, 96, 101, 103‐104, 109, 111, 114‐116, 119, 121‐124, 126‐ 127, 132‐134, 143, 145, 147, 149, 154, 156, 167, 170‐174, 177, 185‐186, 193, 200 Auld, 60, 65, 78, 80, 87, 88, 89, 141, 157 Avi‐Yonah, 105 Baltzer, 89, 93 Barré, 91‐92, 114, 194 Barstad, 47, 104, 134, 145, 147, 157, 167, 185 Bartczek, 60, 62
Barthélemy, 68, 177 Bartlett, 42‐45 Barton, 1, 9, 13, 26, 30, 35, 41, 43‐46, 57, 125, 129, 194 Bartusch, 104‐105 Baumann, 85, 144, 162‐163, 167, 170, 175 Beck, 9, 21 Becker, 33‐34, 60‐61, 73‐76 Beek, 47, 167 Begrich, 148 Behrens, 34, 60‐61, 66, 76, 78, 80‐82, 89, 93 Beit‐ Arieh, 45 Ben Zvi, 9, 11‐12, 43, 56, 70 Bennett, 45 Bentzen, 13, 124 Berg, 100, 127‐128, 129‐130, 132, 134, 137 Bergler, 61‐63, 68‐69 Berquist, 168 Berridge, 18, 35‐36, 69, 118, 130, 160, 162‐163, 166, 168 Beyerlin, 69, 90, 92 Bienkowski, 45 Biran, 105 Bjørndalen, 51‐52, 78, 82‐83, 85 Blenkinsopp, 4, 17, 79, 120, 158 Blum, 170, 173‐174, 186 Boadt, 25 Boda, 179 Bohlen, 97 Bons, 27‐28 Bosshard‐Nepustil, 38, 162
240 Botterweck, 42, 124, 137, 163 Bovati and Meynet, 18, 54‐55, 140, 142, 145, 152, 161, 167, 173, 178, 180, 182, 184‐185, 189, 192 Bracke, 206 Bramer, 156 Brettler, 28 Bright, 17 Brueggemann, 156, 158 Brunet, 89, 90 Budd, 43, 149 Budde, 60, 95, 99, 122, 153, 161, 170, 175, 177 Buhl, 172 Bulkeley, 187 Burney, 105, 116 Carroll R, M.D. 2, 55, 173, 176, 178, 185, 189 Carroll, R.P. 85 Carter, 17 Cazelles, 42, 44‐45 Childs, 56, 158 Christensen, 13, 42 Clements, 1, 13, 25, 28, 64, 78, 80, 83, 89, 94, 124, 152, 156‐ 158, 204 Cogan, 87 Coggins, 11, 15, 17, 35, 61, 80, 91, 98, 107 Cohen, 85, 186 Collins, J. J., 75, 112, 114, 124, 157 Collins, T., 8 Condamin, 142 Cooper, 91, 93 Coote, 6, 12, 17, 41, 44, 47‐48, 51, 97, 115, 120, 124‐126, 136, 142, 144, 147, 171, 175‐ 176, 201 Coulot, 180, 184
Register
Crenshaw, 35, 70, 87, 100, 127‐ 130, 134, 137‐138, 148‐149, 154‐155 Cresson, 43, 56 Cripps, 31‐32, 42, 45, 80, 84, 96, 99, 112, 114‐115, 118, 120, 122, 125, 129, 145, 153, 173‐ 175, 177, 185‐186, 189 Cross, 1‐2 Crüsemann, 99, 127‐128, 132, 138, 177 Davies, G. H. 17, 27, 125 Davies, G. I. 70, 114, 159 Davies, P. R. 11, 17 Day and Chapin , 11, Day, J., 34, 50, 114, 157, 161, 167‐168 De Regt, 48 De Waard, 37, 180 De Vries, 87 Dearman, 42 Deissler, 44‐45, 47‐48, 60, 69, 80, 84‐85, 91‐92, 96‐97, 106‐107, 111, 120‐121, 137, 143, 154, 163, 170, 174, 192 Dell, 148 Dempster, 187 Dhorme, 134 Dicou, 13, 43, 56, 120 Dietrich, 41, 47, 51‐52, 87 Dijkstra, 78‐79, 83, 86, 127, 134 Dorsey, 187 Dozeman, 158‐159 Driver, G. R. 85, 177 Driver, S. R. 15, 153, 155, 158, 161 Duhm, 41, 48, 143‐144, 152 Ehrlich, A. B. 48, 152, 173 Ehrlich, C. S. 171 Eichrodt, 140, 142
Index of Authors
Eissfeldt, 52, 87, 96, 149, 158, 176, 177 Emerton, 75 Emmerson, 25, 32 Engnell, 24 Ernst, 130, 144, 162, 166, 169, 191 Eslinger, 26, 91 Farr, 27, 124, 134 Faust, 173 Fensham, 45, 75, 157 Fey, 33‐34, 170, 174 Fields, 152‐153 Finkelstein, 45 Finley, 3, 47, 124, 142, 145, 174, 184, 186 Firth, 119 Fishbane, 44 Fleischer, 5, 17‐18, 31, 41, 47, 51‐52, 97, 99‐100, 130, 143‐ 144, 146, 162‐163, 169, 170, 172‐174, 176, 186, 189 Floyd, 12, 25 Fohrer, 1, 27, 29, 41, 48, 61, 80, 97, 111, 125, 141, 175, 192 Fosbroke, 28, 31, 41, 44‐45, 47, 52, 78‐80, 84, 101, 103, 112, 125, 130, 137, 143‐144, 153, 170, 174‐176, 186, 189 Freedman, 199 Freedman and Welch, 16 Fritz, 10‐11, 14, 20, 32‐33, 42, 61, 91, 112, 117, 142, 147, 162, 170 Fuhs, 16, 25, 61, 72, 200 Fürst, 200 Garcia‐Treto, 85 Gertz, 20‐21, 34, 41, 61, 75, 80
241
Gese, 41, 47, 53, 60, 65, 78, 90, 92, 96, 98, 100, 112‐113, 140‐ 141, 193 Gevaryahu, 199 Gevirtz, 153, 157, 167 Geyer, 13 Gillingham, 21, 78, 114, 126, 133‐134, 137‐138, 166‐168, 180 Gitay, 187 Glazier‐McDonald, 43, 45 Gomes, 4, 87 Gordis, 3, 44, 46, 82, 96, 124, 129, 134, 149, 155, 163, 170‐ 171, 174, 177 Gosse, 27 Goulder, 114 Gowan, 22, 86 Grätz, 29, 147, 152, 156‐157 Graupner, 52, 158 Gray, G. B. 35, 43 Gray, J. 87, 92, 105, 116 Greenberg, 74, 215 Greßmann, 45, 78, 96, 163, 166 Groves, 122, 203 Grünwaldt, 149 Gunneweg, 85, 87 Hadjiev, 8, 39, 63, 118, 143 Haglund, 50 Hahn, 157 Haller, 42 Halpern, 177 Hammershaimb, 3, 18, 27, 29‐ 30, 35, 42, 44‐45, 47, 63, 65, 80, 84, 92, 96‐97, 103‐104, 114‐115, 124, 130, 132, 145, 152, 154‐155, 162, 167‐168, 171, 173‐174, 177, 186, 189 Handy, 105 Haran, 27, 44, 46, 171 Hardmeier, 82, 85
242 Harper, 14‐15, 28, 31, 44, 48, 63, 84, 111‐112, 114, 120, 124, 126, 145, 153‐155, 161‐162, 167‐168, 170, 173, 176‐177, 185‐186, 189, 192‐193 Hartenstein, 60, 63‐64, 70, 132, 137 Hartley, 149 Hasel, 106, 118‐119, 186, 191‐ 192 Haupt, 41 Hayes, 2, 13, 18, 27‐29, 42, 44‐ 45, 54, 60, 63, 80, 89, 98, 100, 103‐104, 111, 115, 124, 134, 142, 145, 149, 154, 158, 173‐ 174, 177, 186, 189, 193 Healey, 70 Hentschke, 167‐168 Hesse, 162 Heyns, 64, 75, 91, 109 Hilber, 50, 114 Hillers, 70, 75, 152, 156 Hobbs, 48, 114 Hoffman, 13, 49, 114 Hoffmann, 85, 112 Hoffmeier, 91‐92 Holladay, 35, 69, 89, 92, 173 Horst, 60, 93, 137 House, 8 Houston, 20, 41, 47, 155, 192 Hübner, 45 Huffmon, 156 Hunter, 155, 163, 165, 186, 191 Hurvitz, 29, 30 Hyatt, 158, 168 Hyman, 168 Irsigler, 60‐ 63, 70 Isbell, 168, 199 Jackson, 162 Jacobs, 147
Register
Janowski, 70 Janzen, 172 Jeremias, 4, 12, 14, 16, 18, 24‐25, 27, 31, 37, 41, 46‐48, 50‐53, 60, 64, 67, 78, 80‐83, 85, 89, 90, 93, 97‐103, 107‐109, 111‐ 112, 114‐115, 120‐122, 124, 126, 130, 132‐133, 136‐137, 141‐142, 144, 147‐149, 152, 155, 160, 162‐164, 166‐167, 170, 173‐176, 184‐186, 189, 193‐195, 200, 203, 207 Jidejian, 46 Johnstone, 158 Jones, 25, 87, 106, 116 Joosten, 149 Jozaki, 112, 118, 124‐125, 137, 163, 166 Kaiser, 23, 25, 47, 51, 75 Kapelrud, 16, 18, 28, 30‐31, 35, 42, 104, 112, 118, 122, 124‐ 125, 134, 155 Katzenstein, 45‐46 Kellermann, 30, 112, 116, 120‐ 121, 123 Kessler, 98 King, 87, 176, 185 Kitchen, 22, 157 Knierim, 1, 194 Knoppers, 87, 105 Knudtzon, 70 Koch, 5, 21, 28, 37, 41, 61, 78, 81, 83‐84, 96‐97, 100, 107, 126, 128‐130, 132, 134‐135, 138, 144, 147, 165, 173‐174, 176‐ 178, 185, 189, 199 Köckert, 48‐50, 58 Koenen, 4, 60, 64, 68, 71, 75, 89‐ 90, 93, 112‐114, 122, 139, 144, 162‐163 Köhlmoos, 11, 61‐63, 66, 162
Index of Authors
Konkel, 91 Koole, 135 Kratz, 1, 10‐11, 15‐17, 20, 22‐23, 25, 31, 41‐42, 80, 140‐145, 162, 170, 176, 200 Kraus, 50, 70, 114 Krause, 170, 185 Krüger, 70 Kselman, 114 Labuschagne, 161 Lambert, 70 Landsberger, 89‐90 Landy, 26, 91 Lang, 14, 31, 73, 79, 84, 90, 100, 122, 149, 182, 192 Lang and Messner, 126, 132 Lapp, 43 Lehming, 85 Lemche, 157 Lescow, 6, 17, 31, 41, 47‐48, 51, 61‐62, 80, 97, 99, 105, 107, 112, 124, 137, 142‐145, 147, 162, 169, 174, 176 Levin, 10, 42, 47, 78, 88, 94, 98, 137, 143‐145, 162 Levine, 43, 149 Limburg, 187 Lindblom, 24, 60, 62, 136 Lindsay, 43 Lindström, 141‐142 Linville, 11, 93, 194 Lipiński, 172 Lipschits, 17 Liverani, 51 Lohfink, 27 Löhr, 52, 60, 62, 67, 69, 144, 162, 170, 176, 191 Lombaard, 78, 81, 88 Long, 60 Loretz, 11, 47, 166, 169‐170, 172‐ 174
243
Lundbom, 69 Lust, 17‐18, 37, 165, 180‐181 Maag, 46, 60, 66, 78, 100, 102, 112, 117, 121‐122, 124, 130, 134, 145, 154, 162‐163, 165, 167‐168, 171, 175, 177, 185, 192 MacCormack, 85 Macintosh, 159 Maddin, 89 Maeir, 171 Maier and Dörrfuß, 170, 173, 186 Market, 47, 52, 96‐97, 104, 112, 122, 141‐144, 146‐147, 154, 162, 167, 169‐170, 173‐176, 189 Markoe, 46 Marti, 16, 41‐42, 44‐45, 48, 63, 86, 96‐97, 99, 103, 112, 120, 124, 126, 130, 137, 140, 143‐ 144, 152‐153, 161‐163, 166‐ 167, 170, 174, 178, 199 Martin‐Achard, 18, 21, 45, 57, 120‐121, 148, 155, 162, 191 Massmann, 149 Mathews, 43, 56 Mathias, 60 Mayes, 106, 153, 157 Mays, 4, 13, 15, 27, 29, 31, 44, 47, 48‐50, 58, 61, 67, 70, 78, 80, 84, 96, 98, 100‐101, 103‐ 104, 111‐112, 115, 118, 130, 132, 134, 136, 141‐143, 145, 148, 156, 159, 162‐163, 166‐ 167, 171, 173‐175, 186, 189, 200, 204 Mazar, 43‐44, 45, 105 McCarthy, 157 McComiskey, 3, 44, 129, 134, 186
244 McConville, 156 McCullough, 42, 174 McKane, 85 McKenzie, 87 McLaughlin, 47, 145‐147, 170, 175, 185‐186 Melugin, 2, 4, 9, 31, 42, 48, 78, 83, 97, 107, 125, 135, 143‐ 144, 147, 162, 176, 201 Mendenhall, 157 Milgrom, 149 Miller, 84 Mittmann, 140‐142 Möller, 3, 14‐15, 18, 28‐30, 42, 48, 52, 54‐55, 57, 103, 109, 111, 119, 135, 145, 148‐149, 174, 179, 187, 194, 200 Monloubou, 21 Montgomery, 105, 116 Morgenstern, 61‐62, 69, 86, 96, 104, 125, 136, 142, 144, 146‐ 147, 155, 162‐163, 168, 171, 175‐176, 186, 200 Mowinckel, 24 Muhly, 89 Mulder, 105, 142 Müller, 46, 193 Müller and Preuss, 118 Myers, 43 Naʹaman, 157, 171, 176 Nägele, 17, 111‐114, 118‐120, 122 Naumann, 25 Neubauer, 162‐165, 191 Nicholson, 75, 157 Niditch, 25, 60, 67, 78, 91 Niehaus, 2, 45, 186 Nielsen, 157 Niemann, 41 Noble, 26, 57, 80, 91, 118, 177, 180‐182, 194
Register
Nogalski, 7, 34, 38, 55, 112, 120‐ 122, 124, 138, 204 Noth, 15, 51, 87, 158 Nowack, 41, 50, 69, 104, 112, 118, 144, 153, 163, 165, 170, 175‐176 O’Connell, 26 O’Rourke Boyle, 152, 156 Oesterley, 47 Ogden, 154 Olyan, 97, 104‐105 Ouellette, 63, 91 Paas, 21, 61, 80, 82, 100, 128, 131, 132, 134‐135, 138 Park, 6, 80, 120, 144, 148, 155, 178, 184 Paul, 3, 14‐16, 28‐29, 41‐42, 44, 46‐52, 54‐55, 60, 63, 78, 80, 89‐91, 96, 98, 101, 103‐104, 111, 114‐115, 124‐125, 137, 140, 142, 145, 147‐149, 152, 154, 156, 161, 167‐168, 171‐ 175, 177‐178, 185‐186, 189, 192‐194, 203 Peckham, 7, 87, 144, 174, 176 Perlitt, 147, 157 Perrin, 1 Petersen, 9 Pfeifer, 25, 32, 41‐42, 80, 84, 112, 124, 126, 134, 148, 163, 199 Pfeiffer, H. 114 Pfeiffer, R. H. 52, 61, 124, 163 Pinker, 91, 175, 177, 189 Pitard, 172 Polley, 13, 17‐18, 42, 45, 115, 166, 192 Pomykala, 120 Pope, 56 Praetorius, 45‐46, 169‐170, 176‐ 177, 189
Index of Authors
Preuss, 114, 158, 192 Priest, 45 Procksch, 48, 144, 170, 174 Propp, 27, 158 Provan, 92 Pschibille, 34, 36, 61, 69, 103, 141, 164, 166, 169 Raabe, 43, 56, 120 Rahtjen, 74 Raitt, 159 Ramsey, 153, 155 Redditt, 8, 211 Reimer, 31, 47‐48, 51‐52, 60, 62, 78, 90, 112, 124, 140‐141, 143‐144, 147, 164‐166, 170, 173‐174, 176, 182, 186, 189 Renaud, 141‐142 Rendtorff, 52 Renkema, 43, 56 Reventlow, 2, 29, 41, 45‐46, 61, 65, 67, 70, 82, 84‐85, 142, 148‐149, 152, 156 Richardson, 52, 85 Richter, 1 Ringgren, 20 Roberts, 171, 173‐174 Robinson, 17, 35, 42, 46, 48, 62‐ 63, 69, 78, 92, 96, 98, 100, 104, 112, 116, 120‐121, 125‐ 126, 134, 143‐144, 146, 153, 162‐163, 171, 174‐177, 186, 189 Rofé, 87, 157 Rose, 86 Rösel, 41, 47, 52, 60, 62, 98, 111, 117, 141, 143, 163‐164, 178 Rosenbaum, 2 Rossier, 75 Rost, 82, 88 Rottzoll, 4‐6, 16, 18, 29, 32, 34‐ 37, 41‐43, 47‐48, 51, 62‐63,
245
69, 78, 83, 85, 88, 94‐95, 97, 99, 104‐105, 107, 112, 114, 117, 120‐121, 124, 126, 130, 137, 141‐144, 146‐147, 152, 162, 164‐166, 168‐170, 173‐ 177, 180‐182, 186, 189‐190 Rowley, 85 Rudolph, 3, 14‐16, 18, 28, 30, 42, 44‐45, 47‐48, 50‐51, 55, 57, 60‐61, 67, 70, 78, 80, 84‐85, 88, 91‐92, 96‐98, 103‐104, 106‐107, 109, 111, 114‐115, 119, 121‐122, 124, 126, 128‐ 129, 132, 134, 137‐138, 141, 143, 145, 148, 152‐154, 159, 161‐163, 166‐167, 171, 173‐ 175, 177, 189, 191, 193, 201 Ruprecht, 60, 70, 75, 89, 93 Rüterswörden, 75 Schart, 7‐8, 15, 27, 34, 36, 38, 41, 47‐48, 60‐61, 64, 69, 78, 80‐ 81, 83, 87, 93‐94, 97, 100, 104‐105, 107, 112, 114‐115, 120‐126, 128‐130, 141, 143‐ 144, 147, 162, 166, 170, 174, 176, 200, 204 Scherer, 20 Schmid, 85 Schmidt, L., 78‐80, 86, 88 Schmidt, W. H. 4, 15‐16, 27, 29, 44, 46, 47‐48, 51‐52, 61, 70, 75‐76, 124‐125, 140‐141, 166, 191, 204 Schniedewind, 17, 171 Schottroff, 4, 23 Schoville, 43 Schullerus, 111, 115, 122 Seebass, 43 Seilhamer, 156 Sellin, 42‐43, 45‐46, 52, 70, 84, 92, 96, 98, 102, 111, 115, 119,
246 122, 171, 173‐174, 177‐178, 185‐186, 189 Seybold, 114 Sinclair, 156 Smend, 1‐2, 27, 74, 149, 191 Smith, G. V. 3, 32, 44, 48, 96, 103, 111, 114‐115, 162, 171, 186, 189 Smith, M. S., 159 Snyman, 186 Soggin, 4, 14, 16, 47, 51‐52, 72, 82, 84, 88, 91‐92, 104‐106, 111‐112, 114‐115, 120, 132, 147, 155, 171, 175‐177, 186, 189, 200, 204, 206 Steinmann, 54‐55 Steins, 61‐63, 66, 69, 73, 180, 182‐183 Stern, 45 Stone, 1, 25 Story, 127, 129, 134, 138 Strong, 41 Stuart, 2, 15, 28, 42‐43, 45, 47, 55, 82, 91, 93, 96, 101, 103‐ 105, 111, 115, 134, 142‐143, 145, 154‐156, 161, 171, 174, 177, 186, 189, 200 Sweeney, 2, 4, 13, 17‐18, 28, 44‐ 45, 57, 80, 88, 91, 96, 114, 120, 143, 147‐148, 154, 158, 161‐162, 166‐167, 186, 189, 192 Szabo, 177 Talmon, 65 Tångberg, 18, 159, 163, 168‐169, 191 Tate, 50 Thiel, 47, 69, 85 Thompson, 11 Torrey, 171, 173 Toy, 13
Register
Tromp, 166, 192 Trotter, 12 Tsevat, 85 Tucker, 15‐16, 22, 25, 79‐80, 82, 204 Uehlinger, 90 Utzschneider, 80, 83‐84, 87 Uziel, 171 Van der Wal, 182, 189 Van der Woude, 138 Van Seters, 1, 51 Vaughn and Killebrew, 105 Vawter, 15, 25, 85 Veijola, 98, 105 Vermeylen, 4, 15, 17, 27, 30‐31, 42‐46, 48, 50‐51, 58, 78‐79, 83, 107, 112, 125, 141, 148, 161‐162, 166, 168, 170, 175‐ 176, 186, 204 Vervenne, 158 Vieweger, 41‐42, 51 Vincent, 81‐83 Vogt, 85 Vollmer, 47‐48, 52, 147, 152, 161, 166‐169 Volz, 118 Von Rad, 158 Von Soden, 169 Vuilleumier, 15, 111, 119, 122, Warmuth, 162, 166, 169, 191 Waschke, 61, 64, 69, 71 Watts, 3, 78, 82, 96, 98, 119, 134, 199‐200 Weber, 114 Wehmeier, 114 Weigl, 89 Weimar, 4, 17, 47‐48, 60, 62‐63, 78, 83, 98‐99, 107, 112, 120‐ 122, 128, 132, 137, 140, 142
Weinfeld, 27, 159 Weippert, 124 Weiser, 3, 15‐16, 41, 48, 51‐52, 60‐61, 67, 70, 78, 80, 84, 97‐ 98, 100, 103, 108‐109, 111‐ 112, 115, 118, 120, 124, 126, 129, 137, 142, 144, 148, 153, 161‐163, 166‐168, 171, 173, 175‐177, 189 Weiss, 168‐169 Wellhausen, 16, 19, 41, 43, 45, 97, 112, 124, 144, 153, 163, 166‐167, 170, 176, 189, 193 Werlitz, 80, 83, 87 Werner, 29, 140‐141 Westermann, 27, 135, 137 Widbin, 180‐182 Wijngaards, 114 Wildberger, 171 Williams, 147, 190 Williamson, 14‐15, 28, 56, 68, 79, 83, 86, 89‐94, 97, 106‐ 107, 109, 135, 152, 201 Willi‐Plein, 5, 51, 60‐63, 67, 69, 72, 78, 82, 86, 91, 97‐99, 107, 112, 115, 119‐122, 124‐125, 137, 143‐144, 161‐163, 166‐ 167, 170, 174‐175, 177, 186, 199 Winter, 62‐63, 78‐79, 86, 130, 162‐163, 165 Wittenberg, 169 Wöhrle, 8, 10, 17, 31, 41‐42, 48, 51, 55, 61, 75‐76, 78, 80, 83, 97‐99, 107, 109, 112, 121, 124‐126, 128, 130, 135, 137,
247 140‐142, 144, 147, 163‐164, 166, 186, 199, 204 Wolfe, 7, 14, 17, 18, 161, 170, 173, 176 Wolff, 3‐5, 13‐16, 18, 24‐25, 27, 29, 32, 45, 47, 52, 60‐61, 63, 67, 70‐71, 75, 78, 80, 82, 85, 88, 91, 97, 100‐101, 103‐105, 107‐108, 111, 115, 120‐121, 124‐126, 130, 132, 136, 138‐ 139, 141, 143‐144, 147‐149, 153, 161‐163, 165‐170, 172‐ 175, 177, 183, 186, 189, 191, 193‐194, 199‐201, 204, 207‐ 208 Wolters, 74 Wood, 7, 32, 51, 61, 78, 80, 87, 91‐92, 97, 112, 141, 144, 147, 154‐155, 163, 166, 171, 174, 176 Wright, 30 Würthwein, 21, 41, 82, 84‐85, 87, 112, 116, 166, 168, 177, 219 Yadin, 16 Yee, 25 Yeivin, 119 Zalcman, 61 Zenger, 112, 124, 126, 136‐137, 158 Zevit, 85, 185 Zimmerli, 121, 174 Zobel, H.‐J. 17, 48, 50, 114 Zobel, K., 108