Xhosa: a concise manual

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Irarning Xhosa:an enrichingadventure Definitions. Abbreúations L. Noun classes 2. The Dresenttense:long form 3. The iresent tense:sho-rtform: negative 4, Subièctand obiect concoÍds 5. Subïectconcorôsbefore vowels 6. Fuúre tenses 7. The perfect tense 8. Absolute pronouns 9. Copulative prefixes stems cbncords.Possessive 10. Poôsessive possessive KA concord 11, The 12. Relativedemonstratives and emphaticpronouns 13. Possessive Jojo and his world 14. Possessives: 15. Copulatives of nouns and possessivepÍonouns 16. Demonstratives 1st,2nd and 3rd place demonstratives Copulativesof demonstratives Prépositionalformativesplus demonstratives 17. Quantitatives 18. Enumeratives 1.9. Adjectives:copulativeand attributive forms: thelr nesatlves 20. Relativãs: copulative and attributive forms: their neqatives 21. Adiectú and relative stems 22. Fuither usesof the reÌative formatives 23. Copulativesof 'Where?' of 'Here, there,yonder' Co-pulatives 24. Vocatives 25. Locatives 26. Initial prefix vowels n. Interrosatives 28. Commõn derivatives 29. Relative clauses The antecedent as the subject The antecedentas the direct object The antecedent as the indirect object The antecedentas úe Possessor The relative concord Relative coniunctions 30. The irtdicatiie mood:primary tenses 31. The indicative near past continuous tense 32. The indicative mood: other neaÍ past tenses The indicativemood: remote past tenses 34. The participial mood: primary tenses 35. The participial near and remotepast tenses 36. The subiunctive mood 37. The teniporal mood 38. The passive

Page 1 L6 17 T7 18 18 L9 20 20 2L 2l 22 23 23 aÁ

25 26 26 26 26 27

n

28 28 29 29 30 30 JI

3t 32 JJ JJ JJ

34 34 35 35 36 36 36 37 37 38 39 40 4l 42 42 43

Section 39. Imperatives 40. Peifectstemsof verbs 41. Verbalsuffixes 42. Stativeverbs 43. Thepotentialformwith NGA (can) .Can'' 44. Otherwaysof expressing 45. The guxilialySE'(atreadly) The formatiúeXÀ (not Ìotyet) yêi) 46. The formativesYA" KWA KIVA (also),YAWA (again) till), negative n (no longèr) !1. lh9.fgrmative SA (still), 48. Deficientverbs of thecoputative !2. T" ggnjugation 50. The Xhõsãsoundsvstem 51. Consonant andvoúel changes 52. Numerals 53. Usefulphrases 54. Keyto iluizzesandquestiorÌs 55. Wordliits Bibliography

Page 44 44 44 45 45 45 46 46 46 46 47 48 50 51 52 53 54 56 60

PREFACE

This concisemanuaìwith its encouragingintroduction will help students

tg gaina sound.undersranding of úe ïtríctur" ãf x;tró.ahìii-ïrrËïìtrïiì tnerebysavlngtime andeffortfor studentsandteachersalike.

The clear tableswill speedthe learning Y::1":f-":l_t^"1*rnC process, Kelatedtormsls,ylsgal. are showni1 neighbouring columlsor on oppositã comparison, retention practTce. a-nd ïhe stopsu.eã *iú t3g:r^f9l:1r; promote an ettor essgraspof the structureof complexwords. New formswill be more easily.understood andrememberedonce are re.latedto the tabtes,from úhich turther forms neiãeã-;aí b" they õítuã wtn conÌldence.Conciserules and information have been included, as well asusefulwordlistsandphrases. A knowledge of Xhosais becomingincreasingly importanttodav. is an rnterestlngand expressivelanguage,renderèddifficult- ofXhosa access horvever^b.y iis compte;lty.lt is trop-"dïriiiii, ,Ài",ìur wirl reãuceúï effort of learninsaì0 úu turn tlie studyof >c,õïìrtôìlôfr;i;ã rewardingexperiõnce.

LEARNING XHOSA AN ENRICHING ADVENTURE SOME OF YOUR OTIERIES ANSWERED HOW WILLTHIS BOOKHELP ME? If you are only starting Xhosa. read through the first two pagesand try the first fòur quizzes. Then read úe notes on each section befoÍe studying the tables themselves.Glance at úe notes below each table, only noting lvhat will help you to understand the table itself. Refer to the definitions and abbreviations on page L6 if necessary. Try howeverto join one of the many Xhosa coursesbeing offered. It is more fun studyingwith oúers. This book wiU make learning easier.You will not needto take down many notesrmuch of what you will be taught is already-herein the clear, systematictables and sumniaries. lf vou alreadv know some Xhosa vou üll realise that úe tables will help vou to set a sood language.Comparethe tablesand seêhow theíord-inits @ related. Use úem to check on the structure and meaning of are õomposedand how they are your owrÌ accuracywhen you speak or write Xhosa. Use words you encounter, or to check on them also for practice, by substituting other nouns, verbs or adjectives for those in the tables. The concisenótes and exampleswill remind you of what you have learnt, or will answerfurther questions. If vou are teachine Xhosa your studentswill find this book invaluable, since it will help them to gil-ãear ihe complex structure of the language.You will spend iess time o"ãtew;f preparing lessonsor lectures, and your students will spend less time taking down notes. You heef onl} refer to the relevantpagês.Important gramriatical points have béen summarisedin the concisenotes.The tablescan be usedfor oral practicein class:your studentscan substitute words from the word lists to increaseúeir vocabulary. HOW WILL I MANAGE ALL THOSE CLICKS? Don't worry. You will only find a dozen words úth clicks before page 45 in úis book, and section 50 explains how to pronounce them.

If you learn two new words a day, you will have learnt over seven hundred in the Íirst year more úan you need to communicate effectively! Many Xhosa words have been taken over from Engìish or Afrikaans, often adding i as a prefü. They can use y or w to separateúe soundsin diphthongs.They can use a vowel to diüde consonantgroups.They usuallyadd a final vowel.Thus: i.keyiki (cake), i.tawuli (towel), i.bhotile (bottle), i.bhokisi (box). There is no separatearticle in Xhosa;i.keyiki = 'the cake','a cake','some cake' or just'cake', depending on the context. Xhosa words are soundedjust as they are spelt. The syllables,and the words themsÉt*tÈ; usually end in a vowel. The secondlast syllableof a word or phrase is usually slightly Ìonger than the rest.There are five vowels,pronouncedroughlyas follows: g asin far; e as in end; i as in is; g asin mqre; u asin ryle. Later you will find that the soundsa, 9 and o can changeslightly (see page 50). lfyou enjoypuzzlesto which you can find the answer,you will enjoy - - Xhosa. fú ttre tótÍowingquizzes.yoirwitt find the answersoó page54. 1

Ouiz L: Whatwouldyoube lookingat, if yousawi.garaji,i.moto,i.teksi? ouiz 2: H:rc aresomethingsyoumightfind in a study.Sayúe wordsaloud. canyou guess whatsomeof themmean? i.desika,i.foni, i.inki, i.pensile,i.rabha, i.rula, i.foto. ouiz 3: Here aremanythingsyor mightfind in a kitchen?saythe wordsaloud. If youcan unoerstanc whatten ot themmeancongtatulate yourself! i.ketile,.i.glasi,i.ti, i.tipoti, i.kofr:, i.soseji,ijam, i.orenji, i.apile,i.spagetti, i.rayisi,i.pleyiti,i.saladi,ijeti, i.phudïú.

[You want tostart talking Xhosa you will need a few verbs.Here are some useful verb stems. rne !IIÍ!IÌ- o tnanda'soundsÌike tun- in'tunnel" only longer,with a slight h soundingafter 1. funa (want), bona (see), thanda(like, love).

Xhosayou.don't.need a separare pronoun. Jusrprefixthe R,.g'l^._.-"!jlr?lti'I.like'in suojefi concord 'ndl' to the verb stem, to show that you arè referring to úe firìt person

singular,'I'. Thus:

Ndi.bonai.moto (I seeúe car). Ndi.funa i.kofu (I want somecoffee). Ndi.tunai.pensile(I want a pencil). Ndi.úanda ijam (I lovejam). ouiz 4: Read-orerthis pageagain,then try to translatethe following phrasesinto Xhosa.See page)4 tor the answers.How manydid you get right? I seethe apple. I want-some_tea. I like pudding. I want a taxi. I like the photo. r seea caKe. l want a clesk.I seesomesalad. I love iellv. HOW SOON Iü|4LLI BE GOOD ATXHOSA? How keen are you to learnlHow much time can you spare?What help can you get? English,and Afrikaans are fairly similar in structure. They use different words. but on the wnole they use them in the--same wqy.The structureof Xhosa however,like that'of Zulu aná otner Arncan languages,dittêrs markedlyfÍom that of English. You will.soon manâge.iriendì.ygeetings and simple conversationin Xhosa without knowins now rne,languagels burlt up (see page 53). but once you want to read, write or speakit wei you wu naveto masterlts structure. And that is where this book will help you. Section1. Noun Classes Turn to page 17 and studythe fust four columns. The first column (C.1)-sh-orvsthat there are 15 classesof nouns in Xhosa- Nouns are the names ol personsor thinqs.like 'faúer' or 'tree'. Classes12and 13of other African languagesare not foúnd in Xhosa,bút Cl.la and Ct.2a up irìãìiiieão. -at" The secondcolumn (Ç. 2) showstlat eacbclassusesa distincüveprefix. This is pre-fixedto the belongingto this class.class 1 and class3,nounsbdth use the prdfix um, but cl.1 l!1}_,"_t-*r":

:lillTf,lgï1.^-l:l:1inC cnecK tn$. rt vou llKe.

to people,andCl.3doesnot.Glanceat úe wordiistson págeS6iõ

The third column (C.3) showshow this works in practice. The noun hmfazf, meaning toman', fuife', is a word-unit, composedof a prefix g4q-joined to a stem -fazr. Stopshave been added here to separate the prefix and the stem. This makes it easy to see to which class a noun belongs. The plural of a noun falls into a different class. The prefix will differ, but the noun stem remains the same. The plural of Cl.1 is C1.2,wiú the prefix aba- hence the plural \romen' = 'aba,fazi'.The plurals of classes1a, 3, 5, 7 al:td9 are classes2ao4, 6, 8 and 10. Check this by looking at úe'English in C.4. Clú Í1 Sharesthe class tO prefix-(á)iN for its plural. Nouú belonging to classes14 and 15 normally have no plural forms. Study the first four columns on page 17, then read the first eight lines of notes which explain the prefixes (li), iI[ i(z)iN and u(lu). The letters in brackets are omitted before nouns with stemsof more than one syllable,like hashe,taka or sana.The symbolN showsthat the n ofthe prefix can causesound and spelling changes,so we must expect surprises. Now try úe following quiz. Seepage 54 for the answers. Ouiz 5:

a) To what classdoes each of the following nouns belong? izi.lo, uku.tya, i.moto, um.thi, izin.to, oo.bawo. b) Here are somemore nouns.Can you guesstheir class? ' ili.tye (stone), um.fundi (studení), ãna.úli (wheels), ii.kati (cats), isi.kolo (school), ubu.lumko(wisdom).

Section2. PresentTenseVerbs: I-ong Form Look at columns5 to 7 on page 77,which link up with the first columns.We dont only use nouns- the namesof people or úings. We alsouse verbs,like 'come', 'go', 'laugh', 'cry', to tell what they do. In the phrases'the cars appear','the baby cries', the nouns'cars' and 'baby' are the subjectsin úe phrases:they are doing the action mentionedby the verbs'appear','cries'. In Xhosa each verb needs a prefix reflecting its subject. This prefix, called the subject concord (or the SC), is derived from the prefix of the subject.Studythe column of noun prefixes (C.2), then the column headedSC (C.5), and comparethe two. Note that Cl.la and Cl.2a use the SCb of classes'L and 2, How are the SCs u i, A i derived from úe prefixes u1q, !Íni, ama and in, which contain the nasal consonantsm and n? How are the other SCs (ba, !i si, zi, zi, ]u bu, ku) derived from the prefixes aba, iü, isi, izi, izin,

ulìÌ,ubu,uku?

Can you think up two suitable rules? If you can see how to derive the SCs you will enjoy learnlng )Crosa! try to learn the subject co-ncords.You will use them again and alain.

Y

Present-tenseforms of the verb uku.vela (to appear, to come from) are shown in column 6 (C.6). In each case the stem vela prefixes the relevant SC for each class of noun and adds the infix y4 for extra stress. Glance at lines 9 - 14 of the notes.then" readinqaloud. taking the noun in C.3 as the subiect. find its correspondingverb form in C.6 startin[ with íbe coirect SC. This will give you thé following: um.faziu.ya.vela (the/a woman appears,is appearing) u.bawou.ya.vela (úe/a father appears,is appearing) aba.faziba.ya.vela (the women/womenappear,are appearing) Now. readinealoud. eo throuqh all fifteen classesof nounsfollowed by their present-tenseverb fornl to getïsed tó ïhe concórds.Always read or practiseXhosa.by-speakiirgaloud. You will learn tlree times asfast if you pronounceand hear the words aswell as seeingthem!

:

Oniz6:. a) Usingthe verb stemvelq howwouldyou saythe following? úe horse,appears, birdsareappeâring,foodappears,treesappear, an arlmal N appeanng.

b) Here are more nouns. Decide on their clgss(look úem up in úe word lists on page 56, if necessary)then use.úem as subjectsfollowed by the long form (with p) oitlé présent rerÌseot uKru.veta, usrngthe coÍïect SC. aba.fundi(students-),i.kofu (coffee), u.dade(sister). izi.bane(lamps), u.donga(nòt a mónosyllable;cheókits class). c) Now try further.phrases.use the nounsgivenbelow as subjects,followed by the present tenseof the verb uku.khula (to grow),wi:ththe stem khula; e.g.givenu.sana(baby):u.sanalu.yakhula (úe babv is soüns). oo.dade(sisters), iin.donga(waìls), ubir.bi-(eül),-' izin.dlu(houses), un.nnvãnà(ctriÍd). Section 3. Present Tense Verbs: Short Form: Negative. Here, on page l.8,.column4 headedSC showsthe,subjectconcordsndi, si, u, ni which link the verDto rts sJrbJ:ctü the subJectis I we, yoll (singular,i.e. one person)or ygu (plual, more than one person). I nus: ndi.ya.vela(I appear), si.ya.vela(we appear),

ornouns, somewhar rike the ""'i#itiiSgëlJ.à'Jtrl#tfrSif;Jlãfi?r9?*lË,J"llntì;,es

pronounshe.she,it or the],in English.

In section2 you sawthat ya is addedasan infix in presenttenseverbsif the verbis stressed. lf the verb is not stressed however,e.g.if the stress-fallson a followingnoun,or on an adverb (like'here','quickly','now'), theny4ìsomitted. The verb formsin C.5are followedby plf (where?),which caries the stress,so the shortform of úe presenttenseis used,withoutúè infii va.Thús: u.velaphi?, (youcomefrom where?f whêredo youcomefrom?) i.motoi.velapbi? (wheredoesúe carcomefroúr?) ,

To expressa p.hrasein.the-negative,e.g. 'the car doesnot appear',the final a of the verb stem Decomes! and a negativeform of the SC is used,startingwith a. CompareeachSC in C.4 with lbe negativ-eSC-in C.6. The latter alwaysprefixesg, anã the SC itselï is modified at times: u becomesaqu. aka or awu in the negative,dependingon the person or class,and the SC i becomesavi. (c.7) which shows negative forms of the present tense for all persons and P9k -t!e "::l.u+17 classes. Note that yA is neverincluded in the nesative. You (sing.)do not appearf are not appeariãg= aLu.u"11. Uarsdon't appear/ aren't appearine= ii.moto azi.veü. Here are furthei phrasesin the ìèeativá usingthe verb uku.khula (to erow). the babydoesn'tgrow 1 isn't grbwing = u.iana alu.khuli. the trees do not grow / are not growing = imi.thi ayi.khuli. Aú27: Seewhethervou can chansethe foilowing phrasesinto the,negative.Prefix the negativeSC (as in C.7), omit-ya and changi the final a of-tlie úf stãtn,o u e.g.ni.ya.hanba(you [pl.] are going) / ani.hambi(you [pl.] aren t going). oo.bawoba.ya-hamba,isi.losi.ya.hamb4 izìn.tozi.ya.khul4

ndi.ya.hamba um.thiu.ya.khula, ama.hashea'ya.hamba"si.ya.khula, i.móto i.ya.hamba"ulu.vò lu.ya.khula,ili.fu li.ya.hamba. Section4. Subjectand Object Concords Studythe phrases:I seethe woman. I seeher (the woman). I see a tree. I see it (a tree)' I see theú. In thesephrases'l' is the subiect,'see' is the verb. and the words koman', 'her', 'tree', 'it', 'úem are ôbjectsof the verb 'sêe'.The words koman',- 'tree', are nou:rÌs;the -words'her', 'it', 'them' are oìónouns,standingfor a noun. The form of the pronoun points to the noun for which it stands.You wouldn't say 'I seeit', referring to a woman,or 'I see them', referring to a singletree. Xhosa has to use a subiect concord before an indicative verb, even if úe subject itself is not mentioned.In 'a.ya.khulâ'(they are growing)the subjectbelongsto class6. Xhosa can alsouse an object concord(OC) before a verb stem,reÍ-erringto a noun or pronoun object, which can be expressedor implied. In column 8 (C.8) on pase 18 vou will find the obiect concordsfor all the persorÌsand classes. Each is placeàjuót beforé the íerb stem.The infirya is addedfor extra streìs if a present-tense verb includes an OC. Here are examplesof OCs usedwith the verb uku.thanda(to like, to.love): um.fazi u.yá.m.úanda,u.bawo (the womanloveshim. the father) (hey 1= aba.fazillike it [= i.moto]) ba.ya.yi.th-anda u.sãnálu.ya.zi.thand4iin.taka (the baby lovesthem. the birds) If verb stemsbeein úth a vowel the consonantform of úe OC is used.This is shown in column 9, headedOCc (Qbject Concord,eonsonantform). iompare columìi I and 9. How doesthe OCc differ from úe OC? Can you think of a rule for this?'ln the caseof the OCs ku and !u the OCc is usuallyhll Iu, but just k I if followed by the

vowelo. Here are examplesusingan OCc before the vowel stem erza of úe verb ukw.enza (to do, to make): (we are making it, the tea) i.ti si.ya.y.enza, aba.faziba.ya.\g.enza (the women aré makingit = the food, C1.15,OCc kw) Ouiz 8: a) Can vou understandthe followinSphraseswith the verb stembona (see)? Rewrite them, ' repldcingthe word for the objeõ by the correct OC or OCc placedjust before the verb stém.Inõludethe infix ya úeithe SC; e.g.Oo.bawoba.boirai.moto / Oo.bawoba.ya'yibona. Ndi.bãnauku.tva. Ni.thandaama.fu' Aba.faziba.bonau.sana. Iin.taka zi.thanãaum.thi. I.hasheli.bona isi.lo. b) Seewhether you can translate the following, using the vowel stem azi of the verb ukw.azi (to know); ' e.s.tlíe horseknowsthem, the cars/ i.hasheli.ya.z.azi,ii.moto. You (-sine.)know him. the faúer. The animalsknow them, the trees' fne àttrõís know it, the opinion. The babyknowsme. The woman knowsus. Phraseswith OCs can alsobe usedin the negative,as shownbelow: U.sanalu.ya.ü.thanda,imi.thi. / U.sanaalu.yi.thandi,imi.thi. isi.lo. / Um.fazi aka.s.azi,isi.lo. Um.fazi urya.s.azi,

Here. as exoected.a negative SC is used, ya is omitted, and the final a of the verb stem tale place evenif an OC is included.Re-readthe above.When becor:nes i. t'hese túree ch-anges you are sure that you understand,try the quiz.

Ouiz 9: Canyou changethe following,with their OC, into the negative? Isi.losi.ya-1i.bon4 i.hashe.Um.faziu.ya.bu.thand4 ubu.suku. izin.to. (OC = u.bawo). U.sanalu.ya.m.bona fldi.ya.z.enza, Nt.ya.y.enz4 i.moto. I.basheli.ya.ba.thanda (OC = aba.fúi) Section5. SubjectConcordsbeforeVowels You alreadyunderstandcolumns1-4andc.7 on page19.Here,in column5 headedscc, you find the consonant form of the sc, usedjust tefoie ïvoúeiuãó iìJá, iit*"'qiãïr befoíean infix a in a verbtense,asin the reáote pãsttense,shòú rn c.o. Horr doesúe scc differ from the sc? comparec.4 andc.5. can youform a rule?If úe sc is gnly?vow-e.l'J!.en uÌ. u., i > y and4dropi.vowelsdrop"fdiõ"*;;t.,iìïu'r wafter!, !, or dropsif followedbv o. Nowcorìr-pare the negaíiveSCin C.7andits consonant form (usedbeforevowels)in C.g.What is the diffèrence? Thãfinal vowerdropsin ttrenègãiivãscc aìã, orrcããÂã"u ü ;'w t, i, ã; d.ropsif folJowedby s. Similaú úe infix p beco"mes y beforeã "rË [ly:ü ãg. ,"ì.ráì (the womanknows). "ã*"tiïõã] Readthroughthe áboveagain,úen try the quiz. Ouiz 10: a) $IudyC.6,whichgivesth-eremotepasrtenseof uku.vela" with the infix a. ttere are.phrases usin^g úe presentlenseof uhljka (to arrive).C* yoì chansetheminto me Íemotepasttense?Omi._t yA,.adda beforethe stemfika, adduseúe SCc;e-.g. ndi.ya.fika (I am arriviirg)/ nd.a.fika(I frived). i.hasheli.ya.fika,u.bawou.ya.fika,uku.tvaku.va.fikau.bu.ql.ku bu.ya.fika,izin.to-zi.ya.fika.ama.fuá.va.fiká. sr.ya.trka (wearearriüng),u.ya.fika (you[sing.lareiniüng). b) The phrasesbelow use verb stemsstarting.with g vowel, namely: (be at (be at ease, ease,trapply, happ!), oytm olka (feaí). ,...az_iJknow), lreai;. lri($9*I,onwaba -onwaba

(A{ )oiosavêrb stemsênd in s.eícepì'ú, ú;à--tsìô.

verbsdo not changein úe nesative.) Try chaneinethe fãllowins ohïasesii

The final vowelsof theserhree

use úenegative SCc, ffi1frf,i,ïfijij[ïitt"ïï^13,ï:Íã':r'*,1',",ì:ïï'iïÌlïg"*e. omit yg (heréI beforethãvbwel)andchangittrennafã to i. izi.Ìoz.y.oylKa, tzr.ro zily.ofika,l.hasbe i.hasbeli.y.azi, li.y.azi,aba.faziba.y.onivabã. aba.faziba.v.onivaba. u.sanalu.y.onwab4 ndi.y.-azi,ama.fua.y.oyÍka.

c) The passive form of ukw.ç. i (to know) ukw.aziwa (to be Ì<nown). Its negative present .is tenseis shownin c.9. The.final s of pasiive ueru stemsìJrèt"i"iá i"iïËïiãitir"; e.g.u.y-,aziwa al anga. S:ag thg perfect tense.out aloud with úe nouns in c.2 as subjects.Add 'izolo' (yesterday) after the short tbrÍÌ, and finish with úe nesative: um.faziu.velile, um.fazi u.veleizõlo. um.faziaka.vel.ansa. the woman appeared/ hasappeared,...appearedyesterdãv....didn'taDDear. Read out all the nouns in this üãy, followed by the-three fõrms of the'ferfect tense.This is excellent practice. Now-seewheúer you can use the tenseof the verb fika (arrive). ^pe-rfect Think carefullyarid translatethe fbllowing; then checkyour answers. night arrived,. the thingsarrivedyesteiday, the food didn't arrive, the cloudsarrived, we arrived yesterday,the animal didn't arrive. Section8. Absolute Pronouns Subjectconcordsare prefixed to verbs, but there are also stressedpronouns.calÌed ,absolute pronouns',for all personsand classes.These can stand on úeir oún. They âre shown in the third column (Ç.3) page21..How are theJ composed?They all end in ría.Alì from class2 -ondistinctivecoÍÌsonant onwarosstart wth the for that class(seethe OCc on pase lg) followed bv the vowel o. Read them our aloud. They are all two-sylÌablewords (the,ríof ú.na io.rr-á syllable). what happ_ens,if a'formatiJe' ra, ku or nga,servingas a preposition,is prefixed to an absolute pronou? IroI gt columns4 to 6. The úord-unitistart iryitn!3, hr ot'aga, but they stilÌ oúy contain two syllables.The final na has dropped throughout! Read the.first eight lines of úe notes on page 21.,tben see whether you can translate the phrÍIsesgrvenbelow,usingthe absolute-pronountableson page21,; e.g. it (ili.tu) lg,na, with them (oo.báwõ) = na.bo, to you (plural) = ku.ni, by meansof it (i.moio) = nsa.vo. it (ubu.suku), she (um.fazi), it (the animal), tÌrev (iziir.to).- ' with it íum.thi). with him (g.bawo1,.tothem (aba.fazi), to you'(sing.), ' by mêãnsof it (dü.vo), " DymeansoÌ tnem (lml.tbt). Try to remember úe absolute_pronounsgiven in C.3. Apart from the first five they are fairly easy.tolearn. once you graspthe systemãnd the meaning'ofthe formativesna, ú a;o nga vãï will know the rest. Section9. CooulativePrefixes. This,sectio:ron pSgq2l introducesa distinctivefeature of Xhosa - úe copúative prefix, or cp tor sbort,the equivalentof it is'in English.Each personand eachclassofnoun nasits oím Cp, shownin column 7. I-ook down the colurrn. SomeCPs look farniliar - all exceptfive are fiké

the OCs in S.4. Five however start úú ng. The CPs corresponding to úe tÌree SCs in u are ngu. Those correspondingto SCswhich include an g are nga. How would Vousav'it is I'. 'it is she'(the woman) or'it's thev' (the cars)? You would first fiád the ábsoluteprònoun for 'Í, 'she' or 'íhey' from e.3, namely m.rur.yç.na, zo.np-You would then prefix the relevant CP from C.7, namely ndi, ngu. zi. What do you think mi4t happen? Yes, the.final na will drop, leaving you with the compact, two-syllable woro-u [s MIJIL nsu.ve.zl.z). I-ook at column 8. There vou have the copulativeform (or 'cop' for short) of all úe absolute pronoÌurs.If you want the -negaüve,e.g.'it ìs not I', just piefix adi.You wil finO all the negative copulative forms in column 9. Distinguish,betweenthe copulativeprefix (CP) whicl helps to form the 'cop', and the 'cop' or copulativeitself (a word-unit which includesthe eqüvalent of a verb). Studyúe last eight lines of noteson úis pàge.You will seehow useful the CPsare going to bé. Using columns 7 qg.|: qnd lgferrllì-Cto C.2, try translating úe ghrasesbelow; e.g.it is it (ili.tu) = li.lo, it's not they (iin.taka) = asi.zizn. it is she (um.fazi), it is they (izi.lo), it's not it (in.to), it is I, it's they (imi.thi), it is not you (singular), it is it (uku.tya), it is not he (u.bawo), it is we, it's not they (aba.fazi). Ifyou got at least six right, congratúations! If not, go over this section again and try once more. Section10.Possessive Concords.Possessive Stems Xhosa has a characteristic way of expressingthe word q[. Once you understand the systemyou will eniov using it. Glance at úe first five columnson Daqe22. wherc new nouns have been includtid,with ïheir meaning.Read the first ten lines of th--enoÍes carefully,then study C.1 to C.5 again. The possessiveconcords (PCs) in column 4 refer to the nouns of classesL to 1.5.How are they composed?They all end in g. They all start with the distinctive consonantfor their class,that of the SCc(seeC.5,page 19).As with the SCc,the PC for class6 has no initial consonant,and the PCbfor cÌasses13 and 15 start with l& hg, since followed by g. How can you derive tbe possessivestem of úe absolute pronouns? Ilok at C.5 on page 22, headedPS. The first five'possessivestemswill just have 'to be learnt. After that you aÌ'ready know them. They are úe absolutepronouÌÌs(see page 21) with the final na omitted, as you might expect,sincethe PC úll be prefixed. How would this work in practice? Read through lines L to 10 of the notes agaiq study the following examples,then try translatingthe phrasesbelow. The beautyof it (the blue crane) = Ubu.hle ba.yo. Their lamps(the mOúers') = Izi.baneza.bo. a) The milk of it (the baby). The stonesof them (úe farmers). The beauty of it (the animal). The singing of them (the birds). The opinion of them (the fathers). b) Its tree (the cat's). Their cars (the farmers'). Its food (the horse's). Their trees (the birds'). Is fires (úe night's). So far we have only used the possessivestem (PS) for third person classes.The PS for 1st and 2nd personsis shown in C.5: -m, -ithu. -kho. :!zu. The right-hand side of úe page has sìx columns, showing the PC for all tbe noun classes, prefixed to 1st 2nd and 3rd person possessivestems. Since nouns referring to people usually

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belong to clas:es1,_1a,(sing.),or 2,2a, @L\, the possessive stems-khe (sing.) and gq (plural) naveDeenusedÌor Jro personpossessors; thus: 'her moúer' = u.mamawa.khe.and 'their mother' = u.mamawa.bo. The final a of úe PC combines vdth the initial i of -ithu and -inu. hence u.mama we.úu (our mother) and u.mama we.nu (your [pl.] mother). I-earn úe first line, úth its Cl.l PC wa. Repeat it severaltimes aloud - wa.n4we.thu,wa.kho, we.nu, wa,.khe, you know tÌris line by heart you will -wa.bo 1 and enjoy its =musical sound. Once know all the others! Thus 'my Íamp' isi.bane sa.n! 'our Íiies' = imi.lilo ye.thu'ad 'théir milk = u.bisi lwa.bo. Stydy page 22 and the above notes again, theg see whether you can translate the following, usingthe possessive stems-khe and -bo for 'his/her' and 'their': c) my fire, our lamps, your (sirng.)cat, your (pl.) singing, his moúer, úeir beauty, gy things, their opinion, . your (pl.) trees, my car, your (sing.)fire, your (pl.) food,. Ìus sÌones, our m k, tnerr lÍImp, If you have less than ten corect go over thìs section once more and try again. Section11.The Possessive ConcordKA A specialPC is used before the namesof personslike u.Fani, u.Nomsa.These all belong to clasì la. Other Cl.1a nouns like u.mama,u.bawo can be treated as proper nouns,and fall ínto this group. The PC usedbefore thesenouns is ka if the PC refers tb a-noun úth a vowel SC, and the SC plus !g in other cases. Studythe first five lines of notes on page23 togetherwith columns1 to 5 (the SC is given as a refeiencein C.4), úen translatethe frhrãsesbel-owand checkthe result: the children of mother, the fire of Fani, the food of Nomsa, mother's car, Sipho'sson, Nomsa'sbaby. Section 12. Relative Demonstratives The relative demonstratives,an important group of formatives, are listed in column 6, headed $D,.o-nqagg23,They correspondtõ the Entlisli relative or demonstrativepronounsin phrases Ìike 'the baby,$at of yours' or 'the cats,th,ospof mother'. They refer to (úd point to)-a noun or pronoun which can be erpressedor implied: 'those of yours ( = they, the cats) want fôod'. The RDs, consistingonly of vowels,are prefixed to words or word-units,and you wilì use them again and again.Compareúe vowelsofthe SCslisted in C.4, and the RDs iri C.6: i is lowered to e, u is lowered to e, and a remainsa. Once you know the subject concordsyou can derive the RDs at will. Section13.Possessive and Emphatic Pronouns Study lines 6 to 14 of the notes on page 23. How are the RDs used in practice?In column 7 they are prefixed to the lst person singularpossessiveto form úe possèssivepronoun 'mine' for all classesof nouns:they õanequallÍ well be usedbefore other possessives:ours (our fres) = e.ye.thu; theirs (íhe farmers'opinion) = o.lúa.bo; his (the horse'sfood) = o.kwa.lo; úeirs (the cats mothers) = a.ba.zo. The RDs gan glso be prefixed to absoluteironouns to form'stressedor emphaticpronouns. Comparethe absolute.p.ro-nouns (C.3, pagelt) and the emphaticpronouns(C.9,pageZS): the very one (the child) = o.yena; the very ones(the countriei) = a.wona.

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Reüse úe possessives in section 10. Study the notes on sections11 to 13, together with the relevantcolumnson page 23, then seewhêther vou can Íanslate tbe followiní ohraseswhich all start with a relativè démoristrative(RD). How rnanycan you get right? a) that of_qrng (the son), úose of his (the children), those of ours (the dishes), that of theirs (the singing), that ofhers (the dish). b) that of Fani (the homestead), úat of father (the house), rhoseof Sipho (the sheep), thoseof mother (the countries), that of Nomsa(the singing) c) the very one (the farmer), úe very ones(the houses), the very one (the honey), the very ones(the stones), the very one (the lamp). Section14.Possessives: Jojo and his World So far you have only used the possessive concordsshownin section 10 before possessivestems which are pronouns,e.g.Ìrm.ntwanawa.m (úe child of me, my child). If the possessivestemis a noun, the final a of the PC mergeswith the initial vowel or vowels of ú e n o un :a +a >a , a +i >e , a +i i >ee,a+u > o, a+ oo>oo. This section on page 24 introduces mâny new nouns, and shows how the PC for each class mergeswith, different noun prefixes. Exarnples of PCs in ka are added, as well as examples of pronouns. aDsoluteano possesslve Study the first three lines, which use the Cl,L noun um.ntwana as a base, to understand the pattern of úis page.Refer to sections10 to 13if necessary. Um.ntwanákã.Jojo:Cl.l nounsuse ka as a PC before-Cl.la nounslike u.Jojo. o.ka.Jojo:the Cl.l r-e!a1rçdemonstrative(RD) o is prefixed to ka.Jojoto fbrm a possessive pronoun'that-of-Jojo'. o.wakhe;the Cl.l RD q is prefixed to the possessive wa.khe(um.ntwanawa.khe = his pronoun this'. child) to form the possèssive Yena: This is the Cl.l absolutepronoun (seepage21) referring to um.ntwana. wama.dlelo,we.langa,wo.moya:úe PC of um.ntwana(C1.1)is wa-which mergeswith the initial vowel of ama.dlelo,i.langa,u.moya.The relevantPC and the prefix-vowelsof the nouns are shown in brackets. Nouns from classes2 to 15 are used as a base in the other setsof examples. Read the Xhosa phrasesof each set severaltimes, aloud. You will get used to úe different concords,and you will enjoy their musicalsound.The stopsin VakheÌ, 'bakhe', etc. havebeen omitted, sinceyou now pnderstandtheir construction. Section15.Copulativesof Nouns and Possessive Pronouns You were introducedto the copulativeprefix (CP) meanine'it is'on pase21.There it wasused before absolutepronouns,whièh all stait üth'coósonants.Ìn this seciio; the CP is usedbefore nouns.andpossessivepronouns. Since these all start with a vowel the consonant form of úe CP N USed.

Comparethe CP givenin column2 with úe CPc,its consonantforn4 in column3. What is the difference?The vowelhasdropped,asyou might expect,soyou knowúe CPcalready. Readúe first sevenlinesof úe notes,úen look at column5. Here the relevantCPcis prefixed to the noun givenin column4 to form a copulative,or'cop' for short.Read acrois these columnsfor practice:um.lirni ng.umlimi(a farmer is a farmer), u.nyanang.unyana(a son is a son),etc. prefixinethe correctCPcto the followinsnouns? Canvoubuild copulatives. Clasiesaregivenwherepiéfixesin-uo,u or i do not showthe class."

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a) um.tundi (student, Cl.l), in.kwen-kwe(boy), i.sela (thief, Cl.5), iin.komo (cattle), ama.polisa(police,pl.), imi.lambo (riven), um.gubo(flour, Cl.3), i.nyama(meat, Cl.9), izi.tena (brick), aba.hlobo(friends), isi.tulo (chaiÍ), i.swekile (sugar,Cl.9), i.langa (sun,Cl.5), u.Jojo (Jojo, Cl.la), u.donga(wall, CI.11), ubu.lumko(wisdom), uku.hleka (laughter), oo.mama(mothers). pronoun o.wam(mine) for aIì úe classes.It CoÌumn6 showstbe CPc prefixed to the possessive can also be prefixed to the possessiveso.wethu (ours), o.wabo (theirs), etc. and to their alternativeversionsa.bethu,e.yethu,etc.,in eachcaseadaptingthe CPc to sút the context: i.kati ya.khe(her cat), e.yakhe(hers, = the cat), y.e.yakhe(it's hers). l,ook over C.6 and the above paragraph again, then see whether you can give the 'cop' of the possessivepronouÍrs corresponding to the following phrases. Use Cl.1 and Cl.2 forms for the possessive stemsof 'his'/'her' and 'their'. b) it is yours( =your [sing.]child), itistheirs(= their country), it is his ( = his singing), it is theirs ( = their dishes), it is hers ( = her sons), it is yours ( = your [pl.] honey), it is ours(= our homesteads), it is hers(= let 6r1t;, it is yours ( = your [sing.]stick), it is ours (our houses). Read lines 8 to L3 of úe notes and study C.7 and C.8 which qive the neqative form of the copulatives.Can you give the negative of the following 'cops'? c) l.u.sana, s.isi.lo, k.u.ku.tya, ng.ama.fu, y.ini.thi, z.ii.gusha, ng.um.fazi, y.i.moto, l.ili.tye, ng.oo.bawo, y.e.yakhe, ng.a.bethu, k.o.kwakho, z.e.zabo, l.o.lwakhe, ng.o.ka.mama,z.e.zenlJ,ng.a.wabo, s.e.sika.Fani,b.o.bakho. Studvthe noteson'PersonalCopulatives'on paqe25. It is helpfulto recoqniseand be able to usefersonal 'cops'at will. Canyóu alreqdyunderitand the follo'wingplrraseï?Find the meaning of nèw nounsfr'omthe word li-sts.pp. 56/7,looking them up undeÍ'theírprefix. d) u.Fani u.s.isi.denge,zona (ii.kati) zi.ng.ama.sela,wenau.l.i.üla, aba.ntwanaaba.ngo.ba.fundi,u.Siphoaka.ngo.m.limi, nina ni.ng.aba.pheki, andi.ngo.makhulu(Cl.la), i.dadaali.yo.n.tlanzi(C1.9). ,

Section16.Demonstratives Study tables A and B and the notes on pase 26 to understand the demonstratives and úeir copulativeforms. C.1 of table B givesthe fu-llCP, and C.2 givesits consonantform. Their use wiil dependon wheúer úe demo--nstrative beginswith a corúonantor a vowel. Comparetables A and B to seewhat happens. Table Ç continued on page 27, shows the formatives M nga. ku and kwa prefixed to demonstratives.As expected,their final g drops before a vowel; ku and kwa becomè kw before a and e, and k before o. Possessiveconcords (see p. 22) all end in a. PC-slose their vowel before the initial vowel of demonstratives,and !9, loÀi> t k befoie o. Thus: C1.5,PC la: Ili.zwe la.lo m.limi, l.esosi,lo, l.ezaan taka. (The countryof this farmer, of that animal,of yonder birds.) C1.15,PC kwa: Uku.tya kwa.lekati, lav.ezogush4 k.olwaasana. (The food of this cat, of úose sheep,ofyonder baby.) Study section 16 including tle notes aqain. then test your understandinebv translating the phraies below. Most of th--enouns are Éom page?A, úhere their initiat íoúels are grven rn brackets.Can you work out their full prefix yourself?Check their classin the word lisú:which also give translationsofUg ku and nga.The meaningofthe locatives(+ kwa) used iì iâble C

is eiven in 5.25.4.paee 32. Use the short demonstrative forms before the nouns, and úe longer onãsaspronounóãttér úe nouns,or on their own. a) this child. tiat suÍt vooderwhd, thesepastures,thosefaúers. b) it is ttris únd, it is ihât lioq it is yonderipringbuck (pl.), it is theseanimals, it is those rivers. c) the animal,úis one; the cattle, úose ones; the farmer, yonder one. d) úis one (úe dish); úose ones(the shoes);yonder one (the cup). ei with this thief. with úat iudee. úth thosefools. fí throueh theseplanks, bimeãns of thosebrick, about yonder clay. d) to thiífamilv. io that cliief. to vonderwomen. f,i to the rieht ói thesehouses,in hont of that village, beyondyonder sea. ii' the opinìon of this clerglman,of úat family, of yonder students; the pãrens of theseyoúús, of those girls, of yonder child. If you get half the above right you aÍe well on your way to understandingthe demonstratives. When you try úese phrasesãgainyou wiU do still better. Section17.Ouantitatives Quantitatives form a small group, used either as qualifiers or as pronoÌrns. The varying forms oÌ o.nke and o.dwa (stems ike, ãúa) are easily reõognised.They prefix the SCc as a concord, but some forms of o.dwa show changes. 21, with the forms using úe stem íLua:we.dwa Comoare úe absolutepÍonouns in C.3, page 'g ye.na, fust syllable;m.na (originally mi.na), thi.na iã their an use and ie.dwa. Iike we.na ànd g (nde.dwa, se.dwa,ne.dwa);otherwisethe first in and íi.na ai times have corrêspondingforms pronouns, g. is Thus: vowel.aswith the absolute ili.zwe lo.nke (the wholè country), isi.tyaso.úe (everydish)m.na nde.dwa(I alone), ubu.sibo.dwa(úe honeyonly). The first vowel is also o in the so.ba.bini group. These quantitatives, meaning 'boú', 'all three', 'all four', etc., are bf ttreir nature all-pluial. Once- you have studied numerals you will understand theiÍ construction. Section 18. Enumeratives The enumerativesphil and mbl like demonstrativesand quantitatives,are _usedeither as oualifiers or as pro[ouns. ThJv úefix classconcordssimilar tõ OCs (cf. page 18), exceptthat their Cl.l concoid is wu. They irs-ethe standardCPs(seepage2l), at times with g low-eredto o, and i to e. They can precede'orfollow nouns,but in the lãttèr caseúe initial vowel of the noun drops.Thus: ã.ohi izi.lo? íwhich animals?). nso.wu.phiuÍÍLlimi? (it is which farmer?), u.tuna kati yiìphi (which cat do you-want?), yi.yi.pbi?(it's wbich one?), li.mbi ili.avê (anoiher country), zin.dlu zi.mbi (other houses)' ng.um.thiwu.ìnbi (it's a diffeient tree), ngu.wu'mbi(it's a different one). Phi can prefïx possessiveconcords or prepositional formatives. Phi is often followed by ua to stressthe question: u.mamàwa.lu.phiu.sana?(úe mother of which búy?)' ku.ü.phi na in.ãlu? (to which house?). For pú meaningfuherè?'seepage31. Section 19.Adjectives: Copulatives and Attributive Forms. Their Negatives' Xhosa diúdes the qualiffing words that w9 -call adjectivesinto so-calJed'adjectives' and 'relatives'. since diffèrení coïcords are used for each gfoup. There are only about twenty

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3djective' stems in Xhos4, including six numerals.you will find them in s.2l.a on oaee 30. secuon Iv showsyou how they are used,taking the stem 'de' (long tall) as an example.' " The basic prefix (BP), explaine^din, note l, is used as a copulativeprefix for .adiectives,. c.4

showsits uie aftei thê scl or after the nouís stroú in õ.j, ããffi"d"'o;miãirtlãü-a.rari ta.oe (thewomenaretall), etc.TheBp up to class3 is rn for thJ singuË, ;ì ú-ffïÉJiì"rar. c.5 showsúe attributivefo."l 9t'adjective'stems:um.faziom.de(úe womanúat is tall, úe tall woman).Glanceat c.6 which eryesthe.RD meaning.ttra.i;l-atìãào/ o"j'il s.rzy,'unã comparec.4, c.6 andc.5, in that oider, to find how the 'ãdjective"co"cóo9t(ec; is iormeíri.

by leapingaloudacross thecotumns, e.g.um.tilo .fo1.ns |1tÍ::l.fyk1":,?19, om.oem.oe{me tar tlre"14P,1'ti"" is tail),_etc;,then substituteother ,adjective'stemsfrom 5.21.afor turtherpractlce,e.g.um.faziom.hlem.hle(thebeautifulwomanis beautiful).

c.8 givesthe nesativecooulativeforms:.andi.m.de -- (I am not tall), isi.baneasi.si.de(the lamp isn't-tall),etc.Thlese just frefix the negativJSò.- '- Cj shgwsan imp_ortant concord- the-relativeconcord(RC), alsomeaninq,úat,. How doesit dífferfrom the RD in c.6? It is used,foilowedby ngetròtt, íitit'ã *gãit"J"tïrïürtl"e forms of 'adjective'sterÌÌs,assbownin C.9: e.g.aba.faziaba.nge.bade (wómenthat arenot tall). s.tudythe notes,especially N.6.ut]gN.7.Referto N.7,to s.26.Aandto s.51.1if you are przzted aboutthe concordirsedfór an .adiective' stem.

r"_bJç.t (Sc).andthewidely-used cgpcgrd relariveconcord(RC)shownin 9i.:::l_$gyL!: L,./ on page zõ' you wrll be able to use relative

stems,adverbs,and many other üorcÍ-unitsand phrasescorrectlvat will. Common relative steÌnsaÌe give.nin Ç.2!b on page30. Someperfect stemsof verbsare treated as relative

stems;a few aré givenin S.2r.c.'Tie.te- thústu;-(*àiõ lãii'ii"ur"o u, *

examplein section20.

The copulativeform of the relativemerelyprefixestlre !ç: ndi.shushu(I am hot), um.lilo u.shushu (úe fire is hot).The attributiveforinbrefixesthe RC: (thefire thatis hot.the hoì fire). um.liÌoo.shushu izin.toezi.shushu (úe thingstbat arêhot,tie hoi'úings). Readaloudacrossthe columnsfor practice:ili.tyeeli.shushu li.shushu(the stonethat is hot is hot),etc.substituteotheÍrelativestèms or perfeótst".s a-ãÃS.zi.t;; fò;Àr.th'*ïactice; e.g.um.fazio.diniweu.diniwe(úe womànthatis tiredis tiredj -'- --- ---*'-- r' Negative'cop-'fgnnq showl_in,c.5prefix.thenegativegc: andi.shushu (I'm not bot), etc. Negative.aurìbutive forms(not shown)useúe negitiv" i"fi"-ltlE +l; e.g.uku.tyaoku.nge.shuàhu (foodíhatisn'thot). "ftã;ìhË-nËiï"Ëïot. Adverbs,alsoprefix th.eserelative formatives.Columns7 and 8 showthe formativesusedwith ,n" 'khona'usedas.a locativeadverb(in thatplace,there,present); ?Djo-tll?plo;oun e.9..+g.tí{g (l am present),aba.kho(theyaren'tthere), um.lilou.kho(a fire is présent,úere'is a fire), uku.tyíât r.ttto (thereisn'tanyfood). studythe-notes-on this section, N.6 andN.7.Referto N.7 andto s.26.Aif you are -especially. puzzledaboutthe concordusedfof a relaiivestem.

t4

Further Sections Section 22 is a brief summary of the wide use of the relative formatives. Refer to this section for help if you are uncertain-abouta form encountered,e.g.i.hasheeli.phaya(yonderhorse), i.veki e.za.yo(the comingweek). Sections?3 to29 are largely self-explanatory.Glance through them to seewhat they cover, and refer to úem to check on forms when necessary.Section 28 on 'common derivatives'. for instance, üll help you to derive nouns from ierb stems, or to build abstract nouns or diminutives yourself. Sections30 to 40 cover verbs. Severaltensesare conjugatedin full for easyreference. Stopsare used throughout to stressthe construction. Distinctive participial SCsin e, and subjunctive and temporal SCs in ê, are underlined. Note the use of the infix si or s before monosyllableor vowèl stems in the present tense of the participial, since gl or Swill also be found before these stemsin compound tenses. The remote past (page 19) and the past subjunctive (page 42) both use subject concords followed by g thus nda.bonain eachcasefor the verb bona.They'are pronounceddifferently. The a of úe remote past is long, starting high and falling in tone; the a of úe subjunctiveis short and low. The a of the temporal (page 42),alwaysfollowed by S1 is short and high. The translation of tensescan vary according to the context. The near past perfect tense of funa" for instance,translatedas 'I had sought' on page 38, could also be rendered by'I had been seeking', 'I sought', 'I did seek'; etc. Xhosa tenses may seem confusing at first, but their construction is clear and logical. You will enjoy analysingand mastering them. to Study the verbal suffrxesin section 41 to widen your vocabulary. Sections 41 to 48, relating-will verbó,are of generalinterest.Checkthesesectio-ns if in doubt óver a particular form. You only use section 49, on the conjugation of copulative forms, when you are fairly advanced. Section 50 is a brief suÍìmary of the Xhosa sound system.Section 51 is important for an understandingof consonantand vowel changesin Xhosa. Refer to it often, until you know all thesechanseí.Section52 coversnumerals.You will seldomcome acrossor use lóns numerals in practiceisince they are more often written as numbers, or expressedin English. Iram to say a few of the useful phrasesin section 53. You will immediately get a warm ÍespoÍìse.Irícrease youi treasure-stóre of words from the word lists in section 55 ád practise using them. Speak aloud to yourself at home. Borrow or buy easy Xhosa readers. Enlist the help of Xhosa speakers,watch Xhosa television,or listen to Xhosa broadcastsand tapes.Wiú pra-cticeyou will learn to read, speak and understand Xhosa really well.

15

DEFINITïONS Affix:. a prefix, infix or suffix forming part of a word-unit. Bilabialtonsonants:úose pronounõeãwith both lips (e.s. b. bh. ph. m). Concord: a prefix or affïx-in a word-unit, forming â faúmaiícaÍ liíú with another word, expressedor implied. Coprrtãtive: a wordlunit which includes the equivalent of a verb. It functions as a verb and can be coniueated. Copulativép-refix:a prefix tuming the resultantword-unit into a copulative. Formative:an affrxúhich adds!o, or modifies,the meaningof a word. Infix: a formative element within a word-unit. Iatent-! verb: a verb whose stem formerlv had an initial i. Ilcative: an expressiondenotine.or relaiins to. a olace.Palatalisation:ihe.drawingofthé articulatio-npôinì 1e.g.of a consonant)closerto the palate, ÌnereDvcnangns lts sound. Prefix: a fórmatiie ãlementat the besinnineof a word-unit. QualiÍier or Qualificative: a w-ordwhïú quãlifies a noun or pronoun. Stativeverb: a verb capableof expressingthebeginningand'continuation of a state. JUrrD(:a lonnauve elementat the enclot a word-umt. Vowel verb: a verb whose stem starts with a vowel. Word-unit: an expressionwritten as.asingleword, but composedof different particles,suchas sreÍr! preru(,concordsor Ìormattves,

ABBREVIATIONS Abs.Pr. absolutepronoun eÇ eÇl adjectiv-econcord(s) Adj. adjective,adjectivestem Ant., Antec.,Anteced. antecedent BP basic prefix C consonant / column cf. comDare Cl clasl C1.1,Cl.1a etc. class1, classla etc. Cont.,Contin. continuoUs contd continued CP, CPs copulativeprefix(es) CPc consoriantforni of úè Cp CPnee neqative CP form DV, DVs ãeficient verb(s) e.g. for example etc. etcetera.and so on

Fut. future

Ind.Obj. indhectobiect [V initial vowel or íowels l!, NN note(s),footnote(s) N symbolfor an n subjectto consonantmodifications Neg..neg nesative Og OCí obiect concord(s) OCc consonantform of the OC P. past P" PP. page,pages Part..Particio. particioial PC, PCb pòssestivecoìcord(s)

Perf. perfect (plur) plural Posit. positive Poss. óossessive P.P.,P.Pli.,P.PIur. personplural l'res. presenttense PS,PSs possessive stem(s) p.s..p.sq.,p.sins. personsincular ' relãtiveconcord($ 8C, RG RD relativedemonstrative Rel. relative.relative stem Rem. past remote past RP relative particlè SC,SCs subjectconcord(s) SCc consonantform ofthe SC SCc neg negative form of the SCc SCneg negativeform ofthe SC (sing) singular Sub. subject V vowel Vb, v. verb lps, -lpp first personsingular, flrst personplural Zps,Zpp , secondpersonsingular, seconopersonplurat > Decomes < comesfrom. comingftom / indicatesa followin{addition or alternatrve + plus, prefixed to, followed by, combinedwiú S. section(s)

T6

1. NOUN CIASSES Standard C-iassifi-cation eiass-Preff *Prefix + Noun Stem

2. THE PRESENTTENSE:LONG FORM SC

Present Tense Vb

EngTõrm

#Alternative Class-fficaÌï-on --Câss

(appears)

1 \a

um u

um.fazi u.bawo

(woman,wife) (father)

u-

u.ya.vela

2 2a

aba oo

aba.fan oo.bawo

(yo,men,wives) (fathers)

ba-

ba-ya.vela (appear)

J

um

um.thi

(tree)

u-

u.ya.vela

(appears)

2 sing.

4

imi

imi.thi

(trees)

i-

i.ya.vela

(appear)

2 plur.

5

içD

ili.tu

(cloud) (horse)

li-

li.ya.vela

(appears)

3 sins.

i.hashe

ama

ama.fu

(clouds)

a-

a.ya.vela

(appear)

3 plur.

7

isi

isi.lo

(animal)

si-

si.ya.vela

(appears)

4 srng.

8

ízí

izi.lo

(animals)

zi-

zí.yaxela

(appear)

4 plur.

9

ü{

in.to in.taka i.moto

Iiltr9) (car)

i-

tr"i:"

(appean)

(thines) (bird5)' (cars)

A-

zi.ya.vela

(appear)

i

ama.hashe (horses)

10 i(p)iN izin.to ü

iin.taka ii.moto

**.

l/1a'' 1plur. ll1.a"

l'ït '_lt

5 plur.

11

u{lu) ulu.vo u.sana

(opinion) (bàbv)

lu-

lu.ya-vela

t*p""*; ;.;

14

ubu

ubu.suku

(nigh|

bu-

bu.ya.vela

(appears)

7 Gt"g)

15

uku

uku.tya

(food)

ku-

ku.ya,vela

(appears)

8 (sing)

#)' This alternative classification of nouns is found in Mclaren's 'New Concise Krosa-English Dictionarv' and elsewhere. i) The initial vowelsof the prefix are at times omitted (see5.26). ' Bracketedsectionsof the prefix are onlv usedbefore monosYllabicnouns. Class 1.0nouns however include (z), úd Class 1.1nouns cân use (lu), in úe vocative or axiomaticnesative(S.24.5.26.A$. SeealsoS.25.3b. The underlinédN can lead to coúonant changes(see5.51.1). Xhosahasno separatearticle; u.sana= 'the baby','a baby',or 'baby'. SC = SubjeglConcord (derivedfrqp $e prefix, attachedto the verb, linking the verb with its or lmDlleol. suDlect.exDresseo SCswith consónúts ãre termed 'strong';vowel SCs(u, i, a) are called \peak'. Third person forms.of qku.velq (to appear, ,q come into sight, to come from...) are given above;thus l.ya.vela.(tor.l.qtotol.va.velal = l[ (lne car) appear.s. úe piesentiênseãdàsthãìnÍilEa GEorínaboìe) if ttíe stressis on the vert). Class11 nounsuse the i(z)iN form of Class10 as their plural. Classes12 and 13 of oúèf .Africanlanguagesare not fdund in Xhosa. (usedhere to stressúe constructionof words) are neverfound in practice. -Note: Stoos Thús'èloudsappear/ are appearing'= amafu ayavêla

r7

3. PRESENTTENSE:SHORTFORM:NEGATIVE 4. SUBJECT/ OBJECTCONCORpS Bersonor Noun (expressed or implied)

se

PresentTense SEor-ForÍn-

se Nee

Lstpersonsineular(I) lst personpluïal (wè)

ndi si

ndi.vela phi? si.vela pËi?

a.ndi a.si

2ndpersonsinzular(vou) ' irersonplúal (you) !n$ Jro personctasses

u ni

phi? u.vela 'phi? ni.vela

a.ku a.ni

Prefix Çlass r um

PresentTense

OC

OCc

ndi s1

nd s

aku.veü ani.veli

ku ni

rkw n

m

Negative

NouJr .

#se u

u.vela phi?

a.ka

aka.veli

m

la

u

um.tazl u.bawo

2 2a

aba oo

aba.fazi oo.bawo

ba

ba.vela phi?

a.ba

aba-veli

bab

3

r1m

um.thi

u

u.vela phi?

a.\ru

awu.veli

\ryu

4

imi

imi.thi

i

i.vela phi?

a.yi

ayi.veli

yl

v

r

Í(")

i.hashe

ili.tu

li

li.vela phi?

a.li

ali.v.eli

ü

I

ama

ama.fu

a

a.vela phi?

a.ka

aka.veli

isi

isi.lo

s1

si.vela phi?

a.si

asi.veli

i^

izi.lo

zi

zi.vela phi?

a.zi

azi.veli,

zl

iN

in.to i.moto

i

i:vela phi?

a.u

aü.veli

vt

izin.to iin.taka ii,moto

n

zivela phi?

a.zl

azi.veli

zi

lu

lu.v"ela phi?

a.lu

alu.veli

lu

-l,Y

I

10

iíz)iN ii

l1

uflu)

ulu.vo u.sana

t4

ubu

ubu.suku bu

bu.vela phi?

a.bu

abu.veli

bu

b

15

uku

uku.tya

ku.vela phi?

a.ku

aku.veü

ku

*kw

,'

ku

personclassesreter to nouns \virrrvrivs \

either qinìgula'ror plural, aíd refleòfthèir ciasi. --

SCneg= NesãtiveSC.Thusn$!il++!a_= I appear;and,i.veJi = I don't appear. OC = ObjecíConcord(placedbê_fore theverb-stem,TeFiilng to rheobjèct). OCc = Cõnsonant formbf the OC,usedbeforeverditlms srarungwrrna vowel. Thegeq,of,uFavelE_(9.1n_Rear, to comeinto sight,to comefrom...) is vela; its root is vel. I he > iinaÌ in the-fresent -A -j tensenegativé.úhich never inÍixêsva- ' _ qr$rTlt-.""ryf-e.gsitiye; addsya when tlrç verb is srressed,e.g. if aí-OC is included; .f^hi ya $ omitted if the Stressis on a fõllowing obiect or adverb. , l hus: ba.yp.vFla(they appear);ba.velapfii? (they comefrom where?) ya Decomes y Detorevowel stemsand ye beÌ'orelateút_istems(S.51.4). Th.eindefinite pronoun (it) and-th,eloc-ative (there) useCl. 1.5forms -"' of the SC. *) b, lu becorhe k, ! (rìoÍ kw, lw) before ttìe voríeio fS.5t:cf

18 it

5. SUBJECTCONCORDSBEFORE VOWEI-S Personor Noun (@ressãd or i-mplied)

Se

See Be$otçPast# SÇ. Ses Pres.Passive (lnrü

Lstpersonsinzular lst irersonplu-ral

ndi s is

nd

2ndpersonsinzular 2ndbersonplúal 3rdpersonëlasses

ulv

Class

Prefix

1um la u 2 2a 3um

Negatlve

@-

nd.a.vela s.a.vela

andi and asi as

and.aziwa as.aziwa

w.a.vela n.a.vela

aku *akw

akw.aziwa ataziwa

w

w.a.vela

aka

ak

akaziwa

b

b.avela

aba

ab

ab.aziwa

n in

Noun um.fazi u.bawo

aba oo

a)

u

aba.fazi ba oo.bawo um.thi

u

w

w.a.vela

a\ryu aw

aw.:Ìawa

4

imi

imi.thi

i

y

y.a.vela

ayi

ay

ay.azíwa

s

(li)

ili.tu

li

I

l.a.vela

ali

al

alaziwa

6

arna

ama.fu

a

-

-,a,vela

aka

ak

ak.ulwa

/

lsl

isi.lo

si

s

s.a.vela

asi

as

as.zziwa

8

izi

izi.lo

zi

z

z.a.vela

azi

az

az,aziwz

9

rN

in.to

i

y

y.a.vela

ayi

ay

ay.aziwa

10

i(r)tìl

izin.to

zi

z

z.a.vela

azi

az

az.aziwa

11

u(lu)

uly.vo

lu

*lw

lw.a.vela

alu

*alw

alw.aziwa

1,4

ubu

ubu.suku bu

b

b.a.vela

abu

ab

ab.aziwa

15

uku

uku.tya

ku

rkw

kw.a.vela

aku

rakw

akw.aziwa

--

ku

*kw

aku

Íakw

Indefinite (it)

Before latent-i verbs (551.4) tìe final a of an SC or SCneqbecomese. the infix a beforé the verb ítem. #)' The remote pãsttensèis cháracterised-by nd.a.vela-=I aooeared(at úat time.lonq aso).

Befforevgwel rèrú{Gitt }{èq5ìtítìliig *i1ttã-íb*el) úe infix a combineswith s but Beforelatènt-iverbsthisa > e. dropsbefore e. o (S.51.3ab). Thé deficientv1r:b)anee( ='never.5.48.1)is used.withõr uÃihoutan SCneqandfollowed bv the subiunctive íS36Lìo form úe reríotepast-nesative: " (aka)zánge a.veìe= Íe neverappeared(ai that tiíne,then).

Pres.Passive= Presentterse of the oassive. pasSivestem of the verb ukw.azi (to know). uiye Qe known) is the-prese-nt_ The infix w is characteristicof thè oassiveísee S.38). and.azi:wa(I am not known); info av.aziüa(the thine is not known). The-final a of'the oassivestení Aoesì6ïìEansè to i in"the nesative. .) u of ku,- aku, alu does not > w but dro-psbefbre the voïel Ig. o (S.51.3c).

19

6. FUTURETENSES Person ryggrFqture -Cl or-FIFun / rìegauve lst p.sing. Lstp.plur.

7. PERFECTTENSE

Conlr=asted Future

Eqture.

/ Neganve

/ Negatlve

ndi.zakuvela ndi.vakuvela andi.zi kuvela údi.vi kuvela si.za kuvela si.va krivela asi.zi kuvela asi.yi kuvela

2ndp.sing. u.za kuvela 2ndp.plur. 1 uÍrfazi

Perfect I-ong/S-E-oiTNeqative

ndo.vela ndi.velile ndi.vele andi.kuvela andi.vel.anga so.vela si.velile SÌ.vele asi.kuvela asi.vel.anga

u.va kuvela aku.zi kuvela - aku.vi kuvela ni.zakuvela ni.va kuïela - aniyi kuvela ani.zi kuvela

wo.vela aku.kuvela no.vela ani.kuvela

u.velile u.vele aku.vel.anga ni.velile ï.vele ani.vel.anga

u.zakuvela u.vakuvela - akayi kuvela aka.zikuvela

wo.vela akayu.vela

u.veüle u.vele aka.vel.anga

bo.vela aba.kuvela

ba.velile ba.vele aba.vel.anga

2 abafaa. ba.za kuvela

aba.zi kuvela

ba.va kuvela aba.fi kuvela

3 umúi

u.za kuvela u.ya kuvela awu.zi kuvela -awuyi kuvela

wo.vela u.velile u.vele awu.kuvela awu.velanga

4 imiúi

i.za kuvela ayi.zi kuvela

i.ya kuvela - ayi.yi kuvela

Yo.vela - ayi.kuvela

i.velile i.vele ayi.vel.anga

5 ilitu

li.za kuvela ali.zi kuvela

ü.yakuvela - ali.yi kuvela

lo.vela ali.kuvela

li.velile li.vele ali.vel.anga

6 amafu

a.zakuvela a.va kuvela aka.zi kuvela - aka.yi kuvela

-o.vela aka.kuvela

a.velile a.vele aka.vel.ânga

7 isilo

si.za kuvela asi.zikuvela

si.ya kuvela - asi.yi kuvela

so.vela asi.kuvela

si.velile si.vele asi.vel.anga

8 izilo

zi.zatxwvela azi.zi kuvela

zi.va kuvela - azi.yi kuvela

zo.vela azi.kuvela

zi.velile zi.vele aziste!.anga

9 into

i.zakuvela ' ayi.zi kuvela

i.ya kuvela - ayi.yi kuvela

Yo.vela - ayi.kuvela

i.velile i.vele ayi.vel.anga

10 izinto

à.zakltlela zi.ya kuvela - azi.yi kuvela azi.zikavela

zo.vela azi.kuvela

zi.velile zi.vele azi.vel.anga

11.uluvo

lu.za kuvela lu.ya kuvela - alu.yi kuvela alu.zi kuvela .

lo.vela alu.kuvela

lu.velile lu.vele alu.vel.anga

bu.ya kuvela -abuyi kuvela

bo.vela abu.kuvela

bu,velile bu.vele abu.vel.anga

ku.za kuvela ku.ya kuvela -aku.yi kuvela aku.zi kuvela

ko.vela aku.kuvela

ku.velile ku.vele aku.vel.anga

14 ubusuku bu.za kuvela

abu.zi kuvela

15 ukutya

fi*lÍâ*i:tâ=1ffi-"f ,ïËBËl'(,1,'*iJlyiuappear(now,soon)' 7',,fi Ihe contractedtutures ,. pCg.ÌiuJelaretc. (not use{ in .CI.l) and ndo.vela,etc. have

ïãiïHffi i'ïï;'t*ffi;#*._*tf I.iH..r*!Í',;lffi ;",:ï; "dtgifi wnen tne verb N stressed,not a tollowlng adverbor noún,etc. 20

l

9. COPUI-ATIVEPREFDGS

8, ABSOLUTEPRONOIINS

m"

ffiffiffi

lst p.se. lst b.pl.

rn.na thi.na

na.m na.thi

2nd p.ss. 2nd f.pï.

we.na ni.na

1 La

um.fazi u.bawo

2 2a

cl

nsa +

CP

Copulative Prefix +

ffiÍPr

íItist

Abs-E--@

ku.m ku.thi

nsa.m nEa.thi

ndisi-

ndi.m si.thi

na.we na.ni

ku.we ku.ni

nga.w.e ngunga.ru Ìì1-

ngu.we asi.nguwe

Ye.na

na.ye

kuJe

n81;Ye

ngu-

ngu-ye

aba.fazi oo.bawo

bo.na

na.bo

ku.bo

ngp.bo

nqa-

nga.po asi.ngabo

J

um.thi

wo.na

na.wo

ku.wo

nga.\ro

ngu-

ngu.wo

asi.nguwo

4

imi.thi

yo.na

na.yo

ku.yo

nga.yo

yr-

yl.yo

asiyiyo

5

ili.tu

lo.na

na.lo

ku.lo

nga.lo

li-

li.lo

asi.lilo

6

ama.fu

wo.na

n?.wo

ku.wo

nga.ìÍo

Írga-

nga.wo

asi.ngawo

isi.lo

so.na

na.so

ku.so

nga.so

sr-

si.so

asi.siso

8

izi.lo

zo.Íta

ku.zo

Iìga.zo

zi-

n,zo

asi.zizo

9

in.to i.moto

yo.na

'ta.zo na.yo

ko,'yo

ncqyo

yt-

u.yo

asl,vrvo

10

izin.to ii.moto

zo.ia

ta.zo

ku.zo

nga,izo

zt-

zLzo

así.zizo

11

ulu.vo

lo.na

na.lo

ku.lo

nga.lo

lu-

lu.lo

asi,lulo

1.4

ubu.suku

bd.na

na.bo

ku.bo

nga.bo

bu-

bu.bo

asi.bubo

lf,

uku.tya

#ko.na

na.ko

ku.ko

nga,ko

ku-

ku.ko

asi.kuko

.rÌl

asi.ndim asi.sithi asl.nmt

asl,nguve

The absoluteDronoun(Abs.Pr) for eachperson and classcan be used on its ovn as a stressed oronóú (subiector obièct): úna ndi.vahamba(I, I'm going), ba.funathina (theywant us). '#) The fcìrmkbo.na is âlso used;e.g.si.na.khouku.dada(cf.S.44.b). The formativesua-,,b-, nga-sgrveasprepositionsetc. in Xhosa. na- = with:ãnó.ãlso:ãc. (thus ná.wé = wiú vou; vou too; etc.) 6- = to. ai. in'from. amoòs (see5.25.1);in cômpãrisonwith, than; etc. nea- = bú mêarisof. úroushi üth, bv, on; about,õoncerning;etc. If tbe-seare prefixed to âbsoluïepronouós,the latter drop their'tinal -na. CP = CopulativePrefix.The CPsshownabove,meaning'it is', calt be pqefixed,to pronounsor (S.15)or deúonstratiVes(5.16'8), replacingthe üerb uku.ba, possessives nô'uns(S.A,1S), 'to be'. Ifa CP is prefixedto absolutepronounsthesedrop their final -na: _ ngu.wé(it isyou) asi.ngu.we(itis notyou). ,, " _ vowels _ -Í_ ,,ìrì^\ ^. -_ further (CPc) and tsoÍ trre corÌsonanrtorm df the ìopulatiíe prefix used before examolesseeS.15.16.8. Negativã ÕF fõúÀ can prefix asi- or ayi'; e.g. ayi'ngu.we (it is not you). -) LI

':

10. POSSESSIVECONCORDS . POSSESSIVESTEMS

or Noun Berson (expressed or -implied)

PE

PS

lst personsinzular lst personpluÍal

(that those) ot --m -

-ithu

2ndpersonsinzular 2ndpersonplu-ral

-

-kho -inu

mv

I um.limi (farmer) wa7a u.mama (motheí)

-khe

wam

2 aba.limi (farmers) ba-

-bo

ba.m

2a oo.mama (motheri)

#our

vour

#your

(plur)

his E-er

their

we.thu wa.|ho

w9;nu

wa.khe

wa.bo

be.thu ba.kho

be.pu

ba.khe

bu,Po

fti-ng)

(fire)

wa-

-wo

wa.m we.thu wa.kho

we.nu

wa.khe

wa.bo

4 imi.lilo

(fires)

ya-

-yo

ya.m

ye.thu

ya.kho

ye.nu

ya.khe

ya.bo

5 ili.tye

(stone)

la-

-lo

la.m

le.thu

la.kho

le.nu

la.khe

la.bo

6 ama.tye (stones) a-

-wo

a.m

e.thu

a.kho

e.nu

a.khe

a.bo

7 isi.bane (lamp)

sa-

-so

sa.m

se.thu

sa.kho

se.nu

sa.khe

sa.bo

8 izi.bane (lamp$

za-

-zo

za.m

ze.thu

za.kho

ze.nu

za.khe

za.bo

9 in.dwe (blue crane) vai.kati ' (cat)

-yo

Yl;m

ye.thu

va.kho

ye.fu

va.khe

va.bo

10 izin.dwe cranes) zaiin.taka bird.s)'

-zo

za.m

ze.thu za.kho

ze.nu

za.khe

za.bo

lwa.m lwe.thu lwa,kho

lwe.nu

lwa,frhe lw"a.bo

ba.m

be.nu

ba.khe

J

um.lilo

(ofl me, it, etc.

ü.kati

ca$)

11 ulu.thi u.bisi

(stick) (Ínilk)

*lwa- lo

14 ubu.hle (beauty) ba-

-bo

15 uku.cula (singing)*kwa- -ko *kwaI-ocative -kho

be.thu

ba.kho

ba.bo

kwa.m kwe.thu kwa.kho kwe.nu kwa.khe kwa.bo

Xhosapossessives corresoondgg_tgposse,ssive adjectives,my',,its',etc. startwith a pc {re (Po3sessive Concord)ïel

rhi.ÌJ.io_ilï;":8"üïil$tËï'ï!ljï$Jï,iõilitfi!ïi3:iï:!,onq,",np absorute pronoun (s.B), rndrcating thepossessor(s). The absolúiepronbunfor the locativeËkliõ;á--'---

The PÇsfor all c-lasses, and the PSsfor all personsandclasses of pronouns,are shownin the tableabove.Many'combinations areoo'siible:thG -' !0ylamp_=,*tlqryt,ftt'qt) of.[PCCl.7],(of) me [PSlst p.sing.], = tsr.Danesa= lslbanesam -m. itS milk = úe milk, that of it (the cat;-= u.6isi lwa- -vo = ubisi lwavo. (Nole rnarpos.s.esslves are normally placediinmediatelvaftér their nouãl)ror íLs louowedby nouns(e.g.the lamp,that of niother)seeS.11,14. #) a + i> e(S.51.3a);thus wa + ithu > we.thu; wa + inu > we.nu. etc. their a befor.eth^e^I^! (gitial vqyel) of demonstratives(NN.pp.24.26)and LÇtloqç pc attnbutive

pronouns (5.19,20). Thecl.6

ú ãfieidèmoiítiãtiïè(6i.zs,ul. s- prefixes

*) lwa, kwa + i,e > lwe, kwe (S.51.3a,b);lwa, kwa + u,o > lo, ko,

22

11. THE POSSESSTVE CONCORDKA

/ EMPHATIC PRONOUNS 13. POSSESSIVE

12.REI-ATIVE DEMONSTRATTVES

of mother

Possessive RD Pronouns taat/ ih-at/iEose thos'eof mine/of mother

milouní meverv '

ka.mama

o-

o.wam

o.ka.mama

o.yena 't'

baka.mama a-

a.bam

a.baka.mama

a.bona

The PC ka

sc +-ema

Cl Noun I

um.ntwana (child)

la u.nyana (son)

u

2 aba.ntwana(children) ba 2a oo.nyana (sòns)

one(s)

um.zi (homestead)

u

ka.mama

o.wam

o.ka.mama

o.wona

imi.zi (homesteads)

I

ka.mama

e.yam

e.ka.mama

e.yona

ili.zwe i.khaya

li

lika.mama

e-

e.lam

e.lika.mama

e.lona

ka.mama

a-

#a.w.an

a.ka.mama

a.wona

e.sika.mama

e.sona

e,zam

e.zika.mama

e.zora

countrv) home)"

aÍna.z\re (countries)

.ì'-

Emohatic

isi.tya

(dish)

izitya

(dishes)

zl

zika.mama

(house) (sheep)

i

ka.mama

e-

e.yqn

e.ka.mama

e.Yona

zl

zika.mama

e-

e.zam

e.zika.mama

e.zora

9 in.dlu i.gusha

sika.mama

10 izin.dlu (houses) ii.gusha (sheep)' 1 1 u.sana

(baby)

lu

Iuka.mama

o.lwam

o.luka.mama

o.lona

74 ubu.si

(honey)

bu

buka.mama

o.bam

o.buka.mama

o.bona

ku

kuka.mama

o.kwam o.kuka.mama

o.kona

I

15 uku.cúa (singing)

nourÌs with consonantSCs.

RD = Relative Demonstrative. The RD can be derived from the SC vowel of the noun to which it refers,with ! loweredto e, and u loweredto o. The RD can be prefixed to: (S.10)to form Dossessive pronouÍÌs: 1) possessives umlilo wà.m ímv fire):'o.wam (mìne.mv own): nq.o.wam(it's mine): its ovün): ubisi lwa.voíits-milk': the cat'ò): o.lwavo(itó tmilkl. pr'onoìns;-thusfor Cl.9 in.dlu: 2)' nounsshowirísp'ossessors to form pôSsessivé e.ka.bawoïhat of father): e.va + u.sana! e.vo.sana(the babv's): 3) absoluteoronoìns (S.8)to fóím êmDhaticnronoúns:e.soòasi.wa1S.26.A4ithe verv dish). s.e.sona(it's the veìy ohe), Theseoften cqinbinewiú attributiíes ìo form superlatíves: e.sonàsi.wasi.dala.the (verv) oldestdish. 4)' copulatives of adjectiús, to irrodúceattri-butiveforms (S.19): ' rrm.ffii o.m.dé (a treé úai is tall. a tall tÍee). Cooulativeorefixescaì be usedbefore RD forms: ns.o.ka.mama(it is mother's). #)The infii w is usedbetweenúe RD and the clasí6 PC a to sefarate vowels.'

23

14. POSSESSIVES: JOJO AND HIS WORLD Um.ntwanaka.Jqjq;o.kaJojo; o.wakhe. The child of J; thatof J; his. (C1.1, Yena wama.dlelo.we.lansa.wo.mova. PC wa + á. i. u.) He (the child) of the flastures,of the sun,of the wind] Aba.zalibaka.Joio;a.baka.Joio:a.bakhe.The parentsof J: thoseof J: his. Bona bama.séla. la. bezi.denÁe. bezi.dense.boo.tsotsi. íC1.2PC ha + a, i, oo.) ëï.2"pïbï? They (the párents) oarents)of ìhé thieves, thieves-of oí the fools, of the tìotsis. Um.zi ka.Joio;o.ka.Joio:o.wakhe. The homesteadof J: úat of J: his. Wona.wáma.doda,-wêen.komo, wo.mbona. (C1.3'PCwa + a, ii, u.) .' It (the homestead)of the men, of the cattle,of úe maize. lmi.buzo ka.Joio:e.ka.Joio:e.yakhe.The questionsof J: thoseof J: his. Yona yaba.fundi,yenlnÍerikwe,yom.ntüana. rc14 PC va + a. i. u.) Thêy (the queótions)of the siudents,of the boy, of thè child. I(li).zwe lika.Joio;e.lika.Joio:e.lakhe. The land of J: that of J: his. ' (C1.5PC la + a^i. u.) Ì-ona lama.bhadi,len.gõnyama,lom.limi. It (the land)ofthe spiingbuck(pÌ),ofthe lion, of theïarmer. Ama.nzi ka.Joio:a.ka.Joiol#a.w.akhe. The water of J: that of J: his. Wona.a.ma.dama, eni.lambo, o.l-wandle. (Cl.ó PC a + a, i, u.) It (the water) of the damd,of úe rivers,of the sea. Isi.Wasika.Joio:e.sika.Joio: e.sakhe.The dishof J: that of J: his. Son_a sa.má.gandq (Cl.Z tC sa + a, i, u.) se.íyar44 soku.ryg. It (the dish) of eggí,of meat,oífood.

8 Izi.hlanguzika.Joio:e.zika.Joiol e.zal lo; kwa * u > ko.

24

15. COPUI.ATTVESOF NOUNSAND POSSESSIVEPRONOUNS CP

rCPc

1 La

nzu

nq

um.ümi u.nyana

2 2a

nqa

nq

aba.limi ng.abalimi ng.apam oo.nyana ng.oonyana

ngu

ng

um.zi

ng.umzi

ng.owam

asi.ng.o.mzi

asingo.wam

4

r

v

imi.zi

y.imizi

y.eyam

asi.y.o.mizi

asiyo.yam

5

li

I

ili.zwe

l.ilizwe

l.elam

asi.l.o.lizwe

asilo.lam

6

nga

ng

ama,zwe ng.amzìzwe ng.av/am

asi.ng.o.mazwe asingo.wam

7

si

s

isi.tya

s.isitya

s.esam

asi.s.o.sitya

asiso.sam

I

zl

z

izi.tya

z,izitya

z.ezam

asi.z.o.zítya

asizo.zam

9

yt

v

in.dlu

y.indlu

y.eyam

asi.y.o.ndlu

asiyo.yam

10

zí

z

izin.dlu

z.izindlu

z.ezam

asi.z.o.zindlu

asizo.zam

11

lu

I

ulu.úi

l.uluthi

l.olwam

asi.l.q.luthi

asilo.lwam

14

bu

b

ubu.si

b.ubusi

b.obam

asi.b.s.busi

asibo.bam

15

ku

k

uku.cula

k.ukucula

k.okwam

asi.k.q.kucula

asiko.kwam

cl

trii E

Noun

is) -CPg(It + NOUn

CPc(IÍis) .. CPc(Itis) + +

mrne

ng.umlimi ng.orvam ng.unyana

#not

Noun

asi.ng.q.mlimi aslng.o,nyana

CPc(It is)

#trotffi

asingo.wam

asi.ng.o.balimi asinso.bam asl.ng.q.o.nyana

'.t

= lhe consonant

nq.o.wam.etc. (seep.23). Column 6 = CPc + RD + Dossessive: #) NeeativeCPc forms canbrefix asi- or-aü-l e.s.aü.nÈ.o.Íilimi (cf.p.2l.N). ' Thë initial vowel of úe ioun prefx is élidedìn f he íegative còpúlative and replacedby o. Both vowels drop in the caseõf ii. rrie.22.23\follow the abovepatternt thus for Cl.9 indlu (house): Aìl possessives è.yethu(ourb)i y.éyefhu(it's ours), asiyb.yethu(it's not ours). PersonalCooulatives mFousE-iEël-mDersonalcopulativeorefix ( = 'it is') is at times translatedas 'helshe is' or 'thev are' for"conveniênce,the túe pçrsoiralcofulative (I am, he/she/it is, úey are, etc.) is clearly distinguishedin Xhoía. Personal coDulativesuse the relevant SC, and at times a noun or pronoun, before the impersonalcboulative.which can belonqto a different class: 'ns.umfazi ïit's a wóman). but ndi.nã.umfazi(I am a woman): uir.limi u.y.indoda(Cl.í) /-yena u.y.ïndoda (the farmer is aman / he is a man). In the neeativeDersonalcopulativethe negativeSC (p.18)replacesasi: asi.ndú.we(it's not vou). but aka.nzu.úe(he isnT you); (cloiidsare not birds). andi.].o.katì(t'm nót a'cat), ama.fríaka.z.b.ntaka

16. DEMONSTRATTVES A lst. 2ndand3rd PlaceDemonstratives#

!bis/ thal/

B. Copulativesof Demonstratives#+

1 um.limi lo

lowo, loo

lowa, laa

it is CPc fuflJleil/ vonder. e1c. ngu ng ngu.lo ngu.Ioo ngu.laa

2 aba.limi aba

abo

abaya,abaa

nga

3 um.zi

lo

lowo, loo

lowa, laa

ngu ng

ngu.lo

ngu.loo ngu.laa

4 imi.zr

le

leyo, loo

l"yq

yry

yrJe

yi.loo

yi.laa

5 ili.zwe

eli

elo

eliya, elaa

ül

Leli

l.elo

l.elaa

6 ama-zwe la

lawo, loo

lawa" laa

nga

nga.la

nga.loo nga.laa

7 isi.tya

esr

eso

esiya, esaa

s is

s.esi

s.eso

s.esÍuI

I

ezi

ezo

eziy4 ezaa

z iz

z.ezi

z.ezo

z.ezaa

9 in.dlu

le

leyo, loo

leya, laa

viy

yr.le

yi.loo

yi.laa

10 izin.dlu

ezi

ezo

eziya, ezaa

z iz

z.ezi

z.ezo

z.ezaa,

11 ulu.thi

olu

olo

oluya, olwaa

lu l

l.olu

l.olo

l.olwaa

14 ubu.si

obu

obo

obuya,obaa

bub

b.obu

b.obo

b.obaa

15 uku.cula oku

oko

okuya, okwaa

kuk

k.oku

k.oko

k.okwaa

Cl Noun

izi.tya

these those

CP

Yalder

laa

ng

ng

ng.aba ng,abo

ng.abaa

C. PrepositionalFormativesplusDemonstratives#+ Cl

!g'

(with, and, etc.)

Noun#

nga* (through, about, etc.)

Noun#

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 15

na.lo n.aba na.lo na.le n.eü na.la n.esi n.ezi na.le n.ezi n.olu n.obu n.oku

na.loo n.abo na.loo na.loo n.elo na.loo n.eso nezo na.loo n.ezo n.olo n.obo n.oko

m.limi ba.limi m.zi mi.zi li.zwe ma.zwe sitya zr.wa n.dlu zin.dlu lu.thi bu.si ku.cula

nga.Io ng.a.Da nga.lo nga.f9 ng.elr nga.la ng.esl ng.ezr nga.le ng.ezr ng.ofu ng.o,Du ng.oKu

m.limi ba.limi m.zí mi.zi ü.zwe

na.laa n.abaa na.laa na.laa n.slaa na,laa n.esaa i.ezaa na.laa ÍL.ezaa n.olwaa n.obaa n.okwaa

nga.loo ng.apo nga.loo nga.loo ng.elo nga.loo ng.eso nE e?o nga.loo ng.ezo ng.olo ng.obo ng.ot(o

nga.faa ng.abaa nga.!aa. nga.laa ng.elaa nga.laa ng.esaa ng.ezaa nga.laa ng.ez,aa ng.o_lwaa ng.o_baa ng.okwaa

ma.Nte

si.tya zr.wa n.dlu zin.dlu lu.thi bu.si ku.cula

Demonstrativescan be used algy:] tF^.t pronouns,the contractedforms usually as qualifiers,andúe fult formsmÍuruvasDronouns: -g:-^as loo n.dlu.(that-house); in.dluleyo(tïe house,thatone);levo(thatone). .LÍ)c:nrve anornoetrÍntedemoÌ.rstÍqqves (afteí that). ugecI.15forms: cP = copulative =-ÕPTõrm einva'k.oÌo

Prefix(s.e.N)-CPC

ìi$A bõfóì;;õèj.'fS:Ì5.iïi.''

The longer.2ndand 3rd place demo-nstratives are not shorvnin (B) and (c) above. Note: thé final a of the tônger3rd pracèdeúóniúãìivèíi-J üilòuáëiì'ràïúy-rïïgì' jts.Iv *) {|loJ_np_ r999oeoDya demonstrativelosesìts los.es (inirialvowel fV (initial vowel or or vowels): vowels): fl1o;gnp^p;..j^.^9 a.pjrDa.r.azr (these_by^{qponstrative women), z.gzomoto (it is úosei cars).

+)' CPs preposltlonaltormatives.can urs ano andp1e'positional foriíaÌìvéi èãíúêãóãed be addedto t,;à[ all dêmonstratives,includine the placetorms, longer ronger 2rid ztr(I ahdJro ano 3rd place foús. Nesãtive Neqatlve õpi;;ãfi' .. Cps Dre

')

gï'ü?HâxiÍit'ru:Jruii jï1?3i'JÌ;:',v",hmg#,r,i'it{üsì? na, !ga, kwa and PG lose their a beïore the IV of

16. pEMONSTRATTVES(CONTp)

c. PrepositionalFormativesp_lusDemonstratives(contd) cl

b*

I

ku.lo kw.aba ku.Io ku.le kw.eli ku.la kw.esi kw.ezi ku.le kw.ezi k.olu k.obu k.oku

2 3 À 5 6 8 9 10 11 t4 15

À

(to, at, etc) ku.loo kw.abo ku.loo ku.loo kw.elo ku.loo kw.eso hv.ezo ku.loo kw.ezo k.olo k.obo k.oko

ku.laa kw.abaa ku.laa ku.laa kw.elaa ku.laa kw.esaa l kw beforè ç, i and k before'o.

2. bg3 (to, at, from, etc. the place of)ìs prefixg_d-to.proper nouns,or to place namesseenas the namesofpeople. and the initial võwel (IV) dioos: kwa.Fani(at Fani's place), kwa.Langa(in langã) 3. Ilcati-ve e is.prefixed to nouns,which lose their IV, and often modifo their final vowel: pìçqr,,eì.eryri>ini,. o >weni, u>wini. Howevero>eni and u>iniafterf,v,w,andafter DllaDlals ( D. bn. rÌL mD. mD. Dh):

in.dlu'> e.n.dlwiniíinihè líouse). ama.fu > e.ma.fini(in the clouds) a) Cl.5 monosyllabicnbunscan use'theshort prefix !, replàcingit with q: eI.zwe < llr.zwe. or e.zwent< l.zwe (to. ln. Ìrom the countrv). b) C1.10and Cl.l 1 nouú of more than one svllâblêuie the full prefix í/in or izi. -ulu: . - ii.moto > ezi.mqtweni(to the cars), u.daka > elu.dakeni'(inthe-mud)l' c) ,It nounsend in o, u ãfter bílabials,theseare at times palatalisèdbefore -éni. -ini: b > tJ, bh >i m > ny, mb > nj. mp.>ntsh,ph,>tsh (cf.S.38.3). t.gumDr(room) > e,gumD.lru. but um.tamDo(nver) > em.lant.erìr. d) PlacenameSprefú e, bu-tnormally.donot add a sìffix:'i.Kapa > é.Kapa. e) Quite a few nbunsuse locative9 without a suffix: e.khaya(at home), _e-busuku_(at night), e.garaji(to, in the garage). __ Notg: Pre-loêatives (S.51.3d)is prefüed tõ lóóatiüesrn e ro separarevowelsarrer Íbrmativesor concordsendingin a vowel,e.g.u.s.ekhaya(lie/she is at home). 4. The following locativesuse their PC kwa ( = of, S.10)before nouns.Dronounsand demonstrativès(seepage27.Cfor examples).Thev óanbe precedeilbv nsa( + pre-locativeg beforé a vowel),e.g.nga.s.êkhohlo(on thè left).

ekhohlo (on to. úe left) ekunene lon to. the rislít) *phambi (in froít. befõreÍ phakathi Oetweeí,withiú) (above) èntla

oheshevaacros.s,beyond) *irhezu up, above,on top) phantsi oowÌr,below) ezân$r emva

below.beneáth) behinil, after) '

h.efore gk!ol+p,ekunc.ne^use Cl..lanouns-(c{.p.p). $fu kudp(!ar) ald kutuptri (near)usena(at times!!1 bèfoíepronouns):

kuile ía.loo ndlú ífai froú that hoüse). kuilohi naboTkuboínéar themì *) When usedwithoüt kwa úe longer foíins phdmbili,pliezulu àre preferréd.

26.INTTÏAL PREFIX VOWEI,S

*) After droppedinitial vowelsjn stemsusethe BP (S.19) theseqs,es(as shown)^adjective ' and relativè stemsusethe SC (S.20) of the Ìroun quaÍifieil.

E. L or ilIf5)]n futuretenaes-favaku.hamba(thev'lleo) 2. if the a oúmoseíusuaüvafterÍa or za) ='comeForilei-to ícóme'and Ìeed =-come fi-order'tofeedthebabv) babv vizaku.tvisausãna(cdme andfeed ( g a t u :_'s, +.j a' +..! * > anda a ì_9, a.RCsfor 'r the first two persorÍsare thus endi @+ndi),est(a-+s. , giveri belów, explains its use in compound tenses. e.s. in the

lï':'S,'Àffi Í"il"Ì"Ì. '3."'iÌ#(h-cï'}'"ffi tãçËi ,ïï*"^ÌirÉ'i,!ã.ïaïâ'ffïi,ï'iï;iì"Ëì&r ïuiãïPfFè'SJ,:ïãìL {;iinü.iip ?Ë.s.iï.j$i the neaf Dast- ânÍl the contrâcfêíì

neqr qn?l rcmnta noc-r

2í 22\

^+.e ar€orìútted. in.iheiliõiiei formJ(;óúõffi sõì,';ìd and thé ih.'ïBiüË'"d'6-,'d of be befoíe .B_1?gt:J",0 e vowels). Infixed "1:.tions w and y are underlined.

cl 1

2 J

4

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 L4 15

RP+SC>RC a +u > o a + ba> a.ba a +u > o a +i > e a +li > e.l i a +a > z a +si > e.s i a +zi > e.z i a +i > e a +zi > e.z i a +l u> o.l u a + bu> o.bu a + ku> o.ku

Noun umãzi aba.fazi um.zi imi.zi ili.zwe ama.zvÌe isi.lo izi.lo in.dwe izin.dwe ulu.thi ubu.suku uku.tya

NgarP4st/Rem.Past Contracted

o.b.eivela. a.De.De.vela o.b.u.vela e,D.r.vela e.be.li.vela a.b.e.vela. e.De.sl.vela e.be.zi.vela e.b.i.vela. e.De.zl.vef a o.be.lu.vela o.be.bu.vela o.be.ku.vela

o.wa.-y.e.veìa a.ba.be.vela o.wa,ry,u,vela e.va.v.t.vela e.Ia.l-ivela a.w.a.y.e.vela e,sa.sl,vela e.za.zi.vela e.ya.y.i.vela e.za.zr.vela, o.lwa.lu.vela o.ba.bu.vela o.kwa.ku.vela

I Rel#ive Conjuuctions: l.hese,. hke xa,xenikweni(w.hgtr), mhla (the daythat),okuya(thenwhen),kuseloko(from úe gqe t!pO,_saqgona, nokcì(atth'óugh), àe usúárii rólrõ;õ'd Ëi'úè ;;Í;t'iËìã-rËìdìË';;õ -- (withCl.Í SCa)l at timesbvìbe par"tiéíoial fS:4.Sjl: e.g.xa a.tunda.yo / xag-.fundã(whênhd reads).'

36

30. THE INDICATIVE MOOD: PRIMARY TENSES NegativeInfinitive: uku.nga.hambi(not to go).

Infinitive: uku.hamba(to go).

lps

PresentTense(I go /^l aq going) (seepp.17,18) "- 'ShortForm Negajive{Idon'tgo / l'm not going) ÏitËÍdifi-'úilì.hambi ndtEa-mba ãã-r-ETãm-ba

los

PerfectTense(I went / I haveeone) (seep.20) Nesative(I didn't go / haven'tgone) ShortForín Ens Form ããìli.ï-amlìanea ndifambendtffimUife

I ps

Remote PastTense(qeep.:19) nd-a-5ambt(-v/ent(then))'

Neg*live (seenote re zange,p.19) (andr)zangenü.namDe (l neveÍ wenl)

lps

p.20) NearFutureTense(see ' nA.zaFlamUa I shall/ will go (now,soon)

Neeative andiZihr.hamba I shall / ú11 not go (now, soon)

trSçjleuse (seep.2j) Short Form

Nesative

Fu-l[Fprm.

I os '

F-ullForm ndo.hamba ndi.va ku.hamba I shall / will go (then)

_ IDS -

(Full Form) FgÍure,Cgnting,oJrs nor.vaKu,Dânol.namDa I shall / will be going

Nggatiye,(FullFonq)

Shgrt,For.m

andi.üku.hamba andu.hamba I Shall / will not go (then) nor.va KuDancl.nqa.namDl I shall / wiÌl nõt be going

31. THE INDICATTVE MOOD: NEAR PAST CONTINUOUSTENSE i + Nea! PastCon;tinuousNggative ,. I wasnot / havenot DeenseeKlnq

* + Nea=r PastÇontirluous I was/ havebêën-seekine

FqlLFor+-

lDs

1bo 2bl Zbo Clil " 2 ". 3 4 " 5 ' 6 ' 7 " 8 ' 9 ' 10 ' 11 " 14 " 15 Indef.

ndl.be ndl.tuna

si.besi.funa u.beu.funa ni.beni.funa u.bee.funa ba.bebe.funa u.beu.funa i.bei.funa ' li.beli.tuna a.bee.funa si.beìi.funa zi.bezi.funa i.bei.tuna zi.bezi,funa lu.belu.funa bu.bebu.funa ku.beku.funa

Fgil For,f Çslgaged nüDenol.nga.Ìuru oenlfinsa.funi sibesi.nea.frini besi.nealfuni ubu.nÈa.funi ubeu.ne-a.funi beni.n-ea.funi nibeni.ísa.funi pbeg.ngã.tuni #ubg.ngã.tuni. babebe.n&a.tuÍu Deog.nga;ru{x ubu.nga.ïuÌÌl ubeu.nga.ïuru ibi.neã.funi ibe i.nsã.funi beli.iea.tuni übeli.ãsa.tuni apeg.n!'a.fgni. #qbepg-a.funi. Desr.nqa.ruÍu slDesl.nsa.Ìuru zibezi.n'ea.funi bezi.nÉa.funi ibi.neã.tuni ibe i.nsaltuni bezi.Ísa.funi zibezínea.funi lubelu.n-sa.funi belu.n-sa.funi bubebu.isa.funi bebu.nlea.funi kubeku.nEa.funi beku.nEa.funi

çsrqpç!çd rte.nol.Íuna

be.si.funa u.b.u.funa be.ni.funa #u.b.e.funa be.le.-funa u.b.u.funa i.b.i.funa be.li.tuna #a.b.e.funa be.si.funa be.zi.funa i.b.i.tuna be.zi.funa be.lu.funa be.bu.funa be.ku.funa

ÍÍ'íl

*) The main verb uku.funa is iq lts plesent.participial form (p.40) after the auxiliary verb, ' henceSCswith e in C1.1,2and 6 and lhe negativeiÍürx sga' ftrè mãin verUh-encealío usesüe infix si béfore the stèú of monosyllableand vowel verbs (seepaqe40) if there is no other infix (like an OC.qr nga): bè.nïi.si.tya(I waseating), but be.ndi.nga.tyi(l wasnot eatrng). vowel verbssÌ > S,and the negatrvenga > !Ig' Before --'iiriuãnaÏs.èúã7

(vËrbsteõ-eÍìztA;Ï doing) wasI have,been ten-oï.s.enza

ndibe ndi.ng.enzí/ bendi.ng.enzi(I wasnot / havenot beendoing)

forms. +) Seep.38 for úe auxiliarv.showingwhat is omitted in the contrac-ted. #J Ci.lïnd Ct-6atsòuse th'ésimplifíedforms: e.b.e.tuna/ ebe.nga.tuni. 3I

32. THE INDICATIVE MOOD: OTHER NEAR PASTTENSES *NearPesJPgrfect,(InngForm) r naosousht

'Near PastBçrfe$ (ShprtForm) r naosouqnt -Çongaçrçd Fgg FoW" ndibendi.fune bendiEne sibesi.fune besi.fune ube u.fune ubu.fune nibeni.fune beni.fune pb-eg,fuqe #ubg.fune bgbebp.tune bebe.fune ubeu.fune ubu.fune ibe i.fune ibi.ftrne libe li.fune beli.fune abee.fune #abg.fune eÌc. etc.

rps #il.u€-*#.*,"ffr*iiÊ#"

lÉp zbi Tpp Cl.l " 2 ' 3 " 4 " 5 ' 6

si.besi.funile u.beu.funile ni.beni.funile u.bee.funile ba.bebe.funile u.beuEnile i.bei.tunile li.beli.tunite a.bee.funile etc.

besilfunile ubu.funile benj.funile #ube.funile beEe.funile ubufrúGibi.tunile beli.tunile #abg.funile etc.

*NeaJ Pa{t PerfectNegative I had not sousht FyllFonA. Çontracted -lps ndi.be.ndi.nga.funanga beniiinsãfunanga si.nga.fiinanga besi.ngalfunanea' 1pp si._be ubu.nÀa.funanÈa 4ps u.beu.nga.tunangã zpp ni.beni.-nga.funaãga beni.nïã.funànïa pl u.bee,ngã.tunangã #ube.ngã.fiqnangã Da-Dep:9.nga.runanga..bebg.nga^.funanga ,_,t a.De_ g.nga.runanga Lr.o #abg.nga.funangã etc. etc+ * Fururein LheNçqr,Past (Colditional) I WOUTO

FqllFor$

nave SOUSht

-+ps ndr.be-ndr.ya kutuna

lpp 4ps 2lp

pt

sr.besr.ya-ku^tuna u.beu.yakutuna nirbeni.yakufuna

kuf4a y.-bge,yá

'eolgaçred

bendi.valruftrna besi.yãkufuna ubu.Íakufuna beniJakufunã

#1úg$a\rfq"

ul. o a.bee.yakufuna #abe.yâkufuna etc. etc. + *Futurein LheNçErPasJ(Condirional)Negative r woulonot navesought fullForm eorirracted ndl.be.ndl.nga.yi^kufuna bendi.nea.vi bendi.nga.yi kufur kufuna 1p, IDD si.besi.nea.ükirfuna besi.ngaly!'kufuna u.beu.nsã.ükufuna ubu.nÈa.ü kufuna nibe ni.Ígá.yi kgtuna beni.nga.yi beni.n-ga.yi kufuni kuftrna u.beg.ngã.yrkutuna #pb.e.nga.yr *yAp."{".íi|"q"ã ,2 KuQna ba.bebq.ngayi(utuna bebe.igã.yi Depe.nga.y Kurun kutuna cl.6 a.bee.nga.-yi kufuna #abg.ngã.yi kufuna

ãi

etc.

etc.

*) The main verb uku.funa takes its correspondingparticipial form (see page 40) after the ' auxiliary verb ul e before latent-i stems.

42

38. THEPASSIVE c consonantstems

vowel stemsadd the in-fixiw in the passive: enz.iw.a(be made)

Other stèmsadd w: bona (see) > bìn.w.a.(be seen);eyika fear) > oyik.w.a(be frightened) 2. Perfect Tense PassiveStems @anddisyllabicvowe|stemschange-ile,.eto-irveinthepassive; thuí: ph.ile. ph.s > ph.iwe: enz.ilé,enz.e > enz.iwe (stemi pha, enza) Oúer stens châãge-ileìo -1we,and -e to -we; úus for steinsbona, ofika: bon.ile > boòiwe, bon.e > bon.we; oyik.ile > oyik.iwe,oyik.e > oyik.we 3. Palatalisation

ú".tïr3fft*"

stems,unlesstheyform úe first

Perf.Passive Further examoìes:

b > bh> m+V > m,+C> mb > mp > ph >

ry j hy+V ú+C nJ . ntsn tsh

onwaEiaa > onwaryis.wa khary.wa m-awlwe khaba(kick) bhaj.iwe bhuhhela > bhujel.wa bhabha(fly) bhaj.wa luIy.lÌve rumana > rulyan.wa lu4y.wa luma(bite) phuqla.(rest). phuJtyul.waohúnvul.iwe ohumza > ohunwz.wa khumbula > khunìul.wa bamba(catcn) , b?nJ.wa, baníFwe mpol4Ba(pump)mpo!!!sn.wamDontsh.lwemDomDoza>mDontsnoz.wa botsh.wa bdlSb':ïwe atüphTta > alü$ilalrva b vul.ile, vul.e. *ene. *ethe -' polysylÌabic Most Most polysylabic verbsending verbs endingin ala a,thahave haveptrfects pérfectsiiÌ ii *ele, ala,aIA ana,'a,tha -ele v9rqs tlgl+ rn athg (9:$t phatha) have (e.9.phatha) have regular regularpertèct pertèctstgms, stems,but but take take-e;èerhg-efte: erhe whe,nusedsrarively when )grllq u,.l?! ).o*.\ *ele

(1,+z).-tata, thwãi-a,ìú,'zata {J.42). t-Ala. thwala. sala. zzla aád and úãntï;ibiï manv verhs in çbb;úï;ih;6'-.="'=."1;iì;Ë, ela nnlv rrse fhe fnrrn llclt tlüJËëìü zele, etc.).

Somedisyllabicand au polysytlabic verbsin çla, ola, ula only havepedecrsin *e, rhussela > godola godole.vá sele, selergodôla-> (mile, godole. Ma me) hasa sia-tivê-perrú, (wirt srativeperfeit,mi. Étiãir" ÉIlala"tttirtta='-ithu hluúa"'mitha(*irh -> "ruu.rne, peÍtects 'blale, "hlülhe,-"grg|ç) use use the úe forms Ïorms hleli, hlell, hluthi,míthijn hluthl,mithi P€flec$ -trr4te' in tbe tbe stative. stative. Thi Thi and and ba'only ba only pertêcts (the. {ÌÌl!9) use se short short pertêcts (rhe,be). be). Tsho Tsho > tshilo T;ho tshilo (nes. ínes. tshonsnì with tshilo.(neg. tslrongo), tshonqo). q"_{..J!_ç!_"-,},"1 wiú aa shnrt wiú shon fnrm short form,rshn tsho. ïl?:1911

) ln this caseshort and long forms only diÌfer-in theiipi'onunciation. 41. VERBAL SUFFIXES

Thesecan replacethe. final E of the-stemto extendor changethe significanceof the verb. 'I heir more usualmeaninqis given below. Causalive:isa; also la > 24 sorietiineska > za, sa (cause/ help to do): (buy), thengisa.(cause to buy, sell); vukà (wakê),vúsa(roúse) ^ ..thenga Applrçd: ela (do tor,,to,against,towards;go to); ela + ni? (whatfor? whÍ?): . thunga(sew).,tlungeta (sewfol); u.thungela.ni?(why are you sewin-g?) Ì(ecÌprocar: ana (oo lor eachother,Ìor one another): nceda(help),ncedana(heloeachother) Intensive:isiàaCdijwell, thoròuehlv.persisreítlv): funa (seek),firnisisa(seek-diÍieèntlv) " Perfective:g!4!a"elela (do well, úoíousÉÍv. efficientlv): bamba (catch),bambelela(hold o:nt-o) Persistive:azèla,ei,èla(do persisìently.repéatedlv): bhabha(fl utter). bhatihazela(flúttef aroundl Neuter (expreisinga'state):ekg,akala, lu > ka ftê do-able.be / eet done):

R"d"fi ï,!Ì38's,ry"ïff,thiirËlË[:iiËi"15?i,ï]l?fi ïf,iïa,!iii,sJ),,,r, phinda (repeat), pbindaphinda-(keep iépeating) .

'.rurmer. examples .show that combinations are common, tlus: bona (see). bon.isa (show). (show to), bonjs.ana (sh.oweach other), bon.akâla(be üsible, appêar),uòn.àtcat.iíd ,bolris.ela (make clear to). tmaKeappear),bon.akal.rs.ela

44

42.STATIVEVERBS Manv Xbosa verbs can expressúe beeinningof a state, like uku.lamba (to become hungry). present,itc'ú if can continuinsín úe present, bezu-lrin the past Wheir the oerfect stem indìcatesa state-.bezuì oast and continuinq Wheh (sèe prefix relaiive formativesand function as qualifier examplesS.21.c). S.21..c). ás a õualifier À perfect tense using a perfect stem 'stativêly'can 6e translafedby úe presenttense.A verb ïerb. thát can be usedin tÈ'isúay liav is called calleda stative stativeVerb. hun[ ' still in tlúat state) = I am hungry ndi.lambile = I became re hungry hunsrv (and íand am still sining) ='he is seatedu-hleli í< nUa hlala-sit) = he 1t" saidoün (and is still sittine) ;n-fE-(
ndi.no.ku.lima .t na + short p-loueh) nes: S-CÍes+ shortinfin. í5.26.8.3):andi.na.ku.lima andi.na.ku.lima(I èan't can't o'loueÏ)' infin. (5.26.8.3): neq: nes: SCnes SCneg na.ktro+-infinit. (stressingability)í si.nakhouku.dadà(we can svãní) SC+ na.kÍo b) SC+ neg: SCneg+ na.kho +'infinitiú: asi.nákhouku.dada(we cannotswim) c) SC+ va iOC kw + azi + infinitive(implüne skill): UKU.tl [E.thu-nga (they can sèw,'tlieyìcrowhowto sew) baía.kwazi Da.Ya.KWAZr 'r nes: Sónes + kw.azi iífiiltiú: neg: l,.eb.e.ngg.qdq. g.hdé > EbE.mde. ubeE.nge.mde In the participialebe sbe + E.mdé +) The r-nearDolrary rne iine.canso (doors) vb. oumba > Cl.9inã.oumbd(anãer)' vb. 'xela > Cl.10iinË"ielo(reòorÌs)' vb. phatha > Cl.9 iõr.oathd ftreaúent) '(sticks) Cl.ld pref. izin + thi > izin.ti vb. whafa > Cl.9 in.tvafo (weàkness) vb. rihuba > Cl.9 in.li.qubo (progres's)

2. Palatalisationof bilabial consonants(b. bh. m. mb. mp. ph): see5.38.3. 3. Vowel Changes primary vowelsmerge,often becomingsecondaryvowels. a) Coalescence: (and / with the men) nf+ dma.doda> n-ama.doda a+ a > a nea+ i.bhola> nse.bhola( withthebail) a+i > e lüa + ii.kati > lwõe.kati(of the cats) a + ii > ee na + um.fazi > nom.fazi(and / with the woman) a+u > o b) Elision: a vowel is dropped(elided) before anothervowel. ' a droosbefore e.ee.ò.oo ndi.va + oüka > ndi.v.ovika(I'm afraid) ube-+ u.funa > ubu.funá(yoü were seeking) e droirsbefore a íoúé1, IV: e + i.khava > e.khava(at home) reolaces an butlocative e asi + oni-> as.oni(úe òon t sin) i drops betweenc'onsonantand vowel: c) Vowels become semivowels: Initial i > vbefore avowel , Initial u >-w before a vowel u > w between consonant and a,e,i, but úopi beforeo,u, or betwèena labial (b,w) and 4e,i:

sci + akha > v.akha(hebuilds)

makê) SCu+ enza>'w.enza'(vou ku + aba > kw.aba(to ìhese,p.27) ku + olu > k.olu(tothis, p.27) b u + enziwa> b.ensiwa(it is made)

d) A semivowelor consonantis addedbetweenvowels: ma.k.ahambe(S.39),SCnega + u > aku (p.18) a + 4u > aka,aku SCneea+ i >'avi(p.18).sé.v.ibona(S.45.N) a.e + i > aü.êü ' a.w.aú (mine) (ó.21),sé.w.u6ona(S.45.N) w is usedbe'úeén vowels: s is addedbetweena vowel and locativee: u.i.ekhaya(he is at home) an original I is retained: ndi.l.apha(I'm here),se.l.ebona(now he sees) 4. Iatent-i Verbs (about 10in all) a > e before thè followine stems.mainly by mergingwith a latent (i): ba (steal), hla (descend),-ma(stop,stúd), mbã (dig), mka (depàit), nyuka (ascend), sa (bring), suka (rise,leave), va (hear), za (come), 'e.g. úá + (i)rnka > we.nika(he left), si.ya + (i)va > si.yeva(we hear) 5. Vowel Correspondence vowels i, u are reflected in lowered secondaryvowels g, a (originally me h-isFlilddìreffi with a prefixedformativeg): derivedfrom coaÌescence um, ulu, ubu, uku imi, ili, isi, [zi, in, izin Classprefix: AC (p-.28): emi, eli, esi, ezi, en, ezin onr, olu, obu, oku o, o, o, o e, e, e, e, e, e RD 1p.23): yi y li lo, e, ngu/ngo, ht SeealsoènumerativeCPs / le, etc.(p.27). / / )l

52. NUMERAI.S There are adjectivestemsfor numeralsfrom one to six (S.21).These*-' are:

nye(1)*6ini-(2),thqthu(3),ne1+y,rrrúú(st; úà.iãrft?-6-i. _lnese pretu(

adlectlval lormatives for their copdative and attiibutive forms (see S.19).They can alsõprefix 'ísi' to becomeCl.7 nouns. Basic numerals, all nouns. are therefore: isi.nye(l), isi.bini (2), isi.rhathu(3), isi.ne(4), isi.hlanu(5). rsi.thandathu(6), isi.xhenxe. (7), isi.bhozo(8), i.thobaorìíi.thoba (9), i.shumi(t0),.i.ìn) dog rn.to - rzn.to thlng, oDJecÌ im / izim before labial (p,b,f,v) monosvllableìtêms im.oi - izim.pi armv.regiment im.vu - izimlu fat-íúleõ sheep in - '/ -iin before non-labial stems of more than one svllable in.dawo- iin.dawo place in.dlela - iin.dlela r-oad in.dlow - iin.dlovu elephant in.galo- iin.galo arm in.sonvama- iin.gonvama lion in.ãubô- iin.zubõ blanket in[athazo - iïn... trouble, worry in.kokeli - iin.kokeli leader in.komo - ün.komo head of cattle in.kosi - iin.kosi chief in.kuku - iin.kuku domestic fowl in.kunzi - iin.kunzi male animal in.taka - iin.taka bird in.tlakohlaza- iin... sprins -'

iii.itãiìãiïi*ttâ"ãi' rïsn

in.tüzivo- iin.tlizivo heart in.tlok-o- iin.tlokntl,n+th>irt (5.51.1) ulu / izim beforelabial(p,b,lu) monosvllable òiems ulu.vo- izim.vo ópinion

q / iim before labial (p,b,f,v)stems of over one svllable u.fele - iim... skin, híde, leaúer u.fudo iim.fudo tortoise g / ii before stemsin l,m,n of more úan one svllable u.lwandle- ii.lwandle séa u.nyawo- ii.nyawo foot CI-ASS 14: UBU ubu.bele kindness ubu.bi evil ubu,dense foolishness ubu.hle-beautv ubu.lumko caútion, wisdom ub.ova wool ubu.3i honey ubu.sika wiíter ubu.suku nisht ubu.thongo -sleep CI,ASS 15:UKU uku.cula singinq

uFu.$p4afloãting,swimming

uku.hleka laushiãs.laushter uku.lima pl ou-shinï.culïivation uku.thandá loüns.-likins uku.thetha speakïíg, spãech uKu.Wa eatrns.Íood ukw.ákhe buiÍãing,construction LOCATIVES in e- (see525.3) Final a> eni is.onka > " e>eni i.hashe > i > ini " ama.nzr > " o > weni i.moto > " u > wini in.dlu >

58

es .oúeni e.hasheni ema.rzini e.motweni en.dlwini

ì

al

OTHERUSEFULWORDS

'J

lu,

ETC

apha here abho there e: in, at, to, ftom, etc. (5.25.3) e.busuku bv nieht at nisht e.mini bv dav. ín the daï emvakwé.mini in the afternoon ewe ves haú ïo ka:khúu much. a lot ka.kuhle well, fine ka.mnandi sweetlv.nicelv ka.msinyane sooq'early,'quickly kodwa but ku to. at. in. from. amone: in óoóparison iüth, thãn kuba becãuse ku.hle well. nicelv ku.kho there is. there are ku.luneile it is good ku.qalã first ku.sasa earlv ku.the.ni? whv? kwa of; at théplace of; even,just kwa (vérbal infix) see5.46 m.hla.wumbi perhaps -person) molo hullo (tõ one molweni huÍlo (to úore than one) na with; and, alÈo;has/have na = an interrosativeD'article namhlanie todãv nsa bv meansbf. throuú. úth. ' bv oh; about; at, in loItimel nsoì(o tfien nloku now ngomso tomorrow nle (after noun) one; (before noun) other, another;pl. some,other oKanve or phavá over there '-sa--(formative) seeSl47 se.seP (auxiliaú) seeS.45 uliuba Ìhat. so íÉat: if xa \4rnen vonke imi.hla evervdav ;i him/her/itself, íheniselves

IDEOPHONES Theseare onlv a few of manvused afteruku.thi(to do/become-thus) bhaxa- fall on. squelchin mud cwaka- be silént,calm, stilt dlabhu- tear, pierce,wound dunzu - scattei.disperse.flv off 9yoúp" - plop,pluirge intowater nlasr- snatch.snapup. qIaD mansa- marvel.be s-tarïed nqoo--go straiút on. keep on zõlè - bécome-tranoúil:súbside

VERB STEMS akha build, construct azi know, understand, know how to baleka run, flee, flee from bamba grasp,catch,retain, arrest banda b1 c