Wildlife Projects, Age Level 09-12 Activity Book

Wildlife Projects 9-12 Projects Animal Appetites Beavers: Ecosystem Engineers Bird Furniture Earthworm Composting Fishin...

Author: Carla Burgess | June Lioret (Editor) | Kimberly Schott (Illustrator)

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Wildlife Projects 9-12 Projects Animal Appetites Beavers: Ecosystem Engineers Bird Furniture Earthworm Composting Fishing Bait Leaping Lizards Nature's Footprints Nest Structures for Mourning Doves Pools of Life Southeastern Serpents Tools for Archers Turtle Tales

Writing Team: Carla Burgess - Freelance Writer June Lioret - Editor Ed Maxa - Co-Principal Investigator Christopher Moorman - Co-Principal Investigator Lucy Ringland - WebMaster Kimberly Schott - Graphic Design and Illustrations

Contributing Authors: Jim Armstrong, Extension Wildlife Specialist, Auburn University Jeff Beane, Curator of Herpetology, NC State Museum of Natural Science Peter Bromley, Professor, Fisheries and Wildlife Program Coordinator, NCSU Carla Burgess, Freelance writer, Raleigh, NC John Connors, Coordinator - Naturalist Center - NC Museum of Science Candace Cummings, Extension Wildlife Associate, Clemson University Rick Hamilton, Extension Specialist, NCSU Craig Harper, Assistant Professor, Extension Wildlife Specialist, University of Tennessee Shawn Hopson, Wildlife Enforcement Officer, VA Dept of Game and Inland Fisheries Ed Maxa, Associate Professor, Extension 4-H Specialist-Curriculum, NCSU Christopher Moorman, Assistant Professor, Extension Wildlife Specialist, NCSU James Rice, Professor, Extension Fisheries Specialist, NCSU Renee Strnad, Environmental Educator, NCSU Rick Willey, Extension 4-H Natural Resources Specialist, Clemson University David K. Woodward, Wildlife Research Assistant, NCSU Charles Yelton, Environmental Educator, Mecklenburg County Govt, Charlotte, NC David Wojnowski, Coordinator of North Carolina Stream Watch

Adapted from the Southeast Regional 4-H Wildlife Series. Funding support provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Resource Renewal Extension Act, and the North Carolina 4-H Curriculum Fund.

Animal Appetites Life Skill: Critical thinking Project Skill: Investigating food preferences in animals Objective: Research animals’ diets and adaptations for eating

E LEVEL AG

9-12 Provisions Needed

● Research avenues like library and Internet access

Success Indicator: Participants draw sound conclusions about wildlife feeding behavior and speculate on why

how do

animals prefer some foods over others

Trailhead Why do people like some foods and despise others? Why are certain foods “good for you” while some are con-

animals know what to eat?

sidered junk food? Human food preferences are usually guided by their taste buds. Yet not everyone has a healthy diet. Poor nutrition can cause immediate and long-term problems. With each new day, the experts tell us something different about what we should and should not eat. But how do animals know what to eat? Is it something they learn or is it instinct?

Trailblazing At least 10 million species of animals and 375,000 species of plants are known to exist on Earth. Besides making the world more interesting, these organisms amount to an incredibly diverse smorgasbord known as the

food chain. Almost

every plant and animal serves as food for other living organisms. But very little is known about why some animals seem to prefer specific foods. Several factors— including the availability of food and its nutritional value— are important. But do the nutritional needs of the animals unconsciously make them select foods to meet their deficiencies? How is this possible? Do animals pass over some foods in favor of more palatable ones? What other factors do you think are important? Develop a list of theories 18 U.S.C. 707

Southern Region 4-H Wildlife Curriculum Committee

Animal Appetites and possibilities, then conduct an investigation about wildlife food preferences. Use current research articles to gather new information. Include in your study animals and plants that are common where you live. Present your findings and conclusions to your 4-H group along with a graphic or photographic depiction of a

food web (several interdependent food chains) representing plants

and wildlife in your area.

Some suggestions for investigation include: ■ What species of animals learn about food-gathering from their parents? Which ones must fend for themselves? What is similar

carnivore

and different about these species? Which is more advantageous for survival—learned behavior or instinctive behavior? Why or why not? ■ Why do a few animals seem to favor eating plants or animals that most species avoid (such as sea turtles, which eat jellyfish in spite of the stinging cells they contain, or monarch butterflies, which feed on milkweeds, plants with bitter juices)? What benefits might these preferences provide? ■ Are the animals where you live mostly carnivores (primarily meat-eaters), herbivores (primarily plant-eaters), or omnivores (plant- and animal-

herbivore

eaters)? Are the carnivores predators (animals that hunt and kill prey) or scavengers (animals that eat carrion or already dead animals)? ■ Which parts of plants do the herbivores eat? Are all parts of a plant edible to some animal? ■ How are animals’ diets limited or expanded by their physical adaptations or other characteristics? ■ What species can change or adapt their diets more readily? Which ones have more specialized diets?

■ Do animals sometimes compete for the same food? How might they share resources? ■ Research has suggested that the way people perceive tastes— such as degree of bitterness—may be an inherited trait. Similarly, some animals seem to avoid instinctively wild foods that are bitter or poisonous. How might taste perception affect survival?

omnivore

Animal Appetites Field Guide Most

parts of plants are eaten by one animal species or another.

Fruits, seeds, leaves, twigs, bark, and roots furnish food for various wildlife. The availability of foods is

seasonal. Acorns ripen and fall to the ground in

autumn. Certain plants flower only in spring, while others flower in the fall. Seeds typically are most abundant in winter. Fleshy fruits are rich in

carbohydrates and vitamins. Seeds and

nuts are concentrated packages of fat and protein. Nuts are usually considered to be tree fruits with dry, hard exteriors. The dry fruits of woody plants, such as acorns, are sometimes classed with nuts—the term mast is used to describe this group. A season with a heavy acorn crop is known as a mast year. Examples of native plants that provide fleshy fruits include black cherry, persimmon, American holly, dogwood, blackberry, blueberry, and poison ivy.

The physical abilities and adaptations of some predators are highly developed to help in capturing and killing their food. For example, otters are able to swim fast enough to catch fish.

Kingfishers seize fish with their

long, pointed bills. Night hawks have large mouths with stiff bristles at the corners forming a funnel to catch insects as they fly. Red-tailed hawks and other soaring hawks have broad wings for ease in staying aloft while they search the ground below for mice and squirrels. Owls have a silent, mothlike flight, which allows them to capture roosting birds and nocturnal rodents unaware. Bobcats and foxes have sharp-edged teeth adapted to shearing and cutting meat.

Animal Appetites The Extra Mile Allow a small portion of your yard to grow wild. Identify and record (photograph) the plants that appear. What species of birds or other animals visit the plot? Don’t forget to note small animals like crawling bugs and winged insects. How many types of wildlife foods can you count? Were there types of food missing in your yard, especially during certain times of the year? How many food chains can you recognize and confirm? How do the animals benefit the plants? If the food plot were destroyed, which of the creatures that used it could adapt? Which might disappear?

Field Notes SHARE

● What surprising or unusual observations did you make about animal diets? ● What initial ideas about animal food preferences were you able to validate through research? Which ones could not be substantiated?

PROCESS

● Do you think animals place any value on food other than as a means to obtain nutrients? ● Whose diet is easier to study and analyze—an animal’s or a person’s? Why? ● How are your first impressions of an issue or subject useful in critical thinking? ● Animals often develop adaptations that allow them to take advantage of a specific food source. How have plants adapted to avoid animals? How have plants adapted to attract animals to their food supply?

GENERALIZE

● What other times have you had to investigate an issue by observation and later analysis? ● What human activities affect the availability of wildlife foods or an animal’s ability to find food?

APPLY

● How do people use critical thinking skills in everyday life?

Published by North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service

Appreciation is expressed to U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and RREA for their support of this project.

Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Employment and program opportunities are offered to all people regardless of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability. North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and local governments cooperating. 11/01-JL 4H-M-14-46W E02-39007

E LEVEL AG

BEAVERS:

Ecosystem Engineers 9-12 Provisions Needed

Life Skill: Critical thinking Project Skill: Studying beaver biology and behavior Objective: Study the life history of beavers and how this

● Waterproof boots ● Insect repellent mammal modifies its environment ● Camera ● Binoculars Success Indicator: Participants form ideas and present Pencil and data on both the benefits and the problems that might result ● notebook from a family of beavers’ moving into a neighborhood ● Plastic bags

Trailhead Have you ever noticed flooded areas off the highway or near your home where water was absent previously? Did you observe more dead trees than usual? If so, you may have witnessed the work of one of nature’s most successful engineers—the beaver. Although many animals are surprisingly adaptable, the beaver is one of the few species of wildlife that can change its surrounding environment to meet its needs. By constructing a dam, beavers create ponds in which they can live and raise families. A beaver’s instinctive behavior to stop any flowing water and its appetite for about any species of

visit a

beaver colony

shrub or tree within 300 feet of the water often put the creature at odds with humans living nearby.

Trailblazing Contact a local forester, trapper, wildlife biologist, or your county

A beaver’s instinctive behavior is to stop any flowing water.

Extension office to find out the locations of nearby beaver activity. Get permission to visit a site with an active beaver colony. You can confirm that beavers are living in the area by finding the cone-shaped trunks of felled trees, branches that have been stripped of bark, and dams made of sticks and mud. Before visiting a beaver pond, prepare to encounter wet areas and lots of insects. Visit the beaver pond several times if possible. Record what you observe.

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18 U.S.C. 707


BEAVERS: Ecosystem Engineers Things to consider Suggested Reading

● Rue, Leonard Lee, III. The World of the Beaver. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co. 1964. ● Hill, E. P. “Beaver,” in: J. A. Chapman and G. A. Feldhamer, eds. Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Economics. 256-281. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1982. ● Other activities in the Southeastern Wildlife Series, which this lesson is a part of, may be helpful in explaining the relationships between plants, animals, soils, and water quality. See “Urban Wildlife: Our Animal Neighbors,” “Sharing Space with Wildlife,” and “Houses for Wood Ducks.”

■ What types, sizes, and ages of plants are available to the beavers? ■ What types, sizes, and ages of plants have been used by the beaver colony? ■ How did the beavers use trees or other plants? ■ Did the beavers eat different plants during different times of the year? ■ Notice the degree of flooding, water marks on trees, and other signs of the changes in water flow. How has this affected the surrounding environment either negatively or positively? ■ Make notes about other wildlife species and their activities.

Internet Resources •http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/forest/ steward/www23.html •http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/wild/ wildlife/beavers.html

Tr

o yt

d fin

s of w chip

ood that have been

cut fro

mt

he

tre e.

From around the bases of the trees that have been felled, try to find chips of wood that have been cut from the tree and bring some home in a plastic bag. Observe and measure the incisor tooth marks beavers have left on tree trunks. Take pictures of the different pieces of evidence of beaver feeding activity. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of having beavers in your community. Present all your data in a graph, table, or drawing.

•2•

BEAVERS: Ecosystem Engineers Field Guide A beaver’s house, called a

lodge, is built on the side of a steep bank or on an island in the

middle of a pond. The family unit, a

colony, consists of the parents, newborn beavers called kits, and young from the

previous two years. Each year the two-year-old beavers leave the home pond and establish a colony of their own. Beavers can live up to 20 years in the wild. The number of beavers in the United States likely exceeded

60 million at one time. However,

beavers were nearly trapped to extinction for their fur in the 1800s. More recently, programs designed to increase beaver numbers have been so successful that beavers are considered a nuisance in some areas. The beaver is the

largest rodent in North America and the second largest in the world (only

the capybara of South America is larger). Adult beavers reach an average length of 4 feet, including a 6-inch-wide by 15-inch-long paddle-shaped tail. Adults usually weigh between 35 and 50 pounds, although the current record is 120 pounds. Beavers use their tails as

rudders when swimming, as tools to warn others of danger, as props

when sitting or standing, and as places to store fat during the winter. A beaver’s

front feet, although small, help gather and manipulate food and building materials.

The 7-inch-long, webbed hind feet are used primarily for swimming. One of the five toes on each hind foot has a split nail that is used to comb the fur and apply a waterproofing oil that comes from a special oil gland located in the anal area. In addition to the

waterproofing gland, another gland, the castor gland, secretes a sweet-

smelling liquid used to mark the home territory of the beaver family. Beavers can spend as long as

10 minutes underwater and swim submerged up to a quarter

mile. They can cut woody material underwater using their four large, orange incisors. The incisors are self-sharpening and continue to grow throughout the life of the animal. Beavers do not eat the

heartwood of trees, which is actually dead and simply helps to hold the

tree upright, but rather the living parts of trees, including the bark and an underlying layer called the cambium. While beavers in the southeastern United States will eat just about any woody shrub or tree, the most commonly consumed plants are sweetgum, yellow poplar, dogwood, oak, willow, cottonwood, and pine. Beaver ponds are

complex ecosystems that even human engineers cannot duplicate.

Typically, a beaver pond supports more plant and animal diversity than was present before the stream or creek was dammed by the animal.

•3•

BEAVERS: Ecosystem Engineers The Extra Mile Bring a sketch pad and draw a blueprint of the beaver pond. Note the location of groups of felled trees, food piles, dens, dams, etc. Make a scale model of the beaver pond using your sketches. You might paint the pond on a piece of cardboard or plywood and use small sticks and papier-mâché to make the beaver lodge and dam.

Field Notes SHARE

● Describe the activity you witnessed at the beaver pond. ● When were you more likely to see the animals? ● How did the beavers react to the presence of you or other humans? ● Can you think of other animals that can change their surroundings to meet their needs?

PROCESS

● Some beaver colonies store food for the winter, while others just a few miles away do not? Why do you think this happens? ● Why do you think beavers leave the colony after the age of two. ● What would be the pros and cons of having beavers move into your neighborhood? ● How can a balance be maintained between too many individuals of a species and too few?

GENERALIZE APPLY

● Why do people and animals often have trouble living close to each other? ● How do you think conflicts between people and animals should be handled? Make sure you consider local trapping and hunting laws that apply to beavers and other wildlife. ● What can resolving conflicts between people and animals teach us about our everyday interactions with other humans?



•4•


E LEVEL AG

9-12

Bird Furniture Life Skill: Wise use of resources Project Skill: Learning the nesting and feeding requirements of local birds

Objective: Construct and erect birdhouses and/or

Provisions Needed

● Pencil and paper ● Measuring tape

Nest Box: ● Hammer Success Indicator: Participants construct functional ● Galvanized nails bird furniture using only recycled materials or screws ● Recycled wood (bald cypress and Almost everyone loves birds. These creatures come in a variety of redcedar are most resistant shapes, sizes, and colors, and many have cheerful songs that announce to decay) the coming of spring. However, many birds are declining in number. The primary ● Hand saw reason is the loss of habitat resulting from land clearing for houses, roads, and ● Handheld brace shopping malls. By building and placing birdhouses and stocked bird feeders and bit drill (for in developed areas, you can improve nesting and feeding conditions in places large holes) where food and nesting sites have disappeared. ● Hand drill (for small holes) ● Spade bits of different Construct a nest box or bird feeder diameters (see sketches for examples) using

feeders from used or scrap material

Trailhead

Trailblazing

leftover materials from around your home.

Bird Feeder: ● Scrap wood, plastic container, or milk carton ● String, wire, or chain for mounting feeder ● Utility knife

If you can’t find any leftovers, contact a local store owner or wood dealer and ask for scrap material. When building a nest box, use the dimensions recommended for each type of bird (Table 1). Sketch your bird furniture on paper before you begin building. Here are some tips for building a nest box: ■ Attach a wooden or metal guard around the entrance hole.

construct a

nest box or bird feeder

■ Extend the back portion above and below the main box for attaching the structure. 18 U.S.C. 707


Bird Furniture ■ Extend the top of the box over the entrance hole for shelter. ■ To prevent splitting of the wood, drill holes by hand before inserting nails. ■ Design a removable top or provide other access for cleaning the box each year. Place your nest box in a location that seems right for your target bird. Place feeders within 10 feet of cover (brush piles or shrub thickets). If you can’t erect bird furniture around your home, ask the director of a local park if you can place nest boxes or feeders there. Remember to place your bird furniture out of reach of cats, snakes, and other predators. Additionally, predator guards (Figure 1) can protect nesting structures. Once the furniture is in place, observe it from a distance, and keep records of your observations.

Figure 1. Predator guard

Suggested Reading

● Barnes, Thomas G. Gardening for the Birds. Lexington, Ky.: The University Press of Kentucky. 1999. ● Peterson, Roger Tory. Eastern Birds (Peterson Field Guide Series). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1998. ● Harrison, Hal H. Birds’ Nests (Peterson Field Guide Series). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1975.

Internet Resources •http://www.wildlifehc.org/ •http://www.nwf.org/ •http://birds.cornell.edu/ •http://www.nabluebirdsociety.org/ •http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/forest/steward/www16.html •http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/forest/steward/www4.html

When building a nest box, use the dimensions recommended for each type of bird.

Bird Furniture Table 1. Recommended Dimensions for Nesting Boxes* Box Height

Floor Size (Interior)

American Kestrel

14-16

8x8

10-12

3

10-20

Barn Owl

15-18

10x18

4

6

12-18

Barred Owl

22-28

13x13

14-18

6-8

10-30

Carolina Chickadee

8-10

4x4

6-8

1 1/8

4-15

Carolina Wren

6-8

4x4

4-6

1.5

5-10

Downy Woodpecker

8-10

4x4

6-8

1.25

5-15

Eastern Bluebird

8-12

5x5

6-10

1.5

4-6

Eastern Screech Owl

12-15

8x8

9-12

3

10-30

Great-Crested Flycatcher

8-12

6x6

6-10

1.5

5-15

Hairy Woodpecker

12-15

6x6

9-12

1.5

8-20

Pileated Woodpecker

16-24

8x8

12-20

3x4 (oval)

15-25

Red-Bellied Woodpecker

12-15

6x6

9-12

2.5

10-20

Red-Headed Woodpecker

12-15

6x6

9-12

2

10-20

Tufted Titmouse

10-12

4x4

6-10

1.25

5-15

White-Breasted Nuthatch

8-10

4x4

6-8

1.5

5-15

Wood Duck

20-24

10x10

12-16

Bird Species

Entrance Hole Feet Above Height** Diameter Ground

3x4 (oval)

10-20

*All dimensions are in inches unless otherwise noted. **Height indicated is measured from floor of nesting box.

plastic jug feeder

milk carton feeder

•3•

mesh onion bag with suet

Bird Furniture Field Guide There are three primary types of

nesting birds: ground nesters (turkeys,

quail, etc.), shrub and tree nesters (robins, mockingbirds, etc.), and cavity nesters (woodpeckers, bluebirds, etc.). Cavity nesters live in boxes or

tree cavities. Woodpeckers, known as primary cavity nesters,

excavate holes in dead trees or snags. Once woodpeckers abandon these cavities, other species, known as secondary cavity nesters, build nests in them. Examples of secondary cavity nesters are chickadees, titmice, bluebirds, and screech owls. People often cut down dead or dying trees, leaving

cavity nesters nowhere to build their nests. Because natural cavities often are absent in cities and neighborhoods, nest boxes are important nesting sites for these birds. Birds

introduced from other countries, especially European starlings and house

sparrows, often occupy natural cavities and nest boxes before native birds are able to build their nests. Native birds are more likely to use nest boxes with appropriately sized entrance holes and without perches. Most of our

native birds begin nesting in late March and early April. However, some birds,

such as the great-crested flycatcher, migrate to Central and South America during the winter and don’t return to the South to build nests until early May. Different

types of birds prefer different kinds of food. For example, sparrows like to eat

seeds during most of the year, and orioles and thrushes prefer insects or fruit. It is best to provide many different foods in your

bird habitat, especially if you hope to attract

a variety of birds. Examples include mealworms, orange slices, sunflower seeds, thistle seeds, millet seeds, and suet.

Metal or porcelain nest boxes and feeders may become too hot in the spring and summer sun.

Clean your feeders every two to four weeks, and clean out nest boxes before each nesting season.

Bird Furniture The Extra Mile Although birds that eat insects generally will not come to your seed feeders, they will eat suet cakes. Try making suet cakes using fat trimmings from meat mixed with seeds and/or fruit. Get trimmings from a local grocery store or substitute vegetable shortening. Melt the fat in a pan over low heat. Put the seed-fruit mix into a muffin pan so that each mold is about three-fourths full. Pour the melted suet over the seeds, stir, and let cool. Peanut butter can be added to the mix in amounts equal to the beef fat. Place the suet cakes in a leftover mesh bag, or come up with your own way to present the suet to the birds. What are some ways you can use resources wisely when making your suet mix? Note: Suet may melt in high outdoor temperatures or in sunlight.

Field Notes SHARE

● What was the most difficult part of building your bird furniture? ● What types of recycled materials seemed to work best for building bird furniture? ● Where did you to find materials to recycle into bird furniture? ● Was it easier to build a nest box or a bird feeder? Why?

PROCESS

● How did you decide where to place your bird furniture? ● Are natural nesting and feeding sites lacking in your yard or neighborhood? Why? ● What types of birds do you expect to use your nest boxes and feeders? Why? ● How might you persuade people to leave dead trees or parts of them for cavity nesters? How could they do this safely? ● How does recycling help protect birds and their habitats? ● What can you learn from birds when it comes to wise use of resources?

GENERALIZE APPLY

● How have you used resources wisely in other ways? ● What things could you do to help protect birds and their habitats? ● How could you wisely use resources in other ways that enhance wildlife habitats or human quality of life? ● What businesses do you know of that recycle their surplus products? Which ones also use recycled materials?




Earthworm Composting

E LEVEL AG

9-12

Life Skill: Wise use of resources Project Skill: Vermicomposting (composting with worms) Objective: Build a composting bin to house earthworms and recycle food scraps

Success Indicator: Participants recycle household organic waste into garden compost using worms

Trailhead Have you ever wondered what all those worms are doing underground? What do they eat, and how do they move? Worms help to create new soil and keep the forest floor clean of debris. Worms are valuable in the garden, too. Earthworms excrete their waste as castings, which are fertile and enhance the soil. You can learn more about worms by raising them and letting them help you and your family recycle kitchen scraps.

Trailblazing Using the drill, make several air holes on all four sides of your container. You may need an adult to help with this. The holes should be of varying heights to allow ventilation through the entire container.

build a worm bin

Next, prepare bedding for your worms. Tear newspaper into 1-inch strips and soak them in water. Fill the worm bin with dampened newspaper. Add 3 to 4 pounds of kitchen scraps to the container. Do not include any meat or greasy foods. Fruits and vegetables make

Drill a ir hole s on a ll four

the best food. Finally, add the worms.

sides.

Provisions Needed

● Large wooden box (about 21" long by 15" wide and 16" tall) or plastic tote box with a lid (53liter capacity) ● One week’s worth of newspapers ● Pan of water for soaking newspaper ● 1-quart watering jar ● Kitchen scraps (3-4 pounds per week) ● Scale ● Drill ● 1 pound of red wiggler (Eisenia fetida ) worms* ● Sheet of plastic and lamp (for sorting worms from finished compost) *You can purchase worms from your local fish bait dealer or order them by mail. (Some sources may be found at: http:// www.city farmer.org/wormsupl79. html.)

To keep the worms happy and healthy, you need to keep the bedding moist. Add kitchen scraps to the bedding regularly to provide nutrition for the worms. You also will need to add fresh bedding every few months. Store the worm bin in an

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18 U.S.C. 707


Earthworm Composting area that does not get direct sunlight or freeze in the winter. About 65 degrees Fahrenheit is a good average temperature for bedding. Old bedding can be used as compost for the garden. To separate worms from the

Internet Resources •http://www.wormwoman.com (Mary Appelhof ’s home page) •http://www.urbanext.uiuc.edu/worms (University of Illinois Extension) •http://www.oldgrowth.org/compost/ wormfaq.html# (D. Brian Paley resources)

usable compost, dump the container contents onto a sheet of plastic under a bright light. After a few hours remove the top portion of the bedding. All of the worms should be in the bottom few inches of bedding.

Suggested Reading

Field Guide Compared to other species of worms,

red wigglers are able to recycle

a large amount of kitchen waste in a wide range of temperatures. As much as

70 percent of the material discarded in landfills

is suitable food for earthworms. In ideal conditions, earthworms in a

compost bin

will recycle their weight in waste every 24 hours.

Baby earthworms look similar to adults, except they are smaller and lighter in color. Earthworms are old enough to reproduce in about 60 to 90 days. Earthworms lack teeth. Like chickens, they have an

internal gizzard

with tiny stones that grind their food. Earthworms excrete their waste as

castings, which is a great fertilizer and

soil enhancer. The ultraviolet rays in

sunlight are deadly to earthworms. The creatures

have a distaste for bright lights. Earthworms make tunnels in the ground that

aerate the soil. This

activity adds oxygen to aid the growth of plants.

•2•

● Appelhof, Mary. Worms Eat My Garbage: How to Set Up and Maintain a Worm Composting System. Kalamazoo, Mich.: Flower Press. 1997. ● Appelhof, Mary. Worms Eat Our Garbage: Classroom Activities for a Better Environment. Kalamazoo, Mich.: Flower Press. 1993.

Earthworm Composting The Extra Mile Keep a log of how much water, bedding, and food scraps you add to your worm bin every month. Record how long it takes the worms to break down different food scraps. What types of food scraps seem to disappear the fastest? Record the temperature of your worm bin. How might you keep track of the rate of worm reproduction?

Field Notes SHARE

● What kinds of food did you feed your red wigglers? ● What different materials did you use in making your compost bin? ● How did you prepare the bedding and food for the worms? ● Why do you keep a lid on your worm bin? ● What unexpected things did you notice while monitoring your bin? ● What are some advantages and disadvantages to recycling food waste instead of throwing it away?

PROCESS

● How did you know whether the worm bedding had the proper moisture? ● Why do you think red wigglers are the best species to use? ● Why are some foods better than others in vermicomposting? ● Why is an earthworm’s lifestyle a good example of wise use of resources? ● Why is vermicomposting a good example of the wise use of resources? ● Why is it important to have worms in your garden?

GENERALIZE

● What other animals might eat kitchen wastes? Could they be used in composting? Why or why not? ● Why is it important to recycle your kitchen waste rather than throw it away? ● In what other ways are earthworms valuable besides their benefit to the soil? ● What can you do with the earthworms if your bin becomes too crowded?

APPLY

● In what other smart ways can you recycle everyday waste? ● What positive influences are exhibited by recycling?



•3•


E LEVEL AG

9-12

Fishing Bait

Provisions Needed

Life Skill: Communication Project Skill: Learning which baits and lures attract fish Objective: Collect, draw, or make different types of baits

● Jars or cages for keeping live bait, and lures, and learn their effectiveness in attracting fish and appropriate food for the live Success Indicator: Participants display various types of bait fishing baits and lures and discuss the advantages and ● Camera and film disadvantages of each ● Material for constructing artificial lures ● Art supplies such Do you get excited when a fish tugs at the end of your line? If so, you as paper, paint, aren’t alone. Fishing is one of the most popular sports in America. Most markers, or pens everyone has a “fishing hole” near their home—whether it’s a creek, pond, lake, ● Fish field guides or the ocean. Fishing can be as simple as using a cane pole, a line, a cork, and a (see Suggested hook baited with a worm. But you can have more fun and success if you learn as Reading)

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much as possible about the diets and habits of a wide variety of fish. The fisher-

catch a

man who knows how to make a lure attractive to a

fish

hungry predator usually will catch more fish.

Trailblazing Consider what types of food that fish in your area like to eat. You might interview a local fisherman, or angler, about what baits that person uses to attract different species. Collect five to 10 different natural fish baits. Some natural fish baits may be rare or difficult to locate, while others may be hard to keep alive in a jar or cage. In these cases, use photographs of the bait or create a replica. Then, collect an equal number of different types of artificial fishing lures. If the artificial lures are too expensive, try drawing each on paper or making a version using material from around your home. Display and present the baits and lures to a school group or 4-H club. Include the following information in your presentation:

Making a lure attractive

■ Where and how did you find the various natural baits? to a hungry predator will catch more fish. ■ What natural bait does each artificial lure imitate?

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18 U.S.C. 707


Fishing Bait ■ What kind of fish would bite the natural and artificial baits? ■ Where would you fish with each natural and artificial bait? ■ How would you offer the various baits and lures to the fish? ■ What fishing equipment would be required to fish with each bait or lure? ■ What are the advantages and disadvantages of natural and artificial baits?

Field Guide You can catch fish using a simple setup like a

cane or fiberglass pole

with a line attached to the tip. However, rod and reel combinations offer more

Suggested Reading

● Page, Lawrence M., and Brooks rod and reel techniques include bait casting, fly casting, and spin casting. M. Burr. A Field Guide to Freshwater Fishes: works best with fairly heavy North America baits or lures and is used mainly to catch larger fish North of Mexico like largemouth bass and catfish. Bait casting rods (Peterson Field Guide Series). are relatively stiff. The weight of the lure pulls the Boston: Houghline from the reel during casting. The reel contains ton Mifflin. 1991. a revolving spool that releases and winds the line. ● Zim, Herbert, and Hurst H. Shoemaker. is the oldest way of catching fish with Fishes: A Guide to mechanical tackle. The fly reel differs from other reel types Fresh and Saltbecause it does not operate during the cast. When casting, Water Species (The Golden the angler removes the line from the reel by hand. The Guide Series). weight of the line carries the lightweight lure to the target New York: St. spot. The line is retrieved by hand or with the reel. Martin’s Press. 2001.

options for catching a variety of species and bigger fish. Three primary types of

Bait casting

Fly casting

Spin casting or “spinning” bridges the gap between bait casting and fly fishing. Spinning rods are less stiff than bait casters, can cast lighter lures, and can be used for all sizes of fish. A spinning reel winds the fishing line around a stationary spool. As with bait casting, the weight of the lure pulls the line from the reel during the cast.

•2•

Fishing Bait The Extra Mile Have a casting contest with your friends. For a target, use a tire or piece of rope laid in a circle. Begin casting with the target 20 feet away. Have each participant cast 5 to 10 times. Then move the target 5 to 10 feet farther away and have each participant try again. Continue to move the target until no one can reach it. Record the number of times the target was hit by each participant at each distance. Create a table or figure that displays the number of accurate casts at each distance. Use the table or figure during a presentation to your class or 4-H group. Explain how casting accuracy and methods of casting changed as the target was moved farther away.

Field Notes SHARE

● Which natural bait was the most difficult to find? Why? ● Which artificial lures were hardest to make? Most fun? ● How did you arrange and label the baits and lures to make it easier for the audience to follow along during your presentation? ● If you interviewed a fisherman, what useful information did you collect for your presentation?

PROCESS

● Which baits and lures would you expect to catch the most fish? Why? ● Would a fish be easier to catch with the natural or artificial baits? Why? ● How did you decide the best way to store natural baits? ● Why is it sometimes as important to show as it is to tell? ● What would you do differently if you had to make a presentation to your school or 4-H club again?

GENERALIZE

● Why is it important to present a bait or a lure in a manner that resembles the prey of the fish species you are trying to catch? ● How is communicating to an audience similar to fishing? How is it different?

APPLY

● How could the things you learned during your presentation help you in your daily activities at home or school?



•3•


E LEVEL AG

9-12

Leaping Lizards Life Skill: Communication Project Skill: Researching and describing lizards Objectives:

Provisions Needed

● Watch or timer ● Outside ■ Investigate cold-bloodedness in reptiles, and thermometer communicate the findings ● Drinking glasses ● Water ■ Educate peers about lizards found locally ● Pencil Success Indicator: Participants describe characteristics ● Paper of lizards that distinguish them from other animals. ● Craft/display Participants demonstrate how cold-blooded animals materials ● Books or other regulate their body temperature. resources about lizards and/or cold-blooded Lizards are sometimes confused with salamanders. But salamanders animals are amphibians and have smooth, moist skin like their cousins, the frogs. ● Library access (or Internet access) Lizards, though, are reptiles and have dry, scaly skin. Unlike most amphibians,

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lizards also have claws on the tips of their toes, outer ear openings, and movable eyelids. More than 3,700 species of lizards range from the Arctic Circle to Australia and the southern tips of Africa and South America. With so many different types of lizards, you might discover several in your own neighborhood.

Trailblazing

compare two species of

lizards

Do at least one of the following two activities. When you are finished, give a presentation before a group or make a display rd

to educate others. Activity 1: Explore what it is like to be cold-blooded like lizards by conducting an experiment about temperature change. For example, place two

Eastern f

el en c

a iz

identical glasses of ice water outside, one in the shade under a tree and one in full sunshine. Measure how long it takes for the temperature in each glass of water to change 10 degrees. Try placing two glasses of ice water on rocks and see how the experiment changes. Put one glass on a dark rock and one on a light-colored rock next to each other in the same location. Which one changes temperature more

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18 U.S.C. 707


Leaping Lizards quickly? Think of other physical locations where the water might more quickly warm up (in sand, for instance). Test your theories. Record your data. Use the materials from your experiments as a visual aid for a presentation about how lizards regulate their body temperature. Place one glass of ice water in the shade...

Internet Resources •http://endangered.fws.gov/wildlife.html •http://ecos.fws.gov/webpage •http://www.parcplace.org/default.htm •http://www.uga.edu/~srelherp/index.htm

Suggested Reading

● Conant, Roger, and Joseph T. Collins. Reptiles and Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America (Peterson Field Guide Series). 3rd edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin. 1998.

...and place one glass of ice water in full sunshine.

Activity 2: Compare two species of lizards found near your home. Use information gained from field observation, studies of captive lizards, an interview with a local herpetologist (a person who studies reptiles), or library research. Consider the following information when making your comparison:

a. Scientific and common name b. Description and identifying characteristics c. Habitat requirements d. Food and feeding habits e. Method of reproduction f. Range (where in the state or nation the lizard may be found) g. Natural enemies h. Importance to humans and other animals Present your comparisons as a story, drawing, or diorama to a school group or 4-H club. green anole e xpand i

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ng th

roat

sac k

Leaping Lizards Field Guide Lizards and other

reptiles, such as snakes, turtles, and alligators, are cold-

blooded. Cold-blooded animals do not have a constant body temperature; instead their body temperature changes as the temperature of the surrounding environment changes. As body temperature decreases, both breathing and the pumping of blood by the heart slow down.

Glass lizards slither like snakes when they move because they have small, useless legs or no legs at all. Geckos have sticky pads on their feet that allow them to cling to smooth surfaces, even upside down. Other lizard species can quickly run in an upright position like humans.

glass lizard

Most lizards eat

insects, spiders, worms, and caterpillars,

but some of the larger species will eat vertebrates (animals with backbones) smaller than themselves. The Gila monster and the beaded lizard are the only venomous (or poisonous) lizards in the world, but only the Gila monster is found in the United States. Some lizards give birth to live young, but

most lay eggs. The eggshells

are tough and leathery, not brittle like bird eggs. There are four

endangered and six threatened species of lizards in the

United States. Many coastal areas, especially Florida and Texas, have isolated, permanent populations of non-native species that have come to North America on cargo ships and via illegal pet markets.

•3•

Leaping Lizards The Extra Mile Interview a local pet store owner or exotic animal veterinarian about raising lizards as pets. Use what you learn to create a pamphlet that can be used in classrooms that have lizards. Include information about cage size, temperature and light requirements, food sources, and how to ensure your lizard was not obtained illegally.

Field Notes SHARE

● What did you learn about lizards that surprised you? ● What are the laws in your state regarding the collection of reptiles or parts of reptiles? ● What did you do to make sure people would be interested in your subject? ● Which sources turned out to be most helpful in preparing a presentation? ● Many reptile species have been brought to the United States for illegal pet trade. What are some other animals that have found their way to this country through illegal trading? Can these animals now be found commonly in the wild? ● What are other reptiles in your state, and how do they differ from lizards?

PROCESS

● How did you decide how to narrow down what information you would use in your speech or presentation? ● Lizards regulate their internal body temperature by basking in the sun when it is cold or finding shady spots to rest during the hottest times of the day. How do humans regulate their internal body temperature? ● How can communication help draw attention to an important subject?

GENERALIZE

● What did you learn about yourself by studying other creatures? ● Why is it important to be able to communicate your findings about lizards to others?

APPLY

● How can you apply what you learned about effective communication to other types of schoolwork, activities, or hobbies?



•4•


E LEVEL AG

Nature’s Footprints 9-12 Life Skill: Critical thinking Project Skill: Identifying animal tracks and making

Provisions Needed

● Strips of cardboard, 21/2" wide Objective: Keep detailed records of observations and make and 12 to 15" long judgments based on prior experience and record examination ● Paper clips ● Mixing stick Success Indicator: Participants can cast and identify a ● Plaster of Paris variety of wildlife tracks mixture (can be purchased at hardware stores and hobby shops) You are walking in a wooded area beside a stream when you see what ● Container for appear to be small handprints on the ground. Has a little child been mixing crawling in the mud? That’s the impression some people get when they see ● Small paintbrush raccoon tracks for the first time. You can discover a world of hidden wildlife by with soft bristles to reading the “signatures” that animals leave behind. With careful observation and remove debris the right resources, you can learn where to find tracks and how to identify them. ● Vegetable You can also discover how to preserve animal tracks to collect and study later. shortening or petroleum jelly ● Paper ● Pen The best place to look for tracks is anywhere the

plaster casts

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Trailblazing

ground is bare and soft enough to “give” a bit. Review the tips in the “Field Guide” section below to get

look for

ideas on where to look. Take a notebook, pen, and the

tracks

materials you need to make a plaster impression of different tracks. When you find tracks, first make as many observations and notes as you can. Then make your casts. You can put all the information together later to learn more about the animal. Look for a track deep and clear enough for a good reproduction. Carefully remove any sticks and debris from the track with your fingers or the paintbrush. Make a circular “fence” around the track with the cardboard stood on edge, using the paper clips to close

18 U.S.C. 707

•1•


Nature’s Footprints the ends in a circle. Press the cardboard ring into the ground without disturbing the track. Mix the plaster according to the package directions. The mixture

Suggested Reading

● Murie, Olaus J. A Field Guide to Animal Tracks (Peterson Field Guide Series). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1975 ● Rezendes, Paul. Tracking and the Art of Seeing: How to Read Animal Tracks and Signs. Charlotte, Vt.: Camden House Publishing. 1992. ● Whitaker, John, Jr. The National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mammals. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1980.

should be smooth, like pancake batter. Tap the sides of the container to remove any air bubbles. Gently pour the mixture inside the ring, letting it run into the track. Fill the ring to within 1 inch of the top. Once the plaster is dry, carefully lift the cast and remove the cardboard. You have made a negative—or reverse— cast of the animal track.

make a

negative cast Use the negative cast to make a replica of the original track.

At home, you can make a positive cast that will look the same as the track on the ground. You will need the negative cast, vegetable shortening or petroleum jelly, and the materials you used in the field. Cover the negative cast with a thin layer of shortening or jelly. Place the cast, greased side up, on a level surface. Form a cardboard ring tightly around the negative cast, leaving at least 2 inches of cardboard above the cast. Mix the plaster and pour it into the cardboard ring to within 1/2 inch from the top. When it is completely dry, carefully lift it off the negative cast and peel away the cardboard. You now have a replica of the original track. You can paint the impression of the positive cast so the animal track really stands out. What type of animal made the track or tracks that you found? Look through resource books on animal tracks. You might also ask someone who is experienced with wildlife to advise you. Combine all your observations to help you decide.

Field Guide Every animal has a special place where it likes to live, or its

habitat. A habitat is an area

that provides an animal with required food, water, shelter, and space. If you know what animals live in the habitat you’re exploring, you’ll already have an idea of whose tracks you might expect to find. Edge areas, or places where two different habitats meet, are excellent places to find animal tracks. For example, where a pasture or field meets a forest would be an edge. This edge would be a good place to find the tracks of animals, such as deer and turkey, that feed in open areas close to forest cover.

•2•

Nature’s Footprints The Extra Mile If you find more than one track from the same animal, try to determine the creature’s gait. The gait—how the animal moves (for example, walking, running or trotting)—is often used to identify tracks. Notice the shape of the track and the distance between tracks. Look for other signs of animals, such as food remains, claw marks, or trails through the underbrush. Scat, or the feces of animals, is another good clue if you know what the animal’s diet is. By combining all this information, you can determine what the animal was doing when it made the tracks.

Field Notes SHARE

● What types of tracks were easiest to cast? Which were most difficult? ● What made most of the tracks you observed?

PROCESS

● How can you tell the difference between a partial track and an indentation left by fallen twigs or other debris? ● What are some other ways that you could record an animal track? ● How were you able to identify with confidence partial tracks or ones that lacked perfect detail?

GENERALIZE

● What other times have you had to put a lot of pieces of information together before reaching a conclusion?

APPLY

● How could you display your collection of tracks and observations so that other people could learn about the animals common to your area?



•3•


Nest Structures for 9-12 Mourning Doves E LEVEL AG

Life Skill: Critical thinking Project Skills: Enhancing nesting habitat for

Provisions Needed

● 1/4- or 1/2-inch hardware cloth (screen wire) ● Ruler or tape measure ● Scissors or wire cutters ● Twist ties, electric Can you think of a bird you see nearly every day? Chances are, the wire, or tape mourning dove is one of them. Among the most abundant birds in Roofing nails, North America, mourning doves number around 450 million in the United States. ● staples, or wire Birdwatchers enjoy observing them. They also are the most abundant species of ● Ladder game bird in the Southeast. You have probably seen this member of the pigeon ● Bicycle mirror family foraging on the ground and heard the whistle of its feathers as it takes to ● Pole for mounting the air. The mournful hoo-hoo call is an equally familiar sound. But have you ever the mirror seen a mourning dove nest? These birds don’t nest ● Camera ● Notebook and in tree cavities or boxes, but can be drawn to pencil use a simple, shallow cone of wire mesh placed

mourning doves Objective: Supplement basic needs of wildlife Success Indicator: Participants build, place, and monitor a suitable nesting structure for mourning doves

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c

ut

" circle 2 1 a

in a tree or shrub.

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4" wed ge

Build a nesting structure for mourning doves and place it in a suitable location where it will be easy to observe. Using a mounted mirror, you can easily

fasten the circle into a

cone

monitor the nest for eggs and other activity. To build the nest, carefully cut screen wire into a 12-inch circle. From the circle, cut a pie-shaped piece about 4 inches wide. Close the cut by overlapping the wire. Fasten the circle into a cone shape using bread bag ties, electric wire, or tape. Place the cones in a shady area 6 to 16 feet above the ground. Make sure no limbs block the opening. Fasten the cone in the tree and bend the edges of the wire down around the nest so no sharp edges protrude. Place the cones early in the

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18 U.S.C. 707


Nest Structures for Mourning Doves spring, if possible. Check them periodically. Are they in use? By what species? How many eggs are there? When were they laid? When did they hatch? How many survived? Keep a record book of the information along with photographs. Gather information about

hoo-hoo

survival rates of mourning doves. How do your nesting statistics compare to what’s in the literature?

mourning dove on nest

Internet Resources •http://www.state.ia.us/government/ dnr/organiza/fwb/wildlife/pages/ updove.htm •http://www.conservation.state.mo. us./nathis/birds/birdatlas/maintext/ 0400044.htm •http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/forest/ steward/www12.html

Suggested Reading

Field Guide Though animals don’t have the same lifestyle as people, they have the exact same

requirements to live and reproduce. These are food, water, cover, and space. Each component must be available in proper proportion, within a certain distance, and within a reasonable amount of time. The place where an animal finds all these things is called its habitat. Mourning doves are able to adapt to a wide variety of habitats—including coniferous forests (mainly pine), farmland, and residential areas. A limiting factor is when one of the basic needs is not being met. Mourning doves may have

two to six broods in a season. Each nest or

clutch usually contains two eggs. Both the male and female dove

incubate the eggs. The eggs hatch in about

14 days. The birds may build a simple nest of twigs

6 to 30 feet up in the crotch

of a tree or shrub limbs, although doves may nest on the ground in treeless areas. Doves eat primarily

weed seeds and grains. •2•

● Taylor, Mark. Bird Houses and Feeders: How to Build and Enjoy Them. Raleigh, N.C.: North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, Division of Conservation Education. ● Henderson, Carol L. Woodworking for Wildlife: Homes for Birds and Mammals. St. Paul, Minn: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources Nongame Wildlife Program. 1984.

Nest Structures for Mourning Doves The Extra Mile How can animals that once were plentiful rapidly become extinct? When Europeans first arrived in America, there were billions of passenger pigeons, a now extinct relative of the mourning dove. By about 1900, the bird was extinct in the wild—the victim of overhunting and habitat destruction. Compare the mourning dove—or some other species—with an extinct relative. Why are mourning doves so abundant and adaptable compared to the passenger pigeon? What are the differences in their biology and habitat needs? How do we manage wildlife now compared to a century ago? Why do some creatures become extinct while others thrive? Develop a table or other graphic representation of the similarities and differences you discover. How do you think your conclusions should affect management of the species?

Field Notes SHARE

● How often did you monitor your nest? How easy or difficult was it to observe the nest and fledgling activity? ● What are some examples of limiting factors you observed in your area? ● What did you observe before and after improving your habitat? ● What kinds of challenges did you encounter during the project?

PROCESS

● How did you ensure that any potential nesting birds would have everything they needed to survive? ● How did you find additional information about mourning doves?

GENERALIZE

● Have you ever had to live a couple of days without shelter, electricity, or water? How did you adapt? ● In what other situations have you had to assess a situation and draw conclusions?

APPLY

● How can you apply what you learned about record-keeping and data analysis to other pursuits in school, such as a research project?



•3•


E LEVEL AG

9-12

Pools of Life Life Skill: Critical thinking Project Skill: Identifying where amphibians live Objective: Decide whether various bodies of water are suitable for amphibian growth and development

Success Indicator: Participants identify several locations where amphibians might reside

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Provisions Needed

● Pencil or pen ● Graph paper ● Maps of nearby wetlands and water bodies ● Books or other resources about amphibians

Have you ever seen little black tadpoles swimming around in a puddle of water? Did you know that those tadpoles would soon become frogs or toads? Frogs and toads, along with salamanders, make up the group of animals called amphibians. When amphibians first appeared on earth about 350 million years ago, they were the only animals with backbones that could live and breathe out of water. Amphibians are the ancestors of all four-limbed creatures.

wood frog

lifecycle

Trailblazing A majority of amphibians spend part of their lives in or

frog eggs

near water. So when you set out to find amphibians, it makes sense to start near a source of water. Like all other animals, amphibians have a preferred habitat. A habitat is a place where a particular animal can fill all of the following needs: food, water,

tadpole

shelter (protection from enemies such as predators), and space to breed and raise young. Locate and visit puddles, streams, ponds, or lakes in your neighborhood or community. Observe the characteristics of each water body and make notes. Size, location, surrounding vegetation, and other animals are just a few things to look for. After visiting adult frog

several locations, organize your data and record it in a table, photograph, or drawing. The record should include the types or names of all the water bodies you visited and describe the

18 U.S.C. 707

•1•


Pools of Life presence or absence of characteristics necessary for amphibian growth and development. Which places

Suggested Reading

● Conant, Roger, and Joseph T. Collins. Reptiles and Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America (Peterson Field Guide Series). 3rd Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1998. ● Behler, John L., and F. Wayne King. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1979. ● Duellman, W. E., and L. Trueb. Biology of Amphibians. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1986.

do you think were the best and worst amphibian habitats? Why? Observe the characteristics of each water body and make notes.

y’s s urph e M t . r No M pond

Facts to consider: ■ Fish often eat amphibian eggs or adults. ■ Plants along the edge of shallow ponds and lakes provide sites for egg attachment for some types of amphibians, especially frogs. ■ Small puddles of water often dry up before amphibian larvae completely develop. ■ Puddles near roads or homes may contain toxic substances like motor oil or pesticides. ■ Different types of amphibians prefer different water depths, temperature, clarity, or flow. ■ Some salamanders and frogs breed during the late fall and winter in the southeastern United States, while most frogs breed during the spring and summer.

slimy salamander

Internet Resources

•http://www.parcplace.org/default.htm •http://www.uga.edu/~srelherp/index.htm •http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/wildlifecrossings/salamand.htm •http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/steward/www19.html

•2•

Pools of Life Field Guide Amphibians, like reptiles, are

cold-blooded. This means their body temperature

changes with the temperature of the surrounding air. Most amphibians (all of those found in North America)

do not have claws

on their toes as do lizards. green treefrog

Most amphibians have

soft, moist skin free of scales,

feathers, and hair. Their skin contains mucus glands, which supply a clear fluid to keep the skin moist and in some cases to protect them from predators. During their time in water, amphibians breathe using gills. But most amphibians that move onto land replace their gills with lungs. Some amphibians have neither gills nor lungs as adults, but instead breathe through their moist skins. A few amphibians grow and develop in ways not typical of most amphibians. The

waterdog salamanders never develop lungs and never travel onto land. On the other hand, the red-spotted newt has an extra stage of development called an eft before returning to water and changing into an aquatic adult. Efts spend one to three years on land.

you can search for salamanders Minimize handling of the animals, and remember to return the animals and the leaves, logs, or stones to their original positions.

Amphibians are most

active after dark. Salamanders generally prefer dark,

damp places, such as caves, rock crevices, or the undersides of rocks and logs. Frogs hang out along wetland borders, especially during the spring and summer, and can be heard singing most often on rainy nights. Salamanders like hellbenders, waterdogs, amphiumas, and sirens are the most difficult to observe because they rarely move out of the water and generally are active only at night.

•3•

Pools of Life The Extra Mile Visit at least two potential amphibian habitats that look similar at first glance. You might choose to visit two streams or two low-lying areas with fallen logs scattered about. Inspect the sites, searching for salamanders or other amphibians. Salamanders are most easily found by sifting through leaves, rolling over logs, or turning over small stones. Minimize handling of the animals, and remember to return the animals and the leaves, logs, or stones to their original positions. Keep records of the types and numbers of amphibians seen, and compare the records for the two sites. Were there differences? Why do you think there were or were not differences?

Field Notes SHARE

● What types of water bodies turned out to be the best amphibian breeding habitats? ● What evidence did you find of amphibians breeding near your neighborhood? ● Did you rule out any bodies of water as being unsuitable without visiting them? Why or why not?

PROCESS

● How did you decide how to go about looking for amphibians? ● Why can’t you locate tadpoles in every puddle or pool of water during the breeding season? ● Why do you think the following statement is true or false? “Bigger is always better when it comes to bodies of water for amphibians to breed.”

GENERALIZE

● Why are declining amphibian populations often considered early indicators of bigger environmental problems? ● During their lives, most amphibians change the way they breathe. How do humans experience changes during their development?

APPLY

● How might you use the thought process from this activity to investigate another subject? ● How can you investigate issues when you get older?



•4•


Southeastern Serpents

E LEVEL AG

9-12

Life Skill: Critical thinking Project Skill: Identifying snakes, studying their behavior,

Provisions Needed

● Snake field guide (see Suggested Objective: Research snakes that live in your area Reading) Success Indicator: Participant chooses one local snake ● Paper or notebook species to study and creates a profile of that animal ● Pen ● Field clothes (such as boots, long pants, gloves) Have you ever seen a snake at the zoo or on a TV nature program? You ● Flashlight

learning their role in nature

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may even have seen wild snakes in your own back yard, at camp, or

when hiking. With nearly 2,700 kinds of snakes around the world, it’s no surprise that people often encounter them. Many people are scared of snakes when they really don’t need to be. Although there are as many as six species of venomous snakes in some areas of the southeastern United States, most snakes aren’t dangerous to humans. Even venomous snakes are harmless as long as they are left alone. In addition, snakes provide important benefits to humans, such as helping to control the populations of mice, rats, and other animals that may damage crops and stored food.

Trailblazing

start your own

“fact file” on snakes

Start your own “fact file” on snakes that live in your state or region. Study the range maps in the snake field guides, and talk with local experts to determine which snake species are found in your area. You might seek assistance from a herpetologist— a person trained in the study of reptiles and amphibians. Your county Cooperative Extension Service center or a regional office of your state’s wildlife agency might have a staff person with this special knowledge. Choose one species that is most interesting to you from those that are found where you live. Find out all you can about that particular snake and how it lives. If possible, explore places where you might be likely to see and observe snakes. Be sure to follow the safety guidelines for exploring given in the Field Guide section. Answer as many of the following questions as possible. 18 U.S.C. 707


Southeastern Serpents ■ Scientific and common name ■ Range—Is this species found only where you live, or across the state or region? ■ Status—Is this species common or rare? Is it protected by law in your state? If so, is it listed as “endangered,” “threatened,” or “of special concern”? Investigate the differences in these terms. ■ Physical description—What is the average and maximum length of your snake? What is the background color of the snake? Does it have a pattern of different

colored markings on its back or belly scales? Do the colors or

markings change from the head to the tail? Do the colors and markings stay the same throughout the snake’s life or change as it gets older? ■ Habitat requirements—Where can you usually expect to find your species of snake? Can it live in many different kinds of habitats or does it require a special habitat? What special adaptations (special body parts, senses, etc.) does it have (for climbing in trees, for instance, or living mostly in underground tunnels)? ■ Food and feeding habits—What kind of prey does it eat, and how does it capture its food? Does it kill its prey by injecting venom or constricting (squeezing) it, or just by grabbing it and swallowing it whole? Does the snake eat a wide variety of prey, or does it focus on a specific type? ■ Method of reproduction—Does this snake lay eggs (oviparous) or bear its young alive (viviparous)? How many young does it produce? If it lays eggs, where might it lay them and how long does it take for them to hatch? ■ Interaction and importance—How does your snake interact with its environment? What kinds of animals might prey on snakes? Is this snake particularly helpful to humans? Why? Is your species of snake collected and sold for the pet trade or killed by humans out of

fear or superstition? How

can you help to educate people about the value and importance of snakes?

Record your findings in a chart, table, or other graphic representation. Think about the best way to arrange your information and observations so that it makes the most effective presentation. You might concentrate on a concern you think has become a widespread problem. For example, is there a partic-

coral king snake snake

ular species of non-venomous snake in your area that is commonly mistaken as a threat and harassed? Are certain snake populations in trouble because individuals of the species are often killed or illegally collected?

Southeastern Serpents Field Guide Snakes live in a wide range of

habitats (the places where they find the

necessary food, water, shelter, and breeding space to survive). Species that are found underground are called fossorial. Those that live in fresh water are aquatic; in the ocean, marine. Snakes that live in trees are arboreal. Those that live mostly on the ground or near the surface of the ground are terrestrial. Many species commonly seek refuge under surface cover like logs, rocks, leaves, and other debris.

Reptiles like snakes and lizards and their close cousins, the amphibians (frogs and salamanders), are ectothermic or “cold-blooded.” (See “Leaping Lizards” activity.) This means that the body temperature of the animal is the same, or nearly the same, as the air or water temperature surrounding it. A snake can’t make its own body heat, but it can adjust or thermoregulate its body temperature by basking in a sunny spot for a short time if it is cold or finding a shady, cooler spot if it gets too hot. Snakes that live in areas with freezing winter temperatures must hibernate underground or they will die. All snakes are carnivorous, which means that they

eat other animals.

No snake eats plants. Since it has no hands, a snake must use its mouth and teeth to catch its prey. Snakes do not chew their food; they swallow it whole. Never try to catch or handle a snake unless you are sure it is a

non-venomous

species. Learning color variations and patterns of markings is a good way to quickly tell the difference between a venomous and non-venomous species. Use a flashlight when walking at night, and do not walk or reach into areas where you cannot see clearly. A few non-venomous species of snakes in the southeastern United States mimic, or “copycat,” the appearance of the venomous coral snake (see page 2). Learn which non-venomous snakes look similar to the coral snake. Many non-venomous snakes may bite in self-defense, though their bite often is no worse than a brier scratch. All wild snakes are best left alone and admired from a distance, just like other wild animals.

•3•

Southeastern Serpents Suggested Reading ● Ashton, Ray E., Jr., and Patricia Sawyer Ashton. Handbook of Reptiles and Amphibians of Florida (Part One: The Snakes). Miami: Windward Publishing. 1988. ● Behler, John L., and F. Wayne King. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1988. ● Conant, Roger. Reptile and Amphibian Study (Merit Badge Series). Rev. ed. by J. Whitfield Gibbons. Irving, Texas: Boy Scouts of America. 1993. ● Conant, Roger, and Joseph T. Collins. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America. 3rd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 1998. ● Dixon, James R. Amphibians and Reptiles of Texas. College Station: Texas A&M University. 1987. ● Dundee, Harold A., and Douglas A. Rossman. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Louisiana. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 1989. ● Gibbons, Whit, and Patrick J. West, eds. Snakes of Georgia and South Carolina. Savannah River Ecology Laboratory—HerpOutreach Publication # 1. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia. 1998. ● Martof, Bernard S., William M. Palmer, Joseph R. Bailey, and Julian R. Harrison, III. Amphibians and Reptiles of the Carolinas and Virginia. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press. 1980. ● Mitchell, Joseph C. The Reptiles of Virginia. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. 1994. ● Mount, Robert H. The Reptiles and Amphibians of Alabama. Reprint ed. University of Alabama Press. 1996. ● Palmer, William M., and Alvin L. Braswell. Reptiles of North Carolina. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press. 1995. ● Smith, Hobart M., and Edmund D. Brodie, Jr. A Golden Guide to Field Identification: Reptiles of North America. New York: Golden Press. 1982. ● Wright, Albert Hazen, and Anna Allen Wright. Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada. New York: Comstock Publishing Associates. 1957.

Internet Resources •http://www.parcplace.org •http://www.kingsnake.com •http://www.ncherps.org •http://www.reptilesmagazine.com •http://www.reptiletop50.com •http://www/flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/fl-guide/onlineguide.htm •http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Biology/herpcons/Herps_of_NC/herps_of_NC.html •http://www.pitt.edu/~mcs2/herp/SoNA.html •http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/995_snakes.html

Southeastern Serpents The Extra Mile Spend some time watching one or more snakes either at a zoo or at a nature center. Think about these questions as you observe. Do snakes move around as much as other animals? Why? Why don’t they need to eat as often as birds or mammals? Why does a snake constantly flick its tongue? Why doesn’t a snake ever close its eyes? What are the advantages and disadvantages of having a snake’s body shape? How might a snake’s color and pattern help protect it?

Field Notes SHARE

● How many venomous and non-venomous snakes live in your area? ● What did the size, shape, or color of your chosen species of snake tell you about how it lives? ● If you were able to observe living snakes, what things did you notice? If you didn’t understand a particular behavior, how did you find out what it meant? ● Which field guides were most useful and why?

PROCESS

● What do you think this statement means? Snakes have become a “successful” group of animals in nature. ● How can observing an animal in its habitat help you learn more than if you read about it only? Is watching a captive animal a good substitute? Why or why not? What are the advantages and disadvantages of both methods? ● How can exploring an issue on your own help you understand more than if you are merely told about it?

GENERALIZE

● Why do humans so often misunderstand snakes? What similarities do they share with other unpopular or feared kinds of animals? ● What other activities in your life require critical thinking (examining an issue and drawing conclusions about it)? ● What could you do at school or in a group to help others be less afraid of snakes?

APPLY

● How can you use critical thinking skills in other parts of your life? Think of examples in your family life, your school activities, and play.




E LEVEL AG

9-12

Tools for Archers Life Skill: Wise use of resources Project Skill: Making equipment commonly used

Provisions Needed

in archery

Objective: Identify and locate household materials to recycle in the construction of archery equipment

Success Indicator: Participants make functional archery equipment from recycled materials

Trailhead Native Americans used bows and arrows to hunt animals and protect themselves long before the invention of guns. These tools have been used for at least 50,000 years, according to archaeologists. In developing countries, the bow and arrow are still primary tools for getting food. The skill of

make your own

shooting with a bow and arrow is called archery. It is even an Olympic sport.

archery

Archery is challenging, fun, and great exercise. Best of all, you can reuse

equipment

archery equipment and accessories: arm guard, ground quiver,

An arm guard protects the arm from the return of the bowstring during shooting. It also provides a smooth surface for the string to strike, preventing the arrow from flying improperly. You can make an arm guard from leather or

ls. ima t an hun

belt quiver, and target jig.

to ws arro and

Using only recycled household materials, make the following

Na tive Am eri can su sed bo ws

arrows and make a lot of the equipment yourself from recycled materials.

Trailblazing

● Recyclable household materials: leather, plastic, wood, wire, elastic, rope, nails, etc. ● Drill ● Hammer ● Pencil or marker ● Knife or scissors ● Ruler or tape measure

plastic. It should be 1 to 2 inches longer than half the distance from your wrist to your elbow. You can use elastic strips 1/2 inch wide to secure the guard around your arm (Figure 1). A quiver is a holder or carrier for storing arrows. Some common types include the ground quiver, bow quiver, pocket quiver, and hip-and-belt quiver. A ground quiver can be formed from a coat hanger or other wire material. Bend the wire to form a 3-inch circle at one end, and stick the other end into 18 U.S.C. 707

•1•


Tools for Archers Internet Resource •http://www.usarchery.org 1/2" elastic strips

Figure 2. Ground quiver wire coat hanger

Figure 1. Arm guard

bend straight

1/4" holes

place rope through holes and tie to waist

bend 3” circle at one end

1/2” thick wooden plug in bottom, held in place with small nails

paper tube 2” in diameter; at least 18” long

stand arrows point down

Figure 3. Belt quiver the ground (Figure 2). A belt quiver can be made from lightweight plastic or paper tubing that is at least 18 inches long. A wooden plug should be secured at the bottom of the tube using small nails. Use string to attach the tube to your belt (Figure 3). A target jig is a handy tool for creating and scaling targets. It can be made from wood or heavy plastic. The jig should be at least 12 inches long and 2 inches wide. One end of the jig should be made into a “pivot” point by insertion of a nail or pin. Three to five holes, each large enough to insert a pencil, should be drilled or punched through the jig at measured distances to create the desired number of circles and target size (Figure 4).

•2•

Tools for Archers Field Guide Archery is fun, but it can be dangerous. After all, most arrows are designed to kill. Think of the bow and arrow as a loaded firearm. Below are some basic rules of safety.

Safety Rules ➔ Never shoot an arrow straight up. ➔ Never point an arrow at another person. ➔ Shoot arrows of proper size for the bow. ➔ Always identify a target. Do not shoot toward a house, highway, livestock, or other people. ➔ When target-shooting, do not retrieve your arrow until everyone has stopped shooting. ➔ Do not try to shoot an apple or other object off a person’s head or other body part. ➔ Never use a damaged, weakened arrow. Destroy it. ➔ Replace bowstrings when they become worn. ➔ Always wear an arm guard and finger tab or shooting glove. ➔ Never make a full draw with your bow on a cold day without several partial draws first. A sudden jerk could snap the bowstring. ➔ Never draw and release the bow without an arrow in it. ➔ Never engage in horseplay with your bow and arrows. ➔ When in doubt about your target, your equipment, or your procedure, do not shoot.

•3•

Tools for Archers The Extra Mile

Figure 4. Target jig

Although there are several types of archery targets, a regulation target has a face that is 48 inches in diameter with 10 concentric circles within.

side view of marking board 1 /” 12

3”

(“Concentric” means a group of circles that share the same center.) The center of the target

4/” 1 2

is two rings of gold, followed, in order, by two rings

nail—pivot point

each of red, blue, black, and white. Scoring is 10 points for the smallest gold circle, nine for the next holes for marking

gold, eight and seven for the reds, and so on until the largest, outer ring of white counts only one. This is the target used in most

competitive events. Make a jig for the regulation target. Then, using your jig, draw the target, making sure to incorporate the appropriate colors for the different rings. Can you think of ways to improve the regulation target and its scoring system? If so, develop your own jig, target design, and scoring system.

Field Notes SHARE

● How easy was it to find old material or recyclable items around your house or work space? ● What material created the most comfortable or functional items?

PROCESS

● How much money do you think you saved by using recycled materials? ● Which type of quiver do you expect would be most useful? Why? ● How might someone make a bow or arrow out of recycled material? How would it compare to a bow and arrows purchased from a store?

GENERALIZE

● How does the use of recycled products in our everyday lives help or hurt the environment?

APPLY

● Could all or some parts of bows and arrows sold in a store be made from recycled materials?



•4•


E LEVEL AG

9-12

Turtle Tales Life Skill: Communication Project Skill: Researching and describing native turtles Objective: Educate peers about turtles found locally Success Indicator: Participants collect accurate and

Provisions Needed

● Craft material or recyclable household items interesting information about turtles and communicate their ● Paints ● Glue, tape, staples, findings to a group or other fasteners ● Markers ● Poster paper What animal has been around since before dinosaurs, lays eggs, has ● Reptile field guides a soft body surrounded by bony plates, and can be found on every and other reference material continent except Antarctica? Turtles. The unique thing about turtles is their shell.

Trailhead

It encloses and protects the turtle’s soft body parts.

Trailblazing Use materials you find around your house to create a model of a turtle shell. Examine actual turtles or use pictures to decide how best to design your turtle. Pick a species of turtle that is found where you live. Remember that a turtle’s shell has many different parts. The top part of the shell, the carapace (pronounced KER-uh-pess), is made of

make a turtle shell

flattened ribs covered with other bony material. Often this part of the shell has an additional layer of hard, horn-like structures called scutes (pronounced SKEWTS). The bottom part of the shell, which covers the turtle’s underside, is called the plastron (pronounced PLASS-tron). A bony “bridge” on each side of the body connects the carapace and plastron. Don’t forget to include hinges on the plastron if your

loggerhead sea turtle

turtle species has them. Also, find a way to show the internal support of fused ribs on your turtle shell. When your model is complete, paint, color, or decorate your homemade shell in the same manner as your chosen turtle species.

18 U.S.C. 707

•1•


Turtle Tales Use your turtle shell as a prop in an informative talk about turtles. Try to find as much local information as possible about your turtle. Is it plentiful in your area?

Internet Resources •http://endangered.fws.gov/wildlife.html •http://ecos.fws.gov/webpage •http://www.parcplace.org/default.htm •http://www.uga.edu/~srelherp/index.htm

Does it have any special protection such as that given to a rare or endangered species? Are there laws that prevent hunting or capture? Use the “Field Notes” section below to guide your investigation.

Suggested Reading

Field Guide There are about

250 species of turtles

in the world. About 50 of these can be found in North America. Depending on the species, turtles can live on land, in fresh water, and in salt water. More than

40 turtle species are classified as

endangered throughout the world. Four sea turtles and two pond turtles are classified as endangered in the United States, and many more are threatened. Like all reptiles,

turtles are cold-blooded. This means they do not

have a constant body temperature, as humans and other mammals do. A reptile’s body temperature changes with the temperature of the surrounding environment. As body temperature decreases, breathing and heartbeat slow. Although

turtles have no teeth, they have a sharp bony jaw, often

referred to as a beak. The jaws are good cutting instruments and can easily tear plant material and capture prey. Most

turtles lay eggs between late spring and late autumn. All North

American turtles lay eggs on dry land, even if the species spends most of its life in water. The mother turtle leaves the eggs to hatch on their own after being warmed and incubated by the sun. The temperature of the nest will determine the sex of the baby turtles. Warmer temperatures lead to mostly female turtles, and cooler temperatures lead to mostly male turtles.

Six groups of turtles are found in the United States: snapping turtles, musk and mud turtles, pond and box turtles, tortoises, softshell turtles, and sea turtles.

•2•

● Behler, John L., and F. Wayne King. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1992. ● Conant, Roger, and Joseph T. Collins. Reptiles and Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America (Peterson Field Guide Series). New York: Houghton Mifflin. 1998.

Turtle Tales The Extra Mile A herpetologist is a person trained to study reptiles and amphibians. Find and interview a herpetologist. Try to learn new information about turtles that you weren’t able to find in your reading. Ask what the person’s special interests are regarding turtles. Share what you learned in a presentation.

diamondback terrapin hatchling

Field Notes SHARE

● What was the most surprising or interesting fact you discovered about turtles? ● What can be done near your home or school to help protect turtles? ● What are the laws in your state regarding the collection of reptiles or parts of reptiles? ● What other designs in nature or human-made objects function like a turtle shell? ● What kind of feedback did your audience give you that let you know your presentation was good or needed improvement?

PROCESS

● Why can’t a turtle crawl out of its shell? ● Why are turtles more active when the weather is warm? ● How does the shape of a land turtle’s shell differ from the shell of a turtle that spends lots of time swimming? Are there differences in other body parts, too? ● Why do you think turtles have different markings and colors? ● How did you decide how to best organize your presentation?

GENERALIZE

● Why is it important to have a niche in the world (finding a place where you can best live and be productive) like different species of turtles? ● What other times do you plan to gather and share information with your friends or classmates?

APPLY

● How can you improve your communication skills the next time you make a display or presentation?



•3•


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