The Venetian Empire 1200–1670

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES 1210.

THE VENETIAN

..

EDITOR: MARTIN WINDROW

THE VENETIAN EMPIRE 1200-1670

Dedication Pour h46m6rc%.

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British Library Catnloguing in I'uhlication I h l a Nicolle, David Thc Venetian Empire

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The Enetian Empire 1200-1670

'I'hc story ofVenice is, to some extent, scparate from that ofthc rest of Europc. T h e same could Ile said of the city's military history and organisation. Early in the 0th century the I'cnetians defeated Pepin the Frank's attrmpts to overawe them, and they remai~iccl,at least in theory, suhjcct to Ryzantium. Gradually, however, Vcnice driftcd into indepcndcncc; and sul)scquently carved out its own empire at the expense of its fbrmcr Byzantinc masters. 'Their position on a series of islands set in a marshy lagoon at the head of the Adriatic made the Vcnctians virtually in\~ulnerahlcwhilc thcy steadily I~uiltup I~otlltheir commercial and naval strcngth. In this the famous Arsenal of Vcnicc played a leading r d c . Some kind of Byzantinc-style shipyard and military depot may have existed as carly as thc tjth century, though the medieval Arscnal was not erected until I 104. Its name comes from the Arabic I)nr nl Sirrn'n, 'Dockyard', and the conccpt clearly owed as much to Islamic inspiration as to the Byzantine moclel on which thc Arsenal was supposed to I)e llascd. By I 202, and thr arrival ol'the Fourth Crusade in Vcnicc, the city alrcady hrld much territory around the Adriatic. l'hc mcnacc of piracy had led Vcnctians to seize the pirate-ink sted eastern shores, where the in11al)itants of many towns still spoke a lbrm of Italian, l~cingclcsccnded from thc Latin peoples oftlic lioman Empire. 'l'hc D O ~orPDukc of Vcnicc already had, among his numerous titles, that of Dukr of Dalmatia and Dukc of Istria whilc the filmoils syml)olic ceremony ofSpo.,ali;io d f l .\lor, 'hlarriagc to the Sea', had also bcgun. Vrnctian tlomination of'nortli-castcrn Italy came much later; but Vcnicc. did control the lagoon coast and took a close interest in the military alTairs orits neighl)ours, ~):wticularly in the turbulent and only partially Italian region of 1:riuli. Venetian merchant

ventures wcrr oficn almost piratical in thcmsrl\,cs; and the city's tradr contacts, stretching lar bcyond the Adriatic, wcre well rstal)lishcd bcfore the creation of thc Crusader Statcs Icd to the founding of scmi-autonomous Vcnctiar~colonies on the coast of Syria and Palestine. 'I'hc military ancl politicill slructure which supported thcse adventures in Komnnia (the ithe Rluslim eastcrn Byzantinc zonc) and Olh.~m(lr~ Mediterranean) was itself a mixture of East and West, Byzantinc and Italian systems. 'Thrsc wcl-c The campanile or bell-tower of Koper (CapodYIstria) which, in the late 12th century, was Venice's main island stronghold in Istria and fell finally under Venetian rule in 1279.This 15th century tower also served as a lighthouse and observationpost against pirates, such tall structures becoming symbols of Venetian sovereignty along the Yugoslav coast.

Carvings on the west door of Trogir Cathedral in Dalmatia, made by Master Radovan in 1240. Though essentially Romanesque in style, Radovan's carvings include unusual costume and weaponry reflecting the Slav population of Dalmatia. This archer (left)has a composite bow and a quiver of almost Central Asian form. The 'Guards at the Holy Sepulchre' (right) wear scale or lamellar armour over their mail hauberks and, with their wide-brimmed chapel-de-fer helmets, are probably based on Serbian or Byzantine soldiers.

reflected in thc Dogc's ELvcusati or Guard as well as his ccrcmonial parasol and sword. Nevcrthelcss, the Venetian social order was strictly feudal. Though within the city no individual held land by knight tenure, various Church arid othcr propertics were tied to military scr\.icc. T h e Vcnctians were soon famous for their roving and warlike spirit, keen business acumen and pride. An almost modcrn scnsc of 'national' identity unified the city and saved Vcnicc from many of those class struggles which rent the rest of medieval Italy. Even the Serrate thc 'locking' or 'closing' of the Venetian ruling class a t the end of the 13th century did not dampen the loyalty of the Vcnetians, rich and poor, to their Screne Republic, even though it thereafter excluded all othcr families from political powcr. It is worth noting that only one Order of Chivalry, the Cnz~alieri di San illarco, was ever foundcd in Venice and no Venetian could join a foreign order without government approval. Venice remained a rcpublic throughout its independent history, while politics and the army werc kept firmly separate. Belligerent as thcy werc, thc

Venetians had a businesslikc attitudc to war which seems to have been regarded as an cxtcrision of commerce by other mcans. T h e early appearance of mercenaries, ancestors of the fiimous Italian condottieri, in 12th century Venice was a sign of this attitude and not of any lack of martial spirit. I n fact the Venetian Republic normally tried t o avoid wars, unless these were obviously going to he profitable. Nevertheless Vcnicc suffered a very wartorn history, frcqucntly clashing with the rival maritimc rcpublic of Gcnoa ovcr thc commercial domination of various regions, struggling with Hungary and later with the Ottoman Empire ovcr Dalmatia, and bcing drawn into numerous wars in defence of the Terra Firma, Venice's mainland possessions. T h e Terra Firma was takcn partly as a buffer against predatory ncighbours, partly to guarantee trade routes to the Alpinc passcs, and partly because Venice relied on mainland wheat for its survival. Later, of course, the Venetian Empire becam? locked in a life-or-death struggle with the vast Ottoman Turkish Empire. These VenetianOttoman wars look at first sight like a typical David .. and Goliath confrontation, but in military terms the Venctians were not so small as thcy might have

appeared. From the very dawn of Vcnetian history all classes were callcd upon to fight. Venice was a grrat city with a population of some 200,000 by the early 15th ccntury; was immensely wealthy, politically united, and diplomatically experienced; and had a huge navy. 'I'he people of medieval Venice were also noted {'or their brawling and their love of display. While for centuries oldcr men continucd to wear traditional long dark cloaks, in the 14th century the youngcr men adopted tight-fitting multi-coloured hose. T h e dcsigns on these leggings often indicated the C'umnpci~qnir&/la Calza or 'Trouser Club' to which the wearer bclongcd. Sumptuary laws were constantly cnactcd to curb the extravagant dress of men and womcn, hut these could lead merely to a change in fashion, as when legal but dull outel garments were slit to reveal legal but more sumptuous underclothes. This was probably the origin ol' 15th and 16th century 'slashed' fashions. Vcnetian love of display paradoxically made this maritime city a European leader when it came to jousts, tournaments and conspicuous consumption by the military dite. I n its own day Venice was seen as a paradox through its ability, as a money-minded republic, to defeat so often warlike feudal and Renaissance princcs. Venice also enjoyed uncharacteristic stability despite its turbulent politics and occasional military disasters while, by the end of the 15th ccntury, thc Vcnetian army remained the only independrnt Italian military force in Italy. Even the inexorable advance of the Ottoman Turks was at first turned to advantage, Venice snapping u p naval I~ascsand colonies at a cheap price or in return for protection. In this way the Venetian Empire rcachcd a pinnaclc ofpowcr and prosperity in the mid- I 5th century. T h e cosmopolitan character of the city itself grew ever more pronounccd through an obvious Dalmatian influence o n many aspects of life, and the large Greek, Armenian, Muslim and black populations within Vcnicc. Despite Venice's maintenance of generally good rclations with the Ottomans until the late 15th ccntury, thc Turkish expansion inevitably undermined Italian commercial domination of the eastern Mediterranean; and as soon as the Ottomans turned their attention to the sea a clash

became inevitable. Vcnicc's loss ofthe Greek island of Evvoia in 1470 marked a turning point which was rccogniscd even at the time. One year later the Venetians were sendirlg armaments to Persia in a classic effort to win allics on their enemy's eastern flank. Thcsc years also saw Venice lose domination of the scas, at least beyond thr Adriatic, and the start ofan epic na\,i~lstri~gglcsuch as had not been seen Ihr centuries.

Venice I)ecan~ca truly imperial power in the wake of the Fourth Crusade which, in 1204, scized the Byzantine capital of Constantinople (Istanbul) and, with Vcnetian aid, temporarily established a 'Latin Empire' in the Byzantine heartland. T h e success ofmany such Western military ventures into the eastern Mediterranean depended upon an ability to transport war-horses long distances by sea. This prohlcm had apparently been solved by the Venetians in the 12th century with their use of larger ships and a systcm of carrying adequate drinking water.

The Fleet Vcnicc's power depcndecl, of course, upon its fleets which, whether pcacd'ul or warlike, were commanded by an admiral advisccl by two governmentappointed ci\,ilians. Beneath the admiral were proveditori, administrators and ~oflmcomiti,galley captains. The chain of command was tightened as

the centuries passed. hut gallcy captains always had a tendency to act as fi-ec agents, despite (lie creation of a Captain General of the Sea in overall naval command. A systcm of naval patrols was also set up in the I gth ccntury to control the most sensitive scas and, where possible, to cut of'encmy supplies. T h e limitations of mcdicval shipping meant that Venice could never entirely control any part of the Mediterranean, though Venetian trade could be protected and piracy suppressed. '4 convoy systcm was nothing new, but by thc I :jth ccntury cscorts of from 15 to 30 galleys protcctcd many slow and vulnerable rncrchant 'round ships'. Thcsc convoys, their routes and destinations, were strictly rcgulatcd by the go\,crnment, but if their escorting gallcys could be lured away or defeated, thcn Venetian losses could be crippling. Such convoys wrrc, however, only seen in dangerous scas or in wartime as, for example, when Venice was locked in one of' her numerous conflicts with her arch-rival, Genoa. T h e very limited operational range of medieval galleys at first confined convoy cscorts to the chain of naval hasps which constituted the Vcnetian overseas empire, or to friendly ports. Only the building of much larger merchant-galleys, which were able to defend themselves, enahled this convoy system to bc extended beyond the hlcditcrrancan, out into the Atlantic and even to the coa\t$ of England and Flanders. T h e ahscncc of'a Vcnetian galley fleet could also influence cvents on land, as when the Byzantines took advantage of such a. situation to recapture Istanhul from the 'Latin Empire' in 1261. Furthermore, galleys had to defend their own bases, captains and crews manning the walls whenever they wcrc attacked by land. Over 3,000 Venetian merchant ships were trading by the mid- I 5th century, ancl many ofthese could be readily convrrted into warships or at least into military transports. In the Arsenal were a reserve oforiginally 25, later 50 and eventually ~ o o war-galleys. T h e defensive equipment carried by each ship was closely regulated by the government. I n 1255 a small vessel carried five assorted crossbows, a large ship at least eight, plus helmets, The port of Amasra on the Black Sea, though held by Venice's deadly rival Genoa, was a typical Italian medieval fortified outpost surrounded by potentially hostile territory and existing solely to secure the home city's trading network. Amasra finally fell to the Ottomans in 1460.

sliiclcls, jn\:clins, spears and grappling hooks. hlcclicval ships also had very large crews, particularly when 'armed' for a voyage in tlangcrous waters. Evcn a mcrchant ship would then carry a t least G o mcn, an ordinary galley from 240 to 280. Skilled sailors wcrr recruited in Vcnicc, Dalmatia and Grcccc. Thcrc were no galley-slavcs in the Middle Ages and oarsmcn came from Venice or its empire, particularly li-om Dalmatia. Venetian oarsmen were sclcctcd hy lot fiom the city's parishes, being financially supported by those who remained t~chind. From the 14th century debtors were rccordcd workinq olT their obligations at the oars. Rowing skills wcrc encouraged through races and regattas in Vcnicc, especiall) on the feast day of St Paul. Other cornpctitions includcd a sort of rough watcr polo, and watcr-tilting: hcrc joustcrs stood on the stvrn of tach boat as thcy rowcd towards each othcr, the loser I-wing pushed into the canal. At sea sailors and oarsmcn wcrc armcd with swords or spcars, but changes in weapons technology gradually Icd to a decline in the military status of the ordinary sailor. Yct all aboard wcre still expected to light wh(*n ncccssary, cvcn the mcrchant passengers. Every man had his weapon, the most important being stored beneath the captain's cabin. l'roli~ssionalsoldicrs or marines had always sailed irl,o:lrd ship, 1x11 their r6lc bccamc more important as wcaponry became more powerful and expensive. Vcnctians uscd javelins as late as the I 5th century, while othcr weapons included cooking pots filled The fortified galley-harbour at Amasra where Genoese ships could shelter, not only from the Black Sea's fearsome storms but also from rival Venetian, Ottoman and other fleets. It was a very simple structure compared to the later Venetian galleyharbour at Zadar (see page 24).

Carved ivory cantle of an early 14th century Italian saddle. Here a knight has a great helm and early forms of plate armour for his arms and legs (Louvre, Paris).

with $oap to makc the enemy's decks slippery, liregrcnadcs and blinding sulphur. Swimmcrs could cvcn attack thc roc's hull, thrcatcning to sink hirnthough in fict very few ships wrrr actually sunk in medic\.al warfidrc. C>rossl,ows wcrc now thc main long-clistancc weapon, contact and hoarditig still deciding the final outcomc. I n I 303 thc govcrnmcnt instructrd that each gallry carry 30 such cross1)owmen, who would also row on the innrr 1,cnches. Shooting practice was compulsory in \'enice, citizens training at the butts in groups of 1 2 . 'I'hey also competed in three annual competitions where the government offcrcd rich prizcs: valual~lescarlct cloth for thc winner, a shorter length of cloth plus a new crossbow and quiver for the runners up. Onc group of crossbowrncn known as thc 'noble bowmen' wcre recruited fi-om thc aristocracy and served aboard both war galley\ and armcd mcrchantmcn from thc latc 14th ccntury onwards, having the privilege of living in thc captain's cabin. Such scrvicc could also be the first stcp in a military or political carccr. Few professional mcrccnarics yet seem to have servcd at sea, and no maritimc condottieri are recorded until the mid-16th century. Another important fbundation ol'vcnctian naval might was her ability to mas\-proclucc ships in the Arscnal. 'I'hcsc now had thc Li-amc-first system which difI'crcd fiom Gracco-Roman shipping in that the ribs or fi-amc were constructed before the planking was applied, thc ancients having made a planked hull to which they then attached the ribs. This modern system was not only hstcr but used much less wood. War-galleys wcrc thcmsclves also changing. Though thc diffcrcnccs between early

mounted in the wooden rembata or castle, and to a lesser extent in thc stern. Wooden parapets or in7pazjesnti ran along each side of the ship to protect the oarsmen. Greek Fire and other pyrotechnics mcdicval Byzantine dromon~,with their two banks of werc greatly feared, some ships being swathed in oars, and the single-banked Italian war-galley arc protcctive vinegar-soaked hides or slicets of k l t in not yet entirely clear, a new systcm of grouping the time of battle. Yet battles on the open sca remained oars does seem to havc bccn invented in thc I I th or rarc. Apart from defending convoys arid suppressing piracy, the primary function of thc Venetian I ath centuries. This systcm alla .ven.de, or 'in simple fashion', was itsclf to be supcrccded early in the 16th gaileys sccms to have been in 'combined operccntury. 'Great galleys', dcsigncd specifically fbr ations', supporting a landing force either to attack long-distancc trade in dangerous waters, also an encmy base or defend thcir own. T h c Vrnctians appearcd in the mid-14th century. Heavily were noted experts when it came to attacking defended, though bulky and unwieldy, merchant harbours and sea walls. Even the catapult aboard 'round ships' also proved their' worth against the ship was, in fact, called a lifaboli or 'shorc: buster'. Ottomans whcn the latter suddenly turncd to naval Wooden towers could be erected on deck to overtop warfare latc in the 15th century. By then the land defences. Small boats could 1)e slung hlediterranean ships cmploycd the morc efficient between the mast-heads to carry crosshowmen, and stern rudder instead of thc steering oars that had spars could be swung from ropes as Inttcring rams. When battle between opposing fleets did occur it bccn uscd since antiquity. Though this invention is gcncrally hclicved to havc cntcrcd the Mediter- often began with the same ceremonious courtesy as ranean from northcrn Europc, rcccnt evidence a land battlc. A special flag, with a sword pointing shows that it was known to Muslim mariners as skywards, could be raised to signal a willingness to carly as the I I th ccntury and may also havc been fight, and enemy standards would bc trailed in the known to the Byzantines. Other technical advances water behind victorious ships whcn they returned to includcd thc compass, which was clearly of Islamic port. A commander's primary tactical considcration was to kecp his fleet togethcr. Then hc had to and ultimately Chinese origin. Ramming was no longer a n important naval make best usc both of his low but fast and tactic, the truc ram having been replaced by the manoeuvrable galleys and his slow but tall and higher and morc flimsy calcar or boarding 'beak' almost invulnerable 'round ships'. Abo\lc all he had carly in the Middle Agcs; but even a cakal- could to break the enemy formation bcfore overwhelming smash the enemy's oars and cripple his rowers. A it piecemeal by boarding. This could be achieved by gallcy's defences werc conccntrated in the bow, feigning flight, then turning on the foe; or by where a stone-throwing catapult might also be catching his gallcys with thcir sails up and oars

Carved capitals on the lowest level of the Doge's Palace, Venice, early 14th century. Among the military figures on these carvings are a head wearing a bascinet and mail aventail with loosened bretache hanging from the chin (left);and a fully armoured rider carrying an unidentified weapon (right).

stowed. Navigation was almost always within sight ol'larid, so that a concealed part of the fleet could launch an aml)ush kom behind islands, capes or I~ays.Consequently small scouting vessels also had a vital r6lc to play in naval warfare. If necessary warships could I)(> lashed together to form a static floating fi)rtrcss. They could be beached with their strongly defi.nclecl hows pointing out to sea, or be moored stern to the hrach ready to he cut loose a t a moment's notice. Evcn the appearance of the first cannon aboard ship did little to change such traditional tactics until the late 16th century. Such b0rnbard.r were recorded in the ii)rccastlcs of'a few Vcnctian gallcys in the 137os, and l~ccamcstandard armament in the 15th ccntury. Numerous small guns were by then mounted on galleys and round ships to cut down the enemy crew, whilc a single larger cannon could Ilc placed in a galley's bow to pierce the enemy's hull or topple his mast. Such weapor~rya t first proved very successful against Ottoman galleys, whose crews still mostly used composite bows.

River Warfare Vcnicc was also involved in warfare along the broad rivers, lakes and marshes of northern Italy, though not always with great succcss. Most such campaigns arose aster Vcnicc conquered wide territories on the Terra Firmu in what are now Loml,ardy, the Veneto and Friuli, where river fleets could support Venetian land armies. Full-sized galleys operated on Lake Garda and great rivers like the Po. Kckrence to the lirst galleon;, probably meant small galleys with an upper fighting deck over the oarsmen. Other vessels included sailing ships, and the little hulrhe which carried only three rowers and two crossl)owmcn. Vcnicc maintained sizcablc fleets of' such vessels until the use of accurate cannon, liring from a river's banks, put an effective end to this type of warfare at the end of the I 5th ccntury. This was, however, a form of combat in which somc of Venice's ril~alswere already skilled. Evcn the fleet of six galleys and 2 5 smaller craft which Vcnicc launched on Lake Garda in the winter of 1439-40 was almost immediately destroyed I)y Milancsc lake crafi. This had been an epic of military engineering in which, for I 5 days, the Venetians hauled their ships u p the River Adige and across a low mountain range to Lake Garda.

The castle at Trogir, Dalmatia, which still has carved Venetian coats-of-arms set into its walls.

The Army T h e Venetian army was quitc as eiTectivr as its fleet, despite jibes that the marsh-dwelling Venetians didn't know how to ride properly. 'l'lic armies of 13th century Italian states already included mcrcenarics hom other parts of the country in addition to a Seudal leader's own m(t.cnctda. hlost early rt3th century Venetian troops wcrc, however, still recruited from thc lagoon arca, plus a fclv Dalmatian and Istrian fcuclal contingcnts. In emergencies, like that of 1 q 4 , the Vetwtian parishes registered all males between 17 and 60 years of age and listed all the weapons they possessed, those callcd to fight I~cingorganiscd into groups of I 2 . Such domestic troops, conscripts and volunteers, were still prct'crrcd to mercenaries in 14th century Vcnicc. Most fi)ught on foot whilc richer mcn or aristocrats ser\,cd as a cavalry, as they did in all Italian cities. A register ol' 11338estimated that 30,000 Venetians could bear arms; nor were they a mere rabble, as in somc othcr medieval urban militias. Marly were skilled crossl)owmen, while others fought with slings and lire-grenades. Venice also had its own local prokssional soldiers, a small corps of infantry guarcling vital castles like Mestre and Treviso; but n o full-time Venetian cavalry were as yet recorclccl in the 14th century. 'I'hc Iirst truc Vcnctian standirig army emerged quitc suddenly early in the 15th century and consisted, as elscwhcrc in Italy, of condottie~z mercenary contract \oldicrs. Such a force was clearly needed to defend Venice's ricw mainland territories on the T e r ~ u 1;ilma. T h e Republic's contribution to an alliancr with Florence in 1426

Effigy of unnamed Venetian knight, midllate 14thcentury. The man wears typical armour of his period, though the crossing of the chains from his coat-of-plates to his sword and dagger, and the large buckle-cover on his sword-belt, seem to have been fashionable in Venice. (Victoria & Albert Mus., London)

forts and palisades, I);~rric:tdctl sonic c;lnals with chained ships, t)lockcd others with sunken 1):~rgc.s. ancl h;~rasscd the cncmy in I~otlismall I)oats ancl galleys. Vcnicc not only survived this threat 1)itt consisccd of no less than 8,000 ca\.alry and :3,ooo triumphed. and went on to win cstcnsi\rc Trrrn inli~ntryin time of'war, :3,ooo and I ,ooo rcspccti\~ely 1;irmn territories in 1 404-5. in peacetime. 'l'hc almost continuous warfhrc ofthc From thcn until tlic crisis of I 509 Vencti;ln land lirst half' of the I 5th century Iccl to such standing fbrccs were gcticrally o n the ofk~isivcant1 provcd to armics, thcir support systcms and associated 11c the most cfTcctivc in Italy. 'l'licy fbught not only taxation 1)ccoming an accepted fact ofVenetian life, Italians and Hungarians I)ut also Germans ;itid while the mainlancl city 01' Hrcscia hccamc thc dr French longt)owmcn who, in 1449, i~scclI-footed reputation. the Venetians had licldcd ctkcti\.c armoured cavalry even in the Effigy of Federico Cavalli, late 14thcentury. The Cavalli were a military family, some of whom served Venice as condottieri mercenaries (in situ church of S. Anastasia, Verona).

Mid-15th century carving of unknown Venetian coat-of-arms supported by two soldiers in distinctive Venetian colonial armour. On the left, a fully equipped man-at-arms wears a helmet remarkably similar to some found in the Venetian fortress at Khalkis (see line-drawings). On the right a similarly armoured crossbowman spans his weapon using a cranequin or rack-and-pinionsystem (in situ Jurja Barakovica Street, Sibenik).

13th century, a regulation 01' 1239 assuming onc war-horse, two othcr horscs and thrcc. squires fbr each Vcnctian knight. 'I'hc I '4th ccntury poct Prtrarch dcclarcd that this 'nation of sailors' surpassed all othcrs both o n 11orscl)ack and at sca. Various Venetian aristocrats I)rcd line horses on their mainland estates, though most animals wcrc imported fiom Germany and Hungary. T h r warhorse was by far thc most expcnsivc part o f a manat-arm's equipment. By the I 5th ccntury it 1)ecamc normal to attack a n cricmy's animal rather than the rider, thus making losses higher and the pro1)lcms of' replaccmcnt cvc-n worse. Heavy cavalry wcrc. organisccl into small units 01' l n n z e this consisting 01' a man-at-arms, a lightly armed sergeant and a page or mounted scr\,ant. By the 15th ccntury many il' not most such mcn-atarms were short-term condoltirri rnrrcenarics. A more stal~lcIbrmation, the Inns(>.~/)r;;a/u or 'l)rokcn lance', was mcanwhilc csta~~lishctl, consisting of veteran or picked troops ~>crrniincntly comrnittctl to

Canal entrance to the Arsenal, Venice, looking towards the site of the Old Arsenal. The Gate of the Arsenal, on the left, was rebuilt in monumental style in 1572 following victory over the Ottoman fleet at Lepanto.

Vcnc.tiul~ scr\.icc. -1.h~man-at-arm's cbquipmcnt was now so cxpcnsivc that ;I separation began to appear I~ctwccnthe Li~llyarmourcd elnzetti and the slightly less prestigious utili. Numerous severe clcfcats sullkrctl I)y armourcd cavalry at the hands of infantry during the 14th ccntury had clearly not untlcrmincd Ihith in the man-at-arm's military potential. His armour was now so sophisticated that the lanze en.joycd a renewed lease of life well into the I 6th century. Fifteenth century Vcnctian lanri also included mounted crossl)own~cnand even mounted hand-gunners, though not the infantry component that appeared in Francc arid Burgundy. Along with the employmerit of stradioti, Venetian Lbrces now recruited a variety of other types of separate and more mol,ilc light cavalry formations. In fact, Vcnicc played a leading r d c in the dcvclopmcnt of western Iuropcan light cavalry during the late medicviil and licnaissancc periods.

Infantry Given the ancient Vcnctian tradition ol'all classes carrying arms and of the government cncouraging military training among the ordinary people, it is not surprising to find that Vcnctian intiintry were both numerous and efkctive. Among the earliest were the Militias of the Six FVards or clistricts of' Vcnice. In I 262 these se.s/ieri were increased to 500 men per parish, partly to help the Signori cli .No/ti maintain order at night. In the 14th century these men were still selected by lot. Men chosen fix the prestigious and lucrative r d c of crossl~owmcn aboard merchant ships and galleys were also selected from among the best at thc various shooting ranges in Venice. Men aged I~ctween 1 5 and 35 were enrolled as crossbowmen by their parish, then being divided into duodene (groups of 1 2 ) under a local officer who was also responsible Ibr their training at the local butts. Since all classes lived crowded together within Vcnicc, the duodene included rich and poor, noble and commoner, who trained ant1 hught together. Not a11 fi)ught as

crossl)owmcn, ol' coursc. Other infantry weapons designed specifically to combat cavalry included the long mace-like weapon5 and harhcd spcars which wrought havoc among invading Hungarians in 1373. 'I'he i'litc of' i7cnctian infantr) werc, however, drawn from the ranks of the =Ir~etm/otti,the highly skilled and well-paid craftsmen of the Arsenal. They provided guards for the Dogc.5 Palace and other government buildings, acting as a police force and even a lire-I~rigade,as well as furnishing detachments ofwcll-equipped infantry. T h e Arsenal itself was also a wcapons factory and arms store, as well as I~cing the most famous ship-building yard in Europe. In I 3 I 4 n o lcss than I , I 3 I crossbows were stored within its walls, whilc its newr rope-making hctory, dating from 1303, madc thousands of crossbow-strings. T h e Cbm/)ngni della C a l ~ n or 'Trouser Clubs', which had been created in the I 5th ccntury largely for the entcrtainmcnt of the young men, also pro\lided trained volunteers when called upon, whilc the unemployed could also find thcmsclvcs cn1istc.d. I n real emergencies Venice fell hack upon mass conscription so that Venetian infantry Ihrccs could sometimes l)c very largc-up to '~0,000iit thr start of the 16th century. By this timr militia officers wore a breastplate and a sallct hrlmct, hut the quality of their troops varied considerably. In general Venetian militia rrmaincd 1)y far the 1)est in Italy, though thosc of Venicc itscll'wcrc normally superior to thosc of the Turra Iqirma. In fact thc latter werc often used mcrcly as pioneers or lal,ourcrs. Tlic status of infhntry liitd sunk consideral>ly I)y the year goo, despite the appearance of Italian hand-gunncrs in the ~ q q o sand the division of infantry Sormations into 'ass;tult' troops with sworcls or short spcars, and f~rc'companies with crossl)ows or guns. In 1qjo efforts liad I)ccn madc to train two men fi-om each Terra 1;irtna village with handguns hut riot until the crisis of I 50:) liad passed could a full overhaul ofthe V c n c t i ; ~militia ~~ system I)c carried out. & .

Armies at home and abroad Venice's lirst serious in\lolvcment o n the Terra Firma dated from 1338, with her defeat of Padua and scizurc oL'Trc\riso. Henceforth Vcnicc was a major powcr o n tlic Italian mainland, and after 14'3 a fundamental shift in Venetian policy committed

11cr to further tcrritol-ial expansion. V c ~ ~ i went c c on to conquer a largc. part of nortlicrn and northeastern Italy. Though tlic go\.rrnment and military organisation of thrsc territories varied, it was than elsewhere in Italy. generally lcss opprcssivc .. Venice was, of course, primarily concerned with security, h o d supplies and access to the Alpine passes rather than military glory, so that hcr light hand inspired considcral)lc loyalty on ihc Turra Firma. This was even true in a backward and still essentially fcudal area like Friuli, wticrc the warlike Friulani were noted as swordsmen. Terr-a 1;irmo urban militias or Ordinan,y trained ci~chSunday, Statue of 'Orlando' by Bonino of Milan, 1413. This knight, representing Dubrovnik, wears typical early 15th century Italian armour of the kind used by the military (lite of Dalmatia ( i n situ main square, Dubrovnik).

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1stanI)ul (Constantinople)in I noq, Vcnicc carefully selected a num1)cr ofstratcgic trrritorirs as her share of the shattcrcd Byzantine Empire. She was not intcrcstccl in largc mainland territories which would he diflicult to dcfrnd and cxpcnsi\~c to govern. Rathcr the Vcncti:uis wanted domination of the lucrative trade routes, so thry took part of' Istanbul itselC a chain ofislands and most ofthc I~cst harbours around Greece. Finally they I)ought the great island of Crctc Lbr 30 Ibs of'golcl. Vcnicc had thus, at one stroke, won an cmpirc. Organisirig i t ::. was anothrr matter. T h e old Vcnctian territories in ./' the Adriatic had retained their traditional systems , 4.7 . :. , , of government. though unclcr Vcncria~ncounts or ,A+.' -' local families of pro\,r.n loyalty. 'I'hc new cmpirr in 'Romania', as i t was known, was placed under . , .,, .. ) .:,. :-7, governors sent directly ti-om Venice. C:rctr was . . 5 ,,.. : slightly difkrcnt on account of its size; a Vcnrtian - :.: -.,. :$.; duke was responsible for thr island's dcfi.nces and . .. over a new feudal class of colonists, plus j; presided those few Greek aristocrats who rctaincd their land. i Permanent military f'orccs soon appcarccl clscwhcre in this cmpirc, long 1)ch-c they did in thr . . ... . , Terra Firma. Most were enlisted from thc local

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'St Michael', wall painting by Vincent of Kastav, 1474. Part of a cycle of paintings in Istria which include typically Venetian weapons such a s the three-bladed ronco and, a s here, typical German armour. Venetian Istria was bounded by Austria while Hungary and Ottoman-ruled Bosnia lay just over the mountains (in situ church of St. Mary, Beram).

and totallctl al)out 30,ooo men. In many arcas the old country Icvic5 had rcmaincd cfli,ctivr fighting troop5 throughout thc I 3th century. Such forccs were rc\li\.ccl earl), in thc 16th century when they wcrc known ;I\ ret?ricl~. Llscwhrrr the peasantry scrvccl as rur;~lguerrillas, harassing ;In invader. O n the other halid the full-timc u r l ~ a ngarrisons of thc \;cnctian Terra Fil-ma wcrc often ofvcry low quality, consisting of' rctirrd veterans or men with no military training whatsocvrr. Venetian forccs stationed ovcrscas in the empire ' n c l 121nrc', were ofmorc consistent quality and often occupiccl isolatccl or hazardous outposts. Apart from the hugr t)ooty won with the conquest of Rear view of Verrocchio's statue (c.1485) of the famous condottiere Bartolomeo Colleoni who served Venice faithfully for many years. It shows a perfect example of late 15th century full-plate armour in the Italian style. For a front view see MAA 136,Italian Medieval Armies p.34 (in situ Campo SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice).

military Clitcs, though even in the 13th century Italians wcrc being recruited for servicc overseas. In 1369Venicc's Cretan lkudatories rose in revolt. T h e rising was crushed alicr hitter fighting, and thereafter ttic dcfi~ncesof Crctc wcrc stifycncd by many rncrccnarics, Italian infintry taking a major rGlc though Italian cavalry were morc rarely rccordcd. 1,ocal .dl-ccdio~iprovided the bulk of horscsoldic.rs. Each part of the Vcnctian empire difTcrrcl in the details of'its military organisation. Istria had finally l)ccn co~iclncrcd late in the I gth ccntury aftcr a scrics ofamp11il)ious operations by galley fleets. 'I'hc Ibrtifications of'thosc places, like 'I'ricstc and Kopcr which had clclicd Venetian control, were dismantlrcl. Kopcr was placed urldcr the joint rulc of' a pod(~.c/acivil govcrrior and a proz~rdilorr military admi~~istr;~tor. Zadar, the main Vcnctian naval I~asc in Dalmatia, fi-cqucntly rc\:ol tcd against Vcnctian rulc and had, in fact, hccn rcco\w-cd during the. first I~attlc of the Fourth Crusadc. Duljrovnik resisted Venetian control morc cffcctivc.ly ant1 was only ruled 11); Venicc f'rom I 205 to I 358. Elscwllcrc the Venetians left day-to-day

'Battle of Anghiari (~qqo)',painted cassone chest by school of Uccello. In this battle the Venetians and Florentines under Sforza defeated the Milanese under Piccinino. (Nat. Gall. of Ireland, Dublin)

afyairs in local hancls while firml?. controlling the ports, thosc islands with a traclition 01' piracy, and acccss to the vital h)rcsts hom which most Vcnctian ships were I)uilt. Otlicrwisc Venice had n o interest in thc blcak limestone mountains ofthe liintcrland. Some citics wcrc o1)ligccl to supply ships to the Vcnctian flcct Zadar n o Icss than 30 galleys fully manned w h i l e all hacl to supply sailors, plus militias fbr their own dcfi,ncc. 'I'hough the countryside rr:mainccl firmly Slav, the. Italian character of' thc major I);llrn;~ti:in cities was strengthc~ic.tl. 1;ully tr;~itlccl crossl)ow militias became a fkaturc. of' these c.itic,s, while D;llmati;ln peasant warriors still ;rpl)arc~itlp.used composite bows of Byzantine or almost 'I'i~rkisli 1i)rm. T h e Middle Eastern charactc,r of Vcnctian colonial troops in Crctc and ('J I ( (,ce was evcn more ob\.ious. E v ~ ~ o i aknown . to the Venetians as Ncgropontc, was almost as I)ig iln island as Crctc and was the key to Vcrirtian powrr in the .+legcan.

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I t hristlrd with Sortilications, including a tower I~uiltin the midst o f t h r Iuripos channel where up to 1 4 tides flowccl in ;I single day. Only one of the most senior Venetian administrators could hccomc Rnilip or governor of Evvoia, and the colony's own flag was Hown or1 a I)rollzc flag-stafl' outside the Catlicclral of San Marco in Vrnicc itself on ccrcmonial occasions. Othcr lcss important Aegean islands wcrc mcre \tops along the traclc routes or I~a\csfrom which to control piracy. T h e Cyclaclcs archipelago, thcorctically a lirfof the Latin I h p i r c of Constantinoplc, wa\ actually held by various Vcnctian familics who placed loyalty to Vcnicc above mcrc Scudal obligations to that \hart-lived 'cmpirc'. T h e tiny island of Kithcra, ofl' the southern tip of Grccce, pro\.idcd vital communications Ixtwccn Vcnicc and Crctc: i t c\-cntually had 110 less than thrcc castlcs and a sizcal~lcgarrison. Corfi~,at the mouth 'Venetian Stradiotti at the battle of Fornovo (1495)'from a French print made a few years later. Here a combined Italian army under Venetian leadership was narrowly defeated by the invading French, but not before the stradiotti light cavalry had caused terror on the French flank. (Nat. Gall. of Art, Washington)

of the Adriatic, had originally fi~llcnto Vcnicc during the carving-up ofthe Byzantine I m p i r r , its Seudal obligatiorl I~cingthe supply of20 knights and 40 squires. Corfu was, however, soon lost to the Kingdom of Naples and had to he purchasrd back in I 386. Other temporary Vcnctian possessions in Grcecc included Moncmvasia, Mcthoni, Argos, Corinth, Navpaktos, Nauphlia and cvcrl Athens. As the Ottomans advanced across p Domcnico Morone 1496, Palazzo Ducalr, Mantua; Vcnctian hclmct from Khalkis, 15th C., Historical Mus., Athens.)

E2: Venetian militiaman ofthe OTompaCgni dolla C,'ul~a,late 15th centzr~y Handguns wcre increasingly importarit in the late 15th century. This example is a vcry simple form ignited with a separate heated iron touche. Apart from a light helmet with separate car-pieces, this young man is unarmoured, though his extra\.agant costume is in the height of Venetian fashion and shows him to bc a mcmhcr of'onc of the "Trouser

Clul3s'. Hc also carries a hroad-1)ladccl cinqtrndm chort-sword on his hip. i blain sources: S f CTr.tula gclr I)!. Carp:iccio I 49:3, Academia, Vcnicc: hand-gun, mid-I 5th C:., hlus. (:i\.ico, 'T'ricatc.)

Crnknowtl knighf by Picro di Cosimo c ~ .I y, 1 5, Nat. Gallery, London; S/ Gr07;q~l)y Carpiiccio c. I 500. Scuola di S. Giorgio dcglc Sci;i\.oni, irenicc.)

k:j: C;rerk nohl~mnmf lorn l~i~nr/inn-rlrlrd/e~.ri/o~,l, et~r!~ I 6fh cettt~r,:~ ,

E3: 1'rn~/ia11 man-a/-at m \ , /ale 1.5111 crnt~r~y In complctc colitr;i\t to the unarmourcd handgunner, this man-at-arms is equipped Tor closc comhat with the thrcc-pointed ronco, a peculiar weapon that provccl vcry popular in Italy. His armour is a magnificent example offirll plate 'white armour' madc in northern Italy and exported throughout E ~ ~ r o pTe h. e arm dcfcnces are slightly different for each arm. His large iron sallct is of an almost Sully cncloscd tyl~c,ha\,ing much in common with some ancient Greek helmets. (Main sources: S f lijs~rlaqvrlr I)y Carpaccio I 493, Academia, Vrnice: .-lf/nrdan/.\ oJ' I,rr