The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age (Revealing Antiquity)

THE ORIENTALIZING REVOLUTION Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age Walter Burkert TRANSLATED...

Author: Walter Burkert

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THE ORIENTALIZING REVOLUTION Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age Walter Burkert TRANSLATED

Margaret and

E.

Walter

BY

Pinder Burkert

H A R V A R D U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS C a m b r i d g e , Massachusetts London, England

Copyright © 1992 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

First Harvard University Press paperback edition, 1995 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

Burkert, Walter, 1931The orientalizing revolution: Near Eastern influence on Greek culture in the early archaic age / Walter Burkert; translated by Margaret E. Pinder and Walter Burkert. p. cm. — (Revealing antiquity; 5) Translation of: Die orientahsierende Epoche in der griechischen Religion und Literatur. Includes bibliographical references and index. I S B N 0-674-64363-1 (cloth) I S B N 0-674-643 6 4 - X (pbk.) 1. Greece—Civilization—to 146 B . C . 2. Greece—Civilization—Middle Eastern influences. I. Title. II. Series. DF78.B85 1992 92-8923 938—dc20 CIP

CONTENTS

Preface

ix

Introduction

1

i . " W h o Are Public Workers": The M i g r a n t Craftsmen Historical Background g Oriental Products in Greece 14 Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century 23 The Problem of Loan-Words 33 2. " A Seer o r a H e a l e r " : M a g i c a n d M e d i c i n e 41 "Craftsmen oj the Sacred": Mobility and [-'amity Structure 41 Hepatoscopy 46 Foundation Deposits 33 Purification 35 Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic 63 Substitute Sacrifice 73 Asclepius and Asgelatas 73 Ecstatic Divination 79 Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo 82 3. " O r A l s o a G o d l y S i n g e r " : A k k a d i a n and E a r l y G r e e k L i t e r a t u r e 88 From Atrahasis to the "Deception of Zeus" Complaint in Heaven: Ishtar and Aphrodite The Overpopulated Earth 100 Seven against Thebes 106

v

88 96

g

C O N T E N T S

Common

Style and Stance in Oriental and Greek Fables 120 Magic and Cosmogony 124 Conclusion

128

Abbreviations

131

Bibliography

133

Notes

133

Index o f Greek Words General Index

VI

221

219

Epic

ILLUSTRATIONS

Map

T h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d the N e a r East i n t h e early archaic p e r i o d

Figure

1.

B r o n z e t y m p a n o n f r o m t h e Idaean cave, C r e t e ;

Heraklion M u s e u m ; d r a w i n g by H i l d i Keel-Leu Figure

2,

N o r t h Syrian bronze plaque f r o m horse har-

ness, i n s c r i b e d ; c o u r t e s y o f the D e u t s c h e s A r c h ä o logisches I n s t i t u t , A u f n a h m e D A I A t h e n , N e g . N r . 88/1022 Figure

3.

Liver models

from

Mesopotamia

and

from

Piacenza, I t a l y : B r i t i s h M u s e u m , L o n d o n , a n d M u seo A r c h e o l o g i c o , Florence; f r o m C . O . T h u l i n , etmskische Figure

4.

Disziplin,

Die

v o l . I ( G ö t e b o r g , 1905), plate I I

B a b y l o n i a n bronze f i g u r i n e f o u n d i n the Hera

s a n c t u a r y at S a m o s ; Samos M u s e u m ; c o u r t e s y o f t h e Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, A u f n a h m e D A I A t h e n , N e g . N r . 78/600 Figure 5. Hildi

L a m a s h t u plate f r o m C a r c h e m i s h ; d r a w i n g b y Keel-Leu

vu

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

Figure

6.

Seal i m p r e s s i o n f r o m N u z i and b r o n z e shield

strap f r o m O l y m p i a ; d r a w i n g s f r o m Journal Eastern

Studies

21

(1961), 115;

of

86

Near

c o u r t e s y o f the U n i -

v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o Press. Seal f r o m B a g h d a d :

draw-

i n g b y C o r n e l i u s B u r k e r t ; courtesy o f the Vorderasiatisches M u s e u m , B e r l i n Figure

7.

Cypriote

silver

bowl

from

the B e r n a r d i n i

103

t o m b , Praeneste; c o u r t e s y o f the M u s e o d i V i l l a G i u lia, R o m e Figure

8.

O r t h o s t a t e r e l i e f f r o m the palace at G u z a n a -

T e l l H a l a f ; f r o m H . T . B o s s e r t , Altsyrien

(Tübingen:

E r n s t W a s m u t h V e r l a g , 1951), f i g . 472; c o u r t e s y o f Verlag E r n s t W a s m u t h , T ü b i n g e n

viii

N

112

PREFACE

T h e o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n o f this b o o k was p u b l i s h e d i n 1984 i n Sitzungsberichte

der Heidelberger

grateful to Glen Bowersock

Akademie

der Wissenschaften.

I am

f o r p r o m o t i n g an E n g l i s h transla-

t i o n . W i t h a v i e w t o a l a r g e r p u b l i c a n d i n o r d e r t o reflect the c u r r e n t state o f s c h o l a r s h i p , I have revised t h e b o o k t h r o u g h o u t and i n s o m e places e x p a n d e d the a r g u m e n t . M y thesis a b o u t t h e indebtedness o f G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n t o eastern s t i m u l i m a y appear less p r o v o c a t i v e t o d a y t h a n i t d i d e i g h t years ago. T h i s change m a y be p a r t l y an effect o f the o r i g i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n , b u t m a i n l y i t reflects the fact t h a t classics has been l o s i n g m o r e a n d m o r e its status o f a s o l i t a r y m o d e l i n o u r m o d ern w o r l d . Yet i t s t i l l seems w o r t h w h i l e t o h e l p b r i d g e the gaps b e t w e e n related fields o f s c h o l a r s h i p a n d t o m a k e available m a terials o f t e n n e g l e c t e d b y o n e o r another. Such an exercise m a y c o n v e y t h e e x c i t e m e n t o f u n e x p e c t e d discoveries even w h e n i t necessitates a fair a m o u n t o f a n n o t a t i o n . I o w e special t h a n k s t o Peter F r e i , Paul H o s k i s s o n , F r i t z Stolz, R o l f Stucky, a n d M a r k u s Wafler f o r t h e i r help o n matters o r i ental, a n d t o Peter B l o m e for detailed a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

IX

advice.

THE ORIENTALIZING REVOLUTION

INTRODUCTION

" G o d ' s is t h e O r i e n t , G o d ' s is the O c c i d e n t " says the K o r a n .

1

Classical scholars have found i t d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n such a b a l anced perspective a n d have t e n d e d instead t o t r a n s f o r m " o r i e n t a l " a n d " o c c i d e n t a l " i n t o a p o l a r i t y , i m p l y i n g antithesis a n d c o n f l i c t . T h e G r e e k s h a d b e c o m e aware o f t h e i r o w n i d e n t i t y as separate f r o m t h a t o f t h e " O r i e n t " w h e n t h e y succeeded i n r e p e l l i n g the attacks o f t h e Persian e m p i r e . B u t n o t u n t i l m u c h later, d u r i n g the crusades, d i d the c o n c e p t and the t e r m a c t u a l l y enter the languages o f the W e s t .

2

Orient

T h i s fact h a r d l y e x -

plains w h y even t o d a y i t s h o u l d be d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r t a k e u n prejudiced discussion

o f c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n classical Greece

a n d t h e East. B u t w h o e v e r tries w i l l e n c o u n t e r e n t r e n c h e d p o s i t i o n s , uneasiness, a p o l o g y i f n o t r e s e n t m e n t . W h a t is f o r e i g n and u n k n o w n is h e l d at a distance b y an a t t i t u d e o f w a r y defensiveness. T o a large e x t e n t this is the result o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h b e g a n m o r e t h a n t w o centuries ago a n d t o o k r o o t especially i n G e r m a n y .

I n c r e a s i n g s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f scholarship

converged w i t h ideological p r o t e c t i o n i s m , and b o t h constructed an i m a g e o f a p u r e , classical Greece i n s p l e n d i d i s o l a t i o n . U n t i l w e l l i n t o t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , as l o n g as p h i l o l o g y was closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e o l o g y , the H e b r e w B i b l e n a t u r a l l y s t o o d n e x t t o the G r e e k classics, a n d the existence o f cross-connections d i d n o t present

any

p r o b l e m s . Jephtha's d a u g h t e r a n d I p h i g e n i a

w e r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e m o d e l s even i n t h e r e a l m o f opera; Iapetos

i

T H E

O R I E N T A L I Z I N G

R E V O L U T I O N

was traced t o J a p h e t h , t h e K a b e i r o i t o a S e m i t i c d e s i g n a t i o n f o r " g r e a t g o d s , " a n d t h e " E a s t " was f o u n d i n t h e n a m e o f K a d m o s the P h o e n i c i a n , the " W e s t " i n t h e n a m e o f E u r o p a . ance w i t h t h e Odyssey

3

In accord-

and H e r o d o t u s , "Phoenicians" were read-

i l y accepted as the l i n k b e t w e e n East a n d West. T h e n three n e w t r e n d s erected t h e i r o w n b o u n d a r i e s a n d c o l l e c t i v e l y f r a c t u r e d t h e O r i e n t - G r e e c e axis. P h i l o l o g y b r o k e free o f t h e o l o g y — F r i e d r i c h A u g u s t W o l f m a t r i c u l a t e d as philologiae

studiosus

at G o t t i n g e n i n 1 7 7 7 — a n d at t h e same t i m e , 4

with

J o h a n n J o a c h i m W i n c k e l m a n n , a n e w c o n c e p t o f classicism, o n e w i t h r a t h e r p a g a n tendencies, asserted i t s e l f a n d c a m e t o a t t r a c t h i g h regard. Second, b e g i n n i n g w i t h the w o r k o f Johann G o t t fried Herder, the i d e o l o g y o f r o m a n t i c n a t i o n a l i s m developed, w h i c h h e l d l i t e r a t u r e a n d s p i r i t u a l c u l t u r e t o be i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h an i n d i v i d u a l p e o p l e , t r i b e , o r race. O r i g i n s a n d o r g a n i c d e v e l o p m e n t r a t h e r t h a n r e c i p r o c a l c u l t u r a l influences b e c a m e t h e k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I n his r e a c t i o n t o F r i e d r i c h Creuzer's

m o r e universal m o d e l , C a r l O t f r i e d M u l l e r

gained

c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e w i t h his idea o f " G r e e k t r i b a l c u l t u r e . "

5

Precisely at t h e t i m e w h e n J e w s w e r e b e i n g g r a n t e d f u l l legal e q u a l i t y i n E u r o p e , n a t i o n a l - r o m a n t i c consciousness t u r n e d t h e trend chance.

against

" o r i e n t a l i s m " and

Third,

European"—the

linguistics

t h u s gave a n t i - S e m i t i s m a

scholars'

discovery

derivation o f most European

of

"Indo-

languages t o -

g e t h e r w i t h Persian a n d S a n s k r i t f r o m a c o m m o n a r c h e t y p e — a t t h a t t i m e r e i n f o r c e d t h e alliance o f G r e e k ,

R o m a n , and Ger-

m a n i c and thus banished the Semitic t o another w o r l d .

6

It re-

m a i n e d t o d e f e n d t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f the G r e e k s against t h e I n d i a n relatives w i t h i n t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n f a m i l y

7

i n order to

establish t h e c o n c e p t o f classical-national G r e e k i d e n t i t y as a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d a n d self-sufficient m o d e l o f c i v i l i z a t i o n w h i c h , at least i n G e r m a n y , was t o d o m i n a t e t h e later n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

8

U l r i c h v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f ' s s c o r n f u l assessment i n 1 8 8 4 — " t h e peoples a n d states o f the Semites a n d t h e E g y p t i a n s w h i c h h a d been d e c a y i n g f o r c e n t u r i e s a n d w h i c h , i n spite o f the a n t i q u i t y o f their culture, were unable to c o n t r i b u t e a n y t h i n g to the H e l l e n e s o t h e r t h a n a f e w m a n u a l s k i l l s , c o s t u m e s , a n d i m -

2

I N T R O D U C T I O N

p l e m e n t s o f b a d taste, a n t i q u a t e d o r n a m e n t s , r e p u l s i v e fetishes f o r even m o r e r e p u l s i v e fake d i v i n i t i e s " — i s n o t representative o f his w o r k ; b u t even later he m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e s p i r i t o f late a n t i q u i t y s t e m m e d " f r o m t h e O r i e n t a n d is t h e d e a d l y e n e m y o f true H e l l e n i s m . "

9

B e h i n d t h e i r a s c i b i l i t y a c e r t a i n i n s e c u r i t y seems t o l u r k . I n fact t h e i m a g e o f p u r e , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d H e l l e n i s m w h i c h makes its m i r a c u l o u s appearance w i t h H o m e r h a d been o v e r t a k e n i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y three g r o u p s o f n e w discoveries: the reemergence

o f the ancient

Near

East a n d

Egypt

through

t h e d e c i p h e r m e n t o f c u n e i f o r m a n d h i e r o g l y p h i c w r i t i n g , the u n e a r t h i n g o f M y c e n a e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f an o r i e n t a l i z i n g phase i n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f archaic G r e e k art. Classical p h i l o l o g y g r e e t e d these discoveries w i t h hesitancy. T h e M y c e n a e a n p e r i o d was g r a d u a l l y accepted as G r e e k p r e h i s tory,

1 0

firmed

a n d the f i n a l d e c i p h e r m e n t o f L i n e a r B as G r e e k

con-

this as fact. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f A s s y r i o l o g y w i t h t h e

i n i t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f r e a d i n g c u n e i f o r m — G i l g a m e s h m a d e his entrance i n the guise o f I z d u b a r — c o u l d be v i e w e d f r o m a d i s 1 1

tance a n d w i t h s o m e c o n d e s c e n s i o n b y an established b r a n c h o f s c h o l a r s h i p . W h e n a f e w u n m e t h o d i c a l studies t r i e d t o p r o m o t e the fundamental i m p o r t a n c e o f B a b y l o n i a n literature i n relation t o w o r l d h i s t o r y , i t was left t o the t h e o l o g i a n s t o refute t h e " p a n Babylonianists." Babylon."

1 3

O n l y outsiders w r o t e about " H o m e r

1 2

and

H i s t o r i a n s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a d less d i f f i c u l t y

o p e n i n g themselves

to the n e w dimensions o f w o r l d history.

E d u a r d M e y e r b e g a n t o p u b l i s h his m o n u m e n t a l History

of An-

tiquity i n 1884, a f u n d a m e n t a l a n d i n fact u n i q u e a c h i e v e m e n t .

14

T h e p u r s u i t o f this u n i v e r s a l a i m was c o n t i n u e d b y the c o l l e c t i v e u n d e r t a k i n g o f The Cambridge

Ancient

History.

B y c o n t r a s t , t h e a n t i - o r i e n t a l reflex was t o p r e v a i l i n the f i e l d w h i c h lay m u c h closer t o H e l l e n i s t s , i n the assessment o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s , w h o h a d o f o l d been r e g a r d e d as the active i n t e r mediaries

between

scholar o f genius

the O r i e n t and Hellas. Julius flawed

b y his idiosyncrasies

Beloch,

a

and overt anti-

S e m i t i s m , p r o m u l g a t e d t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e significance o f the P h o e n i c i a n s i n e a r l y Greece was close t o z e r o , t h a t the " P h o e -

3

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

n i c i a n " H e r a k l e s o f T h a s o s was n o less o f a fantasy t h a n the mythical Phoenician K a d m o s .

1 5

I n s t e a d , a n c i e n t A s i a M i n o r was

f o u n d t o be o f special i m p o r t a n c e , w h e r e s o o n I n d o - E u r o p e a n s w e r e t o appear, w i t h the d e c i p h e r m e n t o f t h e H i t t i t e language. A b a r r i e r was erected against the S e m i t i c . Yet t h e m a r k e d i m p a c t o f " t h e o r i e n t a l " o n G r e e k art b e t w e e n the g e o m e t r i c a n d t h e archaic p e r i o d s — a n i m p a c t m a d e e v i d e n t b y i m p o r t e d o b j e c t s as w e l l as b y n e w t e c h n i q u e s a n d characteristic m o t i f s o f a r t i s t i c i m a g e r y — c o u l d n o t be d i s r e g a r d e d , at least after F r e d r i k Poulsen's b o o k was p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 2 .

16

Even

e x p e r t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , h o w e v e r , s o m e t i m e s appear t o feel u n c o m f o r t a b l e a b o u t t h i s fact a n d i n d e e d advise against u s i n g t h e expression " t h e orientalizing p e r i o d . "

1 7

T h e foreign elements re-

m a i n subject t o a p o l i c y o f c o n t a i n m e n t : T h e r e is h a r d l y a s t a n d a r d t e x t b o o k that has o r i e n t a l a n d G r e e k objects d e p i c t e d side b y side; m a n y o f t h e o r i e n t a l finds i n t h e great G r e e k sanctuaries have l o n g r e m a i n e d — a n d s o m e s t i l l r e m a i n — u n p u b l i s h e d . T h e fact t h a t O l y m p i a is t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l o c a t i o n f o r f i n d s o f eastern b r o n z e s , r i c h e r i n t h i s respect t h a n all t h e M i d d l e E a s t e r n sites, is s e l d o m m e n t i o n e d . I n G e r m a n y i n t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n the t w o w o r l d w a r s a n e w hermeneutic approach p r o m o t e d concentration o n the i n d i v i d u a l , " i n t e r n a l " f o r m a n d style i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l achievements, t o the d e t r i m e n t o f o u t w a r d influence. A r c h a e o l o g y t h u s achieved a deeper u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e archaic style a n d i n fact d i s c o v e r e d afresh the g e o m e t r i c style; h i s t o r i a n s such as H e l m u t B e r v e w i s h e d t o r e n o u n c e " u n i v e r s a l " h i s t o r y i n favor o f Hellenism.

1 8

T h e j o i n t w o r k o f Franz B o l l a n d C a r l B e -

z o l d i n t h e arcane field o f a s t r o l o g y r e m a i n e d a h a p p y b u t i s o lated p h e n o m e n o n . A n o t h e r specialty w h i c h failed t o a t t r a c t general n o t i c e was t h e d i s c o v e r y b y O t t o N e u g e b a u e r t h a t t h e " P y t h a g o r e a n t h e o r e m " h a d been k n o w n a n d used i n B a b y l o n i a n m a t h e m a t i c s a t h o u s a n d years b e f o r e P y t h a g o r a s .

1 9

Among

G e r m a n p h i l o l o g i s t s o n l y Franz D o r n s e i f f t o o k a close l o o k at eastern c u l t u r e f r o m Israel t o A n a t o l i a , b u t i n d o i n g this he h a d the air o f an o u t s i d e r . D o r n s e i f f was o n e o f the first t o g i v e c r e d i t t o the n e w d i m e n -

4


s i o n o f the i m p a c t o f t h e N e a r East o n classical Greece, w h i c h was d i s c o v e r e d w i t h t h e d e c i p h e r m e n t o f H i t t i t e m y t h o l o g i c a l texts.

2 0

H o w e v e r , t h e first a n n o u n c e m e n t s a n d studies o f " I l l u -

yankas a n d T y p h o n " m e t w i t h o n l y a s l i g h t response. T h e b r e a k t h r o u g h came w i t h the t e x t o f Kingship

in Heaven,

published i n

1946, t h e m y t h w h i c h has the c a s t r a t i o n o f the g o d o f heaven b y K u m a r b i , so s i m i l a r t o H e s i o d ' s tale a b o u t U r a n o s a n d K r o n o s ; since t h e n the K u m a r b i - K r o n o s p a r a l l e l has been

established

a n d , l a r g e l y as a result o f t h e efforts o f A l b i n Lesky, Kumarbi b e c o m e a s t a n d a r d reference t e x t f o r classical p h i l o l o g i s t s . i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r o f acceptance, b r o u g h t o u t b y Indo-Europeanists,

was

that

with

the

has 2 1

An

sympathetic

Hittites

an

"Indo-

E u r o p e a n " p e o p l e h a d e m e r g e d t o represent t h e " O r i e n t . " B u t i n t h e w a k e o f H i t t i t e epic a n d m y t h o l o g y s i m i l a r t e x t s o f Sem i t i c U g a r i t c a m e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f classical s c h o l a r s ,

22

a n d the

Greek fragments o f P h i l o n o f B y b l o s dealing w i t h Phoenician m y t h o l o g y a t t r a c t e d fresh i n t e r e s t .

23

In addition to m y t h o l o g i c a l

m o t i f s the n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s a n d t h e l i t e r a r y s t y l e o f epic b e came t h e subject o f c o m p a r a t i v e study, t o o . Since t h e n , H o m e r i c epic can n o l o n g e r be h e l d t o have existed i n a v a c u u m ; i t stands o u t against a b a c k g r o u n d o f c o m p a r a b l e eastern l i t e r a r y forms. H o w e v e r , a n e w l i n e o f defense q u i c k l y d e v e l o p e d . I t is g e n e r a l l y a n d freely accepted that i n the B r o n z e A g e there w e r e close contacts b e t w e e n A n a t o l i a , the S e m i t i c East, E g y p t , and the M y c e n a e a n w o r l d , t h a t s o m e " A e g e a n koine'' t o characterize t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y B . C .

2 4

can be f o u n d

O n e can refer t o

M y c e n a e a n i m p o r t s i n U g a r i t ; A l a s i a - C y p r u s is m e n t i o n e d as a nexus

o f East-West

c o n n e c t i o n s ; H e s i o d a n d H o m e r are also

v i e w e d f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e . W h a t is m u c h less i n focus is the " o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d " o f the c e n t u r y b e t w e e n

approximately

750 a n d 650 B . C . — t h a t is, the H o m e r i c e p o c h , w h e n , as w e l l as eastern s k i l l s a n d i m a g e s , the S e m i t i c art o f w r i t i n g was t r a n s m i t t e d t o Greece a n d m a d e t h e r e c o r d i n g o f G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e possible f o r t h e first t i m e . G e r m a n scholars i n p a r t i c u l a r h a d a strange t e n d e n c y t o lean t o w a r d an earlier d a t i n g o f the G r e e k script,

2 5

t h e r e b y s h i e l d i n g H o m e r i c Greece f r o m the influence o f

5

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

the East w h i c h was so n o t a b l e i n m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e a r o u n d 700. I t s h o u l d be clear a n y h o w t h a t b o t h p o s s i b i l i t i e s , B r o n z e A g e a n d later a d o p t i o n s , are n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e ; the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f always m a k i n g c l e a r - c u t d i s t i n c t i o n s c a n n o t be used t o refute t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f b o r r o w i n g i n b o t h areas t o an e q u a l degree. I n the m e a n t i m e , archaeological

research

has r e n d e r e d the

" d a r k ages" i n c r e a s i n g l y l e g i b l e a n d has cast t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y i n p a r t i c u l a r i n e ve r - sh ar p e r

relief. W h a t p r o v e d decisive

were

the discoveries o f G r e e k s e t t l e m e n t s i n S y r i a a n d o n Ischia i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e excavations at L e f k a n d i a n d E r e t r i a o n E u boea. T h e A s s y r i a n e x p a n s i o n t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e spread o f t r a d e i n m e t a l ores i n t h e w h o l e area p r o v i d e s a persuasive h i s t o r i c a l f r a m e w o r k f o r t h e m o v e m e n t o f eastern craftsmen

to

the

Phoenician-Greek

West,

as

alphabet.

26

well

as

for

the

spread

of

the

W e n o w seem w i t h i n reach o f a

balanced p i c t u r e o f t h a t decisive e p o c h i n w h i c h , u n d e r t h e i n fluence

o f t h e S e m i t i c East, G r e e k c u l t u r e b e g a n its u n i q u e

e r i n g , s o o n t o assume c u l t u r a l h e g e m o n y nean.

flow-

i n the M e d i t e r r a -

2 7

T h i s v o l u m e pursues t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t , i n t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , t h e G r e e k s d i d n o t m e r e l y receive a f e w m a n u a l skills a n d fetishes a l o n g w i t h n e w crafts a n d i m a g e s f r o m t h e L u w i a n A r a m a i c - P h o e n i c i a n sphere, b u t w e r e i n f l u e n c e d i n t h e i r r e l i g i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e b y t h e eastern m o d e l s t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e gree.

2 8

It will

be a r g u e d

that m i g r a t i n g "craftsmen

o f the

sacred," i t i n e r a n t seers a n d priests o f p u r i f i c a t i o n , t r a n s m i t t e d n o t o n l y t h e i r d i v i n a t o r y a n d p u r i f i c a t o r y s k i l l s b u t also elem e n t s o f m y t h o l o g i c a l " w i s d o m . " I n d e e d H o m e r , i n an o f t e n q u o t e d passage o f t h e Odyssey,

enumerates various kinds o f m i -

g r a n t c r a f t s m e n " w h o are p u b l i c w o r k e r s " : f i r s t , "a seer o r a healer," o n l y t h e n t h e carpenter, a n d , i n a d d i t i o n , the " g o d l y singer."

2 9

W h i l e the second c h a p t e r tries t o f o l l o w t h e tracks o f

"seers" a n d " h e a l e r s , "

t h e t h i r d chapter t u r n s t o t h e r e a l m o f

these singers, p r e s e n t i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s

b e t w e e n eastern a n d

G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h m a k e i t p r o b a b l e t o assume c o n n e c t i o n s , even d i r e c t l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e o f h i g h eastern c i v i l i z a t i o n s o n t h e

6


final

phase o f H o m e r i c epic, t h a t is, the b e g i n n i n g o f Greek l i t -

eracy, w h e n w r i t i n g t o o k over f r o m o r a l t r a d i t i o n . T h e results w h i c h can be reached w i t h any degree o f c e r t a i n t y r e m a i n l i m i t e d . T h e b r i d g e t h a t once p r o v i d e d the d i r e c t c o n tact, t h e l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e o f a n c i e n t S y r i a , has i r r e v o c a b l y d i s a p peared. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d w e have t h e u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o m p a r e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s texts f r o m b o t h t h e G r e e k a n d the o r i e n t a l sides. T h i s task b o t h enables a n d d e m a n d s p r e c i s i o n . B y c o n t r a s t , i n the case o f the m o r e sensational c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n K u m a r b i o r I l l u y a n k a s a n d H e s i o d a t i m e gap o f five o r six centuries has t o be b r i d g e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c distance b e t w e e n East a n d West. T h e H e s i o d i c p r o b l e m s , w h i c h have been t h e subject o f m u c h s c h o l a r l y a t t e n t i o n i n recent d e cades, w i l l n o t be discussed i n detail h e r e .

3 0

They complement

the perspectives u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , especially i n v i e w o f the clear l i n k b e t w e e n H e s i o d a n d E u b o e a . T h e studies p r e s e n t e d i n this b o o k m a y s t i l l r u n u p against a final

a n d perhaps i n s u p e r a b l e l i n e o f defense, the t e n d e n c y o f

m o d e r n c u l t u r a l t h e o r i e s t o a p p r o a c h c u l t u r e as a s y s t e m e v o l v i n g t h r o u g h its o w n processes o f i n t e r n a l e c o n o m i c a n d social d y n a m i c s , w h i c h reduces a l l o u t w a r d influences t o n e g l i g i b l e parameters.

T h e r e is n o d e n y i n g the i n t e l l e c t u a l a c u m e n and

a c h i e v e m e n t o f s u c h t h e o r i e s . B u t t h e y m a y s t i l l represent j u s t o n e side o f t h e c o i n . I t is e q u a l l y v a l i d t o see c u l t u r e as a c o m plex o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h c o n t i n u i n g opportunities for learni n g afresh, w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l yet p e n e t r a b l e f r o n t i e r s , i n a w o r l d o p e n t o change a n d e x p a n s i o n . T h e i m p a c t o f w r i t t e n as o p posed t o o r a l c u l t u r e is perhaps the m o s t d r a m a t i c e x a m p l e o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w r o u g h t f r o m the outside, t h r o u g h b o r r o w i n g . I t m a y s t i l l be t r u e t h a t t h e m e r e fact o f b o r r o w i n g s h o u l d o n l y p r o v i d e a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r closer i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , that t h e f o r m o f selection a n d a d a p t a t i o n , o f r e w o r k i n g a n d r e f i t t i n g t o a n e w s y s t e m is r e v e a l i n g a n d i n t e r e s t i n g i n each case. B u t the " c r e a t i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n " b y the G r e e k s , ' h o w e v e r i m p o r t a n t , s h o u l d 3

n o t o b s c u r e the sheer fact o f b o r r o w i n g ; t h i s w o u l d a m o u n t t o yet a n o t h e r s t r a t e g y o f i m m u n i z a t i o n d e s i g n e d t o c l o u d w h a t is foreign and disquieting.

7

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

T h e m o d e s t a i m o f this b o o k is t o serve as a messenger across boundaries,

3 2

t o d i r e c t the a t t e n t i o n o f classicists t o areas t o

w h i c h t h e y have p a i d t o o l i t t l e r e g a r d , a n d t o m a k e these fields o f s t u d y m o r e accessible even t o nonspecialists. I t m a y also e n c o u r a g e o r i e n t a l i s t s , h a r d l y less p r o n e t o i s o l a t i o n , t o keep o r r e n e w t h e i r contacts w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g f i e l d s .

33

M y e m p h a s i s is

deliberately o n p r o v i d i n g evidence for correspondences and for the l i k e l i h o o d o f b o r r o w i n g s . I f i n c e r t a i n cases the m a t e r i a l s themselves d o n o t p r o v i d e i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e e v i d e n c e o f c u l t u r a l transfer, the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s i m i l a r i t i e s w i l l s t i l l be o f value, as i t serves t o free b o t h the G r e e k a n d the o r i e n t a l

phenomena

f r o m t h e i r i s o l a t i o n a n d t o create an arena o f p o s s i b l e c o m p a r i sons. T h i s is n o t t o p r e c l u d e m o r e s u b t l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f G r e e k a c h i e v e m e n t s as a consequence. Yet i n the p e r i o d at a b o u t the m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , w h e n d i r e c t c o n t a c t had been est a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e A s s y r i a n s a n d the G r e e k s , G r e e k c u l t u r e m u s t have been m u c h less self-conscious a n d t h e r e f o r e

much

m o r e m a l l e a b l e a n d o p e n t o f o r e i g n influence t h a n i t b e c a m e i n subsequent g e n e r a t i o n s . I t is the f o r m a t i v e e p o c h o f G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n that e x p e r i e n c e d the o r i e n t a l i z i n g r e v o l u t i o n .

8

C H A P T E R

" W H O ARE PUBLIC

O N E

WORKERS"

The Migrant Craftsmen

Historical

Background

A f t e r t h e u p h e a v a l a n d d e v a s t a t i o n w h i c h p r e v a i l e d f r o m Greece t h r o u g h A n a t o l i a t o S y r i a a n d Palestine a b o u t

1200

B . C . and

w h i c h is g e n e r a l l y a t t r i b u t e d , o n the basis o f E g y p t i a n texts, t o " p e o p l e s o f t h e s e a " — a m o n g w h o m the Philistines are t h e m o s t t a n g i b l e — t h e k i n g d o m s , palaces, a r t i s t i c s k i l l s , and w r i t i n g syst e m s w h i c h h a d m a d e the g l o r y o f t h e B r o n z e A g e h a d l a r g e l y disappeared.

1

I n t h e eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n , o u t s i d e E g y p t , u r -

ban c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d l i t e r a c y s u r v i v e d o n l y i n t h e area o f C i l i c i a Syria-Palestine. A s t r o n g t r a d i t i o n o f H i t t i t e c i v i l i z a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o d o m i n a t e C i l i c i a and e x t e n d e d as far as n o r t h e r n S y r i a . H i t t i t e style is m o s t d i s t i n c t i v e i n m o n u m e n t a l s c u l p t u r e and o t h e r art o b j e c t s — i m p o r t a n t sites are T e l l H a l a f - G u z a n a ,

Car-

chemish, M a l a t y a - M i l i d , Samâl-Zincirli, Karatepe —and

par-

2

t i c u l a r l y i n t h e H i t t i t e h i e r o g l y p h i c s c r i p t , w h i c h persisted at K a r a t e p e u n t i l n e a r l y the e n d o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; i t was used f o r a l a n g u a g e o f t h e H i t t i t e f a m i l y w h i c h is n o w called H i e r o g l y p h i c L u w i a n . C o n q u e r i n g A r a m a i c tribes, speaking

a

Se-

m i t i c l a n g u a g e a n d u s i n g alphabetic w r i t i n g , w o n s u p r e m a c y i n s o m e places, f o u n d i n g p r i n c e d o m s such as G u z a n a a n d S a m ' a l . S o u t h e r n S y r i a , i n c l u d i n g the cities o f B y b l o s , S i d o n , a n d T y r e , h a d l o n g been affected b y E g y p t i a n style a n d influences.

9

The

" W H O

western

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

Semites based i n t h i s area, called Phoinikes

by

the

G r e e k s , w e r e c o n t i n u i n g t o e x p a n d t h e i r sea t r a d e . E a r l y c o n n e c t i o n s reached n o t o n l y t o C y p r u s b u t also t o C r e t e .

3

Increas-

i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n these a c t i v i t i e s was t h e search for c o p p e r and iron ores.

4

T h e m o s t p o r t e n t o u s a c h i e v e m e n t i n Syria-Palestine was the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a l p h a b e t i c s c r i p t , w h i c h , t h r o u g h its i n g e n i o u s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , m a d e r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g m o r e w i d e l y accessible f o r t h e

first

t i m e . I t was used e q u a l l y b y

Phoenicians, and Aramaeans.

Hebrews,

T h e i n v e n t i o n goes back t o t h e

5

B r o n z e A g e , b u t i t g a i n e d its u n i q u e p o s i t i o n o n l y w i t h t h e c o l lapse o f t h e B r o n z e A g e , w h i c h m a d e m o s t o f t h e o t h e r w r i t i n g systems disappear. T h e e x p a n s i o n o f A s s y r i a i n t o this h e t e r o g e n e o u s assemblage o f cities, k i n g d o m s , a n d t r i b a l centers f r o m the n i n t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d s b r o u g h t d y n a m i c change o f w o r l d - h i s t o r i c a l p r o p o r t i o n s . F o r t h e A s s y r i a n s , t o o , t h e search f o r r a w m a t e r i a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y m e t a l s , seems t o have been a d r i v i n g force. I n a n y event Assur b u i l t u p the strongest a r m y o f the t i m e , e m p l o y e d i t i n i n c r e a s i n g l y f a r - r e a c h i n g raids w i t h ruthless d e m a n d s f o r s u b m i s s i o n a n d t r i b u t e , a n d t h u s f o u n d e d the first w o r l d p o w e r . A s h u r n a s i r p a l ( 8 8 4 - 8 5 8 ) a n d Shalmaneser I I I ( 8 5 8 - 8 2 4 ) l e d t h e first successful advances t o S y r i a ; i n 877 an A s s y r i a n a r m y s t o o d o n t h e shores o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n f o r the first t i m e . I n 841 T y r e a n d S i d o n w e r e f o r c e d t o pay t r i b u t e , a n d i n 834 so was Tarsos i n C i l i c i a . T h e H i t t i t e city-states w e r e f o r c e d t o f o l l o w s u i t o r w e r e d e s t r o y e d . T h e G r e e k s m u s t have been aware o f this easte r n p o w e r , at least o n C y p r u s , because i t was a r o u n d t h i s t i m e — about 8 5 0 — t h a t Phoenicians f r o m Tyre were settling o n

Cy-

prus; K i t i o n became a Phoenician city. Phoenician colonization 6

was also r e a c h i n g b e y o n d t o t h e far West: 814 is the t r a d i t i o n a l date f o r t h e f o u n d i n g o f C a r t h a g e . A f t e r Shalmaneser, A s s y r i a n

forces

d i d n o t appear o n the

Mediterranean for a w h i l e . D u r i n g this period Greek first

traders

reached S y r i a . G r e e k m e r c h a n t s are present i n A l M i n a o n

t h e O r o n t e s e s t u a r y f r o m the e n d o f t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y ; t h e r e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s reach t o N o r t h Syria,

•

11

•

7

to Urartu,

from and

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

a l o n g the s h o r t e s t caravan r o u t e t o M e s o p o t a m i a . I n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same p e r i o d the G r e e k s are i n evidence at T a r s o s a n d 8

s o m e w h a t later at T e l l S u k a s . T h e r e are also G r e e k f i n d s f r o m 9

Rash-al-Basid (Poseidonia), Tell Tainat, Tyre, and H a m a . C o n n e c t i o n s g o t o n e a r b y C y p r u s , b u t above a l l t o E u b o e a , w h e r e excavations

at L e f k a n d i have b r o u g h t t o l i g h t relics o f a r e l a -

t i v e l y affluent c o m m u n i t y i n t h e t e n t h a n d n i n t h centuries w h i c h was o p e n t o t r a d e w i t h t h e E a s t .

1 0

I n the eighth century Eretria

a l o n g w i t h C h a l k i s reached its peak; b u t A t h e n s was n o t n e g l i g i b l e either. F r o m C h a l k i s the G r e e k s reached the West even b e f o r e t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , as can be seen f r o m the s e t t l e m e n t o f traders a n d c r a f t s m e n d i s c o v e r e d at P i t h e k o u s s a i I s c h i a . " H e r e , t o o , t h e t r a d e i n ores was c r u c i a l , above all w i t h the Etruscans; t h e P h o e n i c i a n r o u t e v i a C y p r u s t o C a r t h a g e a n d t h e n t o Sardinia h a d t o c o m p e t e w i t h t h a t o f the Greeks f r o m E u b o e a via Ithaca t o P i t h e k o u s s a i . I t is i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h these r o u t e s t h a t t h e first e x a m p l e s o f G r e e k s c r i p t appear, i n E u b o e a , Naxos,

Pithekoussai,

and A t h e n s .

"metal

ingots"—attested

both

1 2

Place-names l i k e

i n Cilicia and

on

Chalkis, " b r o n z e - h o m e , " and Tarshish, " f o u n d r y , " e c o n o m i c interests, as does t h a t verse o f the Odyssey

Soloi,

Cyprus— 1 3

m a r k the w h i c h has

t h e T a p h i a n M e n t e s t r a v e l l i n g overseas t o trade f o r b r o n z e w i t h a cargo o f i r o n .

1 4

T h e r e n e w e d a n d s t r o n g e s t advance o f t h e A s s y r i a n s

began

under Tiglath-pileser I I I (745-727), w h o crushed the p o w e r o f U r a r t u , m a d e vassals o f T y r e a n d B y b l o s , and p e r m a n e n t l y a n c h o r e d the A s s y r i a n forces i n the West. I t was i n his t i m e — s h o r t l y after 7 3 8 — t h a t a r e p o r t first m e n t i o n s I o n i a n s — t h a t is, G r e e k s ; an officer is r e p o r t i n g a c o u n t e r a t t a c k o n S y r i a :

"The

I o n i a n s came. T h e y a t t a c k e d . . . t h e cities . . . [ N . N . p u r s u e d t h e m ? ] i n his ships . . . i n the m i d d l e o f the s e a . "

15

I t has l o n g been a m a t t e r o f c o m m e n t a n d discussion t h a t t h e easterners c a m e t o call t h e G r e e k s I o n i a n s — J a w a n i n H e b r e w , 16

Junan

i n A r a b i c a n d T u r k i s h . T h e A s s y r i a n f o r m is Iawan(u)

w i t h an i n t e r n a l c h a n g e o f c o n s o n a n t s ,

Iaman(u);

q u o t e d above the d e s i g n a t i o n is " ( c o u n t r y ) la-u-na-a-a"—that Iaunaia.

or,

i n the t e x t is,

I t has been established t h a t this is n o t the n a m e o f C y -

12

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

p r u s , w h i c h the A s s y r i a n s i n fact called ladnana.

Greeks o n

11

C y p r u s never called themselves I o n i a n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s a reference a r o u n d the m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y can h a r d l y be t o I o n i a n s f r o m Asia M i n o r either, t o M i l e t o s o r Ephesos. T h o s e I o n i a n s c o m i n g b y sea w h o e n c o u n t e r e d t h e A s s y r i a n s

must

rather have been G r e e k s f r o m E u b o e a , A t h e n s , o r b o t h , as t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e a n d t h e spread o f w r i t i n g

suggest—not

e x c l u d i n g islands such as S a m o s o r N a x o s . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n is c o n f i r m e d b y t h e Iliad:

I n the o n e passage i n w h i c h Iacmes are

referred t o , t h e y are f i g h t i n g a l o n g s i d e the O p u n t i a n L o k r i a n s , a n d the A t h e n i a n s

are

given

prominence

immediately

after

t h e m . C l e a r l y , n e i g h b o r i n g tribes are referred t o ; i t is a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t Iaones

f r o m E u b o e a s h o u l d be placed b e t w e e n

O p u n t i a n s and the A t h e n i a n s .

the

1 8

A s s y r i a reached t h e h e i g h t o f its p o w e r u n d e r S a r g o n I I ( 7 2 2 705). N o t o n l y the s m a l l H i t t i t e states o f C a r c h e m i s h a n d Z i n c i r l i , b u t also C i l i c i a became p r o v i n c e s o f A s s y r i a .

I n 708 the

k i n g s o f C y p r u s , i n c l u d i n g those o f G r e e k cities such as Salamis a n d Paphos, p a i d h o m a g e t o S a r g o n . I n K i t i o n S a r g o n left a stele a t t e s t i n g his deeds. B u t w h e t h e r the u s u r p e r I a m a n i o f A s h d o d , w h o was d r i v e n o u t b y S a r g o n i n 711,

was " t h e I o -

n i a n , " as his n a m e w o u l d suggest, has been d i s p u t e d ;

1 9

and the

c o m m o n v i e w that M i t a , k i n g o f the " M u s h k i , " w h o p a i d h o m age t o S a r g o n i n 709, was k i n g M i d a s o f P h r y g i a , celebrated b y the G r e e k s , a n d hence t h a t the A s s y r i a n s w e r e i n contact w i t h a great P h r y g i a n k i n g d o m i n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , seems n o l o n g e r tenable.

20

Sennacherib ( 7 0 5 - 6 8 1 ) p u t d o w n an u p r i s i n g i n Tarsos i n 696. According

to Greek

accounts

transmitted by

Berossos

G r e e k s f o u g h t the A s s y r i a n s at sea a n d w e r e d e f e a t e d .

21

the

Even A l

M i n a was d e s t r o y e d a r o u n d 700, b u t was a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y r e b u i l t anew. O n t h e w h o l e the n u m e r o u s v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s and catastrophes

d i d n o t d e s t r o y East-West c o n n e c t i o n s , b u t rather

i n t e n s i f i e d t h e m , perhaps because n o w streams o f refugees w e r e m i n g l i n g w i t h t h e traders. I n a n y event o r i e n t a l i m p o r t s and d o m e s t i c i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e m appear m o r e and m o r e i n Greece a r o u n d 700, and a l i t t l e later i n E t r u r i a . B y t h e n c u n e i f o r m w r i t -

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

i n g is f o u n d i n Tarsos a l o n g s i d e ceramics f r o m R h o d e s , S a m o s , a n d C o r i n t h . O n C y p r u s t h e p e r i o d o f A s s y r i a n d o m i n a t i o n is also a m a r k e d l y " H o m e r i c " e p o c h . E s s a r h a d d o n ( 6 8 1 - 6 6 9 ) also t r e a t e d t h e k i n g s o f C y p r u s as his underlings.

2 2

H i s successor A s h u r b a n i p a l ( 6 6 9 - 6 2 9 ) , t h e m o s t

splendid k i n g o f N i n e v e h , endured forever i n the m e m o r y o f t h e G r e e k s as " S a r d a n a p a l l o s . "

23

Essarhaddon and Ashurbanipal

f o u g h t the C i m m e r i a n s i n A s i a M i n o r , as d i d t h e G r e e k s . B u t the centers o f g r a v i t y w e r e s h i f t i n g b y t h e n . S i d o n , w e l l k n o w n t o t h e G r e e k s as a center o f P h o e n i c i a n t r a d e , was t o t a l l y d e stroyed b y the Assyrians i n 6 7 7 .

2 4

B y 663, h o w e v e r , K i n g P s a m -

m e t i c h u s h a d been able t o e n t r e n c h his forces i n E g y p t a n d t o shake o f f t h e A s s y r i a n y o k e at last. W i t h the e n r o l l m e n t o f G r e e k mercenaries

i n t o his service E g y p t

became m o r e i m p o r t a n t

f r o m t h e G r e e k s ' p o i n t o f v i e w t h a n t h e r u i n e d cities o f S y r i a . A t n e a r l y t h e same t i m e K i n g G y g e s , i n his s t r u g g l e against t h e C i m m e r i a n s , h a d f o u n d e d t h e k i n g d o m o f t h e L y d i a n s w i t h its center i n Sardis a n d established d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h A s s y r i a b y 665.

2 5

T h u s t h e " R o y a l R o a d " was o p e n e d u p w h i c h l e d f r o m

Sardis t o the E a s t .

26

I t was this above all w h i c h b r o u g h t I o n i a n s

i n t o d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e eastern t r a d e , a n d t h u s ensured t h e r a p i d rise o f t h e I o n i a n s o f A s i a M i n o r . M e a n w h i l e , o n E u b o e a , C h a l k i s a n d E r e t r i a l o s t t h e i r forces i n the L e l a n t i n e war, h a v i n g been o u t s t r i p p e d i n t h e w e s t e r n t r a d e b y t h e rise o f C o r i n t h , w h i c h c o l o n i z e d K e r k y r a i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . I n this n e t w o r k o f changing interrelations Greek culture gained supremacy

and

eclipsed t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g i n f l u e n c e .

Oriental

Products

in

Greece

I t is n o t G r e e k t e x t s , b u t r a t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l finds w h i c h offer a solid f o u n d a t i o n for tracing Eastern

c u l t u r a l influences

in

Greece i n t h e e i g h t h a n d early seventh centuries a n d f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e i r significance. O b j e c t s o f o r i e n t a l p r o v e n i e n c e appear at G r e e k sites i n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s , especially i n t h e r a p i d l y e v o l v i n g G r e e k sanctuaries, a n d at t h e same t i m e G r e e k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s t y l e is u n d e r g o i n g basic m o d i f i c a t i o n s b y t a k i n g u p ,

14

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

i m i t a t i n g , a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m o t i f s o f eastern art. T h i s is n o t the place f o r a d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f sites a n d objects, c o n t e x t s a n d proveniences.

A f t e r F r e d r i k P o u l s e n a n d T . J. D u n b a b i n , J o h n

B o a r d m a n has p r o v i d e d a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t ; a w e a l t h o f m a t e r i a l has also been p r e s e n t e d b y H a n s - V o l k m a r H e r r m a n n and b y W o l f g a n g H e l c k , a n d a r i c h s u r v e y has r e c e n t l y been added b y G u n t e r K o p c k e .

1

T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l o c a l styles and

hence t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the o r i g i n o f i n d i v i d u a l pieces is still i n progress. M a n y sites i n t h e N e a r East r e m a i n u n e x p l o r e d o r p a r t i a l l y e x p l o r e d , a n d archaeologists are c u r r e n t l y o p e r a t i n g i n the m o s t u n f a v o r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a m i d s t incessant w a r f a r e , a n d p l u n d e r i n g . Nevertheless

turmoil,

the o u t l i n e s o f c u l t u r a l

a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t seem t o be f i r m l y established, w h i l e the c e n t r a l c o n n e c t i n g r o l e o f S y r i a b e t w e e n t h e Late H i t t i t e , Urartian, Assyrian,

a n d E g y p t i a n c u l t u r a l influences has

be-

c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y clear. A s f o r Greece, t r a d e w i t h t h e East never c o m p l e t e l y s t o p p e d . T h e r e are i n d i v i d u a l i m p o r t e d pieces f r o m the t e n t h a n d n i n t h c e n t u r i e s ; t h e i r n u m b e r s increase s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , a n d even m o r e so i n the first h a l f o f the seventh. T h e e x o t i c o r i g i n is clear i n t h e case o f i v o r y c a r v i n g — a l t h o u g h this s k i l l was s u b s e q u e n t l y a d o p t e d b y t h e G r e e k s — a n d even m o r e so i n 2

the case o f o s t r i c h eggs o r the t r i d a c n a shells f r o m the R e d

Sea,

w h i c h appear i n t h e seventh c e n t u r y . J e w e l r y is m o r e f r e q u e n t l y 3

f o u n d , g o l d i n m a n y f o r m s , faience beads, a n d also beads o f g l a s s — H e r a ' s ear o r n a m e n t s as described b y H o m e r ,

"three-

eyed a n d m u l b e r r y l i k e , " are i d e n t i f i a b l e as such a set. T h e use 4

a n d spread o f g e m s a n d seals offer even m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t e v i dence o f the c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e E a s t .

5

S y r i a n - C i l i c i a n seals have been f o u n d at

N e a r l y one h u n d r e d Pithekoussai-Ischia;

6

a m u l e t - t y p e o r n a m e n t s o f S y r i a n a n d E g y p t i a n style o c c u r i n the t o m b s o f L e f k a n d i , a n d t h e p r i n c e w h o was i n t e r r e d i n the H e r o o n at E r e t r i a was c a r r y i n g a P h o e n i c i a n scarab i n a g o l d s e t t i n g . C y l i n d e r seals, t h e t y p i c a l M e s o p o t a m i a n f o r m o f seal, 7

have been Delos.

u n e a r t h e d at O l y m p i a as w e l l as o n Samos

and

8

T h e evidence i n m e t a l w o r k is m o r e i m p r e s s i v e .

'5

Phoenician

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

b r o n z e a n d silver b o w l s w e r e w i d e l y t r a d e d as special c o s t l y o b j e c t s . A s w e l l as o n C y p r u s , t h e y have been f o u n d i n A t h e n s , O l y m p i a , a n d D e l p h i , i n s o u t h e r n Italy, Praeneste, a n d E t r u r i a . T h e y have l o n g been i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the krateres mentioned by H o m e r ;

9

from

Sidon

t h e i r t e c h n i q u e a n d style also appear t o

present the closest a n a l o g y t o the s h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s as d e s c r i b e d i n t h e Iliad.

A t least t h r e e o f these b o w l s , f o u n d i n O l y m p i a ,

s o u t h e r n Italy, a n d Praeneste, c a r r y

Aramaic-Phoenician i n -

s c r i p t i o n s ; o n e , f r o m F a l e r i i , has an i n s c r i p t i o n i n c u n e i f o r m .

1 0

A t O l y m p i a i n a b o u t 670 B . C . b r o n z e r e l i e f vessels f r o m the Late H i t t i t e c i t y T a b a l w e r e r e w o r k e d t o f o r m t h e d r a p e r y o f large statues f a b r i c a t e d f r o m b r o n z e f o i l .

1 1

O t h e r m e t a l objects a r r i v e d

i n Greece f r o m t h e same r e g i o n , o r f r o m N o r t h S y r i a , o r even f r o m U r a r t u v i a N o r t h S y r i a : e m b o s s e d stands a n d above all a n e w f o r m o f large t r i p o d c a u l d r o n s , d e c o r a t e d w i t h sirens o r snakes. G r e e k c r a f t s m e n w e r e q u i c k t o a d o p t t h e t e c h n i q u e a n d t o create t h e i r o w n m a s t e r p i e c e s .

12

A u n i q u e set o f o r i e n t a l i z i n g

w o r k s o f art is t h e b r o n z e t y m p a n o n and t h e b r o n z e

shields

f r o m t h e Idaean cave o n C r e t e ; t h e t y m p a n o n i n p a r t i c u l a r ( F i g u r e 1) has a p l a i n l y A s s y r i a n l o o k . A g r e e m e n t o n the d a t i n g o f these objects has yet t o be achieved,

b u t i t is h a r d l y t o be

d o u b t e d t h a t t h e y served t h e c u l t o f Z e u s i n the sacred cave o f Ida.

1 3

F i n a l l y , t h e r e are pieces o f h o r s e harness s k i l l f u l l y w o r k e d

i n m e t a l , p r e s t i g e objects for t h e a r i s t o c r a c y l i k e m a n y o t h e r items.

1 4

Outstanding among

these are

the beautiful

bronze

plates i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s as g i v e n t o K i n g Hazael o f Damascus b u t subsequently dedicated to A p o l l o o f Eretria and t o H e r a o f S a m o s , at w h o s e sanctuaries t h e y w e r e f o u n d ( F i g u r e 2). K i n g H a z a e l is k n o w n t o have been active t o w a r d s the e n d o f t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e d e d i c a t i o n at E r e t r i a can be d a t e d arc h a e o l o g i c a l l y t o t h e m i d d l e o f the e i g h t h — a rare case o f p r e c i s i o n as t o t h e p r o v e n i e n c e a n d c h r o n o l o g y o f t h e o r i e n t a l i m pact. C y p r u s a n d also C r e t e are i n a special p o s i t i o n ; t h e y have been " o r i e n t a l i z i n g " all t h e t i m e . R h o d e s b e c o m e s i m p o r t a n t i n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y as w e l l . I n c o n t r a s t t o B e l o c h ' s theses there is

16

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

Figure 1. Bronze tympanon from the Idacan cave, Crete, eighth century B.C.: "Master of Animals" holding up a lion, two demons: Zeus and kouretes? n o w clear evidence t h a t P h o e n i c i a n s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p e r fumes o n R h o d e s even before 7 0 0 .

1 5

O n Samos, t o o , t h e i n f l u x

o f o r i e n t a l g o o d s seems t o b e g i n before 7 0 0 .

1 6

A l l the great sa-

c r e d sites w h i c h c a m e t o flourish b y t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , D e l o s , D e l p h i , a n d above all O l y m p i a , have p r o d u c e d substantial finds o f o r i e n t a l o b j e c t s ; a n d n e x t t o E r e t r i a A t h e n s deserves special notice.

1 7

E t r u r i a s t a r t e d its o w n o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d t h r o u g h i n -

dependent

contac t s

with

Phoenician

17

trade w h i c h spread

to

THE

Figure

ORIENTALIZING

REVOLUTION

North Syrian bronze plaqu efrom horse harness, ninth century found in the Hera sanctuary at Samos . Aramaic inscription: "What (god) Hadad has given to Lord Hazael from Umqi il1 the year whel1 the Lord crossed the ri vel'. " 2.

B . c.,

. 18 .

" W H O

neighboring

Italy,

A R E

P U B L I C

including

W O R K E R S "

Latium;

1 8

it finds

marvellous

e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e rich t o m b s o f Praeneste excavated l o n g a g o . Domestic

craftsmanship

and

p r o d u c t i o n developed

these i m p o r t s , i n i v o r y c a r v i n g as w e l l as i n m e t a l w o r k .

1 9

from 2 0

Ori-

ental p i c t o r i a l m o t i f s also appear i n o t h e r f o r m s o f m a n u f a c t u r e , above a l l i n t h e m o s t e n d u r i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e best preserved k i n d o f p r o d u c t s , c e r a m i c s . ' A g a i n a f e w references m u s t suf2

fice: T h e t h e m e o f t h e M i s t r e s s o f the A n i m a l s a n d t h e M a s t e r o f t h e A n i m a l s , w h i c h goes back t o B r o n z e A g e t r a d i t i o n s , is g i v e n a n e w lease o n l i f e ;

i n a d d i t i o n there are characteristic

2 2

representations o f a n i m a l h u n t i n g and, i n particular, the l i o n fight.

2 3

F e w G r e e k s w o u l d ever have a c t u a l l y seen a l i v e l i o n : I t

was f r o m p i c t u r e s t h a t t h e l i o n b e c a m e such a f a m i l i a r c o n c e p t t o all (even i f l i o n s a n d panthers w e r e o c c a s i o n a l l y confused i n the i m a g e s ) .

A n o l d e r , H i t t i t e style o f r e p r e s e n t i n g l i o n s is

superseded i n t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y b y an A s s y r i a n m o d e l . T h e m o r e exotic gallery o f composite beasts—griffins, sphinxes, and s i r e n s — l i k e w i s e has B r o n z e A g e ancestors, b u t was r e v i v e d and adapted t o t h e n e w f a s h i o n . to Hittite representations,

25

2 4

T h e c h i m a e r a can c l e a r l y be l i n k e d

w h i l e t h e T r i t o n — a m a n w i t h fish's

tail—seems to come straight f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a .

2 6

Finally the

m o t i f o f the Tree o f L i f e s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d , a n d i n general the a n i m a l friezes, t h e l o t u s a n d t h e p a l m e t t e f r i e z e s . prothesis

27

B u t the

scenes a n d t h e representations o f the s y m p o s i u m w i t h

revellers r e c l i n i n g o n couches also have an o r i e n t a l p e d i g r e e , as the c u s t o m i t s e l f a p p a r e n t l y e v o l v e d i n the E a s t .

28

R e l i g i o u s i c o n o g r a p h y p r o p e r s h o w s c o r r e s p o n d i n g changes: T h e M y c e n a e a n h e r i t a g e gives w a y before t h e eastern e x a m p l e s . T h u s i n d i v i d u a l b r o n z e statuettes o f t h e w a r r i o r g o d b r a n d i s h i n g h i s w e a p o n i n his r i g h t h a n d , o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e S y r o - H i t t i t e r e g i o n , h a d appeared i n Greece already i n t h e Late

Mycenaean

p e r i o d ; m o r e are f o u n d n o w , a n d t h e y are c o p i e d i n t h e e i g h t h century.

2 9

W h e t h e r g o d s o r h u m a n w a r r i o r s are b e i n g r e p r e -

sented i n t h e G r e e k c o n t e x t is a m a t t e r o f d i s p u t e ; b u t there is n o d o u b t t h a t those later " t y p i c a l l y G r e e k " i m a g e s o f Z e u s and P o s e i d o n , b r a n d i s h i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y t h u n d e r b o l t o r t r i d e n t , are u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e d f r o m these statuettes. T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f

19

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

the t h u n d e r b o l t i n t h e h a n d o f the w e a t h e r g o d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , r e m a i n s clearly d e p e n d e n t o n the eastern m o d e l .

3 0

Q u i t e differ-

ent is the i m a g e o f a n a k e d goddess, s t a n d i n g , o f t e n t o u c h i n g her breasts, w h i c h h a d been c o m m o n i n S y r i a f o r a l o n g t i m e ; i t is presented t o the G r e e k s b o t h i n the f o r m o f m e t a l reliefs,

es-

p e c i a l l y o f g o l d j e w e l r y , a n d o f s i m p l e clay tablets m a d e f r o m m o l d s . She is u s u a l l y called A s t a r t e - A p h r o d i t e , t h o u g h o n s l i g h t evidence.

51

O t h e r types o f d i v i n e images were occasionally i m -

ported, t o o .

3 2

I n Greece the goddess was q u i c k l y p r o v i d e d w i t h

c l o t h i n g , b u t the i m a g e o f t h e s t a n d i n g goddess c o n t i n u e d t o p r o l i f e r a t e ; a n d the statues o f g o d d e s s e s — n o w o f t e n m a d e o f l o c a l w o o d t o f i n d t h e i r place i n the n e w l y erected

temples—

w e r e c l o t h e d i n r o b e s t h a t s t i l l i m i t a t e d the l u x u r y o f the East, j u s t as H e r a ' s ear o r n a m e n t s i n the Iliad d i d . A s i g n a l e x a m p l e is A r t e m i s o f E p h e s o s , w i t h the r e c t a n g u l a r d i v i s i o n s o f her r o b e , the f i l l e t at the b a c k o f her headdress, and the w o o l l e n r i b b o n s i n her h a n d s .

E v e n closer t o c u l t i c activities seem t o be those

3 3

c u r i o u s m a s k s w h i c h w e find dedicated i n G r e e k sanctuaries, o n S a m o s a n d , above a l l , at O r t h e i a ' s p r e c i n c t i n Sparta. T h e g r o tesque f o r m o f s o m e o f t h e m e v i d e n t l y i m i t a t e s o r i e n t a l H u m baba m a s k s .

3 4

B u t even t h e f o r m o f the o m p h a l o s b o w l w h i c h

b e c a m e u n i v e r s a l l y e m p l o y e d f o r l i b a t i o n i n G r e e k w o r s h i p is o f o r i e n t a l t y p e . M o s t o f a l l , frankincense,

generally

introduced

d u r i n g this t i m e i n t o the w o r s h i p o f the g o d s , r e m a i n e d an o r i ental i m p o r t , as its n a m e s , libanos a n d myrrha, dicate.

continued to i n -

35

O n e area o f m o r e p r o f o u n d eastern influence o n the practice o f G r e e k r e l i g i o n at the t i m e can o n l y be t o u c h e d u p o n : the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l a r g e altars f o r b u r n t offerings a n d above all the b u i l d i n g o f t e m p l e s t o serve as houses f o r d i v i n i t i e s , represented b y c u l t statues. T h e r e seems t o be n o G r e e k t e m p l e p r o p e r a n t e d a t i n g the e i g h t h c e n t u r y , the p e r i o d o f the i m p e t u s o f eastern craftsmanship.

A

m o s t peculiar i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f indigenous,

P h o e n i c i a n , a n d G r e e k c u l t is attested at K o m m o s , o n the s o u t h coast o f C r e t e .

3 6

T h i s was e v i d e n t l y a place w h e r e passing ships

used t o anchor, t o take o n p r o v i s i o n s a n d t o d o h o m a g e t o l o c a l d i v i n i t i e s . U s e o f t h e c u l t site is d o c u m e n t e d f r o m the t e n t h

20

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

century o n , w i t h various structures still identifiable, remains o f ritual

meals a n d v o t i v e

figurines;

b u t i n t h e later n i n t h c e n t u r y

there is a d i s t i n c t i v e l y P h o e n i c i a n s h r i n e , w i t h three p i l l a r s represent

t h e sacred

center,

between

w h i c h offerings

were

c r a m m e d . I t is i n t e g r a t e d later w i t h m o r e G r e e k - l o o k i n g s t r u c tures. K o m m o s

t h u s is o n e o f t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e m e e t i n g

points o f Phoenician and Greek religious practice. T h e P h o e n i c i a n m e r c h a n t s h a d always been r e g a r d e d as the carriers o f o r i e n t a l c u l t u r e , t h e s u p p l i e r s o f o r i e n t a l i m p o r t s t o the G r e e k s , i n accordance w i t h t h e i m a g e presented b y t h e Homer

m e n t i o n s Phoinikes,

men o f Sidon,

Odyssey:

as p r o d u c e r s

of

c o s t l y m e t a l vessels, t r a d i n g b y sea a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y i n d u l g i n g i n piracy. B e l o c h t r i e d t o force t h e P h o e n i c i a n s o u t o f t h e A e gean p i c t u r e , asserting a lack o f clear a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p r o o f o f t h e i r presence, especially t h e lack o f P h o e n i c i a n ceramics. now, however,

Phoenicians

By

are c l e a r l y attested even t h r o u g h

t h e i r ceramics o n K o s a n d R h o d e s , and traces o f t h e i r presence have been f o u n d at E p h e s o s , t o o .

3 7

B u t w i t h the excavations at

A l M i n a , the s p o n t a n e o u s advance o f t h e Greeks t o t h e East has been w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d . T h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e Greeks and the P h o e n i c i a n s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n appears f r o m early o n t o d e v e l o p i n m u t u a l c o m p e t i t i o n . B o t h seem t o start b y e s t a b l i s h i n g f o r e i g n t r a d i n g f a c i l i t i e s , f o l l o w i n g earlier A s s y r i a n p r a c t i c e , b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y b e g i n t o f o u n d i n d e p e n d e n t cities, colonies as w e call t h e m ; f o r t h e P h o e n i c i a n s these w e r e p r i m a r i l y K i t i o n o n C y p r u s a n d C a r t h a g e i n A f r i c a , w h i l e G r e e k cities came i n t o b e i n g i n s o u t h e r n I t a l y and S i c i l y ; these d e v e l o p m e n t s l e d t o new forms o f competing power politics. H o w e v e r , t h e t r a d i n g c o n n e c t i o n s set i n m o t i o n , first b y the P h o e n i c i a n s a n d t h e n b y t h e E u b o e a n s , w e r e n o t the o n l y c h a n nels f o r m u t u a l c o n t a c t . M o r e i n t i m a t e c u l t u r a l contacts and exchanges t o o k place o n t h e level o f s k i l l e d c r a f t s m a n s h i p . I t has l o n g been s u g g e s t e d t h a t , f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , eastern c r a f t s m e n m i g r a t e d t o G r e e k cities a n d passed o n t h e i r s k i l l s t o the G r e e k s . I n t h e h a r d t i m e s o f the A s s y r i a n conquests, m i g r a t i o n s o f refugees m a y r e a d i l y be assumed. J o h n B o a r d m a n

21

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

has d e m o n s t r a t e d t h i s m o v e m e n t i n d e t a i l , especially i n the case o f C r e t e . H e p o i n t s t o t h r e e g r o u p s o f evidence:

A family o f

g o l d s m i t h s a n d g e m cutters i n K n o s s o s b e g a n t o reuse a M i n o a n T h o l o s t o m b a n d consecrated i t b y a f o u n d a t i o n d e p o s i t i n o r i e n t a l style, a r o u n d 800 B . C . ; a special w o r k s h o p o f b r o n z e s m i t h s p r o d u c e d the t y m p a n o n w i t h p l a i n l y A s s y r i a n i c o n o g r a p h y a n d the b r o n z e

shields

for

t h e Idaean

cave; f i n a l l y ,

Syrian-style

t o m b s c o m p a r a b l e t o those near C a r c h e m i s h are f o u n d at A f r a t i , i n c e n t r a l C r e t e , i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e seventh c e n t u r y . T h e s e t o m b s as w e l l as t h e h a l f - f i n i s h e d g o o d s i n the T o m b o f t h e G o l d s m i t h s at K n o s s o s are c o n v i n c i n g i n d i c a t o r s t h a t i m m i g r a t i o n h a d t a k e n place; a n d t h e t w o phases o f i m m i g r a t i o n , before 800 a n d again a r o u n d 700, c o r r e s p o n d closely t o the A s s y r i a n campaigns.

38

T h e actual p r o o f t h a t , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e appearance o f easte r n p r o d u c t s , t h e r e was n o t j u s t trade t h r o u g h v a r i o u s i n t e r m e diate c o n t r a c t o r s b u t also l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g t h r o u g h d i r e c t c o n t a c t , lies i n t h e a d o p t i o n o f n e w t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s w h i c h d o n o t arise f r o m s i m p l y b u y i n g f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t s . T h i s applies t o t h e art o f g o l d s m i t h s a n d g e m c u t t e r s

39

as w e l l as t o i v o r y c a r v i n g

a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t o t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f b r o n z e w o r k i n g , be i t h a m m e r i n g (sphyrelaton)

o r casting w i t h t h e " l o s t c o r e " m e t h o d ;

the r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e asphalt core o f eastern t e c h n i q u e w i t h o n e o f resin a n d b r a n s h o w s j u s t h o w c r a f t s m e n a d a p t e d creatively to n e w requirements.

4 0

E v e n the s i m p l e yet

p r o d u c t i v e t e c h n i q u e o f m a k i n g clay figures

extremely

in molds

came

f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a a n d S y r i a ; i t appears at G o r t y n and C o r i n t h s h o r t l y after 7 0 0 .

41

I t w o u l d o f course be possible t o assume t h a t

s o m e G r e e k s e n t e r e d i n t o a p p r e n t i c e s h i p s u n d e r n a t i v e craftsm e n i n t h e East, w h e t h e r at A l M i n a i n S y r i a o r at Tarsos; this w o u l d , i n p r i n c i p l e , lead t o t h e same results. N e i t h e r case i n volves distant contacts, b u t rather intensive c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h d e t a i l e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n at least f o r t h e p e r i o d o f an a p p r e n t i c e s h i p . T h e C r e t a n f i n d s t i p t h e scale m o r e t o w a r d s t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f i m m i g r a n t c r a f t s m e n i n the G r e e k s p h e r e — w h i c h does n o t r u l e o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l j o u r n e y s i n the o p p o s i t e direction.

22

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

T h e p r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e existence o f m i g r a n t o r i e n t a l craftsm e n o c c a s i o n a l l y meets w i t h c r i t i c i s m b o t h f r o m classical archaeologists a n d f r o m o r i e n t a l i s t s . Whereas t h e f o r m e r , b y reas o n o f m e t h o d , t e n d t o be r e l u c t a n t t o c o n s i d e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s for personal, almost anecdotal coincidence,

42

t o t h e l a t t e r the

i m a g e o f free e n t e r p r i s e p r o j e c t e d i n t o the " d a r k ages" appears i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e r o y a l p o w e r a n d b u r e a u c r a c y t h a t characterized eastern c i v i l i z a t i o n s . H e r e i n d e e d is a clear d i s t i n c t i o n 4 3

b e t w e e n w e s t e r n a n d eastern t r a d i t i o n s . T h a t c r a f t s m e n are n o table f o r m o b i l i t y , t h a n k s t o t h e i r s k i l l s , i n c o n t r a s t t o resident peasants o r l a n d o w n i n g n o b i l i t y , is clearly stated i n t h a t verse o f H o m e r o n t h e " p u b l i c w o r k e r s , " demioergoi

(Od.

17.383-385).

S o l o n , a c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h , realized this and e n c o u r a g e d the i m m i g r a t i o n o f c r a f t s m e n t o A t h e n s : " t o change residence the sake oftechne"

is t h e t e r m used here f o r such m i g r a t i o n .

the same t i m e t h e t y r a n t s o f C o r i n t h h a d s o u g h t after

for 4 4

At

such

c r a f t s m e n ; later T h e m i s t o k l e s a t t r a c t e d technitai w i t h t h e offer o f i m m u n i t y f r o m taxes " s o t h a t as m a n y p e o p l e as possible s h o u l d take u p r e s i d e n c e . "

T o j u d g e b y t h e i r names—-such as A m a s i s ,

45

L y d o s , a n d B r y g o s — p o t t e r s and vase painters o f t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y seem t o have i m m i g r a t e d f r o m E g y p t , L y d i a , o r P h r y g i a .

4 6

F o r A r i s t o t l e i t is p r a c t i c a l l y the r u l e t h a t c r a f t s m e n are i m m i g r a n t n o n c i t i z e n s ; he also speaks o f slaves as c r a f t s m e n ,

47

but it

is c e r t a i n t h a t w h e r e h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d craft skills are c o n c e r n e d t h e r e can be n o q u e s t i o n o f slavery. I n H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s " m i g r a n t c r a f t s m e n " is a c o m m o n t e r m .

4 8

A t least b y this t i m e t h e y w e r e

t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d i n t h e S e m i t i c East, t o o . Jesus Sirach w r i t e s o f c r a f t s m e n : " a n d even w h e n t h e y l i v e i n a f o r e i g n place, t h e y d o n o t need t o s t a r v e . "

4 9

A t e n t m a k e r f r o m Tarsos became one o f

the h i s t o r i c a l l y m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l o f these travellers: the apostle Paul. T o r e t u r n t o t h e archaic e p o c h : A s s y r i a n c r a f t s m e n are p r e s u m e d t o have been present i n U r a r t u ;

5 0

and i n t h e same w a y

m e t a l w o r k spread t o t h e Scythians a n d thence far o n i n t o A s i a . A n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n traces t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f G r e e k

craftsman-

s h i p i n t o E t r u r i a t o D e m a r a t o s o f C o r i n t h , t h e p u r p o r t e d father o f K i n g T a r q u i n i u s Priscus; he was f o l l o w e d , i t is said, b y a host

23

T H E


o f craftsmen.

51

R E V O L U T I O N

E v e n w i t h o u t the s u p p o r t o f this a n e c d o t a l t r a -

d i t i o n i t is c e r t a i n t h a t G r e e k p o t t e r s a n d vase p a i n t e r s establ i s h e d themselves i n v a r i o u s

non-Greek

areas i n Italy. I n the

East, o n the o t h e r h a n d , g o o d c r a f t s m e n h a d l o n g been m u c h s o u g h t after a n d h i g h l y v a l u e d . I t was precisely f o r t h i s reason t h a t t h e r u l e r s a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p c o n t r o l o v e r t h e m as far as was possible b y bureaucratic means. S o l o m o n had a w h o l e t r o o p o f c r a f t s m e n , w h o w e r e e m p l o y e d i n the service o f K i n g H i r a m o f T y r e , sent t o h i m f o r t e m p l e c o n s t r u c t i o n . Ahiqar

5 2

I n a s i m i l a r v e i n the

n o v e l r e c o u n t s t h a t the k i n g o f E g y p t o r d e r e d an a r c h i -

tect f r o m the r u l e r o f N i n e v e h .

W h e n K i n g S a r g o n b u i l t his

5 3

palace i n K h o r s a b a d after the m o d e l o f a " H i t t i t e H i l a n i , " as he states i n his i n s c r i p t i o n s ,

5 4

he p r o b a b l y d i d n o t hesitate t o r e q -

uisition the appropriate craftsmen

f r o m N o r t h Syria.

Docu-

ments f r o m M a r i s h o w that craftsmen were organized b y kings as m o b i l e teams a n d k e p t r e a d y f o r d e p l o y m e n t as r e q u i r e d .

5 5

In

M e s o p o t a m i a n m y t h , the h e r o o f t h e f l o o d d i d n o t fail t o reserve a place f o r c r a f t s m e n i n the a r k .

5 6

A H i t t i t e treaty expressly stip-

ulates t h a t f u g i t i v e c r a f t s m e n are t o be e x t r a d i t e d . clearly demonstrates

5 7

Yet even t h i s

the l i m i t s o f the c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n : a

c r a f t s m a n w h o deserted w o u l d have calculated his chance o f b e c o m i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y e m p l o y e d i n any n e w place. Letters f r o m M a r i speak o f an a r c h i t e c t o r a s m i t h s i m p l y " g o i n g a w a y " a p p a r e n t l y o f his o w n free w i l l a n d w i t h the state t a k i n g n o steps against h i m .

5 8

T h i s is n o t a b l e p r o o f t h a t , de facto, q u a l i f i e d spe-

cialists c o u l d n o t be d e n i e d a c e r t a i n m o b i l i t y a l r e a d y i n the B r o n z e A g e O r i e n t . N o t t o o d i f f e r e n t are the adventures o f the p h y s i c i a n D e m o k e d e s i n the t i m e o f D a r i u s , as related b y H e r o d o t u s : he r e t u r n e d t o his h o m e l a n d against the w i l l o f the G r e a t K i n g , a n d the k i n g was n o t able t o get h i m b a c k .

5 9

B y that t i m e

o t h e r G r e e k specialists, c r a f t s m e n o f a l l k i n d s as w e l l as m e r c e n aries, h a d l o n g f o u n d t h e i r w a y t o the o r i e n t a l c o u r t s , t o N e b u chadnezzar i n B a b y l o n

6 0

as w e l l as t o D a r i u s i n P e r s e p o l i s .

61

T o s u m u p : F o r c r a f t s m e n i n t h e East, at least t h e chance f o r free m o v e m e n t h a d e x i s t e d f o r s o m e t i m e , since the influence o f the despots was l i m i t e d i n e x t e n t . I n the West this m o b i l i t y was f u l l y d e v e l o p e d b y the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d . I t can be p r e s u m e d

24

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

that p r e c i s e l y t h i s factor c o u l d act as a s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e f o r e m i g r a t i o n t o t h e freer West. We f i n d t h e eastern c r a f t s m e n o r g a n i z e d i n the f o r m o f f a m i l y g u i l d s , as Sons o f t h e C r a f t s m e n (mare ummani) i n B a b y l o n i a , as Sons o f t h e F o u n d r y m e n (bn nsk) in Syria.

S u c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s guarantee f o r m s o f m u t u a l s u p -

6 2

p o r t w h i c h m u s t have o p e r a t e d v e r y m u c h t o t h e benefit o f e m i g r e s . E v e n i f free e n t e r p r i s e i n c r a f t s m a n s h i p was an i n v e n t i o n o f t h e e a r l y o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , the " o r i e n t a l s " w e r e certainly involved too. A n o t h e r m o b i l e e l e m e n t t h a t s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d is the t r o o p s o f m e r c e n a r i e s w h o c o u l d m a k e a p r o f i t a b l e life a m i d s t the rise and fall o f e m p i r e s . We k n o w o f the I o n i a n a n d t h e C a r ian m e r c e n a r i e s o f P s a m m e t i c h u s ;

63

A n t i m e n i d a s the b r o t h e r o f

Alcaeus served as a m e r c e n a r y f o r B a b y l o n , as d i d Sappho's brother, Charaxos,

for E g y p t .

6 4

W h e t h e r Krethi

a n d Plethi

in

D a v i d ' s b o d y g u a r d means C r e t a n s s e r v i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h P h i l i s tines is less c e r t a i n .

6 5

I t is m o r e l i k e l y t h a t t h e Karim

attested i n

the n i n t h c e n t u r y at J e r u s a l e m w e r e i n fact C a r i a n s f r o m

Asia

M i n o r ; at a n y rate C a r i a n soldiers s u b s e q u e n t l y played an i m portant role i n seventh- and sixth-century E g y p t .

6 6

Nor would

there have been a s h o r t a g e o f Greeks t r y i n g t h e i r l u c k i n the East at t h a t t i m e , even i f t h e case o f the I a m a n i o f A s h d o d r e m a i n s uncertain.

6 7

T h e h o p l i t e w e a p o n r y w h i c h c a m e i n t o use at the

e n d o f the e i g h t h c e n t u r y i n Greece is closely l i n k e d t o A s s y r i a n a n d U r a r t i a n a r m s . T o i l l u s t r a t e a G o r g o n s h i e l d s u c h as is d e s c r i b e d i n t h e Iliad, o n e can use an e x a m p l e f r o m O l y m p i a side b y side w i t h o n e f r o m C a r c h e m i s h o n the E u p h r a t e s . Writing

and Literature

in the Eighth

68

Century

F o r t h e general h i s t o r y o f c u l t u r e , b y far the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d is the a d o p t i o n o f the P h o e n i c i a n s c r i p t b y t h e G r e e k s a n d its s k i l l f u l a d a p t a t i o n t o G r e e k p h o n e t i c s . ' I t can a l m o s t s t a n d as a m o d e l f o r c u l t u r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n at t h e t i m e : A s t h e b o r r o w i n g f r o m t h e S e m i t i c is b e y o n d a l l d o u b t , the creative d e v e l o p m e n t b y G r e e k i n v e n t o r s is n o less clear; a n d a date s i g n i f i c a n t l y after t h e collapse o f M y c e -

25

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R E V O L U T I O N

naean c u l t u r e , b u t n o later t h a n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , is n o w w e l l established. F o r us, t h e G r e e k s c r i p t is t h e first perfect w r i t i n g

system,

b e i n g t h e earliest a l p h a b e t i c s c r i p t t o use signs f o r b o t h v o w e l s a n d c o n s o n a n t s c o n s i s t e n t l y , w h e r e a s S e m i t i c w r i t i n g was, and is, basically c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n s o n a n t s . Its p e r f e c t i o n is c o n f i r m e d b y its success i n t h e West. Nevertheless t h e a p p a r e n t i n v e n t i o n , the n o t a t i o n o f v o w e l s , arose i n fact f r o m

misunder-

s t a n d i n g i n a d i f f e r e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m : A s the alphabetic sequence o f the S e m i t i c s y s t e m was l e a r n e d a n d t h e a c r o p h o n i c p r i n c i p l e u n d e r s t o o d b y G r e e k s , t h e y f o u n d a w o r d such as alpha t o b e g i n w i t h an a s o u n d a n d n o t w i t h a g u t t u r a l g l o t t a l s t o p — d e n o t e d b y S e m i t i c aleph.

2

Just t h e d e l i b e r a t e c r e a t i o n o f

an a d d i t i o n a l l e t t e r f o r the f i f t h v o w e l , Y , w h i c h is n o t present i n the S e m i t i c m o d e l and t h u s was placed at the e n d o f the series, is evidence o f a c o n s c i o u s c r e a t i o n b y s o m e G r e e k " i n v e n t o r . " T h e l e t t e r Y appears i n all G r e e k alphabets a n d all alphabets d e rived

f r o m t h e m , i n c l u d i n g P h r y g i a n and Latin. 3

F o r the t i m e a n d place o f t h e a d o p t i o n o f the Phoinikeia, H e r o d o t u s says t h e letters w e r e

originally called,

4

there

as are

m a n y clues b y n o w , b u t n o f e w e r o p e n q u e s t i o n s ; n e w f i n d s c o u l d s t i l l alter t h e p i c t u r e . T h e earliest G r e e k letters r e c o g n i z e d t o date o r i g i n a t e i n N a x o s , Ischia, A t h e n s , a n d E u b o e a a n d a p pear a r o u n d o r a l i t t l e before 7 5 0 . t r a d i n g c o n n e c t i o n s o f the lawones

5

T h i s date fits p e r f e c t l y the

f r o m S y r i a v i a E u b o e a t o the

West. O n Ischia G r e e k g r a f f i t i are f o u n d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c g r a f f i t i so t h a t i n o n e case even t h e l i n g u i s tic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is d i s p u t e d ; a n d been d i s c o v e r e d

finally

a Greek

g r a f f i t o has

o n a n e i g h t h - c e n t u r y sh e rd f r o m A l M i n a .

6

C o m p l i c a t i o n arises w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l letters i n s e r t e d i n G r e e k alphabets after Y ; i t is precisely C h a l k i s / E u b o e a a n d A t h e n s t h a t differ i n this r e s p e c t — t h e l e t t e r X conveys t h e s o u n d kh i n A t t i c , b u t x at C h a l k i s a n d hence i n the w e s t e r n colonies a n d f i n a l l y i n L a t i n ; i t seems n a t u r a l t h a t b o t h t h e C h a l c i d i a n a n d t h e A t t i c alphabets s h o u l d have been p r e c e d e d b y o n e o f those " r e d " ones w h i c h have n o n e o f t h e a d d i t i o n a l l e t t e r s , w h i c h is t h e case o n C r e t e , M e l o s , a n d T h e r a ; b u t there are n o e i g h t h - c e n t u r y d o c -

26

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

u m e n t s o f w r i t i n g f r o m these places so far, a n d t h e inference can be called i n t o q u e s t i o n . T h e r e is m u c h t o substantiate the idea 7

t h a t C y p r u s h a d a r o l e t o p l a y as an i n t e r m e d i a r y s t a t i o n i n t h e transmission Greek

of writing:

letters as

The

Phoinikeia

" s c r i b b l i n g s " (grammatd)

distinctive designation

seems

to presuppose

o f the

that other

w e r e k n o w n f r o m w h i c h the P h o e n i -

cian w e r e d i f f e r e n t . T h i s was the case o n l y o n C y p r u s , w h e r e a linear s c r i p t o f M y c e n a e a n t y p e had been adapted t o the G r e e k a n d persisted

t o H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s ; the first

document

now

k n o w n f o r its use i n w r i t i n g G r e e k dates f r o m t h e e l e v e n t h cent u r y . I t is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t the linear scripts h a d t a k e n the d i r e c 8

t i o n f r o m left t o r i g h t , t h e d i r e c t i o n t h a t was t o p r e v a i l i n Greek a n d subsequent w r i t i n g , i n c o n t r a s t t o S e m i t i c use; h o w e v e r , the change o f d i r e c t i o n f r o m l i n e t o l i n e , called bustrophedon,

as o f t e n

p r a c t i c e d i n early G r e e k w r i t i n g , is also f o u n d i n s o m e P h o e n i cian d o c u m e n t s a n d is c o m m o n i n Late H i t t i t e h i e r o g l y p h s .

9

Of

course the G r e e k s c r i p t c o u l d also have been d e v e l o p e d i n Syria, a l t h o u g h there is j u s t o n e g r a f i t t o f r o m A l M i n a so far.

We

m i g h t s t i l l l o o k t o C r e t e , n o t so m u c h because o f the P h o e n i c i a n i n s c r i p t i o n o n a b o w l that ended up i n a t o m b i n Knossos a r o u n d 900, b u t r a t h e r because o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r l y close c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o r i e n t a l c r a f t s m a n s h i p and c r a f t s m e n f r o m

around

800; i t was also o n C r e t e t h a t l a w s w e r e r e c o r d e d i n w r i t i n g earlier t h a n e l s e w h e r e i n G r e e c e . " Nevertheless there is n o e v i 1

dence f r o m C r e t e so far t o r i v a l the e a r l y g r a f f i t i f r o m the sphere o f t h e Iaones.

I n a n y case, the a r g u m e n t e m p l o y e d w i t h great

success at o n e t i m e , t h a t t h e great differences w h i c h appear f r o m the start a m o n g l o c a l G r e e k alphabets p r e s u p p o s e a " l o n g d e v e l o p m e n t " s t r e t c h i n g over m a n y decades, i f n o t centuries, been f i r m l y r e f u t e d b y L i l i a n J e f f e r y .

11

T h e so-called

has

develop-

m e n t , o r r a t h e r the process o f t r a n s m i s s i o n , i n c l u d i n g s o m e errors i n c o p y i n g , idiosyncrasies o f "hands," and some intentional a d d i t i o n s d i d h a p p e n e x t r e m e l y fast, w i t h i n a f e w decades, i f n o t years, r e a c h i n g even t h e P h r y g i a n s

i n one d i r e c t i o n and the

Etruscans i n t h e o t h e r n e a r l y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . S o m e S e m i t i s t s s t i l l t e n d t o plead t h a t the G r e e k alphabet is s i g n i f i c a n t l y o l d e r , o n the basis o f c e r t a i n details o f the l e t t e r

27

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formations.

12

R E V O L U T I O N

T h e finds o f P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c i n s c r i p t i o n s i n

Syria, h o w e v e r — a n d one should p r o b a b l y l o o k t o N o r t h Syria r a t h e r t h a n t o P a l e s t i n e — a r e s t i l l t o o scanty t o p e r m i t a d e f i n i t e sequence o f l e t t e r f o r m s t o be established; e v e r y n e w f i n d m a y change t h e p i c t u r e . the argumentum

1 3

F r o m the G r e e k side, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

ex silentio has b e c o m e ever m o r e o v e r w h e l m i n g :

I n t h e i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t y o f G r e e k g e o m e t r i c ceramics w h i c h can be classified a n d d a t e d w i t h a reasonable degree o f p r e c i s i o n , n o t a s i n g l e s c r i b b l i n g has so far been discovered t h a t l o o k s l i k e a G r e e k l e t t e r b e f o r e , say, 770, w h i l e i n the decades f r o m 750 t o a b o u t 700 there are n o w dozens a n d dozens o f d o c u m e n t s .

A

c u l t u r a l e x p l o s i o n has h a p p e n e d here; there is n o t h i n g t o suggest t h a t t h e G r e e k a l p h a b e t h a d been i n h i d i n g f o r centuries

before

t h a t date. T h u s t h e existence o f G r e e k s c r i p t i n the t e n t h and even i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y appears, f r o m the state o f t h i n g s , t o be v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e . T h e place o f a d o p t i o n c u r r e n t l y r e m a i n s o p e n . T h e G r e e k reference t o " P h o e n i c i a n s " c a n n o t be t a k e n t o m e a n t h a t P h o e n i c i a n s i n t h e n a r r o w e r s e n s e — t h a t is, t h e i n h a b itants o f B y b l o s , S i d o n , a n d T y r e — m u s t have been t h e source. P h o e n i c i a n s o r A r a m a e a n s f r o m N o r t h S y r i a r e m a i n an e q u i v a lent o p t i o n . F o r the m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f w r i t i n g o c c u r r e d there is an i n v a l u a b l e clue, even i f i t is o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d : t h e G r e e k names o f t h e letters (alpha,

beta, gamma,

a n d so o n ) w i t h

t h e i r u n a l t e r a b l e o r d e r . T h e s e are S e m i t i c w o r d s — b u l l , house, a n d so o n — w h i c h have n o sense at all i n G r e e k . T h e y

were

preserved f o r o n e p a r t i c u l a r reason: A l l t e a c h i n g o f r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g b e g a n w i t h l e a r n i n g t h i s sequence b y heart. T h i s

ex-

plains also w h y m u c h earlier t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d sequence appears i n t w o c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t S e m i t i c a l p h a b e t i c scripts, i n t h e U g a r i t i c c u n e i f o r m a l p h a b e t attested i n the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d i n t h e " P h o e n i c i a n " a l p h a b e t , e v i d e n c e o f w h i c h has n o w been u n c o v e r e d

f r o m as early as t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y .

across l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r s ,

1 4

t h e same m n e m o n i c sequence

Even was

learned b y r o t e i n t h e same way. W i t h the alphabetic s c r i p t , f o r t h e first t i m e a s y s t e m o f w r i t i n g h a d c o m e i n t o b e i n g w h i c h was so s i m p l e t h a t i t c o u l d be used b y all p e o p l e o f n o r m a l i n -

28

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

telligence even o u t s i d e t h e circles o f learned p r o f e s s i o n a l scribes; t h e y need t o be t a u g h t f o r o n l y a s h o r t t i m e a n d t o get s o m e practice i n h a n d w r i t i n g . We m a y teaching

of writing

form

s o m e p i c t u r e o f the

i n the S y r o - P a l e s t i n i a n

region.

1 5

When

m u c h later w e read i n Josephus t h a t " o f all those w h o dealt w i t h the G r e e k s , t h e P h o e n i c i a n s used w r i t i n g t h e m o s t , f o r p r i v a t e business as w e l l as f o r t h e i r p u b l i c a f f a i r s , "

16

he was r e f e r r i n g t o

a s c h o o l t r a d i t i o n g o i n g back a t h o u s a n d years. T h e inference is that t h e " i n v e n t o r " w h o first used these letters f o r t h e n o t a t i o n o f t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d i n at least one s c h o o l lesson, w h e t h e r o f t h e A r a m a i c o r the P h o e n i c i a n t y p e , w h e t h e r i n S y r i a o r o n C y p r u s , perhaps even s o m e w h e r e else w i t h s o m e e m i g r a n t w h o h a d received an e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n . T h i s gives cause t o reflect o n t h e sheer c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t rules the evidence available t o us: T h e S e m i t i c l e t t e r names alpha,

beta, and so o n

o c c u r i n G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e i n the f i f t h c e n t u r y at t h e e a r l i e s t ,

17

but

t h e y m u s t have been i n c u r r e n t use ever since t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , as t h e y h a d been a d o p t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l alphabet; t h a t those meaningless

w o r d p a t t e r n s s h o u l d have been i n t r o d u c e d

i n t o G r e e k at any later t i m e is q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e . T h e L a t i n a l p h a b e t can serve as a c o u n t e r p r o o f : W r i t e r s o f L a t i n d i d n o t a d o p t t h e a n c i e n t P h o e n i c i a n m n e m o n i c sequence; rather, t h e y let t h e v o w e l s s o u n d f o r themselves and a d d e d an e - v o w e l t o the c o n s o n a n t s , as t h e G r e e k s h a d already d o n e w i t h t h e i r a d d i t i o n a l letters Y O o n the one h a n d a n d $ X f ,

pronounced

"phee,"

" k h e e , " "psee," o n the o t h e r ; b u t even so the L a t i n s and the R o m a n s started s c h o o l b y l e a r n i n g t h e i r a be ce—as w e s t i l l d o t o day. I t is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t i n t h i s respect t h e Greek practice has r e m a i n e d closer t o P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c s c h o o l t r a d i t i o n t h a n the L a t i n d i d t o t h e G r e e k . T h u s i t is clear t h a t the a d o p t i o n o f the P h o e n i c i a n s c r i p t b y the G r e e k s was m o r e t h a n t h e c o p y i n g o f letter f o r m s ; i t i n c l u d e d t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the t e c h n i q u e o f t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g h o w t o read a n d w r i t e . T h i s presupposes a c e r t a i n i n t i m a c y o f c o n t a c t s , as is also i n d i c a t e d b y those objects w h i c h a l m o s t never s h o w u p i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d yet are m u c h m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the t r a d i t i o n o f w r i t i n g than i n d i v i d -

29

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R E V O L U T I O N

u a l g r a f f i t i : w r i t i n g tablets a n d leather scrolls t o g e t h e r w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e w r i t i n g t o o l s . T h e s e i n d e e d m u s t have a c c o m p a n i e d the use o f the G r e e k s c r i p t f r o m t h e start. T h e w r i t i n g t a b l e t , deltos i n G r e e k , has even k e p t its S e m i t i c n a m e , daltu—daleth Hebrew—together

with

the name

w h i c h i t is c o v e r e d , malthe.

Daltu

o f t h e special

wax

in with

o r i g i n a l l y means d o o r b u t is

used f o r a w r i t i n g t a b l e t already i n t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y U g a r i t , as i t is i n H e b r e w later o n .

1 8

W o o d e n w r i t i n g tablets w e r e i n use i n

M e s o p o t a m i a as w e l l as i n S y r i a a n d Palestine; t h e f i n d o f o n e e x e m p l a r i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w r e c k at U l u B u r u n near K a § , T u r k e y , is c o n s i d e r e d sensational, even i f n o trace o f the w r i t i n g f o r w h i c h i t was used has been preserved; s o m e w r i t i n g tablets o f i v o r y f r o m k n o w n for a long t i m e .

Sargon's palace i n N i m r u d 1 9

have been

I n G r e e k the " f o l d i n g t a b l e t " o n w h i c h

t o w r i t e m a k e s its appearance w i t h t h e B e l l e r o p h o n t e s s t o r y i n H o m e r , i n the c o n t e x t o f the "fatal l e t t e r " m o t i f .

2 0

I t is t r u e t h a t

t h e o l d e s t d i r e c t t e s t i m o n i e s f o r t h e w o r d deltos o c c u r i n A e s c h y lus, b u t the reference t o " b r o n z e deltoi"

as a t e r m f o r a n c i e n t

sacral l a w s s h o u l d p o i n t back t o t h e seventh o r s i x t h c e n t u r y .

2 1

W h a t is r e m a r k a b l e is t h a t t h e w o r d deltos c o n s i s t e n t l y carries the v o w e l e i n n o r m a l G r e e k , as o p p o s e d t o a i n S e m i t i c

daltu;

s l i g h t d i s t o r t i o n s o f v o w e l c o l o r i n g are n o t s u r p r i s i n g w i t h b o r r o w e d w o r d s , b u t t h e e is e q u a l l y characteristic o f t h e

Greek

l e t t e r n a m e delta, w h i c h r e p r o d u c e s the same S e m i t i c w o r d . I n contrast, i n the C y p r i o t syllabic script, w h i c h remains unaware o f t h e s t a n d a r d G r e e k a l p h a b e t , t h e e x p e c t e d f o r m f o r the w r i t i n g t a b l e t is attested, daltos,

closer t o the S e m i t i c , j u s t as the

P h o e n i c i a n s w e r e so close o n C y p r u s .

2 2

T h a t the n o r m a l Greek

t e r m f o r t h e w r i t i n g t a b l e t a n d the l e t t e r n a m e s h o w e x a c t l y t h e same m e t a m o r p h o s i s indicates t h a t b o t h b e l o n g t o g e t h e r f r o m the s t a r t — i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h a t the deltos i n Greece is as o l d as the Greek alphabet. B o o k s w e r e i n general use i n t h e P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c r e g i o n i n the f o r m o f leather scrolls; i n the special case o f t h e Israelite Torah,

this f o r m

has

remained mandatory.

Aramaic

"scroll

scribes" m a d e t h e i r w a y t o M e s o p o t a m i a a n d became v i r t u a l l y indispensable

to the Assyrian

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , even w h e n t h e

30

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

" t a b l e t scribes" o f the m u c h less p r a c t i c a l yet o l d a n d venerable c u n e i f o r m script insisted o n their privileges and still enjoyed higher rank. T h u s the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the Assyrian was based o n t w o l a n g u a g e s , o r rather, t w o s c r i p t s .

empire Aramaic

23

as an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l a n g u a g e c a m e d e f i n i t e l y t o the fore w i t h the A c h a e m e n i d s o f Persia; b y t h e n i t is called " i m p e r i a l A r a m a i c " (Reichsaramaisch)

b y m o d e r n specialists. B u t even D a r i u s

d e f e r r e d t o t h e o l d e r t r a d i t i o n a n d d e e m e d i t necessary t o have Persian c u n e i f o r m created. F o r p r a c t i c a l purposes the Persians c o n t i n u e d t o use t h e scrolls; there was a l i b r a r y o f leather scrolls i n Persepolis, b u r n t d o w n b y A l e x a n d e r .

24

I n Greece the leather

s c r o l l , w r a p p e d a r o u n d a w o o d e n s t i c k , is already referred t o i n the seventh c e n t u r y b y A r c h i l o c h u s , as he i n t r o d u c e s his o w n p o e m w i t h t h e c u r i o u s t e r m skytale,

s t i c k — a d m i t t e d l y this t e r m

was o b s c u r e even f o r G r e e k readers i n later a n t i q u i t y .

We have

2 5

the w o r d o f H e r o d o t u s t h a t t h e I o n i a n s s t i l l called b o o k s diphtherai,

papyrus

s k i n s , as this w o r d h a d b e c o m e established t o

designate b o o k s i n the b e g i n n i n g s o f literacy. F o r c o n f i r m a t i o n even m o r e a n c i e n t e v i d e n c e has c o m e u p : I n s i x t h - c e n t u r y b u s i ness letters f r o m t h e M i l e s i a n c o l o n y O l b i a , diphtherion

as t h e

" m a s t e r b o o k " is seen t o c o n t r a s t w i t h single lead sheets used as letters, molibdion.

26

T h u s i t is h a r d l y a c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t , i n the

f i f t h c e n t u r y , oracle b o o k s are referred t o as diphtherai,

27

as these

p r o b a b l y c o n t i n u e one o f the earliest uses o f w r i t i n g . A s c o n tacts w i t h E g y p t

became m o r e f r e q u e n t , p a p y r u s ,

being

so

m u c h cheaper a n d l i g h t e r , b e c a m e the d o m i n a n t w r i t i n g m a t e r i a l . I t was called byhlos f r o m t h e P h o e n i c i a n t r a d i n g post G u b l a / B y b l o s , o r chartes, a f o r e i g n w o r d o f u n k n o w n o r i g i n . I t seems t h a t p a p y r u s b e c a m e available at t h e earliest i n the era o f P s a m m e t i c h u s , a b o u t 660, o r m o r e p r o b a b l y o n l y w h e n the Greeks settled at N a u k r a t i s a r o u n d 600. T h e b r e a k t h r o u g h t o l i t e r a c y precedes t h i s date even i n I o n i a ; this is reflected i n the l o c a l d i a lect w h i c h a d h e r e d t o t h e t e r m f o r leather s c r o l l ,

diphthera.

A k k a d i a n c u n e i f o r m side b y side w i t h A r a m a i c , P h o e n i c i a n , a n d G r e e k a l p h a b e t i c s c r i p t produces a c o n t i n u u m o f w r i t t e n c u l t u r e i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y w h i c h stretches f r o m the E u p h r a t e s t o Italy. C u n e i f o r m tablets are f o u n d n o t o n l y as far as Syria b u t

3i

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

also o n C y p r u s a n d i n Tarsos, w h e r e t h e G r e e k s w e r e d e f i n i t e l y present. A l i t t l e f a r t h e r east, at G u z a n a - T e l l H a l a f , a businessm a n w o u l d c o n d u c t his c o r r e s p o n d e n c e p a r t l y i n c u n e i f o r m , p a r t l y i n A r a m a i c , w h e r e a s an A r a m a i c - s p e a k i n g c o m m u n i t y such as H u z i r i n a - S u l t a n t e p e near H a r r a n k e p t a l i b r a r y o f c u n e i f o r m l i t e r a t u r e . T h e p r a c t i c e o f w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t s can be f o l l o w e d f r o m c u n e i f o r m t h r o u g h A r a m a i c and H e b r e w d o w n to the G r e e k s o f t h e classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s .

2 8

C a r l Wendel

has d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o c o n n e c t i o n s t h a t g o b e y o n d business d o c u m e n t s ; I t is t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e subscriptio

i n particular that

connects t h e l a y o u t o f later G r e e k b o o k s w i t h c u n e i f o r m p r a c tice, the i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f t h e w r i t e r / a u t h o r a n d the t i t l e o f t h e b o o k r i g h t at the e n d , after t h e last l i n e o f t h e t e x t ; this is a detailed and exclusive

correspondence

which

proves

that

G r e e k l i t e r a r y p r a c t i c e is u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n M e s o p o t a m i a . I t is necessary t o p o s t u l a t e t h a t A r a m a i c l e a t h e r scrolls f o r m e d the c o n n e c t i n g l i n k .

2 9

H e r e , h o w e v e r , w e are c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the c a t a s t r o p h i c state o f preservation: T h e w h o l e o f A r a m a i c and Phoenician literature has been l o s t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e perishable m a t e r i a l s o n w h i c h i t was w r i t t e n , w o o d o r leather, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f t h a t offs h o o t i n Israel w h i c h was t o d e v e l o p i n t o t h e B i b l e a n d t h u s r e m a i n e d p r e s e r v e d as a sacred t e x t . T h e r e are,

nevertheless,

t w o pieces o f e v i d e n c e t o s h o w t h a t c u n e i f o r m l i t e r a r y texts i n deed e x e r t e d i n f l u e n c e o n A r a m a i c s c r o l l - l i t e r a t u r e . T h e sole e x t a n t scraps o f an e a r l y A r a m a i c l i t e r a r y t e x t f o u n d so far are the Ahiqar

f r a g m e n t s f i o m E l e p h a n t i n e . T h e Ahiqar

novel—long

k n o w n i n its later, A r a m a i c - S y r i a n f o r m a n d i n v a r i o u s versions i n o t h e r l a n g u a g e s — i s set i n S y r i a i n the t i m e o f K i n g

Sennach-

e r i b a n d m a k e s use o f names t h a t m a y be h i s t o r i c a l . T h e piece i t s e l f w a s , i n all p r o b a b i l i t y , w r i t t e n after t h e c a t a s t r o p h e o f N i n eveh, b u t t h e A s s y r i a n p e r i o d is felt t o l o o m l a r g e i n t h e p i c t u r e . T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h i s t e x t is r e m a r k a b l e p r o o f f o r a c o n t i n u ous

tradition from

Egypt. maic,

3 1

3 0

Mesopotamia

via Syria

t o Palestine

and

A n o t h e r tale a b o u t A s h u r b a n i p a l is e x t a n t i n A r a -

a n d G i l g a m e s h appears as a m y t h i c a l g i a n t a m o n g the

r e m a i n s o f A r a m a i c leather scrolls f r o m Q u m r a n , i n a f r a g m e n t

32

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

o f t h e A r a m a i c B o o k o f H e n o c h : T h e m a i n character o f the m o s t b r i l l i a n t w o r k o f c u n e i f o r m l i t e r a t u r e has left his echo i n A r a m a i c w r i t i n g s o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . B y s o m e r o u t e o r other, t h e n a m e G i l g a m o s even p e n e t r a t e d i n t o G r e e k ture.

litera-

3 2

N o t all c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n A r a m a i c , P h o e n i c i a n , o r H e b r e w b o o k scrolls a n d G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e w e r e necessarily t h r o u g h diphtherai

made

o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C . F o r a m u c h later

c o n t a c t t h e S e p t u a g i n t is a m e m o r a b l e piece o f evidence, even t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n o f t h e Ahiqar

and

n o v e l w h i c h appears i n t h e

L i f e o f A e s o p was p r o b a b l y p r o d u c e d i n H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s .

3 3

The

m e r c h a n t s a n d c r a f t s m e n at Ischia w e r e h a r d l y m u c h c o n c e r n e d w i t h b o o k s i n t h e l i t e r a r y s e n s e — a n d yet the i n s c r i p t i o n o n the N e s t o r c u p e v i d e n t l y was m a d e b y s o m e o n e w h o k n e w w h a t a b o o k o f G r e e k verse l o o k e d l i k e . I n any event, the fashionable c l a i m t h a t t h e G r e e k s a d o p t e d o n l y t h e alphabet f r o m so-called P h o e n i c i a n s a n d created all the f u r t h e r achievements w r i t t e n culture o n their o w n

3 4

o f their

s h o u l d be a p p r o a c h e d w i t h c a u -

t i o n . W r i t i n g tablets a n d leather scrolls at the v e r y least came w i t h t h e s c r i p t a n d m o l d e d t h e t e c h n i q u e s a n d the c o n c e p t o f the b o o k . T h e r e was n o tabula rasa. So m u c h o f S e m i t i c w r i t t e n c u l t u r e has been c o m p l e t e l y l o s t t h a t general p r o b a b i l i t y w o u l d suggest r a t h e r t h a t t h e r e w e r e far m o r e n u m e r o u s , richer, and denser c o n n e c t i o n s t h a n can be d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e m e a g e r r e m a i n s available. I n fact e v e r y n e w f i n d this c e n t u r y , w h e t h e r f r o m E l e p h a n t i n e o r Q u m r a n , f r o m K a r a t e p e o r D e i r A U a , has c

b r o u g h t to light n e w and often unexpected connections. The Problem

35

oj"Loan-Words

T h e clearest a n d m o s t e n d u r i n g e v i d e n c e o f c u l t u r a l influences is e m b o d i e d i n l a n g u a g e .

What Christianity, Roman civiliza-

t i o n , a n d G r e e k i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d a r t i s t i c c u l t u r e have m e a n t f o r the West s t i l l speaks t o us f r o m o u r present l a n g u a g e . T h e d i f ferent p i c t u r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e — t h e i m p r e s s i o n of

indigenous

purity

untroubled by

external

influences—is

used, w i t h s o m e a p p a r e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n , as an a r g u m e n t against

33

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

the existence o f p r o f o u n d eastern influences: C l o s e c u l t u r a l c o n tacts w i t h the S e m i t i c East, i t is a r g u e d , w o u l d be b e t r a y e d i n an a b u n d a n c e o f f o r e i g n a n d b o r r o w e d S e m i t i c w o r d s . T h e lack o f 1

S e m i t i c b o r r o w i n g s i n G r e e k is offered as p r o o f o f t h e lack o f any s u c h c o n t a c t . B u t t h e s i t u a t i o n is n o t so clear-cut. T h e r e are at least

some

recognized Semitic loan-words i n pre-Hellenistic Greek, i n c l u d i n g such i m p o r t a n t ones as mnea/mna,

m i n a , the basic u n i t o f

w e i g h t a n d hence o f c u r r e n c y ; kanon,

m e a s u r i n g r o d , hence

r u l e r a n d s t a n d a r d i n general; deltas, w r i t i n g t a b l e t , w i t h its w a x , malthe.

T h e y p r o v i d e the clearest e v i d e n c e one c o u l d w a n t f o r

the traffic o f t r a d e , c r a f t s m e n , a n d w r i t i n g i n t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g period. G r e e k l i n g u i s t i c s has been t h e d o m a i n o f I n d o - E u r o p e a n i s t s f o r n e a r l y t w o c e n t u r i e s ; yet its success threatens t o d i s t o r t r e a l i t y . I n all t h e s t a n d a r d l e x i c o n s , t o g i v e the e t y m o l o g y o f a G r e e k w o r d means per definitionem

t o g i v e an I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t -

y m o l o g y . E v e n t h e r e m o t e s t references—say, t o A r m e n i a n o r L i t h u a n i a n — a r e f a i t h f u l l y r e c o r d e d ; possible b o r r o w i n g s f r o m the S e m i t i c , h o w e v e r , are j u d g e d u n i n t e r e s t i n g a n d e i t h e r d i s c a r d e d o r m e n t i o n e d o n l y i n passing, w i t h o u t adequate d o c u m e n t a t i o n . I t is w e l l k n o w n that a l a r g e p a r t o f the G r e e k v o c a b u l a r y lacks a n y adequate I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y ; b u t i t has become a fashion to prefer connections w i t h a putative Aegean s u b s t r a t u m o r w i t h A n a t o l i a n parallels, w h i c h i n v o l v e s d e a l i n g w i t h l a r g e l y u n k n o w n spheres, i n s t e a d o f p u r s u i n g c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e w e l l - k n o w n S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s . B e l o c h even w a n t e d t o 2

separate t h e R h o d i a n Z e u s A t a b y r i o s f r o m M o u n t A t a b y r i o n = T a b o r , the m o u n t a i n i n Palestine, i n favor o f v a g u e A n a t o l i a n r e s o n a n c e s . A n t i - S e m i t i s m was m a n i f e s t i n this case; elsewhere 3

i t was o f t e n o p e r a t i n g o n an unseen l e v e l . E v e n f i r s t - r a n k I n d o E u r o p e a n i s t s have m a d e a s t o n i s h i n g m i s j u d g m e n t s : T h e n u m b e r o f S e m i t i c l o a n - w o r d s i n t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e is " q u i t e i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l " ( D e b r u n n e r ) ; " i n d e e d t h e y d o n ' t even

reach

d o u b l e f i g u r e s " ( M e i l l e t ) . T h e y seem t o have f o r g o t t e n even the 4

fifteen S e m i t i c l e t t e r n a m e s . E m i l i e M a s s o n , i n h e r h i g h l y r e s t r i c t i v e c r i t i c a l w o r k (1967), has nevertheless established t h i r t y -

34

" W H O

A R U

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

seven d e f i n i t e a n d t w e l v e possible S e m i t i c w o r d s i n the Greek language; u s i n g less r i g i d parameters O s w a l d S z e m e r e n y i

was

able t o add a n o t h e r d o z e n ; there is n o s h o r t a g e o f f u r t h e r a t t e m p t s . S o m e o f this m a t e r i a l requires careful c h e c k i n g ; b u t a d 5

d i t i o n a l f i n d i n g s also are b y n o means t o be e x c l u d e d .

This

m u c h is c e r t a i n : T h e r e is a m a r k e d presence o f S e m i t i c l o a n w o r d s in Greek. It is t r u e t h a t d i l e t t a n t e s eager t o m a k e n e w discoveries have been g u i l t y o f carelessness a n d rash s p e c u l a t i o n i n this f i e l d , w h i l e t h e n e g a t i v e statements o f critics e n j o y t h e advantage o f s e e m i n g c a u t i o n a n d s t r i c t m e t h o d o l o g y : L i n g u i s t s can keep t o w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d l a w s o f p h o n e t i c e v o l u t i o n w i t h i n a closed syst e m , whereas b o r r o w i n g s are m o s t l y i n f e r r e d f r o m s i m i l a r i t i e s o f s o u n d s t h a t m a y be f o r t u i t o u s . B u t i t is precisely m e t h o d o l o g y w h i c h is the p r o b l e m . G r e e k language, at any rate the l i t erary Greek adapted

t h a t w e k n o w , a b s o l u t e l y rejects the use o f u n -

foreign words;

t h e y are accepted

o n l y i n perfectly

a s s i m i l a t e d f o r m as t o p h o n e t i c s and i n f l e x i o n . T h u s there can be n o m e t h o d t o discover b o r r o w e d w o r d s : T h e y i m i t a t e and g o i n t o h i d i n g , a d a p t i n g themselves t o the r o o t s a n d suffixes o f n a tive Greek.

I n g e n e r a l , l o a n - w o r d s can be established

defini-

t i v e l y o n l y o n t h e basis o f d e t a i l e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n f r o m sides. T h e w o r d hammock, 6

language,

both

derived f r o m some A m e r i c a n Indian

has b e c o m e Hängematte,

hanging mat, in German,

w h i c h l o o k s p e r f e c t l y i n d i g e n o u s — u n t i l w i t h a second o r t h i r d l o o k o n e m a y realize t h a t there is n o t , i n fact, a m a t w h i c h is h a n g i n g . P o p u l a r e t y m o l o g y plays its r o l e i n m e t a m o r p h o s i s ; n o rules o f p h o n e t i c e v o l u t i o n can be established. E v e n the c o r respondence

o f m e a n i n g is s e l d o m perfect; p a r t i a l m i s u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g s take place all t h e t i m e . T h u s the s i t u a t i o n as far as the e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C . is c o n c e r n e d appears t o be hopeless: documentation

is sparse,

limited

almost

exclusively

Greek t o the

h i g h l y specialized sphere o f G r e e k epic d i c t i o n . T h e n e i g h b o r i n g languages,

A r a m a i c a n d P h o e n i c i a n , are k n o w n m a i n l y

t h r o u g h casual i n s c r i p t i o n s ; the rest o f t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n is l o s t . F o r a c o n s c i e n t i o u s j u d g e , a c q u i t t a l b y lack o f evidence w i l l be t h e r e s u l t again a n d a g a i n — a n d yet the o u t c o m e o f m i n i m a l -

35

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

i s m , a r r i v e d at i n this f a s h i o n , m u s t be a b s o l u t e l y false, as a general

c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f p r o b a b i l i t i e s w i l l show.

The

under-

w o r l d o f l o a n - w o r d s is s t i l l t h e r e , c a m o u f l a g e d b u t i n f l u e n t i a l . We can a t t e m p t t o penetrate b e y o n d r h y m i n g games w i t h e x t e r n a l assonances b y t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t necessary c o n n e c t i o n s e i t h e r b e t w e e n n a m e s a n d concrete objects a n d s k i l l s , o r b e tween groups o f terms w h i c h belong together. I n a d d i t i o n , very specific,

particularly m u l t i s y l l a b i c phonetic units and

specific

s t r u c t u r e s o f m e a n i n g are i n d i c a t i v e o f c u l t u r a l transfer, even i f m o r e c o n t e x t c a n n o t be p r o d u c e d , because t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f coincidental h o m o n y m y becomes exceedingly small. I f we l o o k over the list o f recognized Semitic l o a n - w o r d s i n the G r e e k l a n g u a g e , a n o t h e r s t e r e o t y p e m a k e s its appearance: T h e S e m i t i c o r i g i n o f c e r t a i n t e r m s o f trade a n d t r a d e d g o o d s is gladly conceded,

7

f o l l o w i n g , i t is t o be suspected, t h a t o n c e -

prevalent n o t i o n o f " t y p i c a l l y J e w i s h " activities; w h a t remain o b l i t e r a t e d are t h e areas o f c r a f t s m a n s h i p , w a r f a r e , a n d w r i t t e n culture,

although,

given

historical circumstances,

these

are

l i k e l y t o have been n o less i m p o r t a n t . T h e list o f t r a d e d g o o d s w i t h S e m i t i c n a m e s is i m p r e s s i v e i n deed.

8

Chrysos,

cotton),

g o l d , a n d chiton,

g a r m e n t (related t o t h e w o r d

are t h e t w o i m p o r t a n t b o r r o w i n g s w h i c h are already i n

evidence i n the Mycenaean Linear B documents and w h i c h theref o r e offer p r o o f o f business traffic i n the B r o n z e A g e . k i n d s o f f a b r i c , s u c h as sindon,

othone,

bussos,

Other

s i m i l a r l y pene-

t r a t e d i n t o G r e e k as, n a t u r a l l y , d i d A r a b i a n specialties such as libanos a n d murra, f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d m y r r h , a n d o t h e r spices such as nardos,

kasia,

a n d nitron, sesame.

kannabis,

kinnamomon,

a n d p l a n t s such as krokos

The

expression

lipa

m i n e r a l s such as a n d sasamon,

aleiphesthai,

r i c h l y w i t h o i l , " m a y easily g o w i t h nitron. f o r f i n e l y g r o u n d flour, samidu, still current i n m o d e r n G r e e k .

" t o anoint 9

i n G r e e k a n d is

I n a d d i t i o n there are t h e names

o f c o n t a i n e r s a n d vessels such as kados, sipye, quent word—lekane,

and

oneself

The Akkadian word

b e c a m e semidalis 1 0

naphtha

crocus

a n d — q u i t e a fre-

corresponding to Aramaean

laqna;

here

p o p u l a r e t y m o l o g y has p r o d u c e d t h e m i r a g e o f a suffix i n c u r r e n t use i n G r e e k , -ane.

n

I f alabastron

36

b e l o n g s t o g e t h e r w i t h the

" W H O

A k k a d i a n algameshu

A R E

P U B L I C

a n d t h e H e b r a i c dlgabish,

partial correspondence;

w i t h smaragdos,

raqtu i n A k k a d i a n , pa-ra-ku and marakatam

W O R K E R S "

there is o n l y v e r y

s m a r a g d , w h i c h is bar-

i n Mycenaean,

bar'qa

in Aramaic,

i n S a n s k r i t , i t seems pointless t o t r y t o f o l l o w the

p a t h o f the w o r d t h r o u g h t h e o r i e n t a l b a z a a r s .

12

More

clear

seems t o be kalche f o r a f o r m o f p u r p l e , w h i c h p o i n t s t o craftsm a n s h i p as w e l l as t o t r a d i n g ; b y c o n t r a s t kuanos, 1 3

a blue sub-

stance used f o r c o l o u r i n g , is traced t o H i t t i t e kuwanna.

How

u

c o m p l e x i n t e r r e l a t i o n s can be is s h o w n i n t h e case o f

kaunakas,

w o o l l e n r o b e : t h e w o r d is Persian a n d passed i n t o A k k a d i a n as w e l l as i n t o G r e e k i n w h i c h the resonances o f nakos, m a y w e l l have p l a y e d a p a r t .

F r o m t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f traders w e w o r d gaulos, makellon;

16

sheepskin,

1 5

find,

next to the c o m m o n

s h i p , also t h e irreplaceable sakkos, sack; the m a r k e t , a n d above all t h e u n i t o f w e i g h t a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d ,

t h e m i n a — A k k a d i a n mana, G r e e k mnea, mna;

17

h a r d l y less i m -

p o r t a n t is t h e t e r m f o r d o w n p a y m e n t

o r deposit,

n o w attested b y a c o m m e r c i a l l e t t e r ( S E G

38, 1036)

fifth

arrabon, f r o m the

century. T h e m i n a became one o f the m o s t c o m m o n l y

used G r e e k n a m e s f o r w e i g h t a n d c u r r e n c y w i t h o u t l o s i n g t h e s t a m p o f its M e s o p o t a m i a n o r i g i n s : I t is here a n d , f o r the archaic p e r i o d , o n l y here t h a t the B a b y l o n i a n sexagesimal s y s t e m

was

a d o p t e d b y t h e G r e e k s , as s i x t y m i n a s m a k e u p one talent. T h i s t e r m f o r the h i g h e r u n i t , t h e t a l e n t (talantori),

has an ancient

G r e e k a n d i n fact I n d o - E u r o p e a n n a m e ; at least i n d i r e c t l y i t is attested i n M y c e n a e a n . Yet there is n o trace o f the m i n a and the sexagesimal s y s t e m i n t h e w e l l - k n o w n M y c e n a e a n

system

of

w e i g h t s a n d measures. T h u s w e m a y be c o n f i d e n t t h a t i n this case w e are d e a l i n g w i t h p o s t - M y c e n a e a n trading route f r o m

Carchemish

b o r r o w i n g o n the

o n the Euphrates

to

North

S y r i a , r e a c h i n g t h e L u w i a n s a n d finally the Greeks. P r e s u m a b l y t h e c o n n e c t i o n s reach f u r t h e r t h a n can s t r i c t l y be p r o v e d . T h e m i n a was, above a l l , the u n i t o f w e i g h t used for m e a s u r i n g silver. T h e r e are silver i n g o t s o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m Z i n c i r l i , m i n a s o f a p p a r e n t l y s t a n d a r d i z e d w e i g h t w h i c h bear the incised name o f K i n g B a r r a k i b o f S a m ' a l - Z i n c i r l i (732-72o);

1R

these are n o t e w o r t h y antecedents o f m i n t e d m o n e y , w h i c h came

37

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

i n t o use a b o u t o n e c e n t u r y later. T o scratch, t o incise, is harasu i n A k k a d i a n , charaxai

in Greek.

1 9

T h i s then became the t e r m for

the m i n t i n g o f G r e e k c o i n s , a l t h o u g h i n t h a t case i t was n o t actually the c o i n b u t rather the m o l d ,

n o w called

charaktet;

w h i c h was i n c i s e d d i r e c t l y . T h e t e r m scratcher seems t o p o i n t back t o a practice w h i c h precedes t h e s t r i k i n g o f coins, a practice w h i c h is s h o w n m o s t c l e a r l y i n t h e talents o f Z i n c i r l i . B o r r o w i n g o r coincidence? A k k a d i a n uses the same r o o t t o designate e n t r e n c h m e n t s f o r t i f i e d w i t h palisades, harisu, w h i l e t h e palisade w a l l o r even t h e i n d i v i d u a l palisades are called charax i n G r e e k . T h a t t h e same r o o t is used t w i c e i n t w o n o t n a t u r a l l y n e i g h b o r i n g areas o f m e a n i n g i n t w o d i f f e r e n t languages is s t r i k i n g . A n o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n w o r t h a d d i n g here is t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e use o f t h e G r e e k p r e p o s i t i o n ana i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h n u m b e r s , ana dyo,

" t w o each," seems s o m e w h a t r e m o v e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l

m e a n i n g o f this p r e p o s i t i o n , " u p w a r d s , " b u t c o r r e s p o n d s a c t l y t o the A k k a d i a n p r e p o s i t i o n ana.

20

ex-

Is t h i s a k i n d o f S y r i a n

business slang, s i m i l a r t o t h e F r e n c h a used i n a s i m i l a r sense i n G e r m a n accounting? T o r e t u r n t o w h a t is d e f i n i t e a n d g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d : I n the sphere o f t h e c r a f t s m a n the w o r d kanon appears as t h e clearest e x a m p l e o f b o r r o w i n g . O f c o u r s e t h e general w o r d f o r reed o r cane, canna, is c u r r e n t i n the w h o l e o f the M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d ; b u t t h e specialized use o f t h i s t e r m f o r m e a s u r i n g s t i c k , qan mindati i n A k k a d i a n , q'neh hammiddah

i n H e b r e w , is less n a t u r a l , b u t

so w e l l attested t h a t n o o n e w i l l h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t t h e G r e e k s h i t u p o n this use o f " r e e d s " e n t i r e l y o n t h e i r o w n .

2 1

T h e appearance

o f the t e r m i n G r e e k , h o w e v e r , means t h a t a basic t o o l a n d c o n cept o f b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n has been i m p o r t e d . I n a d d i t i o n there are t h e t e r m s titanos, l i m e , all even t h e clay b r i c k , plinthos, A k k a d i a n *Hbintu,

libittu.

24

andgypson,

2 2

plaster,

23

b u t above

w h i c h seems t o c o m e f r o m the

T h u s t h e basic t e r m o f M e s o p o t a -

m i a n a r c h i t e c t u r e has m a d e its w a y t o Greece. Just as the G e r mans a p p a r e n t l y first l e a r n t h o w t o b u i l d a s o l i d w a l l f r o m the R o m a n s , Mauer

d e r i v e d f r o m L a t i n mums,

as o p p o s e d t o a loose

p a r t i t i o n , Wand, m a d e f r o m w a n d s , so the Greeks l e a r n t the art o f b u i l d i n g w a l l s t o m e a s u r e f r o m b r i c k s , l i m e , a n d plaster f r o m

38

" W H O

A R E

P U B L I C

W O R K E R S "

the eastern c r a f t s m e n . E v e n the w o r d f o r axe, axine, w i t h A k k a d i a n hassinnu;

25

coincides

a n d t h a t w o r d f o r b o o t h , barracks, o r

tent w h i c h was t o have a b r i l l i a n t career,

skana/skene—hence

scene—is m o s t p r o b a b l y an A s s y r i a n - A r a m a i c maskanu the m o s t c o m m o n r o o t sakanu,

from

2b

" t o set u p " ; w h e t h e r t h e w o r d

was i n t r o d u c e d i n the sphere o f t h e c r a f t s m a n o r t h e soldier r e m a i n s i n q u e s t i o n . A s t o c r a f t s m e n , the characteristic expression "sons o f c r a f t s m e n " c o n s t i t u t e s a n o t h e r c o m m o n e l e m e n t . also possible craftsman,

t h a t t h e n o b l e - s o u n d i n g w o r d cheironax

literally " l o r d

o f hands,"

being translated f r o m H i t t i t e .

2 8

27

I t is

f o r the

is b o r r o w e d i n d i r e c t l y ,

T h e n a m e solos f o r the m e t a l i n -

got points in a similar direction, to "Late Hittites" o f C i l i c i a .

2 9

T h u s i n t h e sphere o f c r a f t s m a n s h i p a p i c t u r e arises even f r o m l i n g u i s t i c data w h i c h ties i n w i t h the a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y

demon-

strable i n f l u x o f o r i e n t a l skills a n d p r o d u c t s i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . F o r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f o r i e n t a l i c o n o g r a p h y o n e s h o u l d bear i n m i n d t h a t n o t o n l y the l i o n — l i s — b e a r s a S e m i t i c n a m e , b u t 3 0

also t h e b u l l — t a u r o s — h a s a clear S e m i t i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . the e x a m p l e plinthos-libittu

31

Still

shows h o w m u c h transformation,

even b o w d l e r i z a t i o n can o c c u r w i t h l o a n - w o r d s : I t is the o b j e c t r a t h e r t h a n t h e p h o n e t i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w h i c h makes the b o r r o w i n g p l a u s i b l e . M u c h r e m a i n s i n the gray area o f the u n p r o v able, especially as t h e t e c h n i c a l v o c a b u l a r y o f early c r a f t s m e n is o n l y p a t c h i l y k n o w n t o us even i n G r e e k . T h e same is t r u e o f a n o t h e r area i n w h i c h there w e r e p r o l o n g e d a n d close contacts: the m i l i t a r y sphere o f mercenaries. I n the p e r t i n e n t v o c a b u l a r y there are a n u m b e r o f suggestive resonances, b u t n o n e o f the s u p p o s e d b o r r o w e d w o r d s has m e t w i t h general r e c o g n i t i o n . O n e c o u l d n a m e the w o r d f o r s c i m i t a r , harpe,

n e x t t o t h e A r a m a i c harba, s w o r d ;

l o o t e d w e a p o n a n d sylan w i t h machessasthai,

for l o o t i n g ,

3 3

3 2

o r perhaps skylon

o r even macha,

for

battle,

" t o f i g h t , " c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e general

Se-

m i t i c w o r d f o r " t o h i t , " mahasu i n A k k a d i a n , t o g e t h e r w i t h A r a m a i c maha, b a t t l e : T h e h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r f o r m a t i o n o f t h e r o o t , i r r e g u l a r f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f the G r e e k , c o u l d i n d i c a t e external influences.

34

I n a d d i t i o n the G r e e k w a r c r y alala c o u l d be

c a t e g o r i z e d w i t h the c o r r e s p o n d i n g A k k a d i a n c r y o f

39

alala—and

T H E


f i n a l l y even w i t h H a l l e l u j a h .

3 5

R E V O L U T I O N

T h e s e are serious p o s s i b i l i t i e s , b u t

t h e y w i l l g e n e r a l l y m e e t w i t h d e r i s i o n ; f o r m a n y i t w o u l d be unacceptable t o t h i n k o f H e l l e n i c w a r r i o r s d e p e n d i n g o n S e m i t i c p r o t o t y p e s even i n t h e i r l a n g u a g e . S t i l l , f r o m a h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t o f view, the m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f the Assyrians preceded the Greek polis,

a n d , as far as t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f w e a p o n r y is c o n c e r n e d , i n

p a r t i c u l a r t h e h o p l i t e s h i e l d , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e East is o b vious.

3 6

T h e search f o r o r i e n t a l b o r r o w i n g s i n n a m e s f r o m m y t h stands, ground.

3 7

as is t o be e x p e c t e d ,

Greek

o n particularly uncertain

G r e a t c a u t i o n s h o u l d also be e x e r c i s e d w i t h t h e t e r -

m i n o l o g y o f r i t u a l practice. References t o possible b o r r o w i n g s i n t h i s f i e l d w i l l be g i v e n i n t h e n e x t chapter as s u g g e s t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , f o r the sake o f i l l u s t r a t i o n , as i t w e r e ; t h e y c a n n o t be used as i n d e p e n d e n t a r g u m e n t s .

3 8

t i o n s h i p s , such as G r e e k pallake,

c o n c u b i n e , n e x t t o H e b r e w pi-

Idgds, A r a m a i c palqta.

39

T h e r e r e m a i n unclear

rela-

I n a n y case, the k i n d o f m i n i m a l i s m t h a t

rejects a l l c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e S e m i t i c w h i c h are n o t c r y s t a l clear r e m a i n s , o n t h e w h o l e , t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y o f possible h y potheses.

40

C H A P T E R

"A

T W O

SEER O R A

HEALER"

Magic and Medicine from East to West

"Craftsmen

of the Sacred":

Mobility

and Family

Structure

Seers a n d d o c t o r s are t h e first e n u m e r a t e d b y H o m e r as m i g r a n t "craftsmen,"

i n d i v i d u a l s w h o m a c o m m u n i t y w o u l d be c o n -

cerned t o a t t r a c t . T h e y are specialists o f a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d , h a v i n g t h e i r a r t — t e c h n e — w h i c h n o o n e else can master. Seers and d o c t o r s appear closely c o n n e c t e d , at least i n t h e p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g t h e " H i p p o c r a t i c " era. T h e change is d o c u m e n t e d i n the fifth-century

treatise On the Sacred Disease a t t r i b u t e d t o H i p p o c -

rates, w h i c h scorns t h e c a t h a r t i c healer i n the n a m e o f n a t u r e ; before t h a t caesura, seer a n d healer m i g h t even be i d e n t i c a l , as the c o n c e p t o f a life characterized b y i n i t i a t i o n a n d d i v i n a t i o n , telestikos

kai mantikos

bios, i n d i c a t e s .

1

A modern-day

prejudice

against all charlatans s h o u l d n o t o b s c u r e the i m p o r t a n c e i n a n cient societies o f therapies based o n r i t u a l and r e l i g i o n . E v e n t o d a y i t is h a r d l y d i s p u t e d t h a t , i n i n d i v i d u a l cases, a s t o u n d i n g success can be achieved b y such means, a n d seers w i t h a v a r i e t y o f technai e n j o y g o o d business. " H e w h o m a k e s the sacred his craft [techne]"

is the m e m o r a b l e

d e s c r i p t i o n g i v e n i n t h e D e r v e n i p a p y r u s o f p e o p l e w h o specialize i n p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i o n s . I n a s i m i l a r v e i n S t r a b o refers t o " t h e D i o n y s i a c a n d O r p h i c crafts," whereas for t h e H i p p o c r a t i c p o l e m i c i s t such a t e c h n i c i a n is r a t h e r " b a n a u s i c . "

4i

2

B u t even this

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

a u t h o r a d m i t s t h a t m i g r a n t seers a n d healers pose as bearers o f s o m e special k n o w l e d g e . I n fact successful c h a r i s m a t i c specialists b e c a m e , as t h e y can t o d a y , w i d e l y s o u g h t - a f t e r personalities; t h e y c o u l d cross f r o n t i e r s even m o r e easily a n d m o r e o f t e n t h a n o t h e r c r a f t s m e n w i t h s i m p l e r s k i l l s . B e i n g t h e m o b i l e bearers o f c r o s s - c u l t u r a l k n o w l e d g e , t h e m i g r a n t c h a r i s m a t i c s deserve p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n as t o c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t s .

3

I n fact t h e y represent

the i n t e l l e c t u a l elite o f t h e t i m e w i t h a chance t o achieve i n t e r n a t i o n a l status. T h e r e is e v i d e n c e o f t h e m o b i l i t y o f m a g i c - w i e l d i n g seers a l ready i n the ancient O r i e n t . T h e k i n g o f M o a b s u m m o n e d B i l e a m f r o m t h e E u p h r a t e s t o c o m e a n d t o curse Israel, b u t t h e s p i r i t o f G o d w h i c h c a m e u p o n the seer m a d e h i m p r o n o u n c e blessings i n s t e a d .

4

I n the A m a r n a correspondence b o t h p h y s i -

cians a n d seers are requested t o be sent, b y t h e k i n g o f U g a r i t as w e l l as b y t h e k i n g o f t h e H i t t i t e s ; one k i n g o f

Alasia-Cyprus

has need o f an " e a g l e - d i v i n e r , " a b i r d a u g u r f r o m E g y p t . Muwatallis o f Hattusa ordered a conjurer f r o m B a b y l o n .

6

5

King I n the

m o r e m a r g i n a l r e g i o n s w h e r e t h e p o w e r o f t h e k i n g s was less, the i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e seer was c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y enhanced. H e c o u l d t r a v e l freely o n his o w n i n i t i a t i v e , as is seen i n b o t h Greece a n d I s r a e l . A s was t h e case w i t h l o c a l c r a f t s m e n , free e n t e r p r i s e 7

d e v e l o p e d i n t h e G r e e k w o r l d i n p a r t i c u l a r . T h e special status a seer c o u l d achieve i n a c i t y is i m p r e s s i v e l y s h o w n i n the case o f Teisamenos,

w h o c l a i m e d descent f r o m t h e m y t h i c a l seer M e -

l a m p u s : H e c o u l d enforce his c o n d i t i o n s o n Sparta even against ancestral c u s t o m — a n d was f i n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e " v i c t o r " i n the b a t t l e o f Plataea (479 B . C . ) .

8

P l a t o , b y c o n t r a s t , speaks i n tones

o f c o n t e m p t o f those " b e g g a r - p r i e s t s

and seers" w h o t e n d e r e d

t h e i r sevices " a t t h e d o o r s o f t h e r i c h " ; a n d yet he reveals t h a t t h e y c o u l d c o n v i n c e " w h o l e c i t i e s . " I n a b o u t 600 B . C . A t h e n s 9

s u m m o n e d Epimenides the C r e t a n d i v i n e r to purge the city o f the C y l o n i a n s a c r i l e g e ;

10

s i m i l a r l y after 466 Sparta s u m m o n e d

n e c r o m a n c e r s f r o m P h i g a l i a because the i n a u s p i c i o u s d e a t h o f Pausanias h a d p o l l u t e d t h e p r e c i n c t o f A t h e n a .

1 1

Already around

670 Thaletas o f G o r t y n h a d d e l i v e r e d Sparta f r o m a p l a g u e .

1 2

H i s teacher O n o m a k r i t o s the L o k r i a n , w e are t o l d , h a d w a n -

42

" A

S E E R

O R

A

H E A L E R "

dered as far as C r e t e , " s t a y i n g there o n a c c o u n t o f his m a n t i c c r a f t " — t h e t e r m f o r a t e m p o r a r y s o j o u r n , epidemia, 1 3

typically

used o f m i g r a n t p h y s i c i a n s , can e q u a l l y be a p p l i e d t o seers. A c c o r d i n g t o P l a t o , D i o t i m a came t o A t h e n s f r o m M a n t i n e a a n d , " f o r those w h o m a d e sacrifices as she d i r e c t e d , she achieved a delay o f the a d v e n t o f t h e p l a g u e f o r t e n y e a r s . "

I n the p u r i f i -

14

c a t i o n p o e m o f E m p e d o c l e s t h e m i g r a n t life o f the seer is g i v e n a basic e x i s t e n t i a l d i m e n s i o n : " B a n i s h e d

from

t h e gods

and

w a n d e r i n g a b o u t , " t h i s is E m p e d o c l e s ' o w n s i t u a t i o n , a n d j u s t f o r t h i s reason he can pose as a g o d .

1 5

E v e r y o n e w h o chose t o take u p a career o f i n i t i a t i o n a n d d i v i n a t i o n d i d so o n his o w n a c c o u n t a n d at his o w n r i s k . T h e r e was n o m o n a s t i c i s m , there w e r e n o r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s . A n d yet these p e o p l e e n j o y e d a c e r t a i n status r e c o g n i z e d b y t r a d i t i o n ; t h e y also c l a i m e d t o r e l y o n s o m e d e f i n i t e

filiation

o f doctrine

o r t e c h n i q u e : E a c h o f t h e m i g r a n t charismatics has his " f a t h e r , " be i t his n a t u r a l father o r his teacher w h o , t h r o u g h t h e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p , has m a d e h i m his s o n , i n d e e d , w h o o f t e n f o r m a l l y a d o p t e d h i m . G r e e k seers t e n d t o present themselves i n f a m i l y groups. T h e m o s t famous were the M e l a m p o d i d a e , to w h o m T e i s a m e n o s was r e l a t e d .

1 6

T h e I a m i d a e f r o m O l y m p i a and the

K l y t i a d a e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e m w e r e n o less p r o u d o f t h e i r a n cestry, a n d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s lasted f o r centuries. T h e i n K a r i a , t o o , w e r e a " m a n t i c f a m i l y " (genos)."

Telmissians

Even more en-

d u r i n g was t h e success o f t h e p r i e s t - f a m i l i e s i n Eleusis, t h e E u m o l p i d a e a n d t h e K e r y k e s , w h o o f f i c i a t e d f o r a b o u t one m i l l e n n i u m u n t i l the mysteries were finally o u t l a w e d b y the C h r i s t i a n emperor.

1 8

I t was possible f o r a m e m b e r o f t h e f a m i l y t o t u r n t o

t r a v e l l i n g a n d t o b e c o m e successful i n f o r e i g n parts as a specialist i n sacred m a t t e r s , as T i m o t h e o s d i d w i t h t h e first P t o l e m y i n Alexandria.

1 9

B u t w e see f a m i l y lines d e v e l o p i n g even o u t s i d e

the established

clans.

speech Aiginetikos seer—"Praised

A

f e w details are s u p p l i e d b y t h e t r i a l

o f Isocrates:

20

Polemainetos

t h e successful

i n War," a telling n a m e ? — h i m s e l f

childless,

chose T h r a s y l l o s t o be his successor a n d b e q u e a t h e d h i m his " a r t , " his b o o k s , a n d his m o n e y . T h r a s y l l o s " m a d e use o f the a r t , " b e c a m e v e r y h i g h l y r e g a r d e d , a n d amassed such a large

43

T H E

fortune


R E V O L U T I O N

t h a t the c h i l d r e n f r o m his v a r i o u s m a r r i a g e s c o n t i n u e d

t o l i t i g a t e over i t l o n g after his d e a t h . H e h a d m a r r i e d i n t o a n o b l e f a m i l y o n S i p h n o s , a n d t h i s was a p p a r e n t l y t h e e n d o f t h e seer t r a d i t i o n i n his l i n e . B u t s u c h an art c o u l d be r e v i v e d w h e n necessary: T h e m o t h e r o f A e s c h i n e s t h e o r a t o r , c a r i c a t u r e d b y his b i t t e r e n e m y D e m o s t h e n e s as a w i t c h l i k e priestess o f arcane m y s t e r i e s , was, a c c o r d i n g t o an i n s c r i p t i o n , descended f r o m a f a m i l y o f seers i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f A m p h i a r a o s ; b o t h father a n d b r o t h e r s w e r e p r a c t i c i n g seers, and e v i d e n t l y she h e r s e l f d i d w h a t she c o u l d t o s u p p o r t t h e f a m i l y f i n a n c i a l l y t h r o u g h her special " c r a f t . "

2 1

A decree o f K i n g P t o l e m y P h i l o p a t o r a r o u n d

210 B . C . s u m m o n e d a l l those w h o p r a c t i c e d t h e D i o n y s i a c m y s teries i n E g y p t t o r e g i s t e r i n A l e x a n d r i a a n d t o declare

"from

w h o m t h e y have received t h e sacred t h i n g s , u p t o three g e n e r a tions."

2 2

We see t h a t a p r a c t i t i o n e r o f t h e telestic craft n o t o n l y

h a d t o l e g i t i m a t e h i m s e l f b y g i v i n g t h e n a m e o f his i m m e d i a t e teacher, b u t also h a d t o k n o w w h o his s p i r i t u a l g r a n d f a t h e r and g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r w e r e . O n e m a y also c o m p a r e t h e fact t h a t t h e c i t y M a g n e s i a o n t h e M a e a n d e r s u m m o n e d three maenads f r o m T h e b e s , f r o m t h e f a m i l y o f I n o — t h a t is, a c c o r d i n g t o m y t h , t h e o r i g i n a l maenads w h o h a d t e n d e d D i o n y s u s — t o o r g a n i z e t h e new Dionysian mysteries.

2 3

T h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t secret k n o w l e d g e be passed o n o n l y t o an actual s o n appears i n a l c h e m i c a l w r i t i n g s a n d i n t h e m a g i c a l papyri.

2 4

H o w e v e r , t h i s m a n d a t e already a p p l i e d t o t h e o r g a n i -

z a t i o n s o f t h e e a r l y G r e e k p h y s i c i a n s . B e s t k n o w n is the " f a m i l y " o f the Asclepiads,

25

a l t h o u g h i t was h a r d l y u n i q u e . T h e fa-

m o u s H i p p o c r a t i c O a t h has o b l i g a t i o n s f o r t h e p u p i l w h i c h are the e q u i v a l e n t o f a de facto a d o p t i o n .

2 6

N o less s i g n i f i c a n t l y , the

H i p p o c r a t i c nomos m a k e s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the k n o w l e d g e an i n i t i a t i o n i n t o m y s t e r i e s : " H o l y t h i n g s are s h o w n t o h o l y m e n ; s u c h t h i n g s are n o t p e r m i t t e d f o r t h e p r o f a n e u n t i l t h e y are i n i t i a t e d t h r o u g h t h e rites o f k n o w l e d g e . "

2 7

Precisely t h i s c o n n e c t i o n o f sacred s k i l l s w i t h f a m i l y t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e m a n d a t e o f e s o t e r i c i s m can already be f o u n d i n c u n e i f o r m documents.

These c o n t a i n extensive i n f o r m a t i o n

about

m a n y k i n d s o f seers a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f m a g i c . E v e n i n the o r -

44

" A

S E E R

OR

A

H E A L E R "

d i n a r y crafts the s o n takes o v e r the art f r o m the father so that the t r u e c r a f t s m a n (mar ummani);

is called t h e " s o n o f the master

craftsman"

the C o d e x H a m m u r a p i makes the l e a r n i n g o f a

craft a de facto a d o p t i o n .

2 8

O n the T y s k i e w i c z b o w l f o u n d i n

Italy, P h o e n i c i a n artists s i g n as "sons o f the f o u n d r y m e n . " respondingly, 3 0

Cor-

a t r u e seer is a " s o n o f a seer"; i n his i n c a n t a t i o n

he presents h i m s e l f as " t h e k n o w i n g o n e , craftsman."

2 9

" T h e secrets o f asipu-zvt,

son o f the master

the k n o w i n g one shall

s h o w t h e m t o the k n o w i n g one; he w h o does n o t k n o w does n o t see t h e m ; t o y o u r son w h o m y o u l o v e , m a k e h i m p r o n o u n c e the n a m e o f g o d A s a l l u h i a n d g o d N i n u r t a , a n d s h o w h i m " : this is the p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r the t r a d i t i o n o f esoteric w i s d o m i n i n c a n tation texts;

31

or, i n o t h e r w o r d s : " T h e w i s e one makes his son

. . . take the o a t h ; he m a k e s h i m l e a r n . "

3 2

T h u s the

practice o f t a k i n g an o a t h t o ensure t h a t k n o w l e d g e

peculiar remains

w i t h i n the f a m i l y is c o m m o n t o the B a b y l o n i a n m a g i c i a n s a n d t o the H i p p o c r a t i c s . D i o d o r u s r e p o r t s t h a t w i t h the Chaldaeans, t o o , the secret art o f a s t r o l o g y is r e g u l a r l y a c q u i r e d b y the son f r o m the f a t h e r .

33

A s i m i l a r craft is f o u n d i n the West i n w h i c h the

father-son

l i n e was p r e s e r v e d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r zeal even w h e n s p r e a d i n g t o f o r e i g n areas, a n d this was p a r t o f its success: t h a t o f E t r u s c a n haruspices.

I n R o m e this art was always left t o the specialists

34

f r o m n e i g h b o r i n g E t r u r i a . Tacitus states e x p r e s s l y that the n o b l e E t r u s c a n families reserved t h i s k n o w l e d g e

f o r themselves and

passed i t o n o n l y w i t h i n the f a m i l y ; already C i c e r o takes t h i s for granted.

3 5

I t c a n n o t s e r i o u s l y be d o u b t e d , even i n the absence o f

d i r e c t d o c u m e n t a t i o n , t h a t t h i s practice goes back t o the great p e r i o d o f E t r u r i a — t h a t is, back t o the archaic p e r i o d . A c c o r d i n g t o the R o m a n h i s t o r i a n s , the haruspices

officiated even i n the age

o f the k i n g s ; t h e y t e l l h o w A t t u s N a v i u s t o o k an w i t h the E t r u s c a n s .

36

apprenticeship

T h i s u l t i m a t e l y leads back t o the o r i e n t a l -

izing period o f Etruria. I t is t r u e t h a t such f a m i l y - b a s e d practice can c o m e i n t o b e i n g i n m a n y places a n d cultures w i t h o u t contacts o r dependence. Similar

ties

within

the

"family"

are

reported

for

Egyptian

priests as w e l l as f o r I r a n i a n magi b u t m a y also easily be f o u n d

45

T H E

elsewhere.

37


R E V O L U T I O N

N e v e r t h e l e s s there is a l i n g u i s t i c p e c u l i a r i t y t h a t a p -

pears t o p o i n t t o a n a r r o w e r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n S e m i t i c a n d G r e e k usage: I n t h e r e a l m o f c r a f t s m e n a n d o f seers, o f healers a n d p h y s i c i a n s , t h e r e appears i n A k k a d i a n , P h o e n i c i a n , a n d H e b r e w o n the one hand and i n Greek o n the other, the expression " s o n s o f . . ." t o designate t h e c o l l e c t i v e g r o u p : p i u s " b u t also " s o n s o f p a i n t e r s " i n P l a t o ;

3 9

3 8

"sons o f Ascle-

"sons o f p h i l o s o -

p h e r s " b e c a m e a c o m m o n , s l i g h t l y i r o n i c e x p r e s s i o n later o n . T h a t the agreement between the Semitic and the Greek

idio-

m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n is n o t j u s t n a t u r a l b u t s i g n i f i c a n t can be m e a s u r e d b y t h e fact t h a t an e x p r e s s i o n

such as " t h e c h i l d r e n o f

I s r a e l " w i l l s t i l l be r e c o g n i z a b l e as a S e m i t i s m . I t is t r u e t h a t w e also f i n d " s o n s o f t h e A c h a e a n s " i n H o m e r , hence also "sons o f the L y d i a n s " a n d s i m i l a r t e r m s i n H e r o d o t u s a n d later t o d e s i g nate n a t i o n s . T h i s t o o is f u l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o eastern p r a c t i c e . T h e Christian Gnostics b o r r o w e d a corresponding afresh f r o m t h e S e m i t i c s i d e .

40

expression

We have m u c h less d i r e c t e v i -

41

dence f o r t h e earlier p e r i o d s ; b u t t h e general s i t u a t i o n s t r e n g t h ens t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f c u l t u r a l transfer even at t h a t t i m e . Hepatoscopy T h a t the E t r u s c a n disciplina

o f t a k i n g o m e n s f r o m l i v e r inspec-

t i o n (hepatoscopy,

s h o w s r e m a r k a b l y close c o r r e s p o n -

haruspicina)

dence t o t h e f o r m o f d i v i n a t i o n d e v e l o p e d i n M e s o p o t a m i a a n d t h a t this can best be e x p l a i n e d as t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a " s c h o o l " f r o m B a b y l o n t o E t r u r i a has been established since t h e d e c i pherment o f cuneiform.

1

However,

this correspondence

has

b a r e l y been discussed w i t h i n t h e general f r a m e w o r k o f a c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e . T h e r e are i n d e e d specific p r o b l e m s o f c o m p a r i s o n even here: T h e c u n e i f o r m m a t e r i a l is o v e r a b u n d a n t , b u t m u c h o f i t s t i l l lacks d e f i n i t i v e p u b l i c a t i o n . T h e E t r u s c a n m a t e r i a l , o n 2

the o t h e r h a n d , is l o s t a n d can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n l y piecemeal f r o m L a t i n and Greek texts. T h e correspondence between E t r u s can a n d A s s y r i a n h e p a t o s c o p y

became e v i d e n t as s o o n as t h e

E t r u s c a n b r o n z e l i v e r f o u n d at Piacenza was c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e 3

A s s y r i a n clay m o d e l o f a l i v e r i n t h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m ( F i g u r e 3 ) ;

46

4

A

S E E R

OR

A

H E A L E R "

Figure 3. TOP: Liver model in clay, with cuneiform inscription, from Mesopotamia, eighteenth century B. C. B O T T O M : Liver model in bronze, with Etruscan inscription, from Piacenza, third century B. C.

47

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

f u r t h e r e x a m p l e s have s u b s e q u e n t l y c o m e t o l i g h t . T h e a g e - o l d practice o f a n i m a l s l a u g h t e r b r i n g s w i t h i t m a n y

unforeseeable

a n d u n c a n n y details; t h e l i v e r i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h its c o m p l i c a t e d a n d c h a n g i n g f o r m , seems t o i n v i t e a t t e m p t s at o r a c u l a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F o r t h i s reason t h e d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o r i e n t a l a n d E t r u s c a n l o r e has been b r o u g h t i n t o d o u b t a g a i n .

5

And

yet t o b u i l d a s y s t e m s p e c i f i c a l l y o n t h e s l a u g h t e r o f sheep, t o m a n u f a c t u r e d e m o n s t r a t i o n m o d e l s o f sheep l i v e r s f r o m

clay

a n d m e t a l a n d t o p r o v i d e t h e m w i t h i n s c r i p t i o n s f o r t h e sake o f e x p l a n a t i o n , is s o m e t h i n g p e c u l i a r f o u n d precisely

along the

c o r r i d o r f r o m the Euphrates via Syria and C y p r u s to E t r u r i a . I t can even be s h o w n t h a t b o t h t h e A s s y r i a n a n d t h e models diverge f r o m nature i n a similar way;

6

Etruscan

t h a t is, t h e y are

derived n o t directly f r o m observation but f r o m c o m m o n traditional lore. M o d e l s o f l i v e r s are t h e c o n c r e t e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r the d i f f u s i o n o f M e s o p o t a m i a n hepatoscopy.

Besides M e s o p o -

t a m i a such m o d e l s have been f o u n d since t h e B r o n z e A g e w i t h the H i t t i t e s o f A s i a M i n o r ; i n A l a l a k h , T e l l el H a j j , a n d U g a r i t i n S y r i a ; i n H a z o r a n d M e g i d d o i n Palestine; a n d also o n

Cy-

p r u s . A s s y r i a n h e p a t o s c o p y was p r a c t i c e d at Tarsos i n C i l i c i a i n the t i m e o f t h e A s s y r i a n s .

7

B y contrast, the Etruscan

examples,

so far as is k n o w n , date f r o m t h e t h i r d a n d second centuries B . C . T h u s , t h e p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h contacts i n H e l l e n i s t i c t i m e s c a n n o t be r u l e d o u t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , 8

the balance o f

p r o b a b i l i t i e s speaks against i t : A t t h a t t i m e , the g o l d e n age o f E t r u r i a lay far i n t h e past. B u t t h e i n t e r n a l t r a d i t i o n o f t h e E t r u s can disciplinae

goes b a c k t o t h e seventh c e n t u r y , as is seen f r o m

t h e i r s y s t e m o f saecula —that 9

is, t o precisely t h a t p e r i o d w h o s e

g l o r y is reflected i n so m a n y o r i e n t a l i m p o r t s . f a m i l y t r a d i t i o n o f t h e haruspices

1 0

The

esoteric

guaranteed the preservation o f

the k n o w l e d g e u n a l t e r e d . I f t h a t k n o w l e d g e ever a r r i v e d f r o m elsewhere,

i t m u s t have d o n e so at an early p e r i o d w h i c h was

s t i l l r e c e p t i v e , before t h e discipline! became

fixed.

T h i s fact is c o n f i r m e d f r o m t h e G r e e k side. I t seems t h a t h e p a t o s c o p y h a d n o place i n the o l d e r strata o f H o m e r i c epic, b u t i t m a k e s its appearance i n t h e

final 48

v e r s i o n w e have, d a t i n g t o

A

S E E R

OR

A

H E A L E R

a r o u n d 700 B . C . : C a l c h a s , A g a m e m n o n ' s seer, is t h e best o f t h e " b i r d - d i v i n e r s , " a n d b y v i r t u e o f t h i s art he has " l e d " t h e a r m y . " B u t a " s a c r i f i c e - d i v i n e r " (thyoskoos) f o u r t h b o o k o f t h e Iliad

is m e n t i o n e d i n the t w e n t y -

a n d has his r o l e i n t h e Odyssey.

Of

12

course there are v a r i o u s w a y s t o practice d i v i n a t i o n at sacrifice, b u t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e l i v e r is b y far t h e m o s t p r e d o m i n a n t ; the n a m e o f t h e E t r u s c a n s , from

thyoskoos

by

Greek

T u s c i , was s u b s e q u e n t l y speculation.

1 3

Greek

derived

iconography

s h o w s t h e seer e x a m i n i n g the l i v e r f r o m a b o u t 530 B . C . ;

1 4

after

the Persian Wars G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e has h e p a t o s c o p y f u l l y d e v e l o p e d as the d o m i n a n t f o r m o f d i v i n a t i o n . F r o m P l a t o w e learn that h e p a t o s c o p y e n j o y e d greater prestige t h a n b i r d a u g u r y .

1 5

I t is i n t e r e s t i n g e n o u g h t h a t there is a special t r a d i t i o n w h i c h p o i n t s t o C i l i c i a a n d C y p r u s : T h e priest clan o f t h e T a m i r a d a e at Paphos c l a i m e d t o have b r o u g h t this art w i t h t h e m f r o m C i l i c i a , a n d t o have passed i t o n t o t h e C i n y r a d a e t h e r e .

1 6

W i t h the

oracle priests o f C a r i a n Telmessos l i v e r a u g u r y e n j o y e d a special status;

17

this t o o m a y p o i n t t o t h a t e p o c h w h e n C a r i a n m e r c e n -

aries w e n t t o t h e O r i e n t , j u s t as Greeks w o u l d d o s o o n after them. F o r a l l w e k n o w , l i v e r m o d e l s d i d n o t get as far as Greece itself. B u t a n o t h e r c u r i o u s o b j e c t related t o t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f entrails is the " H u m b a b a face," a g r o t e s q u e h u m a n visage that can be m a d e e n t i r e l y f r o m l e n g t h s o f i n t e s t i n e .

1 8

I t is f a m i l i a r

f r o m finds, m a d e i n M e s o p o t a m i a , b u t a characteristic e x a m p l e has also been u n e a r t h e d at t h e a c r o p o l i s o f G o r t y n , i n a s a n c t u a r y w h e r e t h e presence o f o r i e n t a l c r a f t s m e n a n d seers i n the e i g h t h c e n t u r y is e v i d e n t f r o m the a r c h i t e c t u r e as w e l l as f r o m the relics o f f o u n d a t i o n s a c r i f i c e s .

19

T h e H u m b a b a face is also

i m i t a t e d i n s o m e o f the g r o t e s q u e masks f r o m t h e O r t h e i a sanct u a r y at Sparta, c o n f i r m i n g t h e spread o f p a r a p h e r n a l i a o f t h e eastern art o f d i v i n a t i o n t o the West. W h a t is m o r e , t h e r e is a r e m a r k a b l e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the B a b y l o n i a n a n d t h e w e s t e r n t e r m i n o l o g y o f hepatoscopy. T h e E t r u s c a n l a n g u a g e has been l o s t , so f o r us, G r e e k a n d L a t i n m u s t take its place. T h e systems are n o t e x a c t l y i d e n t i c a l : T h e r e is a s t r i c t o r d e r o f e x a m i n a t i o n o f t e n parts o f the l i v e r i n the

49

T H E


Assyrian s c h o o l

2 0

R E V O L U T I O N

w h i c h has n o p a r a l l e l i n t h e West. H o w e v e r , a

w h o l e s t r i n g o f Greek terms looks like a translation f r o m the A k k a d i a n . H e r e as t h e r e , the l i v e r has a " g a t e , " a " h e a d , " a " p a t h , " and a " r i v e r . "

2 1

I f o n e l o o k s at t h e n a m i n g o f t h e v a r i -

o u s l y shaped lobes o f t h e l i v e r as a k i n d o f R o h r s c h a c h test, the m o s t divergent projections and interpretations m i g h t come to the fore: T h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n East a n d West can h a r d l y be a c c i d e n t a l . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is a special b i n a r y l o g i c i n the s y s t e m w h i c h can be s h o w n t o exist i n t h e A k k a d i a n as w e l l as i n t h e G r e e k , a n d above all i n t h e E t r u s c a n - L a t i n b r a n c h o f t h e a n d " h o s t i l e " sections

o f the

l i v e r a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e i m p o r t o f the o b s e r v a t i o n s

science: T h e r e are " a u s p i c i o u s "

alters:

w h a t is n o r m a l is g o o d i n t h e a u s p i c i o u s s e c t i o n a n d d a n g e r o u s i n t h e h o s t i l e s e c t i o n ; m a l f o r m a t i o n i n the h o s t i l e section is g o o d , and vice v e r s a .

22

Less t e l l i n g p r o o f s f o r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s

are general i m a g i n a t i v e associations, such as a m i s s i n g indicating

catastrophe

o f leader,

king,

or

"head,"

country; or

two

" h e a d s " i n d i c a t i n g t w o r i v a l p o w e r s . E v e n t h i s p a r a l l e l connects the factual M e s o p o t a m i a n r e p o r t s t o fantastic scenes e l a b o r a t e d by Roman

poets.

2 3

W h a t w o u l d seem t o be t h e s t r o n g e s t a r g u m e n t f o r t h e A s s y r i a n - E t r u s c a n axis is, i n fact, t h e m o s t u n c e r t a i n : t h a t o f l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g . A l f r e d Boissier, w h o was t h e first t o w o r k s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o n B a b y l o n i a n l i v e r - o m e n t e x t s , saw that liver i n these texts was c o n s i s t e n t l y w r i t t e n w i t h the S u m e r i a n g r a m HAR;

ideo-

and he at once c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h i s was t h e e t y m o l -

o g y f o r t h e L a t i n w o r d haruspex,

t h e first p a r t o f w h i c h h a d

always defied e x p l a n a t i o n , w h i l e t h e second p a r t m u s t

mean

"seer o f " ; "seer o f l i v e r " w o u l d p e r f e c t l y m a t c h its use i n reference t o those E t r u s c a n specialists o f f i c i a t i n g i n R o m e .

2 4

T h i s is

as s u g g e s t i v e as i t is s u r p r i s i n g ; b u t serious d o u b t s m u s t r e m a i n . E v e n i f the transmission o f k n o w l e d g e f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a

to

E t r u r i a seems t o be b e y o n d d i s p u t e , there was n o t r a n s m i s s i o n o f c u n e i f o r m s c r i p t a n y w h e r e i n t h e West. I n o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n , however,

s o m e t h i n g s u c h as HAR

been p r o n o u n c e d . T h e s i g n HAR

was m o s t u n l i k e l y t o have is used as an i d e o g r a m

w h a t , i n A k k a d i a n , s h o u l d s o u n d amutu.

25

50

for

M o r e o v e r the E t r u s -

" A

S E E R

OR

A

H E A L E R "

cans, t h e actual specialists, h a d t h e i r o w n , c o m p l e t e l y different w o r d f o r this t y p e o f seer, netsvis

26

H o w s h o u l d the R o m a n s

c o m e b y a S u m e r i a n n a m e f o r s o m e t h i n g w h i c h was p r a c t i c e d b y t h e Etruscans? O n e is t h u s f o r c e d t o take Boissier's e t y m o l o g y as an e x a m p l e o f h o w a c o i n c i d e n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c h o m o n y m y can lead us astray. I t is perhaps n o less suggestive t h a t t h e s i g n w h i c h t h e seer h a d t o i n t e r p r e t is called tertu i n A k k a d i a n ; its p l u r a l , teretu,

s o u n d s r e m a r k a b l y l i k e the terata/teirata

w h i c h a seer such as Teiresias was t o d e a l .

27

with

B u t even here a

c u r i o u s c o i n c i d e n c e c a n n o t be r u l e d o u t . Cicero

w r i t e s t h a t i t is u n t h i n k a b l e that E t r u s c a n ,

Greek,

E g y p t i a n , and Punic diviners should meet for consultation and reach a c o m m o n consensus i n p r o b l e m s o f h e p a t o s c o p y ;

they

w o u l d never agree, because " t h e r e is n o t a single science f o r all o f t h e m , " b u t o n l y d i v e r g i n g sectarian v i e w s .

2 8

Skeptics c o u l d

d r a w t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e w h o l e t h i n g was nonsense; the h i s t o r i a n , h o w e v e r , f i n d s t h e clearest evidence o f c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n precisely i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s o f details t h a t seem m o s t absurd a n d u n n a t u r a l , a n d hence least l i k e l y t o be a r r i v e d at i n d e p e n d e n t l y . I t is o n l y t o be e x p e c t e d that i n d i v i d u a l a b e r r a t i o n s w i l l creep i n , a n d o f c o u r s e i n d i v i d u a l f o r m s t e n d t o adapt t h e m selves t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t . T h u s G r e e k d i v i n a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y proceeds far m o r e f r o m a visual-associative basis, w i t h o u t t h e a l m o s t s c h o l a r l y ballast o f the E t r u s c a n plina,

disci-

w h i c h , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , has preserved m o r e o f its east-

ern origins. T h e

s i m i l a r i t i e s are nevertheless i n d i c a t i v e o f a

c o m m o n source, o f s o m e h i s t o r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n w h i c h b i n d s all the i n d i v i d u a l f o r m s t o g e t h e r . T h e spread o f h e p a t o s c o p y is one o f t h e clearest e x a m p l e s o f c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t i n t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d . I t m u s t have been a case o f East-West u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h , t e c h n i c a l level. T h e m o b i l i t y o f m i g r a n t chari s m a t i c s is t h e n a t u r a l p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r this d i f f u s i o n , the i n t e r n a t i o n a l r o l e o f s o u g h t - a f t e r specialists, w h o w e r e , as far as t h e i r art was c o n c e r n e d , nevertheless b o u n d t o t h e i r father-teachers. We c a n n o t e x p e c t t o f i n d m a n y

archaeologically

identifiable

traces o f such p e o p l e , o t h e r t h a n s o m e e x c e p t i o n a l instances: a m o d e l l i v e r o r a H u m b a b a face.

5i

T H E


Still the m i g r a n t

R E V O L U T I O N

d i v i n e r s have left

their m a r k

i n Greek

m y t h o l o g y . O n e n a m e w h i c h l i n k s t h e O r i e n t a n d Greece is t h a t o f t h e seer M o p s o s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n , w h i c h was f i x e d above a l l i n t h e H e s i o d i c M e l a m p o d i a ,

2 9

he was a n e p h e w

o f Teiresias; he f i r s t f o u n d e d t h e o r a c l e o f C l a r o s a n d e v e n t u a l l y e m i g r a t e d t o C i l i c i a , w h e r e the c i t y o f M o p s u e s t i a carried his n a m e . S u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e n a m e M o p s o s appears i n a H i t t i t e r e p o r t , as Muksus;

30

i n a d d i t i o n , the f a m o u s b i l i n g u a l i n s c r i p t i o n

f r o m Karatepe i n Cilicia f r o m the eighth c e n t u r y introduces a K i n g Azitawadda from

the "house o f M o p s o s " ;

3 1

g l y p h i c L u w i a n t e x t i n d i c a t e s t h e n a m e t o be Moxos, p r e s e r v e d also i n L y d i a n t r a d i t i o n , s i o n has Mopsos

(mps).

3 2

the h i e r o a name

whereas the Phoenician ver-

H o w these t e s t i m o n i a s h o u l d be c o m -

b i n e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e real h i s t o r y o f o n e K i n g M o p s o s a n d his p r o g e n y i n A s i a M i n o r is a p r o b l e m w h i c h c a n n o t be d i s cussed here. I t suffices t o state t h a t a n a m e f r o m t h e H i t t i t e C i l i c i a n t r a d i t i o n is used i n G r e e k m y t h t o i d e n t i f y o n e o f t h e great seers w h o w a s , i n t h e G r e e k v i e w , c o n n e c t e d w i t h C i l i c i a . T h e C i l i c i a n o r i g i n s o f t h e seers o f Paphos s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n . N e x t t o M o p s o s t h e r e stands, w i t h a p u r e G r e e k n a m e , A m p h i l o c h o s , the son o f A m p h i a r a o s . M o p s o s and A m p h i l o chos t o g e t h e r are h o n o r e d as t h e f o u n d i n g heroes o f t h e f a m o u s oracle o f M a l l o s i n C i l i c i a , a place w h e r e , once m o r e , o r i e n t a l a n d G r e e k t r a d i t i o n s m e e t i n a special w a y .

3 3

I n a n y case, G r e e k

m y t h establishes a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n Greece a n d C i l i c i a p r e cisely a r o u n d t h e f i g u r e o f t h e m i g r a n t seer. N o t t o o far a w a y is Tarsos, w h e r e G r e e k c e r a m i c s as w e l l as c u n e i f o r m d o c u m e n t s w i t h d i v i n a t o r y c o n t e n t s have been f o u n d . T h e " H e s i o d i c " t e x t a b o u t M o p s o s m a y c o m e close i n t i m e t o t h e K a r a t e p e i n s c r i p t i o n , t h a t is, t o t h e A s s y r i a n p e r i o d . T h e spread o f t h e a r t o f the seer f r o m the E u p h r a t e s t o Greece a n d t h e E t r u s c a n s as i n d i c a t e d b y t h e o t h e r e v i d e n c e presents t h e p l a u s i b l e b a c k g r o u n d f o r the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e M o p s o s m y t h . I t is t r u e t h a t t h e G r e e k n a r r a t i v e has reversed t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , as the G r e e k M o p s o s is m a d e t o e m i g r a t e t o C i l i c i a , a l t h o u g h a c c o r d i n g t o the l o c a l d o c u m e n t s his " h o u s e " h a d been established t h e r e a n d n o t i n Greece. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e m y t h has M o p s o s defeat C a l -

52

" A

S E E R

O R

A

H E A L E R "

chas " t h e best b i r d a u g u r " i n a contest o f seers; the f o r e i g n o r i g i n o f t h e art is, h o w e v e r , suppressed. L e t us n o t f o r g e t t h a t a w h o l e range o f o t h e r f o r m s o f d i v i n a t i o n are c o m m o n t o the H i t t i t e a n d S e m i t i c O r i e n t a n d the Greeks; n e x t t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m a n y o t h e r p o r t e n t s ,

3 4

bird

augury played a notable role i n B a b y l o n . Different kinds o f lec a n o m a n c y also c o n s t i t u t e d a special a r t , w h e t h e r i n the p o u r i n g o f o i l o n t o w a t e r o r t h e s p r i n k l i n g o f flour o n t o l i q u i d .

3 5

"To

p o u r v i n e g a r a n d flour i n t o the same glass" a n d t o w a t c h t h e i r m o v e m e n t s is m e n t i o n e d once b y A e s c h y l u s ; F a r n e l l t o o k this t o be a clear e x a m p l e o f M e s o p o t a m i a n i n f l u e n c e .

36

Such p r a c -

tices d i d n o t , h o w e v e r , b e c o m e as p r o m i n e n t as l i v e r a u g u r y . T h e fact t h a t lekane is an A r a m a i c w o r d is p r o b a b l y j u s t a n o t h e r coincidence. Foundation

Deposits

T o m a k e o f f e r i n g s o n t h e occasion o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b u i l d ings o n the v e r y s p o t is a w i d e s p r e a d practice, w e l l k n o w n t o b o t h e t h n o l o g i s t s a n d f o l k l o r i s t s . H o w e v e r , there are c u l t u r a l l y specific f o r m s w h i c h can d e v e l o p i n t o f i x e d t r a d i t i o n s . I n the N e a r East, w h e r e t h e r e are p e r t i n e n t texts as w e l l as a r c h a e o l o g ical f i n d s , v a r i o u s f o r m s e m e r g e a c c o r d i n g t o place a n d p e r i o d . T h e r e are g u a r d i a n f i g u r e s w h i c h are i n t e r r e d u n d e r the b u i l d i n g ; t h e r e are stone tablets w i t h i n s c r i p t i o n s b u r i e d l i k e w i s e . T h e r e are also less specific sacrificial r i t u a l s i n v o l v i n g a n i m a l sacrifice a n d l i b a t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n there is t h e p r a c t i c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g t h e A s s y r i a n s , o f i n t e r r i n g valuable o b jects,

different k i n d s o f precious

m e t a l and p r e c i o u s

stones,

u n d e r t e m p l e s o r palaces. O n e r e l e v a n t r i t u a l t e x t f o r the erec1

t i o n o f a n e w h o u s e has been preserved i n H i t t i t e ; i t specifies h o w g o l d , silver, a n d b r o n z e a n d o t h e r objects are t o be d e p o s i t e d i n specific places t o t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f p r a y e r s .

2

T h e r e are c o m p a r a b l e albeit n o t i d e n t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n offerings i n t h e M i n o a n w o r l d : c o l o r e d pebbles f r o m the sea, s m a l l vessels, seals, e v e n , i n o n e case, a n i m a l bones, b u r i e d u n d e r the floor

o r t h e t h r e s h o l d o f a sacred r o o m . A d e p o s i t o f eastern 3

S3

T H E

style,


c o n s i s t i n g o f b r o n z e objects

R E V O L U T I O N

d e l i b e r a t e l y i n t e r r e d , has

c o m e to l i g h t under the Late B r o n z e A g e T e m p l e I V i n K i t i o n o n C y p r u s ; t h e e x c a v a t o r s w e r e i m m e d i a t e l y r e m i n d e d o f the M e s o p o t a m i a n p r a c t i c e , a l t h o u g h the i n h a b i t a n t s o f K i t i o n at t h a t t i m e m a y have been M y c e n a e a n

Greeks.

4

T h e n e x t f i n d , closer t o Greece p r o p e r , dates f r o m a r o u n d 800 on Crete: A family o f goldsmiths w h i c h had i m m i g r a t e d f r o m S y r i a b u r i e d a d e p o s i t o f g o l d n u g g e t s , h a l f - w o r k e d pieces, a n d o t h e r j e w e l r y i n a r e - u s e d t h o l o s t o m b at K n o s s o s , r e d e d i c a t i n g it for their o w n use. T h u s w e f i n d religious practice directly 5

i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e East a l o n g w i t h the s k i l l e d craft o f f o r e i g n specialists. From

t h e s u b s e q u e n t p e r i o d , t w o r i c h deposits

excavated

u n d e r t w o f a m o u s t e m p l e s have a t t r a c t e d a great deal o f a t t e n t i o n . O n e was f o u n d at the w a l l and p a r t l y u n d e r the w a l l o f t h e earliest t e m p l e o f A r t e m i s o n D e l o s a n d is d a t e d a r o u n d 700: Small Mycenaean

a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y valuables,

already p a r t l y

f r a g m e n t e d , h a d been i n t e r r e d t o g e t h e r ; a p i t c o n t a i n i n g s o m e a n i m a l bones a n d c h a r c o a l , traces o f sacrifice,

is closely

con-

n e c t e d . T h e o t h e r d e p o s i t , w h i c h b e l o n g s t o the t e m p l e o f A r 6

t e m i s at E p h e s o s , is p a r t i c u l a r l y r i c h , c o n s i s t i n g o f a b o u t a t h o u sand objects; i t has l o n g been f a m o u s a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l , since its date is t i e d i n w i t h t h e d a t i n g o f t h e oldest e l e c t r o n coins. o p t i o n s used t o

fluctuate

The

b e t w e e n 6 5 0 - 6 3 0 a n d 600. Yet recent

excavations y i e l d e d t h e result t h a t i t b e l o n g s t o t h e t e m p l e b u i l t b y C r o e s u s , a b o u t 560 B . C . S i m i l a r deposits o f valuables are k n o w n f r o m o n e o f t h e t e m p l e s at Perachora, f r o m t h e t e m p l e o f Poseidon Priene.

at I s t h m i a , a n d f r o m

the t e m p l e o f A t h e n a i n

7

T h e f o u n d a t i o n o f f e r i n g s w h i c h w e r e d i s c o v e r e d at t h e t e m p l e o n t h e a c r o p o l i s o f G o r t y n are s i m p l e r a n d o f a different t y p e : t w o p i t s h a d been d u g n e x t t o t h e t e m p l e w a l l i n w h i c h there w e r e the r e m a i n s o f a n i m a l bones, o f s o m e k i n d o f l i b a t i o n i n the f o r m o f a vegetable paste a n d v a r i o u s s m a l l vessels; the w h o l e h a d been c a r e f u l l y c o v e r e d w i t h stone slabs o n w h i c h a fire h a d been l i t . H e r e w e have sacrificial r i t u a l i n a f o r m f a m i l 8

iar f r o m later G r e e k a n d L a t i n texts: F i r s t , sacrifice is m a d e " i n t o

54

" A

the p i t " (bothros);

S E E R

O R

A

H E A L E R "

t h e n t h i s is covered over a n d a p e r m a n e n t

m a r k e r , a b o u n d a r y s t o n e , o r a g o d is erected above i t . A p i t 9

w i t h f o u n d a t i o n o f f e r i n g s , c a r e f u l l y covered before t h e e r e c t i o n o f the b u i l d i n g , has also been i d e n t i f i e d u n d e r one o f t h e t r e a s u r i e s — p r e v i o u s l y called T e m p l e D — i n the H e r a s a n c t u a r y o f Samos; i t is d a t e d t o 5 1 0 - 5 0 0 B . C .

1 0

I n t h e earlier case, at G o r -

t y n , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w h o excavated the t e m p l e f o u n d the arc h i t e c t u r e — d a t e d b y t h e m t o a r o u n d 8 0 0 — s i m i l a r t o Late H i t tite t e c h n i q u e s , a n d t h e y i n d i c a t e d a s i m i l a r p r o v e n i e n c e f o r t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f f e r i n g s . A n i m a l sacrifices and l i b a t i o n s are attested as c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f e r i n g s i n M e s o p o t a m i a , t o o , t h o u g h i n a less specific f o r m .

1 1

The i n t e r m e n t o f s m a l l valuables,

i n p a r t i c u l a r pieces o f

m e t a l , p r o v i d e s m o r e specific evidence o f the spread o f a M e s o p o t a m i a n p r a c t i c e , w i t h the decisive leap across the A e g e a n l i n k e d t o the e m i g r a t i o n o f c r a f t s m e n t o C r e t e a r o u n d 800. A d m i t t e d l y this p r a c t i c e w o u l d n o t have b r o u g h t m u c h o f a s p i r i t u a l w o r l d w i t h i t : n o p a n t h e o n , n o m y t h s ; the practice i t s e l f is n o t even e x p l a i n e d i n t h e eastern t e x t s .

1 2

W h a t seems t o suffice

is t h e c o n v i c t i o n , i n h e r e n t i n the act, t h a t v a l u a b l e offerings w i l l ensure t h e p e r m a n e n t a n d u n d i s t u r b e d possession a n d safety o f the b u i l d i n g . O n e t h i n g , h o w e v e r , is stated e x p l i c i t l y b y t h e eastern t e x t s : H o w e v e r m u c h the b u i l d e r m a y w i s h t o c o m e t o the f o r e , the f o u n d a t i o n succeeds " a c c o r d i n g t o the message o f the art o f the c o n j u r e r " ; t h e c h a r i s m a t i c specialist c o u l d n o t be left o u t .

1 3

O n e is l e d t o i m a g i n e t h a t , even at the b u i l d i n g i n

G o r t y n , w h e r e w o r k e r s f r o m N o r t h Syria w e r e p r o b a b l y i n v o l v e d , a n d n o less at t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t e m p l e b u i l d i n g o n D e los o r i n E p h e s o s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e masons a n d carpenters there h a d also been a c r a f t s m a n o f t h e o t h e r k i n d , a m i g r a n t seer, i n attendance.

Purification Although

the

correspondence

between

Mesopotamian

and

E t r u s c a n h e p a t o s c o p y has l o n g been a subject o f d i s c u s s i o n , the n o less s i g n i f i c a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n eastern m a g i c a n d the ca-

55

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

t h a r t i c r i t u a l s o f t h e G r e e k s have r a r e l y been c o n s i d e r e d i n d e t a i l . T h e s i t u a t i o n is p a r a l l e l , t h o u g h , insofar as t h e p r a c t i c e o f p u r i f i c a t i o n w h i c h is c o m m o n i n later p e r i o d s does n o t yet a p pear i n H o m e r - — a fact n o t i c e d already b y t h e a n c i e n t c o m m e n tators o n H o m e r . B u t t h e c y c l i c epic Aithiopis rification

narrated the p u -

o f A c h i l l e s after he h a d k i l l e d T h e r s i t e s .

1

This

is

g e n e r a l l y t a k e n t o represent a m o r e recent stage i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f G r e e k c i v i l i z a t i o n : C o n c e r n a b o u t p u r i f i c a t i o n appears t o be characteristic o f t h e archaic p e r i o d . I t is t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d 2

t h a t t h e influence o f t h e oracle o f D e l p h i was o p e r a t i v e i n this g r o w i n g c o n c e r n . Possible contacts w i t h S c y t h i a n

shamanism

have also a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n since the w o r k o f K a r l M e u l i .

3

The

r o l e o f B a b y l o n was s c r u t i n i z e d b y L e w i s R i c h a r d F a r n e l l a l o n e , w h o f o u n d such s i g n i f i c a n t differences b e t w e e n East a n d West t h a t t h e c a t h a r t i c s y s t e m o f t h e G r e e k s c o u l d n o t have been b o r r o w e d f r o m B a b y l o n ; at least F a r n e l l insisted t h a t c e r t a i n b o r r o w i n g s c o u l d n o t antedate H o m e r .

4

T h i s has h a d a s o o t h i n g

effect o n H e l l e n i s t s — a l t h o u g h o n e s h o u l d realize t h a t F a r n e l l d a t e d H o m e r t o t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e r e b y left t h e e i g h t h a n d seventh centuries o p e n t o all sorts o f " i n f l u e n c e s " ; i n d e e d i n s o m e cases he was t h e first t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i r existence. A s t o t h e sources available, t h e s i t u a t i o n is s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f hepatoscopy:

O n t h e G r e e k side w e are d e p e n d e n t o n i s o l a t e d

allusions a n d b r i e f references a n d o f t e n have t o r e l y u p o n later r e p o r t s . A k k a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e , i n c o n t r a s t , has a w h o l e c o r p u s o f m a g i c - r i t u a l t e x t s w h i c h have been k n o w n f o r a l o n g t i m e , a l t h o u g h d e f i n i t i v e e d i t i o n s are s t i l l l a c k i n g i n q u i t e a f e w cases. T h e s e are

often bilingual,

Sumerian-Akkadian

texts,

a

5

fact

w h i c h speaks f o r t h e i r age; t h e y w e r e c o l l e c t e d i n a s y s t e m a t i c w a y i n t h e l i b r a r y o f A s h u r b a n i p a l . D e r i v a t i v e s reached as far as Tarsos.

6

A m o n g t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e r i t u a l s t h e r e are t w o

m a i n t y p e s : the seer (baru),

w h o was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d i v i n a t i o n ;

a n d t h e actual m a g i c i a n - p r i e s t (asipu),

w h o s e m a i n task was t h e

h e a l i n g o f t h e s i c k . T h e l a t t e r is t h e focus o f d i s c u s s i o n here. 7

T h e c a t h a r t i c p r a c t i c e o f t h e G r e e k s appears t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f m u r d e r e r s f r o m b l o o d g u i l t : b l o o d is p u r i f i e d t h r o u g h b l o o d . T h e s t a n d a r d e x a m p l e is t h a t o f O r e s t e s , 8

56

al-

" A

S E E R

O R

A

H E A L E R "

t h o u g h A e s c h y l u s does present I x i o n as t h e o r i g i n a l p a r a d i g m .

9

I n t h e case o f O r e s t e s , A e s c h y l u s gives us m o r e g r a p h i c i n d i c a t i o n s o f h o w t h e a c t u a l p r o c e d u r e was c a r r i e d o u t : I n o r d e r t o " w a s h a w a y t h e s t a i n , " a p i g l e t m u s t be s l a u g h t e r e d i n such a w a y t h a t its b l o o d p o u r s over t h e p o l l u t e d m a n ; t h e b l o o d is then w a s h e d o f f w i t h r u n n i n g w a t e r ; i n t h i s w a y t h e p o l l u t i o n "has been d r i v e n o u t b y p i g l e t - k i l l i n g p u r i f i c a t i o n s . "

1 0

We already

k n o w f r o m t h e Iliad t h a t t h e d i r t y w a t e r (lymata) m u s t t h e n be disposed o f i n t u r n .

1 1

A n A p u l i a n b e l l krater i n t h e L o u v r e has

an i m p r e s s i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f Orestes i n s p i r e d d i r e c t l y b y t h e A e s c h y l e a n t e x t . A p o l l o h i m s e l f is h o l d i n g the p i g l e t d i r e c t l y over t h e head o f Orestes, w h o is seated; its b l o o d w i l l f l o w d i r e c t l y over his head. B u t t h e n i t can be m a d e t o disappear: G u i l t " c a n be w a s h e d a w a y . "

1 2

T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e i n B a b y l o n i a f o r this k i n d o f p u r i f i c a t i o n o f b l o o d t h r o u g h b l o o d , as F a r n e l l was r i g h t t o s t a t e .

13

How-

ever, t h e v e r y r i t u a l w i t h t h e sacrificial p i g l e t b e i n g h e l d over t h e head o f a p e r s o n , t o be s l a u g h t e r e d a n d t o d r e n c h t h e p a t i e n t w i t h b l o o d , is r e p r e s e n t e d d r a m a t i c a l l y i n a n o t h e r vase p a i n t i n g , o n a krater f o u n d at C a n i c a t t i n i ; yet t h e o b j e c t i v e i n this case is n o t t o p u r i f y a m u r d e r e r , b u t t o cure t h e d a u g h t e r s o f Proetus o f their "madness."

1 4

T h i s madness h a d been caused b y s o m e

r i t u a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n b y t h e g i r l s w h i c h varies i n d i f f e r e n t versions o f t h e m y t h ; t h e c u r e is d i r e c t e d against t h e m a n i f e s t sufferings w h i c h have r e s u l t e d f r o m i t . C o m p a r e d w i t h this even t h e case o f Orestes takes o n a d o u b l e m e a n i n g : Orestes t o o has b e c o m e m a d ; he is m a n i f e s t l y s u f f e r i n g f r o m his illness. So is i t a t o n e m e n t o r j u s t h e a l i n g t h a t has t o be p r o c u r e d b y p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t ual? T o raise t h e q u e s t i o n is t o see t h e i r r e l e v a n c e o f this d i s t i n c tion.

That

social

and physio-psychic

ills

were

n o t clearly

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n archaic societies, t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e a n d h e a l i n g can be seen t o fuse, has o f t e n been b r o u g h t o u t a n d discussed i n m o r e recent a n t h r o p o l o g y . A n offense is t h e source o f illness, illness is t h e result o f an offense, be i t i n t h e p e r s o n a l , the s o c i a l , o r t h e r e l i g i o u s sphere. E v e n i n G r e e k t h e w o r d nosos, illness, embraces b o t h , t h e p h y s i c a l a n d t h e social d i s t u r b a n c e s , ailments and sufferings.

15

T h e effect o f t h e t h e r a p y w h i c h t h e

57

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

" k n o w i n g " specialist is able t o a p p l y is n o less b r o a d . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f O r e s t e s c o u l d e q u a l l y w e l l be u n d e r s t o o d as the h e a l i n g o f an illness, even before E u r i p i d e s b r o u g h t this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n s t a g e i n his t r a g e d y Orestes.

Orestes

was

b o t h m a d a n d g u i l t y a n d h a d t o be c u r e d at b o t h levels. T h e n , h o w e v e r , t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the B a b y l o n i a n a n d the G r e e k b e c o m e s m u c h less d i s t i n c t . A b i l i n g u a l ritual text f r o m the collection " E v i l D e m o n s I l l n e s s " (Asakki

marsuti)

of

has t h e f o l l o w i n g p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r the

e x o r c i s t — i t is presented as a c o m m a n d issued f r o m t h e s k y g o d A n u t o his s o n M a r d u k : [Take] a s u c k l i n g p i g [and . . .

at] the head o f the sick m a n

[ p u t i t (?) and] take o u t its heart and above the heart o f the sick m a n [ p u t i t ] , [ s p r i n k l e ] its b l o o d on the sides o f the bed, [and] d i v i d e the p i g over his l i m b s and spread i t o n the sick m a n ; then cleanse that m a n w i t h pure water f r o m the Deep [/lp5«]

and wash h i m clean and b r i n g near h i m a censer [and]

a t o r c h , place t w i c e seven loaves c o o k e d i n the ashes against the outer door, and give the p i g as his substitute, and give the flesh and the b l o o d as his b l o o d : they [the d e m o n s ] shall take i t ; the heart w h i c h t h o u hast placed u p o n his heart, as his heart give i t : they shall take i t . [lacuna] [that the] p i g may be his substitute . . . M a y the e v i l spirit, the e v i l d e m o n stand aside! M a y the k i n d l y s p i r i t , the k i n d l y d e m o n be present!

16

T h i s r i t u a l is n o t i d e n t i c a l w i t h the o n e w e are t o envisage f o r Orestes a n d t h e P r o e t i d s f r o m t h e G r e e k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ,

but

the s i m i l a r i t y is u n d e n i a b l e :

the

t h e c o n d i t i o n o f sickness,

k n o w l e d g e a b l e specialist, t h e sacrificial p i g l e t , slaughter, c o n t a c t w i t h b l o o d , a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t cleansing w i t h water. T h e t o r c h a n d t h e incense b o w l b e l o n g t o t h e apparatus o f G r e e k p u r i f i c a t i o n priests, t o o .

1 7

W h a t is p e c u l i a r i n t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n t e x t is t h e e m p h a s i s o n s u b s t i t u t i o n , t o w h i c h w e shall r e t u r n . I n this respect i t m o s t closely resembles a r i t u a l described b y O v i d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f the R o m a n festival C a r m e n t a l i a , a r i t u a l against m a g i c a l b i r d s , striges,

said t o feed o n babies at n i g h t — t h a t is, de facto against

58

A

S E E R

O R

A

H E A L E R

children's disease. O n c e m o r e t h e sacrifice o f a s u c k l i n g p i g o c curs, p e r f o r m e d b y t h e goddess C a r m e n t a h e r s e l f as a m y t h i c a l m o d e l , w i t h t h e e x p l i c i t f o r m u l a o f s u b s t i t u t i o n : " T a k e the heart f o r the h e a r t , the i n t e s t i n e s f o r the intestines, w e g i v e this life for a better o n e . "

1 8

Is t h i s a case o f a spontaneous parallel a r i s i n g

f r o m general " e l e m e n t a r y ideas" o f the h u m a n m i n d , o r is i t s i m p l y t h e case t h a t i n t h e l o w e r r e a l m o f w i t c h e s a n d m a g i c the c u l t u r a l b a r r i e r s are m o r e p e r m e a b l e t h a n at t h e level o f h i g h e r literature? I f o n e regards Orestes as a case o f sickness

(«0505),

then sick-

ness appears p e r s o n i f i e d t o a r e m a r k a b l e degree: I t is described as an attack b y d e m o n s . T h e E r i n y e s are i m a g i n e d as beasts o f prey, " d o g s "

w h o w a n t t o suck his b l o o d , leech t h e l i f e - f o r c e

f r o m h i m . R e m a r k a b l y e n o u g h , already i n H o m e r sickness is once d e s c r i b e d as an " a t t a c k b y a hateful d e m o n . "

1 9

The magi-

cians r i d i c u l e d b y t h e a u t h o r o f t h e H i p p o c r a t i c treatise On the Sacred Disease

also speak o f attacks (ephodoi)

T h e c o n c e p t o f savage, rapacious,

o f d e m o n s o r gods.

carnivorous demons

who

cause sickness is c o m m o n i f n o t f u n d a m e n t a l i n M e s o p o t a m i a n h e a l i n g m a g i c . B u t there is also the less p e r s o n a l i z e d concept o f the curse o f m u r d e r , w h i c h has t o be e l i m i n a t e d b y a ritual i n the " w a s h

house."

2 0

I n spite o f these s i m i l a r i t i e s , h o w e v e r , i t is clear t h a t the p e c u l i a r f u n c t i o n o f a t o n e m e n t f o r m u r d e r f o r w h i c h Orestes is a m o d e l case, the s y s t e m o f p u r i f i c a t i o n c u r r e n t i n archaic Greece, is n o t j u s t s o m e B a b y l o n i a n i m p o r t . F a r n e l l was r i g h t t o t h a t e x t e n t . B u t t h i s does n o t r u l e o u t c u l t u r a l c o n n e c t i o n s ; o n the c o n t r a r y . I n M e s o p o t a m i a b l o o d g u i l t had been r e g u l a t e d b y state l a w f r o m e a r l y t i m e s , as t h e l a w codes attest; there was n o p r o b l e m left. U n a f f e c t e d b y l a w , h o w e v e r , w e r e i n d i v i d u a l sufferings, those r e c u r r i n g sicknesses s u r m i s e d t o be caused b y s o m e g u i l t w h i c h c o u l d n o t be d e f i n e d i n legal t e r m s , o r s o m e d e m o n g o i n g astray. T h i s was t h e sphere o f t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s , the p r i e s t - e x o r c i s t s . I n archaic Greece, i n fact, the c o r r e s p o n d i n g practice w o u l d n o t o n l y m e e t p r i v a t e needs o f m a n i f e s t sufferings, b u t also f i l l a v a c u u m c o v e r i n g " s o c i a l i l l n e s s " — d i s r u p t i o n o f the c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h m u r d e r , t h r o u g h the shedding

59

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

o f b l o o d . W r i t t e n l a w s w e r e t o appear o n l y g r a d u a l l y w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e polis,

a n d w e r e d i f f i c u l t t o enforce. I n t h e

m e a n t i m e m a g i c " t h e r a p y " h a d a chance t o g a i n p u b l i c s i g n i f i cance t o a degree w h i c h was u n t h i n k a b l e i n t h e sphere o f eastern g o v e r n m e n t a l bureaucracy.

T h e Greeks lacked s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d

i n s t i t u t i o n s o f m o n a r c h i c p o w e r a n d law, u n c e r t a i n t y b e i n g t h e t o u c h s t o n e o f f r e e d o m . T h u s " s i c k n e s s " m i g h t i n v o l v e an e n t i r e c i t y w h i c h needed h e a l i n g a t o n e m e n t : A f t e r t h e C y l o n i a n s a c r i lege, A t h e n s s u m m o n e d E p i m e n i d e s stored order t h r o u g h r i t u a l .

2 1

f r o m C r e t e , a n d he r e -

T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e eastern

c i v i l i z a t i o n s a n d Greece c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e specific levels o f c u l t u r e a t t a i n e d i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s . T h i s does n o t o b v i a t e i n f l u ence, transfer, o r a d o p t i o n ; b u t a n y i m p o r t w o u l d w i n a n e w f u n c t i o n a n d t h u s d e v e l o p s o m e n e w f o r m s i n its n e w c o n t e x t . T h e ritual p r a c t i c e i t s e l f as i t h a d f o r a l o n g t i m e been c o n d u c t e d b y eastern e x o r c i s t s , t h e sacrifice o f a s u c k l i n g p i g , h a r d l y h a d to change. T o keep t h e m s e l v e s " c l e a n " is an e l e m e n t a r y need o f h u m a n beings; n o w o n d e r c l e a n s i n g c e r e m o n i e s play t h e i r r o l e w o r l d w i d e i n p r o f a n e as w e l l as i n r e l i g i o u s varieties. S i m i l a r p r o c e dures a n d s i m i l a r f o r m u l a s are t o be e x p e c t e d : " B e g o n e , E v i l ! C o m e i n , W e l l b e i n g ! " is o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n e x h o r t a t i o n s . I t is s t i l l r e m a r k a b l e t h a t i t is attested b o t h i n M e s o p o t a m i a , as a c o m m o n inscription o n magical figurines, and i n Greek apotropaic r i t u a l .

2 2

I n b o t h c u l t u r e s , t o o , m e r e c o n t a c t w i t h an u n c l e a n

p e r s o n o r u n c l e a n m a t t e r is t o be feared.

" H e has c o m e

into

c o n t a c t w i t h a w o m a n o f u n c l e a n hands . . . o r he has c o m e i n t o contact w i t h

a m a n o f u n c l e a n hands

...

o r his h a n d

has

t o u c h e d o n e o f u n c l e a n b o d y " : these are s o m e o f t h e conjectures m a d e b y t h e e x o r c i s t w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h a case o f sickness. O n e s h o u l d n o t t a l k t o a m a n w h o is c a r r y i n g g u i l t , n o r eat a n d d r i n k w i t h h i m , t h e A k k a d i a n p r e s c r i p t i o n w a r n s ; t h e same w a r n i n g applies t o d e a l i n g w i t h a m u r d e r e r i n Greece: o n l y after O r e s t e s ' p u r i f i c a t i o n was " c o n t a c t w i t h o u t d a m a g e " p o s s i b l e . B r a n c h e s also are o f special use i n p u r i f i c a t i o n s ,

23

alongside

p i g l e t b l o o d , t o r c h e s , a n d w a t e r f r o m t h e sea. I n t h e A k k a d i a n p o e m J Will Praise

the Lord

of Wisdom t h e m a n c e l e b r a t i n g his

60

" A

S E E R

O R

A

H E A L E R "

healing portrays a d r e a m o f hope: " A n d i n [ m y dream] I [saw] a r e m a r k a b l e y o u n g [ m a n . . . ] h o l d i n g i n his h a n d a t a m a r i s k r o d o f p u r i f i c a t i o n . . . t h e w a t e r he was c a r r y i n g he t h r e w over m e , p r o n o u n c e d t h e l i f e - g i v i n g i n c a n t a t i o n , and r u b b e d [ m y body]," Compare

t h e l e g e n d o f the o r i g i n o f A p o l l o ' s c u l t at

D i d y m a : B r a n c h o s , t h e A p o l l o n i a n seer, freed t h e M i l e s i a n s o f the p l a g u e : " h e s p r i n k l e d t h e p e o p l e w i t h l a u r e l branches . . the p e o p l e s p o k e t h e responses"; C a l l i m a c h u s

has

Branchos

speak a f o r m u l a t w o o r t h r e e t i m e s w h i c h t h e p e o p l e d o n o t understand.

2 4

Is t h e r e a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e i n v o l v e d here? O n e

t e m p t i n g association: hranchia means g i l l s o f fish i n G r e e k ; B r a n c h i d a i is the n a m e o f t h e " f a m i l y " o f priests w h o r a n t h e sanct u a r y o f D i d y m a d o w n t o the Persian era. N o w , a characteristic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f M e s o p o t a m i a n h e a l i n g m a g i c is a m a n w i t h t h e head o f a fish, w o r n l i k e a m a s k over his head, c a r r y i n g an i n s t r u m e n t o f p u r i f i c a t i o n i n his r i g h t h a n d a n d a w a t e r b u c k e t i n his left; t h e figure can be i d e n t i f i e d as representi n g an apkallu,

a " w i s e m a n " f r o m o l d e n t i m e s . Figures o f this

k i n d d e f i n i t e l y reached n o r t h e r n S y r i a .

D i d s o m e healer b r i n g

2 5

this r e q u i s i t e as far as D i d y m a , t h u s causing the n i c k n a m e B r a n c h i d a i , " g i l l s f a m i l y , " t o be g i v e n t o his clan? A n o t h e r , drastic p u r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e is t h a t o f " w i p i n g o f f " (apomattein).

D e m o s t h e n e s uses t h e t e r m i n his i n v e c t i v e against

the m o t h e r o f A e s c h i n e s , t h e priestess o f p u r i f i c a t i o n s a n d i n i t i a t i o n s ; t h e c o m m e n t a r y says t h a t t h e p e r s o n t o be p u r i f i e d

was

plastered all over w i t h m u d a n d c h a f f w h i c h was t h e n scraped off. A " p u r i f i e r o f t h e a r m y , t h e one w h o k n o w s the t h i n g s f o r w i p i n g o f f " is m e n t i o n e d i n S o p h o c l e s .

26

generally

however,

with

f l o u r paste (Hsu),

is,

Wiping off

(kuppuru),

also a

well-

d o c u m e n t e d p r a c t i c e o f p u r i f i c a t i o n priests i n M e s o p o t a m i a .

2 7

T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the practice is reflected i n the fact t h a t t h e r o o t o f this w o r d c a m e t o m e a n p u r i f i c a t i o n i n general i n H e b r e w , even w i t h o u t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g practice: Y o m K i p p u r is the " D a y o f P u r i f i c a t i o n , " T h e practice i t s e l f l i n k s the A k k a d i a n w i t h t h e G r e e k . A p u r i f y i n g substance w h i c h is o f t e n m e n t i o n e d i n eastern texts is asphalt (kupru

i n A k k a d i a n ) ; asphaltos,

how-

ever, is also o n e o f t h e m a t e r i a l s used b y the w i t c h e s o f S o p h r o n ,

• 61

•

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

or b y M e l a m p u s i n the comic's p a r o d y .

2 8

Even m o r e surprising

is t h e use o f o n i o n s f o r p u r i f i c a t i o n . A k k a d i a n t e x t s describe the p r o c e d u r e i n d e t a i l — t h e o n i o n is peeled layer b y layer,

until

n o t h i n g is left; i n G r e e k w e f i n d j u s t the passing m e n t i o n o f the m a g i c a l o n i o n s ; o n e s o r t o f o n i o n is specifically n a m e d Epimenides the famous p u r i f i e r .

after

2 9

A n y t h i n g left over f r o m t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n m u s t be c a r e f u l l y d i s posed of: " T h e y t h r e w t h e lymata

i n t o t h e sea,"

t h e Iliad

says

(1.314). T h e B a b y l o n i a n e x o r c i s t s m a y t h r o w a w a y the w a t e r w i t h " a l l the e v i l " ;

3 0

t h e n o t h e r persons s h o u l d take care n o t t o

c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h i t . B e t t e r s t i l l t o use a p o t i n w h i c h everything, including previously manufactured magic figurines, can be securely e n c l o s e d . called apharmake the c i t i e s . "

C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , i n Greece a p o t

31

w o u l d be m a d e available for " t h o s e w h o p u r i f y

I n M e s o p o t a m i a t h e r e m a i n s , i n c l u d i n g the cinders

3 2

f r o m t h e sacrificial f i r e , are " t h r o w n o n t o a b a r r e n place," " b u r ied i n a b a n d o n e d w a s t e l a n d s , " " d e p o s i t e d i n t h e steppe u n d e r a thornbush."

3 3

T h e H i p p o c r a t i c t e x t On the Sacred Disease

reports

o n the m a g i c a l healers: " A n d t h e y h i d e the r e m a i n s o f the p u r i f i c a t i o n s p a r t l y i n the e a r t h , p a r t t h e y cast i n t o t h e sea, p a r t t h e y c a r r y a w a y t o t h e m o u n t a i n s w h e r e n o o n e can t o u c h t h e m o r step o n t h e m . "

3 4

I n M e s o p o t a m i a , p u t t i n g one's f o o t " i n s o m e

unclean w a t e r , " the residue o f s o m e p u r i f i c a t i o n c e r e m o n y ,

was

t h o u g h t t o be o n e o f t h e possible causes o f illness; i t was n o t different i n the West even i n R o m a n i m p e r i a l t i m e s : " I n w h i c h residue

from

purification

n i g h t ? " suffering

d i d y o u step

Encolpius

at the crossroads at

is asked i n P e t r o n i u s '

romance.

W i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f m u c h o l d e r R o m a n r i t u a l , the r i t u a l o f devotio,

a s u b s t i t u t e i m a g e was b u r i e d , a n d i n consequence " n o

R o m a n o f f i c i a l was a l l o w e d t o get t o t h a t p l a c e . "

35

I t w o u l d be

s t i l l b e t t e r t o let b i r d s c a r r y o f f t h e e v i l plague; this was d o n e i n Thessaly, b u t also i n t h e M o s a i c l a w .

3 6

A n o t h e r s t r i k i n g d e t a i l : E p i m e n i d e s , the m o s t f a m o u s priest o f p u r i f i c a t i o n , received a m i r a c u l o u s f o o d f r o m t h e n y m p h s w h i c h a l l o w e d h i m t o get b y w i t h o u t o r d i n a r y sustenance, a n o h u n g e r d r u g (alimon).

H e k e p t i t i n a cow's h o o f — a s 3 7

i f ordi-

n a r y c o n t a i n e r s w e r e n o t able t o h o l d i t . T h e t e x t o f an A k k a -

62

" A

S E E R

OR

d i a n e x o r c i s m prescribes: " Y o u

A

fill

H E A L E R "

a cow's h o o f w i t h water,

t h r o w i n b i t t e r c o r n m e a l , s t r i k e i t w i t h a reed i n face o f the sun g o d , y o u p o u r i t o u t : t h e dead w i l l be k e p t a w a y . "

3 8

T h e effect

is d i f f e r e n t , b u t t h e p r e s c r i p t i o n is clearly r e l a t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o the Alexander

romance, the poison o f A n t i p a t e r w h i c h b r o u g h t

a b o u t t h e d e a t h o f A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t i n B a b y l o n was c a r r i e d in a mule's h o o f .

3 9

Skeptics can s t i l l d o u b t t h e existence o f d i r e c t c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t and insist o n the p o s s i b i l i t y o f s p o n t a n e o u s parallels r i s i n g again a n d again w i t h i n g e n e r a l f o r m s o f " s u p e r s t i t i o n . " Yet i t is p r e cisely w i t h t h e n a m e E p i m e n i d e s t h a t the h i s t o r i c a l h o r i z o n o f the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d comes

i n t o play. I t is archaic

Crete

w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e G r e e k t e x t s , is the h o m e o f " c a t h a r t i c " k n o w l e d g e . E p i m e n i d e s i n p a r t i c u l a r is c o n n e c t e d w i t h the c u l t caves o f C r e t e , w i t h a cave o f Z e u s — t r a d i t i o n varies as t o w h i c h o f t h e f a m o u s caves was c o n c e r n e d — w h e r e he e x p e r i e n c e d his i n i t i a t i o n i n a sleep t h a t lasted f o r decades. H e assumes the f u n c t i o n o f i n i t i a t o r i n t u r n at t h e cave o f Z e u s o n M o u n t I d a .

4 0

If

the h i s t o r i c a l E p i m e n i d e s ever d i d seek o u t this cave he w o u l d have s t o o d face t o face w i t h t h e A s s y r i a n - s t y l e t y m p a n o n there w h i c h was p r o b a b l y m a d e f o r t h e c u l t o f Z e u s b y eastern craftsmen.

4 1

E v e n b e f o r e E p i m e n i d e s , T h a l e t a s o f G o r t y n had been

active as a c h a r i s m a t i c m u s i c i a n ; he c u r e d a p l a g u e i n S p a r t a .

42

G o r t y n was n o less a center o f o r i e n t a l i z i n g c r a f t s m a n s h i p . We are led back i n t o t h e r e a l m o f m y t h w i t h K a r m a n o r o f C r e t e , the p r i e s t w h o p u r i f i e d even A p o l l o after the g o d h a d slain the Delphic dragon.

4 3

T h e n a m e does n o t appear t o be G r e e k . I n

a n y e v e n t , C r e t e is n o t o n l y t h e ancient center o f M i n o a n c u l t u r e b u t a l s o — a f t e r C y p r u s — t h e area m o s t closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h the S e m i t i c East i n t h e g e o m e t r i c a n d early o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d . T h e r e are strange r i t u a l c o n n e c t i o n s o f A p o l l o h i m s e l f w i t h

Se-

m i t i c c u l t u r e , above all i n the celebrations o f the day o f the n e w m o o n a n d o f the seventh day o f the m o n t h .

4 4

I n this l i g h t the

a s s u m p t i o n o f p u r e c o i n c i d e n c e becomes t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y o f hypotheses. T h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s w h e t h e r l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g s can p r o v i d e k e y p r o o f f o r c u l t u r a l ties w i t h t h e East. T h e r e is l i t t l e t o

63

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R E V O L U T I O N

be g a i n e d f r o m n o n - G r e e k p r o p e r names such as K a r m a n o r o r even B r a n c h o s

and Rhakios.

4 5

I t carries m o r e w e i g h t t h a t the

r o o t kathar, t o c l e a n / t o p u r i f y , has n o I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y b u t ties i n w i t h a S e m i t i c r o o t i n t h e sphere o f p u r i f i c a t i o n : qatar, to f u m i g a t e .

O n e cleansing substance i n t h i s c o n t e x t is s u l -

4 6

p h u r : F u m i g a t i o n w i t h s u l p h u r is used i n H o m e r f o r b o t h p r a c tical a n d r i t u a l m e a n s . N o less suggestive is the s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e s o u n d o f the A k k a d i a n w o r d f o r " d i r t y , p o l l u t e d " a n d " t o s t a i n , t o p o l l u t e , " lu"u

o r luwwu,

47

t o t h e w o r d f o r t h e d i r t t o be

cleansed i n G r e e k r i t u a l , lymata o r lythron.

Here we encounter a

w o r d root without Indo-European etymology provided w i t h t w o a l t e r n a t i v e G r e e k suffixes. T h e G r e e k s w o u l d s o m e h o w sociate t h i s w o r d w i t h e i t h e r lyein, louein,

t o solve, o r r a t h e r

as-

with

t o w a s h , b u t t h e rules o f n o r m a l w o r d f o r m a t i o n d o n o t

p e r m i t t h e o n e , a n d t h e y a l l o w the o t h e r o n l y w i t h

difficulty.

T h e r e are s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e L a t i n w o r d lustrum i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p u r i f i c a t i o n s , w h i c h the R o m a n s w o u l d t e n d t o associate w i t h lux, a n d kathairein,

l i g h t . I t is t r u e t h a t b o t h w o r d g r o u p s ,

appear i n H o m e r . Kathairein

common: They

lymata

a n d katharos are q u i t e

h a d risen above the status o f f o r e i g n w o r d s .

S u c h a c l a i m w o u l d a p p l y even m o r e t o a t h i r d h o m o n y m y i n this sphere: ara m e a n s p r a y e r a n d curse; i t is C h r y s e s the areter w h o can s u m m o n u p a p l a g u e w i t h his p r a y e r o r r a t h e r curse the G r e e k s a n d b a n i s h t h e p l a g u e again. I n A k k a d i a n the w o r d " t o c u r s e " is araru;

the order given t o B i l e a m b y the k i n g o f

M o a b is, i n H e b r e w , ara!, " c u r s e ! " A G r e e k w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y have u n d e r s t o o d t h i s w o r d i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , i f n o t g r a m m a t i c a l l y t h e n at least its m e a n i n g i n c o n t e x t . W h a t creates d i f f i c u l t i e s is the fact t h a t t h e G r e e k w o r d o r i g i n a l l y h a d t h e f o r m arwa, as its d e r i v a t i v e s i n t h e v a r i o u s dialects i n d i c a t e .

48

T h i s does n o t g o

t o g e t h e r w i t h araru, w h i c h has n o w i n its r o o t . T o s u m u p , t h e r e are s u g g e s t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , b u t n o i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e p r o o f s o f l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g i n the sphere o f p u r i f i cation ceremonies.

I t w o u l d , h o w e v e r , be n o less b o l d t o d e n y

t h e i r existence a l t o g e t h e r . T h e c o n t i n u u m f r o m t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n c u l t u r e t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n is t h e r e .

64

" A

S E E R

Spirits

O R

of the Dead

A

H E A L E R "

and Black

Magic

T h e e v i l forces against w h i c h p u r i f i c a t i o n is s u p p o s e d t o assist are c o n c e i v e d o f as m a l e v o l e n t , c a r n i v o r o u s d e m o n s .

N e x t to

1

the v a r i o u s fantastical names w h i c h are i n v o k e d i n this c o n n e c t i o n , the s p i r i t o f t h e dead, etemmu, too.

2

plays an unpleasant r o l e ,

S p i r i t s o f t h e dead are r e g a r d e d w i t h fear even i n Greece,

as E r w i n R o h d e

i n p a r t i c u l a r has b r o u g h t t o a t t e n t i o n .

3

In

H o m e r this k i n d o f d r e a d is suppressed r a t h e r t h a n n o t yet known. T h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a n i m i s m as a u n i v e r s a l stage i n the e v o l u tion o f h u m a n civilization, w h i c h influenced Rohde, precluded r a t h e r t h a n e n c o u r a g e d c u l t u r a l l y specific c o m p a r i s o n s .

Never-

theless, the e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e H o m e r i c c o n c e p t o f Hades c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n is s t r i k i n g : a r e a l m o f m u d and darkness t h a t leaves n o h o p e f o r m o r t a l s . I t is described i n a f a m o u s scene o f Gilgamesh

w h e n t h e g h o s t o f E n k i d u meets his

f r i e n d , a scene w h i c h m a y have l i n k s w i t h H o m e r even o n a l i t e r a r y l e v e l . R i t u a l appeasement o f the dead is achieved i n v e r y 4

s i m i l a r ways b y

Mesopotamians

and by

Greeks,

preferably

t h r o u g h v a r i o u s k i n d s o f l i b a t i o n : " w a t e r , beer, roasted c o r n , m i l k , h o n e y , c r e a m , o i l " i n M e s o p o t a m i a ; " m i l k , h o n e y , water, 5

wine, and o i l " i n Aeschylus.

6

E v e n m o r e p e c u l i a r is the i m p o r -

tance o f p u r e w a t e r as an o f f e r i n g t o the dead: " c o o l w a t e r , " "pure water."

7

T h e i n s e r t i o n o f pipes i n t o a grave f o r precisely

this p u r p o s e is u n u s u a l i n G r e e c e ,

8

b u t there is d i r e c t l i t e r a r y

evidence o f the practice i n M e s o p o t a m i a .

9

T h o s e dead w h o s h o w themselves capable o f affecting t h e l i v i n g are called heroes

i n Greek.

A

fragment o f Aristophanes

shows i n a particularly lively and entertaining way j u s t h o w these heroes have t h e p o w e r t o b r i n g d o w n all m a n n e r o f i l l nesses o n t h e l i v i n g i f t h e y are n o t a p p e a s e d .

10

The Akkadian

etemmu can e q u a l l y be the cause o f m a n y k i n d s o f sickness, so he is m e t w i t h s i m i l a r fears.

A g a i n w e have extensive

A k k a d i a n i n c a n t a t i o n texts for d o c u m e n t a t i o n :

1 1

Sumero-

" W h e n the

s p i r i t o f a dead p e r s o n has t a k e n possession o f a m a n , " o r " t h e

65

T H E


hand o f a spirit o f the d e a d , "

1 2

R E V O L U T I O N

t h e n e x o r c i s m is due. T h e sick

p e r s o n believes h i m s e l f t o feel this g r i p , a n d he prays: " I f i t is the s p i r i t o f a m e m b e r o f m y f a m i l y o r m y h o u s e h o l d o r the s p i r i t o f one slain i n b a t t l e o r a w a n d e r i n g s p i r i t . . . "

1 3

I t is i n -

d i c a t i v e o f t h e p s y c h o - s o c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s i n v o l v e d i n sickness t h a t the s p i r i t s o f closely related persons are especially t o be feared: " T h e h a n d o f t h e s p i r i t s o f his father a n d his m o t h e r has seized him.'

M 4

N o less d r e a d e d is t h e anger o f those w h o have n o t m e t

w i t h a n a t u r a l d e a t h , the biaiothanatoi,

as t h e G r e e k s w o u l d say:

T h e o n e " k i l l e d i n b a t t l e " a n d t h e u n b u r i e d " w h o lies i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s w i t h o u t t h e c o v e r i n g o f the e a r t h , " " w h o s e b o d y was t h r o w n o n t o t h e steppe . . . : his s p i r i t w a n d e r s restlessly over the e a r t h . "

1 3

Even a "foreign spirit," "whose name

no

one

k n o w s , " can be t h e active cause b e h i n d the t o r m e n t s o f t h e sick.

1 6

T h e G r e e k t e r m f o r this w r a t h o f the dead is menima. pears i n a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t e x t as early as i n H o m e r :

I t apHector,

d y i n g , threatens A c h i l l e s , w h o is t o refuse h i m a p r o p e r b u r i a l , s a y i n g t h a t he c o u l d b e c o m e a "cause o f w r a t h [menima]

o f the

g o d s " f o r h i m , o n t h a t day w h e n A c h i l l e s w i l l be k i l l e d h i m s e l f . I n a less d r a m a t i c way, deceased E l p e n o r , m e e t i n g O d y s s e u s i n the u n d e r w o r l d , d e m a n d s b e c o m e a menima.

17

a decent b u r i a l so t h a t he w i l l n o t

T h e s e are the c r i t i c a l ,

dangerous

cases,

s o m e b o d y " k i l l e d i n b a t t l e " o r else u n b u r i e d a n d hence restlessly w a n d e r i n g a b o u t . P l a t o states e x p r e s s l y t h a t " a n c i e n t

menimata"

m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n " g r e a t s u f f e r i n g s " w h i c h affect " p a r t i c u lar f a m i l i e s , " a r i s i n g " o u t o f o l d , uncleansed

wrongdoings";

t h e y are t o be c u r e d w i t h c e r e m o n i e s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d i n i t i a tion involving madness.

18

I n his Laws,

Plato wants to emphasize

the m o r a l factor, b u t he c a n n o t h e l p b u t m e n t i o n p u r i f i c a t i o n s . A g a i n t h e o l d a n d r e n o w n e d specialist i n t h i s t y p e o f p u r i f i c a t i o n is E p i m e n i d e s , w h o p r o p h e s i e d " n o t over t h a t w h i c h was t o c o m e , b u t o v e r t h a t w h i c h was p a s t . "

1 9

T h e r e was, o f course, n o lack o f p e o p l e w h o w e r e w i l l i n g t o m a k e use o f t h e w r a t h o f t h e s p i r i t s o f t h e dead i n o r d e r t o d i r e c t it against p e r s o n a l e n e m i e s , t h r o u g h b l a c k m a g i c . T h e m o s t d i rect practice, w e l l k n o w n t h r o u g h o u t a n t i q u i t y , is t o m a k e an

66

" A

S E E R

OR

A

H E A L E R "

i m a g e o f t h e p e r s o n t o be h a r m e d and t o b u r y i t i n a grave. I n this w a y t h e v i c t i m w i l l fall p r e y t o the dead a n d t o the gods o f the u n d e r w o r l d . S u c h f i g u r i n e s are u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as " v o o d o o d o l l s " t o d a y — a n i n d i c a t i o n that the same practice m a y o c c u r i n w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t c i v i l i z a t i o n s . Such a v o o d o o d o l l

from

the Periclean era has been f o u n d i n t h e K e r a m e i k o s c e m e t e r y at Athens.

But

t h e same practice was

also e m p l o y e d b y

evil

w i t c h e s i n B a b y l o n i a . T h u s t h e sick p e r s o n c o m p l a i n s : " Y o u have h a n d e d f i g u r i n e s o f m e t o a c o r p s e , " " m y i m a g e has been placed i n a t o m b " ; " i f f i g u r i n e s o f a m a n have been e n t r u s t e d t o a dead m a n b e h i n d h i m , " the m a n w i l l experience a loss o f v i t a l i t y . " M a g i c c o u n t e r c h a r m s are c o n t a i n e d above all i n t h e

Maqlu

2

collection. T h i s is n o t t h e o n l y f o r m o f b l a c k m a g i c t o appear i n b o t h Greece a n d M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e " m a k i n g o f an i m a g e , " " t a k i n g saliva,

hair, t h e h e m o f a r o b e ,

footprints,"

2 1

may

well

t h o u g h t s i m p l y t o represent u n i v e r s a l f o r m s o f m a g i c . " h e m o f t h e r o b e " is also used i n the Pharmakeutria tus.

2 2

rines.

o f Theocri-

T h e r e are also A k k a d i a n l o v e c h a r m s w h i c h use 2 3

T h e Pharmakeutria

be The

figu-

refers specifically t o a " f o r e i g n e r f r o m

Assyria" w h o supplied a particularly potent substance.

24

T h i s is

H e l l e n i s t i c ; b u t a l r e a d y P l a t o p o r t r a y s t h e u n c a n n y effect o n the citizens o f a t o w n " w h e n t h e y catch s i g h t o f w a x m o d e l s o u t s i d e a d o o r o r at a crossroads o r o n a t o m b , perhaps t h a t o f t h e i r o w n parents":

2 5

T h e s e m a g i c a l practices have already been w i t h

the G r e e k s f o r a l o n g t i m e . I n the same w a y i n B a b y l o n people are f r i g h t e n e d b y " f a b r i c a t i o n s w h i c h s h o w u p , " i n d i c a t i n g t h a t " l i f e has been c u t " b y s o m e o n e .

2 6

C o u n t e r m a g i c is u r g e n t l y nec-

essary i n such a case. A p o w e r f u l r i t e o f a n n i h i l a t i o n is t o m e l t d o w n w a x

effigies.

T h i s is d o n e b y t h e sorceress i n T h e o c r i t u s as i t is p r a c t i c e d i n M e s o p o t a m i a . I n E g y p t t h e use o f w a x figures i n m a g i c is a t tested as early as t h e t h i r d m i l l e n n i u m .

2 7

F r o m the e i g h t h c e n -

t u r y w e have a r e l e v a n t A r a m a i c t e x t , the t r e a t y t e x t o f S f i r e — a rare o p p o r t u n i t y t o d o c u m e n t w h a t lay i n b e t w e e n B a b y l o n i a a n d Greece. T h i s is an i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r a c t c o n c l u d e d b y s o l e m n oaths and curses; i n this c o n t e x t i t is said: " A s this w a x is

67

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

c o n s u m e d b y fire, t h u s . . . ( N . N . ) shall be c o n s u m e d b y

fire."

I n the seventh c e n t u r y t h e same f o r m u l a appears i n a c o n t r a c t made between the Assyrian

k i n g Esarhaddon

a n d his vassals;

m u c h earlier i t is f o u n d i n a H i t t i t e s o l d i e r s ' o a t h .

2 8

It corre-

s p o n d s t o the o a t h o f the C y r e n e a n s as set o u t i n t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n decree, t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a f o u r t h - c e n t u r y i n s c r i p t i o n ; w h e t h e r this is an a u t h e n t i c d o c u m e n t f r o m the seventh c e n t u r y remains controversial: " T h e y f o r m e d w a x images and b u r n e d t h e m w h i l e p r a y i n g that anyone w h o d i d n o t keep the oath b u t f l o u t e d i t m i g h t m e l t a n d f l o w a w a y l i k e the i m a g e s . "

2 9

A t any

rate the practice is w e l l attested f o r the archaic p e r i o d t h r o u g h the parallel f r o m Sfire, a n d o a t h - t a k i n g r i t u a l s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l character have the best chances t o cross c u l t u r a l b o r d e r s . T h e r e is o n e n a m e i n the sphere o f b l a c k m a g i c w h i c h d e f i nitely travelled f r o m Sumer i n t o Hellenistic E g y p t and o n to C a r t h a g e : E r e s h k i g a l is t h e S u m e r i a n n a m e o f the t e r r i b l e g o d dess o f the u n d e r w o r l d , a n d E r e s k h i g a l is the n a m e o f an i n f e r nal goddess w h i c h c o m m o n l y appears i n later G r e e k and m a g i c a l p a p y r i .

3 0

defixions

T h i s is o n e o f the m o s t exact t r a n s c r i p -

tions f r o m Sumerian i n t o Greek: Coincidental h o m o n y m y i n the case o f such a sequence o f syllables is o u t o f the q u e s t i o n . So far o n l y texts f r o m the i m p e r i a l era w i t h this n a m e seem t o have been p u b l i s h e d . B u t g i v e n t h a t the influence o f B a b y l o n

had

l o n g since ceased a n d c u n e i f o r m h a d been f o r g o t t e n , the p e r i o d o f b o r r o w i n g m a y w e l l be m u c h earlier. I n t h e r e a l m o f m a g i c , t h o u g h , exact c h r o n o l o g y where.

may

be less i m p o r t a n t t h a n else-

I n any case the n a m e E r e s h k i g a l

is p r o o f o f the far-

r e a c h i n g influence o f M e s o p o t a m i a n m a g i c , as is the " A s s y r i a n " in Theocritus. A n o t h e r t e x t f r o m C y r e n e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s c o n t e x t : I n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . an e x t e n s i v e sacred l a w o n p u r i fication

rites as s a n c t i o n e d b y the D e l p h i c oracle was

recorded

at C y r e n e ; t o j u d g e f r o m the c o n t e n t s , i t c o u l d be m u c h o l d e r . We are c o n c e r n e d here w i t h the s e c t i o n headed Hikesion. w o r d hikesios

is b e l i e v e d t o be w e l l u n d e r s t o o d , m e a n i n g

31

The "he

w h o has r e a c h e d " i n the sense o f s u p p l i a n t ; so the first c o m m e n t a t o r s h a d n o d o u b t t h a t i t is the t r e a t m e n t o f s u p p l i a n t s n o r -

68

" A

m a l l y called hiketai

S E E R

O R

A

H E A L E R "

w h i c h is b e i n g dealt w i t h here. Yet u n d e r

this a s s u m p t i o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r e s c r i p t i o n s m a d e i n t h e t e x t m u s t seem h i g h l y abstruse. I t is n o c o i n c i d e n c e that J o h n G o u l d , i n his e x e m p l a r y t r e a t m e n t o f hiketeia, renean t e x t .

3 2

d i d n o t consider the C y -

T h r e e cases are set apart i n the sacred l a w f r o m

C y r e n e : first a hikesios " s e n t f r o m e l s e w h e r e , " epaktos. T h e m a i n problem with

t h i s f e l l o w seems t o be t o establish w h o

has

sent h i m : I f he has been sent t o the house, i f [the o w n e r ] k n o w s f r o m w h o m he has c o m e o n h i m , he w i l l call his name, p r o n o u n c i n g i t three times a day; i f he has died i n the c o u n t r y o r was lost elsewhere, i f he k n o w s the name, he w i l l p r o n o u n c e h i m b y name; i f he does n o t k n o w [he w i l l p r o n o u n c e ] : " O h y o u m a n , w h e t h e r y o u are m a n o r w o m a n " ; he w i l l make effigies, [one] male and [one] female, f r o m w o o d o r clay; he w i l l receive t h e m [ i n his house] and present [ t h e m ] w i t h a p o r t i o n o f e v e r y t h i n g . W h e n y o u have done w h a t is customary, then take t h e m i n t o an u n c u l t i v a t e d w o o d and cast t h e m i n t o the g r o u n d , the effigies and their p o r t i o n s [ o f the m e a l ] .

3 3

I t is strange that t h i s r i t u a l c o u l d ever have been h e l d t o be the p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d acceptance o f a s u p p l i a n t : N o one is seen t o care f o r s u c h a p e r s o n w h o s h o u l d be present and i n need o f p r o t e c t i o n ; t h e c o n c e r n is a b o u t s o m e i n d i v i d u a l , k n o w n o r u n k n o w n , w h o is c l e a r l y absent b u t is p r e s u m e d t o have sent the

hikesios;

a n d o n e o b v i o u s l y w i s h e s u r g e n t l y t o get r i d o f this again. I f one l o o k s f o r a c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h i s practice as d e s c r i b e d i n the passage q u o t e d , t h e closest p a r a l l e l is p r o v i d e d b y A k k a d i a n m a g i c l i t e r a t u r e . H e r e , o n c e m o r e f o r the h e a l i n g o f a sick p e r s o n , an effigy o f " e v e r y t h i n g e v i l " is p r o d u c e d , placed o n the r o o f n e x t t o t h e s i c k b e d , a n d t e n d e d f o r three days. T h e n , t o the a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f i n c a n t a t i o n s , the effigy is enclosed i n a p o t , t a k e n away, a n d b u r i e d i n " a n a b a n d o n e d w i l d e r n e s s . "

The

3 4

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the p r o c e d u r e s — t h e m a k i n g o f a

fig-

u r i n e , t h e t e n d i n g o f i t , its disposal i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s — i s perfect; and thus the w o r d

"sent"

i n the Greek

t e x t becomes

clear:

" S e n d i n g u p o n " (epagoge) is a w e l l - k n o w n t e r m o f b l a c k m a g i c ;

69

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

i n P l a t o i t ranks d i r e c t l y n e x t t o the defixio.

A sorcerer " s e n d s "

i5

e v i l " o n t o the h e a d " o f his e n e m i e s . T h a t is w h y i t is so i m p o r t a n t t o f i n d o u t w h o is b e h i n d i t i n o r d e r t o s t r i k e at t h e r o o t o f the e v i l , o r rather, i n t h e sense o f appeasement, t o c o m e t o s o m e solution b y agreement.

F o r this reason t h e effigy o f e v e r y t h i n g

e v i l is f i r s t fed a n d t h e n e n e r g e t i c a l l y disposed of. T h e c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t , i n C y r e n e , hikesios

does n o t m e a n s u p p l i a n t , b u t an

evil spirit w h o "comes u p o n " a house or p e r s o n .

3 6

T h e h y p o t h e s i s m u s t s t a n d o r fall i n the l i g h t o f t h e o t h e r t w o p a r a g r a p h s i n A p o l l o ' s sacred l a w f o r C y r e n e , cases o f hikesioi a n d h o w t o deal w i t h t h e m .

3 7

covering other

T h e second s e c t i o n

is p r e s e r v e d a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y i n t a c t , b u t its u n d e r s t a n d i n g is m a d e d i f f i c u l t b y t h e u n c l e a r m e a n i n g o f three t e r m s , a p p l i e d here i n a special, t e c h n i c a l w a y u n k n o w n f r o m o t h e r d o c u m e n t s : teliskesthai,

ateles/tetelesmenos,

a n d propheresthai.

I n a d d i t i o n , the

archaic style o f t e n does n o t i d e n t i f y the subject o f t h e v e r b ; n o r d o w e k n o w w h a t the " p u b l i c s h r i n e " (damosion

hierori) o f C y -

rene was. T h e f o l l o w i n g analysis a t t e m p t s t o r e n d e r the s t r u c ture o f the l a w w i t h o u t the benefit o f m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n , t a k i n g telein i n the general sense o f " p e r f o r m a n c e " o t h e r " hikesios,

of a ritual."

3 8

The

either w i t h or w i t h o u t performance o f ritual,

has " t a k e n his seat at t h e p u b l i c s h r i n e " ; i f t h e r e is a " p r o n o u n c e m e n t , " t h e n r i t u a l is t o be p e r f o r m e d o n t h e t e r m s p r o n o u n c e d ; i f there is n o p r o n o u n c e m e n t , t h e n an a n n u a l o f f e r i n g o f f r u i t s o f t h e field a c c o m p a n i e d b y l i b a t i o n has t o be m a d e i n p e r p e t u ity. I f o n e s h o u l d f o r g e t t h a t , d o u b l e offerings are d u e t h e n e x t year; i f a descendant s h o u l d o m i t i t , f o r g e t t i n g i t , a n d there is a p r o n o u n c e m e n t f o r h i m , he w i l l pay t o t h e g o d a n d

sacrifice

w h a t e v e r w i l l be revealed t o h i m b y the o r a c l e — i f he k n o w s , t o the father's g o d ; o t h e r w i s e t h e oracle is t o be c o n s u l t e d . I t is clear t h a t t h i s t e x t is a b o u t s e t t i n g u p a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a c u l t . I n t e r p r e t e r s w h o take this t o refer t o a h u m a n s u p p l i a n t m u s t m a k e three a d d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s : I t is d e a l i n g w i t h t h e case o f a m u r d e r e r — a l t h o u g h o n l y t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n o f the l a w speaks o f k i l l i n g ; t h e c u l t is f o r the b e n e f i t o f t h e v i c t i m o f m u r der; t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t is m a d e b y a priest: " [ t h e p r i e s t ] lays d o w n , " a n d " p e r f o r m a n c e o f r i t u a l " means acceptance t o c i t i -

70

" A

zenship,

S E E R

" t o be i n i t i a t e d . "

OR 3 9

A

H E A L E R "

B u t w i t h these a s s u m p t i o n s ,

the

v e r y first l i n e o f t h e t e x t w o u l d be a b s u r d : t h e r i t u a l can " e i t h e r be p e r f o r m e d o r n o t , " a n d i t seems t h a t i t can be repeated.

Fur-

ther, the p r i e s t w o u l d be free e i t h e r t o set the t e r m s o r n o t as capriciously

as he w i s h e s ; precisely

i f he(?)

"does n o t p r o -

n o u n c e , " sacrifices shall be m a d e i n p e r p e t u i t y , whereas i n t h e o t h e r case the a t o n e m e n t is m a d e once and forever. A b o v e a l l , i f a p r o b l e m arises i n a s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n , w h y s h o u l d first a priest a n d t h e n , i n a d d i t i o n , an oracle " e s t a b l i s h " t h e sacrifice? T h e d i r e c t i v e s are d i f f e r e n t a n d m u c h clearer i n d e e d i f one decides t o i m a g i n e t h a t s o m e p o w e r f u l s p i r i t is asserting

himself,

w h e t h e r i n a d r e a m o r i n the f o r m o f v i s i o n s o r a u d i t i o n s ; u n d e r these c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e r e w i l l be a r e l i g i o u s p r o c e d u r e , " a c c o r d i n g t o c o m m a n d " (kat' epitagen),

as i t is so o f t e n expressed i n

i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e t e r m pronouncement

(propheresthai)

then recov-

ers its w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d m e a n i n g o f " t o r e p r o a c h , t o c o m p l a i n " : it means t h e same as " t o express a menima";

i t is also close t o the

t e r m " t o g i v e a s i g n o f d i v i n e w i l l , " episemainein.

I f there is n o

precise m a n i f e s t a t i o n , i f the s p i r i t has o n l y i n f l i c t e d

wordless

h o r r o r o n p e o p l e , t h e n t h e usual f o r m o f appeasing sacrifice f o r the dead applies: f r u i t s o f t h e earth a n d l i b a t i o n s f o r t h e dead. C h i l d r e n a n d c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n are affected insofar as t h e c u l t o f t h e dead is m o s t l y a c u l t o f ancestors. T h u s a f o r g o t t e n ancest o r can express his displeasure a n d " c o m p l a i n " : " T h e s p i r i t o f a m e m b e r o f m y f a m i l y has l a i d h o l d of m e , " as an A k k a d i a n t e x t w o u l d p u t i t . I n case o f d o u b t o n e m u s t c o n s u l t an oracle t o f i n d o u t t h e c o r r e c t offerings t o be m a d e . T h e s e s h o u l d be m a d e t o the f a m i l y g o d i f he is k n o w n — " t h e y m a k e t h e i r sacrifices t o Z e u s K a r i o s , " states H e r o d o t u s o f t h e f a m i l y o f Isagoras i n A t h ens;

40

o t h e r w i s e t h e oracle w i l l also establish w h o this s h o u l d

be. T h u s t h e t e x t m a k e s sense, i f o n l y i n the sense o f w h a t w e call s u p e r s t i t i o n . Teliskesthai

t h e n means the r i t u a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f a c u l t . T h a t the p u b l i c sanctuary o f C y r e n e s h o u l d have been p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e c u l t o f heroes is an a t t r a c t i v e assumption. T h e t h i r d s e c t i o n i n t h e l a w o f C y r e n e is unclear as t o the decisive t e r m c o n c e r n i n g the t h i r d v a r i e t y ofhikesios,

7i

autophonos:

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

" o n e w h o k i l l e d w i t h his o w n h a n d s " o r " o n e w h o k i l l e d h i m s e l f " ? H e r e t h e i n t r u s i o n o f t h e o n e w h o " c a m e o n " is m e t b y a c o u n t e r - r i t e o f " m a k i n g h i m w h o arrives g o , " This vocabulary

aphiketeuein.^

m a k e s i t clear a g a i n t h a t w e are n o t d e a l i n g

w i t h t h e acceptance o f a s u p p l i a n t i n t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t r a t h e r w i t h s o m e o n e o n e desires t o get r i d of. T h e t e x t has s o m e l a cunae, h o w e v e r ,

supplements o f w h i c h remain doubtful.

The

p e r s o n affected has t o " a n n o u n c e " t h e r i t u a l ; he makes s o m e b o d y sit o n a fleece o n t h e t h r e s h o l d

4 2

a n d a n o i n t s h i m . T h e n he

w i l l g o o u t w i t h a t t e n d a n t s o n t o t h e p u b l i c h i g h w a y w h i l e all w h o m e e t h i m k e e p s i l e n t , r e c e i v i n g the h a r b i n g e r , u n t i l — t h e r e is a gap here; t h a t "sacrifices a n d o t h e r " (rites?) take place is s t i l l legible. I f this text were dealing w i t h the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f one stained w i t h m u r d e r , t h e n a f i n a l act o f i n t e g r a t i o n , w i t h a d m i s s i o n t o t h e city's shrines, w o u l d have t o be assumed; e d i t o r s have proposed their supplements accordingly. T h e part o f the text w h i c h is p r e s e r v e d , h o w e v e r , speaks o f l e a d i n g " a w a y , " " g o i n g o u t , " "passing b y " ; and it mentions a marginal region " t h r e e tribes m e e t " (triphylia);

43

where

silence is a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h e pres-

ence o f " m o r e p o w e r f u l b e i n g s " ;

4 4

t h i s is a r i t u a l n o t o f i n t e g r a -

t i o n b u t o f r i d d a n c e , i n all p r o b a b i l i t y i n v o l v i n g d e m o n s rather than living people.

4 5

T h e c o u n t e r a r g u m e n t r e m a i n s t h a t t h e w o r d hikesios i n s o m e o t h e r G r e e k texts c l e a r l y carries the m e a n i n g " s u p p l i a n t , " a n d never else o c c u r s w i t h t h e m e a n i n g " h a u n t i n g s p i r i t . " H o w e v e r , t h e r e is an exact p a r a l l e l i n the d u a l m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d prostropaios, m e a n i n g l i t e r a l l y " h e w h o t u r n s t o s o m e b o d y . " Since A e s c h y l u s w e f i n d t h i s w o r d i n use n o t o n l y f o r a s u p p l i a n t b u t also f o r a d e m o n w h o attaches h i m s e l f t o o n e . N e v e r t h e l e s s this m e a n i n g has o f t e n been m i s t a k e n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e L i d d e l l Scott l e x i c o n , e v e n t h o u g h expressions such as " t h e

prostropaios

o f M y r t i l u s [ m u r d e r e d t r e a c h e r o u s l y ] f o l l o w e d h i m " i n Pausanias o r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f prostropaios

w i t h " E r i n y e s a n d sp rits

o f v e n g e a n c e " i n P o l y b i u s is clear e n o u g h . v o c a t i o n s o f the prostropaios a n d already ingly.

4 7

4 6

The threatening . in-

o f t h e dead i n A n t i p h o n t h e

i n A e s c h y l u s are t o be u n d e r s t o o d

oic'.jt

correspond-

T h e " o n e w h o a p p r o a c h e s " can be an u n c l e a n p e r s o n o r

72

A

S E E R

OR

A

H E A L E R

an e v i l s p i r i t o f t h e dead; t h e same a m b i v a l e n c e is peculiar t o b o t h G r e e k w o r d s . I t is t r u e t h a t i n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n the d o c u m e n t f r o m C y r e n e shows A p o l l o n i a n r e l i g i o n m o r e deeply i n v o l v e d i n " s u p e r s t i t i o n " t h a n s o m e H e l l e n i s t s have been w i l l i n g t o accept. T h e y w i l l h a r d l y be d e l i g h t e d at t h e fact t h a t a parallel f r o m a M e s o p o t a m i a n r i t u a l t e x t is f o u n d h e l p f u l f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g the m e a n i n g o f a p u r e l y Greek w o r d . T h e borderlines bet w e e n t h e eastern a n d t h e G r e e k are seen t o m e l t away. Substitute

Sacrifice

I n a s i t u a t i o n o f p u r s u i t , seized b y p a n i c , h u m a n beings are n a t u r a l l y r e l i e v e d i f a n o t h e r creature suffers t h a t fate i n t h e i r place. S u b s t i t u t e sacrifices

are w i d e s p r e a d .

1

They

were particularly

c o m m o n i n M e s o p o t a m i a because basic anxieties w e r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y g i v e n shape t h e r e i n t h e f o r m s o f d e m o n i c c a r n i v o r e s .

2

T h i s was less c o m m o n i n Greece. A l l t h e m o r e n o t a b l e , t h e n , is one particular account, a cult legend f r o m the sanctuary o f A r t e m i s o f M u n i c h i a at A t h e n s . O n c e again i t is a pestilence i n w h i c h t h e anger o f the goddess is m a d e m a n i f e s t . T h e cause is said t o be t h e k i l l i n g o f a sacred bear. F o r a t o n e m e n t , t h e goddess d e m a n d s

t h e sacrifice o f a

y o u n g g i r l . " E m b a r o s p r o m i s e d to do this on the c o n d i t i o n that his f a m i l y w o u l d be g r a n t e d t h e office o f priest f o r t h e i r l i f e t i m e . H e dressed u p his d a u g h t e r , b u t h i d her i n the t e m p l e , dressed u p a g o a t w i t h a g a r m e n t as his d a u g h t e r , a n d sacrificed t h a t . " T h i s is t h e t e x t o f Pausanias the A t t i c i s t ; t h e v e r s i o n i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f p r o v e r b s o f Z e n o b i u s is v e r y s i m i l a r . E m b a r o s m e n t i o n e d i n the comedies o f M e n a n d e r .

was

3

I t is clear t h a t t h i s anecdote describes a r i t u a l , a s u b s t i t u t e sacrifice p e r f o r m e d i n t h e c u l t o f A r t e m i s f o r t h e l i f t i n g o f a p e s t i lence. T h e m y t h o f I p h i g e n i a ' s sacrifice at A u l i s o b t r u d e s i t s e l f as a p a r a l l e l , w h e r e the goddess h e r s e l f is said t o have f i n a l l y substituted a h i n d for the v i r g i n . B u t the M u n i c h i a legend p o r trays t h e a c t u a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s m u c h m o r e g r a p h i c a l l y . T o w h a t e x t e n t t h i s can be t a k e n as evidence f o r actual c u l t is b y n o means c e r t a i n , t h o u g h . T h e r e is n o o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a

73

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

family o f E m b a r o s or a p r i e s t h o o d o f E m b a r i d s i n the A t t i c p r o s o p o g r a p h y . B u t t o assume t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h p u r e i n v e n t i o n w o u l d m a k e t h e p r o v e r b i a l status o f E m b a r o s even less e x plicable. T h e r e are w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d r i t u a l s elsewhere i n w h i c h an a n i m a l is s u b s t i t u t e d f o r a h u m a n b e i n g ; a r e m a r k a b l e instance is the p r o v i s i o n i n t h e o l d L a w o f the T w e l v e Tables i n R o m e : aries subicitur,

"a r a m is s u b s t i t u t e d . " T h e closest p a r a l l e l , h o w e v e r , 4

is p r o v i d e d b y a M e s o p o t a m i a n i n c a n t a t i o n t e x t . T h i s t e x t deals w i t h t h e h e a l i n g o f a sick p e r s o n . I t bears t h e t i t l e " S u b s t i t u t i o n o f a M a n f o r E r e s h k i g a l . " E r e s h k i g a l is the S u m e r i a n - A k k a d i a n goddess o f the u n d e r w o r l d . T h e s u b s t i t u t e is an " u n m a t e d g o a t . " I t is p u t i n t o bed w i t h the sick p e r s o n and is s u p p o s e d t o s p e n d the n i g h t w i t h h i m . A t d a w n the c o n j u r e r arrives, t h r o w s t h e g o a t a n d the sick p e r s o n o u t o f t h e bed o n t o the floor, touches t h e t h r o a t o f t h e sick p e r s o n w i t h a w o o d e n k n i f e , a n d t h e n cuts the t h r o a t o f t h e g o a t w i t h a real k n i f e . T h e s l a u g h t e r e d g o a t is t h e n stuffed w i t h spices, i t is dressed i n a r o b e a n d g i v e n shoes, its eyes are a d o r n e d , t h e headgear o f the sick p e r s o n is w o u n d r o u n d its head, a n d i t is t e n d e d "as i f i t w e r e a dead m a n " w h i l e t h e sick p e r s o n leaves the house.

The

c o n j u r e r speaks an i n c a n t a t i o n , raises the l a m e n t a t i o n f o r t h e dead over t h e b o d y , b r i n g s offerings f o r t h e dead, makes l i b a t i o n s o f water, beer, r o a s t e d c o r n , m i l k , honey, c r e a m , a n d o i l ; finally, w i t h offerings f o r t h e " s p i r i t o f t h e dead o f t h e f a m i l y " a n d t h e g o a t , he b u r i e s t h e a n i m a l . I n this w a y t h e sick p e r s o n is delivered.

5

T h e differences b e t w e e n t h e t w o r i t u a l s s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d . I n M u n i c h i a a sacrifice at the altar o f a s a n c t u a r y is d e s c r i b e d , w h e r e a s , i n t h e East, d y i n g at h o m e i n b e d is acted o u t . T h e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e charade, w h i c h i n b o t h cases has a s a c r i f i cial g o a t dressed u p i n h u m a n c l o t h e s , is s t r i k i n g

nevertheless;

a n d t h e M u n i c h i a l e g e n d is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the h e a l i n g o f s i c k ness, t o o . G e l l i u s states t h a t i n the R o m a n c u l t o f Veiovis a g o a t is sacrificed ritu humano;

this m a y w e l l p o i n t to a s o m e w h a t s i m -

ilar f o r m o f r i t u a l . O n Tenedos, i n the c u l t o f D i o n y s u s A n t h r o 6

porraistes t h e " S m a s h e r o f M e n " — o n c e m o r e w i t h i n the i d e o l -

74

" A

ogy

of human

S E E R

O R

sacrifice—the

A

H E A L E R "

c a l f sacrificed

to

the

p r o v i d e d w i t h b u s k i n s , w h i l e t h e b u t c h e r has t o flee.

god

is

7

We see t h e r e is n o lack o f parallels. D i r e c t c o n t a c t c o u l d be p r o v e d b y l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g s , b u t , nevertheless, "perhaps."

T h e name

Embaros—with

it remains a

the l o n g a—does

s o u n d G r e e k , at least n o t A t t i c . Pausanias a n d

o t h e r l e x i c o n s g i v e the n a m e B a r o s as a v a r i a n t . T h i s even m o r e e x o t i c b u t c o r r e s p o n d s w o r d f o r seer, baru.

precisely

not

subsequently sounds

t o the A k k a d i a n

O n e c o u l d assume t h a t there lies b e h i n d the

8

l e g e n d an actual event w h e n a seer o f eastern o r i g i n e m p l o y e d a s u b s t i t u t e sacrifice t o l i f t a pestilence w i t h a p p a r e n t success. T h e c u l t a n d s h r i n e o f A r t e m i s at M u n i c h i a is l i n k e d t o the m o n t h M u n i c h i o n i n t h e A t t i c calendar a n d , l i k e o t h e r festivals o f A r t e m i s , has t h e aura o f G r e e k g i r l s ' i n i t i a t i o n s ; this can h a r d l y be an o r i e n t a l i m p o r t i n its e n t i r e t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , the evidence f o r the f o r m Baros is w e a k : T h e M e n a n d e r t e x t s , w h i c h are the o l d est d o c u m e n t s w e have a n d o n w h i c h the l e x i c o n s rely, clearly have Embaros.

H o w e v e r , a d d i t i o n a l r i t u a l s are n o t e x c l u d e d even

i n established

c u l t s , a n d a l l sorts o f accidents m a y befall i m -

p o r t e d w o r d s . E v e n i f t h e exact p a t h o f t r a d i t i o n c a n n o t be est a b l i s h e d , t h e East-West parallel o f r i t u a l s u b s t i t u t e deserves n o tice. Asdepius

and

Asgelatas

T h r e e s m a l l b r o n z e statuettes f r o m t h e H e r a sanctuary o n

Sa-

mos p r o v i d e the strongest evidence o f B a b y l o n i a n i m p o r t s to Greece as regards sickness d e m o n s and h e a l i n g g o d s . T w o o f t h e m , first p u b l i s h e d i n 1979,

w e r e excavated f r o m levels dated

t o t h e seventh c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 4 ) . ' These b r o n z e s represent a m a n s t a n d i n g at p r a y e r w i t h a large d o g . A s c o n f i r m e d b y s i m ilar f i n d s f r o m B a b y l o n i a a n d also b y c u n e i f o r m t e x t s , these f i g ures are c o n n e c t e d

w i t h t h e B a b y l o n i a n goddess o f h e a l i n g ,

G u l a o f I s i n , t h e " g r e a t p h y s i c i a n , " azugallatu.

D o g s w e r e sacri-

ficed i n her c u l t : A w h o l e series o f d o g b u r i a l s has c o m e t o l i g h t at her s h r i n e at I s i n .

2

I f several f i g u r i n e s o f this t y p e w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o H e r a o n Sa-

75

THE

ORIENTALIZING

REVOLUTION

Figure 4. Babylonian bronze figurine, "dog and dog-leader," from the cult of the Babylonian healing goddess Cu/a, found in the Hera sanctuary at Samos . . 76 .

" A

S E E R

O R

A

H E A L E R "

m o s , t h e y c a n n o t be m e r e l y c o i n c i d e n t a l s o u v e n i r s . I t is m o r e l i k e l y t h a t H e r a is b e i n g a p p r o a c h e d as a goddess o f h e a l i n g , t o o ; such assistance was requested f r o m p r a c t i c a l l y all the gods b u t especially f r o m t h e goddesses. W h e t h e r t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f these b r o n z e s o r i g i n a t e d w i t h eastern m e r c h a n t s w h o h a d reached Sam o s o r w h e t h e r t h e y h a d been b r o u g h t f r o m the East b y Greeks such as A l c a e u s ' b r o t h e r A n t i m e n i d a s , w h o — s o m e w h a t l a t e r — served as a m e r c e n a r y at B a b y l o n , c a n n o t be established. W h a t sickness

means can easily be u n d e r s t o o d across t h e language

b a r r i e r s ; a n d i f a p a r t i c u l a r t a l i s m a n seems t o be

efficacious

against i t , this w i l l be accepted w i t h e q u a l ease. B u t this is n o t t h e w h o l e s t o r y . We are led t o g o f u r t h e r b y the s t r i k i n g r o l e o f t h e d o g i n the c u l t o f t h e m a i n G r e e k g o d o f h e a l i n g , A s c l e p i u s . A d o g was s t a n d i n g n e x t t o t h e chryselep h a n t i n e statue o f A s c l e p i u s i n his t e m p l e at E p i d a u r u s ; a d e d i c a t o r y r e l i e f f r o m t h e r e has d o g s a l o n g s i d e the sons o f A s c l e pius.

M y t h relates t h a t as a c h i l d A s c l e p i u s was exposed

3

Mount Kynortion, found

by

on

w h e r e he was n o u r i s h e d b y a b i t c h a n d

huntsmen w i t h

dogs —kynegetai, 4

dog-leaders,

in

G r e e k ; i n a d d i t i o n , a c t u a l c u l t c o m e s t o the fore w i t h the r e q u i r e m e n t o f a lex sacra f r o m t h e s h r i n e o f A s c l e p i u s at Piraeus: W h o seeks h e a l i n g , i t is stated, m u s t m a k e p r e l i m i n a r y sacrifice o f t h r e e cakes to M a l e a t a s , A p o l l o , H e r m e s , Iaso, A k e s o , and Panakeia, a n d men.

finally

t o " d o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s , " t h a t is, h u n t s -

5

T h e s e d o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s can be e x p l a i n e d b y reference t o m y t h ; b u t the b r o n z e s f r o m t h e s h r i n e o f H e r a present a m u c h m o r e d i r e c t a n d g r a p h i c e x p l a n a t i o n : H e r e dogs a n d dog-leaders are seen i n effigy. O n e can easily assume t h a t figures o f this t y p e w e r e also t o be seen at t h e s h r i n e o f A s c l e p i u s at Piraeus; t h e y w e r e t r e a t e d w i t h respect, j u s t l i k e t h e o t h e r g o d s a n d p o w e r s i n the r e t i n u e o f A s c l e p i u s , a n d t h u s h a d t h e i r p a r t i n the r i t u a l . D o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s as r e c i p i e n t s o f a p r e l i m i n a r y sacrifice also appear i n a g r o t e s q u e p a r o d y o f c u l t i n a piece b y the c o m i c p o e t Plato.

6

T h i s , t h e r e f o r e , was a w e l l - k n o w n , s o m e h o w r e m a r k -

able d e t a i l o f a c e r t a i n c u l t . I t becomes c o m p r e h e n s i b l e as s o o n as o n e considers the statues o f the S a m i a n H e r a sanctuary:

77

By

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

t h e i r v e r y existence, t h e y i n d i c a t e a p e c u l i a r East-West u n d e r standing i n the r e a l m o f healing gods. F r o m a n o t h e r place w e are i n d u c e d t o a leap f o r w a r d i n t o t h e l i n g u i s t i c evidence.

G u l a , t h e goddess o f h e a l i n g , patroness

d o g s a n d d o g - l e a d e r s , is called azugallatu,

of

" t h e great p h y s i c i a n , "

i n A k k a d i a n . O n the C y c l a d i c i s l a n d A n a p h e near T h e r a , h o w 7

ever, a n d o n l y t h e r e , A p o l l o is w o r s h i p p e d as Asgelatas a n d c e l ebrated w i t h a f e s t i v a l , A s g e l a i a . s o u n d G r e e k , has

repeatedly

8

T h e n a m e , w h i c h does n o t

attracted attention, particularly

as i t has a r i n g n o t t o o d i s s i m i l a r f r o m t h e n a m e o f A p o l l o ' s son

Asklapios/Asclepius,

Az(u)gallat(u)

w h i c h equally

a n d Asgelat(as)

variable m o r p h e m e s complicated

enough

defies

explanation.

9

s o u n d p e r f e c t l y i d e n t i c a l , i f the

are o m i t t e d ; the sequence o f syllables is to exclude

sheer c o i n c i d e n c e ,

and

the

m e a n i n g fits: B e i n g a p h y s i c i a n is o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t h o n o r s o f A p o l l o , w h o is e x p r e s s l y called p h y s i c i a n (ietros) i n other cults.

1 0

I t is t r u e t h a t i n consequence t h e n a m e o f the fes-

t i v a l , A s g e l a i a , m u s t be secondary, r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m the n a m e Asgelatas as i f t h i s h a d t h e n o r m a l G r e e k suffix -tas, -tes. I f the equation Azugallatu/Asgelatas

is accepted, i t f o l l o w s that t h e r e

m u s t o n c e have been a healer o n this i s l a n d w h o i n v o k e d t h e n a m e o f t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n azugallatu

against a pestilence and

o s t e n s i b l y succeeded i n d r i v i n g t h e disease away. F r o m t h a t t i m e A p o l l o Asgelatas was w o r s h i p p e d t h e r e , as A p o l l o E p i k u r i o s at Bassae was c r e d i t e d w i t h s u c c o r i n g at the great p l a g u e — o r 1 1

as

Santa M a r i a della Salute was t o receive w o r s h i p m u c h later at Venice. A p o l l o A s g e l a t a s , t h e n , p r o v i d e s t h e m o s t d i r e c t p r o o f o f t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n o f c h a r i s m a t i c p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e eastern t r a d i t i o n i n t o archaic Greece, p a r a l l e l t o the G u l a bronzes f o u n d o n Samos. T h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e absorbs a n d suppresses these f o r e i g n t e r m s is p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n this case. T h e d e c e p t i v e l y s i m i l a r f o r m Aiglatas

is attested q u i t e early o n A n a p h e ,

" A p o l l o o f t h e r a d i a n t s k y " ; this e p i t h e t has also m a d e its w a y i n t o t h e m y t h o f t h e A r g o n a u t s ; i t appears i n d e d i c a t i o n s as early as the fifth c e n t u r y B . C .

1 2

W h o c o u l d guess at t h e existence o f

A k k a d i a n b e h i n d such crystal-clear G r e e k ? I t is a l u c k y chance 78

A

S E E R

O R

A

H E A L E R

"

t h a t t h e strange b u t official names o f the c u l t a n d the festival have been p r e s e r v e d i n a f e w e p i g r a p h i c d o c u m e n t s . I t is e v i d e n t t h a t Asgelatas is t h e lectio difficilior,

hence o l d e r t h a n A i g l a t a s .

T h e n a m e Asgelatas is, t h e r e f o r e , a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e archaic e p o c h at t h e latest. T h u s t h e e x t e r n a l evidence leads close t o the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , t o w h i c h t h e S a m i a n dog-leaders b e l o n g . O n e f u r t h e r reference t o a w o r d f r o m the sphere o f A s c l e p i u s the p h y s i c i a n : O n e w o r d for headache o r dizziness attested since the A r i s t o t e l i a n Problems B u t i n A k k a d i a n kdru karah,

" t o be i l l . "

1 3

is karos.

I t has n o G r e e k

etymology.

means " t o be d i z z y , " and i n A r a m a i c

C o i n c i d e n c e is q u i t e possible w i t h such a

s i m p l e sequence o f p h o n e m e s , b u t o n e can as w e l l i m a g i n e t h a t the t e r m came t o t h e G r e e k s w i t h t h e eastern b a n q u e t i n g fashi o n s , especially t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f couches o n w h i c h t o recline (klinai)

i n place o f chairs, w h i c h is d i s t i n c t i v e o f the G r e e k s y m -

p o s i u m since the e n d o f the seventh c e n t u r y b u t first m a k e s its appearance w i t h A s h u r b a n i p a l . T h e r e m a y be m o r e l o a n - w o r d s o f t h e k i n d i n m e d i c a l v o c a b u l a r y ; w h a t is u n u s u a l is t h a t karos escaped c a m o u f l a g e . Ecstatic

Divination

D i v i n a t i o n is a strange art w h i c h o n l y specialists can practice successfully u n d e r p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . S o m e t i m e s stress is l a i d o n the o u t w a r d l y t e c h n i c a l , a c q u i r e d apparatus o f the d i v i n e r , w h i c h seems easy t o l e a r n ; s o m e t i m e s i t is t h e p a r t i c u l a r state o f m i n d t h a t is seen t o be a l l - i m p o r t a n t , be i t called possess i o n , t r a n c e , o r madness. W i t h the G r e e k s , the " r a v i n g " seer first

appears o n s t a g e i n A e s c h y l u s '

Agamemnon,

i n the great

scene o f Cassandra. B u t already earlier H e r a c l i t u s h a d s p o k e n o f the S i b y l p r o p h e s y i n g " w i t h

r a v i n g m o u t h , " and H e r o d o t u s

presupposes ecstatic p r o p h e c y at the P t o o n oracle b y 4 8 0 .

1

Then

P l a t o discusses d i v i n a t o r y madness at a h i g h l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l level; i n this c o n t e x t he c l e a r l y c o n f i r m s t h a t the m o s t f a m o u s seer i n Greece, t h e P y t h i a at D e l p h i , used t o p r o p h e s y i n a state o f ecstasy. M u c h later t h e Pythia's seance was described i n s o m e 2

d e t a i l b y P l u t a r c h i n his w r i t i n g s o n D e l p h i , a f i r s t h a n d w i t n e s s 3

79

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

since he served f o r years t h e r e as a priest. A l t h o u g h t h e r a t i o n alizing hypothesis about volcanic vapors rising f r o m the g r o u n d b e n e a t h t h e t r i p o d i n t h e t e m p l e at D e l p h i a n d t h u s c h e m i c a l l y " i n s p i r i n g " the P y t h i a has been g e o l o g i c a l l y r e f u t e d , t h i s s h o u l d n o t serve t o d i s p r o v e t h e ecstatic state characteristic o f A p o l l o ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t s at t h e place. A m e d i u m does n o t need c h e m istry. H o w ecstasy m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f i n i n d i v i d u a l cases m a y have v a r i e d f r o m p e r s o n t o p e r s o n . T h e r e is n o t h i n g s u r p r i s i n g i n the fact t h a t a s u i t a b l e peasant g i r l c o u l d be chosen, as P l u t a r c h aff i r m s — a l t h o u g h s o m e scholars have f o u n d t h i s d i s c o n c e r t i n g . Ecstatic p r o p h e c y is a specific g i f t w h i c h c a n n o t be a n t i c i p a t e d and o n l y partially manipulated. F a r n e l l w r o t e i n 1911

t h a t , i n c o n t r a s t t o Greece,

p r o p h e c y d i d n o t exist i n B a b y l o n ;

4

ecstatic

b u t t h i s has l o n g since been

r e f u t e d . Ecstatic priests a n d priestesses (mahhu,

mahhutu) w e r e i n

fact c o m m o n i n M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e evidence has appeared i n M a r i ; b u t W e n - A m o n ' s r e p o r t has a case i n B y b l o s , too.

5

I n t h e t i m e o f E s a r h a d d o n ecstatic w o m e n w e r e active i n

A s s y r i a ; i n p a r t i c u l a r , t e m p l e a t t e n d a n t s o f Ishtar o f A r b e l a r e p o r t e d t h e d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f t h e goddess t o t h e k i n g . The

d e i t y was

speaking

d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h the m o u t h

w o m a n , i n t h e first p e r s o n : " I , Ishtar . . . "

of a

6

T h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e S i b y l o r S i b y l s reaches f r o m B a b y l o n t o C u m a e w i t h a center o f g r a v i t y i n A s i a M i n o r .

7

Admittedly

w i d e l y d i v e r g e n t ideas a b o u t date a n d l i f e t i m e o f S i b y l s

were

c u r r e n t i n a n t i q u i t y , a n d i t is d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s o u t o f t h e later sources. H e r a c l i t u s , o u r oldest w i t ness, refers t o t h e S i b y l a n d h e r ecstasy, as she u t t e r s unpleasant p r o p h e c i e s " w i t h r a v i n g m o u t h , " c o v e r i n g " 1 , 0 0 0 years." T r a d i t i o n dates t h e S i b y l o f M a r p e s s a before t h e T r o j a n War, b u t t h e S i b y l o f E r y t h r a e t o t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; t h e S i b y l o f C u m a e is 8

made a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f Tarquinius Superbus i n R o m e .

9

This

c h r o n o l o g y s h o u l d be g i v e n c r e d i t insofar as t h e C u m a e t r a d i t i o n m u s t extend back b e y o n d the conquest o f the city b y the Oscans i n the fifth c e n t u r y . E a s t e r n o r i g i n s o f t h e S i b y l have been c o n s i d e r e d since a n t i q u i t y . T o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h e S i b y l l i n e b o o k s o f late H e l l e n i s t i c

80

" A

S E E R

OR

A

H E A L E R

and i m p e r i a l t i m e s i n c o r p o r a t e the " e a s t e r n "

opposition to

R o m e w i t h s t r o n g J e w i s h elements. B u t i n v i e w o f the w i d e spread a v a i l a b i l i t y o f m e d i u m i s t i c talents and p r o p h e c i e s , o n l y specific details o r the n a m e S i b y l i t s e l f c o u l d p r o v i d e clear e v i dence o f c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n i n a n c i e n t t i m e s . T h e r e is a " B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l " ; b u t t o l i n k t h e n a m e S i b y l l a d i r e c t l y t o S i d u r i the ale w i f e , sabitu,

10

w h o appears i n the epic Gilgamesh—her

r o l e is

t o s h o w G i l g a m e s h t h e w a y t o U t n a p i s h t i m , the h e r o o f the flood—is

f r i v o l o u s . O n c e the special n a m e S a m b e t h e is r e p o r t e d

f o r the B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l , a n d she is said t o have been present i n the a r k as one o f N o a h ' s d a u g h t e r s - i n - l a w ; nest reflect t h e sabitu o f Gilgamesh.

1 1

this m i g h t i n ear-

T h e B a b y l o n i a n S i b y l has

also been c o n n e c t e d w i t h Berossos, w h i c h indicates a d a t i n g i n the H e l l e n i s t i c e p o c h . A s f o r the archaic p e r i o d , i t s h o u l d g i v e us pause that i n q u i t e a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , t h a t o f a s t r o n o m y a n d calendar m a k i n g , c o n n e c t i o n s appear t o r u n f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a specifically t o D e l p h i . T h i s i n t e r r e l a t i o n was w o r k e d o u t b y M a r t i n N i l s s o n . ready

the early

Greek

calendar

system

with

1 2

Al-

its i n t e r c a l a r y

m o n t h s seems t o f o l l o w t h e p r i n c i p l e o f the B a b y l o n i a n O k t a e teris. T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f " p e n t e t e r i c " games, i n p a r t i c u l a r the O l y m p i a d s , presupposes that the calendar h a d been f i x e d acc o r d i n g t o s u c h an e i g h t - y e a r p e r i o d . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l date o f the first O l y m p i a d is 776 B . C . ; the great rise o f the D e l p h i c s a n c t u ary begins a r o u n d this t i m e . H o w m a n y u n c e r t a i n factors are present i n s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n s h a r d l y needs t o be stressed: E v e n i f the e a r l y list o f O l y m p i c v i c t o r s is t a k e n t o be a u t h e n t i c , the t i m e t a b l e o f t h e e a r l y games r e m a i n s i n d o u b t — i t has r e c e n t l y been a r g u e d t h a t t h e games started o n l y i n a b o u t 700 B . C . — 1 3

and t h e r e l a t i o n s t o D e l p h i are n o t v e r y clear. Nevertheless the perspective i n t r o d u c e d b y N i l s s o n remains i n t r i g u i n g ,

espe-

c i a l l y i f those c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s i n p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d h e a l i n g r i t u a l s are added w h i c h N i l s s o n d i d n o t take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h u s t h e ecstatic p r o p h e c y o f t h e P y t h i a can w e l l be seen i n a s i m i l a r c o n t e x t . I n fact even the special r i t u a l i n w h i c h , before a seance o f t h e P y t h i a , a g o a t was s p r i n k l e d w i t h w a t e r a n d its r e a c t i o n o b s e r v e d , has its parallel i n M e s o p o t a m i a .

Hi

1 4

I t seems

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

t h a t , p a r a l l e l t o t h e spread o f l i v e r a u g u r y , t h e m o r e d i r e c t art o f m e d i u m i s t i c p r o p h e c y also c a m e t o supersede o l d e r a n d s i m p l e r m e t h o d s o f a u g u r y a n d b i r d o b s e r v a t i o n . D i d this establish D e l phi's f a m e ?

15

O n e s h o u l d s t i l l resist the t e m p t a t i o n t o g o so far

as t o d e r i v e t h e n a m e o f A p o l l o f r o m B a b y l o n . Lamashtu,

Lamia,

and

1 6

Gorgo

N o t o n l y r i t u a l s a n d i n c a n t a t i o n t e x t s b u t also a m u l e t s b e l o n g t o the sphere o f M e s o p o t a m i a n m a g i c i a n s .

T h e r e are s i m p l e ,

s m a l l c y l i n d e r s as w e l l as beads w i t h p e r t i n e n t i n s c r i p t i o n s , b u t 1

also fantastic i m a g e s s u c h as t h e Pazuzu

heads

2

and the La-

m a s h t u t a b l e t s . A s w i t h the m o d e l livers o f h e p a t o s c o p y ,

these

3

are spread as far as N o r t h S y r i a , U g a r i t , a n d C y p r u s . A n d as the H u m b a b a face reached G o r t y n and t h e d o g - l e a d e r f i g u r i n e s reached S a m o s , reflexes o f L a m a s h t u i c o n o g r a p h y t r a v e l l e d as far as I t a l y .

4

I t is c e r t a i n t h a t t h e Greeks o f t h e archaic p e r i o d

o c c a s i o n a l l y saw s u c h f i g u r e s ; t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n d e m o n s d i d , i n fact, leave v a r i o u s traces o f themselves. T h e h o r r i f y i n g f i g u r e o f G e l l o , an o b j e c t o f t e r r o r f o r c h i l d r e n , is m e n t i o n e d as e a r l y as t h e w o r k o f S a p p h o ; G e l l o

was

said t o steal a n d eat l i t t l e c h i l d r e n . Traces o f t h i s f i g u r e have persisted t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y .

G r e e k s w i l l associate t h e n a m e

5

G e l l o w i t h e v i l g r i n n i n g , gelan,

b u t n e i t h e r t h e s p e l l i n g o f the

w o r d n o r its m e a n i n g p r o p e r l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h i s . G a l l u is, o n the o t h e r h a n d , o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n S u m e r i a n - A k k a d i a n n a m e s f o r an e v i l s p i r i t . T h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e

has l o n g been

p o i n t e d o u t b y A s s y r i o l o g i s t s a n d i n t e r p r e t e d as a b o r r o w i n g from Mesopotamia;

6

t h e t e s t i m o n y o f S a p p h o w o u l d place i t i n

t h e seventh c e n t u r y at t h e latest. T h a t a is r e p r o d u c e d as e has a parallel i n Azugallatu/Asgelatas

a n d i n the n a m e o f the l e t t e r

delta.

1

A n even m o r e p o p u l a r h o r r o r f i g u r e t h a n G e l l o is L a m i a . She is already m e n t i o n e d i n t h e archaic p e r i o d b y S t e s i c h o r o s

8

has also persisted i n m o d e r n f o l k l o r e . L a m i a is g r o t e s q u e , 9

and re-

p u l s i v e , a n d h i d e o u s b e y o n d measure; h o w e v e r , there is n o u n d i s p u t e d G r e e k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f her. T h e m a i n characteristic o f

82

" A

S E E R

OR

A

H E A L E R "

L a m i a is t h a t she steals c h i l d r e n , perhaps even f r o m t h e i r m o t h ers' b o d i e s . I n this especially L a m i a resembles L a m a s h t u the demoness; the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the names was c l o u d e d f o r a w h i l e b y the earlier r e a d i n g o f h e r n a m e as Labartu."'

Lamashtu

was

feared b y p r e g n a n t w o m e n , b y w o m e n g i v i n g b i r t h , and b y m o t h e r s . T h e y p r o t e c t e d themselves against her w i t h m a g i c : A n ass o r a s h i p was s u p p o s e d t o c a r r y her away. A m u l e t tablets t h e r e f o r e w e r e f a b r i c a t e d w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g images, t o offer direct

tablets have

been

f o u n d far b e y o n d M e s o p o t a m i a , i n U g a r i t , B o g h a z k o y ,

p r o t e c t i o n against

Lamashtu.

Such

Car-

c h c m i s h , a n d Z i n c i r l i . " T h e w e s t e r n c o n n e c t i o n s are stressed i f o n a seal w e f i n d a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an A s s y r i a n d e m o n c o m b i n e d w i t h a P h o e n i c i a n i n s c r i p t i o n ; a n d at least one a m u l e t with

a

Lamashtu-like

century Italy.

1 2

representation

comes

from

seventh-

D e m o n s s i m i l a r t o L a m a s h t u also appear i n later

Syrian magical beliefs:

13

T h e r e is n o gap b e t w e e n B a b y l o n and

Greece. O n e G r e e k t e x t states t h a t L a m i a is a d a u g h t e r o f the P h o e n i c i a n B e l o s , t h e r e b y c r e d i t i n g the demoness w i t h S e m i t i c origins.

1 4

L a m a s h t u has a p a r t i c u l a r i c o n o g r a p h y w h i c h is k n o w n b o t h f r o m the a m u l e t tablets a n d f r o m related texts: She is n a k e d ; she has a lion's h e a d , d a n g l i n g breasts, a n d the feet o f a b i r d o f p r e y ; she lets a p i g and a d o g suck at her breasts; she o f t e n h o l d s a snake i n each h a n d ; o f t e n she is represented w i t h one knee b e n t , i n Knielauf swift

flight.

p o s i t i o n , w h i c h p r e s u m a b l y is m e a n t t o represent T h e r e is u s u a l l y an ass u n d e r n e a t h her a n d beneath

t h a t a s h i p , all d e s i g n e d t o c a r r y her a w a y ( F i g u r e 5). S o m e t i m e s the a n i m a l s appear separated f r o m the m a i n f i g u r e , g r o u p e d t o the r i g h t and left i n t h e M i s t r e s s o f A n i m a l s s c h e m a .

15

A s has o f t e n been discussed, L a m a s h t u shares a w h o l e range o f characteristics w i t h t h e G r e e k G o r g o n .

1 6

I t is n o t so m u c h t h e

actual face o f t h e G o r g o n t h a t is s i m i l a r ; the G o r g o n face does i n c o r p o r a t e l i o n features, yet the l e o n i n e is o n l y one o f t h e elem e n t s , a n d the G o r g o n is always represented en face,

whereas

L a m a s h t u is always represented i n p r o f i l e . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a s t r i k i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n the d a n g l i n g breasts, the schema o f

83

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

Figure 5. Bronze plate from Carchemish: Lamashtu. Demoness with lion's head, bird's talons, standing on a donkey, wielding snakes, and suckling a pig and a dog. Knielauf

a n d , above a l l , t h e i c o n o g r a p h i e p a r a p h e r n a l i a .

We

m a y take as an e x a m p l e t h e f a m o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the G o r g o n f r o m t h e t e m p l e i n C o r f u : She appears i n Knielauf

between

t w o " l i o n s " w h i c h are beasts o f fantasy r a t h e r t h a n z o o l o g y ; t w o snakes f o r m h e r b e l t , w h i l e a horse a n d a h u m a n , Pegasos a n d C h r y s a o r h e r " c h i l d r e n , " t o u c h her r i g h t a n d left hands. N e a r l y

84

" A

S E E R

O R

A

H E A L E R "

all these e l e m e n t s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f the h u m a n C h r y s a o r , have t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e i m a g e o f L a m a s h t u , T h e r e m a y be a horse at her side, a n d b o t h the G o r g o n a n d L a m a s h t u are o c casionally d e p i c t e d h o l d i n g t w o snakes. A n d yet, all these elem e n t s have been shaken u p , t a k e n o u t o f t h e i r c o n t e x t , and placed i n a n e w o r d e r . T h e basic c o n c e p t r e m a i n s the same: the fleeing

m o n s t e r — b u t t h e G r e e k m y t h has d e v e l o p e d a w h o l e

n e w s y s t e m w i t h t h e m y t h o f Perseus, Pegasos, C h r y s a o r .

The

steed a n d the w a r r i o r are i n d i c a t i v e o f a t r i a l o f i n i t i a t i o n : I t is the a r m e d h e r o a n d n o t m a g i c t h a t o v e r c o m e s the d e m o n a n d p e t r i f y i n g fear. I t c a n n o t be d o u b t e d t h a t s o m e artists w h o created G o r g o n c o m p o s i t i o n s o f this k i n d h a d seen L a m a s h t u t a b lets, b u t t h e y t o o k o n l y t h e images and used t h e m t o c o n s t r u c t s o m e t h i n g closer t o t h e i r o w n t r a d i t i o n s .

1 7

T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the P e r s e u s - G o r g o n m y t h a n d the S e m i t i c East is even m o r e c o m p l e x . O n the o n e h a n d the A n d r o m e d a m y t h is l o c a t e d i n Ioppe-Jaffa;

18

has a r e m a r k a b l e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h T a r s o s .

o n t h e other, Perseus 19

Iconographic m o d -

els f o r Perseus' f i g h t w i t h the m a r i n e m o n s t e r (ketos) appear o n s o m e eastern seals; eyed female

20

i n M e s o p o t a m i a even t h e s l a y i n g o f a o n e -

monster b y a youthful hero occurs.

21

However,

f i n d i n g names f o r t h e scenes i n o r i e n t a l seal art is b y n o means s i m p l e ; t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e epic texts such as Gilgamesh

can

be established o n l y i n rare cases. O n e o f these is t h e s l a y i n g o f H u m b a b a b y G i l g a m e s h and E n k i d u , a scene w h i c h i n t u r n is one o f the m o d e l s f o r representations o f Perseus k i l l i n g the G o r g o n ( F i g u r e 6). A strange o r i e n t a l seal, n o w i n B e r l i n , is p a r t i c u l a r l y w o r t h y of note.

2 2

I t depicts an o v e r s i z e d , d e m o n i c creature s h o w n en face

a n d i n Knielauf

position.

I t has been seized b y a y o u n g h e r o w h o

is h o l d i n g u p a s c i m i t a r , a harpe, i n his r i g h t h a n d , a n d , i n d o i n g so, he has a p p a r e n t l y t u r n e d his face a w a y f r o m his o p p o n e n t . H e is w e a r i n g w i n g e d shoes; b e h i n d h i m is the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a large fish. T h i s p i c t u r e was r e p r o d u c e d i n Roscher's of Mythology gon.

2 3

Dictionary

as a clear i l l u s t r a t i o n o f Perseus f i g h t i n g the G o r -

Pierre A m i e t is n o less d e c i d e d a b o u t t h e f r a m e w o r k o f

eastern m y t h o l o g y f o r t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , r e c a l l i n g the U g a r i t i c

«5

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

Figure 6. TOP LEFT: Seal impression from Nuzi, about 1450 B.C.: Gilgamesh and Enkidu struggling with Humbaba. From the left, a goddess is handing a weapon to the champion, T O P R I G H T : Shield strap, Olympia, about560B.C.: Perseus killing the Gorgon, with the help of Athena, turning his face from the petrifying monster. B O T T O M : Seal from Baghdad, seventh to sixth century B.C.: Perseus fighting the Gorgon?

86

" A

S E E R

OR

A

H E A L E R "

m y t h o f t h e fight b e t w e e n t h e goddess A n a t a n d M o t , w i t h n o m e n t i o n o f Perseus a n d t h e G o r g o n ,

2 4

I n c o n t r a s t t o the G o r -

g o n , t h e m o n s t e r has b i r d ' s c l a w s , w h i c h is r a t h e r r e m i n i s c e n t o f L a m a s h t u . T h e r e is n o t m u c h p o i n t i n a r g u i n g a b o u t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : E v e n t h e date o f t h e seal is unclear; i t m a y already be d e p e n d e n t u p o n G r e e k i c o n o g r a p h y ; s t i l l less c o u l d w e h o p e t o find adequate texts f o r e x p l a n a t i o n . E v e n so, this p i c t u r e is an i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e c o m p l e x i n t e r r e l a t i o n s o f G r e e k and o r i e n t a l i n t h e archaic p e r i o d . I m a g e s a n d p o s s i b l y even n a r r a t i v e m o t i f s b e c o m e a m b i g u o u s i n t h e sphere o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l contacts; t h e y are u n d e r s t o o d i n different ways f r o m d i f ferent sides; t h e y f o r m n e w c o n s t e l l a t i o n s . C r e a t i v e

misunder-

s t a n d i n g m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d t o be m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n the t r a n s m i s s i o n i t s e l f i n s u c h cases. B u t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n r e m a i n s a fact; t h e i c o n o g r a p h i c

p a t t e r n s r e m a i n preserved,

i n the i n -

stances o f the c o m b a t s o f Perseus as i n t h e case o f L a m a s h t u a n d the G o r g o n . O n e difference is s t r i k i n g i n d e e d : F o r t h e Greeks these d e m o n s are n o t r e a l l y d e m o n i c ; t h e y d o n o t c a r r y the association o f s o m e mysterium

tremendum.

A t best t h e y are apt t o f r i g h t e n

l i t t l e c h i l d r e n . F o r G r e e k m e n Perseus has set an e x a m p l e o f h o w t o deal w i t h such creatures, w e a p o n i n h a n d , even i f an e l e m e n t o f m a g i c and s o m e h e l p f r o m t h e g o d s is n o t l a c k i n g . A s i m i l a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n can be established i n s t i l l a n o t h e r instance, i n t h e i m a g e o f t h e snake strangler. T h i s is q u i t e an o l d a n d a p p a r e n t l y i m p o r t a n t i m a g e i n t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n r e p e r t o i r e : a master o f a n i m a l s , a s h a m a n i s t i c f i g u r e , w h o has seized t w o large snakes i n his hands; t h i s t y p e p r o b a b l y has an a p o t r o p a i c

function.

2 5

T h e G r e e k s m a d e this t h e first a d v e n t u r e o f t h e i r H e r a k l e s , the h e r o i c deed a b a b y p e r f o r m e d i n his c r a d l e .

26

I n e v e r y d a y life o f

course H e r a k l e s is t h e averter o f e v i l , alexikakos, are used f o r p r o t e c t i o n .

2 7

w h o s e amulets

B u t i n m y t h , o r r a t h e r i n t h e accepted

a n d representative f o r m o f G r e e k p o e t r y , t h e fear o f d e m o n s has been e l i m i n a t e d . T h e G r e e k h e r o is represented as t r u s t i n g i n his o w n s t r e n g t h , g o d l i k e even i f i n t h e s h a d o w o f d e a t h .

2 8

figurines

not

are

transformed

into

practical

i n s p i r i n g b u t s i m p l y a source o f w o n d e r .

87

2 9

robots,

Magical awe-

C H A P T E R

T H R E E

'OR A L S O A G O D L Y

SINGER"

Akkadian and Early Greek Literature

From

A t r a h a s i s to the "Deception

of

Zeus"

Since t h e r e d i s c o v e r y o f the A k k a d i a n epics a n d o f Gilgamesh

in

p a r t i c u l a r , there has been n o s h o r t a g e o f associations

between

m o t i f s i n these a n d i n t h e H o m e r i c epics, especially the

Odyssey.

1

T h e s e m o t i f s can be h i g h l i g h t e d a n d used t o s u r p r i s e , b u t h a r d l y t o p r o v e a n y t h i n g : A p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same m o t i f s a n d t h e m e s w i l l be f o u n d e v e r y w h e r e . Instead o f i n d i v i d u a l m o t i f s , t h e r e f o r e , w e m u s t focus o n m o r e c o m p l e x s t r u c t u r e s , w h e r e sheer c o i n c i d e n c e is less l i k e l y : a s y s t e m o f deities and a basic c o s m o l o g i c a l idea, t h e n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f a w h o l e scene, decrees o f the g o d s a b o u t m a n k i n d , o r a v e r y special c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f a t tack a n d defense. O n c e t h e h i s t o r i c a l l i n k , t h e fact o f t r a n s m i s s i o n , has been established, t h e n f u r t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g s , b e c o m e m o r e l i k e l y , even i f these alone d o n o t suffice t o c a r r y t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f . N o t u n t i l 1969 was t h e t e x t o f an A k k a d i a n epic p u b l i s h e d f o r the first t i m e i n a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g its e n t i r e t y : T h e s t o r y o f Atrahasis " o u t s t a n d i n g i n w i s d o m " — a telling name i n A k k a d i a n — o r r a t h e r a " S t o r y o f M a n k i n d " b e g i n n i n g , as the o p e n i n g l i n e says, w i t h t h e p a r a d o x i c a l p r i m o r d i a l s i t u a t i o n " w h e n gods were i n the ways o f m e n . "

2

U p u n t i l t h e n i t h a d been

k n o w n o n l y f r o m a f e w n o t v e r y characteristic f r a g m e n t s . T h e

88

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R "

first v e r s i o n i n three b o o k s is d a t e d t o t h e t i m e o f A m m i s a d u q a , a f e w g e n e r a t i o n s after H a m m u r a p i , i n the seventeenth c e n t u r y B . C . V a r i o u s O l d B a b y l o n i a n e x a m p l e s have s u r v i v e d i n f r a g m e n t a r y f o r m ; t h e l i b r a r y o f A s h u r b a n i p a l also c o n t a i n e d other, s l i g h t l y v a r y i n g e d i t i o n s . A f r a g m e n t o f a n o t h e r recension has been f o u n d i n U g a r i t . We are t h e r e f o r e d e a l i n g w i t h a t e x t w h i c h h a d been i n c i r c u l a t i o n a n d p o p u l a r f o r over a t h o u s a n d years, a t e x t a s t o n i s h i n g l y o r i g i n a l i n c o n c e p t i o n . " W h e n gods w e r e i n t h e ways o f m e n " and there w e r e n o h u m a n s yet i n existence, t h e g o d s h a d t o d o all the w o r k themselves; this led t o a r e b e l l i o n b y t h e y o u n g e r g o d s against the senior g o d s a n d espec i a l l y E n l i l , t h e a c t i n g chief. F o r t u n a t e l y E n k i the c u n n i n g g o d c a m e t o t h e i r a i d , a n d t o g e t h e r w i t h the m o t h e r goddess he created m e n t o act as r o b o t s f o r t h e m : T h e y s h o u l d bear the b u r d e n o f the w o r k . B u t s o o n , " a f t e r 600 [and?] 600 years," these creatures b e c a m e t o o n u m e r o u s a n d a nuisance t o t h e e a r t h , and so the g o d s t r i e d t o d e s t r o y t h e m . T h e y m a d e three a t t e m p t s , app a r e n t l y at f o r m u l a i c i n t e r v a l s o f 1,200 years, b y s e n d i n g first a p l a g u e , t h e n a f a m i n e , a n d f i n a l l y t h e great f l o o d . H o w e v e r , the c u n n i n g g o d o f t h e deep, E n k i , i n league w i t h the m a n " o u t standing i n w i s d o m , " Atrahasis,

f r u s t r a t e d these attacks.

He

played the g o d s o f f against o n e another, a n d f i n a l l y h a d A t r a hasis b u i l d his a r k . T h e final p a r t o f the t e x t , as can n o w be seen, is an o l d e r p a r a l l e l v e r s i o n t o the f a m o u s Tablet X I o f the gamesh

3

i n f l u e n c e d t h e s t o r y o f N o a h i n t h e first b o o k o f M o s e s . Atrahasis

Cil-

epic, t h e w e l l - k n o w n s t o r y o f t h e f l o o d , w h i c h i n t u r n The

t e x t , h o w e v e r , far f r o m b e i n g an e x a m p l e o f O l d Tes-

t a m e n t piety, is i m b u e d w i t h a r e m a r k a b l y h u m a n , i f n o t a s l i g h t l y c y n i c a l o p t i m i s m : W h e t h e r f o r o r against t h e g o d s , m a n k i n d , f o r all the h a r d w o r k a n d all the afflictions i t has t o bear, is i n d e s t r u c t i b l e . " H o w d i d m a n s u r v i v e i n the d e s t r u c t i o n ? " t h e great g o d E n l i l f i n a l l y asks, baffled as he is ( I I I v i 10). B e y o n d d o u b t , s u r v i v e he d i d . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e Atrahasis

t e x t , the B a b y l o n i a n p a n -

t h e o n is i n t r o d u c e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y : " A n u , t h e i r father, was the k i n g ; t h e i r c o u n s e l l o r was t h e w a r r i o r E n l i l ; t h e i r c h a m b e r l a i n was N i n u r t a ; a n d t h e i r s h e r i f f E n n u g i . " These verses are c o p i e d

89

T H E


i n the Gilgamesh the flask

R E V O L U T I O N

epic, b u t n o t t h e f o l l o w i n g lines: " T h e y grasped

o f lots b y

the neck,

t h e y cast t h e l o t s ; t h e g o d s

m a d e the d i v i s i o n : A n u w e n t u p t o h e a v e n . " A second g o d — there is a lacuna i n t h e t e x t h e r e — - " t o o k t h e e a r t h , f o r his s u b j e c t s " ; a n d " t h e b o l t s , t h e bar o f t h e sea, w e r e set f o r E n k i , the far-sighted."

4

E n l i l , t h e m o s t active o f t h e g o d s , s u r e l y

belongs

i n t h e lacuna, w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e usual t r i n i t y o f A n u , E n l i l , a n d E n k i : t h e s k y g o d , t h e w i n d g o d , the w a t e r g o d . T h e

Atra-

hasis t e x t r e t u r n s r e p e a t e d l y t o t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o s m o s i n t o the three parts g i v e n o v e r t o t h e d i f f e r e n t g o d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n E n l i l undertakes

a total blockade o f the h u m a n w o r l d

w h i l e sending the f a m i n e . A n u and A d a d — s k y

5

A different version, Tablet X ,

has

g o d a n d w i n d g o d — f o r t h e heavens, S i n

a n d N e r g a l — m o o n g o d a n d g o d o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d — f o r the e a r t h . T h e u n d e r w o r l d is c l e a r l y i n c l u d e d i n t h e c o n c e p t o f the e a r t h . T h e r e a l m o f E n k i , t h e L o r d o f t h e D e e p , is f i x e d , n o t as the salt sea, b u t t h e p o t a b l e g r o u n d a n d s p r i n g w a t e r s — t h e s e are also t h e r e a l m o f P o s e i d o n i n Greece. I n H o m e r ' s Iliad,

h o w e v e r , t h e r e are those f a m o u s , o f t - q u o t e d

verses i n w h i c h t h e w o r l d is d i v i d e d a m o n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e H o meric gods; Poseidon

speaks: " F o r w h e n w e t h r e w t h e l o t s I

received t h e g r e y sea as m y p e r m a n e n t abode, H a d e s d r e w t h e m u r k y darkness, Z e u s , h o w e v e r , d r e w t h e w i d e s k y o f b r i g h t ness a n d c l o u d s ; t h e e a r t h is c o m m o n t o a l l , a n d spacious O l y m pus."

6

T h i s differs f r o m t h e s y s t e m o f Atrahasis

i n t h a t the e a r t h t o -

g e t h e r w i t h t h e g o d s ' m o u n t a i n is declared t o be u n d e r j o i n t d o m i n i o n ; P o s e i d o n insists o n his r i g h t t o b e c o m e active o n t h e p l a i n o f T r o y . S t i l l t h e basic s t r u c t u r e o f b o t h texts is a s t o n i s h i n g l y s i m i l a r : T h e r e are t h r e e d i s t i n c t areas o f t h e c o s m o s — heaven, t h e d e p t h s o f t h e e a r t h , a n d t h e w a t e r s — a n d these three areas are assigned t o t h e t h r e e h i g h e s t g o d s o f t h e p a n t h e o n — a l l o f w h i c h are m a l e . A n d i n b o t h instances t h e d i v i s i o n is said t o have been m a d e b y d r a w i n g l o t s . T h i s is n o t n o r m a l l y t h e p r a c tice a m o n g G r e e k g o d s : a c c o r d i n g t o H e s i o d , Z e u s d e t h r o n e d his p r e d e c e s s o r — w h o was also his f a t h e r — b y f o r c e , a n d t h e n the o t h e r g o d s asked h i m t o b e c o m e t h e i r k i n g .

90

7

F r o m another

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

"

p o i n t o f v i e w , t o o , t h i s passage, w h e n l o o k e d at i n m o r e d e t a i l , is u n i q u e i n G r e e k m y t h : I n o t h e r passages o f the o l d epic, w h e n the parts o f the c o s m o s are b e i n g e n u m e r a t e d ,

there is either

a trinity o f heaven-earth-underworld

o r o f heaven-sea-earth,

or

four,

heaven-earth-sea-

u n d e r w o r l d , but n o t heaven-sea-underworld

as assigned t o the

even

a

combination

three b r o t h e r s .

8

to

make

F u r t h e r m o r e , the t r i n i t y o f the sons o f K r o n o s

and their realms

does n o t have any

f u r t h e r p a r t t o play i n

H o m e r , n o r is i t r o o t e d i n any G r e e k c u l t . B y c o n t r a s t , the c o r r e s p o n d i n g passage i n the Atrahasis

t e x t is f u n d a m e n t a l t o the

n a r r a t i v e a n d is r e f e r r e d t o repeatedly. T h e r e is h a r d l y a n o t h e r passage i n H o m e r w h i c h comes so close t o b e i n g a t r a n s l a t i o n o f an A k k a d i a n epic. I n fact i t is n o t so m u c h a t r a n s l a t i o n as a r e s e t t i n g t h r o u g h w h i c h the f o r e i g n f r a m e w o r k s t i l l s h o w s . O n e m a y s t i l l believe this t o be a m i s l e a d i n g c o i n c i d e n c e . H o w e v e r , the passage stands i n a v e r y special c o n t e x t i n r e l a t i o n t o the o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f the Iliad.

The

scene b e l o n g s t o t h e s e c t i o n w h i c h the ancients called the " D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s " (Dios

Apate).

Its p e c u l i a r i t i e s have o f t e n been

c o m m e n t e d u p o n i n H o m e r i c studies. A l b r e c h t D i h l e l i s t e d l i n g u i s t i c p e c u l i a r i t i e s a n d f o u n d so m a n y d e v i a t i o n s f r o m the n o r m a l , t r a d i t i o n a l use o f H o m e r i c f o r m u l a s t h a t he c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h i s section o f the Iliad

c o u l d n o t b e l o n g t o the phase o f o r a l

t r a d i t i o n , b u t was a w r i t t e n c o m p o s i t i o n .

9

T h i s r e s u l t has n o t

been g e n e r a l l y accepted; b u t i t m u s t be a c k n o w l e d g e d

that i n

t h i s p a r t o f t h e Iliad w e are d e a l i n g w i t h a t e x t w h i c h is l i n g u i s tically unusual,

i s o l a t e d i n its c o n t e n t , a n d , i n a way,

quite

"modern." T h e r e is, above a l l , a p e c u l i a r i t y o f c o n t e n t w h i c h was n o t e d even b y P l a t o a n d m a y also have been n o t i c e d a n d e x p l o i t e d before P l a t o b y t h e p r e - S o c r a t i c s :

10

T h i s is the o n l y passage i n

the H o m e r i c c a n o n w h e r e , q u i t e u n e x p e c t e d l y ,

a

cosmogonic

t h e m e c o m e s t o t h e f o r e . H e r a , i n her d e c e p t i o n speech, says she w a n t s t o g o t o O c e a n u s , " o r i g i n o f the g o d s , " a n d Tethys the " m o t h e r " ; O c e a n u s is also called " t h e o r i g i n o f a l l " i n a n o t h e r verse. O c e a n u s a n d T e t h y s , the p r i m e v a l c o u p l e , have w i t h h e l d t h e i r c o n j u g a l r i g h t s f r o m each o t h e r f o r a l o n g t i m e , separated

91

T H E


as a r e s u l t o f s t r i f e , neikea.

u

t h e E m p e d o c l e a n Neikos

R E V O L U T I O N

T h i s sounds l i k e an a n t i c i p a t i o n o f c o s m o g o n y . T h e genesis o f the gods

has c o m e t o an e n d . I t is t r u e t h a t i n the I l i a d i c n a r r a t i v e all this is m a d e u p b y H e r a , a patent l i e , as i t were; b u t t h e m o t i f s used radiate b e y o n d those speeches. T h e v e r y c l i m a x o f this s o n g o f H o m e r — Z e u s a n d H e r a m a k i n g love w i t h i n a g o l d e n c l o u d o n the s u m m i t o f M o u n t I d a , f r o m w h i c h r e s p l e n d e n t d r o p s are f a l l i n g — s h o w s d i v i n i t y i n a n a t u r a l i s t i c , c o s m i c s e t t i n g w h i c h is n o t o t h e r w i s e a feature o f H o m e r i c a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m . T h u s the d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o s m o s i n t o three parts i n Poseidon's speech s o m e w h a t later, w h e n Z e u s has r e a w a k e n e d , is t h e t h i r d m o t i f w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e g o d s i n the o r i g i n and f u n c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l cosmos. A r i s t o t l e , f o l l o w i n g Plato, f o u n d in the Oceanus

cosmogony

o f H o m e r the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , the i n s p i r a t i o n for T h a l e s , u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e first p h i l o s o p h e r . M o d e r n research has d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o antecedents o f T h a l e s ' w a t e r cosmogony

a m o n g the Egyptians,

the Phoenicians,

least, t h e B a b y l o n i a n epic o f c r e a t i o n , t h e Enuma

and, n o t

Elish.

12

The

B a b y l o n i a n epic b e g i n s : " W h e n a b o v e " the heavens d i d n o t yet exist n o r t h e e a r t h b e l o w , A p s u was there, t h e f r e s h w a t e r ocean, " t h e f i r s t , the b e g e t t e r , " a n d w i t h h i m T i a m a t , the s a l t w a t e r sea, "she w h o b o r e t h e m a l l . " T h e y " w e r e m i x i n g t h e i r w a t e r s . "

1 3

T h i s c a m e t o an e n d w h e n A p s u was p u t t o sleep a n d k i l l e d b y Ea, a n d T i a m a t was v a n q u i s h e d b y M a r d u k i n a d r a m a t i c f i g h t . T h e n M a r d u k established the c o s m o s as i t n o w exists. T h u s Hera's i n c i d e n t a l i n v e n t i o n s closely c o r r e s p o n d t o the b e g i n n i n g of Enuma

Elish.

A p s u a n d T i a m a t equal O c e a n u s a n d

T e t h y s as the o r i g i n a l p a r e n t a l c o u p l e . B u t T e t h y s is i n n o w a y an active f i g u r e i n G r e e k m y t h o l o g y . I n c o n t r a s t t o the sea g o d dess T h e t i s ( w i t h w h o m she was s o m e t i m e s confused even i n a n t i q u i t y ) , she has n o established c u l t s , a n d n o o n e h a d a n y t h i n g f u r t h e r t o t e l l a b o u t her. She a p p a r e n t l y exists o n l y b y v i r t u e o f the H o m e r i c passage; h o w she came t o achieve the h o n o r e d p o s i t i o n o f the m o t h e r o f all r e m a i n s a m y s t e r y . B u t n o w the " r h y m i n g o f t h e n a m e s " f i n a l l y comes i n t o play. Ti-amat is the f o r m n o r m a l l y w r i t t e n i n t h e t e x t of Enuma Elish

92

f o r the m o t h e r

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

" w h o b o r e t h e m a l l . " T h e A k k a d i a n w o r d w h i c h lies b e h i n d t h i s , h o w e v e r , is j u s t tiamtu or tdmtu,

the n o r m a l w o r d f o r the

sea. T h e n a m e can also be w r i t t e n i n this m o r e p h o n e t i c o r t h o g r a p h y ; b u t i n the Enuma

Elish

w e also f i n d the f o r m taw(a)tu. * 1

If

o n e proceeds f r o m Tomtit, t h e n Tethys is an exact t r a n s c r i p t i o n . T h e different r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f the dentals, t a n d th, m i g h t d i s t u r b the p u r i s t ; b u t S o p h i l o s w r o t e Thethys, Greek orthography, the Enuma

Elish

which, in normal

w o u l d a u t o m a t i c a l l y y i e l d Tethys.

I n fact

b e c a m e k n o w n t o E u d e m o s , the p u p i l o f A r i s -

totle, i n translation;

1 5

here w e f i n d T i a m a t t r a n s c r i b e d as

w h i c h is s t i l l closer t o the r e c o n s t r u c t e d f o r m Tawtu.

Tauthe,

T h a t the

l o n g v o w e l a is c h a n g e d t o e i n the I o n i a n dialect even i n b o r r o w e d w o r d s has parallels i n Kubaha c o m i n g Belos,

a n d Mada

b e c o m i n g Kybebe,

k n o w n as Medes.'

6

Thus

Baal

be-

the p r o o f

seems c o m p l e t e t h a t here, r i g h t i n the m i d d l e o f the Iliad,

the

influence o f t w o A k k a d i a n classics can be detected d o w n to a m y t h i c a l name. T h e r e can be n o q u e s t i o n o f B r o n z e A g e b o r r o w i n g i n this case. We are r a t h e r d e a l i n g , i n the w o r d s o f M a r t i n West, w i t h a " n e o - o r i e n t a l e l e m e n t . " F o u r h u n d r e d years o f o r a l t r a d i t i o n i n Greece w o u l d have l e d t o s t r o n g e r d i s t o r t i o n s i n the process o f a s s i m i l a t i o n ; a n d i t is n o t at all clear w h e t h e r the Enuma can be g i v e n s u c h an early d a t e . Albrecht

Dihle's

observations

17

Elish

T h i s a r g u m e n t accords w i t h

from

the

other

side o n

the

" y o u n g " character o f this H o m e r i c piece. O n c e an o r i e n t a l i z i n g b a c k g r o u n d is established f o r the " D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s , " f u r t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s are b o u n d t o f o l l o w . A p h r o d i t e has her S e m i t i c c o n n e c t i o n s a n y h o w , b u t the e m b r o i dered g i r d l e (kestos) b o r r o w e d i r o m her as a love c h a r m b y H e r a seems to be o r i e n t a l i n a p a r t i c u l a r

way.

The

w o m e n once l o v e d b y Z e u s — a t h e t i z e d b y ancient

catalogue

of

commenta-

t o r s — h a s its c o u n t e r p a r t i n G i l g a m e s h ' s e n u m e r a t i o n o f the l o v ers o f I s h t a r .

18

T h e f a m o u s o a t h o f the gods w h i c h H e r a is m a d e

t o swear, e n d i n g " b y the R i v e r S t y x , " is, i n tact, a c o s m i c o a t h : heaven, e a r t h , a n d the w a t e r s o f the u n d e r w o r l d are called u p o n t o bear w i t n e s s . I t is p r e c i s e l y such a c o s m i c f o r m u l a w h i c h c o n cludes the e n u m e r a t i o n o f d i v i n e witnesses i n the o n l y A r a m a i c

93

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

t r e a t y t e x t w h i c h has s u r v i v e d f r o m t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y : " H e a v e n a n d e a r t h , t h e deep a n d t h e s p r i n g s , day a n d n i g h t . "

1 9

Z e u s t h e w e a t h e r g o d m a k e s l o v e t o his w i f e at t h e t o p o f t h e m o u n t a i n w i t h i n the t h u n d e r s t o r m ; the weather g o d

together

w i t h his w i f e u n v e i l i n g h e r s e l f o n t h e i r s t o r m d r a g o n s is a m o t i f frequently represented

o n eastern

seals, a n d t h e m a r r i a g e

of

heaven a n d e a r t h is a m y t h i c a l t h e m e set o u t e x p l i c i t l y i n A k k a dian literature.

2 0

B u t e v e n a f a m o u s w o o d e n statuette o f Z e u s

e m b r a c i n g H e r a f r o m the H e r a s a n c t u a r y o n S a m o s , a represent a t i o n m o s t p r o b a b l y i n s p i r e d b y t h e t e x t o f t h e Iliad, g r a p h i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t o n eastern p r o t o t y p e s .

is i c o n o -

2 1

M o r e specific is t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e T i t a n s . O f the five H o m e r i c passages i n w h i c h t h e p r e v i o u s g o d s , h e l d p r i s o n e r i n t h e u n d e r w o r l d , are m e n t i o n e d , t h r e e b e l o n g i n t h e c o n t e x t o f the "Deception o f Zeus." The

o t h e r t w o also b e l o n g t o d i v i n e

scenes, b e i n g p r o c l a m a t i o n s o f Z e u s , t h e father o f t h e g o d s . Since t h e Kumarbi

discovery

2 2

i t has been w e l l k n o w n t h a t t h e

c o n c e p t o f a n c i e n t , fallen g o d s connects G r e e k m y t h o l o g y w i t h the H i t t i t e s , t h e P h o e n i c i a n s , a n d the B a b y l o n i a n s . T h e details o f t h e evidence,

however,

remain more

c o m p l i c a t e d i n the

G r e e k as w e l l as i n t h e eastern settings. I n G r e e k t r a d i t i o n the c o n c e p t o f t h e T i t a n s as a c o l l e c t i v e g r o u p is n o t easily r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h e v e r y special p e r s o n a l i t y o f K r o n o s ; o n the o t h e r side w e f i n d , besides K u m a r b i t h e h e r o o f t h e H u r r i a n - H i t t i t e m y t h o f succession, a p p a r e n t l y o t h e r " a n c i e n t g o d s , " always m e n t i o n e d c o l l e c t i v e l y i n t h e p l u r a l . We l e a r n t h a t t h e w e a t h e r g o d — w h o corresponds t o Z e u s — b a n i s h e d t h e m t o the u n d e r world.

2 3

T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g deities i n M e s o p o t a m i a are the " d e -

f e a t e d " o r " f e t t e r e d g o d s , " Hani kamiiti.

24

T h e y , t o o , have been

b a n i s h e d beneath t h e e a r t h b y t h e v i c t o r i o u s g o d o r g o d s . I n t h e Enuma

Elish

these have been t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f T i a m a t ; i n o t h e r

texts t h e y are the e v i l " S e v e n " w h o have been b o u n d b y t h e g o d o f the heavens. N o t e t h a t i n O r p h i c t r a d i t i o n t h e T i t a n s , sons o f H e a v e n a n d E a r t h b u t " b o u n d " i n t h e n e t h e r w o r l d , are precisely seven i n n u m b e r .

2 5

T h e e v i l Seven b e l o n g above all i n t h e r e a l m o f e x o r c i s m a n d p r o t e c t i v e m a g i c . T h i s fact leads t o a f u r t h e r possible

94

connec-

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

"

d o n : I n protective magic, figurines—some friendly, but m o s t l y hostile—are

often fabricated b u t then destroyed.

c o m m o n m a t e r i a l is clay, A k k a d i a n titu. G r e e k as titanos, p l a s t e r .

26

The

This w o r d

most

reached

L a t e r G r e e k a u t h o r s have t a k e n p r e -

cisely t h i s w o r d t o p r o v i d e an e t y m o l o g y f o r t h e n a m e o f the T i t a n s : W h e n t h e T i t a n s a t t a c k e d the c h i l d D i o n y s u s t h e y d i s g u i s e d t h e i r faces w i t h plaster; hence t h e i r n a m e .

2 7

I n the Greek

l a n g u a g e , h o w e v e r , t h i s e t y m o l o g y fails as a r e s u l t o f t h e fact t h a t t h e i o f Titanes/Titenes

is l o n g , whereas t h a t o f titanos is

s h o r t . T h e S e m i t i c base w o r d , h o w e v e r , has a l o n g i, so t h a t w i t h t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f b o r r o w i n g the ancient e t y m o l o g y bec o m e s p l a u s i b l e a g a i n . A r i t u a l c o n t e x t t h e n w o u l d be possible: T h e T i t a n s bear t h e i r n a m e o f f/f-people

28

because eastern m a g i -

cians used t o fabricate clay f i g u r e s — s a l m e tit i n A k k a d i a n — t o 2 9

represent the defeated gods w h o w e r e used f o r p r o t e c t i v e m a g i c o r as witnesses i n oaths. T h i s d a r i n g h y p o t h e s i s , h o w e v e r , lacks specific m a t e r i a l f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n ; o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s r e m a i n o p e n . A h y p o t h e s i s o f l i t e r a r y t r a n s m i s s i o n is perhaps

preferable.

B o t h passages w h i c h resonate so n o t a b l y i n t h e " D e c e p t i o n o f Zeus"—Apsu

a n d T i a m a t m i n g l i n g t h e i r w a t e r s , a n d the three

gods c a s t i n g l o t s f o r the p a r t i t i o n o f the u n i v e r s e — c o m e the v e r y b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e respective texts, Enuma Atrahasis,

m y t h o l o g i c a l texts

which

were

Elish

from and

particularly well

k n o w n a n d f r e q u e n t l y used. I t is attested t h a t these texts w e r e used i n s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a i n p a r t i c u l a r .

30

I n such a s i t u a t i o n the

emphasis falls n a t u r a l l y o n t h e o p e n i n g s e c t i o n : M a n y w i l l recall arma virumque

cano, b u t n o t m u c h m o r e o f V i r g i l f r o m

their

schooldays. A G r e e k desirous o f e d u c a t i o n m i g h t w e l l have been e x p o s e d t o p r e c i s e l y these sections o f "classical" eastern l i t e r a t u r e , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r p o s s i b l y i n d i r e c t l y via A r a m a i c versions, even i f he d i d n o t progress v e r y far w i t h his studies. A scholastic t r a d i t i o n , i f o n l y o n an e l e m e n t a r y level, is i n h e r e n t i n the t r a n s mission o f the alphabet to Greece.

31

A n y h o w , the various chan-

nels o f t r a n s m i s s i o n t o be considered—-the r i t u a l , the i c o n o g r a p h i c , a n d t h e l i t e r a r y — a r e i n n o w a y m u t u a l l y exclusive, b u t m a y have o v e r l a p p e d a n d r e i n f o r c e d o n e a n o t h e r i n m a n y d i f f e r ent w a y s . B e t h a t as i t may, the c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t H o m e r ' s

95

Iliad

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

bears the m a r k , at least at one p r o b a b l y " l a t e " stage, o f the o r ientalizing i m p a c t .

3 2

Complaint

in Heaven:

Ishtar and

Aphrodite

T h e " a p p a r a t u s o f the g o d s " w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s the sequence o f events n a r r a t e d i n the Iliad Odyssey

a n d , i n a m o d i f i e d f o r m , i n the

has m o r e t h a n o n c e been called a " l a t e " e l e m e n t i n the

t r a d i t i o n o f G r e e k h e r o i c e p i c . T h e r e has also been an awareness 1

o f o r i e n t a l parallels w i t h precisely gods.

2

these scenes i n v o l v i n g the

I t is t r u e t h a t the d o u b l e stage o f d i v i n e a n d h u m a n ac-

t i o n s , w h i c h is h a n d l e d so m a s t e r f u l l y b y the c o m p o s e r o f the Iliad,

is n o t f o u n d i n t h i s e x t e n s i v e f o r m i n the

epics. S t i l l , Atrahasis

a n d Gilgamesh

Mesopotamia!!

repeatedly

i n t r o d u c e the

g o d s i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h the deeds a n d sufferings o f m e n ; a n d k i n g s are m a d e t o w i n t h e i r h e r o i c battles i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r protective gods. I n Gilgamesh deity

and

i n p a r t i c u l a r , there is a f a m o u s m e e t i n g b e t w e e n

man:

W h e n Gilgamesh

has

killed Humbaba

and

cleansed h i m s e l f o f t h e g r i m e o f b a t t l e , Ishtar " r a i s e d an eye at the b e a u t y o f G i l g a m e s h " : " D o b u t g r a n t m e o f y o u r f r u i t ! " she says, a n d she offers

fabulous

goods for h i m . B u t

Gilgamesh

s c o r n f u l l y rejects her, r e c i t i n g the catalogue o f all her p a r t n e r s w h o m she once "has l o v e d " o n l y t o d e s t r o y o r t o t r a n s f o r m subsequently.

" I f y o u w o u l d l o v e m e , y o u w o u l d [treat m e ] l i k e

them." Whereupon Ishtar, w h e n h e a r i n g this, Ishtar was enraged and [ w e n t u p ] to heaven. [ F o r t h w e n t Ishtar before A n u , her father; before A n t u m , her m o t h e r [her tears were f l o w i n g ] : [ " O h m y father! G i l g a m e s h has heaped insults u p o n me! G i l g a m e s h has recounted m y insults, m y insults and m y curses." A n u opened his m o u t h to speak, he said to g l o r i o u s Ishtar: " S u r e l y y o u have p r o v o k e d [the K i n g o f U r u k ] ,

96

.. 0 R

A1 S 0

AGO D I. Y SIN G £ R

and (thus) Gilgal11esh recountcd your insults, your insults and your curses." J

Compare this with a scene from the Iliad:" Trying to protect Aeneas, Aphrodite has been wounded by Diomedes; her blood is flowing. "But she. beside herself. went away. she felt horrible pain." With (he help ofIris and Ares she reaches Olympus. "But she, glorious Aphrodite. fell into the lap of Dione. her mother; but she took her daughter in her arms, stroked her with her hand, spoke the word and said: Who has done such things to you, dear child?" Aphrodite replies: "Wounded has Illt" the son of Tydeus, high-minded Diomedes." Mother sets OUt to comfort her with mythical examples: Athena her sister, less sympathetic, makes a scornful comment; but Zeus the father smiles: "He called golden Aphrodite and said to her: 'My child. not for you are the works of war! But you should pursue the tender offices of marriage .. .' .. In otht"r words: It's partly your own fault. The two scenes parallel each other in structure, narrative form, and ethos to an astonishing degree. ~ A goddess. injured by a human, goes up to heaven to complain to her father and mother. and she carns a mild rebuke from her father. Of course this may be called a universal scenario from the realm of children's stories. The scene repeats itself with variations in the battle of the gods later in the Iliad. 6 Artemis, after being beaten by Hera, climbs weeping onto the knees of father Zeus. He pulls her to him and asks, laughing: "Who did this to you?" And she replies: "Your wife beat me." The scene from the Diomedes book is simpler in that both parents appear as a refuge, the stepmother being left out, with the father taking the stance of slightly distant superiority. This corresponds exactly to the Gilgamesh scene. But what is more: The persons involved in both scenes are, in fact. identical. the sky god and his wife. and their common daughter the goddess of love. Aphrodite is in general the equivalent of Ishtar; she has offered herself to a mortal man. Anchises the father of Aeneas, and Allchises suffered some strange fate as

. 97 .

THE

ORIENTALIZING

REVOLUTION

a result of his contact with the goddess-another case of what Gilgamesh is blaming on [shtar. It is possible that the name Aphrodite itself is a Greek form of western Semitic Ashtorith. who in turn is identical with lshtar.' And by force of an even more special parallelism. Aphrodite has a mother who apparently lives in Olympus as Zeus's wife, Dione; Hera seems to be forgotten for a moment. Dione at Olympus makes her appearance in the context of the Diomedes scene, and only there. The contrast with Hesiod's account of Aphrodite's birth from the sea, after Uranos had been castrated, has been found disconcerting since antiquity. Dione is attested in the cult of Dodona; scholars have also referred to the Mycenaean goddess Diwija. 8 In any event. the mother of Aphrodite is given here a name which is crystal clear in Greek. being just the feminine form of Zeus. Such a system of naming is unique in the Homeric family of gods, where couples enjoy complicated private names. But it is this very detail which has its counterpart in the Akkadian text: Antu mother of Ishtar is the usual. obviously feminine form of AmI, Heaven. This divine couple, Mr. and Mrs. Heaven, is firmly established in the worship and mythology of Mesopotamia. Homer proves to be dependent on Gilgamesh even at the linguistic level, forming the name Dione as a calque on Antu when recasting an impressive scene among the gods. This may be seen as a counterpart to the relation Tethys/Tawtu, though rather at the level of narrative structure and divine characters than of cosmic mythology. A few observations may be added about Diomedes in relation to the Aphrodite scene. Diomedes belongs to Argos, as the catalogue of ships has it; it is at Argos that we find a ritual corresponding to the lIiadic narrative, the shield of Diomedes carried in a procession with the image of Pallas Athena on a chariot. 9 But Diomedes also belongs to Salamis on Cyprus; it is said that there was human sacrifice for Diomedes and Agraulos, performed in the sanctuary of which Athena had her share, in the month of Aphrodisios; the victim was killed with a spear and burnt.lO Thus we find Diomedes, Athena, and Aphrodite in strange company combined with spear-killing; some have found

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R "

the C y p r i o t e h o l o c a u s t r e m i n i s c e n t o f S e m i t i c p r a c t i c e . " A t any rate an aspect o f t h e D i o m e d e s l e g e n d , w h i c h seems s o m e h o w t o tie i n w i t h t h e A p h r o d i t e scene i n H o m e r , p o i n t s t o t h a t i s l a n d w h e r e H e l l a s a n d t h e S e m i t i c East e n j o y e d t h e i r closest c o n t a c t and w h e r e p r e c i s e l y i n t h e H o m e r i c p e r i o d t h e A s s y r i a n kings c o m m e m o r a t e d their power i n i n s c r i p t i o n s .

1 2

I n this p e r -

spective t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e H o m e r i c a n d the A k k a d i a n epic h a r d l y appears a s t o n i s h i n g any m o r e . S t i l l , a m o n g all the s i m i l a r i t i e s i t is i m p o r t a n t t o keep s i g h t o f the differences.

Ishtar's m e e t i n g w i t h G i l g a m e s h is f i r m l y a n -

c h o r e d i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e Gilgamesh

epic; i t c o n s t i t u t e s the

n a r r a t i v e l i n k f r o m t h e H u m b a b a t h e m e t o the n e x t h e r o i c deed, the v a n q u i s h i n g o f t h e b u l l o f heaven. G l o r i o u s Ishtar, i n her r e v e n g e , has t h e b u l l o f heaven m a k e his attack, t h u s g i v i n g G i l g a m e s h a n d E n k i d u t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o o v e r c o m e the b u l l a n d thus establish sacrifice. T h e r i t u a l b a c k g r o u n d is clear even i n details. G i l g a m e s h ' s r e j e c t i o n o f I s h t a r c o r r e s p o n d s t o the h u n t ers' t a b o o : I t is sexual r e s t r a i n t t h a t ensures a successful h u n t . H e n c e t h e d e n i a l o f l o v e causes the b u l l t o a p p e a r .

13

A l s o the

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f Ishtar's lovers as r e p o r t e d i n G i l g a m e s h ' s cata l o g u e have t h e i r special m e a n i n g a n d f u n c t i o n , b e i n g basically m y t h s a b o u t t h e i n s t a l l m e n t o f c u l t u r e : I n this w a y the horse was bridled.

1 4

W h a t has r e m a i n e d i n H o r n e r is t h e n a r r a t i v e t h r e a d

o f a g e n r e scene, all t h e m o r e c a r e f u l l y presented because i t is, o n t h e w h o l e , f u n c t i o n l e s s . I t has its o w n c h a r m a n d aesthetic m e r i t i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f the Iliad,

b u t i t does n o t c a r r y the

same w e i g h t e i t h e r i n t h e n a r r a t i v e o r i n t e r m s o f r i t u a l b a c k g r o u n d as i n t h e A k k a d i a n epic. T h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h A k k a d i a n d e m o n s have been t u r n e d i n t o fantastic m o n s t e r s , m o r e a m u s ing than frightening—Lamashtu

transformed

into

the

Gor-

g o n — h a s its c o u n t e r p a r t o n the level o f epic p o e t r y a b o u t t h e gods. T h e i n f l u e n c e o f Gilgamesh f r o m t h e Odyssey.

T h e Odyssey

m a y also be detected i n a scene once describes a f o r m o f prayer

w h i c h h i s t o r i a n s o f r e l i g i o n have f o u n d c o n f u s i n g : W h e n Penelope learns a b o u t t h e r i s k y j o u r n e y u n d e r t a k e n b y Telemachos a n d the s u i t o r s ' p l o t t o k i l l h i m , she first bursts i n t o tears and

99

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

l a m e n t s . T h e n , c a l m i n g d o w n , she washes a n d dresses i n clean c l o t h e s , goes t o t h e u p p e r s t o r y w i t h her m a i d s , t a k i n g b a r l e y i n a basket, a n d prays t o A t h e n a f o r t h e safe r e t u r n o f T e l e m a chos; she ends w i t h an i n a r t i c u l a t e a n d s h r i e k i n g c r y . basket w i t h b a r l e y a n d t h e c r y (ololyge)

B o t h the

1 5

have t h e i r p r o p e r place

i n b l o o d sacrifice; t h e i r use i n t h i s scene is u n p a r a l l e l e d elsew h e r e . So scholars e i t h e r s p o k e o f an " a b b r e v i a t i o n o f sacrifice" o r o f an o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n r i t u a l o f bloodless o f f e r i n g o r o f an i n v e n t i o n o f t h e p o e t , i f n o t i n c o m p e t e n c e o f the " r e d a c t o r . " B u t l o o k at Gilgamesh:

1 6

W h e n Gilgamesh together w i t h E n k i d u

is l e a v i n g his c i t y t o f i g h t H u m b a b a , his m o t h e r " N i n s u n enters her c h a m b e r , she takes a . . . [special h e r b ] , she p u t s o n a g a r m e n t as befits her b o d y , she p u t s o n an o r n a m e n t as befits h e r breast . . . she s p r i n k l e s w a t e r f r o m a b o w l o n e a r t h a n d dust. She w e n t u p t h e stairs, m o u n t e d t h e u p p e r storey, she c l i m b e d the r o o f , t o S h a m a s h [ t h e s u n g o d ] she offered incense,

she

b r o u g h t t h e o f f e r i n g a n d raised her hands before S h a m a s h " ; t h u s she prays, f u l l o f distress a n d s o r r o w , f o r a safe r e t u r n o f her son.

1 7

T h e s i t u a t i o n , m o t h e r p r a y i n g f o r an a d v e n t u r o u s s o n , is

n o t a special o n e . Yet i n its details t h e scene f r o m t h e c o m e s close t o b e i n g a t r a n s l a t i o n o f Gilgamesh; t o the Gilgamesh

Odyssey

i n fact i t is closer

t e x t t h a n t o t h e c o m p a r a b l e scene o f A c h i l l e s '

prayer i n t h e Iliad.

16

W h e r e a s t h e r i t u a l is o d d i n the

n o n e o f these o d d i t i e s is f o u n d i n the passage o f

Odyssey, Gilgamesh:

B u r n i n g incense o n the r o o f is a w e l l - k n o w n S e m i t i c p r a c t i c e ,

1 9

a n d i t is especially a p p r o p r i a t e w h e n t u r n i n g t o t h e s u n g o d . C e r e m o n i a l prayer i n the women's

u p p e r s t o r y is

otherwise

u n h e a r d - o f i n Greece. I t seems t h e p o e t k n e w t h a t b u r n i n g i n cense was o u t o f place i n t h e h e r o i c w o r l d , so he t o o k as a s u b s t i t u t e t h e female p a r t i n n o r m a l sacrifice, t h a t is, t h r o w i n g o f b a r l e y (oulochytai)

a n d ololyge.

E v e n the use o f r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l as

an effective m o t i f i n epic n a r r a t i v e has its antecedent i n the o r i ental t r a d i t i o n .

The Overpopulated

Earth

T h e basic c o n c e p t o f t h e a n c i e n t B a b y l o n i a n Atrahasis almost disconcertingly m o d e r n . H u m a n s

ioo

multiply,

epic is the l a n d

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R "

feels oppressed b y t h e i r m u l t i t u d e , the o u t c o m e can o n l y be cat a s t r o p h e t o a n n i h i l a t e m a n k i n d ; yet m a n s u r v i v e s the a t t e m p t s at d e s t r u c t i o n ; a n d so, u l t i m a t e l y , the o n l y effective m e t h o d is f o u n d : b i r t h c o n t r o l . T o achieve t h i s , t h o u g h , the p o e m has o n l y o n e m e t h o d t o offer: the i n s t i t u t i o n o f priestesses w h o are n o t a l l o w e d t o bear c h i l d r e n .

1

T h e s u f f e r i n g o f the e a r t h is expressed i n verses w h i c h recur at the b e g i n n i n g o f each n e w act o f Atrahasis: years h a d n o t yet passed, w h e n

"Twelve hundred

the l a n d e x t e n d e d

and

peoples m u l t i p l i e d . T h e l a n d was b e l l o w i n g l i k e a b u l l .

the The

g o d s g o t d i s t u r b e d w i t h t h e i r u p r o a r . E n l i l h e a r d t h e i r noise and he addressed t h e great g o d s : ' T h e noise o f m a n k i n d has b e c o m e t o o intense f o r m e , w i t h t h e i r u p r o a r I a m d e p r i v e d o f sleep . . .' "

2

H e n c e he proceeds t o orchestrate

the catastrophes o f

plague, famine, and flood. T h i s c a n n o t b u t r e m i n d o f a passage o f G r e e k epic, o f an e x t r e m e l y p r o m i n e n t t e x t i n fact, the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f the T r o j a n c y c l e , w h i c h tells a b o u t the u l t i m a t e cause o f the T r o j a n War. T h i s is the o p e n i n g o f t h e Cypria,

an epic t h a t was s t i l l q u i t e w e l l

k n o w n i n the classical p e r i o d b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y fell i n t o d i s r e g a r d a n d g o t l o s t ; a l r e a d y H e r o d o t u s d o u b t e d the a u t h o r s h i p o f Homer,

w h i c h P i n d a r s t i l l accepted. T h e o p e n i n g lines have

been p r e s e r v e d as a f r a g m e n t , albeit i n a c o r r u p t t e x t u a l f o r m . T h e y are q u o t e d i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n the " d e c i s i o n o f Z e u s " m e n t i o n e d r i g h t at the b e g i n n i n g o f the T h e Cypria

Iliad.

b e g a n i n the style o f a f a i r y tale:

O n c e u p o n a t i m e , w h e n countless people m o v e d o n the face o f the earth . . . [lacuna; they oppressed?] the breadth o f the deep-chested earth. Zeus saw this and t o o k p i t y and deep i n his heart H e decided to relieve the a l l - n o u r i s h i n g earth o f m a n k i n d b y setting alight the great conflict o f the Ilian War.

3

I n the same scholia t h e r e is also a prose n a r r a t i v e :

4

E a r t h , being oppressed b y the m u l t i t u d e o f m e n , since there was n o p i e t y o f m e n , asked Zeus to be lightened o f this b u r den. A n d first Zeus caused at once the T h e b a n War b y w h i c h

101

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R E V O L U T I O N

he destroyed m a n y m e n t h o r o u g h l y . A f t e r w a r d s he caused again the T r o j a n War, c o n s u l t i n g w i t h M o m o s — t h i s is called the " d e c i s i o n o f Z e u s " b y H o m e r ; he c o u l d have destroyed t h e m all w i t h bolts o f l i g h t n i n g or floods, b u t M o m o s prevented this and suggested rather t w o measures t o h i m , t o m a r r y T h e t i s t o a h u m a n and t o generate a beautiful daughter. T h u s A c h i l l e s a n d H e l e n are b o r n a n d , w i t h t h e m , t h e seeds o f the T r o j a n War. T h e t w o t e x t s c a n n o t d i r e c t l y be c o m b i n e d . I n t h e verses q u o t e d , Z e u s reacts d i r e c t l y t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e e a r t h , " s e e i n g " a n d f e e l i n g p i t y at h e r p l i g h t , a n d i m m e d i a t e l y plans the T r o j a n War. A s t h e excerpts f r o m t h e Cypria

i n Proklos i n -

d i c a t e , Z e u s discussed f u r t h e r details w i t h T h e m i s . I n the prose 5

v e r s i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e e a r t h is n o t a d u m b o b j e c t o f p i t y , b u t a s p e a k i n g p a r t n e r . T h e d e c i s i o n i n v o l v e s first the T h e b a n War, a n d t h i s is f o l l o w e d b y a r e m a r k a b l e d i s c u s s i o n w i t h M o m o s . We are c l e a r l y d e a l i n g w i t h t w o c o m p e t i n g v e r s i o n s . I n fact a t h i r d v e r s i o n c o m e s f r o m t h e e n d o f the H e s i o d i c

Catalogues,

H e r e Z e u s m a k e s his d e c i s i o n all alone w h i c h t h e o t h e r s " d i d n o t yet f u l l y c o m p r e h e n d . " H i s a i m is t o b r i n g an e n d t o t h e c o n f u s i o n o f the h u m a n a n d d i v i n e spheres a n d t h e r e b y t o b r i n g the age o f heroes t o a close. " H e s o u g h t t o d e s t r o y t h e greater part o f m a n k i n d " t h r o u g h the catastrophe o f w a r . A c c o r d i n g to 6

H e s i o d ' s Erga i t was b o t h t h e T h e b a n and t h e T r o j a n w a r s t h a t m a r k the e n d o f t h e age o f heroes (163-165). T h e t e x t o f the Catalogues

is so b a d l y p r e s e r v e d i n this s e c t i o n t h a t i t is n o t f u l l y

c o m p r e h e n s i b l e ; b u t i t is clear t h a t the catastrophe is l i n k e d t o Helen. H e r e are, t h e r e f o r e , three v a r i a t i o n s o n the basic c o n c e p t o f a c a t a s t r o p h e affecting m a n k i n d t h r o u g h the d e c i s i o n o f the r u l i n g g o d . B o t h t h e Cypria

a n d t h e Catalogues,

even i f w e c a n n o t g i v e

t h e m an exact date, m u s t b e l o n g t o the archaic p e r i o d , whereas the s o u r c e o f t h e p r o s e v e r s i o n can h a r d l y be f i x e d i n t i m e . Yet i t is p r e c i s e l y t h e p r o s e v e r s i o n w h i c h has a p a r t i c u l a r a f f i n i t y w i t h t h e Atrahasis

t e x t . H e r e plans f o r different

catastrophes,

t h o u g h n o t c a r r i e d o u t , are s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d i n a s y s t e m a t i c

102

fash-

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R *

i o n , a n d , s o m e w h a t s u r p r i s i n g l y , i t is the flood w h i c h appears as the m o s t r a d i c a l m e a s u r e . W h a t is strange is the r o l e o f M o m o s , the p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f R e p r o a c h , as i t seems; he is i n t r o d u c e d o n l y here as an a d v i s o r o f Z e u s t o reject t w o suggest i o n s — m u c h p o e t i c i n v e s t m e n t w i t h l i t t l e effect. O r is i t his r o l e t o r e p r o a c h m a n k i n d ? W h a t is even m o r e c u r i o u s is t h a t , at the b e g i n n i n g o f Enuma

Elish,

A p s u , " t h e f i r s t o n e , the begetter,"

distressed b y t h e n o i s e o f the y o u n g e r g o d s , w h o are d e p r i v i n g h i m o f his sleep, m a k e s plans t o k i l l t h e m a l l , and d o i n g so he has an advisor, M u m m u , " g i v i n g counsel t o A p s u . "

7

Is M o m o s

the same as M u m m u ? I f so, the G r e e k t e x t w o u l d present a c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f m o t i f s f r o m Atrahasis

and Enuma

Elish,

as appears

t o be the case i n the c o n t e x t o f the " D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s " t o o . T h i s possible c o n n e c t i o n s t i l l does n o t a l l o w us t o place this t e x t s e c u r e l y w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e . I n the case o f Typhon-Typhoeus,

t o take a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , a prose t e x t p r e -

served i n the l i b r a r y o f A p o l l o d o r u s p r o v i d e s the m o s t s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l w i t h the H i t t i t e m y t h o f I l l u y a n k a s the d r a g o n ; i t m a y come f r o m a Hellenistic source. A s regards the Cypria,

8

the Atrahasis

t h a t the m o t i f o f the o p p r e s s i o n

t e x t s h o w s i n any case

o f the e a r t h a n d the p l a n o f

d e s t r u c t i o n o f m a n k i n d b y the h i g h e s t o f the g o d s , the weather g o d , is e x t r e m e l y o l d . T h i s discourages one f r o m s i m p l y f i n d i n g s o m e " p o s t - H o m e r i c i n v e n t i o n " i n the o p e n i n g o f the pria.

Cy-

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e is a reference t o the East even f r o m the

9

G r e e k side: T h e r e m a r k a b l e t i t l e Cypria as a reference t o the i s l a n d o f C y p r u s ,

can be u n d e r s t o o d o n l y 1 0

h o w e v e r skeptical

we

m a y be a b o u t t h e later i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t m a k e s Stasinus o f C y prus the a u t h o r o f the p o e m . A n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t at least the m a i n c o n t e n t s o f the Cypria

w e r e k n o w n a r o u n d 650 B . C , is p r o v i d e d

b y the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the J u d g m e n t o f Paris o n the C h i g i vase.

11

H o w e v e r , these o b s e r v a t i o n s m u s t t h e n p o i n t t o that e p -

o c h w h e n C y p r u s , t h o u g h r i c h a n d p o w e r f u l , was s t i l l f o r m a l l y u n d e r A s s y r i a n d o m i n a t i o n . T h e flavor o f this p e r i o d o n C y p r u s appears t o be a m i x t u r e o f eastern l u x u r y and H o m e r i c life style. T h e b u r i a l s are as l a v i s h as t h a t o f P a t r o k l o s ; i n the

chamber

t o m b s there is elaborate eastern f u r n i t u r e ; before t h e i r entrances

103

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R E V O L U T I O N

horses w e r e sacrificed a n d i n t e r r e d a l o n g w i t h t h e i r c h a r i o t s ; even a s w o r d w i t h silver nails, as k n o w n f r o m H o m e r i c d i c t i o n , has been f o u n d .

1 2

T h i s does n o t e x p l a i n w h y i t was t h e H o m e r i c

t h e m e o f the T r o j a n W a r w h i c h c a u g h t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f C y prians t o result i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f " t h e C y p r i a n e p i c . " B u t i t is a fact, e v i d e n c e d b y t h e c u r r e n t t i t l e Cypria.

N o less clear t h a n

the H o m e r i c c o n n e c t i o n s o f C y p r u s at t h e t i m e w e r e those t o S y r i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a ; t h e c o m m e m o r a t i v e steles o f A s s y r i a n k i n g s w e r e erected i n the cities o f C y p r u s . A m o n g t h e s p l e n d i d objects o f art p r o d u c e d o n C y p r u s i n t h i s p e r i o d are t w o silver b o w l s w i t h r e l i e f d e c o r a t i o n , u n i q u e i n s o far as t h e o u t e r b a n d o f reliefs e v i d e n t l y i l l u s t r a t e s a c o n t i n u o u s s t o r y : A p r i n c e i n his c h a r i o t leaves t h e c i t y t o g o o u t h u n t i n g ; he a l i g h t s f r o m his c h a r i o t a n d kneels d o w n t o s h o o t at a stag; he f o l l o w s the b l e e d i n g a n i m a l ; he flays the corpse; he m a k e s offerings t o his g o d , represented as a w i n g e d s u n d i s k above the scene; a w i l d m a n f r o m t h e w o o d s attacks the p r i n c e w i t h a stone; b u t a w i n g e d f e m a l e d i v i n i t y lifts t h e p r i n c e u p w i t h h e r a r m s a n d saves h i m ; t h e p r i n c e m o u n t s his c h a r i o t a n d pursues the w i l d m a n ; t h e p r i n c e k i l l s t h e w i l d m a n w i t h his axe; t h e p r i n c e r e t u r n s t o his c i t y . O n e o f these b o w l s reached

Italy

t h r o u g h trade a n d was f o u n d i n the lavish B e r n a r d i n i t o m b at Praeneste/Palestrina ( F i g u r e 7); the o t h e r is preserved

in only

f r a g m e n t a r y c o n d i t i o n . I t has been p r o p o s e d t h a t w o r k s o f art 1 3

l i k e this p r o v i d e d t h e G r e e k s w i t h the i n c e n t i v e f o r i n v e n t i n g their o w n m y t h o l o g y .

1 4

Today

t h e reverse h y p o t h e s i s

seems

m o r e a t t r a c t i v e : T h e artists w h o d e c o r a t e d these pieces, P h o e n i cians o n C y p r u s o r G r e e k s t r a i n e d b y P h o e n i c i a n s , w e r e i l l u s t r a t i n g a G r e e k tale, a " s o n g " c u r r e n t o n C y p r u s .

1 5

I t is clear

h o w easily t h e tale w h o s e c o n t e n t s w e can f o l l o w i n t h e frieze c o u l d be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o H o m e r i c h e x a m e t e r s ,

especially

i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e d i v i n i t y t o save h e r p r o t e g e :

"And

the here

A i n e i a s , p r i n c e o f m e n , c o u l d w e l l have p e r i s h e d , h a d n o t t h e d a u g h t e r o f Z e u s s h a r p l y n o t i c e d this . . . "

1 6

I n this perspective

the Praeneste b o w l a n d its c o u n t e r p a r t a l l o w the n o t i o n o f H o m e r i c p o e t r y o n C y p r u s a r o u n d 700 B . C . A n o t h e r possible r e f l e c t i o n o f Atrahasis

•

104

•

i n the Iliad s h o u l d be

Figure 7. Cypriote silver bowl, about 700 B.C., found in the Bernardini tomb, Praeneste: a hunting adventure, including a fight with a wild man.

m e n t i o n e d : O n e o f t h e m o s t d r a m a t i c episodes r i g h t at the beg i n n i n g o f the B a b y l o n i a n p o e m is t h e attack o f the l o w e r gods o n E n l i l , t h e i r chief. T h e y are t i r e d o f d o i n g all t h e t o i l s o m e w o r k o f d i g g i n g dikes; so t h e y b u r n t h e i r i m p l e m e n t s a n d that n i g h t t h e y g a t h e r i n f r o n t o f the h o u s e — t h e t e m p l e — o f E n l i l i n

105

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

o r d e r t o start a r e v o l t . E n l i l b e c o m e s a l a r m e d a n d q u i c k l y sends a messenger t o A n u i n t h e heavens and t o E n k i i n the depths o f the w a t e r s . B o t h c o m e at his call a n d g i v e t h e i r a d v i c e , t h e o u t come being the creation o f the h u m a n r o b o t s .

1 7

I n t h e first b o o k

o f t h e Iliad, T h e t i s tells a s t o r y w h i c h does n o t o t h e r w i s e appear a n y w h e r e else, " h o w t h e o t h e r g o d s o f O l y m p u s w a n t e d t o b i n d Zeus"—there

is n o reason g i v e n f o r t h e r e v o l u t i o n . I n t h i s i n -

stance T h e t i s acted as messenger a n d f e t c h e d f r o m t h e d e p t h s o f the sea t h e p o w e r f u l B r i a r e o s - A i g a i o n , w h o sat d o w n at Zeus's side a n d w i t h his f e r o c i o u s aspect scared t h e o t h e r g o d s a w a y . T h e correspondence

w i t h Atrahasis

18

is n o t v e r y d e t a i l e d ; stories

o f disputes a m o n g t h e g o d s are n o t u n u s u a l . Yet i f c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n eastern a n d G r e e k epic texts are established

already,

t h e y a l l o w us t o take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e eastern m o d e l even i n t h i s case. O n c e m o r e w e f i n d w h a t h a d been an i n t e g r a l elem e n t o f t h e m a i n s t o r y i n Atrahasis an u n c o n n e c t e d

d e v o l v e d i n t o a casual m o t i f ,

improvisation without

precedent

or

conse-

quence. F u r t h e r threads lead f r o m c u n n i n g A t r a h a s i s t o t h e P r o m e theus m y t h . B u t these are less specific w h e n set i n t h e c o n t e x t o f the very c o m m o n trickster f i g u r e . Seven

against

1 9

Thebes

H i s t o r y is, t o a great e x t e n t , t h e h i s t o r y o f w a r ; a n d w a r s g i v e the i m p r e s s i o n o f r e a l i t y . T h e w a r o f t h e " S e v e n against T h e b e s " is u s u a l l y

accepted as an actual h i s t o r i c a l event o f t h e

Late

B r o n z e A g e ; this seems even less c o n t r o v e r s i a l t h a n t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e T r o j a n War, w h i c h s h o u l d have h a p p e n e d o n e g e n e r a t i o n later: " T h e r e is n o reason t o suppose t h a t the tale was n o t based o n h i s t o r i c a l f a c t . "

1

A d e s t r u c t i o n level at T h e b e s t o -

w a r d s t h e e n d o f L a t e H e l l a d i c I I I B — t h a t is, i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y — h a s been established a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y , a l t h o u g h its e x act c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e fall o f P y l o s a n d M y cenae a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f T r o y V I I A is d i s p u t e d . A t T h e b e s 2

t h e d e s t r u c t i o n w o u l d be l i n k e d t o t h e attack b y t h e E p i g o n e s ,

106

" O R

who

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R "

b e l o n g t o t h e same g e n e r a t i o n as the heroes w h o f o u g h t at

T r o y , I n t h e c a t a l o g u e o f ships i n t h e Iliad i t is p r e s u p p o s e d t h a t T h e b e s has been d e s t r o y e d a n d o n l y s o m e s m a l l Hypothebai been l e f t . the

3

has

O n e u s u a l l y assumes t h a t T h e b e s lay i n r u i n s s t i l l i n

e i g h t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h a t its rise t o h e g e m o n i c p o w e r i n

Boeotia occurred later. No

4

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l trace can be e x p e c t e d o f the w a r o f t h e

Seven against T h e b e s , w h i c h e n j o y e d far greater l i t e r a r y fame t h a n t h a t o f t h e E p i g o n e s . T h e seven gates a n d the w a l l s o f T h e b e s w e r e n o t s t o r m e d at this t i m e , t r a d i t i o n says; o n the c o n t r a r y , t h e attack p r o v e d disastrous f o r the assailants. T h e epic p o e m w h i c h dealt w i t h these events e v i d e n t l y was t h e core o f the T h e b a n c y c l e . Its c o n t e n t s are p r e s u p p o s e d i n m o r e t h a n one passage o f t h e Iliad.

I n particular, the f o r m u l a

"seven-gated

T h e b e s " c o u l d have been t a k e n f r o m the T h e b a n e p i c .

5

Yet i t is here t h a t the p r o b l e m o f r e a l i t y arises. I t is d i f f i c u l t t o i m a g i n e a seven-gated c i t y i n t h e B r o n z e " A g e ; i t is nonsense t o t h i n k o f a f o r t i f i e d palace i n the s t y l e o f M y c e n a e w i t h seven gates. I n 1891 W i l a m o w i t z c a l m l y declared t h a t the seven gates e x i s t e d f o r the sake o f t h e seven assailants i n t h e saga o n l y : a n a r r a t i v e s y m m e t r y w h i c h b o r e n o r e l a t i o n t o reality. T h e later G r e e k c i t y e x t e n d e d s o m e distance over the p l a i n a n d was c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y w a l l e d . I n fact t h e h i l l u p o n w h i c h the c u r r e n t c i t y o f T h e b e s lies a n d w h e r e , i n t h e c e n t r a l s e c t i o n , finds f r o m the M y c e n a e a n palace have c o m e t o l i g h t , is large e n o u g h f o r a c i t y o f that p e r i o d . L o c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , i n t h e i r m a p s , have l o n g p u t the seven gates o n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h a t h i l l .

6

A s a result o f

c o n s t a n t o v e r b u i l d i n g , t h e r e are n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g a r c h a e o l o g i cal

finds.

O t h e r s have i n s i s t e d t h a t the h i l l always h a d a n d s t i l l

has t h r e e a n d n o t seven n a t u r a l approaches. Sarantis S y m e o n o g l o u , i n his recent a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f T h e b a n t o p o g r a p h y , agrees t h a t t h e Late B r o n z e A g e c i t y can have h a d o n l y t h r e e o r f o u r g a t e s — h e decides o n f o u r — b u t t h e n a t t r i butes t h e seven gates t o the smaller, earlier settlement: o f the M i d d l e B r o n z e A g e , f i n d i n g c o n f i r m a t i o n i n w h a t Pausanias w r o t e s o m e 1,600

years later, u n d a u n t e d b y the consequence

107

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t h a t , i f he w e r e r i g h t , t h e p u t a t i v e h i s t o r i c a l " S e v e n " o f t h e Late B r o n z e A g e c o u l d n e v e r have f o u n d t h e i r p r o p e r seven gates. This paradox finally should vindicate W i l a m o w i t z ' skepticism. T h e Seven themselves are a strange g r o u p . T h e i r n a m e s v a r y i n different v e r s i o n s , a n d i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t the o l d est o n e w i t h a n y c e r t a i n t y . I t is n o t even clear w h e t h e r t h e leader, Adrastos,

and the instigator o f the enterprise, Polyneikes

e x i l e d k i n g o f T h e b e s , s h o u l d be c o u n t e d i n w i t h t h e m . o f the heroes, as w e k n o w t h e m f r o m A e s c h y l u s ,

7

the

Some

have a s t o r y

a n d hence s o m e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f t h e i r o w n , i n c l u d i n g A m p h i araos t h e seer, w h o h a d his s a n c t u a r y and his c u l t a f t e r w a r d s ,

8

a n d T y d e u s , father o f the i m m o r t a l D i o m e d e s . O t h e r s appear as s t o c k figures t o f i l l o u t t h e l i s t . T o call o n e o f t h e m E t e o k l o s , v i s - a - v i s E t e o k l e s the b r o t h e r o f P o l y n e i k e s , appears t o be the a l m o s t desperate i n v e n t i o n o f a f a l t e r i n g p o e t . B u t seven t h e y w e r e . P o l y n e i k e s a n d E t e o k l e s have t e l l i n g n a m e s w h i c h refer t o p r e c i s e l y t h i s w a r : " m u c h s t r i f e " against " t r u e g l o r y , " the assailant against t h e p r o t e c t o r o f t h e c i t y . I t is a b s o l u t e l y

impossible

t h a t b o t h t h e w a r a n d the names o f the c o m m a n d e r s s h o u l d be h i s t o r i c a l , t h a t is, c o i n c i d e n t a l . These names are i n v e n t i o n s t o f i t a specific c o n c e p t . T h i s a n d s i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s l e d E r n s t H o w a l d t o a radical thesis presented i n 1 9 3 9 — w h i c h has, since t h e n , f o u n d h a r d l y any echo. H e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e tale o f t h e seven e v i l assailants w h o are f o r t u n a t e l y r e p u l s e d , l e d b y A d r a s t o s t h e " i n e s c a p a b l e " o n his m a g i c h o r s e , is p u r e m y t h i n its essence: O r i g i n a l l y these w e r e seven d e m o n s , an " o u t b r e a k f r o m H e l l . " A d r a s t o s

betrays

his i n f e r n a l status even t h r o u g h t h e t r a g i c choruses b y w h i c h he was h o n o r e d at S i k y o n , as w e are t o l d b y H e r o d o t u s ; his horse A r i o n , b o r n o f E r i n y s , is an i n f e r n a l steed; A d r a s t o s '

followers

are seven d e m o n s f r o m the u n d e r w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g T y d e u s w i t h his c a n n i b a l i s t i c d e s i r e s . L a t e r a n d s e c o n d a r i l y t h e u n d e r w o r l d 9

m y t h was t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a h e r o i c epic l i n k e d t o t h e actual c i t y o f T h e b e s . T h i s has created " h i s t o r y , " accepted as such r i g h t u p t o The Cambridge

Ancient

History.

W h a t H o w a l d d i d n o t k n o w was t h a t the s t o r y o f t h e attack o f t h e e v i l Seven f r o m t h e u n d e r w o r l d u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f a 108

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

t e r r i f y i n g g o d exists i n fact, i n the f o r m o f an A k k a d i a n epic t e x t : t h e s t o r y o f E r r a , the p l a g u e g o d . I t was first p u b l i s h e d i n a v i r t u a l l y c o m p l e t e f o r m i n 1956, appearing in 1969. individual

10

w i t h an i m p r o v e d v e r s i o n

I t is u n i q u e insofar as i t is the w o r k o f an

poet n a m e d

Kabti-Ilani-Marduk, who

introduces

h i m s e l f at the e n d o f t h e t e x t . T h e g o d E r r a h i m s e l f , he says, revealed the c o m p l e t e t e x t t o h i m i n a d r e a m . I n c o n t r a s t t o Atrahasis,

t h i s w o r k is r e l a t i v e l y " y o u n g . " I t has been d a t e d t o

the n i n t h o r e i g h t h c e n t u r y B . C .

1 1

K a b t i - I l a n i - M a r d u k i n t r o d u c e s the Seven (Sibitti)

as t h e sons

o f heaven a n d e a r t h , " c h a m p i o n s w i t h o u t p e e r " — t h i s e x p r e s s i o n is used as a f o r m u l a — a n d a b s o l u t e l y t e r r i f y i n g ; each o f t h e m is assigned his special d e s t r u c t i v e " f a t e " b y father A n u . T h e y call o n t h e g o d E r r a , the g o d o f w a r a n d p l a g u e , t o d e s t r o y mankind.

Marduk,

the h i g h e s t

t h r o n e and abandons

the w o r l d

god

o f Babylon,

leaves his

t o its d e s t r u c t i o n .

Foreign

peoples b e g i n t o i n v a d e B a b y l o n i a , o n l y t o be themselves

at-

t a c k e d b y t h e Seven. T h e c r y goes u p o n every side: " E r r a has k i l l e d . " B u t t h e n t h e g o d , w h o has d e m o n s t r a t e d his p o w e r so i r r e s i s t i b l y , calms d o w n , a n d , before m a n k i n d is c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y e d , he w i t h d r a w s t o g e t h e r w i t h his Seven. T h e epic c o n cludes w i t h a blessing f o r t h e l a n d o f A k k a d a n d praise f o r the powerful god. T h i s is a v e r y s h o r t s u m m a r y o f a c o m p l i c a t e d c o m p o s i t i o n . I t c a n n o t be c l a i m e d t h a t t h i s t e x t is s i m p l y a n d d i r e c t l y the o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n as p o s t u l a t e d b y H o w a l d . T h e r e are, n e v e r t h e less, r e m a r k a b l e parallels: t h e seven " c h a m p i o n s w i t h o u t peer," w h o s e n u m b e r is used as t h e i r v e r y n a m e i n this t e x t , w i t h an i n e l u c t a b l e g o d at t h e i r head; an attack and great danger; a n d then,

finally,

the retreat w h i c h means s a l v a t i o n f o r those u n d e r

t h r e a t . A s i g n i f i c a n t difference b e t w e e n the G r e e k and B a b y l o n i a n versions is t h a t t h e G r e e k saga concentrates o n the c i t y o f T h e b e s w h i l e i n the o t h e r t h e a c t i o n is set i n a w o r l d w i d e f r a m e w o r k ; a n d whereas t h e B a b y l o n i a n poet c o m b i n e s plague and war, t h e G r e e k s t o r y p o r t r a y s p u r e h e r o i c b a t t l e . Erra

is an u n u s u a l epic i n t h a t t h e l i t e r a r y t e x t s o o n came t o

assume m a g i c f u n c t i o n s . I t appeared s u i t e d t o serve as a m y t h i -

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cal m o d e l t o reverse t h e attacks o f t h a t v e r y p l a g u e g o d a n d t h e r e b y t o act as a f o r m o f e x o r c i s m . T h e t e x t , o r parts thereof, w e r e w r i t t e n o n a m u l e t s t o p r o t e c t against s i c k n e s s .

12

I n fact t h e e v i l Seven are w e l l k n o w n i n a w h o l e range o f A k k a d i a n incantation texts, f r o m different c o l l e c t i o n s .

1 3

Occa-

s i o n a l l y t h e y are l i s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d g i v e n v a r i o u s d e m o n i c n a m e s , such as asakku, limnu ( e v i l g o d ) ,

1 4

namtaru,

utukku,

alu,

etemmu,

gallu,

ilu

b u t also S o u t h W i n d , G r e a t D r a g o n , Panther,

Snake, S l i m e Beast, W h i r l w i n d ,

Evil Wind.

c o n s t a n t is t h e i r n u m b e r , w h i c h is repeated

1 5

What

remains

almost c o m p u l -

sively: " T h e y are seven, t h e y are seven." T h e y l i v e i n t h e depths o f t h e e a r t h , t h e y rise u p f r o m t h e e a r t h ;

1 6

they " k i l l , " they b r i n g

diseases o f all k i n d s ; i t is t h e y w h o a t t a c k the m o o n g o d a n d thus cause t h e eclipses o f t h e m o o n . F o r t u n a t e l y the e x o r c i s t p r i e s t has g o o d , s t r o n g h e l p i n g s p i r i t s t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e i r i n f l u ence. A m o n g t h e texts i n w h i c h t h e Seven appear is an i n c a n t a t i o n t e x t f r o m t h e series Bit meseri, tecting spirits."

1 7

" t h e house s u r r o u n d e d b y p r o -

T h i s also deals w i t h t h e h e a l i n g o f sickness.

T h e e v i l p o w e r s o f disease are represented b y the Seven, the " S e v e n w i t h t e r r i b l e w i n g s . " I n t h e r i t u a l t h e y are represented i n effigy, perhaps e v e n d r a w n o n t h e w a l l . " I placed t h e p i c t u r e o f N e r g a l at t h e i r heads." N e r g a l is the g o d o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d and o f p l a g u e w h o is v e r y close t o E r r a i n f u n c t i o n . B u t t h e n u n usual figures o f t w i n s are n a m e d : t w o i m a g e s o f " t w i n s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r " at t h e head o f t h e sick t o t h e r i g h t a n d t h e left, " t w i n s f i g h t i n g each o t h e r m a d e o f p l a s t e r " i n t h e center o f t h e d o o r way, s i m i l a r t w i n s m a d e o f asphalt o n the d o o r frames t o the r i g h t a n d t o t h e left. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e g o d s Ea a n d M a r d u k are placed as g u a r d i a n s t o t h e r i g h t a n d left i n t h e center o f the d o o r . T h e use o f f i g u r i n e s , p r o d u c e d ad h o c a n d t h e n d e s t r o y e d , is n o t an u n c o m m o n feature i n t h e practice o f e x o r c i s m ,

1 8

b u t the

t w i n s appear o n l y i n this p a r t i c u l a r t e x t . T h e r e f o l l o w s an i n c a n t a t i o n o f t h e " S e v e n before w h o m there stands t h e i m a g e o f N e r g a l " ; b u t then the exorcist turns to other "Seven gods w h o c a r r y w e a p o n s " a n d calls u p o n t h e m t o d e s t r o y enemies a n d e v i l forces a n d t o g r a n t l i f e .

I 10

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

Seven t e r r i b l e b e i n g s t h e r e f o r e are present, w i t h the g o d o f p l a g u e a n d d e a t h at t h e i r head; seven d i v i n e c o m b a t a n t s are s u p posed t o o v e r c o m e t h e e v i l ; a n d i n a d d i t i o n there are the t w i n s f i g h t i n g each o t h e r i n t h e d o o r w a y . close t o t h a t o f the Seven

1 9

T h e s i t u a t i o n is u n c a n n i l y

against Thebes as k n o w n f r o m A e s c h y -

lus: Seven e v i l a n d f r i g h t f u l assailants are e n u m e r a t e d , l e d b y one w h o s e n a m e is " i n e s c a p a b l e " ; seven a r m e d heroes are p i t t e d against t h e m ; a n d t h e decisive b a t t l e is b e t w e e n t h e t w o b r o t h e r s w h o are t o f i g h t a n d k i l l each o t h e r at t h e seventh gate. I n a d d i t i o n there is a r e m a r k a b l e i c o n o g r a p h i c b r i d g e

from

East t o West. A m o n g t h e o r t h o s t a t e reliefs f r o m the palace o f T e l l H a l a f i w h i c h , a l o n g w i t h C a r c h e m i s h a n d Z i n c i r l i , are i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e s o f Late H i t t i t e m o n u m e n t a l a r t , there appears side b y side w i t h l i o n s and g r i f f i n s a c o u p l e o f a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l m e n , t w i n s , w h o have seized each o t h e r b y the f o r e l o c k and are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r u n n i n g each o t h e r t h r o u g h w i t h t h e i r s w o r d s ( F i g u r e 8). T h i s is i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y parallel t o t h e

representa-

t i o n s o f E t e o k l e s a n d P o l y n e i k e s i n m u t u a l f r a t r i c i d e as became p o p u l a r i n E t r u r i a f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y 600 o n w a r d .

2 0

T h e r e are

n o k n o w n i n t e r m e d i a r y l i n k s ; a p o s s i b i l i t y w o u l d be l o s t m e t a l reliefs. Instead o f i m a g e s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is a t e x t f r o m Palestine t o fill t h e gap, f r o m t h e s e c o n d b o o k o f S a m u e l : D u r i n g the c i v i l w a r b e t w e e n Saul's successor a n d D a v i d , events lead t o a t o u r n a m e n t b e t w e e n t w e l v e h a n d - p i c k e d w a r r i o r s f r o m each side. " B u t each seized his o p p o n e n t b y the f o r e l o c k a n d t h r u s t his s w o r d i n t o his side so t h a t all fell t o g e t h e r . "

21

T h i s episode has

also been c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e fight o f t h e H o r a t i i a n d the C u r i a t i i in Roman tradition.

2 2

I n G r e e k m y t h there appear t h e t w o p o w -

erful b r o t h e r s , O t o s a n d E p h i a l t e s , t h e A l o a d a e ,

who would

have been i n v i n c i b l e h a d t h e y n o t a c c i d e n t l y s h o t each o t h e r w h e n a i m i n g at a d o e w h i c h leaped b e t w e e n t h e m .

2 3

Mytholog-

ical i m a g i n a t i o n s t u b b o r n l y keeps p o r t r a y i n g w h a t , i n reality, w o u l d be t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y event. T h i s seems t o be t h e ideal o f absolute a n d a u t o g e n o u s a n n i h i l a t i o n ; n o o u t s i d e r s are i n v o l v e d , a n d the c o n f l i c t e l i m i n a t e s itself. Perhaps i t is f o r t h i s reason that the Etruscans f o u n d i t a p p r o p r i a t e t o use this i m a g e so o f t e n as a reference t o d e a t h , again and again d e c o r a t i n g t h e i r f u n e r a r y

111

THE

ORIENTALIZING

REVOLUTION

Figure 8. 01'thostate relieffrom the palace at Cuzana- Tell HalaJ, ninth century B. c.: twins killing each other.

urns with the fight of Eteokles and Polyneikes. But the apotropaic function which the Tell Halaf relief must have possessed can well be understood in this sense, too, and finally also the miniature figurines used by the magicians officiating in the Bit meseri ritual fall into place. The conflict eliminates itself, after which harmony and health will return. More perplexing is the question of what an exorcism of this type can possibly have to do with an epic about Boeotian Thebes. Yet several answers come to mind. Boeotia had its ori.

112

.

OR

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d t o o ; i t lies close e n o u g h t o E u b o e a , the center o f East-West t r a d e i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . B o e o t i a n f i b u l a e f r o m a r o u n d 700 B . C . have t h e earliest m y t h o l o g i c a l representations w e k n o w i n Greece, i n c l u d i n g t h e T r o j a n horse b u t also H e r akles f i g h t i n g the seven-headed snake. T h i s m o t i f clearly has t o d o w i t h the S e m i t i c East, as does the l i o n f i g h t .

2 4

Thebes, h o w -

ever, lay i n r u i n s a n d h a d been replaced b y H y p o t h e b a i , i f the catalogue o f ships can be t a k e n as evidence o f the g e o m e t r i c o r early archaic p e r i o d . T h e K a d m e a n h i l l h a d been l a i d t o waste u n t i l the r e b u i l d i n g b e g a n , w h i c h s t i l l a l l o w e d s o m e o f the M y cenaean r u i n s t o s t a n d as sacred relics, such as the " H o u s e o f K a d m o s . " I t can be t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d t h a t seers w e r e i n v o l v e d i n such a n e w b e g i n n i n g . T h e p r o m i n e n c e o f l i v e r d i v i n a t i o n and the occasional o c c u r r e n c e o f f o u n d a t i o n deposits s h o w t h a t specialists f r o m diviners.

2 5

t h e East k n e w h o w

t o o u t d o the n a t i v e

bird-

T h u s all t h e elements are there t o a l l o w us t o e n t e r -

t a i n t h e idea t h a t , t o avert e v i l forces f r o m the n e w f o u n d a t i o n , a m i g r a n t p r a c t i t i o n e r c a r r i e d o u t s o m e f o r m o f hit meseri r i t u a l ; a n d t h a t a p o e t , i n s p i r e d w i t h m a n y ways o f s o n g b y t h e g o d , t o o k t h e p l o t o f t h e seven e v i l assailants a n d the seven p r o t e c t o r s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t w i n s as represented i n the f i g u r i n e s t o m a k e it t h e c e n t r a l t h r e a d o f an epic s o n g : I t was this c i t y o f T h e b e s w h i c h , i n o l d e n t i m e s , once was a t t a c k e d b y t h e d r e a d f u l seven b u t successfully

rebuffed t h e m a l l , even t h o u g h t h e r o y a l b r o t h -

ers k i l l e d each o t h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y at t h e gate. T h a t details o f l o c a l t r a d i t i o n s u c h as A m p h i a r a o s and Tydeus a n d , m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f a l l , O e d i p u s , the u n c a n n y father o f f r a t r i c i d e s , w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e w e b o f p o e t r y is n o t t o o a s t o n i s h i n g . T h e r e is also a second p o s s i b i l i t y . Disease is a u n i v e r s a l p r o b l e m ; e p i d e m i c s d o n o t pause at l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r s . I t has been a r g u e d t h a t there was a c a t a s t r o p h i c d r o u g h t i n Greece t o w a r d the e n d o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; m i n e a n d pestilence

2 6

b u t t h i s is far f r o m c e r t a i n . Fa-

w o u l d easily

go hand i n

hand—reason

e n o u g h t o seek o u t even u n f a m i l i a r , f o r e i g n remedies, p r o v i d i n g an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r m i g r a n t c h a r i s m a t i c s . S i m i l a r l y t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h Asgelatas reached A n a p h e , s o m e after-effects o f M e s o p o t a m i a n m a g i c a l p r a c t i c e m a y have r e m a i n e d i n B o e o t i a , a d -

113

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

m i l t e d l y t r a n s f o r m e d a l m o s t b e y o n d r e c o g n i t i o n i n t o the f o r m o f a h e r o i c s o n g . I t has been asked w h y , j u d g i n g b y t h e archaic i m a g e r y , t h e tale o f T h e b e s was so m u c h m o r e p o p u l a r w i t h t h e E t r u s c a n s t h a n i t was i n Greece, a n d the a n s w e r g i v e n has been t h a t this was because o f t h e special r o l e g i v e n t o t h e seers and t o d i v i n a t i o n i n this e p i c .

bore

more

traces o f such interests t h a n the f e w f r a g m e n t s p r e s e r v e d

allow

2 7

Perhaps the lost Thebaid

us t o r e c o g n i z e . I f t h e p o e m o f t h e Seven

against

Thebes

is an i n v e n t i o n o f the

o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d , i t m u s t s t i l l have been q u i t e a success a n d spread r a p i d l y . E v e n i n p r i m i t i v e t i m e s this w o u l d n o t have t a k e n m o r e t h a n a f e w years, and t h e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the T r o j a n theme, w i t h Tydeus/Diomedes

above a l l , c o u l d also have

o c c u r r e d v e r y q u i c k l y . T h e Iliad presupposes t h e existence o f t h e T h e b a n t h e m e i f n o t necessarily t h e w r i t t e n t e x t w h i c h later c a m e t o t h e A l e x a n d r i a n l i b r a r y . I t seems t h a t t o w a r d s the e n d o f t h e g e o m e t r i c p e r i o d a m o r e a n c i e n t t o m b was d i s c o v e r e d at Eleusis a n d f i t t e d o u t afresh f o r a c u l t o f heroes. T h i s p r e s u m a b l y is t h e grave w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t l y was called t h e T o m b o f t h e Seven, even t h o u g h n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e has been f o u n d t o i d e n tify that t o m b .

2 8

I t fits i n w i t h o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f h e r o i c c u l t

established u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e epic since t h e e i g h t h c e n tury.

2 9

T h i s gives a t e r m i n a l date f o r t h e fame o f t h e T h e b e s

t h e m e . T h e t e x t o f o u r Iliad m a y w e l l c o m e f r o m t h e first h a l f o f t h e seventh c e n t u r y .

3 0

M u c h r e m a i n s o b s c u r e a n d u n c e r t a i n f o r us even after the e n d o f t h e " d a r k ages." A l l t h e m o r e reason, t h e n , t o d r a w o n all the i n d i c a t i o n s w h i c h p o i n t t o l i k e l y c o n n e c t i o n s . W h o e v e r resists t h e idea t h a t t h e Seven against T h e b e s have t o s o m e e x t e n t a M e s o p o t a m i a n p e d i g r e e s h o u l d nevertheless n o t o v e r l o o k t h a t a s i m i l a r p r o v e n i e n c e m u s t be accepted f o r the seven-headed H y d r a as w e l l as f o r t h e Seven Sages.

31

Seven g o d s o r d e m o n s

also k n o w n a m o n g t h e A r a m a e a n s i n t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y . Common

Style

and Stance

in Oriental

and Greek

were

3 2

Epic

E v e r since the m y t h o l o g i c a l texts f r o m H a t t u s a a n d U g a r i t have a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f classicists, parallels f r o m H e s i o d a n d

114

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

"

H o m e r i n m o t i f s a n d n a r r a t i v e techniques have been c o l l e c t e d , occasionally

also t o u c h i n g o n M e s o p o t a m i a n

materials.

cently, L u i g i a A c h i l l e a Stella has presented an extensive logue o f correspondences.

1

Recata-

She pleads d e c i s i v e l y f o r t h e B r o n z e

Age cultural bridge. B u t comparisons

b y themselves

do not

p r o v i d e specific i n d i c a t o r s f o r e i t h e r an earlier o r a later b o r r o w i n g , i n d e e d f o r a n y b o r r o w i n g at all i n c o n t r a s t t o the chances o f p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t . I n a n y case, u n c e r t a i n t i e s a b o u t t h e date o f " i n f l u e n c e " s h o u l d n o t d i s t r a c t us f r o m a c k n o w l e d g i n g h o w extensive these c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s

are.

I n a sense, o f course, G r e e k epic is a v e r y self-sufficient ering. T h e formulaic system, w h i c h M i l m a n Parry

flow-

discovered

a n d e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f its necessary f u n c t i o n w i t h i n an o r a l t r a d i t i o n , is t i e d t o t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e .

2

F r o m this p o i n t o f v i e w

H o m e r has b e c o m e t h e m o d e l e x a m p l e o f an o r a l t r a d i t i o n .

3

By

c o n t r a s t , t h e eastern epic, at least i n M e s o p o t a m i a , is based i n a fixed

t r a d i t i o n o f w r i t i n g a n d schools o f scribes s p a n n i n g m o r e

t h a n t w o m i l l e n n i a . W i t h i n this t r a d i t i o n tablets are c o p i e d and r e c o p i e d again a n d a g a i n , a n d s o m e t i m e s also translated w i t h i n the c u n e i f o r m systems. O n e s h o u l d e x p e c t t h e r e f o r e t o e n c o u n t e r q u i t e different p r i n ciples o f style i n the East a n d i n the West. Yet a n y o n e w h o cares t o c o n s i d e r b o t h sides w i l l be s t r u c k b y t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f these have been i n d i c a t e d l o n g ago; a p a r t i a l listing follows. I n b o t h cases " e p i c " means n a r r a t i v e p o e t r y w h i c h e m p l o y s , i n f o r m , a l o n g verse w h i c h repeats i t s e l f i n d e f i n i t e l y , w i t h o u t s t r o p h i c d i v i s i o n . A s t o c o n t e n t , t h e tale is a b o u t g o d s and great m e n f r o m the past, o f t e n i n t e r a c t i n g . M a i n characteristics o f style are t h e s t a n d a r d e p i t h e t s , t h e f o r m u l a i c verses, the r e p e t i t i o n o f verses, t h e t y p i c a l scenes. E p i t h e t s have always appeared t o be a special characteristic o f H o m e r i c s t y l e . We are f a m i l i a r w i t h " c l o u d - g a t h e r i n g Z e u s , " " O d y s s e u s o f m a n y counsels," " O d y s s e u s o f m a n y

sufferings."

B u t i n A k k a d i a n epic, t o o , t h e c h i e f characters have characteristic e p i t h e t s . T h e c h i e f g o d , E n l i l , o f t e n appears as " t h e h e r o Enlil,"

4

the h e r o o f t h e flood is " U t n a p i s h t i m the

far-away,"

5

and t h e d a n g e r o u s Seven i n t h e E r r a epic are " c h a m p i o n s w i t h -

•

us

•

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

o u t p e e r . " S i m i l a r l y t h e U g a r i t i c epics have

fixed

6

formulas

such

as B a a l " t h e r i d e r o f c l o u d s , " " t h e V i r g i n A n a t , " a n d " D a n e l t h e Rephaite."

7

W h a t s o u n d s even m o r e H o m e r i c is t h e d e s i g n a t i o n

o f a c o m b a t a n t as " k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n b a t t l e . " I t is less clear w h y 8

the " m i s t r e s s o f t h e g o d s " is " g o o d i n s h o u t i n g , " b u t i t was also 9

unclear even t o G r e e k s w h y K a l y p s o as w e l l as K i r k e s h o u l d be "a f r i g h t f u l goddess u s i n g speech," dane theos audeessa.

B e that

as i t may, an epic p o e t c a n n o t d o w i t h o u t e p i t h e t s : T h e e a r t h is "the broad e a r t h , "

1 0

a n d a g o d o f heavens can be called " f a t h e r

o f gods and m e n . "

1 1

T h e e p i t h e t s are d e c o r a t i v e insofar as t h e y

are n e i t h e r essential t o t h e actual c o n t e x t o f t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n n o r m o d e l e d s p e c i a l l y f o r i t . A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e y are e x t r e m e l y h e l p f u l t o fill o u t a half-verse. I n f o r m u l a i c verse w h a t is m o s t s t r i k i n g is the c o m p l i c a t e d i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d i r e c t speech. T h e l a v i s h use o f d i r e c t speech, the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f w h o l e scenes i n the f o r m o f d i a l o g u e is, i n d e e d , a p e c u l i a r i t y o f t h e genre. I n A k k a d i a n , t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a is, i n l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n : " H e set his m o u t h a n d s p o k e , to . . .

he said [ t h e w o r d ] . "

T h e s i m p l e m e a n i n g o f speak

1 2

is

expressed i n three s y n o n y m s — j u s t as w i t h the w e l l - k n o w n H o meric

formula

"he

raised

his

voice

and

spoke the

winged

w o r d s . " I t is perhaps even m o r e r e m a r k a b l e t h a t characters i n Gilgamesh,

r e f l e c t i n g o n a n e w s i t u a t i o n , "speak t o t h e i r o w n

h e a r t . " " C o n s u l t i n g w i t h her heart she s p o k e , i n d e e d she t o o k c o u n s e l w i t h h e r s e l f " — d i r e c t speech f o l l o w s .

1 3

I n a similar way

H o m e r i c heroes speak t o t h e i r o w n " g r e a t - h e a r t e d thymos"

or to

t h e i r " h e a r t . " W h e n G i l g a m e s h is t r a v e l l i n g , t h e n e w day is a l ways i n t r o d u c e d w i t h t h e same f o r m u l a : " B a r e l y a s h i m m e r o f the m o r n i n g d a w n e d , "

1 4

reminiscent o f Homer's famous

line

" B u t w h e n e a r l y - b o r n r o s y - f i n g e r e d Eos a p p e a r e d . " I t is n a t u r a l f o r a n a r r a t i v e t o m o v e o n f r o m day t o day, b u t t o e m p l o y s t e r e o t y p e d f o r m u l a s f o r sunrise a n d sunset, pause a n d a c t i o n is a specific t e c h n i q u e used i n Gilgamesh Among

as i n H o m e r .

the r e p e t i t i o n s w h i c h cover a w h o l e sequence o f

verses a s t r i k i n g feature is t h e exact v e r b a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e

be-

tween c o m m a n d and performance, r e p o r t i n g and repetition o f the r e p o r t . T h e M e s o p o t a m i a ! ! scribes, w e a r y o f w e d g e s , o c c a -

116

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R "

s i o n a l l y used a " r e p e a t " s i g n , w h i c h t h e H o m e r i c scribes d i d n o t p e r m i t themselves. A m o n g t y p i c a l scenes t h e assembly o f t h e g o d s is p r o m i n e n t . A k k a d i a n has a f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n f o r i t , puhur

Hani; the designa-

t i o n is the same i n U g a r i t i c , and t h e respective scene is also f u l l y e l a b o r a t e d i n t h e H i t t i t e Song

of Ullikummi.*

5

T h a t i n the as-

s e m b l y o f t h e g o d s i t is o f t e n d e c i d e d t o send o u t a messenger is natural and still w o r t h n o t i n g . S i m i l e s are a p o p u l a r d e vic e i n the A k k a d i a n epic as i n related p o e t r y ; details need n o t be g i v e n h e r e . ' m a r k a b l e is t h a t i n Gilgamesh,

6

W h a t seems m o r e re-

the longest and h i g h e s t - r a n k i n g

t e x t , m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d f o r m s o f n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e are b e i n g t r i e d o u t , as is t h e case especially i n t h e Odysseytablet o f Gilgamesh

I n t h e eleventh

a d i s t a n t b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y g r i p p i n g piece o f

a c t i o n , t h e great flood, is i n c o r p o r a t e d t h r o u g h d i r e c t speech b y the m a i n p a r t i c i p a n t , U t n a p i s h t i m t h e far-away. T h e d u a l a c t i o n at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e epic w h i c h has t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r E n k i d u and G i l g a m e s h is set o u t i n such a w a y t h a t the n a r r a t i v e

first

f o l l o w s E n k i d u ' s a d v e n t u r e s a n d his t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d t h e n r e c o u n t s G i l g a m e s h ' s p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r the m e e t i n g t h r o u g h d i r e c t speech w h i c h t h e p r o s t i t u t e addresses t o E n k i d u ( I v 23— v i 24). T h u s even t h e n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e o f the poet o f the Odyssey, a

first-person

w h o i n c o r p o r a t e s m o s t o f O d y s s e u s ' adventures i n speech b y O d y s s e u s h i m s e l f t o the Phaeacians and

devises a d o u b l e p l o t t o b r i n g O d y s s e u s and Telemachos

to-

gether, is n o t t o t a l l y i s o l a t e d . T h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e o p e n ings o f Gilgamesh

a n d the Odyssey

has s t r u c k readers t o o : A t t e n -

t i o n is called t o t h e h e r o w h o w a n d e r e d w i d e a n d saw t h i n g s w h i l e his n a m e is i n t e n t i o n a l l y w i t h h e l d . F o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e Iliad,

many

1 7

as i t w e r e , Gilgamesh

i n particular

e x h i b i t s a c e r t a i n ethos o f the m o r t a l i t y o f h u m a n beings.

The

m a i n t h e m e o f t h e p o e m is, i n its o w n w o r d s , the "fates o f h u m a n i t y " (simatu awilutim),

w h i c h means death, i n c o n t r a s t t o the

life o f t h e g o d s , w h i c h o n l y U t n a p i s h t i m succeeded i n w i n n i n g f o r h i m s e l f . B e f o r e his fight w i t h H u m b a b a , G i l g a m e s h

draws

the h e r o i c consequence: " T h e g o d s , w i t h S h a m a s h [ t h e s u n g o d ] t h e y sit f o r e v e r ; as f o r m a n k i n d , n u m b e r e d are t h e i r days . . .

•

117

•

T H E


B u t y o u here, y o u fear death? . . .

R E V O L U T I O N

I w i l l g o ahead o f y o u . . . I f

I m y s e l f w e r e t o f a l l , let m e s t i l l set u p m y n a m e . "

Thus, pre-

1 8

cisely because m a n is d e n i e d e t e r n i t y , all t h a t r e m a i n s f o r h i m is t o w i n f a m e t h r o u g h r i s k i n g d e a t h , fame w h i c h s u r v i v e s b e y o n d d e a t h ; i m p e r i s h a b l e g l o r y (kleos aphthiton),

i n contrast to m o r t a l

m e n , these are t h e concepts set o u t i n t h e Iliad i n G r e e k .

"Yes,

dear f r i e n d ! If, h a v i n g escaped f r o m this w a r , w e w e r e t o l i v e f o r e v e r ageless, i m m o r t a l , even I w o u l d n o t f i g h t a m o n g t h e f r o n t r a n k s . . . B u t n o w , as t h e d e m o n s o f d e a t h s t a n d before us a n y h o w . . . L e t us g o ! w h e t h e r w e b r i n g g l o r y t o a n o t h e r m a n o r s o m e o n e gives g l o r y t o u s " — t h i s is H o m e r .

1 9

This i n -

s i g h t i n t o t h e l i m i t s o f t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n does n o t , h o w e v e r , lead t o c a u t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e g o d s . Far f r o m i t , aggressive o u t b u r s t s m a y o c c u r . E n k i d u t h r o w s the h i n d leg o f t h e b u l l o f heaven t o I s h t a r a n d s h o u t s : " I f I c a u g h t y o u , l i k e this I w o u l d do to y o u . "

2 0

" I n d e e d I w o u l d take revenge i f I o n l y h a d the

p o w e r , " cries A c h i l l e s t o A p o l l o , w h o has deceived h i m .

2 1

B u t m a n is w e a k a n d changeable. " O f such a k i n d is the i n s i g h t o f m o r t a l m e n , as t h e day w h i c h t h e father o f g o d s a n d m e n b r i n g s o n " states o n e o f the m o s t f a m o u s passages o f the Odyssey.

P r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l is a sentence a b o u t m o r t a l s f r o m

22

the A k k a d i a n c o m p o s i t i o n / Will Praise

the Lord

of

Wisdom:

" T h e i r i n s i g h t changes l i k e day a n d n i g h t . W h e n s t a r v i n g , t h e y b e c o m e corpses; w h e n replete, t h e y v i e w i t h t h e i r g o d s . " Closer scenes.

comparisons

One

notable

c o u l d also be example

is

made

o f actual

the E g y p t i a n

poem

2 3

battle about

Ramses I I i n t h e b a t t l e o f Q a d e s h . T h e h e r o finds h i m s e l f alone a m i d s t t h e e n e m i e s , he prays t o his father t h e g o d , t h e g o d hears h i m , w h e r e u p o n t h e h e r o attacks a n d k i l l s a l l t h e e n e m i e s . o t h e r s u g g e s t i v e t e x t is i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the Annals

of

24

An-

Sennacherib

and refers t o t h e b a t t l e o f H a l u l e i n 691 B . C . ; i t tells h o w t h e k i n g takes u p his a r m o r , m o u n t s his c h a r i o t , a n d w i t h t h e assistance o f his g o d k n o c k s d o w n t h e e n e m i e s ; so f i n a l l y " m y p r a n c i n g steeds, harnessed f o r m y r i d i n g , p l u n g e d i n t o t h e streams o f b l o o d as i n t o a r i v e r ; t h e w h e e l s o f m y c h a r i o t , w h i c h b r i n g s d o w n t h e w i c k e d a n d the e v i l , w e r e bespattered w i t h b l o o d and

118

O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

f i l t h " — n o t e t h e s t a n d a r d e p i t h e t s ; a n d j u s t l i k e Ramses the 2 5

E g y p t i a n , t h e A s s y r i a n k i n g , t o o , is represented f i g h t i n g

from

his B r o n z e A g e c h a r i o t . We are i r r e s i s t i b l y r e m i n d e d o f t h e Iliad: "Thus

under

greathearted

Achilles

his

one-hoofed

horses

stepped o n corpses a n d shields t o g e t h e r ; w i t h b l o o d the w h o l e axle was b e s p a t t e r e d , a n d t h e rails a r o u n d t h e seat, w h i c h t h e d r o p s f r o m t h e h o o f s o f t h e horses w e r e h i t t i n g . . ." C o n s i d e r i n g t h e date o f t h e A s s y r i a n t e x t , one m i g h t even t o y w i t h the idea t h a t s o m e G r e e k singer h a d a r r i v e d i n A s s y r i a t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m e r c e n a r i e s , a n d t h a t he c o m p o s e d this s o n g o n the b a t t l e o f H a l u l e w h i c h so m u c h pleased t h e k i n g t h a t i t was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the o f f i c i a l annals, w h e r e i t f o r m s a strange c o n t r a s t t o the s t a n d a r d d r e a r y a n d d u l l list o f b a t t l e a n d p l u n d e r i n g . m o r e systematic

research

i n t o this genre w o u l d be due.

2 6

But The

" S o n g o f D e b o r a h a n d B a r a k " s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n i n this context;

i t has,

among

" b a t t l e at the r i v e r . "

other stirring

events,

a

remarkable

2 7

S o m e f u r t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s i n d e t a i l b e t w e e n East a n d West, t h o u g h s t r i k i n g , have r e m a i n e d a m y s t e r y . T h i s applies t o the " W o r d o f Tree a n d S t o n e " as i t appears i n U g a r i t , i n J e r e m i a h , a n d i n H o m e r a n d H e s i o d ; i t seems t o be c o n n e c t e d w i t h a m y t h a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f m a n i n the O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d i n the

Odyssey,

b u t is used as a less l u c i d s a y i n g i n U g a r i t as i n the Iliad a n d i n Hesiod.

2 8

Less s u r p r i s i n g is t h a t t h e blessing o f t h e l a n d u n d e r the r u l e o f a g o o d k i n g is established i n M e s o p o t a m i a , b u t i t also appears i n H o m e r a n d H e s i o d : T h e earth b r i n g s f o r t h her c r o p s , the trees t h e i r f r u i t , t h e a n i m a l s t h r i v e , and " p e o p l e t h r i v e u n d e r h i m " t h e g o o d k i n g ; c o m p a r e A s h u r b a n i p a l o n h i m s e l f i n his o w n a c c o u n t : " S i n c e the g o d s . . . b e n i g n l y m a d e m e take m y seat o n the t h r o n e o f m y father, m y begetter, A d a d released his t o r r e n t s o f r a i n , Ea o p e n e d his s p r i n g s , the ears o f t h e crops g r e w five ells h i g h . . . t h e f r u i t s o f t h e f i e l d f l o u r i s h e d . . . the trees b r o u g h t t h e i r f r u i t s t o an a b u n d a n t g r o w t h , t h e cattle b r e d successfully.

D u r i n g m y r e i g n there was a b u n d a n c e , d u r i n g m y

years g o o d t h i n g s o v e r f l o w e d . "

2 9

119

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

E n o u g h o f parallels. S t y l e is h a r d l y separable f r o m c o n t e n t . F o r s t y l i s t i c e l e m e n t s , d i r e c t d e p e n d e n c e is h a r d t o p r o v e : E a c h l a n g u a g e has its o w n l a w s and its o w n life. I n H o m e r w e c a n n o t ascertain t h e presence o f " y o u n g e r , " a d d i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s against the o l d e r epic t r a d i t i o n i n the characteristics discussed so far, i n c o n t r a s t t o the m y t h o l o g i c a l concepts f o u n d i n the c o n t e x t o f the " D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s , " t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e Cypria, against

Thebes.

o r the

Seven

F o r t h e s t y l e o f b a t t l e scenes w e d e f i n i t e l y reach

the B r o n z e A g e w i t h R a m s e s ' a c c o u n t . S t i l l , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e fact t h a t w e are d e a l i n g w i t h s p a t i a l l y a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y l i n k e d spheres o f c i v i l i z a t i o n a n y h o w , t o insist o n c o m p l e t e l y separate developments

a n d p u r e l y c o i n c i d e n t a l parallels is b e g g i n g

the

q u e s t i o n . O n e has t o r e c k o n w i t h m u l t i p l e contacts, t o be set against b o t h the general h u m a n b a c k g r o u n d a n d c o m m o n t e n dencies o f h i s t o r i c a l - s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s .

W h a t was i n fact a

h e r i t a g e o f t h e B r o n z e A g e c o u l d also be r e v i t a l i z e d b y

new

i n c e n t i v e s . I t is p r o b a b l y s y m p t o m a t i c t h a t besides t h e t r a d i t i o n a l G r e e k l o a n - w o r d f o r l i o n , leon, a n o t h e r w o r d o f clearly S e m i t i c - P a l e s t i n i a n p e d i g r e e , lis, has been a d o p t e d i n s o m e H o meric similes.

3 0

I n a n y event, t h e eastern e v i d e n c e offers

such

closely related m a t e r i a l t h a t i t s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f H o m e r . T h i s f i n d i n g m u s t set c e r t a i n l i m i t s t o assessments o f p u r e l y " I n d o - E u r o p e a n " h e r o i c t r a d i t i o n . T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the first G r e e k l i b r a r y — t h e Iliad w r i t t e n d o w n o n t w e n t y - f o u r ( P ) leather s c r o l l s — a n d o f t h e great l i b r a r y o f A s h u r b a n i p a l at N i n e v e h , w h o r u l e d f r o m 668 t o 627,

may

w e l l have t a k e n place at a b o u t t h e same t i m e . E v e n this m a y n o t be t o t a l l y c o i n c i d e n t a l . T h e S e m i t i c East s t i l l h e l d the c u l t u r a l lead u n t i l t h a t date. Fables T h e g e n r e o f t h e a n i m a l fable has m e t w i t h d i s d a i n since the e n d o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t ; a n d yet i t is o n e o f the m o s t peculiar a n d e n d u r i n g f o r m s o f f o l k l i t e r a t u r e . O n e m i g h t be t e m p t e d t o 1

relegate i t t o t h e l e v e l o f p o p u l a r tale a n d t h e r e b y t o s o m e f o r m o f general a n d diffuse o r a l t r a d i t i o n . B u t m o r e d e t a i l e d research,

120

O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the area o f m e d i e v a l a n d early m o d e r n

fables,

d e m o n s t r a t e s r e p e a t e d l y t h a t i t was t h e w r i t t e n a n t h o l o g i e s , the t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d selections o f A e s o p , a n d f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n s w h i c h w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the d i f f u s i o n o f these stories. I t is t r u e t h a t the fables e n t e r e d i n t o l i v i n g f o l k t r a d i t i o n t h r o u g h children's e x p e r i e n c e at t h e level o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , so that f i e l d w o r k e r s w o u l d r e d i s c o v e r t h e m as i f t h e y h a d always b e l o n g e d t o people's o r a l w i s d o m . B u t t h e i r l i t e r a r y c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n lies m u c h f u r t h e r b a c k . A e s o p , the n a m e w i t h w h i c h t h e basic c o l l e c t i o n o f G r e e k a n i m a l fables is c o n n e c t e d , is n o t the b e g i n n i n g . I t has l o n g been k n o w n t h a t a n i m a l fables e x i s t e d n o t o n l y i n E g y p t i a n , b u t also 2

in Surnerian and A k k a d i a n

3

a n d , at least i n t h e g e n r e o f p l a n t

fables, i n H e b r e w . H e r m a n n D i e l s w r o t e o n " o r i e n t a l fables i n 4

G r e e k c l o t h i n g " as e a r l y as 1910;

he was d e a l i n g w i t h the n e w l y

d i s c o v e r e d t e x t o f C a l l i m a c h u s , w h i c h presents the fable " T h e L a u r e l a n d the O l i v e T r e e " as a tale o f " t h e a n c i e n t - L y d i a n s . "

5

B a b r i u s , w h o set d o w n t h e fables o f A e s o p i n verse, states e x pressly at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f his second b o o k t h a t this t y p e o f " m y t h " is an i n v e n t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t " S y r i a n s " f r o m t h e t i m e o f N i n o s a n d B c l o s ; A e s o p was the first t o relate t h e m t o the "sons o f t h e H e l l e n e s . " N i n o s (that is, N i n e v e h ) a n d B e l o s are t e r m s used since t h e h i s t o r i e s o f Ktesias t o designate t h e A s s y r i a n era. B a b r i u s was w r i t i n g i n S y r i a o r C i l i c i a f o r s o m e m i n o r p r i n c e . H e k n o w s w h a t he is t a l k i n g a b o u t , even i f w e are n o t 6

i n a p o s i t i o n t o p r o v e w h a t his sources w e r e f o r this thesis. F o r c o n f i r m a t i o n t h e r e is t h e fact t h a t t h e s t o r y o f A h i q a r was t r a n s lated f r o m the A r a m a i c i n t o G r e e k a n d was m a d e a p a r t o f the Life

of Aesop—maybe

j u s t at the t i m e o f B a b r i u s ; b u t C a l -

l i m a c h u s ' reference t o " t h e a n c i e n t L y d i a n s " w o u l d p o i n t t o o r i ental contacts i n t h e archaic p e r i o d .

7

F o r us G r e e k fable b e g i n s w i t h H e s i o d ' s ainos " t h e h a w k a n d the n i g h t i n g a l e " (Erga

2 0 3 - 2 1 2 ) ; t h e n A r c h i l o c h u s presents his

fables w i t h m o r a l appeal i n a p o i g n a n t a n d aggressive f o r m . We k n o w m o s t a b o u t his p o e m w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s " t h e eagle a n d t h e f o x . " Its p o i n t is q u i t e clear: t o w a r n h i g h - r a n k i n g a n d i n s o l e n t c r i m i n a l s o f t h e r e v e n g e w h i c h even the w e a k m a y take s o m e -

121

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

day. T h e f o x a n d the eagle e n t e r e d i n t o a pact, b u t o n e day the eagle ate the fox's y o u n g a n d j e e r e d at h i m f r o m t h e inaccessible h e i g h t s o f his nest. T h e f o x called o n Z e u s , the p o w e r f u l g u a r d i a n o f hybris

a n d dike—a

Retribution follows.

8

s e c t i o n o f d i r e c t speech i n the p o e m .

I t has l o n g been r e m a r k e d t h a t an A k k a -

d i a n t e x t has n e a r l y t h e same s t o r y . T h i s is n o t i t s e l f an i n d e p e n d e n t fable, b u t r a t h e r an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the m y t h o f E t a n a , w h o flew

u p t o heaven o n an eagle. I n this case i t is an eagle a n d a

snake w h o enter i n t o a pact a n d j o i n t l y gather f o o d , w h i c h t h e y share u n t i l the eagle perpetrates the o u t r a g e a n d eats the snake's y o u n g . T h e snake t u r n s t o S h a m a s h , the s u n g o d , a n d , i n d i r e c t speech, calls o n h i m as the g u a r d i a n o f j u s t i c e . R e t r i b u t i o n f o l l o w s , t h a n k s t o the c u n n i n g o f the s n a k e . A d m i t t e d l y the f o r m 9

o f r e v e n g e is d i f f e r e n t i n the t w o texts, a n d a snake is i n v o l v e d instead o f a f o x . T h e p o l a r i t y snake-eagle has a respectable s y m b o l i c t r a d i t i o n a n d may, t o t h a t e x t e n t , be the o r i g i n a l m o d e l .

1 0

A n y h o w w e are n o t d e a l i n g w i t h a case o f t r a n s l a t i o n . A n d yet it is n o t j u s t the basic idea a n d the sequence o f the m o t i f s , the strange pact, the t r a n s g r e s s i o n , the r e v e n g e , w h i c h the t w o texts have i n c o m m o n , b u t also a l i t e r a r y d e v i c e , the d i r e c t speech i n the p a t h e t i c appeal t o the h e a v e n l y g o d as a g u a r d i a n o f r i g h t a n d p u n i s h e r o f those w h o transgress i t . A prayer o f t h i s n a t u r e is n o t c o m m o n i n Greece at t h e t i m e o f A r c h i l o c h u s , as far as w e k n o w , w h e r e a s f o r the Easterners the s u n g o d is p e r f o r m i n g o n e o f his u s u a l f u n c t i o n s . T h a t the s o l e m n prayer is p u t i n the m o u t h o f an a n i m a l has a g r o t e s q u e a n d m e m o r a b l e effect i n b o t h the A k k a d i a n a n d the G r e e k t e x t s . B y the way, E t a n a b e i n g c a r r i e d u p t o heaven o n t h e w i n g s o f an eagle is o f t e n r e p r e sented o n o r i e n t a l seals. I t m a y easily be p r e s u m e d t h a t the m y t h o f the rape o f G a n y m e d e b y Z e u s i n the guise o f an eagle has been i n f l u e n c e d b y s u c h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s .

11

T h i s s t i l l does n o t e x -

p l a i n h o w A r c h i l o c h u s c o u l d have h a d k n o w l e d g e o f a M e s o p o t a m i a n t e x t . B u t a f u r t h e r s u r p r i s i n g l i n k has surfaced f o r A r c h i l o c h u s : T h e n e w A r c h i l o c h u s p o e m c o n t a i n e d i n the C o l o g n e p a p y r u s uses t h e adage o f the " h a s t y b i t c h w h o bears b l i n d p u p p i e s . "

1 2

consequently

A g o o d t h o u s a n d years before A r c h i l o -

chus t h i s p r o v e r b m a k e s its appearance i n a r o y a l letter f r o m

122

" O R

Mari.

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

T h i s m a y be called f o l k t r a d i t i o n e l a b o r a t i n g o n b i o l o g -

1 3

ical facts, b u t w e s h o u l d r a t h e r a c k n o w l e d g e a t r a d i t i o n o f w i s d o m w h i c h transcends l i n g u i s t i c a n d c u l t u r a l b a r r i e r s , especially i n the f o r m o f the a n i m a l fable. I n the case o f the E t a n a t e x t , d i r e c t l i t e r a r y c o n n e c t i o n is n o t at all r u l e d o u t . k n e w the leather scrolls o f P h o e n i c i a n - A r a m a i c

Archilochus

type.

1 4

A m u c h m o r e e n g a g i n g m o t i f appears t o be f o l k l o r i c a n d l i t e r a r y at the same t i m e , a n d i t is found i n b o t h A k k a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e a n d later i n a n c i e n t Greece: the s t o r y o f the h e r b o f r e j u v e n a t i o n , w h i c h has been l o s t t o m a n k i n d because i t was eaten b y the snake. I n Gilgamesh

this is the d r a m a t i c c o n c l u s i o n t o the

j o u r n e y t o U t n a p i s h t i m . T h e search t o evade death has been the i n c e n t i v e f o r G i l g a m e s h ' s travels; f i n a l l y all has been i n v a i n . U t n a p i s h t i m h a d i n d i c a t e d h o w G i l g a m e s h c o u l d fetch the p l a n t o f eternal y o u t h f r o m the d e p t h s o f the sea. G i l g a m e s h

does so,

a n d he sets o f f f o r h o m e w i t h his p r e c i o u s f i n d ; b u t , w h i l e he is b a t h i n g i n a c o o l s p r i n g , a snake c o m e s , attracted b y the a r o m a o f the p l a n t , a n d eats i t . T h e snake t h e n sheds its o l d s k i n — t h i s s k i n o f snakes was called geras, m e s h can o n l y l a m e n t his l o s s .

o l d age, b y the Greeks. 1 5

Gilga-

I n the G r e e k v e r s i o n , Z e u s gave

m a n k i n d a d r u g against g r o w i n g o l d as a r e w a r d f o r h a v i n g i n f o r m e d against P r o m e t h e u s .

T h e d r u g is l o a d e d o n t o an

ass.

T h e ass arrives at a s p r i n g a n d w a n t s t o d r i n k , b u t a snake p r e vents h i m f r o m g e t t i n g t o the w a t e r u n t i l the ass gives over w h a t e v e r he is c a r r y i n g o n his b a c k . T h u s , the snake is able t o rejuvenate i t s e l f w h i l e m a n k i n d is left e m p t y - h a n d e d . I n w h a t w e have o f G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e the s t o r y f i r s t appears i n the w o r k o f Ibycus.

1 6

T h u s i t was k n o w n t o the Greeks i n the archaic p e r i o d .

O n e tends t o t h i n k o f o r a l n a r r a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s at t h i s p o i n t . T h e basic t h o u g h t a n d general h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e b e h i n d the s t o r y are d r a m a t i c a l l y i m p r e s s i v e a n d easy t o c o m p r e h e n d . s t r u c t u r e a n d the details i n I b y c u s differ f r o m those o f

The Gilga-

mesh: a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , a n o t h e r m o t i v a t i o n , a n o t h e r a n i m a l i n v o l v e d as bearer o f the m i r a c u l o u s substance. T h a t snakes shed t h e i r s k i n is a b i o l o g i c a l fact, a n d snakes t e n d t o be close t o w a t e r b o t h i n n a t u r e a n d i n G r e e k m y t h o l o g y . S t i l l , real snakes d o n o t feed o n herbs o r d r u g s . I t c a n n o t be p r o v e d that the tale

•

123

•

T H E


migrated directly f r o m

Gilgamesh

R E V O L U T I O N

to Ibycus.

Yet the

general

f r a m e w o r k o f the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d and the connections o f the G r e e k w i t h t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n a n i m a l fable i n p a r t i c u l a r , this tale o f l o s t i m m o r t a l i t y b e c o m e s yet a n o t h e r e l e m e n t i n t h e shared c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n o f East a n d West. Magic

and

Cosmogony

I t r e m a i n s t o reflect o n h o w m u c h t h e c o n n e c t i n g threads w h i c h have been

f o l l o w e d here

intertwine:

Images,

practices,

and

m y t h i c a l tales are all m u t u a l l y c o n n e c t e d . Seals, scarabs, a n d a m u l e t s can be p u t t o p r o f a n e as w e l l as m a g i c a l use. R e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , h o w e v e r , can p r o d u c e a p u r e l y m y t h i c a l f i g u r e f r o m p r o t e c t i v e s y m b o l s : L a m a s h t u b e c o m e s the G o r g o n .

1

Mythical mo-

tifs can g r o w f r o m i m a g e s s u c h as the c o m b a t s w i t h t h e l i o n a n d w i t h the seven-headed snake: T h e s e t u r n i n t o tales o f t h e a d v e n tures o f H e r a k l e s , l o c a l i z e d at N e m e a a n d L e r n a ; a n o t h e r b a t t l e 2

w i t h t h e m o n s t r o u s snake changes t o b e c o m e t h e deeds o f Perseus; a n d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d e a t h o f A g a m e m n o n c o n 3

nects w i t h t h e H u m b a b a i m a g e s .

4

I n this way a system o f i n d i g -

enous m e a n i n g s is p r o j e c t e d o n f o r e i g n m a t e r i a l s t o m o d i f y a n d r e i n f o r c e G r e e k h e r o i c m y t h o l o g y ; m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n proves t o be creative, b u t i t s t i l l f o l l o w s t h e lead o f t h e a d o p t e d f o r m s . T h e fact t h a t m y t h a n d m a g i c r i t u a l can p r o f o u n d l y influence each o t h e r is w e l l k n o w n .

5

M a g i c a l i n c a n t a t i o n s t e n d t o use

m y t h i c a l stories as e x e m p l a r y precedents w h i c h p r e d i c t t h e o u t c o m e a n d t h u s assist i n a c h i e v i n g t h e i r a i m . T h i s h o l d s t r u e f r o m t h e Veda t o s o m e o l d G e r m a n c h a r m s , b u t i t is n o specialty o f t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n ; M e s o p o t a m i a n texts p r o v i d e e x a m p l e s w h i c h are n o less t e l l i n g . T h e r e is t h e m y t h o f A d a p a the fisher, w h o b r o k e t h e S o u t h W i n d ' s w i n g s w i t h a c h a r m a n d was s u m m o n e d t o heaven i n consequence; t h e A s s y r i a n v e r s i o n o f t h i s m y t h t u r n s , i n t h e e n d , i n t o an e x o r c i s m against sickness supposedly

caused b y t h e S o u t h W i n d . T h e p o e m Erra

ends

w i t h t h e g o d o f w a r a n d pestilence l u c k i l y appeased; t h e t e x t is t h e r e f o r e w r i t t e n o n m a g i c a m u l e t s t o p r o t e c t against l e n c e . T h e c r e a t i o n o f m a n k i n d as t o l d i n Atrahasis 6

124

pesti-

is also used

" O R

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

"

as a m a g i c a l t e x t t o h e l p at c h i l d b i r t h , a n d t h e tale o f h o w d r o u g h t was o v e r c o m e , making

charm.

7

f r o m the same t e x t , becomes a r a i n -

A n o t h e r incantation text recounts h o w

the

m o o n g o d Sin couples w i t h a v i r g i n , she as a cow, he as a b u l l ; the g o d begets c h i l d r e n i n t h i s w a y a n d t h e n lends a h e l p i n g h a n d t o ease t h e b i r t h : T h i s is a t r a n s p a r e n t m a g i c rite o f c h i l d b i r t h , t o o . T h e s t o r y recalls t h e G r e e k m y t h o f Z e u s a n d I o , w h o has been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a cow, a n d t h e b i r t h o f E p a p h o s b y means o f t h e father's h e l p i n g t o u c h (epaphon).

T h e r e are also

9

c o s m o g o n i c a l texts w h i c h are used against headaches a n d t o o t h ache.

9

.

I t is i n this w a y t h a t s p e c u l a t i o n a n d practice m e e t i n the cosm o g o n i c perspective: A n e w a n d p r o p e r o r d e r has t o be created o r recreated f r o m its v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s . S o m e t h i n g has

gone

w r o n g , as sickness a n d p a i n i n d i c a t e ; so o n e s h o u l d b e g i n afresh f r o m the b e g i n n i n g . T h e c o s m o g o n i c epic Enuma

Elish

was o f -

f i c i a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e N e w Year's festival at B a b y l o n t o r e b u i l d the j u s t a n d sacred order, i n c l u d i n g all t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f the g o d a n d his c i t y . T h i s means t o act o u t the same idea w h i c h 1 0

a m a g i c i a n tries as he is g e t t i n g t o the r o o t o f a p a r t i c u l a r s i c k ness w i t h i n t h e h u g e l y e n l a r g e d f r a m e w o r k o f the c i t y at the center o f t h e w o r l d . " H i g h " l i t e r a t u r e a n d p r a c t i c a l i n c a n t a t i o n s c o m e t o g e t h e r o n t h e same l e v e l , at any rate i n t h e East. I t is the p r a c t i c i n g priests w h o also c o n t r o l t h e l i t e r a r y t e x t s , as is s h o w n b y the existence o f p r i e s t s ' l i b r a r i e s i n U g a r i t , E m a r , and S u l t a n tepe. ' 1

T u r n i n g f r o m this to Greek c i v i l i z a t i o n , we f i n d the double aspect o f c a t h a r t i c p r a c t i c e a n d speculative m y t h o l o g y c o m b i n e d in O r p h i s m i n p a r t i c u l a r :

1 2

T h e r e are the m i g r a n t , m e n d i c a n t

priests w i t h t h e i r i n i t i a t i o n s s c o r n e d b y P l a t o ;

1 3

there is the fa-

m o u s and controversial m y t h about the o r i g i n o f m a n k i n d f r o m the ashes o f t h e T i t a n s w h o h a d t o r n apart D i o n y s u s — w h i c h is w h y w e c a r r y the r e b e l l i o u s as w e l l as the d i v i n e e l e m e n t i n ourselves.

14

T h e necessary l i n k b e t w e e n r i t u a l a n d a n t h r o p o -

g o n i c m y t h can be seen f r o m t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c healers: T h e sick p e r s o n desperately asks w h a t t h e source o f the affliction m i g h t be, " w h e n c e i t s p r a n g , w h a t the r o o t o f e v i l can

125

T H E


R E V O L U T I O N

be, w h i c h g o d s t h e y s h o u l d appease w i t h sacrifice i n o r d e r t o find relief f r o m their sufferings."

15

T h e answer m u s t lie some-

w h e r e i n t h e past: T h u s E p i m e n i d e s t h e seer " p r o p h e s i e d n o t about the f u t u r e , b u t about the p a s t . "

1 6

B u t the m o s t

general

a n s w e r w h i c h can be g i v e n , e x t e n d i n g far b e y o n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l case, is t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h u m a n existence as t h e consequence o f an a n c i e n t c r i m e , as a p u n i s h m e n t g o i n g b a c k t o t h e o l d e s t " w r a t h " o f great g o d s . E m p e d o c l e s ,

as late as t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y ,

is a m i g r a n t seer a n d healer h i m s e l f w h o i d e n t i f i e s his l i f e s t y l e w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f h u m a n existence: H e r e I a m , ished f r o m the gods and a w a n d e r e r . "

"ban-

1 7

F o r classicists t h e fact t h a t t h e D i o n y s i a c - O r p h i c a n t h r o p o g o n y as an e x p l i c i t t e x t is f o u n d o n l y i n O l y m p i o d o r u s , t h a t is, i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y A . D . , has r e p e a t e d l y r o u s e d t h e s u s p i c i o n t h a t t h i s is a " l a t e i n v e n t i o n . " I t is a l l the m o r e a s t o u n d i n g t h a t the closest parallels are i n fact p r o v i d e d b y t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n m y t h o l o g i c a l t e x t s , w h i c h g o b a c k w e l l i n t o t h e second m i l l e n n i u m B . C . T h e Enuma

Elish

depicts t h e c r e a t i o n o f m a n k i n d

f r o m the b l o o d o f a rebellious g o d c o n d e m n e d by the j u d g m e n t o f the o t h e r g o d s . O t h e r texts offer v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e t h e m e .

1 8

M o r e s t a r t l i n g is t h e v e r s i o n o f the c r e a t i o n o f m a n k i n d as t o l d i n Atrahasis:

T h e flesh a n d b l o o d o f a g o d m u s t be m i x e d w i t h

clay (tit) " t h a t g o d a n d m a n m a y be t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d i n the clay: . . . let t h e r e be a s p i r i t f r o m t h e god's flesh: L e t i t p r o c l a i m l i v i n g [ m a n ] as its s i g n ; t h a t he be n o t f o r g o t t e n , let there be a spirit."

1 9

T h e w o r d t r a n s l a t e d as " s p i r i t " is etemmu,

which oth-

e r w i s e refers t o a s p i r i t o f t h e dead, o f t e n subject t o e x o r c i s m s . T h e Atrahasis

2 0

passage e v i d e n t l y has a special, speculative p o i n t

t o m a k e , t h o u g h i t has p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t t o c a p t u r e i t . A

possible

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t h a t t h e " g o d ' s flesh" w i t h i n t h e clay is m e a n t t o a c c o u n t b o t h f o r life i n the l i v i n g b e i n g a n d f o r the g h o s t w h o is left after d e a t h , " t h a t he be n o t f o r g o t t e n . " C o n t r a s t e d w i t h " c l a y , " this s t i l l m a r k s t h e r u d i m e n t s o f a d u a l i s t i c a n t h r o p o l o g y as e a r l y as a t h o u s a n d years before H o m e r : " G o d " g i v i n g rise t o life a n d " s p i r i t " a m i d s t s o m e f o r m o f m a t t e r — t h i s c o n c e p t i o n states t h e existence o f o p p o s i t e elements i n m a n , v i o l e n t l y yet " t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d " i n t h e act o f c r e a t i o n . T h e r e is n o a n a c h -

126

OR

A L S O

A

G O D L Y

S I N G E R

r o n i s m at all i n a t t r i b u t i n g s i m i l a r l o r e t o O r p h i c s as early as the archaic p e r i o d , the assertion o f s o m e d i v i n e e l e m e n t i n m a n left f r o m the g o d w h o was k i l l e d at the p r i m o r d i a l act o f c r e a t i o n . T h e r e m a y even have been d i r e c t l i n k s . ' O f course the O r p h i c 2

m y t h o f D i o n y s u s is n o t a t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m any eastern t e x t . B u t w e m a y w e l l envisage the e v o l u t i o n o f a c o n t i n u o u s t r a d i t i o n t h r o u g h those

"families"

o f w a n d e r i n g priests

a n d seers f o r

w h o s e craft a m y t h o f t h i s t y p e was so p r a c t i c a l , nay

almost

necessary. T h i s w o u l d p r o v e once m o r e t h a t the East-West c o n n e c t i o n s w e n t b e y o n d accidental contacts a n d b o r r o w i n g s and o c c a s i o n a l l y reached the level o f basic a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l ideas.

127

CONCLUSION

To s u m up a l o n g and often tortuous investigation: Emanating f r o m the N e a r East, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m i l i t a r y e x p a n s i o n a n d g r o w i n g economic activities, a cultural c o n t i n u u m i n c l u d i n g l i t eracy was created b y the e i g h t h c e n t u r y e x t e n d i n g over t h e e n t i r e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ; i t i n v o l v e d g r o u p s o f Greeks w h o entered i n t o intensive exchange w i t h the h i g h cultures o f the Semitic East. C u l t u r a l p r e d o m i n a n c e r e m a i n e d f o r a w h i l e w i t h t h e O r i ent; b u t G r e e k s i m m e d i a t e l y b e g a n t o d e v e l o p t h e i r o w n d i s t i n c t i v e f o r m s o f c u l t u r e t h r o u g h an a s t o n i s h i n g a b i l i t y b o t h t o a d o p t a n d t o t r a n s f o r m w h a t t h e y h a d received. S o o n Greece was t o take over t h e l e a d i n g r o l e i n M e d i t e r r a n e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n . It is safe t o state t h a t t h e East-West c o n n e c t i o n s o f t h i s e p o c h w e r e m o r e i n t e n s i v e t h a n t h e " A e g e a n koine"

o f the B r o n z e A g e .

T h e r e w e r e t h e m i l i t a r y advances f r o m B a b y l o n i a t o C i l i c i a a n d Cyprus

i n v o l v i n g Greek

merchants,

Greek

mercenaries,

G r e e k cities; t h e r e w e r e t h e s e t t l e m e n t s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s

and on

C y p r u s a n d i n t h e West, o f t h e G r e e k s i n S y r i a a n d t h e n also i n the West. T h e r e w e r e t h e massive i m p o r t s o f g o o d s , metalwork,

especially

b u t also t h e transfer o f m a n u a l craft s k i l l s i n t o

Greece. W i t h b r o n z e reliefs, t e x t i l e s , seals, a n d o t h e r p r o d u c t s , a w h o l e w o r l d o f eastern i m a g e s was o p e n e d u p w h i c h the G r e e k s w e r e o n l y t o o eager t o a d o p t a n d t o adapt i n t h e course o f an " o r i e n t a l i z i n g r e v o l u t i o n . " A l o n g w i t h o t h e r c r a f t s m e n , m i g r a n t seers a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n priests seem t o have a r r i v e d i n G r e e k cities; l i v e r d i v i n a t i o n , f o u n d a t i o n deposits, t h e practice

128

C O N C L U S I O N

o f c a t h a r t i c h e a l i n g m a g i c all bear t h e traces o f this influence. O v e r and above all this t h e r e was the d i r e c t i m p a c t o f w r i t t e n c u l t u r e as s h o w n b y t h e a l p h a b e t , the w r i t i n g tablet, the leather s c r o l l , a n d t h e f o r m a t o f w r i t i n g b o o k s . T h i s i m p a c t is c o n f i r m e d b y e x t a n t passages o f early G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e that clearly echo M e s o p o t a m i a n classics. H o m e r ' s decisive r o l e i n f o r m i n g the w o r l d v i e w o f t h e G r e e k s f o r subsequent ages was

achieved

b y t h e force o f w r i t t e n c u l t u r e i n t o w h i c h the Greeks f i n a l l y a l l o w e d themselves t o be d r a w n r i g h t at this p e r i o d . Just as i n the case o f l i v e r d i v i n a t i o n , the l i t e r a r y b o r r o w i n g s seem t o bel o n g o n l y t o t h e last phase o f G r e e k epic p o e t r y ; i t is p o s t B r o n z e A g e w o r k s such as Enuma

Elish a n d Erra w h i c h have left

t h e i r m a r k . I t is p r e c i s e l y t h e H o m e r i c e p o c h o f Greece t h a t is the e p o c h o f t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g r e v o l u t i o n . C u l t u r e is n o t a p l a n t s p r o u t i n g f r o m its seed i n i s o l a t i o n ; i t is a c o n t i n u o u s process o f l e a r n i n g g u i d e d b y c u r i o s i t y a l o n g w i t h p r a c t i c a l needs a n d interests. I t g r o w s especially t h r o u g h a w i l l ingness t o l e a r n f r o m w h a t is " o t h e r , " w h a t is strange and f o r e i g n . A r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d such as the o r i e n t a l i z i n g e p o c h p r o v i d e d this v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t .

The

" m i r a c l e o f G r e e c e " is n o t m e r e l y the result o f a u n i q u e talent. I t also owes its existence t o the s i m p l e p h e n o m e n o n t h a t the G r e e k s are the m o s t easterly o f the Westerners. U n d e r the special c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , t h e y c o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e i n e v e r y d e v e l o p m e n t at t h e t i m e w i t h o u t f a l l i n g v i c t i m t o the c o n c o m i t a n t m i l i t a r y devastations,

as d i d t h e i r n e i g h b o r s i n

S y r i a a n d s o u t h e r n A n a t o l i a . T h e m i r a c l e d i d repeat i t s e l f once again, w h e n t h e Persian E m p i r e reached b u t f i n a l l y spared the G r e e k s . L a t e r t h e catastrophes w e r e t o c o m e f r o m b o t h t h e West a n d t h e East. Greece has r e m a i n e d i n an uneasy i n t e r m e d i a r y p o s i t i o n . H e l l a s is n o t H e s p e r i a .

129

ABBREVIATIONS

C o m m o n periodicals cited i n the notes are referred to b y standard abbreviations. For f u l l titles o f classical w o r k s cited i n abbreviated f o r m i n the notes, see The Oxford Classical Dictionary. ABV AHw ANEP

ANET

Atrahasis

J. D . Beazley, Attic Black-Figure Vase Painters ( O x f o r d 1956) W. v o n Soden, Akkadisches Handwörterbuch (Wiesbaden 1965-1981) J. B. P r i t c h a r d , ed., The Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament, 2d ed. w i t h supplement (Princeton 1969) J. B. P r i t c h a r d , ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3d ed. w i t h supplement (Princeton 1969) W. G. L a m b e r t and A . R. M i l l a r d , Atra-hasis, The Babylonian Story of the Flood ( O x f o r d 1969) W. v o n Soden, " D i e erste Tafel des altbabylonischen A t r a m h a s i s - M y t h u s , ' H a u p t t e x t ' u n d Parallelvers i o n e n , " ZA 68 (1978) 5 0 - 9 4

BM CAD

Translations: B o t t e r o and K r a m e r (1989) 530-564; D a l l e y (1989) 9 - 3 8 British Museum I . J. Gelb et a l . , eds., The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (Chicago 1956-)

CAH

The Cambridge

Ancient History

131

(Cambridge-1924-)

A B B R E V I A T I O N S

CIS CT Enuma Elish

EPRO

Erra

Gilgamesh

Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (Paris 1881—) C u n e i f o r m texts f r o m B a b y l o n i a n tablets i n the B r i t i s h M u s e u m ( L o n d o n 1896-) W. G . L a m b e r t and S. B. Parker, eds., Enuma Elis ( O x f o r d 1967) ( c u n e i f o r m text) G. F. Steiner, Der Sukzessionsmythus in Hesiods 'Théogonie' und ihren orientalischen Parallelen (Diss. H a m b u r g 1959) 7-35 ( t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f Tablets I - V I ) Translations: ANET 6 0 - 7 2 ; Labat et al. (1970) 3 6 70; B o t t é r o and K r a m e r (1989) 6 0 4 - 6 5 3 ; D a l l e y (1989) 233-277 Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romaine, ed. M . J. Vermaseren (Leiden 1961-) L. C a g n i , L'epopea di Erra ( R o m e 1969) ( t r a n s c r i p t i o n and Italian translation) L. C a g n i , Das Erra-Epos ( R o m e 1970) ( c u n e i f o r m text) Translations: Labat et al. (1970) 114-137; B o t t é r o and K r a m e r (1989) 681-707; D a l l e y (1989) 285-315 R. C . T h o m p s o n , The Epic of Gilgamish. Text, Transliteration and Notes ( O x f o r d 1930) Translations: ANET 7 2 - 9 9 ; Labat et al. (1970) 145226; A . Schott, Das Gilgamesch-Epos übersetzt und mit Anmerkungen versehen, ed. W. v o n Soden (Stuttgart 1982); D a l l e y (1989) 50-153

HAL

Hebräisches und Aramäisches Lexikon zum Alten Testament von L. Koehler und W. Baumgartner, ed. W. B a u m g a r t n e r , 3d ed. (Leiden 1967-1990)

HKL

R. Borger, Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur, vols. I—III ( B e r l i n 1967-1975) H . D o n n e r and W. R ö l l i g , Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften, vols. I - I I I (Wiesbaden 1 9 6 6 1969 )

KAI

2

KAR KBo

E. E b e l i n g , Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religiösen Inhalts, vols. I—II ( L e i p z i g 1915-1923) Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazköi, vols. I - V I (Leipzig 1916-23), V I I ff. ( B e r l i n 1954-)

132

A B B R E V I A T I O N S

KTU

KUB L1MC LSAM

M . D i e t r i c h , O . L o r e t z , and J. Sanmartfn, Die Keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit einschliesslich der keilalphabetischen Texte ausserhalb Ugarits, v o l . I (Kevelaer 1976) Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazköi ( B e r l i n 1921-1944) Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae ( Z u r i c h 1981-) F. S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacrées de l'Asie

Mineure

(Paris

1955) LSCG LSJ LSS Lugal-e

Maqlû PGM

F. S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacrées des cités grecques (Paris 1969) H . G . L i d d e l l , R. Scott, and H . S. Jones, A GreekEnglish Lexicon ( O x f o r d 1925-1940) F. S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacrées des cités grecques, supplem e n t (Paris 1962) J. Van D i j k , LUGAL UD ME-LAM-bi NIR-GAL, Le récit épique et didactique des Travaux de Ninurta, du Déluge et de la Nouvelle Création, v o l . I (Leiden 1983) Translation: B o t t é r o and K r a m e r (1989) 340-368 G . Meier, Die assyrische Beschwörungssammlung Maqlû ( B e r l i n 1937) K . Preisendanz, e d . , Papyri Graecae Magicae (Leipzig 1 9 2 8 - 3 1 , S t u t t g a r t 1973-74 ) Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft ( S t u t t g a r t 1894-1980) Reallexikon der Assyriologie ( B e r l i n 1932-) W. H . Roscher, e d . , Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig 1884-1937) A . Falkenstein and W. v o n Soden, Sumerische und Akkadische Hymnen und Gebete ( Z u r i c h 1953) E. Reiner, e d . , A Collection of Sumerian and Akkadian Incantations (Graz 1958) H . v o n A r n i m , e d . , Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta I - I V ( L e i p z i g 1905-1924) 1

RE RIA RML SAHG Shurpu S VF

2

133

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A h l b e r g , G . 1967. " A Late G e o m e t r i c Grave-Scene Influenced b y N o r t h Syrian A r t . " Opuscula Atheniensia 7, I 7 7 ~ r 8 6 . . 1971. Fighting

on Land

and Sea in Greek

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Introduction 1. 2. 142. 2. See The Oxford English Dictionary V I I (1933) 199; E. Littré, Dictionnaire de la tangue française V (1857) 1125; J . G r i m m , Deutsches Wörterbuch V I I (1889) 1345. T h e antithesis oriens-occidens o r i g i n a t e d i n R o m a n i m p e r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and was taken u p i n C h r i s t i a n L a t i n literature; see Thesaurus Linguae Latinae I X 2, 2004.52 ff. T h e m o t t o " E x O r i e n t e L u x " is m o d e r n . 3. T h e e t y m o l o g y o f K a b e i r o i f r o m Semitic kabir, great, goes back to J . J . Scaliger, Coniectanea in M. Terentium de Lingua I.atina (1565) 146 ( I o w e this reference t o A . K u r m a n n ) ; see H e m b e r g C 9 5 ° ) 318-320; contra,). Wackernagel p r o d u c e d an I n d i a n e t y m o l ogy, ZVS 41 (1907) 316-318, R K r e t s c h m e r another e t y m o l o g y f r o m Asia M i n o r , ZVS 55 (1928) 8 2 - 8 8 . T h e idea o f " g r e a t " gods expressed b y t h e Semitic r o o t kbr is n o w definitely attested f o r N o r t h Syria i n the t h i r t e e n t h century B . C . : T h e n e w texts f r o m E m a r have personal names such as Rasap-Kabar and Baal-Kabar, "Reshep" o r " B a a l is great," A r n a u d (1985/87) n o . 15, line 15; n o . 20, p. 23 f. T h e equation o f K a d m o s w i t h Semitic qdm, East, is traced back t o 1646 b y E d w a r d s (1979) 58 n.6o; that o f Europa w i t h rb, sunset, West, is ancient: ETJOU'OTÏ]- f| %(î)Qa xf\ç bvaewç, Hsch.; cf. E d w a r d s 78 f.; see also B u r k e r t (1991). O n lapetos see Chapter i , " T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , " note 37. 1

c

4. R. Pfeiffer, History of Classical Scholarship from 1300 to 1850 (1976) 173 gives m o r e precise i n f o r m a t i o n ; see also E. Schröder, " P h i l o l o g i a e studiosus," NJb 32 (1913) 168-171; E. J. Kenney, The

153

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

2-3

Classical Text (1974) 98 n . 1; H . Lloyd-Jones, Blood for the Ghosts (1982) 169 n.8. 5. T h e G e r m a n t e r m was Stammeskultur. See B u r k e r t (1980) 162-168 and the provocative s t u d y o f Bernal (1987), w h o is sharply critical o f this a n t i - o r i e n t a l stance; see for discussion o f his p o s i t i o n : " T h e Challenge o f ' B l a c k A t h e n a , ' " Arethusa special issue 1989. K. O . M ü l l e r had challenged the Semitic e t y m o l o g y o f the name K a d m o s : Orchomenos und die Minyer (1820) 113-122 and (1844 ) 107-116. 2

6. See L . P o l i a k o v , Le my the arien (1971), The Aryan Myth (1974), A basic contrast between Greeks and Semites is stated, e.g., b y F. G . Welcker, Griechische Götterlehre I (1857) 116-118—a scholar w h o was a n y t h i n g b u t n a r r o w - m i n d e d . 7. See, e . g . , K . Lehrs, Populäre Aufsätze aus dem Alterthum (1856) v i i i ; cf. (1875 ) v i : "dass i c h unter Griechen dasjenige V o l k verstehe, welches i n Griechenland w o h n t e u n d Griechen hiess, durchaus keine N a t i o n a m Ganges oder H i m a l a y a . " See also i d e m , Kleine Schriften (1902) 388 f. K a r l Lehrs was b o r n a Jew, b u t assimilated t o G e r m a n - C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r e . 2

8. See also the arguments o f E. Zeller against the supposed oriental " o r i g i n " o f Greek p h i l o s o p h y i n his Die griechische Philosophie in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung I (1856) 18-34 d I (i9i9) 21-52; H . Diels uses a sharper tone i n his r e v i e w o f G r u p p e (1887), AGPh 2 (1889) 8 8 - 9 3 ; i d e m , "Thaies ein Semite?" i b i d . 165-170. 2

a

n

6

9. U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , Homerische Untersuchungen (1884) 215: " d i e seit Jahrhunderten faulenden v ö l k e r u n d Staaten der Semiten u n d A e g y p t e r , die den H e l l e n e n t r o t z ihrer alten c u l t u r nichts hatten abgeben k ö n n e n als ein paar Handfertigkeiten u n d techniken, abgeschmackte trachten u n d gerate, zopfige Ornamente, w i d e r l i c h e fetische für n o c h w i d e r l i c h e r e g ö t z e n " ; i d e m , Hellenistische Dichtung I (1924) 2: "aus d e m O r i e n t u n d ist d e m echten H e l l e n e n t u m t o d f e i n d " ; see also i d e m , Aus Kydathen (1880) 40; he also w r o t e that Poseidonios is " d o c h schon orientalisch i n f i z i e r t " (Die Kultur der Gegenwart [1910 ] 145), a l t h o u g h "eine N a t u r w i s s e n schaft w i e die des Poseidonios hat k e i n Semit i m A l t e r t u m auch n u r v o n fern b e g r if f e n" (Der Glaube der Hellenen I I [1932] 403). Yet he acknowledges the parallel o f H e s i o d and A m o s , Antigonos von Karystos (1881) 314 f., and provides m o r e balanced j u d g m e n t s o n the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d i n Der Glaube der Hellenen I (1931) 76, I I 3

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(1932) 7. W i l a m o w i t z had learned H e b r e w at Schulpforta'—see his Inwieweit befriedigen die Schlüsse der erhaltenen griechischen Trauerspiele? ed. W. M . Calder (1974) 116 f . — b u t he d i d n o t let this show in his later p u b l i c a t i o n s . 10. As a y o u n g m a n W i l a m o w i t z r i d i c u l e d Schliemann; see his Erinnerungen (1928) 148. T h e interrelations o f Mycenaean c i v i l i z a t i o n and H o m e r d r e w a t t e n t i o n esp. i n E n g l i s h scholarship; an i n fluential synthesis was given by M . P. N i l s s o n , Homer and Mycenae (1933) ; see esp. 19-30 o n the h i s t o r y o f scholarship. 11. A . J e r e m i a s , Izdubar-Nimrod, eine altbabylonische Heldensage (1891) and RML (1890/94) I I 773-823, r e p u d i a t i n g the reading " G i l g a m e s h , " 774; " I z d u b a r " also i n H . Usener, Die Sintfluthsagen (1899) 4 ff., w h o tries t o prove the independence o f the Greek m y t h o f the flood f r o m the Semites. I n RE I A 1405 (Tkac, 1920) one finds " G i s - d u b a r r u , auch G i b i l - g a m i s u n d N a m r u d u genannt." O n the f o r m s o f spelling G i l g a m e s h i n c u n e i f o r m see H . Z i m m e r n i n O b e r h u b e r (1977) 23. 12. See W i l a m o w i t z , Die Heimkehr des Odysseus (1927) v i , about " d i e A n f ä n g e der A s s y r i o l o g i e , die ich m i t e r l e b t habe": " a u f d e m Nachbargebiet wartet man besser ab." T h e slogan " B a b e l u n d B i b e l " was launched b y t w o lectures given i n the presence o f the e m p e r o r b y E Delitzsch, published i n B e r l i n i n 1903; the designat i o n " P a n b a b y l o n i s m u s " was used b y A . Jeremias i n his preface t o Das Alte Testament im Lichte des alten Orients (1906 , 1930 ); see also A . Jeremias, Die Panbabylonisten (1907); Handbuch der altorientalischen Geisteskultur (1913, 1929 ); H . Winckler, Die babylonische Geisteskultur (1907, 1912 ); P. Jensen, Das Gilgamesch-Epos in der Weltliteratur I / I I (1906/28); see also Jensen (1912/13) and (1924). 2

4

2

2

13. W i r t h (1921); see Chapter 3. As t o the h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n , o n l y Farnell (1911) u n d e r t o o k m e t h o d i c a l discussion; see Chapter 2, " P u r i f i c a t i o n . " 14. E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums I (1884), P (1913); o r i ental h i s t o r y and classical h i s t o r y were also c o m b i n e d i n the w o r k o f C. E L e h m a n n - H a u p t ; W. O t t o changed the title o f Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft t o Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft i n 1920. M u c h earlier A . B o e c k h and E H u l t s c h had proved rem a r k a b l e connections between Greek and oriental c i v i l i z a t i o n i n m e t r o l o g y , the system o f measures and weights. 15. J. Beloch, " D i e Phoeniker a m aegaeischen Meer," RhM 49

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(1894) m - 1 3 2 ; i d e m , Griechische Geschichte I (1893) 75 f., 167 f. and I 2 (1913) 65-76. O n Julius B e l o c h see A . M o m i g l i a n o , Terzo contribute alia storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico (1966) 2 3 9 269; K . C h r i s t , Von Gibbon zu Rostovtzeff (1979) 2 4 8 - 2 8 5 . I n fact even F. C . M o v e r s , Die Phönizier (1841/56), L e w y (1895), a n d B r o w n (1898) had r e m a i n e d outsiders, as d i d B e r a r d (1902/03 and m a n y later p u b l i c a t i o n s ) . For corrections o f Beloch's p i c t u r e o f the Phoenicians see N i e m e y e r (1982), esp. the article b y C o l d s t r e a m . 2

16. H o g a r t h (1909) had concentrated o n Ionia. Poulsen (1912) also dealt w i t h H o m e r (168-183). See also M ü l l e r (1929), B a r n e t t (1956), A k u r g a l (1968), and S t r e m (1971); cf. C h a pt e r 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece." 17. See Schefold (1967) 19: "Es ist also eine n i c h t sehr g l ü c k liche G e w o h n h e i t , die K u n s t des 7. Jahrhunderts 'orientalisierend' zu n e n n e n . " T h e t e r m the orientalizing revolution is f r o m B o a r d m a n (1990). 18. See his r e v i e w o f CAH i n Gnomon 7 (1931) 65-74. 19. F. B o l l and K . B e z o l d , Reflexe astrologischer Keilinschriften bei griechischen Schriftstellern, Sitzungsber. H e i d e l b e r g 1911.7; i d e m , Zenit- und Aequatorialgestirne am babylonischen Fixsternhimmel, ibid. 1913.11; i d e m , " E i n e neue babylonisch-griechische Parallele," i n Aufsätze zur Kultur- und Sprachgeschichte E. Kuhn gewidmet (1916) 226-235; i d e m , Sternglaube und Sterndeutung (1918, 1931 ); F. B o l l , " Z u r b a b y l o n i s c h e n P l a n e t e n o r d n u n g , " ZA 25 (1911) 372-377; i d e m , " N e u e s zur b a b y l o n i s c h e n P l a n e t e n o r d n u n g , " i b i d . 28 (1914) 3 4 0 - 3 5 1 ; i d e m , Antike Beobachtungen farbiger Sterne, A b h . M ü n c h e n 30 (1916). Boll's o b i t u a r y o f C a r l B e z o l d is i n F. B o l l , Kleine Schriften zur Sternkunde des Altertums (1950) 397-405; cf. i b i d . x x i i i f.; O . Neugebauer, " Z u r Geschichte des P y t h a g o r ä i s c h e n Lehrsatzes," NGG math.-ph. Kl. (1928) 4 5 - 4 8 ; cf. B u r k e r t (1972) 429. 4

20. D o r n s e i f f (1933) 25-27, f o l l o w i n g E. H o n i g m a n n , RE I V A (1932) 1577 s.v. Syria; and W. P o r z i g , " I l l u y a n k a s u n d T y p h o n , " i n Kleinasiatische Forschungen I 3 (1930) 379-386. See f u r t h e r D o r n seiff (1934) and (1937). 21. H . G . G ü t e r b o c k , Kumarbi, Mythen vom churritischen Kronos (1946) and The Song of Ullikummi (1952); Lesky (1950), (1954), (1955); D i r l m e i e r (1955); H e u b e c k (1955); Steiner (1959); Walcot (1966); West (1966); see already D o r n s e i f f (1937) = (1959) 55-

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22. Lesky (1955); D i r l m e i e r (1955); G o r d o n (1955) w i t h the r e v i e w o f Lesky Gnomon 29 (1957) 321-325; Webster (1956) and (1958); H . H a a g , Homer, Ugarit und das Alte Testament (1962); g o i n g t o o far was A s t o u r (1965), criticized b y j . B o a r d m a n , CR 16 (1966) 86-88. 23. Eissfeldt (1939), (1952); H e u b e c k (1955); see n o w B a u m garten (1981). 24. See G o r d o n (1955), Webster (1958), A s t o u r (1965) w i t h his characteristic subtitle, H a r m a t t a (1968), Laroche (1973), Stella (1978), D u c h e m i n (1980a) 848 f.; J. B o u z e k , The Aegean, Anatolia and Europe: Cultural Interrelations in the 2nd Millennium B.C. (1985); J. L. C r o w l e y , The Aegean and the East (1989); C. L a m b r o u P h i l i p p s o n , Hellenorientalia: The Near Eastern Presence in the Bronze Age Aegean, ca. 3000-1100 B.C. (1990). 25. A . R e h m , Handbuch der Archäologie I (1939) 197 f.; cf. 194 f.: "lieber ins X . als ins I X . J a h r h u n d e r t " ; hence G. Klaffenbach, Griechische Epigraphik (1957) 35, m o r e cautious (1966 ) 36; see also W Schadewaldt, Von Homers Welt und Werk (1951 ) 26 and 94 n.4; Heubeck (1955) 521 n.56: " A u f alle Fälle k o m m e n w i r beträchtlich v o r die Epoche der 'orientalisierenden' K u n s t . " T h e early date for Greek w r i t i n g was refuted b y j e f f e r y (1961); see Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and L i t e r a t u r e i n the E i g h t h C e n t u r y . " 2

2

26. See Chapter 1. 27. See alsojeffery (1976), M u r r a y (1980). 28. I t was H e u b e c k (1955) w h o argued for post-Mycenaean transmission o f eastern, esp. H i t t i t e m y t h o l o g y ; see also F. Schachermeyr, Die griechische Rückerinnerung im Lichte neuer Forschungen, Sitzungsber. W i e n 404 (1983) 23. 29. Od. 17.383-385. See C o n t e n t s . 30. See esp. Walcot (1966) and West (1966), (1978b). A n i m p o r t a n t n e w parallel t o the a d o r n m e n t o f Pandora is W. R.

Mayer

(1987). 31. T h e locus classicus for this thesis is already [Plat.] Epin. 987d; cf. O r i g . Cels. 1.2. 32. T h e a u t h o r is a Flellenist, n o t an orientalist, b u t he has made some effort t o s t u d y the Semitic texts i n the o r i g i n a l . 33. Special fields are d r i f t i n g apart: T h e e x t r e m e l y useful article " G r i e c h e n " b y W. R ö l l i g in RIA I I I (1971) 6 4 3 - 6 4 7 ignores the presence o f Greeks i n Syria and C i l i c i a d u r i n g the e i g h t h century,

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hence j u d g e s the oldest c u n e i f o r m text about Greeks (see Chapter i , " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " note 15) to be " q u i t e u n c e r t a i n " (643), and states that there can be no question o f any direct influence o n H o m e r ("dass etwa v o n e i n e m d i r e k t e n Einfluss a u f H o m e r . . . keine Rede sein k a n n , " 646). /. "Who Are Public HISTORICAL

Workers"

BACKGROUND

1. For a historical survey see CAH I I I 3, i n c l u d i n g B r a u n (1982a), (1982b); K l e n g e l (1980); M u r r a y (1980). A keen and i n t e r esting study b y M a z z a r i n o (1947) is n o w o u t d a t e d i n some respects; see also A . M o m i g l i a n o , Quarto contribute alia storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico (1969) 581-588. T h e names o f A s s y r i a n and B a b y l o n i a n kings usually appear i n f o u r variants i n o u r t r a d i t i o n , dep e n d i n g o n the H e b r e w B i b l e , the Greek B i b l e (Septuagint), the L a t i n B i b l e , and technical t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f A k k a d i a n , respectively. Here the (questionable) praxis o f CAH is f o l l o w e d . 2. See Sendschitii I - V (the T u r k i s h name o f this site has been spelled Z i n c i r l i since the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the L a t i n alphabet i n T u r k e y ) ; Landsberger (1948); m o r e recent special studies are W i n t e r (1973), Genge (1979), and a survey i n van L o o n (1991) 1-15. 2

3. A bronze b o w l w i t h a Phoenician i n s c r i p t i o n was f o u n d i n a t o m b at Knossos, dated about 900 B . C . : Arch.Rep. 1976/77, 1114; M . Sznycer, Kadmos 18 (1979) 8 9 - 9 3 ; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 263, 271, p i . 27. See also Stucky (1981), B l o m e (1982). 4. See O p p e n h e i m (1967/69), Wafler (1982), R ô l l i g (1982) 26. 5. See Chap te r 1, " W r i t i n g and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n tury." 6. See V. K a r a g e o r g h i s , Kition, Mycenaean and Phoenician (1976); i d e m , Excavations at Kition I I I (1977) 7-10; N . C o l d s t r e a m , JHS 102 (1982) 288 f., i n his r e v i e w o f V. Karageorghis and J. Des Gagniers, La céramique chypriote de style figuré (1974/79); C o l d stream, Archaeology in Cyprus (1985) 58. Cf. i n general S. F r a n k enstein, " T h e Phoenicians i n the Far West: A F u n c t i o n o f N e o A s s y r i a n I m p e r i a l i s m , " i n Power and Propaganda, ed. M . T r o l l e Larsen (1979) 263-294. 7. See W o o l l e y (1953); M u r r a y (1980) 91-93; B o a r d m a n (1980) 35-54 and (1990); B r a u n (1982a) 7-11; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 262; Riis (1982).

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8. B o a r d m a n (1965) and (1980) 45 f. 9. Riis (1970), and (1982); R C o u r b i n , "Fragments d'amphores p r o t o g é o m e t r i q u e s grecques à Bassit," i n Resurrecting the Past, ed. P. M a t t h i a e , M . van L o o n , and FL Weiss (1990) 4 9 - 6 4 . 10. P o p h a m , Sackett, and T h e m e l i s (1980); cf. Arch.Rep. 1984/ 85 (relations t o A t h e n s and t o the O r i e n t ) and 1988/89, 117-129; the F l e r o o n o f the t e n t h c e n t u r y : M . R. P o p h a m , " T h e H e r o o f I . e f k a n d i , " Antiquity 51 (1982) 169-176. Euboea has made its i m pact o n H o m e r i c studies: West (1978a), (1978b) 29 f., (1988) 165169; P. Wathelet, " L a langue h o m é r i q u e et le rayonnement littéraire de l ' E u b é e , " AC 50 (1981) 819-833; B l o m e (1984). West t h i n k s (oral c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) that "farther than E u b o e a " i n the m o u t h o f i m a g i n a r y Phaeacians (Od. 7.321) means that, e contrario, Euboea is the center i n the real w o r l d . 11. T h e finds, m a i n l y due t o G i o r g i o B ü c h n e r , have never been f u l l y published; the greatest sensation was created by the " c u p o f N e s t o r " i n 1955. See G. B u c h n e r i n R i d g w a y and R i d g w a y (1979) 129-144 and (1982); B o a r d m a n (1980) 165-169; K o p e k e (1990) i o i - n o ; o n E g y p t i a n objects H ö l b l (1979); o n the documents for w r i t i n g see Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n tury." 12. See Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n tury." 13. O n solos see C h a p t e r note 29. For " C h a l k i s " see M . chischen Nominalsuffixes (1975) sasu): W. F. A l b r i g h t , BASOR w h e t h e r Tarsis refers to Tarsos Tarschisch (1984).

1, " T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , " Meier, -id-. Zur Geschichte eines grie52 f.; Tarsis, f o u n d r y (Assyrian ra81 (1941) 14 f.; i t is controversial or t o some place i n Spain: M . K o c h ,

14. Od. 1.184; the place-name m e n t i o n e d i n this verse was controversial already i n a n t i q u i t y : T e u i o n v is the reading o f the manuscripts and s h o u l d refer t o a place i n southern Italy, b u t S t e p h . B y z . s.v. Tamasos attests T d j x a o o v , i.e., a c i t y i n C y p r u s ; cf. B r a u n (1982a) 13; K . H a d j i i o a n n o u , AA 81 (1966) 205-210, suggested EC T ' "Akaaiv, Alasia being the B r o n z e A g e name either o f C y p r u s or o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t c i t y o f C y p r u s ( E n k o m i ) . 15. H . W. Saggs, Iraq 25 (1963) 7 6 - 7 8 ; B r a u n (1982a) 15. T h e bronze plaques o f K i n g Hazael, p i o u s l y dedicated t o Hera o f Samos and A p o l l o o f Eretria i n consequence (see Chapter 1, " O r i e n t a l

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Products i n Greece," note 14), may w e l l have been l o o t e d at such an occasion. E p h a l and N a v e h (1989) conclude f r o m the i n s c r i p t i o n " W h a t H a d a d has g i v e n t o L o r d Hazael f r o m U m q i . . ." that H a zael h i m s e l f had t a k e n the pieces as b o o t y , b u t they d o n o t see such a chance for Greeks (200). c

16. B e l o c h (1913) I 2 67 f.; L. W. K i n g , JHS 30 (1910) 327335; L u c k e n b i l l (1933); M a z z a r i n o (1947) 112-130; B r a u n (1982a) 1-5. "Jawan" appears a m o n g the p r o g e n y o f N o a h i n the "table o f n a t i o n s " i n Genesis 10:2-4; his " s o n s " seem t o refer t o C y p r u s , Tarsos, and Rhodes; see West (1985) 14 f. 2

17. A n i n s c r i p t i o n o f Essarhaddon has b o t h names, Iadnana and lawan, and keeps t h e m d i s t i n c t ; see H i r s c h b e r g (1932) 68; B o r ger (1956) 86 § 57 line 10; cf. L u c k e n b i l l (1933), B r a u n (1982a) 3, 20; against B e l o c h and M a z z a r i n o , w h o identified b o t h names. A l l the evidence about Iadnana and Iamani is i n S. Parpola, Neo-Assyrian Toponyms (1970) 183, 186 f. 18. //. 13.685. U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , Die Mas und Homer (1916) 227 n . i , w r o t e : " D i e I o n i e r sind m i t den A t h e n e r n i d e n t i s c h " — f o r h i m , this is a " l a t e " i n t e r p o l a t i o n ; he was unaware o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f Euboea and Athens i n the e i g h t h century. T h e p r o b l e m about TdFoveg is that especially i n the A t t i c / I o n i a n dialect F had disappeared early and c o n t r a c t i o n o c c u r r e d , r e s u l t i n g i n Ttoveg. I t has been suggested that 'IdFoveg is m u c h older than the e i g h t h c e n t u r y ; see J. C h a d w i c k i n Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean in Ancient History and Prehistory, Studies Presented to F. Schachermeyr (1977) 106-109: " A g r o u p o f the Mycenaean inhabitants o f Greece called themselves T d F o v e g " (109). Yet i t is a fact that the u n c o n t r a c t e d f o r m remained i n current use, and this is h a r d l y a result o f the epic t r a d i t i o n : I t m u s t have been used b y n o n - I o n i a n s , i.e., D o r i a n s and C y p r i a n s ; Tarsos, C y p r u s , and Rhodes were p r o m i n e n t i n the v i e w f r o m the East (see note 16 above); people f r o m these places w i l l have referred to Euboeans and Athenians as Iawones. For Persians speaking o f Iaones, see Aesch. Persae, A r i s t o p h . Ach. 104. Even the " l o n i a n s " o f Sicily do n o t stem f r o m Asia M i n o r , b u t f r o m e i g h t h - c e n t u r y N a x o s . T h e " I o n i a n " sea seems t o m a r k the E u b o e a n - N a x i a n r o u t e t o I t a l y and Sicily ( a l t h o u g h the d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m * T a o v t o g t o T o v t o g is n o t w i t h o u t difficulty either). 19. Stele o f K i t i o n : L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I §§ 179-189; cf. §§ 70, •

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99; E l a y i and Cavigneau (1979). I a m a n i : L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I §§ 30, 6 2 - 6 3 , 7 9 - 8 o , 294-295; ANET 285 f.; hailed b y H . B e n g t s o n , Griechische Geschichtc (1950) 21 and 69, (1977 ) 24 and 77, as the first contact o f Greeks and Assyrians, H . T a d m o r , JCS 12 (1958) 80 n.219; E l a y i and C a v i g n e a u (1979) plead to understand Iamani as a personal name o f local t y p e , n o t m e a n i n g " t h e Greek." 20. See Laminger-Pascher (1989) 16-25. 5

21. Berossos; FGrHist 680 F 7 p. 386; A b y d e n o s : FGrHist 685 F 5 § 6; Streck (1916) c c c x c i - i i i . T h e m o r e authentic t r a d i t i o n is to be f o u n d w i t h A b y d e n o s ; see M o m i g l i a n o (1934); cf. M a z z a r i n o (1947) 125 f., B o a r d m a n (1965). 22. B o r g e r (1956) 60; L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I § 690. 23. First m e n t i o n e d b y H d t . 2.150.3 and H e l l a n i k o s , FGrHist 4 F 63, i.e., before the histories o f Ktesias. See Streck (1916) I c c c l x x x v i - c d v ; an i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t is Streck I I 140 f , the p r i s m o f A s h u r b a n i p a l c o n t a i n i n g a list o f kings o f C y p r u s ; cf. C. B a u r a i n , BCH 105 (1981) 366-370. 24. Hence G. Scheibner, Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat Jena, gesellsch. u. sprachwiss., Reihe 15 ( 965) 9 3 - 9 6 , t h i n k s this is a terminus ante quern for the H o m e r i c poems w h i c h a c k n o w l e d g e the riches o f Sidon; cf. B u r k e r t , WSt 89 (1976) 20. T

25. For the various consecutive versions o f the contacts w i t h L y d i a i n Ashurbanipal's Annals see C o g a n and T a d m o r (1977); the final version is i n Streck (1916) I I 2 0 - 2 3 ; cf- L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I §§ 849, 909 f. 26. H e r o d o t u s 5.49-53 describes the " R o y a l R o a d " w h i c h still goes via G o r d i o n i n P h r y g i a ; i.e., i t presupposes the r o u t e P h r y g i a C i l i c i a - A s s y r i a , whereas X e n o p h o n i n the service o f C y r u s t o o k the shorter r o u t e via K e l a i n a i - I k o n i o n . See R. W M a c a n , Herodotus Books IV V VI (1895) I I 289-303; H a n f m a n n (1948). Before the discoveries at Euboea and A l M i n a , scholars, f o l l o w i n g H o g a r t h (1909), had overestimated the i m p o r t a n c e o f " I o n i a " i n Asia M i n o r as to oriental contacts for the early p e r i o d . Barnett (1956) had ass u m e d another r o u t e f r o m U r a r t u t o Trapezunt at the Black Sea; contra, Carter (1972) 41 w i t h n . 86. For a reassessment o f the dev e l o p m e n t o f Ionia see R. M . C o o k , " I o n i a and Greece i n the E i g h t h and Seventh Centuries B . C . , " JHS 66 (1946) 6 7 - 9 8 .

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I 6

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1. See Poulsen (1912), D u n b a b i n (1957), A k u r g a l (1968), H e r r m a n n (1975), H e l c k , (1979), B o a r d m a n (1980), B r a u n (1982a), K o p e k e (1990); cf. also I n t r o d u c t i o n at note 16. 2. Barnett (1948), (1956); Greifenhagen (1965); B. FreyerSchauenburg, Elfenbeine aus dem samischen Heraion (1966); E . - L . M a r a n g o u , Lakonische Elfenbeinund Beinschnitzereien (1969); I . Winter, Iraq 38 (1976) 1-26; G. H e r r m a n n , Iraq 51 (1989) 85-109; see also H e l c k (1979) 175 n.28; B o a r d m a n (1980) 62 f., w h o also illustrates the remarkable i v o r y statuettes f r o m a t o m b at A t h e n s , t h i r d quarter o f the e i g h t h century. 3. E. D i e h l , AA 1965, 827-850; R. A . Stucky, Engraved Tridacna Shells (1974); B o a r d m a n (1980) 71 f.; S. Boessneck and A . v o n den D r i e s c h , MDAI (Athens) 98 (1983) 22-24. 4. //. 14.183; see C. Kardara, AJA 65 (1961) 6 2 - 6 4 ; f - E- L . S m i t h s o n , Hesperia 37 (1968) 77-116 w i t h p i . 33: a necklace f r o m a t o m b at the A r e o p a g u s , A t h e n s , m i d - n m t h century; P o p h a m , Sackett, and T h e m e h s (1980) 221 p i . 2 3 i d ; cf. BSA 77 (1982) p i . 30b: i m p o r t and local i m i t a t i o n ; see further H e l c k (1979) 203 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 76; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 266. c

5. J. B o a r d m a n , Island Gems (1963) and Archaic Greek Gems (1968); B o a r d m a n and Vbllenweider (1978); B o a r d m a n (1980) 71; and AA 1990, 1-17; a deposit at the t e m p l e o f A p o l l o , Eretria: BCH 103 (1979) 597-599 and 104 (1980) 657 f. f i g . 156; Arch.Rep, 1980/ 81, 8 f i g . 8. 6. B o a r d m a n and B ü c h n e r (1966); cf. P. Zazoff, Gemmen (1983) 59.

Die antiken

7. P o p h a m , Sackett, a n d T h e m e l i s (1980) pis. 233c, 2350-e; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 264 f.; C . B e r a r d , Eretria I I I : L'Heroon ä la Porte de VOuest (1970) 14-16; M u r r a y (1980) 70. 8. A . F u r t w ä n g l e r , " D i e B r o n z e n u n d die ü b r i g e n kleineren Funde v o n O l y m p i a , " i n Olympia I V (1890) 187; E. D i e h l , A A 1965, 823-827 (Samos); H . Gallet de Santerre and J. Treheux, BCH 71/72 (1947/48) 240-243 f l g . 39 (Delos). 9. //. 23.741-745; Od.4. 615-619; f o r the shield o f Achilles, //. 18, see Fittschen (1973). T h e bronze and silver b o w l s have been comprehensively treated b y M a r k o e (1985); earlier studies include K. K u b i e r , Kerameikos V 1 (1954) 201-205; Canciani (1970); Carter

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(1972); I m a i (1977); B o r e l l (1978) 7 4 - 9 2 . See, i n general, C u r t i s (1988) , esp. G. Falsone, "Phoenicia as a B r o n z e w o r k i n g C e n t r e i n the I r o n A g e , " 227-250. 10. O l y m p i a : F u r t w ä n g l e r (see above, note 8) 141 p i . 52; CIS I I 112 (not i n K/47). B o w l f r o m Pontecagnano near Salerno, i n the T y s k i e w i c z C o l l e c t i o n , Paris: B. D ' A g o s t i n o , Stud.Etr. 45 (1977) 51-58; G. G a r b i n i , i b i d . 5 8 - 6 2 . Praeneste, I ' o m b a B e r n a r d i n i : CIS I 164; Guzzo A m a d a s i (1967) 157 f. Falerii: M . C r i s t o f a n i and P. F r o n z a r d i , Stud.Etr. 39 (1971) 313-331. See also above, " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " n o t e 40, on the Phoenician b o w l f r o m Knossos. Cf. B o r e l l (1978) 8 0 - 8 2 . 11. To be p u b l i s h e d b y B. Seidel-Borell; cf. E. Kunze, Arch.Delt. 17 B (1961/62) 115 f. pis. 129-130 and 19 B (1964) p i . 181 b - c ; A . M a l l w i t z and H . V. H e r r m a n n , Die Funde aus Olympia (1980) 53 f. pis. 23-24. For a Late H i t t i t e l i o n p r o t o m e f o u n d at O l y m p i a ( f r o m a v o t i v e shield?), see Illustrated London News, 25 J u l y 1964, 121; H . V. H e r r m a n n , 10. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Olympia (1981) 7 2 - 8 2 . 12. H . V. H e r r m a n n , Die Kessel der orientalisierenden Zeit IUI ( O l y m p i s c h e Forschungen 6 and n ) (1966, 1979); cf. i d e m , Jdl 81 (1966) 7 9 - 1 4 1 ; H e r r m a n n (1975) 306 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 6 4 - 6 7 . 13. K u n z e (1931); C a n c i a n i (1970); H e r r m a n n , Olympische Forschungen 6 (1966) 179-185 and (1975) 308, t h i n k s they are i m ports; H e l c k (1979) 191 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 5 8 - 6 0 ; H . V e r b r u g gen, Le Zeus cretois (1981) 71-99; B l o m e (1982) 15-23; K o p e k e (1990) 111 t h i n k s o f a cult b y "Semites"; sec also at n . 38. For recent excavations i n the Idaean cave see J. A . Sakellarakis i n H ä g g , M a rinatos, and N o r d q u i s t (1988) 173-193, esp. n.6. 14. H e r r m a n n (1975) 308 f.; H e l c k (1979) 187-190; B u r k e r t (1979) 114-118; B o a r d m a n (1980) 69 f.; H . P h i l i p p , 10. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Olympia (1981) 91-108. Hazael's bronze plates: C h a r b o n n e t (1986); K y r i e l e i s and R ö l l i g (1988); B r o n and Lemaire (1989) ; D . Parayre, Rev. d'Ass. 83 (1989) 4 5 - 5 1 ; E p h a l and Naveh (1989); possibly l o o t e d first by Hazael, then b y Greeks (see " H i s torical B a c k g r o u n d , " n o t e 15). 15. C o l d s t r e a m (1969), (1982) 268 f.; on B e l o c h , see I n t r o d u c t i o n at note 15 and below, note 37. T h e r e are Greek testimonies as to Phoenicians at Rhodes ( A t h . 360 f. = Ergias, FGrHist 513 F 1; Polyzelos, FGrHist 521 F 6), and Zeus A t a b y r i o s at Rhodes seems c

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t o be the Baal f r o m T a b o r / A t a b y r i o n ; A . B . C o o k , Zeus I I 2 (1925) 9 2 2 - 9 2 5 ; O . Eissfeldt, Kleine Schriften I I (1963) 2 9 - 5 4 ; H e l c k (1979) 160. 16. G. M . H a n f m a n n , Bibl.Or. 30 (1973) 199; and H . V. H e r r m a n n , Gnomon 47 (1975) 401, i n their reviews o f Jantzen (1972); cf. B ô r k e r - K l a h n (1973); Hazael's bronze plate, note 14, above. 17. See notes 4, 5, and 7 as to E r e tr ia and A t h e n s , notes n - 1 2 as t o O l y m p i a ; C. Rolley, " B r o n z e s g é o m é t r i q u e s et o r i e n t a u x à D é l o s , " B C H s u p p l . 1 (1973) 523 f. 18. W. L. B r o w n ( i 9 6 0 ) ; S t r a m (1971); A . Rathje i n R i d g w a y and R i d g w a y (1979) 145-183; Verzâr (1980); E. R i c h a r d s o n , Etruscan Votive Bronzes (1983). 19. Not.Scav. 1876, 282-295; C. D . C u r t i s , " T h e B e r n a r d i n i T o m b , " Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 3 (1919) 9 - 9 0 ; G. P r o i e t t i and M . P a l l o t t i n o , II Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia (1980) nos. 363-379; Civiltà del Lazio primitivo (1976) 213-249; A . B e d i n i , PP 32 (1977) 274-309. 20. See notes 2, 12, and 40. 21. See A h l b e r g (1967), (1971); B o r e l l (1978); H e l c k (1979) 192; B o a r d m a n (1980) 7 7 - 8 2 ; Stucky (1982). 22. O n the "mistress/master o f a n i m a l s " see B l o m e (1982) 6 5 76; B . Johnson, Lady of the Beasts (1988). T h e p a t t e r n is f o u n d at M y c e n a e as w e l l as o n one o f the Cassite seals w h i c h came f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a t o B r o n z e A g e Thebes (P. A m i e t , Orientalia 34 [1976] 28 f i g . 13; K. D e m a k o p o u l o u and D . K o n s o l a , Archaeological Museum of Thebes [1981] 52 f ) , b u t i t also appears again and again o n objects i m p o r t e d d u r i n g the o r i e n t a l i z i n g p e r i o d . B o a r d m a n (1980) 78 finds i t " v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o demonstrate the t r a n s m i s s i o n " i n such cases. For one line o f t r a d i t i o n w h i c h goes f r o m Syria t o B o e o t i a see C o l d s t r e a m (1977) 13; cf. H e l c k (1971) 223-229, (1979) 210. 23. For some t i m e a g e o m e t r i c representation f r o m A t h e n s , m i d - e i g h t h century, was h e l d t o be the first example (Schefold [1964] p i . 5a), u n t i l a n i n t h - c e n t u r y p i c t u r e appeared at Knossos; H . Sackett, BSA 71 (1976) 123 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 78. See i n g e n eral W. L. B r o w n ( i 9 6 0 ) ; G a b e l m a n n (1965); Carter (1972); B l o m e (1982) 9 3 - 9 7 and AA 1988, 5 5 9 - 5 6 5 ; G. E. M a r k o e , ClAnt 8 (1989) 86-115. O n the e t y m o l o g y o f the w o r d lion see Ch a pt e r 1, " T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , " note 30.

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24. H e l c k (1979) 194-197; B o a r d m a n (1980) 78 f. O n the s p h i n x , see Vermeille (1977) and H . D e m i s c h , Die Sphinx (1977) 7 7 - 8 2 . O n griffins, see A . D i e r i c h s , Das Bild des Greifen in der frühgriechischen Flächenkunst (1981) 275-294. 25. " C h i m a e r a " o f C a r c h e m i s h : E. A k u r g a l , Die Kunst der Hethiter (197Ö ) p i . n o ; o f Z i n c i r l i : Sendschirli I I I (1902) p l . 43; cf. H e l c k (1979) 212 f.; B o a r d m a n (1980) 79. 26. O n fishmen, called kulilu i n A k k a d i a n (AHw 501), see E. U n g e r , RIA I I I 70 f.; R i t t i g (1977) 9 4 - 9 6 ; H e l c k (1979) 219; R. Stucky, e d . , Trésors du musée de Bagdad (1977) n o . 141. See also K . Shepart, The Fish-tailed Monster (1940); H . R Isler, Acheloos (1970) 92-9527. A r e m a r k a b l e "tree o f l i f e " appears o n the "Cesnola hater'; R R Kahane, AK 16 (1973) 114-138; see further C . R Kardara, " O r i e n t a l Influences o n R h o d i a n Vases," i n Les céramiques de la Grèce de l'est et leur diffusion en occident, C o l l . internat, d u centre J . B é r a r d (1976/78) 6 6 - 7 0 ; B o a r d m a n (1980) 81 f. 28. For prothesis see K . A . Sheedy, MDAI (Athens) 105 (1990) 117-151; f o r s y m p o s i u m scenes H . Kyrieleis, Thronen und Klinen (1965); B . Fehr, Orientalische und griechische Gelage (1971); J . M . Dentzer, Le motif du banquet couché et le monde grec du Vile au IVe siècle avant J.-C. (1982) 143-153. A w e l l - k n o w n picture o f r e c l i n i n g Herakles b y the A n d o k i d e s painter, LIMC Herakles n o . 1487 (cf. i 4 8 6 ) , is i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l y a direct descendant o f "Ashurbanipal's garden p a r t y , " Meissner (1920/25) Ifig.46. 2

29. E. K u n z e , A&A 2 (1946) 95-115; D . C o l l o n , " T h e S m i t i n g G o d , " Levant 4 (1972) 111-134; B u r k e r t (1975); H e l c k (1979) 1 7 9 182; H . Seeden, The Standing Armed Figurines in the Levant (1980); H . Gallet de Santerre, "Les statuettes de bronze mycéniennes au type d i t d u ' d i e u Rechef' dans leur contexte é g é e n , " BCH n i (1987) 7-29; B l o m e (1990) nos. 12 and 16. 30. R Jacobsthal, Der Blitz in der orientalischen und griechischen Kunst (1906); additions a n d corrections i n G . F u r l a n i , Stud.Etr, 5 (1931) 2 0 3 - 2 3 1 ; see also H . L . L o r i m e r , BSA 37 (1936-37), o n the g o d w i t h t w o l i g h t n i n g s , Zeus D i p a l t o s . 31. See R J. Riis, Berytus 9 (1949) 6 9 - 9 0 and ( i 9 6 0 ) 193-198; H e l c k (1971) 233 f. and (1979) 173-177; B o a r d m a n (1980) 76 f.; U . W i n t e r (1983); comprehensive treatment n o w i n B o e h m (1990). 32. F o r an A s s y r i a n image o f a goddess w i t h h i g h hat (polos)

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at Samos, dated t o the r e i g n o f Sargon I I , seejantzen (1972) B 165 p i . 69; H e r r m a n n , Gnomon 47 (1975) 398; H e l c k (1979) 184-186; see also K r a n z (1972). 33. See A . L . O p p e n h e i m , " T h e G o l d e n G a r m e n t s o f the G o d s , " JNES 8 ( i 9 4 9 ) 172-193; Fleischer (1973) 96 and ( o n the fillet, " R ü c k e n t a e n i e " ) 50 f.; B ö r k e r and K l ä h n (1973) 45. Ishtar is said t o " h o l d keppe" (e.g., "Descent o f I s h t a r " 27, ANET 107); a c c o r d i n g t o B . Landsberger, WZKM 56 ( i 9 6 0 ) 121-124 and 57 (1961) 23, this is a j u m p rope, " S p r i n g s e i l " (AHw 467); Landsberger refers t o representations o f the goddess o n seals such as W. H . Ward (1910) nos. 9 1 2 - 9 2 3 ; i n these the " r o p e " i n the hands o f the goddess, t h o u g h , is meant t o be the seam o f her g a r m e n t lifted u p b y her; cf. H e l c k (1971) 112 f. Still the s i m i l a r i t y to the r i b b o n s the goddess is h o l d i n g at Ephesos and Samos (Fleischer 102-111) is h i g h l y suggestive. 34. Samos: H . Walter, Das griechische Heiligtum. Heraion von Samos (1965) 28. Sparta: R. M . D a w k i n s , " T h e Sanctuary o f A r temis O r t h i a , " JHS s u p p l . 5 (1929) 163-186 pls. 4 7 - 6 2 ; B o a r d m a n (1980) 77; J. B . Carter, " T h e M a s k s o f O r t h e i a , " AJA 91 (1987) 355-383; her f u r t h e r suggestion ( i n H ä g g , M a r i n a t o s , and N o r d quist [1988] 8 9 - 9 8 ) that the masks were used i n a sacred marriage r i t u a l i n t h e c o n t e x t o f A l k m a n ' s Partheneion w i l l h a r d l y f i n d consent. O n M e s o p o t a m i a n and Syro-Phoenician masks, f o u n d i n t o m b s , see R. D . B a r n e t t i n Elements ( i 9 6 0 ) 147 f.; A . Parrot, Ugaritica V I (1969) 4 0 9 - 4 1 8 ; S. M o s c a t i i n Near Eastern Studies in Honour ojW. F. Albright (1971) 356 f., 362 f.; I L K ü h n e , Bagdader Mitt. 7 (1974) 101-110; E. Stern, Palestine Exploration Quart. 108 (1976) 109-118; S. M o s c a t i , ed., The Phoenicians (1988) 354-369; for three Punic p r o t o m e s at B r a u r o n , see M . B e l l , Morgantina I (1981) 87; see also Chapter 2, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 23, H u m b a b a mask f r o m Gortyn. 35. H . Luschey, Die Phiale (1939); cf. H e r r m a n n (1975) 309; B o a r d m a n (1980) 68. O n the use o f frankincense see K . Nielsen, Incense in Ancient Israel (1986); D . M a r t i n e t z , K . L ö h s , and J. Janzen, Weihrauch und Myrrhe (1989); W. Z w i c k e l , Räucherkult und Räuchergeräte (1990); cf. Chapter 1, " T h e P r o b l e m o f L o a n - W o r d s , " at note 8. 36. See J. W. Shaw, Hesperia 51 (1982) 185-191 and AJA 93 (1989) 165-183; cf. B o a r d m a n (1990) 184; B l o m e (1991) 54L

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37. O n Phoenicians see D u n b a b i n (1957) 35-43; W. A , Ward (1968); esp. C o l d s t r e a m (1969), (1982); M u h l y (1970); Edwards (1979) ; Bunnens (1979); N i e m e y e r (1982); B a m m e r (1985); G u b e l and L i p i n s k i (1985); G e h r i g and N i e m e y e r (1990), esp. J. Latacz, " D i e Phönizier bei H o m e r , " 11-20. T h e direct b u t late evidence o n Phoenicians i n Greece is collected b y F. V a t t i o n i , " F e n i c i , Siri e A r a b i e m i g r a t i i n area greca," AION 9/10 (1987/88) 91-124. See also above, n o t e 15; " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " notes 3, 6; for B e l o c h , see I n t r o d u c t i o n at n o t e 15. 38. B o a r d m a n (1961) 150 f.; (1967) esp. 6 3 - 6 7 ; (1970) 14-25; (1980) 5 6 - 6 2 ; see also B a r n e t t (1948) 6; P. Jacobsthal, J HS 71 (1951) ,91-93; D u n b a b i n (1957) 40 f.; Greifenhagen (1965) 127, 136; C o l d s t r e a m (1968) 348 f.; van L o o n (1974); M u r r a y (1980) 71. 39. Greifenhagen (1965); B o a r d m a n (1980) 71; C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 266. 40. Van L o o n (1974) 23; cf. B o a r d m a n (1980) 57 w i t h n.73: "Techniques such as these cannot be learned b y o b s e r v a t i o n . " 41. D u n b a b i n (1957) 37, 59 n . 5 ; Riis ( i 9 6 0 ) 197; Rizza and Santa M a r i a Scrinari (1968) 212-245; B o a r d m a n (1980) 76 f.; B l o m e (1982) 2 8 - 3 6 ; B o e h m (1990) 7 3 - 8 6 . 42. H e r r m a n n prefers t o t h i n k the t y m p a n o n f o u n d i n the Idaean cave (see note 13 above) was i m p o r t e d f r o m the East; (1975) 304; contra, B l o m e (1982) 16. 43. H e l c k (1979) 55, 226-228; cf. I . W i n t e r (1973) 477-482; G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) 664. 44. Plut. Sol. 24.4: (xexoLXLêaoai EJTL Tt%vr\i. See i n general F. C o a r e l l i , Artisti e artigiani in Grecia (1980); L. Neesen, Demiurgoi und Artifices. Studien zur Stellung freier Handwerker in antiken Städten (1989). ' 45. C o r i n t h : H d t . 2.167.2; Athens: D i o d . 11.43.3. 46. See J . B o a r d m a n , "Amasis: T h e I m p l i c a t i o n s o f H i s N a m e , " i n Papers on the Amasis Painter and His World ( M a l i b u 1987), 141-152. 47. A r i s t . Polit. 127837: ÖO'ÖXQV TÖ ßdvauaov f\ ^ e v i x ö v , ö i ö JTEQ o i JT0XX.01 TOiouTOt x c d vuv. Slave w o m e n were " t a k e n " and traded as weavers: II. 6.290 f., 23.263; Od. 15.418; cf. H e l c k (1979) 226 o n E g y p t . O n the "craftsmen's t a x " (xEiQtovd^tov, A r i s t . Oik. I345b7) and its Persian b a c k g r o u n d see M . W ö r r l e , Chiron 9 (1979) 91 f. 167

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

2 3 - 2 5

48. o l LIETCUTOQEUÖLIEVOI TE/VÎTCU: M . W ö r r l e , Chiron 9 (1979) 8349. Sirac. 38.30, f o l l o w i n g t h e Syrian t e x t ; see E. Kautzsch, Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments 1 (1900) 422. 50. S. K r o l l i n D . A h r e n s , e d . , Archäologie entdeckt Geschichte: Urartu (1979) 5351. Strabo 5 p . 220: ETJJTOQICC onixiouoyorv X&V o"t)vaxoA.ou9r|odvTCüv OLXO8EV; P l i n . N.H. 35.152; cf. 12.5: Heiko ex Helvetiis ob . . . fabrilem artem Romae commoratus. 52. I K i n g s 5:32, 15-25; cf. 5:20; R ö l l i g (1982) 22. 53. Ahiqar 16.3: F. N a u , Histoire et sagesse d'Ahikar l'Assyrien (1909) 204; F. C . C o n y b e a r e , J. Rendell H a r r i s , and A . S m i t h L e w is, The Story of Ahikar from the Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopie, Old Turkish, Greek and Slavonic Versions (1913) 115. 54. L u c k e n b i l l (1927) I I §§ 100, 105. 55. Sasson (1968) 47. 56. Atrahasis p . 128 f.; Gilgamesh X I 85. 57. J . F r i e d r i c h , Staatsverträge des Hatti-Reiches (1930) 77 § 18 lines 65, 67 (restored); Sasson (1968) 51. 58. Sasson (1968) 48 f. 59. H d t . 3.125-137. 60. E. F. Weidner i n Mélanges Syriens offerts à R. Dussaud (1939) I I 932 f.; ANET 308b; B o a r d m a n (1980) 52. 2

6 1 . G . M . A . Richter, AJA 50 (1946) 15-30; C . N y l a n d e r , Ionians at Pasargadae (1970); B o a r d m a n (1980) 102-105 and / H S 100 (1980) 204-206. 62. O n the i n s c r i p t i o n o n t h e T y s k i e w i c z b o w l , see note 10, above. C f . Chapter 2, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 29. 63. H d t . 2.152. 64. Alcaeus fr. 350; cf. 4 8 — t h e first m e n t i o n o f B a b y l o n and A s k a l o n i n Greek literature; Sappho fr. 202 = H d t . 2.135. See also A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions, e d . R. M e i g g s a n d D . L e w i s (1969), n o . 7. 65. I I Sam. 8:18, 15:18, 20:7, 23; I K i n g s 1:38. 66. I I K i n g s 11:4; o n Carians i n E g y p t see H d t . 2.152; O . M a s son and J . Yoyotte, Objects pharaoniques à inscription carienne (1956); O . M a s s o n , Carian Inscriptions from North Saqqara and Buhen (1978). 67. See " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " n o t e 20, above.

168

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

2 5 - 2 6

68. O n A s s y r i a n and Urartaean p r o t o t y p e s o f the Greek h o p lite shield see A . Snodgrass, Early Greek Armour and Weapons (1964) 66 f.; G o r g o n shield f r o m C a r c h e m i s h : L . Woolley, Carchemish I I (1921) 128; H . L . L o r i m e r , Homer and the Monuments (1950) 191 A 6; B o a r d m a n (1980) 51; G o r g o n shield f r o m O l y m p i a : E. K u n z e , 5. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Olympia (1956) 4 6 - 4 9 pis. 12-14; f r o m D e l p h i : L . Lerat, BCH 104 (1980) 103-114. O n the shields f r o m the Idaean cave see note 13, above. W R I T I N G A N D LITERATURE

I N THE EIGHTH

CENTURY

1. T h e basic b o o k f r o m the Greek side is Jeffery (1961, 1990 ); see also G u a r d u c c i (1967); U . H a u s m a n n , ed., " D i e Schrift u n d die Schriftzeugnisse," i n Handbuch der Archäologie I (1969) 207-393; a series o f articles w i t h the collective title " D a l sillabario miceneo a l l'alfabeto g r e c o , " PP 31 (1976) 1-102; I m m e r w a h r (1990); Powell (1991); PHOINIKEIA GRAMM ATA. Lire et écrire en Méditerranée, ed. C . B a u r a i n , C . B o n n e t , and V. K r i n g s (1991); an excellent acc o u n t given b y H e u b e c k (1979) is already outdated i n some details. H e d i d n o t yet k n o w the sensational alphabet f r o m Izbet Sartah, t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y Palestine: M . K o c h a v i , Tel Aviv 4 (1977) 1-13; A . D e m s k y , i b i d . 14-27 and i n Izbet Sartah, " A n E a r l y I r o n Site near Rosh H a ' a y i n , " Israel (1986) 186-197; J. N a v e h , Bibl. Archaeologist 43 (1980) 22-25 a n d (1982) 36 f.; K . Seybold i n j . v o n U n g e r n Sternberg and H . Reinau, eds., Vergangenheit in mündlicher Uberlieferung (1988) 142; n o r a b o u t the Phoenician alphabet f r o m the e i g h t h c e n t u r y : A . L e m a i r e , Semitica 28 (1978) 7-10; n o r about the e i g h t h - c e n t u r y alphabet f r o m the A t h e n i a n agora: J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 431 n o . 2a; I m m e r w a h r (1990) 8 f i g . 2. C f . also M . Lejeune, RPh 57 (1983) 7-12. 2

c

2. See M . P. N i l s s o n , Opuscula Selecta I I (1952) 1029-56 ( o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d 1918); Jeffery (1961) 22; H e l c k (1979) 165-167. I t m u s t still be stressed that the use o f aleph, jod, waw to indicate a, i, u is c o m m o n i n A r a m a i c f r o m early times; i n f o r m , Greek Y is almost identical w i t h Semitic w a w ; F is a variant o f it. 3. For the dependence o f the P h r y g i a n script o n the Greek, see H e u b e c k (1979) 78 against R. S. Y o u n g , Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 107 (1963) 362-364. P h r y g i a n script seems t o be i n evidence since about 725 B . c . , a l t h o u g h a later d a t i n g was advocated b y A . M . S n o d grass, The Dark Age of Greece (1971) 349 f.; m o r e l i k e l y i t arrived

•

169 •

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

2 6 - 2 7

o n the r o u t e f r o m C i l i c i a t o G o r d i o n rather than f r o m either the T r o a d o r Ionia; see " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " note 26, above. 4. H d t . 5.58; JtoivtKaaxdg was the designation f o r a " w r i t e r , " a secretary i n archaic Crete; L. H . Jeffery and A . M o r p u r g o Davies, Kadmos 9 (1970) n 8-154 and SEG 27, n o . 6 3 1 . 5. Pride o f place remains for the D i p y l o n j u g at A t h e n s , w h i c h for a l o n g t i m e was b y far the earliest d o c u m e n t , dated ca. 73 5— 725; IG I 919; Jeffery (1990) 68, 76 n o . 1; H e u b e c k (1979) 116-118; B o a r d m a n (1980) 83; SEG 30 n o . 46, 38 n o . 34; Y. D u h o u x , Kadmos 30 (1991) 153-169. B u t an i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m Ischia is n o w c o n sidered t o be older: B ü c h n e r (1978) 135-137 (ca. 7 5 0 - 7 3 0 ) ; cf. J o h n s t o n (1983) and i n Jeffery (1990) 453 w i t h p i . 76. A g e o m e t r i c sherd f r o m N a x o s w i t h a graffito has been dated t o 770 b y the excavator: B . L a m b r i n o u d a k i s , BCH 106 (1982) 605, 604 f i g . 132; SEG 33, 677; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 466 A w i t h p i . 78; cf. graffiti f r o m A n d r o s ( 7 5 0 - 7 2 0 ) , J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 466, 52a. F o r L e f k a n d i , see Jeffery i n P o p h a m , Sackett, and T h e m e l i s (1980) 8 9 92; f o r E r e t r i a , J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 434 w i t h p i . 73; i n g e n eral, P o w e l l (1991) 123-180. Some material f r o m Euboea is still u n p u b l i s h e d . O f special i m p o r t a n c e is the " c u p o f N e s t o r " f r o m Ischia, dated t o 7 3 0 - 7 2 0 : Jeffery (1961) 235 n o . 1; H e u b e c k (1979) 109-116. I t e v i d e n t l y reflects a practice o f w r i t i n g b o o k s ; cf. I m m e r w a h r (1990) 18 f. 2

6. A t w o - l e t t e r graffito f r o m Ischia w i t h sidelong A , P. K . M c C a r t e r , AJA 79 (1975) 140 f., is taken t o be Greek b y G u a r d u c c i (1967) 225 a n d H e u b e c k (1979) 123, b u t as A r a m a i c b y G a r b i n i (1978) and C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 271; cf. J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 454 f. A Greek and an A r a m a i c graffito occur o n the same sherd; J o h n ston (1983) 64 fig. 2. Graffito f r o m A l M i n a , O x f o r d : J . B o a r d m a n , Oxford Journal of Archaeology 1 (1982) 365-367; C ^ 4 H I I I : Plates (1984) 291 f. n o . 3 i 6 e ; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 476 D . 2

7. See the recent discussions o f B . B . P o w e l l , " T h e O r i g i n o f the P u z z l i n g Supplements c() x *K" TAPA 117 (1987) 1-20; and R. Wächter, " Z u r Vorgeschichte des griechischen A l p h a b e t s , " Kadmos 28 (1989) 19-78; the " c o l o r s " t o characterize Greek alphabets were i n t r o d u c e d b y A . K i r c h h o f f , Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen Alphabets (1863; 1887 ). 4

8. V. K a r a g e o r g h i s , CRAI 1980, 122-136; E. and O . Masson i n V. K a r a g e o r g h i s , Ausgrabungen in Alt-Paphos aufCypern I I I (1983)

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170 •

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

2 7 - 3 0

411—415; for the role o f C y p r u s see also Heubeck (1979) 85-87; cf. 64-70; J o h n s t o n (1983). 9. See L i p i n s k i (1988) 242. For the v a r y i n g d i r e c t i o n o f w r i t i n g i n C y p r i o t e linear script see O . Masson, Les inscriptions chypriotes syllabiques (1983 ) 78. 10. Jeffery (1961) 310-313; B o a r d m a n (1970) 18-23 and (1980) 60; for the Phoenician b o w l , see " H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , " note 3, above, and, i n general, Chapter 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece." T h e earliest Greek w r i t i n g o n Crete so far is an owner's i n s c r i p t i o n on a g e o m e t r i c pithos f r o m Phaistos (ca. 700?); Kret. Chron. 21 (1969) 153-170; H e u b e c k (1979) I 2 5 ; j o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 468 n o . 8a. 2

11. Jeffery (1961) 13-16. 12. Esp. J. Naveh, AJA 77 (1973) 1-8, (1982), and Kadmos 30 (1991) 143-152. H e is contradicted n o t o n l y b y specialists for Greek—see M c C a r t e r (1975); B . S. Isserlin, Kadmos 22 (1983) 151163; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 426 f . — b u t also b y some Semitists: A . D e m s k y , Tel Aviv 4 (1977) 22 f.; L i p i n s k i (1988); Sass (1991). L i p i n s k i and Sass still t h i n k the n i n t h century w o u l d be the latest possible date. 13. A n i m p o r t a n t n e w d o c u m e n t f r o m the m i d - e i g h t h century was published i n 1982: A . A b o u - A s s a f et a l . , La statue de Tell Fekherye et son inscription bilingue assyro-araméenne (1982); i t has some s u r p r i s i n g l y "archaic" letter f o r m s ; see L i p i n s k i (1988) 242. T h e relations between Greek and A r a m a i c script were stressed by S. Segert, Klio 41 (1963) 3 8 - 5 7 ; for a balanced j u d g m e n t , see L i p i n s k i (1988) 243 f.; cf. also C o l d s t r e a m (1982) 271; J o h n s t o n i n Jeffery (1990) 425. T h e role o f cursive f o r m s was discussed b y Johnstone (1978). 14. U g a r i t i c alphabets: KTU phabets see note 1, above.

5.6; for earliest " P h o e n i c i a n " al-

15. Lemaire (1981). 16. Ios. c.Ap. 1.28. 17. Z d v : Pindar fr. 70 b 3; cf. E. Schwyzer, Griechische matik I (1939) 140 f ; R. Wachter, Kadmos 30 (1991) 4 9 - 8 0 .

Gram-

18. G a l l i n g (1971); KTU 5.7; i n H e b r e w : Lachish I: The Lachish Letters (1938) 79 f ; KAI n o . 194; A . Lemaire, Inscriptions Hébraïques I : Les ostraca (1977) 110 f ; KAI 43.12; cf. M a s s o n (1967) 64. T h e A k k a d i a n w o r d for w r i t i n g tablet is different, le'u, H e b r e w

171

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

3 O -

3

I

Iwh, A r a m a i c luha. For malthe see M . Stol, Phoenix 24 (1978) 1114; HAL 558. 19. For the w r e c k , see G. Bass, National Geographic 172 (1987) 633-733, esp. 731; i d e m et a l . , AJA 93 (1989) 1-29, esp. 10; for the N i m r u d tablets, D . J. W i s e m a n , "Assyrian W r i t i n g - B o a r d s , " Iraq 7 ( 955) 3 ; M . H o w a r d , "Technical D e s c r i p t i o n o f the I v o r y W r i t i n g - B o a r d s f r o m N i m r u d , " i b i d . 14-20; H . T. Bossert, "Sie schrieben a u f H o l z , " i n Minoica, Festschr. J. Sundwall (1958) 6 7 - 7 9 ; H . H u n g e r , Babylonische und Assyrische Kolophone (1968) 7 f.; H e u beck (1979) 143 f 20. II. 6.119-211; B u r k e r t (1983c) 51-53. T h e "fatal l e t t e r " m o t i f is n o w attested n o t o n l y i n the s t o r y o f U r i a h ( I I Sam. i r . i 27) b u t already i n the Sumerian legend o f Sargon: B. L e w i s , The Sargon Legend (1980); B. Alster, " A N o t e o n the U r i a h Letter i n the Sumerian Sargon L e g e n d , " ZA 77 (1987) 169-173. l

J

I _ I

21. Aesch. Eum. 275, fr. 281a 21 Radt, Prom. 789 (overlooked b y M a s s o n [1967] 62); btkxoi x o A x c t i : P o l l u x 8.128; cf. R. S t r o u d , Hesperia 32 (1963) 138-143. 22. O . M a s s o n , Les inscriptions chypriotes syllabiques (1983 ) n o . 217.26, cf. Masson (1967) 61-65. 23. Wendel (1949). For a n e w A k k a d i a n - A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t f r o m Syria see n o t e 13, above. T h e A k k a d i a n t e r m for scroll scribe, sepiru, is a l o a n - w o r d f r o m A r a m a i c ; cf. H e b r e w sefet; b o o k ; AHw 1036b. A r a m a i c leather scrolls f r o m E g y p t : G. R. D r i v e r , Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B.C. (1954). 2

24. R. A . B o w m a n , Aramaic Ritual 17-19; cf. Ktesias i n D i o d . 2.32.4.

Texts from Persepolis

(1970)

25. A r c h i l o c h u s fr. 185 West; the m e a n i n g " l e t t e r " is contested b y S. West, C Q 38 (1988) 4 2 - 4 9 . 26. H d t . 5.58; diphtherion: J. G. V i n o g r a d o v , "Olbia." Xenia, Konstanzer althistorische Beiträge und Forschungen 1 (1981) 19; molibdion: SEG 26 n o . 845 rev.; cf. SEG 38 n o . 13. T h e use o f d i m i n u tives seems characteristic for w r i t i n g materials, as also i n deltion and biblion. 27. Eur. fr. 627; there is a p r o v e r b " o l d e r than the leather [ s c r o l l ] , " cxpxaiÖTEoa t r i g ötc^öegag, D i o g e n . 3.2 (Paroemiogr.Gr. I 214); cf. Z e n o b . 4.11; P o r p h y r y i n Schob B //. 1.175; H s c h . 8 1992 attests the t e r m ÖKfjÖEoaÔKJJÖg for C y p r u s (see note 8, above), w h i c h sounds archaic and may refer t o the use o f leather scrolls.

172

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

3 2 - 3 3

28. See D . van B e r c h e m , MH 48 (1991) 129-145, esp. 140 f.; for Guzana, see J. F r i e d r i c h , G. R. Meyer, A . U n g n a d , and E. Weidner, Die Inschriften vom Tell Halaf (194.0) 47 (nos. 101-106) and 7 0 - 7 8 (nos. 1-5); on Tarsos see Chapter 2, "Hepatoscopy," note 7 and " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " n o t e 6; O . R. Gurney, J. J. Finkelstein, and P. H u l i n , The Sultantepe Tablets (1957-1964); cf. M . f l u t t e r , Altorientalische Vorstellungen von der Unterwelt (1985) 18-20; the tablets are dated between 718 and 619 B . C . 29. Wendel (1949)30. F. C. C o n y b e a r e , J. Rendell H a r r i s , and A . S m i t h L e w i s , The Story of Ahikar from the Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopic, Old Turkish, Greek and Slavonic Versions (1913 ; the first e d i t i o n , 1898, d i d n o t yet have the A r a m a i c text); F. N a u , Histoire et sagesse dAhikar l'Assyrien (1909); for the text f r o m Elephantine, see E. Sachau, Aramäische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer jüdischen Militär-Kolonie zu Elephantine (1911) 147-182 pls. 4 0 - 5 0 ; A . U n g nad, Aramäische Papyrus aus Elephantine (1912); E. Meyer, Der Papyrusfund von Elephantine und seine Bedeutung (1912) 102-128; T. N ö l d e k e , Untersuchungen zum Achiqar-Roman, A b h . G ö t t i n g e n N.F. 14.4 (1913); A . H a u s r a t h , Achiquar und Aesop, Sitzungsber. H e i d e l berg 1918.2; B. E. Perry, Aesopica (1952) 1-10; P. G r e l o t , Documents arameens dEgypte (1972) 427-452; F. M . Fales, " L a tradizione A s sira ad Elefantina d ' E g i t t o , " Dialoghi di Archeologia I I I 5 (1987) 6 3 70; see also L i p i n s k i (1976) o n A k k a d i a n religious t r a d i t i o n a m o n g Aramaeans. A h i q a r is m e n t i o n e d i n the b o o k T o b i t h 14.10. 31. Rev. Bibl. 52 (1985) 6 0 - 8 1 ; cf. Fales (note 30) 70. 32. GLGMS: J. T. M i l i k , The Books of Enoch (1976) 3'3; Gilgamos: A e l . Nat.An. 12.21. 33. R o d r i g u e z A d r a d o s (1979) 290-293, 674 f., 6 8 0 - 6 8 7 ; i d e m , QUCC 30 (1979) 93-112. B u t ' A x i x a o o c , was k n o w n to Theophrastus; D i o g . L a e r t . 5.50; still D c m o c r i t u s B 299 = C l e m . Str. 1.69.4 is a p o c r y p h a l ; the reading o f Poseidonios fr. 133 Theiler = Strab. 16 p. 762 is uncertain: ' A x c u x a o o c , (?) j r a p ä ß o a i t o gnvoCg. 34. J. G o o d y a n d j . Watt i n j . Goody, ed., Literacy in Traditional Societies (1968) 42; see Chapter 3. 35. For the " B i l e a m " text f r o m D e i r A l l a s e e j . H o f t i j z e r and G. van der K o o i j , Aramaic Texts from Deir Alia (1976); J. A . H a c k ett, The Balaam Text from Deir Alla (1984); Der Königsweg (1988) 2

c

c

c

173

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

3 4 - 3 6

n o . 157 w i t h b i b l i o g r a p h y ; B u r k e r t i n D . H e l l h o l m , e d . , Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the Near East (1983) 246; for M o p s o s and Karatepe see C h ap te r 2, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 31. T H E PROBLEM OF L O A N - W O R D S

1. See, e.g., Vermeule (1971) 185 f.: " I f eastern influence had been c o m p a r a t i v e l y recent, one m i g h t expect the seams t o show, or names and terms t o have been m e r e l y transliterated f r o m another language." 2. See I n t r o d u c t i o n at note 15. A local substrate is readily assumed for characteristic M e d i t e r r a n e a n flora such as " w i n e " (Greek woinos, A r a m a i c wajn, H e b r e w jain; see J. P. B r o w n [1969] 147151) and " r o s e " ( A r a b i c ward, A r a m a i c werad, Greek (w)rhodon; J. P. B r o w n [1980] 11, 19 n . i ) . 3. RhM 49 (1894) 130, accepted b y H i l l e r v o n G ä r t r i n g e n ,

RE

I I 1887; see above, C h a p t e r i , " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 15. 4. O . H o f f m a n n and A . D e b r u n n e r , Geschichte der griechischen Sprache I (1953 ) 18: "ganz v e r s c h w i n d e n d g e r i n g " ; A . M e i l l e t , Aperçu d'une histoire de la langue grecque (1935 ) 56 = (1965 ) 59: " n ' a t t e i n t sans d o u t pas la dizaine." 5. Masson (1967) has also a survey o f older studies; see also H e m m e r d i n g e r (1970); Krause ( 1 9 7 0 ) — w i t h o u t o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u tions; J. P. B r o w n (1965), (1968), (1969); Salonen (1974); Szemerényi (1974); i d e m , Gnomon 53 (1981) 113-116; i d e m , o-o-pe-ro-si: Festschr. E. Risch (1986) 425-450. 6. Cf. L. Deroy, L'emprunt linguistique (1965); R. S c h m i t t , Probleme der Eingliederung fremden Sprachguts in das grammatische System einer Sprache, I n n s b r u c k e r B e i t r ä g e zur Sprachwissenschaft 11 (1973); O t t i n g e r (1981). As an example for the m a n i f o l d levels and p r o b l e m s of c u l t u r a l b o r r o w i n g s see H . Kahane and R. Kahane, " B y z a n t i u m ' s I m p a c t o n the West: T h e L i n g u i s t i c Evidence," Illinois Classical Studies 6 (1981) 389-415. 7. E . g . , E. Boisacq, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque (1916) V I I : "l'influence sémitique . . . bornée à l ' a d o p t i o n . . . de quelques termes c o m m e r c i a u x " ; A . M e i l l e t , Aperçu (see note 4 above) 55; M a s s o n (1967) 114; she treats kanna, reed, p. 47 f. b u t forgets kanon, m e a s u r i n g r o d . 3

4

'74

7

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

3 6 - 3 8

8. T h i s is f o l l o w i n g Masson (1967), a l t h o u g h the w o r d s treated i n n n . 9-11, 16, 19, 21-26, 31-33, and 36 are missing i n her collection. 9. A k k a d i a n lipû, accusative lipâ, fat, e m p l o y e d especially i n magic; see AHw 555. I t is t r u e there are I n d o - E u r o p e a n comparative materials for Greek lipa; C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80) 642. 10. T h r o u g h L a t i n simila i t even reached G e r m a n , Semmel; see S z e m e r é n y i (1974) 156; C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80) 996. I r. Salonen (1974) 143. 12. Cf. J. Tischler, Glotta 56 (1978) 60 f.; 1026; for Mycenaean pa-ra-ku see E. Risch, Saussure 41 (1987) 167. 13. T h e Semitic w o r d , however, is n o t been i n f e r r e d ; G. G a r b i n i , Riv. di Studi Fenici

Chantraine (1968/80) Cahiers Ferdinand de d o c u m e n t e d b u t has 3 (1975) 15 f.

14. C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80) 594; already attested in Mycenaean. 15. I b i d . 212. 16. I b i d . 660. 17. Masson (1967) 32-34; N i e m e y e r (1984) 69. T h e standard w e i g h t was the m i n a o f C a r c h e m i s h ; O p p e n h e i m (1967/69) 239 n. 8. T h e w o r d mana is also attested i n H i e r o g l y p h i c L u w i a n ; G. N e u m a n n , ZVS 98 (1985) 306; see also H . B u s i n g , " M e t r o l o g i s c h e Beiträge," Jdl 97 (1982) 1-45. O n talanton see C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80) 1089. 18. Sendschirli V 119 ff. w i t h p i . 58; specialists are still discussing to w h a t extent this s h o u l d be considered as a precursor or an early f o r m o f m i n t e d m o n e y ; see M . S. B a l m u t h , AJA 67 (1963) 208 and i n D . G. M i t t e n et a l . , eds., Studies Presented to G . M. A. Hanfmann (1971) 1-7; N . F. Parise, Dialoghi di Archeologia 7 (1973) 382-391. 19. T h e Semitic parallel is m e n t i o n e d i n LSJ, n o t i n Masson (1967); " h y p o t h è s e . . . en t o u t cas aberrante": Chantraine (1968/ 80) 1247. Semitic het is H i n the Greek alphabet, b u t A k k a d i a n hurasu corresponds to Greek %QXtoôç; the name H a m is XCXLI i n the Septuagint; M o u n t H a z z i is. rendered K d o i o v OQOÇ (cf. H e m b e r g [1950] 129, 320)—there are n o p h o n e t i c rules i n l o a n - w o r d s . Harasu is used i n the sense o f " w r i t i n g , " Gilgamesh I 1.8. 20. AHw 48a; o n d i s t r i b u t i v e ana i n Greek see T. H o r o v i t z , Vom Logos zur Analogie (1978) 137-144.

175

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

3 8 - 3 9

21. AHw 898; cf. 650. H . Kronasser, Kratylos 7 (1962) 163, maintains that qanû was b o r r o w e d i n d i r e c t l y , " h ö c h s t w a h r s c h e i n lich d u r c h mehrere anatolische Sprachen." 22. A k k a d i a n tidu: see AHw 1391.1: " z u m Bauen u n d Verp u t z e n " ; H e b r e w tit; the Semitic parallels are n o t m e n t i o n e d i n the e t y m o l o g i c a l lexicons o f Pîsacq, Frisk, and Chantraine, n o r i n Masson (1967). O n a pc j l e association w i t h " T i t a n s " see C h a p ter 3, " F r o m Atrahasis to the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Zeus,' " notes 2 8 - 2 9 . 23. A k k a d i a n g a s s u : AHw 282; Salonen (1974) 139. 24. AHw 522; J. P. B r o w n (1968) 182; S z e m e r é n y i (1974) 149. T h e mirage o f an " A e g e a n " suffix -inthos created b y the adaptation to Greek is n o a r g u m e n t against this d e r i v a t i o n ; see n o t e 11 above on lekane. 25. AHw 332; H e m m e r d i n g e r (1970) 45; the axe (hassinnu) is n o w attested as the s y m b o l o f the weather g o d carried i n procession at B r o n z e A g e E m a r : A r n a u d (1985/87) n o . 369 line 45. Salonen (1974) also compares Greek sphen, wedge, w i t h A k k a d i a n suppinu; but a c c o r d i n g to AHw 1060 the m e a n i n g o f this w o r d is unclear. 26. AHw 627: tent, also i n A r a m a i c ; S z e m e r é n y i , Gnomon (1981) 114; cf. H e b r e w miskan, abode.

53

27. See Chapter 2, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," notes 2 8 - 3 0 , 36; cf. above, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 62. 28. S z e m e r é n y i , Gnomon 43 (1971) 647 and (1974) 156, referred to A k k a d i a n bel qati, " L o r d o f H a n d , " w h i c h , however, means " g u a r a n t o r " ; AHw 120; b u t i n H i t t i t e the same expression (always w i t h S u m e r i a n - A k k a d i a n spelling, EN qati) means " c r a f t s m a n " ; J. F r i e d r i c h , Hethitisches Wörterbuch (1952) 271. T h e H i t t i t e w o r d may w e l l have been the m o d e l for cheironax, either d i r e c t l y or indirectly. 29. Laroche (1973); for Soloi as place-name see above, " O r i ental Products i n Greece," note 13. 30. Masson (1967) 86; lis occurs a few times i n H o m e r ; the n o r m a l Greek w o r d , leon, seems t o come f r o m E g y p t ; see J. C. B i l l i g m e i e r , Talanta 6 (1975) 1-6. 31. A r a m a i c tawr(u), H e b r e w sor; HAL 1346-48; J. P. B r o w n (1969) 159-164. I n spite o f this close s i m i l a r i t y Chantraine (1968/ 80) states: " I l n'y a pas lieu . . . d ' é v o q u e r les formes sémitiques." 32. H e b r e w häräb; J. P. B r o w n (1968) 178-182; the harpe is specially used b y o r i e n t a l i z i n g Perseus; see Jameson (1990) 218. B u t 176

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

3 9 - 4 1

there is a satisfactory I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y t o o : Chantraine (1968/80) 114. 33. For onvkov see S z e m e r é n y i , Gnomon 53 (1981) 115; for avXâv A k k a d i a n salalu, t o l o o t , AHw 1142, w i t h i m p e r a t i v e Mia! (cf. Zeus Syllanios and A t h a n a Syllania i n the Spartan Rhetra, Plut. Lyc. 6?). 34. T h e r e is n o I n d o - E u r o p e a n e t y m o l o g y f o r machomai, and "la structure de \ia%éoaaoQai reste obscure"; Chantraine (1968/80) 674. For mahas/maha see HAL 541; 537. 35. See AHw 34 s.v. alalu, "a c r y used at w o r k . " O f course exclamations can o r i g i n a t e spontaneously (Chantraine [1968/80] 530), b u t " H u r r a h ! " has b o t h its (Germanic) e t y m o l o g y and its d i f fusion i n E u r o p e a n warfare. 36. See above, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 67. 37. A s t o u r (1965) w e n t furthest i n this sport. T h e r e remains the o l d e q u a t i o n o f Iapetos, father o f Prometheus, w i t h j a p h e t , son o f N o a h (see West [1966] 202 f . ) ; b u t also Nereus, g o d o f waters, father o f the Nereids, is r e m a r k a b l y similar t o the Semitic w o r d for river, A k k a d i a n nam, H e b r e w nahar. See for Asgelatas Chapter 2, "Asclepius and Asgelatas," note 8; f o r Tethys, Chapter 3, " F r o m Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s , ' " note 15; f o r L a m i a , Chapter 2, " L a m a s h t u , L a m i a , and G o r g o , " note 10; f o r Titans, Chapter 3, " F r o m Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Zeus,' " notes 2 8 - 2 9 . 38. See f o r haruspex Chapter 2, "Hepatoscopy," note 24; f o r kathairo, lyma, ara, C h ap te r 2, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " notes 4 6 - 4 8 ; for E m baros, Chapter 2, " S u b s t i t u t e Sacrifice," note 8. 39. HAL 8 7 8 — n o t a Semitic w o r d i n o r i g i n ; cf. J. P. B r o w n (1968) 166-169; C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80), w i t h o u t presenting the Sem i t i c w o r d s , declares: " L ' h y p o t h è s e d ' u n e m p r u n t sémitique . . . n'est acceptée par personne." 2. "A Seer or a Healer" "CRAFTSMEN

OF T H E SACRED"

1. T h e expression is used i n Plat. Phdr. 248a. For a m o d e r n investigation i n t o the i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f magic and scientific medicine see G . E. R. L l o y d , Magic, Reason and Experience (1979); o n "craftsm e n o f the sacred" see B u r k e r t (1982a) and (1987a) 31. 2. Papyrus o f D e r v e n i i n ZEE47 (1982) c o l . X V I 3 f.: ÔTÉxvnu

177

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

4 2 - 4 3

JtoiotJuevog xct leget. Strab. 10.3.23 p. 474: TO (JHXOXEXVOV . . . TO JIEQI Tag A i o v u o r c t x a g xe^vag x a t x ä g ' O o c j n x ä g . H i p p o c r . Morb.Sacr. 18, V I 396 L i t t r e : ßavauoLT). 3. West (1971) 239-242 has stressed the i m p o r t a n c e o f m i g r a n t magi for Iranian-Greek contacts i n the s i x t h century B . C . 4. N u m b e r s 22:5, 24. F o r the s u r p r i s i n g evidence about B i l e a m / B a a l a m i n the D e i r A l l a i n s c r i p t i o n see Ch a pt e r 1, " W r i t i n g and Literature i n the E i g h t h C e n t u r y , " note 35. c

c

5. H e l c k (1979) 226 f.; E. Edel, Ägyptische Ärzte und ägyptische Medizin am hethitischen Königshof (1976); see K n u d t z o n (1915) n o . 49.22 f o r U g a r i t , n o . 35.26 f o r Alasia. 6. Meissner (1920/25) I I 198 (KBo I 10 Rs.42 f f . ) . 7. See G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) esp. 6 5 1 , 655 f., 664 f. 8. H d t . 9.33-36; o n the M e l a m p o d i d a e see I . Löfner, Die Melampodie (1963); K e t t (1966) 9 4 - 9 6 . 9. Plat. Rep. 3Ö4b-e; cf. Leg. 909b. 10. FGrHist 475, esp. T 4b; B u r k e r t (1972) 15 f. 11. P l u t . De sera 56oe-f and fr. 126; Phigalia is a conjecture ( M i t t e l h a u s ) instead o f the t r a n s m i t t e d names Italia o r Thettalia. See RE XIX 2084; B u r k e r t , RhM 105 (1962) 48 f. 12. P l u t . Mus. 4 2 . i i 4 6 b - c = Pratinas TGrF 4 F 9, P h i l o d e m . Mus. 4 = Diogenes o f B a b y l o n SVFll 232; P l u t . Mus. 9 f., 1134be f o l l o w i n g Glaukos o f R h e g i o n . T h e date is established b y the connection w i t h the f o u n d i n g o f the festival G y m n o p a i d i a i n Sparta; P l u t . Mus. 1134c; cf. Euseb. Chron. a.Ahr. 1348 = O l y m piad 27 = 6 7 2 - 6 6 8 B . C . 13. e j i i 8 r | i i o w x a xaxct xexvrrv i i a v x t x f j v : A r i s t . Polit. 1274325-28. O n the practice and concept o f epidemia see H . D i l l e r , Wanderarzt und Aitiologe (1934). 14. Plat. Symp.

20id-e.

15. Empedocles B 115.13; cf. B 112, w h e r e he introduces h i m self a r r i v i n g at Akragas as a seer and a healer. 16. See note 8, above. 17. P i n d . Ol. 6; H e p d i n g , RE I X 685-689 s.v. lamos; K e t t (1966) 8 4 - 8 9 . Telmissos: A r r . Anab. 2.3.3 f. 18. See K . C l i n t o n , The Sacred Officials of the Eleusinian Mysteries (1974); B u r k e r t (1987a) 36 f. 19. P l u t . Is. 28.362a; Tac. Hist. 4.83 f.; A . Alföldi, Chiron 9 ( 979) 554 f ; B u r k e r t (1987a) 37. T

178

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

4 3 - 4 5

20. Isoer. 19.5 f., 45; K e t t (1966) 49 f., 66 f . — w h o does n o t realize that the activities o f Polemainetos as a seer must be dated about fifty years before the trial. O n the legal issue u n d e r l y i n g the speech see H . J. W o l f f Sitzungsber. H e i d e l b e r g 1979.5, 15—34. 21. D e m o s t h . 19.249; 18.120; 259 f.; H . W a n k e l , Demosthenes, Rede für Ktesiphon über den Kranz (1976) 710-712, 1132-49; a f a m i l y o f seers: SEG 16 n o . 193, w i t h an e p i g r a m a l l u d i n g t o A m p h i a r a o s (Thebais fr. 7 Davies = P i n d . Ol. 6.13). 22. W. Schubart, Amtliche Berichte aus den Kgl. Preussischen Kunstsammlungen 38 (1916/17) 189 f.; see G . Z u n t z , Opuscula Selecta (1972) 8 8 - 1 0 1 ; P. M . Fräser, Ptolemaic Alexandria I I (1972) 345 f.; B u r k e r t (1987a) 33. C f . I I T i m o t h y 3:14 (and 2:1): " k n o w f r o m w h o m y o u have learnt . . . " 23. O . K e r n , Die Inschriften von Magnesia A . H e n r i c h s , HSCP 82 (1978) 123-137.

(1900) n o . 215 a; cf.

24. M . B e r t h e l o t , Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (1888) I I 30.7: EÔQXUKXC; . . . tmÖEvi u E x a ö i ö ö v a i EL LIT) LIÖVOV TEKVWL x c a

tyikun yvr\oiwi. 1.193.

PGM 4.475: (.lövan 6 E TEXVCOI J t a p a ö o x d ; cf.

25. T h e real existence o f "Asclepiads" i n the classical p e r i o d , w h i c h had been contested b y E. J . and L . Edelstein, Asclepius I I (1945) 52-63, was p r o v e d b y an i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m D e l p h i ; see J . Bousquet, " D e l p h e s et les Asclepiades," BCH 80 (1956) 579-593; SEG 16 n o . 326; M . Gamberale, "Ricerche sul G E N O S degli A s clepiadi," RAL 33 (1978) 8 3 - 9 5 ; S. M . S h e r w i n - W h i t e , Ancient Cos (1978) 257-263. Asclepiads are m e n t i o n e d b y Plato Prot. 311b, Rep. 408b, Phdr. 270c; the physician E r y x i m a c h o s i n Symp. i86e refers to Asclepius as " o u r ancestor"; " t h e y were trained at their parents' f r o m c h i l d h o o d " : Galen Anat.Admin. 2.1, I I 280 f. K ü h n ; Soran. Vit .Hippocr. 1 f. 26. L . Edelstein, The Hippocratic Oath (1943), reedited i n L . Edelstein, Ancient Medicine (1967) 3 - 6 3 , esp. 4 0 - 4 4 ; he was t h i n k i n g o f a special Pythagorean p r o v i s i o n , because he failed t o see the craftsmen's t r a d i t i o n . 27. Lex 5, I V 642 L i t t r e . 28. C o d e x H a m m u r a p i § 188; B o r g e r (1979) 37; ANET 174 f. 29. bn nsk; see C h a p t e r 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 10 and at n o t e 62. 30. Mudü,

mär ummani:

Schrank (1908) 16; cf. mär bare, " s o n

179

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

4 5 - 4 6

o f the seer," Z i m m e r n (1901) n o . 1.1 p. 97 f.; Z i m m e r n p. 87 o n the " g u i l d " o f seers. Cf. A m o s 7:14: " I a m n o t a p r o p h e t , n o r the son o f a p r o p h e t . " 31. M . Weinfeld, The Organizational Pattern and the Penal of the Qumran Sect (1986) 61; cf. E b e l i n g (1931) 37, 47, i n . 32. Z i m m e r n (1901) 118 f., n o . 24.19-22.

Code

33. D i o d . 2 . 2 9 . 4 — h i s source cannot be i d e n t i f i e d ; p r o b a b l y n o t Poseidonios; cf. FGrHist I I C p. 157. 34. See T h u l i n (1905/09) I I I 131-149; Pfiffig (1975) 3 6 - 4 1 , 115-127. J. H e u r g o n , " T a r q u i t i u s Priscus et l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n de l ' o r d r e des haruspices sous l ' e m p e r e u r C l a u d e , " Latomus 12 (1953) 402-417. 35. Tac. Ann. 11.15: Primores Etruriae . . . retinuisse scientiam et in familias propagasse; C i c . Div. 1.92: ut de principum film X ex singulis Etruriae populis in disciplinam traderentur; ad Fam. 6.6.3 (to A . Caecina): Tuscae disciplinae, quam a pâtre . . . acceperas. 36. D i o n . H a l . Ant. 3.70; see below, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 9. 37. D i o d . 1.73.5; J. Bidez and E C u m o n t , Les mages hellénisés I I (1938) 8 f., 119. Siberian shamanism t o o is t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m father t o son; see M . Eliade, Schamanismus und archaische Ekstasetechnik (1957) 22, 24 f., 28 f., 3 0 - 3 2 . 38. N o t e d as a case o f l i n g u i s t i c b o r r o w i n g b y S z e m e r é n y i (1974) 157; F e h l i n g (1980) 15 f. 39. Plat. Rep. 408b, Leg. 769b. For o r i e n t a l examples see notes 2 8 - 3 0 , above. 40. VIEÇ ' A x c a o r v belongs t o the H o m e r i c f o r m u l a s ; o r i e n t a l influence is b y n o means excluded even i n this case (see Chapter 3, " F r o m Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s ' " ) . A u ô ô r v i t a î ô e ç : H d t . 1.27.4. "Sons o f H a i t i " ( = H i t t i t e s ) , "sons o f M i t t a n n i " (mare Hatti, mare Mittanni) i n a treaty between H i t t i t e s and H u r r i t e s : E. F. Weidner, Politische Dokumente aus Kleinasien (1923) 20.68, etc. 41. "Sons o f m e n " equivalent t o " m e n , " Gospel o f T h o m a s 28; see A . G u i l l a u m o n t i n Studies in Gnosticism and Hellenistic Religions Presented to G. Quispel (1981) 191. HEPATOSCOPY

i . A B a b y l o n i a n hepatoscopy text was first p u b l i s h e d b y L e n o r m a n t i n 1873; cf. B e z o l d i n Blecher (1905) 247. For general references t o the B a b y l o n i a n provenience o f Greek hepatoscopy see

180

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

4 6 - 4 8

B o u c h é - L e c l e r c q (1879/82) I 170; Farnell (1911) 248 f. O n the M e s o p o t a m i a n - E t r u s c a n relations see Boissier (1905); Blecher (1905), esp. n.5; T h u l i n (1905/09) I I ; R. Pettazzoni, Stud. Etr. 1 (1927) 195199; N o u g a y r o l (1955b) a n d (1966); M . P a l l o t t i n o , Etmscologia (1963 ) 247 f.; Pfiffig (1975) 115-127. For M e s o p o t a m i a see H . D i l l o n , Assyro-Babylonian Liver-Divination (1932); A . Boissier, Mantique babylonienne et mantique hittite (1935); G. C o n t e n a u , La divination chez les Assyriens et les Mesopotamiens (1940); La divination en Mésopotamie ancienne, 14 R e n c o n t r e Assyriologique International (1966); N o u g a y r o l (1968); Jeyes (1980); Starr (1983); M e y e r (1987). 2. See HKL I I I 96. A first f o u n d a t i o n was laid b y Boissier (1905); a r i c h selection i n G e r m a n translation is t o be f o u n d i n j a s t r o w (1905/12) I I 213-415. See R. Labat, Commentaires assyrobabyloniennes sur les présages (1933); B . Meissner, O m i n a z u r E r kenntnis der E i n g e w e i d e des O p f e r t i e r s , " AOF 9 (1933) 118-122; J. N o u g a y r o l , "Textes hépatoscopiques d ' é p o q u e ancienne c o n servés au M u s é e d u L o u v r e , " RA 38 (1941) 6 7 - 8 8 ; A . Goetze, " R e ports o n Acts o f E x t i s p i c y f r o m O l d B a b y l o n i a n and Kassite T i m e s , " JCS 11 (1973) 89 ff; Starr (1983). 5

e

3. F o u n d i n 1877; see W. Deecke, " D a s T e m p l u m v o n P i acenza," Etruskische Forschungen 4 (1880); Blecher (1905) 201; T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 20 f., 37-39, pis. I , I I ; i d e m , Die Götter des Martianus Capella und die Bronzeleber von Piacenza (1906); Pfiffig (1975) 121127; L . B . van der Meer, The Bronze Liver of Piacenza: Analysis of a Polytheistic Structure (1987). A n o t h e r liver m o d e l , made o f clay, f r o m Falerii: N o u g a y r o l (1955b) 513, 515-517; Pfiffig (1975) 116 f. fig- 454. B M B u 89-4-26, 238, published b y T . G. Pinches, CT 6 (1898) pis. 1-3; A . Boissier, Note sur un monument babylonien se rapportant à l'extispicine (1899); T h u l i n (1905/09) I I p l . I I ; Meissner (1920/25) I I fig. 40; N o u g a y r o l , RA 38 (1941) 77-79. A n o t h e r exemplar, B M R m 620, i n T h u l i n p l . I l l and Boissier (1905) 7 6 - 7 8 ; a t h i r d i n N o u g a y r o l (1966). 5. Blecher (1905) 199-203, 241-245. 6. T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 30. 7. See n o w M e y e r (1987). H i t t i t e s : KUB I V 71-75, X X X V I I 6 8 - 7 2 nos. 216-230; A . Goetze, Kulturgeschichte Kleinasiens (1957 ) pis. 11, 2 1 . M a r i : M . R u t t e n , RA 35 (1938) 3 6 - 7 0 . A l a l a k h : L . Woolley, Alalakh (1955) 2 5 0 - 2 5 7 p l . 59. Tell el H a j j : R. A . Stucky, 2

181

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4 8 - 4 9

AK 16 (1973) 84 p i . 15.2; U g a r i t : Ugaritica V I (1969) 91-119; cf. 165-179; O . L o r e t z , Leberschau Siindenbock Azazel in Ugarit und Israel (1985). H a z o r : B . Landsberger and H . T a d m o r , Israel Explor.J. 14 (1964) 201-218. M e g g i d o : H . T. Bossert, Altsyrien (1951) n o . 1193. C y p r u s : BCH 95 (1971) 384 w i t h f i g . 93a; Kadmos 11 (1972) 185 f. A t e x t f r o m Tarsos: Goetze (1939) 12-16. 8. Pfiffig (1975) 117. M e y e r (1985), b y contrast, suggests the Etruscans b r o u g h t hepatoscopy w i t h t h e m w h e n they i m m i g r a t e d f r o m the East i n the age o f the Sea Peoples. 9. I n the e n u m e r a t i o n o f Etruscan saecula, Varro i n Cens. 17, the first f o u r o f these are g i v e n r o u n d n u m b e r s , 100 each, b u t then specific n u m b e r s are presented, a c c o r d i n g t o celebrations actually held. T h i s indicates that f r o m about 600 B . C . Etruscans h a d d e t a i l e d — w r i t t e n - — d o c u m e n t a t i o n , i n contrast t o vague " r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s " about the earlier p e r i o d ; cf. T h u l i n (1905/09) I I I 66; see also above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," n o t e 36. 10. See C h a p t e r 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 18. 11. //. 1.69; cf. Bouche-Leclercq (1879/82) I 168 f. 12. //. 24.221; Od. 21.145, 22.318-323. 13. D i o n . H a l . Ant. 1.30; cf. Lydos Mag. prooem. 14. Van der M e e r (1979); J . L . D u r a n d and F. Lissarrague, Hephaistos 1 (1979) 92-108; R . B l o c h , BCH suppl. 14 (1986) 7 7 - 8 3 ; the so-called D i o t i m a statue f r o m M a n t i n e a : BCH 12 (1888) 3 7 6 380; Blecher (1905) p i . 3.3; H . M o b i u s , Jdl 49 (1934) 4 5 - 6 0 . 15. Plat. Phdr. 244c: TEX.EIOTEQOV x a l EVTIUCJTEQOV |xavxtxf| oioovtoTixfig. 16. Tac. Hist. 2.3.1: scientiam artemque haruspicum accitam et Cilicem Tamiram intulisse . . . ipsa, quatn intulerant, scientia hospites cessere: tantum Cinyrades sacerdos consulitur. Bouche-Leclercq (1879/82) I 170 combines this w i t h the c u l t o f Zeus S p l a n c h n o t o m o s , " c u t t i n g the entrails" (Hegesandros i n A t h . 174 a) and the alleged i n v e n t i o n o f sacrifice o n C y p r u s (cf. B u r k e r t [1975] 76 f . ) . H e r o d o t u s 2.58 asserts that sacrificial d i v i n a t i o n came f r o m E g y p t ; there is n o t h i n g t o substantiate this c l a i m . Div.

17. H s c h . s.v. pylai = A r i s t o p h . fr. 554 Kassel-Austin; C i c . 1.91; cf. above, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," n o t e 65.

18. O n e e x a m p l e , f r o m the B r i t i s h M u s e u m (116624), is often illustrated, e . g . , Elements ( i 9 6 0 ) p i . Ha; C a q u o t a n d L e i b o v i c i

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TO

P A G E S

49-51

(1968) opposite p. 32; T. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness (1976) 194; i t is dated t o 7 0 0 - 5 0 0 B . C . See S. S m i t h , " T h e Face o f H u m baba," Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology n (1924) 107-114 and fiRAS (1926) 4 4 0 - 4 4 2 . 19. Rizza and Santa M a r i a Scrinari (1968) 206 p i . 32 n o . 215; cf. below, " F o u n d a t i o n Deposits," note 10. For O r t h e i a see above, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 34. 20. T h e " p l a c e " (mazzazu), the " p a t h " (padanu), the " s t r e n g t h " (dananu), the "gate o f the palace" (bah ekalli), the lulmu (unclear), the " g a l l " (martu), the "left p a t h o f the g a l l " (padan sumel marti), the " f i n g e r " (ubanu), the " y o k e " (niru), the " a p p e n d i x " ( p r o cessus papillaris) (sibtu); seejeyes (1978). 21. See T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 5 0 - 5 4 ; the most detailed Greek text is Rufus Onom. 158.5 f. ed. D a r e m b e r g - R u e l l e (nvXai, TQCXJTECO:, udxoaoa, ovu§). " G a t e " : Eur. El. 828, A r i s t o p h . fr. 554 KasselA u s t i n , Plat. Tim. 71c, A r i s t . Hist.an. 496b32. " H e a d " : see note 23, b e l o w ; cf. T h u l i n 3 0 - 3 4 . " H e a d o f the l i v e r " (res amutim): AHw 46b. " H e a d o f the f i n g e r " (res ubanim): AHw 975a. " R i v e r " : H s c h . s.v. potamos. " R i v e r o f the l i v e r " (nar amutim): AHw 46b, T h u l i n 54. " P a t h " : H s c h . s.v. akeleutha. A " w e a p o n " i n the liver: AHw 46b; cf. uex/capa i n Rufus. See also N o u g a y r o l (1955) 512; Starr (1983) 7 7 - 9 1 22. T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 34 f., f o l l o w i n g Boissier (1905) 2 2 0 234; Starr (1983) 15-24. 23. M i s s i n g " h e a d " : Plut. Kim. 18.5, Marc. 29; L i v . 41.14 f. T w o "heads": Sen. Oed. 353-365; Lucan Bell.civ. 1.618-629; t o o direct lines are d r a w n b y W. G. Schileico, " E i n O m e n t e x t Sargons von A k k a d u n d sein N a c h k l a n g bei römischen D i c h t e r n , " AOF 5 (1928/29) 214-218. 24. A . Boissier, Mémoires de la Société linguistique 11 (1901) e x x x i x , 330; T h u l i n (1905/09) I I 3 n . i ; A . E r n o u t and A . M e i l l e t , Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine (1959'') 290, w i t h question mark. 25. AHw

46.

26. M . P a l l o t t i n o , Etruscologia (1963 ) 247 f. 27. AHw 1350 f ; cf. Z i m m e r n (1901) 88 f. 28. C i c . Div. 2.28: nec esse unam omnium scientiam; cf. Blecher (1905) 202. 5

183

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29. T h e m a i n texts are collected i n Prinz (1979) 382-384, w h o t h i n k s all o f i t is p u r e i n v e n t i o n ; see also I . Löffler, Die

Melampodie

(1963) 47-5130. T h e so-called M a d u w a t t a s t e x t , A . Goetze, Maduwattas, M i t t e i l u n g e n der Vorderasiatisch-ägyptischen Gesellschaft 32 (1928) 37; o n the date o f this text, see H . O t t e n , Sprachliche Stellung und Datierung des Maduwatta-Textes (1969); J. D . M u h l y , Historia 23 (1974) I 3 9 - H 5 ; R- D - B a r n e t t , CAH I I 2 (1975) 363-366. 31. KAI n o . 26, I 16, I I 11, I I I 12; see F. B r o n , Recherches sur les inscriptions de Karatepe (1979) 172-176; Barnett, CAH I I 2 (1975) 363-366; A . Strobel, Der spätbronzezeitliche Seevölkersturm (1976) 31-38. 32. X a n t h o s the L y d i a n , FGrHist 765 F 17. A name mo-qo-so also appears i n Linear B, K N D e 1381 B; P Y Sa 774. 33. For M a l l o s see RE X I V 916 f.; f o u r t h - c e n t u r y coins have a w i n g e d figure reminiscent o f the w i n g e d sun disk o f Syrian-Persian i c o n o g r a p h y ; one type o f these coins has a b i l i n g u a l , A r a m a i c Greek i n s c r i p t i o n ; see C. M . Kraay, Archaic and Classical Greek Coins (1978) 285. 34. " I f a w o m a n gives b i r t h t o a l i o n " occurs i n an A k k a d i a n text, as i n H d t . 1.84; cf. C i c . Div. 1.53; see G. Bunnens, Hommages RenardU (1968) 130-132. 35. For b i r d s , see H u n g e r (1909) 23-25; Jastrow (1905/12) I I 7 9 8 - 8 1 2 ; E. Reiner, JNES 19 ( i 9 6 0 ) 28. For lecanomancy, see Z i m m e r n (1901) 85, 89; J. H u n g e r , Becherwahrsagung bei den Babyloniern nach zwei Keilschrifttexten aus der Hammurabi-Zeit (1903); Jast r o w (1905/12) I I 7 4 9 - 7 7 5 ; see also Ganszyniec, RE X I I 1879-88 s.v. Lekanomanteia. 3

3

36. Aesch. Ag. 322; Farnell (1911) 301; cf.J. N o u g a y r o l , " A l e u romancie babylonienne," Orientalia, n.s. 31 (1963) 381—386. FOUNDATION DEPOSITS 1. See E. D . van B u r e n , Foundation Figurines and Offerings (1931); Ellis (1968); RIA I I I (1971) 6 5 5 - 6 6 1 s.v. Gründungsbeigaben. M a g i c a l figurines deposited i n clay capsules are to be distinguished f r o m these; see R i t t i g (1977); see also J. M . Weinstein, Foundation Deposits in Ancient Egypt (1973). 2. ANET 356 f. 3. East r o o m o f the sanctuary at Archanes, pebbles: I . Sakel-

184

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T O

P A G E S

54-5

5

larakis, Praktika 1979, 381. M i n i a t u r e vessels, animal bones, one seal under a r o c k placed i n the r o o m at Knossos where evidence for cannibalistic feasts seems t o come f r o m : P. Warren i n R. H ä g g and N . M a r i n a t o s , eds., Sanctuaries and Cults in the Aegean Bronze Age (1981) 166. T h r e e pairs o f kylikes under a cult r o o m at T i r y n s : K. K i l i a n , i b i d . 53. 4. V. Karageorghis, BCH 99 (1975) 831-835. 5. B o a r d m a n (1967) 5 7 - 6 7 and (1980) 57; cf. Chapter 1, " O r i ental Products i n Greece," note 38. See n o w i n general for this and the f o l l o w i n g finds Wells (1988), w h o draws a t t e n t i o n especially to f o u n d a t i o n deposits o f clay vessels under f o r t i f i c a t i o n walls o f Asine, 7 2 0 - 7 0 0 B . C . 6. H . Gallet de Santerre and J. Treheux, BCH 71/72 (1947/48) 148-254; H . Gallet de Santerre, Delos primitive et archaique (1958) 129; V. R. d ' A . D e s b o r o u g h , The Last Mycenaeans and Their Successors (1964) 45 f., t h i n k s that the Mycenaean objects had been accidentally discovered and reinterred d u r i n g the b u i l d i n g process. O n e m a y compare the fact that the Assyrians i n t e n t i o n a l l y sought for the "ancient temennu" w h e n r e b u i l d i n g temples: Ellis (1968) 147-150. 7. A . B a m m e r , " N e u e G r a b u n g e n an der Zentralbasis des A r t e m i s i o n v o n Ephesos," JOEAI 58 (1988) Beiblatt 1-32. For the older discussion, see P. Jacobsthal, JHS 71 (1951) 85-95; L. W e i dauer, Probleme der frühen Elektronprägung (1975) 7 2 - 8 0 ; B o a r d m a n (1980) 101; A . H e u b e c k , Kadmos 22 (1983) 62; D . Kagan, AJA 86 (1982) 343-360. For Priene, Perachora, I s t h m i a , see Sinn (1985) 136 f. n.23 w i t h further b i b l i o g r a p h y . 8. Rizza and Santa M a r i a Scrinari (1968) 24 f. 9. Cf. the i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m K a l l i p o l i s c o m m a n d i n g the erect i o n o f a statue o f A p o l l o i n o r d e r t o get r i d o f a plague; K. B u resch, Klaros (1889) 81—86; J. Krauss, Die Inschriften von Sestos (1980) n o . 11. O n b o u n d a r y stones, see Die Schriften der römischen Feldmesser, ed. K . L a c h m a n n I (1848) 141. 10. Sinn (1985). 11. Ellis (1968) 42 f. 12. See i b i d . 138-140, 167 f. w i t h the vague f o r m u l a t i o n : " t o enhance the value o f the b u i l d i n g and the v a l i d i t y o f the ceremonies connected w i t h its c o n s t r u c t i o n " (140). 13. I b i d . 16, 31, 34; the f o r m u l a ina sipir asiputi i n D . D . L u c k -

185

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P A G E S

5 6 - 5 7

e n b i l l , The Annals of Sennacherib (1924) 137.31 ( = L u c k e n b i l l [1926/27] I I § 437) and i n S. L a n g d o n , Die neubabylonischen Königsinschriften (1912) 62, 4 0 - 4 3 (Nabopolassar). PURIFICATION

1. P r o k l . Chrestom. p. 106 f. A l l e n = p. 47 Davies; Schob T //. 11.690a ( I I I 261 Erbse): Jtag' 'Oufjgoot o û x oïôauEv cjjovéa x a O a i g ö i i e v o v ; b u t cf. //. 24.480 w i t h schob 2. N i l s s o n (1967) I 91 f., 6 3 2 - 6 3 7 ; i d e m , Greek Piety (1948) 41-47; D o d d s (1951) 2 8 - 6 3 ; L. M o u l i n i e r , Le pur et l'impur dans la pensée et la sensibilité des grecs (1952); b u t Parker (1983) 15 f., 6 6 - 7 0 , 115 f., 130-143 warns against s i m p l i s t i c ideas o f " d e v e l o p m e n t . " 3. K . M e u l i , " S k y t h i c a , " Hermes 70 (1935) 121-176 = Gesammelte Schriften I I (1975) 817-879; cf. D o d d s (1951) 135-178. 4. Farnell (1911) 289; Farnell's b o o k seems t o be the o n l y u n prejudiced and careful discussion o f the p r o b l e m t o date, even t h o u g h he seems n o t to have studied the eastern languages. Cf. above, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 36. 5. Survey i n HKL I I I 8 5 - 9 3 ; see also Meissner (1920/25) I I 198-241; E. Reiner, La magie babylonienne (1966); G. R. Castellino, " L a letteratura magica," i n Storia délie letterature d'orienté, ed. O . B o t t o , I (1969) 227-238. Earlier editions include Z i m m e r n (1901), Fossey (1902), T h o m p s o n (1903/04), T h u r e a u - D a n g i n (1921), E b e l i n g (1931); there are g o o d editions o f Maqlû ( G . M e i e r 1937) and Shurpu (E. Reiner 1958). 6. Goetze (1939) 11 ff. (an amulet?). 7. See Z i m m e r n (1901) 8 2 - 9 3 ; Meissner (1920/25) I I 6 4 - 6 6 . 8. Heraclitus B 5; (j)6vü)i cjjövov as a f o r m u l a i n Soph. 100; Eur. Here. 40, I.T. 1213, Or. 510, 816.

O.T

9. Aesch. Bum. 441, frs. 8 9 - 9 3 Radt; w r i t t e n H I E I Q N on a vase p a i n t i n g , i.e., associated w i t h ixÉTT|ç, suppliant; E. S i m o n , Würzburger Jahrb. 1 (1975) 177-185. FIdt. 1.35.2 says that the L y d ians had the same m e t h o d o f p u r i f i c a t i o n as the Greeks. M y t h has even A p o l l o u n d e r g o p u r i f i c a t i o n after k i l l i n g , be i t w i t h K a r m a n o r in Crete (Paus. 2.30.3, 10.7.2; Schob P i n d . Pyth. hypothesis c), at Tempe (Hymn of Aristonoos at Delphi I 17, p. 163 P o w e l l ; A e l . V.LI. 3.1), o r t h r o u g h exile w i t h A d m e t u s (Eur. Alk. 5-7). 10. Aesch. Eum. 281: L i i a o i i a exuX/utov; 283: x a 8 a g u . o î ç rector) x o i g o x x o v o i ç ; cf. 4 4 8 - 4 5 2 . T h e m o s t detailed description

186

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PAGES

5 7 - 5 9

o f p u r i f i c a t i o n f r o m m u r d e r i n later literature is i n A p o l l o n i u s Rhodius 4.662-717; see Parker (1983) 370-374. There is n o w an extensive "sacred l a w " f r o m Selinus, fifth century B . C . , i n the J. Paul G e t t y M u s e u m , part o f w h i c h contains detailed prescriptions for p u r i f i c a t i o n ; i t w i l l be published b y M . Jameson, D . Jordan, and Roy K o t a n s k y . 11. //. 1.3 14: " T h e y t h r e w the lymata i n t o the sea." 12. L o u v r e K 710: A . D . Trendall and A . C a m b i t o g l o u , The Red-Figured Vases of Apulia I (1978) n o . 4/229; G. SchneiderH e r m a n n , AK 13 (1970) 59 p i . 30.1; A . Kossatz-Deissmann, Dramen des Aischylos auf westgriechischen Vasen (1978) 107-111; cf. R. R. Dyer, " T h e Evidence for A p o l l o P u r i f i c a t i o n Rituals at D e l p h i and A t h e n s , " JHS 89 (1969) 3 8 - 5 6 , w i t h additional illustrations f r o m vases. 13. Farnell (1911) 129 f. For M e s o p o t a m i a n b l o o d rituals see L. C a g n i i n F. V a t t i o n i e d . , Sangue e antropologia biblica (1981) 7 4 76; R. G e l l i o , i b i d . 4 3 8 - 4 4 5 . T h e r e are i m p o r t a n t b l o o d rituals i n H i t t i t e and H u r r i t e r i t u a l texts, t o o . 14. E. L a n g l o t z and M . H i r m e r , Die Kunst der Westgriechen (1963) 24; A . D . T r e n d a l l , The Red-Figured Vases of Lucania, Campania and Sicily (1967) 602 n o . 103; G. S c h n e i d e r - H e r r m a n n , AK 13 (1970) 59 f. p i . 30.2; a s i m i l a r representation is f o u n d o n a cameo f r o m the C o l l e c t i o n Fouad, RML I I 2574. For the m y t h o f the Proetids see B u r k e r t (1983a) 168-173. 15. Cf. Soph. Tr. 1235: "he m i g h t be sick o n account o f avengi n g d e m o n s , " ei; akaoxÖQMV v o o o i . 16. T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I I 16-21 ( w i t h slight adjustments o f the translation); Meissner (1920/25) I I 222. 17. See the c o m i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f the Proetids i n D i p h i l o s fr. 125 Kassel-Austin, M e l a m p u s o p e r a t i n g " w i t h one t o r c h , one squill . . . w i t h sulphur, asphalt, and l o u d - r o a r i n g sea." 18. O v . Fast. 6.158-162. T h e r e is an equally close parallel i n a H i t t i t e i n c a n t a t i o n text; see H . Kronasser, Die Sprache 7 (1961) 140167; V. Flaas, Orientalia 40 (1971) 4 1 0 - 4 3 0 ; FI. S. Versnel, ZPE 58 (1985) 267. 19. Od. 5.396: öTiryeQög öe 01 eôae öaiLiorv. For the d o g l i k e Erinyes see Aesch. Cho. 1054, Bum. 264-267; see also below, " S u b stitute Sacrifice," n o t e 2. 20. arrat saggaste i n Shurpu

5.48 f. Closer to the Greek is the 187

NOTES

TO PAGES

ÖO-Ö2

O l d Testament: the spilled b l o o d " c r i e s " f r o m the earth, Gen. 4:10, j u s t as i n Aesch. Cho. 4 0 0 - 4 0 4 . 21. See above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 10; cf. Parker (1983) 125 f. 22. For the f i g u r i n e s , see R i t t i g (1977) 188-194. E x p u l s i o n o f "ravenous h u n g e r " (bulimos)

at C h a i r o n e i a : P l u t . Q.Conv.

693 f.:

8§<JL> ß o ü X t i i o v eoto ôè JtÀoûxov x a l û y i e t a v . 23. U n c l e a n hands, etc.: T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I I 138-141; cf. L e v i t i c u s 5:2 f.; " L o r d o f g u i l t " (bel ami): Shurpu a ß X a ß f | c avvovaîa:

I I I 134-137;

Aesch. Eum. 285. " N o s p e a k i n g " : i b i d . 448

and i n the a e t i o l o g y o f the Anthesteria r i t u a l , B u r k e r t (1983a) 221 f. 24. Ludlul

bel nemeqi I I I 23-28. L a m b e r t ( i 9 6 0 ) 48 f.; cf.

ANET

436, Castellino (1977) 487. Branchos: A p o l l o d o r u s o f K e r k y r a i n C l e m . Strom. 5.48.4; C a l l i m . fr. 1 9 4 . 2 6 - 3 1 . 25. F o r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f this f i g u r e — o f t e n b u t w r o n g l y called Oannes after Berossos, FGrHist (1981) 14-30; cf. AHw 58 s.v. apkallu(m);

680 F 1 § 4—see K o l b e represented, e . g . , beside

the bed o f the sick o n the L a m a s h t u tablet (see below, " L a m a s h t u , L a m i a , and G o r g o , " note 15); representation f r o m Terqa, n o r t h e r n Syria: Genge (1979) 44 r e f e r r i n g t o Annales archéologiques de Syrie 2 (1952) 179 p l . 2. 26. D e m o s t h . 18.259; H a r p o k r . s.v. àjtoiidxxtuv; Soph. fr. 34 Radt: oxpaxoû x a o a Q x f | ç xàjtoiiayLidxcov ïôpiç. A real case o f " p u r i f y i n g " an a r m y : X e n o p h . Anab.

5.7.35; cf. W. K . P r i t c h e t t , The

Greek State at War I I I (1979) 200 f. 27. AHw 442 f.; Z i m m e r n (1901) 92; Schrank (1908) 81-88. 28. AHw 509; S o p h r o n fr. 5 K a i b e l ; for M e l a m p u s see note 17, above. 29. Shurpu

1.13,

18, r e v . 9 ' , 5 . 6 0 - 7 2 ; K r a t i n o s fr. 250 Kassel-

A u s t i n ; D i p h i l o s fr. 125.3 (

s

e

e

note 17, above); T h e o p h r .

16.14; OKikfat) 'EmiiEViÔEioç: T h e o p h r . H.Plant. 30. Shurpu

Char.

7.2.1.

8.89 f.; Maqlû 7 . 8 1 .

31. E b e l i n g (1931) 8 0 - 8 2 n o . 21.1-38; 138 n o . 30 C 9. 32. H s c h . : 4>aQfxdxrp r\ %vxça fjv éxoîiiaÇov x o î ç x a o a t o o u a L V xàç

KÔXEIÇ.

I n the L a t i n c o m e d y Querolus

(p. 38.10-15 Ranstrand)

the w o u l d - b e m a g i c i a n asks f o r a l i t t l e coffer, arcula inanis . . . in qua lustrum Mud exportetur foras.

I n the H i t t i t e Telepinu t e x t , "Tele-

p i n u s ' rage, anger, malice fand] f u r y " are enclosed i n subterranean bronze caldrons; ANET

128.

188

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

6 2 - 6 4

33. E b e l i n g (1931) 138 n o . 30 C 11; 82 n o . 21.38; Shurpu 7.64 ff.; cf. Ebeling (1918/19) 1 3 3 = Castellino (1977) 633. 34. H i p p o e r . V I 362 L i t t r e . 35. T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I I 138 f. Petronius 134.1: quod purgamentum in node calcasü in trivio out cadaver; L i v . 8.10.12: ubi ilhtd signum defossum erit, eo magistratum Romanum escendere fas non esse. 36. A r i s t . fr. 496 Rose = Paus. Att. cj> 5 Erbse; Leviticus 14:47; 4 9 - 5 3 37. D i o g . L a e r t . 1.114 = Epimenides, FGrHist 457 T 1. 38. E b e l i n g (1931) 150 n o . 30 F 35 f. 39. Historia Alexandri Magni 2.31.3 K r o l l ; Testamentum Alexandri, R. M e r k e l b a c h , Die Quellen des griechischen Alexanderromans (1977 ) 254; cf. Paus. 8.18.6: T h e water o f Styx can be kept o n l y i n a horse's hoof. 40. D i o g . L a e r t . 8.3. Epimenides m e n t i o n e d the Idaean cave i n the c o n t e x t o f the m y t h o f Zeus, FGrHist 457 F 18. T h e name o f E p i m e n i d e s ' m o t h e r , Balte, has been associated w i t h Semitic Ba alat; G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) 659; T. Poliakov, RhM 130 (1987) 411 f. 41. See Chapter 1, " O r i e n t a l Products i n Greece," note 13. 42. See above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 12. 43. See note 9, above. 44. A p o l l o and numenia: H d t . 6.57.2; Philochoros, FGrHist 328 F 88, numeniastai o f A p o l l o D e l p h i n i o s : F. Graf, M H 3 1 (1974) 214; cf. RF X V I I 1293. F o r the celebration o f the n e w m o o n i n Israel see, e.g., I Samuel 20:3, I I K i n g s 4:23, Ezra 3:1. A p o l l o and "Seven": EßöotiayETac;, Aesch. Sept. 800 f ; cf. H d t . 6.57.2; 'EßööitEioc,: IG I I / I I I 4974; 'Eßöouou'urv: Inschriften von Erythrai (1972/73) 207.87; a festival " E ß ö o i i a i a o f the Molpoi o f M i l e t o s , LSAM 50.6; 2 i , etc. See also B u r k e r t (1975). 2

c

2

45. See notes 9 a n d 25, above. Rhakios is the husband o f M a n t o , m o t h e r o f M o p s o s , A k k a d i a n rahu is a sort o f magician; AHw 944a. 46. S. L e v i n , SMEA 13 (1971) 31-50 c o m m e n t i n g o n nektar; B u r k e r t (1975) 77; cf. AHw 907 (qataru), 930 f. (qutrenum, sacrifice o f incense); HAL 1022-24; I I K i n g s 23:5, e.g., the f o r m is jeqatter(u), " t h e y b u r n t incense," w h i c h , transcribed, w o u l d produce s o m e t h i n g like E x d B n o a v . For the mirage o f a G r e e k - s o u n d i n g suffix i n xcxöaoög ( G . N e u m a n n , ZVS 98 [1985] 305 f . ) ; cf. XExdvn, o

n

189

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

6 4 - 6 5

C h a p t e r 1, " T h e P r o b l e m of L o a n - W o r d s , " note 11. I t is even m o r e t e m p t i n g t o assume that the name o f A p h r o d i t e the goddess o f i n cense, KuGepeia, is f r o m the same Semitic r o o t ; cf., e.g., H e b r e w mequtteret, " f i l l e d w i t h fragrance" ( i n spite o f Greek p o p u l a r etym o l o g y c o n n e c t i n g the name w i t h the island Kü8r|pct; the change T|-£ is l i n g u i s t i c a l l y impossible; cf. G. M o r g a n , " A p h r o d i t e C y therea," TAPA 108 [1978] 115-120 for another e t y m o l o g y ) . " H e cleaned/fumigated w i t h s u l p h u r , " e x d ö r i p e Geeum: //. 16.228; cf. Od. 22.481 f. 47. AHw 565; the r o o t is used as adjective and verb, the n o u n is lutu; for its use i n p u r i f i c a t i o n ceremonies, see, e.g., Maqlü 1.102; 1.105; 3.113. O n the p r o b l e m s o f w o r d f o r m a t i o n as to \v\xa/Xv9QOV see C h a n t r a m e (1968/80) 650 f.; for a detailed investigation i n t o the m e a n i n g o f these w o r d s see E. Tagliaferro i n Sangue e Antropologia Biblica I (1980) 182 n.36, 186-189. For lustrum see note 32, above. 48. O n araru see AHw 65, HAL 88; used as a l o a n - w o r d i n H u r r i t e ; E. Laroche, RHA 28 (1970) 61. B i l e a m : N u m b e r s 22:6; cf. above, " C r a f t s m e n o f the Sacred," note 4; on d p a see Chantraine (1968/80) 100 f. SPIRITS O F T H E D E A D A N D B L A C K

MAGIC

1. Cf. above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " note 19. 2. AHw 263 f. 3. See Rohde (1898), esp. I 2 5 9 - 2 7 7 , " E l e m e n t e des Seelencultes i n der B l u t r a c h e u n d M o r d s ü h n e . " 4. See below, Ch ap te r 3, " F r o m Atrahasis t o the ' D e c e p t i o n o f Z e u s , ' " note 1. 5. E b e l i n g (1931) 68 f. n o . 15.23-25 (burial i n the context o f a r i t u a l o f s u b s t i t u t i o n ; cf. C h ap te r 2, " S u b s t i t u t e Sacrifice"). 6. Aesch. Pers. 611-618; cf. Eur. l.T. 159-166: water, m i l k , w i n e , honey. 7. Spirits l a c k i n g the " p o u r i n g s o f w a t e r " (naq me) become u n r u l y ; T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I 40. A s h u r b a n i p a l reinstated f o o d offerings and " p o u r i n g s o f w a t e r " for the earlier kings; Streck (1916) II 250 f.; cf. E b e l i n g (1931) 131 n o . 30 A 38; Färber (1977) 150 f., text A I I a 158. O n offerings o f water i n the Greek cult o f the dead see B u r k e r t (1985) 73, 194. 8. N o t i c e d b y T. W i e g a n d , Sechster vorläufiger Bericht über die in

•

190

•

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

65-67

Milet und Didyma vorgenommenen Ausgrabungen, A b h . B e r l i n (1908) 27; hence N i l s s o n (1967) 177 n . i ; RE Suppl. V I I I 136. 9. CAD I I ( A ) 324 s.v. arutu (this w o r d is interpreted differently b y E b e l i n g [1931] 132 and AHw 72b). t o . A r i s t o p h . fr. 322 Kassel-Austin; see T . Geizer, ZPE 4 (1967) 123-133. i t . Esp. i n E b e l i n g (1931) n o . 30 A - F ; n o . 31. 12. I b i d . 84 n o . 21.1; 138 n o . 30 C 1; 142 n o . 30 D r. 13. I b i d . 141 n o . 30 C verso 10 f. = SAHG 341. 14. E b e l i n g (1931) 84 n o . 21 verso 23; cf. Castellino (1977) 647. 15. T h o m p s o n (1903/04) I 38 f , f r o m the series utukki lemnuti; Gilgamesh X I I 151 f.; cf. Ebeling (1931) 145 n o . 30 C 22-29. 16. E b e l i n g (1931) 145 n o . 30 E 22. 17. 17. 22.358, Od. 11.73. 18. Plat. Phdr. 244a, Leg. 854b; cf. Trag.Adesp. F 637.16 Snell; Eur. Phoen. 934: i n b o t h these passages there is a mantis t o deal w i t h the menima. C f . I . M . L i n f o r t h , "Telestic Madness i n Plato," IJCPCP 13 (1946) 163-172; B u r k e r t (1987a) 19, 24. 19. A r i s t . Rhet. 1 4 ^ 2 4 - 2 6 = Epimenides, FGrHist 457 F 1. 20. J. T r u m p f , "Fluchtafel u n d Rachepuppe," MDAI (Athens) 73 ('958) 94-102; cf. B u r k e r t (1985) 75; Faraone (1991) and ClAnt 10 (1991) 164-203; Faraone and ü b b i n k (1991) index s.v. voodoo dolls. Maqlû 4 . 2 7 - 4 7 ; cf. 1.1; Ebeling (1918/19) I I 38.26 = Castellino (1977) 675.27; Färber (1977) 211-213, text A I I I 10; E b e l i n g (1931) 133 n o . 30 A subscriptio. 21. Maqlû 1.131 ff. = Castellino (1977) 618, Biggs (1967) 28. 22. Theoer. 2.53. 23. B i g g s (1967), esp. 28.22-24: figurines made o f w a x , fat, b i t u m e n , g y p s u m ; cf. E b e l i n g (1925). 24. Theocr. 2.162. 25. Plat. Leg. 933b. 26. E b e l i n g (1931) 71 n o . 17.2. 27. T h e second tale i n A . E r m a n , "Papyrus Westcar," i n Die Literatur der Ägypter (1923) 66; E. B r u n n e r - T r a u t , Alt-Ägyptische Märchen (1965 ) 12 f. C f . the magical destruction o f A p o p i i n G. Roeder, Der Ausklang der ägyptischen Religion mit Reformation, Zauberei und Jenseitsglauben (1961) 150 f.; P. D e r c h a i n , Le papyrus Salt 825 (1965) 161 f.; E. H o r n u n g , Altägyptische Llöllenv or Stellungen, 2

•

19t •

NOTES

TO

PAGES

68-69

A b h . L e i p z i g 59.3 (1968) 27; M . J. Raven, " W a x i n E g y p t i a n M a g i c and S y m b o l i s m , " OMRO 54 (1983) 7-47. Figurines o f w a x and fat i n H i t t i t e magic: G u r n e y (1954) 162. 28. Text o f Sfire: ANET 660, KAI 222, F i t z m y e r (1967) 14 f., 16 f. (I 35, 42); L e m a i r e and D u r a n d (1984). Esarhaddon: D . J. Wiseman, Iraq 20 (1958) 75 f.; ANET 540.608-610; S. Parpola and K. Watanabe, State Archives of Assyria II: Neo-Assyrian Treaties and Loyalty Oaths (1988). H i t t i t e : J. F r i e d r i c h , " D e r hethitische Soldateneid," ZA 35 (1924) 161-192; ANET 353; N . O e t t i n g e r , Die militärischen Eide der Hethiter (1976) 6-17; see D . J. M c C a r t h y , Treaty and Covenant (1963, 1978 ); M . Weinfeld, JAOS 93 (1973) 190-199. B u r n i n g o f effigies is c o m m o n i n Maqlü. 2

29. S. F e r r i , Abh. Berlin 5 (1925) 19-24; SEC 9 n o . 3; R. M e i g g s and D . L e w i s , A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions (1969) n o . 5.44; x r | g i v o g J t X d ö o a v t e g x o X o a ö g xax6xcuov. O n this text see A . D . N o c k , AR W 24 (1926) 172 f.; A . J. G r a h a m , JHS 80 ( i 9 6 0 ) 95-111; M u r r a y (1980) 113-119. A c c o r d i n g to S. Dusanic, Chiron 8 (1978) 55-76, i t is a f o r g e r y (or " r e c o n s t r u c t i o n " ) f r o m the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B.c. 30. PGM 2.34; 4.339, 1419. 2485, 2750, 2912; 5.340, 425; 7-317, 985; 13.923; 70; etc.; i t occurs also i n defixions and o n m a g ical gems; see D r e x l e r , RML I I 1584-87. 31. S. Ferri, Notiziario Archeologico 4 (1927) 91-145; SEG 9 n o . 72; U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , " H e i l i g e Gesetze. Eine U r k u n d e aus K y r e n e , " Sitzungsberichte B e r l i n (1927) 155-176; G. I . Luzzato, La Lex Cathartica di Cirene (1936); H . Jeanmaire, REG 58 (1945) 6 6 - 8 9 ; J. Servais, BCH 84 ( i 9 6 0 ) 112-147; LSS 115; Parker (1983) 332-351. I t m u s t n o w be c o m p a r e d w i t h the u n p u b l i s h e d lex sacra a b o u t p u r i f i c a t i o n f r o m Selinus; see above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " note 10. 32. J. G o u l d , " H i k e t e i a , " JHS 93 (1973) 74-103. 33. LSS 115 B 35-39: KOXOOOC, Jtotrioavxa EQOEVCX xou öfjX.£ia[v] f| x a X i v o g t | yai'vog imobe'E,ä\ievov jta0TL8[e]LiEV TO LIEQOC; jtdvTCDV EJtEt ÖE x a jtoifjoEg x d v o i i i ^ o L i e v a , ((>Egovxa Eg vkav dEgyov £ g £ [ t ] o m x d g x o X o o o g x a i x d uigr|. For c o n j u r i n g a spirit "either male or female" cf. Maqlü 1.73-86 = Castellino (1977) Maqlü I I 3 8 - 4 9 = Castellino 620; Maqlü I I 108-110 = Castellino 622 f.; Maqlü I I 131 = Castellino 623; cf. 632.28-30. 34. E b e l i n g (1931) 8 0 - 8 2 n o . 21 recto lines 1-39,

192

cf. i b i d . 82

NOTES

TO

PAGES

7O-72

f., 84 f. verso lines 23-32. For the p o t see above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " notes 31-32. 35. Plat. Rep. 364c: EJtaycoYaic; x t a t x a t xaxaSEauoLc;; Eur. Hipp. 318: e£ ETtaxxoT) Jir]uovf]c;; cf. T h e o p h r . Char. 16.7; H i p p o c r . Morb.Sacr. 1, V I 358 L i t t r e ; Vict. 4.89, V I 652 L i t t r e ; Parker (1983) 348. 36. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was first advanced b y H . J. Stukey, CP 32 (1937) 32-43, f o l l o w e d by Parker (1983) 348 f. 37. T h i s was Stukey's o p i n i o n t o o , b u t Parker (1983) 348 thinks the second and t h i r d sections deal w i t h a hikesios w h o is " p a l pably h u m a n . " 38. " T o do rites o n , " according to K. D o w d e n , RHR 197 (1980) 415 f. 39. T h u s LSJ s.v. prophero and telisko; cf. S o k o l o w s k i o n LSS 115.40-49. 40. H d t . 5.66.1. T h e n e w lex sacra f r o m Selinus (note 31, above) speaks about establishing a cult to an elasteros (opposite to hikesios?). 41. LSJ Suppl. has " d u b . sense" for autophonos, b u t " t o supplicate" for aphiketeuein. autophonos occurs a few times i n poetry; i t refers to suicide i n O p p . Cyn. 2.480. 42. l o o a v x a line 52 i n o p p o s i t i o n to looctfiEVog line 40 f. m u s t be transitive. Is i t the corpse o f the suicide w h i c h "is seated"? 43. XQi<jnjA.fcrv is preceded b y . . . ]jtoA.iov; aAAoJjro?uav is a possible supplement. [tiEXpi 6pco]v ( [ E m l a p d ) ] v is the supplement at line 55 b y O l i v e r i o p r i n t e d i n LSS. Cf. Plat. Leg. 873d: A suicide is to be i n t e r r e d "at the borders o f the twelve sections." 44. Cf. E p i c h a r m . fr. 165 K a i b e l ; FIsch. s.v. kreittones; Schol. A r i s t o p h . Av. 1490. 45. There seems to be a certain parallel to the Skira procession in A t h e n s , an apopompe w h e r e a ram's fleece is o f some i m p o r t a n c e ; see B u r k e r t (1985) 230. 46. Paus. 2.18.2; EOtvDg xcu Jtoiv&q xcci J t p o a x p o j t a i o u g xarv 61' EXELVOV rjxnxTlxoxoov: P o l y b . 23.10.2. 47. A n t i p h . 2.3.10; 4.1.4; 4.2.8 (the passages are parallel, b u t LSJ translates " s u p p l i a n t for vengeance" at 2.3.10 and "avenger" at 4.2.8); Aesch. Ch. 286 f.: xo y a p OXOXELVOV xarv EVEpxEpurv PeXog EX JtpooTpOJtaiarv EV Y£VEL JXEJXXOIXOXCOV, " t h e dark missile o f those below, f r o m prostropaioi k i l l e d w i t h i n the f a m i l y . " T h e ancient c o m -

193

NOTES

TO PAGES

7 3 - 7 7

m e n t a t o r explains: " f r o m A g a m e m n o n , w h o supplicates the gods to o b t a i n avenge"; this has misled LSJ astray t o translate " s u p p l i a n t for vengeance" instead o f avenging spirit w h o "attaches h i m s e l f " to the c u l p r i t . R o h d e (1898) I 264 n.2. had i t r i g h t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g his a n i m i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : " D i e zürnende Seele w i r d z u m KQoaxQÖnaioc,." See also Aeschin. 2.158 w i t h H a r p o k r . s.v. JTQOa T Q Ö J t a i o v tuaatxa. C f . H . J. Stukey, CP 32 (1937) 40; Parker (1983) 108, 349. SUBSTITUTE SACRIFICE 1. See B u r k e r t (1979) 7 0 - 7 2 and (1981b) 115 f. 2. See F u r l a n i (1940) 285-305, esp. 290 f.; cf. Chapter 2, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " at note 19. 3. Paus. A t t . e 35 ed. Erbse; Z e n o b . A t h . 1.8 p. 350 M i l l e r ; the c o m m o n source is D i d y m o s ; cf. R u p p r e c h t , RE X V I I I 4, 1754 f.; cf. W. Sale, RhM 118 (1975) 265-284. M e n a n d . Phasma 80 Sandbach and fr. 368 K o e r t e . 4. L e x X I I Tab. V I I I 24a, explained b y Festus 347, 351 M = 470, 476 L. 5. E b e l i n g (1931) 6 5 - 6 9 n o . 15; cf. F u r l a n i (1940) 294 f. and RA 38 (1941) 60. A s i m i l a r b u t shorter text i n Ebeling 69 f. n o . 16; for Ereshkigal see above, " P u r i f i c a t i o n , " note 30; f o r libations see above, " S p i r i t s o f the Dead and Black M a g i c , " note 5. 6. Gell. 5.12.12. 7. A e l . Nat.An. 12.34; cf. B u r k e r t (1983a) 183. 8. AHw 109 f ASCLEPIUS AND ASGELATAS 1. K y r i e l e i s (1979); cf. A . F u r t w ä n g l e r , AK zi (1978) 113 f. 2. F u h r (1977) 136. 3. Paus. 2.27.2, c o n f i r m e d b y coins; cf. F u h r (1977) 140 f i g . 10. T h e r e l i e f f r o m E p i d a u r u s , A t h e n s N M 1426: U . H a u s m a n n , Kumt und Heiltum (1948) f i g . 10; K . K e r e n y i , Der göttliche Arzt (1948) f i g . 15; cf. N i l s s o n (1906) 409 n.7. 4. A p o l l o d . , FGrHist 244 F 138. 5. IG I I / I I I 4962 = LSCG 21.9 f.: moiv xwriYETcag j t ö j t a v a xoia. 2

nönava

xoia-

6. Plato, Phaon fr. 188.16 Kassel-Austin. T h e b e g i n n i n g o f the verse is c o r r u p t ; see Kassel-Austin for suggested emendations.

194

NOTES 7.

TO PAGES

K. L . T a l l q v i s t , Akkadische

7 8 - 8 0

Götterepitheta

(1938) 5; Fuhr

(1977); AHw 92b; i n A r a m a i c - S y r i a n asja, physician, is a current word, too. 8. Asgelatas: IG X I I 3.248 = LSCG

129 = SIG

977.8, 27

(end o f second c e n t u r y B . C . ) ; Asgelaia: IG X I I 3.249; cf. N i l s s o n (1906) 175 f. 9. See U . v o n W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , hyllos

von Epidauros

(1886) 93. A H i t t i t e e t y m o l o g y f o r Asclepius is advanced b y Szem e r e n y i (1974) 155. 10. Esp. at the Black Sea; W. M . Calder, A]A 75 (1971) 3 2 5 329; S E C 30 n o . 880; A r i s t o p h . Av. 584, Pint.

11, etc.

11. Paus. 8 . 4 1 . 7 - 9 ; even i f the name E p i k u r i o s o r i g i n a l l y designated the g o d o f mercenaries, the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " t h e H e l p e r " as given b y Pausanias shows w h a t Greeks w o u l d n o r m a l l y expect. 12. IG X I I 3 412 (Thera, fifth century B . C . ) ; X I I 3 259, 260 ( A n a p h e ) ; A p o l l . R h o d . 4.1716; C a l l i m . fr. 7.23; Aiglatas as a personal name: Jeffery (1990) 199 n o . 22. 13. x d p o g is n o t f o u n d i n C h a n t r a i n e (1968/80). For kam and kam sec AHw 452a. F o r s y m p o s i u m couches see Chapter 1, " O r i ental Products i n Greece," note 28. ECSTATIC DIVINATION 1. Heraclitus B 92; Aesch. "Die

Kassandragestalt

Ag. 1072-1263; cf. H . L. Jansen,

in Aischylos'

Agamemnon,"

Temenos 5

(1969) 107-119; H d t . 8.135; cf. also Pindar Pyth. 4.10 f. o n Medea prophesying:

â[XEvf]c; . . . ctJtejtvenae.

Already

i n the Odyssey

T h e o k l y m e n o s the seer is said t o be " o u t o f his m i n d , " c«t>paiVEi (Od. 20.360); cf. S. Scheinberg, HSCP

83 (1979) 16.

2. Plat. Phdr. 244a; the ecstasy o f the Pythia was contested b y P. A m a n d r y , La mantique

apollinienne

ä Delphes

(1950); and b y J.

Fontenrose,

The Delphic

Oracle (1978) 204-212, w h o w o u l d a l l o w

"enthusiasm

b u t n o t u n c o n t r o l l e d and i r r a t i o n a l f r e n z y " for the

P y t h i a — a s i f d i v i n a t i o n were n o t i r r a t i o n a l i n any case. See D o d d s (1951) 70-743. Esp. Def.Or. Phars.

5.69-236,

51.4383-d; interesting details also i n Lucan

t h o u g h overlaid w i t h

reminiscences

o f Virgil

Aeneid V I . 4. Farnell (1911) 303. 5. F. Ellermeier, Prophetie

in Mari und Israel (1968); E. N o o r t ,

195

NOTES

TO PAGES

8o-8l

Untersuchungen zum Gottesbescheid in Mari (1977); W e n - A m o n : AN'ET 26; cf. G r o t t a n e l l i (1982b) 666-668; o n mahhu, mahhutu see AHw 852 f. 6. Jastrow (1905/12) I I 158-165; L u c k e n b i l l (1926/27) I I 2 3 8 241; A NET 449 f.; cf. A . K . Grayson and W. G . L a m b e r t , JCS 18 (1964) 7-30; W W H a l l , Israel Explor.J. 16 (1966) 231-242. 7. See Rzach, RE I I A 2073-2183 s.v. Sibyllen. 8. T h e fame o f the S i b y l o f E r y t h r a e seems t o date f r o m her rediscovery b y a prophetess at the t i m e o f Alexander; Kallisthenes, FGrHist 124 F 14; cf. A p o l l o d o r u s , FGrHist 422; Die Inschriften von Erythrai und Klazomenai I I (1973) 224-228; G r a f (1985) 335-350. 9. T h e o r i g i n and date o f the libri Sibyllini i n R o m e w i l l r e m a i n controversial; see R. B l o c h i n Neue Beiträge zur Geschichte der Alten Welt I I (1965) 281-292; R. M . O g i l v i e , A Commentary on Livy I (1965) 654 f. 10. C f . A . Peretti, La sibilla babilonese nella propaganda ellenistica (1943); further Semitic e t y m o l o g i e s for Sibylla i n O . G r u p p e , Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte I I (1906) 927; H . Lewy, Philologus 57 (1898) 350 f.; F. Eilermeier, Sibyllen, Musikanten, Haremsfrauen (1970) 7 - 9 ; R. B . C o o t e , Journal of North West Semitic Languages 5 (1977) 3 - 8 . 11. Schob Plat. Phdr. 244b = N i k a n o r , FGrHist sos, FGrHist 680 F 7; cf. Höfer, RML I V 264-269.

146; B e r o s -

12. M . P. N i l s s o n , " D i e älteste griechische Z e i t r e c h n u n g , A p o l l o n u n d der O r i e n t , " ARW 14 (1911) 423-448 = Opuscula Selecta I (1951) 3 6 - 6 1 ; i d e m , Die Entstehung und religiöse Bedeutung des griechischen Kalenders (1918, 1962 ); Nilsson's ideas are o u t d a t e d i n sofar as Linear B has p r o v e d that there was already a Mycenaean system o f m o n t h names, b u t this does n o t invalidate the w h o l e o f his theory. See also A u f f a h r t (1991) 417-420 o n the nineteen-year p e r i o d . C f . B . C . D i e t r i c h , "Reflections o n the O r i g i n s o f the O r a c u l a r A p o l l o , " BICS 25 (1978) 1-18. M . L . West t h i n k s i t possible that t h e H u r r i a n - H i t t i t e m y t h s reached H e s i o d v i a D e l p h i : JHS 105 (1985) 175. 2

13. See A . M a l l w i t z and H . M . Lee i n The Archaeology of the Olympics, ed. W. J . Raschke (1988) 7 9 - 1 0 9 and 110-18. 14. P l u t . Def.Or. 435c, 4 3 7 b — " s p r i n k l i n g an o x w i t h water t o observe its r e a c t i o n " : Reiner (1960a), 25, 28.

196

NOTES

TO PAGE

82

15. See also K . Latte, " T h e C o m i n g o f the P y t h i a , " HThR (1940) 9 - 1 8 .

33

16. Apollo f r o m A k k a d i a n abullu, A r a m a i c abul, c i t y gate: E. S i m o n , Die Götter der Griechen (1967) 132; f r o m A k k a d i a n aplu, son: H . L e w y , Wochenschrift für Klassische Philologie 10 (1893) 860; L. R. Palmer i n A . H e u b e c k and G. N e u m a n n , eds., Res Mycenaeae (1983) 362. LAMASHTU, LAMIA, AND GORGO r. See Reiner (1960b), esp. 154. 2. F. T h u r e a u - D a n g i n , RA 18 (1921) 192-198; Frank (1941) 15-23; F I . W. Saggs, " P a z u z u , " AOF ig (1959/60) 123-127; ANEP 857; f r o m Z i n c i r l i : Sendschirli V (1943) 31 figs. 24-25 a n d pl. I2a-d. 3. I n c u n e i f o r m , the signs mas and bar (no. 74 B o r g e r ) have become i d e n t i c a l ; the earlier reading had been Labartu. T h e reading Lamastu was established b y a text published i n 1934; see Frank (1941) 4 n . 1. Earlier studies include D . W. M y h r m a n , " D i e L a b a r t u - T e x t e , " ZA 16 (1902) 141-200; reliefs: K . Frank, Babylonische Beschwörungsreliefs, Leipziger Semitistische Studien 3.3 (1908); F. T h u r e a u - D a n g i n , " R i t u e l s et amulettes contre L a b a r t u , " RA 18 (1921) 161—198; Frank (1941); F. Koecher, Beschwörungen gegen die Dämonin Lamastu, Diss. B e r l i n (1949); L. J . K r u s i n a - C e r n y , " T h r e e N e w A m u l e t s o f L a m a s h t u , " Arch. Orientalin 18.3 (1950) 297-303; H . K l e n g e l , " N e u e L a m a s t u - A m u l e t t e aus den Vorderasiatischen M u s e e n z u B e r l i n , " Mitt. d. Inst. f. Orientforsch. 7 (1960) 334-355; cf. 8 (1963) 25-29; W. v o n Soden, AOF 20 (1963) 148; L e i b o v i c i (1971) 92, 95 f.; E. L i c h t y , " D e m o n s a n d P o p u l a t i o n C o n t r o l , " Expedition 13.2 (1971) 22-26; M . V. L b n i e t t i , " U n i n c a n tesimo sumerico c o n t r a la L a m a s t u , " Orientalia 48 (1978) 301-323; G. W i l h e l m , ZA 69 (1979) 3 4 - 4 0 ; Patzek (1988); see also RML I I I 269; Meissner (1920/25) I I figs. 33-34; ANEP 857. A c o m p r e h e n sive survey is given b y W. Farber, RIA V I (1983) 4 3 9 - 4 4 6 ; he m e n tions s i x t y - t h r e e reliefs (441-443). 4. Patzek (1988); f o r H u m b a b a a n d dog-leaders see above, " H e p a t o s c o p y , " note 19; and "Asclepius and Asgelatas," note 1. 5. Sappho 178 A V o i g t ; Maas, RE V I I 1005 f. w i t h reference to m o d e r n Greek beliefs about TuM-d), cf. R. Reitzenstein, Poiman-

197

NOTES

TO

PAGES

8 2 - 8 3

dres (1904) 299 and ZA 23 (1909) 1 5 7 - 1 6 3 ; ] . C. L a w s o n , Greek Folktale and Ancient Greek Religion (1910) 176-179.

Modern

6. C. Frank, ZA 24 (1910) 161-165; Meissner (1920/25) I I 200; cf. AHw 275; contra, W. Eilers, Sitzungsber. M ü n c h e n 1979.7, 5^ f 7. See Chapter 1, " W r i t i n g and L i t e r a t u r e i n the E i g h t h C e n t u r y , " at note 18; and above, "Asclepius and Asgelatas," note 8. 8. Stesichorus 220 P M G / D a v i e s ; D u r i s , FGrHist 76 F 17; D i o d . 20.41.3; equated w i t h Gello i n Schob Theoer. 16.38/39C; a l lusions i n A r i s t o p h . Vesp. 1035 and 1177, Pax 758, fr. 724 KasselA u s t i n ; cf. Schwenn, RE X I I 5 4 4 - 5 4 6 ; } . Fontenrose, Python (1959) 100-104; o n the p r o b l e m o f Greek p i c t o r i a l representations see Vermeule (1977). 9. S t o l l , RML I I 1820 f.; Schwenn, RE X I I 545 f.; L a w s o n (note 5, above) 173-176. 10. See n o t e 3, above. 11. U g a r i t : J. N o u g a y r o l , Ugaritica V I (1969) 393-408; B o g h a z k ö y : i b i d . 405; C a r c h e m i s h : G o l d m a n (1961) p i . 4.1; Z i n c i r l i : i b i d . p i . 4.2; K l e n g e l (note 3, above) nos. 4 6 - 4 7 ; cf. RIA V I 442. 12. C. C l e r m o n t - G a n n e a u , Etudes d'archéologie orientale 1 (1895) 8 5 - 9 0 ; cf. W. C u l i c a n , "Phoenician D e m o n s , " JNES 35 (1976) 21-24. Patzek (1988): a m u l e t f r o m P o g g i o C i v i f a t e , 675-650 B.C. Patzek also suggests that H o m e r ' s calling A r t e m i s "lioness for w o m e n " (//. 21.483) is dependent o n the image and f u n c t i o n o f Lamashtu. 13. H . Gollancz, " A Selection o f C h a r m s f r o m Syriac M a n u scripts," Actes du XI Congrès International des Orientalistes (1897) I V 7 7 - 9 7 , esp.80, 85. 14. Schob A r i s t o p h . Pax 758. 15. For some representations see note 3, above; the standard i l l u s t r a t i o n is the b i g a m u l e t i n the L o u v r e , C o l l e c t i o n de C l e r c q , RML I I I 269, RIA V I 442; the "Mistress o f A n i m a l s " schema is especially clear i n Meissner (1920/25) I I p l . 34, w h i c h also has a horse next t o L a m a s h t u . 16. O n the i c o n o g r a p h y o f the G o r g o n see T. G. Karayorga, (1970); J. F l o r e n , Studien zur Typologie des Gorgoneion (1977); the o r i e n t a l connections are discussed i n C. H o p k i n s , " A s s y r i a n Elements i n the Perseus-Gorgon Story," AJA 38 (1934) 341-358; M . E. W i l l , Rev. Arch. V I 27 (1942) 6 0 - 7 6 ; Barnett ( i 9 6 0 )

rooyeiri Ke<j)cAfj

198

NOTES

TO

PAGES

8 5 - 8 7

145-158; Hopkins (1961); Goldman (1961); Kantor (1962); Akurgal (1968) 187; W. Culican, "Phoenician Demons," JNES 35 (1976) 2 1 24; Helck (1979) 214 f.; for details borrowed from Pazuzu heads see Boardman (1980) 79. 17. For Corfu see, e.g., G. Richter, A Handbook of Creek Art (i959) 63; Schefold (1964) 49. For the horse besides Lamashtu see

note 15, above; Gorgon holding two snakes: gold pendant from Delphi, Hopkins (1961) pi. 15.2. See also Burkert (1987b) 2 6 - 3 2 . 18. Strab. 16 p. 759; Konon, FGrHist 26 F 1.40; los. Bell.lud. 3.420; Plin. N.H. 5.69; 128; Paus. 4.35.9. 19. Coins of Tarsos: Burkert (1983a) 210 n.26. 20. Burkert (1987b) 28 nn. 7 9 - 8 0 with fig. 2.7, esp. "Williams cylinder"; Ward (1910) 201 no. 578; P. Amiet, Syria 42 (1965) 245; also in West (1971) pi. Ha. 21. The so-called Polyphema type: E. Unger, DLZ 85 (1964) 694; M. Knox, JHS 99 (1979) 164 f. 22. Berlin VA 2145; M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible, and Homer (1893) pi. 31.16; cf. p. 208; A. de Ridder, BCH 22 (1898) 452 fig. 4; Ward (1910) 212 no. 643c; A. Moortgat, Vorderasiatische Rollsiegel (1940) no. 781; C. Flopkins, AJA 38 (1934) 351 fig. 5 and (1961) pi. 15.3; Amiet (1976) 26 f.; B. Brentjes, Alte Siegelkunst des Vorderen Orients (1983) 165, 203, with the information that it was bought at Baghdad, whereas Ohnefalsch-Richter had made people think of Cyprus; Burkert (1987a) 276 f. fig. 2.3. 23. E. Kuhnert, RML III 2032; also in Goldman (1961) 21 f. 24. Amiet (1976) 26, preceded by Hopkins (1961) 31. 25. An old and impressive instance: steatite vessel from Khafajah, dated about 2700 B . C . , BM 128887, Strommenger (1962) pi. 38 f; cf. a circular amulet from Luristan in Geneva, Goldman (1961) pi. lb. 26. Pind. Nem. 1,43-47, fr. 52U 7-18 Snell-Maehler; Eur. Here. 1266-68; Theocr. 24; for pictures see LIMC Herakles nos. 1598-

1664; for some other eastern elements in the myth and iconography of Herakles see Burkert (1979) 8 0 - 8 3 and (1987b). 27. Egyptian Bes amulets were reinterpreted to represent Herakles the "Daktylos"; see C. Grottanclli, "Eracle dattilo dell'Ida, Aspetti 'Orientali,'" Orlens Antiquus 11 (1972) 201-208; that the iconography of Herakles is dependent on that of Bes had been

199

NOTES

TO

PAGES

shown already by A. Furtwängler,

87-88

RML I 2143-45 ^ ARW 10 Schriften I I (1924) 420; see also A. M. Biri, Herakles," Riv. Stud. Fen. 8 (1980) 15-42. Boardman, Pre-Classical: From Crete to Archaic Greece a n

(1907) 325 = Kleine

"Da Bes a 28. J.

(1967) 106, wrote: "In the art of the 'orientalizing' period we look in vain for anything which we might call religious art"; this statement overlooks the Ida tympanon (Chapter 1, "Oriental Products in Greece," note 13; see Figure 1), and of course there were votive offerings and also divine images; but it captures a characteristic of the epoch. 29. See Faraone (1987) on Od. 7.91-94. 3 . "Or Also a Godly Singer" FROM ATRAHASIS TO THE " D E C E P T I O N OF Z E U S "

i . "The Gilgamesh Epic . . . may well be called the Odyssey of the Babylonians"; A. Heidel, The Gilgamesh Epic and Old Testament Parallels (1949 ) 1. A catalogue of parallels in Auffahrt (1991) 136-139; see also Gresseth (1975); Wilson (1986); Burkert (1991). Jensen (1902), (1912/13), (1924) and Ungnad (1923) called attention esp. to Kalypso and Siduri the ale wife, Alkinoos, and Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim's ferryman quits his service after the transport of Gilgamesh (XI 234-236), just as the transport of Odysseus is the last ever done by the Phaeacians (Od. 13.125-187). See also G. Crane, "Circe and the Near East," in Calypso. Backgrounds and Conventions of the Odyssey (1988) 61-85. Fries (1910) reached an extreme position; more solid is Wirth (1921). Most specific is Enkidu coming up from the dead to meet his friend (Gilgamesh XII), just as Patroklus' soul meets Achilles (//. 23.65-107): "The comparison . . . is, indeed, almost irresistible"; G. S. Kirk, Myth (1970) 108; cf. idem, The Nature of Greek Myths (1974) 260 f.; see also Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," at note 4. There are also connections with Od. 11, the Nekyia; cf. C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, RE XI 433; G. Germain, Genèse de l'Odyssée (1954) 3 4 ~ 3 4 6 ; Dirlmeier (1955) 30-35; "A faintly possible model": G. S. Kirk, The Songs of Homer (1962) 107. For the beginning of the Odyssey and of Gilgamesh see Chapter 3, "Common Style and Stance in Oriental and Greek Epic," at note 17. 2. Atrahasis ed. Lambert and Millard (1969), with von Soden (1978); Bottéro and Kramer (1989); Dalley (1989). 2

2

200

N O T E S

T O P A G E S

8 9 - 9 2

3. See Atrahasis ed. Lambert and Millard (1969) 11-13. 4. Atrahasis I 7-10 = Gilgamesh XI 15-18 (the word translated

"sheriff" in line 10 by Lambert and Millard is problematic; see their note p. 147; "contre-maître": Bottéro and Kramer 530: "canalcontroller": Dalley 9); Atrahasis I 11-17; the translation by Lambert and Millard has been modified here, following von Soden and Dalley. 5. II v 16-19, 3 0 - 3 ' » PP- 8 0 - 8 3 ; tablet X rev. I 4-7; II 2.5, pp. 116-119; cf. the commentary by Lambert and Millard p. 166. 6. II. 15.187-193. The three divine brothers are illustrated on a black-figure vase by the Xenokles painter (ca. 540-530 B . C . ) , BM B 425, ABV 184; A. B. Cook, Zeus II (1925) 745. The drawing of lots (klêroi) was said to have happened at the site of Apollo's sanctuary at Klaros, Schol. Apoll.Rhod. 1.308. Further from Homer and Atrahasis is a Hittite text: "When they had created heaven and earth, they divided. The upper gods took heaven, the lower gods took earth and the lower countries for themselves"; H. Otten and J. Siegelovâ, AfO 23 (1970) 32 f. This lacks the tripartite structure and the drawing of lots. 7. Hes. Theog. 883. 8. Heaven-earth-underworld: the oath: 17. 15.36 f.; cf. 3.277279; Od. 5.184 f. Earth-heaven-sea: //. 18.483 (description of the shield of Achilles); Od. 1.52 f.; Hes. Theog. 847; Hymn. Dem. 33 f. Heaven-underworld-earth-sea: Hes. Theog. 736 f. Cf. already Wirth (1921) 132; E. G. Schmidt, "Himmel-Erde-Meer im frühgriechischen Epos und im alten Orient," Philologus 125 (1981) 1-24 (still without knowledge of Atrahasis).

9. Cf. already Gruppe (1887) 612-618; U. von WilamowitzMoellendorff, Kleine Schriften V 2 (1937) 167 and Der Glaube der Hellenen I (1931) 341: "die fremde Genealogie"; W. Theiler, Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur (1970) 24-26; A. Dihle, HomerProbleme (1970) 8 3 - 9 2 . For the function of the scene in the Iliad see H. Erbse, A&A 16 (1970) 93-112. See now R. Janko, The Iliad: A Commentary

IV (1992) [ 6 8 - 2 0 7 .

10. Plat. Krat. 402ab; Tht. 152e, i8oc-d; cf. Tim. 40e; Arist. Met. 983b27; Aet. 1.3.2; Plut. Is. 3640-d referred to Egypt for comparison. Cf. J. Mansfeld, Mnemosyne 38 (1985) 123-129. 11. ' Q x e a v ö v T E OEÜJV yévEaiv x c ù i i n t é g a TnSiJv: //. 14.201 = 302; ' Q x e a v o û , ô ç JIEQ YÉVEOTÇ JtdvxEaor x é x u x x a i : 246.

201

NOTES

TO PAGES

9 2 - 9 3

Oceanus and Tethys also appear in Hes. Theog. 133-136 and in the genealogy of Phoroneus Apollod. Bib. 2.1; both are represented on the dinos of Sophilos (about 570 B . C . ) , BM 1971.11-1.1; cf. A. Birchall, Brit. Mus. Quart. 36 (1971/72) pi. 37; G. Bakir, Sophilos (1981) 64 fig. 3; D. Williams in Greek Vases in the J. Paul Getty Museum I (1983) 9 - 3 4 ; Tethys is spelt 0E0YE by Sophilos. 12. U. Hölscher, "Anaximander und der Anfang der Philosophie," Hermes 81 (1953) 257-277, 385-418, revised in Anfängliches Fragen (1968) 9 - 8 9 , esp. 4 0 - 4 3 ; cf. G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven, and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers (1983 ) 10-17; W. K. C. Guthrie, A Flistory of Greek Philosophy I (1962) 5 8 - 6 1 ; Walcot (1966) 34; West (1966) 204. The relevance of Enuma Elish for Hesiod was established by F. M. Cornford, "A Ritual Basis for Hesiod's Theogony," in The Unwritten Philosophy (1950) 95-116. 2

13. Enuma Elish I 1-5. 14. AHw 1353 f; ta-a-wa-ti (genitive): Enuma Elish IV 65 p. 23 Lambert and Parker; ti-ä-wa-ti: II 8 1 , p. 12 Lambert and Parker; tama-tu: I 33, p. 2 Lambert and Parker. The sign wa can also be read aw. For the change m/w see W. von Soden, Grundriss der Akkadischen Grammatik (1952) §§ 2 i d , 31a. The first to see the connection between Enuma Elish and Homer, Tiamat and Tethys was W. E. Gladstone, Landmarks of Homeric Study (1890), appendix; then F. Lukas, Die Grundbegriffe in den Kosmogonien der alten Völker (1893) ! 5 4 - ; cf. also Duchemin (1980a) 851, 858 f, 864, 868; Szemerenyi (1974) 150. n

15. For Sophilos see note 11, above; Eudemos fr. 150 Wehrli = Damask. Princ. I 322.1 f.; for theta reproducing Semitic taw see also E. Schwyzer, Griechische Grammatik I (1939) 154. 16. R. Gusmani in Studies in Greek, Italian and Indoeuropean Linguistics Presented to L. R. Palmer (1976) 7 7 - 8 2 , against E. Laroche, Melanges P. Chantraine (1972) 8 3 - 9 1 . 17. On the date of Enuma Elish see Walcot (1966) 33; Reiner (1978) 175; Dalley (1989) 229 f.; "neo-oriental": West (1971) 205. 18. On the kestos II. 14.214 see C. Bonner, AJP 70 (1949) 1-6; F. E. Brenk, Class. Bull. 54 (1977) 17-19; C. A. Faraone, Phoenix 44 (1990) 219-243. Zeus's catalogue, II. 14.315-328; cf. Gilgamesh VI 4 2 - 7 8 , but also Kalypso's catalogue of goddesses who have loved mortals, Od. 5.118-128. For the oriental background of Aphrodite see Chapter 3, "Complaint in Heaven." 202

NOTES

TO PAGE

94

19. IL 15.36-38 = Od. 5.184-186. Inscriptions from Sfire (see above, Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," note 28): I A 11 f., ANET 6$9, Fitzmyer (1967) 12 f. "Oath of Heaven and Earth" also in the Sumerian Descent oflshtar 241; Bottero and Kramer (1989) 285; in Tukulti Ninurta III (IV) 40, Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology 20 (1933) 121, 126; even Jahwe takes his oath "by

heaven and earth," Deut. 4:26—but also Mongols and Manchus in A . D . 1628, R. Merkelbach, Mithras (1984) 5 f. n.7. The oriental background of state treaties was already stressed by Schwahn RE IV A 1107 f; see now M. Weinfeld, "The Common Heritage of Covenantal Traditions in the Ancient World," in I trattati nel mondo antico, ed. L. Canfora, M. Liverani, and C. Zaccagnini (1990) 175191.

20. Cf. E. D. van Buren, "The Rain-Goddess as Represented in Early Mesopotamia," Analecta Biblica 12 (1959) 343-355, esp. 350 f., pi. XXVI 9 (Syria, second millennium); R. M. Boemer, Die Entwicklung der Glyptik während der Akkad-Zeit (1965) 6 2 - 6 4 with figs- 333, 364, 367, 368, 371, 373, etc. (third millennium); U. Winter (1983) 276 withfig.273. Lugal-e 26: "Ami fecundated earth"; Ena I 28 f.: "Ami, king of the gods, mated with earth: seven gods she bore to him"; incantation text Ebeling (1918/19) II 45: "As heaven mated with earth, and plants grew abundant . . ." 21. Niemeyer (1984) 68 f.; the statuette also in Schefold (1964) pi. 39; LIMC Hera no. 202. 22. II. 14.274, 279; 15.225; 8.478 f.; 5.848 (ovocxvixuVEg); cf.

West (1966) 200 f.; Burkert (1985) 174; F. Solmsen, "The Two Near Eastern Sources of Hesiod," Hermes 117 (1989) 413-422. 23. On karuiles siunes see H. Often, ZA 54 (1961) 135--141, 157; E. Reiner and H. G. Güterbock, JCS 21 (1967) 265 f.; V. Haas and G. Wilhelm, Hurritische und luwische Riten aus Kizzuwatna ( i 9 7 4 ) 5 5 3 ; Gurney (1977) 15; V Haas, Hethitische Berggötter und 0 _

Hurritische

Steindämonen

(1982) 32-34, 133.

Ebeling (1931) 38 no. 8.5 (the "seven gods" who have been vanquished/bound by Anu the god of heaven); Enuma Elish 4.127; cf. 7.27. AHw 433 translates kamü 'to bind,' but CAD VII (K) 127 f. insists on the meaning "to vanquish." Cf. B. Landsberger and J. V. Kinnier Wilson, JNES 20 (1961) 178 f.; J. S. Cooper, Analecta Orientalia 52 (1978) 141-154; Van Dijk (1983) 10 f.; Haas (1986) 45 24.

f-, 91-93-

203

NOTES

TO

PAGES

94-97

25. Orph. fr. 114. 26. See above, Chapter 1, "The Problem of Loan-Words," note 22; and Chapter 3, "Common Style and Stance in Oriental and Greek Epic." 27. Eustath. 332.24-28; A. Dieterich, RhM 48 (1893) 280 = Kleine Schriften (1911) 121; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1922 ) 491-493; L. R. Farnell, The Cults of 3

the Greek

States V (1909)

172.

28. Cf. already E. Assmann, "Titaia, Titanen und der Tartaros," Babyloniaca 6 (1912) 2 3 6 - 2 3 9 ; Astour (1965) 196 n.3. But for striking assonances note also that the mythical ancestor of the kings of Ugarit, in the assembly of the netherworld, is Ditanu; O. Loretz, Ugarit und die Bibel (1990) 69.

29. Ebeling (1931) 76 no. 20.4; 138 no. 30 C 4; E. D. Van Buren, Orientalia 10 (1942) 69 f.; titu in particular is the material from which man has been created: Zimmern (1901) 158 f. no. 48.1; Atrahasis

I 203.

Reiner (1978) 157. 31. See Chapter 1, "Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century." 32. Cf. West (1988) 169. There will not easily be agreement on the process of composition and the date of our text of the Iliad. Suffice it to refer to A. Lesky, RE Suppl. XI 6 8 7 - 8 4 6 s.v. Elomeros (1968); A. Heubeck, Die Homerische Frage (1988 ); J. Latacz, Homer (1989 ). I, for one, am inclined to think that our text is a wellplanned composition from beginning to end, to be dated in the first half of the seventh century, though relying on generations of earlier oral singers (cf. WSt 89 [1976] 5-21). 30.

2

2

COMPLAINT IN HEAVEN

See, e.g., P. Von der Mühll, Kritisches Flypomnema zur Ilias who assigns practically all the divine scenes to his "Bearbeiter B"; cf. 96 f. on II. 5.353-431. 2. Esp. L. A. Stella, II poema di Ulisse (1955) 188-205; Stella 1. (1952),

(1978) 73-1233. Gilgamesh

Soden.

VI

1-91;

4. //. 5 . 3 3 0 - 4 3 1 . 5. This was noticed

ANET

83

f., modified according to von

by Gresseth (1975) 204

14,

who also compares

NOTES

TO PAGES

9 7 - I O O

the threat of Ishtar to release the dead from the underworld, if Anu does not grant her wish (Gilgamesh VI 9 6 - 1 0 0 ) , with the reverse threat of Helios in the Odyssey to go down to the underworld, if Zeus does not grant his wish (12.382 f ) . See also Burkert in Eranos Jahrbuch

(1982) 335-367.

6. i7. 21.505-513.

7. Cf. Burkert (1985) 152-156; for Anchises and Aphrodite see L. H. Lentz, Der Homerische Aphroditehymmis und die Aristie des Aineias in der llias (1975), esp. 104-107, 144-152. Helck (1979) 2 4 3 249 holds that practically the whole Homeric pantheon reproduces North Syrian/Late Hittite gods. 8. Dione is mentioned Hes. Tbeog. 17 in a catalogue which is close to Homer (cf. West [1968] 156) and in Theog. 353 among the daughters of Oceanus; for Dodona, see Strab. 7 p. 392, who says that Dione has been secondarily introduced there; cf. Escher, RE V 8 7 8 - 8 8 0 . G. Murray, Five Stages of Greek Religion (1925) 77, argued that Dione had preceded Hera as Zeus's wife; this is refuted by Linear B, where Hera is the wife of Zeus. For Diwija see M. Gérard-Rousseau, Ees mentions religieuses dans les tablettes mycéniennes (1968) 6 7 - 7 0 . The suffix -û)VT| remained productive in the Greek language, so that female names could always be formed with it; cf. Danae Akrisione, //. 14.319; Helena Argeione, Hes. fr. 2 3 3 2 0 . 9. Callim. Hymn. 5, esp. 5.35 with schol.; see W. Burkert, Zeitschrift fur Religions- und Geistesgeschichte 22 (1970) 361 f. ; see also the Catalogue of Ships, //. 2 . 5 5 9 - 5 6 8 ; 0 . Andersen, "Die Diomedesgestalt in der llias," Symb. Oslo, suppl. 25 (1978). Note that Diomedes is immortal (Thebais fr. 5 Davies). 10. Porph. Abst. 2.54 f; this section is not taken from Theophrastus, but no further details can be made out; neither "King Diphilos of Cyprus" nor "Seleukos the theologian" mentioned in the text is known elsewhere. Cf. RE I A 1835 s.v. Salamis. 11. F. Schwenn, Die Menschenopfer bei den Griechen und Romern i 9 S) 7 f- argues against this thesis. 12. See Chapter 1 "Historical Background," at note 19; and below, "The Overpopulated Earth," note 12. 13. See Burkert (1983a) 60 f. 14. Gilgamesh VI 53-57; see above, "From Atrahasis to the 'Deception of Zeus,' " note 18. i

l

1

15. Od. 4 . 7 5 9 - 7 6 7 .

205

NOTES

TO PAGES

I O O - I O 3

16. A kind of vegetable offering: L. zur klassischen Altertumskunde (1982) 625;

Deubner, Kleine Schriften cf. Schob 761 and Eust. Invented by the poet: S. West in A. Heubeck, S. West, and J. B. Hainsworth, .4 Commentary on Homer's Odyssey I (1988) 240; "ohne jede Analogie" according to K. Meuli, Ausgewählte Schriften II ( i 9 7 5 ) 994 n . i . 17. Gilgamesh III ii 1-21; ANET 81; Dalley mented according to von Soden (1982) 38. 18. //. 16.220-253. 19. Cf. Jeremiah 44:17-19 and the Greek Ugaritic epic of Keret ii 7 3 - 8 0 , ANET 143.

(1989) 65;

supple-

Adonia; cf. also the

THE OVERPOPULATED EARTH 1. Atrahasis III vii 1-9, p. 102 f. Lambert and Millard. "Birth control" is aladam pursi, line 9. Cf. A. D. Kilmer, "The Mesopotamian Concept of Overpopulation and Its Solution as Reflected in the Mythology," Orientalia 41 (1972) 160-177. Studies on the motif of overpopulation without knowledge of Atrahasis include H. Schwarzbaum, "The Overcrowded Earth," Numen 4 (1957) 5 9 - 7 4 ; G. Dumézil, Mythe et épopée I (1974 ) 31-257; J. W. de Jong, "The Overburdened Earth in India and Greece," J AOS' 105 (1985) 2

397-400. 2. Atrahasis

I 352-359 = II 1-8.

fr. 1 Allen = fr. 1 Davies = Schob AD II. 1.5. AD //. 1.5; cf. Schob Eur. Or. 1641; E. Bethe, Homer II f.; 228. Cf. also Gilgamesh XI 182-185: the gods discuss whether mankind should be reduced by flood, man-eating beasts, famine, or plague. 5. Prokl. Chrestom. p. 102.13 Allen = p. 31.5 Davies. 6. Hes. fr. 204.96 ff.; cf. M. L. West, CQ 11 (1961) 133-136; K. Heilinger, MH 40 (1983) 23 f. 7. Enuma Elish 1 47; ANET 6 1 ; Dalley (1989) 234; in the transcription of Eudemos (see above, "From Atrahasis to the 'Deception of Zeus,'" note 16) Murnmu is M C M J L U V . 8. Apollod. Bibl. 1.39-44; cf- Burkert (1979) 7 - 9 . 9. W. Kullmann had insisted on the pre-Homeric character of the story; see "Ein vorhomerisches Motiv im Iliasproömium," Philologus 99 (1955) 167-192, referring to the Mahahharata, as Schwarzbaum, Dumézil, and de Jong (see above, note 1) also did. 3. Kypria 4. Schob (1929 ) 154 2

206

NOTES

TO PAGES

I 0 3 - I 06

And still the parallel with Atrahasis, very incompletely known to him, had already been noticed by Wirth (1921) 132. 10. See Rzach, RE XI 2379 f.; H. Lloyd-Jones, "Stasinus and the Cypria," in Stasinos. Syndesmos Hellenon Philologon Kyprou 4 (1968/72) 115-122, esp. 117 f. A direct link to Kypris = Aphrodite

can hardly be accepted—it should result in *Kypridia. 11. Schefold (1964) pl. 2 9 b ; LIMC Alexandras no. 5 = Aphrodite no. 1423 = Athena no. 405; II. 24.29 f.; cf. K. Reinhardt, Das Parisurteil (1938); I. Raab, Zu den Darstellungen des Parisurteils in der griechischen Kunst (1972). 12. See V. Karageorghis, "The Age of Exuberance," in Salamis. Recent Discoveries in Cyprus (1969); for the "sword with silver nails" see p. 70 pi. 25; for the role of Cyprus see above, "From Atrahasis

to the 'Deception of Zeus,' " note 19; and "Complaint in Heaven," note 12. 13. H. Bossert, Altsyrien (1951) no. 815; Markoe (1985) 2 7 8 283, E 2 and E 1; U. Gehring and FL G. Niemeyer, eds., Die Phönizier im Zeitalter

Homers (1990) 186 f. no. 139 fig. 23.

14. C. Clermont-Ganneau, L'imagerie logie iconologique chez les grecs (r88o).

Phénicienne

et la mytho-

15. I owe this idea to C. Grottanelli and A. Hermary.

16. //. 5.311 f.; cf. 3.373 f., etc. 17. Atrahasis I 27-102, pp. 4 4 - 4 9 Lambert and Millard. 18. II. 1.396-406; cf. W. Kullmann, Das Wirken der Götter in der Ilias (1956) 14-17; Duchemin (1980a) 864; B. K. Braswell, "Mythological Invention in the Iliad," CQ 21 (1971) 18 f.

19. Cf. J. Duchemin, Prométhée. Histoire du mythe de ses origines orientales à ses incarnations modernes (1974). On trickster mythology and Atrahasis see Burkert (1982b). SEVEN AGAINST THEBES

F. H. Stubbings, CAH II 2 (1975) 168. S. Symeonoglou, Kadmeia I (1973) 72-76; F. H. Stubbings, CAH II 2 168 f; T. G. Spyropoulos, Minos suppl. 4 (1975) 53—55; 5 8 - 7 1 . The problem of how to combine the results of excavation with the mythical traditions is discussed in A. Schachter, "The Theban Wars," Phoenix 21 (1967) 1-10; Edwards (1979), esp. 104 f.; C. Brillante, "Le leggende Tebane e l'archeologia," SMEA 21 (1980) 309-340; "more than one hypothesis will fit": Edwards 189. 1. 2.

3

5

207

NOTES

TO

PAGES

I O7 - I O8

Biegen thought the destruction of Thebes (by the Epigoni) and of Troy VII A were about contemporary, ca. 1250. M. I. Finley's denial of the historicity of the Trojan War, Proc. Brit. Ac. 60 (1974) 393-412, receives decisive support from the late date for the destruction of Troy VII A, ca. 1140, as established by E. F. Bloedow, Prähistorische Zeitschrift 63 (1988) 23-52. 3. J/. 2.505 with Schol.B and Strab. 9 p. 412. For the late date of the catalogue see A. Giovannini, Etude historique sur les origines du catalogue des vaisseaux (1969); G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A Commentary I (1985) 168-195. Note that the Iliad presumes the presence of Boio-

toi in Boeotia, who, according to local tradition, came there only after the Trojan War. 4. For the history of Boeotia and Thebes in the early archaic period see P. Cloché, Thèbes de Béotie (1952); M. Sordi, "Mitologia e propaganda nella Beocia arcaica," Atene e Roma, n.s. 11 (1966) 15-24; Jeffery (1976) 77-79; R. J. Buck, A History of Boeotia (1979); H. van Effenterre, Les Béotiens (1989); bibliography inj. M. Fossey and J. Morin, eds., Boeotia Antiqua I (1988). 5. Qfjßric éKTam3Xoio: //. 4.406; Od. 11.263. Fragments of the Thebais: pp. 21-26 Davies. The most extensive study of the whole Theban tradition is still C. Robert, Ödipus (1915). See also Burkert (1981a) 2 9 - 3 4 .

6. Following Keramopoullos, see the map in R E V A 1425 f.; cf. T. G. Spyropoulos, Minos suppl. 4 (1975) 62; K. Demakopoulou and D. Konsola, Archaeologisches Museum Theben: Führer (1981) 22; N. D. Papachatzis, Pausaniou Periegesis V (1981) 64 f.; S. Symeonoglou, The Topography of Thebes from the Bronze Age to Modern Times (1985) 32-38. The existence of the seven gates was denied by U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, "Die sieben Tore Thebens," Hermes 26 (1891) 191-242 = Kleine Schriften V 1 (1937) 2 6 - 7 7 ,

es

P-

62 f., followed by F. Schober, R E V A 1429, who states that only three gates make topographical sense: "drei Tore . . . entsprechen allein der Lage auch der heutigen Stadt, die auch nur drei Ausgänge kennt"; Howald (1939) 3; P. J. Reimer, Zeven tegen Thebe, Diss. Amsterdam (1953). 7. The oldest lists are in Aesch. Sept. 375-652 and from the Argive dedication at Delphi, Paus. 10.10.4; cf. Apollod. Bibl. 3 [63] 6.3; Robert, Ödipus (1915) I 237-247. 8. Amphiaraos, originally probably *Amphiares (connected 208

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

I O 8 -

I

I O

with Ares; see A. Heubeck, D i e Sprache 17 [1971] 8-22), called Amphis in Aeschylus fr. 412 Radt, probably had some relation to Amphion, whose tomb was prominent at Thebes. The names Adrastos and Amphios are associated at II. 2.830, somehow reflecting the Thebais(?), cf. B. C. Dietrich, Historia 29 (1980) 499. On Diomedes see above, "Complaint in Heaven," notes 9-10. 9. Howald (1939), criticized by A. Lesky, Die tragische Dichtung der Hellenen (1972 ) 89 with n.25. Sikyon: Hdt. 5.67. On Arion see Burkert (1979) 127. 10. Ed. R F. Gössmann (1956); Cagni (1969); Labat et al. (1970) 114-137; Bottero and Kramer (1989) 6 8 0 - 7 2 7 ; Dalley (1989) 285-312; not in ANET; cf. Reiner (1978) 166-168. Walcot (1966) 4 9 - 5 4 compares the way the poet introduces himself (Ena V 4 2 61) with the poem of Hesiod. It is strangely reminiscent of Erra the god of war and plague that in Sophocles' O. T! Ares the god of war is introduced as the god of plague (190). 11. See Cagni (1969) 44 f.: ninth century at the earliest; Bottero and Kramer (1989) 720: about 850 B.c.; W. von Soden, UgaritForschungen 3 (1971) 255 f.: 765-703 B . C . ; cf. Dalley (1989) 2 8 2 3

284. 12. Reiner (1960b); cf. Reiner (1978) 167; Cagni (1969) 45; see above, Chapter 2, "Hepatoscopy," note 7 on Tarsos. 13. Seejastrow (1905/12) I 173 f.; Meissner (1920/25) II 203; D . O. Edzard in EI. W. Haussig, ed., Wörterbuch der Mythologie I (1965) 124 f.; Gössmann (note 10 above) 7 0 - 7 2 . Wirth (1921) 157 already associated the demoniac "Seven" with the "Seven against Thebes." 14. A collection of incantation texts, Asakki marsuti, Thompson (1903/04) II 28 f.; for etemnm, see above, Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," note 2; for gallu above, Chapter 2 "Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo," note 6. 15. The collection utukki lemnuti XVI, Thompson (1903/04) I 88-103, e context of the eclipses; cf. Tablet V of the same series, Thompson I 50 f., 74 f. 16. Thompson (1903/04) I 184-201; cf. Meissner (1920/25) II 199 f. 17. Meier (1941/44); earlier treatment by Zimmern (1901) 168 f. n.54; cf. Castellino (1977) 716-725; see now F. A. M. Wiggermann, Babylonian Prophylactic Figures: The Ritual Texts (1986) 2 0 5 m

m

•

209

•

NOTES

TO

PAGES

I I O- I I 3

227. The "divine Seven" and "seven bearers of arms" also appear in a text about the fabrication of magical figurines, Rittig (1977) 154 f., 164 f. (KAR 298). 18. Cf. C. L. Woolley, JRAS (1926) 689-713; R. Borger, Bibl. Or. 30 (1973) 176-183; Rittig (1977); see above, Chapter 2, "Purification," note 31; "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," notes 28, 34; and Chapter 3, "From Atrahasis to the 'Deception of Zeus,'" note 29. 19. The form used, mundahse (Gt from mahasu; cf. Chapter 1, "The Problem of Loan-Words," note 34), basically means "fighting reciprocally" (Meier [1941/44] 151) but is also used in a more general sense for "fighter"; see AHw 581, 672. 20. M. von Oppenheim, Tell HalafUl: Die Bildwerke, ed. A. Moortgat (1955) pi. 35b, A 3, 49, p. 54 states that the sculptor obviously intended to render the figures in mirror symmetry: "Die Absicht des Bildhauers war anscheinend, die Männer spiegelbildgleich zu bilden"; H. T. Bossert, Altsyrien (1951) no. 472. See Figure 8. For Etruscan representations see I. Krauskopf, Der Thebanische Sagenkreis (1974)-

und andere griechische

Sagen

in der etruskischen

Kunst

21. II Samuel 2:16; cf. C. Grottanelli, "Horatius, i Curiatii e II

Sam.

2,12-28," Annali

dell'lstituto

554-

Orientale di Napoli

35 (1975) 547-

22. Liv. 1.24 f.; see Grottanelli (above, note 21). Pind. frs. 162-163; cf. Pyth. 4.88 with Schob; Diod. 5.50 f.; Apollod. Bibl. 1 [ 5 3 - 5 5 ] 7.4; Eust. 1687.36. The Aloadae are mentioned in Ii. 5.385 f., Od. 11.305-320; and in Hesiod fr. 19. 24. See R. Hampe, Frühe griechische Sagenbilder in Böotien (1936); Schefold (1964) 6a, advocating a date in the eighth century; but see K. Fittschen, Untersuchungen zum Beginn der Sagendarstellungen bei den Griechen (1969) 213-221. For the parallels, esp. the seven-headed snake in oriental iconography, see Burkert (1979) 8 0 83; (1987b) 25-29. Boeotians, lawones, and Locrians are grouped together, //. 13.685; see above, Chapter 1, "Historical Background," note 18. 25. See Chapter 2, "Flepatoscopy" and "Foundation Deposits." 26. J. McK. Camp, "A Drought in the Late Eighth Century B.C.," Hesperia 48 (1979) 3 9 7 - 4 1 1 ; contra, see I. Morris, Burial and 23.

Ancient Society (1987) 158-167.

210

NOTES

TO

PAGES

I I 4 - I I 6

27. I. Krauskopf (see note 20, above) 86, 299, following E. Simon; LIMC I 711 s.v, Amphiaraos. 28. G. Mylonas, Praktika (1953) 81-87, g i g vague date "late geometric"; cf. Paus. 1.39.2; Plut. Thes. 29.5; and Eur. Supy m

plices. JHS

29. See J. N. Coldstream, "Hero-Cults in the Age of Homer," 96 (1976) 8-17. 30. See above, "From Atrahasis

note 32. AHw JNES

a

to the 'Deception of Zeus,'"

31. For the "Seven Sages" of primordial times (apkalle) see 58 f; E. Reiner, Qrientalia, n.s. 30 (1961) 1-11; R. Borger, 33 (1974) 183-19632. The Sibitti appear in the inscription of Sfire I A 11 (see

above, Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," note 28), ANET 659, Fitzmyer (1967) 12 f. COMMON STYLE AND STANCE IN ORIENTAL AND GREEK EPIC 1. Stella (1978) 3 6 2 - 3 9 1 , with the cautionary statement that direct influence should be excluded: "esclusa naturalmente ogni eventualita di influssi diretti su Omero" (368). Comparisons of Homer with Babylon began with Jensen and Fries and were carried on by Wirth (1921) and Ungnad (1923); for the more recent developments see esp. Bowra (1952), Dirlmeier (1955), Gordon (1955)» Walcot (1966), Gresseth (1975), Helck (1979) 2 4 9 - 2 5 1 . See also Burkert (1991). 2. See M. Parry, The Making of Homeric Verse (1971). 3. The bibliography has become abundant. Suffice it to mention R. Finnegan, Oral Poetry. Its Nature, Significance, and Social Context (1977); J. M. Foley, Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research. An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography

(1985).

in Atrahasis 1.8 = Gilgamesh XI 16. See for this and the following also Bowra (1952) 241. 5. Utnapistim ruqu in Gilgamesh X-XI passim. 6. qarrad la sanan in Erra passim. 7. rkb rpt in Baal passim, /)/// nt in Baal and Aqhat passim, dnl rpe in Aqhat passim. 4. quradu Enlil

c

c

8. mudu tuquntu in Gilgamesh IV vi 30. 9. tabat rigma in Gilgamesh XI 117. 10. ersetim rapastim in Gilgamesh VIII

211

iii-iv

43, 46, 47,

p.

49

NOTES

TO PAGES

I I 6- I I8

Thompson; cf. evQela / Ö C Ü V . A S to "black earth" (youa [XEâtva), Ottinger (1989/90) argues for Hurrite-Hittite provenience. 11. Sumerian prayer to the moon god in SAHG 223 = Castellino (1977) 336 line 16. In Hittite Ullikummi is called "father of the gods"; ANET 121 f., as El is ab adm, father of men, in Ugarit. 12. pasu ippus-ma iquabbi, ana . . . (amatam) izakkar with slight variations; see F. Sonnek, "Die Einführung der direkten Rede in den epischen Texten," ZA 46 (1940) 225-235; the formula occurs also in fables, e.g., Lambert ( i 9 6 0 ) 178.7. 13. Gilgamesh X i n f.; cf. X iv, 12-14; Elana II 99; J. V. KinThe Legend ofEtana (1985) 98; in Hittite: J. Siegelova, Appu-Mdrchen und Hedammu-Mythus (1971) 48 f.; in the Old Testa-

nier Wilson,

ment, too, people "speak to their heart": Gen. 27:41 f., I Samuel 1:12 f.; cf. Stella (1978) 365; D. O. Edzard, "Selbstgespräch und Monolog in der akkadischen Literatur," in Lingering over Words: Studies in Ancient

Near Eastern

Literature

in Honor of W. L.

Moran,

ed. T. Abusch, J. Huehnergard, and R Steinkeller (1990) 149-162. 14. mimmu seri ina namari in Gilgamesh XI 48 = 96; cf. Ungnad (1923) 30. 15. ANET

124: the weather god sends Tashmeshu as Zeus sends Hermes in Od. 5. An important assembly of the gods also takes place in Gilgamesh VII 1 3 ff., where the gods decide about the death of Enkidu. The entrance of victorious Ninurta into this assembly, who threatens to rouse panic but is appeased by his mother, in the Sumerian poem ANGIM 71 ff. (Bottero and Kramer [1989] 381 f.), has a marked resemblance to Horn. Hymn Apoll. 3 13 (I owe this observation to C. Penglase). For Ugarit, see E. T. Mullen, The Assembly of the Gods: The Divine Council in Canaanite and Early Hebrew 16. gamesh.

Literature

See Bowra

(1980).

(1952) 266

f, who includes materials from

Gil-

17. See Wirth (1921) 112 f.; A. B. Lord in A. J. B. Wace and F. H. Stubbings, A Companion to Homer (1967) 198. 18. Gilgamesh III iv 141-148 (in the reconstruction of von Soden), p. 27 Thompson; ANET 79; Dalley (1989) 145. simatu awilutim in the Babylonian version X ii 4 p. 53 Thompson. Cf. Gresseth (1975) 14; T. Bauer, JNES 16 (1957) 260, who also refers to the expression "to set one's name for people of later times" (sakin

212

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

I l 8 - I 2 0

in school texts; on Greek-Indo-European Ct(j)0iTOV xA.EOg see R. Schmitt, Dichtung und Dichtersprache in indo-

sumim ina nisi uhhurati)

germanischer Zeit (1967) 6 1 - 6 9 . 19. II. 12.322-328, imitated by Stesichorus S 11 Page-Davies. 20. Gilgamesh VI 162 f., ANET8SBowra (1952) 63 translates "member" of the bull, which might be misleading. For imittu, hind leg, see AHw 377. 21. //. 22.20. 22. Od. 18.136 f., taken up by Archilochos 131-132 West, then

by Heraclitus B 17.

23. Ludlul bei nemeqi II 4 3 - 4 5 ; Lambert (i960) 40 f. translates the text ki pite u katami, "like opening and shutting the legs," which may be the original sense, but the commentary on the passage from the library of Assurbanipal (Lambert 40; cf. 291) paraphrases "day and night"; hence ANET 435; so this was the way the passage was understood at the time of Archilochos. 24. See M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature II (1976) 5 7 72 on the various versions, the documents—inscriptions and a papyrus text—and the earlier editions. 25. D. Luckenbill, The Annals of Sennacherib (1924) 43-47; transcription in Borger (1979) I 83-85; translation in Luckenbill (1926/27) II §§ 252-254. //. 2 0 . 4 9 8 - 5 0 1 .

26. For mercenaries see Chapter 1, "Oriental Products in Greece," at notes 6 3 - 6 8 . Cf. the conclusions drawn from the bowl of Praeneste (Figure 7), Chapter 3, "The Overpopulated Earth," at note 15 (which also has the chariot for the prince). 27. Judges 4. 28. For Ugarit see FI. Gese, Die Religionen Altsyriens (1970) 54; Dirlmeier (1955) 25 f.; Jeremiah 2:27; //. 22.126; Od. 19.163; Hes. Theog. 35. 29. Od. 19.107-114: otQETCÖai ÖE Xaoi im' avrov (114); Hes. Erga 225-247; Assurbanipal in Streck (1916) II 6 f.; cf. Walcot (1966) 92 f.;Jeffery (1976) 39; West (1978b) 213.

30. See above, Chapter 1, "Loan-Words," note 30. FABLES I.

See in general W. Wienert, Die Meuli, Wesen

Label (1925); K. (1954) = Gesammelte

Schriften

Typen der griechisch-römischen und Herkunft der Fabel (1975) 731-756; M. Nojgaard, La

213

NOTES

TO

PAGES

I 2 I - I 2 2

fable antique I (1964); Rodriguez Adrados (1979); T. Karadagli, Fabel und Ainos (1981); O. Reverdin, ed., La fable, Entretiens sur l'antiquité classique 30 (1984); for enormous materials on the influence of ancient fables see Enzyklopädie des Märchens (1977 ff.) s.v. Asopika, Babrios, Avianus, Fabel, etc. 2. E. Brunner-Traut, Altägyptische Tiergeschichte und Fabel (1970 ). 3. E. Ebeling, Die babylonische Fabel und ihre Bedeutung für die Literaturgeschichte (1931); see esp. Lambert ( i 9 6 0 ) ; RIA VII 46. 3

4. "The king of trees": Judges 9; "The thistle and the cedar tree": II Kings 14:9. 5. H. Diels, "Orientalische Fabeln in griechischem Gewände," Internationale Wochenschrift 4 (1910), on Callim. fr. 194 compared with "the palm and the tamarisk," for which see now ANET 410 f., Lambert ( i 9 6 0 ) 151-164. See also A. La Penna, "Letteratura esopica e letteratura assiro-babilonese," RFIC 92 (1964) 24-39; Rodriguez Adrados (1979) 301-379. 6. Babrius 2.2 f.: ZDpcov JtaÀaicov éoxiv eupeu.' àvOptimcov, oi Jtpiv Jtot' fjoav èm Nivou te xat Btfjôu. On the identity of "King Alexandros" mentioned in the dedication of Babrius see B. E. Perry, Babrius and Phaedrus, Loeb Classical Library (1965) xlvii-lii; Inschriften 1537-

von Ephesus

V: Die Inschriften

Kleinasiens

15 (1980) no.

7. On Ahiqar see Chapter 1, "Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century," at note 30; on Lydia, Chapter 1, "Historical Background," notes 25-26. Parallels between Greek and Mesopotamian fables are collected in Rodriguez Adrados (1979) 3 7 6 378; Hellenistic parallels in West (1969); Aesop no. 137 Perry, Babrius no. 84. "The fly and the elephant" seemed to be especially close to "the bird and the elephant" (Lambert [ i 9 6 0 ] 217 f., 339), but the little animal involved in the Akkadian version, niniqu, is not identifiable, as Moran (1978) 18 n.7 has stressed. 8. Archilochus fr. 174-181 West; Aesop no. 5 Halm = 1 Perry; cf. Williams (1956); I. Trencsényi-Waldapfel, Untersuchungen zur Religionsgeschichte (1966) 186-191; H. Freydank, "Die Tierfabel im Etana-Mythus," Mitteilungen des Instituts für Orientforschung 17 (1971) 1-13; Rodriguez Adrados (1979) 3 1 9 - 3 2 1 . Further Greek archaic fables: Archilochus fr. 187 West = Aesop no. 81 Perry; Semonides fr. 13 West = Aesop no. 3 Perry. 214

NOTES

TO PAGES

1 2 2 - 1 2 5

9. ANET 114—118, 517; Labat et al. (1970) 294-305; cf. E. Ebeling, AOF 14 (1944) 298-303; W. von Soden, WZKM 55 (1959) 5 9 - 6 1 ; I. Levin, Fabula 8 (1966) 1-63. 10. See R. Wittkower, "Eagle and Serpent," Journal of the Warburg Institute 2 (1938/39) 293-325; C. Grottanelli, Riu. Stud. Fen. 5 (1977) 16-18; B. Garbe, "Vogel und Schlange," Zeitschrift für Volkskunde 75 (1979) 52-56; Aesch. Cho. 246, etc. 11. Seal cylinders in W. H. Ward (1910) 144 nos. 391-394; Enciclopedia dell'arte antica s.v. Etana. But there is no direct iconographic link: In Greek art Ganymede and the eagle appear only after the fourth century B.c.; see LIMC s.v. Ganymedes. 12. Archilochus fr. 196a West = ZPE 14 (1974) 97-112; the proverb ojtetjöouoa KÜarv TU<j>X.a T I X T E I in Aesop 223 Perry, Paroemiographi Graeci I 381, II 181 and 491, Schol. Aristoph. Pax 1078. 13. See W. H. Moran, HSCP 82 (1978) 17-19; J. Bremmer, ZPE

39 (1980) 28.

14. See above, Chapter 1, "Writing and Literature in the Eighth Century," note 25. 15. Gilgamesh

X I 2 66-2 8 9 .

16. Ibykos 342 Davies, together with Soph. fr. 362 Radt and other quotations in Ael. Nat.An. 6.51; Aesch. fr. 45 Radt; Nik. Ther. 343-358; cf. M. Davies, MH 44 (1987) 65-75, who speaks of a folktale. MAGIC AND COSMOGONY

1. See Chapter 2, "Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo." 2. See Chapter 1, "Oriental Products in Greece," note 23; Burkert (1987b). 3. See Chapter 2, "Lamashtu, Lamia, and Gorgo," at note 22. 4. Clay relief from Gortyn, Schefold (1964) pi. 33, LIMC s.v. Agamemnon no. 9 1 , Burkert (1987b) 28 f., 32. 5. See, e.g., G. van der Leeuw, "Die sogenannte epische Einleitung der Zauberformeln," Zeitschrift für Religionspsychologie 6 (1933) 161-180; M. Eliade, "Kosmogonische Mythen und magische Heilungen," Paideuma 6 (1954/58) 194-204. 6. The Adapa versions are in ANET 102 f.; S. A. Pittioni, 17 poemetto di Adapa (1981); for Ena see Chapter 3, "Purification," at note 16. 7. For Atrahasis see Chapter 3, "Craftsmen of the Sacred." The 215

NOTES

TO

PAGES

I 2 5 - I 2 6

passage on the creation of man, I 190-217, was understood as "part of an incantation to facilitate childbirth" in ANET 99 (corrected in ANET 513); an incantation text proper refers to this myth; J. Van Dijk, "Une incantation accompagnant la naissance de l'homme," Orientalia 42 (1973) 505. Atrahasis and rain charm: Atrahasis 27 f. 8. The text is listed HKL ill 63, "Der Mondgott und die Kuh Amat-Sîn"; see W. G. Lambert, Iraq 31 (1969) 31 f; Labat et al. (1970) 285 f.; connected with the myth of Io by Duchemin (1979), (1980b).

9. "The Worm and the Toothache," ANET 100 f., Bottéro and Kramer (1989) 484; B. Landsberger and T. Jacobsen, "An Old Babylonian Charm against merhu," JNES 14 (1955) 14-21. 10. See C. J. Gadd in S. H. Hooke, Myth and Ritual (1933) 4 7 58; T. H. Gaster, Thespis (1961 ) 6 2 - 6 4 ; F. M. Cornford, "A Ritual Basis for Hesiod's Theogony," in The Unwritten Philosophy (1950) 95-116; Dalley (1989) 231-232. 11. "House of the priest" in Ugarit, containing liver models as well as literary texts: J. C. Courtois, Ugaritica 6 (1969) 91-119; for various libraries at Emar see Arnaud (1985/87); a priest's library at Sultantepe: W. G. Lambert, RA 53 (1959) 121 f.; cf. Walcot 2

(1966) 47 f. 12. For Orphism, suffice it to (1983), Burkert (1985) 2 9 6 - 3 0 4 ; see

refer to Burkert (1982a), West also above, Chapter 2, "Crafts-

men of the Sacred," note 2. 13. Cf. above, "Craftsmen of the Sacred," note 9. 14. Olympiodor. in Phaed. p. 41 f. Westerink = Orphicorum Fragmenta 220; the "four monarchies" enumerated there seem to match with the Derveni text (ZPE 47 [1982]) col. X 6: Uranos, Son of Night, the first king; Burkert (1985) 297 f. 15. Eur. fr. 912, in the context of conjuring up the dead. 16. See Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," at note 19. 17. See Chapter 2, "Craftsmen of the Sacred," at note 15. 18. VI 1-34; text from Assur (KAR 4) in A. Heidel, The Babylonian Genesis (1942) 6 8 - 7 2 ; Berossos, FGrHist 680 F 1 p. 373 Jacoby. See V Maag, "Sumerische und Babylonische Mythen von der Erschaffung des Menschen," Asiatische Studien 8 (1954) 8 5 106 = V. Maag, Kultur, Kulturkontakt und Religion (1980) 3 8 - 5 9 ; G.

216

N O T E S

T O

P A G E S

I 2 6 - 1

27

Pettinato, Das altorientalische Menschenbild und die sumerischen und akkadischen Schöpfungsmythen, Abh. Heidelberg 1971.1. 19. Atrahasis I 213 and 215-217 = 228-230 Lambert and Miliard; cf. Bottero and Kramer (1989) 537; Dalley (1989) 15 with nn. I I - L 2 .

Interpretation has remained controversial. W. von Soden,

Symbolae biblicae et mesopotamicae F. M. T. de Liagre Böhl dedicatae ( 9 7 3 ) 3 4 9 3 5 8 (cf. idem, ZA 68 [1978] 80 f.), contested the reading etemmu and tried to construe a word edimmu, wild man; this has not been followed by other specialists. Cf. W. L. Moran, BASOR 200 (1970) 4 8 - 5 6 ; L. Cagni in V. Vattioni, ed., Sangue e antropologia biblica (1981) 7 9 - 8 1 ; J. Tropper, Ugarit-Forschungen ig ( 1 9 8 1 ) 3 0 1 308; J. Bottero in Societies and Languages of the Ancient Near East. Studies in Honour of I. M. Diakonojf (1984) 2 4 - 3 1 , whom I try to T

_

follow. 20. See Chapter 2, "Spirits of the Dead and Black Magic," at note 2. 21. The Derveni text (ZPE 47 [1982]) col. IX has Zeus swallowing the phallus of the first cosmic king (this at any rate is what the commentator understood, who was in command of the full text, pace West [1983] 85); this introduces the most startling motif of the Kumarbi myth into Orphic literature.

217

INDEX

alabastron

OF GREEK

(vase for oil), 36

alala (a war

cry),

harpe

39

WORDS

(a kind of sword), 39, 85 (haunting spirit), 68-72

hikesios

(drug to stop hunger), 62 (up to, at), 38 apomattein (to wipe off), 61 ara (curse), 64 arrabon (down payment), 37 axine (axe), 39 alimon

ana

bothros byblos

(a kind of purple), 37 (measuring stick), 34, 38 karos (dizziness), 79 kathairein (to purify), 64 kaunakes (Persian garment), 37 kleos aphthiton (imperishable glory), 118 kyanos (a blue-coloured substance), 37 kalche

kanon

(pit), 55 (papyrus, book), 31

(to scratch), 38 (papyrus), 31 cheironax (craftsman), 39 chiton (shirt), 36 chrysos (gold), 36 charassein chartes

(writing tablet), 30, 34 (craftsmen), 23 diphthera, diphtherion (leather, leather scroll), 31, 33

(bowl), 36, 53 (lion), 120 libanos (francincense), 20, 36 lipa (gleaming with oil), 36 lis (lion), 39, 120 lyma (dirt), 57, 62, 64 lekane

leon

deltos

demioergoi

epagoge ephodoi gypson

(sending magic), 69 (assaults), 59 (gypsum), 38

(to fight), 39 (market), 37 menima (wrath), 66 mna (mina), 34, 37 molibdion (lead tablet), 31 myrrha (myrrh), 20, 36 machesthai makellon

219

I N D E X oinos ololyge

O F

G R E E K

(wine), 174n2 (shrieking cry), 100

(stick), 31 (emerald), 37 solos (metal ingot), 39 sphen (wedge), 176n25 sphyrelaton (fabricated by hammering), 22 sylan (to loot), 37 sky tale

smaragdos

(concubine), 40 (a kind of pot), 62 plinthos (brick), 38, 39 potamos (river), 183n21 propheresthai (to pronounce), 71 prostropaios (haunting demon), 72 pylai (gates), 183n21 pallake

pharmake

rhodon

(talent, unit of weight), 37 Wilms (bull), 39 techne (art, craft), 23, 41 telein (to perform), 70 teras (sign, prodigy), 51 thyoskoos (diviner at sacrifice), 49 titanos (lime), 38, 95 tdanton

(rose), 174n2

semidalis skana/skene

W O R D S

(fine flour), 36 (booth), 39

220

GENERAL

Adapa, 124 Aeschylus, 65, 79, 108, 111 Aesop, 121 Ahiqar, 24, 32, 121 Aisehines, mother of, 44, 61 Aithiopis,

INDEX

Asclepius, 75-79 Ashurbanipal, 14, 56, 119 asphalt, 61, 187n17 assembly of the gods, 117 Astarte, 20 Athens, 12-13, 16, 17, 23, 26, 42, 43, 60, 162n4 Atrahasis, 88-91, 100-106, 115— 116, 124-125, 204n29 augury, 49, 53

56

Alalakh, 48 Alasia, 42, 159nl4 Al Mina, 11, 13, 21 Aloadae, 111 alphabet, 26-29 Amarna, letters from, 42 Amphiaraos, 44, 108 Anaphe, 78 Andromeda, 85 antisemitism, 2-3, 34, 36 Aphrodite, 20, 97-99 Apollon, 63, 82, 185n9, 186n9 Apollon Asgelatas/Aiglatas, 75-79 Aramaeans, 9, 28, 114 Aramaic inscriptions, 16, 18, 26, 28, 67, 93-94, 170n6 Aramaic literature, 32, 121 Aramaic script, 11, 30-31 Archilochus, 31, 121-123, 213n22 Artemis of Ephesos, 20, 54 Artemis of Munichia, 73-75 Asclepiads, 44, 179n25

Babrius, 121 Babylon, Greeks in, 24 Babylonian Sibyl, 81 Bellerophontes, 30 Beloch, Julius, 3, 16, 21, 34 Bileam, 42, 64 Branchos, 61, 64 Bronze Age, 5-6. See also Hittites; Ugarit bronzeworking, 16, 22 By bios, 9, 31, 80 Calchas, 49, 52-53 Carchemish, 9, 13, 22, 25, 37, 8384, 165n25 Carians, 25 Carthage, 11, 21

221

G E N E R A L

Chaldaeans, 45 Chalkis, 12, 14, 159nl3 chimaera, 19 Cilicia, 11, 12, 13, 49, 52, 170n3. See also Karatepe; Tarsos Cimmerians, 14 clay molds, 22 Corfu, 84-85 Corinth, 14, 22, 23 craftsmen, 21-25, 27, 38, 39, 4142, 44-45, 55 Crete, 11, 16, 22, 25, 26-27, 54, 63. See also Epimenides; Gortyn; Idaean cave; Knossos; Kommos cult of the dead, 65-66 Cypna, 101-104 Cyprus, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 27, 48, 49, 54, 98, 103-104. See also Ration; Salamis Cyrene, 68-73 defixions, 66-68, 70, 192n30 Delos, 15, 17, 54 Delphi, 16, 17, 56, 68, 79-82 Derveni papyrus, 41 Didyma, 61 Diels, Hermann, 121 Diomedes, 98-99 Dione, 97-98 Diotima, 43 divination, 41-53, 79-82 divine garments, 20 dogs, 75-79 DornseifF, Franz, 4

I N D E X Enuma Elish, 92-95, 103, 125-126 Ephesos, 20, 21, 54 Epimenides, 42, 60, 62, 63, 66, 126 Ereshkigal, 68, 74 Eretria, 6, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17 erotic charms, 67 Erra, 109-110, 115, 124 Essarhaddon, 14, 68 Etana, 122-123 Etruscans, 12, 13, 16, 17, 46-53, 111-112, 114 Euboea, 7, 12, 13, 14, 26, 113. See also Chalkis; Eretria; Lefkandi Eumolpidae, 43

family, model of the, 25, 43-46, 48 Farnell, Lewis Richard, 56-57, 80 fish mask, 61 fish-tailed monster, 19 flood, 89, 101, 103, 117 foundation deposit, 22, 49, 53-55 frankincense, 20 Ganymede, 122 Gello, 82 Gilgamesh, 3, 32-33, 65, 81, 8890, 116-118; tablet \\\ ii 1-21: 100; III lv 141-148: 117-118; VI 1-91: 96-99; VI 16-17: 117-118; X I 182-185: 206n4; X I 266-289: 123 Gordion, 161n26 Gorgon, 25, 83-85, 124 Gortyn, 22, 49, 54-55, 63, 82 griffins, 19, 165n24 Gula, 75-78 Gyges, 14

Egypt, 14, 31, 67, 68, 182nl6 Egyptian literature, 92, 121 Egyptian priests, 45 Eleusis, 43, 114 Emar, 125 Embaros, 73-75 Empedocles, 43, 92, 126

haruspices,

45,

50-51

Hazael, 16, 18, 159nl5 heaven and earth, 94, 109 222

G E N E R A L

hepatoscopy, 46-52, 82, 113 Herakles, 87, 113, 124 Hesiod, 5, 7, 90, 119, 121, 209nl0; Erga,

102;

Catalogues,

102

Hippocrates, On the Sacred Disease, 41, 59, 62 Hippocratic Oath, 44 Hittites, 4, 5, 39, 42, 48, 52, 53, 68, 83, 94, 117. See also Illuyankas; Late Hittites Homer, 5, 48-49, 56, 88-100, 114-120. See also Iliad; Odyssey Hovvald, Ernst, 108-109 Humbaba, 100 Humbaba masks, 20, 49 ladnana, 13 lamani, 13 lamidae, 43 lapetos, 1-2, 177n37 lawones/Iawan/Ionians, 12-13, 14, 26, 31, 160nl8 Ibycus, 123-124 Idaean cave, 16, 22, 63, 167n42 Iliad, 49, 90-100, 114, 117-118, 208n3; 11, 1.5: 101; //. 1.314: 57, 62; //. 1.396-406: 207nl8; //. 5.330-431: 97; //. 6.119-211: 30, 172n20; //. 12.322-328: 118, 213nl9; //. 13.685: 13, 210n24; //. 14.183: 15; //. 14.201, 246, 302: 90-92; //. 14.315-328: 99; //. 15.187-193: 90; //. 21.505513: 97; II. 22.20: 118; //. 23.65107: 200nl Iluyankas, 5, 7, 103 immortality lost, 123-124 Indo-European linguistics, 2, 5, 34 Io, 125 Ionia, 12, 170n3. See also lawones Iranian influence, 178n3 Iranian magi, 45 223

I N D E X

Ischia/Pithekoussai, 6, 12, 15, 26, 33 Ishtar, 80, 96-99 ivory, 19, 22, 162n2 Kabeiroi, 153n3 Kadmos, 2, 154n2 Karatepe, 9, 33, 52 Karmanor, 64, 186n9 Kition, 11, 13, 21, 54 Knossos, 22, 27, 54, 158n3 Kommos, 20-21 Kumarbi, 5, 7, 94 Lamashtu, 82-87, 124 Lamia, 82-83 Late Hittites, 9, 11, 16, 39, 52 leather scrolls, 30-33, 123 lecanomancy, 53 Lefkandi, 6, 12, 15 libations, 54, 55, 65, 70, 71, 74 lions, 19, 120, 124, 163nll liver divination. See hepatoscopy Luwians, 9, 34, 52. See also Late Hittites Lydians, 14 magic, 41-46, 55-75, 82-87, 109, 124-125 Magnesia, 44 Mallos, 52 Man, 80 masks, 20 Melampus, 42 mercenaries, 25, 39, 49 Midas, 13 Mistress of the Animals, 19 Mopsos, 52 Munichia, 73-75 Naxos, 12, 13, 26, 160nl8 Nereus, 177n37

G E N E R A L

Nineveh, 24, 32, 121 Northern Syria, 9, 11-12, 16, 24, 28, 37, 61, 82. See also Late Hittites; Luwians oath, 45, 67, 68, 93-94 Odyssey,

21,

49,

88,

117;

Od.

1.1-

4: 200nl, 117; Od. 1.184: 12; Od. 4.759-767: 99-100; Od. 5.396: 187nl9; Od. 7.321: 159nl0; Od. 12.382-383: 205n5; Od. 17.383385: 6, 23, 41; Od. 18.136-137: 118; Od. 19.107-114: 119, 213n29 Olbia, 31 Old Testament, 25, 30, 111, 119, 180n30, 188n20, 189n36, 214n4. See also Bileam; flood Olympia, 4, 15, 16, 17, 25 Olympiads, 81 omphalos bowl, 20 onions, 62 Orestes, 56-59 "Orient," concept of, 1 Orphism, 125-127 Ortheia, 20 Ovid, on striges, 58-59 pan-Babylonianists, 3 Paphos, 13, 49 papyrus books, 31 Patroclus, 200nl Persepolis, 24, 31 Perseus, 85-87, 124 Petronius, 62 Philistines, 9, 25 PhilonofByblos, 5 Phoenicians, 2, 3-4, 11, 12, 1519, 20-21, 28-30, 83, 104, 128 Phoenician inscriptions, 16, 26, 27, 28, 45, 52, 83, 158n3, 168n62 Phoenician literature, 32, 92, 94

224

I N D E X

Phoenician script, 25-26, 28-30 Phrygia, 13, 27, 161n26, 169n3 physicians, 41, 44, 75-79 Piacenza, liver from, 46, 47 Pithekussa. See Ischia Plato, 91; Phaedrus 244d, 66; Resp. 364L>-e, 42, 125; Laws, 66, 67 Plato comicus, 77, 194n6 Polemainetos, 43 Praeneste, 16, 19, 104-105 Proetids, 57-58 Prometheus, 106 Ptolemy Philopator, 44 Ptoon, 79 purification from blood guilt, 56-60 Pythia, 79-81 Qumran, 32, 3.3 Ramses II, 118 Rhakios, 64 Rhodes, 16-17, 21 Royal Road, 14 Salamis (Cyprus), 13, 98 Samos, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 55, 7577, 82 script, 5, 9, 11, 25-33 seers, 41-53, 55, 61, 75, 113, 191nl8 Sennacherib, 13-14, 32, 118-119 Seven Gods/Demons, 94, 108-114 Seven Sages, 114 shamanism, 56, 180n37 Sibyl, 79-81 Sidon, 9, 11, 14, 16, 21 silver bowls, 16, 168n62 Soloi, 12 Sparta, 42 sphinx, 19

G E N E R A L

spirits of the dead, 65-66, 126, 200nl Stella, Luisa Achillea, 115 symposium, 19 Syria, Greeks in, 6, ll-12. See also Northern Syria Tamasos, 159nl4 Tamiradae, 49 Tarsos, 11, 13, 14, 23, 32, 48, 52, 56, 209nl2 Teiresias, 51, 52 Teisamenos, 42, 43 Tell Halaf-Guzana, 9, 32, 111-112 Tell Sukas, 12 Telmessos, 49 Temesa, 159nl4 Tethys, 91-93 Thaletas, 42, 63 Thebes, 44, 106-114 Theocritus, Pharmakeutria, 67 thunderbolts, 19-20 Tiamat, 92-93 Titans, 94-95, 125-127 trade in metal ores, 6, 11, 12 tripod cauldrons, 16

225

I N D E X

Triton, 19 Twelve Tables. Rome, 74 twins, 111-113 Tyre, 9, 11, 24 Ugarit, 5, 42, 48, 83, 89, 119, 125 Ugantic alphabet, 28 Ugaritic literature, 5, 116-117 Ulu Burun, wreck found at, 30 Urartu, 11, 23, 25 Veiovis, 74 voodoo dolls, 66-67 warrior god, 19 wax figures, 67-70 Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von, 2, 107-108, 154n9, 155nl0, 155nl2 writing, 7, 9, 25-33 writing tablets, 30-33 Zeus Atabyrios, 34, 163nl5 Zeus Dipaltos, 165n30 Zmcirli, 9, 13, 37, 83, 165n25, 197n2

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