THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM
THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM NEW EDITION PREPARED BY A NUMBER OF LEADING ORIENTALISTS EDITED ...
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THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM
THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM NEW EDITION PREPARED BY A NUMBER OF LEADING ORIENTALISTS EDITED BY
C.E. BOSWORTH, E. VAN DONZEL W.P. HEINRICHS AND the late CH. PELLAT ASSISTED BY F.Tn. DIJKEMA (pp. 1-384), P.J. BEARMAN (pp. 385-1058) AND MME S. NURIT UNDER THE PATRONAGE OF THE INTERNATIONAL UNION OF ACADEMIES
VOLUME VII MIF — NAZ
LEIDEN — NEW YORK
E.J. BRILL 1993
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE: Members: C.E. BOSWORTH, J.T.P. DE BRUIJN, A. DIAS FARINHA, E. VAN DONZEL, J. VAN Ess, F. GABRIELI, E. GARCIA GOMEZ, W.P. HEINRICHS, A.K.S. LAMBTON, G. LECOMTE, T. LEWICKI, B. LEWIS, R. MANTRAN, F. MEIER, the late CH. PELLAT, F.H. PRUIJT, F. ROSENTHAL, F. RUNDGREN, A.L. UDOVITCH. Associated members: HALIL INALCIK, IBRAHIM MADKOUR, S.H. NASR, M. TALBI, E. TYAN.
The preparation of this volume of the Encyclopaedia of Islam was made possible in part through grants from the Research Tools Program of the National Endowment for the Humanities, an independent Federal Agency of the United States Government; the British Academy; the Oriental Institute, Leiden; Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres; and the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences
The articles in this volume were published in double fascicules of 128 pages, the dates of publication being: 1991: Fascs. 115-122, pp. 1-512
1992: Fascs. 123-130, pp. 513-1058
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data (Revised for vol. 7) The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Issued in parts. Includes separately issued, cumulative supplements. Includes bibliographies, and indexes issued separately and updated periodically. 1. Islam—Dictionaries. 2. Islamic countries—Dictionaries and encyclopedias. I. Gibb, H. A. R. (Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen), Sir, 1895-1971, ed. DS37.E523 956/.003 61-4395
ISBN 90 04 09419 9 © Copyright 1993 by E.J.
Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or translated in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other means without written permission from the publisher. PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS
AUTHORS OF ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME For the benefit of readers who may wish to follow up an individual contributor's articles, the Editors have decided to list after each contributor's name the pages on which his signature appears. Academic but not other addresses are given (for a retired scholar, the place of his last known academic appointment). In this list, names in square brackets are those of authors of articles reprinted or revised from the first edition of this Encyclopaedia or from the Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam. An asterisk after the name of the author in the text denotes an article reprinted from the first edition which has been brought up to date by the Editorial Committee; where an article has been revised by a second author his name appears within square brackets after the name of the original author. A. ABDESSELEM, University of Tunis. 437, 452 FEROZ AHMAD, University of Massachusetts. 526 HAMID ALGAR, University of California, Berkeley. 763, 871, 934, 936, 937 M. ATHAR ALI, Aligarh Muslim University. 323, 574, 592, 600, 632 [J. ALLAN, London]. 133, 221 R.M.A. ALLEN, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 815 the late JOAN ALLGROVE. 57 A. AMANAT, Yale University. 1005 EDITH G. AMBROS, University of Vienna. 24, 840, 905, 917, 1054 P.A. ANDREWS, University of Cologne. 2, 140, 194, 354, 550 SARAH ANSARI, Royal Holloway College. 356 A. ARAZI, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 540, 842, 843 A. ARIOLI, University of Rome. 581 M. ARKOUN, University of Paris. 144 R. ARNALDEZ, University of Paris. 467 KHALIL C ATHAMINA, Birzeit University. 868 A. AYALON, Tel Aviv University. 916 [F. BABINGER, Munich]. 7, 35, 906, 1030, 1034 J.L. BACHARACH, University of Washington, Seattle. 411 C. BAILEY, Tel Aviv University. 921 M.A. BAKHIT, University of Jordan, Amman. 463 QIGDEM BALIM, University of Manchester. 1054 the late A.S. BAZMEE ANSARI. 446 [C.H. BECKER, Berlin]. 152 [N.A. BEES, Athens]. 218 A.F.L. BEESTON, Oxford. 705 M.A.J. BEG, University of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. 1029 [F. BEGUINOT]. 894, 895 DORIS BEHRENS-ABOUSEIF, Universities of Bamberg and Munich. 506, 511 J.E. BENCHEIKH, University of Paris. 103, 393, 404 [M. BENCHENEB, Algiers]. 759, 824, 826 MARIE BERN AND, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris. 257 [E. BERTHELS]. 439, 442, 478, 481, 557, 707, 864, 926, 975, 1006, 1047, 1053 [A. BEVERIDGE]. 127, 557 TH. BIANQUIS, University of Lyon. 123, 652 J.R. BLACKBURN, University of Toronto. 270, 445, 720, 721, 762, 779, 780, 912, 996 [TJ. DE BOER, Amsterdam]. 1034 C.E. BOSWORTH, University of Manchester. 21, 26, 35, 61, 93, 94, 115, 138, 145, 146, 188, 189, 192, 212, 218, 221, 258, 269, 273, 291, 327, 358, 390, 404, 407, 408, 413, 433, 439, 457, 477, 501, 507, 508, 542, 543, 557, 575, 580, 583, 602, 608, 628, 652, 653, 663, 664, 666, 671, 678, 679, 719, 723, 724, 754, 776, 777, 794, 799, 800, 801, 807, 822, 845, 861, 869, 898, 909, 918, 923, 926, 957, 960, 965, 966, 967, 984, 988, 1009, 1015, 1016, 1034, 1045, 1047, 1048, 1050 [H. BOWEN, London]. 575, 995, 1018
Y. BREGEL, Indiana University, Bloomington. 575 BARBARA BREND, London. 340 [C. BROCKELMANN, Halle]. 445, 470, 634, 1041 A. BROCKETT, Durham University. 562 J.T.P. DE BRUIJN, University of Leiden. 478, 531, 663, 944, 1017 [F. BUHL, Copenhagen]. 61, 66, 389, 403, 649, 757, 825, 943 R.M. BURRELL, University of London. 282, 432, 464, 655, 819 J. BURTON, University of St. Andrews. 475, 669, 1012, 1029 J. BURTON-PAGE, Church Knowle, Dorset. 80, 88, 113, 129, 131, 132, 135, 142, 195, 204, 289, 316, 346, 680, 898, 910, 926, 933, 943, 947, 957, 965, 966 H. BUSSE, University of Kiel. 295, 485 J. CALMARD, Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris. 20, 225, 304 [E.E. CALVERLEY, Hartford Seminary Foundation, Hartford, Conn.]. 883 P. CHALMETA, University of Saragossa. 192, 249, 289, 591, 808 A. CHENOUFI, University of Tunis. 719 W.C. CHITTICK, State University of New York, Stony Brook. 476 V. CHRISTIDES, University of loannina, Athens. 46, 160, 886 A. COHEN, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 126 [C. COLLIN DAVIES]. 548, 899 PATRICIA CRONE, University of Cambridge. 357, 360 F. DACHRAOUI, University of Tunis. 489 H. DAIBER, Free University, Amsterdam. 260, 400, 605, 1052 M.T. DANESH PAJUH, Tehran. 132 G. DAVID, Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest. 220, 900 R. DELADRIERE, University of Lyon. 465 ANNE-MARIE DELCAMBRE, University of Paris. 61 [J. DENY, Paris]. 473, 678, 733 A. DIETRICH, University of Gottingen. 58, 143, 556, 1035 S. DIGBY, Rozel, Jersey. 189 M. DJEBLI, University of Paris. 904 C.H. DODD, University of London. 189 F.M. DONNER, University of Chicago. 797, 825 E. VAN DONZEL, Leiden. 236, 290, 497, 516, 864 TRUDE EHLERT, University of Bonn. 387 H. EISENSTEIN, University of Vienna. 279 N. ELISSEEFF, University of Lyon. 947 P.G. EMERY, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat. 838 W. ENDE, University of Freiburg im Breisgau. 294, 781 NUKET ESEN, Bogazici University, Istanbul. 255, 469 J. VAN Ess, University of Tubingen. 975, 1058 T. FAHD, University of Strasbourg. 558, 565, 838, 920, 960, 1012 [BiCHR FARES, Cairo]. 310, 638 [H.G. FARMER, Glasgow]. 191, 210, 518, 611, 671 SURAIYA FAROQHI, University of Munich. 350, 472
VI
AUTHORS
G. FEHERVARI, University of London. 15 A. FERNANDEZ-PUERTAS, University of Granada. 501, 1029 R.W. FERRIER, Lewes, East Sussex. 890 J.M. FIEY, Centre des Peres Dominicains, Beirut. 973 C.V. FINDLEY, Ohio State University, Columbus. 466, 468, 521, 547, 775 W. FISCHER, University of Erlangen-Nurnberg. 262 A. FISHER, Michigan State University. 713 CAROL G. FISHER, Kresge Art Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing. 931, 932 M. FLEISCHHAMMER, University of Halle. 561 A.D.W. FORBES, Watton-at-Stone, Hertfordshire. 81 G.S.P. FREEMAN-GRENVILLE, York. 35, 80, 213, 227, 246, 250, 839, 1048 P. FREIMARK, Institut fur Geschichte der deutschen Juden, Hamburg. 496 Y. FRIEDMANN, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 405, 549 [C. FUNCK-BRENTANO]. 39 TERESA GARULO, University of Madrid. 1046 G.J.H. VAN GELDER, University of Groningen. 664, 920 H. GERBER, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 508, 667 [H.A.R. GIBB, Harvard]. 602, 725, 732, 915 D. GIMARET, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris. 55, 781, 793 M. GLUNZ, University of Bonn. 964 F. MUGE GOCEK, University of Michigan. 517, 545, 551, 653, 665 J. GOLMOHAMMADI, London. 79 D.F. GRAF, University of Miami. 835 [A. GROHMANN, Vienna]. 540, 866 A.H. DEGROOT, University of Leiden. 597, 599, 601, 717 J.G.J. TER HAAR, University of Leiden. 443 U. HAARMANN, University of Freiburg im Breisgau. 141, 177, 727 [T.W. HAIG, London]. 105, 279, 410, 458, 459 ABDUL-HADI HAIRI, University of Ferdowsi, Mashhad. 95, 919, 961 MARGARET HALL, London. 337 H. HALM, University of Tubingen. 164, 165, 544 ABDELHAMID SALEH HAMDAN, University of Grenoble. 2, 350, 565 A.P. HAMORI, Princeton University. 528 ANGELIKA HARTMANN, University of Wiirzburg. 481, 541, 818 [W. HARTNER, Frankfurt]. 87, 490, 680, 795, 1054 MOHIBBUL HASAN, Aligarh. 130 A. HAVEMANN, Free University, Berlin. 927 G. R. HAWTING, University of London. 393, 401, 524 J.A. HAYWOOD, Lewes, East Sussex. 97, 475, 535, 556, 670, 846, 989 [W. HEFFENING, Bonn]. 636, 759, 822, 969, 1042 J. DEN HEIJER, University of Leiden. 305 P. HEINE, University of Miinster. 840 W.P. HEINRICHS, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 278, 492, 782, 808 [B. HELLER, Budapest]. 639, 953 CJ. HEYWOOD, University of London. 712, 713 D.R. HILL, Great Bookham, Surrey. 40, 641, 1037 CAROLE HILLENBRAND, University of Edinburgh. 480, 727, 729, 735, 756 R. HILLENBRAND, University of Edinburgh. 660 the late M. HINDS, University of Cambridge. 6, 268 J.P. HOGENDIJK, University of Utrecht. 1050 B. HOLMBERG, University of Lund. 1033 P.M. HOLT, Oxford. 180, 192, 272, 420, 723, 729, 933 D. HOPWOOD, University of Oxford. 446, 905
J. HOROVITZ. 100 [M. HIDAYET HOSAIN]. 93, 278, 405, 433, 442, 443, 444, 457, 458, 722, 764, 801 R.S. HUMPHREYS, University of California, Santa Barbara. 274, 580, 991 J.O. HUNWICK, Northwestern University. 394, 436 C.H. IMBER, University of Manchester. 225, 645 B. INGHAM, University of London. 783 RIAZUL ISLAM, Karachi. 320 P. JACKSON, University of Keele. 412, 822, 974 P.JACKSON, S.J., St. Xavier's School, Patna, India. 820 RENATE JACOBI, University of the Saar, Saarbriicken. 308, 516, 983 JJ.G. JANSEN, University of Leiden. 292, 396, 421, 439, 555 G.H.A. JUYNBOLL, The Hague. 33, 213, 259, 261, 576, 631, 663, 692, 707, 726, 877 BARBARA KELLNER-HEINKELE, University of Berlin. 725 H. KENNEDY, University of St. Andrews. 162, 396, 760, 766, 778, 801 ZAFARUL-!SLAM KHAN, Institute of Islamic and Arabic ' Studies, New Delhi. 422, 678, 849, 875, 876, 1049 R.G. KHOURY, University of Gottingen. 284 D.A. KING, University of Frankfurt. 32, 211 G.R.D. KING, University of London. 892 M.J. KISTER, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 572 J. KNAPPERT, Barnet, Herts. 103, 104, 657 EBBA KOCH, Vienna. 336, 796 M. KOHBACH, University of Vienna. 917 E. KOHLBERG, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 400, 461, 649, 691, 906 M.A. KOHLER, Carthage, Tunisia. 564 J.L. KRAEMER, Tel Aviv University. 1044 M. KRAMER, Tel Aviv University. 765 [J.H. KRAMERS, Leiden]. 290, 573, 594, 595, 707, 708, 709, 710, 721, 794 [I. KRATSCHKOWSKY, Leningrad]. 695, 1040 [P. KRAUS, Cairo]. 732 G.S. VAN KRIEKEN, Haarlem. 435 REMKE KRUK, University of Leiden. 834 P. KUNITZSCH, University of Munich. 87 GUNAY KUT, Bogazici University, Istanbul. 532 M. KUTUKOGLU, University of Istanbul. 965 A.K.S. LAMBTON, Kirknewton, Northumberland. 457, 930 [H. LAMMENS, Beirut]. 347, 694, 769 J.M. LANDAU, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 253, 931 ELLA LANDAU-TASSERON, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 631 J.D. LATHAM, University of Edinburgh. 312, 492, 519, 642, 672, 1028, 1057 A. LAYISH, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 113 G. LECOMTE, Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales, Paris. 255, 401, 409, 922 [G.E. LEESON]. 989 [G. LEVI BELLA VIDA, Rome]. 124, 464, 582, 592 [E. LEVI-PROVENCAL, Paris]. 127, 212, 634, 644, 761, 767, 776, 816, 989, 1008 [R. LEVY]. 88 T. LEWICKI, Cracow. 187 I.M. LEWIS, London School of Economics and Political Science. 390 the late ILSE LICHTENSTADTER, Cambridge, Mass. 306, 402, 732, 759, 977 T.O. LING, Singapore University. 633 P. LUFT, University of Manchester. 675 R.D. MCCHESNEY, New York University. 849 [D.B. MACDONALD, Hartford, Conn.]. 640 D. MACEOIN, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 422, 423, 441, 548, 921
AUTHORS K.S. MCLACHLAN, University of London. 638, 866, 895 W. MADELUNG, University of Oxford. 313, 348, 397, 518, 546, 607, 773 A. MANGO, University of London. 573 BEATRICE FORBES MANZ, Tufts University, Medford, Mass. 105, 127 [G. MARCAIS, Algiers]. 722, 994 U. MARZOLPH, Enzyklopadie des Marchens, Gottingen, 1020 [L. MASSIGNON, Paris]. 468, 1044 JULIE S. MEISAMI, University of Oxford. 490, 536 [TH. MENZEL]. 24, 272, 479, 1054, 1055, 1056 [M. MERCIER]. 828 [M. MEYERHOF, Cairo]. 716 [V. MINORSKY, Cambridge]. 440, 500, 657, 925 A. MIQUEL, College de France, Paris. 493 [A. MOBERG]. 977 SHIREEN Moosvi, Aligarh Muslim University. 325 D.O. MORGAN, University of London. 230, 235 M. MORONY, University of California, Los Angeles. 216, 552, 913 S. MUNRO-HAY, Mezin, France. 545 [ABDEL MUQTADIR]. 440 , R. MURPHEY, Columbia University. 60, 89 B. NAJAR, University of Paris. 413 AZIM NANJI, University of Florida. 1007 I.R. NETTON, University of Exeter. 884 J.S. NIELSEN, Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham. 702 C. NIJLAND, Netherlands Institute for the Near East, Leiden. 34 K.A. NIZAMI, Aligarh Muslim University. 452, 473, 939 H.T. NORRIS, University of London. 589, 628 A. NOTH, University of Hamburg. 381 K. OHRNBERG, University of Helsinki. 513 G. OMAN, University of Naples. 54 ILBER ORTAYLI, Ankara. 276 [R. PARET, Tubingen]. 782 [J. PEDERSEN, Copenhagen]. 76, 847 the late CH. PELLAT, University of Paris. 23, 25, 106, 114, 126, 146, 269, 304, 358, 392, 395, 397, 404, 415, 474, 495, 525, 563, 564, 569, 570, 581, 604, 649, 650, 667, 764, 772, 799, 809, 815, 823, 844, 858, 873, 897, 943, 951, 1015, 1034, 1046 J.R. PERRY, University of Chicago. 856 NEDRET PINAR, Bogazici University, Istanbul. 658 [M. PLESSNER, Jerusalem]. 547, 955 I. POONAWALA, University of California, Los Angeles. 271, 411, 443, 920, 968 A. POPOVIC, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris. 526, 720 MUNIBUR RAHMAN, Oakland University, Rochester, Mich. 344, 574, 662, 668, 677, 754, 880, 1055 R.C. REPP, University of Oxford. 546 M.E.J. RICHARDSON, University of Manchester. 884 A. RIPPIN, University of Calgary. 293, 509, 878 B.W. ROBINSON, London. 105, 603 F. ROSENTHAL, Yale University. 283, 491, 963, 968 M. ROUVILLOIS-BRIGOL, University of Paris. 827 R. RUBINACCI, University of Naples. 859 [J. RUSKA]. 40, 127 J. SADAN, Tel Aviv University. 57, 129, 852 P.C. SADGROVE, University of Manchester. 439, 831, 852, 869, 870 P. SANDERS, Rice University, Houston, Tex. 978 R. SANTUCCI, Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales, Paris. 417 Dj. SARI, Algiers. 874, 891 R.M. SAVORY, University of Toronto. 451 A. SAVVIDES, Centre for Byzantine Studies, Athens. 238, 241, 941, 1037, 1039 B. SCARCIA AMORETTI, University of Rome. 407
VII
[J. SCHACHT, New York]. I l l , 420 R.P. SCHEINDLIN, The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York. 768 ANNEMARIE SCHIMMEL, Harvard University. 328, 377 A. SCHIPPERS, University of Amsterdam. 261, 643 [H. SCHIRMER]. 137 W. SCHMUCKER, University of Bonn. 277 G. SCHOELER, University of Basel. 662, 812 [B. SCHRIEKE]. 100 R. SELLHEIM, University of Frankfurt. 282, 774 J. SESIANO, Ecole Polytechnique Federale, Lausanne. 405 [C.F. SEYBOLD, Tubingen]. 286 IRFAN SHAHID, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 568, 872 S. SHAMMA. 123 H. BEN SHAMMAI, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 540 M. SHARON, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 911 M. SHATZMILLER, University of Western Ontario. 807 A. SHILOAH, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. 976 S. VON SICARD, Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham. 608, 704 ELIZABETH M. SIRRIYEH, University of Leeds. 410 P. SLUGLETT, Durham University. 583, 715 G.R. SMITH, University of Manchester. 862 [M. SOBERNHEIM, Berlin]. 693 PRISCILLA SOUCEK, New York University. 73, 676 S. SOUCEK, New York Public Library. 40, 50, 72, 87, 229 [O. SPIES, Bonn]. 263 F. STEPPAT, Berlin. 186 , [R. STROTHMANN, Hamburg]. ^79, 996 MARIA EVA SUBTELNY, University of Toronto. 93 M. TALBI, University of Tunis. 484 G.R. TIBBETTS, Oxford. 53 E.R. TOLEDANO, Tel Aviv University. 431 N. TOMICHE, University of Paris. 714, 903 J.L. TRIAUD, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris. 610 G. TROUPEAU, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris. 65, 283, 286, 290, 305, 313, 405, 681, 896, 915, 975, 1034 M.O.H. URSINUS, University of Freiburg. 64, 205, 206, 245 [V. VACCA, Rome]. 853 CH. VIAL, University of Aix-Marseille. 442 F. VIRE, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris. 831, 909, 924, 950, 952, 956, 963, 1015 J.D.J. WAARDENBURG, University of Lausanne. 753 E. WAGNER, University of Giessen. 309, 568 JEANETTE A. WAKIN, Columbia University, New York. 285 DJ. WASSERSTEIN, Tel Aviv University. 293, 554, 768, 778 W. MONTGOMERY WATT, Dalkeith, Midlothian. 254, 357, 665, 925, 1045 M. WEIERS, University of Bonn. 230 A.T. WELCH, Michigan State University. 376 [A.J. WENSINCK, Leiden]. 25, 27, 40, 147, 187, 295, 577, 659, 688, 800, 845, 870, 878, 879, 969, 970 [E. WIEDEMANN, Erlangen]. 204 G.A. WIEGERS, University of Leiden. 244 [P. WITTEK]. 56 CHRISTINE WOODHEAD, University of Durham. 918 O. WRIGHT, University of London. 688, 1043 M.E. YAPP, University of London. 438 F.A.K. YASAMEE, University of Manchester. 96, 229, 284 M.J.L. YOUNG, University of Leeds. 658, 823 [G. YVER, Algiers]. 64, 263 [K.V. ZETTERSTEEN, Uppsala]. 408, 410, 414, 497, 544, 707, 753, 990 E.J. ZURCHER, University of Nijmegen. 599
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA VOLUME I P. 194a,
ADHARI (AZERI), add to Bibl.: Sakina Berengian, Azeri and Persian literary works in twentieth century Iranian Azerbaijan, Berlin 1988. P. 486 , AL-ANDALUS, (i), add to Bibl.: H. Halm, Al-Andalus und Gothica sors, in hi., Ixvi (1989), 252-63. P. 1277b, BOSRA, add to Bibl.: F. Aalund, M. Meinecke and Riyadh Sulaiman al-Muqdad, Islamic Basra, a brief guide, German Archaeological Institute, Damascus 1990. b
VOLUME II P. 810a, FARRUKHI. add to Bibl.: Julie S. Meisami, Medieval Persian court poetry, Princeton 1987; C.E. Bosworth, Farrukhi's elegy on Mahmud of Ghazna, in Iran, JBIPS, xxix (1991), 43-9.
VOLUME III P. 378b,
HIKMA, add to Bibl.: H.H. Biesterfeldt, Weisheit als mot juste in der klassisch-arabischen, in Aleida Assmann (ed.), Weisheit (Archaologie der literarischen Kommunikation, 3), Munich 1991, 367-86.
VOLUME IV C P. 86b, ISA, add to Bibl.'. Jane D. McAuliffe, Qur^anic Christians, an analysis of classical and modern exegesis, Cambridge 1991. b P. 181 , ISM, add to Bibl.: Annemarie Schimmel, Islamic names, Edinburgh 1989; Jacqueline Sublet, Le voile du nom, essai sur le nom propre arabe, Paris 1991. P. 206b, ISMACILIYYA, add to Bibl.: Farhad Daftary, The Isma^ilis, their history and doctrines, Cambridge 1990. P. 765b, AL-KATIF, add to Bibl.: J.R.I. Cole, Rival empires of trade and Imami Shicism in Eastern Arabia, 13001800, in IJMES, xix (1987), 177-203; Mehmet Mehdi Ilhan, The Katif district (liva) during the first few years of Ottoman rule: a study of the 1551 Ottoman cadastral survey, in Belleten, li, no. 200 (1987), 781-800. P. 1026b, KHANKAH, add to Bibl.: Leonor Fernandes, The evolution of a Sufi institution in Mamluk Egypt: The Khanqah', Berlin 1988. P. 1069b, AL-KHWARAZMI, ABU C ABD ALLAH, add to Bibl.: C.E. Bosworth, Al-Khwarazmi on the secular and religious titles of the Byzantines and Christians, in CT, xxxv, no. 139-40 (1987), 28-36 [ = Numero special. Melanges Ch. Pellat]; idem, Al-Khwdrazmi on various faiths and sects, chiefly Iranian, in Textes et Memoires, Vol. XVI. Iranica varia: Papers in honor of Professor Ehsan Yarshater, Leiden 1990, 164-6; W. Fischer, The chapter on grammar in the Kitdb Mafdtih al-^ulum, in Zeitschr. fur Arab. Linguistik, xv (1985), 94-103. P. 1181b, KHAZAR, add to Bibl.: P.B. Golden, The peoples of the south Russian steppes, in D. Sinor (ed.), The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia, Cambridge 1990, 263-70; A.P. Novoselcev, Hazarskoe gosudarstvo i ego roll v istorii vostocnoi Evropii i Kavkaza ("The Khazar state and its role in the history of eastern Europe and the Caucasus"), Moscow 1990. VOLUME V P. 428b, AL-KUR'AN, add to Bibl., section Other works in Arabic: R. Bell, A commentary on the Qur^dn, 2 vols., ^Manchester 1991. P. 956a, MADIH. 2. In Persian, add to Bibl. .-Julie S. Meisami, Medieval Persian court poetry, Princeton 1987. VOLUME VI P. 342b, MAN SINGH, 1. 6, for Mali, read Mall. P. 453b, MANUCIHRI, add to Bibl.: W.L. Hanaway, Blood and wine: sacrifice and celebration in Manuchihn's wine poetry, in Iran, JBIPS, xxvi (1988), 69-80. P. 537a, MARATIB, 1. 39, for Safdar, read Safdar. 11. 42 and 51, for Lakna-'u, read Lakhna^u. P. 730a, MASJUMI, 1. \, for Madjelis Sjuro Indonesia, read Madjelis Sjuro Muslimin Indonesia. a P. 801 , MATBACA, 1. 60, for Sultan cAbd al-MedjId I, read Sultan cAbd al-Hamld I. P. 801b, 1. 22, for 1210/1795-6, read 1211/1797. 1. 37, for 1217/1802-3, read 1218/1803. I. 52, for 1247/1831-32, read 1239/1824. P. 913b, MAYDAN, add to Bibl.: A. Northedge, The racecourses at Sdmarra>, in BSOAS, liii (1990), 31-56. b P. 942 , MAZAR-i SHARIF, add to Bibl.: R.D. McChesney, Waqf in Central Asia. Four hundred years in the history of a Muslim shrine, 1480o-1889, Princeton 1991. P. 1018a, MENTESHE-OGHULLARI, 1. 46, for (1296), read (1293-5, see Angeliki Laiou, Some observations on Alexios Philanthropenos and Maximos Planoudes, in. Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, iv [1978], 89-99). P. 1018b, 11. 3-4, for Orkhan Beg's death was probably before 1344, and his son Ibrahim succeeded him., read Orkhan Beg's death was before 1337, for in that year his son and successor Ibrahim Beg concluded a treaty with the Duca di Candia or Venetian governor of Crete. II. 10-14, for but as a result of an agreement made with the assistance of Marino Morosini, the Count of Crete, between the years 1332-5, they were forced to disband. Ibrahim Beg died some time before the year 1360., read but treaties were concluded in 1353 between Marino Morosini, the Duca di Candia, and the amirs of Aydfn [q.v. ] and Menteshe and the Venetian forces were disbanded. Ibrahim Beg died at some point before 1358, because in that year his successor Musa (see below) concluded a treaty with the Duca di Candia (see on these treaties and their texts, which have survived, E.A. Zachariadou, Trade and Crusade, Venetian Crete and the emirates of Menteshe and Aydin, 1300-1415, 217-18,
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
XV
the earliest treaty between one of the Menteshe amirs and a Venetian Duca di Candia being that of the year 1331). 1. 41 ,/or Djandar-oghlu Iskandar Beg, read Djandar-oghlu Iskandar (? Isfandiyar) Beg (see Y. Yiicel, XIII-XV. yilzybllar Kuzey-Bati tarihi Qoban-Ogullan Candar-ogullan beylikleri, Ankara 1980). 1. 8 from bottom, for Count of Crete, read Duca di Candia. a P. 1019 , add to Bibl.: Barbara Flemming, Landschaftsgeschichte von Pamphylien, Pisidien und Lykien im Spdtmittelalter, Wiesbaden 1964; A. Luttrell, Venice and the Knights Hospitallers ofRhodes in the fourteenth century, in Papers of the British School at Rome, xxvi, N.S. xiii (1958), 195-212; idem, Greeks, Latins and Turks on late mediaeval Rhodes, in Byzantinische forschungen, xi (1987), 357-74. b P. 1026 , MESIHI, 2nd paragraph, 1. 29, replace It is generally accepted ... no Persian model, by It is generally accepted that in Ottoman poetry the shehr-engtz genre started with Mesihi (a shehr-engiz by Dhati would appear to date from just about the same time); it did have Persian forerunners, though. (Cf. Michael Gliinz, Safis Sahrangiz, ein persisches Matnawiiiber die schonen Berufsleute von Istanbul, in Asiatische StudienlEtudes Asiatiques, xl/2 (1986), 133-45.)
VOLUME VII Pp. 81-87, MINTAKAT AL-BURUDJ: P. 81b, 11. 35-36, after mintakat falak al-buruaj_, add or (more rarely) nitdk al-burudi,. . 59, for nitdk, read nitdk. P. 82a, . 56, read StoBexaT^jjiopia. P. 82b, . 27, for 26, 27, read 36,27. . 44, for 174, 3/2, read 174, -3/2. . 45, after from alaburudj_, add which means al-zuhur (i.e. al-burudi,. a P. 83 , . 5 1 , read ot AtBujioi. . 67, for translation from Greek, read translated from Greek. P. 83b, . 35, read X^Xat. . 67, for p, o, 7t, 8, p, u, read £2, o, 7t, d, p, u. a P. 84 , . 48, read 'Y5poxoo5ia Stajua. . 57, for triplicates, read triplicitates. . 63, read Tptycovoxparope^. a P. 85 , . 19, read TetpajStjSAo?. for oi'xoi, read olxoi. b P. 85 , . 47, for akwdl, read atwdl. . 58, for circles at longitude, read circles of longitude. . 60, for al-kawakib, read al-kawdkib. P. 86a, . 8, for 417/2, read 4171/2. . 12, read auoTeXea^aTixot. in the Comparative table: entry no. 1 (Eratostehenes), last column, for + 1" 35", read + 1' 35". entry no. 8, name, for Banu Amdjur, read Banu Amadjur. P. 86a, Bibliography, 1. 5, read al-bdkiya. Bibliography, 11. 14-15, read ed. H. S. al-Damin. P. 138a, MISAHA. 1., add at end of the article: In the Yemen, the normal measurement of surface area was the ma^ad, a large, square surface which has two kasaba per side or two habl, a unit of measurement equal to 50 cubits. The macdd is subdivided into ktrdt, which is a square with a side of 25 cubits; it is thus equivalent to 625 square cubits. There are 16 kirdts in a macdd, which contains 10,000 libna, a unit of surface measurement which has a side of one cubit. The cubit of the surveyor is, in the Yemen, appreciably longer than that of the trader. This last contains 24 isba^s or fingers, equivalent each one to 6 sha^iras. But the surveyors' cubit in use at WadI Zabld contained 6 kabdas, to which there was added a seventh kabda minus the thumb, which would make a total of 40 isba's or about 83 cm (cf. Ibn al-Daybac, al-Fasl al-mazid, ed. J. Chelhod, Arabic introd_., 12 ff.). (J. CHELHOD) P. 253b, MUCAHADA, add to Bibl.: Texts of Ottoman treaties, translations and comments can be found in Basbakanhk Arsivi, Istanbul, Yildiz Tasnifi series, Kisim 25 — Evrak: 184, 346, 377, 407, 1289, 2098, 2175, 2316, 2336; Kisim 28 — Evrak: 22, 2338; Kisim 31 — Evrak: 1925 Miikerrer; Kisim 33 — Evrak: 33/21, 33/39; Kisim 35 — Evrak: 2209, 2568, 2569, 35/20; Kisim 36 — Evrak: 169, 139/2i Klsim 37 —Evrak: 378b P. 261 , MUCARADA, 11. 5-8, for (see Lidia Bettini ... U.E.A.I.)), read (see Lidia Bettini, Langue et rhetorique au Ve sieclejm Quaderni di Studi Arabi, v-vi (1987-8) ( = Atti del XIII Congresso dell' U.E.A.I.), 91-104). Add to Bibl.: M. Guidi, La lotta tra I'lslam e U Manicheismo, un libro di Ibn al-Muqajfa*- contro il Corano confutato da al-Qasim ibn Ibrahim, Rome 1927; J. van Ess, Somefragments of the mucdradat al-Qur^an attributed to Ibn al-Muqaffa**, in Studia Arabica et Islamica, festschrift for Ihsdn ^Abbds on his sixtieth birthday, ed. Wadad al-Qadi, Beirut 1981, 151-63; L. Bettini, Studi sulla teoria letteraria araba, Florence 1981, 14, n. 31; U. Haxen, The Mu^arada concept and its musico-rhythmical implications, in Al-Andalus, xliii (1978), 113-24. P. 303a, MUDJTAHID, 1. 25, add A very paradoxical interpretation of the concept of iajtihdd can already be found in the thought of Molla Muhsin al-Fayd al-Kashani (d. 1091/1680), for whom the true mudjtahids are those who follow the Akhbari school (see Kohlberg, 143).
XVI
ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA
P. 303b,
1. 61, after E. Kedourie [1987]..., add E. Kohlberg, Aspects of Akhbari thought in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in N. Levtzion and J. Voll (eds.), Eighteenth-century renewal and reform in Islam, Syracuse, N.Y. 1987, 133-60; a P. 441 , MUHAMMAD HUSAYN HAYKAL, add to Bibl.: Baber Johansen, M. H. Haikal. Europa und der Orient im Weltbildeiner dgyptischen Liberalen, Beirut/Wiesbaden 1967 (BTS, vol. 5); Charles D. Smith, Islam and the search for social order in modern Egypt. A biography of Muhammad Husayn Haikal, Albany, N.Y. 1983. P. 631a, MURSAL. The first three lines of the Bibliography should read as follows: Bibliography: Given in the article; see further Abu Dawud al-Sidjistanf, Kitdb al-Mardsil, ed. Shucayb al-Arna°ut, Beirut 1988; Ibn Abl Hatim al-RazI, Kitdb al-Mardsil, ed. S.B. al-Samarra0!, Baghdad 1388; idem, ed. Sh.N. Kucam, Beirut 1977; P. 654a, MUSADDIK, 4th 1. from bottom, for negotiations on new occasions..., read negotiations on new concessions... P. 655b, add to Bibl.: H. Katouzian (ed.), Musaddiq's Memoirs, London 1988; idem, Musaddiq and the struggle for power in Iran, London 1990; F. Azimi, Iran: the crisis of democracy, 1941/53, London 1989. Plate XLII,/or Ca. 1680-90, read The first quarter of the 18th century. SUPPLEMENT P. 387a, IBN FARIGHUN, add to Bibl.: H. H. Biesterfeldt, Ibn Fangun 's chapter on Arabic grammar in his Compendium of the Sciences, in K. Versteegh and M.G. Carter (eds.), Studies in the history of Arabic grammar II. Procs. of the 2nd Symposium on the history of Arabic grammar, Nijmegen, 27 April-J May 1987, Amsterdam 1990, 49-56.
M CONTINUATION MIFRASH (A.), more usually in its Persian form ma/rash, or the Ottoman mifresh, denotes a travelling pack for bedding. Derived from the Arabic verb farasha "to spread out or furnish a house or tent", it is thus cognate with mafrushdt [q.v.] in the sense of "bedding". Two early examples made from waxed canvas, reinforced with patterns of brass studs, are preserved in the harem of the Topkapi Sarayi, Istanbul (8/460 and 8/465 khurdfi. These are flat-bottomed, 90 x 55 cm, with D-shaped ends 30 cm high around which the long sides curve inwards. A grip was fitted at each end, and the pack was secured by seven straps buckled from side to side and one lengthwise. The original colour seems to have been vine green. The term is now generally applied to the woven rectangular bedding packs still used by nomads, and normally made in pairs to balance on either side of the camel carrying them. It appears in the following variants: Azari (lit.) mdfrdsh, (Pushkin, Nakhcivan, Djebrayil, and Shusha, also Karapapakh in Kars province) farmasjk, (Stiahsevan and Karadaghi)/armajA or fermesh; Kurdish (DjalaM) mashraf or mafrash; Kashka^T Turki mdfredj_ or (Farsimadan) marjadi; Ozbek (lit.) mapramac, (Kaucin) naprac, (Kungrat of the Surkhandarya) napramac, (Lakay) mepremec, (Aksha and Tashkurghan) maframac. The Karakalpak equivalent is called karshln. It is not clear whether mafrash as attributed to the Turkmen is due only to Iranian dealers; it does not appear in Baskakov's dictionary, nor is it usual among the Yomut of Iran. It is applied only to a small pouch. The term survives in various parts of Anatolia as mafrac (Derleme sozlugu, ix, 1977), and among the Turkmen of Kayseri (Akkisla) and the Karadagli of Afyon as mavrash, but in the latter two cases it is used for a woven pouch for soft goods. In Iran, the form is particularly developed among the Shahsevan [q.v.] and Karadaghli, not only in Mughan and Arasbaran, but among the outlying tribes in Hashtrud and Miyana, BTdjar, KazwTn and Sawa, and Miyandoab; since substantial parts of the Kharakan groups appear to have been moved there from northeast Adharbaydjan under Nadir Shah or later in the 12th/18th century, it was quite probably known to the main body of Shahsevan there by 1700, that is from the beginning of the federation (cf. Tapper in BibL, 804 ff.). Its use in Fars is typical of the Kashka3!, and it seems not to be known among the tribes of Kirman; it may therefore have been brought south by those elements of the Kashka?! who came from Adharbaydjan in Safavid times or earlier. In both regions the packs are usually flat-woven, though those of the Shahsevan are woven on a vertical loom, while those in Fars are woven on a ground loom; the Encyclopaedia of Islam, VII
usual technique is progressive weft float brocading (soumak), though examples in pilework can also be found. The Shahsevan also use tapestry weave. Kashka3! packs are characterised by leather binding along all the edges, a handle at either end, three straps across the width, and one lengthwise, with buckles, and flaps to close the top: they are thus close to the Ottoman model. They measure about 120 cm long, 40 cm wide and 55 cm high. Mughan Shahsevan packs are slightly smaller, at about 100 x 50 x 50 cm, and generally lack both straps and flaps, though the latter are occasionally provided. Instead, the open top is provided with rings at the edges through which lacing can be passed. In both cases the woven design appears on all four sides, the bottom being simply in plain weave. In brocaded packs from Miyana, the design is sometimes on three sides only, whereas in those from Hashtrud, Khamsa and Bidjar, only one face is decorated (Tanavoli, in BibL, 161 ff.). Tapestry-woven packs are, however, four-faced in all regions. Both types are some 10 cm lower than in Mughan, as are those from Kars. Kurdish packs in both Turkey and Iran, are used by the DjalalT and Milan, resemble the Mughan format in size and in tending to have three bands of ornament continuous on all faces, but the handling of the motifs is more compact, and a technique of reversed extra-weft knotted wrapping is sometimes used. A few packs of the Kashka5! format were made by the Bakhtiyar! and other Lur, but with Luri ornament: these too were usually in progressive brocading. Lakay mepremec are also small in format, up to 95 x 30 x 40 cm, and are decorated with pilework or embroidery on one long side and the ends only; they are fitted with five or six loops on each of the long top edges. It is said that staves are passed through these to stiffen the pack as it is packed up, a procedure absent among nomads in Iran. Such packs appear to be associated particularly with the Kipcak group of Ozbek. They are also found among some Iranianspeaking groups in southern Tadjikistan, including the c Arab and Larkhabl. Somewhat similar packs, called teng-tuk (100 x 60 x 30) are used by some Kazak (Kizfl Orda oblast), and may be compared to the felt covers, sandlk kap, used to house their chests. Bedding packs hold a complete bed, of mattress, quilt and pillow, rolled up, or even two, and can be lifted by two people with difficulty when full. They are ranged along the rear wall of the tent, forming the basis of the baggage pile, yak, where the decorated face can be displayed to advantage. The equivalent Persian term is rakht-i khwdb-pic. In northern India the same function is performed by the bedding roll, bistardband or "holder"; 1
2
MIFRASH — MIHNA
Bibliography: Some Azari variants of the term can be found in R. A. Riistamov and M. Sh. Shiraliyev, Azdrbaydjan dilinin dialektolozhi lughdti, Baku 1964; see also W. Radloff, Versuch eines Worterbuches der Tiirk-Dialekte, repr. The Hague 1960, and B. Kh. Karmuisheva, Lokayskie "mapramaci", in Soobshceniya_ Respublikanskogo Istoriko-Kraevedceskogo Muzeya, vuip. ii, Stalinabad 1955, 122 n. 6. Other variants are recorded from the author's fieldwork. Shahsevan packs are discussed in J. Housego, Some flat weaves of Azerbaijan, in Halt, iv/2 (1981), 118-23; eadem, Tribal rugs, London 1978; S. Azadi and P.A. Andrews, Mafrash, Berlin and Munich 1985 (also showing a Kashka0! pack, pi. facing p. 256, and two attributed to the Lur, facing pp. 242-4), and P. Tanavoli, Shahsavan, New York 1985 (also in German, Fribourg 1985). For the technique, see also R.L. and N. Tapper and P.A. Andrews, Farmash weaving among the Shahsevan, in Oriental carpet and textile studies, i, London 1985, 124-30. For Shahsevan history, see R.L.Tapper, The Shahsavan of Azarbaijan, London Ph.D. thesis, 1971, unpubl., Appendix iii. For a Lun example and discussion, see A. de Franchis and J.T. Wertime, Lori and Bakhtiyari flatweaves, exhibition catalogue, Tehran 1976, 16 and pi. 26 A. For Ozbek packs, see Karmuisheva, op. cit., 121-45, and for the Kazak types, M.S. Mukanov, Kazakhskayayurtas, Alma Ata 1981, pis. 36-86. _ (P.A. ANDREWS) MIHMINDAR (p.), the title of the 18th dignity, out of the 25 at the Mamluk s u l t a n ' s c o u r t ; succeeding to the duties of the Fatimid nd^ib sahib al-bdb (see M. Canard, Le ceremonial fdtimite et le ceremonial byzantin, in Byzantion, xxi [1951], 371, 377, 412), he was in charge of receiving ambassadors and delegations of Bedouins (Durban), of providing them with accommodation suitable to their rank, of providing for their needs during their stay and of presenting them, at the appropriate moment, in the audience chamber of the ruler. Whilst the nd^ib was an official of the pen (min arbdb al-akldm), the office of mihminddriyya was reserved for an official of the sword (min arbdb al-suyuf) in the public service (see esp. alKalkashandl, §ubh, i, 484, iv, 187, 218 and index). It is under his title of AL-MIHMINDAR that al-Amlr al-Hamdam, Badr al-Dm Abu '1-Mahasin Yusuf b. Sayf al-Dawla b. Zammakh b. Thumama alThaclabf/al-Taghlibi, author of a work on genealogy and a treatise on rhetoric, who claimed to belong to the Banu Hamdan and be the descendant of Sayf alDawla [q. v. ], is best known. He was born in 602/1205 and probably died towards the end of the 7th/13th century, after having held the post of mihminddr under the last Ayyubid and then in the reign of the Mamluk al-Mansur Kalawun [q.v.}. Since he was constantly in contact with the Bedouins, from whom he himself sprang, he put into a Kitdb al-Ansdb all the items of knowledge about their genealogies and histories, which earned him the sobriquet of al-Nassdba ("the genealogist"). This work has not survived, but its subject-matter is in part preserved by later authors, amongst whom one should mention al-Kalkashandl, in the Nihdyat al-arab, the Kald^id al-djuman and even the Subh, when he deals with the Bedouins and the Arab tribes. Al-Makrfzf also utilised al-Mihmindar's work, but without acknowledging it. Al-Mihmindar was furthermore a poet and litterateur. The only work of his to survive is his Izdlat al-iltibds fi 'l-fark bayn al-ishtikdk wa 'l-ajinds (ms. in Cairo, see Fihrist-al kutub al-^arabiyya al-mahfuza bi 'lkutubkhdna al-misriyya, 1306/1888-9, iv, 122, 1926, ii, 175).
Bibliography: cUman, Masdlik, ms. Istanbul, Ahmet III 2797, iii; Ibn Shakir al-Kutubf, Fawdt, ed. I. cAbbas, Beirut 1973-4, iv, 349-51; Safadi, Waf, x, Wiesbaden 1980, 334; Kalkashandl, Nihdyat al-arab, Cairo 1959; idem, Kald^idal-ajumdn, Cairo 1963; Daw^ al-Subh, Cairo 1966; Makrizi, Suluk, i/2, 637-8 where the verses are transposed, see the correct version in al-Tuhfa al-mulukiyya of Baybars al-Mansuri, ms. Vienna, Flugel 905, fol. 22a; idem, al-Baydn wa'l-i^rdb, ed. cAbdfn, Cairo 1961, 53, no. 87; Ibn Hadjar al-cAskalam, al-Durar al-kdmina, Cairo n.d., v, 231, n. 3, 232; Suyuti, Husn al-muhddara, Cairo 1967, i, 569, biogr. no. 61 (correct Rabbah into Zammakh); HadjdjI Khalifa. Kashf, ed. Istanbul, i, 158; Ismacil Pasha alBaghdadf, Hadiyyat al-^drifin, Istanbul 1951-5, ii, 555, where the date of his death is placed around 670 (?); Suwaydi, Sabd^ik al-dhahab, Cairo n.d.; Brockelmann, I, 283, S I, 499; Bjorkmann, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Staatskanzlei im islamischen Aegypten, Hamburg 1928, 82; Ahmad LutfTal-Sayyid, KabdW al-^ArabJtMisr, Cairo 1934, 82; A. cAbdm, in the introd. to the ed. of al-Baydn wa 'l-i^rdb of Makrfzf, 5; Kahhala, Mu^djam al-mu^allifin, Damascus 1961, xiii, s.v. Yusuf al-HamdanT; M. Hiyarf, al-Imdra altd^iyya f t bildd al-Shdm, cAmman 1977, 16; A.H. Saleh, Quelques remarques sur les Bedouins d'Egypte au Moyen-Age, in SI, xlviii (1978), 63. (A. SALEH) MIHNA [see SINA C A, SINF]. MIHNA (A.), a term meaning in general usage a "testing" or "trial", whether by the accidents of fortune or the actions of men (Patton, 1). This general sense is reflected in the Kitdb al-Mihan by Abu 'l-cArab [q. v. ] where the author sets out to give an account of "those who have been afflicted (ubtuliya) by being killed, imprisoned, flogged, or threatened..." (47). More particularly, the term (together with its counterpart imtihdn) signifies the procedure adopted by the caliph al-MaDmun [ q . v . ] , and officially applied under his two immediate successors, for the purpose of imposing the view that the Kur D an had been created. 1. The course of historical events. The circumstances of this initiative, which was set in motion by al-MaDmun in a letter written in Rab^ I 218/April 833, four months before his death, are most fully described by al-Tabarl (iii, 1112 ff.) and have been examined in detail by Patton (56 ff.). In the first instance, alMa D mun, who was at al-Rakka (or Damascus, according to al-Yackubi, ii, 571), desired his deputy in Baghdad, Ishak b. Ibrahim, to test the kadis in his jurisdiction concerning God's creation of the Kurgan. The language of his letter to this effect is powerful and direct: God has the right to have His religion carried out properly, and the great mass of the common people, who know no better, being without the light of knowledge, are mistaken when they espouse the view that the Kur D an is eternal (kadim awwal); for God has said in the Kur D an "We have made it (ajacalndhu) an Arabic KuPan" (XKIII, 3), and everything He has made (aja^ala) He has created (khalakd). In addition, they have made a fallacious link between themselves and the sunna, making themselves out to be "the people of truth, religion and unity" and characterising those who do not agree with them as "people of falsehood, unbelief and schism", but in reality they are, inter alia, "the worst of the ummd" and "the tongue of the Devil" and are in no way to be trusted. The Commander of the Faithful will not rely on anyone who does not conform in this regard, nor are kddts to accept the testimony of such people. This letter to Ishak was followed by another instructing him to send to al-MaDmun seven named
MIHNA individuals, including the traditionists Ibn Sacd, Yahya b. Macm and Zuhayr b. Harb [q.vv.]. All seven were tested and, having acknowledged the doctrine of the created Kurgan, were returned to Baghdad where their acknowledgement was publicised. By this time, too, mihna letters from alMa5mun were reaching other centres: the text of the letter which reached Misr in Djumada II 218/July 833 was closely modelled on, or identical with, the first letter to Ishak (Ibn TaghribirdI, ed. Cairo, ii, 218 f.; cf. al-Kindi, 193, 445 ff.). But it was at Baghdad that the impact of the mihna was felt most at this time: in response to further instructions from al-MaDmun, Ishak went on to test about thirty leading fukahd^ and hadith specialists, who, with only two exceptions, and in certain cases under some duress, acknowledged the doctrine of the created Kurgan. The exceptions, Ahmad b. Hanbal [q. v.] and Muhammad b. Nuh alc ldjll, were despatched in irons to be dealt with by alMa^mun at Tarsus on his return from Byzantine territory, but the sudden death of the caliph (mid-Radjab 218/mid-August 833) saved them from this particular predicament and they were sent back. Muhammad b. Nuh died on the return journey, and Ahmad was kept in detention after reaching Baghdad. Al-MaDmun had set in motion in the last four months of his life something which his brother and successor as caliph, al-Muctasim, was left to cope with. He had moreover stipulated in his last will and testament that al-Muctasim should, inter alia, hold to his policy on the Kur'an and make (the Muctazili) Ahmad b. Abl DuDad [q.v.] his closest confidant (alTabari, iii, 1137, 1139; al-Subkl, ii, 59); and al-Subki with some justification advances this as the reason why, for all that al-Muctasim himself was destitute of c z/m, he nonetheless required adherence to the doctrine of the created Kur3an. Concerning the question of how this was achieved, it would seem that a distinction should be made between mihna as a regular formality in courts of law and mihna as a "test" applied beyond the confines of the courtroom: as an example of mihna in the first of these senses, we are told that in Misr the kadi would accept the testimony only of those witnesses who acknowledged that the Kurgan had been created and that "this [type of] mihna lasted from 218 until [after] the accession of al-Mutawakkil in 232" (al-Kindi, 447). On the matter of where the mihna was applied, the evidence points to Baghdad, Kufa, Basra, Damascus, Mecca and Medina (Patton, 62 f.; Abu 'l- c Arab, 448 ff.; Hanbal b. Ishak, 38 f.; Waklc, i, 268 f.; also Ifrikiya, see below) in addition to Misr. The situation in the Tahirid-controlled East is not clear: the kadi of Balkh is reported to have objected to a mihna letter which stated that the Kur'an had been created (al-Balkhl, Fadd^il, 210), and the author of the Tdnkh-i Sistdn says that, after the flogging of Ahmad b. Hanbal, al-Muctasim circulated letters to each community calling upon people to believe in the created Kur'an (185 f.; Eng. tr. Gold, 147: one may suspect here a fusion of al-Ma 5 mun's letters with al-Muctasim's treatment of Ahmad); but that appears to be the sum total of our present knowledge about the matter as far as the East is concerned. The sources give the impression that al-Muctasim himself was in general predisposed to settle for mihna as no more than a courtroom formality, and al-Kindi even remarks that "the matter of the mihna was easy (sahlan) during the reign of al-Muctasim" (451), but there are nonetheless two instances early in his reign where it was applied outside the courtroom. The first of these does not seem to have been particularly important: al-Muctasim wrote to his governor of
3
Misr, Muzaffar b. Kaydur (held office Rabr IIShacban 219/May-Sept. 834), instructing him to test the ^ulamd^ on the creation of the Kur'an and he tested a group of them (Ibn TaghribirdI, ii, 230; al-Kindi makes no mention of this, and it is possible that Ibn TaghribirdI is misrepresenting the al-Ma^mun letter transmitted by the future caliph al-Muctasim to Muzaffar's father Kaydur, when the latter was governor of Egypt and al-Ma^mun was still caliph, alKindl, 193, 445 ff.). The second instance, the matter of the unfinished business of what should be done with Ahmad b. Hanbal, was far more significant: indeed, the story of the mihna of the Imam Ahmad at the hands of al-Muctasim looms large in later SunnI hagiography. Abu Nu c aym, Ibn al-Djawzi, al-Subkl and others, drawing freely on material transmitted by members of Ahmad's family, regale us with the details of how the courageous and intransigent Imam resisted all attempts to make him acknowledge the created Kur'an, was ultimately flogged on al-Muctasim's orders until he was unconscious (but cf. the alternative version given by Abu Nu c aym, ix, 205 f.), and was released shortly afterwards when commotion among the population of Baghdad threatened to get out of hand. These accounts include some striking embellishments, e.g. how Ahmad's sardwil were supernaturally restored to their proper place (by a golden hand in some versions) when they were in the process of slipping off while he was being flogged. In sum, what is portrayed is an archetypal SunnI hero, quietist by disposition but resolute when pressed to espouse a view he regards as religiously improper; there is no room for takiyya here (for a detailed treatment of all this, see Patton, 93 ff.). That Ahmad was flogged is not in doubt, for all that the incident is ignored by al-Tabarl and Ibn Miskawayh; the sources give as the date of this event both Ramadan 219/Sept. 834 and Ramadan 220/Sept. 835, the second of which is to be preferred if it is correct that the total period of his detention was about two-and-a-half years (see e.g., Salih b. Ahmad, 278; Hanbal b. Ishak, 42). There are, however, certain respects in which the received SunnI account may in fact be questioned, in view of what some of the sources have to say. In the first place, these sources are under the impression that Ahmad was flogged until he actually acknowledged the created Kurgan: alYackubl knew this to be the case (ii, 577), and Ahmad's contemporary al-Djahiz tells us that it took only 30 strokes (Rasd'il, ed. Sandubl, 152); alMascudl thought that it took 38 strokes (Murua^, § 2797), while Ibn al-Murtada opts for 68 (Tabakdt alMu^tazila, 125). Secondly, these sources know nothing about Ahmad's release having been occasioned by a public commotion; for them, his release was the consequence of his acknowledgement, although Ibn alMurtada would have us believe that it took place only after he had acknowledged the created Kurgan before the assembled population of Baghdad. Thirdly, what these sources have to say provides an alternative explanation of why Ahmad was subsequently left alone by the authorities; it was not because they lacked the nerve to test him again, but because he had capitulated. None of these sources can be regarded as other than more or less hostile to Ahmad, but even so it is difficult to explain away the essence of what they have to say. The en passant remark by al-Djahiz, in particular, with its casual and matter-of-fact tone, has a convincing ring to it; Ibn al-Murtada's reference to Ahmad's public acknowledgement of defeat may well be dismissed as an embellishment, although it would have made good sense from the point of view of Ibn
4
MIHNA
Abi Du^ad, who was by this time kadi'al-kudat and thus in effect chief inquisitor; and even Ibn al-Djawz! was aware of such accounts, for all that he eschewed them (337: hikayat fikissat darbihi lamyathbut cindand sihhatuhd fa-tanakkabndha). However the case of Ahmad is to be viewed, it is apparent that this was the last occasion on which alMuctasim involved himself in any conspicuous way with the prosecution of the mihna. Thereafter he was preoccupied with moving his capital to Samarra0 [q.v.], dealing with the rebel Babak [q.v.], mounting his celebrated offensive against Amorium [see C AMMURIYA], coping with the revolt of Mazyar [q.v.], and in 226/841, the year before his death, overseeing the trial and execution of Afshfn [q. v. ] . Although alKindl is (presumably) referring only to Misr when he says that the matter of the mihna was easy during the rule of al-Muctasim (see above), his remark appears also to be true more generally; Ibn Taghribirdi even goes so far as to suggest that al-Muctasim at some point banned the testing of ^ulama* (ii, 259); and the relative inactivity of Ibn Abl DuDad during these years remains in need of explanation. Not until the last year of al-Muctasim's reign can any changes be observed in respect of the application of the mihna, at Misr in one case and Baghdad in another. The first of these changes came when the Malikf £