THE DESTINY OF A KING GEORGES DUMEZIL TRANSLATED
THE
BY A L F
UNIVERSITY CHICAGO
HILTEBEITEL
OF CHICAGO AND
LONDON...
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THE DESTINY OF A KING GEORGES DUMEZIL TRANSLATED
THE
BY A L F
UNIVERSITY CHICAGO
HILTEBEITEL
OF CHICAGO AND
LONDON
PRESS
Originally published as part three of Mythe et epopee, vol. 2: Types ipiques indo-europeens: un heros, un sorcier, un roi,
© Editions Gallimard, 1971.
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 1973 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved. Published 1973 Printed in the United States of America International Standard Book Number: 0-226-16975-8 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 73-75311
T o t h e m e m b e r s of t h e Haskell L e c t u r e C o m m i t t e e (1969): J e r a l d C. B r a u e r , R o b e r t E. S t r e e t e r , Mircea Eliade, J o s e p h M. Kitagawa, a n d C h a r l e s H. L o n g T o t h e faculty a n d s t u d e n t s of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago To Zwi Werblowsky
PREFATORY
NOTE
T h e f o l l o w i n g s t u d y , o u t H n e d p a r t i a l l y in t h r e e l e c t u r e s at t h e C o l l e g e d e F r a n c e in J a n u a r y 1966, t o o k f o r m in six Haskell L e c t u r e s given at t h e University of Chicago in O c t o b e r a n d N o v e m b e r 1969. S o m e c o m p l e m e n t a r y c o m p a r a t i v e r e s e a r c h was set f o r t h at C h i c a g o in several s e m i n a r s ( O c t o b e r - D e c e m b e r 1969); o t h e r m a t e r i a l was p r e s e n t e d in lectures at P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d Los A n g e l e s ( F e b r u a r y 1970). W i t h w a r m a p p r e c i a t i o n I t h a n k Alf H i l t e b e i t e l , t o w h o m this careful a n d c o m p e t e n t version of m y F r e n c h text is d u e , as w e l l as W i n s t o n Davis, w h o assisted m e unselfishly d u r i n g t h e t i m e of m y l e c t u r e s in Chicago.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1
1
YAYATI AND H I S S O N S
9
2
YAYATI AND H I S D A U G H T E R ' S S O N S
3
VASU U P A R I C A R A
55
4
MADHAVI
70
5
E O C H A I D F E I D L E C H , H I S D A U G H T E R S , AND H I S S O N S
85
28
PERSPECTIVES
108
NOTES
131
INDEX
151
INTRODUCTION
T h e c o m p a r i s o n of t h e I n d i a n Y a m a , son of Vivasvat, w i t h his I r a n i a n h o m o n y n Yima,^ son of V i v a n h a t , r u n s u p against an initial difficulty. F o r m u l a t e d briefly, Y i m a c o r r e s p o n d s to Y a m a in o n l y a confined p o r t i o n of his a d v e n t u r e s a n d functions. For t h e rest, t h e l a r g e r p o r t i o n of his c a r e e r n o t o n l y b e a r s n o r e l a t i o n t o w h a t w e k n o w of Y a m a , b u t h a r d l y e v e n s e e m s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h his t y p e . L e t us begin b y l o o k i n g at t h e v a r i o u s w a y s in w h i c h this father-son pair appears.^ T h e Vedic Vivasvat p r e s e n t s h i m s e l f as a c o n t r a d i c t i o n : at o n c e a m a n , t h e a n c e s t o r of t h e h u m a n race, a n d a g o d , t h e e i g h t h a n d last of t h e Adityas, or s o v e r e i g n g o d s . This second r a n k i n g , a l l u d e d t o b y R V X,72,8 a n d 9, is e n l a r g e d u p o n in several B r a h m a n a s a n d e x p l a i n e d as a s o r t of original sin b y Aditi, t h e A d i t y a s ' m o t h e r . She h a d given b i r t h , t w o b y t w o , to t h e six A d i t y a s p r o p e r — M i t r a a n d V a r u n a , t h e n t w o auxiliaries for e a c h — b y e a t i n g piously a n d h u m b l y t h e r e m a i n d e r of s o m e g r u e l w h i c h h a d first b e e n offered t o t h e Sadhyas, t h e p r i m o r d i a l g o d s . B u t w h e n it c a m e t i m e for a f o u r t h try, h o p i n g for a n e v e n g r e a t e r result, she ate t h e initial s h a r e before serving t h e g o d s . T h e o u t c o m e was t h a t o n e of t h e t w o c h i l d r e n , I n d r a , rose u p p r o u d l y t o w a r d t h e sky a n d j o i n e d c o m p a n y w i t h t h e A d i t y a s (he w a s t o b e " t h e s e v e n t h A d i t y a " ) , w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r fell, in t h e f o r m of t h e " d e a d e g g , " M a r t a n d a . It r e q u i r e d t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e A d i t y a s to give h i m life a n d f o r m : t h u s h e b e c a m e Vivasvat. B u t t h e y g a v e h i m t h e i r aid o n l y o n t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t h e a n d t h o s e b o r n f r o m h i m " w o u l d b e for t h e m , " t h a t is, t h a t t h e y w o u l d sacrifice t o t h e m . Vivasvat t h u s b e c a m e t h e first sacrificer, a n d t h o s e m e n , his d e s c e n d a n t s , w h o sacrifice as h e did
2
INTRODUCTION
are p r o t e c t e d b y t h e Adityas. In this w a y t h e y p o s t p o n e t h e i r d e a t h , t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e y will b e g a t h e r e d u p b y Y a m a , son of Vivasvat. T h e Avestan V i v a h h a t reveals n o such c o m p l i c a t i o n or a m b i g u i t y : h e is o n l y a m a n of l o n g ago w h o was t h e first t o sacrifice a n d w h o , as r e w a r d for this beautiful i n v e n t i o n , was e n a b l e d to h a v e a son Yima, u n d e r w h o m d e a t h was p o s t p o n e d for a l o n g t i m e It m a y b e t h a t t h e Avesta p r e s e n t s t h e t r a d i t i o n in its m o s t a n c i e n t I n d o - I r a n i a n f o r m , a n d t h a t t h e situation was c o m p l i c a t e d in l a t e Vedic t e x t s — t h e t e n t h b o o k of t h e PigVeda, Brdhmanas—by making t h e ancestor of h u m a n i t y o n e of t h e m i n o r sovereign g o d s . T h e a n c i e n t list of t h e six A d i t y a s w o u l d t h u s h a v e b e e n p r o l o n g e d : in o v e r s e e i n g t h e m y s t e r i e s of t h e cosmos^ Varum a n d his t w o assistants Ddkfa a n d Amsa w o u l d , o n t h e " V a r u n i a n p l a n e , " find t h e i r r a n k s c o m p l e t e d b y a god n o t p r o p e r l y Aditya, b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y b r i l l i a n t (Indra); a n d in m a i n t a i n i n g close ties w i t h us m e n , Mitrd a n d his t w o assistants Aryamdn a n d Bhdga^ w o u l d b e j o i n e d on t h e " M i t r i a n p l a n e " b y a n e x c e p t i o n a l man (Vivasvat). Be t h a t as it m a y , w h e t h e r o n e r e g a r d s h i m as a m a n w h o is b o t h e x e m p l a r y a n d p r o m o t e d to i m m o r t a l i t y or as a h e t e r o g e n e o u s s o v e r e i g n g o d , Vivasvat, like his A v e s t a n c o u n t e r p a r t , d r a w s m e n t i o n a b o v e all for his p a r t as p r i m a l sacrificer. F u r t h e r , it was a r o u n d Vivasvat, a n c e s t o r of m a n k i n d , a n d his son Y a m a t h a t t h e Vedic I n d i a n s a n d p r o b a b l y e v e n t h e I n d o I r a n i a n s h a d o r g a n i z e d t h e i r ideas o n life a n d d e a t h . O n e can s u m m a r i z e t h e Vedic d o c t r i n e in a few w o r d s : Vivasvat, w h e t h e r b y his sacrificial m e r i t s or t h r o u g h his c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e A d i t y a s , has b e e n r e l i e v e d of t h e necessity of d y i n g w h i c h fell t o h i m w h e n h e was b o r n as M a r t a n d a ; o n t h e c o n t r a r y , his son Y a m a is d e a d , a n d , following h i m , w e all die t o o . L e t us also e x p e c t t h e m to r e n d e r different services. U n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of Vivasvat, w e ask n o t for a n i m p o s s i b l e i m m o r t a h t y o n e a r t h b u t for a life as l o n g as possible a n d a n a t u r a l d e a t h as late as p o s s i b l e ; w i t h t h e h e l p of Y a m a , " t h e first to d i e , " o u r " g u i d e in d e a t h , " soon " k i n g of t h e r e a l m of t h e d e a d , " w e h o p e for as h a p p y a survival as possible in t h e b e y o n d — t h i s h a p p i n e s s b e i n g subject t o different c o n c e p t i o n s w h i c h v a r i e d f r o m age to age a n d w h i c h s e e m to h a v e r e m a i n e d r a t h e r v a g u e t h r o u g h o u t Vedic t i m e s . This is t h e t h e o l o g y e x p r e s s e d
INTRODUCTION
i
in all t h o s e p a r t s of t h e h y m n s w h i c h t r e a t t h e r e l a t i o n s of Vivasvat a n d Y a m a t o d e a t h . O n e m a y t h i n k first of t h e f a m o u s p r a y e r in s t r o p h e 62 of Atharva Veda 18,3 (following s t r o p h e 61, w h i c h asks Vivasvat for security, a b u n d a n c e in m e n , cows, a n d h o r s e s ) : Let Vivasvat set us in non-mortality; let death go away; let what is nonmortal come to us; let [him] defend these men until old age; let not their life-breaths go to Yama.^ T h e n A V 18,2,32, w h e r e t h e p o e t reassures h i m s e l f b y p r o c l a i m i n g t h a t h e is r e a d y o n e i t h e r side, for this w o r l d or for t h e o t h e r : Yama beyond, below Vivasvat—beyond that do I see nothing whatever; upon Yama is placed my sacrifice; Vivasvat is extended upon the worlds. A n d again AV 18,3,13, w h i c h p r o v i d e s Y a m a w i t h a definition t h a t Alfred H i l l e b r a n t t r i e d vainly t o discredit, a t t e m p t i n g to distinguish " m o r t a l " f r o m " m a n . " H
Him who died first of mortals, who went forth first to that world, Vivasvat's son, assembler of mankind, king Yama, honor ye with oblation.
%
T h e Vedic I n d i a n s h a d to p o s e t h e m s e l v e s t h e p r o b l e m of t h e origin of d e a t h : if Vivasvat, for o n e r e a s o n or a n o t h e r — w h e t h e r as first sacrificer or t h a n k s t o t h e c o m p a s s i o n of t h e A d i t y a s — w a s a b l e to escape m o r t a l i t y , h o w is it t h a t this son Y a m a a n d especially t h e rest of us h u m a n s h a v e h a d to s u b m i t to it? Insofar as Y a m a is c o n c e r n e d , it s e e m s t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t e d p a r t y h i m s e l f has b e e n g r a n t e d t h e decision. A n d as for m a n k i n d , Y a m a has n o p a r t in t h e e v e n t s w h i c h led to o u r m o r t a l c o n d i t i o n . As w e l e a r n f r o m t h e l e n g t h y exposition of t h e Brhaddevata (6,161-7,7), Tvasfr, t h e divine artisan, h a d given his d a u g h t e r Saranyii in m a r r i a g e to Vivasvat, a n d t h e i r first c h i l d r e n w e r e t h e t w i n s Y a m a a n d his sister Y a m l (yama is an old w o r d w h i c h signifies " t w i n " ) . B u t t h e n , w i t h o u t t h e k n o w l e d g e of h e r h u s b a n d , Saranyii c r e a t e d a f e m i n i n e f o r m like h e r o w n , in w h i c h t h e deceived Vivasvat e n g e n d e r e d M a n u , t h e f a t h e r of h u m a n i t y . If w e are after a n e n t i r e l y c o h e r e n t p i c t u r e , w e m a y s u p p o s e — a l t h o u g h n o w h e r e is this c o n n e c t i o n m a d e e x p l i c i t — t h a t Y a m a has c h o s e n m o r t a H t y freely so as to o p e n
^
4
INTRODUCTION
a " r e a l m " in t h e a f t e r w o r l d w h e r e h e m a y w e l c o m e his h a l f - b r o t h e r M a n u ' s d e s c e n d a n t s , t h e h u m a n race, w h o s e life involves d e a t h in c o n s e q u e n c e of his m o t h e r ' s trick. In a n y case, in t h e f u n e r a r y h y m n s of t h e ^gVeda, such is his f u n c t i o n : w h e r e Y a m a lives, in a r e m a r k a b l e association w i t h V a r u n a , t h e r e — e v e n if n o o n e can b e precise o n t h e l o c a t i o n — g o t h e g o o d a r y a at d e a t h t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r t e r r e s t r i a l lives c o m f o r t a b l y . In this sense h e is a king, for h e is called " k i n g " a l r e a d y in t h e h y m n s , a n d t h e title was so f i r m l y a t t a c h e d t o h i m t h a t , in b r a n c h i n g off f r o m I n d i a n t r a d i t i o n a n d m a k i n g h i m t h e i r chief g o d , t h e Kafirs of t h e H i n d u k u s h i n c o r p o r a t e d it i n t o his n a m e : Intra, t h a t is, Yama-rdjan.^ B u t n e i t h e r in t h e Vedic e p o c h n o r l a t e r has h e e v e r b e e n t h o u g h t of as " r u l i n g " or as " h a v i n g r u l e d " at a n y t i m e w h a t s o e v e r over a " k i n g d o m " of o u r w o r l d . In t h e l a t e r t r a d i t i o n s , all traces of a h u m a n origin d i s a p p e a r : in t h e epic, t h e k i n g of t h e d e a d is a g o d o n e q u a l t e r m s w i t h t h e o t h e r s a n d , as o n e of t h e p r o t e c t o r s of t h e four c a r d i n a l points—of t h e five, if t h e z e n i t h is i n c l u d e d — h e has a p a l a c e as s p l e n d i d a n d of t h e s a m e style as t h o s e of his four associates, t h e g o d s I n d r a , V a r u n a , K u b e r a , a n d , e l e v a t e d over all t h e e x a l t e d figure r e f e r r e d t o as " G r a n d f a t h e r . " O n t h e c o n t r a r y , in t h e Avesta a n d in all t h e p o s t e r i o r l i t e r a t u r e , Y i m a is a b o v e all a t e r r e s t r i a l king, t h e t h i r d a n d last of a p r e s t i g i o u s succession—HaoSyariha P a r a S a t a , T a x m a U r u p i , Y i m a XSaeta. H e is, m o r e o v e r ; a u n i v e r s a l k i n g , a n d o n e w h o s e title—for xsaeta signifies " k i n g " a n d n o t " l u m i n o u s , " as it has l o n g b e e n r e n d e r e d * — i s also i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o his n a m e , p r o d u c i n g t h e Pahlavi YamSet, t h e Jamsid of t h e Persian t r a d i t i o n of t h e M u s l i m p e r i o d . His e n t i r e life, full of a d v e n t u r e s w h i c h lead h i m f r o m a n u n h e a r d - o f p r o s p e r i t y to t h e m o s t t e r r i b l e c a t a s t r o p h e , is t e r r e s t r i a l , a n d it is i m p o s s i b l e t o align it in a n y w a y w i t h t h e f u n e r a r y mission of t h e I n d i a n Y a m a . O n o n e essential p o i n t t h e t w o careers a r e e v e n o p p o s e d : d u r i n g Yima's reign, says t h e Avesta, n o t o n l y w e r e sickness a n d old age s u s p e n d e d , b u t d e a t h itself. O n l y o n e episode in Yima's life, p o o r l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e rest, s e e m s to b e t h e Z o r o a s t r i a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of an I n d o - I r a n i a n t r a d i t i o n a b o u t Y a m a conceived of as l o r d of t h e d e a d . L i k e t h e a u t h o r s of c o m e d i e s a n d novels w h o , f r o m o n e edition t o t h e n e x t ,
INTRODUCTION
5
r e v e r s e t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e last t u r n of e v e n t s to p r o v i d e a " g o o d " e n d i n g for a n i n t r i g u e w h i c h first e n d e d " b a d l y , " t h e Avesta m i n g l e s t w o c o n c e p t i o n s of Yima's r e i g n t h a t a r e difficult t o r e c o n c i l e . ' In o n e , h e e n d s his e a r t h l y existence w i t h a n e n o r m o u s sin—a lie, or p r i d e , o r r e v o l t against G o d — w h i c h m a k e s h i m lose for g o o d , w i t h n o possibility of r e t r i e v i n g t h e m , his t h r o n e , t h e sign of divine election, a n d e v e n his hfe. In t h e o t h e r , h e is c h a r g e d b y G o d w i t h a mission t h a t w o u l d n o r m a l l y h a v e t o r e m o v e h i m f r o m o u r w o r l d a n d call h i m , in a k i n d of B e y o n d , t o a life w h i c h , if n o t of u n h m i t e d d u r a t i o n , is at least m u c h p r o l o n g e d a n d w i t h o u t m i s h a p . H e is c h a r g e d w i t h c o n s t r u c t i n g a s u b t e r r a n e a n enclosure^ w h e r e h e is t o install, t o p u t in safekeeping in a n t i c i p a t i o n of a t e r r i b l e c o s m i c w i n t e r , selected s p e c i m e n s of h u m a n i t y a n d of t h e g o o d c r e a t i o n . A n d if this w i n t e r does n o t m a r k t h e b e g i n n i n g of a t r u e " e n d of t h e w o r l d " as t h e g r e a t Scandinavian w i n t e r , t h e fimbulvetr, s e e m s t o h a v e d o n e in c o n c u r r e n c e w i t h t h e R a g n a r o k , it at least m a r k s a g r a v e crisis o c c u r r i n g at t h e e n d of t h e " m i l l e n n i u m of Z o r o a s t e r . " ^ O n e fine day, A h u r a M a z d a w a r n e d Y i m a t h a t t h e r e w e r e g o i n g to b e t e r r i b l e w i n t e r s w i t h s n o w s so h e a v y t h a t , u p o n m e l t i n g , t h e y would s u b m e r g e the earth. He c o m m a n d e d h i m to construct a vara, a ( s u b t e r r a n e a n ) e n c l o s u r e w i t h specified d i m e n s i o n s , a n d t o b r i n g t o it, in pairs, t h e seeds of t h e best of each living s p e d e s , especially t h e h u m a n . L e t h i m m a k e t h e w a t e r s flow t h e r e , p u t g r a s s l a n d s t h e r e , a n d t h e n , says t h e G r e a t God, t h e r e will b e i n e x h a u s t i b l e food t h e r e , b u t n o d e f o r m i t i e s or physical or m e n t a l illnesses (22-30). Finally, so as t o set t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e p a r t s of t h e vara, A h u r a M a z d a gives Yima a g o l d object, t h e n a t u r e of w h i c h is discussed b y t h e e x e g e t e s (30). Y i m a carries o u t t h e s e o r d e r s f r o m p o i n t t o p o i n t , a n d t h u s h e is a b l e t o c o n s t r u c t t h e m a r v e l o u s e n c l o s u r e (31-38). T h e following d i a l o g u e (39-41) completes the description: "Creator of the bodily world, O holy one! What, O Ahura Mazda, are the lights which shine there, in the vara which Yima built?" "Natural lights and artificial lights. The stars, moon, and sun are seen to set and to rise one time [only in the year]. And a year seems but a day. Every forty years each human couple gives birth to a couple, male and female. And the same for the animal spedes. And there men live the very best of lives in the vara which Yima made." 10
6
INTRODUCTION
This h a p p y e n c l o s u r e of t h e b e y o n d , t h o u g h p r e s e n t e d n o t as a l a n d of t h e d e a d b u t , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , as t h e refuge of t h e living w h o s e d e s t i n y is t o escape a cataclysm, is v e r y likely a p r o l o n g a t i o n of t h e I n d o - I r a n i a n c o n c e p t i o n w h i c h in India, m o r e s i m p l y , m a d e Y a m a t h e chief of t h e k i n g d o m of t h e d e a d . T h e a n o m a l y is t h a t even t h o u g h h e is c h a r g e d b y God w i t h b u i l d i n g t h e e n c l o s u r e a n d s e t t i n g u p a n d o r g a n i z i n g in it t h e society a n d even t h e e c o n o m y of t h e elect, Yima is n o t d e s i g n a t e d as t h e i r chief a n d s e e m s to lose i n t e r e s t in t h e e n c l o s u r e h e has p r e p a r e d . T h e r e a s o n s for this elimination m a y be conjectured. First of all, Z o r o a s t e r has i n t e r v e n e d . As soon as h e has h e a r d t h e l o n g d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e vara, t h e p r o p h e t asks his G o d : 42. "Creator of the bodily world, O holy one! Who brought the Mazdean religion into the vara which Yima m a d e ? " And Ahura Mazda said: "It is the bird Karsiptar, O Spitama ZaraOustra." 43. "Creator of the bodily world, O holy one! Who is their master and judge?" And Ahura Mazda said: "It is Urvatatnara the third son of Zara6uStra, O ZaraGuStra, and yourself, you who are ZaraOustra." In this, as in o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s of his career—for e x a m p l e t h e e s t a b h s h m e n t of social classes t h r o u g h his sons^'—Yima has t h u s c o n c e d e d his place to t h e p r o p h e t of t h e n e w religion. It is c e r t a i n l y conceivable t h a t b e f o r e Z o r o a s t e r a n d his r e f o r m , b e f o r e t h e i m p e r i a l i s t i c r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h his disciples m a d e of I n d o E u r o p e a n m y t h s a n d legends, t h e heroic b u i l d e r of t h e e n c l o s u r e w o u l d h a v e c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e e n d of t i m e t o p r e s i d e t h e r e o v e r t h e society h e h a d b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , it is r e a s o n a b l e t o suggest t h a t in t h e p r i m i t i v e t r a d i t i o n , j u s t as t h e Vedic Y a m a ' s r e a l m was a s o j o u r n for t h e d e a d , t h e e n c l o s u r e could h a v e p r o v i d e d a d e s t i n a t i o n for t h e " g o o d " d e a d of t h e arya. T h e second reason for t h e dispossession of Yima is p r o b a b l y t h a t a p r o l o n g e d stay in t h e e n c l o s u r e h e h a d c o n s t r u c t e d — a h a p p y existence, w i t h o u t definite limit, in a n o t h e r w o r l d — w o u l d h a v e c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e rest, or at least t h e e n d , of his l e g e n d : sin, d e t h r o n e m e n t , brief p e r i o d of disgrace, cruel d e a t h . T o say it again, t h e r e is n o t h i n g a b o u t this final s t a t e m e n t t h a t has a n y a n a l o g u e in t h e Vedic or post-Vedic dossier on Yama.
INTRODUCTION
7
Aside f r o m this I r a n i a n t r a d i t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e e n c l o s u r e w h i c h , a l t h o u g h it has a likely I n d i a n h o m o l o g u e , ! ^ shows t h e g r e a t d i v e r g e n c e s w e h a v e j u s t u n d e r l i n e d ; aside also f r o m t h e identical n a m e s of t h e t w o fathers (Vivasvat, V i v a h h a t ) a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r , b u t i n v e r s e , r e l a t i o n s of Yima a n d Y a m a to d e a t h a n d its suspension, t h e r e are t h r e e traits c o n c e r n i n g civil s t a t u s in which a c o r r e s p o n d ence still h o l d s b e t w e e n t h e t w o figures. First of all, t h e i r n a m e , w i t h its m e a n i n g of " t w i n " ; t h e n t h e p r e s e n c e , beside t h e m , of a sister, t h e p r e d i c t a b l e " g i r l t w i n " w h o s e n a m e is diversely d e r i v e d f r o m t h e i r s — i n Vedic India YamI, in I r a n , t h e Pahlavi f o r m Y i m a k ; a n d finally t h e r e l a t i o n s w h i c h t h e y h a v e w i t h this sister: in a c o n v e r s a t i o n a l R g V e d i c h y m n , t h e I n d i a n figure i n d i g n a n t l y r e p u l s e s his sister's r e p e a t e d p r o p o s i t i o n s of incest, w h i l e in t h e Pahlavi texts, r e s t i n g o n a n A v e s t a n t r a d i t i o n , t h e I r a n i a n Yima c o n s u m m a t e s incest w i t h his sister, s u p p l y i n g t h e first e x a m p l e of m a r r i a g e a m o n g n e a r kin w h i c h Z o r o a s t r i a n i s m r e g a r d e d as t h e n o b l e s t f o r m of m a r r i a g e . D e s p i t e t h e similarities, h o w e v e r , t h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e d i v e r g e n c e of detail, a n d n o t o n l y as a r e s u l t of t h e t w o societies' c o n t r a s t i n g views of incest: in Iran t h e e v e n t t a k e s place d u r i n g t h e y e a r of m i s e r a b l e a n d secret survival w h i c h t h e sinful Yima leads d u r i n g his d e t h r o n e m e n t a n d p u n i s h m e n t . O n e t h i n g a b o u t this a p p a r e n t l y hopeless dossier suggests t h a t w e l o o k at it f r o m a n e w p o i n t of view. T h o s e of Yima's a d v e n t u r e s —the most considerable portion—which seem incompatible with t h e t y p e a n d function of Y a m a f o r m a c o h e r e n t e n s e m b l e a n d m a k e of h i m t h e b e s t e x a m p l e of w h a t A r t h u r C h r i s t e n s e n has called a "first k i n g . " As such h e is i n s e r t e d , a t t h e t h i r d a n d last position, in t h e earUest p e r i o d of t h e " h i s t o r y " of I r a n : u n i v e r s a l king, civilizer, o r g a n i z e r , beneficiary—until his sin—of a special protection from God. N o w although the frameworks and the i n t e n t i o n s differ, w e h a v e s h o w n elsewhere''* t h a t certain lines of c o m p a r i s o n can b e d r a w n b e t w e e n t h e w a y s t h a t t h e i n v e n t o r s of Iranian " h i s t o r y " a n d t h e I n d i a n a u t h o r s of t h e Mahdbhdrata epic c o m p o s e d t h e i r e a r l y dynastic t r a d i t i o n s . O n this basis w e a r e led to t h e possibility t h a t Yima, in his r o l e as u n i v e r s a l sovereign, may h a v e , u n d e r o t h e r n a m e s , o n e or several c o u n t e r p a r t s a m o n g t h e m o s t a n c i e n t ancestors of t h e P a n d a v a s . Accordingly, t h e idea
8
INTRODUCTION
n a t u r a l l y arises t h a t t h e last of t h e " u n i v e r s a l " kings in t h e I n d i a n a n d t h e I r a n i a n lists, Yayati a n d Yima-jamSid, may b o t h h a v e i n h e r i t e d epic m a t e r i a l d e r i v i n g in p a r t f r o m a c o m m o n s o u r c e . This is t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t w e are a b o u t t o test. In a d d i t i o n , o n t h e m a t e r n a l side t h e P a n d a v a s h a v e a n o t h e r ancestor, Vasu U p a r i c a r a , w h o s e s u r n a m e e v o k e s o n e of t h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d privileges of " J a m S i d , " o n e , m o r e o v e r , for w h i c h n e i t h e r Y a m a n o r Yayati p r e s e n t s an e q u i v a l e n t . W e shall also seek t o a p p r e c i a t e h o w far this n e w c o r r e s p o n d e n c e e x t e n d s a n d w h a t c o n s e q u e n c e s it h o l d s for a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e e x p l o i t of Y i m a .
YAYATI A N D HIS SONS
1. T H E DIVISIONS O F T H E E A R T H
Since a n t i q u i t y , t h e i m p o r t a n d v a l u e of t h e s t e r e o t y p e d R g V e d i c expressions " t h e five l a n d s , " " t h e five p e o p l e s , " h a v e b e e n o p e n t o discussion, a n d t h e y will c o n t i n u e t o b e so for a l o n g t i m e t o c o m e . ' T h e m o s t sensible a n d b e s t - r e a s o n e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t h a t w h i c h Bernfried S c h l e r a t h p r o p o s e d in a n e x c u r s u s of his b o o k of 1960, Das Konigtum im Rig- und Atharvaveda? Despite certain indigenous explanations which referred not only t o m e n a n d t h e e a r t h b u t to divine c h a r a c t e r s a n d m y t h i c a l w o r l d s , t h e s e w o r d s s u r e l y h a v e to d o w i t h five h u m a n g r o u p s . T h e e x p r e s s i o n is s o m e t i m e s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e t o t a l i t y of t h e a r y a (for e x a m p l e , w h e n it is said t h a t t h e five p e o p l e s a r e d e v o t e d t o Mitra, 3,59,8; sacrifice or p r a y t o A g n i , 6,11,4; a n d 10,45,6; ask for t h e h e l p of I n d r a , 10,53,4 a n d 5; or p r e p a r e t h e s o m a , 9,65,23), s o m e t i m e s , in a c o m p r e h e n s i v e w a y , t o t h e w h o l e of h u m a n i t y living o n t h e e a r t h (for e x a m p l e , w h e n it is said t h a t in a d a y D a w n t o u r s t h e five l a n d s , 5,75,4, or a w a k e n s t h e m , 7,79,1; or in c e r t a i n s t a n d a r d i z e d f o r m u l a s w h e r e t h e accusatives pdhca carsanih a n d visvdh . . . carsanih are u s e d e q u i v a l e n t l y ) . This d o u b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is n o t c o n t r a d i c t o r y : it was t h e a r y a w h o p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d t h e p o e t s , a n d in m a n y cases t h e a r y a c o n s t i t u t e d t h e only " h u m a n i t y " which concerned t h e m . T h e division i n t o five p r o b a b l y c o r r e s p o n d e d t o a n a n c i e n t c o n c e p t i o n , p u r e l y terrestrial,^ of t h e five disah, or pradisah, the directions of t h e w o r l d , t h a t is, t h e four c a r d i n a l p o i n t s a n d t h e center,'* a n a t u r a l c o n c e p t i o n f o u n d w i d e l y o n e v e r y c o n t i n e n t . ^
10
CHAPTER
ONE
W h e n t h e e x p r e s s i o n was t a k e n in its m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e sense, t h e c e n t e r m i g h t refer t o t h e arya, s u r r o u n d e d o n all sides b y t h e b a r b a r i a n s (cf. t h e C h i n e s e expression " H m p i r e of t h e M i d d l e " ) ; w h e n it was r e s t r i c t e d to t h e arya, t h e c e n t e r , as occurs f r e q u e n t l y , w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y b e t h e l a n d , t h e p a r t i c u l a r l a n d or clan of t h e p o e t o r of his r o y a l e m p l o y e r s , s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e rest of t h e n a t i o n , w h e t h e r friendly o r hostile. It is Hkely t h a t this c o n c e p t i o n of t h e w o r l d a n d its o c c u p a t i o n was e v e n p a r t of t h e I n d o - I r a n i a n t r a d i t i o n . T o b e s u r e , t h e Z o r o a s t r i a n texts^ d i v i d e t h e w o r l d i n t o seven p a r t s , t h e seven kisvar (Avestan fearsvar); b u t b e n e a t h t h e s e , in t h e v e r y n a m e s a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e " s e v e n t h s , " o n e perceives a division i n t o five w i t h t h e four c a r d i n a l p o i n t s a n d t h e c e n t e r . P u t s i m p l y , it is a q u e s t i o n of a c o n c e p t i o n t h a t is n o t p u r e l y t e r r e s t r i a l , b u t w h i c h h a s b e e n e n l a r g e d , cosmicized. As A r t h u r C h r i s t e n s e n s a y s : The central kisvar, the x^aniras (Avestan x^aniraBa), comprises the entire world, surrounded by the VourukaSa ocean, the other kisvars being fabulous worlds inaccessible to man. It is only with divine assistance—or rather, as others claim, with the aid of the dev—that one can cross over the ocean which separates these kiivars from the x^aniras. Later the conception of the kisvars changes. The x'^aniras is no longer surrounded by the ocean; rather, it constitutes only half of the earth, the six other kisvars, each of which is equal in extent to Sistan, altogether form the other half The x^aniras, whose center is Pars [ = Persia, properly speaking], is separated from the other divisions of the world in part by the ocean, in part, on the northern border, by high mountains and forests. Here the x''aniras has evidently been identified with eastern Asia (Iran, Mesopotamia, Syria, etc.) which, in antiquity and in the middle ages, through the vicissitudes of political history, formed a whole from the point of view of political economy and intellectual life; and the other kisvars are no longer mythical worlds, but little or unknown regions of the earth.7 T h e six p e r i p h e r a l kisvars m e n t i o n e d in t h e Bundahisn are d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g t h e four c a r d i n a l p o i n t s in a r e m a r k a b l e m a n n e r : o n e (Arzah) in t h e west, o n e (Savah) in t h e east, t w o ( V o r u b a r S t a n d VorugarSt) in t h e n o r t h , a n d t w o (FratatafS a n d VitatafS) in t h e s o u t h . W e n o t e t h a t t h e n a m e s for t h e n o r t h e r n pair a r e differe n t i a t e d o n l y in t h e initial c o n s o n a n t of t h e second m e m b e r , w h i l e t h e n a m e s for t h e s o u t h e r n c o u p l e t differ only in t h e initial prefix.
YAYATI AND HIS S O N S
11
This suggests t h a t a five-term system^ has b e e n m a d e t o fit i n t o a n o t h e r , s e v e n - t e r m s y s t e m , p e r h a p s u n d e r t h e influence of B a b y l o n i a n t h o u g h t in w h i c h t h e n u m b e r seven p l a y e d such an i m p o r t a n t role.^ A n o t h e r line of t h o u g h t , b r i l l i a n t l y d e v e l o p e d in 1961 b y A l w y n a n d Brinley R e e s , ' " i n d u c e s us to place t h e c o n c e p t i o n still f a r t h e r back. In o r d e r to d e s i g n a t e t h e g r e a t t e r r i t o r i a l divisions, t h e " p r o v i n c e s " of t h e i r island, t h e Irish consistently used t h e w o r d coiced, " f i f t h , " for w h i c h t h e r e e x i s t e d — c o n c u r r e n t l y , it s e e m s — t w o g e o g r a p h i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g to o n e , based o n historical situations, t h e five coiceds t o o k r o u g h l y t h e s h a p e of t r i a n g l e s w h o s e bases f o r m e d t h e c o n t i g u o u s coastal p o r t i o n s a n d w h o s e apexes, o p p o s i t e t h e bases, c a m e t o g e t h e r a p p r o x i m a t e l y at t h e m i d d l e of t h e i s l a n d : U l s t e r t o t h e n o r t h , C o n n a u g h t to t h e west, L e i n s t e r t o t h e east, a n d , t o t h e s o u t h , t w o M u n s t e r s , t h e w e s t e r n a n d e a s t e r n , t h e l a t t e r of v e r y r e d u c e d size a n d u n c e r t a i n a u t o n o m y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , Ulster, C o n n a u g h t , Leinster, a n d a single M u n s t e r left o n e place, at t h e c e n t e r of t h e island, for t h e little t e r r i t o r y of M e a t h (Mide), w h i c h in p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s c o n t a i n e d T a r a , t h e capital of t h e ardri, t h e " s u p r e m e k i n g " of I r e l a n d . This second, m o r e a b s t r a c t , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e Fifths of t h e island has led to, a n d has r e m a i n e d tied to, certain v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g s p e c u l a t i o n s of w h i c h A l w y n a n d Brinley Rees h a v e m a d e an a d m i r a b l e s t u d y ' ' a n d w h i c h , b r i n g i n g in t h e t h r e e I n d o - E u r o p e a n functions c o m p l e m e n t e d b y a f o u r t h t e r m a n d c r o w n e d by t h e Royal P o w e r , p r o b a b l y d e r i v e f r o m a D r u i d i c d o c t r i n e . In t h e c o u r s e of a n a r r a t i v e filled w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s , ' ^ a m a n n a m e d F o n t a n is asked by a s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g " O F o n t a n , h o w has o u r island b e e n divided, w h a t t h i n g s w e r e found t h e r e [ t h a t is, w e r e found in each of its divisions]?" F o n t a n r e p l i e s : " K n o w l e d g e is in t h e west. B a t t l e in t h e n o r t h , P r o s p e r i t y in t h e east, Music in t h e S o u t h , R o y a l t y in t h e c e n t e r . " A n d t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g , in t u r n , d e v e l o p s this i n f o r m a t i o n in a s o m e w h a t confused m a n n e r accordi n g to t h a t Irish r h e t o r i c of amplitudo (which b e a r s s o m e r e s e m b l a n c e t o Indian rhetoric), o v e r l o a d i n g each of t h e Fifths w i t h q u a h t i e s t h a t d o n o t c o n f o r m t o this s c h e m a b u t w h i c h a l l o w it t o subsist in t h e m a i n a n d , at several p o i n t s , reinforce it.'-' Neither
t h e I r a n i a n kisvars
nor
t h e Vedic "five
lands"
are
12
CHAPTER
ONE
s i m i l a r l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y functional v a l u e s . In India, in o r d e r t o g l i m p s e such a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n divided l a n d s a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e social functions, w e m u s t await t h e e m e r g e n c e of a s o m e w h a t u n s t a b l e conception, t h a t of t h e lokapalas, t h e r e g e n t g o d s of t h e c a r d i n a l points.i'* V a r u n a , t h e a n c i e n t m a g i c a l sovereign ( r e d u c e d in t h e epic t o t h e p a t r o n a g e of t h e w a t e r s ) ; I n d r a , t h e celestial w a r r i o r ( k i n g of t h e g o d s in t h e epic); K u b e r a , a l o r d of riches; a n d Y a m a , t h e r u l e r of t h e l a n d of t h e d e a d , g e n e r a l l y divide u p t h e four directions in t h e following o r d e r : west, n o r t h , east, s o u t h . As can b e seen, t h e first t h r e e of t h e s e allocations t a k e us b a c k to t h e functional m a p p i n g of I r e l a n d .
W i t h or w i t h o u t functional coloration, a g e o g r a p h i c a l division of t h e w o r l d o r of t h e l a n d readily calls for a l e g e n d of origin, of w h i c h t h e m o s t s i m p l e t y p e is a p a r t i t i o n a m o n g b r o t h e r s . W h e r e distinct origins are a t t r i b u t e d b y t h e l e g e n d s t o t h e t w o k i n d s of divisions (social functions a n d provinces), it m a y h a p p e n t h a t o n e of t h e t w o is established b y a g e n e r a t i o n of b r o t h e r s , a n d t h e o t h e r b y a second g e n e r a t i o n . T h e typical case is t h e Scythians' l e g e n d of origin, according to t h e f o u r t h b o o k of H e r o d o t u s : t h e four sons of T a r g i t a o s a p p e a r t o b e t h e ancestors of functional g r o u p s or t y p e s (king-priests, w a r r i o r s , a n d t w o k i n d s of stock b r e e d e r s ) ; t h e n o n e of this first g r o u p of b r o t h e r s , t h e king, a p p o r t i o n s t h e full e x t e n t of all t h e Scythian l a n d s a m o n g his o w n t h r e e sons.^^ A l t h o u g h n o l e g e n d of this t y p e , s e t t l i n g t h e t e r r i t o r i a l b o u n d a r i e s a n d p r o v i d i n g functional definitions at o n e s t r o k e , has b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e Irish coiceds,^'' e x a m p l e s h a v e for s o m e t i m e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d c o n c e r n i n g o t h e r p o i n t s in t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n w o r l d , in w h i c h t h e t w o k i n d s of divisions, e q u a l l y l i n k e d t o g e t h e r , a r e e x p l a i n e d b y a p a r t i t i o n a m o n g b r o t h e r s . H e r e , h o w e v e r , it is g e n e r a l l y a q u e s t i o n n o t of " f i f t h s " b u t of " t h i r d s , " t h e l a t t e r p e r m i t t i n g t h e division of t h e w o r l d (or of l a n d s of i n t e r e s t , n a t i o n a l o r o t h e r w i s e ) t o c o n f o r m exactly to t h e original t e r m s of t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n s t r u c t u r e of functions, b u t b y w a y of c o m p e n s a t i o n , d e t a c h i n g it f r o m t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e cardinal points. L e t us t h i n k , for instance, of t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e c o n t i n e n t a l G e r m a n s at t h e b e g i n n i n g of o u r era c o n c e r n i n g t h e t h r e e sons of M a n n u s , son of
YAYATI A N D H I S S O N S
13
T u i s t o ; t h e o n o m a s t i c s k e l e t o n is all t h a t r e m a i n s , b u t it is precise. W i t h r e g r e t t a b l e b r e v i t y , Tacitus n o t e s ' * — r e f e r r i n g t o " t h e o l d p o e m s w h i c h s e r v e t h e s e p e o p l e s as h i s t o r y a n d a n n a l s " — t h a t t h e a n c e s t o r of t h e G e r m a n s w a s called M a n n u s a n d t h a t t h e t h r e e p a r t s of t h e G e r m a n i c w o r l d o w e d t h e i r n a m e s t o his s o n s : t h o s e " n e a r e s t t h e O c e a n " a r e called Ingaeuones (Inguaeones), t h o s e " o f t h e m i d d l e " a r e t h e Herminones, a n d all t h e rest Istaeuones (Istuaeones). It is a q u e s t i o n , t h e n , of a division i n t o r o u g h l y p a r a l l e l b a n d s , f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n seas t o t h e s o u t h e r n m o u n t a i n s ; a n d t h e e p o n y m o u s figures, t h e sons of M a n n u s t h e m s e l v e s , w h o can b e p e r c e i v e d u n d e r t h e e t h n i c n a m e s , c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e t h r e e t e r m s of t h e d i v i n e t r i f u n c t i o n a l t r i a d w h i c h still d o m i n a t e d t h e Scandinavian p a n t h e o n at t h e e n d of p a g a n i s m : F r e y r , t h e g r e a t V a n i c g o d of f e c u n d i t y a n d p r o s p e r i t y , is called Yngvifreyr (*Inguiafrauiaz^^) and the dynasty w h i c h refers itself t o h i m is t h a t of t h e Y n g l i n g a r ; O S i n n , t h e m a g i c a l sovereign, b e a r s t h e s u r n a m e jormunr (*ermunaz)', a n d , as t h e radical of I s t a e u o n e s ( P l i n y : Istri[an]ones), if it is n o t t o b e f o u n d in a s u r n a m e of t h e p o w e r f u l c o m b a t i v e g o d J^orr, it derives f r o m a r o o t w h i c h , in I n d o - I r a n i a n as in O l d Icelandic, has p r o d u c e d a n u m b e r of technical w o r d s for t h e w a r r i o r function. T h u s , in S a n s k r i t w e h a v e Uird " s t r o n g , u n b r i d l e d , " e p i t h e t of t h e M a r u t s , t h e t r o o p of celestial y o u n g w a r r i o r s w h o a c c o m p a n y I n d r a ;20 in A v e s t a n , AeSma, a d e m o n of c r u e l violence, p r o b a b l y o w e s his n a m e t o t h e s a m e r o o t ; a n d in O l d Icelandic t h e r e is t h e v e r b eiskra, w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e s t a t e of furor of t h e berserkir, w a r r i o r s of s u p e r natural powers.2' In I r a n , t h e l e g e n d s of t h e origin a n d p e o p l i n g of t h e kisvars in t h e i r m y t h i c a l , cosmic f o r m a r e e n t i r e l y different a n d a r e t h e r e s u l t s of h i g h l y e l a b o r a t e d reflections. In t h e I r a n i a n t r a d i t i o n it is at a n o t h e r p o i n t , a l l e g e d l y historical, t h a t o n e o b s e r v e s t h e l e g e n d j u s t r e f e r r e d t o , w h i c h A r t h u r C h r i s t e n s e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h a t of t h e sons of M a n n u s a n d w h i c h M a r i j a n M o l e has e l u c i d a t e d so well.^^ A c c o r d i n g a l r e a d y to a P a h l a v i t e x t , t h e a n c i e n t © r a e t a o n a , F r e t o n F e r i d u n — w h o is i n s e r t e d in t h e list of k i n g s — c o n d u c t s a p a r t i t i o n of t h e h a b i t a b l e w o r l d a m o n g his t h r e e sons, in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e t h r e e functions. It will suffice t o recall h e r e t h e m o s t a n c i e n t v a r i a n t of t h e a c c o u n t .
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CHAPTER
ONE
Three sons were born to Freton: Salm, Toz, and Eric were their names. He called all three together to say to them: " I will divide up the entire world between you; let each of you tell m e what seems good to him so that I may give it to him." Salm asked for great riches [vas-herih], Toz for valor [taklkih], and Eric, who had the Kavian Glory [xvarrah i kayan: the Avestan x^aranah] upon him, for law and religion {dat u din). Freton said: "May what each of you has asked for come to him." To Salm he gave the land of Rome [^amik i Hrom] down to the sea coast; to Toz he gave Turkestan and the desert down to the sea coast; and EransaOr [the Iranian realm] and India, down to the sea, fell to Eric. At one moment [ . . . ? . . . ] Freton lifted the crown from his head and put it on the head of Eric, saying: " M y Glory is established on the head of Eric until the morning of the Renovation of all the living world; O honored one, may the royalty and sovereignty over the children of Toz and Salm belong to your children." 23 T h e t h r e e p a r t s of t h e w o r l d — t h e w e s t ( R o m e ) w i t h r i c h e s ; t h e n o r t h a n d east ( T u r k e s t a n a n d t h e deserts) w i t h m a r t i a l t u r b u l e n c e ; t h e s o u t h (Iran a n d India) w i t h religion, law, a n d t h e s u p r e m e r o y a l t y besides—are conceived h e r e as adjoining each o t h e r at t h e i r p e a k s a n d e x t e n d i n g all t h r e e " d o w n to t h e s e a , " t h a t is, d o w n t o t h e p e r i p h e r a l ocean. T h e r e is n o " c e n t e r " : t h e s u p r e m e r o y a l t y b e l o n g s to t h e l a n d of t h e "first f u n c t i o n . " T h e principal i n t e r e s t in this a c c o u n t is in t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e p a r t i t i o n is m a d e . It m a k e s use of a sort of e x a m i n a t i o n in w h i c h t h e t h r e e sons h a v e t h e i r s e p a r a t e n a t u r e s r e v e a l e d in t h e r e s p o n s e s t h e y m a k e to a single q u e s t i o n . A n d f r o m t h e s e a n s w e r s , t h e f a t h e r s e n d s t w o a w a y f r o m Iran, t o t h e less a t t r a c t i v e " t h i r d s , " a n d r e s e r v e s t h e g o o d " t h i r d , " w i t h t h e s o v e r e i g n t y m a r k e d on t h e h e a d b y t h e x^'armah}'^ for t h e y o u n g e s t , w h o has m a d e t h e m o s t n o b l e r e s p o n s e . N a t u r a l l y , t h e f r u s t r a t e d e l d e r sons a r e h a r d l y inclined t o accept such a decision. Seeing how things had transpired, Salm and Toz said: " W h a t has our father Freton done, who has not bestowed the authority on his oldest son, nor on his next-born son, but on his youngest son?" They sought a favorable moment and killed their brother Eril. B u t it is n o n e t h e l e s s Eric's descent t h a t is installed o n t h e I r a n i a n t h r o n e . T h e t w o o t h e r t h i r d s of t h e w o r l d , t h e R o m a n a n d T u r a n i a n , are t h e r e b y left t o a t t a c k it in i n t e r m i n a b l e a n d , w h e n all is considered, fruitless w a r s .
YAYATI AND
HIS SONS
15
2 . YAYATI AND T H E P A R T I T I O N O F T H E W O R L D
W e h a v e briefly r e v i e w e d t h e s e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d c o m p a r a t i v e p o i n t s b e c a u s e a s i m i l a r s t o r y a b o u t t h e p a r t i t i o n of t h e " w o r l d , " in t h e first b o o k of t h e Mahabharata, forms the episode which i n t r o d u c e s t h e l e g e n d of Yayati.^s This king, as I h o p e t o s h o w , c o r r e s p o n d s closely to t h e flexible b u t h a r d l y illusory n o t i o n w h i c h C h r i s t e n s e n has l a b e l e d " t h e figure of t h e first k i n g . " T h e designation does n o t i m p l y t h a t kings of this t y p e w o u l d necessarily or g e n e r a l l y b e t h e actual first king, b u t r a t h e r t h a t o t h e r o r d e r i n g s of t h e s a m e " h i s t o r i c a l " m a t e r i a l could r e a d i l y h a v e m a d e t h e m s o ; a n d a b o v e all, t h a t , w h a t e v e r t h e i r r a n k , t h e y i n s t i t u t e all or p a r t of t h e g r e a t classifications of social life a n d often, b y e x t e n s i o n , t h e g r e a t divisions of t h e e a r t h a n d of h u m a n i t y . It is in t h e s e capacities t h a t Yayati, like F r e t o n , a p p o r t i o n s t h e w o r l d b e t w e e n his five sons, a l t h o u g h w i t h n o functional o v e r t o n e s . B e t w e e n his five s o n s : for it is t h e Vedic f o r m u l a of t h e "five p e o p l e s , " r e i n t e r p r e t e d to suit t h e g e o g r a p h y of t h e t i m e s , t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e g r o u n d p l a n for t h e division. T o t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e lay of t h e l a n d s a n d w a t e r s p e r m i t s , this division is m a d e b e t w e e n four p e r i p h e r a l sections a n d o n e c e n t r a l s e c t i o n — t h e l a t t e r b e i n g t h e m o s t e l e v a t e d in dignity, India at its m o s t a r y a , if o n e m a y say so, t h e f u t u r e k i n g d o m of t h e P a n d a v a s . W i t h n o functional o v e r t o n e s : i n d e e d , t h e n u m b e r five, a p p l i e d t o a g r o u p of b r o t h e r s , w o u l d scarcely p e r m i t such a configuration. T h e n u m b e r four w o u l d h a v e a l l o w e d it, w i t h t h e k i n g at t h e c e n t e r a n d each of t h e t h r e e arya (noble) f u n c t i o n s — t h e sacred, t h e m a r t i a l , t h e e c o n o m i c — o n t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e . W i t h five t e r m s things w e r e different. It was o b v i o u s l y n o t d e s i r a b l e t o c l a i m t h a t t h e sudras, t h e n o n - a r y a class w h i c h is s u b o r d i n a t e d r a t h e r t h a n a d d e d t o t h e t h r e e a r y a classes, h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d on t h e s a m e p l a n e as t h e o t h e r s in a p a r t i t i o n b e t w e e n b r o t h e r s w h o w e r e u n e q u a l in quaUties b u t e q u a l in r a n k . Finally, w h e n t h e f a t h e r addresses h i m s e l f to his five sons, it is n o t , as w i t h F r e t o n , to e x a m i n e t h e m c a l m l y , in o r d e r to k n o w objectively t h e d e p t h s of t h e i r n a t u r e s before d i s t r i b u t i n g , as b e s t h e could, t h e p r o p e r l o t t o each. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , h e is m o s t i n t e r e s t ed in t h e a n s w e r s t h e y give t o a q u e s t i o n w h i c h is in fact a r e q u e s t .
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CHAPTER
ONE
As a r e s u l t , t h e dismissal of each of t h e four e l d e r b r o t h e r s t o l a n d s o u t s i d e India is n o t a m e d i o c r e a s s i g n m e n t p u r s u a n t t o an a d e q u a t e r e s p o n s e , b u t t h e p u n i s h m e n t for an a b u s i v e refusal. A fatal c o u r s e of e v e n t s has d r a w n u p o n Yayati t h e w r a t h of his wife a n d , at h e r r e q u e s t , t h e curse of his f a t h e r - i n - l a w , w h o w a s a s o r c e r e r . W i t h o b v i o u s r e l u c t a n c e , Yayati has h a d t o m a r r y D e v a y a n I , t h e i m p e r i o u s d a u g h t e r of Kavya Usanas. M o r e o v e r , t h e l a t t e r has i n s t r u c t e d Yayati t h a t D e v a y a n I m u s t b e a c c o m p a n i e d t o h e r m a r r i a g e r e s i d e n c e b y t h e c h a r m i n g princess S a r m i j t h a , w h o , h a v i n g once offended D e v a y a n i , h a d b e e n d e m a n d e d a n d received b y t h e l a t t e r as a slave. H u m a n n a t u r e , h o w e v e r , has its o w n w a y , a i d e d b y a s u b t l e a r g u m e n t . A n d so, w h i l e Yayati h a s t w o Httle p r i n c e s b y his l e g i t i m a t e spouse, h e has secretly f a t h e r e d t h r e e sons b y h e r slave. W h e n t h e secret is d i s c o v e r e d , t h e r e is a terrific r o w , a n d Yayati's d r e a d f u l f a t h e r - i n - l a w c o n d e m n s t h e g u i l t y h u s b a n d t o b e c o m e old i n s t a n t l y : t h e y o u n g m a n is b r o u g h t n i g h t o r u i n . H o w e v e r , h e begs for m e r c y , a n d his s e n t e n c e r allows h i m n o t a r e d u c t i o n of t h e p u n i s h m e n t b u t t h e r i g h t t o seek s o m e o n e w h o will t a k e it for h i m : My word cannot be in vain: even now you are beset with decrepitude. But if you so desire, transfer this decrepitude to another.26 Yayati is rich in sons, w h o h e h a s r e a s o n t o t h i n k a r e d e v o t e d a n d g r a t e f u l . H e t h u s d e m a n d s m o r e precise i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e favor h e is a b o u t to o b t a i n : O brahman, let it be commanded by you that the son of mine who gives me his youth shall enjoy, altogether, royalty, virtue, and fame!27 Kavya Usanas c o n s e n t s : It will suffice for you to think of me, and you may transfer your decrepitude, without sin, as you wish. That son of yours who will give you his youth shall be king. He shall also have long life, fame, and numerous progeny!"28 In a n e m u l a t o r of E u r i p i d e s , such a s i t u a t i o n w o u l d h a v e i n s p i r e d a series of scenes, a t t i t u d e s , a n d varied discourses, o r lively discussions b e t w e e n f a t h e r a n d sons,2^ in w h i c h t h e refusal t o t a k e o n o l d age w o u l d each t i m e b e justified b y w e l l - b a l a n c e d a r g u m e n t s . B u t t h e I n d i a n p o e t s did n o t fear m o n o t o n y , a n d , besides, in this p a r t i c u l a r
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case, a r e t h e y n o t closer t o t h e q u i t e s i m p l e t r u t h , closer t o each of us? T h e r e is n o De senectute, n o s o p h i s m a b l e t o m a k e us love o r choose old age. T h e four scenes in w h i c h , in t h e o r d e r of t h e i r b i r t h s , t h e t w o sons of D e v a y a n i a n d t h e t w o o l d e r of t h e t h r e e sons of S a r m i s t h a — t h a t is, Yadu a n d T u r v a s u , t h e n D r u h y u a n d A n u — refuse t o e x c h a n g e t h e i r age for t h a t of t h e i r father, c o n t a i n n o t h i n g u n e x p e c t e d , n o t h i n g p i q u a n t , n o t h i n g refined. T o each, t h e r e q u e s t is p r e s e n t e d flatly, a l m o s t in t h e s a m e t e r m s : " T a k e t o y o u r s e l f this d e c r e p i t u d e of m i n e so t h a t I m a y enjoy life w i t h y o u r vigor. W h e n a t h o u s a n d years h a v e e l a p s e d , I will r e t u r n it to y o u . " ^ " T o w h i c h Y a d u r e s p o n d s , w i t h o u t hesitation, t h a t old age involves m a n y i n c o n v e n i e n c e s as t o d r i n k i n g a n d e a t i n g ; t h a t it is a c c o m p a n i e d b y w h i t e hair, m e l a n c h o l y , flaccid m u s c l e s , w r i n k l e s all o v e r t h e b o d y , d e f o r m i t i e s , w e a k n e s s , e m a c i a t i o n , incapacity t o w o r k ; t h a t it inspires aversion, e v e n in t h o s e w h o a r e close; a n d t h a t t h e r e f o r e h e does n o t w a n t it a n d can o n l y advise his f a t h e r t o a d d r e s s h i m s e l f t o others.^^ M o r e s o b e r , T u r v a s u is n o less p e r e m p t o r y : old age p r o h i b i t s p l e a s u r e s , d e s t r o y s s t r e n g t h , b e a u t y , intelligence, m e m o r y , a n d , finally, life itself.^^ D r u h y u m a k e s t h e a d d e d p o i n t t h a t an o l d m a n can n o l o n g e r benefit f r o m e l e p h a n t s , horses, or w o m e n , a n d t h a t h e s t a m m e r s w h e n speaking.^^ Finally A n u declares h i m s e l f d i s g u s t e d b y t h o s e fallen beings w h o eat like infants, soil t h e m s e l v e s c o n s t a n t l y , a n d can n o l o n g e r e v e n m a k e libations o n t h e fire a l t a r at t h e p r o p e r times.^'' It w o u l d b e vain t o search all this for a n y k i n d of o r d e r , say, for four p a r t i c u l a r o r i e n t a tions of r e p u g n a n c e . T h e f o r m s of p u n i s h m e n t w h i c h t h e u n a p p r e c i a t e d f a t h e r levels u p o n his sons, e v e n if t h e last t h r e e s e e m adjusted to the answers which provoked t h e m , do not lend t h e m selves t o a f u r t h e r classification, functional or otherwise.^^ T o Yadu, h e says t h a t his d e s c e n d a n t s will a l w a y s b e ardjyabhdj, t h a t is, " w i t h o u t t h e e n j o y m e n t of r o y a l t y . " T u r v a s u is t o l d t h a t h e will b e a k i n g o v e r m e n w h o fail t o o b s e r v e , especially in t h e i r m a r r i a g e s , t h e s t a t u t e s of t h e varnas, b u t live in t h e m a n n e r of a n i m a l s a n d d o n o t h e s i t a t e t o t a k e t h e wives of t h e i r s p i r i t u a l m a s t e r s : in s h o r t , t h a t h e will r u l e o v e r sinners a n d M l e c c h a s . T o D r u h y u h e ann o u n c e s t h a t h e will n e v e r b e k i n g e x c e p t in n a m e , ^ ^ a n d t h a t h e will live w i t h his c o m p a n i o n s in a l a n d w i t h o u t r o a d s , w h e r e n o horses, e l e p h a n t s , o r asses, n o a n i m a l or vehicle, can pass, w h e r e
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o n e can m o v e a b o u t o n l y b y raft. A n d finally, h e predicts to A n u t h a t his sons will die before t h e y h a v e a t t a i n e d t h e flower of age a n d t h a t A n u h i m s e l f will n o t b e qualified t o assure t h e service of t h e fire altar. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r is saved for later, for t h e conclusion of t h e e p i s o d e : each of t h e s e curses leads to an exile to four l a n d s o u t s i d e t h e " c e n t r a l " k i n g d o m , w h i c h is r e s e r v e d for t h e fifth son, t h e pious son w h o gives u p his y o u t h — P u r u , a n c e s t o r of the Pauravas.^' From Yadu are born the Yadavas, from Turvasu the Yavanas, from Druhyu the Bhojas, and from Anu the varieties of Mlecchas.3* If t h e P a u r a v a s ' e n v i r o n s a r e n o t r e p r e s e n t e d in full b y t h e s e four p e o p l e s — t h e p r o p e r t e r m , since this is a case n o t j u s t of dynasties b u t (for at least t h e s e c o n d a n d f o u r t h ) of p e o p l e s — t h e y c e r t a i n l y p r o v i d e an a d e q u a t e sample.''^ It is difficult, h o w e v e r , to adjust this l e g e n d t o w h a t t h e PigVeda says s e p a r a t e l y a b o u t (1) Yayati, (2) t h e "five p e o p l e s , " a n d (3) t h e figures, families, or clans c o v e r e d b y t h e n a m e s of Yadu, T u r v a s a (and n o t -su!), D r u h y u , A n u , a n d Piiru. Strictly s p e a k i n g , t h e s e m a y b e i n s o l u b l e p r o b l e m s , b u t t h e y are p r o b l e m s w h i c h , as w e k n o w f r o m m a n y o t h e r e x a m p l e s , are n o t as i m p o r t a n t as m i g h t b e expected. It has often b e e n e m p h a s i z e d t h a t Yayati, in t h e h y m n s , b e a r s n o r e l a t i o n to t h e "five lands,"'*^ This is t r u e . B u t w h a t d o t h e h y m n s say a b o u t Yayati? V e r y Uttle; j u s t e n o u g h t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h a t h e was an i m p o r t a n t a n d r e s p e c t e d figure. Bach t i m e h e is m e n t i o n e d , it is as a m a n of m y t h i c a l t i m e s , n o t a b l e for his p i e t y : FiV 1,31,17 m e n t i o n s h i m beside M a n u a n d Aiigiras; 1,63,1 p u t s h i m o n t h e s a m e level as V i v a s v a t ; h e is d e c l a r e d t o b e t h e son of N a h u s a , this last n a m e b e i n g s o m e t i m e s t h a t of a m a n (8,46,27), s o m e t i m e s of a clan, of w h i c h it is said, m o r e o v e r , t h a t t h e fire has b e e n m a d e for its chief as well as for A y u . T h a t is all. B u t it is e n o u g h to s i t u a t e Yayati, in t h e RgVeda, at t h e s a m e p o i n t of m y t h i c a l t i m e t h a t h e is given in his a p p e a r a n c e in t h e Mahabharata, a n d in t h e s a m e g r o u p of v e n e r a b l e " first kings " t h a t t h e epic r e g a r d s as his father (Nahu§a), g r a n d f a t h e r (Ayu), a n d o t h e r close ancestors (Vivasvat, M a n u ) . O n e m a y t h u s s u p p o s e t h a t h e was well k n o w n in t h e t i m e of t h e
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r e d a c t i o n of t h e h y m n s , a l r e a d y w i t h t h e r a n k in w h i c h h e l a t e r a p p e a r s . T o p u t it s i m p l y , t h e h y m n s , w h i c h a r e n o t a n e n c y c l o p e d i a , c o n t a i n n o allusions t o a n y l e g e n d s c o n c e r n i n g h i m , a n y m o r e t h a n t h e y afford a g l i m p s e of a n y t r a d i t i o n s e x p l a i n i n g t h e origin a n d o c c u p a t i o n of t h e "five l a n d s . " T h i s does n o t m e a n t h a t n o such l e g e n d s existed c o n c e r n i n g Yayati a n d t h e five p e o p l e s o r l a n d s . It w o u l d b e h a r d to believe t h a t , at t h e t i m e of t h e r e d a c t i o n of t h e h y m n s , n o t h i n g at all c o u l d b e said a b o u t a figure so v e n e r a b l e , o r t h a t a m o r e or less c o n c r e t e origin w h i c h could b e a t t r i b u t e d t o n o t i o n s as precise a n d c o m m o n p l a c e as " t h e five l a n d s , " " t h e five p e o p l e s , " w a s n o t yet k n o w n . Such an argumentum ex silentio is h e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y w e a k , a n d it c o u l d w e l l b e t h a t , f r o m Vedic t i m e s , Yayati, t h r o u g h his sons, was r e g a r d e d as t h e o n e w h o was r e s p o n sible for t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of m e n a m o n g t h e " F i f t h s " of t h e e a r t h , t h a t is, t h e four cardinal points a n d t h e c e n t e r . As for a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , if n o t a n e q u i v a l e n c e , b e t w e e n t h e g l o b a l n o t i o n of t h e "five p e o p l e s " a n d t h e g r o u p of n a m e s w h i c h d e s i g n a t e s t h e sons of Yayati in t h e epic, it has b e e n p r o p o s e d b y several critics b u t r e j e c t e d b y m o s t . T h e r e a r e a r g u m e n t s for b o t h positions. T h e m a i n objection, w e l l set f o r t h b y S c h l e r a t h , is t h a t n o passage can b e found in t h e h y m n s (except 1,108,8) w h e r e all five of t h e s e n a m e s a r e e n u m e r a t e d — a t t h e m o s t , four a p p e a r t o g e t h e r — and that these incomplete enuinerations are sometimes a u g m e n t e d b y o t h e r n a m e s . T h e m o s t s t a b l e association is b e t w e e n t h e T u r v a s a s a n d t h e Yadus, b u t at t h e t i m e of t h e " b a t t l e of t h e t e n k i n g s , " i m p o r t a n t t o t h e s e v e n t h b o o k of t h e J^gVeda, t h e Yadus a r e missing in t h e p r i n c i p a l h y m n (7,18), o n e s t r o p h e of w h i c h (16) c o n t a i n s n o t o n l y t h e n a m e s T u r v a s a a n d D r u h y u , b u t also Yaksu a n d M a t s y a ; a n d , in 7,8,4, it is t h e B h a r a t a s w h o are m e n t i o n e d n e x t t o Piaru. Says S c h l e r a t h : " I n his f u n d a m e n t a l s t u d y of t h e families of t h e a u t h o r s of t h e hymns,'*' H e r m a n n O l d e n b e r g has s u c c e e d e d in verifying a c e r t a i n c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n P u r u , Yadu, T u r v a s a , a n d Anu, but D r u h y u remains apart." O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t , it s e e m s t o m e , o t h e r t e x t s a r e cited, Hke 8,10,5 ( a d d r e s s e d t o t h e T w i n g o d s ) : " M a y you b e in t h e east or t h e west, O possessors of h i g h g o o d , m a y y o u b e a m o n g D r u h y u , A n u , T u r v a s a or Yadu, I call y o u , come!"'*^ T h e
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m e n t i o n of east a n d w e s t t o g e t h e r is e v i d e n t l y e q u i v a l e n t h e r e , in s h o r t e n e d fashion, t o t h e s u m of t h e c a r d i n a l points, t h a t is, t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l t o t a l i t y of t h e w o r l d ( e l s e w h e r e i n d i c a t e d b y t h e expression " t h e five l a n d s " ) . In s u c h a c o n t e x t , t h e second e n u m e r a tion, t h a t of t h e p r o p e r n a m e s , c o u l d o n l y b e a m e a n s of s a y i n g t h e s a m e t h i n g f r o m a n o t h e r angle, a n d expresses, likewise inc o m p l e t e l y , t h e s a m e totality. T h u s e t h n o g r a p h y reflects t o p o g r a p h y : h u m a n i t y (or t h e arya n a t i o n a l i t y ) , a n a l y z e d i n t o its typical divisions, fills in t h e local divisions of t h e space it occupies. At t h e t i m e of t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e h y m n s , was t h e r e a direct (father-son) c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n Yayati a n d t h e e p o n y m s of t h e clans—Yadu a n d t h e rest? L e t us r e p e a t t h a t Yayati is scarcely m e n t i o n e d in t h e h y m n a l . It r e m a i n s likely, a b o v e all if o n e a d m i t s t h a t t h e five e t h n i c n a m e s (Yadu, etc.) recall t h e "five p e o p l e s " a n d , t h r o u g h t h e m , t h e five cardinal points ( t h a t is, t h e four p l u s t h e c e n t e r ) , t h a t t h e lineage t r a c e d b a c k to Yayati is ancient, a n d t h a t , existing as e a r l y as Vedic t i m e s , it w a s p r e s e r v e d in m i l i e u s different f r o m t h o s e of t h e h y m n o d i s t s a n d was t r a n s m i t t e d i n t o t h e epic w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r a b l e a l t e r a t i o n (the m o s t visible c h a n g e b e i n g t h e passage f r o m " T u r v a s a " to " T u r v a s u , " p r o b a b l y t o s t a n d a r d i z e t h e final v o w e l for each of t h e five n a m e s ) . If, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , o n e w e r e to b e h e v e t h a t t h e five p r o p e r n a m e s (Yadu, etc.) w e r e n o t originally c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e five p e o p l e s , h e w o u l d h a v e t o a d m i t t h a t t h e y h a d b e e n i n t r o d u c e d l a t e r i n t o t h e Yayati l e g e n d , a s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t does n o t b e a r u p w e l l : t h e l e g e n d of Yayati p a r c e l i n g o u t t h e w o r l d to his sons c o n f o r m s to an ancient, I n d o I r a n i a n t y p e , a n d , accordingly, t h e sons w o u l d at all t i m e s h a v e r e q u i r e d n a m e s . M u s t it b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e five n a m e s w e r e a d of w e r e l a t e r s u b s t i t u t e s for a n o t h e r series of five w h i c h h a d s u p p o s e d l y d i s a p p e a r e d in t h e m e a n t i m e ?
3 . T H E O L D AND T H E Y O U N G , YAYATI AND A U N
T h e v e r y c o n t e n t of t h e l e g e n d of Yayati a n d his sons, as it is set forth in t h e first b o o k of t h e Mahabharata, g u a r a n t e e s its g r e a t a n t i q u i t y . If w e set aside Yayati's father-in-law, t h e sorcerer, a n d his
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curse, t h e action t a k e s p l a c e in t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y : a king, c r u s h e d b y s e n i h t y , e n t r e a t s his sons to give h i m t h e i r y o u t h , a n d o n e of t h e m accepts, a s s u r i n g his f a t h e r of a t h o u s a n d y e a r s of v i g o r ; t h e k i n g e x p e l s f r o m t h e l a n d t h e o l d e r b r o t h e r s w h o h a v e refused, a n d m a k e s t h e y o u n g e s t , w h o has a c c e p t e d , his successor. T w o wellk n o w n a n d c e r t a i n l y archaic t h e m e s a r e r e u n i t e d h e r e : t h e r e s e r v o i r of v i t a h t y w h i c h sons c o n s t i t u t e for t h e r o y a l f a t h e r a n d w h i c h is available to h i m t h r o u g h a t r a n s f e r r a l ; a n d t h e curses a n d exiles w h i c h fall u p o n t h o s e of t h e f a t h e r ' s sons w h o h a v e m a l t r e a t e d h i m a n d t h e r e w a r d b e s t o w e d o n t h e o n e w h o has b e h a v e d devotedly. As to t h e first t h e m e , i m p o r t a n t since it is t h e o n e w h i c h has a l l o w e d or p r o m p t e d t h e Yayati l e g e n d to b e passed d o w n in t h e s a m e p a c k a g e as t h a t of Kavya Usanas, t h e r e a d e r m a y recall a f a m o u s Scandinavian s t o r y , t h a t of A u n or Ani, t h e k i n g of U p p s a l a , o n e of t h e still l e g e n d a r y m e m b e r s of t h e Ynglingar d y n a s t y . H e r e , t h e n , is a r e s u m e , f o l l o w i n g t h e Ynglingasaga of Snorri S t u r l u s o n , c h a p t e r 15^^ A t t h e age of sixty, k i n g A u n , b y sacrificing his oldest son, o b t a i n e d sixty n e w years of life a n d r e i g n f r o m t h e g o d O S i n n , w h o was fond of h u m a n sacrifices. O n c e this r e p r i e v e h a d elapsed, 6 9 i n n i n f o r m e d h i m t h a t h e w o u l d c o n t i n u e to live so l o n g as h e sacrificed, to OQinn himself, o n e of his sons e v e r y t e n years. A u n sacrificed d o w n t o t h e s e v e n t h , w h o m h e s u r v i v e d b y t e n years, b u t his legs c o u l d n o l o n g e r s u p p o r t h i m a n d h e was carried a b o u t in a chair. H e sacrificed t h e e i g h t h , a n d s u r v i v e d t e n y e a r s l o n g e r w i t h o u t leaving his b e d . H e sacrificed t h e n i n t h , a n d lived t e n m o r e years, d r i n k i n g f r o m a h o r n like a n u r s l i n g {pd drakk hann horn sem lebarn). Finally, h e h a d o n l y o n e son left, b u t t h e Swedes p r e v e n t e d this o n e f r o m b e i n g sacrificed. " K i n g A u n died and w a s p u t u n d e r a t u m u l u s at U p p s a l a {ok er hann heygdr at Upsolum). F r o m t h e n on, t h e act of d y i n g of old age w i t h o u t sickness was called 'sickness of A n i ' {dnasott)." This l e g e n d was b r i l l i a n t l y c o m m e n t e d u p o n b y S a m u e l Eitrem,'*'* w h o e m p h a s i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e n u m b e r n i n e (or ten, t h a t is t o say, " n i n e f u l l " ) . W h a t i n t e r e s t s us h e r e is t h a t t h e sacrifice of t h e sons periodically p r o l o n g s t h e life of t h e father. A n d h e r e t h e sons a r e n o t t h e m e n a c i n g rivals w h o m t h e f a t h e r m u s t e l i m i n a t e
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(in this r e s p e c t t h e t w o stories w h i c h E i t r e m has c o m p a r e d , t h a t of A u n a n d his c h i l d r e n a n d t h a t of O u r a n o s a n d t h e O u r a n i d e s , m u s t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m o n e a n o t h e r ) ; r a t h e r , t h e y are t h e docile, useful i n s t r u m e n t s in a t e c h n i q u e for p r o m o t i n g t h e l o n g e v i t y of t h e king, t h e i r father.''^ T h e s t o r y of Yayati is c e r t a i n l y different on m a n y c o u n t s . W h a t t h e I n d i a n k i n g o b t a i n s is n o m e r e p r o l o n g a t i o n of life, a l l o w i n g t h e aging process to c o n t i n u e t o t a k e its i n e x o r a b l e toll u p o n h i m e v e n d u r i n g t h e r e p r i e v e , e x t e n d i n g itself b e y o n d t h e u s u a l l i m i t a n d r e s u l t i n g in a woeful c a r i c a t u r e of existence. It is r a t h e r a n e w a n d d u r a b l e y o u t h , a m i l l e n n i u m of y o u t h . A l o n g w i t h this difference, Yayati's t e c h n i q u e varies f r o m t h a t of A u n . A u n seeks life; h e t h u s t a k e s t h e life of his sons, or r a t h e r offers it in sacrifice t o t h e m a s t e r of t h a t m e c h a n i s m , O S i n n . Yayati seeks y o u t h ; h e t h u s t a k e s t h e y o u t h of o n e of his s o n s — t h e o n l y o n e w h o has a g r e e d a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y c o u n t s in this s t o r y of e x c h a n g e , t h e o t h e r s n o t e n t e r i n g i n — t h a n k s t o t h e privilege w h i c h t h e m a s t e r of t h e m e c h a n i s m , t h e s o r c e r o r , has given h i m ; a n d w h a t is r e q u i r e d of t h e o b e d i e n t son is n o t d e a t h b u t a t e m p o r a r y decay. Finally, t h e conclusions are d i v e r g e n t in t h e e x t r e m e : at t h e e n d of his r e p e a t e d trafficking w i t h life a n d d e a t h , A u n , n o w r u t h l e s s a n d i m p o t e n t , m u s t t a k e his o w n t u r n , d y i n g t e n years after he has i m m o l a t e d all b u t t h e last of his s o n s ; a n d e v e n if h e h a d sacrificed his last son, h e w o u l d necessarily h a v e died t e n years later. B u t b e t w e e n Yayati a n d P u r u , t h e b a r t e r of y o u t h for old age c o m e s t o a n e g o t i a t ed e n d , a n d a r e v e r s e e x c h a n g e r e t u r n s t h i n g s to t h e i r f o r m e r state, the donor recovering a youth which appears to have been h a p p i l y p r e s e r v e d b y t h e v e r y m i r a c l e of its transfer, w h i l e Yayati, t h e recipient, gets back his u n a l t e r e d old age. D e s p i t e t h e s e differences in application, t h e p r i n c i p l e in t h e t w o o p e r a t i o n s is t h e s a m e , a n d t h e fact t h a t Yayati's aging is accelerated a n d artificial, w h i l e A u n ' s is n a t u r a l , c h a n g e s n o t h i n g : psychologically, b o t h k i n g s wish to escape t h e i r condition, w h e t h e r d e a t h or old age, a n d each considers h e has t h e r i g h t t o d o so. Mystically or technically, it is n o t t h r o u g h a s t r a n g e r — a p r i s o n e r or a slave for e x a m p l e — t h a t e i t h e r k i n g can receive this a d d i t i o n a l life or vitality, b u t solely f r o m his d e s c e n d a n t s : f r o m o n e o r m o r e of his sons.
YAYATI AND 4.
HIS SONS
23
T H E DISRESPECTFUL SONS AND T H E P A R T I T I O N O F T H E W O R L D , YAYATI AND N O A H
T h e second t h e m e is n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e o n e b y w h i c h t h e Book of Genesis (9,18-29) e x p l a i n s t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e g r e a t races w h i c h a p p e a r e d o n e a r t h soon after t h e flood: The sons of Noah who went forth from the ark were Shem, Ham, and Japheth. Ham was the father of Canaan. These three were the sons of Noah, and from these the whole earth was peopled. Noah was the first tiller of the soil. He planted a vineyard; and he drank of the wine, and became drunk, and lay uncovered in his tent. And Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father, and told his two brothers outside. Then Shem and Japheth took a garment, laid it upon both their shoulders, and walked backward and covered the nakedness of their father; their faces were turned away, and they did not see their father's nakedness. When Noah awoke from his wine and knew what his youngest son had done to him, he said, "Cursed be Canaan; a slave of slaves shall he be to his brothers." He also said, "Blessed by the Lord my God be Shem; and let Canaan be his slave. God enlarge Japheth, and let him dwell in the tents of Shem;''^ and let Canaan be his slave." After the flood Noah lived three hundred and fifty years. And all the days of Noah were nine hundred and fifty years; and he died. W h a t is at issue h e r e , as v e r s e 19 says, is t h e p e o p l i n g , or r a t h e r t h e r e p e o p l i n g , of t h e e n t i r e e a r t h , at least of as m u c h of t h e e a r t h as t h e a n c i e n t H e b r e w s k n e w of o r w i s h e d t o k n o w o f T h e succ e e d i n g c h a p t e r s locate t h e t h r e e b r o t h e r s ' d e s c e n d a n t s in this w o r l d : S h e m will p r o d u c e , a m o n g o t h e r s , t h e c h o s e n people;'*' J a p h e t h ' s sons will o c c u p y r o u g h l y t h e n o r t h a n d w e s t ; a n d , as for H a m , it s e e m s t h a t t h e r e was s o m e v a r i a t i o n ; at first h e a p p e a r s as t h e a n c e s t o r of t h e p e o p l e s s i t u a t e d t o t h e east of P a l e s t i n e ; l a t e r h e was associated w i t h t h e s o u t h , t h e l a n d of t h e blacks (AWioires, etc.). T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n is n o m o r e t h a n a t o p o g r a p h i c a l o n e w i t h n o t h i n g functional a b o u t it,"*^ its i n t e n t b e i n g s i m p l y t o p r o v i d e an etiology of C a n a a n ' s s e r v i t u d e . It is i n t e r e s t i n g to see h o w T a b a r l a n d , after h i m , B e P a m i , anxious t o c o m b i n e t h e Q u r a n i c a n d biblical t r a d i t i o n s w i t h t h e " n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n " of Iran, h a v e c o n n e c t e d t h e l e g e n d of N o a h w i t h t h o s e of j a m S i d (Yima) a n d his m u r d e r e r Z o h a k - B e y u r a s p (Azi D a h a k a , called Baevar-aspa, " o f t e n t h o u s a n d h o r s e s " ) . For
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it is at this p o i n t in Iran's " h i s t o r y " t h a t t h e y h a v e i n s e r t e d t h e p r o p h e t N o a h w i t h his flood a n d his t h r e e sons, m a k i n g B e y u r a s p , JamSid's m u r d e r e r , a n d Z o h a k , t h e m a n w i t h t h e s e r p e n t h e a d s , i n t o t w o different figures, t h e o n e p r e c e d i n g N o a h a n d p e r i s h i n g in t h e flood, t h e o t h e r b e i n g b o r n m u c h l a t e r a m o n g t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of N o a h ' s " b l a c k " son. T h e m o m e n t is w e l l c h o s e n : all t o l d , N o a h ' s t h r e e sons b e g e t t h e b l a c k p e o p l e s ( H a m ) , t h e y e l l o w (Japhet), a n d t h e w h i t e (Shem), t h a t is t o say, a close a p p r o x i m a t i o n of t h e h u m a n i t y w h i c h Afridiin, t h e c o n q u e r o r of Z o h a k , will h a v e , or s h o u l d h a v e , to d i s t r i b u t e a m o n g his t h r e e sons as t h e subjects of t h e i r k i n g d o m s . H o w e v e r , as Afrldun c o m e s in direct line f r o m t h e I r a n i a n t r a d i t i o n , his g e o g r a p h y a n d e t h n o g r a p h y a r e n o t t h o s e of t h e Bible. T h u s , w h e n h e m a k e s t h e " p a r t i t i o n of t h e w o r l d , " t h e t h r e e p o r t i o n s h e d i s t r i b u t e s will consist of t h e B y z a n t i n e s , t h e Iranians a u g m e n t e d b y H i n d u s t a n , a n d t h e T u r a n i a n s s u p p l e m e n t e d b y C h i n a ; t o t h e i r g o o d f o r t u n e or o t h e r w i s e , t h e blacks a r e f o r g o t t e n . H e r e , in B e P a m i ' s a c c o u n t , is t h e .Islamic version of t h e sin n o t o n l y of H a m b u t of t w o of t h e t h r e e b r o t h e r s : Noah lived three hundred more years after the flood.... It was from the eighty persons who were saved with Noah that God produced the men whom we see. Now all the world's peoples, the Jews, the Christians, and the Muslims, regard Noah's flood as a veritable fact. There are only the Magi who know neither of Noah nor the flood and who say that, since the world exists, it has always been as it i s . . . . Know then that all creatures, after Noah, have come from Shem, Ham, and Japhet. The Arabs, the Persians, the men of white countenance, the good men, the jurisconsults, the learned and the wise**^ are from the race of Shem, and here is why. One day, Noah was asleep and the wind raised his apparel and exposed his genital parts without his being aware of it. Japhet passed near Noah and saw his genital parts; he burst out laughing and began to jest, and did not replace the covers on him. Ham, Japhet's brother, arrived next; he looked at Noah, burst out laughing and began to jest, and passed by without covering his father. Shem came after his brothers and, seeing Noah in an indecent position, averted his eyes and hid his father's nudity. Noah then awoke and asked Shem what had happened. Having learned that Ham and Japhet had passed near him and that they had laughed, he cursed them, saying: "May God alter the seed of your loins." After that, all the men and the fruits of the land of Ham became black. The black grape is to be counted among the latter.
YAYATI A N D HIS SONS
25
The Turks, Slavs, and Gog and Magog, with several other peoples who are unknown to us, descend from Japhet. Ham and Japhet were thus punished for having laughed while seeing their father's genital parts.50 T h o u g h it is c e r t a i n l y a vain wish, o n e w o u l d Hke t o k n o w t h e source f r o t n w h i c h t h e a u t h o r s of Genesis t o o k t h e t h e m e of t h e p a r t i t i o n of t h e w o r l d , a n d also t h e n a m e s of t h e t h r e e p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d . T h e f o r m w h i c h t h e y g a v e it is in a n y case closer t o t h e I n d i a n l e g e n d (Yayati a n d his sons) t h a n to t h e I r a n i a n (Feridtin a n d his sons), a n d , Hke t h e I n d i a n , it n o t o n l y b r i n g s t o g e t h e r in o n e g e n e r a t i o n a reflective son a n d his h e e d l e s s b r o t h e r s , b u t also a son w h o h o n o r s his f a t h e r a n d o t h e r s w h o d i s r e g a r d h i m . So far w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d o n l y o n e version of t h e a d v e n t u r e of Yayati a n d his s o n s : t h e o n e w h i c h figures in t h e " B o o k of K i n g s " w h i c h serves as an o v e r t u r e t o t h e Mahabhdrata. It is, h o w e v e r , o n l y o n e v a r i a n t a m o n g o t h e r s . In t h e fifth b o o k of t h e s a m e p o e m , a n o t i c e a b l y different version is p r e s e n t e d in w h i c h t h e agings a n d t h e m i r a c u l o u s t r a n s f e r r a l s of age a r e e h m i n a t e d , a n d t h e facts a r e i n t r o d u c e d in a m a n n e r still closer to t h e s t o r y of N o a h a n d his sons. In t h e m o v i n g fifth b o o k , in w h i c h so m a n y forces in t h e t w o c a m p s t r y t o p r e v e n t t h e i m m i n e n t conflict b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s of cousins a n d , for t h a t e n d , a t t e m p t t o o b t a i n f r o m D u r y o d h a n a certain concessions—there comes a m o m e n t w h e n D u r y o d h a n a ' s o w n father, D h r t a r a s t r a , physically b l i n d , s p i r i t u a l l y clear-sighted, b u t w e a k of c h a r a c t e r , e x p l a i n s to his son t h a t h e w o u l d n o t b e t h e first p r i n c e of t h e f a m i l y t o see h i m s e l f passed o v e r in favor of s o m e o n e else. H e cites h i m several e x a m p l e s : in t h e n o t t o o d i s t a n t past, a m o n g t h e sons of P r a t l p a , it w a s t h e second son, t h e i r g r a n d sire S a n t a n u , w h o a s s u m e d t h e r o y a l t y b e c a u s e his o l d e r b r o t h e r h a d p u r s u e d a n u n a v o i d a b l e religious v o c a t i o n ; e v e n in D h f t a r a s t r a ' s o w n g e n e r a t i o n , it w a s n o t h e , t h e d i s a b l e d o n e , b u t P a n d u , his j u n i o r , w h o b e c a m e k i n g . B u t his first r e f e r e n c e is t o t h e a n c i e n t e x a m p l e of P u r u , a n d n o t w i t h o u t an e m p h a t i c recital of t h e initial m e m b e r s of t h e g e n e o l o g y : " I t is the lord of creatures, Soma, who, in the beginning, was the progenitor of the Kuru race. The fifth in descent from Soma was Yayati, son of Nahusa. Five sons were born to him, eminent among the rajarsis. The eldest was the
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lord Yadu of mighty energy, and the youngest was Puru, from whom our Hne descends, and who was the son of Sarmistha, herself the daughter of Vr§aparvan while Yadu, O best of Bharatas, was born of Devayani and, therefore, was the grandson of ^ukra, also called Kavya, of immeasurable energy. This ancestor of the Yadavas [ = Yadu], endowed with strength and honored for his vigor, was filled with pride and, foolishly, despised {avamene) the ksatra, the class of warriors. Misguided by pride in his strength, he did not obey the instructions of his father; on the contrary, this invincible prince despised (avamene) his father, and also his brothers. On this earth with its four limits, Yadu became powerful and, having subdued the princes, dwelt in the city named after the elephant [ = Hastinapura, which will later become the capital of Pandu and, after their victory, of the Pandavas].51 His father Yayati, son of Nahusa, at the peak of anger, cursed this son. O son of Gafidhari, and expelled him from the kingdom.52 Moreover, those brothers who fell in with Yadu, proud of his strength, the angered Yayati cursed them, his sons, as well.53 Then that excellent prince installed his youngest son on the throne, Puru, the son who had met his wish.54 Thus even the eldest may be deprived of the royal dignity while the youngest obtains it by the filial respect which he shows to the aged (vrddhopasevaya)." As can b e seen, this text f r o m t h e fifth b o o k p r e s e n t s o n l y o n e of t h e t w o t h e m e s w h i c h w e r e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r in t h e first; t h e fault of t h e sons, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of Piaru, is t h e i r failure to act in conf o r m i t y w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r ' s wishes. T h e y " d e s p i s e " h i m , Yadu t h r o u g h p r i d e in his o w n s t r e n g t h , t h e t h r e e o t h e r o l d e r b r o t h e r s b y b e i n g t o o s u s c e p t i b l e to t h e i r e l d e r ' s prestige. In c o n t r a s t , Piiru's m e r i t is in r e s p e c t i n g a n d l i s t e n i n g to his f a t h e r . T h e r e is, of course, n o r e a s o n t o c l a i m a u n i t y for t h e t w o v a r i a n t s , o r t o place t h e m in any c h r o n o l o g i c a l perspective.56 T h e i r coexistence p r o v e s t h a t t h e l e g e n d of Yayati a n d Piiru was w i d e s p r e a d e n o u g h t o b e t o l d in diverse, b u t e q u i v a l e n t , w a y s . It also shows t h a t t h e essential e l e m e n t w a s n o t this or t h a t p a r t i c u l a r or p i c t u r e s q u e d e t a i l conc e r n i n g t h e lack of respect t o w a r d t h e father, b u t t h e v e r y fact of this w a n t of respect. As t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n — t h a t is, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p a r t s of t h e e a r t h b e t w e e n t h e b r o t h e r s — t h e s h o r t passage in t h e fifth b o o k says n o t h i n g a b o u t it a n d specifies n o o t h e r l a n d s for Yayati t o consign t o his first four sons. Still, t h e r e was n o call for it e i t h e r , since t h e o n l y i m p o r t a n t t h i n g for D h r t a r a s t r a ' s a r g u m e n t is t h a t Yadu b e d e p r i v e d a n d Piiru b e gratified w i t h t h e t h r o n e in t h a t
YAYATI A N D H I S S O N S
27
u n i q u e p a r t of t h e e a r t h w h i c h i n t e r e s t s D u r y o d h a n a , t h e " c e n t r a l l a n d " of w h i c h H a s t i n a p u r a is t h e capital. F o r Yadu, at least, t h e curse (sasdpa) is expressively a n d i m m e d i a t e l y followed b y his e x p u l s i o n f r o m t h e k i n g d o m {rajydc ca vyapdropayat): h e h a d to go s o m e w h e r e , a n d it is n a t u r a l , d e s p i t e t h e t e x t ' s b r e v i t y , to s u p p o s e t h a t , u n d e r t h e s a m e conditions, s i m i l a r curses {sasdpa) w o u l d h a v e b e e n leveled against t h e t h r e e o t h e r sons as well. In c o n t r a s t , t h e v a r i a n t of t h e first b o o k , r e c o u n t i n g t h e s t o r y o n its o w n t e r m s for itself, a n d n o t for t h e p u r p o s e of m a k i n g a p o i n t in s o m e political a r g u m e n t , w a s t h e n a t u r a l place to n a m e t h e allocated l a n d s . This, in fact, is w h a t w e find. B u t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r m u l a w a s saved for later, m a k i n g its a p p e a r a n c e n o t in t h e first episode of Yayati's a d v e n t u r e b u t in t h e second, w h i c h w e will e x a m i n e n o w . L e t us b e a r in m i n d t h e f o r m u l a t h a t Yayati will u s e in this s e c o n d episode t o s u m u p , for his i n t e r l o c u t o r I n d r a , t h e decisions h e has m a d e w i t h respect to his sons a n d w h a t h e has said t o P i i r u : gahgayamunayor madhye krtsno 'yarn visayas tava madhye prthivyas tvam raja bhrataro 'ntyadhipas tava. The whole land between the Ganges and the Yamuna is yours: yoif, yourself, will be king over the center of the earth; your brothers will be lords of the outlying regiotis.^"^
YAYATI A N D HIS D A U G H T E R ' S SONS
1. YAYATI'S F O U R G R A N D S O N S A N D T H E T H R E E F U N C T I O N S
T h e scene shifts, a n d so d o t h e d r a m a t i s p e r s o n a e e x c e p t for Yayati, w h o k e e p s t h e l e a d i n g role. In fact, this is n o t a second act b u t a n o t h e r p l a y , w h o s e p l o t does n o t exactly tie in w i t h t h a t of t h e first. As t h e c u r t a i n rises, Yayati has finished aging, a n d his t r o u b l e s o m e wife, t h e s o r c e r e r ' s d a u g h t e r , m a k e s n o f u r t h e r a p p e a r a n c e , n o t e v e n in r e t r o s p e c t . O n l y t w o sons a r e k n o w n t o h i m , his successor P u r u a n d Yadu, w h o a p p e a r twice, m e r e s u p e r n u m e r a r i e s , m e n t i o n e d in t h a t o r d e r a n d , it w o u l d s e e m , o n good t e r m s w i t h each o t h e r . M o r e o v e r , Yayati has a d e v o t e d d a u g h t e r , M a d h a v i , w h o s e m o t h e r is u n n a m e d , a n d b y h e r h e is t h e g r a n d f a t h e r of four exc e l l e n t y o u t h s w h o a r e a l r e a d y k i n g s . In s h o r t , positively or negatively, e v e r y t h i n g s e e m s to h a v e b e e n set u p for a n idyllic finale. A c t u a l l y , his d a u g h t e r ' s four sons h a v e h a d curious b i r t h s . T h e fifth b o o k of t h e Mahabharata describes t h e m in a c h a r m i n g a c c o u n t w h i c h will h a v e t o o c c u p y us l a t e r , ' since it c o n s t i t u t e s a n o t h e r e p i s o d e , a n o t h e r d r a m a — a n i n t e r m e d i a r y o n e — i n a life w h i c h a c c o r d i n g l y s e e m s t o unfold in a trilogy t h e titles of w h i c h could b e " T h e Father and the Sons," " T h e Father and the D a u g h t e r , " and " T h e F a t h e r a n d t h e G r a n d s o n s . " T h e first b o o k of t h e Mahabharata has r e t a i n e d , w i t h o u t good t r a n s i t i o n s , o n l y t h e sons a n d t h e g r a n d s o n s , w h i l e t h e fifth b o o k , n e g l e c t i n g t h e sons, m a k e s t h e t h i r d d r a m a t h e h a r m o n i o u s s e q u e l t o t h e second. H a v i n g b e c o m e old once a n d for all, Yayati leaves t h e k i n g d o m to his h e i r Pijru in o r d e r to o b s e r v e t h a t precious i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n life a n d d e a t h w h i c h w e call r e t i r e m e n t a n d w h i c h is, in t h e I n d i a n 28
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sense of t h e w o r d , a r e t r e a t , a l o n g p e r i o d in t h e forest in t h e c o m p a n y of h e r m i t saints. T h e r e , w i t h a profusion of n e w m e r i t s , h e perfects t h o s e w h i c h h e has e a r n e d in his e x e m p l a r y r e i g n as " u n i v e r s a l s o v e r e i g n , " a title w h i c h t h e p o e m r e a d i l y confers u p o n h i m . As a r e s u l t , h e ascends to h e a v e n at his d e a t h w i t h o u t difficulty. As for his g r a n d s o n s , w h o m h e does n o t s e e m to h a v e k n o w n v e r y well, t h e y live a n d p r o s p e r in k i n g d o m s w h i c h a r e n o t all t h o s e of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f a t h e r s . T h e y , t o o , a r e a c c u m u l a t i n g m e r i t s , b u t m e r i t s differentiated a c c o r d i n g t o four h i g h l y i n t e r e s t i n g definitions a p p l i e d t o t h e m f o r m e r l y b y a n o t h e r sage, Galava, w h e n h e was a d d r e s s i n g t h e i r m o t h e r M a d h a v i after w a t c h i n g over their births: jato danapatih putras tvaya luras tatha 'parah satyadharmaratal canyo yajva capi tatha paf^ah To you is born a son who is a lord of gifts, a second who is a hero, another who is devoted to justice and truth, and yet another, a sacrificer. 2 T h e " l o r d of gifts," t h a t is, t h e l o r d of a l m s , is in essence s o m e t h i n g e l s e ; or r a t h e r t h e a l m s a r e o n l y t h e g o o d use w h i c h h e m a k e s of t h a t w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s his r e a l n a t u r e : h e is p r o d i g i o u s l y rich. C o n t a i n i n g t h e t e r m vasu, " m a t e r i a l g o o d s , " in his n a m e , h e is in fact called Vasumanas.^ At t h e m o m e n t of his arrival in t h e w o r l d , t h e p o e t of t h e fifth b o o k has i n t r o d u c e d h i m clearly:"* tato vasumana nama vasubhyo vasumattarah vasuprabho narapatih sa babhuva vasupradah Named Vasumanas, richer than the rich, equal to the Vasu (the Rich) themselves, he became a king who was a giver of riches.'* T h u s , in t h e o r d e r of t h e i r b i r t h s — w h i c h is also t h e a s c e n d i n g o r d e r of t h e f u n c t i o n s — t h e s e four figures are c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e i r e x c e l l e n c e : o n e in t h e t h i r d function (vasu, riches), o n e in t h e second (sura, h e r o ) , a n d t w o in t w o aspects of t h e first: o n e m o r a l , a t o t a l d e v o t i o n t o t r u t h (satya) a n d v i r t u e (dharma), t h e o t h e r religious or, m o r e precisely liturgical, an assiduous o b s e r v a n c e of sacrifices (yajna). T h e s e four o n t h e e a r t h , a n d t h e i r g r a n d f a t h e r in h e a v e n , d o n o t foresee t h e occasion of w h a t is p e r h a p s t o b e t h e i r first e n c o u n t e r .
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2. YAYATI'S SIN, FALL AND R E D E M P T I O N , AND T H E T R A N S F E R O F M E R I T S
O n t h e s t r e n g t h of w h a t s e e m t o b e i n e x h a u s t i b l e m e r i t s , Yayati lives for m i l l i o n s of years in celestial c o m f o r t , h i g h l y e s t e e m e d b y t h e v a r i o u s divine g r o u p s t h a t o n e e n c o u n t e r s in h e a v e n . H e e v e n t o u r s t h e n u m e r o u s paradises, s o j o u r n i n g s o m e t i m e s in o n e , s o m e t i m e s in a n o t h e r . B u t o n e day a fault a p p e a r s in his p e r f e c t i o n : in t h e fifth b o o k , this t a k e s place m e n t a l l y a n d s p o n t a n e o u s l y , w h i l e in b o o k o n e it t a k e s place v e r b a l l y a n d u n d e r p r o v o c a t i o n . T h e fifth b o o k ' s r e n d i t i o n is especially m o v i n g . ^ After t h e s e i n n u m e r a b l e m i l l e n n i a s p e n t in t h e g r e a t e s t h a p p i n e s s , o n e day, s e a t e d a m i d t h e m o s t illustrious fsis, h e is o v e r c o m e b y a foolish sense of p r i d e w h i c h p r o d u c e s a feeling of scorn for t h e g o d s , rsis, a n d m e n . I n d r a , w h o is p r e s e n t , r e a d s his h e a r t . Less insightful, t h e rsis e x p e r i e n c e this m e n t a l c a t a s t r o p h e w i t h o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t : u p t o this i n s t a n t t h e y h a v e felt n o uneasiness in t r e a t i n g h i m as a n old friend a n d colleague, b u t s u d d e n l y t h e y n o l o n g e r r e c o g n i z e h i m . T h e y see h i m as a s t r a n g e r , a n i n t r u d e r . T h e air is filled w i t h confused q u e s t i o n s : " W h o is he? Son of w h a t king? W h y is h e in h e a v e n ? W h a t acts h a v e e a r n e d h i m this r e w a r d ? W h e r e has h e c a r r i e d o u t his t i m e of asceticism? W h a t is k n o w n of h i m ? W h o k n o w s h i m ? " A n d t h e w h o l e h o u s e h o l d of h e a v e n , t h e c h a r i o t e e r s , t h e g a t e k e e p e r s , all a n s w e r : " W e d o n o t k n o w h i m . " King Yayati, in fact, has c h a n g e d . By his sin, h e has lost his s p l e n d o r . A n d if o n l y t h a t w e r e all h e h a d lost! In t h e a c c o u n t in t h e first b o o k , h e strikes us as m o r e r a s h t h a n guilty.^ O n e d a y h e p a y s a visit t o I n d r a a n d , in t h e c o u r s e of a free a n d o p e n e x c h a n g e , t h e k i n g of t h e g o d s a m i a b l y asks h i m s o m e q u e s t i o n s : " W h a t did y o u say to y o u r son P u r u w h e n h e t o o k o n himself y o u r decrepitude and w h e n you gave h i m the k i n g d o m ? " T h i s is t h e m o m e n t w h e n Yayati gives h i m t h e a n s w e r — a g o o d a n s w e r — c i t e d a b o v e : " I said to h i m : ' T h e w h o l e l a n d b e t w e e n t h e G a n g e s a n d t h e Y a m u n a is y o u r s : you, yourself, will b e k i n g o v e r t h e m i d d l e of t h e e a r t h ; y o u r b r o t h e r s will b e princes o v e r t h e o u t l y i n g r e g i o n s . ' In a d d i t i o n I said to h i m . . A n d t h e n , in t h i r t e e n distichs, Yayati r e c o u n t s t h e excellent m o r a l counsel, w h o l l y u n o r i g i n a l , w h i c h h e g a v e t o P u r u o n t h a t occasion. T h e g o d t h e n asks a second q u e s t i o n , a n d Yayati fails ro see t h e d a n g e r , t h e
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t r a p . " K i n g Yayati, son of N a h u s a , h a v i n g fulfilled all y o u r duties, you left y o u r palace a n d w e n t i n t o t h e forest. I ask y o u : t o w h o m are y o u e q u a l in ascetic m e r i t s ? " T h e a n s w e r c o m e s : " N e i t h e r a m o n g m e n , n o r a m o n g t h e gods, t h e G a n d h a r v a s , n o r t h e m a h a r s i s , a m I a b l e , O I n d r a , t o cite a n y o n e w h o is m y e q u a l in ascetic m e r i t s ! " I m m e d i a t e l y t h e g o d ' s v e r d i c t is p r o n o u n c e d : " B e c a u s e y o u scorn y o u r s u p e r i o r s , y o u r equals, y o u r inferiors, y o u r m e r i t s will vanish a n d y o u m u s t fall f r o m h e a v e n ! " M e n t a l or v e r b a l , such is i n d e e d t h e o u t c o m e of this b u r s t of vanity. T h e a u t h o r of t h e fifth b o o k s h o w s t h e k i n g t r e m b l i n g w i t h fear, b u r n i n g w i t h r e m o r s e u n d e r his faded g a r l a n d s , s h o r n of his c r o w n , o r n a m e n t s , a n d r o b e s . H e falls, a p u p p e t w i t h o u t strings, a m i d t h e m o c k e r y of t h e celestial host. A n d soon t h e celestial b o u n c e r c h a r g e d w i t h h a n d l i n g such eviction notices a p p e a r s beside h i m a n d confirms t h a t t h e r e is n o l o n g e r a place for h i m a m o n g t h e gods.* T h e hapless k i n g does, h o w e v e r , k e e p e n o u g h p r e s e n c e of m i n d t o c o n c e r n h i m s e l f w i t h w h e r e h e s h o u l d l a n d o n e a r t h . In t h e first b o o k , r i g h t after b e i n g c o n d e m n e d a n d b e f o r e his fall, h e says to I n d r a : " K i n g of t h e gods, if t r u l y m y d i s r e g a r d of m e n , of t h e G a n d h a r v a s , of t h e rsis, of t h e gods, has m a d e m e lose t h e (celestial) w o r l d s , d e p r i v e d as I a m of t h e w o r l d of t h e gods, a l l o w m e to fall i n t o t h e m i d s t of g o o d m e n (satam madhye)\"^ This t h e g o d r e a d i l y accords h i m , i m p o s i n g n o conditions. In t h e fifth b o o k , Yayati a p p e a r s t o b e e n d o w e d , d u r i n g his d e s c e n t , w i t h t h e p o w e r t o affect his o w n c o u r s e : like an a s t r o n a u t , a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e , w i t h his j e t s a n d p a r a c h u t e s , t h e place of his s p l a s h d o w n , h e reflects: " I f I m u s t fall, let m e at least fall a m o n g t h e g o o d ! " — a n d , s e t t i n g his c o u r s e b y t h e o d o r of a c o l u m n of s m o k e t h a t rises f r o m an e n o r m o u s sacrifice, h e directs his fall t o w a r d t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e m e n , as h e is a b l e to p r e d i c t w i t h e v i d e n t accuracy, are p i o u s . ' " N o w this sacrifice—a vdjapeya, o n e of t h e sacrifices p r o p e r t o royalty—is b e i n g offered b y four kings conjointly, a s t r a n g e a n d u n u s u a l t h i n g . A n d t h e s e kings a r e n o n e o t h e r t h a n Yayati's o w n four g r a n d s o n s w h o , over a n d b e y o n d t h e i r characteristic specialities — V a s u m a n a s ' riches a n d g e n e r o s i t y , P r a t a r d a n a ' s p r o w e s s , Sibi's veracity, a n d A s t a k a ' s assiduous practice of sacrifices—have in c o m m o n t h e highest d e g r e e of m o r a l i t y which, t o tell t h e t r u t h .
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m o r e or less b l u r s t h e i r functional colorations a n d t e n d s to r e d u c e t h e m all t o t h e g e n e r a l i z e d t y p e of t h e perfect k i n g . F r o m t h e logs of t h e i r dhavanlya, t h e i r " l i b a t i o n fire," t h e s m o k e rises, in accord w i t h t h e best Vedic t r a d i t i o n , as a p a t h c o n n e c t i n g h e a v e n a n d e a r t h — a shifting p a t h w a y , or r a t h e r a r i v e r w h i c h t h e p o e t c o m p a r e s to t h e G a n g e s in its c e l e b r a t e d d e s c e n t . ' ' D o e s Yayati'^ fall, b r i n g i n g h i m i n t o t h e i r m i d s t , t a k e h i m d o w n to t h e g r o u n d ? N o t a c c o r d i n g to t h e first b o o k : ' ^ it is w h i l e seeing h i m fall, still far off in t h e sky, t h a t A s t a k a engages Yayati in a l o n g d i a l o g u e , first b e g g i n g p a r d o n for b e i n g so i m p o l i t e as to ask h i m w h o h e is; a n d it s e e m s t h a t t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n is n e x t g e n e r a l i z e d t o t a k e in all four t e r r e s t r i a l o b s e r v e r s w e l l before this space m o d u l e is r e a d y t o l a n d . B u t t h e a n s w e r is yes if w e accept t h e first w o r d s w h i c h t h e fifth b o o k d e v o t e s to this occasion.'^ H e r e it is o n e a r t h t h a t t h e four kings i n t e r r o g a t e h i m : " W h o are y o u ? Of w h a t race, of w h a t c o u n t r y , of w h a t city? A r e y o u a Yaksa, a god, a G a n d h a r v a , a Raksasa? You d o n o t s e e m t o b e a h u m a n b e i n g . W h a t is y o u r i n t e n t i o n ? " H e a n s w e r s w i t h precision, s u m m i n g u p his m i s f o r t u n e w i t h t h e m o s t u n e x p e c t e d b r e v i t y : " I a m Yayati, t h e rajarsi Yayati. T h r o u g h t h e e x h a u s t i o n of m y m e r i t , I h a v e fallen f r o m h e a v e n . I desired to fall a m o n g g o o d m e n : I h a v e fallen a m o n g y o u . . . . " B u t a Httle f u r t h e r on, w h e n this h a p p y family g a t h e r i n g has e n d e d , it is said t h a t " t h e k i n g rose again w i t h o u t t o u c h i n g t h e surface of t h e e a r t h , " samdruroha nrpatih asprsan vasudhdtalam,^'* a n d , in a d e t a i l e d r e p e t i t i o n of t h e n a r r a t i v e — a n e w , slightly different v a r i a n t — w h i c h follows this e n d i n g , t h e fact is c o n f i r m e d : h e d i d n o t t o u c h t h e e a r t h , na prthvlm asprsat padd}^ This p o i n t is a s e c o n d a r y o n e . T h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g is t h e conclusion itself w i t h t h e series of discourses, t h e c o m p e t i n g g e n e r o u s offers w h i c h lead u p to it. T h e v a r i a n t s agree o n t h e f o l l o w i n g : t h e four kings offer t o transfer t h e i r m e r i t s t o Yayati so t h a t h e m a y regain his place a m o n g t h e g o d s , b u t Yayati refuses, saying t h a t o n l y b r a h m a n s h a v e t h e r i g h t t o receive a l m s , s o m e t i m e s a d d i n g t h a t h e w o u l d n o t w a n t to d e p r i v e t h e m of t h e i r o w n blessings. But t h e details differ f r o m t e x t t o t e x t . In t h e first b o o k each k i n g in t u r n — A s t a k a , P r a t a r d a n a , Vasum a n a s , a n d Sibi, in t h a t o r d e r — s a y s n e a r l y t h e s a m e t h i n g t o t h e o m n i s c i e n t Yayati, a n d this in a f o r m t h a t r e s e m b l e s a c e l e b r a t e d
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A v e s t a n gdthd: "1 ask y o u — d o n o t fall!—do I possess a n y w o r l d s , lokdh, in h e a v e n or in t h e a t m o s p h e r e ; if I possess a n y , t h e y are y o u r s . " T h e m e c h a n i s m of m e r i t s a n d r e w a r d s is t h u s i n t e r p r e t e d in t h e m a n n e r of a c q u i r i n g real e s t a t e , as t h e acquisition of b i g g e r or s m a l l e r lots in t h e celestial e x p a n s e s . A n d each h e a r s t h e a n s w e r t h a t his e x t r a o r d i n a r y m e r i t s h a v e i n d e e d e n t i t l e d h i m t o possess i m m e n s e w o r l d s at t h e t h r e e levels of t h e u n i v e r s e , a l t h o u g h t h e i r various m e r i t s a r e n o t specified a n d d o n o t a p p e a r to b e a p p r e c i a b l y different f r o m o n e k i n g t o t h e n e x t . But Yayati o b s t i n a t e l y refuses to accept a gift, or e v e n to p u r c h a s e t h e s e d o m a i n s b y t h e s y m b o l i c p a y m e n t of a b l a d e of grass. Such is t h e d e a d l o c k , all t h e m o r e serious since t h e kings p o i n t o u t , t h r o u g h t h e i r s p o k e s m a n Asfaka, t h a t t h e y will b e u n a b l e t o t a k e b a c k t h e m e r i t s t h e y h a v e surr e n d e r e d a n d t h a t if Yayati persists in his refusal, t h e y will a c c o m p a n y h i m to his final d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e " t e r r e s t r i a l " {bhauma) hell.''' T h e w a y o u t is p r o v i d e d n o t b y a deus ex machina b u t b y a n u m b e r of vehicula de caelo: A s t a k a s u d d e n l y sees five g o l d e n chariots a p p e a r in t h e air. " W h o s e a r e t h e s e c h a r i o t s ? " h e asks Yayati, w h o a n s w e r s : " T h e s e c h a r i o t s will c a r r y y o u to t h e celestial r e g i o n s . " But t h e r e a r e five chariots, n o t four, a n d t h e four kings h a v e n o difficulty in c o n v i n c i n g h i m t o ascend to h e a v e n in t h e o n e w h i c h is p l a i n l y n o t for t h e m . ' * A n d so, c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d b y t h e a b n e g a t i o n of t h e " f o u r kings of t o d a y , " a t o n e m e n t is m a d e for t h a t m o m e n t of p r i d e w h i c h h a d j u s t d e p r i v e d " y e s t e r d a y ' s k i n g " of t h e m e r i t s g a i n e d o v e r t h o u s a n d s of years. A n d at t h e s a m e s t r o k e , t h e a b n e g a t i o n of t h e four y o u n g kings is r e w a r d e d b y t h e p r o m o t i o n w h i c h is t h e final goal of e v e r y v i r t u o u s life: t h e celestial ascent. All t h a t r e m a i n s for t h e m is t o g e t t o k n o w each o t h e r b e t t e r w h i l e t h e c h a r i o t s c a r r y t h e m t h r o u g h s p a c e — a n d at this p o i n t w e discover t h a t Yayati, f r o m t h e o u t s e t , h a d k n o w n m o r e t h a n h e h a d a l l o w e d to appear. Impelled by curiosity, Asfaka asked his grandfather, equal to Indra: " I ask you, O king, tell me truly: where do you come from, who are you, and whose son? For what you have done, none other than you, neither ksatriya nor brahman, could have done!" He answered: " I am Yayati, son of Nahusa, father of Puru. In this world I was a ' universal king.' It is to m e n of my own blood that I disclose my secret: you have before
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you your mother's father. After having conquered the entire earth, I gave handsome horses to the brahmans for sacrifices: thus the gods enjoy their shares; I gave this entire earth to the brahmans, full of draught animals, with its cows, its gold, its treasures—and there were millions and millions of cows there! It is by truth that heaven and earth are mine, that fire burns among men." 19
This k i n d of p r i d e , of self-praise, w h i c h d i s p a r a g e s n o o n e , is p r e s u m a b l y p e r m i t t e d b y t h e g o d s . Yayati does n o t fall again. In t h e fifth b o o k , in its first v a r i a n t , t h e r e a r e n o t four d i a l o g u e s : t h e four kings offer t h e i r m e r i t s t o g e t h e r to t h e i r u n e x p e c t e d visitor, a n d in a v e r y g e n e r a l f o r m : w e offer to y o u " t h e fruit of o u r sacrifices a n d o u r j u s t i c e " (sarvesdm nah kratuphalam dharmasca). T o all four collectively, Yayati t h e n e x p l a i n s his refusal: " I a m n o t a b r a h m a n , I s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e n o t accept a l m s . " ^ ' ' H e r e a real deus ex machina a p p e a r s — Y a y a t i ' s d a u g h t e r , t h e m o t h e r of t h e four kings, w h o c o m e s o u t of t h e w o o d s w h e r e she lives in a v e r y special sort of asceticism. T h e kings r e c o g n i z e her, b o w , a n d ask h e r t h e cause of h e r a p p e a r a n c e . She first falls p r o s t r a t e before h e r father, t h e n m a k e s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n s , a n d finally increases t h e four k i n g s ' d e p o s i t b y a d d i n g to it half of h e r o w n m e r i t s . A final r e i n f o r c e m e n t t h e n h a p p e n s b y : t h e b r a h m a n w h o h a d b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e b i r t h of t h e four kings also e m e r g e s f r o m t h e w o o d s a n d offers an e i g h t h p a r t of t h e m e r i t s a c q u i r e d b y his austerities.^' This momentum is e n o u g h t o o v e r c o m e t h e beneficiary's s c r u p l e s : full of j o y a n d w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o u c h e d t h e e a r t h , h e r e a s c e n d s to t h e sky, r e c o v e r i n g o n his w a y t h e o r n a m e n t s a n d g a r l a n d s h e has lost.22 T h e second v a r i a n t , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y follows t h e first w i t h n o care for c o m p o s i t i o n , is m o r e d e t a i l e d a n d p u t s t h e functional n a t u r e of each of t h e d o n o r s in a clear light. T o simplify, t h e " r i c h " is m a r k e d definitively by t h e p i o u s use h e m a k e s of his riches, a n d h e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d n o t as o n e w h o is w e a l t h y p e r se, b u t as t h e d i s t r i b u t o r of a b u n d a n t a l m s . This is a n a t u r a l c i r c u m l o c u t i o n since it is a m a t t e r of a n n o u n c i n g m e r i t s : in c o n t r a s t to p r o w e s s , veracity, a n d r i t u a l e x a c t i t u d e , all of w h i c h a r e g o o d in t h e m s e l v e s , w e a l t h is a m e r e r a w m a t e r i a l , itself n e u t r a l , u p o n w h i c h o n l y g o o d u s a g e can confer m o r a l v a l u e .
YAYATI AND
HIS DAUGHTER S SONS
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T h e first t o offer his m e r i t s is, in fact, V a s u m a n a s , " c e l e b r a t e d in t h e w o r l d as a m a s t e r of g i f t s " : "All that I have obtained in the world by my faultless conduct toward men of all classes, I give to you, that it may be your property! This merit produced by giving, as well as that from patience [tat phalam danasilasya ksamasilasya tat phalam], and generally all the merits I have acquired, let them be your property!"23 P r a t a r d a n a is n e x t : "Ever devoted to duty, ever ardent for combat [yuddha-], that glory proper to warrior lineages {ksAtravamsa-), which I have obtained in the world, the merit which is attached to the word hero [virasabdaphalam], let it be your property!"24 T h e n Sibi c o m e s f o r t h : "Neither among children nor among women, neither in jest nor in combats, difficulties, calamities, nor dice have I, in the past, uttered a lie [anrtam noktapurvam me]: by that truth, ascend to heaven! My life, my kingdom, O King, my comforts, I will all abandon, but not truth: by that truth, ascend to heaven! That truth by which I have gratified Dharma and Agni and Indra, by that truth, ascend to heaven [tern satyena kham vrfljfl]!"25 A n d finally A s t a k a , t h e sacrificer p a r e x c e l l e n c e : " I have offered pundarika, gosava, and vdjapeya sacrifices by the hundreds [satasah . . .me caritah .. . kratavah]: take the merit, from these! Jewels, riches, precious robes, I have spared nothing [me. .. anupayuktani] as the cost of my sacrifices: by this truth, ascend to heaven!"26 D e s p i t e t h e slight i r r e g u l a r i t y in t h e last half-verse, w h i c h is b o r r o w e d f r o m Sibi's d e c l a r a t i o n a n d e x t e n d s t o A s t a k a , against o u r e x p e c t a t i o n , t h e t y p e of m e r i t (truthfulness) a p p r o p r i a t e to Sibi, d e s p i t e also t h e i n e v i t a b l e c h a n n e l i n g of V a s u m a n a s ' riches i n t o a l m s g i v i n g , t h e distinctions a r e c l e a r : t h e four g r a n d s o n s place at t h e i r fallen g r a n d f a t h e r ' s disposal a c o m p l e t e set of m e r i t s — c o m p l e t e , m o r e o v e r , a c c o r d i n g to its trifunctional c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e first function, t h e m o s t e l e v a t e d in d i g n i t y , is d i v i d e d , r e p r e s e n t e d b y t w o of its a s p e c t s : t r u t h , w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e basis for m o r a l i t y ; a n d religion, s u m m e d u p in t h e s u p e r a b u n d a n t practice of sacrifices. Before w e p r o c e e d , w e s h o u l d m e n t i o n t h a t this division is n o t of t h e k i n d u s u a l l y f o u n d in I n d i a n t h o u g h t : o n e
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w o u l d s o o n e r e x p e c t t o find asceticistn set against liturgical exactit u d e , o r a religious life of t h e d i s q u i e t i n g t y p e associated w i t h V a r u n a set against t h e r e a s s u r i n g t y p e of M i t r a . P e r h a p s this e x a l t a t i o n of satya, " t r u t h , a life w i t h o u t f a l s e h o o d , " r e q u i r e s an e x p l a n a t i o n w h i c h , at this p o i n t in o u r s t u d y , w e a r e n o t p r e p a r e d to give. B u t this o p e n p r o b l e i n does n o t o b s c u r e t h e trifunctional s c h e m a , since a life w i t h o u t falsehood a n d t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of rites b o t h e n h a n c e t h e first function. M o r e o v e r , t h e a u t h o r s of t h e Mahabharata or, before t h e m , t h e a u t h o r s of t h e l e g e n d w h i c h has b e e n i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e p o e m , h a v e offered t h e i r reflection on this b i p a r t i t i o n . T h e v a r i a n t in t h e first b o o k does n o t e n d w h e n t h e five m e n set off in t h e i r celestial chariots. W h i l e t h e y a r e h a s t e n i n g in close f o r m a t i o n to t h e h e i g h t s of h e a v e n , o n e of t h e chariots b r e a k s i n t o t h e lead, a n d w e can a n t i c i p a t e t h a t it will b e o n e of t h e t w o chariots of t h e first function. A n d so it is. B u t which? It is t h a t of Sibi, t h e veracious g r a n d s o n , n o t t h a t of A s t a k a , t h e sacrificer. T h e l a t t e r is a s t o n i s h e d , a n d naively h e consults t h e wise old m a n in t h e n e i g h b o r i n g c h a r i o t w h o m h e has j u s t h e l p e d t o save a n d w h o m h e does n o t yet k n o w t o b e his g r a n d f a t h e r . "I think that it is I who should go first and that, in all things, Indra is my ally... . How is it that Sibi, the son of Usinara, and he alone, has, at full speed, left our chariots behind?"27 Yayati a n s w e r s : "5ibi, the son of Usinara, in order to go among the gods, has given all that he possessed: that is why he is the foremost among us. Almsgiving, austerity, truthfulness, the observance of duty, modesty, prosperity, patience, amiability, endurance, all this belongs to the incomparable and good king Sibi." 28 H e r e again, a slight i r r e g u l a r i t y s h o w s t h r o u g h : Sibi's " t r u t h f u l n e s s , " w h i c h distinguishes his special g l o r y , is all b u t s u b m e r g e d in a list of qualities a n d virtues, m a k i n g Yayati's a n s w e r i n a d e q u a t e to d e s c r i b e t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . B u t t h e fact r e m a i n s : t h e o l d n a r r a t i v e p u t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e m e r i t s g a i n e d b y veracity a b o v e all t h e rest. T o s u m m a r i z e t h e p o i n t s t h a t b e a r f u r t h e r s c r u t i n y , let us e m p h a s i z e t h a t Yayati h i m s e l f h a d b e e n carried to h e a v e n a n d , u n t i l his o u t b u r s t of p r i d e , h a d b e e n m a i n t a i n e d t h e r e b y a c a t a l o g u e
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of m e r i t s a n d benefits as c o m p l e t e as t h e o n e w h i c h is r e c o n s t i t u t e d to h i m b y his g r a n d s o n s ' gifts. I n d e e d , w e k n o w f r o m o t h e r n a r ratives t h a t h e h a d b e e n p r o d i g i o u s l y rich: w e will soon see t h a t this is t h e p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e for t h e M a d h a v i episode,^^ a f u r t h e r d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t , as w i t h V a s u m a n a s , this a d v a n t a g e of his was m o r a l l y l e g i t i m a t e d b y t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of w e a l t h i n t o a l m s . T o this f u n d a m e n t a l fact is a d d e d t h e r e c k o n i n g w h i c h h e h i m s e l f m a k e s at t h e e n d of t h e a c c o u n t in t h e first b o o k , w h e n A s t a k a asks his i d e n t i t y . T h e s e slokas h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n q u o t e d . T h e y e n u m e r a t e t h r e e i t e m s , t h e last t w o o n l y slightly d i l u t e d : (1) I h a v e c o n q u e r e d t h e e n t i r e e a r t h ; (2) I h a v e given t o b r a h m a n s countless gifts (as daksinds) a n d also t h e r a w m a t e r i a l s , t h e a n i m a l s , for t h e i r sacrificial activities; (3) I h a v e b e e n a n d a m t r u t h f u l . H e has t h u s , d u r i n g his t e r r e s t r i a l life, h i m s e l f c o m b i n e d — i n a d d i t i o n t o riches a n d g e n e r o s i t y like t h o s e of V a s u m a n a s — t h e various characteristics w h i c h a r e to b e d i s t r i b u t e d in t h e s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a t i o n a m o n g : (1) t h e w a r r i o r P r a t a r d a n a ; (2) t h e sacrificer A s t a k a ; (3) t h e veracious Sibi. A n d Yayati, t o o , c o n c l u d e s this d e s c r i p t i o n of h i m s e l f b y e x a l t i n g his " t r u t h , " t h a t is t r u t h f u l n e s s , a b o v e a l l : "It is by truth that heaven and earth are mine, by my truth that fire burns among men. Never have I spoken a word that was vain, for the good give homage to the truth.31 it by their truth that all the gods, the munis, the worlds are worthy of honor, such is my deep conviction." 32 T h e m e a n i n g of t h e s t o r y t h a t e n d s w i t h these w o r d s is clear, a n d can b e s u m m a r i z e d briefly. H a v i n g a m a s s e d a g r e a t s t o r e of his o w n personal merits, reckoned according to the three functions—by d i s t r i b u t e d w e a l t h , by c o n q u e s t s , b y sacrificing a n d a l w a y s telling t h e t r u t h — k i n g Yayati ascends t o h e a v e n after d e a t h a n d gains his o w n celestial seat. After a l o n g stay t h e r e , a prideful t h o u g h t c o m e s t o h i m , w h e t h e r s p o n t a n e o u s l y or u n d e r p r o v o c a t i o n , w h i c h d e s t r o y s his mystical r e s o u r c e s at o n e s t r o k e a n d m a k e s h i m fall t o w a r d t h e e a r t h , w i t h t h e " t e r r e s t r i a l h e l l " as his final d e s t i n a t i o n . B u t his four g r a n d s o n s , each of w h o m excels in o n l y o n e of t h e k i n d s of m e r i t o r i o u s activity w h i c h h a v e c o m b i n e d in Yayati's life t o f o r m a n a t u r a l synthesis, place t h e i r p a r t i a l t r e a s u r e s conjointly at his disposal a n d r e c o n s t i t u t e for h i m , u n d e r t h e s a m e diversified h e a d i n g s , a c o m p l e t e set of m e r i t s a b l e t o t r a n s f o r m his fall i n t o a n ascent a n d r e s t o r e h i m t o his place in h e a v e n .
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3. YIMA'S SIN, D I S G R A C E , AND H E R I T A G E
This p l o t , t o u c h i n g in all its s t r a n g e n e s s , w h i c h o n e w o u l d willingly h o l d u p as an e x a m p l e t o t h e g r a n d s o n s of t o d a y , i m m e d i a t e l y b r i n g s t o m i n d t h e tragic e n d of t h e m o s t illustrious of all t h e "first k i n g s " of I r a n i a n l e g e n d , Yima XSaeta, Yima " t h e King p a r e x c e l l e n c e , " or as t h e epic calls h i m , J a m S i d . A s w e h a v e seen,^"* this h i g h l y c o m p l e x figure m e e t s his exact I n d i a n h o m o n y m , Y a m a , at o n l y a few p o i n t s , t h e l a t t e r , since t h e RgVeda, b e i n g a l m o s t a g o d a n d , in t h e s u b s e q u e n t H t e r a t u r e , a g o d n o different f r o m o t h e r s , save t h a t his field is exclusively t h e w o r l d of t h e d e a d . At all levels of t h e I r a n i a n t r a d i t i o n , t h e m a i n features of t h e l e g e n d of Yima follow a course t h a t s h o w s n o c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h t h e t h e o l o g y of Y a m a . I give h e r e o n l y a r o u g h o u t h n e : For a long t i m e Yima holds t h e " s o v e r e i g n e m p i r e over all t h e l a n d s , " a n d his reign, of u n t o l d p r o s p e r i t y , is p r o t e c t e d b y t h e x^aranah, t h a t m a r k of divine election which g u a r a n t e e s a n d expresses t h e legitimacy of a king.^^ one d a y h e c o m m i t s a sin. According to t h e single passage t h a t m e n t i o n s it in t h e r e m a i n i n g post-gathic Avesta, the sin is lying: his e x t r a o r d i n a r y prosperity, Yast 19,33 says e m p h a t i c a l l y , lasted until " h e lied," until h e " b e g a n to t h i n k t h e lying w o r d , c o n t r a r y t o t r u t h . " ^ ^ T h e s u b s e q u e n t h t e r a t u r e has given t h e fault a different orientation. According to t h e Datastan i Denik, 36,16, it was a m a t t e r of a m b i t i o n : he was " d e c e i v e d by t h e d e m o n a n d t h u s r e n d e r e d full of zeal for t h e s u p r e m e sovereignty and n o t for t h e service of O h r m a z d . " ' ' ' ' B u t according to all t h e texts f r o m M u s l i m t i m e s , w i t h certain specifications a n d diverse settings— s o m e q u i t e picturesque—it is s i m p l y p r i d e , a p r i d e s o m e t i m e s inspired and fanned b y t h e d e m o n . S o m e Zoroastrian texts s u p p l y in addition a description of t h e origin of t h e sin of pride. For e x a m p l e , t h e Parsee Rivayat, published b y Spiegel and t r a n s l a t e d b y Christensen, tells the story as follows: When seventy years had passed, it befell that Satan [Ahriman] got free, and, when he came before King Jamsid, he succeeded by one means and another in driving out the reason from his body. On this occasion he exerted his enmity upon jamsid in such a way as to make him very prideful and egotistical. Jam§id called together all the grandees of the different kisvars— all the dasturs, mobads, and lords—and spoke in these terms to the mobads
YAYATI AND HIS D A U G H T E R ' S SONS
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and grandees: " I am the sovereign of the entire earth. What God is there beside me? The earth's creatures live through me, I am the God of all men." When the aged dignitaries heard this speech, they remained confused, bent their heads, and no one understood the meaning of his speech. But when the words had been pronounced, the divine Glory abandoned him.38 In Ferdowsi, JamSid's declaration is in t h e s a m e s t y l e : All men were obedient to the king's command and the world was pervaded by the pleasant sounds of music. And so years went by until the royal farr [= x^ardnah] was wrested from him. The reason for it was that the king, who had always paid homage to God, now became filled with vanity and turned away from him in forgetfulness of the gratitude he owed him. He summoned those of his followers who were held in highest esteem and in these words addressed his nobles of long experience: 'T recognize no lord but myself. It was through m e that skills appeared on earth, and no throne however famed has ever beheld a monarch like me. It was I who adorned the world with beauty and it is by my wiJl that the earth has become what it now is. Sunshine, sleep, and repose all come through me, and even your clothing and what enters your mouths originate from me. Power, crown, and kingship are my prerogative. Who can claim that anyone but I am king? By means of drugs and other medicaments the world has been brought to such a level of health that sickness and death befall no one. Who but I have banished death from amongst mankind, although many kings have been upon the earth? It is because of me that you have minds and souls in your bodies. And now that you are aware that all this was accomplished by me, it is your duty to entitle me 'Creator of the World.'"39 The priests [mobads] to a man remained with heads bowed low, none daring to ask " W h y ? " or " H o w ? " But as soon as he had made his speech, the farr departed from him.'^O M o r e soberly, al Tha^alibi says t h e s a m e t h i n g : Possessing in abundance the goods of the world, and also immense power and prestige, when Jim had arrived at the apogee of his power, and when his reign and his life prolonged themselves, then his heart hardened, he became haughty and presumptuous, full of pride and arrogance, lofty and imperious, and he said: " I am your supreme lord." He refused to render homage to God and came thereby to attribute divinity to himself Then his flame was not long to extinguish itself'*! This " f l a m e " is an a t t e n u a t e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e x^aranah, t h a t " G l o r y " w h i c h h a d b e e n b o r n e w i t h prestige b y t h e A v e s t a n Yima.
40
CHAPTER TWO
B u t h e r e a m o s t r e m a r k a b l e t h e m e a p p e a r s in t h e Z o r o a s t r i a n Hterature, still h a v i n g very m u c h to d o w i t h t h e n a t u r e of t h e x^annah. T w o texts h a v e b e e n conserved, diverging o n s o m e details, agreeing on o t h e r s and in their total s t r u c t u r e . O n e is Yast 19,34-38, t a k e n h e r e , scarcely r e t o u c h e d , f r o m Christensen's t r a n s l a t i o n : But when he began to think of the lying word, contrary to the truth [draogam vdcim anhaiOim], the x^armah removed itself from him, visibly, in the form of a bird. Seeing the x^arsmh take flight, Yima Xsaeta of the good herds began to wander sadly and, succumbing to enmities, he remained hidden under the earth. The first x''ar9nah [paoirim x^armo] took flight, the x^armah took flight from Yima XSaeta, the x^'arsnah left Yima, son of Vivanhat, in the form of the bird Varagna. This x^armah MiOra seized, he of vast pasture grounds, of fine hearing, of a thousand talents. We sacrifice to Mitra, master of all the lands [dahyunam danhupaitim], whom Ahura Mazda has created the most endowed with x^armah [x^armaiiuhasCdmsm] among the spiritual Yazatas. When the second x^rsmh [bitim x^armo] took flight, when the x^arsnah took flight from Yima Xsaeta, when the x^armah left Yima, son of Vivanhat, in the form of the bird Varagna, ©raetaona, the descendant of the house of the A6wya, of the powerful house, seized it, so that he became the most victorious of victorious men [varsdravanam vmOravastamo], beside ZaraOuStra; he who conquered the three-mouthed, three-headed, six-eyed, thousand-talented, very strong Azi Dahaka, the demonic druj, the malefactor against the living, the villain whom Aiira Mainyu had created as the most powerful dru/against the bodily world to bring the world of the Asa to death. When the third x^aranah [dritim x'^armo] took flight, when the x^armah took flight from Yima Xsaeta, when the x^armah left Yima, son of Vivanhat, in the form of the bird Varagna, Karasaspa the courageous seized it, so that he became the strongest of strong men [masyanqm ugrdnam aojisto], excepting ZaraOuStra, by his manly valor [nairyflyiJt].42 L o n g considered as t h e sole witness t o t h e tradition, this account was given various explanations. E v e n t h e n , t h e m o s t plausible was t h a t of J a m e s D a r m e s t e t e r which, basing itself on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e x^annah and fire'*^ a n d o n t h e t h e o r y of t h e t h r e e fires— those of t h e priests, t h e warriors, a n d t h e t i l l e r - b r e e d e r s — p r o p o s e d t h e view t h a t t h e t h r e e x^aranahs, which h e claimed w e r e fundam e n t a l l y identical w i t h t h e fires, leave Yima successively a n d t h a t these x^arsnas a r e respectively those of t h e first function (the o n e
YAYATI A N D HIS D A U G H T E R S SONS
41
t a k e n b y Mi6ra), t h e t h i r d (Qraetaona's) a n d t h e second (Karasaspa's).'*'* Christensen objected that, " i f it is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t t h e fire of t h e priests w o u l d b e received b y t h e g o d MiGra a n d t h a t of t h e w a r r i o r s b y t h e h e r o Karasaspa, it is less easy t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y © r a e t a o n a , w h o was Yima's a v e n g e r a n d t h e x^ardnah's t r u e heir, w o u l d h a v e c o n t e n t e d h i m s e l f w i t h t h e fire of t h e h u s b a n d m e n . " ^ ^ D a r m e s t e t e r h a d foreseen t h e objection a n d h a d g a t h e r e d t h e a r g u m e n t s w h i c h m a d e this a t t r i b u t i o n less singular. N o t a b l y , h e h a d r e m a r k e d t h a t " t h e family of t h e AOwya (that of © r a e t a o n a ) s e e m s to h a v e b e e n before all else a family of agriculturalists, for t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of its m e m b e r s h a v e n a m e s c o m p o s e d w i t h t h e n a m e of t h e ox.'"*^ A t a l a t e r t i m e , t h e difficulty was s u r m o u n t e d b y a Z o r o a s t r i a n d o c u m e n t which Christensen h a d n o t t a k e n i n t o account.'*'' A n o t h e r v a r i a n t of t h e t r i p a r t i t i o n of Yima's Glory, m o r e h o m o g e n e o u s a n d in m a n y respects m o r e satisfying, h a v i n g its origin in a lost p a r t of t h e c o m p i l a t i o n of t h e Avesta, is found conserved in t h e Denkart (VII,I,2527,32,36-37), a n d this t i m e t h e t e x t itself gives clear expression t o t h e trifunctional i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 25-27. In another epoch, it [ = the " W o r d " ] returned, from the share allotted by the distribution [baxsisn] of Yam's xvarrah to the religious function of agriculture [vastrydsih], to Freton of the family of the Aswyan, still in his mother's w o m b ; and thereby he became victorious [pero^karlhast].... By agriculture, the third religious function [den sitikar pesak], he taught men the medicine of the body (tanbi^iskih) which makes it possible to disclose the plague and chase away sickness. And he performed numerous wonders and actions beneficial to the w o r l d . . . . 32. In another epoch, it returned to Saman Karsasp, from the share allotted by the distribution of Yam's xvarrah to the warrior estate [artSstdrih], the second religious function [ditikar den pesak]. Thanks to it, he was able to kill the Horned Dragon which swallowed horses and men, the dev Gandarw of golden heels, as well as several other demons created by the dev and the druf ravaging c r e a t i o n . . . . 36-37. In the same epoch [ = under the reign of King Kai Us], it returned to Osnar, still in the womb of his mother, he who was very wise [pur-^er] thanks to the xvarrah of Yam [thanks, evidently, to the last available portion of this xvarrah, corresponding to the first function]. Speaking in his mother's womb, he taught her several wonders. At his birth, he struck the Evil Spirit and refuted the assertions of the mar FraCya, the worshiper of the dev. He
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became mjnister for Kai Us and, under his reign, administered the seven continents. He discovered [taught] the art of regulating speech and several other sciences useful to men; and the non-aryans were conquered in debate. He lavished the most sage counsels [hu-frahaxt-tom] in the aryan lands.48 T h u s w h a t was once, before his sin, a " t o t a l i t y " c o m p r i s e d of t h e unification of t h r e e e l e m e n t s necessary for royal success, n o w , after his sin, splits u p i n t o t h r e e shares each defined b y one of t h e t h r e e functions (agriculture, m a r t i a l force, sagacity a n d religion). A n d each of these functions t r a n s p o r t s itself (awaiting, it seems, a n e w synthesis constituting t h e " x^arsnah of t h e Kavis") o n t o a g r e a t m a n a b o u t to b e b o r n , w h o is characterized b y his excellence in t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g function: t h e first will b e a h e a l e r (who, at this point in t h e tradition, is n o t yet a k i n g ) ; t h e second, a sort of H e r a c l e s ; a n d t h e t h i r d , t h e wise minister, m i r a c l e w o r k e r , a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r of justice for a m y t h i c a l king. D a r m e s t e t e r ' s intuition has t h u s b e e n confirmed.''^ P r o v i d e d w i t h this e l e m e n t of c o m p a r i s o n , w e s h o u l d r e t u r n to Yayati to observe that, if t h e l e g e n d of his b u r s t of p r i d e and his p u n i s h m e n t b y t h e total loss of his m e r i t s is of t h e s a m e value a n d t h e s a m e direction as Yima's sin a n d t h e flight of t h e t h i r d s of t h e x^aranah, t h e n t h e conclusion m o v e s at once in a parallel a n d in an opposite direction: optimistic a n d idyllic j u s t as t h e story of Yima is d r a m a t i c a n d pessimistic. Yayati's loss of the m e r i t s w h i c h h e acquired o n e a r t h in t h e t h r e e functional s p h e r e s — t h e highest having t w o aspects—is n o t a flight b u t an i r r e m e d i a b l e destruction. T h e r e is n o o n e , n e i t h e r a b e t t e r n o r a y o u n g e r person, w h o can inherit or win t h e m : t h e y h a v e b e e n c o n s u m e d in t h e flash of an evil t h o u g h t ; t h e y n o l o n g e r exist. As c o m p e n s a t i o n , Yayati has w h a t Yima does n o t h a v e : four d e v o t e d g r a n d s o n s as m e r i t o r i o u s as he, w i t h t h e reservation t h a t each has invested his m o s t essential m e r i t s in t h e area covered b y a single function or functional f r a g m e n t , t h u s m a k i n g it necessary t h a t t h e four partial treasures b e a d d e d t o g e t h e r in o r d e r to r e c o n s t i t u t e t h e full t r e a s u r e which t h e g r a n d f a t h e r so s u d d e n l y lost. M o r e o v e r , these four g r a n d s o n s are u n i t e d closely not only at heart. O n t h e day of his misfortune, t h e y find t h e m s e l v e s physically r e u n i t e d o n a c o m m o n sacrificial terrain, all offering t h e s a m e sacrifice: t h e synthesis Yayati needs is t h u s c o m p l e t e l y r e a d y for h i m , prefigured in their u n i t y of
YAYATI
I
AND HIS DAUGHTER'S SONS
43
p u r p o s e . T h e synthesis is offered to h i m , a n d , after a flood of niceties, it is a c c e p t e d : Yayati is saved a n d r e m r n e d t o his place in h e a v e n w i t h o u t , it w o u l d seem, actually having to dispossess his g r a n d s o n s , w h o s e heroic d o n a t i o n s have, in t u r n , p r e s u m a b l y yielded t h e m f u r t h e r m e r i t s e q u a l l y capable of assuring t h e m of h e a v e n . If w e w e r e to r e d u c e m a t t e r s to a brief f o r m u l a , w e could say: Yima, b y lying or b y p r i d e , witnesses t h e flight of his total Glory, which b e c o m e s divided, in accordance w i t h t h e t h r e e functions, i n t o t h r e e portions, which later pass o n to t h r e e figures w h o will t h e r e b y in t h e f u t u r e each b e c o m e e m i n e n t in t h e function which c o r r e s p o n d s to his respective p o r t i o n , leaving Yima himself lost a n d w i t h o u t refuge; Yayati, b y his p r i d e , witnesses t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e full s u m of his m e r i t s , which soon afterward is r e c o n s t i t u t e d for h i m b y t h e addition of m e r i t s w h i c h four y o u n g e r figures, each e m i n e n t in o n e of t h e functions or a fraction thereof, transfer to him—^jointly a n d v o l u n t a r i l y — t h u s r e s t o r i n g his f o r m e r g l o r y t o h i m . In t h e Iranian case w e h a v e division a n d dispersion; in t h e o t h e r , reconciliation and fusion. T h e beneficiary in India is h o m o l o g o u s to t h e one w h o is s t r i p p e d in Iran, a n d t h e recipients in Iran are h o m o l o g o u s to t h e givers in India. B u t t h e lines of m o v e m e n t are t h e s a m e , t h o u g h t r a v e l e d in opposite directions, a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e transferred m a t e r i a l , w h e t h e r b y loss, w i t h differentiation, or b y gift, w i t h synthesis, is identical in b o t h cases. T h e r e s e m b l a n c e a n d t h e inversion a r e especially evident in t h e decisive scene of each d r a m a : it is before t h e g a t h e r e d dignitaries— t h e four functional classes w h i c h h e has j u s t f o u n d e d — t h a t t h e Iranian JamSid m a k e s t h e boastful declaration t h a t disperses a n d expels t h e functional c o m p o n e n t p a r t s of his Glory f r o m him;^'^ it is before his g a t h e r e d grandsons—specialists in t h e four functional m e r i t s — t h a t Yayati confesses his sin of p r i d e , in consequence of w h i c h t h e four types of m e r i t s , a d d e d t o g e t h e r , are transferred to h i m . Similarity a n d inversion are p r o b a b l y explained, at least partially, b y t h e n a t u r e of w h a t m a y h e r e b e called t h e stake. T h e x^aranah is a " f r e e g i f t " of God, w h i c h could well b e lost b y t h e m a n on w h o m God h a d conferred it, b u t which could b e won b y n o m a n . M o r e o v e r , it could n o t b e destroyed b y any m a n ' s sin, b u t only withdrawn by God a n d transferred b y h i m o n t o o t h e r m e n . T h e Indian d r a m a , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d t h e m e r i t s of m a n , a r o u n d t h e phala, " f r u i t , " of actions. This fruit m a y evidently b e destroyed by t h e
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sin of a m a n w h o , w i t h o u t t h e g o d s ' i n t e r v e n t i o n , has won i t ; b u t it m a y also be r e c o n s t i t u t e d b y a n e w h u m a n effort—by t h e s a m e m a n if h e is still alive, or b y others. It is t h u s t h a t Yayati's g r a n d s o n s reestablish t h e i r g r a n d f a t h e r in his celestial b e a t i t u d e b y t u r n i n g to his account t h e m e r i t s w h i c h t h e y h a v e w o n t h e m s e l v e s .
4. T H E TRUTH
O n c e t h e g e n e r a l parallelism b e t w e e n t h e Indian a n d t h e Iranian accounts has b e e n observed, a trait of t h e f o r m e r calls for further e x a m i n a t i o n . U p to n o w , w e h a v e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e four types of m e r i t s possessed b y Yayati's g r a n d s o n s , like t h e four sources of his o w n m e r i t s d u r i n g his terrestrial reign, w e r e h o m o g e n e o u s , t h e m e r i t s of t h e first function m e r e l y being considered u n d e r t w o aspects. W e have n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e principle of this bipartition was n o t t h e one e n c o u n t e r e d in o t h e r , q u i t e f r e q u e n t bipartitions of this function. Rigorousness in cultic m a t t e r s is balanced h e r e b y t h e practice of a social virtue.^' B u t w h a t is this virtue? It is t h e t r u t h , satya, t h a t is, respect for the t r u t h and, very strictly, according to Sibi's o w n w o r d s , an existence in which n o lie, w h e t h e r small or large, w i t h or w i t h o u t e x t e n u a t i n g circumstances, is ever u t t e r e d . A n d this is t h e v i r t u e which, r e p e a t e d l y a n d e m p h a t i c a l l y , is given p r i m a c y over all t h e o t h e r sources of merits—riches e x p e n d e d in gifts and a l m s , t h e exercise of valor, a n d the multipHcation of sacrifices. In one case t h e specialist in this virtue, Sibi, wins t h e race to paradise in which Astaka, t h e sacrificer, naively beheves himself deserving of t h e best place.^^ In t h e o t h e r , Yayati, b y his analytic description of his o w n m e r i t s , saves satya for last, raising t h e t o n e of t h e w h o l e speech, a t t r i b u t i n g to himself, t h r o u g h his respect for satya, a creator's role, a cosmic power.^^ T h e suspicion t h u s arises t h a t this f o u r t h source of m e r i t s , which c o m p h c a t e s t h e distribution of t h e w h o l e over t h e t h r e e functions a n d risks u p s e t t i n g t h e i r s t r u c t u r e , is n o t of t h e s a m e n a t u r e as t h e t h r e e o t h e r s b u t d o m i n a t e s or conditions t h e m . W h a t w e h a v e before us, t h e n , m a y b e t h e m e r i t s of t h e t h r e e functions a n d , a b o v e t h e m , t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t m e r i t s of veracity, the absence of lying. Even if w e h o l d to t h e u n i f o r m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t keeps t h e four types of m e r i t s within t h e f r a m e w o r k of t h e t h r e e functions, h o w can
YAYATI AND HIS D A U G H T E R S SONS
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w e n o t t h i n k h e r e of t h e sin m a r k e d for Yima in t h e o n l y postgathic A v e s t a n text which speaks of it, Yast 19,33-34? This king's reign h a d b e e n especially successful, we recall,^'' " u n t i l h e lied, b e g a n to t h i n k t h e lying w o r d , c o n t r a r y to t h e t r u t h . " It m a y b e t h a t pride, lectio facilior of t h e royal t e m p t a t i o n s in s e d e n t a r y a n d o p u l e n t societies, was s u b s t i t u t e d for t h e He b y a n a t u r a l inclination, in India as well as in Iran after t h e Avesta: t h e r e is n o Indo-Iranian t e r m for p r i d e , while t h e v o c a b u l a r y of t h e t r u t h a n d its opposite, w i t h their c o m p l e m e n t a r y a n d derivative t e r m s , their c o n c e p t u a l articulations a n d religious overtones, w e r e a l r e a d y well estabHshed before t h e separation of t h e t w o g r o u p s of peoples. It m a y also b e t h a t these variations in t h e specification of t h e sins a r e m o r e n o m i n a l t h a n real. In Iranian ideology, a n d Indo-Iranian before it, t h e n o t i o n of " t r u t h " is expressed b y o n e or t h e o t h e r of t h e t w o w o r d s w h i c h in Vedic are rtd a n d satyd. T h r o u g h an e t y m o l o g y t h a t Vedic-speaking p e o p l e surely still perceived, t h e second (derived f r o m t h e p r e s e n t participle of t h e v e r b as-, "to b e " ) expresses t h a t t h e t r u e is t h a t w h i c h exists, t h a t w h i c h is positive a n d n o t illusory; t h e first (past passive participle of t h e v e r b ar-, "to a r r a n g e , t o h a r m o n i z e " ) expresses t h a t t h e t r u e is t h a t which conforms to o r d e r , w h e t h e r cosmic or social or m o r a l . F r o m this second perspective, lying consists in n o t recognizing or in altering this o r d e r : such is t h e force b e h i n d t h e articulation, a l r e a d y p r e s e n t in Indo-Iranian tradition, b e t w e e n t h e opposite w o r d s : in Vedic rtii ~ drii/i, a n d in Avestan asa (arta) ~ driy. This is so t r u e t h a t , in t h e l a n g u a g e of D a r i u s ' inscriptions, drauga, t h e " H e , " is essentially t h e a t t i t u d e of rebels, of u s u r p e r s or potential u s u r p e r s w h o deceive t h e p e o p l e b y p r e t e n d i n g to b e " k i n g " in place of D a r i u s himself.^^ It is Hkely t h a t , as early as Yak 19, t h e He, t h e lying w o r d t h a t Yima " b e g a n t o t h i n k , " was of this t y p e : could one i m a g i n e a m o r e serious alteration of t h e w o r l d o r d e r , a n d t h u s of t h e t r u t h based on a c o n f o r m i t y to it, t h a n t h e neglect or t h e denial of God, t h e u s u r p a t i o n of divine h o n o r s ? T h u s , d e p e n d i n g o n one's point of view, psychological or m e t a p h y s i c a l , Yima's sin p r o b a b l y is, and always was, b o t h t h a t of p r i d e a n d t h a t of u n t r u t h : p r i d e w i t h i n t h e secret of his o w n soul, a He in t h e sight of m e n a n d God.^^ H a v i n g o b s e r v e d these concordances, w e m u s t , of course, b e a t t e n t i v e to t h e differences which exist b e t w e e n t h e Indian a n d
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Iranian narratives. But it seems t h a t several of these differences are a d e q u a t e l y explained b y t h e religious orientations of t h e t w o societies. O n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t dissiinilarities concerns t h e point in t h e king's career at which t h e sin, w i t h its consequences, occurs. In b o t h cases it constitutes t h e final episode, b u t for t h e Indian k i n g it takes place in h e a v e n , in t h e course of his post mortem existence, a n d its consequences—losses and reparations—concern a destiny in t h e n e x t w o r l d ; for t h e Iranian king it is situated in this w o r l d , p u t s an end to a terrestrial life and a royal reign, a n d — a c c o r d i n g to t h e Denkart— t h r e e terrestrial figures benefit, w i t h a view t o w a r d terrestrial actions, f r o m t h e consequences. Similarly, in t h e Iranian legend, t h e r e w a r d of an ascent to heaven, p r e c e d i n g the sin, occurs d u r i n g t h e reign and is n o m o r e t h a n a voyage, conferring n o p e r m a n e n t right to celestial residence a n d accorded by divine favor to t h e living Y i m a ; w h e r e a s in India it is a r o u t i n e ascent, m a d e in expectation of a celestial position n o r m a l l y w i t h o u t end, b y t h e m a n w h o has died in possession of a suflfident provision of m e r i t s . T h e result is t h a t t h e initial effect of Yayati's sin is t h e expulsion f r o m h e a v e n t o w a r d hell, w h i l e t h a t of Yima, c o m m i t t e d on e a r t h , has n o effect on a p o w e r of ascension t h a t n e v e r has had a g u a r a n t e e d f u t u r e a n d which s e e m s to h a v e b e e n exercised o n l y once. This b u n d l e of related differences can b e sorted o u t if one t a k e s account of t h e divergence of t h e o l o g i e s — m o n o t h e i s m , p o l y t h e i s m — a n d also t h e individual eschatologies a n d , generally, ideas concerning t h e relations b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n a n d t h e divine. According to M a z d a i s m , n o m a n , n o m a t t e r h o w m e r i t o r i o u s , can establish himself after d e a t h so i n t i m a t e l y beside G o d ; n e i t h e r shall any m a n , after his d e a t h , b e able t o gain or lose m e r i t s , to change, voluntarily or involuntarily, t h e b a l a n c e — w h e t h e r good or b a d — o f his past actions, to modify t h e verdict which t h e divine officials have delivered on this b a l a n c e : t h e elect and t h e d a m n e d are assured their fehcity or w o e for eternity. T h e Indian conceptions, as is n a t u r a l in a polytheistic tradition, are m o r e s u p p l e . A n d h e a v e n , t h e m a n y heavens, lodge beside a n d a m o n g t h e gods n u m e r o u s e m i n e n t m e n w h o have escaped d e a t h or for w h o m d e a t h has been n o m o r e t h a n t h e occasion for this h a p p y e m i g r a t i o n . But b y w a y of c o m p e n sation, their felidty can at a n y t i m e b e d i s r u p t e d b y b u t a single inddent.
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5. YIMA, YAYATI, T H E MANIPULATION O F A G E S , AND T H E O C C U P A T I O N O F T H E W O R L D
At t h e b e g i n n i n g of this s t u d y w e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e t w o episodes w h i c h m a k e u p Yayati's s t o r y a r e connected r a t h e r loosely. T h e separate c o n t e n t s a n d t h e t w o sets of characters c o m b i n e p o o r l y . " This is t r u e of t h e intrigues. But in t h e course of t h e p r e c e d i n g analyses t h e r e a d e r has easily discovered t h e principle of u n i t y w h i c h justifies their association. In t h e first episode, t h r o u g h his sons, Yayati provides lords, if n o t kings, to r u l e over t h e five parts of t h e i n h a b i t e d w o r l d ; in t h e second, he provides his g r a n d s o n s w i t h an o p p o r t u n i t y to illustrate differentially t h e t h r e e functions w h o s e h a r m o n y is necessary for t h e w e l l - b e i n g of every g r o u p of m e n . In o t h e r w o r d s , h e has a l m o s t realized t h e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l tasks w h i c h o n e expects of a first k i n g : t h e organization of t h e e a r t h i n t o its e t h n i c divisions, a n d t h e organization of society i n t o its functional divisions. " A l m o s t , " for in t h e f o r m of t h e legend k n o w n t o us, Yayati actually founds n e i t h e r of these divisions: they preexist. H e distributes a m o n g his sons, t h e dutiful a n d t h e less dutiful, t h e peoples w h o w e r e h v i n g before h i m in t h e c e n t r a l Fifth a n d in t h e four l a n d s on t h e p e r i p h e r y ; a n d , like us, he can o n l y observe that, w i t h o u t his h a v i n g t o i n t e r v e n e or even to will it, his d a u g h t e r ' s sons h a v e b e c o m e specialists in t h e t h r e e social functions. Is it possible that, in a m o r e ancient f o r m of t h e legend, t h e actions of this father of P u r u w e r e t r u l y t h o s e of a "first k i n g , " civilizer a n d f o u n d e r of all, p r o v i d i n g n o t only for t h e political d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e e a r t h b u t for its peopling, a n d establishing its social o r d e r ? O n t h e first p o i n t t h e Mahabharata expresses itself a m b i g u o u s l y : w h e n Yayati, according to t h e w o r d s which h a v e b e e n a t t r i b u t e d to h i m , c o n t e n t s himself w i t h s e n d i n g his four eldest sons i n t o t h e o u t l y i n g l a n d s to r u l e t h e r e ( s o m e w i t h o u t t h e title of king), t h e p o e t concludes t h e episode w i t h t h e distich a l r e a d y cited: from Yadu are born the Yadavas, from Turvasu the Yavanas are born, from Druhyu are born the Bhojas, and from Anu the ptis of Mlecchas.58 " T h e Y a d a v a s , " in t h e p l u r a l , could b e a limitative designation of a lineage, t h e o n e t o w h i c h Kf§na will b e l o n g ; this is less Hkely for " t h e
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Y a v a n a s " a n d is e x c l u d e d for t h e mlecchajatayah, w h e t h e r t h e y b e "families, varieties of Mlecchas ( b a r b a r i a n s ) , " or " i n d i v i d u a l b a r b a r i a n s " : t h u s besides sending o u t chiefs of his o w n race, Yayati seems, as m u c h as N o a h , to b e t h e ancestor of t h e various p a r t s of humanity. But as to t h e second point, n o such a m b i g u i t y r e m a i n s : Yayati acquires, loses, a n d c o m p e n s a t e s for his m e r i t s in a fully constituted society of t h e arya t y p e . N o t h i n g justifies an a s s u m p t i o n t h a t this is an alteration of a m o r e radical tradition, in w h i c h t h e four g r a n d s o n s w e r e n o t j u s t t h e perfect m o d e l s of t h e functions b u t their institutors, or t h e m e a n s of their institution. W e can claim only t h a t for those w h o w e r e responsible for t h e text t h a t w e h a v e in h a n d , it was, at all events, no longer possible t o accept t h e t h e m e in this f o r m : h o w could a royal ksatriya, w h o s e d a u g h t e r h a d m a r r i e d four royal ksatriyas, h a v e as his grandsons, beside a ksatriya, t w o b r a h m a n s a n d a vaisya? Like h i m , all are kings a n d ksatriyas, only " o r i e n t e d " according to t h e t h r e e functions in their m e r i t o r i o u s activities. T h e r e r e m a i n s t h e possibiHty t h a t , w i t h o u t e n g e n d e r i n g t h e functional classes, h e could h a v e founded t h e m b y institution. But at his position in t h e dynastic line, w e l l after M a n u , t h e r e w o u l d n o l o n g e r h a v e b e e n o p p o r t u n i t y for h i m t o d o so. Yima is m o r e conservative on this second point. O n e of t h e constant features of his reign, a l t h o u g h t h e p a r t s of t h e Avesta w h i c h w e still possess d o n o t m a k e it clear, is t h a t h e has estabHshed t h e division of t h e society i n t o classes—priests, w a r r i o r s , tiller-breeders, a n d artisans (such is in effect t h e catalogue of classes f r o m t h e " l a t e r Avesta," t h e artisan class h a v i n g b e c o m e h o m o g e n e o u s w i t h t h e t h r e e others).^^ B u t n u m e r o u s traits lead one to t h i n k t h a t his connection w i t h t h e classes a n t e d a t e s this extension. D e v e l o p i n g a point m a d e b y J a m e s D a r m e s t e t e r , E m i l e Benveniste has s h o w n t h a t t h e singular p l a n of Yima's vara, t h e s u b t e r r a n e a n " r e s e r v e " in which God c o m m a n d s Yima to place t h e seeds first of m a n k i n d and t h e n of all o t h e r living things, proves t h a t it was destined for t h r e e h u m a n g r o u p s of u n e q u a l n u m e r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e which could only b e those of t h e priests, t h e warriors, a n d t h e tiller-breeders.^** M o r e o v e r , Benveniste a n d myself h a v e given reasons for supposing t h a t t h e tradition which m a d e Z o r o a s t e r ' s t h r e e sons into t h e first priest, first w a r r i o r , a n d first tiller-breeder (the last, even m o r e precisely, "chief
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49
of t h e agriculturahsts in Yima's vara), is a r e t o u c h , for t h e g r e a t e r g l o r y of t h e p r o p h e t , of a p r e - Z o r o a s t r i a n tradition in which it was Yima, t h r o u g h his sons, w h o instituted t h e classes.^' As for t h e first p o i n t — d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d p e r h a p s p e o p l i n g of t h e earth—^if Yima's Avestan b i o g r a p h y does n o t p r e s e n t its e q u i v a l e n t , it p e r h a p s contains a s u b s t i t u t e . But first w e m u s t observe a n e w c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n Yayati a n d t h e Yima of this g r o u p of legends. It will b e recalled h o w Yayati c o m e s to send his four eldest sons far away f r o m t h e " m i d d l e , " a n d i n t o t h e " b o r d e r " lands.*^ M a n y explanations m i g h t b e i m a g i n e d as well as m a n y sins, if these missions are punitive exiles. B u t t h e sin, in t h e variant of t h e first b o o k of t h e Mahabharata, is very precise: first c o n d e m n e d b y t h e curse of Kavya Usanas to a s u d d e n old age, Yayati i m m e d i a t e l y obtains f r o m t h e s a m e Kavya a privilege which, o n t h e contrary, m u s t assure h i m of a t h o u s a n d years of y o u t h . All h e m u s t d o is find a m o n g his sons a v o l u n t e e r w h o will exchange y o u t h for old age. O n l y o n e of his sons, t h e last, accepts. H e m a k e s h i m his heir a n d , for a t h o u s a n d years, leads a boy's existence, c o m p l e t e l y h a p p y a n d dutiful besides, e v e n w h e n e n g a g e d in t h e m o s t youthful frolics. As to his four oldest, h e sends t h e m o u t t o t h e circumference to c o m m a n d peoples w h o a r e b a r b a r i c or c o r r u p t . O n e i m p o r t a n t aspect of this episode is t h a t Yayati h i m s e l f m a k e s a connection h e r e , a n d allows for an a d j u s t m e n t , w i t h t h e story of Kavya Usanas.^^ As a result, it is t h a n k s to h i m t h a t this story is inserted as a long parenthesis in t h e ancestral history of t h e heroes of t h e p o e m . Kavya Usanas holds p o w e r over t h e ages: senescence a n d r e j u v e n a t i o n h e controls at will. Such a p o w e r does n o t b e l o n g to Yayati himself. First victimized a n d t h e n p r o t e c t e d b y Usanas, Yayati b e c o m e s p r e m a t u r e l y old, b u t t h e n receives i m m e d i ately, in t h e f o r m of a d e f e r m e n t , a t h o u s a n d years of y o u t h . For these t w o stories to h a v e b e e n t h u s w e l d e d t o g e t h e r , w e m u s t s u p p o s e t h a t b o t h , in certain of t h e i r m o r e ancient variants, contained t h e t h e m e of t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of ages—active in o n e case, passive in t h e o t h e r — a n d , m o r e precisely, t h e t h e m e of t h e deferred old age. Elsewhere, as w e have shown,^"* t h e Iranian Kay U s (Kavi Usa(Sa)n) has conserved this trait, which after t h e silence of t h e Avesta, surfaces in t h e Pahlavi books of t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d in t h e s u b s e q u e n t l i t e r a r u r e : this king is in charge of t h e m e c h a n i s m which t r a n s f o r m s old m e n i n t o y o u t h s . S y m m e t r i c a l l y , in Yima-JamSid—to w h o m t h e
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TWO
second episode in Yayati's tale has d r a w n o u r a t t e n t i o n for o t h e r reasons—Iran p r e s e n t s t h e t h e m e of deferred old age in its " p a s s i v e " aspect. T h a t t h e m e is, i n d e e d , t h e m o s t characteristic of t h e " g o o d t h i n g s " r e p o r t e d a b o u t h i m . W h e n Yima was king, old age a n d d e a t h w e r e s u s p e n d e d — i n s o m e texts, t h e o n l y h m i t b e i n g t h e e n d of his l e n g t h y reign, in o t h e r s , for a t e r m set in advance. N a t u r a l l y it is n o t t h e r e s u l t of p e r s o n a l action or p o w e r , as in t h e case of Kay Os: God, a n d h e alone, achieves this m i r a c l e in his behalf, a l o n g w i t h m a n y o t h e r s of like c h a r a c t e r (freedom f r o m illness, s u p e r a b u n d a n t food, etc.). A few e x a m p l e s t a k e n from each period will suffice to s h o w t h e consistency of t h e tradition. Yasna 9,5 says: In the reign of the brave Yima, there was neither cold nor heat, there was neither old age nor death, nor demon-created envy. With the appearance of youths of fifteen years, father and son walked together as long as the man of good herds, Yima, son of Vivanhat, reigned.65 T h e Parsee Rivayat,
t r a n s l a t e d b y Christensen, says t h a t , after h e
h a d g o n e to seal u p t h e g a t e of hell, JamSid t u r n e d this d a y i n t o a festival day, t h e D a y of t h e Year,
nawro^:
There was neither death nor old age, neither pain nor m i s f o r t u n e . . . . No one could distinguish father from son, for they were both equally young.66 In T a b a r l , w e r e a d t h a t on t h e d a y of t h e navvro^, J i m m a d e it k n o w n to m e n t h a t G o d h a d accorded h i m t h e following r e w a r d for his g o o d c o n d u c t : that he could make them exempt from heat and cold, from sickness, old age, and envy. For three hundred years after the three hundred and sixteen years of his reign that had already passed, men remained in this state[...]. Indeed, God held all that apart from them. After this period, Jim began to disdain God's grace toward him; he brought together spirits and men and told them that he was their king and that it was he who, by his power, had held sicknesses, old age, and death apart from them.67 S o m e t i m e s , b u t rarely, t h e benefit of these i m m u n i t i e s is conc e n t r a t e d u p o n t h e k i n g himself; thus in Bel"ami: He possessed the empire for a thousand years, and, for this thousand years, he was not a moment inconvenienced or sick.68
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T h e privilege t h a t Yayati owes to Usanas is certainly n o t exactly t h e s a m e . First of all, in its o w n t e r m s , only Yayati a n d his sons are c o n c e r n e d a n d entitled, individually, to b e affected b y it: t h e king's subjects are r e m o v e d f r o m it, a n d t h e o r d e r of t h e w o r l d is u n a l t e r e d b y t h e exception t h a t it constitutes. M o r e o v e r , far f r o m their a p p e a r i n g b o t h as teen-agers, t h e father indistinguishable f r o m t h e son, t h e r e is in this case an i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t w e e n Yayati's y o u t h a n d t h a t of his son P u r u : o n e of t h e t w o m u s t g r o w old, Yayati b e i n g able to a n n u l his aging process o n l y b y transferring it o n t o P u r u , a n d Puiru b e i n g m o r a l l y b o u n d , as a dutiful son, to d e p r i v e himself of his y o u t h for his father's sake. Still, h a v i n g delayed his o w n senescence, Yayati, h k e Yima, a p p a r e n t l y enjoys a t h o u s a n d years of y o u t h w i t h o u t aging, for it certainly s e e m s t h a t , w h e n the t h o u s a n d years h a v e passed, h e r e t u r n s t h e y o u t h intact to its d o n o r . W i t h all t h e variants of the tale, b o t h in t h e case of Yima and in t h a t of Yayati, o n e of t h e results of this p r o l o n g u e d y o u t h concerns t h e occupation a n d t h e h u m a n organization of t h e e a r t h ' s surface. W e h a v e u n d e r l i n e d t h e a m b i g u i t y expressed in t h e first b o o k of t h e Mahabharata,^^ which invites us to suppose t h e existence of a m o r e ancient f o r m of t h e n a r r a t i v e in which Yayati, t h r o u g h his exiled sons, was in every w a y the ancestor of t h e " p e o p l e s of t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e , " if n o t of t h e center. O n c e inserted at t h e t h i r d r a n k in t h e canonical succession of kings, Yima n o longer has t o d o this: o n e of his p r e decessors, t h e v e r y first, h a d dispatched troops into t h e six kisvars, t h e fabulous regions which s u r r o u n d t h e central kisvar t h a t is reserved for men.™ But t h e suspension of old age a n d d e a t h involved h i m in a n o t h e r task concerning the c e n t e r : in t h r e e stages he h a d to e n l a r g e t h e e a r t h — e a c h t i m e b y a t h i r d of t h e original surface—to m a k e a place u p o n it for the a b n o r m a l s u r p l u s p o p u l a t i o n of m e n a n d a n i m a l s . T h e e v e n t is r e c o u n t e d at l e n g t h in Videvddt 2,3-19, w i t h f o r m u l a r y repetitions t h a t assure t h e a n t i q u i t y of t h e redaction, a n d also w i t h obscurities in detail t h a t f o r t u n a t e l y d o n o t affect t h e m e a n i n g of t h e passage.''' R o u g h l y speaking, it r u n s as follows: A h u r a M a z d a charges Yima to b e c o m e t h e p r o t e c t o r , g u a r d i a n , a n d overseer of his w o r l d ; Yima accepts and, by v i r t u e of this mission,''^ a n n o u n c e s a m o n g o t h e r things t h a t u n d e r his r u l e t h e r e will b e n e i t h e r cold w i n d n o r h o t w i n d , n e i t h e r sickness n o r d e a t h . Foreseeing an overp o p u l a t i o n crisis, A h u r a M a z d a gives Yima t w o g o l d e n i n s t r u m e n t s ,
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which, a l t h o u g h i n t e r p r e t e r s disagree o n t h e i r n a t u r e , serve h i m in any case to e n l a r g e the e a r t h J ^ A t t h e e n d of sixty years, the earth was filled with small cattle and big cattle, with men [...] and more could find no place upon her, neither small cattle, big cattle, nor men. W a r n e d b y A h u r a M a z d a , Yima " a d v a n c e s t o w a r d t h e light, at t h e h o u r of n o o n , t o w a r d t h e p a t h of t h e s u n , " and, w i t h t h e t w o i n s t r u m e n t s , treats t h e e a r t h in a certain w a y b y c o m m a n d i n g it to g r o w larger; and Yima enlarged the earth by a third more than it was at first. The little cattle, the big cattle, and men found there a home according to their liking. T h e c o n t i n u e d excess of h e a l t h a n d vitaUty c a n n o t h e l p b u t pose t h e p r o b l e m a n e w : at t h e e n d of six h u n d r e d years, a n d t h e n at t h e e n d of n i n e h u n d r e d , Yima m u s t p e r f o r m t h e o p e r a t i o n again, m a k i n g n o changes, always " t o w a r d t h e light, at n o o n , t o w a r d t h e p a t h of t h e s u n . " A n d at last t h e h a b i t a b l e surface finds itself considerably increased. W h a t w o u l d h a v e h a p p e n e d if Yima h a d n o t lied o n e day a n d , in so doing, r e s t o r e d their regulative p o w e r t o famine, sickness, old age, d e a t h , and t h e e n v y " c r e a t e d b y t h e d e m o n s " ? H e r e it is n o t a m a t t e r of d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e e a r t h ' s p o r t i o n s a m o n g m e n : t h e m e n a n d t h e a n i m a l s spread o u t a p p a r e n t l y on their o w n into t h e n e w frontiers o p e n e d u p to t h e m . It n o l o n g e r seems, given t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e f o r m u l a s , t h a t t h e a d d e d p a r t s of t h e e a r t h w e r e p r o d u c e d entirely on t h e p e r i p h e r y : o n e has r a t h e r the i m p r e s s i o n of c o n t i n u o u s e x t r a leaves b e i n g e x t e n d e d f r o m t h e S o u t h e r n side. M i g h t not this legend of Yima a r r e s t i n g old age a n d d e a t h a n d mechanically increasing t h e e a r t h ' s surface b e the l e a r n e d e l a b o r a t i o n of a m o r e s i m p l e , p r e - Z o r o a s t r i a n tradition c o n c e r n i n g t h e progressive p e o p l i n g of h a b i t a b l e lands? A n d on its side, m i g h t n o t t h e l e g e n d of Yayati d i s e n c u m b e r e d of his old age, installed for a t h o u s a n d years in Piiru's y o u t h a n d sending f o r t h w i t h into certain " b o r d e r l a n d s " t h e o t h e r y o u t h s w h o did n o t wish to give h i m their y o u t h , m i g h t it n o t be a l t e r e d f r o m a m o r e s i m p l e tradition concerning t h e utilization of all lands, f r o m t h e center o u t w a r d , occasioned b y an artificial surplus of t h e y o u n g ? Different as t h e y m a y be, t h e y each join, for a sort of wer sacrum, t w o t e r m s of t h e s a m e kind, d r a w n f r o m t h e s a m e
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t h e m a t i c stock: a m a n i p u l a t i o n of ages creating incompatibiUties i n t h e ancient h o m e l a n d ; and an extension of t h e occupied a n d o r g a n i z e d p a r t of t h e earth.'''* W h a t e v e r m a y b e t h e u n c e r t a i n origin of this p a r t i c u l a r point, w e see f r o m t h e s t o r y of Yayati a n d f r o m this fraction of t h e s t o r y of Yima t h a t w e l l - s t r u c t u r e d t r a d i t i o n s h a v e b e e n m a i n t a i n e d : t h e i r biographies p r e s e n t several h o m o l o g o u s episodes in t h e s a m e o r d e r , one of which, in India a n d Iran, follows t w o parallel courses t h a t are s i m p l y i n v e r t e d t o w a r d t h e end. O n e t h u s gUmpses, in t h e I n d o Iranian past, n o t j u s t a t y p e of h e r o , b u t a n a l r e a d y c o n s t i t u t e d epic t h e m e . T o b e sure, it w o u l d b e pointless to c o m p o s e a m o d e l p r o t o t y p e , as t h e differences are too g r e a t ; b u t at least t h e r e does a p p e a r a f i r m e n o u g h m o d e l for a career as "first k i n g . "
6. YIMA: UNITARY O R SYNTHETIC FIGURE?
At this point, a p r o b l e m faces us. W e recalled in t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t h a t stories a b o u t Yima and stories a b o u t Y a m a s e l d o m overlap. A n d yet w e see t h a t a considerable p a r t of t h e career a t t r i b u t e d in Iran t o Yima c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e career of a n o t h e r I n d i a n king, one of a different n a m e a n d one w h o has n e v e r b e e n c o n n e c t e d w i t h Y a m a in any period. H o w are these findings to b e i n t e r p r e t e d ? T h e I n d o Iranian p r o t o t y p e * Y a m a is a t t e s t e d to b y t h e o n o m a s t i c c o r r e s p o n d ence. Did h e a l r e a d y h a v e t h e c o m p l e x i t y of his Iranian c o n t i n u a t o r , w h o t h e n , in t h e f o r m t h a t w e k n o w h i m , c o n t e n t e d himself w i t h conserving t h e c o m p l e x i t y in a Z o r o a s t r i a n f o r m while t h e Vedic a n d post-Vedic Y a m a r e d u c e d this g r e a t inheritance to a l i m i t e d g r o u p of traits, leaving o t h e r s available for a separate n a r r a t i v e w h i c h w o u l d b e c e n t e r e d o n a n e w n a m e , Yayati? O r , on t h e c o n t r a r y , m i g h t Yima h a v e a d d e d t o t h e g r o u p of traits h e h a d in c o m m o n w i t h t h e Vedic Yama, a n d w h i c h alone w o u l d h a v e b e l o n g e d to t h e Indo-Iranian * Y a m a , traditions t h a t w e r e originally i n d e p e n d e n t a n d at first c e n t e r e d on a n o t h e r heroic n a m e ? T h e facts so far a s s e m b l e d e v i d e n t l y d o n o t allow a decision. In s u p p o r t of t h e first thesis, o n e could m a i n tain t h a t , as Yayati's n a m e is n o t Indo-Iranian, it m u s t b e suspected of b e i n g s e c o n d a r y ; a n d also t h a t , as t h e Indian evolution o b s e r v a b l e f r o m t h e RgVeda to H i n d u i s m has inclined t o w a r d i m p o v e r i s h i n g Yama's e n d o w m e n t f u r t h e r , w h i l e at t h e s a m e t i m e c o n f i r m i n g h i m
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in his divine position (his father Vivasvat disappears, b e c o m i n g o n e of m a n y n a m e s for t h e s u n ; n o l o n g e r is h e h i m s e l f t h e "first to d i e , " etc.), it is t h u s n a t u r a l to suppose t h a t a t e n d e n c y in t h e s a m e direction a l r e a d y existed b e t w e e n Indo-Iranian t i m e s a n d t h e RgVeda. In s u p p o r t of t h e second thesis, it could b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e Iranian traditions concerning Yima are not e n t i r e l y c o h e r e n t a n d e v e n contain t h e trace of a contradiction, c o n t r a s t i n g t h e very g r o u p of traits b y w h i c h Yima c o r r e s p o n d s t o Y a m a to those b y which h e c o r r e s p o n d s to Yayati. W i t h o u t being a k i n g of t h e d e a d in a " b e y o n d , " as Y a m a is, Yima is nonetheless, at God's c o m m a n d a n d in expectation of an " e n d of t h e w o r l d , " t h e constructor, a n d originally, it m a y b e a s s u m e d , t h e lasting r e g e n t , or t h e s u b t e r r a n e a n vara, w h e r e , in w h a t is i n d e e d " a n o t h e r w o r l d , " t h e specimens of h u m a n i t y a n d m o r e g e n e r a l l y of all living beings are conserved. H o w can this conception b e adjusted to t h a t of t h e tragic e n d of Yima's reign in which h e is c o n q u e r e d , falls, is t o r t u r e d and slain o n e a r t h as a result of t h e sin (lie, pride) which m a d e h i m lose for g o o d his x^aranah, his Glory, in t h r e e functional parts? M a y n o t this incoherence, a w k w a r d l y avoided b y t h e texts, be an indication t h a t Yima has a n n e x e d , in this second case, a distinct, p r e e x i s t e n t tradition in which his destiny is h a r d l y c o m p a t i b l e with w h a t it is in t h e first? A n e w factor m u s t n o w e n t e r into t h e d e b a t e : Y a m a a n d Yayati are n o t t h e only Indian figures to c o r r e s p o n d t o " p o r t i o n s of Y i m a . " A n o t h e r ancestor of t h e h e r o e s of t h e Mahabharata, Vasu Uparicara, also takes his place a n d justifies his n a m e a m i d this rich c o m p a r a t i v e material.
VASU UPARICARA
1. VASU UPARICARA IN T H E GENEALOGY O F T H E PANDAVAS
Yayati, t h e p a t e r n a l ancestor of t h e P a u r a v a s — t h a t is, of t h e heroes of t h e Mahabharata, so n a m e d after his son a n d successor PQru— certainly does n o t h a v e an u n e v e n t f u l reign, any m o r e t h a n did his father N a h u s a or his g r e a t g r a n d f a t h e r P u r u r a v a s , t h e lover of t h e " n y m p h " Urvasi and rival of t h e G a n d h a r v a s . N o r are t h e g r e a t n a m e s t h a t follow h i m in t h e d y n a s t y any m o r e given to t r a n q u i l l i t y : one of his d e s c e n d a n t s will find t h e m e a n s to m a r r y t h e d a u g h t e r of t h e Sun, a n d this u n u s u a l couple will give b i r t h t o t h e last e p o n y m of t h e h n e , K u r u . But on t h e w h o l e , t h e line is largely h u m a n . At least, d o w n to P a n d u , t h e fathers or their legal substitutes e n g e n d e r their sons n o r m a l l y e n o u g h . It is t h e m a t e r n a l ancestry of t h e Pandavas t h a t is m o r e fantastic. It goes back to a king—himself b o r n in t h e P a u r a v a l i n e — w h o , in A r t h u r Christensen's t e r m i n o l o g y , deserves n o less t h a t Yayati t h e title of "first k i n g , " a title w h i c h h e can s u p p o r t e v e n t h o u g h h e does n o t r u l e t h e e n t i r e e a r t h b u t o n l y t h e f o r t u n a t e k i n g d o m of Cedi. H e is t h e civilizer, t h e benefactor of his p e o p l e , a n d has a reign t h a t recall's t h e g o l d e n age. H e lives w i t h t h e gods, m o s t n o t a b l y I n d r a , in g r e a t familiarity. H e has t w o n a m e s : one, Vasu, p r o b a b l y alludes t o his g r e a t w e a l t h ; t h e o t h e r , Uparicara, literally " t h e o n e w h o circulates a b o v e , " derives f r o m o n e of his privileges. It is w i t h h i m t h a t w e shall b e concerned in this c h a p t e r . B u t let us first see h o w his blood c a m e to flow in t h e veins of king P a n d u a n d his b r o t h e r s . ' N e a r his capital t h e r e flowed a beautiful river, too beautiful, in fact, since a n e i g h b o r i n g peak, M o u n t Kolahala, fell m a d l y in love w i t h her, b a r r e d h e r passage, a n d h e l d h e r captive. King Vasu p u t an 55
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e n d to this violence: b y a s t a m p of his foot, h e m a d e an o p e n i n g in t h e m o u n t a i n ' s side, a n d the river escaped. She h a d , h o w e v e r , b e c o m e p r e g n a n t b y h e r craggy ravisher. A n d w h e n she h a d given b i r t h to a pair of twins, she gratefully g a v e t h e m to t h e king w h o h a d saved her. T h e k i n g m a d e t h e b o y i n t o t h e generalissimo of his a r m y , a n d h e m a r r i e d t h e girl, Girika b y n a m e , s o m e sort of " h i g h l a n d l a s s " w h o h a d i n h e r i t e d t h e b e a u t y of h e r m o t h e r . Vasu was a g r e a t h u n t e r a n d a pious m a n . O n e day his wife Girika, having b a t h e d herself, let h i m k n o w t h a t she was n o w r e a d y for fruitful e m b r a c e s a n d was waiting for h i m . B u t j u s t at t h a t m o m e n t , t h e king's ancestors a p p e a r e d before h i m , famished a n d asking for offerings; a n d t h e y c h a r g e d h i m to " g o a n d kill g a m e , " ja/ii mrgdn! O n e can i m a g i n e t h e y o u n g king's p e r p l e x i t y : a l r e a d y brimful of desire for his wife, b u t first constrained to serve his ancestors. N o t hesitating t h e least, h e set o u t on t h e h u n t . But a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of his being r e m a i n e d u n d e r t h e spell of desire, t h e powerful d e m o n so ably reinforced by t h e c h a r m of t h e forests, t h e softness of t h e grass d u r i n g his halts. Finally, it c a m e t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e h e quickly h a d to tear off t h e leaf of a t r e e to collect his o w n s e m e n . H e did n o t w a n t to waste this h o m a g e r e n d e r e d to t h e Idea of his absent wife. So h e s u m m o n e d a falcon, which seized t h e leaf in its talons a n d accepted t h e mission of carrying it p o s t h a s t e to t h e q u e e n . T h e falcon t o o k flight, b u t it was seen a n d a t t a c k e d b y a n o t h e r falcon, u n d e r t h e impression, n o d o u b t , t h a t it was carrying s o m e m o r e substantial p r e y . W h i l e t h e y fought each o t h e r , t h e leaf d r o p p e d . N o w this d u e l t o o k place over a river, t h e illustrious Y a m u n a , t r i b u t a r y to t h e divine Ganga. In h e r w a t e r s t h e r e s w a m a fish, which, of course, was n o t really a fish b u t a celestial w o m a n , an Apsaras, t h e beautiful A d r i k a w h o h a d b e e n r e d u c e d to this f o r m by t h e curse of a b r a h m a n a n d c o n d e m n e d to h v e in t h e river u n t i l she b r o u g h t a pair of h u m a n twins into t h e w o r l d . As soon as she perceived the falling leaf, she d a r t e d forth o p e n - m o u t h e d , s w a l l o w e d it, a n d t h e n c o n t i n u e d to sport in t h e waters. T e n m o n t h s later, s o m e fishermen c a u g h t h e r and o p e n e d h e r u p : f r o m h e r s t o m a c h c a m e f o r t h twins, a b o y a n d a girl. S o m e w h a t surprised, t h e fishermen b r o u g h t t h e m t o k i n g Vasu—all this occurred in his k i n g d o m — a n d did n o t conceal t h e circumstances of t h e b i r t h . T h e k i n g t h e n took t h e m in, while Adrika, deUvered f r o m h e r curse, recovered h e r divine f o r m a n d
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r e t u r n e d t o h e a v e n . T h e b o y h e m a d e k i n g Matsya, " F i s h , " w h o b e c a m e an ancestor of a p e o p l e of this n a m e , w h o w e r e t o play a secondary role in t h e g r e a t confrontation of t h e Mahabharata. As for t h e v e r y beautiful d a u g h t e r , she b o r e an u n f o r t u n a t e s t i g m a : she discharged a s t r o n g o d o r of fresh sea fish. T h e k i n g was t h u s constrained to p a r t c o m p a n y w i t h h e r , a n d h e gave h e r back to a fisherm a n , saying to h i m " S h e will b e yours, y o u r d a u g h t e r , " iyani tava bhavisyati. As v i r t u o u s as she was beautiful, she t r u l y m e r i t e d t h e n a m e which was given h e r : Satyavati, " t h e T r u t h f u l . " But t h e m a t e r n a l o d o r w o u l d n o t leave h e r . F o r t u n a t e l y , a m o n g f i s h e r m e n this was n o g r e a t h a n d i c a p ; so she was able to lead a n o r m a l life, r o w i n g a fishing b o a t in t h e Y a m u n a to h e l p h e r father, or t h e m a n w h o m she t o o k to b e h e r father. O n e d a y a p i l g r i m , a v e r y saintly m a n , passed along t h e river. It was t h e king Parasara, m a k i n g t h e r o u n d s of t h e n u m e r o u s h e r m i t a g e s on its b a n k s . F r o m a distance h e saw t h e beautiful o a r s w o m a n a n d felt an i m p e r i o u s u r g e t o k n o w h e r b e t t e r . H e a p p r o a c h e d and told h e r b l u n t l y of his desire. T h e girl m a d e a pleasing r e s p o n s e : " Y o u w o u l d n ' t , " she said, " w i t h all these h e r m i t s looking at u s . . . " But soon, b y t h e force of liis penitence, h e raised u p a thick fog which, b y enclosing t h e m , was as good as a private r o o m . Seeing t h a t m a t t e r s h a d t a k e n a serious t u r n , Satyavati raised a c o m p e l l i n g objection: she was n o t free, she h a d a father; if she yielded, h o w w o u l d she d a r e s h o w herself again before h i m ? In such cases, t h e ascetics in Indian fables h a v e an e v e r - r e a d y r e s p o n s e ; t h e y m a k e a p r o m i s e and, m o r e o v e r , scrupulously k e e p it: after t h e e m b r a c e , or after t h e childbirth w h i c h follows from it, t h e y o u n g girl will b e c o m e a virgin again, w i t h o u t t h e least trace of h e r compliance. T h e intelligent Satyavati t h u s resolved to give in, b u t she h a d t h e presence of m i n d t o seek i n d e m n i t y in t h e m o s t suitable w a y : she solicited a favor of h e r o w n choosing. T h e ascetic p r o m i s e d again t o g r a n t h e r wish, a n d she chose t h a t h e r fishy o d o r b e t r a n s f o r m e d into a m a r v e l o u s p e r f u m e . This was a m e r e trifle for t h e ascetic, a n d w h e n , h a v i n g b e e n satisfied, h e left his m o m e n t a r y p a r t n e r a n d w e n t o n piously to t h e n e x t h e r m i t a g e , h e left h e r p r e g n a n t and p e r f u m e d . I n d e e d , t e r r i b l y p e r f u m e d : she c h a r m e d t h e nostrils for such distances as are reserved, in t h e west, for t h e calculations of a s t r o n o m e r s . A n d t e r r i b l y p r e g n a n t t o o : she carried in h e r w o m b o n e of t h e greatest
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sages, o n e of t h e m o s t p o t e n t rsis, Vyasa, w h o as soon as h e was b o r n , took leave of his m o t h e r to go into t h e forest a n d d e v o t e himself to a life of faultless penitence. O n his d e p a r t u r e , h e told h e r t h a t if she ever n e e d e d h i m , u n d e r any circumstances, she h a d o n l y to call his n a m e and h e w o u l d a p p e a r before her. A m o n g o t h e r services for m a n k i n d , Vyasa was to b e credited w i t h p u t t i n g in o r d e r n o t only t h e four Vedas, b u t the Mahabharata, which is t h e fifth. L a t e r h e w o u l d c o m m u n i c a t e this k n o w l e d g e to several disciples, n o t a b l y Vaisampayana, w h o , in his t u r n , was to recite t h e i m m e n s e p o e m at t h e t i m e of t h e so called " s n a k e sacrifice," celebrated b y o n e of t h e first descendants of t h e Pandavas, J a n a m e j a y a , t h e g r e a t g r a n d s o n of Arjuna.^ Before c o m p o s i n g this p o e m , h o w e v e r , Vyasa h a d to p r o d u c e — i n t h e m o s t literal, m a t e r i a l m e a n i n g of the word—its subject m a t t e r a n d give b i r t h to its heroes. At t h e m o s t d r a m a t i c m o m e n t , Satyavati a n d h e r ascetic son join forces a n d t o g e t h e r t a k e care of this p r o b l e m . This is h o w t h e y did it.^ H a v i n g n o w b e c o m e deliciously fragrant, Satyavati was seen, s m e l l e d , and desired by king Santanu, a d e s c e n d a n t of Yayati, t h u s a full-blooded Paurava a n d Kaurava, w h o m t h e s u p r e m e God h a d chosen t o b e t h e g r a n d f a t h e r of P a n d u a n d t h e g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r of t h e five Pandavas. F r o m a previous wife, t h e river goddess Gahga, S a n t a n u had a l r e a d y h a d o n e son of g r e a t m e r i t , a n d at first h e resisted his passion for the beautiful girl in t h e boat. B u t seeing h i m despair, this son took t h e initiative in a r r a n g i n g his r e m a r r i a g e . H e s o u g h t o u t t h e fisherman, t h e beautiful girl's foster father, t h e n called the " k i n g of fishermen." His mission was a success; b u t at w h a t a price! T h e fisherman, letting it b e u n d e r s t o o d t h a t Satyavati was of h i g h b i r t h , w o u l d consent to the m a r r i a g e only o n t h e condition t h a t h e r future son w o u l d b e recognized as t h e sole heir to t h e t h r o n e . And, t h e b e t t e r t o assure this a g r e e m e n t , h e d e m a n d e d f u r t h e r t h a t his i n t e r l o c u t o r , the son by t h e first wife, s h o u l d r e n o u n c e n o t o n l y t h e assertion of his rights to the t h r o n e , b u t also a n y idea of m a r r i a g e or of b e c o m i n g a father. T h e prince, his father's m a t c h m a k e r , s o l e m n l y u n d e r t o o k these t w o obligations and, u n d e r these circumstances, received f r o m t h e gods t h e n a m e Bhisma, " t h e T e r r i b l e " ; for his d o u b l e sacrifice had b e e n terrible indeed. H e also received, f r o m his father, a privilege which e n t i t l e d h i m t o t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y
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role which h e has in t h e Mahdbhdrata: t h a t of n o t dying, despite all w o u n d s , u n t i l t h e day h e himself decides to die. Satyavati t h u s m a r r i e s Santanu a n d bears h i m t w o sons, successive heirs to t h e t h r o n e a n d y o u n g e r h a l f - b r o t h e r s — w i t h o u t k n o w i n g h i m — o f t h e sage Vyasa.'* Shortly after their father's d e a t h , t h e first falls in b a t t l e w i t h o u t having h a d children. Similarly childless, t h e second dies of c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e d y n a s t y s e e m s c o n d e m n e d to i m m e d i a t e extinction and, w i t h it, t h e cult of t h e ancestors, since, b o u n d by his renunciations, B h i s m a can b e c o m e n e i t h e r a k i n g n o r a father. B u t Indian casuistry has p r o v i d e d for such an e v e n t u a l i t y : it is e n o u g h for children to b e e n g e n d e r e d in t h e n a m e of t h e d e a d ; t h e y m a y t h e n b e credited to t h e m a n d t h u s inherit all their rights a n d duties. B u t w h o s h o u l d father these children? T h e n e a r e s t relative. H e r e again, d u e t o his second renunciation, Bhisma, half-brother to t h e d e a d k i n g b y their father, is unfit a n d excluded. F o r t u n a t e l y , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is t h e ascetic Vyasa, half-brother to t h e d e a d princes b y their m o t h e r , w h o has n o t b e e n p a r a l y z e d b y any r e n u n c i a t i o n a n d w h o has p r o m i s e d his m o t h e r to a p p e a r before h e r i m m e d i a t e l y , u p o n a s i m p l e call, to extricate h e r f r o m a n y t r o u b l e . W i t h Bhisma's a g r e e m e n t , Satyavati calls Vyasa, and, b y each of t h e t w o wives of t h e deceased king, Vyasa e n g e n d e r s a son. But, as t h e result of a m o s t significant fate, each b a b y is m a r k e d w i t h a defect: because t h e first q u e e n closed h e r eyes w h e n she saw t h e hairy m a n w h o h a d b e e n destined as h e r p a r t n e r , h e r son D h r t a r a s t r a is b o r n b l i n d ; because t h e second q u e e n t u r n e d pale u n d e r t h e s a m e test, h e r son P a n d u is b o r n w i t h a w h i t e face. A t h i r d effort is t h e least successful: t h e first q u e e n , w h e n it is h e r t u r n again, c a n n o t resolve herself to r e s p o n d to Vyasa's e m b r a c e a n d has a slave act as a stand-in; c o n s e q u e n t l y , the highly v i r t u o u s son b o r n of this union, Vidura, is a sort of b a s t a r d , of m i x e d blood. A m o n g these t h r e e sons, only one, w h o s e s t i g m a is m i n o r , is fit to r u l e : this is t h e second, t h e paUid-faced P a n d u . Raised w i t h his b r o t h e r s b y their u n c l e Bhisma, h e i n d e e d b e c o m e s king. For his o w n sons—putative sons, b u t t h a t is a n o t h e r s t o r y — P a n d u has, in succession, t h e five " P a n d a v a s , " t h e good heroes of t h e p o e m , while t h e blind D h r t a r a s t r a , P a n d u ' s e l d e r b r o t h e r , at o n e s t r o k e fathers a h u n d r e d sons, the p o e m ' s evil heroes. So it is that, t h r o u g h Satyavati, Vasu Uparicara t u r n s o u t t o b e t h e ancestor, a n d a recent o n e at t h a t , of t h e P a n d a v a s a n d t h e
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D h a r t a r a s t r a s : excited b y t h e t h o u g h t of t h e t w i n d a u g h t e r of a river a n d a m o u n t a i n , h e discharges his s e m e n , which is s w a l l o w e d b y a n y m p h - t u r n e d - f i s h ; a n d t h e fully h u m a n d a u g h t e r , a t w i n again, w h o is d r a w n f r o m t h e l a t t e r ' s s t o m a c h , gives b i r t h , in t w o successive states of virginity, to t h e real g r a n d f a t h e r , a n d t h e n to t h e p u t a t i v e g r a n d f a t h e r , of t h e t w o g r o u p s of cousins. For s o m e l o w e r o r g a n i s m s , n a t u r a l history describes cycles of r e p r o d u c t i o n t h a t are even m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d . But for h u m a n beings, at least a m o n g t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n s , I k n o w of n o n e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e , n o t even t h e succession of twins, s o m e b o r n of plants, which t h e e r u d i t e Z o r o a s t r i a n i s m of t h e Pahlavi books places b e t w e e n t h e p r i m o r d i a l m a n a n d t h e first king. I recall it h e r e briefly, according to t h e Bundahisn, n o t because t h e t w o traditions are genetically r e l a t e d (they are obviously not), b u t because their c o m p a r i s o n confirms t h e impression t h a t Vasu Uparicara stands at t h e h e a d of a genealogy t h a t is as fantastic as a n t h r o p o g o n i e s can be in o t h e r contexts.^ A t h i r d of t h e s e m e n of t h e p r i m o r d i a l m a n , G a y o m a r t , killed b y A h r i m a n , is p u t on deposit u n d e r t h e e a r t h ; at t h e e n d of forty years a plant, rivas, e m e r g e s f r o m it, a p l a n t t w o s t e m s of w h i c h p r o d u c e t h e twins MaSya and MaSyani, " M o r t a l " m a l e a n d " M o r t a l " female, a b o y a n d a girl w h o t h e m s e l v e s give b i r t h to a n o t h e r pair, f r o m which a t h i r d is b o r n , w h o , likewise b y pairs, begets t h e various kinds of beings w h o p o p u l a t e t h e seven p a r t s of t h e w o r l d , n o t a b l y — t h r o u g h H o s a n g a n d his sister G u z a k — t h e Iranians.
2 . VASU UPARICARA, T H E CRYSTAL C H A R I O T AND T H E FESTIVAL O F INDRA'S GARLAND
Aside f r o m this p i c t u r e s q u e b u t fortuitously b e g o t t e n family h n e , Vasu Uparicara is t h e h e r o of several c o h e r e n t legends w h i c h show h i m e n d i n g a particularly h a p p y life w i t h a sin followed b y a punishm e n t . A section of t h e first b o o k of the Mahdbhdrata gives a l e n g t h y description of t h e course of his reign,^ while his e n d is r e c o u n t e d b y several passages f r o m t h e " e n c y c l o p e d i c b o o k s , " t h e twelfth a n d thirteenth. T h e p o e m does n o t n a m e t h e p a r e n t s of this v i r t u o u s prince. It says only t h a t , indropadesdt, " u n d e r instruction f r o m I n d r a , " h e c o n q u e r e d , jagrdha, t h e delightful k i n g d o m of Cedi, b u t t h a t t h e n ,
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r e n o u n c i n g t h e use of a r m s , h e retired into t h e forest to d e v o t e himself to austerities. In t h e face of this t y p e of conduct, t h e gods are always on t h e a l e r t : t h e y q u i c k l y suspect a g r e a t ascetic of a m b i t i o n s which t h r e a t e n their s u p r e m a c y . So, despite t h e p u r i t y of Vasu's intentions, t h e y feared t h a t h e w a n t e d t o d e t h r o n e I n d r a a n d b e c o m e their king. For once, t h e y sent h i m n o Apsarases as t e m p t r e s s e s . I n d r a chose to c o n d u c t t h e affair m a n to m a n , so to speak. A c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e gods, h e p r e s e n t e d h i m s e l f a n d t o l d h i m t h a t a k i n g w h o prefers asceticism to his duties does n o t c o n f o r m to dharma, t h e very foundation of t h e w o r l d ; t h a t t h e dharma of t h e king is to p r o t e c t t h e dharma of t h e w o r l d , and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h a t his e t e r n a l salvation was at stake. D e s p i t e their difference in r a n k , it was as sakha, as friends or colleagues, t h a t t h e " c e l e s t i a l " was s p e a k i n g to t h e " t e r r e s t r i a l , " u r g i n g h i m to r e t u r n t o this k i n g d o m of Cedi so rich, as I n d r a tirelessly described it, in a n i m a l s a n d grains, m i n e r a l s a n d precious stones, cHmate a n d fertility; w h o s e i n h a b i t a n t s , h e said, are perfectly v i r t u o u s , n e v e r telling a lie even in jest, a n d observing t h e distinctions of class; w h e r e sons h o n o r their fathers and peasants t a k e care of their oxen. T h e n , to these praises of t h e l a n d of Cedi, I n d r a a d d e d f u r t h e r e n t i c e m e n t s . H e gave a series of p r e s e n t s to t h e h e r m i t - k i n g : "Let there be nothing in the three worlds," he said to him, " t h a t remains unknown to you. Given by me, a great chariot of divine crystal, privilege of the gods, capable of circulating in space, awaits you. Alone among all mortals, riding on this marvelous chariot, you will circulate in mid-air like a god endowed with a body. " I give you a garland made of unfading lotuses: it assures victory. In combat, it will make you invulnerable to missiles. It will be your insignia: blessed, incomparable, grand, it will be known here as 'Indra's Garland.'" In addition, the god, slayer of Vrtra, also gave him a bamboo pole, a precious gift destined for the protection of virtuous men. This p o l e is to h a v e an i m p o r t a n t f u t u r e : at t h e e n d of a year, c o m m e m o r a t i n g these precious gifts w i t h an anniversary festival, t h e king of Cedi p l a n t e d it in t h e e a r t h to h o n o r I n d r a ; a n d since t h e n , all kings i m i t a t e him.'' G o l d e n cloths, g a r l a n d s , a n d all sorts of o r n a m e n t s are s u s p e n d e d f r o m this pole, a n d it is covered w i t h p e r f u m e s . T h e god deigned t o c o m e in p e r s o n to receive t h e offerings of t h e first celebrant. H e declared t h a t , in t h e future, for all those w h o
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w o u l d r e p e a t t h e rite, p r o s p e r i t y a n d victory, srir vijayaka, w o u l d b e assured, t h a t this good f o r t u n e w o u l d e x t e n d to t h e i r subjects—and s u b s e q u e n t experience shows t h a t t h e god, statistically speaking, k e p t his w o r d . As to t h e crystal chariot, b r i n g i n g a d m i r a t i o n f r o m t h e G a n d h a r v a s a n d the Apsarases, t h e k i n g used it as a spaceship; a n d it is this device t h a t e a r n e d h i m his second n a m e , Upari-cara "vnepnoyos." H e h a d five sons, excellent subjects in e v e r y respect. Being himself samraj, " u n i v e r s a l m o n a r c h " — a n d so h e will a p p e a r f r o m n o w o n — h e installed t h e m in as m a n y various k i n g d o m s , nanardjye^u. For only o n e son, B r h a d r a t h a , is t h e r e a l m n a m e d : t h a t of M a g a d h a ; * b u t all are said to h a v e given t h e i r n a m e s to l a n d s a n d cities. It is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t o n e of t h e m is called Yadu, a n a m e which, as w e h a v e seen,^ is a l r e a d y used, a n d chiefly used in t h e epic, for o n e of t h e five sons of Yayati.
3 . VASU UPARICARA, T H E L I E , AND T H E BUTCHERED F O O D
T h e r e seems to b e n o t h i n g to t h r e a t e n t h e career of this royal friend of t h e gods. Yet, as w e learn f r o m o t h e r b o o k s of t h e p o e m , this very quality, or position, brings o n his m i s f o r t u n e ; n o t b y an i m p u l s e of r e v o l t against t h e gods, b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , b y an excess of c o m p l a c e n c y t o w a r d t h e gods. As usual, o n e finds several variants, b u t t h e y agree o n t h e n a t u r e of t h e fault a n d t h e p u n i s h m e n t : in an i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r , Vasu Uparicara did n o t tell t h e t r u t h , a n d , as a result, h e fell f r o m h e a v e n to e a r t h , indeed, r i g h t i n t o t h e e a r t h . But h e t o l d t h e lie in u n u s u a l circumstances, t h e question b e i n g w h e t h e r or n o t it was permissible to eat m e a t or, m o r e generally, to sacrifice a n i m a l s a n d t h u s feed t h e gods w i t h m e a t . In t h e t h i r t e e n t h b o o k , t h e second of t h e encyclopedic books, in which are a c c u m u l a t e d t h e i n t e r m i n a b l e teachings t h a t Bhl?ma gives on a b e d of a r r o w s before h e allows himself t o die, a w h o l e section is d e v o t e d to t h e m e r i t s a t t a c h e d to abstaining f r o m m e a t and t h e sin c o m m i t t e d b y those w h o eat it.'° E m i n e n t authorities are cited: M a n u , M a r k a n d e y a . T o b e sure, exceptions are foreseen in at least o n e text, a n d t h a t a c o m p o s i t e one. According to s o m e , t h e p r o h i b i t i o n w o u l d p e r t a i n o n l y to m e a t c o m i n g f r o m a n i m a l s slain unnecessarily, or n o t previously purified. B u t it is best, says t h e s a m e text, t o accept
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t h e r u l e in all its strictness a n d t o abstain f r o m t h e flesh of e v e r y c r e a t u r e . A n d t h e n c o m e s t h e etiology. F o r m e r l y , beset w i t h d o u b t a b o u t t h e legitimacy of b u t c h e r e d food, t h e rsis raised t h e q u e s t i o n in consultation w i t h Vasu, k i n g of C e d i : and Vasu, although he knew that meat could not be eaten, answered that it could be. A t t h a t very instant, h e fell f r o m h e a v e n to e a r t h . T h e n , h a v i n g r e p e a t e d this w r o n g answer, h e sank b e n e a t h t h e g r o u n d . In t h e twelfth b o o k t h e story is told w i t h m a n y m o r e details, a n d t h e p r o b l e m u n d e r d e b a t e concerns n o t only s l a u g h t e r e d food b u t a n i m a l sacrifices in g e n e r a l . ' ' M o r e o v e r , at t h e e n d , Vasu is saved, restored—like Yayati t h r o u g h his g r a n d s o n s — h e r e b y t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of Visnu. O n c e u p o n a t i m e , t h e gods a n d t h e f §is h a d a d i s p u t e a b o u t a p o i n t of divine law. T h e gods, directly i n t e r e s t e d in t h e m a t t e r , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e object of sacrifice, aja, should r e m a i n , as it was traditionally, t h e goat, t h e w o r d aja, in fact, b e i n g t h e o r d i n a r y n a m e for t h e g o a t itself. T h e fsis, contesting this position a n d p r o b a b l y p u s h e d into an aggiornamento b y t h e progress of t h e t i m e s , q u i b b l e d over t h e w o r d aja: analyzing it as a c o m p o u n d , a-ja, " n o t - b o r n , " t h e y m a i n t a i n e d t h a t it refers to t h e seeds of p l a n t s a n d t h a t , as a result, t h e gods s h o u l d c o n t e n t t h e m s e l v e s w i t h off"erings of barley. T h e discussion q u i c k l y g r e w h e a t e d , as it often does a m o n g ritualists. S u d d e n l y t h e t w o parties, t h e conservatives a n d t h e progressives, saw Vasu Uparicara coursing t h r o u g h t h e a t m o s p h e r e at t h e controls of his crystal chariot. W i t h c o m m o n accord, t h e y took h i m as t h e i r arbiter, a n d t h e r§is confronted h i m w i t h t h e t w o doctrines. K n o w i n g t h e wishes of t h e gods, t h e k i n g decided in t h e i r favor: sacrifices, h e d e t e r m i n e d , s h o u l d b e c e l e b r a t e d w i t h a n i m a l victims. T h e n t h e r§is p u n i s h e d h i m : "Since you have taken the side of the gods," they said, "you will fall from the sky. From this day you will lose the power which you have to circulate in the air! By our curse, you will sink far below the surface of the earth!" Indeed, t h e u n f o r t u n a t e k i n g d r o p p e d to t h e e a r t h i m m e d i a t e l y , a n d found h i m s e l f at t h e b o t t o m of a d e e p pit. But t h e gods did n o t a b a n d o n t h e o n e w h o h a d sinned to serve t h e m . T o b e sure, t h e y could n o t a n n u l t h e curse of such saintly m e n , b u t t h e y fed h i m in
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his o p e n - t o p p e d t o m b , t a k i n g care t h a t h e should suffer n o f u r t h e r ills a n d t h a t he should n o t lose his s t r e n g t h . For his o w n p a r t , t a k i n g inspiration f r o m t h e e x a m p l e given b y T r i t a in a w e l l - k n o w n sacred n a r r a t i v e {itihasa), Vasu, at t h e b o t t o m of his well, silently c e l e b r a t e d an act of w o r s h i p w h i c h e a r n e d h i m t h e s y m p a t h y of t h e " o v e r - g o d , " Narayana-Visnu. T h e l a t t e r sent t h e bird G a r u d a , a n d o n its b a c k Vasu reascended t r i u m p h a n t l y t h r o u g h t h e a t m o s p h e r e u p i n t o t h e w o r l d of B r a h m a . A l m o s t t h e s a m e account, this t i m e w i t h o u t t h e final r e d e m p t i o n , is s u m m a r i z e d briefly in t h e f o u r t e e n t h b o o k . ' ^ In t h e course of a sacrifice offered to I n d r a , t h e rsis, filled w i t h compassion at t h e sight of t h e victims a b o u t to b e killed, p r o p o s e d t o t h e gods t h a t h e n c e f o r t h t h e y s h o u l d only p r e s e n t t h e m w i t h grain offerings. I n d r a , a carnivore, i n d i g n a n t l y refused. A n d t h e r e followed a l o n g discussion w h i c h t h e t w o parties agreed to t e r m i n a t e b y t h e a r b i t r a t i o n of Vasu. "Blessed man," the rsis said to him, " W h a t is the Vedic teaching concerning sacrifices? Is it preferable to celebrate them with animals, or with grains and juices?" Vasu's a n s w e r was a hasty one. H e did n o t w e i g h t h e pros and cons o r e x a m i n e t h e a r g u m e n t s of t h e t w o briefs, b u t heedlessly d e c l a r e d : " O f the two materials, sacrifices may be celebrated with the one that lies close at hand, no matter which it may b e . " ' 3 This response, which was a lie, caused h i m to b e h u r l e d i n t o t h e s u b t e r r a n e a n regions of Rasatala.
4. YIMA, T H E CRYSTAL C H A R I O T , AND T H E FESTIVAL O F T H E N E W YEAR
This c o n c e n t r a t i o n of episodes concerning Vasu Uparicara constitutes a story t h a t r u n s parallel to a sequence which, in Iran, is once again connected w i t h Yima-JamSid and which is n o t recovered either in t h e m y t h of Yama o r in t h e story of Yayati. O r r a t h e r , Yayati and Vasu are c o m p a r a b l e only at t h e b e g i n n i n g of their careers a n d as a g e n e r a l t y p e . Each is a p r o s p e r o u s k i n g r u l i n g over a p r o s p e r o u s k i n g d o m . Each has five sons to w h o m each distributes " d i v e r s e " r e a l m s . Each— a l t h o u g h w i t h s o m e different implications—is called a samraj. T h u s each displays t h e traits of t h e "first k i n g . " This is all, a n d its o n l y
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i m p o r t a n c e for us is t h a t it g u a r a n t e e s t h a t t h e t w o figures are i n d e e d o n t h e s a m e level, a n d are also o n t h e s a m e level as Yima, t h e Iranian figure w i t h w h o m w e c o m p a r e t h e m . Vasu Uparicara receives f r o m I n d r a — t o use as h e wishes d u r i n g his o w n lifetime—a chariot in which h e can circulate t h r o u g h space. T o b e sure, celestial chariots are a c o m m o n p l a c e accessory in t h e fantasy l a n d of Indian m y t h s , a n d it is q u i t e f r e q u e n t for t h e gods, n o t a b l y I n d r a , to send t h e i r cars, w i t h or w i t h o u t driver, to a privileged m o r t a l w h o m t h e y wish to call t o h e a v e n for a visit or, s o m e t i m e s , for good. At t h e end of o n e of t h e variants of t h e story of Yayati's r e d e m p t i o n , t h e five chariots w h i c h a p p e a r before t h e four g r a n d s o n s a n d t h e i r g r a n d f a t h e r are of t h e type.''* Uparicara's vehicle is different: it is a gift m a d e by a god to a m a n , to a king w h o still continues t o reign over t h e e a r t h . It is a gift which h e enjoys " a l o n e a m o n g m o r t a l s " and a gift which has e n o u g h i m p o r t a n c e d u r i n g his lifetime for t h e s u r n a m e derived f r o m it to h a v e b e e n grafted o n t o his n a m e . M o r e o v e r , this gift is b u t p a r t of a threefold p r e s e n t a t i o n . A n o t h e r p a r t , t h e b a m b o o p o l e is i m m e d i a t e l y p u t to use b y t h e king t o establish t h e g r e a t a n n u a l festival in h o n o r of Indra, p r o b a b l y a n e w y e a r celebration,'^ i n t e n d e d t o p r o m o t e t h e p r o s p e r i t y of t h e king and his r e a l m a n d t o assure h i m superiority over his e n e m i e s . This s a m e benefit is also g u a r a n t e e d directly to Vasu Uparicara b y t h e g a r l a n d of victory a n d i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y called I n d r a m a l a , " g a r l a n d of I n d r a . " N o w t h e s e t w o traits—the possession of t h e celestial chariot and t h e f o u n d i n g of t h e N e w Year festival—are also, and in connection w i t h each o t h e r , characteristic of Yima, if n o t in t h e official Z o r o a s t r i a n texts, at least in t h e lateral tradition which has p r o d u c e d t h e w o r k s of t h e M u s l i m period. T h u s in T a b a r l : after J a m S d h a d delivered all sorts of lessons of civilization to m e n , by his command a glass car was constructed for him, and the devils entered it; and he mounted it and proceeded in this car to go through the atmosphere in a single day from Demavend, the land where he resided, to Babylon. That was the day of Ohrmazd in the month of Fravardin, and because of this miracle, of which men were witnesses, namely the voyage through the air which he undertook in this manner, they made that day into the New Year's Day (nawrdi), and he enjoined them to celebrate that day and the five succeeding days as a festival and to enjoy themselves during that time.
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And on the sixth day, which was the day of Xurdat, he wrote to men that the conduct he had followed among them was pleasing to God and that the reward which was accorded to him by God was this: that he would render them free from heat and cold, from disease, from old age, and from envy, 16 So again in al T h a ' a l i b i , after t h e e n u m e r a t i o n of t h e m e r i t o r i o u s civilizing deeds of j a m S i d : J i m had an ivory and teakwood chariot constructed and had it covered with brocade; having mounted it, he ordered the demons to carry him on their shoulders in the region between heaven and earth. Thus he traveled in the air, from Demavend to Babylon in a single day. This was the day of Ohrmazd in the month of Fravardin, the first day of spring, which is the beginning of the year, the time of renovation, when the earth revives after its torpor. Men said: "This is a new day, a happy festival, a real power, an extraordinary king!" And they made this day, which they called nawro^, their principal festival; they praised God for having made their king attain such a degree of greatness and power, and they rendered him thanks for all he had accorded them through the good fortune of this king and under the umbrage of his rule, in matters of ease, well-being, security, and wealth. They celebrated this auspicious festival by eating and drinking, by making their musical instruments resound, and by giving themselves up entirely to diversions and pleasures. 17 A n d in t h e C h r o n o l o g y of B i r u n i : When jamsid had taken possession of the royal power, he renovated the religion, and this undertaking, which was accomplished at the nawrdz, was called " t h e new day"; and this day was established as a feast day, although it had already been celebrated before this epoch. And, as to the reason why this day became a feast day, it is also told that Jamsid, after having had a car constructed, mounted it on that day, and that the spirits and demons carried him in the atmosphere from Demavend to Babylon in one day. People also made this day a feast day on account of the miracle which they had seen, and they introduced the custom of playing with the seesaw to imitate jamsid.18 A n d finally in F e r d o w s i : Then he had a throne constructed, inlaid with precious stones, and at his bidding the dlv lifted it up and carried it from the earth to the vault of the sky. The powerful king sat there like the sun shining in the firmament. Men gathered around his throne, astonished at his great fortune, and poured out
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their jewels upon him, and they called this the new day {nawro:^: that was the first day of the new year, the first (Hwrma^ of the month of Fravardin. On this day the body used to take rest from work, the heart forgot its hatreds. The great, in their joy, prepared a feast; they called for wine, for cups, and for singers, and this glorious festival has been conserved from that time to ours in memory of the king.l^
5. YIMA, T H E L I E AND BUTCHERED F O O D
This s u p e r h u m a n p o w e r , a n d every k i n d of p o w e r , as w e h a v e seen, was lost b y Yima-JamSid t h r o u g h a sin w h i c h , according to t h e w h o l e of t h e M u s l i m tradition, was p r i d e . In his p r i d e , t h e k i n g denied God, a n d t o o k credit himself for t h e miracles which, t h r o u g h h i m , G o d alone h a d initiated. But, as will b e recalled, in t h e only text conserved f r o m t h e p o s t g a t h i c Avesta t h a t speaks of it, t h e sin w a s defined differently, a l t h o u g h n o n e t o o precisely: o n e d a y t h e text says, " h e lied, a n d b e g a n to t h i n k t h e lying t h o u g h t c o n t r a r y to t r u t h . " 2 0 Accordingly, h e lost his x^aranah a n d his r o y a l t y a n d " lived h i d d e n " o n e a r t h w h i l e a w a i t i n g t h e saw of t h e assassin. It is, of course, a lie, t h e s a m e sin, w h i c h causes Uparicara, t o fall f r o m t h e sky o n t o , t h e n u n d e r , t h e e a r t h . As t o t h e Gathas, Yima is m e n t i o n e d t h e r e only once, allusively. H e is s p o k e n of as a sinner, a criminal {Yasna 32,8).2i T h e text has b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d , c o n s t r u e d in m a n y ways as is c u s t o m a r y for n e a r l y every line of t h e G a t h a s ; b u t t o d a y t h e r e s e e m s to b e a g e n e r a l , if n o t u n a n i m o u s , a g r e e m e n t on t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e m e a n i n g of t h e passage. H e r e is t h e t r a n s l a t i o n b y Jacques D u c h e s n e - G u i l l e m i n : . Among these sinners, we know, is Yama, son of Vlvanhat, Who to please our people made them eat the flesh of the ox [gdus bagi]. In thy decision, O Wise One, I shall be apart from these.22 This description of Yima's fault belongs to a t r a d i t i o n in w h i c h eating m e a t is n o t always considered as a fault at all. C h r i s t e n s e n has d r a w n f r o m t h e Pahlavi a n d Sanskrit c o m m e n t a r i e s o n Yasna 9,4, w h i c h teach t h a t H a o m a — t h e god H a o m a , t h e sacrificial p l a n t personified—^was i m m o r t a l because of its o w n religious activity a n d n o t in t h e m a n n e r of those " w h o h a v e e a t e n m e a t w h i c h was given to t h e m b y Y i m a " : f r o m w h i c h it results, h e concludes, t h a t in certain Z o r o a s t r i a n circles it was still a d m i t t e d t h a t u n d e r this k i n g
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t h e privilege of not dying, w h i c h m e n enjoyed, r e s u l t e d f r o m a n i m a l food.23 In any case, t h e m o s t ancient text, Yasna 32, is very p r o b a b l y speaking of t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of this practice, t h e teaching of it, as a c r i m e of Yima, a l t h o u g h o n e cannot tell f r o m t h e m e r e l y allusive verse of t h e g a t h a w h e t h e r , in t h e p r e - Z o r o a s t r i a n tradition to w h i c h it refers, t h e " c r i m e " in q u e s t i o n was connected w i t h , was t h e cause of, Yima's disgrace, or w h e t h e r , as o n so m a n y points, t h e r e f o r m e r limited himself to p r e d i c a t i n g as a c r i m e a practice u n r e s e r v e d l y accepted until his t i m e w h i c h h e c o n d e m n e d a n d wished to abolish.24 In s u m m a r y , Yima-JamSid, k i n g of a g o l d e n age, received b y divine favor various objects,^^ t h e n h a d t h e privilege of coursing t h r o u g h t h e sky in a chariot (less perfected t h a n Uparicara's, for it is still d e m o n i c a l l y p r o p e l l e d ) ; a n d on t h a t occasion h e i n s t i t u t e d t h e a n n u a l royal festival of t h e nawro^. He t a u g h t m e n to eat m e a t , w h e t h e r it was considered a g o o d or an evil. T h e n h e sinned, a n d one of t h e specifications for his sin, t h e m o s t ancient, is t h a t h e lied w i t h p r e m e d i t a t i o n . As a result of this sin h e was h u r l e d f r o m his t h r o n e , d e a d w i t h a stay of execution, a sentence which, b a r r i n g exceptional texts,26 is w i t h o u t p a r d o n . T h e s e traits and episodes a r e articulated differently t h a n in t h e story of Uparicara, a n d t h e y a r e s a t u r a t e d w i t h a different theology. But t h e s a m e set of traits a n d episodes are found in b o t h stories—are, i n d e e d , t h e basic m a t e r i a l of b o t h stories— and for t h e m o s t p a r t t h e y are too singular to h a v e b e c o m e fortuitously attached, in similar c o m b i n a t i o n s , to t w o s e p a r a t e figures. W e are n o w a little b e t t e r e q u i p p e d to e x a m i n e t h e p r o b l e m s posed at t h e e n d of t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r . W i t h o u t i m p o s i n g a n incontestable solution, t h e p l u r a l i t y of t h e I n d i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s to Yima—Yama, Yayati, Uparicara—this parceling o u t of his rich career i n t o m o r e r e d u c e d and m o r e c o h e r e n t units, s t r o n g l y suggests — r a t h e r t h a n establishes—the hypothesis t h a t it was in Iran t h a t a variety of materials, f o r m e r l y separated, b e c a m e c o n c e n t r a t e d u p o n a single figure. I h a v e already called a t t e n t i o n to t h e v a r a , 2 ' Yima's s u b t e r r a n e a n enclosure which, in this perspective, w o u l d b e t h e m a j o r e l e m e n t to survive f r o m t h e m e a g e r tradition concerning t h e original Indo-Iranian *Yama. It appears to h a v e b e e n Hnked, t h r o u g h an a w k w a r d alteration, to a terrestrial reign of Yima's which, j u d g i n g f r o m t h e Indian Yama, was of n o concern to t h e Indo-Iranian, p r e -
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historic * Y a m a , and which, in Iran itself, c a m e to a terrestrial e n d , i g n o m i n i o u s a n d i r r e p a r a b l e , i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h Yima's position as r u l e r in t h e enclosure u n d e r t h e e a r t h . W e can also e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h e Iranian texts s e e m hesitant o n t h e v e r y points w h e r e , according t o o u r hypothesis, m a t e r i a l s f r o m diverse origins h a v e b e e n d r a w n t o g e t h e r . For e x a m p l e , t h e institution of t h e N e w Year's festival— g e n e r a l l y connected w i t h t h e voyage of t h e celestial chariot as is t h e f o u n d i n g of Indra's festival in t h e story of Uparicara—occasionally a p p e a r s linked to, a n d explained by, a n o t h e r e v e n t : t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n b y JamSid of t h e favor, g r a n t e d h i m b y God, t h a t d e a t h , old age, etc., will cease d u r i n g his reign. A n d in t u r n , t h e e q u i v a l e n t of this privilege is found n e i t h e r in t h e story of Uparicara n o r in t h e m y t h s of Yama, b u t r a t h e r , m o r e l i m i t e d in its application, in t h e l e g e n d of Yayati. Such hesitations in t h e stowage of s o m e episodes is p e r h a p s a m a r k of their p r i m i t i v e i n d e p e n d e n c e . All this, h o w e v e r , is o n l y a record of personal i m p r e s s i o n s : t h e question, like so m a n y in o u r field, r e m a i n s o p e n .
4 MADHAVI
1. GALAVA, YAYATI, AND T H E FOUR SONS O F M A D H A V I
T h e s t o r y of Yayati, as p r e s e n t e d in t h e first b o o k of t h e Mahabharata, contains only t w o episodes, those which w e h a v e b e e n considering: t h e stories of his y o u t h a n d difficulties, w i t h his wife, his a w e s o m e father-in-law, a n d his o w n sons; and t h e n , after his d e a t h a n d his installation in heaven, t h e story of his fall a n d his restoration, t h e latter m a d e possible b y t h e generosity of his d a u g h t e r ' s sons. Repeating t h e final episode w i t h several variations, t h e fifth b o o k provides it w i t h a very useful i n t r o d u c t i o n , for in t h e first b o o k t h e s e four g r a n d s o n s a p p e a r a b r u p t l y , w i t h n o t h i n g to account for t h e m . T h e i r b i r t h , r e c o u n t e d at l e n g t h in t h e fifth book, takes its place in Yayati's life as an i n t e r m e d i a r y episode, a necessary o n e e v e n t h o u g h Yayati m a k e s only a few a p p e a r a n c e s in it. This n a r r a t i v e , of t h e highest interest, is m o r e o v e r p l e a s a n t l y set f o r t h . ' As often h a p p e n s in India, t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n has b e e n furnished w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n of its o w n , which at first disorients t h e r e a d e r b u t is soon seen to b e necessary. W e are this t i m e in a h e r m i t a g e w h e r e t h e f o r m e r king, t h e ksatriya Visvamitra, t h e m o s t illustrious of t h e exceedingly r a r e p e r s o n s w h o h a v e b e e n able to c h a n g e their social class, is in t h e t h r o e s of a t t e m p t i n g to p r o m o t e h i m s e l f into a b r a h m a n , having b e e n convinced b y a previous a d v e n t u r e , in w h i c h h e found himself opposed t o t h e sage b r a h m a n Vasi§tha, of t h e superiority of priests over warriors, of austerity over arms.^ O n e day, while Visvamitra was d e v o t i n g himself to t h e m o s t severe penances, t h e god D h a r m a , having a s s u m e d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of Vasistha, p r e s e n t e d himself to h i m a n d , in o r d e r to test h i m , told h i m t h a t h e was h u n g r y . H a v i n g n o t h i n g ready, V i s v a m i t r a s t a r t e d to cook a 70
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m i x t u r e of rice, m i l k , a n d sugar. But this r e q u i r e d a certain a m o u n t of t i m e , d u r i n g w h i c h h e was n o t able t o a t t e n d to his guest. Feigning i m p a t i e n c e , t h e latter ate t h e food w h i c h o t h e r n e i g h b o r i n g ascetics b r o u g h t to h i m , and, w h e n V i s v a m i t r a a p p r o a c h e d , t h e dish b a l a n c e d on his h e a d , his only t h a n k s w e r e t h e w o r d s : " I h a v e a l r e a d y e a t e n , wait h e r e ! " A n d t h e guest w e n t away. V i s v a m i t r a w a i t e d heroically: on t h e s a m e spot, stiff as a post, s u p p o r t i n g t h e dish of rice p u d d i n g on his h e a d w i t h upraised a r m s . A y o u n g e r ascetic, Galava b y n a m e , recognizing this as an occasion for h i m to a t t a i n g r e a t m e r i t s , b e g a n t o serve a n d care for this living c o l u m n . After a h u n d r e d years, D h a r m a - V a s i § t h a r e a p p e a r e d a n d accepted t h e dish, still, after this l o n g wait, w a r m a n d tasty. D h a r m a ate it. A n d t h e n , satisfied, h e fulfilled Visvamitra's d r e a m : f r o m a ksatriya, h e t r a n s f o r m e d h i m into a b r a h m a n . R e t u r n e d to n o r m a l life, t h e n e w priest expressed his g r a t i t u d e to his disciple Galava a n d gave h i m his leave. B u t Galava k n e w t h e corpus of rehgious l a w ; a t t h e end of a novitiate, every disciple m u s t offer a present, a p a y m e n t , to his spiritual m a s t e r . H e t h u s asked V i s v a m i t r a w h a t h e desired. U n d e r t h e circumstances, V i s v a m i t r a considered h i m s e l f a d e q u a t e l y paid b y a h u n d r e d years of service: h e refused to answer. A n d it is h e r e t h a t Galava c o m m i t t e d a fatal e r r o r : h e g r e w obstinate, h e r e p e a t e d t h e question several t i m e s . Losing patience, V i s v a m i t r a n a m e d his p r i c e : " G i v e m e eight h u n d r e d steeds, each of m o o n l i k e whiteness w i t h o n e black ear apiece. Go, h u r r y u p ! " ^ Calava w i t h d r e w , in d e s p e r a t i o n : w h e r e could h e find, h o w could h e p u r c h a s e , eight h u n d r e d such peculiar horses? In a long m e d i t a t i o n , h e p u r s u e d his t h o u g h t s f r o m t h e m o s t reliable m o r a l principles to t h e point of considering d e a t h : o n e s h o u l d n o t b e ungrateful, h e told himself; o n e should n o t fail to k e e p a p r o m i s e ; one w h o has lied can expect n e i t h e r posterity n o r p o w e r , etc. F o r t u n a t e l y , at t h e e n d of all this, h e decided only to e n t r u s t h i m s e l f to t h e p r o t e c t i o n of Visnu. A n d j u s t at t h a t m o m e n t t h e r e a p p e a r e d before h i m t h e celestial bird G a r u d a , m e s s e n g e r a n d m o u n t of Visnu himself. A l t h o u g h it is n o t explained h o w , G a r u d a h a p p e n e d also t o b e t h e friend of t h e b r a h m a n in difficulty, and, as is t h e d u t y of a p r o s p e r o u s friend, h e looked after h i m . " I have a l r e a d y s p o k e n to Visnu a b o u t y o u , " h e said, " a n d h e has given m e t i m e off. C o m e quickly. I will carry y o u t o t h e o t h e r side of t h e ocean, t o t h e e n d s of t h e e a r t h . "
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In an e n o r m o u s l y long m o n o l o g u e of a h u n d r e d slokas, G a r u d a , so t h a t Galava can choose advisedly t h e direction of their j o u r n e y , first m a d e his u n f o r t u n a t e friend listen to a detailed description of e v e r y t h i n g o n e e n c o u n t e r s at each of t h e cardinal points. Finally, Galava declared himself in favor of t h e east, which, in highly l a u d a t o r y t e r m s , h a d b e e n t h e first p r e s e n t e d to h i m . T h e n t h e y b e g a n a l o n g ride, in which t h e comic m i n g l e s w i t h t h e mystical, told in t h e m a n n e r t h a t L u d a n m i g h t h a v e told it, h a d h e b e e n respectful of t h e sacred. Galava is m a d e dizzy b y t h e speed a n d t h e a l t i t u d e , and his cries arc like those h e a r d at the fairground f r o m p e o p l e on t h e ferris w h e e l , while G a r u d a , being a bird, m a k e s fun of h i m . But t h e r e are a d v e n t u r e s in store for t h e bird too. T o w a r d e v e n i n g t h e y set d o w n o n t h e p e a k of a m o u n t a i n , a n d t h e r e t h e y receive t h e pleasant hospitality of a b r a h m a n w o m a n w h o seats t h e m , feeds t h e m , a n d gives t h e m a place to sleep. U p o n w a k i n g u p , h o w e v e r , t h e divine bird has lost his feathers. Galava, w h o takes b a d l y to t h e idea of e n d i n g his days a t o p these steep cliffs, i n t e r r o g a t e s h i m s t e r n l y : such a disgrace m u s t surely be t h e p u n i s h m e n t for s o m e gross sin! Indeed, G a r u d a does h a v e a confession to m a k e : d u r i n g the night, h e e n t e r t a i n e d t h e t h o u g h t of an a b d u c t i o n — w i t h o u t t h e least trace of lasdviousness, to b e s u r e : seeing so perfect a b r a h m a n i , h e h a d b e e n pierced w i t h t h e desire to lift h e r u p a n d carry h e r off to the w o r l d of his m a s t e r Visnu. N o w h e asks h e r p a r d o n , a n d , as good as she is virtuous, t h e b r a h m a n i absolves h i m ; h e recovers his p l u m a g e a n d again sets off with his passenger t h r o u g h t h e aerial corridors of heaven. But it t u r n s o u t t h a t G a r u d a is not as sure of h i m s e l f as h e has let it a p p e a r ; their j o u r n e y across t h e w o r l d is o n e of p u r e agitation. As luck w o u l d have it, they cross p a t h s w i t h n o n e o t h e r t h a n Visvamitra, w h o r e m i n d s Galava of his p r o m i s e a n d d e m a n d s an early p a y m e n t . G a r u d a m u s t t h e n a d m i t his helplessness: in o r d e r to acquire such horses, o n e m u s t have fabulous w e a l t h — t h o s e u n t o l d riches in t h e bowels of t h e e a r t h over which Kubera, flanked by f o r m i d a b l e aides, keeps a jealous w a t c h . H e sees only one solution: t h e y m u s t g o a n d find an especially rich a n d p r o s p e r o u s king a n d ask h i m for a l m s . A n d h e n a m e s a king, a personal friend, s h o w e r i n g h i m w i t h praises which, once we h a v e l e a r n e d w h o h e is, s e e m perfectly fitting: it is Yayati, o u r Yayati:
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"There is a king born in the lunar line," says the bird. " W e shall seek him out, for he is the richest man on earth. This royal sage named Yayad, is the son of Nahusa. He is of true valor. Urged by me, solicited by you, he will give alms, for he has immense resources, as much as the divine lord of wealth. With what he will give you, O sage, pay what you owe to your guru."'* G a r u d a carries his b r a h m a n friend to his royal friend's capital, sets forth to Yayati their p r e s e n t difficulty, a n d r e q u e s t s his h e l p . T h e king, he adds, will n o t t a k e a t o t a l loss: after Galava pays off his guru, h e will r e t r e a t into t h e forest, t h e r e to a m a s s a w e a l t h of spiritual treasures, s o m e p o r t i o n of which h e will not fail to transfer t o his benefactor. Yayati reflects. H e is sensitive to his winged friend's plea, appreciative of Galava's m e r i t s , a n d , m o r e o v e r , h o w can he, t h e pious a n d g e n e r o u s king, refuse to give a l m s ? But t h e a l m s h e does give are u n e x p e c t e d . H e o w n s n o n e of t h e exceedingly rare horses, b u t h e does h a v e a d a u g h t e r , w o n d r o u s l y beautiful, perfectly v i r t u o u s , w h o s e h a n d is ever s o u g h t by m e n , gods, a n d even d e m o n s . Let alone eight h u n d r e d w h i t e steeds w i t h o n e black ear apiece, h e says, princes of t h e e a r t h are r e a d y to give e n t i r e k i n g d o m s in o r d e r to obtain h e r h a n d . " T a k e h e r , " h e says to Galava, " t a k e m y d a u g h t e r M a d h a v i . M y o n l y desire is to have a g r a n d s o n by h e r . " - Galava and G a r u d a t h e n m a k e off w i t h t h e girl w h o has j u s t b e e n ceded t o t h e m , a n d t h e bird cries o u t j o y o u s l y : " W e n o w hold t h e d o o r to t h e h o r s e s ! H o w could h e foresee h o w n a r r o w this d o o r w o u l d be? He t h u s d e p a r t s , w i t h Galava's permission, a n d leaves t h e sage entirely on his o w n to w o r k out t h e m e a n s w h e r e b y this feminine capital, which h e has p r o c u r e d for h i m , can be t r a n s f o r m e d into horses. Galava a n d M a d h a v i first m a k e their w a y to t h e king of A y o d h y a , Haryasva of t h e race of Iksvaku, t h e m o d e l prince with an a r m y consisting of four k i n d s of forces u n d e r his c o m m a n d , a well-filled t r e a s u r y and an a b u n d a n c e of grain at his disposal, d e v o t e d to b r a h m a n s , a n d loved by his subjects. But this h a p p y m a n suffers f r o m a serious lack: h e has n o descendants. Galava i n t r o d u c e s his c h a r m i n g w a r d and m a k e s his p r o p o s a l : " T h i s m a i d e n of m i n e , O I n d r a of kings, is m a d e to increase lineages b y h e r f hildbirths. Accept h e r as y o u r wife, Haryasva, by paying h e r price. I will tell you h o w m u c h it will b e , a n d you will decide."^
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Haryasva reflects for s o m e t i m e . H e a r d e n t l y desires t o g e t a son, a n d t h e p a r t n e r p r o p o s e d to h i m is t r u l y to his liking. T h e n h e decides: " T h e six parts of the body," he says, "which shall be high, this girl has high; the seven which shall be delicate, are delicate; the three which shall be deep, are deep in her; and the five which shall be red, are r e d . . . .* Upon her she has many favorable signs and will surely have many children; she can even give birth to a son destined to become a universal king.9 Consider my resources, O noble brahman, and tell m e the price of this marriage." Galava does not h e s i t a t e : "Give me eight hundred horses of good stock, of lunar color, each with a black ear, and this beautiful, long-eyed girl will be the mother of your children, as the fire-stick, when rubbed, kindles a fire!" U p o n h e a r i n g these w o r d s , t h e k i n g b e c o m e s s o r r o w f u l ; b u t h e is a l r e a d y o v e r c o m e w i t h desire. " I h a v e t h o u s a n d s of o t h e r h o r s e s , " h e says, " a l l w o r t h y of b e i n g offered in sacrifice. B u t I have only t w o h u n d r e d of t h e k i n d you w a n t . G r a n t t h a t for this price I m a y father a single son in this girl.""* Far short of his m a r k , this leaves Galava in a q u a n d a r y . Passive a n d silent u p to n o w , t h e girl M a d h a v i s u d d e n l y takes charge of t h e negotiations over h e r o w n p u r c h a s e : "A brahman," she said, "granted me the privilege of recovering my virginity after every childbirth. Therefore, give me away to this king and accept his good horses. In this way, I will make up the sum of your eight hundred horses with four kings, for whom I will give birth to four sons. Thereby, O best of brahmans, collect the total needed to pay your guru. H Such is my idea, but it is up to you to decide." H o w can h e hesitate? W i t h o u t e v e n a n s w e r i n g t h e ingenious girl, h e says to t h e k i n g : ' ^ "Accept the girl for a fourth of her price, Haryasva, O best of men, and beget only one son!" T h e king n o l o n g e r w a v e r s . W h e n t h e t i m e has elapsed, h e has o n l y to give his son a n a m e : V a s u m a n a s , t h e prince " w i t h t h e spirit t u r n e d t o w a r d w e a l t h . " T h e p o e t n o t e s in passing t h a t , later on, h e w o u l d fully m e r i t this a p p e l l a t i o n for h e w o u l d b e rich a m o n g t h e
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rich and a g e n e r o u s giver of riches.'^ Galava does n o t waste a m o m e n t : as soon as t h e child is b o r n , h e c o m e s to r e c l a i m t h e m o t h e r : "Here, O king, is a son born to you, a boy equal to the sun. It is time, O best of men, for us to go to another king for alms." Haryasva does n o t p r o t e s t or h e s i t a t e : h e k n o w s v e r y well t h a t it will n o t b e easy to o b t a i n t h e r e q u i r e d horses. Heroically, h e r e t u r n s M a d h a v i w h o , a virgin once again,'^ a b a n d o n s t h e s p l e n d o r of this royal court to follow Galava. T h e latter e n t r e a t s t h e king to k e e p t h e t w o h u n d r e d horses o n deposit, a n d t h e n leaves. T h e scene is r e p e a t e d w i t h a second king, Divodasa, s u r n a m e d B h i m a s e n a , " o f t h e t e r r i b l e a r m y , " w h o , Hke his predecessor, has n o sons. This t i m e all goes s m o o t h l y : t h e k i n g has a l r e a d y h e a r d a b o u t these curious m a r r i a g e s a n d is eager t o b e included on t h e list. But, like Haryasva, h e can o n l y p l e d g e t w o h u n d r e d horses, t h a t is, t h e price of a single c o u p l i n g w h i c h is t h e n tirelessly c o m p a r e d — i n n i n e distichs—to t h e joyful u n i o n s of t h e m o s t diverse gods a n d heroes w i t h their official wives. So it is t h a t t h e second b a b y , P r a t a r d a n a , c o m e s i n t o the w o r l d , t h o u g h w i t h o u t — a t this m o m e n t — a n y characterization b y t h e poet. P u n c t u a l as destiny, Galava appears forthwith: "Let the girl be returned to me, and let the steeds remain with you, while I go elsewhere, O king, to seek the price of a marriage." F r o m t h e n e x t , t h e k i n g of Bhoja, son of Usinara, also childless, t h e b r a h m a n - g u a r d i a n tries to obtain t h e balance, t h e four h u n d r e d r e m a i n i n g horses, in e x c h a n g e for t h e siring of t w o sons. T h e k i n g w o u l d b e a m e n a b l e , b u t like t h e others h e has only t w o h u n d r e d horses of t h e r e q u i r e d species: " I will thus beget only one son upon her, O brahman; I will follow the path that others have followed." T h e b r a h m a n , despite his b a d luck, p u t s o n a good face, delivers t h e girl to t h e king a n d , t o await t h e event, e n t e r s t h e n e a r b y forest w h e r e h e devotes h i m s e l f t o austerities. T h e k i n g s e e m s to d r a w a good profit f r o m his purchase—in t h e palace, in t h e g a r d e n s , o n t h e m o u n t a i n s — a n d in this w a y a b o y is b o r n , Sibi, called u p o n in t h e w o r d s of t h e p o e t t o b e c o m e t h e best of kings. Galava reclaims M a d h a v i , a virgin for t h e t h i r d t i m e , and sets o u t in quest for a f o u r t h
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a n d last client. A t this m o m e n t , t h e divine b i r d G a r u d a l o o m s u p before h i m once again a n d c o n g r a t u l a t e s h i m o n his success, which h e believes to b e c o m p l e t e . Galava sets h i m s t r a i g h t : his capital still needs its last q u a r t e r to b e a r t h e r e q u i r e d interest, a n d h e has yet to find a n o t h e r b u y e r . " D o n o t m a k e this e n d e a v o r , " says t h e bird i m m e d i a t e l y : " i t will b r i n g you n o t h i n g m o r e . " A n d h e recounts t h e early history of w h i t e horses w i t h one black ear.'* T h e person responsible for their i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o this w o r l d was Kanyakubja, w h o d e m a n d e d a t h o u s a n d of t h e m f r o m Rcika in r e t u r n for his consent to a m a r r i a g e w i t h his d a u g h t e r Satyavati. Rcika's p o w e r s w e r e b e y o n d t h e o r d i n a r y : h e p r o c e e d e d to t h e a b o d e of V a r u n a — a g o d w i t h a traditional interest in t h e e q u i n e race—and t h e r e , at t h e " H e r m i t a g e of t h e H o r s e s , " Asvatirtha, h e obtained a full cavalry entirely at his c o m m a n d . H e p r e s e n t e d it t o his father-in-law. T h e l a t t e r celebrated a g r e a t sacrifice and, for fees, h e gave t h e officiating priests six h u n d r e d of his m a r v e l o u s h o r s e s : these are t h e horses which, h a v i n g b e e n sold a n d dispersed t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , Galava has already found a n d collected, in t h e l a n d s of t h r e e kings, in g r o u p s of t w o h u n d r e d . As to t h e four h u n d r e d o t h e r s , t h e y died en r o u t e — a l t h o u g h t h e t e x t of t h e Mahabharata, vague at this point, does n o t allow us t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r or n o t t h e y d r o w n e d in a river of t h e P u n j a b . T h e u p s h o t is t h a t Galava n o w finds himself in possession of all t h e k n o w n e x a m p l e s of this species; n o king, n o m a r k e t , will h a v e any m o r e . G a r u d a i m m e d i a t e l y extricates his friend f r o m t h e difficulty raised for h i m by this revelat i o n : let h i m seek o u t his guru, Visvamitra himself, p r e s e n t h i m w i t h t h e six h u n d r e d horses, a n d offer h i m , as h e has d o n e w i t h t h e t h r e e kings, t h e use of t h e girl as t h e e q u i v a l e n t of t h e r e m a i n i n g t w o h u n d r e d — a use l i m i t e d , of course, to t h e e n g e n d e r i n g of a single son. Galava s e e m s to h a v e regained his courage, a l t h o u g h it is t r u e t h a t t h e bird accompanies h i m to his m a s t e r . W i t h simplicity a n d firmness, h e proposes t h e t r a n s a c t i o n : "This girl," he says, "has already, from three rajarsis, had three virtuous sons. Let her conceive a fourth by you, a single one, who will be the best of men. Admit then that the number of eight hundred horses is complete, and give me a receipt for the payment of my debt so that I may go to practice austerities freely." 15)
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O n e could fear a n y t h i n g f r o m a m a n like V i s v a m i t r a , w h o , in t h e dress of a b r a h m a n , conserves a ksatriya identity. But this t i m e , in t h e presence of this magnificent b o d y , his ksatriya past a l o n e speaks forth in t h e voice of an i m p e r i o u s libido: " W h y , " he asked, "have you not brought m e this girl sooner, Galava? For myself, I would have engendered four sons, founders of lineages. I accept her from you, in order to have a single son by her. As to the horses, let t h e m run freely near my hermitage." 20 A n d t h e saintly m a n finds pleasure w i t h M a d h a v i , r e s u l t i n g in a son w h o receives t h e n a m e Astaka. As soon as h e is b o r n , his father fills h i m w i t h t h e dharma associated w i t h artha, leaves h i m t h e six h u n d r e d m a r v e l o u s horses, and sends h i m off as k i n g to " a city e q u a l to t h e city of S o m a . " T h e n , to his disciple, h e r e t u r n s t h e y o u n g m o t h e r , a virgin n o w for t h e f o u r t h t i m e , a n d r e s u m e s his hfe as a p e n i t e n t in t h e forest. Galava has n o t h i n g m o r e to m a k e f r o m his lucrative w a r d . A n d so h e tells h e r , h a n d i n g over at t h e s a m e t i m e o n e of t h e k e y s — t h e trifunctional k e y — t o t h e s t o r y : " T o you is born a son who is a master of alms, a second who is a hero, another who is devoted to justice and truth, and yet another who is a sacrificer. Now go away, O beautiful girl, maid of slender waist. Thanks to these sons, you have saved us: not only your father, but also four kings, and myself"21 Galava likewise dismisses his friend G a r u d a , gives M a d h a v i b a c k t o Yayati and, freed f r o m all cares, finally is able t o r e t u r n to his b e l o v e d forest.22 So m a n y a d v e n t u r e s h a v e n o t d e p r e d a t e d a girl w h o retains n o t h i n g f r o m t h e m to b e t r a y their effect. So h e r father resolves t o give h e r a m o r e d u r a b l e h u s b a n d b y m e a n s of a svayamvara, a t y p e of m a r r i a g e in w h i c h it is t h e interested p a r t y herself w h o , f r o m a m o n g t h e a s s e m b l e d suitors, chooses t h e m a s t e r of h e r life. Fie drives h e r in a chariot, covered w i t h g a r l a n d s , to a place n e a r a h e r m i t a g e at t h e confluence of t h e G a n g a a n d t h e Y a m u n a . PQru a n d Yadu a c c o m p a n y t h e i r sister ( t h e r e is n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e t h r e e o t h e r b r o t h e r s ) . At t h e place set for t h e c e r e m o n y , a g r e a t c r o w d t h r o n g s t o g e t h e r — a c r o w d n o t j u s t of m e n b u t of spirits of all s o r t s : Nagas, Yaksas, G a n d h a r v a s , even wild q u a d r u p e d s , birds, " i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e m o u n t a i n s , trees, a n d forests," n o t to m e n t i o n all t h e g r e a t
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rsis of t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d . But at t h e m o m e n t of choice, she passes over all t h e candidates t o select t h e forest—whose Sanskrit n a m e , vana, is conveniently m a s c u h n e — a s h e r h u s b a n d . She descends f r o m h e r chariot, salutes h e r a t t e n d a n t s , a n d disappears b e n e a t h t h e trees eager for t h e m o s t severe austerities: living u n d e r a strict fast, she lightens h e r b o d y w i t h ascetic practices a n d begins to i m i t a t e the gazelle, living o n g r e e n grass w a t e r e d only b y springs a n d t o r r e n t s . A n d w i t h h e r n e w congeners, the gazelles, as h e r c o m p a n i o n s , she w a n d e r s t h r o u g h t h e vast and t r a n q u i l forest, o n e t h a t is d e s t i t u t e of lions, tigers, a n d conflagrations, a n d , t h r o u g h this m o d e of existence, amasses g r e a t merits.^^ Henceforth, she w o u l d m a k e o n l y o n e m o r e a p p e a r a n c e a m o n g m e n , at t h e s a m e t i m e as h e r f o r m e r " p r o t e c t o r " Galavai^"* this w o u l d be t o h e l p t h e four kings, h e r sons, to convince t h e i r d e a d a n d fallen g r a n d f a t h e r , h e r father Yayati, to agree to c o m p e n s a t e for his fault b y a p p r o p r i a t i n g to himself their four varieties of m e r i t s . Into t h e pool of m e r i t s t h a t will be m a d e on t h a t occasion, t h e gazelle-like p e n i t e n t will t u r n over half of t h e profit f r o m h e r o w n austerities; a n d Galava, n o t a p a r t of t h e family, will c o n t e n t h i m s e l f w i t h t h e discrete c o n t r i b u t i o n of an e i g h t h of his o w n .
2. M A D H A V I , T H E R O Y A L VIRTUES AND T H E SALVATION O F T H E KING
T h e w e s t e r n r e a d e r has p e r h a p s felt u n e a s y at, or a m u s e d by, t h e m a t r i m o n i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t yield t h e h a p p y results j u s t described. W h e n w e see this priest sell a girl's e m b r a c e s to four kings in a r o w , calculating their pleasure b y t h e price t h e y can pay, r e t i r i n g i n t o t h e forest j u s t for t h e t i m e it will take, only t o r e a p p e a r a n d r e c l a i m , for a n e w affair, o n e w h o m w e hesitate to call his w a r d , w e c a n n o t h e l p t h i n k i n g of t h a t controlled traffic, t h e traces of w h i c h are still, alas, to be found—despite t h e efforts of local authorities—in s o m e of t h e big cities of o u r t i m e . Even if, after each p e r f o r m a n c e of h e r services, t h e y o u n g girl comes o u t intact, this does n o t s e e m to c h a n g e — t o m a k e m o r e acceptable, m o r a l l y s p e a k i n g — t h e wellk n o w n m e c h a n i s m of t h e transaction. T h e w e s t e r n r e a d e r is mist a k e n : even f r o m Galava's p o i n t of view, t h e story is steeped in piety. Is it n o t to satisfy t h e d e m a n d s of his spiritual m a s t e r t h a t this t r u e ascetic, in a disinterested fashion, has accepted this singular
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m e a n s to a c q u i r e t h e eight h u n d r e d horses? Has n o t t h e girl's father himself delivered h e r to h i m , heroically p e r h a p s , since h e h a d n o o t h e r w a y , direct or indirect, to c o m e u p w i t h t h e considerable a l m s d e m a n d e d of h i m ? Does n o t t h e y o u n g girl herself, seeing h e r g u a r d i a n in a q u a n d a r y , propose—heroically also, p e r h a p s — t h a t h e divide h e r w o r t h in m o o n - c o l o r e d horses by four a n d t h u s m u l t i p l y b y four t h e n u m b e r of h e r p a r t n e r s ? Finally, even if t h e y are entirely provisional, are n o t these four m a r r i a g e s , u n d e r their set conditions, in fact t r u e a n d h o n o r a b l e ones? To j u d g e f r o m t h e u n m i x e d blessings w h i c h result f r o m t h e m a n d which are s h a r e d b y all t h e parties c o n c e r n e d , it is at least e v i d e n t t h a t t h e gods h a v e found n o t h i n g i r r e g u l a r in t h e p r o c e d u r e . B u t it is f r o m t h e y o u n g girl's s t a n d p o i n t t h a t t h e s t u d y of this series of incidents is, if o n e m a y say so, t h e m o s t p r e g n a n t w i t h revelations. M a d h a v i c o m m i t s n o sin: t h e choice of an ascetic life, of an a n i m a l life w i t h o u t a n i m a l i t y , which she u n d e r t a k e s w h e n she again finds herself free, is n o t an act of r e p e n t a n c e , a sinner's expiation, b u t t h e b e l a t e d realization of a vocation l o n g t h w a r t e d — f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y four years—by t h e execution of an u r g e n t d u t y . T h e execution itself is a p p a r e n t l y m a r r e d b y n o sexual e m o t i o n s : r a t h e r she has acted o u t of p u r e dharma (virtue) w i t h n o trace of kdma (desire)—and t h e artha (profit) w i t h which she has b e e n c o n c e r n e d is an artha also p u r e in essence, i n t e n d e d for a n o t h e r person's a d v a n t a g e . B u t w h a t if these edifying m o t i v a t i o n s are n o m o r e t h a n an I n d i a n a t t e m p t t o p u t a m o d e s t g a r m e n t over a m o r e ancient m e c h a n i s m , o n e of a totally different o r d e r ? For, as Galava says in his farewell m a d r i g a l , M a d h a v i has served m a n y m e n at once. In fact, t h e b r a h m a n for w h o m she has o b t a i n e d t h e six h u n d r e d m o o n - c o l o r e d horses w i t h one black ear apiece is p e r h a p s n o t even t h e principal beneficiary. She has given sons to t h r e e different kings a n d to a f o r m e r k i n g t u r n e d b r a h m a n , n o n e of w h o m h a d sons of their o w n n o r a n y h o p e (this is at least certain for t h e first) of b e g e t t i n g t h e m , w e r e it n o t for h e r , this special girl, w h o m t h e y h a v e f o r t u n a t e l y e n c o u n t e r e d ; to t h e king h e r father she has given n o t o n l y t h e g r a n d s o n h e desired, b u t four g r a n d s o n s , w h o — e v e n t h e b r a h m a n - k s a t r i y a ' s son—have b e c o m e e m i n e n t kings in four lands a n d w h o , as s m a l l c h a n g e for t h e i r g r a n d f a t h e r , if o n e m a y say so, h a v e excelled in t h e v i r t u e typically c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o o n e of t h e t h r e e functions or
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p a r t s of functions in which, t a k e n t o g e t h e r , their g r a n d f a t h e r h a d excelled a n d which are necessary for a really g r e a t king. T h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m of these g r a n d s o n s , w h o s e virtues h a v e r e c o n s t i t u t e d t h e synthesis of m e r i t s , she has m a d e h e r kingly father's p o s t h u m o u s r e s t o r a t i o n to his royal r a n k in h e a v e n possible, a n d , in t h e finale, w h e n h e r father's p r o t e s t a t i o n s m u l t i p l y , b y i n t e r v e n i n g w i t h t h e gift of half h e r m e r i t s a n d t h u s reinforcing t h e gifts of t h e four kings issued f r o m h e r , she at last r e m o v e s his scruples. In short, this pious girl seems to h o l d w i t h i n h e r s o m e efficacious p o w e r w h i c h touches u p o n t h e very essence of royalty. T h e first of h e r t e m p o r a r y h u s b a n d s does n o t fail to notice a n d r e m a r k u p o n it: seeing t h e auspicious m a r k s she b e a r s u p o n h e r b o d y , h e e x c l a i m s : " S h e is c a p a b l e even of giving b i r t h to a cakravartin"^^—that r a r e variety of c o m p l e t e a n d perfect homo regius w h o w o u l d t u r n t h e w h e e l of t h e w o r l d a n d w h o c u s t o m a r i l y b e c a m e a universal k i n g u n t i l t h e B u d d h a o p e n e d u p a n o t h e r o p t i o n for his excellence. T r a n s f e r r e d i n t o t h e story of Yayati, t h e real m e a n i n g b e h i n d this t a b l e a u of royal connections b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t . O u r p r e c e d i n g analyses h a v e found in h i m a realization of t h e t y p e of t h e "first k i n g , " o n t h e s a m e level as t h e Iranian k i n g Y i m a : universal king, d i s t r i b u t i n g p a r t s of t h e e a r t h l y w o r l d to his five sons, t h e o n e elect and t h e four exiled; t h e n , t h r o u g h t h e n a t u r e s of his four g r a n d s o n s , specialized kings, illustrating t h e s y s t e m of t h e functions. I n s e r t e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s of figures, t h e sons a n d t h e g r a n d s o n s , h o w are w e to r e g a r d M a d h a v i , sister of t h e first g r o u p , m o t h e r of t h e second, wife a n d virgin? W h a t is t h e function of this s h o r t - t e r m wife of several kings in succession for w h o m she does n o m o r e t h a n assure t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of their royal Uneages, a b o v e all p r o d u c i n g in h e r royal sons, for t h e final benefit of h e r father, t h e c o m p l e t e set of canonical royal qualities? Iran p r e s e n t s n o t h i n g c o m p a r a b l e . T h e r e , as has b e e n seen, t h e s y m b o l for royal p o w e r is t h e victorious Glory, t h e x'aranah, efficacious on the t h r e e functional levels. At m o s t , it m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e old t h e m e of t h e " v i c t o r i o u s h e r o curled u p in t h e stalk of a m a r i n e r e e d , " w e l l - k n o w n in India—which in Iran b e c a m e t h e t h e m e of t h e " r o y a l x'aranah p u t o n reserve at t h e base of a m a r i n e r e e d , " a n d w h i c h a p p e a r s at t h e m y t h i c a l origin of t h e d y n a s t y of t h e Kayanids—includes a curious f e m i n i n e step in t h e role p l a y e d
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b y a " s i s t e r " after t h e e h m i n a t i o n of h e r " b r o t h e r s . " ^ ^ T h e s c h e m e is this: s o m e o n e has m a n a g e d t o m a k e t h e x^aranah pass f r o m t h e r e e d i n t o s o m e m i l k , w h i c h h e gives to his t h r e e sons to d r i n k . T h e x^arsnah does not, h o w e v e r , p e n e t r a t e i n t o any of t h e sons b u t o n l y i n t o their sister, w h o has also p r e s u m a b l y p a r t a k e n of t h e m i l k . T h r o u g h a n o t h e r m a n she conceives a son, a n d t h e x^aranah passes on to h i m . She gives t h e boy as an a d o p t i v e son to t h e first Kavi. As a result, h e r son will be t h e second k i n g of t h e n e w a n d still contested dynasty, a n d , from father to son, t h e x^aranah—kavaem x^aranah, " t h e x^aranah of t h e Kavis"—will a c c o m p a n y t h e line of t h e Kayanids, g u a r a n t e e i n g their power.27 B u t even if this female giver of r o y a l t y a n d of royal p o s t e r i t y is to b e aligned functionally, as I a m led to believe she s h o u l d be, w i t h t h e Indian M a d h a v i , t h e a l t e r a t i o n t h a t has r e s u l t e d from notions p r o p e r to Z o r o a s t r i a n i s m is so g r e a t t h a t t h e c o m p a r i s o n c a n n o t be pressed farther.
3. M A D H A V I ' S N A M E
At any r a t e , t h e r e is o n e striking difference b e t w e e n t h e Indian a n d Iranian n a r r a t i v e s : t h e w o m a n w h o b e s t o w s t h e Iranian royalty indeed receives t h e essence of royal p o w e r in a d r i n k , b u t it is a d r i n k of m i l k , of cow's m i l k . M a d h a v i herself owes h e r n a m e in t h e last analysis to t h e madhu, to t h e intoxication of t h e madhu, a f e r m e n t e d d r i n k . M a d h a v i is, in effect, t h e feminine of t h e adjective M a d h a v a , w h i c h classical Sanskrit substitutes for t h e Vedic adjective mddhva (feminine mddhvi),'^^ a r e g u l a r derivative f r o m mddhu, w h o s e s e m a n t i c e v o l u t i o n is w e l l - k n o w n : it is t h e Indian heir of t h e I n d o E u r o p e a n w o r d for h y d r o m e l , which, in India as in Greece, t o o k o n n e w m e a n i n g s b u t in b o t h cases referred to intoxication or to inebriating beverages. Madhu is also, in t h e epic, a m a s c u h n e p r o p e r n a m e , a n d several w o m e n b e a r t h e derived n a m e M a d h a v i in t h e sense of " b e l o n g i n g to t h e descent of M a d h u , to t h e tribe of M a d h u . " But this is n o t t h e case h e r e , since o u r h e r o i n e , Yayati's d a u g h t e r , did not descend f r o m such a tribe o r from a n y o n e n a m e d M a d h u . H e r n a m e m u s t therefore b e i n t e r p r e t e d differently, m o r e h t e r a l l y ; a n d this can b e d o n e in only t w o possible ways, for M a d h a v i , as an appellative, has t w o m e a n i n g s , b o t h w h e n it occurs b y itself a n d w h e n it occurs in t h e c o m p o u n d madhumddhavl.
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First m e a n i n g : (1) madhavi, "springtime flower, Gaertnera R a c e m o s a " (B[6htlingk a n d ] R[oth]): (2) madhumadhavi, "eine honigreiche F r i i h l i n g s b i u m e o d e r eine b e s t i m m t e B l u m e " (BR), t h a t w h i c h M [ o n i e r ] - W [ i n i a m s ] glosses: " a n y s p r i n g flower a b o u n d i n g in h o n e y , or a p a r t i c u l a r species of flower, p e r h a p s G a e r t n e r a Racemosa {Bhdg. Pur.)." Second m e a n i n g : (1) madhavi, " e i n b e r a u s c h e n d e s G e t r a n k aus H o n i g " (BR), " a n intoxicating d r i n k " ( M - W ) ; (2) madhumadhavi, " e i n b e s t i m m t e s b e r a u s c h e n d e s G e t r a n k " (BR), " a k i n d of intoxicating d r i n k (Mbh.)" ( M - W ) . It is i n d e e d t h e second m e a n i n g which is c u r r e n t in t h e Mahabharata, as is certified b y t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s of t h e c o m m e n t a r y . BR refers to t w o passages, o n e f r o m 111,288,16040: kathani hi pitva madhvikarn pitva ca madhumadhavim lobharn sauvlrake kuryan narl kadd iti smaret. Let him reflect: how will a woman, after having drunk the intoxicating beverage called madhvika and after having drunk the intoxicating beverage called madhumadhavi, feel desire for sour gruel? H e r e t h e c o m m e n t a r y explains madhvikam by madhupuspajam madyam, " i n t o x i c a t i n g d r i n k p r o d u c e d f r o m the madhupuspa," a flower which R o t h , in BR, gives four i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s according to t h e n o m e n c l a t u r e of w e s t e r n botanists; a n d madhumadhavim is explained by ksaudrajdm suram, " a l c o h o l p r o d u c e d f r o m h o n e y " [ksaudra: (1) Michelia C a m p a k a , (2) h o n e y (BR)]. T h e o t h e r e x a m p l e is in t h e first book, in fact d u r i n g t h e p r e l i m inaries of t h e Yayati episode before his second e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e d a u g h t e r of Kavya Usanas, t h e i m p e r i o u s D e v a y a n i w h o m Yayati soon will b e constrained to m a r r y . D e v a y a n i is in t h e m i d d l e of an o u t i n g w i t h h e r servant-princess S a r m i s t h a and their n u m e r o u s f e m a l e a t t e n d a n t s . W h a t are t h e y doing? (1,81,3360-61) kridantyo ' bhiratah sarvah pibantyo madhumadhavim khadantyo vividhan bhaksyan vidamsantyah phalani ca. (There they were), playing and amusing themselves all, drinking the madhumadhavi, eating morsels of various kinds, and biting into fruits. This is t h e m o m e n t w h e n king Yayati, seeking for g a m e a n d thirsti n g for w a t e r , mrgalipsuh a n d jalarthah, passes t h r o u g h these s a m e places a n d perceives t h e host of p r e t t y girls.
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H e r e t h e c o m m e n t a r y translates madkumddkavxm b y madhuvrk^ajamddhavim (rightly giving to madhavi t h e m e a n i n g of " i n t o x i c a t i n g d r i n k " ) , " i n e b r i a t i n g d r i n k p r o d u c e d b y t h e madhuvkna" ( = Bassa Latifolia, M - W , o n e of t h e four identifications also p r o p o s e d for madhupuspa, BR, M - W ) . T h e r e are, t h e n , t w o choices—which u l t i m a t e l y c o m e to t h e s a m e thing—for t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e p r o p e r n a m e M a d h a v i : (1) e i t h e r " i n t o x i c a t i n g d r i n k p r e p a r e d w i t h t h e h e l p of a certain spring flower rich in h o n e y " ; (2) or else t h a t flower itself, t h e r a w m a t e r i a l for t h e intoxicating d r i n k . In b o t h cases, actually or virtually, M a d h a v i refers to t h a t w h i c h m a k e s for t h e intoxication f r o m madhu. A n d t h a t , at least in n a m e , is w h a t M a d h a v i " i s . " In t h e t e l h n g of t h e legend, this p o w e r has played n o p a r t : t h e intoxication which she inspires, w h e n she appears, is only t h a t of a m o r o u s desire, as m u c h in t h e t h r e e kings to w h o m she is offered in succession as in t h e f o r m e r k i n g t u r n e d b r a h m a n w h o receives h e r as a f o u r t h p a r t n e r . But t h a t does n o t p r e v e n t this figure so fully i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h r o y a l t y f r o m still b e i n g called s o m e t h i n g like " t h e I n t o x i c a t i n g " — a trace, p e r h a p s , of a m o r e b a r b a r i c level of t h e tradition. W e are far f r o m m i l k , far f r o m Iran.
4.
MEDB
But w e are q u i t e close to o n e of t h e strangest symbolic figures of t h e W e s t , of t h e Celtic w o r l d , of t h e e m e r a l d isle, Ireland. W e are, in fact, v e r y close—both in n a m e and, w h a t is m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t , in function—to the f a m o u s q u e e n , or q u e e n s , n a m e d Medb, in w h o m t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y critics, w i t h good reason b u t w i t h o u t a sufficient sense of n u a n c e , h a v e s o u g h t to recognize a personification of Irish royalty, of royal p o w e r defined b y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t of t h r e e qualities. She too, u n d e r different a n d less v i r m o u s conditions, is characterized b y m o v i n g f r o m o n e h u s b a n d to t h e next, b r i n g i n g r o y a l t y w i t h her. A n d h e r n a m e is t r a n s p a r e n t : it is *medhua-, f e m i n i n e of the adjective *medhuo-, f r o m which is derived t h e W e l s h meddw, " d r u n k . " All are agreed on this e t y m o l o g y ;29 t h e only divergence is over t h e orientation, w h e t h e r passive or active, of t h e p r o p e r m e a n i n g of this Gaelic adjective medb a n d of its feminine. T h e opinions are c o n v e n i e n t l y a s s e m b l e d a n d discussed o n pages 112-14 of Josef Weisweiler's b o o k
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Heimat und Herrschaft, Wirkung und Ursprung eines irischen Mythos (1943). Heinrich Z i m m e r (1911), sticking t o t h e sense of t h e W e l s h word, translated M e d b " d i e Betrunkene," " t h e D r u n k e n O n e , " and R u d o l f T h u r n e y s e n (1930) leaned in t h e s a m e direction, " e h e r die ' T r u n k e n e ' als die ' B e r a u s c h c n d e , ' " " r a t h e r t h e ' D r u n k ' t h a n t h e ' I n t o x i c a t i n g ' " ; b u t T o m a s 6 Maille (1938) a n d A l w y n a n d Brinley Rees (1961) h a v e preferred to u n d e r s t a n d t h e w o r d as " t h e Intoxicating O n e , " a m e a n i n g which Hessen has selected, w i t h a question m a r k , in his Irisches Lexicon ( v o l u m e 2, page 104): "medb, b e r a u s c h e n d (?)." Weisweiler, page 114, has s o u g h t t o reconcile t h e t w o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s by replacing t h e m w i t h a third, m a k i n g medb n o longer an adjective b u t a substantive, an " a b s t r a c t f o r m a t i o n " derived e i t h e r f r o m *medhu, or f r o m a v e r b *medhud (Greek /xc^uoj), a n d signifying " R a u s c h , T r u n k e n h e i t , " " d r u n k e n n e s s . " In a n y case, says this a u t h o r rightly, " t h e r e is obviously a connection b e t w e e n t h e intoxicating d r i n k a n d t h e c e l e b r a t e d royal w o m a n of C o n n a u g h t " . T h e c o m p a r i s o n of t h e functions a n d t h e c o m p o r t m e n t s of t h e Irish M e d b a n d t h e Indian M a d h a v i confirms this e t y m o l o g y , w h e t h e r in t h e sense of " d r u n k e n n e s s " or of " I n t o x i c a t i n g . " B u t t h e c o m parison also discloses a p a r a l l e h s m of g r e a t e r i m p o r t b e t w e e n t h e father of M e d b , t h e s u p r e m e king of Ireland, a n d t h e f a t h e r of M a d h a v i , t h e universal k i n g Yayati. This is q u i t e an early reflection u p o n royalty, especially u p o n s u p r e m e royalty, which w e see still m i r r o r e d , despite different evolutions, in t h e Irish and Indian legends.
EOCHAID FEIDLECH, HIS D A U G H T E R S A N D HIS SONS 1. T w o
QUEENS NAMED M E D B
T h e m o s t illustrious of t h e " q u e e n s M e d b " is t h e o n e w h o c o m e s f r o m t h e province of C o n n a u g h t , d a u g h t e r of Ireland's s u p r e m e k i n g Kochaid (or E o c h u ) ' Feidlech. She is called " M e d b of C r u a c h a n " after t h e place of one of h e r residences. She plays a m a j o r role in Tain Bo Cuailnge; she is even at t h e b o t t o m — a s t h e cause—of t h e g r e a t conflict b e t w e e n h e r c o m p a t r i o t s t h e m e n of C o n n a u g h t a n d t h e m e n of Ulster, which is t h e subject of t h e epic. But t h a t is o n l y o n e episode a m o n g m a n y o t h e r s in h e r p e r s o n a l life: in fact, b y h e r o w n decision or at t h e wish of h e r father, she h a d n o less t h a n four r e g u l a r h u s b a n d s , p e r h a p s five, all of t h e m kings.^ H e r first h u s b a n d was C o n c h o b a r , k i n g of t h e U l a t e s ; she left h i m " t h r o u g h p r i d e of spirit," tre uabar menman, " i n o r d e r t o r e p a i r t o Tara, w h e r e t h e ( s u p r e m e ) k i n g of Ireland w a s , " co ndechaid chum Temrach in bail i raibe ri Erend, t h a t is, in o r d e r to r e t u r n t o h e r father's court.^ H e r n e x t suitor, Fidech son of Fiacc, was a native of C o n n a u g h t (his n a m e recalls Fidach, one of t h e d e p a r t m e n t s , or " t h i r d s , " of this province), b u t h e was e l i m i n a t e d b y a rival, T i n d e son of C o n r a Cass, also a m a n of C o n n a u g h t . This is h o w it h a p p e n e d . T i n d e was k i n g of C o n n a u g h t , b u t t w o princes h a d close ties to his k i n g s h i p : Fidech son of Fiacc a n d Eochaid Dala (the l a t t e r b e l o n g i n g to a n o t h e r " t h i r d " of t h e province, t h a t of t h e Fir Chraibe). Fidech w e n t to T a r a — t h e chief t o w n in M i d e , t h e C e n t r a l Fifth, t h a t of t h e s u p r e m e k i n g — t o establish his claim to t h e kingship, a n d t h e r e h e asked t h e s u p r e m e k i n g Eochaid Feidlech for t h e h a n d of his d a u g h t e r M e d b {cur cuindidh Medb ar Eochaid Fedliuch). T i n d e c a u g h t w i n d of this s c h e m e a n d set an a m b u s h . T h e t w o t r o o p s m e t in t h e valley of t h e 85
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S h a n n o n , a n d one of Tinde's m e n killed Fidech. M e d b ' s father t h e n d e g r a d e d T i n d e (he i m p o s e d on h i m an " u n t r u t h of n o b i h t y , " anfir fldtha),'* exiled h i m to the wilderness of C o n n a u g h t , a n d " p l a c e d M e d b at C r u a c h a n in place of a k i n g , " ocus cuiris Medhbh a n-inadh rlgh a Cruachain; b u t this was n o t e n o u g h to k e e p M e d b a n d T i n d e f r o m m e e t i n g l a t e r a n d m a r r y i n g , co mba celedach. T h e o n l y effect of this m a n e u v e r by M e d b ' s father was t h a t t h e place n a m e d C r u a c h a n b e c a m e , for a t i m e , t h e place w h e r e t h e assembly-festivals of Ireland w e r e held, conidh a Cruachain dognitea denuig Erenn, and t h e sons of t h e kings of Ireland took u p t h e c u s t o m , before e n g a g i n g in b a t t l e w i t h t h e province of C o n c h o b a r (Ulster), " o f being at C r u a c h a n w i t h M e d b , " ocus nobittis mic reig Erend hi Cruachain ic Meidhbh. Before h e r m a r r i a g e to T i n d e , from t h e t i m e w h e n she was " i n t h e place of a k i n g " at C r u a c h a n , t h e r e was, in C o n n a u g h t province, n o s h o r t a g e of suitors r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e four o t h e r " F i f t h s " of I r e l a n d . As she herself tells at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e Tdin, " m e s s e n g e r s c a m e on behalf of Find son of Rus Ruad, k i n g of Leinster, to ask for m e in m a r r i a g e ; on behalf of Cairpri Nia Fer son of Rus Ruad, k i n g of T a r a ; of C o n c h o b a r son of Fachtna Fathach, k i n g of Ulster; a n d of Eochaid Bee [a kinglet of M u n s t e r ] ; a n d I did n o t go t h e r e . " This r e a p p e a r a n c e of C o n c h o b a r has surprised s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s , as has a n o t h e r m o r e lively story w h i c h tells h o w , w h e n M e d b ' s father h a d b r o u g h t his d a u g h t e r to t h e festivals at T a r a , C o n c h o b a r stayed b e h i n d after t h e c o m p l e t i o n of t h e g a m e s , lay in wait for M e d b while she w e n t to b a t h e herself in t h e river Boyne, and r a p e d her. But did h e n o t h a v e an old account to settle w i t h her?^ T i n d e was killed o p p o r t u n e l y in t h e b a t t l e t h a t followed, a n d it was t h e second prince w i t h close ties to this king—Eochaid D a l a — w h o , n o t w i t h o u t a fight, b r o u g h t M e d b back safe a n d s o u n d t o h e r k i n g d o m , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e troops which h a d a c c o m p a n i e d her. As a result, Eochaid Dala b e c a m e k i n g ; m o r e exactly, h e was designated b y t h e n o t a b l e s as king of C o n n a u g h t , " M e d b having consented to it on t h e condition t h a t she w o u l d b e c o m e his s p o u s e , " do deoin Medba dia mbeth na chele dhifen. But this condition itself d e p e n d e d o n a n o t h e r : n o t being herself t h e suitor, M e d b reserved t h e right to accept or refuse. N o w , it was h e r practice t o refuse a n y p a r t n e r w h o " w a s n o t w i t h o u t jealousy, w i t h o u t fear, and w i t h avarice, for it was a gets—an interdiction u n d e r magical s a n c t i o n — t h a t she w o u l d
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accept as a h u s b a n d only a m a n w h o c o m b i n e d these t h r e e q u a h t i e s , " cen in cen omun cen neoith do beth ann, uair ba ges disi beth ac ceili a mbeitis na tree sin. Eochaid Dala p r e s u m a b l y took o n t h e t r i p l e obligation, or m a d e t h e triple d e m o n s t r a t i o n w h i c h it r e q u i r e d , for " h e b e c a m e k i n g in consequence of this, dorighad Eochaid trit sin, a n d was t h e n for a t i m e at C r u a c h a n as t h e spouse of M e d b , ana chele ice Meidb."^ B u t a l r e a d y t h e f o u r t h h u s b a n d had a p p e a r e d , h e w h o w o u l d h a v e t h e h o n o r of a p p e a r i n g in t h e Tain. At t h a t t i m e , in C o n n a u g h t , a y o u n g boy called AiUU, son of Rus Ruad, k i n g of Leinster, was b e i n g raised. His m o t h e r was a native of C o n n a u g h t , so t h a t t h e p e o p l e of this province r e g a r d e d h i m as o n e of their o w n . M o r e o v e r , " n e v e r w e r e jealousy n o r fear found in his h e a r t , " ocus dano na frith et no omun inna chridiu, an indication t h a t h e fulfilled at least t w o - t h i r d s of M c d b ' s s t a n d a r d r e q u i r e m e n t s . She w e n t t o Leinster to t a k e h i m w i t h h e r to C o n n a u g h t , a n d t h e r e , very quickly, h e b e c a m e a n a c c o m p h s h e d w a r r i o r . " A n d M e d b loved h i m for his qualities a n d h e was u n i t e d w i t h h e r a n d b e c a m e h e r h u s b a n d in place of Eochaid D a l a . " T h e l a t t e r m a d e t h e m i s t a k e of s h o w i n g his jealousy, cur itluighi Eochaid, which e U m i n a t e d h i m once a n d for all. T h e clans interfered, b u t M e d b h e l d firm " b e c a u s e she preferred Ailill to Eochaid." T h e r e was a b a t t l e in which Ailill killed his predecessor; and t h e n h e b e c a m e king of C o n n a u g h t " w i t h M e d b ' s consent, so t h a t h e was t h e king of this province on t w o i m p o r t a n t occasions: at t h e coronation of Etarscele, and at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e Tain Bo Cuailnge," M e d b gave h i m t h r e e sons, t h e t h r e e n a m e d " M a i n e . " ' T h e r e is s o m e t i m e s a question of a fifth h u s b a n d , s u p p o s e d l y t h e p r o g e n i t o r , w i t h M e d b , of a s u b o r d i n a t e clan widely scattered over Ireland, t h a t of t h e C o n m a i c n e . This Fergus was celebrated for t h e size of his penis.* T h e canonical list does n o t m e n t i o n this last affair, b u t t h e rich get richer, a n d M e d b herself h a d good reasons for saying, at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e Tain: "I h a v e n e v e r b e e n w i t h o u t o n e m a n n e a r m e in t h e s h a d o w of a n o t h e r , " na raba-sa riam cen fer ar scdth araile ocum!^ T h e second M e d b , M e d b L e t h d e r g , d a u g h t e r of C o n a n C u a l a n n , was q u e e n of Leinster, rigain do Laignib.^'^ It is said of h e r t h a t she g a v e t w o children to k i n g Cii C o r b — a d e s c e n d a n t of Rus R u a d , o n e
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of t h e suitors, t h e n a father-in-law of M e d b of C r u a c h a n — b u t t h a t w h e n Cu C o r b was killed b y Feidlimid Rechtaid, son of T u a t h a l T e c h t m h a r , k i n g of Ireland, she b e c a m e t h e wife of t h e victor, w h o was f a m o u s above all as t h e father of C o n n Cetcathach, " C o n n of a h u n d r e d b a t t l e s . " " T r u l y g r e a t was t h e force a n d p o w e r of this M e d b over t h e m e n of I r e l a n d , " o n e text says, " f o r she t o l e r a t e d n o k i n g at T a r a unless h e took h e r as his wife, roba mor tra nert ocus cumachta Meidhbha insinfor firu Erenn, airisina leigedh ri a Temair gan a bethfeir aigina mndi; and it is for h e r t h a t t h e royal rath (a k i n d of enclosure), t h e R a t h M e d b a , was c o n s t r u c t e d n e a r T a r a , a n d t h e r e she m a d e a b u i l d i n g w h e r e t h e kings a n d t h e m a s t e r s of all arts, righa octts ollamuin gacha dana, c a m e t o g e t h e r . " She did n o t Umit herself to these t w o h u s b a n d s , b u t , at least for h e r r e g u l a r p a r t n e r s , she did n o t s e e m t o look b e y o n d t h e dynasty. After Feidlimid, father of C o n n , she m a r r i e d A r t , son of C o n n , a n d after h i m C o r m a c , son of Art. A n d , as o n e text specifies, it was this m a r r i a g e , and it a l o n e — n o t h e r e d i t y — w h i c h allowed C o r m a c to a s s u m e royalty. " C o r m a c g r a n d s o n of C o n n , " a text says, " l i v e d at Kells before a s s u m i n g t h e r o y a l t y of I r e l a n d after t h e d e a t h of his father (Art). M e d b L e t h d c r g of Leinster h a d b e e n t h e wife of A r t and, after t h e latter's d e a t h , she took t h e royalty, ocus arrobert side in rige iar n-ecaib Airt."^^ A p o e m is specific o n this p o i n t : The Leinstermen of the spears made over the sovereignty to the son of the king of Eire; not until Meadhbh [Medb] was united to the son [of the king of Ireland, i.e. of Cathaoir Mor] did Cormac become king of Eire. 12 2. M E D B , SOVEREIGNTY, AND THE R O Y A L VIRTUES
T h e existence of t w o identically n a m e d d o u b l e t s , o n e in t h e l e g e n d s of C o n n a u g h t , t h e o t h e r in t h e legends of Leinster, b o t h diversely connected w i t h t h e c e n t r a l Fifth, g u a r a n t e e s t h a t t h e " M e d b t y p e " is i n d e e d a variety of those feminine personifications of p o w e r , of fiaith, of which I r e l a n d p r e s e n t s o t h e r e x a m p l e s — s o m e t i m e s u n d e r t h e s i m p l e n a m e Fiaith—and which h a v e p r o s p e r e d d o w n to t h e F r e n c h a n d English r o m a n c e s of t h e M i d d l e Ages. T h e m o s t f a m o u s e x a m p l e s are found in t h e t w o stories of Niall a n d Lugaid Laigde. I m e n t i o n t h e m because t h e y p r e s e n t a t y p e of personification t h a t is
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r u d e r t h a n t h e t y p e w e see in M e d b a n d , despite w h a t has b e e n said, n o t exactly its dupHcate. In their youth, Niall and his four half-brothers, Brian, Fiachra, Ailill, and Fergus, having received weapons, went to try t h e m out in the hunt. They lost their way and lit a great fire to cook the game they had killed. As they had nothing to drink, the last brother went in search of a water supply. He came before a spring guarded by an old sorceress who would not allow him to draw from it unless he gave her a kiss. He refused and came back with his bucket empty. One after another, the three intermediary brothers had the same experience, with the only exception that one, Fiachra, deigned to graze the woman with his lips, in reward for which she promised him " a brief contact with Tara," announcing to him thereby that only two of his descendants would become kings. When it came to the youngest, Niall's turn, he was less fastidious: he clasped the old woman and covered her with kisses. Presumably he closed his eyes for, when he looked, he saw himself in the grip of the most beautiful woman in the world. " W h o are you?" he asked. "King of Tara," she answered—thus saluting him as "supreme king" /—"I am Sovereignty and your descendants will be above every clan." And, sending him back toward his brothers, she recommended to him that he not allow them to drink before they had recognized his rights and his superiority. 13 V e r y close to this story, w i t h a s u p p l e m e n t , is t h e story of t h e five sons of k i n g Daire.!"* It had been foretold to Ddire that a "son of Daire," named "Lugaid," would attain the kingship of Ireland. For more assurance, to all the boys who were born to him he gave the same name, Lugaid. One day, at Teltown— a place where there were seasonal feasts and games—his sons were set to participate in a horserace, and there a druid specified to Daire that his heir would be the one who succeeded in catching a fawn with a golden fleece who would enter the assembly. The fawn indeed appeared and, while it was being pursued, a magical mist separated the five brothers from all the other hunters. It was Lugaid Laigde who caught the animal. Then a great snow began to fall and one of the brothers set off in search of shelter. He was able to find a house with a great fire, food and ale, silver dishes, a bronze bed and a horrible sorceress. This latter offered the boy a bed for the night on the condition that she herself would share intimately in his repose. He refused, and she declared to him that in so doing he had just deprived himself of Sovereignty. The other brothers then came one after another to present themselves at the same house, but the sorceress asked nothing from them— until, last of all, came Lugaid Laigde who, with astonishment, saw the old
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body, under his embrace, become radiant like the rising sun in the month of May and fragrant like a beautiful garden. As he clasped her, she said to him: "Happy is your journey, for I am Sovereignty, 14 and you shall attain the sovereignty over all of Ireland." 15 T h e story is interesting because it brings into play, in p a r a l l e l — o n e confirming t h e o t h e r — t w o s y m b o l s or signs of sovereignty, t h e w o m a n a n d t h e fawn, b o t h of t h e m e n c o u n t e r e d in t h e w o o d s . ' ^ Q u e e n M e d b , w h o conceals h e r b e a u t y u n d e r n o m a s k a n d lays n o t r a p s for the p r e t e n d e r s to royalty save h e r c h a r m s , s y m b o l i z e s a n o t h e r aspect of p o w e r ; she is n o l o n g e r l i n k e d solely to a s o m e t i m e s fortuitous c o n q u e s t of royalty, b u t to a regular, c o n t r o l l e d c o n q u e s t a n d , a b o v e all, to t h e practice of royalty. It is she w h o defines royalty a n d rigorously sets its " m o r a l " conditions. W i t h h e r , it is n o l o n g e r a q u e s t i o n of chance, of boldness, of g a l l a n t r y , b u t of m e r i t s . She does n o t satisfy herself w i t h o n e p a r t n e r b u t m u l t i p l i e s t h e m , shamelessly d e h g h t s in m a k i n g t h e m vie w i t h each o t h e r u n d e r t h e p r e t e x t of assessing their q u a h t i e s . It m a y well h a v e b e e n t h e spectacle, t h e experience—unceasingly r e n e w e d — o f t h e instability of t h e t h r o n e t h a t o r i e n t e d this figure, m o r e a n d m o r e , it w o u l d s e e m , t o w a r d a career of cynicism a n d d e b a u c h e r y . In t h e s a m e w a y a n o t h e r experience, t h a t of t h e waves of blood which flowed in t h e princely contests, a p p e a r s to h a v e e a r n e d for t h e o t h e r M e d b , M e d b of Leinster, h e r qualification Leth-derg, " o f t h e red s i d e " or " o f t h e r e d h a l f " T h a t experience m a y also explain t h e e p i t h e t applied to t h e m a i d s e r v a n t of M e d b of C o n n a u g h t ' s m o t h e r , passed o n a f t e r w a r d t o M e d b ' s m o t h e r herself, C r u a c h u or C r o c h e n Chro-derg, " o f red s k i n , " or " r e d b l o o d . " ' ' ' So, too, t h e difficulties w h i c h m a r k e d t h e beginnings of t h e finest reigns g a v e rise—as the texts r e l a t i n g to Niall say q u i t e p l a i n l y ' ^ — t o t h e t h e m e of t h e splendid w o m a n w h o first p r e s e n t s herself u n d e r t h e guise of a h o r r i b l e hag. T h e close tie of t h e q u e e n s M e d b w i t h t h e practice of, a n d t h e " m o r a l " conditions for, r o y a l t y follows f r o m t h e t h r e e challenges w h i c h t h e m o r e f a m o u s of t h e t w o t h r e w o u t to a n y o n e w h o aspired t o b e c o m e h e r h u s b a n d , t h a t is, to b e c o m e king. T h e s e w e r e m e n tioned a b o v e : t h e chosen o n e h a d to b e , h a d to p r o v e h i m s e l f t o b e , a n d h a d t o c o n t i n u e to b e " w i t h o u t jealousy, w i t h o u t fear, a n d
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w i t h o u t avarice." In 1941, at t h e e n d of m y first Jupiter Mars Quirinus, I s u m m a r i l y p r o p o s e d t h a t this f o r m u l a b e u n d e r s t o o d as a psychological, a l m o s t P l a t o n i c expression of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e t h r e e functions.'9 At t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e Tain B6 Cuailnge, a d d r e s s i n g h e r consort Ailill, t h e i n t e r e s t e d p a r t y herself enlarges u p o n t h e f o r m u l a in v e r y m u c h t h e s a m e w a y , except t h a t she brings t h e m o s t e l e v a t e d t e r m of t h e triad, jealousy, d o w n to h e r o w n p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s as a wife: " . . . for it is I," she says, " w h o exacted a singular bride-gift, such as no woman before had ever required of a man of the men of Ireland, namely, a husband without avarice, without jealousy, without fear. For should he be avaricious, the man with w h o m I should live, we were ill-matched together, inasmuch as I am great in largess and gift-giving, and it would be a disgrace for my husband if I should be superior to him in the matter of favors, and for it to be said that I was superior in wealth and treasures to him, while no disgrace would it be if one were as great as the other. Were my husband a coward, it would be equally unfit for us to be mated, for I by myself and alone brave battles and fights and combats, and it would be a reproach for my husband should his wife be more courageous than he, while there would be no reproach for our being equally brave, both of us brave. Should he be jealous, the husband with whom I should live, that too would not suit me, for there never was a time I had not near me one m a n in the shadow of another. Yet, I have found such a man: it is you, Ailill son of Rus Ruad of Leinster. You were not avaricious, you were not jealous, you were not a coward."20 In t h e practice of royal p o w e r , " j e a l o u s y " is a little m o r e t h a n this coquettish wife of so m a n y kings has indicated h e r e ; or r a t h e r , t h e s y m b o l calls for i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : to b e j e a l o u s , t o h a v e a m o r b i d fear of rivals, checks, a n d c o u n t e r c h e c k s , such a r e t h e spurs to t y r a n n y in all its aspects, judicial as well as political. W i t h this reservation, t h e justifications t h a t M e d b gives for h e r d e m a n d s , s p e a k i n g as a wife a n d n o t s i m p l y allegorically, a r e p e r t i n e n t . T h e y have b e e n t r e a t e d excellently b y A l w y n a n d Brinley Rees in t h e i r Celtic Heritage. The three qualities essential to a king are defined in a negative way in Queen Medb's requirements in a husband. He must be "without jealousy, without fear, and without niggardliness." Jealousy would be a fatal weakness
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in a judge, as would fear in a warrior and niggardliness in a farmer. The higher the status, the more exacting are the standards that go with it, and it is noteworthy that the most reprehensible sin in each class is to indulge in the foibles of the next class below it. Meanness may be excused in a serf, but it is the denial of the farmer's vocation; fear is not incompatible with the peaceful role of the farmer, but it is the warrior's greatest disgrace; jealousy, as we have seen, is a trait of the warrior's character, the correlative of his virtue, but it can undermine the impartiality required in a judge. A king must have the virtues of all the functions without their weaknesses.21 Such was t h e mission of " Q u e e n M e d b , " of Royalty personified: to see to it t h a t t h e king, each n e w king, w o u l d h a v e t h e a s s o r t m e n t of q u a h t i e s w h i c h had b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a v e r y early analysis— a l r e a d y p r e s e n t in t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n — t o b e an a b s o l u t e necessity for t h e e q u i l i b r i u m of a society a n d t h e success of a r e i g n ; a n d also, once t h o s e qualities w e r e ascertained in a prince, to give h i m t h e t h r o n e . M o r e o v e r , she herself, before f o r m u l a t i n g a n d e x p o u n d i n g these t h r e e conditions at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e Tdin, t o o k care to claim credit for t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g qualities herself: . . . I was the most noble and the most distinguished (of my father's six daughters): I was the best of them in kindness and generosity (bam-saferr im rath ocus tidnacul dib): I was the best among them in battle, combat, and fighting (bam-saferr im chath ocus comrac ocus comluid dib). .. .22 She goes on, c o m p l a c e n t l y , to a d d t h a t t h e y o u n g nobles w h o f o r m e d h e r n o r m a l r e t i n u e n u m b e r e d five h u n d r e d . T h u s , to g e n e r o s i t y a n d b r a v e r y , she a d d e d implicitly, as h e r t h i r d a n d highest a d v a n t a g e , h e r p o w e r to m a i n t a i n a b o u t h e r in an o r d e r l y fashion—without jealousy!—a m o s t illustrious outfit of courtiers. Celticists h a v e asked t h e m s e l v e s h o w t h e essence of r o y a l t y c a m e to b e personified u n d e r a n a m e which, d r a w n from t h a t of t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n m e a d , essentially expresses t h e p o w e r of intoxication.23 T h e y h a v e collected texts in which t h e d r i n k is h i g h l i g h t e d in connection w i t h e i t h e r t h e practice or t h e acquisition o r t h e exaltation of royal p o w e r . Few of these texts a r e really conclusive. For instance, an a r g u m e n t c a n n o t b e d r a w n f r o m t h e m e t e r e d praises of a k i n g of Leinster: The sovereignty (indflaith) is his h e r i t a g e . . . . At the beer-drinking bout (oc
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cormaim) poems are r e c i t e d . . . . The harmonious songs of bards make the name of Aed resound through the drinks of beer (tri laith-linni). W h a t could b e m o r e n a t u r a l t h a n for t h e k i n g to b e c e l e b r a t e d at t h e b a n q u e t s h e offers? M o r e interesting is t h e obligation u p o n t h e k i n g to offer t h e m . A juridical text, e n u m e r a t i n g t h e four activities of t h e king, begins w i t h this o b l i g a t i o n : to drink beer (do 61 corma) on Sundays, for there is no regular sovereign (fiaith techta) who does not promise beer (laith) every Sunday.24 B u t t h a t could still rest u p o n t h e assonance b e t w e e n t h e n a m e s for " p o w e r " (flaith) a n d " b e e r " ((f)laith.).'^^ T h e m o s t n o t e w o r t h y a r g u m e n t s a r e furnished b y t h e fairly n u m e r o u s legends which m a k e t h e acquisition of r o y a l t y d e p e n d u p o n a certain d r i n k , for instance t h e derg-flaith, " r e d b e e r " or " r e d s o v e r e i g n t y , " w h i c h t h e personified Sovereignty of I r e l a n d , in a d r e a m , p o u r s o u t for k i n g C o n n ; or t h e " o l d b e e r " a n d t h e a u t o m a t i c d r i n k i n g h o r n s in t h e s t o r y of Lugaid L a i g d e ; or t h e s p r i n g w a t e r w h i c h t h e sorceress Sovereignty allows to b e d r u n k only in e x c h a n g e for a kiss a n d w h i c h is at least t h e p r e l u d e t o less h a r m l e s s beverages, since t h e old w o m a n t u r n e d y o u n g says to N i a l l : " M a y t h e d r i n k (linn) t h a t will flow f r o m t h e royal h o r n b e for y o u : it will b e m e a d , it will b e h o n e y , it will b e s t r o n g b e e r ! " After citing these e x a m p l e s a n d several o t h e r s , Josef Weisweiler adds t h e following, c o n c e r n i n g o n e of t h e t w o M e d b s directly: It is told of Medb of Cruachan that she intoxicated heroes to obtain their cooperation in the struggle against her enemies. The tragic duel between Per Diad and his brother-in-arms Cuchulainn took place only because Medb made Per Diad swallow, until he became drunk, " a n intoxicating beverage, good, sweet to drink." She had already resorted to the same means in order to arm, put at her service, and send to his death Per Baeth, foster brother of Cuchulainn, and Larine mac Nois. There is obviously a connection between the intoxicating drink and the celebrated royal woman of Connaught.26 As to M e d b of Leinster, she is called " d a u g h t e r of C o n a n of C u a l a " (ingen Chonain Cualann); n o w a m e d i e v a l p o e t has w r i t t e n , e v i d e n t l y a l l u d i n g to a tradition t h a t was well u n d e r s t o o d in his time:
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niba ri ar an Erind, mani toro coirm Cualand. He will not be king over Ireland, unless the beer of Cuala should come to him.27 T h u s t h e n a m e s for t h e t w o M e d b s are justified, b o r n p e r h a p s f r o m special royal rites w h i c h it w o u l d b e as easy to i m a g i n e as it w o u l d b e vain. 3 . M E D B AND M A D H A V I
W e a r e n o w able t o r e t u r n to t h e Indian M a d h a v i , d a u g h t e r of t h e universal k i n g Yayati, wife and m o t h e r of m u l t i p l e kings at an accelerated pace. If t h e account w e h a v e of h e r q u a d r u p l e p e r f o r m a n c e is f r a u g h t w i t h pious t h o u g h t s a n d u n f o l d e d in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e m o s t r e s p e c t a b l e laws, b o t h religious a n d civil, of b r a h m a n i c society, t h e story of t h e Irish M e d b m a k e s it likely t h a t an e x t r e m e l y ancient n o t i o n has b e e n conserved u n d e r this g u i s e — p r o u d l y t a k i n g its place b e t w e e n t h e t w o o t h e r episodes in Yayati's career. L e t us p u t it b l u n t l y : b e y o n d t h e Indo-Iranian stage assured for t h e first a n d t h i r d episodes, this w h o l e story continues to cast in poetic i m a g e s an I n d o - E u r o p e a n t h e o r y of t h e n a t u r e , t h e chances, t h e risks of r o y a l t y a n d , a b o v e all, t h e qualities it r e q u i r e s . In particular, t h e trifunctional d e m a n d s i m p o s e d by M e d b u p o n all h e r royal h u s b a n d s o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e c o h e r e n t trifunctional p a r t n e r s h i p f o r m e d b y t h e royal sons of M a d h a v i on t h e o t h e r , a r e t w o expressions of t h e analysis of these qualities in t h e m o s t g e n e r a l f r a m e w o r k of t h e I n d o E u r o p e a n ideology.28 A n d t h e synthesis is n o less s t r o n g l y defineated t h a n t h e analysis: it is e v i d e n t in t h e t h r e e d e m a n d s of M e d b , w h i c h a r e indissociable; a n d it is n o less e v i d e n t in t h e story of t h e sons of M a d h a v i , w h o , a l t h o u g h rufing o v e r diverse lands, find t h e m s e l v e s , against every c u s t o m a n d e x p e c t a t i o n , offering a c o m m o n royal sacrifice o n t h e v e r y d a y t h a t their o w n g r a n d f a t h e r , f o r m e r l y o m n i v a l e n t in m e r i t s himself, n e e d s t h e m to r e u n i t e their m e r i t s a n d t h u s to r e c o m p o s e t h e c o m p l e t e trifunctional e q u i p m e n t h e has lost.29 Behind M e d b , b e h i n d b o t h M e d b s , t h e r e is a father, j u s t as t h e r e is o n e b e h i n d M a d h a v i : it is t h e father w h o gives M e d b of C r u a c h a n in m a r r i a g e , at least to several of h e r h u s b a n d s , a n d initially to t h e first, C o n c h o b a r , as p a r t of t h e c o m p e n s a t i o n for t h e w r o n g h e h a d d o n e h i m ; it is t h e father of M e d b of Leinster w h o disposes of t h e b e e r of
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sovereignty which a p p e a r s to b e i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m his d a u g h t e r . And t h e s u p r e m e k i n g of T a r a is, b y definition, t h e k i n g of t h e " c e n t r a l F i f t h " like Yayati. A l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r is in a position to divide u p t h e s u r r o u n d i n g l a n d s b e t w e e n his five sons, h e is p r o p e r l y t h e king of t h e good c e n t r a l land, since t h a t is t h e " F i f t h " which h e reserves for the son w h o m he will m a k e his successor. O t h e r features of t h e Indian l e g e n d are b e t t e r explained in t h e light of t h e Irish p h a n t a s m a g o r i a o n sovereignty. Richer a n d m o r e varied, this Irish tradition, in addition t o M e d b , p r e s e n t s Flaith, t h e beautiful y o u n g w o m a n disguised as an old sorceress, a n d also t h e fawn w h i c h d o u b l e s for h e r in t h e story of Lugaid Laigde. It will b e recalled t h a t after h e r f o u r t h child is b o r n , M a d h a v i , called u p o n to " m a k e an e n d of i t " in a socially d a z z l i n g w a y , t h a t is, t o m a r r y herself " f o r g o o d " to a d e c e n t prince, chooses at t h e h e i g h t of t h e c e r e m o n y to u n i t e herself n o t to a m a n b u t to t h e forest {vana b e i n g m a s c u h n e ) , a n d t h a t she in fact w i t h d r a w s i n t o t h e woods to d e v o t e herself t o asceticism. U p to this point t h e r e is n o t h i n g n o t e w o r t h y o t h e r t h a n h e r decision t o conserve f r o m n o w on, a w a y f r o m all j e o p a r d y , a virginity four t i m e s g a m b l e d . But t h e f o r m of h e r asceticism, of h e r mystical m a r r i a g e , is s i n g u l a r : she takes on t h e m o d e of life, t h e food, t h e lightness of a l a r g e mrga, t h a t is to say, of a gazelle or s o m e a n i m a l of t h e s a m e t y p e , a n d it is p r e s u m a b l y as such t h a t she a p p e a r s t o h e r father t h e k i n g a n d h e r four royal sons at t h a t s u b l i m e r e c k o n i n g of accounts which, in t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l p l a n w h o s e existence w e m u s t t a k e for g r a n t e d , s e e m s to b e h e r final raison d'etre.^o ^y-g jj-e t r u l y close to Lugaid's f a w n : h e r e t h e t w o r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , t h e Beauty a n d t h e Beast, a r e u n i t e d . J u s t as t h e Irish have, on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e m o r e concrete a n d m o r e h u m a n M e d b , a w o m a n a n d a q u e e n , a n d , on t h e o t h e r , t h e royal P o w e r personified, Flaith, w h o , in a slightly different fashion, g o v e r n s t h e r h y t h m of r e a l m s b u t , despite h e r t e c h n i q u e of a p p e a r i n g at first repulsive a n d t h e n seductive, r e m a i n s m o r e abstract, so in India t h e figure of M a d h a v i is similarly akin, a l t h o u g h w i t h o u t d u p l i c a t i n g her, t o t h e m o r e abstract Sri-Laksmi, " P r o s p e r i t y , " especially royal prosperity. 5rI-Lak?mi has b e e n rightly c o m p a r e d , b y A l e x a n d e r H. K r a p p e , A n a n d a C o o m a r a s w a m y , a n d A l w y n a n d Brinley Rees, to t h e Irish Flaith.^' T h e acquisition of Sri is also s o m e t i m e s conceived of as a m a r r i a g e . Sri is t h e wife of I n d r a , seeks his p r o t e c t i o n , offers
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h i m the s o m a d r i n k w h i c h she has caused to f e r m e n t by m a s t i c a t i o n , following an archaic t e c h n i q u e . She is, like Fiaith, an inconstant b e a u t y , w h o , in a n i m p o r t a n t episode of the Mahdbhdrata, passes f r o m t h e d e m o n s to the gods, n a m e l y to t h e k i n g of t h e gods, I n d r a . At t h e t i m e of t h e royal e n t h r o n e m e n t c e r e m o n y itself she is conn e c t e d w i t h a rite w h i c h symbolizes t h a t t h e sri, t h e good f o r t u n e , of t h e king a b o u t to b e consecrated, has escaped from h i m in its trifunctional c o m p o n e n t parts, l a t e r to b e r e s t o r e d to h i m by a g r o u p of his queens.^^ Finally, while M e d b of C o n n a u g h t scoffs at w h a t will b e said of h e r , p a r a d e s h e r favors f r o m one w h i m to t h e next, and e x p o u n d s with c o m p l e t e frankness t h e t h e o r y b e h i n d h e r infidelities,^'* t h e pious M a d h a v i passes f r o m royal b e d to royal b e d o u t of d u t y a n d w i t h o u t licentiousness. But t h e fact is t h e r e , objectively, t h a t she m u l t i p l i e s t h e s e experiences. M a d h a v i ' s originaHty, of little i m p o r t a n c e for t h e t w o M e d b s , is t h a t she associates virginity w i t h t h e intensive practice of r e m u n e r a t e d unions, of t e m p o r a r y m a r r i a g e s by sale: four t i m e s she recovers h e r integrity, and it is w i t h t h e obvious m a r k of innocence t h a t she goes off as a gazelle in the forest of h e r choice. W i d e a n d d e e p as these correspondences are, t h e y d o n o t , of course, p r e c l u d e considerable divergences, b u t the l a t t e r can in l a r g e p a r t b e accounted for b y t h e different "ideological f i e l d s " of I r e l a n d a n d India. T h u s , as w e h a v e seen, M a d h a v i n o l o n g e r bears any m a r k of d r u n k e n n e s s except in h e r n a m e ^ ^ a n d in t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g desires which she arouses in all the kings to w h o m she is offered, w h e r e a s M e d b , b o t h M e d b s , s e e m to b e ritually associated w i t h t h e practice of t a k i n g intoxicating drinks.^^ This is in c o n f o r m i t y with t h e m o r a l e m p h a s i s of t h e t w o societies: t h e Irish are always e n g a g e d in e n o r m o u s d r i n k i n g b o u t s , catalysts for acts of violence b u t also for exploits inconceivable in b r a h m a n i c India, which is hostile to t h e surd, to alcohol, a n d even—despite t h e e x a m p l e of t h e Vedic I n d r a — to t h e ritual abuse of t h e soma. In t h e action of t h e t w o heroines, I r e l a n d has h i g h l i g h t e d the multiplicity of t h e h u s b a n d s of M e d b , m a k i n g b u t few references to t h e offspring which result from these unions, a focus which accentuates the licentious aspect of h e r conduct. India, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , places t h e accent o n t h e m u l t i p l e sons of M a d h a v i , o n h e r
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efficacy as a m o t h e r , a n d also, w i t h r e g a r d to Yayati, o n h e r d a u g h terly piety. T h e only n o t e s of v o l u p t u o u s n e s s in t h e account of h e r four unions are a t t r i b u t e d to t h e royal b u y e r s , n o t to M a d h a v i , t h e i n n o c e n t m e r c h a n d i s e . In r e t u r n , t h e w e s t e r n r e a d e r can boast t h a t M e d b , i n d e p e n d e n t a n d p r o u d , receives n o fee for h e r services, w h i l e those of M a d h a v i are paid for, a l t h o u g h at a u n i f o r m r a t e — a n d n o t , of course, to h e r b u t to h e r rightful p r o t e c t o r , w h o watches less over h e r t h a n over t h e e x a c t i t u d e of the transactions. T h e n too, t h e point at w h i c h M e d b a n d M a d h a v i apply t h a t " royal v i r t u e " which t h e y h a v e w i t h i n t h e m is not t h e s a m e . Each of t h e M e d b s , t h r o u g h h e r m a r r i a g e , veritably creates kings in one of the provinces of t h e isle or, r a t h e r , at T a r a , t h u s qualifying for t h e royalty of t h a t province—or for t h e s u p r e m e r o y a l t y — m e n w h o , w i t h o u t her, w o u l d n o t have o b t a i n e d such r a n k . M a d h a v i , t h e g o o d a n d beautiful d a m , is c o m m e n d e d , o n e after a n o t h e r , to t h r e e r u l i n g kings a n d to a k i n g e m e r i t u s , so t h a t she m a y give t h e m pleasure, certainly, b u t above all so t h a t she m a y b e a r each a son w h o will b e c o m e a king n a t u r a l l y , w i t h o u t h e r h a v i n g to i n t e r v e n e . In M a d h a v i , India p r e s e n t s n o e q u i v a l e n t to the rivalries, t h e conflicts s o m e t i m e s e n d i n g in dispossessions, which occur again a n d again a r o u n d t h e t w o M e d b s — a n d , p e r h a p s b y w a y of c o m p e n s a t i o n , this m a k e s M a d h a v i ' s s p h e r e of action m u c h larger. H o w e v e r fickle h e r Irish c o u n t e r p a r t s , t h e y each o p e r a t e in a single place a n d o n e of t h e m , M e d b of Leinster, in a single d y n a s t y . N e i t h e r of t h e t w o M e d b s , as long as h e r previous h u s b a n d r e m a i n s a king, t o u r s t h e o t h e r royal beds of t h e island, a n d it is precisely because their virtue, if o n e can call it t h a t , o p e r a t e s in a fixed a n d d e t e r m i n e d spot t h a t all the rivalries, all t h e " p a l a c e r e v o l u t i o n s , " t a k e place. O n the c o n t r a r y , M a d h a v i ' s four clients are geographically and politically dispersed, and t h e r e is n o risk of their succeeding each o t h e r on a single t h r o n e ; thus, b e t w e e n t h e m , t h e r e is n e i t h e r c o m p e t i t i o n n o r jealousy. T w o f o r m u l a t i o n s m a k e it clear t h a t the successive e m b r a c e s of t h e q u e e n a n d t h e princess are different n o t in n a t u r e b u t in circumstances a n d consequences. M e d b , for h e r p a r t , says to o n e of h e r royal p a r t n e r s (the f o u r t h ) : " T h e r e n e v e r was a t i m e w h e n I h a d not n e a r m e o n e m a n in the s h a d o w of a n o t h e r , " m e a n i n g t h a t for the single t h r o n e w i t h which she is concerned, t h e r e will always b e a p r e t e n d e r r e a d y to t a k e t h e occupant's place ; ^ ' on M a d h a v i ' s p a r t , one of h e r royal
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p a r t n e r s says to h e r v e n e r a b l e p r o t e c t o r : " I will t h u s b e g e t o n l y o n e son u p o n her, I will t r e a d in m y t u r n t h e p a t h t h a t o t h e r s h a v e t r o d , " s h o w i n g t h e r e b y t h a t , in these successive acts of c o m m o n exploitation, n o n e of t h e participants holds any t h r e a t for t h e others. O n all these d i v e r g e n t points, o n e m a y b e inclined to t h i n k t h a t t h e Celts have retained in g r e a t e r p u r i t y a s y s t e m of concepts a n d images which, in t h e Indian version, is p r e s e n t e d only as it has b e e n d o m e s t i c a t e d by t h e b r a h m a n s , w h o w e r e b e t t e r casuists a n d m o r e uncompromising morahsts than the Druids. T h u s w e are b o r n e b y t h e c o m p a r i s o n well b e y o n d Iran in space, a n d f a r t h e r back t h a n t h e second m i l l e n n i u m B.C. in t i m e . B e t w e e n t h e conservative Ireland of t h e early m i d d l e ages a n d t h e conservative India of t h e epic, a direct, sohd c o r r e s p o n d e n c e e m e r g e s h e r e , to which a few scraps f r o m Iran, t h o u g h m u c h paler a n d m o r e d i s t o r t e d , m a y b e a d d e d , r e c o m p o s i n g t h e p i c t u r e of a special accord b e t w e e n t h e e x t r e m e east and t h e e x t r e m e w e s t of t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n d o m a i n t h a t has b e e n exemplified so f r e q u e n t l y . T h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , m o r e o v e r , relates to t h e status of t h e *reg-, t h a t is, t o a figure w h o s e n a m e is a t t e s t e d o n l y in t h e s a m e t w o g r o u p s of societies.^^ T o b e sure, o n e m u s t n o t d r a w hasty conclusions f r o m this l i m i t a t i o n , p e r h a p s a provisional one,'*" b u t w h a t w e h a v e j u s t g l i m p s e d is certainly i m p o r t a n t , a n d can p e r h a p s b e f o r m u l a t e d briefly by reference to t h e episodes t h a t m a k e u p t h e full-length saga of Yayati. 1. In t h e first episode, w e are struck by t h e coincidence of t h e division of I r e l a n d into five Fifths—a c e n t r a l o n e , t h a t of t h e s u p r e m e king, a n d four p e r i p h e r a l o n e s — w i t h t h e Indian king's distribution of t h e l a n d s a m o n g his five sons, establishing his heir at t h e c e n t e r , exiling t h e four o t h e r s t o t h e circumference (and p r o b a b l y , in Vedic t i m e s , to t h e four q u a r t e r s of the circumference). A l t h o u g h this " p a t t e r n , " based o n t h e cardinal points, is found t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , it is r e m a r k a b l e that, a m o n g I n d o - E u r o p e a n societies, only t h e Irish a n d t h e Indians (and p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t ancient Iranians too) preferred it to t r i p a r t i t e patterns.'*' 2. In t h e second episode, t h e r e is a striking c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e Irish M e d b a n d M a d h a v i , d a u g h t e r of Yayati, b o t h successive wives of several kings a n d p r o b a b l e incarnations of royal p o w e r in t h e f o r m s a n d w i t h i n t h e limitations w h i c h h a v e b e e n specified.
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3. Again in t h e second episode b u t w i t h its c o n t i n u a t i o n in t h e t h i r d , w e n o t e t h e insertion of t h e ideological s t r u c t u r e of t h e t h r e e functions i n t o t h e activities of b o t h h e r o i n e s : in M e d b , t h r o u g h t h e qualities which she d e m a n d s in h e r h u s b a n d s (absence of avarice, absence of fear, absence of j e a l o u s y ) ; in M a d h a v i , t h r o u g h t h e excellences w h i c h a r e d i s t r i b u t e d n a t u r a l l y a m o n g h e r offspring ( g e n e r o u s use of riches, valor in b a t t l e , liturgical e x a c t i t u d e , veracity).
4 . E O C H A I D , H I S S O N S , AND H I S D A U G H T E R C L O T H R U
T o these concordances is a d d e d a n o t h e r , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , p e r h a p s , since it p r o v e s t h a t t h e full e x t e n t of t h e saga of Yayati—with its plan, a d i p t y c h p r e s e n t i n g t h e sons on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e d a u g h t e r a n d h e r sons o n t h e other—is ancient, p r e - I n d i a n . For it is i n d e e d a diptych, despite t h e t h r e e - p a r t analysis w e h a v e j u s t m a d e of it. In t h e first episode, t h e universal k i n g is involved only w i t h his five sons, a n d , w i t h o n e exception, it is a bad r e l a t i o n s h i p : t h e sons fail t o s u b m i t , or to s h o w respect, t o t h e i r royal father, t h e r o y a l f a t h e r t h e n deprives t h e u n g r a t e f u l o r rebellious sons, as well as t h e i r d e s c e n d e n t s , of t h e i r n a t u r a l h e r i t a g e , a n d establishes, t o t h e i r d e t r i m e n t a n d in favor of a single son w h o has s h o w n h i m s e l f dutiful, a revised o r d e r of succession to t h e c e n t r a l t h r o n e . In t h e second episode a n d in t h e t h i r d w h i c h is its sequel, t h e sons h a r d l y a p p e a r a n d h a v e n o real r o l e s ; t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e n o w t h e king's d a u g h t e r a n d t h e g r a n d s o n s she gives h i m , and all—they and she alike— manifest a vivid, total d e v o t i o n t o t h e king, their father a n d g r a n d father. N o w M e d b occupies a h o m o l o g o u s place in t h e total l e g e n d of h e r father Eochaid which, w i t h t h e exception of an episode of sin a n d r e d e m p t i o n , h a r d l y conceivable in t h e ideology of I r e l a n d , follows t h e s a m e p l a n , gives t h e s a m e lesson as t h a t of Yayati. Eochaid, s u p r e m e k i n g of Ireland, a p p e a r s first w i t h his sons, t h e n w i t h his d a u g h t e r s a n d principally w i t h M e d b , in antithetical situations. T h e text which i n f o r m s us m o s t systematically a b o u t M e d b ' s m a r r i a g e s a n d w h i c h was s u m m a r i z e d earlier,''2 t h e Cath Boinde, in fact o p e n s , after t h e i n e v i t a b l e biblical reference, w i t h a d o u b l e t a b l e a u : A king took kingship over Ireland once on a time: Eochaid Feidleach, the son of Finn, the son of Rogen Ruad, son of Easamain Eamna [.. .]. He was
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called Eochaid Feidleach because he was feidil, that is to say, just toward all.43 1. He had four sons: [first] the three Findeamna [e(a)mna, plural of e{a)main, "twin":'*4 the "Finn triplets"], and they were born of one birth, Brcas, Nar, and Lothar were their names. It is they who, in their own sister, engendered Lugaid-of-the-three-red-stripes [Lugaid tri (sic) riab n-derg\ the night before they gave battle to their father, at Druimcriad. The three of them fell there by the hand of Eochaid Feidleach, and Eochaid Feidleach solemnly decided [on this occasion] that no son should ever rule Ireland [immediately] after his father—that which verified itself.45 The [fourth] son of Eochaid Feidleach was Conall Anglondach,46 who indeed did not become supreme king and from whom descend the Conailli, in the land of the men of Breagh. As far as I k n o w , n o text explains t h e cause of t h e sons' coalition, b u t t h e b a t t l e fought b y t h e sons against their father a n d lost b y t h e m is m e n t i o n e d w i t h m o r e detail in o t h e r texts. T h u s in an " e x p l a n a t i o n of place n a m e s " {Dindsenchas) u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g of t h e place called D r u i m C r i a c h : Druim nAirthir ["Ridge of the east"] was the name at first, till the three Find-emna gave battle to their father there, even to Eochaid Feidleach, king of Ireland. Bres and Nar and Lothar were their names. . . . They marched through the north of Ireland over Febal and over Ess Riiaid, and crossed [the rivers] Dub and Drobais and Dall and Sligcch, and over Senchorann and Segais and Mag Luirg and Mag nAi and Mag Cruachan, and there their sister Clothru sought them, and wept to them, and kissed them. And she said: "I am troubled at being childless," and she entreated them to lie with her. And thence was born Lugaid Red-stripes [Lugaid Riab ndearg], the son of the three Find-emna. This was done that they might not get " t r u t h of battle" [?] from their father. Thereafter they marched from Cruachan over Ath Luain through Meath, over Ath F€ne and Findglais and Glais Tarsna and Glais Cruind and Druim nAirthir. Thrice three thousand were then with Eochaid, and he ordered a fast against his sons to overthrow them, or to make them grant him a month's truce from battle. Nothing, however, was given him save battle on the following day. So then Eochaid cursed his sons and said, "Let them be like their n a m e s " [Noise and Shame and Trough]. And he delivered battle [to his sons and their troops], and crushed seven thousand of them; and the sons were routed with only thrice nine men in their company, to wit, nine with Nar, who reached Tir ind Nair in Umall, and there he fell at Liath na cor;
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and nine others with Bres at Dun Bres by Loch Orsben, and there he fell; and nine others with Lothar over Ath Luain, and there he fell and, like his brothers, was beheaded. Then before nightfall their three heads came to Druim Criaich, and there Eochaid uttered the word, that from that time forward no son should ever take the lordship of Tara after his father unless some one came between them.47 T h e treatise o n t h e " F i t n e s s of W o r d s , " Coir anman, also p r o p o s e s t o connect Kochaid's e p i t h e t , Feidlech, w i t h this painful family conflict: t h e w o r d , it is c l a i m e d , is c o n t r a c t e d from/edi/-Mc/i, " l o n g sigh," because " a f t e r his sons h a d b e e n killed at t h e b a t t l e of D r u i m Criad, t h e pain never left his h e a r t u n t i l h e died.""** This e t y m o l o g y , certainly false, attests at least t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e episode in t h e traditions a b o u t this king. After this d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e rebellious sons, t h e Cath Boinde t h e n passes, w i t h o u t transition, to Eochaid's d a u g h t e r s : 2. That king, Eochaid Feidlech, had a great family, namely: (a) Eile, daughter of Eochaid, wife of Fergal mac Magach; from her Bri Eili in Leinster takes its name; after Fergal she was wife to Sraibgcnd mac Niuil of the tribe of the Erna, and she bore him a son, Mata the son of Sraibgend, the father of Ailill mac Mata; (b) Mumain Etanchaithrech, daughter of Eochaid Feidlech, wife of Conchobar son of Fachtna Fathach,'*9 the mother of Glaisne Conchobar's son; (c) Eithne, daughter of Eochaid Feidlech, another wife of the same Conchobar, mother of Furboide Conchobar's son [ . . . ] ; (d) Clothra [ = Clothru], daughter of Eochaid Feidlech, mother of Cormac Conloinges, Conchobar's son [...]; (e) Deirbriu, daughter of Eochaid Feidlech, from whom were named the "pigs of Deirbriu" [muca Deirbrend]; (f) Mea[d]b [that is, Medb] of Cruachan, daughter of Eochaid Feidlech, another of Conchobar's wives, mother of Amalgad, Conchobar's son, so that Conchobar was Medb's first husband [conad he Concobar cetfear Meadba], but Medb forsook Conchobar through pride of mind, and went [back] to Tara, where the supreme king of Ireland was. The reasons that the supreme king [of Ireland] gave these daughters to Conchobar was that it was by Eochaid Feidlech that Fachtna Fathach [Conchobar's father] had fallen in the battle of Lottir-ruad in the Corann, so that it was as his eric [compensation] these were given to him, together with forcible seizure of the kingship of Ulster, over the children of the Clan
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Rudraidhe; and the first cause of the stirring up of the Tain B6 Cuailnge ["the Cattle-raid of Cuailnge"] was the abandonment of Conchobar by Medb against his will.50 T h u s , like Yayati, Eochaid is m a l t r e a t e d b y his sons (in this text, b y all b u t t h e fourth). H e curses t h e m a n d , still m o r e u n f o r t u n a t e t h a n Yayati, has to fight t h e m ; a n d , instead of h a v i n g t o exile t h e m by royal c o m m a n d , h e m a k e s t h e m flee in t h r e e directions a n d sees t h e m perish in their flight. M o r e o v e r , as M a d h a v i does for Yayati, his d a u g h t e r s m a k e h i m h a p p y in various ways. T h e y a r e o b e d i e n t girls. H e uses several of t h e m to pay c o m p e n s a t i o n and t h u s avoid a s h o w d o w n w i t h C o n c h o b a r . ^ ' O n e of t h e m , in particular, gives h i m a v e r y o d d g r a n d s o n , Lugaid, w h o s e b o d y — t h a n k s t o his t h r e e fathers —is divided in t h r e e b y circular red s t r i p e s ; a n d , b y so doing, she saves h e r father. A n o t h e r d a u g h t e r , t h e last a n d t h e m o s t fully described, M e d b , p e r f o r m s t h r o u g h h e r m a r r i a g e s , as w e h a v e seen, a role in t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n and t h e transfer of royalty. Finally, at t h e conclusion of his conflict w i t h his sons, Eochaid m a k e s a g e n e r a l decision, b u t one w h o s e p r i m a r y effect is u p o n t h e succession of his o w n t h r o n e — a decision different f r o m t h a t one m a d e b y Yayati in like circumstances, m o r e serious b u t w i t h t h e s a m e m e a n i n g : Yayati h m i t s himself to r e m o v i n g his four eldest sons f r o m t h e universal kingship, t h a t w i t h t h e central seat, w h i c h h e t r a n s m i t s to his y o u n g e s t ; Eochaid, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , forever p r o h i b i t s a n y son of a s u p r e m e k i n g from succeeding directly, w i t h o u t an i n t e r i m reign, t o t h e s u p r e m e k i n g s h i p of I r e l a n d . T h e role of Rochaid's d a u g h t e r s is p a r t i c u l a r l y interesting. Most of t h e m h a v e b e e n given as wives to C o n c h o b a r , like M e d b , a n d in this capacity s e e m to b e d o u b l e t s for her. B u t one of t h e m , it will be recalled, i n t e r v e n e s in an original w a y : u n d e r a specious p r e t e x t , she offers herself to t h e concupiscence of h e r b r o t h e r s before t h e y b e g i n their unfilial b a t t l e against t h e i r father. O n e of t h e texts w h i c h has j u s t b e e n cited explains this action all t o o briefly, b u t in t h e right d i r e c t i o n : t h e girl acts o u t of d a u g h t e r l y d e v o t i o n , sacrifices herself in t h r e e incestuous u n i o n s in o r d e r to mystically a n d p e r h a p s physically w e a k e n h e r b r o t h e r s , to p u t t h e m at a d i s a d v a n t a g e against their father. A n o t h e r text, t h e Aided Medba of t h e Book of Leinster, w h i c h Fran^oise Le R o u x has r e c e n t l y m a d e available as
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additional d o c u m e n t a t i o n in this area, is m o r e explicit.^^ T h e text also has t h e a d v a n t a g e of m a k i n g it clear t h a t C l o t h r u is a d o u b l e , or a duplication, of M e d b : she is called " C l o t h r u of C r u a c h a n , " as M e d b is " M e d b of C r u a c h a n , " a n d it is said t h a t she was in fact q u e e n of this place before M e d b . A n d h e r e w e find, fully unveiled, t h e p l a n which C l o t h r u conceives: w h e n h e r t h r e e b r o t h e r s u n d e r t a k e to d e t h r o n e their father, she at first tries to dissuade t h e m . Unsuccessful, she uses t h e following b o l d s c h e m e : " C o m e to m e , " she says, " i n o r d e r to k n o w w h e t h e r I will h a v e a descent, for it is t h e h o u r a n d t h e m o m e n t of c o n c e p t i o n ! " A n d t h a t is w h a t t h e y d o . T h e y a p p r o a c h h e r in succession, a n d she conceives a son, Lugaid of t h e R e d Stripes, son of t h e t h r e e F i n d e m n a . T h e n she says to t h e m : " N o w y o u will n o t g o forth against y o u r father. You h a v e c o m m i t t e d e n o u g h evil b y u n i t i n g w i t h y o u r sister. T h a t will d o : d o n o t fight against y o u r f a t h e r . " A n d so it is, t h e text of t h e Aided Medba concludes, t h a t she p r e v e n t s t h e m f r o m b e i n g t r i u m p h a n t in t h e u p c o m i n g b a t t l e . M m e Le R o u x c o m m e n t s a p t l y : " T h e m o s t likely i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t h a t C l o t h r u paralyzes h e r b r o t h e r s or deprives t h e m of t h e i r m a r t i a l vigor, all t h e while assuring h e r father of a m a l e d e s c e n d a n t " — a very necessary m a l e d e s c e n d a n t since, according t o this text, Eochaid has n o o t h e r sons t h a n t h e t h r e e w h o h a v e r e v o l t e d , t h e t h r e e w h o will die in b a t t l e . Tliis girl's heroic self-sacrifice, which involves h e r in a series of carnal, m o r a l l y q u e s t i o n a b l e relationships, t h u s has t h e goal a n d t h e effect of saving h e r father f r o m defeat a n d f r o m d e a t h . W e are very close to t h e heroic self-sacrifice of Yayati's d a u g h t e r w h e n she agrees to go f r o m royal b e d to royal b e d in o r d e r to e a r n those rarest of horses w h i c h have b e e n asked of h e r father a n d w h i c h h e r father c a n n o t give—this k i n d of p r o s t i t u t i o n r e s u l t i n g in t h e b i r t h of g r a n d s o n s , w h o , in their t u r n , will save their g r a n d f a t h e r f r o m a n o t h e r still g r a v e r d a n g e r .
5 . LUGAID RED-STRIPES
Behind these c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s a n d divergencies, c o m m o n to t h e ancestors of I r e l a n d and India a n d a d a p t e d to different circumstances, w e perceive t h e epic illustration of a vast t h e o r y of kingship. This t h e o r y places in a f u n d a m e n t a l opposition t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e king's sons a n d t h a t of t h e king's d a u g h t e r s . It contrasts t h e inevitable
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political risks i n h e r e n t in t h e f o r m e r w i t h t h e c o m m e r c i a l possibilities offered b y m a r r i a g e s of t h e l a t t e r to o t h e r kings. It also contrasts t h e characters of t h e king's sons w i t h t h e characters of his g r a n d s o n s , t h a t is, t h e sons of his d a u g h t e r s . It justifies a r e f o r m , t e m p o r a r y or lasting, in t h e o r d e r of royal succession. A n d finally, in t h e p e r s o n of a princess n a m e d after t h e intoxicating d r i n k *medhu-, it p r e s e n t s a s y m b o l , and a kind of g u a r a n t o r or d i s t r i b u t o r , of t h e qualities—in accord w i t h the t h r e e functions—which kings m u s t synthetically possess. Such an epic e n s e m b l e does n o t a p p e a r e l s e w h e r e . At m o s t , in Iran, in t h e legend to w h i c h we a l l u d e d in connection w i t h Madhavl,^^ it was observed t h a t t h e sons o n t h e one h a n d , t h e d a u g h t e r a n d h e r d e s c e n d a n t s on t h e o t h e r , h a v e c o n t r a r y destinies: t h e sons are e l i m i n a t e d , t h e xvarrah (x^aranah) does n o t e n t e r into t h e m ; instead it e n t e r s the d a u g h t e r , passes into h e r son a n d , t h r o u g h h i m , i n t o t h e successive representatives of t h e Kayanid dynasty. But t h e role a t t r i b u t e d to t h e father h e r e is t h e inverse of w h a t w e find in Yayati as well as in Eochaid: t h e father favors his sons, h e does w h a t h e can to m a k e the xvarrah e n t e r t h e m , a n d w h e n t h e xvarrah has e n t e r e d his d a u g h t e r , h e persecutes h e r a n d desires t o kill her. P e r h a p s this is the result of a Z o r o a s t r i a n r e s h a p i n g of t h e old s t r u c t u r e . B e t w e e n t h e Irish a n d the Indian t r e a t m e n t s , t h e t w o principal differences—outside t h e p l u r a l i t y of Eochaid's d a u g h t e r s , p e r h a p s d o u b l e t s , as o p p o s e d to t h e single d a u g h t e r of Yayati—appear t o b e t h e following: 1. W h i l e Yayati m a k e s a distribution of t h e w o r l d b e t w e e n his sons dividing it b e t w e e n t h e good center, p u r e l y arya, a n d t h e less good or b a d sections o n t h e p e r i p h e r y , at least partially b a r b a r i a n , t h e episode of Eochaid a n d his sons has n o b e a r i n g on t h e division of Ireland into five Fifths ( t h a t of t h e center, reserved for t h e s u p r e m e king, and t h e four o n t h e p e r i p h e r y ) . T h e s e Fifths preexist, a n d t h e sons, w h o are only t h r e e , or four (the rebellious triplets, a n d s o m e t i m e s Conall) are n e i t h e r in the b e g i n n i n g n o r in t h e course of t h e i r lives connected w i t h different territories. T h e only specification in this sense is t h e r u l e c o n c e r n i n g t h e kingship in the center, which t h e i n d i g n a n t father d e c r e e s ; b u t this r u l e bears (in t h e Cath Boinde) u p o n t h e innocent y o u n g e r b r o t h e r , t h e f o u r t h son, j u s t as m u c h as it does u p o n the guilty triplets (or their m e m o r i e s ) .
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2. M e d b ' s relation t o t h e t h r e e functions is only a m o r a l o n e , b u t it is self-conscious a n d willful a n d expresses itself in w o r d s a n d acts t h r o u g h h e r t r i p l e claim a n d t h e t r i p l e d e m a n d for qualities (a d e m a n d i m p o s e d u p o n h e r b y a geis, a " f a t e " w h i c h weighs u p o n her) which she i m p o s e s u p o n royal candidates. In c o n t r a s t , it is b y carnal creations, in t h e a s s o r t m e n t of g r a n d s o n s w h i c h she gives to h e r father, b y t h e unconscious m e c h a n i s m of pregnancies a n d of what they transmit through heredity, that Madhavi "expresses" t h e excellences, d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g t h e t h r e e functions, w h i c h a c o m p l e t e k i n g m u s t n o r m a l l y possess. A n o t h e r of Eochaid's g r a n d sons, h o w e v e r — t h e child t h a t a n o t h e r of his d a u g h t e r s , C l o t h r u , has b r o u g h t forth b y h e r t h r e e wicked b r o t h e r s in o r d e r to save h e r f a t h e r — m a y p e r h a p s r e t a i n t h e t r a c e of a m o r e discernible expression of t h e trifunctional s t r u c t u r e . But if this is t h e case, w e m u s t recognize t h a t t h e c o n t e n t of t h e t h r e e functions is n o longer explicit in t h e texts, w h i c h are c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h t h e p i c t u r e s q u e , t h e o u t e r a p p e a r a n c e of " L u g a i d of t h e Red Stripes," a n d n o t w i t h w h a t these stripes, this bodily t r i p a r t i t i o n , m a y at first h a v e signified. H e h a d , says t h e Coir anman, a circular s t r i p e a r o u n d t h e neck, a n o t h e r a r o u n d t h e waist. A n d of t h e t h r e e sections t h u s m a r k e d off, his h e a d r e s e m b b l e d t h a t of N a r , his t o r s o t h a t of Bres, a n d b e l o w t h e b e l t h e was like Lothar.5'* T h e r e is certainly n o t h i n g functional in t h e m e a n i n g s of t h e f a t h e r s ' n a m e s o r in t h e little t h a t is k n o w n a b o u t t h e action of t h e son, b u t it s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t w h e n such real o r s y m b o l i c divisions of a h u m a n or a n i m a l b o d y i n t o t h r e e (or t w o , o r four) p a r t s are m e n t i o n e d b y s o m e of t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n s in t h e i r m y t h s , rites, o r speculations, t h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h classification o r t h e social expression of t h e functions. W i t h o u t going i n t o t h e political fable of M e n e n i u s A g r i p p a w i t h his " p a t r i c i a n s t o m a c h " a n d his " p l e b i a n - m o u t h , t e e t h , l i m b s , etc.,"^^ t h e Vedic h y m n of t h e P r i m o r d i a l M a n has t h e four varnas (priests, w a r r i o r s , tiller-breeders, a n d sudras) b o r n respectively f r o m t h e m o u t h , a r m s , thighs, a n d feet of t h e h u m a n victim.^* In t h e Indian ritual of t h e horse sacrifice, t h r e e q u e e n s p e r f o r m unctions u p o n t h e head, t h e back, a n d t h e r u m p of t h e a n i m a l a b o u t to b e i m m o l a t e d , t h e p u r p o s e of w h i c h unctions is to assure t h e royal sacrificer, respectively, o r spiritual e n e r g y (tejas), physical force (indriya), a n d w e a l t h in cattle (pasM).57 A n o t h e r Indian r i t u a l , t h a t of t h e pravargya, r e c e n t l y
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i l l u m i n a t e d b y J. A. B. v a n Buitenen,^* p r e s e n t s a r e m a r k a b l e e x a m p l e of a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e s e g m e n t s of t h e h u m a n b o d y (head, t r u n k , l o w e r b o d y ) , t h e t h r e e social functions, a n d t h e t h r e e s u p e r i m p o s e d p a r t s of t h e universe. A t a certain m o m e n t in this ritual, t h e adhvaryu priest p o u r s t h r e e oblations of b u t t e r while h o l d i n g t h e ladle at t h e level of his face for t h e first, of his navel for t h e second, a n d of his k n e e s for t h e third. O n this occasion h e p r o n o u n c e s t h r e e f o r m u l a s , all addressed to a clay figurine called Gharma, " w a r m ( m i l k ) , " a n d Mahavira, " G r e a t M a n . " In t h e first f o r m u l a , h e n a m e s h e a v e n a n d t h e brahman ( n e u t e r : principle of t h e first function a n d essence of t h e b r a h m a n class); in t h e second, h e n a m e s t h e a t m o s p h e r e a n d t h e ksatra (principle of the second function a n d essence of t h e w a r r i o r class); a n d in t h e third, he n a m e s t h e e a r t h a n d t h e vis (principle of t h e t h i r d function a n d essence of t h e tiller-breeder class). This triple e q u a t i o n certainly bears u p o n t h e f o r m of t h e figurine: t h r e e balls of clay j o i n e d t o g e t h e r , t h e l o w e r p o r t i o n flattened o u t t o furnish a base, e v o k i n g a m a n seated in cross-legged position. T h e t h r e e s e g m e n t s m a r k e d b y t h e congenital stripes o n t h e b o d y of Lugaid, w h i c h are v e r y close to those w h i c h t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s connected, or, r a t h e r , claimed to connect, f r o m t o p to b o t t o m , w i t h t h e t h r e e functional aspects of t h e s o u l — t h e rational, t h e passionate, a n d t h e conc u p i s c e n t — m a y t h u s initially h a v e indicated t h a t this y o u n g m a n was a perfect synthesis of t h e qualities which w e r e e n u n c i a t e d a little differently in t h e triple r e q u i r e m e n t s laid d o w n b y his a u n t Medb. T h e Indian account is in any case of w i d e r scope, a n d is m o r e h a r m o n i o u s , t h a n t h e Irish. O n e m a y s u p p o s e t h a t this latter, cut off f r o m D r u i d i c p h i l o s o p h y like all t h e epic Irish texts a n d conserving f r o m the ancient s y m b o l s o n l y t h e i n t e r p l a y of figures a n d their behavior, has reached us in a n i m p o v e r i s h e d f o r m . But t h e Indian c o m p a r i s o n does afford a g h m p s e of its p r i m a r y significance, its v a l u e as a structure.^^ Will it b e possible to p r o p o s e a sociological or psychological i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this s t r u c t u r e ? T o d a y such an a t t e m p t h o l d s only risks. B u t even n o w , precautions can b e t a k e n against o n e risk: to j u d g e f r o m t h e v o c a b u l a r y of kinship, t h e oldest I n d o - E u r o p e a n
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societies w e r e c o m p o s e d of families defined strictly in relation to t h e m a l e s , to fathers, a n d sons, a n d h u s b a n d s . Accordingly, t h e r e is h t t l e chance t h a t t h e c o n d u c t of t h e p r o u d q u e e n M e d b , a n d t h a t of h e r h u m b l e I n d i a n sister M a d h a v i , will carry us back to t h e n e b u l a of matriarchy.^"
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O u r extensive c o m m e n t a r y o n the fabulous b i o g r a p h y of Yayati is n o w d r a w i n g to a close: h e has r e a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n w i t h his g r a n d s o n s and, as far as w e k n o w , has n e v e r r e t u r n e d . W h a t a r e we, still o n e a r t h , to l e a r n f r o m his legacy? W e h a v e n o t resolved t h e " Y i m a - Y a m a p r o b l e m , " b u t w e h a v e i m p r o v e d t h e t e r m s in which to state it a n d h a v e g a t h e r e d t h e elem e n t s for n e w solutions. Either because t h e m a t e r i a l was well conserved from its Indo-Iranian state, or b y m e a n s of a synthesis peculiar to Iran, Yima is t h e e m b o d i m e n t of t h r e e types, o n e m y t h i c a n d t w o epic, which in India are i n c a r n a t e d in s e p a r a t e figures. 1. By his construction of t h e s u b t e r r a n e a n vara, in w h i c h h e has installed—in h e a l t h a n d happiness, for a n u n H m i t e d d u r a t i o n o r at least past an anticipated " e n d of t h e w o r l d " — t h e chosen specim e n s of h u m a n i t y a c c o m p a n i e d b y s p e c i m e n s of all t h e a n i m a l s a n d all desirable p l a n t s , Yima is i n d e e d t h e h o m o l o g u e of his I n d i a n h o m o n y m Y a m a , k i n g of t h e blessed r e a l m of t h e dead. P u t s i m p l y , this m e m o r y of an Indo-Iranian * Y a m a r u l i n g over a h u m a n society of t h e b e y o n d has b e e n w a r p e d a n d i m p o v e r i s h e d b y t h e effect of Z o r o a s t r i a n ideas o n t h e post mortem life, b y t h e c o m p e t i t i o n of m o r e strictly M a z d a e a n conceptions of t h e " e n d of t h e w o r l d " a n d of " p a r a d i s e , " a n d finally by t h e substitution of a son of Z o r o a s t e r for Yima as t h e lasting supervisor of t h e s u b t e r r a n e a n enclosure, leaving Yima o n l y to build it a n d to u s h e r in its rightful inhabitants. 2. In his r e m a i n i n g career, consisting of a terrestrial reign, Yima p r e s e n t s traits of which s o m e recall t h e Indian Vasu Uparicara a n d 108
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Others t h e I n d i a n Yayati, t w o figures w h o are, in fact, analogous to each o t h e r on m o r e t h a n o n e point. a. T o Vasu Uparicara as to Yima-jamSid belongs t h e divine favor allowing t h e m to t r a v e r s e t h e a t m o s p h e r e in a crystal chariot; Uke Yima, Vasu t a k e s this o p p o r t u n i t y to establish t h e g r a n d a n n u a l festival of " t h e o p e n i n g of t i m e " ; like Yima, h e loses his privileges as t h e result of a sin classified as a lie; a n d again, like Yima, h e is involved, o n t h e " l o s i n g " side, in disputes over t h e legitimacy of b u t c h e r e d food. b. Yayati, like Yima, is t h e best e x a m p l e of t h e t y p e of t h e "first k i n g " in t h e sense t h a t A r t h u r Christensen gave to t h e t e r m . In different b u t e q u i v a l e n t ways, t h e y r u l e over either t h e progressive p e o p l i n g or t h e division a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e w o r l d ; a n d Yayati in his o w n c o n d u c t achieves t h e synthesis, a n d in t h e c o n d u c t of his g r a n d s o n s t h e analysis, of t h e functions w h i c h Yima-jamSid exteriorizes in t h e creation of t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g social classes. But t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t result of o u r Indo-Iranian c o m p a r i s o n s concerns t h e sins of these kings, of Yayati a n d Vasu Uparicara o n t h e o n e h a n d , of Yima o n t h e o t h e r . ' T h o s e of Vasu a n d of Yima, except in r a r e a b e r r a n t variants, b r i n g o n their u t t e r r u i n at a single s t r o k e , w i t h n e i t h e r recourse n o r r e m e d y . T h a t of Yayati is, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , a t o n e d for, a n d b y a m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g trifunctional p r o c e d u r e . After an entire life s p e n t amassing m e r i t s in t h e g e n e r o u s use of riches, in t h e b r a v e r y of t h e c o n q u e r o r , in t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of sacrifices, a n d in t h e r e v e r e n c e for t r u t h , Yayati goes t o h e a v e n in full b e a t i t u d e . But t h e r e h e has a prideful t h o u g h t which, in a flash, c o n s u m e s all his m e r i t s a n d sends h i m h u r t l i n g t o w a r d e a r t h , t o w a r d " h e l l on e a r t h . " But h e is s a v e d : his four g r a n d s o n s transfer u p o n h i m t h e m e r i t s w h i c h t h e y h a v e acquired, o n e in t h e g e n e r o u s use of riches, t h e second in valor, t h e t h i r d in t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of sacrifices, a n d t h e f o u r t h in t r u t h f u l n e s s ; t h e y t h u s r e c o n s t i t u t e their g r a n d f a t h e r ' s full stock of m e r i t s , a n d h e is able to reascend to h e a v e n . I recalled in this connection t h e e n d of t h e Iranian story of Yima. L o n g a perfectly v i r t u o u s m o n a r c h a n d b e a r e r of t h e x^aranah, t h e visible m a r k of divine b e n e v o l e n c e w h i c h assures h i m of excellence a t every level, this king's h e a d is t u r n e d one d a y b y an a t t a c k of o v e r w h e l m i n g p r i d e , a p r i d e w h i c h m a k e s h i m d e n y God, t h e u l t i m a t e " l i e . " I m m e d i a t e l y t h e x^ardnah flees h i m in t h r e e f r a g m e n t s , defined
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according to t h e t h r e e functions, each of w h i c h t r a n s p o r t s itself o n t o a p e r s o n a g e of t h e future, m a k i n g o n e a h e a l e r , t h e second a conq u e r o r , a n d t h e t h i r d a wise minister. I a m n o t a b o u t to t a k e u p t h e c o m p a r i s o n again in detail, b u t I m u s t u n d e r l i n e an i m p o r t a n t point. Yima sins o n l y once, a n d yet " t h r e e x^aranahs" (Yost 19) o r " t h r e e p o r t i o n s of x^aranah" (Denkart) a b a n d o n h i m . W h a t are w e to m a k e of this d i s s y m m e t r y ? In 1943 A r t h u r Christensen s o u g h t , b y a h y p o t h e t i c a l a d d i t i o n to t h e story, to reestabHsh t h e n u m e r i c a l equivalence of causes a n d effects. If the Glory leaves Yima three times or in three portions at three distinct periods, the only conclusion I can draw from this is that Yima, in the Avestan legend, has sinned three times. On the first time, the Glory was acquired by the god of the pact, MiOra, who has connections with the sun. The second time Yima was dethroned and pursued by Dahaka, but the Glory was seized by ©raetaona, who was enabled by it to triumph over Dahaka. Then Yima must have taken possession of the Glory again for a third time and have once again have lost it, after which it was acquired by Karssaspa. As I have just said, we find the series Yima-Dahaka-Graetaona-Karasaspa in Yosts 5 and 15, where the heroes of antiquity are presented as sacrificing to Anahita and to Vayu. Now the hero ©raetaona was not originally considered a king of Iran or of the whole world, but took his place later in the series of first kings. One can thus legitimately suppose that in a more primitive form of the Iranian legend than the one we possess, Yima recovered the crown when ©raetaona overthrew the usurper Dahaka and that he continued his reign until he had committed a new crime.2 In 1956, in Aspects de lafonction guerriere, I t o o k this idea up.^ I h a d j u s t analyzed a l e g e n d a r y s c h e m a b o u n d u p , in t h e Indian epic, w i t h I n d r a , b u t c o n f i r m e d as ancient b y t h e Scandinavian Starka8rS t a r c a t h e r u s a n d b y t h e G r e e k Heracles. I p r o p o s e d to call it " t h e t h r e e sins of t h e w a r r i o r . " In its c o m p l e t e f o r m , it consists of t h e following: a figure w h o is a w a r r i o r or an e m i n e n t c h a m p i o n a n d , as such, g e n e r a l l y useful to t h e gods or to m e n , c o m e s n o n e t h e l e s s to c o m m i t t h r e e successive sins, well s e p a r a t e d in t i m e , o n e in each of t h e t h r e e functional d o m a i n s (the sacred; w a r r i o r m o r a l i t y ; riches or sexuality). In certain versions (Indra, Heracles) each sin b r i n g s o n a p u n i s h m e n t , itself l i n k e d by its f o r m or b y its consequences t o t h e functional d o m a i n of t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g sin; a n d , after t h e t h i r d
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p u n i s h m e n t , t h e guilty p a r t y finds t h a t h e has u n d e r g o n e a c o m p l e t e despoliation (if h e is a god), or is face to face w i t h his o w n destruction, v o l u n t a r y or o t h e r w i s e (if h e is h u m a n ) . U n d e r s t o o d as C h r i s t e n s e n p r o p o s e d it, t h e l e g e n d of Yima's adversity s e e m e d to m e to cons t i t u t e a p a r a l l e l : t h r e e sins, different f r o m o n e a n o t h e r in ways w e n o l o n g e r k n o w , b u t which, according to t h e i r consequences, w e m a y s u p p o s e t o b e r e l a t e d to t h e functions; t h r e e losses, t h e m s e l v e s plainly functional, those of t h r e e t h i r d s of t h e x^aranah relative to religion, a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d m a r t i a l force, b r i n g i n g o n t h e c o m p l e t e liquidation of t h e subject; a n d finally t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of t h e t h i r d s of t h e x^aranah b y t h r e e figures w h o are t h e m s e l v e s characterized functionally (a feature m e t again in t h e l e g e n d of I n d r a , w h e r e t h e spiritual e n e r g y , force, a n d b e a u t y lost b y t h e god are a b s o r b e d b y D h a r m a , Vayu, and t h e t w o Asvins, w h o t h e n m a k e use of t h e m t o e n g e n d e r t h e Pandavas). B u t this c o m p a r i s o n h a d t w o w e a k points. First of all, w i t h a u n a n i m i t y r a r e in t h e files o n Iranian heroes, f r o m Yast 19 to Ferdowsi a n d b e y o n d , t h e texts n e v e r a t t r i b u t e d m o r e t h a n a single fault to Y i m a : h o w can o n e justify i m p o s i n g m o r e t h a n this u p o n h i m ? M o r e o v e r , t h o u g h a c o m p l e t e h e r o , h e is n o t p r o p e r l y a w a r r i o r a n d it is n o t as a w a r r i o r t h a t h e sins b u t as " u n i v e r s a l s o v e r e i g n . " As a result, in t h e second edition of Aspects de la fonction guerriere, recast a n d c o m p l e t e d , which a p p e a r e d in 1969 u n d e r t h e title Heur et malheur du guerrier (translated into English as Destiny of the Warrior, 1970),'' I did n o t i n c l u d e Yima b u t left h i m for t h e p r e s e n t discussion. If w e accept t h e facts as t h e y p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s , w e t o u c h u p o n an i m p o r t a n t distinction. T h e r e is i n d e e d a p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n t h e m i s f o r t u n e of Yima a n d t h e m i s f o r t u n e s of I n d r a in t h e sense t h a t t h e y are all p u n i s h m e n t s , t h e y all consist of " l o s s e s , " a n d these losses d i s t r i b u t e t h e m s e l v e s over t h e t h r e e functions. But t h e r e is, f r o m t h e outset, a m a j o r difference in t h e definition of t h e guilty p a r t y . In brief, in contrast t o t h e " t h r e e sins of t h e w a r r i o r , " t h e m s e l v e s trifunctional, is t h e single sin, suprafunctional, of t h e sovereign. Single b u t i r r e p a r a b l e , for it destroys either t h e raison d ' e t r e of sovereignty, n a m e l y t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e o r d e r founded o n t r u t h ( t h e sin of lying), or t h e mystical s u p p o r t of h u m a n sovereignties, n a m e l y t h e respect for t h e s u p e r i o r sovereignty of t h e gods a n d t h e
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sense of t h e Hmitations i n h e r e n t in every h u m a n delegation of t h a t divine sovereignty (the sin of pride). T h e k i n g falls p r e y to o n e or t h e o t h e r of these risks, which, as w e h a v e seen, a r e at b o t t o m r e d u c i b l e to t h e s a m e thing. T h e p a t h o s of this risk is different from t h a t of t h e risks w h i c h result in t h e "sins of t h e w a r r i o r " : in t h e case of I n d r a or Heracles w e witness t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of a being in t h r e e phases, b y a sort of fatal interlocking, which nonetheless a p p e a r s to leave a chance, even if not t a k e n or easy to take, for r e p e n t a n c e , for rehabilitation. I n d e e d , u p to t h e last fault, for which h e accepts t h e p u n i s h m e n t w i t h dignity, H e r a c l e s ' life is passed in self-purification, expiation. T h e " s i n g l e sin of t h e k i n g , " lying or p r i d e , or lying-pride, calls for s o m e t h i n g q u i t e different: the blow, a d m i n i s t e r e d w i t h o u t d e l a y a n d with n o possibility of redress, which destroys all t h e r o o t s a n d fruits of a m o s t excellent good f o r t u n e . O n e is r e m i n d e d of t h e J u d e o Christian Satan, or t h e Iblis of t h e Q u r a n , w h o had first b e e n t h e m o s t n o b l e c r e a t u r e , t h e m o s t richly favored, a n d even t h e m o s t faithful. This c o n t r a s t i n g of t h e single sin of t h e sovereign w i t h t h e t h r e e sins of t h e w a r r i o r also conforms to t h e different n a t u r e s of t h e t w o h u m a n types and to their dilTerent relations to t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e t h r e e functions. T h e sovereign c o m p r i s e s w i t h i n h i m s e l f t h e very synthesis of t h e principles of these functions, so t h a t a single sin b y h i m , o n e which is p r o p e r to h i m a n d always—lying, i m p i e t y , t y r a n n y — a f o r m of p r i d e , affects all t h r e e functional zones at one b l o w ; w h e r e a s t h e w a r r i o r , placed b y definition at a single level of t h e trifunctional s t r u c t u r e , loses h i m s e l f c o m p l e t e l y o n l y if h e perseveres in his wickedness, if h e c o m m i t s in succession a sin against t h e principles of each of t h e functions, t h a t is to say, t h r e e sins. It should n o t be a s s u m e d , t h e n , as A r t h u r Christensen did, t h a t in an o l d e r f o r m of t h e legend, Yima had sinned t h r e e t i m e s . T h e speculations t h a t a r e b e g i n n i n g to e m e r g e h e r e m u s t b e very old. T h e Celts p r e s e n t n o t h i n g of this sort, it seems, b u t o t h e r W e s t e r n I n d o - E u r o p e a n s d o p r o v i d e s o m e t e s t i m o n y . If o n e accepts t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h I p r o p o s e d t h i r t y years ago for t h e l e g e n d s a b o u t t h e four p r e - E t r u s c a n kings of Rome,^ t h e first b o o k of Livy furnishes a v a r i a n t — o n e which can scarcely b e fortuitous—of this very t h e m e . In t h e m a i n , the d e m i g o d - f o u n d e r R o m u l u s a n d t h e
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jurist-priest N u m a give R o m e t h e a d v a n t a g e s of t h e first function— auspicia, sacra, leges; T u l l u s Hostilius, t h e p u r e l y w a r r i o r king, gives h e r t h e a d v a n t a g e s of t h e second, arma a n d miHtary science; a n d t h e t h i r d function, based u p o n w e a l t h a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , t a k e s f o r m n e x t u n d e r Ancus Marcius. N o w , of these four kings, t w o m e e t catastrophic e n d s because t h e y h a v e s i n n e d — R o m u l u s a n d T u l l u s . But t h e sins a n d t h e catastrophes are v e r y different. In t h e case of R o m u l u s , w h o s e p o w e r intoxicates h i m a n d w h o b e c o m e s , late in life, an insufferable t y r a n t w h o m t h e senators are at least suspected of having m a d e s u d d e n l y disappear—in e x p e c t a t i o n of his b e c o m i n g a g o d ^ — t h e r e is b u t o n e sin and one p e n a l t y . In t h e case of T u l l u s , t h e r e are t w o sins, o n e of t h e first a n d one of t h e second function, a n d t w o p u n i s h m e n t s of increasing i m p o r t a n c e , for it is h e w h o scorns religion a n d neglects t h e cult of t h e gods, w h o t h e n refuses all rest to his soldiers, n o t even sparing t h e m d u r i n g an e p i d e m i c , a n d w h o m t h e gods p u n i s h first b y afflicting his b o d y w i t h t h e s a m e sickness t h a t e x h a u s t s his soldiers, and t h e n b y casting his t h o u g h t s i n t o such a c l u m s y caricature of religion t h a t h e d r a w s t h e t h u n d e r b o l t d o w n u p o n h i m s e l f in t h e course of a b a d l y m a d e invocation.''' If t h e sin of t h e t h i r d function—concerning sex—is missing from t h e t a b l e a u of this w a r r i o r king, it is p r o b a b l y because t h e R o m a n t r a d i t i o n r e served it for t h e last king, w h o was also bellicose, a n d w h o s e fall it p r o v o k e d : this is t h e etiological m y t h of t h e regifugium, t h e violation of Lucretia b y Sextus T a r q u i n i u s , son of t h e Excessive.^ It s e e m s t h e n t h a t we m i g h t h a v e , in a d i p t y c h c o n s t r u c t e d as carefully as e v e r y t h i n g else in t h e " h i s t o r y " of R o m e ' s origins, a c o n t r a s t i n g use of t h e t w o themes. T o r e t u r n to t h e m u l t i p l e Indian c o r r e s p o n d a n c e w i t h Yima, I can at this point, s h o r t of a d e m o n s t r a t i o n which is b e y o n d t h e scope of this book, only r e p e a t m y p r e f e r e n c e : e v e r y t h i n g can b e m o r e easily u n d e r s t o o d if t h e Iranian Yima d r e w u p o n h i m s e l f t h r e e t y p e s t h a t w e r e distinct in Indo-Iranian t i m e s a n d h a v e r e m a i n e d so t h r o u g h o u t Indian tradition. An i m p o r t a n t a r g u m e n t in this direction is t h e following. In India, t h e t h r e e royal t y p e s a r e connected w i t h ritual actions t h a t are all clearly different: Y a m a i n t e r v e n e s only in t h e funerary ritual in which t h e n e w l y d e a d are m a d e over to h i m ; Vasu Uparicara founds t h e a n n u a l royal festival of I n d r a ' s G a r l a n d ;
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and t h e a d v e n t u r e of Yayati a n d his g r a n d s o n s unfolds d u r i n g a vajapeya, a c e r e m o n y t h a t is royal, political, a n d n o t periodical—and this is certainly n o t a chance selection, since t h e t w o principal rites of t h e vajapeya a r e a s y m b o h c ascent to h e a v e n a n d a chariot race which t h e king is supposed to win,^ t w o features in full c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h t h e story of Yayati, which closes w i t h a chariot race a l o n g t h e w a y t h a t ascends to heaven. T h e antiquity of t w o of these rituals is n o t in d o u b t . Yima's vara, distorted as it is, suffices to establish as Indo-Iranian t h e conception of Yama as king of t h e b e y o n d . A n d t h e circumstances of t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e festival of Indra's G a r l a n d (the king's voyage t h r o u g h t h e air in a crystal chariot) too n e a r l y recall those of t h e Iranian N a w r o z for t h e r e not t o b e a c o m m o n tradition b e h i n d t h e m b o t h . As to t h e rites of t h e vajapeya, I p l a n in a later w o r k to s h o w t h a t t h e y g o still farther back. In these conditions, it is easier to t h i n k t h a t t h e Iranian Yima, dispossessed by t h e Z o r o a s t r i a n r e f o r m of his function as king of t h e b e y o n d , has r e u n i t e d u p o n h i m s e l f legends t h a t w e r e p r i m i tively b o u n d u p w i t h t w o distinct rituals of e a r t h l y kingship. T h e Indo-Iranian p r o b l e m , w h i c h was o u r s t a r t i n g point, has o p e n e d out, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , o n a l a r g e r I n d o - H u r o p e a n scale. W i t h t h e exception—a n a t u r a l one given t h e difference of t h e Celtic a n d Indo-Iranian pieties—^of t h e scenes involving t h e king's sins a n d their consequences, w e have seen t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e of t h e b i o g r a p h y of t h e universal k i n g Yayati o v e r l a p t h a t of t h e b i o g r a p h y of Eochaid Feidlech, t h e s u p r e m e k i n g of Ireland. W e h a v e h e r e t w o good, i n d e e d excellent kings (Yayati's sin, a fugitive prideful t h o u g h t , seems to us a s m a l l m a t t e r indeed). Eochaid h a d the best of r e p u t a tions, a n d t h e Irish of the m i d d l e ages, fond of e t y m o l o g i e s w h e t h e r t r u e or false, explained his s u r n a m e Feidlech as a derivative of feidel, " j u s t , " because, says t h e Cath Boinde, h e was " j u s t t o w a r d a l l . " Likewise, Yayati has r e m a i n e d in Indian t h o u g h t the very m o d e l for good k i n g s : in a l e n g t h y description of t h e sort of g o l d e n age enjoyed, after t h e b i r t h of t h e B u d d h a - t o - b e , by his father's k i n g d o m , t h e p o e t of t h e Buddliacarita c o m p a r e s t h e s t a t e of v i r t u e w h i c h flourished t h e n to t h e reign of o n l y o n e f o r m e r k i n g : Yayati, son of N a h u s a (2,11). T h e d o m e s t i c sorrows which afflict b o t h kings a n d which affect t h e m d e e p l y d o n o t result f r o m a n y fault of t h e i r o w n :
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t h e y are subjected to t h e m . A n d in connection w i t h t h e s e t w o figures of t h e s a m e r a n k , of t h e s a m e character, I r e l a n d a n d India h a v e depicted, in a d r a m a t i c fashion, t w o similarly styled sets of r e l a t i o n s h i p s — w i t h their rebellious sons o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d w i t h their respectful a n d d e v o t e d d a u g h t e r s o n t h e o t h e r . F r o m this g e n e r a l accord a still m o r e precise c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , t h o r o u g h l y " i m p r o b a b l e " in t h e sense which m a t h e m a t i c i a n s give to t h e w o r d , can b e seen b e t w e e n t h e t w o f e m i n i n e figures w i t h n e a r l y identical n a m e s : M e d b , principal d a u g h t e r of Eochaid, a n d M a d h a v i , sole d a u g h t e r of Yayati. B o t h b e i n g wives of m u l t i p l e kings, t h e y t h e m selves g u a r a n t e e , or are e n t r u s t e d w i t h , t h e virtues a k i n g m u s t possess o n t h e t h r e e functional levels. C e r t a i n l y w e h a v e h e r e , conserved o n t h e one side b y t h e D r u i d s , on t h e o t h e r in t h e u n w r i t t e n "fifth V e d a " f r o m which t h e post-Vedic n a r r a t i v e s of India in l a r g e p a r t derive, a f r a g m e n t of I n d o - E u r o p e a n poHtico-religious philosophy, t h a t is, s o m e of t h e speculations m a d e b y t h e I n d o E u r o p e a n s o n t h e s t a t u s a n d t h e destiny of kings. Significantly, w e a r e really d e a l i n g on b o t h sides w i t h h u m a n epic, built u p o n a religious f o u n d a t i o n , of course, a n d w i t h m a n y m a r v e l s , b u t one in which t h e gods (even those in t h e Indian account) do n o t p l a y t h e leading role. C o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y t h u s allows us to w o r k back n o t t o a theological or m y t h o l o g i c a l s c h e m a b u t to a n I n d o - E u r o p e a n Hterary theme. A n d n a t u r a l l y , a Hterary w o r k does n o t h a v e to set forth a t h e o r y : it is t h e h e a r e r ' s or t h e r e a d e r ' s task to perceive t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l design w h i c h has a r r a n g e d t h e e v e n t s in t h e o r d e r in w h i c h t h e w o r k p r e s e n t s t h e m a n d w i t h t h e results it describes. Yet it is t h e design t h a t justifies t h e s e events a n d results, a n d gives t h e m a meaning. T o l i m i t ourselves to t h e episode of M a d h a v i : w h e n Yayati delivers his d a u g h t e r o v e r to t h e b r a h m a n w h o d e m a n d s a l m s f r o m h i m t h a t h e is u n a b l e to give, h e c a n n o t foresee t h a t this gift will r e s u l t in t h e b i r t h of four g r a n d s o n s w h o will l a t e r r e h a b i l i t a t e h i m ; w h e n M a d h a v i p r o p o s e s to b e a r four sons to four kings, she c a n n o t foresee t h a t each will excel as a k i n g in o n e function a n d t h a t t h e y will c o n s e q u e n t l y b e fit, w h e n u n i t e d , to r e c o n s t i t u t e t h e t r e a s u r e of royal m e r i t s w h i c h their g r a n d f a t h e r will n e e d ; a n d t h e n , w h e n she refuses to m a r r y for g o o d a n d retires i n t o t h e forest, she c a n n o t
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foresee t h a t she will a c c u m u l a t e m e r i t s w h i c h h e r father will need as w e l l ; w h e n t h e four g r a n d s o n s t h e m s e l v e s join t o g e t h e r to celebrate a vajapeya, t h e y c a n n o t foresee t h a t their g r a n d f a t h e r will fall a m o n g s t t h e m , t h a t t h e y will h a v e t h e occasion to transfer t h e i r m e r i t s u p o n h i m , and t h a t this heroic act will m a k e t h e m w o r t h y of a c c o m p a n y i n g h i m o n his reascension to h e a v e n . B u t all this is k n o w n to t h e g o d s or, w h a t a m o u n t s t o t h e s a m e t h i n g , t o t h e a u t h o r of t h e saga; a n d w e too, progressively, c o m e to recognize a u n i t y a n d a finality b e n e a t h t h e variety a n d a p p a r e n t w h i m s of chance. As is typical in accounts f r o m m e d i e v a l Ireland, which n o l o n g e r rely u p o n a religion or even u p o n a Hving ideology, t h e s t o r y of Eochaid, of his d a u g h t e r s M e d b a n d C l o t h r u a n d his g r a n d s o n Lugaid, is still m o r e laicized a n d w o r k e d over as l i t e r a t u r e — d e s p i t e t h e m a r v e l s w h i c h are still found in it. But t h e " l e s s o n s , " as w e h a v e seen, are t h e s a m e . In a fashion different f r o m M a d h a v i , b u t , Hke her, passing f r o m h u s b a n d to h u s b a n d , M e d b g u a r a n t e e s t h e p e r m a n e n c e or t h e r e n e w a l of t h e triad of royal virtues defined according to t h e t h r e e functions. If she does not, like M a d h a v i , d o it for h e r father's benefit, it is because t h e Irish a u t h o r s h a v e divided t h e task b e t w e e n h e r a n d t h e foremost of h e r sisters: M e d b provides for t h e establishm e n t of " g o o d " k i n g d o m s , w h o e v e r their h e a d m a y b e ; a n d it is C l o t h r u w h o saves h e r royal father b y sacrificing herself, b y delivering herself over to an incestuous t r i p l e e m b r a c e f r o m w h i c h will b e b o r n a t r i p a r t i t e (and p r o b a b l y originally trifunctional) son, t h e i m m e d i a t e object of which, h o w e v e r , is to w e a k e n h e r father's adversaries a n d to d e p r i v e t h e m of t h e victory which, w i t h o u t this i n t e r v e n t i o n , t h e y w o u l d certainly h a v e w o n . All of this is less s i m p l e , less h n e a r t h a n t h e chain of events in t h e Indian story. T h e Irish account, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a k e s for a s t r o n g e r connection t h a n does t h e Indian b e t w e e n t h e t w o episodes which f o r m t h e king's b i o g r a p h y . In Yayati's case, t h e r e is n o m o r e t h a n a succession, w i t h n e i t h e r logical links n o r i m b r i c a t i o n , b e t w e e n t h e disrespect or t h e rebellion of his sons, t h e devotion of his d a u g h t e r , a n d t h e service of his g r a n d sons. M a d h a v i saves h e r father, n o t f r o m his sons' disrespect or rebellion, b u t f r o m a fall b r o u g h t on later b y a g r a v e sin which h e h i m s e l f c o m m i t s . O n t h e contrary, it is to save h e r father f r o m h e r b r o t h e r s t h a t C l o t h r u heroically decides u p o n t h e t r i p l e incest. A n d
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she does save h i m — a l l bears on this occasion aiding his g r a n d f a t h e r t a t i o n w h i c h t h e act fathers.
b y herself, since t h e t r i p a r t i t e son does n o t a p p e a r to h a v e p l a y e d o t h e r t h a n b y his conception, b y of p r o c r e a t i o n p r o d u c e s a m o n g
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w h o m she a p a r t in t h e debilihis t h r e e
But a n o t h e r m o r e i m p o r t a n t difference takes us b e y o n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e . It has b e e n n o t e d briefly above, b u t it m u s t b e t a k e n u p again h e r e , for it opens u p a n e w perspective o n t h e o p e r a t i o n of I n d o - E u r o p e a n kingship. In n e i t h e r of their lives a n d in n o n e of t h e i r services are M e d b or C l o t h r u u n d e r a n y obligation to r e m a i n virgins or to c o n d u c t t h e m s e l v e s as virgins. O n t h e c o n t r a r y : M e d b places princes o n t h e t h r o n e b y m a r r y i n g t h e m , a n d h e r sister C l o t h r u , before or after h e r t r i p l e sacrifice—which a p p a r e n t l y t r o u b l e s h e r as an act of incest b u t n o t as a sexual un'on—is i n c l u d e d a m o n g t h e d a u g h t e r s t h a t Eochaid gives to C o n c h o b a r . M a d h a v i , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is f u n d a m e n t a l l y a virgin. T o b e sure, m a n y are t h e y o u n g w o m e n , in t h e Mahdbhdrata a n d generally in I n d i a n traditions, w h o h a v e in o n e w a y or a n o t h e r received t h e privilege of recovering t h e i r virginity, e i t h e r i m m e diately after having graciously given it t o a god or a saint, or after t h e b i r t h of t h e infant t h a t this e m b r a c e has p r o d u c e d . W e are r e m i n d e d of Kunti, t h e m o t h e r of t h e t h r e e eldest P a n d a v a s , of t h e i r g r e a t g r a n d m o t h e r Satyavati, a n d also of D r a u p a d i , t h e P a n d a v a s ' c o m m o n wife. I n d e e d t h e latter, w h o m t h e five b r o t h e r s possess successively, cyclically, according to a usage of t h e t i m e a g r e e d u p o n in advance, e v e n recovers h e r virginity each t i m e she changes h u s b a n d s . In t h e i r diversity, h o w e v e r , all these w o m e n h a v e one trait in c o m m o n : their l a t e r life is t h a t of an o r d i n a r y w o m a n , n a m e l y t h a t of a wife a n d m o t h e r . O n c e it is recovered, n o n e r e m a i n s or wishes t o r e m a i n in possession of h e r virginity for f u t u r e occasions: t h e y all m a r r y a n d , in general, h i d e f r o m t h e i r h u s b a n d s t h e a d v e n t u r e of t h e i r y o u t h . T h e peculiarity of Yayati's d a u g h t e r is t h a t she chooses t o r e m a i n a virgin, if o n e m a y p u t it this way, as soon as she can—as soon as she has accomplished, in four t e m p o r a r y unions, t h e task assigned h e r b y t h e b r a h m a n w h o h a d received h e r as a gift f r o m h e r father. Once free, she refuses t h e m a r r i a g e w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n h e r t r u e m a r r i a g e , goes t o live in t h e forest—virgin forever—and concerns
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herself n o m o r e w i t h h e r sons. Even for t h e p r o c r e a t i o n of these sotis, she conducts herself n e i t h e r as a wife n o r as a m o t h e r : she is only a consenting b u t u n i n v o l v e d i n s t r u m e n t , s h r e w d a n d unfeeling, u n t o u c h e d b y t h e q u a d r u p l e e v e n t , m o r a l l y as well as physically. O u t of obedience she s i m p l y accepts, a n d even directs, t h e four-year suspension of h e r virginal vocation. N o w these are t h e t w o phases of h e r life which, t h r o u g h t h e i r c o m b i n e d effects, finally save a n d r e s t o r e h e r father: the functional m e r i t s of the sons t h a t she has b o r n e in exceptional circumstances, plus t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t of half of t h e undifferentiated m e r i t s w h i c h she herself has w o n b y h e r ascetic forest life, c o m p e n s a t e for Yayati's fault a n d , w h e n transferred o n t o h i m , regain h i m his place a m o n g t h e royal saints. T h e fact t h a t t h e action occurs p a r t l y in h e a v e n , p a r t l y on e a r t h , at first d u r i n g t h e protagonist's life a n d t h e n after his d e a t h , changes n o t h i n g essential: w e a r e in India, w h e r e t h e t w o w o r l d s adjust to each o t h e r and interpenetrate. T o b e sure, t h e m e r i t s which M a d h a v i wins in t h e forest a n d l a t e r t r a n s m i t s t o h e r father are those w h i c h are w o n u n i f o r m l y by m e n a n d w o m e n w h o , at w h a t e v e r m o m e n t of their lives, choose t h e forest: it is n o t in h e r capacity as a virgin, n o t t h r o u g h t h e j e a l o u s cultivation of h e r virginity, t h a t she acquires h e r efficacy, b u t t h r o u g h d e p r i v i n g herself of food, comfort, etc., in short, t h r o u g h a k i n d of d e h u m a n i z a t i o n . B u t it is still as a virgin t h a t she chooses t h e forest: n o t at the e n d of a r o u t i n e existence, h a v i n g b e c o m e sterile, or to a t t e n d a d i s c o n t e n t e d or aged h u s b a n d , b u t in full y o u t h , o n t h e d a y p r o v i d e d for h e r m a r r i a g e , d u r i n g t h e c e r e m o n y , before an a s s e m b l y of t h e m o s t prestigious suitors. T h a t is w h a t gives h e r decision its p a r t i c u l a r coloring, m a k i n g of h e r , as m u c h as it could in p r e B u d d h i s t India, t h e c o u n t e r p a r t of t h e y o u n g princesses of t h e W e s t w h o s h u n n e d t h e m o s t g l i t t e r i n g m a t c h e s in favor of t h e cloth, p r a y e r , a n d t h e divine B r i d e g r o o m . In brief, in the p r o v i d e n t i a l p l a n w h i c h guides h e r w i t h o u t h e r k n o w i n g it, b u t which reveals itself little b y little to t h e r e a d e r a n d p e r h a p s to h e r as well, she has a u n i q u e and c o n t i n u o u s r o l e : to p r e p a r e for t h e king's salvation. A n d it is a role t h a t she fills t h r o u g h h e r virginal n a t u r e , i n d e e d h e r vocation as a virgin, w h i c h p e r m i t s h e r first t o give b i r t h , w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g a t r u e wife, to t h e four m a s c u l i n e saviors of h e r father t h e king, a n d t h e n i m p e l s h e r i n t o t h e
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forest, w h e r e , still unconsciously, she p u t s herself in a position t o i n t e r v e n e as his fifth and decisive savior. T h u s , in a n a r r a t i v e , novellike f o r m , r e w o r k e d into m o r e r e c e n t conceptions, w e catch sight of o n e e l e m e n t of a n ancient ideology of t h e royal function: w e u n d e r s t a n d h o w virginity—conserved physically and, to an e v e n g r e a t e r e x t e n t , m o r a l l y b y a w o m a n close to t h e king, in this case b y his closest relative—was i m p o r t a n t a n d efficacious in p r o t e c t i n g t h e k i n g against t h e risks of his position. Let us n o w cross t o t h e o t h e r e x t r e m i t y of t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n w o r l d , to t h e Italic peoples, t h e R o m a n s , w h o s e religious v o c a b u l a r y p r e s e n t s such r e m a r k a b l e concordances w i t h t h e I n d i a n — o n e of these b e i n g the v e r y n a m e for a king, reg-.'O F r o m R o m e too, or r a t h e r f r o m Alba, w e could d r a w u p o n a legend, a beautiful r o m a n c e , t h a t of t h e youthful exploits of t h e f o u n d i n g king. N u m i t o r , R o m u l u s ' g r a n d f a t h e r , has also lost t h e kingship, n o t because h e has sinned, b u t — a n o t h e r risk of t h e royal f u n c t i o n — t h r o u g h a dispossession b r o u g h t o n t h r o u g h his o w n naive h o n e s t y ; a n d h e too is finally r e s t o r e d b y his d a u g h t e r ' s son, a son b o r n in an exceptional a n d m a r v e l o u s w a y f r o m a d a u g h t e r w h o is a virgin, indeed, virgo Vestalis, aya/xos Kai TTccpOevog, as specified b y P l u t a r c h (Romulus, 3,4). H e r e t h e r e is only o n e g r a n d s o n , b u t h e is b y himself as c o m p l e t e , as trifunctional, as t h e g r a n d s o n s of Yayati c o m b i n e d . This is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y his e n t i r e reign a n d , theologically, b y his successive connections w i t h t h e t h r e e gods of t h e precapitoline t r i a d : M a r s is his father, J u p i t e r is his u n i q u e a n d constant p r o t e c t o r , a n d h e himself, after his d e a t h , b e c o m e s Q u i r i n u s . But R o m e furnishes s o m e t h i n g b e t t e r t h a n a l e g e n d : a clear ritual s t r u c t u r e . W e k n o w o n l y t h e rex of r e p u b l i c a n t i m e s , r e d u c e d to a p u r e l y sacerdotal role. B u t t h e religious c o n s e r v a t i s m of t h e R o m a n s is such t h a t w h a t e v e r concerns t h e rex is f r o m a past t h a t has h a r d e n e d a n d fossilized in its p r e r e p u b l i c a n f o r m . In p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e is t h e regia, t h e regia domus, o n t h e F o r u m . In t h e historic period, t h e rex a n d t h e regina do n o t live t h e r e : t h e regia is essentially t h e d e p a r t m e n t of t h e g r a n d pontiff, w h o has t a k e n o n t o h i m s e l f t h e m o s t active p a r t of t h e religious h e r i t a g e of t h e king. B u t it still r e m a i n s , in n a m e , t h e " h o u s e of t h e k i n g , " a n d rituals like t h a t of t h e O c t o b e r H o r s e , o n t h e Ides of t h e first m o n t h of a u t u m n , m a k e sense o n l y if t h e regia,
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vi^hich h o l d s an i m p o r t a n t place in t h e m , is u n d e r s t o o d in this fashion. N o w this king's house, as I p o i n t e d o u t s o m e t i m e a g o , " s e e m s to constitute in t h e very p l a n of its c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e t o p o g r a p h i c synthesis of t h e t h r e e functions, those w h i c h t h e rex, in royal t i m e s , h a d to m a k e i n t o an active synthesis. For n o t o n l y is R o m u l u s , t h e first k i n g of l e g e n d , trifunctional, directly a t t a c h e d at once t o J u p i t e r , M a r s , a n d Q u i r i n u s , b u t e v e r y h o l d e r of t h e regnum m u s t b e so as well.^2 x h i s is w h a t Justifies his j u x t a p o s i t i o n to t h e t h r e e flamines maiores, w h o a r e t h e m s e l v e s rigorously specialized. T h e f l a m e n of J u p i t e r , t h a t of M a r s , a n d t h a t of Q u i r i n u s each m a i n t a i n passively a n d s e p a r a t e l y a n d for t h e benefit of R o m e (and, before t h e Republic, for t h e benefit of t h e rex), a n a r r o w a n d p e r m a n e n t contact w i t h t h e cosmic " f u n c t i o n " covered b y t h e n a m e of t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g g o d : magico- a n d juridico-religious s o v e r e i g n t y for t h e Dialis; m a r t i a l force for t h e Martialis; a n d o r g a n i z e d a b u n d a n c e — a peaceful a b u n d ance of m e n a n d of t h e m e a n s of sustenance—for t h e Quirinalis. T h e rex is at t h e " c o n t r o l s " of t h e chariot of s t a t e ; a n d in this position h e uses, as n e e d arises, o n e or t h e o t h e r of these contacts—assured h i m b y t h e flamines—with t h e t h r e e forces necessary for t h e life of society a n d of t h e w o r l d . He m u s t t h u s possess their synthesis, n o t in himself b u t in front of h i m , at his disposal. A n d this is j u s t w h a t is expressed b y t h e p l a n of t h e regia as it was built in t h e valley of t h e F o r u m in t h e fifth c e n t u r y , certainly r e p r o d u c i n g in its singularity a t r a d i t i o n a l s y m b o l i c l a y o u t — p r o b a b l y t h e f o r m of t h e first regia of t h e Palatine, a n t e r i o r to t h e extension of t h e city. T h e m a i n b o d y of t h e b u i l d i n g , in front of t h e c o u r t , has t h e f o r m of a v e r y e l o n g a t e d trapezoid, a l m o s t r e c t a n g u l a r , divided i n t o t h r e e consecutive r o o m s — o n e large, c o n t a i n i n g a h e a r t h , a n d t w o contiguous s m a l l e r o n e s — t h e central o n e , t o j u d g e f r o m t h e s y m m e t r i c traces of sills on t h e l o n g sides of t h e t r a p e z o i d , a p p e a r i n g to h a v e b e e n a passageway b e t w e e n t h e e x t e r i o r a n d t h e c o u r t y a r d . T h e uses of each of t h e r o o m s m a y b e discussed, b u t t h e i r n u m b e r c o r r e s p o n d s t o w h a t w e k n o w f r o m t h e t e x t s . T h e regia was, for t h e m o s t p a r t , o p e n ; it served for acts of p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d p u b l i c cult t h a t w e r e carried o u t b y t h e persons o n e w o u l d expect, t h e rex, t h e regina, a n d t h e flaminica dialis. But it also c o n t a i n e d t w o sacraria, chapels, t h a t w e r e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , closed, secret, accessible o n l y t o special p e r s o n s a n d
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in precise c i r c u m s t a n c e s : a sacrarium Martis a n d a sacrarium Opis Consivae. In t h e first w e r e conserved t h e hastae Martis, w h o s e s p o n t a n e o u s t r e m b h n g was a m e n a c i n g o m e n . M a r s could h a v e n o t e m p l e in t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e pomerium, a n d this chapel w a s n o t a t e m p l e . It m e r e l y s h e l t e r e d , in t h e king's house, powerful s y m b o l s of M a r s ' s m o d e of action. Its p r e s e n c e expressed t h a t t h e rex, in addition to his c o n s t a n t exercise of t h e politico-religious a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e first function, h a d at his disposal t h e essence a n d t h e m e a n s of t h e second function. A similar possession is expressed, for t h e t h i r d function, b y t h e presence of t h e carefully closed chapel of O p s , A b u n d a n c e personified —especially A b u n d a n c e r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e h a r v e s t — u n d e r t h e n a m e Ops Consiva, w h i c h surely signifies t h e A b u n d a n c e t h a t is n o t y e t utilized, t h a t is s t o r e d (condita), k e p t in reserve.'^ W h i c h p e r s o n a g e s are said t o b e a u t h o r i z e d to go inside t h e s e t w o chapels? First, negatively, let us o b s e r v e t h a t n o n e of t h e t h r e e flamines maiores—who, as w e h a v e j u s t recalled, are t h e respective g u a r a n t o r s of p e r m a n e n t mystical contact b e t w e e n R o m e a n d Jupiter, between R o m e and Mars, and between R o m e and Quirinus —is so a u t h o r i z e d . N o text shows a n y of t h e m in t h e regia. At t h e first level it is n o t the flamen Dialis b u t his wife, the flaminica, w h o c o m e s t h e r e t o sacrifice a r a m to J u p i t e r on all nundinae—market days, f o r m e r l y days of political activity, of contact b e t w e e n t h e k i n g a n d t h e p e o p l e (Macrobius, Saturnalia, 1,16,30). T h e flamen Martialis is n o t r e c o r d e d in t h e sacrarium Martis. A n d t h e v e r y w o r d s of V a r r o which tell us a b o u t t h e chapel of O p s Consiva d e b a r t h e flamen Quirinalis f r o m e n t e r i n g it. This l a t t e r exclusion is all t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e as it is h e w h o assures t h e cult of Consus, t h e god theologically paired w i t h O p s Consiva (TertuUian, De spectaculis, 5). It is k n o w n t h a t O p s is h o n o r e d twice d u r i n g t h e year, in t h e s u m m e r on A u g u s t 25th, a n d on t h e eve of w i n t e r on D e c e m b e r 19th, a n d t h a t on each occasion h e r festival is p r e c e d e d , t h r e e days earlier, b y o n e for Consus, on A u g u s t 20th a n d D e c e m b e r 15th. This interval is e n o u g h to attest to a liaison b e t w e e n t h e t w o festivals a n d t h e t w o divinities: o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e g o d of t h e g a t h e r i n g of crops, of storage, a n d on t h e o t h e r , t h e goddess of s t o r e d - u p a b u n d a n c e . N o w on A u g u s t 21st, at t h e s u b t e r r a n e a n a l t a r of Consus on t h e Field of M a r s , t h e flamen Quirinalis a n d t h e Vestal virgins officiate t o g e t h e r .
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w h e r e a s , after t h e interval of t h r e e days in t h e c h a p e l of Ops in regia, o n e can d e d u c e f r o m t h e text of V a r r o (De lingua latina, 6,21) t h a t t h e Vestal virgins officiate alone. T h u s t h e m a j o r flamens s e e m to b e s t r a n g e r s t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e t h r e e functions as practiced in t h e regia. Even t h e first, t h e Dialis, m e r e l y delegates his wife for t h e periodic sacrifices p e r f o r m e d t h e r e , a n d she, to tell t h e t r u t h , is n e a r l y as sacred as h e is. B u t t h e n , w h o does get into the t w o secret chapels of M a r s and Ops? As to t h e c h a p e l of Ops, t h e passage f r o m V a r r o to w h i c h I j u s t referred says: " T h e r e was in t h e regia a chapel of O p s Consiva t h a t was so holy t h a t n o n e b u t t h e virgines Vestales a n d t h e sacerdos publicus could e n t e r i t " — t h a t is to say, o n t h e o n e h a n d t h e vestal virgins, on t h e o t h e r t h e " p r i e s t of t h e s t a t e , " t h e G r a n d Pontiff. T h e l a t t e r ' s r i g h t of e n t r y was p r o b a b l y justified by t h e fact t h a t in t h e r e p u b l i c a n period, h e was t h e m a s t e r of t h e house, t h e o c c u p a n t of t h e regia in place of t h e rex. As to t h e Vestal virgins, it is n a t u r a l to t h i n k t h a t t h e i r visit t o this chapel, or at least o n e of t h e i r visits, t o o k place o n t h e d a y of t h e festival of t h e goddess w h o resided t h e r e , on t h e Opeconsivia of A u g u s t 25th; a n d t h e y p r o b a b l y c a m e for a sacrifice, since Festus (p. 354 L^) speaks of a vase of a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e which was peculiar to sacrifices offered in sacrario Opis Consivae. Of t h e chapel of Mars w e k n o w t w o things. Servius {Ad Aen., 8,3; 7,603) says t h a t , once w a r was declared, a n d before g o i n g to t a k e his c o m m a n d , t h e general-in-chief designate e n t e r e d t h e sacrarium Martis and shook t h e bucklers, t h e n t h e lance of t h e god's simulacrum, saying " M a r s vigila!" This general imperaturus himself, like t h e G r a n d Pontiff in o t h e r m a t t e r s , is also an heir of t h e prehistoric rex, w h o in all l e g e n d s w i t h o u t exception, f r o m R o m u l u s d o w n to t h e second T a r q u i n , was sole c o m m a n d e r of t h e a r m i e s . His visit to t h e " M a r s of t h e k i n g " is t h u s n a t u r a l . B u t w e also k n o w t h r o u g h Festus (p. 419 L^) t h a t a sacrifice (not specified) was offered in regia b y t h e Saliae virgines, t h e " S a h a n virgins," clothed like the Salian warriorpriests, Salii, cum apicibus paludatae. It is m o r e t h a n p r o b a b l e , since t h e Salii are t h e priests of Mars, t h a t t h e virgines Saliae w h o sacrificed in t h e regia did so in t h e p a r t of t h e regia reserved for M a r s . T h u s , aside f r o m t h e imperator in o n e case a n d t h e sacerdos publicus in t h e o t h e r , b o t h of t h e m r e p u b h c a n r e p l a c e m e n t s for t h e king in m a t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n d u c t of w a r a n d t h e control of religion.
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t h e cults of t h e second a n d t h i r d function are m a i n t a i n e d , in t h e royal house, b y virgines: Salian virgins. Vestal virgins. W h y ? T h e lessons of t h e Indian l e g e n d of Yayati can h e l p us to u n d e r s t a n d . T o b e a virgin, to r e m a i n a virgin, is n o t s i m p l y to b e chaste. Chastity is of t h e o r d e r of p u r i t y ; virginity is s o m e t h i n g higher, of t h e o r d e r of p l e n i t u d e . A w o m a n w h o r e m a i n s a virgin conserves in herself, u n u t i l i z e d b u t n o t d e s t r o y e d , intact a n d as if reinforced b y h e r will, t h e creative p o w e r t h a t is hers b y n a t u r e . In religious usage, t h e virgin w o m a n is apt, at h e r high point, t o s y m b o l i z e and t h u s t o assure t h e function of h o l d i n g in reserve, and conserving " f o r all useful p u r p o s e s , " t h e various p o w e r s n e e d e d b y society a n d , prim a r i l y , b y t h e h e a d of society, t h e king. In this way, t h e r e is a n exact c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n w h a t t h e virgin priestesses r e p r e s e n t in t h e sacerdotal c o m m u n i t y a n d w h a t is r e p r e s e n t e d m a t e r i a l l y b y t h e sacrarium Martis a n d t h e sacrarium Opis Consivae in t h e h o u s e of t h e k i n g : w a r r i o r force h e l d in reserve, a n d s t o r e d - u p A b u n d a n c e . In t h e Indian l e g e n d it was n o t t h r o u g h a cult or in chapels t h a t Yayati's virgin d a u g h t e r assured h e r father of a " r e s e r v e s t o r e " of t h e a d v a n t a g e s of t h e diverse functions. She did this, r a t h e r , t h r o u g h h e r flesh, t h r o u g h t h e sons t h a t she f o r m e d w i t h i n herself a n d gave b i r t h to in an exceptional m a n n e r , each a speciaHst in o n e of t h e functions, w i t h o u t actually ceasing to b e a virgin. A n d second, she did it t h r o u g h t h e m e r i t s which she herself acquired a n d a c c u m u l a t e d in h e r final career as a virgin t u r n e d ascetic. O n t h e day w h e n t h e k i n g n e e d e d t h e s e reserves, h a v i n g s u c c u m b e d t o one of t h e risks i n h e r e n t in t h e royal function, t h e y w e r e r e a d y for h i m : those w h o h e l d t h e m , t h e girl a n d h e r four sons, h a d only t o t r a n s m i t t h e m . But R o m e ' s ritual s t r u c t u r e a n d India's l e g e n d a r y s t r u c t u r e p r e s e n t t h e s a m e teaching, t h e latter w i t h such i m a g i n a t i v e liberties as a " v i r g i n m o t h e r " and " v i r g i n ' s s o n s " which a ritual Hke t h e R o m a n one, constrained to respect t h e laws of n a t u r e , could n o t h a v e permitted. T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a n o t a b l e difference b e t w e e n t h e Indian l e g e n d a n d t h e R o m a n ritual. All t h e functions are p r e s e n t e d differentially in Yayati's d a u g h t e r a n d h e r sons—including t h e first function, which is r e p r e s e n t e d b y t w o particularly i m p o r t a n t qualities: faultless veracity a n d t h e assiduous practice of sacrifices. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , in
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t h e regia t h e r e is n o h o m o g e n e i t y b e t w e e n t h e first function a n d t h e o t h e r t w o , n e i t h e r in t h e d i m e n s i o n s a n d distribution of t h e p r e m i s e s n o r in t h e officiating p e r s o n n e l . M a r s a n d O p s are lodged o n l y in t h e regia, in special chapels, while t h e activities of t h e first function, m o s t n o t a b l y certain sacrifices received b y t h e high gods, are p e r f o r m e d in t h e w h o l e g r o u p of buildings. As far as w e k n o w , t h e r e are t h r e e such sacrifices: those received b y (1) J u p i t e r o n all nundinae, (2) J u n o o n all calends, a n d (3) J a n u s at t h e b e g i n n i n g of each year. A p p a r e n t l y virgins t a k e care of t h e cult o n l y in t h e t w o chapels, for M a r s a n d for Ops. W h e n it c o m e s to t h e cults of t h e " s o v e r e i g n " divinities, those of t h e first function—apart f r o m t h e rex himself, w h o sacrifices to J a n u s on J a n u a r y 9th (Ovid, Pastes, 1,318; V a r r o , De lingua latina, 3,12)—they a r e still p e r f o r m e d exclusively b y w o m e n . B u t n o w t h e y are m a r r i e d priestesses, priestesses for w h o m m a r r i a g e is a condition a n d an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in t h e i r sacerdotal s t a t u s : it is t h e flaminica Dialis (I stress t h a t it is she a n d n o t h e r h u s b a n d ) w h o sacrifices every nine days to J u p i t e r (Macrobius, 1,16,30), a n d it is t h e regina sacrorum w h o sacrifices to J u n o o n t h e first d a y of each m o n t h (Macrobius, 1,15,18). A r e m a r k a b l e s t r u c t u r e t h u s e m e r g e s h e r e : (1) t h e only m a l e s o p e r a t i n g in t h e regia a r e t h e rex a n d his r e p u b l i c a n r e p r e sentatives (imperator; sacerdos publicus); (2) outside of t h e m , t h e religious activities of t h e regia are carried o u t b y w o m e n ; (3) these activities are p e r f o r m e d by m a r r i e d priestesses, those of highest r a n k , for t h e divinities of t h e first function; a n d (4) t h e y are p e r f o r m e d by t w o types of virgin priestesses for t h e divinities of t h e second a n d t h i r d functions. W h a t is signified h e r e is t h a t at t h e level of t h e first function, t h a t of J u p i t e r t h e celestial rex, a n d also, essentially, at t h e level of t h e terrestrial rex (from which c o m e his special connections, a m o n g t h e t h r e e m a j o r flamens, w i t h t h e flamen of J u p i t e r ) , n o t h i n g is h e l d in r e s e r \ e : t h e religious life, or t h e politico-religious life, is h e r e an actuality, a c o n t i n u o u s do ut des. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , for w a r , w h i c h is f o r t u n a t e l y n o t p e r m a n e n t a n d which was at first seasonal, a n d for t h e storage of A b u n d a n c e , which is b y n a t u r e seasonal, t h e placing on reserve of t h e p o w e r s of M a r s a n d O p s is t h e sole m e a n s of seeing to it t h a t t h e y are continually m a i n t a i n e d at t h e king's disposal. P e r h a p s this i d e n t i t y of status s h o u l d b e r e l a t e d t o a similar
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parallelism, of a formulistic k i n d , b e t w e e n t h e rituals of t h e t w o sacraria. W h e n the general-in-chief c o m e s t o t o u c h t h e lances of M a r s before t a k i n g his c o m m a n d , h e says: Mars, vigila! A n d w e k n o w (also f r o m Servius, ibid., 10,228) t h a t once a year t h e Vestal virgins accost t h e king b y saying: Vigilasne rex? Vigila! Servius does n o t specify t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e in which this step is t a k e n , b u t w e are n o t w i t h o u t m e a n s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e gloss is a t t a c h e d to a verse of t h e Aeneid a n d indicates t h a t it is a r i t u a l expression, scarcely modified, w h i c h Vergil has e m p l o y e d in this passage. N o w in Vergil t h e circ u m s t a n c e s are clear: it is a s e q u e l t o t h e episode in w h i c h t h e T r o j a n ships are b u r n e d a n d c h a n g e d into n y m p h s . W h i l e Aeneas has e m b a r k e d to seek r e i n f o r c e m e n t s , T u r n u s a n d t h e Latins m a n a g e to set fire to t h e fleet which Aeneas left at a n c h o r before his c a m p , n e a r t h e m o u t h s of t h e T i b e r . B u t C y b e l e i m m e d i a t e l y m e t a m o r p h o s e s t h e hulls i n t o n y m p h s , a n d t h e f o r e m o s t of t h e s e n y m p h s s w i m s to m e e t Aeneas a n d , catching h i m at his ship, says to h i m : Vigilasne, deum gens Aenea? Vigila! N o w it is easy to see t h a t , in this episode of t h e b u r n i n g of the ships, Vergil w a n t e d to b r i n g t o g e t h e r t h e e q u i v a l e n t s of t h e various divinities to w h o m a cult is r e n d e r e d at t h e Volcanalia, Vulcan's festival against fires—notably, given t h e season, h a r v e s t fires a n d grain fires.^** T h e divinities t h u s r e p r e s e n t e d are Vulcan, obviously in his capacity as t h e d e s t r o y i n g fire. Ops, t h e n y m p h s w i t h — w e can a s s u m e — J u t u r n a at t h e i r head, and Q u i r i n u s . N o w , in t h e episode of t h e Aeneid, " O p s " is t r a n s l a t e d i n t o G r e e k b y " C y b e l e " (as was c o m m o n l y d o n e e v e n in Vergil's day);^^ t h e principal n y m p h receives a n o t h e r n a m e ( C y m o d o c e a ) — J u t u r n a b e i n g t h e p a t r o n e s s of terrestrial fountains a n d , m o r e o v e r , for Vergil, t h e e n e m y of t h e T r o j a n s ; a n d Q u i r i n u s , i m p o s s i b l e since for Vergil h e is n o m o r e t h a n a deified R o m u l u s , is r e p l a c e d b y A e n e a s himself, t h e c u s t o m a r y prefiguration of R o m u l u s in t h e p o e m . ' ^ N o w t h e V o l c a n a h a rites are c e l e b r a t e d o n A u g u s t 23d, t h a t is, in t h e m i d d l e of t h e t h r e e days i n t e r c a l a t e d b e t w e e n t h e Consualia of t h e 21st a n d t h e Opiconsivia of t h e 25th, a n d it is certain t h a t t h e y f o r m a s t r u c t u r e d g r o u p w i t h t h e s e t w o rites. T h u s if Vergil i m p a r t s t o t h e n y m p h , in t h e sequel of a scene inspired b y t h e Volcanalia, t h e w o r d s of a p p e a l which t h e Vestals a d d r e s s to t h e rex in an u n specified ritual c i r c u m s t a n c e , it is likely t h a t w e are dealing w i t h an a p p e a l t h a t was m a d e following t h e Volcanalia, t h a t is, e i t h e r at t h e
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Opiconsivia rites t h e m s e l v e s , or j u s t before t h e m . W h a t is of i n t e r e s t is t h a t t h e a p p e a l of t h e i m p e r a t o r in t h e sacrarium Martis a n d t h e a p p e a l of t h e Vestals to t h e rex in t h e cultic z o n e of O p s Consiva e m p l o y t h e s a m e w o r d : vigila. Against t h e e n e m y t h a t R o m e is a b o u t to face, a n d also to c o u n t e r a c t t h e fire t h a t t h r e a t e n s s t o r e d - u p a b u n d a n c e , w h a t is d e m a n d e d in t h e regia at t h e levels of t h e second a n d t h i r d functions is " v i g i l a n c e , " w h e t h e r on t h e p a r t of t h e g o d M a r s or o n t h e p a r t of t h e king. T h e vigilance w h i c h precedes action, w h i c h waits a n d keeps w a t c h b u t does n o t manifest itself, is t h e very a t t i t u d e which accords w i t h t h e sort of mystical benefits t h a t t h e t w o chapels of t h e regia are s u p p o s e d to c o n t a i n : a d v a n t a g e s , o p p o r t u n i ties, m e a n s h e l d in reserve u n t i l t h e y a r e used, a n d r e a d y to b e used. It will b e profitable to e x a m i n e t h e o t h e r I n d o - E u r o p e a n societies w h o s e royal m e c h a n i s m s are m o r e or less well k n o w n . If Ireland, w i t h M e d b a n d C l o t h r u , e n t r u s t s t h e royal function or t h e salvation of t h e king—ri or ardri—to w o m e n w h o a r e in n o w a y virgins, t h e best k n o w n a m o n g t h e Celts of G r e a t Britain, t h e W e l s h , a d h e r e to t h e R o m a n m o d e l in a brief, single, b u t i m p o r t a n t piece of legend. At t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e f o u r t h b r a n c h of t h e Mabinogi, it is said t h a t the magician-king M a t h , except in t i m e s of w a r , always h a d to k e e p his feet in t h e lap of a virgin g i r l . ' ' T h e reflections w e h a v e j u s t m a d e on t h e relations b e t w e e n virgins a n d t h e rex explain this s t r a n g e condition, at least in principle if n o t in f o r m . As to t h e Scandinavians, t h e y c o n f o r m at once to b o t h t h e R o m a n a n d t h e I n d i a n m o d e l s : as in R o m e , t h e m a l e a n d female sovereigns h a v e virgin auxifiaries, b u t , as in India, t h e first function is, f r o m this standpoint, homogeneous with the other two. Moreover, the t e s t i m o n y c o m e s n e i t h e r f r o m a ritual like R o m e ' s n o r f r o m a saga h k e India's, b u t f r o m t h e o l o g y a n d m y t h . T h e highest level of t h e Scandinavian p a n t h e o n is occupied b y a royal couple, O d i n n a n d Frigg. T h e wife's c o n d u c t , at least, is w i t h o u t w e a k n e s s , w o r t h y of t h e R o m a n m a t r o n s : she is a serious spouse a n d a good m o t h e r . OQinn a n d Frigg also p r o v i d e t h e m o d e l for t h e h u m a n h o u s e h o l d , w h i c h is constituted w i t h their p e r m i s s i o n . T h e r e exists a special m i n o r goddess, a personified abstraction n a m e d Lofn, w h o s e service Snorri (Gylfaginning, 36)'* defines as follows: " S h e is so
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g e n t l e a n d so g o o d to those w h o i n v o k e h e r , m e n a n d w o m e n , t h a t she o b t a i n s for t h e m , f r o m All-father ( = O S i n n ) a n d Frigg, permission to c o n t r a c t m a r r i a g e s , e v e n w h e n t h e i r u n i o n was first f o r b i d d e n or b a n n e d . " Such is t h e couple, w i t h t h e spouse of t h e king of t h e gods, like t h e R o m a n regina, participating m o d e s t l y b u t actively in t h e sovereign function of h e r h u s b a n d . W h a t d o w e k n o w of 6 9 i n n a n d Frigg's collaborators? At t h e t h i r d level t h e y h a v e at their disposal t h e g o d d e s s FuUa— a s y n o n y m of t h e R o m a n O p s , A b u n d a n c e personified. Fulla is n o t a Vanir goddess, as o n e m i g h t expect, b u t r a t h e r o n e of t h e TEsir. She is a t t a c h e d specifically to t h e p e r s o n of Frigg. Snorri {Gylfaginning, 22)1^ defines h e r t h u s : " S h e w e a r s h e r hair loose (laushdr), w i t h a g o l d e n b a n d (gullband) a r o u n d h e r h e a d . She carries Frigg's little b o x {eski Friggjar), looks after h e r shoes (gcetir skoklceda hennar), a n d k n o w s h e r secret decisions (launrad)." H e r close c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e sovereign c o u p l e is c o n f i r m e d b y a feature of t h e m y t h of B a l d r : from t h e b o t t o m of t h e u n d e r w o r l d , f r o m t h e k i n g d o m of H e l , Baldr a n d his wife send p r e s e n t s to only t h r e e /Esir: t h e m a g i c r i n g D r a u p n i r to O S i n n , a p r e t t y blouse a n d o t h e r unspecified objects to Frigg, a n d a g o l d ring to Fulla (Gylfaginning, 34 end).20 Virgins a r e n o t n u m e r o u s a m o n g t h e iEsir: this goddess. A b u n d a n c e at t h e service of t h e royal c o u p l e , is a v i r g i n : hon er mcer. At t h e second level, t h a t of t h e w a r r i o r , t h r o u g h an e v o l u t i o n p r o p e r to t h e G e r m a n s , O S i n n is m o r e involved t h a n a r e t h e sovereign gods of India a n d even of R o m e : witness his connections w i t h c o m b a t a n t s , in b a t t l e itself a n d , b e y o n d , in ValhoU w h e r e h e w e l c o m e s t h e heroic d e a d . N o w his auxiliaries in this function a r e n o t m a s c u l i n e figures b u t t h e Valkyrjur, w h o see t h a t t h e p e r p e t u a l b a n q u e t s of ValhoU a r e p r o p e r l y p r o v i d e d for a n d even recruit t h e guests w h o a t t e n d t h e m . " O Q i n n , " says Snorri (Gylfaginning, 22 end^*), sends t h e m to e v e r y b a t t l e , a n d t h e y choose those of t h e m e n w h o will fall (l)cer kjosa feigd d menn), a n d a w a r d victory (rdda sigri)." N o w t h e Valkyries, b a r r i n g a r o m a n t i c accident, a r e a n d r e m a i n virgins. In an account b y Saxo G r a m m a t i c u s , ^ ^ t h e y i n t r o d u c e t h e m s e l v e s to a h e r o b y saying t h a t " t h e lot of w a r s , fortuna bellorum, is a b o v e all r e g u l a t e d b y t h e i r i n t e r v e n t i o n , 5Hi5 ductibus auspiciisque, t h a t t h e y often t a k e p a r t in c o m b a t s , praeliis interesse, w i t h o u t l e t t i n g a n y o n e see t h e m , a n d , t h r o u g h c l a n d e s t i n e assistance, assure success for their
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f r i e n d s . " Bur t h e w o r d b y w h i c h t h e historian i n t r o d u c e s t h e m is n o less i m p o r t a n t in describing t h e m : virgines. As to t h e first level, t h a t of s o v e r e i g n t y p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , to w h o m does O S i n n , a e u h e m e r i z e d O S i n n , o w e t h e possession, t h e v e r y existence, of his first Scandinavian k i n g d o m — a D a n i s h s t o p p i n g - p l a c e in his m a r c h t o w a r d t h e Swedish U p l a n d ? T o a g o d d e s s , Gefjun. A n d h e r e is t h e s e n t e n c e t h a t Snorri d e v o t e s to h e r in his e n u m e r a t i o n of t h e f e m a l e ^Esir, j u s t before s p e a k i n g of Fulla (Gylfaginning, 22):'^^ " G e f j u n is a virgin (hon er mcer), a n d t h o s e w h o die virgins serve h e r in t h e o t h e r w o r l d " (ok henni pjona peer, er meyjar anda:^). Such is t h e theological definition, b u t t h e r e is also a l e g e n d a b o u t h e r t h a t has b e e n historicized (Ynglingasaga, 5; cf. Gylfaginning, 1 ) . A r r i v i n g at t h e s h o r e of Baltic Straits, O S i n n , t h e " k i n g , " sends Gefjun f u r t h e r to t h e n o r t h , t o w a r d t h e Swedish k i n g Gylfi, to ask h i m for l a n d s . T h e Swede—in a v a r i a n t of a w e l l - k n o w n theme^'*—grants h e r w h a t e v e r she can p l o w in a d a y a n d a n i g h t . She t h u s goes to t h e l a n d of t h e giants a n d t h e r e , t h o u g h a virgin a n d p r o t e c t o r of virgins, she m a k e s herself p r o d u c e four sons b y a giant, t r a n s f o r m s t h e m i n t o oxen, a n d yokes t h e m to a p l o w . T h e y d r a w so e n e r g e t i c a l l y t h a t t h e y a r e a b l e t o d e t a c h a l a r g e piece f r o m Gylfi's k i n g d o m . A n d this piece, h u r l e d t o w a r d t h e s o u t h b e y o n d t h e coast, b e c o m e s t h e D a n i s h island of Z e a l a n d , 6 5 i n n ' s first k i n g d o m , in w h i c h , h o w e v e r , h e will n o t r e m a i n since it is his calling to r u l e in S w e d e n itself in place of Gylfi. T h u s Gefjun has r e n d e r e d h e r m a s t e r t h e m o s t u r g e n t service a k i n g could n e e d : she has p r o c u r e d for h i m , in m a t e r i a l t e r m s , a k i n g d o m . 2 5 N a t u r a l l y t h e exegetes a r e e m b a r r a s s e d b y this c o n t r a d i c t i o n : as a goddess, Gefjun is a virgin a n d p r o t e c t o r of virgins; in " h i s t o r y , " she m a k e s herself p r o d u c e four sons b y a g i a n t to give a k i n g d o m to t h e king.^^ But t h e s a m e aporia is e n a c t e d in t h e l e g e n d of M a d h a v i : a virgin b y vocation a n d d e s t i n e d to s p e n d t h e r e m a i n d e r of h e r life in virginity, she first c o m m i t s herself, o u t of obedience, to t h e p r o d u c t i o n of four sons w h o , w i t h h e r , o n t h e day of his n e e d , will r e s t o r e h e r r o y a l father, a n d w h o , w i t h h e r , in t h e m a t t e r of i m m e d i a t e m o m e n t , will save h i m f r o m t h e s h a m e of a refusal to give a l m s . T h e s e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s a r e n o t b a n a l . T h e y c o m p e l us to a d m i t that the Indo-Europeans had already constructed a well-articulated t h e o r y a b o u t t h e i r r e p l a c e a b l e services w h i c h v i r g i n c o l l a b o r a t o r s ,
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lastingly virgin, living reserves of p o w e r a n d efficacy, r e n d e r e d to t h e i r kings, w h e t h e r on all t h r e e functional levels, or only, as in R o m e , o n t h e second a n d t h i r d . T h e suppression, or e v e n t h e o v e r t u r n i n g , of t h e virginal condition in t h e Irish legend, w h i c h is in o t h e r respects so close t o t h a t of Yayati a n d M a d h a v i , poses a p r o b l e m I m u s t leave t o t h e Celticists: o n this p o i n t I r e l a n d confronts a r e m a r k a b l e coalition of India, R o m e , Scandinavia, a n d W a l e s .
m
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1. To avoid confusion, I use the form Yima for the Iranian figure, reserving Yama for the Indian. 2. What follows is reprinted from the second essay of Rituels indo-europeens d Rome, 1954, "Aedes rotunda Vestae"; I wish to thank the Editions Klincksieck for permitting its reappearance. 3. Provisionally, see Les dieux des Indo-Europeens (1952), chapter 2, "Les dieux souverains," with substantial changes in the Spanish edition, Los Dioses de los Indoeuropeos (1970), pp. 39-68; and Mythe et ipopie 1 (1968), pp. 147-51. 4. William Dwight Whitney, trans., Atharva-Veda Samhitd (repr., 1962), slightly modified; the following AV verses also from Whitney's translation. 5. Most recently, with a rich bibliography, Peter Snoy, Die Kafiren: Formen der Wirtschaft und geistiger Kultur (Inaugural dissertation, Frankfort a.M., 1962), pp. 126-35. 6. Stig Wikander, "Vedique kshaita, avestique xsaeta," Studia Linguistica 5 (1951): 89-94. 7. Arthur Christensen, Les types du premier homme et du premier roi dans I'histoire legendaire des Iraniens, II: Yim (1934), p. 45: "Among the Iranians, Yima is never elevated to the sphere of the gods. But the legend of Yima is developed in two directions and forms itself into two legends of Yima which exist side by side, even though the one would logically have to exclude the other: on the one hand there is Yima the first man and first sovereign of the earth; later, when he is displaced by Gayomart, HoSang, and Taxmoruw, he keeps his role as one of the first kings of the earth; on the other hand, the popular tradition—and the imagination of the priests—places Yima, as the central figure, in the nonterrestrial land of the blessed. The thread which tied together the two phases of the first man's existence is broken." 8. Cf. Zand-Akdsih, Iranian or Greater Bundahisn 32,6 and 10, ed. B. T. Anklesaria (Bombay, 1956), p. 270. 9. Christensen, pp. 16-18; cf. Herman Lommel, Die YaSts des Awesta (1927), appendix, pp. 196-207. 10. From Christensen's French translation. 11. Georges Dumezil, "La prehistoire indo-iranienne des castes," Journal Asiatique 216 (1930): 113-14; Emile Benveniste, "Les classes sociales dans la tradition avestique," ibid. 221 (1932): 119. 131
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12. On a possible correspondence chat is more precise, see Dum^zil "La, sabhd de Yzmi," Journal Asiatique 253 (1965): 161-65. 13. Concerning incest on the level of the third function, see my Prom Myth to Fiction, trans. Derek Coltman (Chicago, 1973), chapter 4, "Hadingus with Harthgrepa: legitimate incest among the Vanes". 14. See Mythe et ipopee II (1971), part 2, "Entre les dieux et les ddmons: un sorcier," on Kavya USanas and Kavi Usan, especially pp. 158-59, 229-38. CHAPTER 1
1. Five times pdfka ksitdyah; three times p. car^andyah; five times p. kr^tdyah; eleven times p. jandsah; to which Schlerath adds with good reason the adjective pdncajanaya (seven times) and the elliptical expressions p. manufdh (once) and p. priydh (once). 2. Das Kdnigtum im Rig- und Atharvaveda (1960), pp. 28-32. The references and the early bibliography are cited there, as well as in the posthumous article of D. B. Kosambi, "The Vedic 'Five Tribes,'" JoMrmif of the American Oriental Society 87 (1967): 33-39 (this latter too inchned to historicize). 3. There is a difficulty only in the case of RV 6,51,11 and 10,53,4-5, where the "five lands" are situated in heaven. But this is perhaps no more than a stylistic consequence of the fact that even though the cardinal points are made use of on earth, they are nonetheless identifiable only by celestial reference points (course of the sun; stars); cf. the theory of the round hearth and the square, oriented hearth in India and Rome, Dumfeil, Archaic Roman Religion, trans. Philip Krapp (Chicago, 1970), pp. 312-19. 4. Despite Liiders, it is certainly not a question here of the zenith, which only later comes to be considered as the fifth direction. 5. Mircea Eliade, Le Sacre et le profane (1965), pp. 21-59, "L'espace sacrd," with bibliography. 6. There is already an allusion in one of the gd$ds: Yasna 32,3. 7. Les types du premier homme et du premier roi dans I'histoire legendaire des Iraniens, I (1917), pp. 117-18. One will find there the references to the Pahlavi texts. In the GreaUr Bundahisn, 14,36 and 18,9 (ed. Anklesaria), pp. 134 and 158, mentioning the emigration of the nine races on the back of the Ox, the six peripheral kisvars which they inhabit are still mythical worlds. 8. This impression is reinforced by a consideration of the rat (Avestan ratu, "protector spirit, president"). Greater BundahiSn, 29,2 (ed. Anklesaria), p. 252, borrowed from the list of names furnished by the Yost of the FravaSi (Christensen, I, p. 121): the rats of the pair of northern kisvars have two names both ending in -ia)spa; those of the pair of southern kilvars are both sons of the same father. 9. One may also possibly detect the same influence upon the structure of the "seven priviliged clans" of the Achaemenids, which one rediscovers among the Arsacids and then the Sassanids; Arthur Christensen, L'Iran sous les Sassanides (1936), pp. 13-14 (Achaem.), 16,18 (Ars.), 98,101-2 (Sass.). Cf., in the theology, the passage in the number of AmaSa Spantas from six to seven by the incorporation of Ahura Mazda, or of Atar (Fire), or of Sraosa, or of VaraSragna (Yazata of victory: see Dumezil, The Destiny of the Warrior, trans. Alf Hiltebeitel [Chicago, 1970], pp. 118-21, after Father Jean de Menasce); cf. Christensen, I, p. 192 and n. 1 10. Celtic Heritage (1961), chap. 5, "A Hierarchy of Provinces," pp. 118-19; chap.
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6, "Involutions," pp. 140-45; chap. 7, "The Center," pp. 146-72; chap. 8, "Five Peaks" (in Wales), pp. 173-85. 11. Ibid., pp. 123-33. 12. "The Setthng of the Manor of Tara," ed. and trans. R. 1. Best, Eriu 4 (1910): 121-72. The words of Fontan are on pp. 144-60 (145-61 trans.). The scene is supposed to have taken place in the sixth century of our era, under the reign of Diarmait, son of Cerball. 13. A. and B. Rees compare this—.shifting each term one direction counterclockwise, and replacing the sudras by the musicians—with the ideal plan which the Kautilya-Arthasdstra (trans. R. Shamasastry [Bangalore, 1915], pp. 60-61) gives of a royal fortress: in the center, slightly to the north of a site reserved for the gods and the sacrifice, the place of the king; around this, the priests to the north, the warriors to the east, the tiller-breeders to the south, the sudras to the west. 14. Edward W. Hopkins, Epic Mythology (1915), pp. 149-52 (§91-92), on the lokapalas in the epic. There are instances where Indra, probably as king of the gods, may be removed from the hst and replaced (in the north) by Soma, and the presence of this "sacrificial god" may have involved that of Agni, sometimes substituted for Kubera (in the east). The interpretation given in the text presumes that the canonical conception (V., I., Y., K.) was formed in a period when the functional value of the first two gods (sovereign, warrior) was still understood. Later the interpretations were of course dififerent, for example that cited by Hopkins, p. 150, where the qualities conferred by each of the lokapalas upon the ideal "first king" are greatness (1.), restraint (Y.), beauty (V.), and wealth (K.). 15. Arthur Christensen, "Trebrodre- og Tobrodre-Stamsagn," Danske Studier (1916), p. 56. 16. Herodotus 4, 5-7. Most recently, see the discussion in my Mythe et epopee I, pp. 446-52. 17. The Book of Conquests {Ubor Gabala Erenn, IV = Irish Texts Society, 41 [1941], 28, §295), describing the occupation of Ireland by the Fir Bolg, shows them apportioning the island into five provinces (for there are five brothers), but disembarking with the invading army divided in three; it does not seem that these five provinces coincide exactly with the usual coiceds (they are all on the periphery, but the two Munsters count only for one); see Fran^oise Le Roux, "La mythologie irlandaise du Livre des Conqufites," Ogam 20 (1968): 329 and nn. 54-59. The traditions on the origin and the synthetic character of the central coiced are of another type; they have been studied by F. Le Roux on pp. 168-76 of" Le Celticum d'Ambigatus et I'omphalos gaulois," Ogam 13 (1961): 158-84, as a sequel to Christian Guyanvarc'h, "Mediolanum Biturigum," ibid., pp. 137-58. 18. Germania 2,3: "celebrant carminibus antiquis, quod unum apud illos memoriae et annalium genus est, Tuistonem (variants: Th-, Tr-; -sc-, -sb-) deum terra editum et filium Mannum originem gentis, conditoresque Manno tres fihos adsignant e quorum nominibus proximi Oceano Ingaevones, medii, Herminones, ceteri, Istaevones vocentur." Tuisto is certainly "the Twin" or "the Double" (cf. the Indo-Iranian Yama, the old-Icelandic Ymir). The trifunctional interpretation of his three grandsons was proposed as early as 1939 in my Mythes et dieux des Germains, p. 12, n. 1; see Jan de Vries, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed., I (1956), p. 486; II (1957), p. 35. The individual proper names which one must suppose at the origin of the ethnic groups are not common names for gods, but their surnames: this is probably due to the source being poetic, carmina. The
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first name *Inguia-, which refers to an individual god (if one may judge from the Scandinavian parallel), points us toward a similar interpretation for the two others; *Ermina- thus designates a god, and in Scandinavia only OSinn receives the surname jormunr, whatever may be the other usages of the word (notably as the first term of a compound); see the proposals of Jan de Vries, "La valeur religieuse du mot germanique Irmin," Cahiers du Sud 36 (1952), no. 314, pp. 18-27. 19. Franz-Rolf Schroder, Ingunar-Freyr (1941), esp. pp. 25-33. 20. Stig Wikander, Der arische Mdnnerbund (1938), pp. 58-60. 21. The first function is thus in the middle (3,1,2), just as 06inn is between Jjorr and Freyr in the temple of Uppsala described by Adam of Bremen (2,1,3). A similar instance occurs in the division, by altitude, of the three functional families of heroes in the epic of the Ossetes: the Strong are at the summit of the mountains of the Narts, the Wise at the midway point, and the Rich at the foot (2,1,3), Mythe et epopee I, p. 456. Plato's Republic, which contains at the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth book such remarkable expositions of the tripartite ideology (cf. Mythe et epopee I, pp. 493-96), cannot be left out here (4, 435^-436*, Francis M. Cornford, trans.. The Republic of Plato [New York and London, 1945], p. 132): "Surely, I began [says Socrates], we must admit that the same elements and characters that appear in the state must exist in every one of us; where else could they come from? It would be absurd that among peoples with a reputation for a high spirited character (TO dvfio^i^is), like the Thracians and the Scythians and northerners generally, the states have not derived that character from the individual members; or that it is otherwise with the love of knowledge (TO
