OF
THE
L-,ITERATURE
ANSLATOR
+< ~ljEBF·~
http://www.dzlsg.netldoc
The Challenge of Comparative Literature Claudio Guillen
Translated by Cola Franzen
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge,
Ma""chu~
and London. England
1993
+< ~mw-~
http: Iwww.dztsg.neUdoc
eo,.
"
......
ClI99J
bo lh< ~ Mod t'or. 01 H.rYUd CoIItF
For Harry Levin and Rem! We/lek, with aU my gratiwde
............. u-.d 5... 01 "-nco lO""HHl
Onp..>/h' p",M h-d .. f.-. 10 _ n 10 _ _.. 1........__ • j" ........ , C r......... Cnoa....... I 1'1lS.
I
•
Tta,_ 01 dtn .......... h..u bo... - . I ..,. • pM! " - do< Pn>snd ,I> h.>d"'S ........ "",... btrn a.-.. '" otrrnplI-d dun_r.
Gu,llbl. O>ud.oo. lEn,,,, I u""
r I Iud .... on ")
En,,,,
~2)
,.r."'"ce
<pal1ded the material for a series of lectures S"'en in the I'eople's Republic of China-llcijing, Jinan, and Shanghai~ before audiences of tireless listeners. I can recall tooa)' thc extraordinarily dose attention paid b)' tho>c young Chines<prcss the few thingi I have learned or taught. Roland Barthes, who was of course a great writer, once said that one ShOl,ld cite other writers the way one cites· a bull. One person who under· stood a great deal about both citations and bulls was Jose Bergamin, who spent his life, illler "Ii", modeling and remodeling strange words, idiomatic expreSSIons, the "OicCi of the greatest CrealOrs. I appeal here to such iIIustriou. forebears to placate those who may be annoyed by the superabundance of citations in this vulume. Since we are dealing with cumparati.'e literature, I hope that the reader will admit that these citations arC functional, c"en uscf,,!. Criticism. which is also alllobiography, COmeS om of a personal selection of cirations. I h""e looked at the literatures of mall)' countries of Europe as well as tho$C of other connnems, drawing elose to them, listcning to them, yielding to their best voices, reproducing whell pos' • Clt~r
In SpanIsh, citcr;n French, .nd c,t. in English all m~Jn 10 cite, quote, SOme other w",er or ou,homy, and .11 .... Iso u",d .s • bull~ghllng loK- nof mmllO~ heff forgt\.c
The Challenge of Comparative Literature
Ak~ncbr Rak~, Tibor Kbnicuy. Y. V1ppcr; Ralph Bopn, Grqory Nagy, Slephm Owm, Rldurd S~nh, I'1olr Stemkrller. Juri, Stoed'er, Sus;.n Suklman, Wikror W~nt:lllb; Haskdl Block, film Frinlman, I':lob M,ldom..n, Jaruce 05[crila~; Albata Bkcu:a, }cM Man...,1 8lerua .heyounvr. ,\1.100 Het'Jcinda, umlda dd Moral; and my wif.., Ydnu Sa. nunna. And I ""Ofl()( f:1.I1 ro add a sp«t:ll gr«tlllg 10 my ~lUdml5 al the Un,,-cn,dad AUl6noma of B3ralona, who ~rtlClpa[N wlIh ~uch good Will In !/lC first pr~tarion of many of thew rcfl=iom during !/lC aCldcmlc )"Car 1983-84. From the bottom of my lIcart, my thub to all. me):
http:/ www.dztsg.netldoc
Part I The Emergence of Comparative Literature
+< ~1!H'If-~
http:! 'lW'w.dztsg. neUdoc
1 First Definitions
CompJratlv~ lileUlU't (a rom'collona)
usually understood
It)
and nOf '"cry enlightening label)' I~ consist of a cc.lam tendency or bra,,,h of literary
,nvestig.1(ion that Involves the systematic study of supranational aisembla~.
I prd"n II()( 10 ur, as some Olhen do, thaI com~ntl"e Iilcnl\l~ ron§lW; m an exammuion of Iitttatutes from an InlCm:>"on;t] potnt of '"0C'w, ~na us identify does nOi dqJmd solely on the armudc or postu.-c of the oWn·cr. Wh:ll IS fundamental is the obvious romnburion to the history or the concept of IllcT3lUre of ,",>'cral dasses and categories rhM CHIno! b5t ...1>0 f rofcssional or pe~n..1rusons limlls himself to" f..m,ltanly ...·lIh wnl' ,::in hIS moIher tOllgut has htde Or no rCM"mbl3ncc to nc and 1M »'II'K' urn". 8uI r do 11(){ fttl Ihar such an appro",mat1on of Ibe conditions of cnnClS/Tl 10 l~ ofh{cTalur~is tho: ~aphicaJ and 5OC1O~...1 Sllllanon ailM Heb",w ""mer, (2) the ,nflucn dtl bomb.! ",fin/to. a ~rrc:absr exercise, ""fore am"IIlS al h'$ Rcs4knc1.2 I.> 'tnr.>. WI"eh unh IS h', America and
,It
i,'
3, the ""me UIM u's D!cutta, Colombo. Rangoon". A book by me Atgellllllan En"q~ Mol"", •• ailed Omllmbrts tTTantu 0 U rMoro.k, tk I.IJ t~ fEenm C~om5 or rht Roun:, bUI h.s irequenl allu§ions [0 my mUlCT Wilham FaulkflCT- allo....' us 10 undCTstand brnn whal was nt't~ all in quesllons lnat ro lemporaJ and ,ndl' >ldual dimenSIons of hIS obJ«! of sNdy. e."mparati,~ 11itralUrc has bern a resolUlely hlstonc;ol dlsophne: and tbe IIlOlit responSIble comparal1SIS loday regard all SupcthlSloncaJ or lIluah,slorical premISeS as hasty, useless, unacttp'lablc. In addmoll. C'\"(:ry idealistic posNre-nco-Kallllan or ncoPlaronlC---dlsdamful of Ind""dual dIfferences., oflhe appcarancc or surface of things, IS IrremedIably al >..nancc ....lIh criUClSJD of the aru-palllung, archlleaure, musoc.IJlCfalure. baJIet, cmemalograph,'. and so forth. In these .aspects of (lJllure. II woold be absurd 10 dIsregard .....ork based on personal expencocc. rlK ~1I>eCC III longllude Ihal separalrs remote, mdepmdcnl clVlhbs ~ sunranallonal d,mens,on of a Iheme 1$ amply lkmonSlraled ,f uno ns . r . 'f similar d,fference of long, tude. aut Ihe sam~ qursTlon anses I ....e a nsp,ms . d. h h ....0 lileralures Ihat are close and yel qU'le i erem, sue as I , . exaltU"e ' Caulan and Ihe Span,sh, In both cascs, Ihe cmic-comp~rallSt teSls co,:",mon hcnornndo rna II m,o pmslCro s'a";1, SI 'PpICCia dove puo pcr d,fSl che non 5'" spcnro.
htt
21
Don'l kcep Idling me th.t even a loothpick, even a crumb or. nOlhing C.ll com,," the ...bok ThaI's wlm llhought "hen the world exisled. bUI my thlnklOg 15 changmg, It dings wher...·~. 11 ca'l 50 al 10 rdl Itscl/ It 111"1 dead." un IlClther n"~rorosrnos oor s)'mbol be found In a .... o~ld lhat, Momal~ id'ms 10 Impl)', no long~r ~xISIS as coherence, as CQSrnos~ Ii IS no lonl¥r a mallcr 0 f. hetero.~"y of POints of VI"". The plllrahsm In qllesl10n here IS a plu•• hsm of brtngs and nol of opinIons. H".,ng arrl\'td no.... al the mockm era" lhe uniqull'tM"Ss of nallon;1llnn· JllIrll'_llIll'.aIUI'll' Ihal sc~ firsl as subsnrul~ and refuge-.s nm 1M, only fraud. Tod;1l. hlcralurec.annQl be rduced 10 a smgle tradlfion. so tranquilly aettSslble 10 lhe ",d"'ldu;11 lalnu. as 1: S. Ehor supposn:l. lllerary history, ;1ny TTlOU than can any OIM' Inle ofhISIOT)·, unnor be rduccd 10 onl}" one 10l;1hz1I1g Ihrory, l....er.llure 01'1101 be diminIshed 10 lbe pcrcq>!lOn of lhoc reat Homer; et HeS>od., and so on).' In Rome ,ht, concept, dear to thc S!:0lSSlblc onl)' In oppslnon fo:l conscious nallonalism.~. Abon' all we must kfqlln mmd die growth of a dJlfcrcm fyflC' of lU.oonahsm, one. mu IS all-absorbmg, m.:.l superwdc:s and sublu!I"lrli:l.lI else, oo'oun n'efYthmg, IndudmS the lOrtS, thoUghl, hfCntu~. Fr.. n~ JO§( dimngu,sMs thl. I~'PC of nUlOn.. hsm from the loyalt,cs of mtdleval man, att"c:hed :IS hc was
to hiS ne.lOr, (Oncr~t~ ~nvlronltH'nl:
Ahhough the Augus'an conCepl of /Jillna pchmd by lbe nrodassical con«pr of culture that had dIUppUrn.!, and (llu ....·u b25ro on lbe normau\l' impaa and the COllnnully of a mulUs«uJar symm of potties and melOnrdIJN NlIOtTS o{ (4....d.J, 1;47) and Joseph La~tau (Afonm df'1 f/3 ..vagts "mn,C4WIs) and Qucchua couplers lranslated by ~ellllC3w GarCll3so. On onc side, thc analytic Tendcney lhal Tc"tc c311s ·concemrarion" will pre"a,l, affirmation of the origlnalily or uniqueness of uch people, of ils ~Spuil.w Msoul; or ~gcnl\.tS,~ and of dlC' mamfesl3D()n of thew qualincs In popular cu3nons and t",dilions, such as romances, haJl3ds" heroic: nnTos. Each nanonalllteralUre, If il memS the lerm, IS onginal. It is not a qucstion of lHIy,nl! thc same thing In differel1l languJges (for e:Or\ of CUrIUr..) t\"CI1lS, lhe r:lpod propag3lion of hlcnry or phiJ$, "buuuful and &!"t..t Ilka lhal rons,,:kn all sciences and arlS 10 be a pan of an enfl"nlbk. an IndlVlSlbk whok.wl1 Adam Miiller mamla",ed '" 1807 lhal ,",orks of an and genres "ere hke lhe limbs and IItI'Vt$ of a large and beau· uful body: -The smgk works of an and s'ngle gm= Were rons,dered 10 be Ith Itmbs and nt'O'CS "nd muscle syslrm of a large body. uch one fune· UOlllng 'ndependently In 'IS own fashIon and ncb one regardtd as an obe· d,....1 pan of a beaulJfuland mromp.uabk whok.w;u Fn13lly let us also nole lhe Iranscendental funtl'on a,trlbuted bl' some 10 Ihe "n. as fore" for "'tegranon dur'ng 1M pre·Romamic and Romanlle years_-a vlS,ble "ppannon. w Sc:hlegd wrOlt. wof lhe k'ngdom of God on earth ~:" thc moc fint ~q:ps of l~ new d'sophnc a~ well known. Akxandru Cioraroescu dc$aibe!i IMm 'ery wdl In 1M firsl du.pm- of his PrmClplOS tk ultr.11U'.. romp.>r.Jd3 '1964'. In hIS '"K":, 1WO preoccupations st:lnd 001 dunng lhe Romanric: yt.Irs;
Ii.e
leut;lbhshmenr of die uniTY of hteulUrl" ,rhrQtrncd.
as "'~ u .. alher, by die ab.ilndonmcnl of uarurional portia):lnd 1M study of dw rd"nons !xno'«'Tl ~ n~nOn ~nd ~llOl:hcr, an easily:K'CCSSlbk aenVII) dUI p'-e rlSC 10 such Import~m books ~nd COUl"SCS ~s lhose of Abel Frano;o.s Villcnum, Phdu~e Chaslcs, or Jun'J~cqucs Am~. The firSI com· ~1~IlSIS w~ abo"e all amblllOU$. Duzled by me pCISSIbihlles open 10 lhtm. no honlon SC'Cmcd IInanamable. Chasles ,1798-187]) .... rQIe more than forty ,-oIumes of cnuosm. Angloplule.....,lh ~ shup and bale pen, ~nd possessing a good knowledge of S~ln. he ....rOle aboul RabelalS. Amtno, Shakespe:ne. Ab.rron, AmonK) P«n, Caldl'ron, Carlo GoZ:ll, Hok!erlin, Jean-""-ul, Coleridge, DIckens, Ochlcnschb.gcr, TurgcOC'V, and many OIhCTS.' HIS preferred field of srudy .... as 'mdlcau~l h,SlOry, ....h,dl he combmed "mh poellcal hIstory. ~l h~'e IInle eslCftn for lhe ....ord /,ttrat"",· he wrote once.•n.c word SC'CtTlS de~OId of sensc 10 me; II hu bern haldled OUI of inlel1cctUal dqmv:ll101t.·' H,s buic poInt of dcparrure is lhe idl'a of national charaCler. The Rom:1nnc d'aleuic skClch«l urhcr, open as II is 10 lhe Impulse for synthesis ~nd llle ""leepllon of nallonal dIfferences, is lefl diminished 01 mutilated. Chasles
33
www.dztsg.netldoc
The CompromiU!s OII'oSl/lI>llm
rUlftolP'O'CS authors, OOtJnln6, Ilea-alura. ~T'hc. ~rman should darify hIs sly Ie, Ihe French make h,s more wlid, the EnglIsh make hl5 more organized and Ihe Spaniard calm h,s down_~' As an example, we ohSethtnl: SImilar h-ad ha~ in conn«tion wno rhe possIbility of a universal hislory. Jacques &nip Bossuct In his Di5CQMN S!-mg Imaginanon, whICh may, as Colclldge wrote. "make lhe changeful God be felt in Ihe river, Ihe lion and the Aame,~ the tl ",,,h ,lit assumptioo of J'O"'·u by llit bourgrotSie. a PO"'er lhat was. If IlOI poInieal, al kast C'COllOntic and sooal Itl nalurt.·" BUI Ihe 'nac3~ of commercial inrcrchangcs and the gro...."'g poWtr of tlit bourg«>ISic are not con.,dercd here as lhrnterung e,·~ms. According 10 Goethe, the)' all contnbulC to peacc and underslanding-to the rulization of .h~ eighteenth-century idnl of a human communilY that was 1x:1ler Ill' fOlllleiJ, mOrl tQlcr~m. its compon~nrs Itss isolated from ont al101htr. After the Napoltonic wars. aeh,cving such a goal sc:emtd more urgent than ~ver. lnt .annons of Wa.~r1()Q ~ull rcwundtd '" ,"emor)'. Th~ idea of \,(,~lrJitn' aru, ':like comparanvlsm la.cr) came Olll of a posrwar a'mosphcre.
""'....
riltf('ll'.
Iwww.dztsg.netldoc
The Emergence of
CompJr~live lilcr~lUre
Wehhlcralllr
Such an idu .....ould n:;llurally be«>me linked ""lIh Slmlb.r. more inno'';l· COnCCpllOllS In tl>" all'as of polmes and culture: .....lIh lh", Europeanlsm of GiuKppe MaUln," and ,nIh Ih", ~ ~all$r ,nrernauonahsm. As for Gonh",s comrnmts on the, conrt«uOfl bet.....~ 1I1erary and e ral1'-C hterarure .s only roo well loown. And t~ COTl,·mtH)nalla· in rompao _ . II "_. ",d,ment...... as the>- are m;1dequale. H,StOllCll )-. tnCT~ ""as no ~Is.rea.'.·. • ndl nch ~S(hool- {an m;1ppropnare lenn for 1M rwmrieth Cetltury). a 0 Ftt Amenean -sdlool- euker. I prefer 10 speak of the French hour: .. :~ rime-from Ihe md of the nmC1«nth eenrury to shonly after the ~nd World War_dUring which Ihe example of the French romparaUSrS prcdo""naled and waS nllllated by Kholar. of various Stripes. a\1 followmg cerlam oriemalionS that can be reduced 10 a simplified cone.eplual model. Theoretically, we find oursckes confronted by twO opposmg modd" one \mernallon~1 ~nd the other supranallonal; bUI 10 pt~C1lce, as I keep repeat109, Ihe t....o models are intenwined. The French hout allowed sp~cr for InvC$lIg:uions of very dlfftTenl t)pC5. but the stud,es ""ere based on NlllOn..II,IUi,llure5--on thell prttmu>tnCC'Jnd on Ihe conn.:cnons between rhWl. ~bJOr emphaSIS waS pbCC'd on phc-nomcna of ,nAuence. lr:msnIlSSKHl. commumc:mOll, InnSl! IpaJUgt'. or rhe Imk bet....een JC1""nes :md ....orks belongmg to dllfcmn lUllOlUl
co;::
"""",. Among these. Ihe study of mAI>CllCC'S IS ITIOQ l)'plClll: for example, the IOflucna of Goethe In Frana:, or Goethe 10 Denmatk; Petrarch In SpaolU~h; English or Poh~h poe1ry of t~ SIXlCetllh cenrur),; R,lke. V~Ib}', ."arb III OUr century. The usual pomt of dcparrure for lhis IYpe of stud)' IS ~ grul "ruer, Or perhap~ a thinker "hose ideas ha,'e become wldesprud and gencrall)'lllown: for example, NiclUChe and the Generallon of '~8 m Spam (an ,nfiucnce thoroughly sllld,cd by Gonula Sobejano).' Someumes Ihe :>eorch for Influences is combined wllh the hi'lory of ideas, as In Ha1.~rd's famous Crise de /fl WH5c;enu europum,e (I~J4) Ot Ihc chapler -Idec~ et sentiments· m Van Tieghcm's ma"u~1. The lwo tctms of this bmary Inter!CLanon c:m be ""ide enough ro lale 10 constellations of Wnlers. school.. rnovemcnlS---evcn mclodmg the srereotyped Images thl ""am groups of people hvc blllh up ~hoot O'!~rs by re01dmg t!>eor wnnngs, (l1le bcsl bo.... n enmpk IS Jun-Mane Carre's Ln ta..."'.. fr.... to exFandmg one of rhe two tennS of lhe eqo~t1on th:o, .... c have mcnlloncd and I>odung more. The propos"""" Ihal :0. 'lOgIc :o.umor oughl be Cllher the on·
/www.dzts9·netldoc
The Emergence of Compar:llive Llleralilre gm of an mfluence or us conclusion avoids e"cesllve dispersion and makes Il POHlble to brmg logelh..r Ib.. num..rous Infl".. n~ slud,..d, OccuiOl.ally a study begins Wilh the tT3nsmlller: MOIll,llgne and his m/1ur...... m England (Charles DedCyan). Olhers ~gm wllb the r«c'i...·r: Go...th.. and bis asSlm,. buon of European IiteralUrcs (Frio: Slrich). 0, a Sfudy may deal wilb illler_ play: Shelley and Fnnu. III lMir rnpecti\'C COOl3cts (Henri Peyre).· The perspecti\e II not: changed ,f onr of the t....o elements IS a school, a mO\~_ roml. a llallonal period: juall de Ruysbroeck and the Spam!Jl mystics; lhe ja~ncsr h'lIlt11 and dlt' M.."",an ports from tM mn.. of juan jose Tablada and Eflin Rrbolkdo; or William FaulkTICT and Ibr boom of tM Lano Ama10m non·1. II waS also appropnate to CXamlM a ~n of Ibr producnon of a group of p<X'U of the same COUntry: Frenct. portry with bucohc Ibrmes from lhe end of Ibr nlneteenlh caltury-Henn de R4flIU, Alben Sam3ln, Franas jamme:s-and lbal of some p<X'U wnnng In C:urihan-Lropoldo Lugon~ juho HC'fTCTlI y RetSSlg, juan RamOn j"nmez. Bm In such ca'ioeS rhe coofinrs of rhe rheme may appear arbllrary, Sm.... the ocopc: of a mo..... ment or of a genre is usually internalional, and Ih.. mosl reasonable Sfudv IS one whose: boundaries coincide wilb the actual boundanes of rbe sub~, The pTllll:lpaf or most typic31 subject of study ""15 the m/1uence of on.. ';TIler on anOlber, as would ~ found III a binary mterrelanon. BUI in prac. nce Il IS rare or dlfficull to limll oneself 10 lhe e"ammarion of a text A and a lexl 8. In dealing wilh Iilerary h,SIO'y, one mUSI In\<eSrigale how il was possible for A to ani,'e 31 8, havmg ro overcome so many obslack"l and sucb, la:ge disrances to do so. ThaI IS 10 say, Inti..." dalu', 3 third party med,almg, a mailer of concord ralber lhan dIScord: the trans13tor, Ihe Crilic, lbe theameal director, the magnine. The collecting of counl1css biograpb. lcal, sociological, bibliDgr:lphic, or anecdolal deta;ls established a curious speci~hy wuhin compar:lfi\'ism. A gate"'ay to ~ading ItSt'1£? A labor:ltory of prehmmary HrI(sWissmuhtJ{1 (auxiliary science)? I am referring 10 Ibr COnSltkr3non of vopges and books about \·oyages. llC'\\'Spaper amdes, magazm("S, ~l1laken togech..r, 1r.IIls!alions, dict,onaries, COOl~nies of lour· lll& actors; and also lhe lcachmg of languaga.. ames, htcrary salons, and Olher components of rhe mesh of ~ ~al Inl..manonal Incrary "erwork. From thIS polnt of VlCVl\ wouldn't onr sa)' Ihal lhose: COOlpar.ll1sts came do$e to betng a ~R of -lilOn of Ihis I)'PC? eu..,.ntCS In Naples, Vollal~ In london (or Cha.leaubn~nd, or 8/anco ,«'hlle), Andri$ Na",,&cro m Granada, Rubin Dano (or I-kmmgw;>y) in Madnd. Andli Breton (or Mara! Duchamp) in New Yorlm Empson (or I. A, R,chartk) 'n ~klllg, OCll"'"'" Paz m
The fre"ch Hour lu di3 are dccisi\'e links ofa great eha"" and alw, cemuries c~r1ier, Ambros'O de Sala;r.ar. Cisar OU.dlll, and other "'terpr"lers of Ihe Spani~h language In ~'enl .....nth-ttlllury France, AI IIIl1C'S lhe dlcrlonary has been an mvalu· at>lr InSlrumenl, .....·en "'ilhin a coumry: GIlISCppc tk RO~rlls, "h,le ,evIS,ng I prvntUSl sposi, pro\'ed Ihal Alelandro ~bnzoni ~ lhe VocablllarlO IH,un eU-,UliallO of Francesco Cherub.m. The wmings of Roben Escupu on the hislDry of rhe boolc ba\'C cau§Cd uS 10 rdktt 011 lhe 100& and precarioUS course that makes ir possible for a few poems or narrall>"es to become a book at bSl;' and on the conSIderabLe mfllJftloC("--Slnu "'C are tal~lIlg aboullnfluenrs. Isn't It likely lbal the bet Ihal ~rush btap'.... IS) beyond doubt a s.ubJCCl of fundamrntal Imporrance 10 COOlparall\'C stud~ By ,,,,",",. d""rct wr re f er to CCf1ain types of persons, since ,ransbtions and penocitcals a~ also Insrrummrs of mccital>on. Think of an ,n"lunon 10 a literary
/www.dztsg.net/doc
The Emergence of C-Omparall\'e LitcralUre
TlJe forcnch Hou,
voyage bf,yond one's own bc.>rder, capable of in~piring ""riters ~uch as 1{6ny de Gounllom,' F.tr~ l'ound, Val"ry Larbaud, Alfonso Reyes, Charles Du 80s, Ricardo Baeu, E, R, CUflIUS, or Edmund Wilson. Fran~ois JOSI very rightly dis!lnguishes btrwl'tn a great wmer, such as Mihon (so 11ltlianizcd, and whose Paradise Losl ltd also 10 Fncdrich Gonheb Klop5tock), and mi. nor figures such as MelchOIr Grimm and J~cques-Hen" Mei~fet, whose fa. mous Cornspondllnce IlItt""rt (1753-1770), a5 Franr;ois Josr has obset,·cd, sought ro hn~ Paris ,,'uh tk rest of cont",..ntal Europl':
mnent by Ihe InqU'Sltlon. BUI what M~rccI Bataillon emphasizes is the P"w ,ICitl of h,s cosmopoI " N0 dou bI h·15 spmrua .. I·,mportance lIanism: aUI hell _._ his eo>mopoillanlsm_ 1I.sc11. _In Ihe ncs he knew how 10 knot ~Isln . between p.,nugal uf IhC' greal d,sco.'erles and the Europe of humamsm, of lhe ,h' ReM;SS'lnce an dhR' I I' C' ormallon..u . The ease of Ihe Englishman Leonard Cox, who d,d managC' 10 a"old rison, 15 Inmgulllg. Complerely forgOllen In his o ....n coumry, he docsnol ~'C'n appear In thc Encyclopa..d,a Britannica, He IS only mamoned In a summary liS th.. author of Ihe firsl IrUnSC' of rhetOriC III English. Th.. Artl' or Cr;t.(f.. of RMIOrylu (ca. 1530), a book Il>3t Ow'" e"ef)'lhlllg 10 lhelml.11I11Qnt'J ~IOrl ",","f. 15261 ~nd ck.,doptd a fIO(ably aC'U\'e ClIf""", accord"'g 10 }One-f Wakbpfcl:
Inrenncd,arles-wh,ch all wmers are 10 varymB degrees-if Ihcy are grca" are named: M,lton, Rousscau. Gotthe; if they arc mInor, and if Ih.." role has bccn mcrdy InSlrummlal, they are SImply S1)'lcd 'nrcrmec:ha...... In literary enUtlsm the "''Oro "intermedIary" has c.omc 10 dc$lgn:ue a rank, "'hereas u should only define a hmenon.' Rdemng to a cenaln funu>on, It 15 useful ro know "'00 exercises Il. and the dl51HKtion brt"'«t1 a fi~ writer of articks of second rank and a renowned essayiSl or crillI' 15 flO( easdy made. lila Milarov, of Bulganan ori. gin, "'00 studied In RU5$13 and Iatet In Lagrch, Introduced RUSSian Ittera. ture and irs mllcs (NI~olay Dobrolyubov, NICOlay Chcm)'Wv~ky) to a Croat'an public dUring Ih.. 1880s. Bur wnung from Paris Up 1(1 the end of the tet\tury was Antun GUS1ltV Maloi, a much more significant figure, also aCllng as Inrcrrnaliary for lhe same public.· And Gonbc! And, of COUlW_ VoI1lt're, dunng Inc pl'nod when lhe d,ffetenl ""Ilonal lileratures WCU' In tnc proo::ss of stp-aUllng, defimng Ihcmsch'cs" Ihcrdly enhancing Inc role of thc mediator. The now·fOf'JOften Cha~ de Villers, w~th h15 articks III the Speaalnlr du Nord of I'799_a dcas"'C' momcnl-.....·ealcd Getman Iilerature 10 Malbme ck Saa, So ...... sec lhat al nmes the grnl ....nrer and Inc modest mlK collaboralC', MaxIm Corky mack poss,ble tnc transl~rion mto RU$$ian of Imre Madkh's Tr"~d1 of MoOn 119(3) afret ha"mg had COnt:KI wnh a young Hunganan IOUmahSl, Akos PlIltet," who prompd}' dlsappe:orcd from v,ew. JosE Marla Blanco \l;lll1e, ....h,1e uilcd in lnndon. lIltroouccd Engh.sh poc1ry 10 the future S~msh Romantics and lhen fell inlO obllv,on for a Iolli lime. RullhC' value of his work was rC'disco......cd b)' Vicenle UOfCnSIII Ih.. grealUboolks., romanllcOJ: /823-/834 (1954), I ....ill eile only IWO morC' names, bcxh from Inc sixlnmh tet\tuf)': Damlao ck Goes and l.eon~rd CoXl' (or Cox). The rcno...·ne31_ once used, secm 10 SInk ou, of"ghl forC'VC'r.
lhldenspcr~r demonSlraled ,he enormous role playcd by lhe press In rhe
dlffu~lon of Goethe's ....ork III Fr~nce. Orhers-comparatists Or nOI-hne
://www.dztsg.netldoc
The Emergence of Com parMi". Lllcraturc
Tilt French HOllr
wrillen and will cominuc to wr;te about the h'gh point of literary mag:!_
wuh an ullwnvcmional sp,rit, such as lhe English Yellow 800k ",hue d . d d . , 94) wilh ,tS co.ws byAubrcy lkardsley an ns ~adem,st, amb'guous, :18 . V' ·,-orian ~ Frcnch,fied contrlbUllons-/iule maga~"'ts that owed "a nw '" , . '. cxislen~ 10 IWO mOll"CS, ~rcbcllton agamsr rradmonal modes of IhClr s,on ... atld a des,re 10 overcome lhe commeraal - or maler,a I diffi . ,,,pftS . / .. I ,ts which are cau~d by lhc ,mroduCllOn any wnnng whose com mer~ ,I ~nlS have nOI been pro.-cd.-" Finall)', Icc's keep ,n mmd 1....0 more "a m~ . ,he more or It'$s ,mponam inclUSIOn of plastic am ,n publtellllons cnttf' , . ueh as Bloifter (HT dtt Kunn, founded in 1892 by Sfefan George. or Pol" :1895 J, or Dlagh,lev's ,\lrr ukrm/l'f" (World of An) (1899), or lbe DUlch CH: sll/1119 17) ofTllco "iln Doesburg, publtcallons thaI ha."C a WIde rTach and ,"clude e\'eIl sublCCf1 such :as arch'leClure and urbanism-as well as the luxUry fOUmals. Funhermore. we musl consider fO ... hal CXICTlt room " made a\"rgm;d or pol"""C31-and even cphnrKral_
publiCol!lons of the a'-am-prd. lhal exerted ~al mAuen«, such as the tv,-o III Co,mbr.>, both aptly narmd, Boim... /lOW and Os ",summum (1889). The JOurnal as elrner and mte,medlary of culturl' ~lIlillned ~ new le-"d of Imponan~ In Friln~ dunng the second half of Inc nmet~mh ~ntury. uKe hferuy g;lIhenngs, mamfestos, or salons, fhe penodlals-'"OO, In whom lhe: lnrrary cnr'l:Y Wllh whidl lhe: ...-ork iJ dlargrd IS d'Wp.llrd, we CIppClW lhe aC1l~e ''''00, w!>oK CIr.Ili.... imagl/l.;lnon w,D bt S11mul.;llrd, lhndly .....ilalilmg lhl: work ona more 10 lor Il'.;Iosnunrd anrw." ltt·S Ignore lh~ dJSlLnction brno.'tt!l active ruder and passive rrader. mform:l.llQn pmennallYlOO uncen:lIn 10 lor uscfuJ. (Is I'" wnlrr lhe only active person/bn't anyoo~ who ...ads wilh maximum ime...,;1 and SornsibililY also active?) BUI II IS gener.;rlly uscfuJ 10 diff~,rn"alr brno..tt!l lhe cbs. of phtnOmnla called sull1lc ra>e'A~ VOlUl' of Lu,s ck GOngora dunng rhr 19205 dots 00\: mean that the: $okd;Jdn wa$ Int pnncipal model for Frdmco Garcia Lora, Viante Aleixandre, or LuIS Crmuda. In hIS ... tll-kno....n InrCT of 1928 fO Renc of Don QuuOte In Ftcldmg's Tom jotfu IS md,spul~r_ an Ir '5 clt,arly vlSiblt,; but II IS nor fo...hal reason more SIYl,fieanl Jbk; ~ ~ to French5)-mbohsm-mamfcsled in a more thcoroon.wll Keep In mind also the ncees:>ary dlsnncrion be,ween ,nfluences, ,ntrose and Irwllv,dual, and COlIl..."tlOm, eXlensi,·e arwl gcncral-common prcmlSCS, usages, the C:"'n f;WnterpUlS, recogJuzed ~ gr:anted by in· smu"ons In (ore,gn counmes; they d,d not lqI3rd Ihem.d,.... as dosed enc.... n~s. As " result, rhey benefiled 10 '" remarhble exrenl from such", ron· Juncrion of spims "nd IUtnmg, re"ch'ng new hoeig.h(S In spe'Cialries a. d,verse "s rhe history of "rI, physics, sociology, psychology, ps)'chnan",l)"sis,
60
/www.dztsg.netldoc
,-Co
62
The Emergenct of Comparative Literarure
enet:s, a mOrlvn;on by cultural natlonali~m, now(OVer gcncrous-tht$e ~rn I? b.. rhe symptomli of Ih.. long..orawn OUI crisIs of C
penods, and mmemenlS art' all ha§t'(j on SImilar manns. ~Of d~ dorn:..o of genn;.1 hreTa.
.,ence Irhal calUlOl ben.:ceo Ihe tn RUCIlCC of ,n/l MOnt cannot nuke" valid dIStinction b d nd lhe ,ntcmatlon,,1 "g1tC of rhl! hlstone"l DO\·d. ,n ~ra :
QOIIlmon 10 K>'eral Inenrurn. Gmra, schools,
s:I)'ks,
rute; V;on Tieghem concluded. Mart' maners of a hrer:l.t}' ""lure lhal belOng hlennutes ar the same lU1>e.~ I As an example. Van Tieghem pro.. posed three distincr conrex'S neCessary for an UndersTandmg of LA II01ll.."/I,, Hi/oi'se: firSl. That of nallona! Jilcra(Urt', lhal IS, rhe p!aCl: of LA "oltl'fdl Hilo~ in the French no.'el of rhe Clghleenlh «flru/)'; second, that of COm_e parative hICrarure, or the mflumee of Ridlardson on ROIWt;ou; ;ond Ihird, lhal of get>cTal hTtt:l.lUrt'. or lhe sentimental novel in Europe Influmcnl by Rldt"nfson "nd RouSSoC"u.' 10 ~r:d
ThIs strict rrrpartlre d"'islOn does nOl: hold up on "nalys,s. howe,·er. and lurns our 10 be mdefensible. The lhree cJas~ of InVeSllgaTlOn arc inler. hnked and interdependelll. No single class Can really be isolated and COn_ sider~ independently. On Ihe other hand, saying IhaT soml'thing cannol be isolaled Or sT"nd alone does DOl: Cc :I.urhcnllC d,{feffl1t;a of the comparati'll. tU5 call, though mmJ>Jr:uw.. h'..r:llurc ,"vile US ,he«, but 1~(S all: they
show us the PromIsed und, ....·;rhouf gUIdIng us to II, and ...."" w'ThOUt (JOinting oUl rhe road. In order 10 ""'cr, one h.s fi~ l>I1 other alms. employ olher mclhc"l$, and lhe poInt of VICw of comparJIlYC Incral""" mun be Idr behmd.' ~nd.
67
LIll':rature Gtntrale and Littr~ry Theory
The Emergence of Comparative L'tcralUrc
66
the role of IIII/Col/un giniTJI~ ...:lS s,mila. to the role of the rhrot)"
of IUeTlIfUrC today; ,1i"'1 IS. it ,mpliCLlly earned ...·uhln uwlf a sign,ficant grade of ~thro«tiClfY.w"I'M pam du.1 mu,f be follo.... ed 10 SO from a Slud)· of R,ch,udson', ;"fllKl'Ia 10 the KJ1l1lnCf1tal no"d, Of from ~ lmpaa of SIr 'I;'lltCT Soon 10 tM
"
n the open conlromation of criticismlhistory WIth theory; or, if you of our knowledge of poetry-supranational poetry-with poetics. pr~~,r;uraIIY, there ha"e be..:n a numbet of other useful models, which we "II diSCUSS later. But fillt it is worthwhile to offet an example. Very inter· ", ~enrcs exist whose ~ul1lversalityM is debatable and a matter for intsttng., .. . ,at, Ii ation, such as the literary dIspute or poem-de b ate (t berne d·'''''a ",t ' : S~reitgedi~ht. the Pro"en~al tcns6. the Persian ",unazarat); but it would ~ more appropriate to consider them later, in the chapter devoted to genI . Instead let uS examine a category of a formal type. J repeat that under o :;;~i C camparati"e history teStS specific theoretical formulations with the :tcntlon not of agreeing or disagreeing, but of harmonizing and enriching such formularions.
"I>fO
Roman Jakobson'~ thesis regarding parallelism is well known. Aocording to him, paralleli~m is ~the fundamental problem of poctry,M, the essential dimension that characterizes the poetic phenomenon. Where docs this formal characterIStic come from l from the code of the language? from the cultural values of con"cntions typical of the literary system of a distinct historical epoch? Jakobson, in his "Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry," Stresses the innate importance of syntactic forms or associations. The same pLt'CC of semantic material lends itself to distinct ways of connecting its components: ~So dark the sky is,~ or th.. OIhtr way around, ~The sky is so dark.MThis is what Gerard Manley Hopkins called tl,e figure of grammar. Well then, if thi~ figure is paraJlelistic, the possibility of poetry appears imme. ~ncil1a qUC' mot C2D1aba d albaotg;l' ...
ar....ng((j Ilh a nO:SI of box($, each "mh,n anOlher, dlghdy largn- oM; in rhls Q$(, aClU~lIy wirhin 1M ume synr>lcuc ligure. And llOIi~ rh~r Dona Ald~ uands our from rM surroundmg un~nlmIlY, so mar 1M r~wS of rtw: de-am of Roland ~r lhe end of 1M ballad breaks 1M harmony of rilt first pan of 1M ponn: Mqll( su RoIdtn n1l mU(rf(l/m la caDi de- Roncesvalles" (mal ' - Roland had d~ in 1M bank of Ron«vauxl. The (lfrcr of rmsion and Intc'fior roIhs>on app(ro-:
amado,
: .... lU
tthing like an imensdiCllIlOll Ih:;11 confirms and nth:mcn In very
dlffCfCTll 'Uy1 whar ...·as gill prenously.
IJ1>cn p.un of
1lle bndnc:ss of the bnn ""use 15 an nc~ of 8's ronn«tedncss to A; the Imph of tIw long lUllS/: '5 an Upl'U'llOfl of themallve .......ncllon bc-rA«TI Il and the ""Xl Ii"". Wh:ll ,hIS muns 's Simply: B. by be"" coo· nn:tftl 10 A-canying il further, td>oing II,
parallel.
And Wolf~ng Sieloin l"Slablishfi some very u$t'ful d,StinctIons in hIS fun· tbmenfal prcSC'n!::J.t;on of the parallelisms of popular Finnish poetry. He poll1lS OUI that there are formal parallehsms and rhemanc ones, and the larrer IIldude Ihose rhat can be 111 rurn subdivided into contradiction, enumnatiotl, and "anatlon, either by way uf synonymy or by analogy. He rhu~ calls allention to the limitarions 01 the procedure, although his descripti"e term ("verses not paralld~) is a bll clumsy." In view of this problem, the testimony of the muhisecular poeric tradition of Chma ,s undoubredly exrremely valuable. Rememkr rhe intrraction of the refra'n and v,marions in rhe ballads of the aneiem SlI,h Chmg or Class"
of&mgl' Dry leaves, dry leaves, The ",00 tosses )UU aboll•.
Brothers. eX. broohers. M y"" SIng, 10 must I fol\()y,. Dry leaves, dry leave$, The ",00 blows y"" :alone.Bn:Khcrs. oil bnxhcn., M )"QII SIng, 50 m .... I ako... nns scheme rs often uK
~ COncatcn.aled ,,,ri,,tions:
://www.dztsg.netJdoc
79
The Emergenct' of Con1p~rall\'c lllerJlUrC
78
N~da c~ftO o:kcirnos sob•• I~
more ,.riw. or rather, morphok~lCallydl\"eTSe. At the same time, • .. round as lhough a choice had benl made bd ~n vp"r· lkhsm ..,...~ "'" • k --'-- L_ I pJr" -nabic fo,m wnn rhyme.~ ZhITmun, y COfK"J~: I rn:: lOw.o . S k'\JS",oe _~_L'I I a1 of rloe)end rh)'me: as an aUlonomouS an.......lgalOI1· meallS 0 metnca ",,.,., , ~_ evidenllv al the same lime 10 a m",al of par:llld'$m and alln· bnleagt" (au> •
lie'''':
rh,·lfI ln g.
o/llbdor / the very heart of {ree verse, as irs funda_ mental constitutive prindple."'" Many people will think that one shuuld
n'es? To whal extent are we interested 10 gralping historical pJrticulars without losing the tasle of the differences? A rrealmel1l 01 the theme of Don Juan from the POint of "iew of comparati,'c literature is usually focused mOte or less on mndel A: conce11lratlng above all on some theatrical, operatic, or I'O"tic lexTS that appeared in Europe in the ..,ventl'Cnth 10 twentieth centuries. Its 3tt"b ules (the Commendador, Stolle Guest, and so on) and litcrarr origms
Iwww.dztsg.neUdoc
Three Models of S"prallullo"allly
The Emergence of Comparali,'e liTerature (Tirso lk Mohna, the lullan theuer, MoIi~re) are "'s,ble and qUIte d'stl S"'a lhe publtatin of G. Gcndume lk en'one) 1..4ligmde de Don JIIQ. (19Ill, the folklonc SOU'«1 of dle lheme ha.·e alw been enmlned, ..~th lhe "'tmnon of sketdnnl a p,ehlStory of the. aulhentic lhealrical of the XYrm«nth cmtury. ~ ,nqu,ry b"1 alonl with n'idomt
ro""";;
as ..~ pas5 from One authol to aoolhcf. from one 'USlOn of rhe figu~ Don Juan to anodler, one Ihal In many cases confi,ms the exinen,," a", n-en knowledge of .earher versIons. We are not dnltng wllh '" nn.·ly I vmted term o~ a cnncal abslr"'C1ton. bur wlIh a long ,ttnerary that gradually became conscIOUs of Itsdf. In an Impeccable manner, the sinuous evolulion of the theme and ItS tnternanona.1 character are in harmony with each nther There are momems and events In the itinerary Ihal Can be identified .....Ith complere eerUtmy. For example, '" Frenchman, Henri Blau lk Bury, Gq. manlSr, faClk wmer, transl"'tor of Goer...., was Iht first ",·ho dam:! fabncarr a happy OUtcome, Ihat 's, 10 CO"'~rt lbe bero. l"haonks 10 lbe ~tlernal fmri. nine" ro d.u n..~ge Wbbbc,". Don Jum, lIke FaUSl:. IS saved." Ir "'·ould lor difficuh 10 Imagine '" theme: posse:ssing " h,slon",1 supranarionalitv ~ rooted In space and fim.-, or more sharply OUtlIned. The vIgor charaettnstic of Don j=n hs paradoxical con~uel1Cts. TInnk of the comment",nn of Kierkegaard. umus, Ortega. Otto Rank, MIcheline Sauvage, Momherlant. Gregorio Maranon, JOSt! Bergam!n. and so many orhers." What IS of foremost importance now is nOt a scrres of transmt""'llOnS, often historical and national, or rather the perception of chan,ge, but a fundamemal figure suggesting mearnngs of many types. tn. eludIng Tht phenomenolClglcal, existtmialtst. mythical, philosophical, ]>Sy. ~hoanaIYIIC, Or snolClglcal. Ccnaml)' such global,merpretanons woul.! t>e Inconcavabk wllhoul '" bare mlntmum of bmlltarity ",·ith the ""'atan of I~ Theme ao=ordmg 10 model A. But lhe ptedornlllanng faaor is t.... una Illmlly ~Ulm:! by a conceptual framewori:---of a l)'pe D Or E, In·s sa". to go bad: lO our scheme. HowC'\'tr, no matter how broad rbe Illttrp,tUt>on may be, liS point of departure will nor bavt been a uru~ersal figure. bul I Don ~uan who IS Europan, Spanish,"en Sevillan. The possible un,,'ers.>l Ity' "'·111 have to start from model C. from an arehtlype, a man .....ho " .an mvtterate woman·chaser, an Untmng and mcorngJble lover, who IS found III the most widtly varit
,~nts:e..c-r of Ihe Absolute. The amblguttles and the mistakes "'·ould be rlot abk. ~ thai "{tie d,fierena "vuld n:mam lJn,.'een the pnmordlal """" ,nd the Skm-et.:astng Pranksler of Senile. But an openms of suc:b .~~ )elwern national hleulurtS. In 1962 lhe Academy of Snence:s of liltd:lpel'l orpniud a b~ "'lem~ri0n.31 colloqUIum of tlSts .. \III Weslem schobl'1 III allendance; In 1967 rhe ICLA met III Bdgrade. ~nd on." Sina rhm com"crs :and meetinp of rompar,,"stS from e"S'lern Euro "nod rhe Wesr hne inau$t'd. 1M Gorky IMmure (like OIher Insnrur~ lhe Soviet Umon) has published :1.1 leasl rlghr hl.Slones of '"VY dwn1ot .... IJ()II"I1irtr.ltu~. The Y:lsr HlSlOTy of World lIluoll"re IS espt'CI"II,' S'lgJ'lfi Clnl. This nine-·,·olume work, still III progress, hegllls "'ilh Ihe ongm' lllerature ~nd goes rO Ihe oUlbreak of Ihe S«ond World W"r. 4- Along orher volumes of lile....ry Ihcory, Ihis amblllous project presuppo~ a hI IOriologica.1 concern Ihal some of liS C1ilics III Ihe Wesr sincerely share,~; I ho~ 10 show Ialcr III Ihis book. Diverse models of Mlpr~nalionalily can be rccognized in Ihe works 01 Ihe compar~liSIS of eaSlern Euro~, and II would he awkw~rd 10 simplify Ihe m Some models of very greal value coincide wllh whal I h~,'e called model A. and wilh C ~s wrll. BUI il should he nOled Ihal on more lhan ~ few oc<J' S'lons model B has also be-en accc-pred, Finl of :III, lei us consickr Ihe mJ{lI~ works of V. M, Zhlrmunsky, In particular one book :lnd:ln easily :lceeMlt>k wmm~ry, Ihe 1'J67 :lmek ~On Ihe Study of Com"".... m." LJrer.lture.~ Sometimes Zhirmunsk)' rfipeclfully follo,,-s rhe: e>(:lmple 01 A. N, \'(lot'
rom"".. .
",m
\O<s~' (
1838-1906 ) and hIS ~pale()nfOlogy of plors.~4' ZhLrmunsky does
L • • WIS'lo:net J·n,'!l"~
of ,nfluences 1Il Ihe IUner.uy of hler.lcures-Veselovf ,.or '" ~counrercurrenlS~ 111 b~ffk ag;IIMI peculiar currenls 0 ~ '~" ""lied. "'" rh~1 cn»cross wuh Ihe an:llogous wpr:ulallOfl31 hnes of _41 hlsr~, . . DJrtO".... But lhe lask of lhe comp~""IlS'l conSIstS In d,seo'-cnng thesoe J
The Emergence of Comparamc Literalu,e
$ummariZ<XI in his 1961 book Verglc'dlt~Jldc FpcmforuhulIg,
("cnlly well known: for example, the
mi~culou$
3rt ...
binh of Ihe pror3gOll
such as Ihat of the Serbian ~ro ~hrko KnljC'.ic. Or the \.3.1t>e C"o"cm ~"" nng In Sandina";a" sagas and $() many olher epIcs; rhe hcroicdttds C3
out dunog mbnq'-enf""us of Ch3rlcma~, of Viv,m_to ....hich Zhir mUMk)' aSSIgns a solm'Vl'hat llil... date m the cyolulJ(>n of the gnue, w spelkmg of the RUSSIan byl",)\ of the Scmg of IIH: ThTU Chlldmr In KaL muk, or lhe deeds of Nurali and R.:o....sh3n In Uzbd;; and rhe mapal in. nmob.hty of the hero: Achilks, S'cgfncd. Iifmdur (of the ShJb-M"U FirtbUSl1, 1M Turlcish and Moogoi wunol'$ (Alpam)'w), among ""..,: Zh'nnunsky's pr~m;ltJon IS usually d,xhrOflI(; [as all Ihrfto lrlOlolygeneity_th,s superabundance of onSlIIS, from distinci levels of the 'e~l_is characteristic of the ht~rary phenomenon. It is not our task here to examIne the "'Sp"3t;ons Th3t COme frum a comrary di,ection, tnsp;r3rions
"/www.dztsg.netldoc
"
The [n'ergenc... of Comparafl\"c liferature
"
Taxonomies
dUll h\~ verNl begmnlngs, such as rlK: iconognphy ,n ll'hgious lin of I'" M,ddk Agrs, slUd,ecf so lIdm'r;tbl)" by Enuk M"k Langu"~ brc:oll\C1; lilt. ,,~. 81blic:ol lexts lind kgrnd"l) rain lIll' turned '010 and narr'll'ol~: don"",,!, a good pan of palntmg up 10 the rime of DJyid and Delano
lmprnsionism onerl)' StriPped p:ainung of 1IS literary romffil. BUI I! '5 ~: nous thai 311h,;,1 $;l~ momcllI-when V"n Gogh WlIS ~mllng hls~_ romposa-s of muSIc arne d."Cl, for eXJrnple 111 rt..: acslhenc mcdnanons of Odacrotx. ZoIa. Hofmannsd\3J, or v;'ltn.• What lemams., as I s:l.ld a llltle while back, COn1Jnucs 10 be IirnalUre, ' Bctwem rhese IWO poles, rhe Iilerary and It..: aeslheric. many 'solal(xl enrounlers, crOSKS, r«lprQC:I1 commentarics Can he foond rhar do no! gJ"~ rlK 10 supranaIJonal ~nlilles or 10 historical conTInUities but ro a "olmnlnous amoum of erudition, often beautiful, e"en e1egam, hUI erudiuon and nOlhmg more, With a propensiq' roward anecdote, diffus,on, and m~rgll" ality.
"lth
Of COUf5C an anecdote IS a Clmous bJOgrophiul trlilc. Rilke was Rodin'> secreTary. Flaubcn writcs. "Je suis amoreux de la Vlerge de MUrillo de IJ galerlC Cor-s,m," " But the aim of rm, an«dole IS u5-UalJy 10 elucidate Ihr genesIS of a work, or ralt..:r. a ps)'chological appro.ach to a lu=>ry cn'allOfl tbar more often lhan nm kads 10 uud,cs of SQUrces and Influrnas. a~ ... e sa ... earlier.- While Invesngaung rhe ongllls of lhc opulent Tnt/~l/on tk
,,_, Antollle.
Sc~ncc
>0,
could disco\'e. no substantial d,fferen,"" belWttIT boOk ~urccs. figurallve sourca (Brncghel), and childhood rerolk-ctIOnS!' Bul"'"'f do Indctd gain a brm-cr undcnrandmg of Flaubcn lhe man. Ihe Q1>C ..-110 ,nspuN hIS blOgl'aphcn wllh so mudt paSSIOn. SrudlCS of a moK pct'. ,;Uch.1S "from d~ plm'C cornmenlary, Imat; Aldn. I::::~ III hIS Compar;artvt' I.Ift'r.:/u",,: Al..u~ of rt.., oompararisl? o..."CJ1 Aldnd~ adds a fifth allegory 10 rhe, four basic ones ma[ .... ~ ha« already nored: crillClsm and literary Ihrory. Certamly Rene Wdlck's Histot"f of Modem Crl/lmm; 1750-1950 (1955-1965) mnains 0"" of Ihe grea' monumen,s of COmparal1V'SJn lOday." A mlic:al ~xercisc- does nor CXiSI if II don nOI presuppose Ibrorcrical knowledge and pGSlUrcs more conscioud"
WeUck himself has always msisted on lhe ",diVISibility of cril' hcrllJ'c, h )11 [ . r, and rheory, A consciousness of lhffiry-as I hope 10 S owtO · · FOr cxampIc,' hc icrl·",hlS • / d, adheres '0 e.er)' caregory 0 f comparallvlsm. rto)n _ · f · / .' "p.l n of a Itterary gcnr~ would be exceedmgly ,ngenuous I 11 aile11Oll of genres p~..oled IInul {he nne or pre-Romanl1C age-for cxllmp)e. In Sc:b,llu'. -lJber na,,'e und
'09
+< ~lijfHf-~
·/Iwww.dztsg.netldoc
''0
The lIasic
Ge"res
bSlI':!
KllllmCmalischc Dichtung~ (1795: AboU! Na,vcJlld Sentimental P~tl)' and Frlednch Schlegel's ~Gcspriich iibc,r d,c I'ocs,c (1800; Com'crsatiO!l aOOm Poetry). After the foundering of F....rd,nand Brun«ierc's Dar\\ini~1I theory (L'too/Mio" des genres. 1890), Ihe moSI influential con.xptio n 0( OUT cemury has bec:n ,hI of the Russian Formalists, \\'ho saw in each era the progl"C'SSlVC cxhaustic,m of Ihe pnneipal prior models, .....hich \\'Crlcd to the sidchnl'$ 10 mah room for the riK of genres prc,';ously consideTC'd !i«Ondary or popubr-for "-"3mple, III ",ncl~nth-«mury Ru.,. sia, the kner, lhe personal d,:I.ry. and the SC'flalized no,-d. Th.. Formali", wc~ very closely alloed to ,ht a."am-garC' lncrarun::, .t.., RUS'ian, whose hlle appearance: on the hlC'r.lry ~nc oomCldC'd ...."h 1~ '.anm'" from W(lntOUt I"Ie(lClasslcism to rd>elhous Romannosm. The~(.,re, n lS hardly surprising thai loor than "ere nm gamal)( t(l the al11~ oompk.r; of OcridauaJ litl'Tary hist(lry. As we shall 51!( IUn", ho,,"r.'tt, anain asp«tl; (If lkir agOfllSI1l; viSion are \'ff)' valuab~. Viktor Shklo>'sky himsdf poim~ oot that tk s u ~ Ol)mpOllomlS w~ not Jll'T1TIanmtlr ecIipsd but roe{lnuo:d 10 bC' ~pr~CIl'isioo is UJ(fuI. oow(V(r, 6akhnu could nor or did 001 "·IM. t(l apply il to a divct'Slty of ~ra wnh a VIeW to oong hIstorically pr«isc, but insisted (In callt"! ~novcI~ tlK tOlalny of genTeS and subgtn= oppl)Scd ro tlK imponant or oommant cuhu~ (Tzvctan Tlth leads ,n tlK final analySIS to an ('I· of lhe cro»crou and Superposlflon of conlmU;IY and di~nllnUII)' Ihal mark Ihe peculiar l!1nerary of Ineralure.
,
.
III
do l.b.aro Carrelcr explains lhal a genre assumes the perm~ncl1ec _,If,,ctUra[ model: whICh an esteemed tplgone ahers in ,'anous ways " at ~11 by oml5'IOns). Thus wc ha,'c permanence and change al Ihe. same " 'oX'e ~n'e here Ihc (j,fficuh problem of lhe nature of change m Ihe "ll1 e. '01 hferalurt, or al lust of chang..- m ...hal we c:lll genres. The prnbl he snnplifiw If we kl'ep In mmd my fifth :lSPCCf-lhu a genre oflen It"'_IonS ", as I conceplua[ modd, and ""hal e"oh'C'S Ihen IS a memal paratun~' JIg"" Voerally conSistIng of so"", canonlC'1 ",·orks. ""h,le:ll lhe ~mc tIme ,ndl",doal Im,1~1I011S of lhe model obey' tl>c1r own rllYlhm of e'·olunon. I UfO does nO( ooncak lhal h,stones of gmrcs mlgln be "ltke ronunua ':Jl «lend Ihrough lhe aga.~ as for exampk Ihe O\~1 had ..lrudy bol1le fro" by the middle of the aghtttmh ttnlUry). But l:izaro's tornmmu arr generally apl. Genre 'm...... ct and aN: modified endkssly. Tnat IS ",hat lhe pcnpccl"~ of the reader or the mile bnngs 10 Irgh, at fhe he ~u ""hat Femand Bl';1udci ails ~-.:nnes durtts (medIUm b;UOnsI. Allhe appropnale 11""'. :lnd SImultaneously. fhl: lonpes durin H II dU"'tl01tS1 ar~ expandC'd and extended. and '~ry d ......lv 100. hke eM 'fIh R~d of the 1lO\~1 l.....dmg from Fiddlng and B:dz:oc to G~1d6s, Tolstoy, ,, . . , ann aoJ ,,-__ h ' " .....SI. Lller, whm "'e ar~ a>ItS,.rnng thnnes (o..:.pfer 14) and 'lIono!osr (Chaple. 16). "'~ will ha"e =asian to rriloea on Ihis SlIpttpO\IlIOn of , r(1ol e>-O unon and COnllnUIlY, a sllpuposl1ion lha, to my mmd is IlOl 3 'ed by the faet of mete monon. r~ld Prllgm"''':IIIf); or from lhe POlOt of ",~w of fhe I'I::I.d..,. (or, more accu.. ",,~' rUden: the pubhc), genre ,mpl,es no, only comaet bur conrraCl." [I t",Pe a, Iians Raben JaU55 h:15 n~mN1 dtnly :and sucassfully ~honzon of _" CUt'ons· (Er...",.t"ngJrn:.r,wnt). The N::ldel has u ~lions of ttn~m 0'- res. If 1..__ ~~. t,1CX "re popular, or:l.l. or com~ncal artistic forms-the S10ry,
:;::-mm'
'IWW, dztsg. net/doc
'"
The Basic l55uTiJt_ry, the qllf:l;11QfI ansn of rho: ·un1\'ffUl,ty- 0lde Italy. The french bergerles, for uample, do ROt g<J beyond Ihe dIS' ri1oC. grearcst ,\tag)", poet of the Rma'SS3Intt. R.>Jinl Rabssi, wllh. , Ita'lng ea
www.dztsg.netldoc
120 mCllls. A Pindaric hymn is "cuher more accessible nOr le~s rcmOl h song of L, Po-IO ~ sure, only for rhose who flcoo nd model .. c"perlm..ntal and d)·nanllC. Wa,·hm Yip's Ihooferi· _ ~J) ~Th .. US(' of 'Models' III EaSt·Wesl Comparatio'c UIUatur.." ..m· " _~ lhat laced .... lIh Ih.. cnmple of a Chlncsc .ryle A and a European ~J'''C'I-' • ~'"It 6, lhr con«PlS p.oposed b)- crillClSm do nOI have 10 omll the u"'qu.. • I f of Ihe ortS'nal !lOurca:
,,-,,J"o ...,.. IIcclj ,.c
~nJ II
The ,"~",'('rs to Ihese qUCSIlOlls mu>! oome from lhe undcrs,anding of boIh """ hls,oncal morphology ~nd the amher,.. StfllClU,"" of bolh models. !lc' .,J<s f'O'"nlg OUI common elemcnrs bctv,.,""" d... ['A-O circles. ,.... o,;..-n~p pt"g C. ... c mu>! reach 1»ck to the IndIgenoUS sources of Circle" and B. Thus .nd only Ihus can we a"Old Ih.. pllf~lls of -commonpb« comp~n' ~ - of I.... cany Easr·WCSI comp~nosrs. '
Ou. sroond model ItslS the ~ widely kno...n gcncnc p~radigms by rcIUllllnl ro -,ndigenous sourca,~ In Ihal ..-ay il bnnp logr:tbcr and gr~du· JIIr Innsfigurn lheoretical lhtnklng and h;S1onal kno.... ledge, laken as a p1u§l" of ~ ob;,\I«1,eal process Ihl>ronc:al kl1O'll-ledgc being ~ lerm Ihal en· 1;OIll~>SC1 barh sp~Ilal and temporal d,u,milarioes). The stylistic and pc-
rtr DII~"" rommedla and journry 10 lhe IrCSI (p~bly ",TiItC1l In the teemh emlury by Wu Ch'mg-inl: lhe re'hgJOUs pilgrimage. V,C..-C'd fronl such a vant;a,," point, the Chmcse }OMrn" proposes Ihree Ic.'e!s of re:owllJ' as a I1lJc of ";a,,el :ond ad"n1tu"', as thoc llIl1C'rary of kaml.re thus subj 10 a SCVer~ tCSt. To end Ihls 1«11011, I "'111 now ITK'n1ion bri~f1" not an r'< ample-Ih:>.t would riquI'" knowledge that I do not po$SCSs":"bul a d6I dr13lUm or possible scheme of "f1eetion. A while ago, we saw lhal tilt orig;m of the pJSloral tragIcomedy of th~ RenaIssance: was the Crerk anJ
7'''':
$1.-
eclogue. From Ihat c~ all, SOITK' of ,he gre':l1 Ar3bic sannal pons, such as D.. nr ltd 7291 .anJ al-Faraldaq 1640?-7321), who ,"suited anod dnCSIC'd each ~~r CO,d..ll y for fony yUB. ~ common duncnsion is the pnmlll'~ heIn lhe m;l&'C and t~en lah31 po"'er of words. th UnqUcsl1onably. no cullu..., In the lhenan ptmnsul:o IS more alKJCm ,han ~ " of Ih~ Euskadl, 0' Basqll~. Nor IS there One of more el;lendcd OOnll· Ih~ Immemon31 figure of Ih~ B3squ( bcrsol.iJrl, or bard. produces a "n of ~Iry not usy to defin-es 10 be lIlO$[ IU5l, proper, or lIlO$l In acconana: hiS prek~ -}I' the fOe pal1/1 or p.:zmmn. of lhe Pro.~~1 tl'O\ll>3""'O (true dlalecTial game and tournalllmi of potU, as In the Scholastic delnut' of the M,ddle A~), and (>-en those eclogues of l"hrocritus, of Virgtl £elopes 3 and 5), In ,,-hich IWO shepherd-poetS commd ,,~th each o
The lIasic
Iss,,~s
Gcnrtl
of poetry, which for him continued [0 Ix the rhl"« b~slc on~: the epic r narrallve), rhe lyric, and the d",mat;c. AI this poilU it is worthwhIle [0 draw a d'511ncrion b.,rweet1 four b
conccpts. The Icnninology ""ril"S and IS dcb:nablc; arK! on pra()n or SImulation. 1111$ In~rtllc ...mlal rno.hl>es, princtpal slams, \"('\11$ rhal InV'el'SC II. 11l.e function of a mode IS 1Z!Ua1ly thematic, although the imenn:lu~l mlrmion am also be relr\."nl, as "'-horn W( say: "11>" 's a paSloraltugKOlllCdy· (thar is, not a poxm and 1101 a P:lS1oral no\~). OIher n:~mplcs of modes arc ,rony (:on almost ,nran· SIble quality of a ....·ay of IrUms. rhe IOrlC of a prose ....-ntC'!", of a 'ystC1Tl oc ~od SlIch as Ronunnasm), saUl"C'. lhe- JfOIcsq...., ~Ikgory, or pa.rody~ tn ronT>CCTion .....llh d,ffe"",t genres. I' FlIla.lly, our fourrh conapl: II is cwromary to desIgnate as fo .....', In lhe
"'" c._
Iwww.dzts9_net/doc
Ge.,,,s
Tile Basic Issues ~I gencrally accepled use of Ille rcnn, Ihe IradlllOnal methods of Inl(:
rdallon, :urangemt:nt, or hmll1uion of a P'''Cl: of ",nllng, SUm as con,':' 110m of >nsifial,on. d,,·,Slon Into chapters, d,sposmon of rhe chronol use of sccnrs Of" summancs '" a narralion, mlrTCIJallon, rcpcIlIlon ~ nam;c, or orcular srruaura. The 1>0:1 chaprer ""II be ck>·orro ro ' dr lapia. Some readers may dunk mar me I'nOl']l'hoIogy mentionnl Ilc re ofun confused "'lib gmology or ..,m me tharulK dm~nSlOflSof lil' ""~ Andl "\'lopmau m:u ca.n be danfial only by mctlculous h,sloncal stud>. let us IIOlr right a.....y Ihal ,n dfCCl fonns are usually parti:l.l. That's, lhey are what one mlglu call -fonnal dcmmts,- such al lhe dialogue chal anrrgrs :os one moo: component In a sprofic ume or pLacc of mi. or I~I gmre: In an ep,c poem, a romance, a b.allad, a rale, a no'.d, an ,,'m III a thcatrical work (which does nOt always comClde With the dialogue But when the dialogue becomcs a 10lalizmg form, 1I C3n perhaps be said Ihat :ve havc a form III uarch of a gente. Thai was whal happened dunng lhe $Ixleemh cem"T)' afler Baldassare Castiglione, Erasmus or lc6n Hr· breo, or in Spain after Juan de Valdes, /'ero Mexia, Or fray l..~is de u-6o.ln rcahly, at such limes we are dealing wilh imrafornlal elements: relalion' Ih~1 surface in rhe mldsl of Olher rdations.
=}'.
When ",ading the >l'OC cplslles of mc Renalssarott_probahly lhe ~ bnlhanl moment III the h'-SIOry of .his gato:: ~mrnl Man)l, Sir Thoma' Wyatt, GarciLaso de la Vep, Sol de Mlranob. Franasco de Aldana, John
-J< ~IIIHf-~
12'
-La cp"Slola moral a Fab;o~-we musl krrp in mind IwO oonSllluponnC';"mslanees: the leller in >'C'fSC is in Horacc a cot\lragenre of sallncal cOl d j,nally'xvm." Final curtam of unquesnonable pot'tlC efficacy. SomW!mg so Ilecttnl\o unlllUC. perhaps wnhoul ;;any ilgnlfiana, like a due, a etC)· lhal one harpens ro be paumg rhrough, a farc....dl-rncre ivinemnlt, U--,-SIT3I1~ would ""y-;s prc$Cn'ed forever. The Ioc:alluuon IS ,nd«d mc:lnmgful. Tbt poem as a d«lucd WrlltCll commumal1on. anlllyna.l, IS SflU pot'try. Th
E'SCIlIu.I. and of an ,mpress,,·.. $.ImpllclI), lhe: pania.l founh line: MNon .~ CSI acI-aS. non mms,~ Thai IS." don'l ask me to go back 10 myoid mcks. MaU'iC m) age IS dlifCf"CIlI. and m~' mInd as well. , , From IhlS conIcs,""" or amrudf' coma AOI only lhe: firsl Epllrela bill also al1lhal folio.., .\b'Ufll\·_,n lhosoc W,)'S." old age-was no longer con!CIlI ....rh rhe condnn· Dauon of rhe CTTOrs and fooltshncss of others. me nq:nivc g
•
:;::;crs
www.dztsg.net/doc
134
The Balic Issues
biographical desire, the theoretical awarcnc~s of irs own course, the profll sion of things, openness 10 the humblc and the dally arcumsranCd of Iif~
ric cre3rion par excellence IS rhe nO"e1, as was already poimed Oul rurs ~tneb~ Fnedrich Schlegel in "Gesprach uber die Pocsie," And Ihal was lrue
From such a poim of v~w the COmp3r.lUVl: em" approachc:s the JX'rsPtq, of Ihe wnlt'f who is f~ 10 ch~ bnv.·~n Ihe mockls of h.s nrne and: carher nrnes.. while kttptng '" mmd a plurality of p3l';1d,gmli. ~..., '5 IlO reason fOf a comparanSllO be somtOIlC who ~rdy d"wfies and simphfir.. 11K Nolllng·H long and fabulous ,..,rNl voyage. Intcncxrual conlUtuto-
:~'" rhe
'''''1 beginnIng when Cervanres Induded III DOll QUixote poetry,
r,ll1l,139J. nus SC"'oc pluralism of thc novd is ",dent and ....dllr:no.....n. Whal char· ;I,(Icnzcs ll.akhrin'. vicY. IS not ",,",Iy 1M amplitude ,hal M conada 10 such d,vc~ly, bul also the rnchn;>lIon 10 lind solllC'lhlllg like an opmmg 10 dlC VClrrn:a1 and re31 world In II, a S"lCwa~ for form. thar are llOI consodned "teraroll', or ar lca$lllOl cull".. red hlCrature. For Balchrin lhe rekv:ancc of scnres rhar M calls cxrralul1":ary--confcssrons, dianes., leucn, amdcsanscs from this attitude. Sina a novd L$ conSllUCIro in an area borooing on contemporary sociCly, rr r3kc. on rhe look of me soc'ctr, becomes mul"colored and mconclusi,·e. 3S we read in hi. CSS3~ ~Epic and No'·el.~ The no,'ehsr often cro:SSCl; rhe fronller 5Cparar;ng fierion from real hlslorical ex· prllencc; and so a way ;s openrd allowing frank polir;cal declar3rions, Or confesSIons as ~a 'cry of rhe soul' Ihal has nOr yel found ils formal con· lOUrs"" In Rabelais, powerful popular, playful, and crirical currents mmgle, rhose al home in Iht STreer, rhe pla~,a, the fairs, or in Carn,,'al celt· b"lions. Thc polygeneric clement of rhe nO"e1, we read in Bakhrin's "DIS' COllr5
I"'''
ltrlre,,, ~tboug:h by Its SUuctu,.., and diy~nn mtO a.crs and 5CCDt5 EI iWw/o S«D\S In be a 'hea'nal work, I h~,'c noo hrsnaled to call n a now!, "'nhour ~'-Ing to ,he ler",. an ab$OlUle ,'~lllc; In thIS case,. all In alllha' belongs to 1 e 'nli mle Tulm of An. the mOST prudtnt course 1.10 Ace from calal"llue"'p< ' d aSSJfica"ons of gmres and fom's. In each no.d wheR lhe charanen 'Peak Ihrobs a dr.>maoc work. A thtaTrial work ill nothmg _lhan ,he
www.dztsg.netldoc
13'
The 835'c
c..",.,.s
l~sues
torIden.....on and coup""C of alit"", ..·hoch of J.'" a Ihrtt-:KT ~~ as well as f"b~ mono! "nod a p~ ClUed Little lI:'om.... thaI has I.... following footnote: :>. rom3n~ for young Iad,es-In-walfing by Hen'lk rbsen,M In his 1"1 ~J r,.,"Q " a ",Ie'ollura (1979) Andres Amoros recalls ,'arious tOrnm, when we perceive and srudy forms "form3h5lic,~ 00 St'nous.. II1teInllng 'cading could forgo such ~ rnom«!. V,laor Shklonky ..: M
.llirndy suggestmg Ihlol IN, ch.:I.racter,SI": prO«duru of;lt work of wrbal ";lt;ng force of forms. So'" ,ummg our altCntlOn to forn\$ and themes, let uS undertake a Iype 01 ~ .... ll·SlS that implla p~niahty. Thc pan;~llty, ho...~~r, docs not ~ppear .n of a sudden. lou, InSlnd IS usually a d'Slunrnon that occurs during the '" of ~J.dlOg. Damaso Alonso rightly describes this choice of focus as a prtJSR$l'"' approXImation thaI can follow opposlle paths: tow3rd the form frOlO the theme, or to....";ltd Ihe theme from the form. It is what he calls "extertor form- and "mtertOr form" to PwJi,. eJPi'iiQI,. (1950): Th. "form-does n0115. IMK IS only ~ dllllllO be daM: nu.l<e a cho,,:.,. And r~-who~? The arras.: :WpOon. R. H. WillIS dmtc..!td a \\-onhwhik book 10 Ihe study of sU« pnnciplc of the "ax15 of selectlOn- O"er [he "axIS of comt...... non M: and RlffalC't're:'s nOllon of styloSIIC conlext. Wl1h "hoch tilt slllKUlar 'SlOn III connect,on wllh parallehsm, Bur that docs I'lOl '"~kc Ik poem IlIIO an atempot:ll thlllg. Verl oflen tM poem IS also ~ pronOt c. uccau10e of rontalPon by the nOl'd, a~ 8akhnn lhoughl), an ad~en' e tha, keeps re"e~ling I",te hy tlllie Ihe qualltics of a 'ystem. Who can Urgel thaI wruIlIS IS a con~lal\l risk. a ehalkngc C\·er renewcd and ~"er
""I
;ur
14'
changmg? And thaI imm'nem lTIumph-always umnlOcm as we read
on."";"
the system m"er the pr~ " Jlidl a Pro«$S. The dIalectic of the the many-system and diffcU.IICC'_I' whal pn'S conunumg life to the:::' crary form. nus emotion of the rt'adcr IS what I h....c tned 10 CXpt«s It. prdmg AmonlO Machado); Campen de CRst,/Ia." AI r~ s:lrnC I1mc.J~ RousSoCt comments .....lth krom inSIght on the -mple lO,nl mo'"en1nlt- of !be ;lI,'tlOn of Comedies PolyevCIC, "'~lh 'IS upwud splra]'ng mO'"l:mcm. ~11'IoIl I", en Hille.-" On the od~r hand, lho:u a... CC'fumly ,ocr!»1 conurua of a 5t.."C, ,",sua!. or circulu tn>e; for those II is IlO( W Imponallllo I".e 11M' ch. 1587). Thai concept of order is Inadequate because II IS 100 hnear (here: we are s~akinc of the chronologICal, alphabetic, and other such orders). h is bener 10 reo lUrn with Sallssure to the concept of 5)'slem: a unified whole that "npllft 111llhiple interrelations. It is nOf enough to obserw that the poem arranges the successive dentents of a temp-d ad'Olnca. Ccnalnl~' loOn>C narralOlogists arc mtem .tt JIS'--o>YfIng and exa'Oltmg Ihe um'-c.s:d bases of the tOtaltty of all ~Io :JIl the pnml·..-al Story: bUI then we wO\lld be deahng w-1Ih SlRlCtUm.. or ...,.. ........'ratd,·, mrtaSU1lcrures. In the ~stroCTUrahSl~ sense of thc:lf tenns, ~-~ . ,-ather With me components of ~ mnual repertOIre:. of an lmaglllanw pl _ of ~n uht3hlStoncal chalaCTer, nposed wsunct transformalJOIIS ."J """b,natlOllS-arul\ogou$ up 10 a «n~m pOIn' '0 the Langue of
>.' ....
.
,..,,~
'0
»"5'
off'
I Jo nor know,f the allnnpllO find formal charaetemncs common 10 all
d<Jnne\s of oommumauon
~nd all gt'llrcs is fruilful or ad,·,sa,bk. Rnman lnPrJen. ,n hIS famous o..s l,t"rtlTluhe li.uMtwnlt (193 I), tried ,odercrPM the order of $Irala or 1C'\"Cls proper to a work of "erbal an. He ideontied thrtt pnl1Clpal OIltS: a phonIC Ievd, romposcd of SOI.lnds; a levd of unllles of sense. or Sl'm:lntlc StfatUm; alld Ihc level romposcd of represented ob,.,as. charaClers, and olher dementS of the ~world~ of lhe work. (Ingarden added tWO more:, bill Wellck rtghtly comments that ,hey can be ",eluded In th( third level: the focus or POint of "lew' of the presentation; :lod ce:Tlaln 'metaphysical" qU:lltties: the sublime, the tragIC, the sacred, :lnd so on)," lnen It is obVIOUS that ,he levels or sequences that configure a poem do nOt COincide with ,he thrce redllccd Str:lta of Ingardcn: ,hc metrical sequence of ~ j>OCm does not uSllally coincidc with the sequence ul sounds, and ,hiS discrepancy IS of utmost Impe bag, for the clIalogulng and und.nundmS U/ [henan ~1l«S the four In~b of nnrllroiOglal arnll)'u, prt>pfU1O ClIn Mrome a pn,·ikogcf"-' I';IllllC' ponry and 00... dlCy affeel one al1()lher. Accordmg to Car:al;an.. dlC rom..na IS"n open model. a vinual ·program- I.....t allows diffeKTIt'~ vidual ~ 10 merge In dl$llnCI soclOhlslong] wrroundinp. 1llc ette" achtcvN by lhe unlqUC VCfSlOn "$Sumes thrtt Ic>"els of -articulation-: ~ first 1n"C1 con....m lhe pIcK IntO discourse:. lhe second, W fablc '1'10 rI"'" Of
rJ
Ihe nanam'e model 1010 fable. ThiS triple .3rticul3tion IS mani· Ih< Ihl .' chroniC3lly In any and all examples of Iradmonal roman«, and It rt"'IN 'In "I above: all when one analy>:es the SlruCtures of Ihe MprogramM rOn'll'" .. r ghOUl Its many changes and a,·atar~. l"M dramalic and melaphorlc dU'O" fa WTSlOIl all;O deO\"C from Inhann:! cull"l';Il ,....lues, but Ihey do hn6° """ "",SlIrnle 1M basic scheme of the program...... ~'-C allTadf poonltd OUI the general charXicrisrics of stralifiolllOn In 1 Chapter 9). and I have rcferm;! more Ihan once 10 "vrlLs of com· I"'"'~ I P .. v from Zhlrmunsky's great book abool rh)·me ,R,frn.a. at""" ........... . . pat.!J ro lhe in\"t'SlIganons of Jakobsoo. Cra'g Laona-c. and Benlamln ~nrSia.1 G=k or Lann ...... " as a ... hole 1'01 al aU Ioke Arable. or "·CO Pen.an"1Dtt llie G=k and Lann make no «:gUlar "'"" of p"'nems or aspecu of sound and mcamnll,,·hidl a,.., aploiltd habitually In lhe r :..:e. Eut. ,,·here rhyme for aample '5 esscnoal and scmantiq.... ralld VOl';IuV< prosody reveals., or If II Ignores IRq 5rrala mar configure 1M poem-phonIC, symaCllc. 5tlTlc:,
ww.dztsg.netJdoc
The
'52 and so
OIL
$(I
B~sic
Issues
Ihen, as far :lS prosody IS ~onccmed, performance of
phalli," oiW'r:lfion is of COUl'SI: Ihe m(>$1 imponam.
/'om'$
'ilt
Al Ihe Mgmrllng of hu analync $Ummuy of Hebrew prosody, Be nla Hru$Mvski slates thar mc rum fonn •.• rckrs to all p<XfIC p"ltelns \\_:,: mlploy sound dcmmts for Ihe orpmullon of rhe b.nglla~ marCTl;tJ of poem. such :u rhr~, "emslie, Imler, !tCSIS, one can caSll)' add ochers, How ;;::;, Ihmgs can a gesture Slgrufy? And m how many ...... ys can II be com· IonrJ ..,m lhe voice and d... 11'lCl\'nntIl1 of the actor? h IS ....h... r Umbcrto call~ ·pa.... lmgmsnc R' R'n1onauOns, mfketK)fl$ of "OICC, the spcctfic Slg· :lKaDoCC of an accrm, a .... h,sper, a doubl, a "IOM'nl(; "'m a ,sob or ... •• A. for th.. 51a_ SCI: Inc decor, 'Sn'l II Importanl 10 d,snngu'sh ja""" ",.. , brt>o'ecn the objCClS m 11 and lh.. space in .. h,ch they arc Sltuned? The oblf'Cfs also become s,gns-as Banhrs obscn'Cd aOOuI rhe mcoal and or""r antdcs of clothmg or malenals tOIT\mOn 1D SOCIal hf hose usc IS m ....ert' bnng expr~ U~ rill'k". As Dia 8orq~ ~"".a, ~in IN, mUlCT II is possible 10"; 'tit "mllha~llY of S1gndiers at 1M UIl'k" mommt, but In language nol.~" Tbc IUru~ of the the:inrial Sign-like Inal of clI1cmuognphY"_1I mmdy compkx. In the finr pia".....e obsoervc concrete, ptFcqmbl c, """ nil, 3ppaunrly 'ui SIgnS, bUI In f;aa they art fictmolls. Umbcno ~ brilliant and also very channIng may, ""r
r::
~t
155
aeror achit"t'S sofflCthrng srmilar by meanS of h" mo,·nntnts, 'fbi' ~ hIS own body. ~rh f{'g3rd to the- IMamal Sign. tM dlSllnCnOn bcno.·em systtmS of unlC300ft and sysums of ~SlgolJianr m~nlfcslatlon~ lot $.Imply ~SJg' .~>Of\'~ IS basic." An)'OlI(' ",ho studltS tM funcl'lOlllRg of langu~~, for -pit or tht' high..... y codt, 's dealing ...nh autbentlC sysrems of com· t,~m • pruC".lllOn, b.>.scd on codes, messages, and cert.. 1Il stgnS that S()mt scmlol· fIl >,s,;:lll MsrgoS· (Slgn,lUX). The SignS arc con"enuonal symbols Ihal the :der produces on purpost, thank> 10 ~ code understood by tM r«e,,'tr. B I when Barthes makes II stmrologlCal ,md) of the klllds of clothes we .~o('r, scent palmer arc all ",,,,rll nor on 'saying' somerhlllg '0 1M sp«talors, , , but on pnxluc1Rg an t~tet on tltt Sp«talOn.~ '-' The snmull rcawt
th,,:-
''''It chuaomSlK of all dialogue, such :1$ -oong themsth-a.o him. 1bt author prepa.l"CS and dJ,e aaor p"15 'olO praaice rh.. double m.ffl{. Ihtt dupllClly, SO SImilar 10 ,,'ha. "'C exptnfrlCl: "''CrY da)- In OIlr social ILfe ~ wc ha,.... 10 0VttC01Ilf a certaIn .nstInct of caullon in (he mea{er in on:k'r '" allow oursdW$ finall)· 10 frd emo.IOll, Indlgrt:lrlOll. empathy, and. 10 c!oC
of Iraged)', ",'en pity and rerror. The word, in sum, is sll;" for {he actOr
~;: hs{tfIS, ",de:>:, ",diCO'lOn. for rhc SpKtJlOr.
I ,,'Ould OOt WIsh {o quarrel enher ..'uh lhe duphmy of Ihe dialogue or Ih~1 of fhe .aaor, for (wo more reasons. firS!, In general fM charaaer on chc' st'V dIrects hIS a«enllon only fO rhe Olher charaaer 10 whom he IS alang, but fhe speualor places lhe ''l; r 'back and fOflh bt-rween cm.elSIll and hlerary ISlOry, or nSlanr passll1g I h' ~ h~ reading of ProUSt'S nO"d and rccapiru aung I e or1OS rher between t • " , ,~ d full, displaj·ed by Ih,' 10ullisecubr nincrary of WCSlern mumall' e of mformal1011 or krlO.... ledgc-hnktd "..rurall~' 10 II" ClCtrnl lhat tIme In tM Slot'" IS 0\. cnng. now masing aher one another.I,kt bultnfh($ whICh the air m\"eJo.r> ,n Its m"'Slble fole" n'IOvemenl. Verb'l abound, almosr aU of IMm all''''' or ,mpl)'ing acO\'I"
'"
Vtry humble. Inllluscule oblectS (a~ In the picarcsqut nm'd) seem laJ t111'C~aified and symbohud. Ollly rwo tharaCleTS ,n the oo,d (Ana t
,,,a'"
~
,,.
",
Forms
The 83"C Issues
JlaSI maSlcr,·· Here IS 1M bq;mnillg of ~loJO txt~c;;r> (translated English as The }coJlous H,J:llgo):
.. A rc:cenr example carried 10 Ihe exl«:m" of antiCIpation. or
~
I
Nol nuny fears "JO ~n hIdalgo of a vlll"SC' ,n ut,crn4dlln, l~ "'" ..-dl·bom p;lrefllS. k" homilk. who:K he found ampk opponunlly 10 fmm ",nt' ,"" linle h. ~ ~rs
""."
n..","C IS ncnk. PI' nor SUSpenSIon of ,"" story bUI a "cniginous cha,aaa. lunon of an CII!1re hfe. So then, In practla. a5 we .read ". artalll nO'-rl tbit scheme suggests to us nbscr',allons nm OOnlaUlW III the ,nitial K:l!fold".. The categories proposed by fhe criuc arc combined and in that way Cll~ dcr a vanety of (o,ms. Chaplers 4 and 6 of tal,mllo de 1'0'''''5 (transbled in! English as The Life of l..azaril/o of Tomle,) are "summaries," y~, buI with ob~ious elliplical Halui; as when lhe n:l.rraror ~ys of the fray d.. II Mercfd, his maSrer: "He ga"e me rhe fi~r paIr of shon ] C'lCr wore, bat they dldn'r lasl me a wtek. And] wouldn'r hvt laSled much longer myidf trymg 10 ktep up wilh h,m. So because: of Ihls and lhal and some oeM. hnlll Ihmgs lhal/ don'l wam ro m.... rin, Ildr hlm~ (Chapin" 4). In rhis dlt namrrOr confronrs 1"'0 probkms al the: same lImc: fh:a! of Ihc 1CITIpo lhal of the dfgrte 01'" mock of mfonnallon, "T'hcsc: IWO conditions lRrcrscd :and :affect rad1 oc~ In a RO\Y1 sud! as Carmen Martin Gairc's R",..o (1963), m which 1M rrulh )Tamed for by ,he hero drnwlds thc: d,fri,.. .. rctcctioo of rhl: spttd of Irf.. mar puyenrs us from kno"..mg the prorlc .... Iovt mos" :and who rtmam f:..ally undear to us; and a ch:ara"..r conf",_ "For some rim.. ] havt kepI up a re/allOf>shlp wnh my son, :l.nd lasl )·..ar .... sropped ir, It is ""ry difficuh ro explam whu Thai relalionship "'as hle, and I would n~ :1.11 lhat lime Ihal you mention 10 go lRW lhis explanal1l>f1o time to lell wilhout hurry a whole life. And also [ would havt 10 find someOne who mighl wish TO lislen ro me.~·' A further suggesTIon would be rhe study of another procedure of a lem poral type in th .. story: prediction, ] am rdernng ro whal a eharader of a novtl or s'ory says or p«:d,,;rs, announcing or for..tdllng c>,enlS fO com enOI rhe formulaled progn: IClrospccnon and anoop;:lIJon. GenetIC calls Incm "n../~SI$ a prr>kps... An earhn" CV....1 m a Slory IS evoked, or a blc, C>'WI is annou~
=
163
a.
w-
1P;
-"and. rhc n;lrraror-SOOfl ro become a cIaSSlC-IS . . rhe , 1"$1 senTence toe"'''''' ~s. ~: of" D....th Forerold (/982). by Gabncl Garc1:a Marqua: ~Thc "t ~:'crc goIng to kIll hIm. Sannago Nasu SO' up at fi'·....lhlrty m lhe J,.l" l~ to ..,Ill for rhl: boal the bIShop ,",,'as COlnlng on.~ ",otl""~lU'go Nua.r ...ill nor d.c before IhI: namrlor's last words, fullill· ·.I.l'dof the lint ,,'ords. pmnack of rhe ~al canop)' mal the mltlal annel· ,.,.nr a1Jo"-S 10 me O\'ff Inc enure no,'d. The narTalOr prrdKts nochmg, ~~ 1o:no""$ .. ht happened, a pastUlO,.. and hi: rells II all .liS though " "'....... a traditional SIOlY and not a nO"~1 (a n~ky undertak'fIi rhal ~n'T .«< h ... arf 1101 readmg a no'TI after all). In rfahf)', pra.;ncally alllhl: ,nran I af" . "' Ihe "llIa"~ ..xccpl Sanllago Nasar suspect Ihal nc IS gomg ro nhJbl\anr~" "U the ~ader 10 ask h"nsdf if knOn a chM:o.amSIK of the nar... n,~ galre I~S lhe mK of h.. 6rsl chAr.....
h
Forms
'"
that SttlTlS debar-Jblc 10 me. Accordmg to Siantel, ...l"ms)' • pronou1 po'!;nll arr.llll snmubnng questions for Ihe ~adtt: Whar SOli of telalJOn$ coulJ rh~ ~arralor_u,lw Russ'an also-have wllh the wife of Ihe disgraced Pnm. and a number of olhers. Somelhmg similar occurs in Carlos Fuent1"O' The HydrQ Head {1978), m "'hieh rhe l!>emall;illC$
{h~{
IXCllne unconvinCIng In lM nlf~te-enth «ntury-IM IIO-CIlkd ,nlcllflt monologue. from Edou"rd Dul"rd,n to Joy«'s U~. .. krr II IS sated, K'p"ro....n·er, ItJ ong1l1 sho>''S through; thaI I$, n comrll Out of pliyehonaruuon, lhrough In.: use of ·If~
mwtt
tb-I I ..-ou
'"
ld be ~ppllro In such ~ case {~An~ asked herself If S«1IIS him n-ery-
!Tughl be. , .~) . .. ~ _lie CXIremn· In.: lempor.lllla:lb,llty of the ps)·dIonOns~ and condemns h,m lhere f01l"0" sir ,10 da IIgrr. while' _r y remams buhful 10 h,s "paSSJOlklle pursun of Ihe real. Ilt pC\ffI '---hy ....,Il C"i"tt COlWHlce dhim mal .M world For no prat'nt S)"5t~m 0 f p h l..--y L exlSl: Ihat liS nchn arc no! incalculable, an 1",,1 II canno! rx doe> nol .' __ L --rJ.od b ...........,. From dlls belld comes.he w,ntenl:al DC: :lOpproMm ) y-' .' _ .hould no! L L_,·rom Im "'m·"thai Mllosz describes: 1cn>J0I1 "",.. .
M,'
The
memory was shoullng n at h.t?~
qUOta lion
marks are 1~ typographIC convention. u...d fO m,rodllq
Ana's pnv••• thoughts. The .Iurd pe'l'$On of the '-erb IS the g ram m'l1 ronvcnflon thar prOtectS ,h. rig.hrs of the narrator and of the wrinng, whICk cannot coincide wnl> a rntrllal SUIt, bUI can symbohu if and at limn ~ Im~m n. Thc narruor lranslates and abblT\'iate5 when h. ""nil'S th.r Ana ",;\s ~harf In shame half HI an8'"r.~ The absomce of CQII1mas, the p.... t>lC'tl( JlIXt:llPOSlflooS. 1M f"l:p"1lI0flS. (he qUIck sk~cht'S-·~Whcr~ ...·as tlliJ lo,·e? SIle had nn~r npemncnl it -that ~um1Tl3nu loug
~dj=ival,
• .t.
Acco.ding ro U.aU.n, th,S IS where rhe fo.mulas ~nd fo.mulaic tum, of phrasc corn.e Inro play In lhe rom~ncn. For h,m tM, formul.lS are ~bme.dl tropes and. bc!Qng ,0 the figurall\"C langu. of tM ronw.cno. Th~, I> noc so in dw, Clle of rhe ~"c epICS, ~ccordlng 10 Lord: rtM, s«ond lull 01 ttM, first huamettr of the lluui, ~ Adlilks, son of !'deus,- funcriorn ., I formula Senn UITIC$ In the porm, M1 DIego ullalin JIOInls OUt that ,tM, f", mulas bridge dw, spact brtwCMIttM, Inlnsur or baSIC plot of the talr ~nd rb< poeric discourse IlSl'lf, a (DnduSlQn Iht s«ms (Drrect '0 1m; and hr sho" Ih:lI m pr.lcri., 10 a>lr'rnc pon 10 keep III mInd concc:prs of unm, tI' dot Slyle of AOSIOIIe. In th~r ca~ hot would rIO{ ha,... been Homer, oor W... ~ hot h~\"e composed t .... /"ad ~nd tnc ()JyJyy. Allow me here a11Olhcr, qUOlanon of Lord, smce: I prefer IlOlrO Jummanu hIS w'ords:
on th.. ilOry ilSl:lf, and e,·.n nlO.... On th.. gr.nd sale of ornamenlallon, IllS l • t ,," must ooncentr~le, nol on any ahen concepl of clOst-knn un"y., TI>c h .., .s ther... nd Homer Idls " to thot end. He tells It fully Ind "'"h a ,0" \rlwrdy lempo, C\'Cr ""lllng 10 longer and to 1..11 another $lory tlul corntI L.S mllwl, And .f the $loncti a.... api, n IS fIOI becausc of a pl'CCOnCClYcd ;dc~ of structural unny ""'hleh the linger" sclf-cxmsciously and l.bonoulJy lJl f out, bul because a•• he momtfl. when .hey occur to rhc poet In tbt rdbng of hl$ lale he II so filled ..-nh h.s sub)ca rhat the natur~1 pro. ,~ of usoa300n h,,'" broughl '0 h.s mLnd a ,e""-anl t~Ie ... Ead! tbtO'O aspects slamng trom' coocrcte pomt of refe....ne..: first, Ihe concepr of rhe 0••1poet, appll· ,",bk to HOf1l
'79
Be,ween the wide, integrating Or totalizing, forms on the onc hand and the l"Crbal microforms on Ihe other are found many procedures whose defini· lion;s really empirical and relati,·e. E,'ery figure 01 the empirical and relalive Iype, no maner how limiled its reach may seem al first glance, is worthy of mlcreSt because of its function as part of a whole. Each of the verbal microforms is obviously and positively pall of a formal complex; thus their reach is pallial, and thcir impact is rather mOre re1ationallhan relath·e. We have already seen that digressions are of necessily meaningful, simply because they arc different from whal wem before. Many forms exist that also arise from modification, inversion, or dIscrepancy: interruptions, silences (whire space, suspension points), narralive and moral intercalations. They ote so common that their apparenl ab~ence, namely reireration, whose ~c <tptance in its broadest sense already prcoccupied Kierkegaard, has given ns_,. , I pluralny.of H)'Irs, de!,'ounng pluOCIry of 0(00 .....r••• nn 5 entia. meditation points 001. The "umor of r~ Who I( Cunow few HIS Own Good· III QUlrOU is 001" char.lctu IIllk Il()o,~ rhe ClIpm"1' capla,") nor an cxtrad,agCIlC lIarr:nOr. H,s ,den my., unknoWn
·enc
i;:;
Nothmg more Ccrvannnc: 5urpri~, mystery. From rhe begmn,ng Ih I !loti of the part to the whole turns i11l0 a ,roblen, And 'h'" ~, ,Cfn . . ' • wI 'p Icahoo of forms by mtratextuahty obvlOu~ly appears also In other civ,liZ3(lons .nd In other aMlme .pbe~, ~ueb a~ In the '-cry rich narrati'-e of Japan. from the nme of Lady Muraukl and Salkaku Ibara to Nal,urne Soseki, )'asunan Kawabat3, and Yubo Mwuma. I have m mind no" an admirably ronstructed novel by ,\1I""ma mIN RMn.lu'il)' Horus, "'bleb revol,"CS around an InteralatN tale, .~ uague of the Dlvme Wind,~ and the deciSIVe Innun>cc tbat the reading of the t;l1e had on the protago~i~t., Tbe main aCllon takes pbee at tbe begll1l1111g 01 the 1930s, tbe rc!>dlton of Ihe )'oung traditionalists 01 the League narrated and prai§Cd in the imercalallon (which IIscll welo!>CS ,-arIOUS b~ief imer. posed texTS), occuned In 1876 and lin; and the person "00 narralcs" an utrad,egenc aud>or, Tsunanon Yam3oQ. The young hero, lsao, transformed ,n a qu'xouc manner by the rndlng of -11>e Lnguc of Ihe Wind; tncs to Imttale and rCVl'-e the valu.., and deals p~ted on thos" puzzk of the pa§< a pt«t ..,Ih a of Iotm and ancmpt 10 fil 'I ,nlo 1M prCSCl'lt " no! an mlCl'J'l'lU Iha, (OO1d
rt':'t.r
~"t a hapI'}' OUlcome. To do so cl"ld rcn .'"
IS
to toy wnh hlSl""", a paSlItnC fit fuc
rc \~ then a confrontation-something like a dialogue III lhe figurallve 1h1' ~,""hn prople say. Out of th's. pufllng aSIde 'os more techmal or Schola'KIC usn, CQrncs the fam,liar or Mrealisuc· aspect of the ancimt d,,,lccric md liS possible applocation to dr.lma or the novel. NothmS is mOl"C I,..el}' Ihan the need to relme, to top what someone else sa,d, to persuade others of Ihe error of their opinion, of wh,,!'s said and heard ,n a coll\'trsation. Tn at " nol the ClIK m a certain 'ype of dialogue co!ti"ated durmg the Ren~I\Q '0 the UtWt. always deba.table, 'hal ,t follo"'ed lhe Sueranc Ir.cal Interchanges., in "'!licit a basic dcsuolly, a sImple- KOtIl/Itrsa/JOn, no longer a mannd ror a f..... w..n·marked ,deas or mdmdu;ohucs, bUI U5C: of languag.. with nO rn!ta aIm than to conform to analn mo (dunng forty )~rs of Unnnng:lJld ~SlilOnnt mWUllt1on) of 3 dl31og1c pnllClpk 10 tt", mure history of WQlI em littr.lture, fO lIngulSlic:s, lInd fO ptlllosophial 3nthropologv; 3nd exfreme 3g1hfy !lUt 3110""1; him 10 p3SS from fM littnll list of 3 term to figur1lti ...• lISC, concernmg d'31ogue Of" also W r>O\"d. (With rtg.:ord 10 mob,lny Todoro~ prC'fm 10 5pC3k of tntenutuality rather dun of rn31ogue, mltf1Ulu3hty bang 3 a>n«pt launched by JulLa KnslC'Vll pucisdy tx...:a. . of fbkhnn;'" 3 itllllCe Ih31 "inS 1M risk of muddlmg the cril1Cll tnr"In-.l 01 noc diliungulshmg Ck3rly roough berw«n mtemal and ex~m31 rcbll_ m 3 text, tile txtem.al boeing Its rapons.es 10 ocher spheres and 13ngWg..s. For B.akhun dl.1llos~, _ ,.. t..ro, essoennally ' 13ng,uge, whose unlfymg tendenaes sm"e Wllhout success to o"ere"",e abund3ncc of tonglles Ihl iurrounds e~ery eJCprcssivc 3nd muningful "I U3l1on: whlll Baklllln ""lis "heteroglossla (.aVlo",~y,hre, ...::noruh,e. r$ "".uh,vwl'}.'''' -The word m language is hlllf someone eIK's," ", ..,ke llot no~d, the human bemg IS 3 "mixture of 1111 ... kinds. a. Todorov ... ~j.
mr.·em 1M ·dialogu.m~ of ~ ...·ork ~nd the "lfUmfest di~loguC'S~ th.al pear IR It? Don~ld Fanger propostl; a reading of the dlalog.sm of QIIiI:cIf that IS WIthout doubt accurale and "aluable:
A BakhulHan analysis would sho .... dialogue '0 be ... its lncdiurn anJ COlIstituI,,"e prlllciple. It would nOlt how tht first knten"" of Ce,,·.mlts' PfO' logue already announces this by engaging Ihe l"e'5. "The ~r2J \'ffhal ClIC'gOna thai In 11.1$ CQf\lexl a~aIrd styla belong 10 hlUoncli poC'fla and a~ only hYJ'l'Olhrrlcal modd. . . every ~xro:d analySiS fria fO refine. I Insist on the efficacy of this hnfugr the peculi:l.nty of a umque ,.:orIc wllh slyle conClm~ as oollecti"e modd, b«aU5e rhar llIlbge IS ar Ihe roor of rhe Interesr of rhlS procedure for ..~ paraflv,sm. This dualism---<Jr ambiguity-se!'ms to be a consnroenr and funcrl elemem fOf any underst;lnding of the concept of sryle, SO broad that II uka In both rhe pt n«ess;Inly I,mll m)'sdf ro only a fC"-' more names-tlte exemrla'f prose wnnngs of R:umundo uda, rhe lectures of An~1 Roscnbla•• the,;d: ical and mcorencal 'nqUlnes of Carlos Bousoito. Fon)' )'Cars ha"e gone b), and ... e have a vcry differenl situa!1OP. I""" lned 10 summanu m anorhtt place rlK- $C\TTe alUcks rhal tM co....~ $lyle has suffcm:ls..llCc lhen, and the mallengtos lhat 111> rnePe ...,11 e'{llal l I ~fC1 10 lhe rntn':l.Oons of B:mhes III 1\167 In Wm"'g fkgru Zn'O IIlnmatc and biological impcrarift of the Ind"'Idual. Mresides OUl1il dc
'"
_ oUf1iide the paCl which bmds the ,nllcr to 1iOCIrry~: the "wr"lIlg" hJt ,.., t t stals Ihis paCl "IS al"ays rooted in somerhing beyond Iangu~gc~), m ~.", In SiZ (whCfC one reads lhe famous scmence: ~The work of the com· ~tary, oncc 11 is scp~rated from any .deology of loultr)', OOIISI~rs pr«tsely ... /ft,lI1Jundlmg tM text, ,ntnnlplmg It~). And I rcfrr also 10 Knsreva, "host uSC of rM tenn drMQUrsc prodalm~, with more danry rh~n lhe ...nr~ of Banhes, a return to 1M SOCIal or coIlecr'~ dllncnslOll of rM word. or rJttorr ro !he prmuscs of ana",t to Jakobson In rM no-lcs5. .:del'rarrd -LmgulSl'cs and l'oelln~ 1%0). when: tM poem annpiJIies ",1)- a gmcral·pocnc funcrlOll~; and 10 tM hennmcuncsof E. D. HIl'$Ch, -die .. ords ... '1I$lllUrc a splnl\lal proa:ss whidl, beginnmg "'1t1t lhe ..."rds. ultunatdy lran$CCrW.ls the ImgulSllc medium.~ ,.. In my op!mOll there IS much to !ram from IMse resen':l.u0n5.. ~ could >IV as mud1 of rhose fh~t ha\"( appcam:l m other lamudes. I am ref~rnng to !he dl5tlocoon that Bakhl1n proposed limo'em S1yle and S1)·hunon. In that d.stlnrnon (~Iready evldcm In Roman wntn'S, apprcntlCC'$ ro thelT Grttk forerunners) the OOIISClOllSncss or represcmanOli of Ihe alien ...'ord h:lS lIS dfca: "Slylil.3l1on dtffeR from Style propelfy of the It}'lt,er and his audiencc), under whose ,nfluena: a st)'le beCOITlC$ a ~Iyhza lion, agamsr whose background II acquires new meaning and s'gnlfi· once." ,,- In rhis way rhe Croatian Siavisl and comparatiSt Aleksalld~r fbker ..ndeavors 10 supprtss Ih.. alUmiSIll of IIldlvldual and isolated $Iyles through the idea of "STylistic formation W: COlllllluouS evolution of large un· IllCl, of verbal proclivities, rhaT connect a majoriry of w.iters. ". I will summJrizc VCI)' briefly some of the mlSundeTsrandings Or ob..acles th~t a ccrtalll kind of ~tyhstlcs comes up agamSt. One: the confusion of the wntrr w'lfh the ""Ork: "Can we definc the soltl of a cenain Frcnch wrirer hy "" p.mcular languagc?M Splner asked.'" The mOSt recent sellouls of sl)" "It c, ~s Thomas Mann recognized when he characterized his own work., Iht· matisch.' Think of Ram6n G6mez de b Serna's Senos (1913), one of lhe
oSl erollC books of modern Spanish liletature, wilh ils endless playful ",~tialions on One synecdoche: breasts'" woman. • Or Ihink of the Suites (1920-1923) of Federico Garda Lorca: "Suire del ua " "Suile de los espejos," "Canciones baio Ia luna" (which bring 10 ~~nd' Leopoldo Logones of lhe /.u"ario s""tim.ntal. 1909); and other series of "'orks held rogether by lhe prelext of • common motif, about which Andre Bclamich wriles as follows:
til::
II IS known lhat ksuile," in lhe sC"en",enth and eighleenth centuries, indicated. series of dances all wrillen in the same key as Ihal used in ,he firsl. The link lhat here loins each poemlO ,he firSl one is more n.rrOw: il is Ihe one lhal exiS1S bel ween a ,heme and us vari~llOns, lhe "differences" of ,he •. ,hudislS of lhe lixleelllh century luch as [AIllonio de) Cabez6n, luis Milkin, IAlonso] Mud~na _,. These seri.. appear like lhe bee" of a same objeCl or like ,he ph.ses of a mWitalion th.t keeps probing lhe same mOlif.' Theme here implies form; and from lhis point of view lhe difference~ and explorations lhal unite a handful of poems closely resemble the sucees>;ve moments of a single composition, above alilhe parallelism, and reitetations ch~raclerislic of a certain type of popular poetry: songs, as brief and con· centrated as those of Rafael Albeni in his Baladas y candones del Parand (1976): Cu~nro
mas chiro. mas chico, se Ie adem.. mis cI sol,
Cu.nto m:ls chico, mas chico, se ore mejor,' The smaller, lhe smaller, the more Ihe sun emers, The smaller, lhe smaller, lhe sharper rhe cars, Few Spanish readers will nOl be acquainted with Lorea's "Ilaladilla de los l'es rios," wirh its variations thaI rum on IwO opposing morifs (the one ri"er of Seville and the two of Granada) and a double refrain as well; il serves as a good example: to "Ay, a"'Or ql'ember 17, 1667, the young RaCIne pr~mcd An rom"q"e "'- ore hi' ~Iog and h,s COUrt for the filst lime. On Ihe nexi day the. same aaors t....wmed the play for the g~neT31 pubhc ,n a theater of 1M Hotel de Bourf""-' The role of Androm2che wu playw by :\tademol>tlJe du Puc. an .....an Jm. aetrtSs who had b«n lured away from Moliere's companl' by ontst T1>e suect$S of Ille play was e~CC'ptlon21. as was also Ihe q,.c~//~ flaa l1C • , dlat fol1o,,·ed. con'pafJble 10 lhe ()1M' Ihal followed Cor""tl1e s Lt Gd. Phl.pre QumaUlf. Mtehd Lederq, r>;KQI2S Pradon, Thomu Corne,lIe, all fhe IIIlnor pocrll and poet2St~n ronfromw th~ young 2ulhor. In May 1668, I'trrlou de Subllgny Stap h,s 1'oI1f' qUf'Ulle m; '" c:ntrque d'Androm"qu~, .. "hKh he leprOOIched Racine for h,s mfiddny to history, hiS dIStorted lrpunenl. r~ brulalny of lhe character of I)'rmus, the excess.l>·~ allennon I!'vtn 10 amorous SCT>11~1$, IhallS, berne's IleamlCnl of an2tn anclem IlI:Itmals, of a tMmf' Ihat 2 good part of IIlot' audoenlX of lhe H0, tlo",ers embrace comrnry nOIl0"5: Ih" Immm"nce of d"3Ih, th" ur~cy 10 l,ve. The ~Song 01 Flowers" (XodticlllcatQ tends toward r"Acellon, Wilh dearh ncar 31 hand. The "Aowcr of the field" dcnoles spting and Ide: Ihe "Aower of our Aesh,~ corn: Ih" Mf\owet !bat dances," the ",amor. The I'QC1 hlmsdf is the Aower Ihat blooms, and his wng a gardrn of Aow,,~, Here,s a po Who """,,ld roof asp'K 10 be)'OW" flowers. oil God Ill"'" of Me? they art In d~ Monds of lhe .,..., •..tlO ruin .;klfh; tht buds open; tht coroUa. opm; rhc: 1Io"'m; ..,11 dry up if bathed by me, $Un, I a.>mc from )'00' hou.." I pufumtd f\o"'n; I rai... my 5Ofl5, ~llrr my flowers: dnnk your n~ar. saurr die O.....~! The god opens your fIo"..en, from h.s house c:omc.1Ito tJo.".·.. rs h....,.
differclll plaas the process of naturalization gives ri~ to IllI> tlfs basM on modern Invennons. The first chapler of SPnchiro ( 1908), by
Still today
In
lhe excellent Japanese llovdi!l Nat'"mc Soscki, Introduct'S one Such moli( a journey by railroad-and above all, [he tendency ,hat slIch a IOul'lleJ may awaken erotic fa0l3sics. The protagonist, Sansh,ro, lu.ves his honw village for the capllal to begIn siudies al the university. He IS a tlm,d 5011I. more Ihan anyth,ng clsr. An altr:leti,'~ WQfl1an approaches hIm on lilt Iraln-~hcr mouth wu finn, her ern bnglll. w n.c, Irain hs 10 make_ ~rrughl SlOp In Nagoya, wh~ the worn:.tn asia S:.tmhim 10 hdp her r.I :.tn inn. ~ inn IS a ~ry modesl one, and bdo~ he can protest, II turns . . Ihl IMy must 5ha~ the same b:.ttll, the same. room, and the 5.alM beL Dunng the nighl Sanshrro doesn'l dace m:.tke a mo'~ 01 uttcr a word. ~ n:.tJty the t'A·o S:ly soodby In lhe sution bd"o~ contmuing their I'tSJ'CdM jOurneys:
1M wonun I"ve h,m a long Sl~ady look, and when the Ulmosl nlm. ~YOll· re qUlle a ro"'ard, aren'I you!~ A knOWing ,m,l~ crossed her face."
w
"poke " wn "td1
And Ihe reader underslands thaI whal upsetS Soshiro, In Nagoya as well aJ laler in Tokyo, is not only Ihe sexual iniliallvC of the wOman but also lhe many changes thaI Japanese society is undergoing. 'l1le same fou mey-by-tra,n theme may be !rUled in a more person,)1 way, as In a SIOry by Jesllatrt'Ct search fot Ind,,·idual happlllcss, that IS, for:.tn mner sallsbcrion provided by sclf,ddusioRS. There a~ Ihcmes of long durations, longues duries, rhal last by being tr:.tnsformcd OVCr many cemuries; Olhers have a briefer span, like lh~ rail, Way revene thaI I Imt m..mioned,:.t themc lhal has already grown old; and slill Others, ",o~nne$ duries, leI us say Wilh Braudd, are dommam ;n a cerraln hiStolical period Or al a cerlain momenl become pari of OUr cultural he"tage, perhaps permallCntly. Among 1M firSI Iype IS Ih.. theme of Wate,-ri,·tt". S('lI, pool, f()llntalll. 'Pnng_,n ponry lIlId In thoughl, so widesp....ad lis stud)· ....ould be elldless, A' e rhom, perhaps eras ...·hen rhe funmon of rhe Ih of w:.t,.., "':.tS panIC' y llla..l p'ommem? Accordmg to Enk Mldladsson, 'tt" is ~lhe ant.., of
Iwww.dztsg.netldoc
204
Th~ B~sic
205
!soues
metaphors and of mcumorphoS, meadows, fields. "-ood~ ~
d.,.
gro\'n, streams and banks; also mythical spacl:S-nymphs-whcllc I>d mtrudn." These In''nnganons focus on '" particular model, Jean R~. dr. • . yy,~ masterly book Ora n Ie paOli {19S3) and ItS amholog)' of baroq~ ~ b:l.~ nOI on author$ bUI on monls, nnages, and 111)·.'h5 such as Prot"", \If mronsuncy: ,lIusI<m and In('lamorphosls (drums, dI5gUl~l; the sPttt~ of rhIJ,t" agllale his own bemg." lillie by lillie, from Ge~nrr ro Rousseau, moUII "'Cfe KUllari~Nl.
1 rs also have lhelr temporal mark and thell siruation. "L'arl, c'esl CO ~ IAn. It'S azure}, Victor Hugo decbr«l; and in leI chJlm'e,m;
rJ~ur
Ad,tu. p.trle! L'onde ~l en furie, Ad,eu, I',me, nu,! Fare,,·c1I. homeland! The wal'a art' In fury, Fart''' ell, homel2nd. azurel" floon;lnticism gramNl a 1'n\'ilrgN platt 10 azure:, blue. color of ,he ideal, of rhr longed· for and rell'KXC, of cvant$Otnt IllUSIOn," In mba ....·ords, 1M 'endrPots '0 exrol symbols and spreific colors merged. &cause ,t IS no! the ,...-.lor !lsdf IhulS Slgnificant, bu, tM amlude roward the color. In Germany ,sl'mbohllng chromariClsm enables blue "rrtl H""ndl _ Ofurdmgtn IS synonornous wllh .. hal l'i pure:, di,inc. bt:a>'C'l1ly, hke WI my51tnOUS 'blur 8o"'er' mar has INrkcd aJ] of lbe young Gnman Ro-llWloasm,- .. That arutudc ,s prrpc-tuarNl In German pocuy up 10 the ''trY "",""ous poIanllG of Geo,g Trald. as m • Klndhnt ~: Eln bburr A~1d< IS( nur rncht Srdr. A blue pan« IS oo1y lnOI'e Sool. ' Tr:>.kl was acqua,nlNl wllh rhe group /JrT bLnu Reiter ,ririe of a pamllng byVassily Kand,nsky), first cchibllNl in Munich m 1911.In the mun"'luk:, rlw: ch'l':I.C1er of the pottle symbol hold brc-n undtrgoing rransform.allons m OYIy. Ihat anTlOl: be summanlcd here. Ann:.> Balakian expl;uns II ~...·e11 III ~t booIr on symbolism. S,nce the: pott'~ dlrtCl discoul'St i. displ2ctd by d.., "'dIrect dlKOUl'St of rhe SymbollslS, the ')'Inbol CC'UCS ro dc:si~le or rq,r~"1 emolions and begins ro suggest m'gmls and mulnplc ymualnltS '" In Orplue mannC!"." Brfore lhe: INlium and futility of lift, before: lhe .bySS lfoulfre) of uiSlenee, M.lJarme glImpsed a loralily lhal was azur-
::;:,,;:~1~11~:ea;I:~~.:am~~i:~~e sonnet of 1M same name, lhe: all Oil fu .. daRl la mohr ,nuule C! pen'ene? Je .UlS hanl~.I'Alur11'A.ur! l'A1Uri
ww.dztsg. net/doc
206
The
Ba~1C
207
Theme.
Issues
Whue to A« in my useless and f'Cr>'USC rcbc:lhon?
La lam~ brillai! jaune. et I~unc lussi les etergc"
I am haunted. A~lIrd Alule! A7.U~!"
El
I~
h'eur ghss311l ~ux froms vo,l.... des ,·,.rges Icur bl3ncheur.
J~"mspil
Balakian palms Qut rhal from then on the word became a part of the S bohsi cock fill.
I" Spalllsh a{wl would be, a [."o.lauon thar simplift.$ the "'old, if Ilut rh. concept, but nm ,,·hen Ru~n Dari6 UYi ~d azur (ffIC'aning aelo; EnghslJ sky, ailing, heaven). JOSw
robe ..." 1M lng.
The "',nd ....Ilt. lhe dUll, .. sh,p"" pro.... of $il.'.r."
lffi arnu,llot y~ 1$13rio Ilrg3ndo ~ ~qudla~ l1erns df por si am3rill~ •. Q!Jl(ffl olrlotllrg:lr caotando I~O lejot &: las dol Casl1l1a•.
1lw: uniq~ color, such a no>"dty on lIS dl.y, .. con\"crtC'd lillIe by Iillk IOtO a
Procedure al lhe- ~i~ of a modem .-.sion of thf poetIC ~ymbol, fhu. add· 'GS 10 lhe- If"j'>frt01rf' of a\";\llable r«01JnfW:l,\ dlf birth of a ronnnumg pr«e>•. SorTKthlng SimIlar had hapP"lfd ce-rlluncs allO ""lh f\o>o,·en and "'Ith mounlains; 1hC'y werf" r.n1 rumcs and shadlllgs: the buffoon of Il. I'obody ,n the «metenes, How alone Ihe lombs rt!ma1O!" long "'nh Geoffrty Gorer, rommmls on tM b30 ,mposed by modern ~. ] sociny on Ihe tnOS1 obdurale mnny of happino:ss." The laboo of much a nlnn""01h-«nNI) produa, has bttn K'J'1:KC'd by lhe:
"",m,l' ,.. . .
IL"....
"
--,
gboo of mortalily.
III the IhmlallC field a ronsaousncss of d1~nge pmlominalo. F2ced ",th durallOnS and lop1cs' Don Rafael Upcs:I ~)"S the: compal1lllSlInCS to ~ u lhe: romlanl mocilfinllOn th~c ml,~en'II the madmonall.... mmrs_ ~nc1 ~'C'Ou It from b«Orlllng fowhud. S«ular themes, comn-.· pbaos, ready-m:Ick formulas of uprewon• ..ckal; Jl1"oettloglit like Erving Golf· .... ~ ~ I'lOl Ih10k th"l lhe: world I i " suge and that !Lfe cons'scs '" rolrPl>"ns. Lfe Ii a dfeam: whal .....ould thesc: ,,·ords nol SUggesl Romanllc Surrt!ah~t? We ~ould 53Y Ihe s~me Ihmg of m..tTlcide :lnd the: figu,.., of In Uohn Wemler, Scholler, B)'lon. Unamuno). n.c count!}' fellow" bo Itd",,
""
..
He-tne I-a lib", de mS,ml$numoenIO. Mundo en rnurreceo6n es qUle" me sal.-•. lodo 10 mveota d ray" de la a,,,nra,
'WW.. dztsg.netldoc
218
The
'"
K~sic Issues
des""rate to find reltd ,n icy currenu of SWIft water brooks; behold his Ih,rSI)' plunge lntO lhe .u·eams: h......ouod., no' lhelr reliel, Itk. mme will I«m:'
Here I am now (ree of Illlto'pt'euon. World In resurrecUOn IS what sa,'... me. E"er)',hmg IS '""ented by ,he da"'n's ray, and thu '" Qj"/ico also presupposes a fOTC/: o( will at certain limes bee of the rorTent negallve convention, as in "los balcont'S del O~'I\ (The BalconIes of Ihe Easl): Amane« lumlO ... ,Y la aurora? ,DOndc mora II don«'lla que t'S aurora? Con una lua fea, elloOl_tn.'e de afrolllar una IO'"nacla tan burladapnnapol mal $U ,arca ...
ca"
Da"'n comes
turbid ... And da,,'n? When docs she d"..,11 tbt clanud "00 IS cIa"'n?
dose, Bosdn had aehi ....·cd Ihe dee""'e con",matio, jomm!: twO moufs: the psalmISt's nag th"sl)' for Cod-- As Ihe ~rt panteth a(ler Ihe ....ater brooks, $0 pameth m~' soul aftcr thee, 0 God·
,l.> the RenaISsance drew 10 a
J'>.'lms 42.1 )-aud VirlJll's sllntle In Ihe AeneId (1V.67-74), '" whIch un· ~arp) Dido -tn her madrlt'Ss~ roamed rhrough Ihe city lik~ a wounded doc -conl«la (ern sa,,"a~) that the shepherd had plCrccd "11h hIS arrows. [)unng rhe RmalualKC the bIblical (radinon 19ivm I>COnf atremion by Cur[ILl' In h., book) anod the tran~mlsslon of profan~ motifs m~: th~ yeam.ng lot' God and the pain of 10>.... Bill ,heR: is a Ihird dement: the Gallcian· 1\lrtU&ue5C Iyncs of 1M MIddle Ages had SC"CII an allegoncal figuranon of Qmu In me wounded stag. Pe:ak of SIICh rid! ronvergcncc '$ rhe ~Ci011CO ('Spinlual; b)' ~n Juan de]a, Cnu., who rv.-icr IOrroduces rhe lheme of rhe II'OIlndcd Slag. "J Already ,n rhe firsl S1anza IhlS ron~\X IS >-criMd:
,Ad6ndc 1C esr0nd,Ste, Amado. y InC dcJlSIe ron scnudo? Como d C1n'IO hlllsie habomdomc hcndo; sali U'a~ II datN.OOo y eras odo.
Wilh an altn(>J1 ugly h&hl. Ibc~n-Pd
al fllClrlJ I ..vrkday fTUted wuh such dcmaonmakes a poor "an al hIS task ..• Bttt u IS fIOI only d>e UhaUSIIOfl of the formula Ihal allov.-s di>co>-crv. though lJda de /lola/kid limIts hftwlf 10 (!>e Hl>panic Golden Agc maIn Ihlng heR: IS the IOv~mon thar S·anJuan d arCS I() imalJlnc. ' " In
Com~t;~t~;;:~~~~~n~h:"::::~~: ~~:: one
vww.dztsg.netldoc
who wounds. Thc pods own
"0
The
B~sk
The S"dcgr(>m '$ romparcd 10 the Slag broousc here the slall mean h ;;elf. And n iS,known ,hal ,h. nature of ,h. Slag ,s to dimb to high 'I ,..,. and when h. IS wounlkd h. hastens to s«k oool~s In cold Wale P "-""'s, nd h. hcars his male complalnlng ... ~~~~r~~~gi~~:~~:e~:~~~lll~;etoarr aa:o;~~;s~~:~l~ ~~t:.r::.~~ :~:;
c". bU' whal IS mIssing IS perhaps .he mOSl enduring. Manfred Beller's 10 lhe vas. but ooht'rem Iht'manc field of
r~"'"' \>I' 1rt" sumoury of stud,es devoled
,;rksnal or .erreosual parad,sa,cal mylhs IS '...ry sugge:sm...: happy gardc:m, ~i"s, and OIher pasro"'l dayd",ams., fJ Dorados,str:ange and fOlTUna<e ~"ndl, lhe ~mory of rhe Golden Age, and other Ideas thaI logetber or ~,,"dy ha"e cmboditd and su~a,ned lhe U10p13n asp,r:auons of hum"n-
kind·"
1bl' My,h of 'he GoIdrn Age '" the RrnDIJSDnu (1969), by Harry .......,0,
nor ",ally lImned to lhe: R
me
221
lssu("$
Quell! que anUOmmre pona.ro L'ni lkll'oro e _ S1alO feb« forK In PamJSO CstO loco sowuro.
They "'00 'n olden IUnes sans of Iht Ase of Gold "nd 'rs happy sule PC""'PS In ,"",musus dreamrd of IhlS plXt'.
.\nd lhal bnngs IWO relaled conceptS Inro exact correlanon, uCt'pr for lhe !L"lances betwttn poetry "nd fanh.......·m·s book sheds lighr 001 only on rhe ton"nuny of 0 ",as called Beam« ...
The appanllOf'l of Btamce:. preparc:d fOf b}' an earllotr t11COUnttf
ch,ld· hood and revIved later, In symbolic form, III a dream. The appantion, ..,Ih 'bsupemarural connmatlOf'l. 'S repealed Innumerable urnes; as In Rauhen's lone de$cnpnon ,n the: lirst chapter of Sn!1",rent31 fdMQ1/lon. a dr:twn-kin. a more sedLW;[l\'e figure. or f110fe dellca.tdy shaped lingtrs than IhOS
S«n
&asing h.s srudy On th,s and ~r ~,mdal tttt5, Rousset coIlecrt'd !h~ dw aClmsne rralTS of rh~ arcMty~1 mtt'llng: mS(anra!lffiU~ncss, amaU1ntlll, commonon, murmas, rroproclly, manofO'S! cksnny, pr.lI~ of ~ beaut\" of OM Or boI:h panncn.,!he annlhdarlOtl of spaa, rhe fr:sll\l' or IlDll5ual piue ..-her~ lhe m«nng occurs ... NafUl'311y, d>c variations are COUIIlkss: ItWI1 InvOOl' 51krras, om'55lOl15, whar doesn'r nad 10 b.. ~Id. If!hc're '5 a lUfl'3n'"e ~polnr of v,",,~ for InSlana, wc kIlO" only whal one of the p.-ouromsrs fcds. Or also ana,n aspcClS of rhe cncoumn- are dc>-dopnf III dm;. IJ>CnI ro othn-s, such as mc.r v,stul charaC'lff: the Iighr, colors. a detall« pan thar concenlrales all rhe 5CtlSlJallry of Inc momenr or the po-rson. Rnd again me SC1CnC In TlTil1lt 10 bl.>nc il"~'" when for rhe lim nme- speaks of karlS and rriJtJSgressiom HI his chaptcr onlhe pl~n.'plU IC", ,a.. ' ~Jnons lhal Ball.3C·' work dc"dops around Ihi~. motif: "I will end 1l-a113C1an Ill"cnrory by sr"eral examples of
1-' h.J'1' here one on u 10 Thom~s Mann, Andrt &relon (N"d".). mod~toi]llo<S "'~::;:::en(at rom~nl1c no,els; ~nd one rhal 's also found In the
. h f -d Salinas' La voz ~,i dtblda (1933: poetry Ihal 's I al 0
, ,.
",-
,~:
CflnOC
~tou~son. who is Itllerested In ~herocsw and legendary characters-th("'~$ t. heT(ls-shows
practice lhat the lheme of Prometheus cnsscrossn ""h other themes to 8','e expression and hie 10 the same mOlil or general Cl:lncr pllOn , Rcbclhon, favome motif of the Stu,," und Dr;lllK mO.,.emem ""d of RomantiCIsm, ,s personified flO{ only," the ligure: of Promtthetls but "'" In Ihe figures of uin, Saran, FauSl:, and 6.. ron'. Manfred. Al lhe same ~, dunng the RomantIC era Ihe polywml~ figure: of Prometheus IS SI.Ibd,"dcd, Ii to J.pcak. gl\',ng nse 10 Ralzac'. bnlllani al'flSl, many a pott's her' tI>c, Ihr precursor 01 OmS! ;n Qu,ncr, among omers. I I t t hcr~ thrtt III
o//www.dztsg.net/doc
ph~ I~ fint IWO of whIm Trouuon nnph3s,~es and ails mOtIf rhme-Frenzel names them In the opposue order, What IS inool ""II somerhing like a process. or racher somerhing like a complex malk vI'd sur"'~ suptrimposed on one another that d>e mtlc IS perfeal y alUlyu Ol'" dIsmantle In any ..'ay ~ s«s lir. The lermmologial confuSion, lhough Ilntaung, IS nOI of great 1m tanCe, What mmen is that a dc 'mer
fa~
co bce wnh whal hfe and hteurure suggest to him. -Es
~t lhe" Dichtcr mllg"geben.~ (It is bestowed on the poo),'" MOIII~ 3re II' drm, d ·'""~med' ap. n.oun,or ... , and wuhom them , II IS dIfficult 10 desfind anfhoe ~.:'.d1 ro 3 dr3ma or a no.·d. The Ihnl)(' 's rhe mesca~ble
Ilny 0 I I"~- It IS wh3r Ie;ads to a valu3ble, more profound work. Slna a smgle ..,..{C"I. r ~h mon ro the different wo.ks of one Wilier, one muSI conf,rII'e IS no wm be d ..red '·Iude'~d h , " them .. dOC's not lie III the wo.k, or ,h31 It may ISCOV
,u,
• I" genellc;ally. ,_ L_•. fth (101. " ~_ " ,from CUl'l1US C$~y " t e1947 s . Pedro Sahnas el(pressed siml... r I,,,,,,,t>',rs L RUYe1f L-'---- Dario • Rrmember one 0 the uennmoos 0 1948 In /..D pot:s"" on~bly
~~~~a
-Illerary~
n.e themeof lhe poet '0 be projwnl onlO poelry II sought for In the rOplcs ~ugt,
~. < - most to IllS hk'nS- In galeral ,he .be"", IS nol lR no> C3 ,-"" found linrshed. or exhausred in onr .."Or1c, In one 3ff3". 5"'0" illS lR' l-t~te dl de e lR a new form-the lIO¥eI of connnual,ntenor Rwr, har y rna concrt1 Ise or poem hardly fil1lshnl~reSlful .nd calm pcnool of rhe c",atl~e Impu 0/ lhe rhe"", .w~kes 3neW .nd is p", in monon, drmandlhg .Iuturc re~. IZallon. A ..~rk is made, finIShed, bUllbe theme. no, When a ~~I'~f '""PiuS In~f as fill1shed. It is noc for lade of toptes or necuU.... I, illS t t hIS "'t31Ih~"", lou lIS ,mpu .. ~e energy.
,
".
. d"\SllhgUlS 'h es bet"'een I'WO senses It is very dear rhat Sallh3S , of . Ihe term. One IS the ,,"aIIMme, whim leads 10 lhe ..'ork and unclerhes liS concrete rnoIdlRJ. In Rubin 1)3rio, 1M eronc mc:hnarion: Gui6me pOl" •• "os semkros ErO'!.
I-k guided "'" by l'arious p'lh~
Ero.'"
1l.e ~hl~rary~
theme (CUMIUS' monf, Trouuon's lh~me) 's the ch3nnel ~or Such a 11101dll1g: in RuhCn, ,he cenl3ur, ,he swan, ,he garden wnh pcacoc s.
'"
The lIasic Issues
237
h is nor a matler of a meditation on 311 carl'er rheme Or 3 topic derived f the rhetOrical rradlllon, tlon"ie, rha, we 3rc ponderin~ bur" lor"1 .... . I .,. C)' I ..... lIo"al 'mpu ~ that becomes pan 01 rhe 1'0'ln caJb rlW' natural hnkJ: rhar conro«l Ih~ ImapnallOn wlm w ....orir of me p<Xt:
wC:
Whar mallft$ aK rhe nalUl":Il nes rhal rdal~ a lWIa'rold ralec ro 'IS archOlled Muua E1.lI&c. Ho..· ·n. u 1$ also rrue!hal myrhogc:aphy an strlly off ,nlO vague CQIlI«tura. rdlccting hlSlory in a med1Oc:rc semeIlalher presenl 1101 absnn-ll pnetJa denounced by Roy Harvey I'carce'" -rhe allse of Enlighlenment has bcm berra saved by the elJon to de"'rrhologou: lev," obwrns};u, or, on the OfIW't hand, JI may dnft InlO transparently llieologlClll dmtysnnca!>ons: rhe falSoCly olwlOllS of popula, cultule (Banhcs, Mytholog,es, 19S7) or lhe lnsllrunon of lneratufe ,tSoClf 18.anhcs, SIZ. 1970). NO! so rhe mylhographic prodmty found m ....orks from Maud Bodkm fO Nonhrop Frye rhar h.1s gi\"C1l nse 10 one of Ibc mosl 'lriIPnlll CUrTnll$ of cmiasm In rhe Engl,sh language.'" IronIC, amhLl1OIls., pleouanl. kttner rhan mos'. Fryt: pubhshed liOme books-Fell,(ul Symmerry (194 71, Anaronry of Cr,tleism (19S7), The Ed,,· CQt~d Imag'....,IO.. (1968). and vanou~ olhen-whose colical qllahry surp~Ues the ptnuasive force of ch~ Iheo~,cal schemes on ...·hich rhey ar~ based. For h,m as for T. S. BiOI. Iileraru~ oonstiflll~ :l uni'"Cn'I1 order, a COmplete world.'" - All Ih~mC5 and char:l.eten and srorics Ihal you ~ncoun ~r In literarure belong 10 one big IlII~rlocking bmdy.~ '" What is rhe inle-
Iwww.dztsg.net/doc
239
The Basle Jssues grallng prlnople for such a '.51 whole? Tht pcrslSlCTl« of anaml I!I) Undcrscand by mylh n(J( only a ool1ecnve fantasy Ihal Hw;;am:ncs idc;U" 1'-mmKlnl'S (as dcftned by lo:vin)'JJ: bUl an effOn of doc ,magmalJOn 10 iIIld the world: -A m)'lh is a Simple and pnmlll\'C ellon of the ,ma&lnan(l~1lit idcnnfy dloC human wllh lilt' nonhuman world, and 11$ rnosllypical ra. , . _ . Ul~ a SIOry aboul a god. '" LneralUn: and mylh do nOi CCn$l\"C':
"fhc:
lrrdUlable poslulale of th,s rhem:l1;c idea m Northrop Frye is un,~hrr. Ev«)·thmg g..... "'.r to II. Eugn>c l0nesr0's TM 8:l1d Soprano , IS a rcspc'Clablc grt1tlcman and " tad)' who con,'erse and dlsoo,·rr ~aJ]r, not w'lhoul surpnsc, thar th~ art: huiband and w,fe. Frye notCS .....arallCl:" of 1....0 anoent COO'T,mons: the SllUaflOn of (WO pc-rsons p, - - . IhehorN "- :;effie ha,·e OOnlaCt wl1h each OtheT bUI don . t know eac.h Olhe,.. an d t,K' "f· 0"II10n (one assumcs fhat 11 ;, the QfI/.gllorlSl' of AnsIOIle),'" BUI II rero... , d . 'h· h d· ",hal aboul lonesco's pecuharly a~sur, SIIUJllOn, I~ umoT al~ un~que «t1l 31 rechniquc? hiS affinity lor h,stOflcal allus,on~ Before the dlalecnc of L. e and the various, nallon and ....orld. continuity and change, Frye ,... on . , .. rontS to the pnmacy of theory. Jakobson s,ud thaI the oblCC(IVC 0 mllClsm IS lIOl Iiler-nurt: butlnttanness. frye thmks thaI IUS( as the, phys":.! srudcnt does nol srud)· narofC bul an OfPmud body of knowledgIC, ,he mncal aprrcnnce muS( study not hllCfa,ure bUI a body of kno....ledge relanng {o If. , . He 15 partly flghr. A f"m,llanty ",Ih some ronceplual frameworb IS ...llhoul doubr Indispensable. BUlihe analogy wlIh Ihe narur,ll SCiences has liS lImlls, The chem,st may shU! himself up In hls1ahorarory bec:ouse ...ha, he sees when he gocs OUI III the Slreet has lillIe or nothmg fO do ... lIh l.he scale of his investigations, bUl the crif;cJh,sror;an can and mUSl fUrn to m· divldual pocncal ....orks (a Imle like rhe geologist who Studl" the Arizona desert), observing and oorrecllng in lhar way hiS theoretical hypochcscs. Or rather- the crlllC pro'''' die CXISlrt>CC of those nalUlalllcs that Lev,n spoke of. ~ nes bet.... een myth and motif, molif and poem.'" As much a~ the· matology inclines toward unity, U docs not manage 10 suppn:u. bur ralhcT 10 ilruaure, the dlvCfiity of luerarure.
w~
next reali~e that the n:lallon belwCC1l thtsC C'""80rlCS and Ii,erature" by no means purely one 01 descenr, a~ we ~nd lhem re3pl"'UIIlg III ,he greale.!l c1a~~ics_itl laC! lhere seems ro be a generallendency on the part of lhe greal eJaulcs fO n:.'err '0 rhem ... Here we begm '0 wonder il ",e cannO( see liter:nufC, nor only a~ romphcanng llse1f In nme, but as sp~;>J OUt m concc-prualspac:e from some uns«n center.'"
1"hctT IS an eletnnluJ myth, a matn>: n:uranon thaI Fl")'e drfinn .II nrnc; v the, km and reconquest of rhe Idcnmy of the hero (~rhe story of the 10 • and r~lnlng of idcnmy 's, I think, the framework of allluualUre"I,' • anJ ar olhers as a q"~t-m)·rh (as in Grrrmas, 1M ~fOry of a desire): "ineUn- lIt
a search, a ycaming, a purSUll, thar leads (rom dealh fO reblrrh, lhrou~ ,he four SC3.lOns of the year. To·,he~e corresJlQnd also lhe Ine ... ry genres: lbr springllme of lhe romance, ,he SUmmer of comedy, lhe au",mn of tT3l\edt" ,he winler of u{ire.
Iwww.dztsg.neUdoc
LII,m,)' Re/ollim.s
tJry t)·pe· The IirSI chapters of L'espm des I"i., which deline Ihe nature of J tTlonarchy, of despou.m, of a repubhc, make use of a number of Machla· "tlb'lO e~planallons, pafllcularl)' ,hose ",ncern",g, the history of Rome. tw"",'cr, Shacklelon concludes thaI Mont~u'eu s fundamental thought Jnd balilC design are qUlle far ....,mo'·cd from Mach,a,-clb'lO. KThe grt"at 5yn· rbeS'l",g prm,,'ples of the maliterp'ett owe lillie 10 the kahan.~' The har,..st lli as poor.ts 11 is predictable. Was Ihal baggJ.ge really nttdcd for Ihal
15
tTIP l
Literary Relations: Internationality
'"' _ gel :ani hol-.. "'6T. v.>m/Nl",llwt UIU.:1fuTt': Matta "nd ltf~boJ ~1969). composed of armks p"bhsMd In ~ /OU~1 Compar.lllw utail"re Studln.. 20 ~l of 1M romnbuuon~ aff Wlll:ltnW In ~ srcuon utlcd -turn.... -, Rd:ll~·w ~'... a ur I y,,,·h ;U IS ~;I;m IS IDrnnationalll1~ran rd,u;ons. A1dndgc dub horle$tly .."h a rul S1ruallon: born IDrmlan~1 literary rd Coli oqlWl and 'nocm ,,~ "XISI. ~f~rnas dWicw:d 10 such lop,a as ·Spam and FrnIdt Lln2lUff- and Onent:aIJW"~em lttttary RdaflOnS- ,"re OOIlstandy {akHiS pU:~ Ho.... e\'tt, n<X m:any _ Kleas Iu,~ tITICTgtd (rom such pro;eus. II is
M"",,"
i.
Montrsqulfu's debt to Machiavtlh. (fhe allemp' had brcn madr ,,,I,,r in 1912, y b E. Lev-,·Malvano In . hiS Alo"I~Sqll'~1I , Ma~hl/tc Chl1SlIan cpocl1 bUI also for lhe paradIgm of gr.rvny, e;UIr.llion, ~nd magnIficence of la.nguage, .. him d>c EnglISh poet carried qune .. bu further: Mho... much closer 10 rhe Tassocsque concepnon of Ihe 'magnifiemcc' and lhe 'mu~ie' is MlllOn'~ eptC verse lhan Ihat ofTasl'l!~' Here is a phenomenon that ha~ occurred over and o"er: the case of an Imitator who surpas>CS the orlgmal. The Mltahan~ tragedIes of Joho Webster (The Wh,te Ve,·,I. 1612) we", far sUlX'rior 10 the Senea-IYPC Ltalian melodramas Ihal insP"c:J them, IUSI as Shk~are's OtM/1n definllcly ~rshadows a. certa,n ~lOrf by Girald, Cinvo, Some InduionaL ealcg0ric,r alollemu. Intem:l.llonal relanons, In their culrund as well as poItuc:ol a.spcct5, presuPJ'OS" "n ,ncesum confromanon With 'gnonncc, misunders",ndtngs, prov,"Clal prejudiCt"J, memal ,Iltnta, and of course wllh roJnomlC :l.nd mlillary power. I ...ill nOt pauSl' now to g10Sl thIS dIfficult tangle, a task that I attcmpled earlier III my Lilerawre "S SyJtem (1971). The iUnerary of tnAuences and Illcr:try rdations IS a contingent, if IlO! Irra, !Ional. marler and obeys no order of qualnall~e lunlce. The d,ffUSIOn of a WIlier's woo a.nd:r. """"n's hlerature demands, al the ''n)" kUl, lhal d>c L.o".'lcdgc of lhe Ia.nguagc be ..,dcr>cd and lhal t:he ..'Orit. arowe lhe imens! of loOrne I","nslaton. There is often an enormous gap sep.a.rallng a great JlOem-and we are not slX'akmg of it~ eXeOt1 marks.~' unconsaous Of' aUlomooc Olat>Otlral, I .m still II.om~n . , .j. So hcrc wr ha\'C du Bdl~y procbiming himself Rom~n like o,'id. All of du Ikllay is sinuosily, p~r:tdox, and lonnal play. The Khrme cr'nekulldcadencc does 1'101 umfy hIm ~nnancmly, nor docs udeJrt'!tI.1tI. If the founl'Cll sonllCfli of ~Sonp'~ .1!1urk IIllCl"lClltua1Jy ro FYtrarch's 000ml,1 vanitas, lhe SC'\'enth Introduas a cydieal Ml'lKtufl. The ..-an,f)' of all ll:,,"P bas a subsprcteS, muubihlY. MUlabdlly also h~s a subspecies, more I'.1 radoxlClll: In\'Cn!on, which opens fhe penpecn..r of.1 renewl"d cydr~~ reb.nh of 1M majl'!;llC bird Ihar r~mblcs rhe blflh of a larva (........£1. dost !Q lo'q-worm-~nd verminc_vrrmm): ~Commc un ,rrmet rcna,StlC dc sa ttndr rs ." M
/www.dztsg.net/doc
250
The Bas;.... Issu . . s
Rilfatrru opms a considerably broadtt romlJ4'SS, $inoe hIs con.;".... mtrrtcxtualtry IndlKks "~ds. rhmlall< mucturcs, forms, and CQ\,; oodrs. All rheKekmmr::s require marlh.... RoJting ","'oked {prec,,,,ly thank$ 10 th.t poem}. J,/u~/lon.
'· modesl , bur slgnrlianl. thaI Cul1n vrtthout doubl tbe InlenexfS, paI~ hK. 00 demarale add 10 tins progress",e gro,,·th of lbe poem. tnei h r:>.l con"nmons Iht are lbe means and ,-e. If-kavmg aSIde I e gtne 'I ou~h'es 10 the a~peClS of In. moo 10 an nmre era-",e 1m\[ 50lIrces com JUSt menuoned, ,hen a Krles 0 f ' oordmales Ihal would . Kn'e tcrrnlual,ly _ '0 10 dClermll\C the uses of "lterte~ru:l\ity sOrher "crsc of 8&quer (nm.. 67) rhal ~nds wnh lh~ .... ords,
As Iortg as then:- may be light, mUSIC. l.ngu'go"_Ihc narM'S of Ih.. 1.1Ions_what .n:- ,..... 10 ,hink? 11....( ,here 1$ ronliden« In fCm",w,ltm&"C'» to tolera,e.lI 'M rl'$t? ,ca'pt.na of (\e;Id\ 1I..,1f? A h
)'tUS cull(1" Gust.,~ Adolfo fldrfId
rdkJen
...~th no lmClIplJon ...·halSOCVCf. ...'here' forgcnmg may d...-cll the'" ...·iU be my fomb. luIS Umu.h mncvcd t~ pcrtulmnale hne In
poni.;m .... un bno dos alrMs confundKbs;
m~fl{rU ....UIY
(X!$I' ""'"
tilt mle poem of Dondc Ixlb-
rU tI oJ.-ido:·
mUIf< 1In_.
Donde habite d olvido, En los r.!SlOS jardlflcs SIn aurOr.l:
,h.hni pun... !
Donde yo 5610 $Ca MemorIa de una piedra ~uh-ada mlr~ oRigas Sob", la rnal d vlenlO cscapa :II sus msommos.
1105 long .s fhett may be !lOme ~ ,h.\ ..,Ilea ,h""yn ,hal look at ,hnn; • slong.s Ihcl,p rrsponds sighm8 10 the lip ,hat sighs;
Onde ml nombrc: dele Al rnerpo que drsigna en bralos de los siglos• Donnanon. One of B«qucr's S)'mxtIC "",auret llonW, a,,;ordmg co C,rcumSf:mces. n... great anginal ~lisl shtth "", light on 1M pred«esson who made hIS "'Ork pos5ibl... no longer w'rhi" -Ir:ldnion- without limits, one In ... I\leh C""crylhlng m.gh! find a place: ~ T. S. E1iOl mOllght), bur wnlun the formal and themallc d,memlOlls thalli
common. If 1~ nO\'chm werr avid r~~ I'T'S mOre than anyllung else:, as Gilman argues, rhoen the boundary bn>..,~ Ul'C"lcnces of rul life and rhoK Ihal come (rom reading IS blUrted and rwn 1I~. And IhlS consciousness lhar IS inseparable from .....ding!otfttl e$Senl1al 10 us-awareness of character, reader, aumo.: ~rh.. urvanrlll< equalion of ronKlO\lSnCSS Wllh readlng.- All uc sc:ns;l1~ [0 whar Ammco CaStro called 1M -incitation" of In~:lrure." In thar way a double dlalog\l(
$J>«ilic group of srona hue
Ultrilry R.turoons
Th( Bas'c lnllcs
In
is ope-ned beN'een mClled no,~lisls. First, the dialogue of rM aUthor "'lIb hlOlSelf, Ihal is, With his earlier works, Gald6s' Dona p"{cc/a nxonSlrIlCl, Inc schemes-Ihe raJlOflSCS 10 Ihe n"ional hlslOrical problem_posed ,n La tonuna de oro, lUst as La desh"edada goes beyond Dona P"{CCI,J., ", Ihal Fortunato y Jacinta can bier o"ertUm Ihe formulas of La dtfherediJd.>. And Ihm Ont 1lO\~lisl tcsponds 10 al'lOtMr: Dona Ptrfcc/a 10 Baluc's £U. gime Grandd an usages of Zola, narrared monologu.. (or Ifldir«t fr« slyle) and colloquial language frm Ihe ~Iower deplhs" of rhe Clry." BUI Gilman al,;o empha~'lt> the function of errla,n slgnilkant allusions 10 preci~ SlluallOns and char' aclers of Zola anIr:l no,·cla" (End of AnOI her NO'o'd), whIch rC'CO\lnlS Ihe death of Rufne, makcs an Irres'srible allusion 10 CouPC.1U'S dehnum III L'asrommOlr (and also ro rh.. dealh of AlonW Qu,jano). And Ihere is a scen.. In Fortunal" (11.4.4)lhal IS lih a p;lrOlh " CQrnmmlary on an episode in La "gmt". Ihal of Rosa Carr:lsp,que Chapler XII), which shows fermin de p"s behaving HI as cnmlllal a bshion a>
rJe«swr Carlos Herrera. Ihe name dh"pr . .,
~ssumed by Vautnn in Spit,,·
be: wettl an ""crteXI th~1 al· lurle d,fference I .. ~_-' "" ,0 I •. km. as we SUrI QUI_ana IhlS 's a uc:uSl ve and one Ihal mC uun. as cI from he pcculo.1r .... • m lhe h,"ory of readIng, and mort concrn r I , ,- 0 d f ,Is who becomes as ,m l""n. f II modern Irst"r or rea er no,e , ." :"..dlllOns 0 I e . ~ b Ihe ........r ..'lUers of narrat"'. fknon, f.om •. _"" ,n lhO' ,""orlds erUl,"" y ..,.-. F,,:mlOUS ..·or\ds COIW~ tJIf:f ..Pro Sl as In a pers0n31 life expcncn«· d l):IlIaC 10 uh' h d become nu(rtWlned III ddf.r....! ..·.ay5 aC«)r ,ng ~ ,ouch cac Of e~ an lK rocns of con,..,rgctlCe is .ne$S rq>~ .. . ... _.1 ._.1 b ghl 10 cornpkoon III I conloOW
,
Jtl'rl
d 1fl'scTIOIlj. T""o lifelong nil., 01 Mal..S (1888; Ir:l~bl mlo,' Mal" Ihe protagonlsr, v· • I I draw conc uSlOns, fnends la • ..,capnu a e, ., loruble mediocrity, r«ogniZlng .• J - cd four sonnets and I ca"~o"e In hllian rhal wcre pr3l~ by Giosllc CarduCCI. Howe"cr, "'.~ If he had not wrinen in I"OK OIlier languages, M,lton's bmc and merit "'ould have b«n 11K same. Wha, is of prtmary Import;>ncc '5 the indication of l~ literary syStem WIthin ....hiell MIhan worked and hiS con«prion of languagr as a oomplu of convcmions and recourses ,har "'as '"cry lypiC31 of baroqUe art, ",coordm! ro For$lcr) summary: ~Thc~ is no mystique 1m. Millon about t;,nguag'"5; IMy .1.rC SImply med,a In ,",'hoch a poc1 can work_and c:an lx up«tw 10 ...~rk.~" AI the salTO(" nlm ~ multilingual work ot Stefan Gco"ll' IS s.k,mpy; only a few ~ms in Frmch and English rnTWn Sur he dId lu,'~ J hIghly rn'~Jhn8 mdianon suggesling J di'»3tisbOnJl d,lfuslOll of h,s work IS a rcsuh IlOI of ilQy polennJI mllllllmguJhsm or of Jny ,"erbal d,squ,CI. bUI of the f~ of Ius ImagmatlOn:; Jnd NJbokm, "hose Slnnge linguimc modes ..'oold de'Rand new m"~llg;1lI0ns: -They would clanfy not only hi5 ow", proWpoui talenl, bill 'lIeh larger qllesnons "Sthe condItions of mulnbnguJl ,magimng. of ,nlernal,zed trJnslallon, of lhe J'O",ble cx'Slena: of a pnvJ[e m,xed id,om 'brnnlh: 'commg hefore' lhe locabunon of differenl IJnguagcs In l!Ic arllculale bram.-" Th" concepl of Inlenor rranslation. or -,nlernalized !t;,.n.lallOO: whICh Sle,ncr hJS Jlso applied [(1 PJul Celan. s«mS /imng. 10 On~ Jg:;lIn a h,slorical P
. Turg"",,,· (who was ~Icgcd by his French friends, or 50 J Imagine, to wnrc In French) staled In mon: Ihan one letler thar II was daSlardlv wme In one's o....n language." And yet multiflnguahllll IS an impo~.::': pt'Ct of lhe nlneteenrh cenmry. M. P. Alek~'C'\' SlrIc, Ihe hre",uure [of Swinerfandl .. one and d"-er:w.-"'l,,nk of Spa"" In tI>''QIal momentS m lhe h,slory of rhe Sephardi when Arabs, Chrisnans, and f'" i It,oed logether. compc'led wuh one another, and became friends. OrhJ
',enn-J dunng the «UNt)· of Enlightenment. WI."" Erasmlamsm wn cstab~. dUring d... firsr half of lhe Slxt('fi\rh century. -Craoo..' ..... $ thoc nam... bQIlJC of Hunganan books., of pnntmg m the Hunpnan bngu1F.-" But L. end of rhe "'ghteemh century and the bcr;Jnmng of the nllk''teenm It Jt II'" as rhrough rhe mediation of Gttman that Hungarian readers b«afTlt fa· :'har ..~th the works of nelghbormg ~ountrtcs, such as $trbian pot'lry." Earher, lann translations had predonnnaled, such as fray AmonlO tk Gue· \Jra'S Rdol de prrnapes and Fran~ols de Salignac de La Mothe Fenelon's rdtmllqlle. Ob,·,ously, multilingual Mag)'ar willers "'ere legion, although 11 tS worthwhile to distinguish bccw~n explicit and latcnt rnull1hngualism. Jl,ihnt Iblassi. rhe great R""alssance pot'l of pa$loral rr:aglOOmcdf. kMW IUI,..n. German, Croool1.lln. Cudt, PolISh. Rumanaan, and Tunmh. He tuns!atw or adapred tals from several of chest languages. such as Turkish .on
The B:1Sic [.sues
"nder ,h. Influence of Croa,i~n worh and heroIc 'lOngs. PiHro, In C(>ntr~lt 'r3,,,I.t.d 111$ bro,h.r's Huns."." poems Into Croatian." '
In addi"on, M,kl6s Zrrny,_lhc older brother and epic J'OI'f-inspi,cd MachIavelli, m[cr.Sted himsdf'l1 lilCratur. ~for reaSOnS of Stafe.~ H., by Iale dh f r a n •. t (' hall.n versIon (> 8~hasar Alamos de: Barrientos' Tacita espc." and wrOlC a "'ork ""lied Vllh h3dnagy (ca. 1650; Virtuous Ca pla ;':;' which, Ilk. the '"crse () SIgnS of fOreign 'nllllcnca 300 contams no Sb",c ekmenlS.... Zrin)"" like Bala"., though latently muhllmguaJ, remaIned un;lm~ when wnnng ponry and oth.... l,rcr.lry works, 0 wt'OIe m ~ from 1M I...elfth 10 the founttnm crnrunes. AcrordaPg 10}oscp NalUl and Modes:c Prats. Ihnr ~ of an acqUlm:! language, hk the tedmlCal procrt:lura of ponte composllion. demonstnles thrtr culu'-'" lIOn of an nemplary an and Ihr,r rrsponsr to Ihe challrn~ posed by the dlHirulnes mvolVrt:!. II is for Ihnc- reasons llul the aUlhors of Ihe tirSl: ,,..a· lues on Pr~1 ~L'$,fic:"ion "'eR 001 Oca,;I,nos, whar ~ngu" d'(K ..... spokm, bul Calalans. sUl;h as Ra,rnoIl Vidal de Bda.1l1 and Jofrr de Fo~a. Nad;l,l ;l,nd Prats .....Ie: W" should 001 be surprised by the f;lCl tha,." thr -hallan~ aoJ Ca,a~" ,roubadours adopted. , , " langu.a~ forti&" 10 lhem; moreo>"tr, this" a fact to which 'her were al..,,,dy accustom«l, COJtSIdrnng ,he hisroryof ..... of Lan" IS a li'erary langul~, ,h,s langua~ ,hat waSO"lhetr o"n-Pw" ~l-was ..ndo...ed Wllh all ,h...., f.... rurrs ,ha, allo...«1 " '0 be con>,Jered IS an ",,: an an,tioal languag.., d'Slmct from Lalln bm, 1ik~ Ulllll, fix«l,n lllne and space,"
L,'~",r)'
RcJl1/;OJJ5
269
.:cpl for lhe dislances invol"ed ,his silU~llon mighll'CCm to anticipale ,he ~rrn multilingualism of an Ezra Pound or a Slefan G~org~, bUl rnall~rs k d,fferent ,I ..... e mO\'c 10 ,he Balunc 15lands, ",h~re Ihe cr..alOr of Ca'· ::" pr~, Ramon L1ull, was educa,ro, In IhlS casodem IllIIeS mar ""ere (and a..,! bilingual or mullllingual. A few of ,hese art ,he \',lna In ...hlCh Cusb... MI~ grew up and studied, me Akxandna of k.....a/is. I(;I,rka) Prague. and lhe too-nedassial S1nsboulg ,ha, dtsappotn,ed 'M young Goethe to some exlenl,n 1770.1 mtTltioned In o.apler 7 some example of an m/ennNI.1'u, one of the lradillOnalligura of rom· puanvltm. Clearly. oftm lhe Inlermediary is a multilingual 0"'. We h....e ~dy nof«llhc: ,mportant rok played by Vm,,:e and Vlalna In dus ....gard lor eUlern Europe. In Budapc51 Il$elf-or rather, in Buda and ~. noI )Tl IIl11led-Hunganan d,d nor beoorne the official language un,,1 1844. Dunng d.e tint mrtt decades of Ih.. nmetttnlh cmrury lhe aunospherr of the oly Was noIonously polyglOl. Earlier "'e mentioned Jin Koilir, the Slane porI "ho a.,hoclled pan·S!a\'lsm; and ~hhjly Virkov,es., thr bihngual wmer in trho!.e hou>r Int"ll«tuals of ""ry diverse on8'ns oft..,. gathered. Numerous Serbs, Gr«ks. Slo....ks, Rumanians. and Ukr:lluaJlS [j\-cd side by side ...nlt Magyars and Austrians 10 Ihe cap"al CIty ~nd publish«l lhelr hooks and IOtlrnal$ Ihrr..... No wond..r thaI a, lit.. end of lhe ccn'ury" was a Hungar· "'n, Hugo Mdnl, who would publlslt Ihe lim Enropean JOumal of com· ""rail>" IneralUre, Actil C~m'J1'II'IJ'ron15 LJllerarum Um_J'um (1sn188Sl,
~ Fae"d ..."h such KlClot"Sloncal circumSlallCCll, comparan"ism would
~ a,ve '0 d..tern"ne a Iypology of IndiVidual re5ponses. Here I can gJ .... onllew uampln. Wltcn on.. cullure no, only dom'na'.... but hum,h'lltS and
www.dztsg.net/doc
270
I.iler~'Y
The Basic Issues
annuls another. those who dmlllcnaciously fO their own language tn. e _ ~tL regarded as ueepuonaJ nllures. One such uample from latin Amcfk UO/ Wallparrimachi (1793-1814). H,s hfe wu SO brief, and yet his J'OC'ms .~" ten only in Qu~hua, surVive imcrmmgled ,,'nh folklore." A some"'h;,'~· '''ila. case Ii that of a soillary ~Iric writer, Jean-Pierre (a!lath'h (]888 1917), a Breton poe! born on the 1!i13m! of Groux, author of II geno~" ,~ "dell/m. 1921), wh,ch mcludes a ,-crsc thu ~rs: It ;IpproacM1i wIth hasle, rho IUT day of our pcnshable flesh, the oil,
0(
the Lait JudgrMnl. The day of tho death of the naoo", ... Our bards song ~lhe Otho, 8nn3ny,- oollht-y know '~ry ....dl ma, ngh Wn Brabandt (15801 :tnd Cort Btgr'IP l\On dt XII 8«cJtnl Olymp,,,dos (1579), wilh ,he Dutch , .... 'lions and Ihe French lex", rlJu ,p DUlch-$mce he apparenrly transl.:ucd h,mse:lf~a tut of a superior qu~br, resulted. This was nor JUSt because: Dutch was hIS molhet rongue (he ... J> J n3tivc: of Amslerd~m). but because: he was obliged 10 forg~ a new potrfll m . I .~o does 1'101 lranSlate his own work from o~e lan!:uage 10 anOlher, bu' " dlfferem krnds of compoSlClons rn drffe,clll languages. In such ca:>c, "nIts . d . ~ h not ,urpnsmg Ih~l a hrSlOTlCl!1 dhalag~ n'3y Ix- nOle ,rn3smu~" as { e IIJUlis I I· h hor In one of lh~ languages ~longs 10 a lempon e"o unon I .a, IS nol '~c wnh Ihe evolunon of (he olh« ]':lngua!:~. Mlhon wnnn!: In hah3~ I~ I)poet of lhe end of Ihe sIxrtn words ",ro his "'''::UTe'' para dOl mutTfos (1983), Ccla's p~. u '
ha,..,
u
27J
~c:l.ble in liS Aa"or. undergoes no signific:am m()(lllicallon, and hlS b,llO~a"sm ~ nor go bqond :I. superfiCIal :>nd picturesque !eYe1, like The of Gallaa elaborated by rhe ncr,d. flll3-l1y, rhe mosr profound problem IS ~Ihaps rcpn:sattw by the lalmr ,w!llhngualism of a .....nler ""110 unIfies his own dln-nny, or obliges hlmsdf be a more or Icss osmonc utllhngual ",·mer, or fOfobly Slmphfio:s himself, : lfansomds hlsonglnal bilingualism, or keeps ,:tIcillatlng betwcc-n t.....o languagts all h,s hfe, (I »y pu/"'ps because: of rhe complexIty of Ihe probkm lhaT I mmnon here so briefly.) This Type of SlNanon cm lead 10 a ked dc,r« of lechnic,llily or affccrallon, an cxcess"'e correCtness of ro' . speech ' menrioncd by E, M. Cioran (~The disa.d'·311Iage of usmg a borrowed [~ngU:l.ge IS not having The righT 10 malr:c 100 lIIany ~Islakes~},,, lhe fr3n· cophllte pmes of Algernon SWInburne nd Oscar W,lde, or lhe more urelOII'e pages of Nabokov's laler wntlngs. BUI 1 Th",k also of The suffenng of han Gol1, a ptfC'Tlnially uprooted man as .....e rcca.lIed nrhcr, c person open to .l~r"y a-nd rhe supposed lsolanon of a Single Il four thousand at the prescm time), aftermalh ot the 'mythical misforrune of Ihe To"·e.. 01 Babel. Benjanlln thought that the grcal c1~SS1C21 tcxlS-above all the sacrro wrillngs--eomam the'r "irtual tr~ns lations ",thm their 0'"'11 words. Th~t is to uy, ro tr;1nsb.te IS 10 del.'e Into lbe app;trml dlsp.2nty of bngu;tges un..1 rhc umque and unl\"US;11 bnlt. . . of truth IS found. This ....~rch for deep Strurnlrcs is rcpcnrom \';11'} 109 .. a in Gollfn«! Wilhdm u.bmz.. Joh~nn Gfflrg Ham~nn, Wilhelm \011 Hum~Idl, :and NNm.O>omsky. But St~ne,'s pflnctpal inchnallon,likc my 0"'11, IS lhe undcrslandlllg and srudy of IneTalUre. The srudy of trdoslallon, ",hid! appears 10 be specialtl ., ;~ft' the ~{~~ "erslOn' the adaplallon; lhe recreanon, rhe a".. al~', , f h .'ff " anon • (in Raben Lowell's 5"n5")' md SO on. Each 0 I e Ul "'.... t "lo>ll , d • nrcs~ rdI«1S a b".. d,ff~rrnce '" funaron; uch;s Sood or bad ae form snned 10 lhe expcnmco he ","\Shes 10 exprcss.~ "< Thai's Slmtlar 10 ,,-har Haskell Block POintS OUI reprdlng fbudela ... and Glde. Poe dId IlO!. ·lIInuencc~ BaudelaIre because al boflom, accord,ng to Block, the IWO ..·.re "cry SImIlar, MOo you know "'hy I h,,"e translaled Poe w"h so muc.h Pallenc.? Il.ec1IuSl' ht r.semhled m.,~ ", ThaI IS. Poe confirmed h,m In hIS lnner nature, helped Baudelaire 10 be mOre Balldelalre. , NOl SQ 111 U1hn eras and other places. When thSCllss,"g nmlllhnguahsm ~ f~, pag.s back, 1 lllcnllOlltd J3n van dn NoOl. pol}'glot like ,"allY of rhe &real ",ruers of the Nelhnldnds Gold.n Age: Jacob Calli, P. C. Hoof!, JOOSI '-an den \'ondd, Conuanujn Hu)·gells. In Hooft".! mulnlingual cird. IransI"II"& ....U a nalnral and frequent occup;;lIlon."· Nobody mol"C polybcrred tb... n Huygcns 1596_1687): !>ta'esman. dlplomac ngln.,olumc collecnon of hIS poetry ,hal I ha"e loCCn (LH ~hlnr, 1892-18981 lI1dudes.. ,n ~d,,1OIl ro a ,oIumH.ous produC1Ion '" Dulch, a COf'I.Iolderablc number of plO«ll ,n !.ann and french. Some art
www.dztsg.netldoc
!8J
gal1'105. occaSlon.:o) '"ervs, fPlgrams, bnd ~nd rapId composillOf1$ S chun), and Ir3n5Iatlon~; for example, an "'p',ram of ~n Jonson ,,~ ~ h' ,oron ,-drarc ~ sonnets translated InfO DUICh and French. There is a poe ~ 1627 tidrd "A ck, Yeuxs. Dc I'cspagnol.~ J have b«n able to lden~~'" angmal: some lOOfIymous ~Ralonddlu~ u,:;tt 3pp"m1m tM Pn~!b, flor de los mqons TOn13"CL$, roIl=«I by PWro Ana~ Pirn In 1621 ",4
"'g about rhe success of rhu; anthology, winch had st">"Cf1 (unher ~ III b"forc 1627,}0S. once lie has c1e~mf me hurdl~ of Ih~ lint SUIWI by muns of '"3nou~ com I1lQnpbce expresslOl1S, Inrroduces effrttiye rhymes wnh .llssun.nce rhvmW'h~, mno'"3I;on., dlSco"enes ("a laIc of mod.-mily '" Ihe making"), I said then thaI III order to study the httrary system of a gi,'en ltlom~nl, 0"" mUSt also take illlo considerallon earher wriltrs whose works are leissued and r.-ad once agaIn, dramallslli whose works a... p,1I pre· 'eJltcd, dassica.l works that still hft and lhost that do ......, forgotten "'orks thai som.. IT)' 10 rnrue: "'rtlen. ~rcs. lunsbnons. Tbt ,nl.-grarioon of all
=::
"""
"//www.dztsg.netldoc
284
Th~
8as;c
LI/uory Rela/lOm
Issu~s
thest C'km~ms 'S whal makn up a h'slorical syst~m. ,. Curl'('nt! lde>'~,JoK l.:l.mbC'n, and Olkr in'"t'$r'galors from 8dgmm and.~' mands go qune a Ion furrbC'r: .hq all' am:mpl1ng 10 ,ncorpor::lre a wgC' of rranslanons Inro a r, (0.1brid G;trcia M:irqua. The ,magln;tnve po,,-cr of these rhr« "'ritnli ...."'" be oyerlookw_and In faa, rnc.r worlcs lind a rudy audiencr: in" tllnc ,,' 'mpoYell~hed Imagln;1tion. Ir is cunous lhal rraductology ~hows, or Olher con6rms, lhat languag~ is nor t'Yr'}'fhmg In 3 work of luera'}' 3rt.'>1 At the S3me lime, It goes withour s3ying rha( we musr kecp m mmd (he differen.:'" bl'lwecn genres and ch3nnds nf COmmUnic:llion as well a~ Ihe d,ffere n.... berwecn th~ use verse or prose. In the nov~l, Ihe -discourse of Ihing" .. fundam~ntal_aeuons.characters, fiCt;1l0Ui worlds-or rath~r the dit'gr'" of the narralologisrs, Am"dis de Goula, AriOSIO, Cervantes, Byron_ ()ch ~ Unci nun aufhel>t setner> schWC'UO Harnn>er Unci die Srunde schligr....
One can POint OUt the IOple ,nmal alhteranoo of the consonant I (-Tudes: -TOnI; ~Iraung~l and lhe trIple final alhtenllon of th~ J; and .he InleTlor '''Onan~ of rh~ Ihlrd hne (-aufhebt.~ ~5Chw"rcn") that echoes Ihe vowel of Ih~ rhyme (~bewelo\t'- ~schldgf~). 8U1 Ih,s kind of analysis yields scam '~suhs. Stnce Ihese four hnes make up an indivisible phonic langlc. And "'h 31 Ihe ~ar perceives abo"e all in the tWQ firsl lones-since the l"sl twO in effect eoncentrare On Ihe vowels " Or a,-Is like a slow unfurling of Ihe vOlo.'d nchl>C$$ of lhe German language, held and made more ,"lenSor by the
186
IA... rary RelatiotlS
gravity of the rone and rhe aCantuahon of the hne m'u the spa" of all~ 5tr slav-os;
lie
m.....,... dons
t10l
And 11$0 pcrlIaps 1101 tho: mgall(lUS dlSCO\ny of a h:lrf·real §Iwarion:
... "'" Ms6 flllr.. nu.s los 0j0S, bes6 ftl (llos 1"'10 J(m only !'C'I 0.. n 'ma~.
Ancxha vislOcabula!)· for lllrral}' hlSIOf)'.josrph T. ShIpley's DiulOn",ry of World IJln. "'ture (1943, 195J), om of lhr brst. mdudes lhr IWnli pfflod and It,w,roo.,. mr I3n.. r ha'-Ing b«n m frcqulichekl and hIS p~rs had viC"o-cd the Rm~lssance as the cbYI"ll of the cmrun , t Enhghtmmem and of rhe belief In progreu. placing It10Sl strn5 on the hIStoneal dy.um,,:s and the mrerrelation bct..·een ddfermt phases or era, Burdthardt lsolared the sp«l~1 arnbi~nce of rhe h..!i;m cines and treated n :lS an ~lmo5'l ~uronomou, culrural ideal. In conrf';15l ro model A, model B suesses continuity, underlines lhe n.,.. of lime, rh~ coman bcn..·een before and aneT; and within e~ch ~riod. "ell blended in its md,YldualllY or auronomy, the dlv~r$lly of ils compon~nls' made mani!cst. This IICCOnd model cmphasiZCSlht pluralilY of "~lues_and of sryles, com'cnrions, rhemcs, formS-lhal come fronl rh~ study of wll· frOnlallOIl5 and disagr~tm~ms common to lades and ,elb.lcks, such ~(; Ihe fallurrs of rhe Ioberal upnslngs 0 VlC'wed from such an ~ngle lhe notion of (urrent (or ....halC'·cr analogou' lerm one might WIsh to use, thaI l§, somrthing markedly Khorrwntal and duchronic) turns out to be ,"dispensable. The Idea is perfectly comp~"ble .,lb the dialogic and plurahsric model of penod. Mon:' than that. penod ~us Itsdf as superpOSll>()TI or S1nKtul"Cd Interrdanon--or radlC'r. as sT51cm--of furnbmenr~l and COllSllIuem CUrlOCTlIS. some of ",hlch ~re de· ~ from the earher penod, ",hik others keep f1o....mg and C"·olvlOII 10."rd the fu,un:'. This desrnbes the consensus I Kfened '0 ~ re... pagfi back tQ regard to the Hl5/Olre €om~ru dn IlIIn'OJl"re5 t7I k...guu t"rop«1!"n, ..itich Includes .olumC'S dC'\oted 10 .. rornplC1e Irmporal space l$UdI ~s Lt 1000rn<Jnt du Slide del Lum,ffls. /76(J-/8!O, Wiled by G. M. Valda for genres In ,ocrse, ~lId by Jacques VOiSlllC fOI prose) and other works 001'1«11' rraling on current, (like The SymbolISt Mmvnenl In the L,ler<Jt"rt of EuroPt"" LJlIIJI"l1gel, edited by Anna llalaLaan). Other contemporary movcmcnts arc also lOclud~d, for InSlance N"II""li.me. 10 wh,ch Yves Che"re\ devoted some "olumes in lhe lhe same strocs. Uses and meamnss (If relaled term~, slIch ~§ gener"tio". are classified from a §imllar point of view." The mConnnultia cannol be reduced 10 curva, gro....t ..; ~ tkoy. or otMr ide:l.S laken from mec!lanlC~J or bIological models. ~l ume, Kubler wrnes. COllSlSU of untnterrupled KqucnctS; hlstorQ1-euJlUr:l.1 time, of aenons that :l.rr Inlermlne," ralher lban contlnuouli; be!""«f1 these he mten·:l.ls Ihat a~ highly unable m eXlenSlOf1 and oon" F om thIS Clrcumslance comes the need for oonSlanf rce,alual1on of trnl. r .rob Ihe 10>t ~nd undereslimated paSI: Ne,,'~1 at~d L~utr~amont rrlnterprct Y the ~urrealtSf$; John Donne and the Enghsh metaphysICal poets by T. S. EI . GOngora by Dam:lSO Alonso :l.nd h,s pon fnends. Recuperal10ns are ~~enstic of all Or nearly all ens. ~~:l.chlllg mlo Ihe past,~ '~.Wdlek'S words. is a fundamental coordlllate of the hIstory of lnerarure.· And tn order 10 encompass il5 nch~ and peeuh:l.n1Y, not onl)' Iii a plurahsue concrption of penod or era necessary, but :l.lsa a di"cnlfied and complex ,'lllon of temporality. subdIvided and multiplted mlO currentS, rhythms, and .-d
¥
d,fferent durations." These fleXIble and muillple conceptlOf\li of periodizatlon allow hililOrtans 10 Include or C\"et"I ro briftllo the fOf"e one or another imponant ~rrrnt that 1S, whalti/er caIChes the lnlerest of hlStorlanS-Wll!iou1 !u.vIIlg to ~ cIuce an enure tntlpol:l.l space ro Ihat partKUlar CUtrcnl. In th:l.l "'''y. schemes propounded by cnuasm rcprdmg rcnns liuch as the Baroque,Rt)'"~nt";$m, or symbolism are no 10l1grr tOfaltzmg or rxc1udlng. The VIOSSIlUdtS of Ihc criticism of lhe Baroque oonlirm IWO things: one, thaI the h,slory of European Itleralura ;s much more intricale Ihan thr path of the plastic ans, ",·htch In gcn«alls suc«w'~ and umlt ...al (and w~Q!;C sy5frm of periodiz.mon literary clllics try to follow, abo"e aU s",ce Wolfflm); and n..o. that such complex,ty entails speaa.1 difficul\l('S when 0Ill' eumlna tM cenluries bcfv,'«n the twiltght of lhe Middle Ages aoo the Irtumph of the Enltghlenmem. So we can obscn'e lhe mrro
www.dztsg.netldoc
'"
prO«l;§.~" Wel1ek'~ OWn ~ur"ey of Romanticism is abo"r all a t non of 1M crJtlCOo~ CC'I11Ur>es an ennll' gamut of pocbQI movements have shared certain PS)'ellie. social, .nd idroIogIcal conJitiOlD (such as Anl1p.ruaflSlffO, N,hllism, Agolllsm, Furunsm. Decadence. Ahm· anon, Expc:rilllCl1tahsm, Saennlicism. Humonsm, metaph}"SlC of the: I\ICU' phor, mystic of punty). always prov,,:led ..-e COIUlder them as mo"lry no! wllh .he Fnher but ..,Ih the BfQ~" thaI is, conrcmpol'f~)_,'olunla~' «. all of the p:lSl-or ~nsrfll':l!ion. ~rcju'-n\aI1Ofl~-,nl....r to rtnc saP>( one ....·00 y,e1ds 10 Ihe urge 10 forger? No, Uhlig argues shre....·dly, modcrnl~ IS precIsely lhe consciousness, poslll\'e Or neg:llIve, of hiStoricity. What appcats debatable to me IS the idea-nOi 100 br from Bloom and from Waller
_I:
Bale In Tbt Burden of ,he Pas' "nd 'M f.1lgl••b Iwt (19""'O)_that :':oncuy of a III....ary lUI. I~ dcnslly of allUSlOlls and b~n proceedlhe' from rhe paSI. kC'CpS 'tKtCa~lOg ..·"h UK paSSln& of cmlUncs. Among ," < for examp. "",sora dOl'S l\Ol ",dude f....,cr rem",'SttnUS ,p3nI Sh ........ ,_... • - rcju,,,,,,,all()n~ Ihan lorca. (Jr Uhlig's r~A~'Ction leads to an IOlerprelJI;On of th~ h;slorl~lty of pacnc -f Ihe hislory '" lhe pacrry-Olore Ihan 10 '" study of h'SlOnogtaph,c lC~1$ h ructUrcs.. BUI il is al>o ~ry 10 «ad lhe h,~torics oflllcr:uurr. w OS/! ~ttli nalTanVll: ~ha ...ct 11 's now ume 10 conStdcr. As ,s well knov..n, ...hen we sa)' hmor)' we h e 10 denott no"o IhlOg:s, as lhough Ihq w...-e ptonog.t'3ph)'. knowledge abom Ihe past ..,thool whICh Ihal pamcular lime and spa« would d,sappcar from OUI ~s. Such a body of knov"lcdge 15 orpn'lcd like a ~Iory. HIStory is a narration of a 1I.·..d e:":I.l1on as follo.....s: -W.. a.... to Ihlnk of evmts as haVing a 'mtamng' wilh rtferffKt to sortlO' larger lrmpv ral srruetur.. of which rh..,. ar.. romponents.~" In dftet, Ihis IS an csseOlial dll1ll'ns'on, s,ne qua non, of Ih.. lask of the hislurian, There is no s'mg rhe past.' In pomt of fact, Ihe p>llre we reflect on Ihe pasl and prnelralr to lIS depths, the mO~ we uncover I)lt sum of the world's hopes. nellher reahled nor yet wholly reallled: In :Jto11. lhat sense of fmumy which h;tS :lI""ays bent Ihe Iqpllmafe cootent 01 proph«y.M" Machado was medlt~ung on wh3llhe p,m ClImed wlthm I~f, or rather on the P~St ~s such, m Jllo Umpo.~, ~nd as ClIrneT of «rt~m "rtU~lilles or some propects: of an aa:umul~lIon of hopes that ClIme to ~n the future. The future of Ihe actor of h,~ol'} II ~n accumulanon of IooPe5 not realiled-how "·ere fhey 10 be ruhzed at ~Il? How CO\IId they be reahled ",thoul ce:as,t!& to be a futu~. (K ",thout C'OlOCldtng With the )wtOOan's future?-but ~Iso. and hen:: 's the deasl,·e ,"runlOn. not failed t1lher. In the first place. hopes ClInnot fall romplndy, ClInnot lead to a tl)Ully nep!l~ bal:lI>Cle. And 1TIOf'C'O\"CT, "'h~1 may look lih .. failure 10 us ..,11 haw hdped propuggcst~ 10 us and predlcfs Ihe onlological mopi:UlI>m of Ernsl Bloch, lor whom man is rhe rcslless bemg pa, excellence, carrying wllhm hllnself Iht drl"e (Trreb) desirous 0/ fUlure Iml'royemeOlS, Ihe incomplerc bell'g whost consciousness of a lack. of hay· Ing a h;lIory Ihar is ~Iso mromplele, makes hope ~nd utopia Ihe prmelpll consmucnrs of our eX;Sltn«," H'SlOrJi-as--lt-happentd mUSt fuse ""nh hlSlOf)··m-the-mak,ng. Our knowledge of Ihe former should nOf mhlbll OUr ~bihr)" rO comprehend hiS' lory m fi~TI :l.S volitional aClI'·Il)', leRSlQn. m,·cnllOn. fr«dom, frustrallon, btlure. illS not enough to requ,re lhal a h'llonal f13rTan"e be lrue. If bv ~ "'~ mean only n~rrall'"n fauhful ro .. hat ,n fact occurred. In OrM to raprurc the comexl ~OO qUlhlY of a pa~ expenena:, 1l is ncce:ssal'} 10 be llptn 10 the compkxmn of crnam proo;nsrs lhat encompass "lneUes of OptIOnS, accumulaoons of hopes, aoo doe ml~raCli0n5 ~'een lhem. as ",..II OS SOCIal aoo matenal cond,uolUngs-"-ho5e rnults Ind OUlcomes might lta w been d'ffne..t. "The dilloguc bmo'ttll h;II01)' from the penpec!"'" of the prt$C'nt aoo htslory from the pc'f'SllC'=cd fhe open di"lSrons of SOCIety of tM I'!'tnous untury--Thc popular rradll1onalism, much dcrpn- than lhal of the thcoretic::rl ddcndtr$ of Calderon In the cighr«nth cmrury and the libCr.;\lrsm of the spolrnmcn of ,he Cernral Juma and the Oml'S (Parba(ll('f1t) of Cidll. mlKh more agsrnsi>'C' and radial lluio rhal of 1M mlnlsrC1'S of Iht cnJlghlened dcsponsm of Carlos Ill:" All of ....hich dearly ~pplics 10 rhc hIstory of lrr~ralu"" In Ellrope the RomantIC period had already beguo. On.: e ag:un InOlU:ncn from abroad aused Spa",ard~ to rcdlsco'..er lhar O\I'n pa>l. "We sa .... 11 already in rM $C1'C'fU«nrh century. h is r~aled In Il.omanricism:" BUI ultlmal~ly Romanl1ClSm In Sp30ln gi"cs wa)", rt«dcs. ~ ftu srf3r ed, ExUpl for Mariano jost Lana and Josr! de E.sprnccd:r, Ih~ Ulure thaI ",as ghmpsed carher dId nor COrm: 10 pa... Whu happened to ()I"
Ilwww.dztsg.neUdoc
JOS
Hisrori",1 Configura/lOllS
Th.. Ba~ic 15$110
{M ~ of th.. franroph,lt$, 1M Iibnding of the pl)5lUon of a "marglnallit~ralUre· or one Ihal f.lIs mlo an ~Inrer' Il>ed'are lOne," as III Ihe ca..., of Belg.. n lilCrature. The exprcs...,d desIre '0
www.dztsg.net/doc
~
The Basic
lIis/or;c,,1 Con!igurll/ion5
l~ucs
creale a distinct Belgian )neramre is commonplace In lhe nationalistic q-. 'Clsm of .Ihe nlneteemh century. BUI what really hap!",ned was Ihat aUtl'tq wnung m French and th~ wnllng m Flemish malnlained a passi~e 3Ild edealC amrude roward the p~valilng Ilierary mo~ement5 m France and ~ Low Coumnes. Ar>d thiS p;lSSlvlly, thIS ~Ian\'e dependence, is charaQUOII ca~ md thcr-... The re3der. gradWlII)· dlangrd by "'hal he has read...-tud'
...,
W,.
31S
"'" comcide at all wllh his previous cultullIl d,sposilion or SCI of con'·en· riflIIS'- god 011 to d,sco,'cr a differcnl homon of rxp«tal10n5. A Wnler 15 obl,ged 10 lake Ihls cha.,gs) IhallllllOVllnon alone cannoc .lOssurt unstic nluc las the Ruman Form;ahsts I11SlSfcd). "The aeslhet>l)", whorcver ,,,,,ms suffieitnlly "impor13nt~ to us to be cut out, put in relief, and "pable later of being if nO! rommenlOrald SOCIet'es through Pn'. $n11....1()n of ... 'Olal Stoe}', dllOCcted by ... $Ingk argumen'; ,hal'S, by a~l. Ing to IhI: I"(CO\I"" of un,ty :as 1M soIuII()n ... pnon of 1M ... poria~ of !In. rnenetlU( hlUOl'J'. ThIs ~rnggk, ..''''- I"(ailly I do no! doubl, does ll(){ ~ for only ~ InI~rpretatlOn of ~ paSI, oe orx ....SI n::r.rnn.·e ronception. I" t~ COIncides w,slaua, Rumania, the Baltic repon, ~nd $0 on) .u.d of differenl Europca.n nUIOrl~hnes '1M: Flennsh and Ollal..n. among OotbersJ. But ,he di!fer
U;SIIffla, prope-lled by a pohncal or f;lJlwnd plan. TIllS pbn-and ~ rM !irst qU6ll00: ~ " a,SI or dors It no
