Storm depositional systems: dynamic stratigraphy in modern and ancient shallow-marine sequences

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Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences Edited by Gerald M. Friedman, Horst J. Neugebauer and Adolf Seilacher

3 Thomas Aigner

Storm Depositional Systems Dynamic Stratigraphy in Modern and Ancient Shallow-Marine Sequences

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo

Author Dr. T h o m a s Aigner Universit~t TiJbingen Institut und M u s e u m f0r G e o l o g i e und Pal~ontologie SigwartstraBe 10, D-7400 TiJbingen, FRG

ISBN 3-540-15231-8 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg N e w YorkTokyo ISBN 0-387-15231-8 Springer-Verlag N e w York H e i d e l b e r g Berlin Tokyo

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved,whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine or similar means,and storage in data banks. Under § 54 of the German Copyright Law where copies are made for other than private use, a fee is payableto "VerwertungsgesellschaftWort", Munich. © by Springer-VerlagBerlin Heidelberg 1985 Printed in Germany Printing and binding: Beltz Offsetdruck, Hemsbach/Bergstr. 2132/3140-543210

"Nature vibrates with rhythms, climatic and d i a s t r o p h i c , those finding s t r a t i g r a p h i c e x p r e s s i o n ranging in period from the rapid o s c i l l a t i o n of surface waters, recorded in ripple-marks, to those l o n g - d e f e r r e d stirrings of the deep i m p r i s o n e d titans which have divided earth history into periods and eras. The flight of time is m e a s u r e d by the w e a v i n g of c o m p o s i t e rhythms - day and night, calm and storm, summer and winter, birth and death - such as these are sensed, in the brief life of man ... ... the s t r a t i g r a p h i c series c o n s t i t u t e s a record, written on tablets of stone, of the lesser and greater waves of change ~hich have pulsed through geologic time" JOSEPH

BARRELL

(1917)

P R E F A C E

It was only during the last few years, that the geological effects of storms and h u r r i c a n e s in s h a l l o w - m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s have been better appreciated. Not only were storm deposits r e c o g n i z e d to dominate many shelf sequences, they also proved to be valuable tools in facies and paleogeographical analysis. Additionally, storm layers form important hydrocarbon reservoirs. S t o r m - g e n e r a t e d sequences are now reasonably mell documented in terms of their facies a s s o c i a t i o n s in the s t r a t i g r a p h i c record. Much less is known, however, about the effects and the depositional processes of modern storms, and about the styles of storm s e d i m e n t a t i o n on basinwide scales. Accordingly, the goal of this study is two-fold: 1. it presents two case studies of modern carbonate and terrigenous clastics storm sedimentatioq. The models derived from these actualistic examples can be used to interprete possible ancient analogues. 2. it presents a c o m p r e h e n s i v e analysis of tional system (Muschelkalk) on a b a s i n - w i d e

an

ancient scale.

storm

deposi-

The underlying approach of this study is a p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d analysis of sedimentary sequences, an approach that ~as s u m m a r i z e d by Matthews (1974, 1984) as "dynamic stratigraphy". The i n t e g r a t i o n of actualistic models with a "dynamic" stratigraphic analysis helps to understand the dynamics of storm d e p o s i t i o n a l systems; these models have a potential to be applied to other basins and to predict the facies o r g a n i s a t i o n and the facies evolution in such systems.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S First and foremost I would like to sincerely t h a n k Prof. Dr. A. S e i l a c h e r . Over the y e a r s off my s t u d i e s in TQbingen he acted as an adviser in an a l w a y s p l e a s a n t and f r u i t f u l a t m o s p h e r e , e a s a c o n s t a n t s o u r c e of g u i d a n c e and e n c o u r a g e m e n t , and h e l p e d me s h a r p e n i n g my own ideas. To come up with a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n is n e v e r a l o n e a p r o d u c t of o n e s e l f . There are a l w a y s many p e o p l e and i n c i d e n t s a l o n g the way that have helped oneway or the other. I s h o u l d s t a r t t h a n k i n g my p a r e n t s who h a v e a l w a y s g e n e r o u s l y s u p p o r t e d my p a s s i o n for r o c k s and fossils. Then there ~ere s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , n o t a b l y H. F i s c h e r and H. Huber, who d i r e c t e d my a t t e n t i o n from c o l l e c t i n g s t o n e s to the geosciences. H. Hagdorn has always been a stimulating and invaluable Muschelkalk compagnion. Contacts with geological friends, fellow students, faculty and scholars from a b r o a d have had an i m m e n s e i m p a c t on me, as h a v e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to t r a v e l . One year of s t u d i e s in s e d i m e n t o l o g y with Dr. Ro Goldring and Prof. J.R.L. A l i e n at the U n i v e r s i t y of R e a d i n g / E n g l a n d has been a key e x p e r i e n c e . S i n c e I left R e a d i n g , Roland continued to try teaching me how to w r i t e in E n g l i s h in r e v i e w i n g m a n y p a p e r s and m a n u s c r i p t s , lhe o p p o r t u n i t y to do a Diplom-Thesis in Egypt, also supervised by Prof. Seilacher, and s u c c e s s i v e l y to join the S p h i n x P r o j e c t of the A m e r i c a n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r in E g y p t were scientific and personal experiences I do not w a n t to miss. D u r i n g s e v e r a l s t a y s at the S e n e k e n b e r g - I n s t i t u t e in W i l h e l m s h a v e n , Prof. Dr. H.-E. Reineck has most g e n e r o u s l y t a u g h t me p r i n c i p l e s of m a r i n e g e o l o g y and s u p e r v i s e d the N o r t h Sea work i n c l u d e d in this dissertation. Two expeditions with Prof. Dr. J. W e n d t into the M o r o c c a n S a h a r a w e r e s o m e t i m e s hot and dry, but they w e r e a l w a y s most e d u c a t i n g - and fun. I had the fine o p p o r t u n i t y to s t u d y m o d e r n carbonate environments of South Florida during a 9-month's stay at the U n i v e r s i t y of M i a m i , w h e r e Dr. H.R. W a n l e s s a c t e d as a m o s t g e n e r o u s and s t i m u l a t i n g supervisor ~ho had always time for me. M a n y f r i e n d s in M i a m i h e l p e d me b a t t l i n g a g a i n s t the h a z a r d s of marine work such as weather, boat problems, c o r i n g etc. N o t a b l y I want to t h a n k V. R o s s i n s k i , J. M e e d e r , P. H a r l e m , M. A l m a s i , R. P a r k i n s o n , F. B e d d o u r , and A. Droxler. Dr. R.N. Ginsburg kindly allowed me to use f a c i l i t i e s at F i s h e r I s l a n d S t a t i o n . The Rosenstiel School and the Senckenberg-Institute also provided technical assistance. Among the many c o l l e a g u e s that d i s c u s s e d p r o b l e m s with me or g u i d e d me t h r o u g h t h e i r f i e l d a r e a s , I w a n t to p a r t i c u l a r l y thank Dr. R. Bambach, Dr. J. B o u r g e o i s , Dr. P. D u r i n g e r , Dr. F. F G r s i c h , Dr. R. G o l d ring, H. H a g d o r n , A. Hary, Dr. S. K i d w e l l , Dr. R. M u n d l o s , and Dr. A. Wetzel. Dr. R. Hatfield m a d e some r a d i o c a r b o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n s , Prof. Dr. H. F r i e d r i c h s e n some isotope analysis, Prof. Dr. C. Hemleben provided a c c e s s to a w o r d p r o c e s s o r , H. H Q t t e m a n n h e l p e d with the SEM. P a r t i c u l a r l y I t h a n k W. Pies who h e l p e d much with rock cutting and thin sections and W. Wetzel who made m u c h of the p h o t o g r a p h s and r e p r o d u c t i o n s . F i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeins c h a f t (SFB 53) is also g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d . Prof. Dr. A. S e i l a c h e r , Dr. R. G o l d r i n g , Prof. Dr. G. E i n s e l e , Prof. Dr. H.-E. R e i n e c k and Prof. Dr. J. W e n d t l o o k e d through the original version of the manuscript, H. Hagdorn checked p a r t s on c r i n o i d a l limestone. Dr. W. Engel and the Springer-Verlag is thanked for publishing my thesis as it s t a n d s in the L E C T U R E N O T E S s e r i e s . I am most g r a t e f u l to all t h o s e who made t h i s w o r k p o s s i b l e .

SUMMARY

This study comprises (1) two case h i s t o r i e s of storm sedimentation in modern shallow-marine environments, and (2) a c o m p r e h e n s i v e analysis of an ancient storm d e p o s i t i o n a l system on a basin-~ide scale. These examples are understood as a c o n t r i b u t i o n to "dynamic stratigraphy", the p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d analysis of s e d i m e n t a r y sequences, and are believed to be applicable to other s h a l l o w - m a r i n e basins. Basic physical processes during storm s e d i m e n t a t i o n to a general model of Allen (]982, 1984), three main

involve, a c c o r d i n g categories:

a) barometric effects due to gradients in a t m o s p h e r i c pressure to raised water levels at the shore (coastal water set-up).

leading

b) wind effects cause (1) onshore wind drift currents in n e a r s h o r e surface water, which are compensated by (2) offshore oriented bottom return flows (gradient currents). c) ~ave effects u n i d i r e c t i o n a l flows

set up oscillatory bottom lead to combined storm flows.

flows;

superimposed

Sedimentary responses to storm processes in modern shallow-marine environments of South Florida and the North Sea support this general model. Storm effects in shallo~, nearshore water are dominated by onshore directed wind drift currents. These cause the formation of onshore sediment lobes in nearshore skeletal banks of South Florida. Successive hurricane-generated "spillover lobes" c o n t r i b u t e as depositional increments to episodic and relatively rapid accretion and buildup of non-reef skeletal banks that coarsen and are i n c r e a s i n g l y winnowed upwards. Similar episodic buildup can be inferred for nearshore b i o c l a s t i c b~nks in the fossil record. Responses to storm processes in offshore shelf areas such as the German Bay (North Sea) involve seaward transport of sands and shells from coastal sand sources by offshore flowing bottom currents (gradient currents) and their deposition as offshore storm sheets (tempestites). Q u a l i t a t i v e l y and q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , such tempestites show systematic changes in their sedimentological and paleoeeological characteristics from nearshore to offshore. These p_roximalJty trends reflect the decreasing effect of storms away from the coastal sand source and ~ith i n c r e a s i n g water depth.

A large variety of storm responses, involving patterns found in actualistie analogues, are revealed by a basin-wide analysis of the Upper Muschelkalk (M. Triassic, SW-Germany), an i n t r a c r a t o n i c ancient storm d e p o s i t i o n a l system. In this setting, dynamic p r o c e s s e s are reconstructed based on a hierarchical three-level stratigraphic analysis: i. At the lowest level, individual strata record episodic storm events operating on a gently inclined carbonate ramp system. Paleocurrents suggest alongshore winds and storm tracks from the Tethys to the NE into the German Basin. Similar to a c t u a l i s t i c models (Swift et al., 1983), these are likely to have induced c o m b i n e d oscillatory/unidirectional geostrophic bottom currents in offshore areas (distal tempestites). At the same time, longshore wind stress will drive surface water landward (Coriolis effect), causing landward sediment t r a n s p o r t and a c c u m u l a t i o n of nearshore skeletal banks, in a fashion similar to modern examples from South Florida. Coastal ~ater set-up is compensated by offshore directed bottom return flows, much like

Vl

gradient currents in the present-day surge channels, through which sediment deposited as proximal tempestites.

North Sea. These b a c k f l o w s erode is funneled offshore to become

2. At an i n t e r m e d i a t e level, storm beds in the Upper M u s c h e l k a l k tend to be arranged cyclically into i-7 m thick coarseningand thickening-upwards facies sequences, that record an upward transition from distal to proximal tempestites, i.e. progressive shallowing. Different types of asymmetrical coarsening-upward cycles also show systematic changes in the m o l l u s c a n and trace fossil a s s o c i a t i o n s that reflect a change in s u b s t r a t e conditions. W i d e s p r e a d changes from soft into firm and shelly subatrates allowed in several instances for virtually instantaneous and g e o g r a p h i c a l l y w i d e s p r e a d c o l o n i s a t i o n of cycle tops by specific b r a c h i o p o d s and crinoids. The massive, often amalgamated, condensed and " e c o l o g i c a l l y f i n g e r p r i n t e d " tops of such cycles (e.g. Spiriferina-Bank, Holocrinus-Bank, see Hagdorn, 1985) serve as principal marker beds. Similarly, prominent marlstone horizons have long been used in lithostratigraphie correlation ("Tonhorizont alpha, beta etc."). Genetically, the marlstone horizons represent the transgressive bases, while massive units are the r e g r e s s i v e tops of minor t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e cycles. 3. At a still higher level, vertically stacked c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d cycles c o n s t i t u t e a still larger overall cycle forming the entire Upper Muschelkalk. This overall t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e cycle is comparable in thickness and duration to the " t h i r d - o r d e r cycles" of Vail et al. (1977) and c o r r e s p o n d s to a large-scale late A n i s i a n / L a d i n i a n t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e cycle (Brandner, 1984), which is likely to be eustatically controlled. On the other hand, the d i s t r i b u t i o n of minor cycles and the general o r g a n ~ s a t i o n of the S o u t h - G e r m a n Basin corresponds well to the u n d e r l i n g Variscan structural zones. The "marginal ~' facies zones c o r r e s p o n d to the M o l d a n u b i k u m in the SE and the Rhenoherzynikum in the NI~, while the more rapidly subsiding "central" facies zone is situated ontop of the Saxothuringikum. Within the Moldanubian structural zone, minor cycles can be easily correlated over severa] ten's of km, but cycle patterns change in character in the adjacent s t r u c t u r a l zones and are often difficult to correlate. It thus appears that the S o u t h - G e r m a n i n t r a c r a t o n i c basin expresses the sutures of a former continental collision and that basin dynamics is controlled by an interplay of eustatic as well as structural movements. In conclusion, an integration of a e t u a l i s t i c models with a "dynamic '' stratigraphie analysis allows a better understanding of storm processes and their depoaitional products and provides a base to predict facies patterns over a range of shallow-water environments. Moreover, '~dynamic stratigraphy" as outlined here is a tool to reconstruct proeesse~ in shallow-marine basins, moving from the smallest (individual strata) to larger levels (whole basin sequence).

C O N T E N T S page Preface .......................................................... Acknowledgements ................................................. Summary .......................................................... I.

MODERN

STORM

1.

General

2.

Storm banks, 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5.

2.6.

2.7. 2.8. 2.9. 3.

DEPOSITIONAL

processes

of

SYSTEMS: storm

111 IV V

ACTUALISTIC

sedimentation

MODELS .........

3

...................

sedimentation in nearshore skeletal South Florida ....................................... Introduction .......................................... Methods ............................................... Study area and previous work .......................... Geomorphology of Safety Valve banks ................... Sedimentary facies and bank stratigraphy .............. 2.5.1. Coralgal packto grainstone ................... 2.5.2. Halimeda packstone ............................. 2.5.3. Pellet~rich Halimeda-mollusc wackestone ........ 2.5.4. M o l l u s c wacke- to packstone with lithoclasts... 2,5.5, Quartz sand .................................... Evidence for storm sedimentation ...................... 2.6.1. Geomorphological evidence ...................... 2.6.2. Stratigraphic evidence ......................... 2.6.3. Biostratinomic evidence ........................

13 15 15 17 21

D y n a m i c s t r a t i g r a p h y and h i s t o r y of S a f e t y V a l v e b a n k s S t o r m e f f e c t s in S a n d y Key ( F l o r i d a Bay) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S u m m a r y and c o n c l u s i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23 24 28

S t o r m s e d i m e n t a t i o n in o f f s h o r e s h e l f areas, G e r m a n Bay (North Sea) ..... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. 3.3. 3.4.

3.5.

Methods ............................................... Study area and previous work .......................... Storm stratigraphy: descriptions ...................... 3.4.1. Supraand intertidal storm ]ayers ............. 3.4.2. Shorefaee storm layers ......................... 3.4.3. Proximal storm layers .......................... 3.4.4. Distal storm layers ............................

Proximality

trends:

results

and

3.5.3.

3.6. 5.8. 4.

II.

Final

Percentage

on

of c r o s s - l a m i n a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

actualistic

models

30 30 31 31 33 33 34 34 35

45 48

........................

Introduction .............................................. 1.1. Scope of study ....................................... 1.2, Hierarchical approach to dynamic stratigraphy 1,3. General setting and stratigraphy ..................... Previous work ........................................ 1.4. 1.5. Methods ..............................................

40 40 41 42

50

AN A N C I E N T S T O R M D E P O S I T I O N A L S Y S T E M : D Y N A M I C S T R A T I G R A P H Y OF I N T R A C R A T O N I C C A R B O N A T E S , U P P E R M U S C H E L K A L K ( M I D D L E TRIASSIC), SOUTH-GERMAN BASIN ................................ 1,

13

36 37 37

5.5.4. Storm layer thickness .......................... 3.5.5. A11ochthony in storm shell beds ................ Dynamic stratigraphy: storm processes ................. Applications .......................................... Summary and conclusions ............................... remarks

6 6 7 7 10 11 11 11 12

discussion

of statistical treatment .............................. 3.5.1. Percentage of sand ............................. 3.5.2. Frequency of storm layers ......................

3.7.

1

........

51 53 53 54 55 57 58

VIII

2.

3.

Stratification and facies types ........................... 2.1 General .............................................. 2.2 Peritidal strata ..................................... 2.3 Oncolitic wacketo p a c k s t o n e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Massive oolitic packto grainstone .................. 2.5 Massive shelly packto grainstone ................... 2.6 Massive crinoidal limestone .......................... 2.7 Skeletal channel fills .............................. 2.8 .................................. Nodular ~ackestone 2.9 Nodular lime mudstone ... ............................ 2.10. Graded sketeLal sheets .............................. 2.11. Thin-bedded limestone/marlstone alternations ........ 2.12. Conclusions: storm-dominated stratification .........

74 76 78 85 92

Facies

97

3.1.

sequences

Vertica 3.1.i. 3.1.2. 3.1.3. 3.1.4. 3.1.5. 3.1.6. 3.1.7.

Oolite grainstone cycles ...................... Skeletal bank cycles .......................... Crinoidal bank cycles .........................

100 102 102

Nodular-to-compact cycles ..................... Thickening-upward cycles ...................... Conclusions: transgressive/regressive dynamics ......................................

105 107 lll

3.3.

Paleoecological

............................... ................................ ichnofacies ..............................

120

Paleocurrents ........................................ 3.4.1. Wave ripples .................................. 3.4.2. Cross-bedding ................................. 3.4.3. Surge channels and imbrication ................

123 123 125

3.3.1.

Ramp

3.3.2.

Ramp

Basin

trends

biofacies

Gutter

Conclusions:

4.1.

casts

Distribution

Hierarchy

4.3.

General

4.4.

Conclusions:

Dynamic

of

ramp

dynamics

.................

120 121

t28 128 131

........................................

]35

of

t35

minor

Lower part Upper part Discussion

4.2.

..................................

carbonate

organisation

4.1.1. 4.1.2. 4.1.3.

what

97 97

113 113 ]17

3.5.

So

.........

69 72

Lateral sequences: carbonate ramps .................... 3.2.1. Crinoidal ramps .............................. 3.2.2. SheJly/oolitic ramps ..........................

3.4.4.

5.

1 sequences: coarsening-upward cycles Oncolitic cycles ..............................

65 66

3.2.

3.4.

4.

..........................................

61

61 62 64

cycles

context

.........................

..................................

......................................

basin

straLigraphy:

cycles

of U p p e r M u s c h e l k a l k ( m o l ) . . . . . . . . . 135 of Upper Muschelkalk (mo2/3) ....... ]38 .................................... 141

dynamics

concluding

..........................

remarks ..................

144 l&7

150

152

?

.......................................................

155

Literature

.......................................................

159

P a r t

D E R N

S T O R M

I

D E P 0 S I

A C T U A L I

S T I

C

T I

0 N A L

M O D E L S

S Y S T E M S :

GENERAL

0 F

STORM

In

shallow-marine

to

control

addition~ that

during

Thus

the

or

distinguish

being

in the

Bourgeois,

1982;

on

The

to be

basic

categories,

physical

elements

by

modern

storm

first

be b r i e f l y

Allen's

(1982,

approaching

model

effects

widely

applied 1978).

wave 1980b;

"storm

commonly

base"

a

&

distinct

cross-strati-

wave

initiated Nelson,

(e.g.

Einsele

proposed

1981;

base"

by

considerable 1982;

1972;

wave

during 1984)

Dott

shows be

&

& Reineck,

are be used

the

rather

here.

sedimentation

fundamentals

as

1983)

and

probably

a comprehensive to our

strong

twice

conditions~

not

applicable

the

Aigner

of

storm in

may

base"

therefore

are r e a d i l y

storms

spectrum

"storm

(1982,

of w a v e - r e w o r k i n g

winter

et al.,

wiI1

sedimentation,

1984)

the

of

well

1972).

two

have

been

model.

Since

case

of A l l e n ' s

studies

model

will

reviewed.

model

assumes

coastline

s p e e d and d i r e c t i o n . the

depth

during

processes

Allen

of this

the

(Komar

and

bottom

1983).

base

which

shown

Johnson,

"hummocky

and

have

Morton,

a continuous

"fair-weather"

with

In

have

sequences

"storm

first

types

concepts (e.g.

shelves, wave

see

Walker,

(1979)

inferred

1965).

et al.,

has b e e n

a review

"fair-weather"

et al.,

the s u m m e r

seems

illustrated

of

Swift

concept"

1979;

been

shelf

Komar

shallow-marine

facies

Their

the

(e.g.

and

long Irwin,

environments

affect

base"

& Walker

between

modern

as d u r i n g

artificial

for

has

1917;

base

(for

Walker,

literature

variations:

there

terms

Hamblin

currents.

to

wave

wave

storm-generated

discussion

seasonal

able

deposits

&

base"

shallow-marine

models

formed

"wave

8arrell,

fair-weather

shelf

Hamblin

1982).

fication

Thus

versus

facies

of

However,

are

"fair-weather

zonation

density

(e.g.

modern

waves

ancient

1975;

Seilacher,

sequences,

"fair-weather"

"storm and

Accordingly,

deep

in

storms,

"normal"

Wilson,

rock

studies

to m o d e r n

S E D I M E N T A T I O N

sedimentation

below

PROCESSES

For

tides

basic

categories

of

storm

sedimentation

at

the

sake

and t h e

processes (Fig.

1):

simple

laminar

a perpendicular off s i m p t i c i t y ~

Coriolis-force and e f f e c t s

flows

angle

of

and w i t h

a

complications are

can be

not

considered.

distinguished

storm

constant due

to

Three during

BAROMETRIC effect

,..~WIND ~

set-up/~7

wind drift

WAVE effect

STORM PROCESSES

f

Fig. i. The complexity of phenomena during storm events can be simplified by distinguishing three main categories of physical processes: (i) Barometric effects c a u s i n g c o a s t a l w a t e r s e t - u p ; (2) w i n d e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g in onshore directed wind drift currents in surface waters, that are compensated by o f f s h o r e d i r e c t e d g r a d i e n t c u r r e n t s in b o t t o m waters; (3) wave effects that mobilize bottom sediment and m a k e s it a v a i l a b l e for l a t e r a l t r a n s p o r t . S i m p l e case of o n s h o r e b l o w i n g storm~ i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h t i d e s and the C o r i o l i s effect not c o n s i d e r e d .

i.

Barometric

zontal at

the

shore

millibar em,

effect.

gradient

(coastal

corresponds

typical

Cyclonic

of a t m o s p h e r i c

to

cyclones

depressions pressure,

set-up).

Since

a difference

are

thus

accompanied

raising

a pressure

in s u r f a c e

raise

the w a t e r

level

the

combination

the

level

difference

of one

elevation

at the

by a h o r i water

coast

of a b o u t

one

for

1/2

about

m.

2. W i n d

a) to

The

effects

drag

of the

coastal

water

current

b)

The

drift

that

tilt

and

acts

current,

nearshore waters,

in

the

that

water

flows

(due

due

to

by

a

opposite

a water

sediment

botLom

not

further

in a n e a r s h o r e

contributes wind-drift

direction.

barometric

effect

and

near-bottom

return

flow,

drift

is an o n s h o r e

return

Lransport

sediment

processes:

only

to w i n d

body

to the w i n d - d r i f t

offshore

of two

results

(onshore)

surface

offshore

onshore

where

same

in

wind

but also

compensated

motion

a compensating

blowing

set-up,

is

combined

dominanLy

onshore

in the w a t e r

current

gradient the

involve

flow.

would current),

transport

should

windthe

(offshore).

Thus

near-surface

filow

Consequently~

be e x p e c t e d in c o n t r a s t prevail.

pre-

in s h a l l o w , to

deeper

3.

Wave

for

stirring-up

A

effects

cause

combination

of

currents

nearshore

sediments

following

would

viewed

as

a

his

concept:

A)

Storm

cause

offshore

two c h a p t e r s

support

mainly

test

on

with

modern

in n e a r s h o r e

onshore

sediment

that

are

unidirectional

deposit

(1982,

flows

responsible

sediments.

pulsating

and

of A l l e n ' s

sedimentation involves

oscillatory

bottom

wave-stirring

gradient

The

near-bed

and m o b i l i z i n g

combined them

as g r a d e d

storm 1984)

wind-induced that

transport

storm

layers.

sedimentation

model.

carbonate transport

flows,

Both

banks (due

of

could

examples

South

to o n s h o r e

be

indeed

Florida

wind

drift

currents).

B)

Storm

the

sedimentation

German

offshore

These

Bay

is d o m i n a t e d

flowing

gradient

basic

mechanisms

two

depositional second

in the

part

mechanisms alongshore

system of

this

outlined storms~

and

(M.

(2)

terrigenous

by o f f s h o r e

sediment

clastics transport

shelf (due

of

to the

current).

can

also

Triassic

study. here

offshore

In

be

recognized

Muschelkalk) that

are m o d i f i e d interaction

example, and with

in an

that

ancient

storm

is a n a l y z e d

in the

however,

somewhat

the

complicated

the C o r i o l i s

effect.

simple by

(1)

2

I N

.

S T O R M

S E D

N E A R S H 0 R E

S K E L E T A L

SOUTH

2.1.

The

effects

of

by

shore

(])

al.,

Similarly, for

the

skeletal

provide

skeletal

to

shore

this

an

actualistic

chapter

the

offshore

is

familiar

(e.g.

lobes

were

"barriers"

Much

less

is

carbonate

"sand

buildups and

in

in fans

Nummedale

sand

environments

to

is

found and

known,

et to

banks

however,

bodies"~

are

very

many

ancient

such

common

as in

shallow-

to

example

of

document

role

of

storms

as

a style

level-bottom

based

Sciences

vised

H.

Dr.

other

banks

Atmospheric by

in

on-

washover

oolite

1977).

skeletal

systems

spillover

is

in

and

by

storm

sedimentation

in

storm-generated

sequences

the

and

nearshore not

known

of

near-

settings;

skeletal

This

chapter

and

such

examine

more

such

of

caused

transport and

coastal

set-up),

sequences.

banks

with

storms

of

from

Hine,

carbonate

carbonate

object

1967;

of

oriented

(i)

(~ind

transport

198]), island

development

although

nearshore

marine

2.

effects

banks,

modern

before

(Ball,

barrier

involve

levels

sediment

Shinn,

onshore

water

sediment

Landward

(e.g.

the

environments raised

landward

with

1980).

about

(2)

currents.

associated

Bahamas

nearshore

layers

important the

in

dominantly

storm

commonly

i.

,

F L O R I D A

attack,

wind-drift

supratidal

be

storms

wave

consequently

The

B A N K S

Introduction

erosion

in

I M E N T A T I O N

on

Wanless.

of

work the

in of

development

storm

growth

sedimentation

that

contrasts

environments.

at

the

Rosenstiel

University

of

School Miami

of

where

Marine it

was

and super-

2.2.

Methods

Aerial

photographs

Bay)

covering

changes on the

partly

area

(Florida

al.,

was

surface

cores

and

15

partly

layers

X-radiographed.

skeletal

materials

Radiocarbon

2.3.

Study

shelf

Valve

to a now

refers

to the of

Numerous

in the

grass

severe

skeletal

storms

Wanless gical

south.

(1969)

features

sitional

and

The

of

belt

the

is about

dissect to From

bank

selection

of

Ginsburg also

the

et

made

contents remaining

preservation.

3 skeletal

a

Soldier Bay and

samples.

few

belt" and

belt

decameters

northern

part are

dense

also

are

i967).

a detailed

description

as well

as a

to the

Holocene

Indivi-

wider

hundred than

time.

of the

rise

the Sea-

substrata

particularly

reconstruction late

length.

several

bare

bar

("bars")

2B).

through

but

in

banks

(Fig.

(1967)

tidal

8-9 km

to

presents

(Warzeski,

response

a

which

Ball

The

generally

variable covers,

be

Limestone, 2A,B).

elongated the

forms

parallel

(Fig.

of

It

north-south,

Largo

into

Key.

the

of

Florida

Key

bar

southeast

inner

belt

3-4 km b r o a d

axis

surfaces

hurricanes

Key

faunal

for

taken~

Sandy

see

situated

strikes

"tidal

Jt

the

forms

area

and

Pleistocene

in the

and

from

is

Biscayne

of this

may

in

banks

as a small

given

present made

Biseayne

commonly

in the

history

been

briefly

work

material

has

genera

have

between

Valve

in w i d t h banks

(Thalassia)

of c o a r s e

for

of

channels

vary

and

margin

Valve

Safety

while

sieve,

Key

perpendicularly

banks

meters,

ridge

Safety

the

a 2 mm

on

Wanless,

were

through

axis

eastern

tidal

extending

The

sections the

skeletal

barrier

2A,B).

the

of

between

submerged

contours

ones

belt

Thin

storm and

were

see

A

method

to s t u d y

previous

submerged

(Fig.

belt

and

taken.

(for

order

studied

were

In the

In

determinations

Florida,

shallowly

dual

age

area

Safety

Miami,

sieved

~ater.

to d e t e c t

plane

localities

(for m e t h o d

were

resin

(Biscayne

strong

biota

30

deeper

cores

a

a small

their

surface

polyester

by

from

From

in s l i g h t l y

handpush with

and

complex

particularly

caused

studied

cores

on the b a n k

bank

examined,

Effects

Valve,

sections.

were

were

directly

as v i b r o c o r e s Bay),

skeletal

sediments

Safety

representative

skeletal

were

impregnated

1966)

from

40 y e a r s

the

partly

cores

The

The

In

Valve

hurricanes.

1983

as h a n d p u s h

]969),

last with

20,

ground.

surveyed.

Safety

the

associated

January

of the

made after

geomorpholo-

of

the

depo-

of sea

level.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Key Bisca'

Miami

.

FLORIDA

E

'

GULF

LU

iii

OF

>

of one storm sand layer

(left> (middle>

and from

hydraulic the German

interpretation Bay.

45

The

mode

storm

17o-2oo

transport

of them

the

26),

suspension,

are

fine

from

to

very

have

shown

to go d i r e c t l y

into

suspension

McCave

storm

most

can be e s t i m a t e d

(1971)

and

~im tend

Since

(Fig.

in

Most

(1966)

1981). Hm

storm

layers.

Bagnold than

of

layers

of the

analyzed

storm

supporting

sands

here

earlier

fine that

are

appear

the

grain

sands quartz (see

assumptions

to

silts.

grains

finer

Wanless,

finer

than

been

of

of

also

largely

to have

size

200

transported

Reineek

& Singh

(]972).

3.7.

~he

AE~lications

proximality

reflect and

the

distance

parts

trends

from

of

mentary

faces,

and

facies

direction

mater

depth

ripple

more,

proximality

which source: to

the

should linear

, preferent~ally indicate (3)

impact

suggested and

marks

Bourgeois

other

may

shed

light

sand

sources

shoreline

and

on the be on

transformed two

should

parallel

factors: be to

(1)

the

same

of s t o r m

insight

the sedi-

can sand

sand, of the

storm

(1982)

and

be e s t i m a t e d

by

layers.

Further-

contour-type

the

nature

in

contours

bathymetry,

sur-

into

with

& Clifton

into

reflected

1982a).

out"

Orientation

associated

Hunter

of s t o r m

the

isochronic

source

parameters

top

Aigner,

the

and

for

nearshore).

further

currents

counter-

lateral

a tool

show

by

the

maps depth

to " e v e n

geometry.

give

(1980),

hydraulic

characteristics trends

may

may

storm

(i)

of

(cf.

bound

basin

and of b o t t o m

by

storm

and

mater

fossil

provide

in o r d e r

as a w e a k e r

and

attack

others,

(a h e a v y

areas

in

systems

preferred

may

of wave

wave

therefore

trends

and

As

been

increasing

understanding

trends,

scours

events.

should

of t r a n s e c t s

with

recognized

better

parameters

se~gnces

proximality

trends

depositional

has

in o f f s h o r e

by m e a n s

of s t o r m s

a

storm

approach

(2) p a l e o b a t h y m e t r i c ripples,

Similar

sequences

of s t o r m

record

In l a t e r a l

shore.

ancient

above

effects

to

The s t a t i s t i c a l variability

documented

contribute

facies

analysis

27)

decreasing

should

vertical

(Fig.

of the

maps, sand

parallel

in c o n t r a s t

to

~. 27. Application of tempestite sequences to ancient storm depositional systems. Proximality trends help to understand lateral and vertical facies sequences and i n d i c a t e p a l e o b a t h y m e t r i c t r e n d s . The s e q u e n t i a l and g e o m e t r i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t of s h o r e f a c e , proximal and distal t e m p e s t i t e f a c i e s may be used in b a s i n a n a l y s i s as a m o n i t o r of r e l a t i v e sea level f l u c t u a t i o n s .

46

APPLICATIONS a) facies analysis PROXIMALITY

TRENDS

-

~SENING

&

~ENING SEQUENCE

n

GRAIN SIZE

J BED THICKNESS AMALGAMATION ~

i

;

TEMPESTIT~ FREQUENCY

BIOTURBAHON . . . . . . .

parautochthonous

i

mixed fauna

;!

. . . . . . . . .

SHELL LAYERS

b) basin analysis MONITOR

OF SEA LEVEL CHANGES

?

STILLSTAND SHQREFACE ....

/

//"" Ol RELATIVE

AL

~"

RISE

a) high inpu t ....

t

.

.

.~ o~OGg AP~

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

~j1~'-~ lO cm). Rhizoeorallium, in eonLrast, is typical for a shallo~ tier, hence cast Rhizocorallium burroBJs indicate only minor erosion in the order of i-3 em. Subtraction of minimal erosion values (deduced from trace fossil preservation) from the measured section gives "de-eroded section" and quantitative values for stratigraphic shortening. Stratigraphie incompleteness of this sequence is about

1/3.

The

top

following three

surfaces

often

the event

("post-event

main

types (Fig. 42):

(and Thalassinoides); Spiriferina Lima);

fragl~s)

c) hardgrounds

Placunopsis represent called in

show

stylolites

biological

colonisation").

and

byssally

Such surfaces

oysters.

biological

are

of

brachiopods

(e.g.

(Pleuronectites,

Talpina and enerusted by

These

types

colonisation

of

"events"

surfaces

clearly

and may thus be

Many other bedding planes,

lime mudstones,

and microstylolites.

by

attached bivalves

bored by Caleiroda,

argillaceous

colonisation

a) firmgrounds burrowed by G l o s s i f u n g i t e s

"event bedding planes".

slightly

for

b) shellgrounds colonized

and terquemiid primary

evidence

particularly

are strongly obliterated by

In these eases,

fossils are highly dis-

84

torted called

and

often

hardly

"stylo-bedding

recognizable

(Fig. 48);

such surfaces

may be

planes"

Fig. 42. Post-event colonisation of tempestite tops indicating "event bedding planes". A) Firmground burrowed by Glossifung~tes and colonized by peetinids and oysters. B) Shellground colonized by braehiopods (here Spirifezina fraqlis). C) Hardground enerusted by Placunopsis ostracina and bored by Calciroda.

85

2.~I.

fhin-bedded

Description. parts thin

of

This the

slightly

sheets

Upper

see Fig.

43A).

"hummocks"

bases

display Fig.

44) have

(e.g.

types

as well

Fig.

these

Aigner,

2.10),

erosional

base,

lamination

that

bedform

distinct (Fig.

There

a3E;

see

Reineck

laminated

several

depositional

instances,

the

SEN,

most

for

bioturbation

near

the base

are

of

badly

have

at

bed

and display

(Fig.

show

preserved recorded

homogenous

to the under-

sedimentary

structures,

is gradational

tops thin

lime

tests

in some

beds

(Fig.

lags

except

47E).

mudstones

lime

that

436).

the

46).

debris

(Fig.

are

or

however,

gradational

and without (Fig.

except coarser

47C,D)

beds,

undulating

burrows

mudstones.

45).

nanno-organism

(Fig.

ether

rare

deformation

structureless

Many

are

include In

see Fig.

layers

with

rhythmites

however,

Other

marlstones

occasional

to nodular

of

appear

of shell

and overlying

A3C),

beds,

samples

47A,B).

(Fig.

motive

common,

stumping;

by

(Fig.

for s y n s e d i m e n t a y

structures,

topped

graded

(Fig.

sharp,

by parallel

"ideal"

laminations

occur

evidence

in the calc-

lamination, from this

event sheets

succession:

or

Many base

below

followed

Composite

may also

39A).

calcirudite

lag,

Most

are

marks,

erosive

variable

A3D),

1972). 43F).

ealcisiltite

boundaries

facies

(Fig.

and

but

and often

(Fig.

aureoles

"ideal"

ripple

~edges

prod

their

with

modifications

of the calcilutite

laminated

internally

been

fossils

also

cm

calci-

1-3 cm)

erosional

to

low-angle

~ave

Singh,

ball-and-pillow

Sehizosphaerella

In outcrops,

many

increments

calcisiltites

(convolutions,

zones

&

As

an

into

sequences

units

trace

are

and

bipolar

are diagenetic

43B shows

ctimbing

finine-up~ard

and

1-10

caleilutite

sheets.

are always

by a thin skeletal

upward

are

and

faintly

Under

Fig.

central

(argillaceous

limestone

1982).

and

lenses

attached

sequences

overlain

as undulous

Eder,

more

amplitude

(bounce

"underbeds"

develops

ripples.

such

bedded

layer

1982a;

arenite/calcisiltites.

wave

dm,

of washed-out

micritic

the

layers

include

few

of tool marks

in

43-48)

("Tonptatten-Fazies"):

marlstone

a

(Figs.

calcisiltite

Bed geometries

as casts

a3F);

(el.

(section

em-thin

irregularly

a cm-thick

surfaces

Basin

of e a l c a r e n i t e s / c a l c i s i l t i t e s

several

beds

widespread

calcarenite,

(~avelength

by slightly

alternations

is most

Muschelkalk

argillaceous with

dominated

Bed

lithology

alternate

lutites, small

limestone/marlstone

apparent

47F,G).

This

86

Fi~ 43. Stratification in thin-bedded calearenites/calcisiltites. A) Thin-bedded limestone/marlstone alternations ~ith gutter casts (arrows). B) "ideal" tempestite: sharp base, skeletal lag, parallel to lo~-angle lamination, ~ave-rippled top. C) Climbing ~ave-ripple lamination D) Graded ealcarenite. E) "Graded rhythmite". F) laminated ealcisi{tite with "underbed". G) Composite bed ~ith three depositional increments. H) Calearenite layer with blackened and bored hardground at top. l)-J) Post-event burrows: I) Teiehichnus, J) Rhizocorallium.

87

Fig. 44. The soles of many marks and prod marks the (arrows). B i p o l a r prod marks during storm erosion and t e m p e s t i t e s from other types unidirectional impacts).

Discussion. and

their

(section therefore suggest

In

are

2.10);

similar

a

be inferred.

flow

components

and

by

wave

thicker-bedded bedded

calcarenites

succession

rapid

tempestites are characterized by bounce latter t y p i c a l l y with b i p o l a r o r i e n t a t i o n s e m p h a s i z e the o s c i l l a t o r y flow component form an i m p o r t a n t c r i t e r i o n to d i s t i n g u i s h of event d e p o s i t s (e.g. turbidites with

and

indicated

ripples.

bases

to

"proximal"

and

sedimentary the

depositional internal

bedform

multidirectional

and

sheets

vertical

are

(cf.

event.

the

Aigner,

that

sequences

prod into

these

"distal", 1982a).

can

Oscillatory

transitions

demonstrate

sheets

tempestites

one

sheets

mechanism

by hi-

or

structures

calcirudite

during

calcarenite/calcisiltite

equivalents

in

deposition

Lateral

calcirudite

calcisiltites, to those

storm-induced

Sharp

erosion are

and

similar

marks the

thinner-

deeper

water

88

Fig. 45. Soft-sediment deformation s t r u c t u r e s are rare in the Upper M u s c h e l k a l k and have only been o b s e r v e d in ealcisiltites and caleilutites. A) C o n v o l u t e l a m i n a t i o n in upper part of t e m p e s t i t e . B) M i n o r c o n v o l u t i o n s in fill of gutter cast. C) Isolated "ball and pillow". D) S l u m p i n g of thin c a l c i l u t i t e bed ( d i a m e t e r of c a m e r a cap = 5 cm)

In the tops one

caleJlutites, documents

event,

deposition facies

followed is

represent overbank stones

spills

silty

tempestites" (see

part

Whether

from

the

occur

or

sense

(1985)

in

with

basal

bed

during Event-

lags.

been

described

layers

are

deeper

The

by Brett

possible

may

analogous

storm-generated (1983).

modern

the

water.

tempestites"

channels,

similar

are

grained

offshore

surge

have

to

silt"Mud-

counterparts

1982).

they

remains

and

"proximal

Very

Bight

at

bed

eolonisation.

bases

fine

sea.

layers

whether

flo~s

storm

starts entire

calcarenitic/calcisiltitic

and

deep

Helgoland

structureless

bed

to thin

together

"proximal"

al#ays of the

post-event

storm

& Reineck,

event-deposits of R i c k e n

of

in the

the

deposition

by sharp

these

mudstones

from

bioturbation

transitions

that

I; Aigner

that

episodic

that

"f'~ne tails"

turbidites

and

by

and

calcilutites

fact

instantaneous

indicated

suggest

distal

Thin

also

context

tempestites most

the

also

with

gradational

represent

an open

boundaries

"diagenetic

question.

are

bedding"

also in the

89

Fig. 46. In few samples of calcisiltites, badly preserved tests of S c h i z o s p h a e r e l l a have been recorded under the SEM. S c h i z o s p h a e r e l l a is a presumably planctonic nanno-organism of unknown systematic position and occurs widely throughout the Jurassic (K~lin, 1980) but does not seem to be known from older rocks as yet. Its role as potential contributor to fine-grained carbonate should be further evaluated, but is hampered by r e c r y s t a l l i s a t i o n of micrites into microsparite.

Bedding

planes.

either

by

borers

(Teichichnus, shell

Bed tops

Fig.

8alanoglossites

Many

bedding

lites

on

as "test

these

tortion

bedding on

are

strongly

such

bodies"

in (i) ceratite burrows

planes

(Fig.

"normal"

millimeters

planes. steinkerns

(Fig. 48C,C').

bedding

or even more.

and

(Fig.

by pressure their

burrowers tops

burrowed

of

show by

and

in in

(stylo-

of distortion pressure

various

48A,A'),

often

solution

degree

48 shews

Due to pressure is

by bed

firmgreunds,

the amount

Fig.

or

Some

organisms,

470-D).

48B,B" ,8"" ),

planes

H)

43J).

some

affected

Fossils

by infaunal

43

Fig.

(Fig.

to estimate

stylo-bedding

Palaeophycus

1977),

and Glossifungites

and microstylolites).

be used

Fig.

Rhizocorallium,

(Aigner,

planes

colonized

(hardgrounds,

431;

pavements

are commonly

stages

(2) (3)

solution, in the

can

solution of dis-

Planolites/ ephiurids

sediment order

on loss

of several

90

Fig. 47. Stratification in t h i n - b e d d e d c a l c i l u t i t e s . A) F i e l d a p p e a r ance of e a l c i l u t i t e bed with bioturbation from top. B) Unspecific burrows (?Balanog]ossites, cf. Kazmierczak & Pszczolkowski, 1969) at bed top. C) Thick c a l c i l u t i t e bed with veneer of skeletal debris at base and intense b i o t u r b a t i o n from top. D) C a ] c i l u t i t e bed with skeletal lag and w e l l - d e v e l o p e d f i r m g r o u n d with G l o s s i f u n g i t e ~ - b u r r o w s at top, D') top view of f i r m g r o u n d . E) H o m o g e n o u s c a l e i l u t i t e bed with thin l a m i n a t e d c a l e i s i l t i t e at base. F)-G) H o m o g e n o u s calcilutites in cores: F) with r e l a t i v e l y sharp b o u n d a r i e s , G) with g r a d a t i o n a l boundaries and some b u r r o w s ; note strong c o m p a c t i o n of b u r r o w s in marl.

91

Fi~. 48. Fossils as test-bodies to deduce degree of pressure solution on "stylo-bedding planes" A) Steinkerns of ceratites~ relatively unaffected by pressure solution; A') "Ruins" of ceratite steinkerns caused by strong stylolithization. B) Undistorted P l a n o l i t e s / P a l a e o p h y c u s burrows, B') to B'') increasing degree of distortion by pressure solution. C) Unaffected ophiurids (Aspidura sp.); C') S t y l o l i t h i z e d remnants of ophiurids on pressure solution affected bedding plane (both specimens courtesy of H. Hagdorn)°

92

2.12.

Conclusions:

This

chapter

aimed

and

facies

types

questions

storm-dominated

stratification

to

the

(1) analyze

of

concerning

the

the

Upper

most

important

Muschelkalk

"stratinomy"

and

of these

stratification

(2) answer

deposits

a set of

(see

section

2.1.):

i.

Partly

based

on actualistic

the Upper

Musehelkalk

be

as environmental

used

"storm in

flats"

nodular

analogy

been

modern

shelly

molded

seem

(according

to

from

ealeilutitic

ranging

from

are

changing

grain

proximal~ty I;

decresing

trends

of storms

2.

Aspects

of

a) The minimal by

(2)

shells.

the

based

(i)

the

the burrowing The

first

types

method

is

i.e.

they

the

sediment.

cast

Rhizocorallium

deeper,

by proximal of perhaps is often

at the

fossils

show

The

a few dm.

of bed and

in

layers

(see

reflect

the

They

tempestites

cast

can

(Fig.

and reflect

be

can

be

esti-

bottoms,

non-reworked

infaunal

because

In contrast,

can

50):

at tempestite

trace

vertical

deep-burrowing

by distal

distal

Such

water.

seafloor

a characteristic

tempestites

east

of

versus

possible

to

zonations.

characteristics

erosion

to "distal"

faunas.

and

offshore

re-

types

degree

storm

1982)

dynamics

of reworked

tiered,

order

in modern

Nelson,

of trace

depth

within

the

to trends

rock

content, and

and

that these

Proximal

intraclast

and p a l e o b a t h y m e t r i c

of storm

and lateral

nearshore) 49).

paleocurrents

1982;

commonly

in

and

depositional

to have

Channel-fills

related

bed thicknesses,

burrows commonly

shallow,

on s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

amount

demonstrate

In

massive

likely

floms.

decreasing

towards

layers

reworking.

Vertical

(Fig.

Reineck,

for facies

storm

are

in can

indicate

bodies,

end members

similar

effects

reconstructed

and

are

storm

genetically

structures,

&

be used

of

bioclast

Aigner

thus

mated

in

layers

fining-up

sand

storms.

and

calcarenitic/calcisiltitic

(generally

size,

sedimentary

to by

(tempestites)

offshore)

expressed

episodic

types

events

storm

to grainstones

into

spectrum

"proximal"

deeper,

amalgamation,

part

sheets

continuous

(generally

erosion

storm

and thin

carbonate

pack-

caleiruditic

storm

a

record

in response

episodic

stratification

Supratidal

1976)~

shallow-water

and activated

present

changes

deposits

most

for episodic

indicators.

and crinoidal

record

transitions

analogues,

evidence

to Wanless,

back-bank

to

oolitic,

show

fossils zonation

of

Thalassinoides

are

deeper

storm

the shallow

tempestites,

are

erosion burrowing

refIecting

minor

93

TEMPESTITE

PROXIMALITY

• .O..~4;,;~-t;~C

calcilutite

calcisiltite

catcarenite

FACIES

calcirudite

GRAIN SIZE

II INTRACL. III AMALGAM. BED-O (non-erosion.)

tool marks

irreguL scoured

alongshore (smothered epifauna)

parautochthonous softbottorn f.

allochthonous mixed fauna

channeled

BED-BASE

offshore

PALEOCURR.

multiple reworking

FAUNA

Fig. 49. Generalized trends in vertical and "ideal" tempestite: proximality as a guide interpretations.

erosion

in

Pleuromya of

storm

Such

b)

are

(Kolp,

The

on

superimposed ferred,

(lateral dominant

e)

The

tool

Smith

sole

of

marks),

sediment

direction

followed

influx),

storm

of s t o r m

at bed

bases,

is

during

yet

during of

modern

1976).

ripples

a11ows and

components,

flows

can fully

initial

depth

of cm's.

structures

flow

oscillatory

(wave-rippled

biwhile

document thus

be

understood. storm

phases

unidirectional flows

in-

became

flows again

tops).

indicated

imbrication

order

found

imbrication)

is not

important

by a d o m i n a n c e

flows

in the

Wave

transport,

bivalve

average

& Sanders,

Combined

before

waning

flows.

mechanism most

Kumar

oscillatory

flows.

was

rates

burrowing the

Sedimentary

storm

sediment

complete

deeply

probably

1972;

represent

lateral

the

was

of

the

tempestites,

erosion

association kind

erosion

during

marks

seafloor with

unidirectional

wave

Since

into

& Hopkins,

marks

(e.g.

although

(bipolar

reworked

the

the

tool

features

Possibly

on

particular

directional

of a few cm.

not

compatible

]958;

speculations

other

order

erosion

values

storms

the

is n o r m a l l y

lateral v a r i a t i o n or for environmental

within

by

the

the

bed,

orientation and w a v e

of

ripples

94

aL bed

tops.

casts)

show

longshore proximal

d)

The

Prod

winds

grain

"distal"

low-velocity on

(1981)

with

flows

Flume

in the

cm/s,

based

on

rudites

indicate

may

maximal

pebble

curves

of S u n d b o r g

ment

with em/s,

cm/s,

grain

&

size

(1982)

present

calculations

and

are

Analogous

eL al., the

is

have

of wave

used

to

de-

principally

arise

From

the

the

flow

case,

are well

Gienapp,

in

agree-

storms 1973;

& Drake,

(e.g.

-

-80

cm/s,

1982;

20-60

yeL

Allen,

in

recent

form

the

to

case,

> 7.5

such

also

and

on

using

Sundquist

calculations behaviour

(2)

that

1984),

Lops

(1982)~

understood~

Allen,

likely

tempestite

hydrodynamic

index

(P.A.

some

For

the

ecological

characteristic

shallow

and

present

based

most

should (3)

seriously

of

of the not

be

superimposed affect

such

1981).

Shackley

destruction

(1)

on

Clifton

sufficiently

a vertical

are

&

In the

because not

be r e c o n s L r u c L e d

ripples

Hunter

(1984).

important

1977;

using

should

In any

Cacchione

Lheoretieally

(1980),

currents

recorded Lo

can

reconstructions

are

and

present-day

em/s,

- 50 cm/s,

morphology

Allen

(P.A.

during

calci-

cm/s

velocity-entrainment

tempestites

- 151

workers

1983).

however,

unidirectional

1977;

1976;

the

grains

measured

et al.

and

ripples

Storms

Muschelkalk

the

of B o u r g e o i s

for wave

3.

for

of

coarse

commonly

Flows.

are

et al.

order

several

complications

combined

by

"proximal"

in the

6o-400

sedimentology

However,

More

of

fluvial

off

inferences

and W a n l e s s

Very

are

of

deposited

by

erosion

order

been

1978).

velocities

critical

on the

Flows

shells

approaches

layers.

conditions

difficult,

carbonate

on

by

in

Musche]kalk,

pellets.

deposited

nature

sea

P.A.

with

shells

the

These (1977)

Similar

in

Larsen~

and

the

have

cm/s.

Futterer,

flow

velocities

eL al.,

and

approaches

both

and

to storm

flow

1957;

maximal

Forristall

Swift

e) Wave

Rees

experiments

(1967).

inferred

Sternberg

used

Flume

size

understood

velocities

are

probably

In

to

gutter indicate

Flows.

estimates

& Komar

and

were

paleovelocities

be a p p l i c a b l e

1-20

and

directed

some

(and

ripples

intraclasts

seem

of

tests

wave

velocities.

of Miller

Johnson~

of

allows

Lempestites and

offshore

Flow

order

foram~niferal

1911;

200

storm

experiments

calcirudites

poorly

largely

in t e m p e s t i L e s

minimal

of distal

orientaLions,

Imbrication

record

(Trusheim,

duce

bases

calcarenites/calcisiltites

based

20-60

the

accordingly.

size

of"

at

longshore

tempestites

magnitude

shelly

marks

bipolar

~aLer

& Collins~ the

dynamics

Formation

the

paleoecological

environments 1984),

on

(e.g.

sLorms

of b e n t h i c

seafloor

patterns.

Sch~Fer,

play

a

1970;

part

associations:

in

storm

95

scour

and

accumulates

layers

washes (e.g.

Aigner,

1977),

for

firm-,

shell-

new

response Upper

out

Huschelkalk, transported

in-situ

re~orked

shell

Post-event even

the

distal, tops~ at

faunas,

(see

part

bioturbation

basinal

sequences

?),

be i n f e r r e d

inhibited but

only

that

during possible

is

to

as

typically

distal

form

creating a

& Jablonski,

biological

]983).

ere

similar

shell

substrates

include

tempestites

assemblages,

I, Fig.

commonly

faunas time

associations

tempestites

storm-generated

it may

same

Kidwell

while

complete

times

control

hardground

parautochthonous

beds

at the

feedback",

proximal

partly

storm

and

("taphonomic

soft-bottom

yet

In the mixed,

dominated

to

North

by Sea

24).

reworked layers.

the

restricted

benthic

upper

Since

exclusively

co]onisation

background episodically

part

sometimes

storm

in

many

to t e m p e s t i t e

of the

conditions after

of,

bioturbation

seafloor

(oxygen,

was

salinity

events.

BIOLOGICAL RESPONSE

loo crn/s 0

[empestite dynamics Fig. 50. Summary of some dynamic factors that can be d e d u c e d from tempestites: (i) The p r e s e r v a t i o n of trace fossil tiers at the base of tempestites allows to estimate the amount of m i n i m a l e r o s i o n d u r i n g the event. (2) Tool marks at t e m p e s t i t e soles indicate the direction of storm flo~s. (3) The grain size of t e m p e s t i t e s g i v e s some ind i c a t i o n on storm flow v e l o c i t i e s . (&) The type of post-event faunas on tempestite tops sheds light on paleoecological factors such as s u b s t r a t e c o n s i s t e n c y and c o m m u n i t y s t r u c t u r e .

96

4. of

Primary

bedding

"sutured

supported

For

instance,

5.

of

Bedding

record

solution"

pressure

"nodular" planes

off t w o

by p r e s s b r e

significant

positional

erosion

solution.

and

1979b) in

most

form

of

with

both

in

common

form

in g r a i n -

"non-sutured

argillaceous,

together

basinal

rock

bioturbation

(storm-stratified)

types: bed

tempestite

entirely

pressure

b)

basic

scoured

(e.g.

and

caused

-

solution

seam types. -

facies

has

into

a

fabrics.

eolonisation),

represent

in more

solution

(e.g.

surfaces

and

well-stratified

rock

are

by p r e s s u r e

(Wanless,

facies,

1979b)

primarily

erosional

sitional

be m o d i f i e d

water

(Nanless,

transformed variety

seam

shallow

solution"

may

stylo-bedding

gaps

solution. in the

a)

event

bases tops

with

planes Many

as well

tool

available

stratigraphie

non-deposition

bedding

that "normal" record as

by

planes

marks) for are

or

that depo-

biological modified

bedding caused

or

planes

by synde-

postdepositional

97

3 •

3.1.

Vertical

Detailed and

pervasive

in

physical changes.

these

Cycles are

basinal

NaJn

with

the

rare

in

0ncolitic

Descri_ption. parts

of

landward

The

the

basal

often

type

pebbles

become

fewer

and

increases

algal

coatings

such

sequences

and

and

bedded

may

pack-

The

mud-

and

geographic what

finingbeen

are and

recorded

and

or

5o

more

discussed thinning-

in the

deep

and

comprise

in

some

shell

bio-

oncolites

lensoidal

very

marginal

paleogeographically

dark,

rather

(Fig. by

argillaceous~

and b i o t u r b a t e d cases

with

(Teichichnus)

abundant

Upwards,

of micritic

and

(Fig.

and

in

occurs

debris.

formed

packstone

present

marlstone

may

52B).

upper

The i/2

52C).

-

2

show

around

incipient

portion

m thick

These

sometimes

or

form

more

and

unsorted

channel-like

layers

envelopes

lithoclasts

a

small

of

bed of cross-

sheet-like

bodies.

Discussion. grained

be

types

one

in-

cycles.

The p r o p o r t i o n

commonly

skeletal

units

52A),

some

small

is

Basin

marlstone

blackened

oncolite-rich

sediment

sequences

and t h i n n e r .

is o n l y

grainstone

mudsLone, (Fig.

have

3.

colours~

follo~ing

(e.g.

but

of beds,

lighter

common

cycles

in u p w a r d

52)

Muschelkalk

lime

wackestone

trends

trends

76).

(Fig.

of t h e s e

4.

a marked

Individual

2. t h i c k e n i n g

of the m o s t

area,

Fig.

51).

reveals

following

off s e q u e n c e s

of s e q u e n c e s

Upper

parts

black

shells

(see

size,

the

structures,

some

study

Muschelkalk

(Fig.

show

variety

opposite the

of o o l i t e

nodular

peloidal

the

cycles

This

mainly

of g r a i n

cycles

Upper

cyelicity

7 m thick)

motives,

region

of the

sedimentary

From

general

upward)

3.1.1.

and

i. c o a r s e n i n g

faunistic

here.

analysis

1

S E Q U E N C E S

coarsening-upward

sedimentary

between

direction:

of

sequences:

bed-by-bed

(mostly

crease

F A C I E S

upward and

grainstone

indicates

distribution

restricted,

change

~ackestone

of this

"lagoonaZ"

from

bioturbated

to b e t t e r an u p w a r d type

sorted

shallowing

of c y c l e

depositional

and

stratified trend.

suggests

environment.

finecoarser

The

a shallow, This

paleosome-

inference

98

Fig. 51. Many different types of asymmetrical coarsening-upward sedimentary cycles can be readily observed in weathered quarry sections. Most typical are : A) Oolite grainstone cycle (see Fig. 53). B) Skeletal hank cycle (see Fig. 54). C) Crinoidal hank cycle (see Fig. 55). D) Nodular-to-compact cycle (see Fig. 56). E) Thickening-upward cycle (see Fig. 57). F) Thinning- and fining-upwards cycles are rare in the study area.

99

CYCLE

-

X- bedded

oncolite channel

nodular wackestone & tempestites

nodular marly

-

40 20 cm =

0

Fig. 52. Detailed l o g t h r o u g h an o n c o l i t e cycle ~ith upward change in microfacies From nodular pelmicrite (A)~ to thin graded calcarenitescalcicudites (B), to massive oncolitic calcirudites. Explanation of s y m b o l s for a l l following logs: H = mudstone, N = packsLone, P = calcarenite~

= packstone~ G = grainstone; m = marl, I = calcilutite, r = calcirudite.(seetion no, 6, T i e f e n b a c h )

a

100

is

also

shallow and

supported nearshore

(2)

back-bank

These

cycles

gradually

Description. in

lime

into

This

type

parts

nodular

and

fabric

ubiquitous

The

basal

with

part

51A,

see also

1983),

and channels

b;agner,

1913b).

lagoonal

areas

in a prominent

belt

53)

(Fig.

common Basin

The basal

part

53A)

and reaches is

Nodularity

is

by

Remnants

~ith

dark-grey

a pronounced

caused large

of

generally

normally

commonly

particularly

grades

upwards

minor

marlstone

and nodularity

stratification common.

sorting

into

(intrabiomierites)

only

turbatJon

mere

Davaud,

in ponds

for

largely

by

pellet-filled

laminations

are

only

preserved.

and packstones or

&

typical

and channels.

Musehelkalk

of Teichiehnus.

are

to represent

is most

partings.

bioturbation,

spreiten-structures rarely

(Fig.

pelmicrite

and marly

1975;

ponds

of sequences the

that

Strasser

interpreted

2 and 6 m in thickness.

mudstone

1974;

(Nilson~

cycles

of

pebbles,

preferentially

oncolitic

grainstone

marginal

between

occur

therefore

shoaling

black

(Barthel,

that

environments

are

Oolite

(i) abundant

settings

oneolites,

~ithin

3.1.2.

by

such

and

mud

high,

the

abundance

(Fig.

decreases

of

bedded

538).

although

discontinuous

content

unsorted

are thicker

partings

is still

as em-thick

As lime

lighter-grey

that

without

The degree

remnants fining-up

upwards,

micritic

wackestones and

primary

sequences

the

envelopes

of bio-

of

degree

around

are of

shells

increases.

The upper

part

grey

yellowish

to

usually

of these

meniscus

most

Evidence

cement)

generally

is

sharp

is usually

cross-bedded

well-sorted;

envelopes.

cycles

of submarine present.

In Musehelkalk

top

units

been

have

Discussion.

Wilson's

although

All

sequence

named

(1975) they

surface

are

of

with

"Obere

cyclicity

of progressive

interpreted

as

many

This

is

micritic

(dripstone

these thin

Oolithbank"

cycles.

the

53c).

light

and

cycles

is

Fe-veneers

and

such and

cycleused

for

was not recognized.

change

shoaling-up

of

have

diagenesis

marked

shallowing-upward

"asymmetric

and

lithostratigraphy~

(e.g.

the general

patterns

indicate

Analogously

top

unit

(Fig.

rounded

and vadose

The

hardgrounds.

grainstone

are

and in a few instances

rare

correlation,

oolitic

bioelasts

a 1-3 m thick

within They

carbonate result

type

of

correspond

this

to

shelf of a rapid

cycles". rise

in

101

OOLITE-GRAINSTONE CYCLE

~HALLOW 1AMP )OLITE

TRANSITION

DEEPER RAMP CM

I0

I° 2O

mi

ar

F i g . 53. D e t a i l e d l o g t h r o u g h o o l i t e g r a i n s t o n e c y c l e ( o f . Note u p w a r d changes f r o m d e e p - r a m p b i o t u r b a t e d pelmicrites weakly bioturbated skeletal w a c k e s t o n e and p a c k s t o n e (B) bedded s h a l l o w ramp o o l i t i c g r a i n s t o n e ( C ) . S e c t i o n no. 73)7 WilhelmsglOck (from Aigner~ 1988).

Fig. 51A). (A) t h r o u g h into cross21 ( c f i . F i g .

102

relative

sea level

oolitic

shoalwater

sition

and in some

3.1.3.

Skeletal

Description. of

the

facies

The vertical

succession

(except

argillaceous,

thick

(l-3m)

these

massive

(section

cross-bedded,

of

may

nodular

"Mittlere

cycles

but

landward

in the marginal

limestone

structures, similar

bedded (Fig.

skeletal

at

wackestone that

the top

and includes

a high

cycles,

Schalentr~mmerbank")

pass

54C).

such

to

by

Just

a

below above

bed is commonly

proportion

in Upper

54A)

described

massive

many

from

overlain

as

and

grainstone

(Fig.

is

(Fig.

fills

The uppermost

grainstone

microfacies

to oolite

sequences

54B),

channel

present.

well-sorted

the

also

Commonly,

grainstone

be

seaward,

generally

to

As in oolite

(e.g.

but

to grainstone

skeletal

of

of non-depo-

54)

sedimentary

ooids).

top units,

2.7)

envelopes. beds

pack-

outbuilding periods

Muschelkalk.

the

thin-

thicker-bedded

seaward document exposure.

mainly

grainstone

variable

for

51B,

occur

oolitic

tops

subaerial

(Fig.

of the Upper

is

Cycle

local

sequences

with

fossils

cycles

cases

These

belt

by regressive

complex.

bank cycles

province

trace

followed

of

units

micritic

form marker

Huschelkalk

litho-

stratigraphy.

Discussion. change

As in the oolite

indicate

nodular

limestones

tempestites

and thin

shallow-water unit

3.1.4.

bars

Upper

skeletal

surge

channels

to represent

bank

This

cycles

type

Muschelkalk

developed

in more

Sequences

start

(Fig.

deeper

sheets

of

cycles,

sequences. water

all patterns

Basal

conditions

sand.

shallow

that

Channelized

and the uppermost

a very

of upward

argillaceous pass

into

beds

are

massive

shoaiwater

and

skeletal

complex

of

and banks.

Crinoidal

Description.

grainstone

shallowing

represent

storm

is interpreted

skeletal

the

upward

off

with

51C,

sequence

55)

occurs

("Trochitenkalk")

marginal

55) the basal

(Fig.

parts

basal

part

only

and

in the lower

is

most

part

off

prominently

of the basin.

argillaceous

units;

is in fact a thick

in the

marlstone

figured

horizon

example

with

few

103

SKELETAL BANK CYCLE %E

SKELETAL BANK

TEMPESTITES

OFF- BANK

Fig. 54. Detailed log through a skeletal bank cycle (cf. Fig. 51B) with upward change from bioturbated arenitic w a c k e s t o n e (A), to wellsorted arenitic grainstone with few mieritic envelopes (B), to wellsorted ruditic grainstone with abundant micritic envelopes. Section no. 5, Neidenfels (cf. Fig. 72).

104

CRINOIDAL BANK CYCLE CRINOIDAL BANK

CHANNEL FILL

PROXIMAL TEMPESTITES

DISTAL TEMPESTITES IN

MARLSTONE 40

0 Mld~

Fig. 55. Detailed log through a crinoidal bank cycle (cfi. Fig. 51C) with upward change from thin graded calcisiltite (A~ distal tempestite), to graded shelly sheets (B, proximal tempestite), to channeled skeletal packstone (C), to massive shelly/crinoidal limestone (D). Section no. 37, 8retten (el. Fig 71).

105

thin

limestone

nodules.

stone

layers

interbedded

represent upwards

typical

into

crinoid part

are

ossicles,

(section

amounts

presented oolitic

by

through

a

faunas

tially

burrows

found

Discussion.

crinoids

larger

other

that

habitats

parts

of the

massive

skeletal

settings, On

area but

weathered

the

also

sections,

For

have

(Fig.

this

upward

some

other

cycles

provided

the

attachment

of

it was

out

only

From 1985) The

been

is

Only

during

their and thus

used

more

colonize Formed

as litho-

6").

51D,

type

nearshore

occur

of

that

1978,

]ong

and

distal

conclusion.

the

Hence

spread

6").

(regression).

regression.

units

cycles"

between may

peak

preferen-

of these

winnowing

Hagdorn,

"Trochitenbank

Paleogeographica]ly,

intermediate

could

(cf.

to

and

part

shallowing

epibenthos.

during

(e.g.

to

are

indicates

this

crinoids upper

shellground

Glossifungites).

units

necessary

crinoids

and

"Trochitenbank

support

extensive

swells

"Nodular-to-compact

Descriptio[.

cycles.

the

basin

markers

basinal

caused substrate

on

the

response

by soft-

(Rhizocorallium

marlstones

in-situ to

is d o m i n a t e d

(e.g.

changes

55D).

changes

liliformis

from

recases

marked

hard-

in

large

is

in some

(Fig.

feeders

1965,

upper

include

and

feeders

firm-,

some

described

cycles

also

part

skeletal

and

feeders

£ixosessile

crinoid-rich

an

faunal

hard

stratigraphic

3.1.5.

and

level

or

shallowing

permanent

massive

and

Encrinus

tinck,

transition

ecological

energy

and

(e.g.

of a r t i c u l a t e d

the

shelly

crinoid

to

suspension

probably

higher

suspension

vertical

restriction

lower

further

the

as

these

show

includes

the

Mierofacies

fixosessile

part

Within

to g r a i n s t o n e

sediment

pass

include

Fills

massive,

lime-

limestones

and

present

mostly

thicker

may

ones.

of

ichnofauna

of

tops

distal

be

pack-

their

of

tempestites,

shallowing.

the

55A)

which

unit

thick

While

of

at cycle

The

proximal

general

m

and

These

channel

may top

burrows

upper

specimens

the

550) The

2

and

and

the

and

Complete

a

-

cycles.

assemblages

irrequlare),

firm,

]/2

macrofauna

these

bottom

most

Fig.

ossic]es.

(Fig.

55B),

to

more

marlstone.

skeletal

crinoid-mollusc-brachiopod

The b e n t h i c

The

small

2.7.;

of c r i n o i d

(Fig.

contrast

sequences,

the

tempestites

ones

in

increasingly

within

"distal"

"proximal"

of these

above

Upwards,

56)

of s e q u e n c e shoalwater

landward

of the

"modular-to-compact

is

common

complex

and

in more

oolite

grainstone

cycles"

are

easily

106

NODULAR-TO-COMPACT CYCLE

mlar Fig. Note ~ell

56. Detailed log through n o d u l a r - t o - c o m p a c t cycle (el. Fig. 51D). upward increase in the abundance and grain size of bioclasts as as increasing winnowing. Section no. 35~ Westheim.

107

recognizable and

(Fig.

strongly

51D).

turbation

decreases,

fication

is

Discussion. base

of

deeper

top

these

obscured

facies

and

shallower

3.1.6.

and

The

lower

most

part

gutter

Muschelkalk although

basal

marlstone

bioclast

The 57C)

upper

part

and

(Fig.

consist lenses.

of

a

tops 57D).

&

crusted.

The

trace

sequences.

While

irregulare

and

commonly displays

present

open

waekestones

skeletal

are

pack-

the

are

of

top

fossil their

are

content lower

part

up.

Glossif__jjngites-type

burrows.

as

been

of

a 20-50

mostly

em thick

wedges

and

pebbles

changes

is c h a r a c t e r i z e d

their

(Fig.

skeletal beds

and

channel-like

(Barthel,

commonly

The

further

fills

composite

in

limestones

thicker,

channel

and

beta",

marlstone

shallow

bored

markedly

1974; and

in

en-

these

by R h i z o e o r a l l i u m

burrows, part

alpha,

thin

57A-0).

and

beds

recognized.

(Fig.

by

often

thicker

marker

progressively

black

The t o p m o s t

shoals.

unit,

"Tonhorizont

layers,

Planolites/Palaeophycus further

used

interbedded

also

was

in m i c r o -

7 m in thick-

of the

into

abundant

somewhat

higher-energy, and

1 and

not

are

the

settings.

had

formed

including

1983)

a

Some

includes

amalgamated

pebbles,

into

blankets

marlstone

become

units

changes

thick

(e.g.

commonly

These

and/or

1978).

coarser-grained

sequences

Upward

percentage

beds

at

stratification

between

being

upward

limestones

sheltered

marine

cm

context

passes

and

number

Davaud,

strati-

57)

generally

horizons

cyclic

higher

Re~orked

Strasser

are

51E,

& Futterer,

limestone

cycle

paekstone

(Fig.

a 10-70

Upwards,

of some

of bio-

weathering

pelleta]

primary

skeletal

lithostratigraphy

horizon

content

nodular

primary

compact

nodular

a transition

in more

(Aigner

while

and

ealciruditic

a quiet,

incipient

sequences

their

marlstones.

decreases,

into

and

marly,

the d e g r e e

more

of T e i c h i e h n u s .

cycles

marlstone

Upper

a

in which

reflect

small

is g e n e r a l l y

widespread

increases

mudstones

reflect

abundant

casts

etc.),

and

with

These

are

and

bioturbated

environment,

Thickening-upward

ness

most

strongly

stratification

Descriotion.

from

by b u r r o w i n g

setting

rather

56A-D).

sequences

depositional

largely

with

and

are

content

producing

calcarenitic

(Fig.

Marly

parts marl

thickness

change

through

at the

bed

preserved,

Microfacies

(pelmierites) stones

basal

Upwards,

while

better

appearance.

Their

bJoturbated.

of these

Teichichnus sequences

is often

108

THICKENING-UPWARD ~TnA~,r,,~^T,~,,

, ,TU~,

CYCLE

INTERPRETATION

' ~

skeletal blanket

proximal tempestites & channels

distpl tempestites & gutters

cm

m

I

a

r

Fig. 57. Detailed log through a thickening-upward cycle (see Fig. 51E). Note upward changes from distal tempestites with gutter casts (A,B), into proximal tempestites (with surge channels, C) and finally into a cross-bedded unit of skeletal packstone (D). Section no. i~ Steinb~chle (from Aigner, 1984).

109

Like

the m i c r o f a c i e s ,

marked

changes

collected Gutter

From

casts

sequences.

various

parts

of one

in

lo~er

part

the

shoreline

(el.

and

bipolar

prod

longshore

but

and

imbrication

shore

sediment

Discussion.

casts

are

distal

tempestites), limestones with

storm-surge

amalgamation which and

has

in

incipient

Similar from

some

of low

net in

longshore

to the

lithofacies,

the

changing

quiet

softgrounds

(Seilacher,

blackened,

sedimentation the flow

in

led

surfaces

with

change

topmost

events

cases

deeper-water

grounds

indicate

upward

changes

horizon

thicker

is

and

flows

and

development

gutter (distal

coarser-grained associated

represents

relatively

indicate

interpreted

sheets

tempestites,

unit

off-

a complex

shallower

of s k e l e t a l

water, blankets

shoals.

to the

firmground

The

of

into

Channel

cycles.

limestone

proximal

show

larger

orientation.

storm-induced

changes

channels.

The

of

to

a

show

to

casts

marks

however,

all

marlstone

(bounce also

of t h e s e

sequences,

transition

of a n u m b e r

part

area.

parallel

tempestites

on-offshore

conditions.

upward

the

marks

sole

data

regional

are o r i e n t e d

Sole

show

paleocurrent

a wider

of d i s t a l

tempestites,

The b a s a l

water

over cycle

Upwards,

upper

previous

paleocurrents

58 s h o w s

]978).

more

expressions

while

mark

in the

trends.

deepest

a

in p r o x i m a l

in the

shallowing-upward represent

orientations.

transport

As

cycle

at the b a s e s

towards

fauna,

Fig.

of the

& Futterer,

casts)

shift

fills

to

Aigner

bipolar

and

and

these

the

scatter

stratification

within

bored and

hydraulic in d e e p e r ,

offshore

directed

(proximal)

water.

1967).

ichnofauna

to s h a l l o w e r - w a t e r The

non-deposition. during

offshore

sediment

association

and e n e r u s t e d

regime

reflects

water

pebbles

The

(distal)

transport

in

these

indicate

from to

change

event-agitated

of

paleoeurrents

shallowing

a

a

firmperiods show

a

a dominance

of

dominance

of

shallower,

nearshore

Fiq. 58. D e t a i l e d log of thickening-upward sequence traced over a regional ( K o e h e r - J a g s t ) area w i t h p a l e o c a r r e n t d a t a from v a r i o u s p a r t s of the same s e q u e n c e . In its lower~ " d i s t a l " park, gutter casts and sole mark directions are largely a l o n g s h o r e , p e r p e n d i c u l a r to wave r i p p l e c r e s t s . U p w a r d s ~ wave r i p p l e s show more interference patterns~ sole m a r k s s w i n g into o n / o f f s h o r e d i r e c t i o n but are m o r e v a r i a b l e , and i m b r i c a t i o n in the u p p e r m o s t p r o x i m a l beds i n d i c a t e s o f f s h o r e directed flow. SHA = S c h w ~ b i s c h Hall, CR = C r s i l s h e i m . S e q u e n c e b e l o w " T o n h o r i zont beta"

110 150-

PROXIMAL imbrication

SHA

LLI

,

0

5 km

,

RMEDIATE~..

Z

,arks

~I-"

,

UJ

Jl

,./~"~

,,

~I00

a mmm

Q.

l >S~~I'STA~,

,'" "

i"-

!

Z 50

bounce marks prod

0

~GUTTERCASTSL_~y__./~,

/ .J iiiii~iii!iil jilhiili!ii:~i!ii ji!iii:iii!i:i~ii!i:i ~~=r~

~iiiiiii!iiiiii~i~ili iiii:{!i:~ ii::!!ii!~ •

/

EUSTATIC SEALEVEL

ba sin dynamics Fig. 82. S t r o n g l y s c h e m a t i c s u m m a r y on the two main factors controlling i n t r a c r a t o n i e basin d y n a m i c s as e x e m p l i f i e d by the Upper M u s c h e l kalk: (1) the Ladinian rise and fall in (most likely eustatic) sealevel (Brandner, 1984) causing the initial t r a n s g r e s s i o n and final r e g r e s s i o n of the Upper N u s c h e l k a l k sea; (2) p a l e o t e c t o n i c influences, recorded in different subsidence, facies and cycle p a t t e r n s over a n c i e n t (Variscan) s t r u c t u r a l zones. Since these probably represent former plates (Behr et al., 1984), e p e i r o g e n e t i c m o v e m e n t s in this c r a t o n i c basin reflect reactivation oF sutures from the Variscan continental collision.

152

5

D Y N A M I C

.

S T R A T I G R A P H Y

C O N C L U D I N G

In order

to r e c o n s t r u c t

ancient

storm

sequenceshave

(l) At

the

of

depositional been

lowest

carbonate

ramp

episodic,

level,

setting

in

in

stress

deep

drove

with ramp

surface

lobes

set-up

compensated

was

responsible

sediment

the

was

Upper

funneled

levels

of

of

an

stratigraphic

types

Muschelkalk

largely

Due

erosion

tool

effect,

nearshore

directed

to

the

bottom surge

become

the

result can

storms

and

be

cause

gutter

cast

however~

#ind

water

skeletal/oolitic

of storm

offshore

moving

marks

Coriolis

causing

ramp

within

hydrodynamics

Alongshore

to the

landward

are

whose

(bipolar)

by o f f s h o r e the

stratigraphy"

stratification

details.

longshore

shallow

for

three

processes,

areas.

in

"dynamic

83):

different of

water

spilIover

were

(Fig.

considerable

tempestites

erosion

of the

system,

analyzed

storm-related

reconstructed distal

aspects

R E M A R K S

set-up

banks.

The

and ~ater

return

flows,

that

channels

through

~hich

deposited

as

proximal

types

m~nor

tempestites.

(2)

At

an

intermediate

asymmetrical lithology, cycles

thin in

coarsening-upward microfacies,

can

regressive but a

be

shifts

regressive

complex,

that

of the

sequences

by

seaward

ramp

system.

outbuilding

of the

exposed the

are

in

sudden

Most

trends

in These

transgressive~ cycles

start

shallowing shallow places.

appearance

(l-Tm)

recorded.

small-scale

Gradual

by

of

distinct

faunas

horizons.

subaerially

documented

with

and

repeated

carbonate

marlstone

became

are

various

paleocurrents

explained

widespread

gressions

level,

ramp

shoalwater

Renewed

of

~ith

culminated

a new

trans-

marlstone

horizon.

(3)

At a still

upward

cycles

overall cycle cycles over

higher form

possibly that

provide

hierarchy

and

for

of the

cyclicity

stacked

litho-

and More

minor

a "sawtooth"

of of the

basin.

allows

and

controlled,

the whole

a basis

parts

vertically

punctuations

eustatically

comprises

large

level,

the

Upper

within

an

transgressive/regressive Muschelkalk.

time-stratigraphic specifically,

us to u n d e r s t a n d

coarsening-

pattern

the

Many

correlation

recognition dynamic

minor

of this

causes

of

153

DYNAMIC

STRATIGRAPHY : interpretation

J

w

hydrodynamic

STORM

model

]

:

EVENTS

facies

model

:

TRANS/REGRESSIONS

I

basi.

model

BASEL E VEL

'BIOGRAPHY'

Fig. 83. Summarizing diagram on the reconstruction of dynamic processes based on the analysis of three levels of stratigraphic sequences (el. Fig 28). (1) Depositional dynamics are dominated by various effects of storms operating in a carbonate ramp setting. (2) Facies dynamics reflect repeated t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e shifts of the carbonate ramp generating asymmetrical coarsening-upward cycles. (3) The whole basin sho~s a hierarchy of cycles: minor, short-term c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d cycles are superimposed on a major, longer-term trans/regressive cycle. Basin dynamics are controlled by an interplay of eustatic and tectonic factors (from Aigner, 1984).

the

purely

used

in the Upper

sidence

and

upwards

cyles

descriptive

facies

collision

patterns

trace

reactivation

of

Basin.

plate

a controlling

In conclusion,

the hierarchical

is

strategy

a

simple

oriented

analysis

reconstruct

some

storm-dominated should

of

Variscan sutures factor

towards

basin,

but

the

general

overall

of minor

coarseningzones.

Thus

continental

outlined

stratigraphy", This

sub-

dynamics.

analysis

recorded

settings.

so far being

the

the Varisean

for basin

basins.

processes

in other

from

"dynamic

sedimentary the

also

both

paleotectonic

stratigraphic

of

be of value

subdivision

However,

and the d i s t r i b u t i o n

underlying

former

is also

lithostratigraphic

Huschelkalk

study in

principles

an

here

the processattempted

to

intracratonic

recognized

here

SO

At the end such what

?",

a study,

which

significance

are

? This

it might

the

final

briefly

some

of

systems,

their

general

the

WHAT

?

be healthy

general

to ask

results

section

is

principles

an

and

question

what

attempt

recognized

implications,

the

is the broader

to

in

highlight

storm

and possible

"so

very

depositional

avenues

for

future

research.

i.

Numerous

sequences and

carbonate

of continental

comprise

sediments. ments

storm

beds

Tempestites

show

the

structures: tional

tool

clastic

material,

from modern

followed

cross-stratification), and

(D)

2.

The

particular

tional

tool

marks,

(lateral

sediment

tempestites deposits

tool

marks

shallow-marine

with

a graded

bi-

environ-

of sedimentary or

layer

multidirec-

of sand or bio-

lamination

lamination

commonly

background

starts

(hummocky

and ~ave

ripples,

at tempestite

tops

in the sequence.

with

of

sedimentary

superimposed

wave

ripples) In

structures

oscillatory

and

spite

significantly

different

superficial from

suggests

(bi/multidirec-

unidirectional

of

from

wave

graphical

can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d

ancient

sequences.

(prod casts, ripple

present-day

gutter

marks

latitudinally

on

(Klein

Onshore

components

similarities,

density-driven

storms

(e.g.

transport

washovers,

event

in

in the

and possibly

etc.)

at

their

tops.

Predictions

storm

systems

which

even

can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d tempestite

and

from

soles

are

based

global

paleo-storm

pre-

and on

paleogeo-

systems

can

be

1983).

present-day

currents

spillovers).

from,

tracks

casts

from

& Marsaglia~

wind-drift

Storm

defined

reconstructions~

oriented sediment

with

succession

low-angle

wave-ripple

transport).

directions for,

modelled

(A)

storm-dominated

(turbidites).

3. Storm

4.

are

by

association

flows

vertical

and/or

shallow-marine

are

interbedded

commonly

Bioturbation

downward

storm

dicted

(C)

a mud blanket.

combined

base,

(R) parallel

clastics seas

and ancient

"ideal"

erosional

marks,

terrigenous and epeiric

(tempestites)

follo~ing

sharp,

and decreases

and shelves

in

nearshore In

turn,

German

the surface zone

Bay)

produce

onshore

water,

causing

landward

storm

layers,

(supratidal

the coastal

water

set-up

is compen-

156

sated

by offshore

bottom

water

on-offshore

Longshore or

storms,

Coriolis

in contrast,

(Swift

effect

transport

of surface

welling

and

In this

case,

offshore

5.

In

a

of storm

water

depth

tempestites

and

return

(proximal)

grain

size,

Fossils

can

transport:

proximal

tempestites

significant

lateral

characterized

applied

6.

by

On

a

the source

Naps

areas

computed

sizes,

7.

of

shapes,

In basin

from

off

changes

and

8.

to their

Due

beds storm

cannot

tectonic

down-

boundary

zone. areas,

direction,

due

as

increasing

Accordingly,

individual

by a decrease

directions

tracers

contain

the

to

mixed

assemblages

as well and

for storm

as

faunal sediment

faunas

distal

in

due

to

tempestites

are

indicating

in-situ

trends

also be

proximality

can

intervals.

a

useful

tool

sands,

and

(2)

the

they

thus help

sequences

basin

trends.

basins.

record

thickening-upward

whole

indicate

to reconstruct

of s h a l l o w - m a r i n e

tempestite (e.g.

paleogeogra~

because

paleobathymetric

parameters

and o r g a n i s a t i o n s

vertical

for

systems,

monitors

trans-

sequencBs). sea

level

movements.

geometry

be expected

layers,

the

landward

coastal

intraclast-content

while

basis,

over

(or

by the

in offshore

expressed

influx,

fluctuations

cycles

and

used

proximality

analysis,

coast.

depositional

of storm

geometries

gressive/regressive The packaging

are

storm

where

(distal)

commonly

stratigraphic

trends

reconstructions (i)

statistical

bottom

set-up

hemisphere,

by

significantly

paleocurrent

be

sediment

is caused

in the coastal

trends,

parautochthonous

to thicker

Proximality

also

which

are expected

the

structures,

the

the right,

offshore

bioclast-

contents.

reworkin9.

to

from

sedimentary

geostrophic

zones.

show marked p r o x i m a ] i t ~

thickness,

to

flo~

varies

changing

the

N-America,

with

be c o m p e n s a t e d

paleoeurrents

distance

in

a scenario,

off

In the northern

water

may again

stratification

combined

the shore,

1983).

in nearshore

nearshore

nature

bed

flows

shelf

associated

against

bottom

alongshore

and on-offshore

alongcoast

surface

water

in Atlantic

field

et al.,

drives

currents) In such

prevail.

cause

of the sea surface effect

(gradient transport.

(e.g.

by the pressure

Coriolis

flows

sediment

should

Nuschelkalk)

driven

set-down)

return

seaward

paleocurrents

Triassic

flows,

directed

causing

however,

(thin

sheets,

to provide forming

often

significant thicker

patchy),

individual

reservoirs.

and laterally

more

storm

Amalgamated persistant

157

sand blankets reservoirs.

interbedded with shelf muds, Such

sand

are

intervals of minor t r a n s g r e s s i v e / r e g r e s s i v e of c o a r s e n i n g - u p w a r d s

sequences.

9.

also

Storm

beds

are

Individual tempestites local

scale,

while

useful

excellent

i0.

In

e.g.

at

markers.

the

but only

on

or -condensed

They are especially if they are

tops

stratigraphy.

coarsening-upwards

correlation,

mostly epibenthic

pa!eoecologic

minor

hydrocarbon in regressive

for a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n

storm-amalgamated

of

regional

for " e v e n t - s t r a t i g r a p h i c " specific,

cycles,

provide very sharp time signals, composite

p r e f e r e n t i a l l y at the tops often

potential

bodies are to be expected mainly

a

units,

cycles, powerful

are tools

"fingerprinted"

by

faunas.

analyses,

distinguished

from "post-event"

tempestites,

however,

might

"background" faunas.

be

remorking and lateral shell influx

faunal assemblages can be

The faunal spectrum

of

shelly

distorted

by (often repeated)

that

consequences

has

for

storm paleo-

community reconstructions.

]].

Storm

stratification

of the stratigraphieal event

deposits

conditions implying

leads a

high

record,

as

compared

to

a

12. Further

a)

flume

experiments

elastic particles

effects

transitions

with

cycles

expression

of

background

"catastrophic"

incompleteness.

picture This also

studies.

studies

of combined

different

cooperation

products

to turbidites

composed

or

potential of

along

several

flows under different

materials

(including

bin-

;

of cycles

for

sedimentologists,

present-day

ecologists

storms,

marine

to

including

monitor possible

(off-shelf transport);

of storm beds

causes

between

m e t e o r o l o g i s t s and

of

c) further field studies and understand

periods

focus on integrated

oceanographers,

and

preservation long

stratigraphic

and modelling and

interdisciplinary

geologists,

in assessing the texture

:

as

hydraulic conditions

b)

of

high the

episodic

evolutionary

research should

such

fhe to

highly

degee

limits h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n

avenues,

is also significant

the

computer

modelling

of

(such as coarsening-up hierarchy

and

in storm depositional

different cycles)

asymmetric

systems;

scale

to better

stratigraphic

158 d)

Further

graphy"

in

simulation changes, would the

examples of i n t e g r a t e d storm of

depositional

controlling

paleolatitude

be the

evolution

factors,

and

establishment

basin analysis

systems, such

paleo-storm of " b a s i n

of a p a r t i c u l a r

combined

that

basin.

with

mathematical

subsidence,

regimes.

models"

sedimentary

as

and " d y n a m i c s t r a t i -

The enable

sea

level

ultimate

goal

us to p r e d i c t

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