fac cover (i).qxd
19/04/2005
14:24
Page 1
ISBN 1-84544-113-3
ISSN 0263-2772
Volume 23 Number 5/6 2005
Facilities Specialised facilities
The official research publication of
www.emeraldinsight.com
Facilities
ISSN 0263-2772 Volume 23 Number 5/6 2005
Specialised facilities Editor Dr Edward Finch
Access this journal online _________________________
191
Editorial review board ____________________________
192
Editorial _________________________________________
193
Controlling healthcare associated infections (HAI) and the role of facilities management in achieving “quality” in healthcare: a three-dimensional view Champika Liyanage and Charles Egbu _____________________________
194
Prescriptive versus non-prescriptive prison design briefs: architect responses to interpreting Australian private prison design briefs Giustina G.S. Consoli ___________________________________________
216
Investigating key components of the facility management of secondary schools in Hong Kong Mei-yung Leung, Xinhong Lu and Hon-yan Ip _______________________
226
An approach to assess fire safety requirements in library facilities Mohammad A. Hassanain and Nagib Al Ashwal _____________________
Access this journal electronically The current and past volumes of this journal are available at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-2772.htm You can also search more than 100 additional Emerald journals in Emerald Fulltext (www.emeraldinsight.com/ft) and Emerald Management Xtra (www.emeraldinsight.com/emx) See page following contents for full details of what your access includes.
239
CONTENTS
CONTENTS continued
School building investment and impact on pupil performance Daniel Green and Patricia Turrell _________________________________
253
The impact of an intelligent classroom on pupils’ interactive behaviour Tu´lio Tibu´rcio and Edward F. Finch_______________________________
262
www.emeraldinsight.com/f.htm As a subscriber to this journal, you can benefit from instant, electronic access to this title via Emerald Fulltext and Emerald Management Xtra. Your access includes a variety of features that increase the value of your journal subscription.
Additional complimentary services available
How to access this journal electronically
E-mail alert services These services allow you to be kept up to date with the latest additions to the journal via e-mail, as soon as new material enters the database. Further information about the services available can be found at www.emeraldinsight.com/alerts
To benefit from electronic access to this journal you first need to register via the internet. Registration is simple and full instructions are available online at www.emeraldinsight.com/admin Once registration is completed, your institution will have instant access to all articles through the journal’s Table of Contents page at www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-2772.htm More information about the journal is also available at www.emeraldinsight.com/ f.htm Our liberal institution-wide licence allows everyone within your institution to access your journal electronically, making your subscription more cost-effective. Our web site has been designed to provide you with a comprehensive, simple system that needs only minimum administration. Access is available via IP authentication or username and password.
Key features of Emerald electronic journals Automatic permission to make up to 25 copies of individual articles This facility can be used for training purposes, course notes, seminars etc. This only applies to articles of which Emerald owns copyright. For further details visit www.emeraldinsight.com/ copyright Online publishing and archiving As well as current volumes of the journal, you can also gain access to past volumes on the internet via Emerald Fulltext and Emerald Management Xtra. You can browse or search these databases for relevant articles. Key readings This feature provides abstracts of related articles chosen by the journal editor, selected to provide readers with current awareness of interesting articles from other publications in the field. Non-article content Material in our journals such as product information, industry trends, company news, conferences, etc. is available online and can be accessed by users. Reference linking Direct links from the journal article references to abstracts of the most influential articles cited. Where possible, this link is to the full text of the article. E-mail an article Allows users to e-mail links to relevant and interesting articles to another computer for later use, reference or printing purposes. Emerald structured abstracts New for 2005, Emerald structured abstracts provide consistent, clear and informative summaries of the content of the articles, allowing faster evaluation of papers.
Your access includes a variety of features that add to the functionality and value of your journal subscription:
Research register A web-based research forum that provides insider information on research activity world-wide located at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister You can also register your research activity here. User services Comprehensive librarian and user toolkits have been created to help you get the most from your journal subscription. For further information about what is available visit www.emeraldinsight.com/usagetoolkit
Choice of access Electronic access to this journal is available via a number of channels. Our web site www.emeraldinsight.com is the recommended means of electronic access, as it provides fully searchable and value added access to the complete content of the journal. However, you can also access and search the article content of this journal through the following journal delivery services: EBSCOHost Electronic Journals Service ejournals.ebsco.com Huber E-Journals e-journals.hanshuber.com/english/index.htm Informatics J-Gate www.j-gate.informindia.co.in Ingenta www.ingenta.com Minerva Electronic Online Services www.minerva.at OCLC FirstSearch www.oclc.org/firstsearch SilverLinker www.ovid.com SwetsWise www.swetswise.com TDnet www.tdnet.com
Emerald Customer Support For customer support and technical help contact: E-mail
[email protected] Web www.emeraldinsight.com/customercharter Tel +44 (0) 1274 785278 Fax +44 (0) 1274 785204
F 23,5/6
192
Facilities Vol. 23 No. 5/6, 2005 p. 192 # Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-2772
EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD
Keith Alexander Centre for Facilities Management, University of Salford, Salford, UK Jane Bell Consultant, Chadlington, Oxfordshire, UK Professor Graham Brawn Head, Facility Planning and Management Programme, University of Melbourne, Australia Claudia Miranda de Andrade SATURNO Planejamento, Arquitetura e Consultoria s/c Ltda, Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil Dr Frank Duffy Director, DEGW, London, UK Professor Jan Granath Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden Professor Robert W. Grimshaw Director of Construction and Property Research Centre, Faculty of the Built Environment, University of West of England, Bristol, UK
Dr John Hinks Innovation Manager, Group Workplace Operations, The Royal Bank of Scotland Group plc, Edinburgh, UK David Kincaid The Bartlett School of Graduate Studies, University College London, London, UK Lionel Prodgers Managing Director, ARK Services, London, UK Professor Brian Sloan Building and Surveying Department, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK Tony Thomson Director, DEGW, London
Editorial Special issue: specialised facilities Much of the research work covered in Facilities relates to modern workplace environments, particularly office facilities. But there is also a growing body of knowledge about non-work related facilities such as hospitals, prisons and schools. Such environments present unique challenges. The most problematic issue is defining what they are there for. Hospitals are no longer just places for treatment and recovery. Many now provide accommodation for visiting families and friends. Some may provide a range of retailing outlets, whilst others may provide a range of facilities for healthy living. Prisons are no longer just places for incarceration, increasingly providing a structured pathway for returning offenders back into the community. Schools are increasingly adopting features of the modern office environment, with the implementation of wireless mobile computing and flexible work settings. The homogenous role of these facilities is being superseded by a much more heterogeneous set of roles, whereby hospitals become more like hotels and schools become more like office workplaces. Related to the question of defining what these facilities exist for, is the question of how to measure their performance. This is illustrated in three of the papers in this special issue which relates to schools, where attempts are made to associate productivity with good building design. What exactly is the purpose of a school? To produce students with core academic skills? To produce students with communication skills suited to the 21st century? Or, in addition, to develop students that are socially rounded and ethically aware? Until such basic questions are defined, it is difficult to measure the success or failure of the facility itself. This problem of complex and changing ambitions also arises in other specialised buildings. The facilities manager is thus confronted by a dynamic that continually challenges the existing assumptions. Add to this the problem of forecasting (a science increasingly required for long-term procurement approaches such as Public Private Partnerships or Design Build and Operate) and the facilities manager becomes overwhelmed by possible consequences. The old adage “the only thing that’s certain is uncertainty” has never been more appropriate than when applied to the field of facilities management.
Editorial
193
Erratum Facilities, Vol. 23 No. 1/2 Owing to an error in the production of the article “Potential use of real-time data capture and job-tracking technology in the field”, by Sea´n T. McAndrew, Chimay J. Anumba, Tarek M. Hassan and Alistair K. Duke (pp. 31 – 46), in the above issue, part of the URL for the project web site was shown incorrectly. The final sentence on page 46 should read: For further information, see www. wirelessfm.org The Production Department sincerely apologises to the authors and readers for this error.
Facilities Vol. 23 No. 5/6, 2005 p. 193 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-2772
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
FAC 23,5/6
194 Accepted September 2004
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-2772.htm
Controlling healthcare associated infections (HAI) and the role of facilities management in achieving “quality” in healthcare: a three-dimensional view Champika Liyanage and Charles Egbu School of the Built and Natural Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK Abstract Purpose – To explore the role of facilities management (FM) in the control of Healthcare Associated Infections (HAI) and then to discuss a three-dimensional approach which can be used for FM services in the control of infections (HAI). Design/methodology/approach – Most of what is put forward in this paper is based on a research project which is at its early stages. The discussions are therefore grounded on a thorough review of literature accomplished as part of the research project. Unstructured interviews with experts (sample – 25) in infection control in National Health Service in Scotland (NHSS), carried out concurrently as a pilot study, also provided useful insights when writing up this paper. Findings – It is suggested that integrating FM effectively with the core services is vital in avoiding duplication of work carried out by the healthcare workers. Continuous measurement and management of performance of FM services is also vital in the control of HAI. In addition, it was identified that managing knowledge is important to retain, develop, organize, and utilize the organization’s capability of managing HAI. Overall, an increased concerted effort; better integration of processes and practices between clinical and non-clinical activities in the healthcare sector and effective dissemination of knowledge are all vital in controlling HAI to achieve “quality” in healthcare provisions. More empirical research is needed to explore the many complex and significant ways in which FM can be exploited for improved control of HAI. Research limitations/implications – Both targeted guidelines on the role of FM in the control of HAI as well as the paucity of relevant literature on related areas are limitations. Practical implications – The culture of healthcare managers and functional level staff is a major implication when operationalizing the three-dimensional approach introduced in the paper. Originality/value – The paper focuses on one of the major issues in healthcare, i.e. HAI. Few have taken an FM perspective on this issue. This paper therefore adds significantly to our understanding of the control of HAI from a non-clinical perspective. Keywords Knowledge management, Performance management, Quality management, Buildings, Health services, Diseases Paper type Research paper
Facilities Vol. 23 No. 5/6, 2005 pp. 194-215 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-2772 DOI 10.1108/02632770510588619
Healthcare associated infections – an introduction Healthcare associated infections (HAI) by definition means “infection which was neither present nor incubating at the time of admission but has developed during the course of a stay in hospital or other facility” (Haley, 1986 as cited in Horton and Parker, 2002;
Comptroller and Auditor General, 2000; Public Health Laboratory Service, 2000; SEHD, 2002; World Health Organisation, 2002; Amberg, 2003). HAI stands particularly for healthcare associated infections, although it can be described as hospital acquired infections or healthcare acquired infections. HAI could occur in any healthcare setting such as general practice, day surgery centers, residential aged care, long-term care facilities, child care centers, nursing homes, and community services other than hospitals. Besides, “infections can manifest themselves during the stay in hospital or in the period following the hospital stay” (Haley, 1986 as cited in Horton and Parker, 2002). Therefore, the term “Healthcare Associated Infections” is more pertinent for the term “HAI”. HAI directly affects the patient, their carers and employees through severe or chronic illnesses, pain, anxiety, depression, and longer stay in hospital. It also reduces productivity and earnings and sometimes causes death (Public Health Laboratory Service, 2000). Moreover, it is a major burden to the hospital as well. The SEHD (2002) highlights HAI as an adverse event in healthcare for the following reasons. (1) Its frequency and scale. Infection in hospital not only affects an individual but it can, and too frequently does, transmit to others. (2) Its impact on delivering service. HAI has impeded good outcomes from treatments (e.g. infection following surgery), increases length of stay and often, e.g. when outbreak occur, leads to more resources being required to maintain levels of service and/or temporary closures of services. (3) Its bearing on public expectations. Many understand that historically health has been improved by measures to prevent infections and they count on the same level of protection in healthcare as they receive from food, water, and air quality control. (4) Its negative image. HAI is partly a reflection of poor hygiene standards and unsuitable environments for healthcare. These two factors have a negative influence on the overall quality of National Health Service (NHS). Treating HAI imposes an additional burden on hospitals and results in additional costs to healthcare and community services. Studies that have estimated the economic burden of HAI generally limit the range of costs examined to those that fall on the hospital sector (Comptroller and Auditor General, 2000). The National Audit Office estimated the cost of HAI at £1 billion per year (Department of Health, 2003). Similarly, last year the annual cost of HAI (associated cost of dealing with HAI) to the National Health Service of Scotland (NHSS) was approximately £100M (or 380,000 bed days per annum), which is more or less stating that 1,000 bed hospital is running continuously just to handle HAI (Hinks et al., 2003). Data available from the United States also show that the costs of maintaining one hospital bed for a year would support a full hospital infection control program in a 250-bedded hospital (Nettleman, 2003 as cited in Department of Health, 2003). Studies throughout the world document that HAI is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Healthcare organizations are searching for new and effective strategies to tackle this issue as it is seen as evidence of poor quality of health service delivery. There are many reasons why patients develop healthcare associated infections. Some of these relate to immunocompetence of the patient, while others reflect the environment in which the patient is nursed or the skill of the surgeon and the team conducting their care. HAI is predominantly considered as a clinical issue by many
A threedimensional view 195
FAC 23,5/6
196
researchers and healthcare managers. However, a careful consideration would suggest that facilities management (FM) has a vital role to play in this regard. This paper therefore attempts to identify mainly the role of FM in controlling HAI. Most of what is put forward in this paper is based on a research project which is at its early stages. Therefore, it will first discuss the aims, objectives, and methodology of the research on which this paper is based on. It will then elucidate the importance of controlling HAI. Infections can occur due to clinical or medical errors or through poor performance of FM services in the healthcare setting as aforementioned. Next, the paper will examine three main issues that are to be considered in improving the non-clinical segment (i.e. FM) of healthcare organizations in the control of HAI. These are integrating FM services to the core processes of healthcare to improve infection control practices; managing knowledge in healthcare organizations to improve the aforementioned integration; and managing performance of FM services to perceive, control and mitigate any deficiencies in the practices of infection control. The paper will finally present some conclusions derived from the aforesaid discussions. Project introduction – aims, objectives and methodology The paper is based on an ongoing research project, which is aimed at developing a conceptual framework for managing the performance of FM in the control of HAI. The study focuses only on analyzing the existing system of infection control in NHSS. The specific objectives of the study are: (1) to investigate and document the main causes of HAI and to document the key issues associated with infection control; (2) to explore and document the opportunities and challenges associated with knowledge management practices in the control of HAI; (3) to examine the current state of non-clinical practices (design and construction and FM services) with regard to the control of HAI; (4) to investigate, assess, and document the performance management approaches in-use in the control of HAI from non-clinical practices (design and construction and FM services) perspective; (5) to elicit and document the perceptions of non-clinical staff on key issues that affect their performance in controlling HAI; and (6) develop and refine a performance management model for non-clinical practices (design and construction and FM services) in the control of HAI. The selection of a suitable research methodology is vital in any research to attain the goals aptly. At the initial stages, an extant literature review was undertaken in the general area of HAI. The variety of sources of literature consulted included electronic documents, journals, books, conference proceedings, reports, and guidance documents produced by NHSS in UK and other countries. Informal discussions with experts (sample – 25) in infection control in NHSS were also carried out concurrently as a pilot study. The experts were selected from several professional categories (see Table I) who are actively involved in infection control. The variety of experts selected for the pilot study range from healthcare managers, microbiologists, infection control nurses, facilities managers to construction professionals. These discussions offered useful insights into the current context of
infection control in the NHSS (see Table I). A combination of research strategies is planned to execute the main study in order to avoid any gaps in terms of validity, reliability, and generalizability of results to be obtained. A case-study approach will be used at the initial stages to identify the key performance measures used in infection control practices. The case-study approach is mainly divided into two parts. First, it will explore the context of FM services and challenges associated with measuring and managing performance during the building occupancy stage. Although there are myriad FM services to be considered in the control of HAI, domestic service function (cleaning) will only be taken into consideration for this particular study (Figure 1). It will focus both on in-house and outsourced FM services to recognize any divergence of practices. It was identified, from the literature review, that the application of infection control standards is comparatively less during the design and construction stages due to the cost of involvement and lack of mandatory and evidence-based guidelines of infection control for designers or contractors. Therefore, the second stage of the case studies will look upon the extent of application of infection control standards during new builds and refurbishment stages (Figure 1). A questionnaire survey will be adopted to generalize the results obtained through the case studies. The target groups of the study will be facilities managers and construction professionals (mainly architects and engineers who are involved in the design of hospitals and supervision of construction). The data obtained through the case studies and questionnaire survey will be analyzed using the NUD*IST software and SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), respectively. The results will be used to evaluate the following. Professional category Facilities managers Infection control nurses Microbiologists Healthcare managers Managers from NHSS support organisations Architects who are involved in hospital projects Total
A threedimensional view 197
Number interviewed 5 6 3 5 4 2 25
Table I. Number of pilot study contacts
Figure 1. Focus area of the study
FAC 23,5/6
.
.
.
198
.
.
.
Availability of policies and other guidance documents to carry out infection control practices in FM services. Practical difficulties encountered by facilities managers, facilities services staff, and construction professionals in the control of HAI. Use of performance management approaches by facilities managers and construction professionals, in order to assess the accomplishment goals of infection control. This will mainly explore the types of performance management approaches used (if any), performance measures, benchmarking systems, control measures, feedback mechanisms and challenges of the performance management approach(es). Education and training programs available for the facilities services staff and construction professionals to comply with infection control standards. Other knowledge sources available for facilities services staff and construction professionals to control infection and their accessibility. The level of integration between parties (clinical and non-clinical; non-clinical includes facilities managers, facilities services staff, and construction professionals) in planning, implementing, and performing infection control practices.
The study will then exploit Personal Construct Theory (PCT) to identify the challenges associated with performance of people before devising the performance management framework. The unique feature of PCT, which was introduced by Kelly (1955), is that it considers people as scientists. They experience the world around them by constantly forming and testing hypotheses about the world (Kelly, 1955). According to Stewart (2004) through people’s experiences they develop a very complex model of the world and their place in it. As Kelly asserts this model represents their personality. In theory of personal constructs, Kelly develops the aforementioned principle further. For example, by considering whether and how we modify our constructs when faced with contradictory information, what are our “core constructs”, i.e. deeply held values and principles which are unlikely to change, etc. (Stewart, 2000). As Beven (1995) affirms the basis of PCT is that people are different with differing construct systems, which means they all construct and interpret events differently. It is widely accepted that people’s personality can influence their work performance and adjustment to their jobs. Sometimes, most successes or failures on the job cannot be attributed to the amount of a person’s intelligence or mechanical or technical skills, but to personality characteristics. Beven (1995) asserts that PCT has the potential to help with self assessment, e.g. to reach an indication of how individuals discriminate between work roles; and to encourage tolerance in a group of others ideas and values (PCT is based upon the premise that people construct their own version of events. This becomes explicit in the process, and provides an opportunity for sharing different ideas and values). Due to the fact that this particular research study attempts to develop a performance management framework, at the end, for FM in order to control HAI, it is essential to explore issues which could affect people’s performance. Exploitation of PCT is useful in this respect as a means of exploring the challenges and opportunities which can hinder or boost performance of facilities services staff, respectively. The information obtained from the case studies and quantitative approaches will be used to elicit the issues of performance in order to proceed with PCT. A repertory grid
technique method will be used to scrutinize the results. The repertory grid is an instrument designed to capture the dimensions and structure of personal meaning. Its aim is to describe the ways in which people give meaning to their experience in their own terms (Feixas and Saul, 2000). The information attained from all three approaches, i.e. case-study approach, questionnaire survey, and PCT, will be used to develop the performance management framework for FM in controlling HAI.
A threedimensional view 199
Infection control – where is it now? The history of infection control is an established one and can be traced back to many centuries ago. During wars, from as far back as the 18th century, large numbers of soldiers, who survived death on the battle field, lost their lives to wound infections later; and this had very serious military consequences. Due to the high mortality associated with military hospitals, a number of significant advances in hospital infection control were instigated (Mercier, 1997). Perhaps the most famous nurse ever, Florence Nightingale, worked in a military hospital during the Crimean war. During her period the military hospital, conditions were poor and 80 percent of soldiers died from infections they caught in the hospital rather than their original wounds (History of Medicine, 2001). Florence Nightingale improved standards of hygiene and sanitation which dramatically reduced the infections in her hospital. When she returned from the war, she set the foundations of hospital design and nursing practice that are still seen today (Reference library: Encyclopedia, 1996). There was also a major necessity for control of infections during the first and second world war periods (War Memorandum No. 11, 1944; War Memorandum No. 11, 1951; Ministry of Health, 1959). With time, the means of control of infections in hospitals have increased dramatically worldwide (Mercier, 1997); although, it is becoming more laborious with the changing nature of healthcare provisions. The NHS, UK has recently (in 2004) launched investigations into the high numbers of patients contracting Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) – widely known as superbug, in their hospitals. Given below are some recent BBC news headlines to provide a snapshot view of the issue of HAI in the NHS: . The NHS has been attacked for failing to monitor the full extent of the hospital superbug crisis (BBC News online, 2004c). . Overseas experts are to be flown in to help the NHS battle hospital superbugs, the health secretary has announced (BBC News online, 2004b). . Hospitals in Wales have been told they must make fighting infections – including the so-called superbug, MRSA – a priority (BBC News online, 2004e). . The superbug MRSA contributed to the deaths of 30 patients in Northern Ireland hospitals last year, new figures show (BBC News online, 2004d). . The government is set to introduce new measures to tackle hospital superbugs (BBC News online, 2004a). . Hospitals and healthcare sites in Scotland are to be issued with new guidelines designed to improve cleanliness and infection control (BBC News online, 2003). Combating the crisis of infections is significant; because, “per se, the main goal of the healthcare service is to reduce people’s illnesses, not to make them sick”. In the UK and elsewhere around the world, MRSA and other infections have begun to create a threat to patients and healthcare workers’ wellbeing. Besides, it is creating a negative image
FAC 23,5/6
200
on the overall quality of healthcare provision by the NHS. The report on Staphylococcal infections in hospitals, published by the Central Health Services Council in 1959, has affirmed that “the prevalence of staphylococcal infections in hospitals is giving rise to a growing concern. The fact that such infections continue to occur, in spite of increased understanding of the measures necessary for their control, may be attributed to various causes”. According to Mertens (1996), despite general improvements in healthcare arising from medical advances, it has been shown that the incidence of nosocomial infection has remained unchanged over the past 20 years, with approximately one in ten patients acquiring an infection during a hospital stay. Even though the prevailing conditions of the healthcare system (UK and other countries) are more advanced as opposed to the situation in the war periods in the 18th century, 1910s and 1950s, the issues relating to infections still appear to be challenging. Therefore, there is a need for robust, effective, and state-of-the-art infection control strategies, which cater for the existing system of healthcare provision. The infection control strategies should be looked at in a holistic way since HAI is a result of myriad of issues in the clinical services and the services supporting the main clinical services (non-clinical services/FM services). The three dimensions of infection control – a non-clinical perspective There are several interpretations for quality or quality of care. According to Smiths (1997) cited in Long and Harrison (1985) quality of healthcare can be defined in several perspectives; technical, personal (share holders/owners), or from a public health perspective (customers). However, there is no doubt that cost effectiveness will be central in all perspectives. This does not mean that good quality should always be cheap, but it should be affordable from both healthcare providers’ and consumers’ points of view. Philip Crosby cited in Katz and Green (1997), a pioneer of quality management (QM), also acknowledges the importance of the relationship of quality and cost. According to Crosby’s research, quality is conformance to requirement: that means quality should be achieved through compliance with defined specifications or standards. From Sheldon’s (1998) viewpoint, to gain quality, healthcare would have to be clinically effective and medically appropriate. Clinicians would need to be competent, and errors minimized and the systems for delivering care run smoothly and efficiently. This, however, excludes the aforementioned cost effectiveness. Simply increasing appropriateness, effectiveness, and competence of clinicians would not be desirable if the cost of care is too high or the cost of care is unaffordable. Quality Digest (2001) introduces quality as fulfilling customer requirements at lower cost with built-in preventive actions in the processes and employee and management involvement, and ensuring the best product to the customer or end-user with just-in-time delivery. Herein, the best product means the best output that utilizes minimal input in a maximum way (with minimum waste) during the process of production. As Quality Digest notes, this needs customer-focus quality leadership, personal responsibilities, measurement and improvement, and good infrastructure or support services. Simply, healthcare quality means doing the right thing at the right time, in the right way, for the right person and having the best possible healthcare results/outcomes (QuIC, 1999). Quality outcomes should be free from defects, constraints and items which do not add value to customers (Quality Digest, 2001). In healthcare terms the defects or constraints could be unsafe health systems, long waiting lists for patient
care, poor performance which leads to effective and inefficient delivery, incorrect use (misuse, under use, or overuse) of technologies or resources which leads to wastes which do not add value to customers. This needs adaptation of effective quality management systems. Studies throughout the world document that HAI is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. A high frequency of HAI is evidence of poor quality of health service delivery, and leads to avoidable costs (World Health Organisation, 2002). The Communicable Diseases Network of Australia (2002) sees the fundamental activity in healthcare establishments as continually improving the quality of care and providing a safe working environment. Further, they explain that effective infection control strategy, which prevents the transmission of infection, from person to person within the healthcare environment should be one of the core concerns of quality of care. Infection control requires adaptation of effective quality management systems. However, non-existence of HAI does not always mean high-quality healthcare. It is only one aspect, which is crucial in gaining positive outcomes such as patient satisfaction, less waste, cost savings, and better health status. Therefore, there is a need to search for strategic options to attain quality in healthcare by effectively controlling HAI. As aforementioned, the main idea of the paper is to present three important dimensions (Figure 2) of infection control using a nonclinical perspective, to attain “quality” of healthcare. The first dimension is FM. Herein, the main clinical process (core process) is also considered merely to reflect the importance of its integration with FM services. The paper will only focus on FM during the building occupancy stage; thus, will exclude consideration of design and construction stage of a hospital construction. The next two dimensions are knowledge management (KM) and performance management (PM). Here KM and PM are being considered in view of infection control in the FM services. The following sections will describe the importance of the intervention of these three dimensions in-depth.
A threedimensional view 201
Infection control – FM perspective Never has infection control in the UK received so much attention and prominence as it is the case now. This has followed principally from a series of government reports
Figure 2. The three dimensions of infection control
FAC 23,5/6
202
acknowledging and emphasizing the importance of infection control as a key indicator of high-quality clinical care (Masterton et al., 2003). Infection control practices are designed to prevent and control infection. It helps to maintain a safe environment for patient care and a safe working environment for staff in hospitals and other healthcare settings. Maintaining a safe patient and work environment needs proper attention, and can be achieved through the practices of healthcare workers (to avoid contact transmission), cleaning (to avoid contamination of equipment and the built environment), catering (to avoid food contamination), and building operation and maintenance (to avoid cross infection). These aforementioned practices can be categorized into three main dimensions. (1) The buildings and fittings (the Hard FM aspects) – such as inter-connectivity between clinical spaces, air change logistics, spatial relationships, and proximities (including patient beds), the effectiveness of infection barriers and spatial separation, plus the “clean-ability” of surfaces and other finishes. (2) The Soft FM services – such as cleaning, catering, waste management and decontamination, laundry and linen, and food hygiene (many of which are managed by external contractors). (3) The clinical staffing practices and healthcare processes and protocols – including availability and use of changing facilities, the location and use of washing facilities, and specifics of good clinical processes and linkage to support services. FM services play an important role in infection control. Facilities availability, utilization, and suitability can greatly influence the healthcare setting as a whole in developing and transmitting infectious agents. As examples, lack of handwashing facilities in wards can refrain staff from washing hands in between patient contacts; improper use of disinfection agents for decontamination can result in cross infection; and unsuitable ventilation systems which do not serve the exact purpose can assist in growth of infection. All these can occur due to poor planning of healthcare settings, variances of standards, or lack of specialist knowledge of FM services. Principally, poor integration of FM services into the clinical process is one of the major factors in causing HAI. According to the SEHD (2002), links between clinical staff and facilities are essential to influence many of the factors underlying HAI such as the spacing and configuration of beds, control of bed occupancy, patient movement, and delayed discharges. The impact of poor clinical environment on the incidence of HAI can be compounded by patient management factors such as bed occupancy and throughput. Delayed discharges increase the likelihood of patients acquiring infection and HAI can, in turn, lead to delayed discharge. The action plan asserts that the responsibility for cleaning and other areas should be clearly defined between nursing and domestic staff to avoid gaps in coverage. As to the Scottish Infection Manual (SEHD, 1998), facilities managers are responsible for providing an effective cleaning service for the hospital. They are of great assistance to the infection control teams in implementing infection control policy and should be regularly informed of infection control matters which impinge on the work of their staff. However, from the pilot study carried out as part of the ongoing study, it was identified that clinical staff and support staff consider themselves as two separate entities. Hence, coordination between the two is relatively weak. Staff’s perception on the cleaning of ward beds is an evidence for this; they
regard cleaning of the upper part of the bed (pillows, bed linen, etc.) as a duty of clinical staff and underside cleaning (cleaning of equipment underneath the bed, floor, bed frame, etc.) as the duty of the domestic staff. Commodes or ward equipment which are frequently used need frequent cleaning. From discussions with few facilities managers (five) of NHSS, it was identified that support staff perform thorough cleaning of toilets and ward equipment at least twice-a-day. However, in their view, it is the clinical staff’s responsibility to clean the equipment or commodes in-between patient use. These reveal the segregation of the tasks related to the same component or same domain. This is one side of the quandary. The other side is the lack of authority given to FM professionals and staff in controlling HAI. Many books and reports in infection control have regarded HAI as a clinical issue (Bennet and Brachman, 1998). This is evident in some government reports too. The Medical Research Council (1944) has considered infection control as a nursing issue. However, a recent publication entitled “Winning Ways”, a report of the Department of Health (2003), has proposed seven action areas to control infection and has averred to the fact that it should not be left to the clinical staff alone; but a particular emphasis was not given to the FM aspect. They have overlooked the remit of FM over the control of infection. The organizational structure developed by the Comptroller and Auditor General (2000) to control infection in England, also appear not to have given any responsibilities to facilities managers or FM contractors (if the FM service is outsourced). From the Scottish perspective, SCIEH (Scottish Center for Infection and Environmental Health), the main organization that does surveillance on infection control and environmental health in NHSS, has developed a model to ensure that effective arrangements and processes are in place to achieve and maintain best practice in infection control and communicable disease control (SEHD, 2002). The model consists of three main elements, namely core components of the model, national infrastructure, and the delivery of a sustainable model. The model has given priority to PM and has provided some measures needed to achieve best practice nationally. For infection control practices to become effective, all NHS organizations and their personnel have to understand how their contributions fit into the comprehensive approach. Due to this reason, the model has further given a generic statement of national roles, responsibilities, and relationships. In this, the support services (FM) function has a diminutive role in infection control and has no direct connection with either the infection control team or the infection control committee of the particular NHSS boards and trusts. As Berwick (cited in Woods et al., 2001) asserts, great health professionals do not make great healthcare. Great health professionals interacting well with all of the other elements of the healthcare system make great healthcare. Therefore, infection control requires commitment of adequate resources and clear lines of communication between the major players (Department of Human Services, 1998). As aforementioned, NHS England and NHSS organization structures (Comptroller and Auditor General, 2000; Scottish Center for Infection and Environmental Health, 2002) specifically designed for infection control have not considered FM as a major player in the process of infection control. Neither FM professionals have given any clear lines of responsibilities nor clear lines of communications to coordinate with the major players, i.e. infection control teams and infection control committees. This creates a perception that HAI is
A threedimensional view 203
FAC 23,5/6
204
predominantly a clinical issue and could result in lack of “integration” between clinical and FM services staff. In simple terms, “integration” implies the formation, coordination, or blending of units or components into a functioning or unified whole (Master Glossary, 2002); thus, integration between the clinical and the FM services staff in view of HAI signifies the communication and coordination between the two parties in achieving infection control goals together. Integration also considers interdependency between the two parties when carrying out practices of infection control. A great responsibility lies with the healthcare managers to initiate practices which avoid lack of integration between the FM and the clinical staff. Improved coordination among the staff members is essential for areas, which are highly prone to HAI. High-risk HAI areas require apt attention in order to fulfill tasks as and when required. For examples see the following. . In case of blood spillages in a ward area, the domestic and nursing staff should coordinate well to disinfect the area without any delay. . FM staff has to frequently use wet cleaning methods to reduce dispersal of micro-organisms (or dust particles) into the air. But moist surfaces encourage bacterial growth. In such circumstances it is arguable that the clinical staff should not perform any tasks until surfaces become completely dry. The integration should not be confined to coordination and communication across the clinical and FM teams but also within the teams as well. The FM services staff should integrate among themselves to identify any deficiencies of work, e.g. there should be better linkages between estate management and domestic cleaning since upkeeping the ward environment includes both “maintenance” and “cleaning” of equipment, furniture, and fittings. As a whole, there is a need for better integration of clinical and FM services staff in order to carry out infection control practices effectively.
Infection control – KM perspective Elaborating the meaning of KM will help in recognizing the magnitude of KM in integrating FM services to the core processes of healthcare. “Knowledge” cannot easily be defined. Indeed, philosophers such as Socrates and Plato have considered the question in some detail (PSBS, 2003). Knowledge can be considered as a continuum from data to information to knowledge that can be applied effectively. It is all that is relevant to enable people to work effectively (PSBS, 2003). While knowledge allows work to be carried out efficiently, people’s expertise, skills, and competencies can be used to do it effectively. Amidon (2002) as cited in Albers and Brewer (2003) defines the fundamentals of knowledge as data, information, and then knowledge. She notes, “data is a basic representation of fact, information is data with context, and knowledge is information with meaning. . . fully actionable”. Davenport and Prusak (1998) definition goes far beyond Amidon’s definition of knowledge. They explain it as a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. However, knowledge always originates from individuals brains. As to Bender and Fish (2000), knowledge originates in the head of an individual and builds on information that is transformed and enriched by personal experience, belief, and
values with decision and action-relevant meaning. It is information interpreted by the individual and applied to the purpose for which it is needed. Knowledge can be seen mainly in two ways, i.e. tacit and explicit. This classification of knowledge is based on the level of its complexity of knowledge continuum (Koulopoulos and Frappaolo, 1999). Simply put, tacit knowledge is “non-verbalised, intuitive and unarticulated knowledge” (Polanyi, 1962 as cited in McAdam and McCreedy, 1999). It is the knowledge that resides in human brain and cannot be easily captured or codified (Wong and Radcliffe, 2000; Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1991). It is information that is not written down, but which people keep in their heads PSBS (2003). Apart from individuals’ brains, Maula (2000) has given team skills and cultural aspects of an organization as also constituents of tacit knowledge. Hence, tacit knowledge resides not only within people but also may be embedded in organizational and social processes; building cumulatively within the organization (Quintas et al., 1997). Tacit knowledge adds more value to the organization but as has been described it is difficult and sometimes impossible to capture and diffuse (Koulopoulos and Frappaolo, 1999; Pederson, 2003). The value of tacit knowledge is immense for this particular study since one of its concerns is “integration of staff”. Individuals accumulate tacit knowledge through direct “hands-on” experience (Nonaka, 1994). Sharing this knowledge allows others to avoid mistakes. In contrast, explicit knowledge is the knowledge that can be articulated in formal language and easily transmitted amongst individual (Koulopoulos and Frappaolo, 1999). Pederson (2003) explains explicit knowledge as the stuff of books. However, it is more than that. Explicit knowledge is the information that is recorded in documents or on computer systems, for example (PSBS, 2003), which means that explicit knowledge can be expressed and codified easily. Managing all these various forms of knowledge (mainly tacit and explicit) is KM. It is useful for the organizational and personal developments. KM is also about enhancing the ability to “create” new knowledge (Albers and Brewer, 2003). Knowledge always originates from human knowledge hence is also defined as the activity which is concerned with strategy and tactics to manage human centerd assets (Brooking, 1997). Quintas et al. (1997), however, define KM as a process. Clearly, it is the process of continually managing knowledge of all kinds to meet existing and emerging needs, to identify and exploit existing and acquired knowledge assets and to develop new opportunities. Summarily, KM is about ensuring that people have the knowledge they need, where they need it, when they need it – the right knowledge, in the right place, at the right time (NHS National Electronic Library for Health, 2003). KM is known as the capabilities by which communities within an organization capture the knowledge that is critical to them, constantly improve it, and make it available in the most effective manner to those people who need it. They can then exploit it creatively to add value as a normal part of their work (Royal Dutch, 2001 as cited in Haines, 2002). This recurring process encourages integration and empowers employees to constantly boost the way work is performed. Therefore, KM is a driver for process improvement and an enabler for sharing information. It also improves decision making, encourages innovation, engenders learning, facilitates collaboration, and promotes systems thinking (Bennet, 2000). KM creates environments that are conducive to knowledge exchange that enables an environment that encourages knowledge sharing (Sindell, 2001) and ultimately integration.
A threedimensional view 205
FAC 23,5/6
206
It is understandable that many facilities services staff have a little knowledge in infection control compared to clinical staff. However, it is not cost effective to educate FM services staff regarding all aspects of HAI such as what causes HAI and how it can be controlled. Indeed, they can be provided guidelines on the requirements or responsibilities they have over infection control, but not the peripheral knowledge of HAI. For example, the maintenance staff are provided the guidelines regarding ventilation requirements of wards but it is up to them to achieve the standards considering the other practical issues such as movement of patients and staff during maintenance of ventilation systems, issue of legionella, dust control, and so on. In this respect, FM services staff can gain assistance from infection control practitioners or clinical staff. Similarly, clinical staff can receive assistance through the domestic staff to carry out cleaning practices effectively in sanitary and other ward areas, as and when required, in-between patient use. Sharing expertise among staff members gained through experiences can resolve practical difficulties endured by individual staff members when performing the tasks of infection control. Contracting out FM services has often been debated by the healthcare managers and infection control practitioners. Infection control practitioners believe it as a poor practice that could increase the incidence of HAI. Murphy (2002) alleges that “contracting out of hospital cleaning services has further contributed toward falling standards”. According to him, outsourcing FM services has not improved the quality of service, rather it has created a two-tier workforce, breaking up the healthcare team and creating obstacles to the provision of client-focused integrated services. As to Barrett (1995), improvement is needed in the quality of cleaning “where direct control has now often been lost to outside organisations”. Similarly, Doctors Corocoran and Kirkwood as cited in Murphy (2002) argue that cleaning is a critical area for infection control and yet in many hospitals its management has been lost to outside organizations, resulting in uncoordinated and inconsistent cleaning protocols. On the contrary, Rogers (1999) cites two of the main advantages of outsourcing of FM services in hospitals as follows: (1) functional difficulty: difficulty in managing different functions and tackling span of control; and (2) reduce risk by spreading the risk to outsourced contractors. According to Smith (1995), outsourcing FM contracts reduces burden of healthcare management; the healthcare manager’s role moves toward overall contract monitoring, while the FM contractor focuses on service delivery. The NHS’s audit of cleaning services also claims that “where services are contracted out they are more likely to have failed”. Considering this dilemma of contracting out FM services, it could also be argued that it is not totally the problem of outsourcing which increases the incidences of HAI, but the lack of integration between the FM contractors and healthcare management (both management and operational levels). As Smith (1995) states, FM contractors and healthcare managers should have a better integration to develop, initially, a partnership understanding between the teams, if it is to be outsourced. It is perceptible that FM contractors do not have an in-depth knowledge in HAI. Then again, neither infection control practitioners nor healthcare management are thorough in practical issues of FM services. Hence, whether FM is in-house or outsourced. the healthcare management and infection control practitioners endeavor to involve
facilities managers in the development of guidelines and standards for FM services. Simultaneously, clear lines of communication should be developed among them to improve coordination and integration. Not having properly defined communication lines can result in ambiguities as well as poor practices through lack of direction. Therefore, “integration” is required between the FM and the clinical teams. Better integration permits two teams to explore each others’ areas. It broadens their views on what is happening around them. It identifies the issues which could exacerbate each others’ performances. It could eliminate duplication of work. Ultimately, integration helps them to achieve goals through a coordinated effort. Briefly, integration and coordination rather creates a culture where staff will use a holistic view to execute work. Infection control – PM perspective Through what has been discussed above, it is obvious that FM plays a key role in infection control. It was also perceptible that to address the issue of HAI, issue of integration among FM, clinical, and management staff should be addressed. KM can be used as an effective tool in facilitating this. “Integration” requires a culture which is “open” where people coordinate, communicate, and share their knowledge/ideas broadly and in turn KM creates this open culture. However, KM cannot be taken alone to improve staff integration. Here “improve” denotes “make or become better” (Oxford dictionary, 1994). The word “better” can raise many questions; better than what? to what extent? in what context and how? etc. If the process of integration is to “make better”, it is obligatory to identify – better than what? – which means a point of reference. At times it can be better than the current level of performance of the staff/process/organization or can be performance of some other organization(s). “Better” also requires specifying to what degree/level/extent. There is, therefore, a need to recognize which part/area needs “betterment”. It can be one area, few areas, or sometimes all the areas. Identifying the point of reference can be done through “benchmarking”. According to Auditor General Scotland (2000), benchmarking is a structured and focused approach to comparing with others how services are provided and the performance levels achieved. The purpose of the comparisons is to enable organizations to identify where and how they can do better. This approach is nothing but PM; exploring the word “Performance Management” will substantiate this. PM is mostly identified as a system which enhances individual performances to support or achieve the organizational goals (Armstrong and Baron, 1998). However, when considering the rest of the inputs (Figure 3) together with the processes and outcomes, it is not totally appropriate to consider PM in view of individual performance alone. Donabedian (1980) cited in Long and Harrison (1985) argues that the evaluation of the quality of health service involves the functional relationship of structure (inputs), process, and outcomes. That is the structural characteristics of settings affect the process of care which in turn affects the outcome of that care. As Long and Harrison (1985) indicate, none of these three (input, process, outcome) represents attributes of quality but each provides an approach to generate information on the presence or absence of quality. Thus, theoretically, performance can be evaluated by looking at any of these three aspects. However, considering the functional relationship of structure, process, and outcome, it becomes apparent that assessing quality cannot be adequately
A threedimensional view 207
FAC 23,5/6
208
undertaken by looking at one element alone. According to Audit Commission (2000) performance information is not an end in itself, but can be used to achieve the following. . Measure progress toward achieving corporate objectives and targets. . Promote the accountability of service providers to the public and other stakeholders. . Compare performance to identify opportunities for improvement: performance indicators may be used to identify opportunities for improvement through comparison both within the organization over time or between different units or organizations. . Promote service improvement by publicising performance level. Leading organizations agree on the need for a PM system which is a structured methodology for using performance measurement information to help set agreed performance goals, allocate and prioritize resources, inform managers to either confirm or change correct policy or program direction to meet those goals, and report on the success in meeting those goals (Procurement Executives Association, 1999). Application of effective performance measurement tools and PM systems is of importance in measuring outcomes and to achieve realistic and meaningful quality targets in healthcare. Organizations can use results obtained through PM to benchmark performance against other organizations. It can also be used to set organizational goals. However, according to Amaratunga and Baldry (2002a) the strength of benchmarking is not in identifying best performance but in learning best practices. That is, the organizations should identify, study, analyze, and adapt the “best practices” that lead to the “best performance” and understand the best practices that help managers to make better-informed decisions about where and how to change their organisational practices. Many researchers give many measurement dimensions for measuring performance, but healthcare organizations should decide their measurement indicators according to the goals and objectives. Delineating performance indicators which reflects the performances of staff, process and outcomes is a must. This is vital in identifying appropriate performance levels of the staff, processes as well as identifying the levels of outcomes. PM has seldom been recognized as a main component in the control of HAI. PM can be used as an effective tool to detect pros and cons of the infection control system
Figure 3. Inputs, processes, and outputs in healthcare
in-use and can then support strategic decision making. It can be used as a point of reference to compare the past performance levels with the present. It identifies mistakes and assists in deciding remedies to be taken. Alternatively, it enables the organisation to manage performance by measuring performance. However, this requires identification of performance indicators which reflect the exact performance levels of the system. One of the major issues in the control of HAI is the absence of proper performance indicators. For example, many use frequency of cleaning as an indicator to measure the performance levels of cleaning. Fundamentally, this does not reflect the cleanliness of the system. It identifies how often staff does cleaning, but does not indicate how effective it is. Therefore, it should align with some other indicators such as equipment and materials used for cleaning, methods, and the duration of cleaning. The aim of the current research project, on which the paper is based, is to develop a PM framework in view of infection control. Many Scottish working group reports have identified the importance of a PM framework in controlling HAI (The Carey Group Report, 2001; Scottish Center for Infection and Environmental Health, 2002; Scottish Executive Health Department Working Group, 2001). None of these reports takes an FM perspective. The PM framework to be developed in the current study, however, will give due cognisance to FM. The proposed framework would help in achieving the following: . reducing structural barriers, e.g. adequate bed space to facilitate cleaning and manual handling, providing adequate handwashing facilities; . continuous improvement, e.g. improving facilities services staff competencies through training and development; . revising FM policies and strategies; . effective resource allocation; . identify the required FM staffing levels; and . deducing better practices (benchmark practices). Discussion – a glimpse of the three dimensions of infection control The idea of this section is to elaborate the ways and means the three dimensions described above will act mutually. From a thorough review of literature and discussion with key FM and clinical experts, the authors are of the view that both clinical and FM services have important roles in the control of HAI. However, it should be noted that HAI cannot be eradicated fully from the healthcare environment due to uncontrollable factors such as susceptibility of hosts, immunocompetence, use of antibiotics, and so on. It was also evident from the aforesaid discussions with experts that one of the prerequisites to overcome poor practices of FM services in controlling infections is to integrate FM with clinical practices. This FM integration with core services (i.e. clinical care), as a whole, can enhance the overall healthcare experience of patients since patient’s perception of quality is based not only on clinical treatments but also on a range of other factors relating to the overall healthcare experience. Support functions, such as catering, cleaning, administration and reception services, can create first and lasting impressions – good and bad (NHS Estates “HFN 17”, 1998). Hence there is a need to consider support services as an integral part of healthcare services. Kincaid
A threedimensional view 209
FAC 23,5/6
210
(1994) argues that the integration of FM as an effective function for an organization is achieved by recognizing the following characteristics of FM: . FM is a support role within an organization, or a support service to an organization; . FM must link strategically, tactically, and operationally to other support activities and primary activities to create value; and . within FM, managers must be equipped with knowledge of facilities and management to carry out their integrated support role. KM is an efficient technique in improving the integration between the two parties. “Integration” requires an open culture and KM can be used to create this “open culture” through encouraging staff to share their knowledge. Cross-fertilisation between staff groups/teams for mutual recognition and information exchange regarding objectives and planned outcomes can improve integration of core and nonclinical teams. According to Albers and Brewer (2003), KM deals with the creation, acquisition, integration, distribution and application of knowledge to improve the operation’s effectiveness and competitive advantage of an organization. KM enhances knowledge sharing; thus, can eventually result in integration and vice versa. Finally, PM can be used as a tool to assess the performance of FM services and the degree of collaboration of the core and noncore staff in order to control HAI. PM is also essential for KM. Knowing what you have done and what have gone wrong can assist in avoiding repetition of the same mistake. Also knowing where you are, what you are doing, and what to do will help to generate knowledge at the right time. This is particularly important in the transfer of quality information or knowledge at the right time to the right person. Overall, an effective infection control practice, in non-clinical perspective, could use a three-dimensional approach in the control of HAI. The three-dimensional approach (Figure 4) mainly focuses on integrating FM to the core clinical processes in the control of HAI, and also uses KM and PM as mechanisms to enhance integration. Conclusions The management of HAI has to become integral to the jobs of all involved in providing patient care, both clinical and nonclinical. Thus, improvements in infection control demands an understanding of the relative importance of FM as a fundamental part in HAI. There is a need of an improved quality management system as well as an appropriate PM framework to identify the performance levels of the system. A multitude of approaches is already in use in healthcare all of which can be utilized to manage performance and indeed many of the components are well developed. But few have acknowledged the issue of HAI. HAI has had a major impact on the public health status and the image of healthcare settings worldwide. From the discussions of the paper it is also perceived that there should be a high integration of FM services to the main clinical services to a greater extent. This can eliminate duplication of work and work which can be overlooked. All in all the overall conclusions can be depicted as follows. . There is a need to integrate FM services into the clinical services to a greater extent. This can eliminate duplication of work and work which can be overlooked.
A threedimensional view 211
Figure 4. The three-dimensional approach of infection control
.
.
.
Managing knowledge among healthcare workers (both FM and clinical staff) can create an “open culture” where staff can freely access and share knowledge as and when required to expand their knowledge which can enhance their practices. The staff can also reduce mistakes by sharing others’ experiences. Healthcare managers, staff, and services providers (e.g. FM contractors) can use PM as a tool to perceive where they stand in operations of infection control practices. Benchmarking practices and identifying the “best practice” are also ultimate merits. There is a need for the healthcare managers and infection control practitioners to identify the importance of FM services in the control of HAI so as to assign clear roles and responsibilities for the facilities managers to achieve infection control goals.
References Albers, J.A. and Brewer, S. (2003), “Knowledge management and the innovation process: the eco-innovation model”, Journal of Knowledge Management Practice, Vol. 4, pp. 1-10. Amaratunga, D. and Baldry, D. (2002a), “Moving from performance measurement to performance management”, Facilities Journal, Vol. 20 No. 5, pp. 217-23. Amberg, E. (2003), Nosocomial Infections, Montana State Hospital Policy and Procedure. No. 3.
FAC 23,5/6
212
Armstrong, M. and Baron, A. (1998), Performance Management: The New Realities, Institute of Personal and Development, London. Auditor General Scotland (2000), “A clean bill of health?”, a review of domestic services in Scottish hospitals, p. 41. Barrett, P. (1995), Facilities Management: Towards Best Practice, Blackwell Science Ltd., Oxford. BBC News online (2003), “Cleaning guide for hospitals”, 5 August 2003, available at: http://news. bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3124615.stm BBC News online (2004a), “New bid to tackle superbug rates”, 11 July 2004, available at: http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3881623.stm BBC News online (2004b), “Drive to fight hospital superbugs”, 12 July 2004, available at: http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3885433.stm BBC News online (2004c), “NHS failings hit superbug fight”, 14 July 2004, available at: http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3886977.stm BBC News online (2004d), “MRSA leads to 30 NI deaths”, 27 July 2004, available at: http://news. bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/3930861.stm BBC News online (2004e), “New cash to fight hospital bugs”, 9 September 2004, available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/3639526.stm Bender, S. and Fish, A. (2000), “Transfer of knowledge and the retention of expertise: the continuing need for global assignments”, Knowledge Management, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 125-37. Bennet, A. (2000), “Knowledge management: unlocking the potential of our intellectual capital”, available at: www.chips.navy.mil/archives/00_jan/km.htm (accessed 13 June 2003). Bennet, J. and Brachman, P. (1998), Hospital Infections, Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, PA. Beven, P. (1995), Using Personal Construct Theory in Careers Education and Guidance, Division of Employment Studies, University of Northumbria at Newcastle, available at: http:// online.northumbria.ac.uk/faculties/hswe/hswecareers/pbevpct.html (accessed 15 March 2004). Brooking, A. (1997), El Capital Intellectual, Paidos Empresa, Barcelona. Communicable Diseases Network of Australia (2002), “Infection control guidelines for the prevention of transmission of infectious diseases in the healthcare setting (Draft Version 3)”, paper presented at the ICG PRELIMS 2002, Canberra, available at: www.health.gov.au/pubhlth/strateg/communic/review/icg_pdf/icg_guide.pdf (accessed September 2002). Comptroller and Auditor General (2000), “The management and control of hospital acquired infection in acute NHS Trusts in England”, paper presented at the HC 230 Session 1999-00, available at: www.nao.gov.uk/publications/nao_reports/9900230.pdf (accessed 17 February 2000), p. 121. Davenport, T. and Prusak, L. (1998), Working Knowledge – How Organizations Manage What They Know, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA. Department of Health (2003), “Winning ways”, Working Together to Reduce Healthcare Associated Infection in England, Chief Medical Officer, London. Department of Human Services (1998), “Infection control – literature review”, available at: http:// infectioncontrol.health.vic.gov.au/infcon/index.html (accessed 16 April 2003). Feixas, G. and Saul, L.A. (2000), “A note on implicative dilemmas”, A Manual for the Repertory Grid, available at: www.terapiacognitiva.net/record/pag/man13.htm (accessed 13 February 2004).
Haines, M. (2002), “‘Knowledge Management’ a new approach to improving health and social care”, NHS modernization agency, available at: www.wmswdc.nhs.uk/Presentations/KM/ worcester227.ppt (accessed 14 March 2003). Hinks, J., Egbu, C., Hoy, D., Haggarty, P. and Liyanage, C. (2003), “Mapping knowledge on controlling and avoiding HAIs”, Knowledge Transfer Grant,. History of Medicine (2001), “1700-1900: 18th and 19th centuries – History of Medicine”, available at: www.schoolscience.co.uk/content/4/biology/abpi/history/history8.html Horton, R. and Parker, L. (2002), Informed Infection Control Practice, 2nd ed., Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh. Katz, J.M. and Green, E. (1997), Managing Quality: A Guide to System-Wide Performance Management in Healthcare, 2nd ed., Mosby, St Louis, MO. Kelly, G.A. (1955), The Psychology of Personal Constructs, Norton (reprinted by Routledge, London, 1991), New York, NY. Kincaid, D.G. (1994), “Measuring performance in facilities management”, Facilities, Vol. 12 No. 6, pp. 17-20. Koulopoulos, T.M. and Frappaolo, C. (1999), Smart Things to Know about Knowledge Management, Capstone Publishing, Oxford. Long, A.F. and Harrison, S. (1985), Health Services Performance: Effectiveness and Efficiency, Croom Helm Ltd, London. McAdam, R. and McCreedy, S. (1999), A Critical Review of Knowledge,. Masterton, R.G., Mifsud, A.J. and Rao, G.G. (2003), “Review of hospital isolation and infection control precautions”, Journal of Hospital Infection, Vol. 54 No. 3, pp. 171-3. Maula, M. (2000), “Three parallel knowledge processes”, Knowledge and Process Management, Vol. 1, pp. 55-9. Mercier, C. (1997), Infection Control: Hospital and Community, Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, Cheltenham. Mertens, R.A.F. (1996), “Methodologies and results of national surveillance”, Baillieres Clinical Infectious Diseases, Vol. 3, pp. 159-78. Ministry of Health – Central Health Services Council (1959), “Staphylococcal infections in hospitals”, Standing Medical Advisory Committee, Report of the Sub-Committee, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London. Murphy, J. (2002), “Literature review on relationship between cleaning and hospital acquired infection”, available at: www.cupe.ca/downloads/cleaning_and_infection_control.pdf (accessed 5 March 2003). NHS Estates (1998), HFN 17 – Business Approach to Facilities Management, HMSO Publications, London. NHS National Electronic Library for Health (2003), “KM principles and practices”, available at: www.stuff.co.uk/knowledgemanagement/km1/principles.asp (accessed 16 August 2003). Nonaka, I. (1994), “A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation”, Organization Science., Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 14-37. Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. (1991), The Knowledge Creating Company, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Pederson, P.O. (2003), “Knowledge management FAQs”, available at: www.melcrum.com/ know_articles/01.htm (accessed 4 September 2003). Procurement Executives’ Association (1999), Guide to a Balanced Scorecard Performance Management Methodology.
A threedimensional view 213
FAC 23,5/6
214
PSBS (2003), “Knowledge management”, Learning through Sharing, PSBS. Public Health Laboratory Service (2000), “The burden of hospital-acquired infections”, The Pharmaceutical Journal, Vol. 264 No. 7082, pp. 206, available at: www.pharmj.com/ Editorial/20000205/clinical/hospitalinfections.html Quality Digest (2001), “Quality – How do you define it?”, available at: www.qualitydigest.com/ html/qualitydef.html (accessed 12 September 2003). Quintas, P., Lefrere, P. and Jones, G. (1997), “Knowledge management: a strategic agenda”, Long Range Planning, Vol. 30 No. 3, pp. 385-91. Reference Library: Encyclopedia (1996), Florence Nightingale, available at: www. campusprogram.com/reference/en/wikipedia/f/fl/florence_nightingale.html Rogers, P.A. (1999), Optimising HealthCare Facilities Management: Outsourcing Opportunities, BIIA – HealthCare, available at: www.rdtpacific.co.nz/news/papers/optimisinghealth.pdf (accessed 21 June 2003). Scottish Center for Infection and Environmental Health (2002), A Model of Infection and Communicable Disease Control in Scotland, (Kennedy Report). Kennedy Business Development, Northamptonshire. SEHD (Scottish Executive Health Department) (1998), Scottish Infection Manual, Guidance on Core Standards for the Control of Infection in Hospitals, SEHD. Scottish Executive Health Department – NHS Scotland Working Group (2001), “Managing the risk of Healthcare Associated Infection in NHS Scotland”, The Carey Group Report, available at: www.show.scot.nhs.uk/sehd/mels/HDL2001_53Carey.pdf, p 119. Scottish Executive Health Department Working Group (2001), “The decontamination of surgical instruments and other medical devices”, The Glennie Report, NHS HDL: (2001), available at: www.show.scot.nhs.uk/sehd/publications/hdl30101annex.pdf, p 10. SEHD (2002), “Preventing infections acquired while receiving healthcare”, The Scottish Executive’s Action Plan to reduce the risk to patients, staff and visitors, 51, available at: www.scotland.gov.uk/library5/health/preventinfect.pdf (accessed June 2003). Sindell, M.T. (2001), “KM Conversation”, Training, Vol. 101, pp. 21-2. Smith, D. (1995), “Changing roles and responsibilities in health-care facilities management”, Vol. 13 No. 1 pp. 11-15, available at: http://leporello.emeraldinsight.com/vl ¼ 2835379/ cl ¼ 17/nw ¼ 1/rpsv/cgi-bin/linker?ini ¼ emerald&reqidx ¼ /cw/mcb/02632772/v13n1/ s1/p11 (accessed 20 March 2003). Stewart, V. (2000), “Understanding George Kelly and Personal Construct Theory”, Enquire Within, New Zealand, available at: www.enquirewithin.co.nz/HINTS/skills2.htm (accessed 12 March 2004). Stewart, V. (2004), “Kelly’s Theory Summarised”, Enquire Within, New Zealand, available at: www.enquirewithin.co.nz/theoryof.htm (accessed 12 March 2004). QuIC (The Quality Interagency Coordination Task Force) (1999), What is Quality, available at: www.consumer.gov/qualityhealth/index.html (accessed 3 August 2003). War Memorandum No. 11 (1944), “The control of cross infection in hospitals”, memorandum prepared for the Committee on Preventive Medicine of the Medical Research Council by the Sub-committee on Cross Infection in Hospital Wards, Medical Research Council, His Majesty’s Stationery Office, London. War Memorandum No. 11 (1951), “The control of cross infection in hospitals”, (revised edition) Cross Infection in Hospitals Committee of the Medical Research Council, Medical Research Council – Privy Council, His Majesty’s Stationery Office, London.
Wong, W.L.P. and Radcliffe, D.F. (2000), “The tacit nature of design knowledge”, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management., Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 493-512. World Health Organisation (2002), “Prevention of hospital acquired infection: a practical guide”, WHO/CDS/CSR/EPH/2002.12, Vol. 64 available at: www.who.int/csr/resources/ publications/drugresist/whocdscsreph200212.pdf (accessed September 2003).
A threedimensional view
Further reading Ayliffe, G.A.J., Lowbury, E.J.L., Geddes, A.M. and Williams, J.D. (1992), Control of Hospital Infection: A Practical Handbook, 3rd ed., Chapman and Hall, London. Ayliffe, G.A.J., Babb, J.R. and Taylor, L.J. (1999), Hospital Acquired Infection: Principles and Prevention, 3rd ed., Arnold, London. Boyle, B. (2001), “Presentation on hospital acquired infections (Nosocomial Infections)”,. Damani, N.N. (2003), Manual of Infection Control Procedures, 2nd ed., Greenwich Medical Media Limited, London. Healthcare premises and the community interface (n.d.), available at: www.scotland.gov.uk/ library2/doc15/sim-00.asp (accessed May 2003). Mehtar, S. (1992), Hospital Infection Control: Setting up with Minimal Resources, Oxford University Press, Oxford. NHS Estates (2001), “Infection control in the built environment: design and planning”, Health Building Notes: HBN 30, available at: www.nhsestates.gov.uk/download/ publications_guidance/infectn.pdf (accessed 14 August 2003). NHS Scotland – Ayrshire and Arran NHS Trust (2000), “Infection control: guidance for hotel services domestic staff”, Practical Hand Book. National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) and Australian National Council on AIDS (ANCA) (1996), Infection Control in the HealthCare Setting: Guidelines for the Prevention of Transmission of Infectious Diseases, AGPS, Canberra. Olesen, D. and Hood, R. (2003), “Health facility planning – an infection control perspective”, Hospital Engineering and Facilities Management, available at: www.wmrc.com/ businessbriefing/pdf/hosp_eng_2003/publication/olesen.pdf (accessed 12 January 2004), pp. 56-60. Oxford University Press (1994), The Oxford Pocket Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Queensland Government (2001), “Infection control guidelines”, Queensland Health, 371, Brisbane, available at: www.health.qld.gov.au/infectioncontrol/documents/pdf/ Legislation.pdf (accessed November 2001). US Environmental Protection Agency (2002), Master Glossary, available at: www.epa.gov/emap/ html/pubs/docs/resdocs/mglossary.html
215
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-2772.htm
FAC 23,5/6
Prescriptive versus non-prescriptive prison design briefs
216
Architect responses to interpreting Australian private prison design briefs
Accepted September 2004
Giustina G.S. Consoli School of Commerce, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia Abstract Purpose – To report on architect reactions to the use of non-prescriptive design and construction briefs in the delivery of private prison projects in Australia. Design/methodology/approach – The introduction of the private prison projects in Australia saw the introduction of alternative delivery methods, such as Design-Construct, for the delivery of prison facilities. The resulting design brief, forwarded as the “Request for Proposal”, was typically a non-prescriptive document. Those architects who participated in such private prison design projects were interviewed using a semi-structured interview questionnaire. Beliefs regarding the use of such briefs were gauged from the interview data. Findings – The interviews revealed conflicting beliefs regarding the usefulness and appropriateness of the design brief. The responses were divided between a minority who found the briefs adequate, owing principally to the belief that it facilitated innovation. However, the majority considered the briefs as inadequate for prison construction. They believed that it allowed for manipulation by contractors, and that it compromised the design process and the integrity of the facility. As architects question the suitability of such design briefs for the delivery of prison facilities, the paper highlights the advantages and limitations in using prescriptive and non-prescriptive prison design briefs. Originality/value – This paper fulfils a need for data regarding the role of design briefs in prison design and construction. It offers a valuable comparison of the diverse approaches that can be taken, and the impacts this has upon how architects operate in prison projects. Keywords Prisons, Design, Private sector organizations, Australia Paper type Research paper
Facilities Vol. 23 No. 5/6, 2005 pp. 216-225 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-2772 DOI 10.1108/02632770510588628
Introduction During the 1990s, a number of Australian states embarked on the delivery of prisons facilities by the use of private correctional providers. The projects employed alternative delivery methods, such as Design-Construct, which can be used as an umbrella term for its variants, such as BOOT (Build Own Operate Transfer), BOO (Build Own Operate), DCFM/DCMF (Design Build Finance Manage) and DBFO (Design Build Finance Operate). However, the controversy lay in the suitability to deliver facilities such as prisons, using a delivery method that was generally untried in Australian prison design and construction. The study (Consoli, 2003) involved the intensive interviewing of 22 private prison architects. The private prison projects included in this study spanned four Australian States that were procured between 1990 and 2000. As a result of such interviews,
architects highlighted a number of issues related directly to the design briefs that were issued as part of the “Requests for Proposal” (RFP) in the private prison projects. The research showed that the design brief plays a critical role in how architects operate, and the successes they have in prison projects. This paper will discuss (1) the concept of a “design brief”; (2) the methodology of the study; (3) the organisational structure and scope of Australian prison projects, through a comparison of the private and public prison delivery methods; (4) the resulting private prison design briefs; and (5) architect responses to the appropriateness of non-prescriptive briefs to prison design. Design briefs The Royal Australian Institute of Architects (RAIA, 1998) Advisory Notes define a design brief as: . . . a written statement which details the client’s expectations and the functions of a prosed building. It should describe the facilities to be provided and the activities to be performed and also clearly identify the broad policies within which these are to be achieved in respect of the time, cost and quality of the facility.
RAIA states that the objectives of the brief is to provide “. . . a contextual basis for the development of the design, documentation, construction and commissioning of the building” (RAIA, 1998). The brief is also considered a “. . . dynamic document which is refined throughout the design process” (RAIA, 1998). It is also important to note that even though the design process generally is in response to the brief, there may be necessary overlap between the finalisation of the brief, and the commencement of the design process (RAIA, 1998). Indeed, Ryd (2004) reports that there is a trend to view the briefing process as an “. . . integrated part of the entire construction and management process, and not just part of an early stage” (Ryd, 2004). Ryd (2004) finds that there is an interest in the role of briefing in achieving good building design. Ryd (2004) reports that prior research regarding briefing has revolved around “. . . developing prescriptive methods for writing a clear statement of specifications at the beginning of a project” (Ryd, 2004 in reference to Markus, 1969; Kelly et al. 1992). She concludes that the role of the brief is “. . . both underestimated and insufficiently researched” (Ryd, 2004). This is further intensified when considering prison facilitation. Farbstein (1986) states that the briefing (or “programming” as it is referred to in the United States) in the design of correctional institutions involves the development of information in relation to how the building “. . . should perform in response to the requirements of the functional program” (Farbstein, 1986, p. 317). In other words, the brief is to state “. . . what the building should do, rather than what it will be like” (Farbstein, 1986, p. 318). Farbstein (1986) believes that the prison design brief is more than just a listing of the spaces required for the building; the brief is a “. . . statement of intent for the facility, an exploration of values, needs and requirements” (Farbstein, 1986, p. 313). Fairweather (2000a) further stresses the role of the architect and the need to “. . . do much more than merely design to a stereotyped brief” (Fairweather, 2000a, p. 66).
Prison design briefs
217
FAC 23,5/6
218
Methodology The objective was to find a method that evaluated the effects of privatisation upon the processes of planning, design and construction of prisons, via an examination of the beliefs of those within the private and public correctional industry (Consoli, 2003). The resultant data-collection method used in the study was participant interviews using a semi-structured interview questionnaire (Moser and Kalton, 1973; Babbie, 1973; de Vaus, 1990; Minichiello, 1995). Interviews allowed an in-depth discussion and the extraction of beliefs from participants in the private and public prison design and construction processes, hence enabling a detailed understanding of such processes. A two-stage method of investigation was utilised. Firstly, interviews were conducted. This process involved preliminary telephone contact, derivation of research instruments, submission of questionnaires to participants, and conduct of telephone interviews. Secondly, interview data was analysed, with conclusions drawn from a comparison of the beliefs and theories of participants in private and public prison projects. The analysis of results was carried out by the identification and development of critical ideas from the results. This established linkages between ideas, from which the hypotheses could be tested and conclusions drawn. Australian prison projects – overview Public and private prison delivery methods The processes of traditional and alternative delivery methods employ quite distinct contractual arrangements and sequencing of tasks. Public prison projects typically used traditional delivery methods, defined as the design, bid, build. Although variations exist from project to project, generally the foundation of the process was based on the same criteria. In such projects, Public Works architects contracted with consultant architects for the design of the facility. The work proceeded sequentially from the needs analysis to master planning and design. Once such stages were completed, the design was put out to tender (bid) for construction. The government, as owner and operator, contracted separately with a general contractor, or multiple contractors for construction work. The awarding of contracts was usually to the lowest bidder (Knapel, 1993). The design and construction brief was fully defined, or a prescriptive design brief. The private prison projects typically saw consortia submit a competitive bid and the State evaluate these bids against specific criteria. The organisation structure of the consortium included a contractor, private correctional operator and specialist security contractor. The main group was the design and construction team, who were led by the contractor. This team included the construction specialist, architects and consultant architects, technical services, who under the guise of the operator prepared the design and construction package for assessment. The design brief was non-prescriptive, identifying “principles” rather than dictating specific resolutions. The private prison design brief The issuing of the design and construction briefs in Australian private prison projects typically occurred under the strict procedures attached to the “Request for Proposal” phase. The tender process was divided into specific stages. The first stage was the “Expression of Interest” stage. This phase functioned as a means for the host
government to determine which tenderers were considered unsuitable due to financial, technical and or managerial deficiencies (Smith, 1999; Cunningham, 1999). The second stage, and the focus of this paper, regards the “Invitation to Tender”. This stage saw shortlisted consortia invited to submit their tenders. The “Invitation to Tender” contained detailed information regarding the project including the tender process to be adopted. The “Request for Proposal” contained details regarding: (1) the structured concession agreement; (2) formalities; and (3) selection criteria. The design and construction brief were typically characterised in the formalities component. The formalities component gave a description of the facility, instructions to tenderers, timelines, site visits, guarantees and validity, format for submissions and signatures, and documents that were to be submitted by the consortia. The design and construction component was evaluated against a number of criteria, including its: (1) functionality; (2) technical soundness; and (3) operational capabilities. This included such features as maintenance, emergency’s serviceability, security, cost and appearance requirements. The design and construction brief was one document in a number of documents, that together as a package, were issued to shortlisted parties during the RFP phase. The brief usually gave such information as the number of inmates to be housed, and basic provisions to their housing. The State also provided teams with their objectives, however the competitive nature of the delivery method meant this information was broad and generically presented (Department of Justice, 1994, 1995; Ministry of Justice, 1998, 1999). In general, details included: . Prison management principles – government policy on corrections, containing and supervising prisoners, rehabilitation, etc.; . Concept for prison – prisoner profile, prison functions and services, and prison facilities (accommodation, security and safety, protection prisoners, etc.); . Site briefing; . State prison management specifications; and . Prison design and construction principles – layout and environment, security and management. In one jurisdiction, the key briefing criteria in regards to prison design and construction principles included (Department of Justice, 1994, 1995): . The need to accommodate prisoners in a single room or cell; . Disabled persons access to and in between all buildings; . Flexible accommodation in the layout to allow for fluctuations in the numbers of prisoners and different classifications and status; . Separation of individual or groups of prisoners to enable effective supervision;
Prison design briefs
219
FAC 23,5/6
. . .
.
220
. .
Facilities for children in custody; Visiting facilities; Security incorporating a “. . . balance of static and dynamic security components” (Department of Justice, 1995, p. 33); Secure physical perimeter; Secure prisoner accommodation, in rooms in shared units or in single cells; and Contraband facilities.
While the State issued their version of such requirements, private correctional operators generally had their own generic version that with modification fit within or was adapted to the framework issued by the State (Department of Justice, 1994, 1995; Ministry of Justice, 1998, 1999). The consortia digested the issued information and produced it in the tender bid documents, which were submitted for evaluation to the State assessors. This had some distinct ramifications. The private prison projects sequence of tasks differed markedly from traditional delivery. In the private prison projects, the design documents were not fully resolved, and decisions were made well into the construction phases. In the public prisons the design documents were fully resolved prior to construction. To an extent, the prescriptive brief in the public prison projects facilitated greater certainty. In contrast, the non-prescriptive briefs, allowed for flexibility and changes to be made well into the construction stages. The private prison projects were introduced as a tool to initiate innovation, lead to change and performance improvements within State prison facilities, and develop greater departmental collaboration (Bowdery, 1994; Harding, 1997; DETR, 1998). Non-prescriptive briefs were thus considered a mechanism to drive such objectives. However, this approach also raised objections. For instance, Apsey (1990) believed that private prison procurement was problematic because of the: . . . very limited terms, and the lack of detail in the original brief would result in the reduction of many critical design aspects in the proposal, which would result in demonstrable inadequacies of some of the cheaply constructed prisons in the United States (Apsey, 1990, p. 5).
By the late 1990s, hostilities regarding some private prisons began to surface in mainstream media. As a result of some serious incidents, calls were made for the examination of the design of the prison (The Age, 8 January 1998). The focus later shifted to the “Request for Proposal”, with objections being targeted at the fact that the government’s “Request for Proposal” “. . . specified outcomes rather than details of how the prisons are to be designed and operated” (Nguyen, 1998). Consequently, the question raised is: what is most appropriate for prison design – prescriptive or non-prescriptive design briefs? Architect responses All architects were concerned with the “. . . government’s arms length . . . ” approach during the bidding stage. Although all considered that they had satisfied the projects requirements, they also considered the information in the briefs as “. . . exceedingly lean . . . ”. This point raised two conflicting beliefs. Firstly, a small number of architects considered the briefs adequate because they were non-prescriptive. This was deemed
beneficial because it allowed greater scope for design innovation. Secondly, and in contrast, others believed briefs were too vague, and left the designer with more questions than answers. This created frustrations and aggravated the design process. Each of these viewpoints will be examined separately. Non-prescriptive design briefs being adequate A minority of architects claimed they were unconcerned by the open-ended requirements of the “Request for Proposal” because: . They relied on the private operator and contractor to flesh out the vagaries. Any problematic issues could be identified and negotiated during workshops. . They were long-standing partners with operators, thus required little guidance. They believed they had the requisite skills to “. . . work it out for ourselves . . . ”. . Prior to the release of the “Request for Proposal”, many teams had already derived their own brief; hence they had identified issues well before the bid stages. Experienced architects reported since they went about “. . . business independently . . . ”, the government brief proved little guidance. In contrast, less experienced architects took greater notice of brief requirements, and relied upon it for additional direction. Regardless of architect experience and the requirements of the design brief, all architects reported the need for some direction from operators. The result was a collaborative process of discussion and decision-making between the architect and operator. This extract describes such an instance: . . . We locked ourselves up for two days, and went through everything that Private Operator Y had done in previous bids . . . as an outcome we would come up with a really detailed brief. They put their comments on the table, and we challenged it. You usually don’t get that opportunity to understand your client . . .
Those architects who supported such a collaborative approach believed it led to innovative design and management schemes. It also allowed for an innovative interpretation of the brief, which was impossible if working in isolation. Non-prescriptive design briefs being inadequate Most architects believed the tender brief did not provide them with sufficient information to undertake the project. The majority of architects agreed that the analysis of the “Request for Proposal” brief was problematic because: . . . although they (government) define what it is that they are doing, in that, if you read their documents you would understand . . . but all it is all Motherhood stuff . . .
The common belief was that the government purposefully created briefs with “. . . such deficiencies . . . ”. Architects reasoned since the government would ultimately “. . . be ending up with the project . . . ”, the government was afraid “. . . they would end up with one (prison) that is too purpose designed . . . ”. To avoid this, architects believed design briefs contained broad terms and objectives, which accordingly allowed the government to manipulate, and entice bidders into providing what “. . . satisfies them . . . ”. As a result, “. . . a battle between the operator and the government . . . ” developed. In many instances, the architects became the mediator, “. . . having to keep
Prison design briefs
221
FAC 23,5/6
222
assuring the government . . . ” what the operator was proposing “. . . actually works . . . ”. Operators alleviated the lack of definitive information by supplementing the government brief. An architect explained: . . .The design brief evolves with the prison operator. It’s not really a brief. . .it’s just like a shopping list. . .[i.e.] provide a hospital for a prisoner and then you have to know what a prison hospital is. They expect you have expertise, and with your operator working as a team. . .you might come up with something innovative. . .
Most believed since the government “Request for Proposal” did not fully consider what was to be achieved, this ultimately created difficulties for architects. This led most architects to define the situation a “. . . game . . . ” in which the objective was to try and guess “. . .what you might get away with . . . ”. This was considered a dangerous repercussion, as this architect explained: . . . For example, the lock on a cell door can be manual, or electronic, and can range in price from 100 dollars to 1000 dollars. What sort of lock are we going to provide on this bid? There are some things that have a critical impact on the cost of delivering the facility, and there are some things that the briefing document ought to say . . . I think you have to fully define these things. . .
Architects argued the competitive nature of the bidding process meant ill-defined briefs were exploited to the advantage of the contractor and operator. An example was in relation to the avoidance of self-harm points in cells. This architect reported how the consortia “. . . manipulated . . . ” this omission in their “Request for Proposal” submission: . . . the brief did not require the strict application of the avoidance of self-harm (i.e. hanging points). In my opinion, to not insist to have it by and large designed suicide proof is a huge failing in the brief. . .it’s a huge failing in the operator, constructors and architect. Operator X couldn’t take that financial risk. . .contractors, they are driven by money. There is no way that they could have won that [prison project] if they had offered to have built a prison that had all the cell [hanging] points eliminated. It was one of the most glaring omissions of prison briefs ever seen . . .
This architect argued that although the operator was aware that such an omission would be to the detriment of the facility as a whole, the fact that they were “. . . desperate to win the contract . . . ” meant they purposefully failed to draw attention to it. While the architects believed that the contractor and operator considered it a means to save cost, architects disclosed this created a moral dilemma. Although they realised the competitive environment of bidding would mean the operator would opt for cost savings, they felt uncomfortable at knowingly disregarding such important issues. Ultimately, the operator and contractor stance prevailed, as this extract demonstrates: . . . They used the brief as a way out because they said all we had to do was comply with the brief. . .but the architect would have no hope of winning the argument because the operator was desperate to win it, and the more suicide proof you make cells, the more expensive it becomes. . .because it wasn’t stated, I could never win . . .
Architects who recognised such failures believed this could be alleviated if the “Request for Proposal” was more specific in what the government was trying to achieve. Most considered such information should be a mandatory requirement in the
“Request for Proposal”, however, found its inclusion doubtful. All architects found there was little motivation by the government, contractors or operators to address such issues. Ultimately, they believed such occurrences arose due to the nature of the competitive process. It was claimed that the design process lost significance because the design fulfilled only about 10 percent of the total assessment criteria. Hence, as the planning, design and construction components are not weighted as highly as other factors, such as operations, architects believed this meant “. . . they don’t worry about briefing us . . . ”. Conclusion Architects considered the design brief played a critical role in how they operated and the successes they had as architects in the prison projects. Nevertheless, their responses showed conflicting reports. Those in support of the non-prescriptive design and construction brief argued that it was the most appropriate tool to encourage and achieve innovation in both the design and construction components of the facility. As there was greater reliance on the consortia to both understand prison management issues and achieve these requirements in the built form, there was perceived greater likelihood at achieving an innovative scheme. It also encouraged the consortia to develop their own briefs or evolve their existing briefs. However, the majority of participants in the study considered prescriptive briefs inadequate for the design and construction of prison facilities. The principal belief was that as the State had not fully defined their outcomes, this had a number of repercussions. Firstly, this impacted upon the design process. Architects argued that it allowed the contractors to manipulate the process and outcomes, and allowed for personalities to adversely influence, which made it difficult to reach compromises within the consortia. Secondly, was the impact upon the design and construction outcomes. Architects believed that the non-prescriptive brief led to an excessive amount of guessing, which caused dangerous omissions in the schemes, to the ultimate detriment of the prison facility and its users. References Apsey, B.D. (1990), Fourth Australian Biennial Conference on Technological and Design Developments in Prisons and Visit to Correctional Facilities in Queensland, Queensland Government. Babbie, E. (1973), Survey Research Methods, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., Belmont, CA. Bowdery, M. (1994), NSW Department of Corrective Services, Sydney. Consoli, G.G.S. (2003), “Prison architecture and privatisation – project delivery in the Australian context”, PhD thesis, School of Architecture and Building, Deakin University, Victoria. Cunningham, H. (1999), Private Sector Provision of Public Infrastructure: A Case Study – Acacia Prison, School of Architecture, Construction and Planning, Curtin University of Technology, Perth. Department of Justice, Victoria (1994), New Prisons Project – Brief to Short-Listed Parties (Edited for Public Release), Department of Justice, Victoria, Melbourne. Department of Justice Victoria (1995), New Prisons Project – Brief to Short-listed Parties (Edited for Public Release) Men’s Metropolitan Prison, Department of Justice, Victoria, Melbourne.
Prison design briefs
223
FAC 23,5/6
224
DETR (1998), Rethinking Construction, Report of The Construction Task Force to The Deputy Prime Minister, John Prescott, On the Scope for Improving the Quality and Efficiency of UK Construction, Egan Report, DETR, London. De Vaus, D.A. (1990), Surveys in Social Research, 2nd ed., Unwin Hyman, London. Fairweather, L. (2000), “Does design matter?”, in Fairweather, L. and McConville, S. (Eds), Prison Architecture: Policy, Design and Experience, Architectural Press, London. Farbstein, J. (1986), Correctional Facility Planning and Design, Van Rostrand Reinhold Company, Princeton, NJ. Harding, R. (1997), Private Prisons and Public Accountability, Open University Press, Buckingham. Kelly, J., Mac Pherson, S. and Male, S. (1992), “The briefing process: a review and critique”, Paper Number 12, The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh. Knapel, C.S. (1993), “Project delivery options: an introduction to corrections construction”, National Institute of Justice: Construction Bulletin, Washington, August. Markus, T. (1969), “The role of building performance measurement and appraisal in design method”, in Broadbent, G., Ward, A. and Humphries, L. (Eds), Design Methods in Architecture. Minichiello, V. (1995), Designing Qualitative Research, CRC Seminar Series, Victoria University of Technology, Qualitative Research Forum, 19 May 1995. Ministry of Justice Western Australia (1998), Woorooloo Prison South Project Procurement Plan, Ministry of Justice, Perth. Ministry of Justice Western Australia (1999), “Request for proposal for Wooroloo Prison South Project”, Ministry of Justice, Perth. Moser and Kalton (1973), Survey Methods on Social Investigation, Heinemann, London. Nguyen, S. (1998), “Make group 4 pay, not us”, The Age, 29 July, Victoria. RAIA (1998), “Practice note: the design brief, AN10.03.100”, Advisory Notes, RAIA, Melbourne. Ryd, N. (2004), “The design brief as carrier of client information during the construction process”, Design Studies, Vol. 25 No. 3, pp. 231-49. Smith, A.J. (1999), Privatised Infrastructure the Role of Governments, Thomas Telford, London. Further reading American Correctional Association (1981), Standards for Adult Correctional Institutions, American Correctional Association. Apsey, B. (1998), “Indigenous cultures and the design of custodial environments”, Alice Springs, Aboriginal Environments Research Centre, Department of Architecture, University of Queensland, St Lucia. Atlas, R. (1982), Correctional Architecture: Violence and Architectural Determinism, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. Atlas, R. and Dunham, R. (1990), “Are prisons any better? Twenty years of correctional philosophy”, Changes in Prison Facilities as a Function of Correctional Philosophy, Sage Criminal Justice System Annuals Publications, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA. Brenner, D. (1983), “Prison special – various articles”, Architectural Record, March, pp. 81-96. Derbyshire, A. (2000), “Architects and the prison”, in Fairweather, L. and McConville, S. (Eds), Prison Architecture: Policy, Design and Experience, Architectural Press, London.
Fairweather, L. (1975), “The evolution of the prison”, Prison Architecture: An International Survey of Representative Closed Institution and Analysis of Current Trends in Prison Design, Architectural Press, London. Fairweather, L. (1989), “Prisons: a new generation”, Architects Journal, 15 March 1989, pp. 26-31. Fairweather, L. (1992), “Prisons”, Architects Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 28-43. Fairweather, L. (1994), “Prison design in the twentieth century”, in Spens, I. (Ed.), Architecture of Incarceration, Academy Editions. Fairweather, L. (2000), “Public/private partnerships”, in Fairweather, L. and McConville, S. (Eds), Prison Architecture: Policy, Design and Experience, Architectural Press, London. Fairweather, L. (2001), “Forms of constraint: a history of prison architecture”, The Architectural Review, Vol. 210 No. 1254, pp. 88-96. Fairweather, L. and McConville, S. (Eds) (2000), Prison Architecture: Policy, Design and Experience, Architectural Press, London.
Prison design briefs
225
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-2772.htm
FAC 23,5/6
Investigating key components of the facility management of secondary schools in Hong Kong
226
Mei-yung Leung
Received August 2004 Accepted November 2004
Building and Construction Department, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
Xinhong Lu Department of Management Science and Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China, and
Hon-yan Ip Building and Construction Department, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China Abstract
Facilities Vol. 23 No. 5/6, 2005 pp. 226-238 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-2772 DOI 10.1108/02632770510588637
Purpose – The Hong Kong SAR Government increased its expenditure on education by 13.2 per cent from 1998-1999 to 2002-2003 in order to improve education and upgrade school facilities, despite the fact that the economy was in bad shape. To investigate the current facility management (FM) of secondary schools in Hong Kong, a study of the needs of the end-users (students and teachers) was conducted. The paper aims at identifying major FM components and investigating the relationships between the identified FM components and overall satisfaction with FM in three common locations within secondary schools (classrooms, IT laboratories and libraries). Design/methodology/approach – A questionnaire survey of 1,472 local students was conducted to evaluate the FM performance of schools, as well as to establish the relationships between the levels of satisfaction with each FM component and overall satisfaction with FM. A number of formal interviews with local students, teachers and professional school designers were also conducted so that the gap between users’ needs and designers’ considerations could be identified by cross-checking the differences between the data gathered from the questionnaires and the interviews. Findings – The study revealed that different locations within secondary schools emphasise different FM components (e.g. flexibility, temperature and safety and security in classrooms; seat allocation, density, colour and decoration, technical support and safety and security in IT laboratories; and seat allocation, lighting, temperature and furniture in libraries). Hygiene, natural lighting and sufficient facilities were found to be key FM components in all three locations in secondary schools. Research limitations/implications – The interviews focussed on two schools only, while the questionnaire was conducted on four schools. However, since the interviewees included end-users (teachers and students) and designers of both schools, we believe that the differential responses to the FM components reflected in the study do not indicate that our results are biased. On the other hand, the study only examined students in Forms 2, 4 and 6. The results might be slightly different if the questionnaires were filled in by all the students in the schools. A study of all students in secondary schools is recommended in order to understand and confirm the requirements of FM from the point of view of end-users.
The work described in this paper was fully supported by a grant from the City University of Hong Kong (Project No. 7001533).
Practical implications – Designers need to understand end-users’ expectations in the preliminary stage of design in order to enhance learning among students and ensure that school buildings are designed to achieve educational purposes. Some important elements are the arrangement of classroom seats in rows, the avoidance of desk movement in class, the provision of natural lighting, the installation of an adjustable temperature control, the improvement of natural ventilation, the measurement of noise, the installation of a lock for each drawer, the provision of sufficient facilities in each room and the selection of building materials for hygiene purposes. On the other hand, facility managers also need to ensure good hygiene and upgrade technical support, especially in IT laboratories. Originality/value – This paper identified 13 major FM components and evaluated the relationship between the identified FM components and overall satisfaction with FM. The results indicate that different FM components are emphasised in three common locations within secondary schools (classrooms, IT laboratories and libraries). Designers and facility managers need to understand end-users’ expectations in the design stage and the operation stage, respectively, in order to enhance learning among students and ensure that school buildings are designed to achieve educational purposes. Keywords Schools, Hong Kong, Buildings Paper type Research paper
Introduction Statistics from the Education and Manpower Bureau (2003) indicate that total expenditure on education has increased continuously, from HK$48,479 million in 1998/1999 to HK$54,893 million in 2002/2003 (representing a 13.2 per cent increase). Most of this money was spent on improving school facilities. However, solely enhancing school facilities does not lead to end-users’ satisfaction. Theoretically, facilities management (FM) is the process by which an organization delivers and sustains services in a quality environment to meet strategic needs (Alexander, 1996). A quality environment can be improved by space management (Rose, 1994; Clothier, 1996; Edwards, 2000; Senter and Charles, 2002), lighting (Waddick, 1997), colour and decoration, furniture (Clothier, 1996; Michael, 1998) and so forth. These all affect students’ self-esteem, participation, interaction, comfort, concentration, mood, fatigue, morale and response (Waddick, 1997; Clothier, 1996; McAndrew, 1993; Senter and Charles, 2002; Pratt, 1994), and subsequently influence their learning behaviours. However, past studies concentrated on the development of design and technical aspects of facilities, neglecting the actual needs of end-users (Shohet and Lavy, 2004; Gopalakrishnan et al., 2003; Ahmadi et al., 2000). Therefore, this study aims at investigating the key components of the FM of secondary schools in Hong Kong through an evaluation of the needs and expectations of end-users (teachers and students). The paper identifies major FM components and investigates the relationships between the identified FM components and overall satisfaction with FM in three common locations within secondary schools (classrooms, IT laboratories and libraries). A questionnaire survey of students and interviews with students, teachers and professional designers were conducted, and the resulting quantitative and qualitative data was cross-checked in order to develop recommendations for appropriate FM for secondary schools in Hong Kong, especially in the three specific locations mentioned above. Facility managers can then identify and enhance the most important FM factors to improve the learning environment in secondary schools.
Investigating key components
227
FAC 23,5/6
228
Major characteristics of FM FM encompasses six main characteristics, they are as follows: (1) providing a comfortable and effective environment; (2) minimising use of diminishing resources; (3) providing quality and cost-effective services; (4) supporting a dynamic situation; (5) enhancing organizational effectiveness; and (6) involving multi-disciplinary activities and management (Alexander, 1992, 1996; Laird, 1994; Then, 1999). It, thus, aims to provide end-users with a comfortable, effective and quality environment with minimum resources (cost-effective and human services) to enhance organisational effectiveness and successfully implement multi-disciplinary activities. The scope of FM is extensive, including hard facilities (e.g. seat allocation, density, flexibility, lighting, colour and decoration, noise, temperature, ventilation and furniture) and soft management (e.g. technical support, safety and security, hygiene services and sufficient facilities). Hard facilities Space management refers to planning and control of space for personal and team work. It involves personal space and an action zone (Senter and Charles, 2002). An action zone is important to effective teaching and learning processes. Students who sit in the action zone participate more in class, better demonstrate on-task behaviour and attitudes, and reach higher levels of achievement than students who sit outside the action zone. Having sufficient personal space can reduce stress, increase self-esteem, and prevent a sense of being under threat that may develop if an individual is too close to the teacher. In most cases, the invasion of one’s personal space by another person is an unpleasant, stressful experience (McAndrew, 1993). Allocation of seats not only influences the movements of teachers in classrooms, but also induces different behaviours and creates different learning atmospheres among students (Waddick, 1997). For example, seat allocation in rows forms a pattern of authority in which one person, who is superior, speaks to a group of people, who are subordinate. This arrangement encourages eye contact between students and the teacher and limits the interactions between pupils. Alternatively, seat allocation in an island pattern allows student-to-student interactions in a group, which leads to a higher social relationship, and greater communication among students. In sum, the seating arrangement should maximise teachers’ mobility and allow greater physical proximity between students and teachers, so as to involve more students in the action (Senter and Charles, 2002; Murdoch, 1998). The problem of density can be expressed in the statement: the more crowded the room, the greater the discontent of students (Rose, 1994). In IT laboratories, computers radiate heat. However, it will have an adverse effect on the interaction between students, if a large distance is placed between computers. They may feel isolated and be less inclined to participate and interact (Clothier, 1996). Hence, although sufficient personal space is often provided in an IT laboratory, students are easily excluded from
the action zone. This reflects the conflict between the action zone and personal space in the classroom. Balancing these two group areas is critical. Flexibility represents the possibility of making changes easily and quickly with little effort or cost. The physical arrangement of classrooms must be flexible enough; otherwise it cannot be adjusted easily during a class. Flexibility in the classroom can support teaching and learning by making it easier for teachers and students to cope with different teaching and learning activities in different lessons (Edwards, 2000; Senter and Charles, 2002). Level of luminaries, glare and brightness are used to measure visual comfort. A good lighting system can increase the human response level, task performance, productivity, product quality, morale health and the conservation of energy (Park, 1998). Natural lighting should be combined with the artificial lighting system as it can effectively enhance students’ academic achievement and morale and, simultaneously, prevent tooth decay and vitamin D deficiency. However, the level of lighting should be around the acceptable range (500 lumen), since excessive brightness can also cause tension and lead to concentration difficulties. Colour involves three dimensions: hue, saturation and brightness. Hue is a function of the wavelength of the light reflected from the stimulus, while saturation indicates the amount of white light in the colour. Brightness refers to the intensity of the light coming from the coloured stimulus (McAndrew, 1993). Colour establishes a pleasing and visually appealing environment for productivity (Senter and Charles, 2002). Higher brightness and saturation resulting in a pleasing environment at as an effective medium to motivate students, as it makes it easier to hold their attention and increases their response level. Decoration in the classroom consists of students’ work, bulletin boards, plants, posters and so forth. Displaying students’ work can motivate them and help them develop their self-esteem. It provides a model by which other students can acknowledge their success. Furthermore, decoration is also able to influence students’ mood and creativity (Senter and Charles, 2002). In a decorative environment, knowledge seems more interesting and attractive to students (Pratt, 1994). Noise is a psychological concept that is defined as unwanted sound and is considered a source of stress (McAndrew, 1993; Rose, 1994). It needs to be controlled as it can negatively affect students’ performance. Excessive noise can reduce the tolerance of other stressors and affect the motivation of students (Rose, 1994). Furthermore, intermittent and unpredictable noise has to be dealt with since it can have a sudden impact on task performance. Temperature affects the thermal comfort of human beings. A cold temperature reduces manual dexterity, tactile sensitivity and motivation levels, and increases reaction time. However, a room with a slightly cool temperature leads to more effective learning (McAndrew, 1993; Clothier, 1996). The ambient temperature, which refers to the air temperature in the immediately surrounding environment, is directly affected by the air-conditioning system, the warm bodies of the students and the level of natural light in the room. In modern classrooms and IT laboratories, the number of computers must be considered when designing the air-conditioning system since heat from machines and monitors can drastically alter the temperature (Clothier, 1996; Michael, 1998). A static environment must be kept in order to avoid any physical or attitudinal problems. An effective temperature also refers to an individual’s perception of
Investigating key components
229
FAC 23,5/6
230
the ambient temperature and is strongly influenced by the humidity of air (McAndrew, 1993). High humidity is negatively correlated with vigour and other positive moods. It not only has a negative effect on people’s health and comfort, but also on their efficiency (Pratt, 1994; Rose, 1994). Thus, both humidity and temperature influence human beings emotionally and physically, and can subsequently affect their productivity. Natural ventilation was mostly designed for the educational institutions in Hong Kong before the 1990s. Due to today’s serious air pollution, the design of both natural ventilation and the air-conditioning system has been changed. Poor ventilation induces poor indoor air quality resulting from airborne contaminants, such as volatile organic compounds, suspended particulates or microbial particles, which can cause illness and diminish learning potential greatly (Friday and Cotts, 1995; Waddick, 1997). Quality furniture can ensure comfort and enhance the interaction between students and teachers in the learning environment (Rose, 1994), especially in IT laboratories. Well-designed furniture (computers, chairs, keyboards, monitors, etc.) allows students to work together and establish social relationships without affecting the effectiveness of the equipment. For example, an adjustable armchair allows the height of a chair to be adjusted, thus facilitating users’ comfort. Sufficient space is also required to allow students to take notes in an IT class (Clothier, 1996; Michael, 1998).
Soft management The core activities of soft management include technical support for equipment, cleaning, and safety and security. Response times and levels of complaint are the key dimensions of the quality of services (Alexander, 1993a, b, 1996). Technical support is critical in schools since information technology needs equipment stability. The indicators of technical support include waiting time, service quality and maintenance plan (Michael, 1998). Service quality refers to the effectiveness of technical help, while the waiting time for technical help affects the circulation of lessons. A prompt diagnosis of the user’s problem and a quick decision are required. A maintenance plan emphasizes troubleshooting problems, both anticipated and non-anticipated. Waiting time, service quality and maintenance plan are all inter-related. A good maintenance plan reduces waiting time and improves service quality. Therefore, maintenance is considered as a key indicator of technical support services. It is of crucial importance to schools, especially in IT laboratories. The security system safeguards the property against loss due to bad weather, fire or theft. In recent years in Hong Kong, the amount of equipment in schools, such as computers, printers, scanners and projectors, for teaching and learning purposes has increased. They all must be placed under high security since electronic equipment has a high resale value (Geisert et al., 1990). Safety is an important consideration in educational environments (Pratt, 1994). Any sloppy connections of cables and wires may result in accidents and injuries. No equipment or furniture should hurt users. The seating plan must be arranged to provide safety and comfort (McKenna & Co., 1993; Michael, 1998). Students spend much of their school lives in classrooms, IT laboratories and libraries. Although students’ actual achievement behaviours are relatively unaffected by the physical environment, non-achievement behaviours such as attendance, class
participation and satisfaction are likely to be affected by it. Students in unattractive classrooms experience more feelings of fatigue and discontent. Research methodology A questionnaire survey of secondary school students was used to investigate the level of the FM satisfaction components on overall satisfaction with FM. In order to cross-check the data collected in the questionnaire survey, interview surveys were also conducted of the end-users (teachers and students) to identify their needs and their level of satisfaction with the current facilities. To understand the overall picture of the FM of secondary schools in Hong Kong, a further interview survey of building professionals was carried out to obtain the design criteria for current secondary school designs. The questionnaire included 13 components of FM satisfaction and overall satisfaction with FM. In order to investigate in more detail the 13 FM satisfaction components and the overall satisfaction with FM of the schools, three sets of tailor-made questions were designed for classrooms, IT laboratories and libraries, which were the places where students were considered to spend most of their time during the school day. The questionnaire was written in Chinese rather than English in order to eliminate problems stemming from the language barrier. The respondents’ responses provided numerical scores expressing their level of satisfaction with FM. The weighting range was from 1 to 5, where 1 indicated “unsatisfied” and 5 “satisfied”. Since the targeted respondents in this survey were secondary school students in Forms 2, 4 and 6, a five-point scale was used instead of a seven-point scale to simplify the questionnaire for the lower-form students. The questionnaire survey was conducted in 2002 at four secondary schools in Hong Kong. Of the 600 classroom questionnaires, 960 IT laboratory questionnaires and 960 library questionnaires distributed, 474, 543 and 455, respectively, were completed effectively, representing a respective response rate of 79.0, 56.6 and 47.4 per cent. Results Questionnaire survey In multiple regression, the values of overall satisfaction with FM in each location (dependent variable) are estimated from those of two or more other variables (the independent variables F 1 ; F 2 ; . . . ; F 13 ). To express the usefulness of regression equation, the multiple correlation coefficients, ranging from 0.00 to 1.00, and symbolized by the letter R, is calculated. It describes the degree of relationship between the criterion variable (Y) and the set of predictor (X) variables (Kinnear and Gray, 1995). The results concerning the relationships between the satisfaction level for each FM component and the overall satisfaction with FM in the classrooms, IT laboratories and libraries were obtained separately from three multiple regression equations (refer Table I). The results of R 2 (0.430, 0.533 and 0.459) indicate the key FM components for the three secondary school locations. The different variables involved in the three equations for overall satisfaction with FM in classrooms, IT laboratories and libraries explain 43.0, 53.5 and 45.9 per cent of the total variance of FM satisfaction, respectively. Hygiene (F12), lighting (F4) and sufficient facilities (F13) are common variables that influence the overall satisfaction in
Investigating key components
231
FAC 23,5/6
Eq.
Independent variables B
Classrooms 1
232
Table I. Regression models for overall satisfaction with FM in three locations
Constant F12 – Hygiene F7 – Temperature F3 – Flexibility F13 – Sufficiency F4 – Lighting F11 – Safety and security
IT laboratories 2 Constant F13 – Sufficiency F4 – Lighting F10 – Technical support F12 – Hygiene F5 – Colour and decoration F1 – Allocation F2 – Density F11 – Safety and security Libraries 3 Constant F13 – Sufficiency F4 – Lighting F12 – Hygiene F7 – Temperature F9 – Furniture F1 – Allocation
Unstandardised coefficients Std. error
t
Sig.
R
R2
0.694 0.167 0.158 0.106 0.122 0.140 8.902 £ 102 2
0.199 0.044 0.043 0.047 0.038 0.048 0.042
3.499 3.775 3.694 2.261 3.233 2.941 2.109
0.001 0.656 0.430 0.000 0.000 0.025 0.001 0.004 0.036
0.386 0.187 0.110 0.133 0.137 0.166 0.101 2.249 £ 102 2 5.961 £ 102 2
0.154 0.030 0.033 0.033 0.033 0.034 0.031 0.011 0.030
2.498 6.250 3.362 3.967 4.099 4.894 3.268 1.992 1.984
0.013 0.730 0.533 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.047 0.048
0.506 0.223 0.134 0.124 0.146 0.115 0.122
0.228 0.048 0.051 0.043 0.052 0.048 0.053
2.223 4.689 2.645 2.869 2.825 2.393 2.300
0.027 0.678 0.459 0.000 0.009 0.005 0.005 0.018 0.022
the three specific locations in secondary schools. Temperature (F7) affects the overall satisfaction with FM in both classrooms and libraries, while safety and security (F11) affects it in classrooms and IT laboratories. Flexibility (F3) is another component that influences the overall satisfaction with FM in classrooms, while allocation of seats (F1), density (F2), colour and decoration (F5), and technical support (F10) are the components that affect overall satisfaction with FM in IT laboratories. Interview survey In order to fully understand the results of the questionnaire survey, face-to-face interviews with design team members (including project managers, architects and building services engineers), teachers and students of Hong Kong secondary schools were also conducted. A total number of 19 interviewees were selected from a secondary school built in 2000 (a millennium school) and another one built in the 1960s (a traditional school) that had not been improved. Both schools were visited by the researchers before the formal interviews were conducted. The comments made by the respondents (designers, teachers and students) about the 13 FM components are summarised in Table II. In general, they believed that the physical environment influences (both positively and negatively) students’ learning process.
Facilities components F1 – Allocation
Quest. C IT L p p
p
F2 – Density
F3 – Flexibility
F4 – Lighting
p
p
p
p
p
F5 – Colour and decoration F6 – Noise
F7 – Temperature
p
p
Investigating key components
Comments made by respondents Basically, sufficient space in a room allowed a better seat allocation It is interesting that the designers generally rejected the traditional seat arrangement in rows, while most of the teachers and students preferred to arrange the seats in rows in the classroom. All the respondents commented that if a room has a high density, it reduces the width of the aisle between desks. A narrow aisle generated a safety problem and prevented teachers from arranging some activities amongst students The designers believed that students feel annoyed when they have to change the physical setting by moving desks. All the respondents (teachers, students and designers) considered that moving desks was a waste of time. However, all the respondents still preferred a flexible classroom setting In general, the students did not believe that natural lighting could support their academic achievement and personal health, while some of the teachers and all the designers considered that lighting had a positive impact on education Both the designers and the teachers generally accepted that natural lighting can increase students’ attention and, subsequently, support their academic achievement However, there was disagreement between the end-users (teachers and students) and the designers. The designers considered that more windows with sufficient lighting were provided in new schools (e.g. skylights in libraries), but the end-users did not think this was the case. None of the respondents believed that colour and decoration could enhance students’ academic achievement Most of the designers commented that the noise level for each new school is measured at a preliminary development stage, but the end-users did not believe this was so. Some end-users considered that noise from adjacent areas disrupts teaching. Most of the respondents agreed that a slightly cold temperature could lead to more effective learning in class, while all of them felt that end-users should be able to adjust the temperature in each location (continued)
233
Table II. Summary of the comments made in the interviews (including the results of the questionnaire)
FAC 23,5/6
Facilities components
C
Quest. IT L
F8 – Ventilation
234
p
F9 – Furniture
p
F10 – Technical support
F11 – Safety and security
F12 – Hygiene F13 – Sufficiency
Table II.
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
Comments made by respondents All the respondents considered that ventilation is very important as it can affect students’ concentration and health. Most of the teachers and all of the students and designers preferred natural ventilation in the winter The designers all reported that the standard school design is based on natural ventilation, but none of the end-users believed this was so. All the designers also believed that air-conditioners could reduce the noise from outdoors, but only a few end-users agreed. There was no doubt that the furniture should match the facilities installed and that the teacher’s desk should be designed for the installation of computer equipment Most of the teachers and designers commented that the choice of furniture should be decided on by the school and that the size of the budget was the major constraint against the improvement of furniture. However, no students agreed with these statements. Most of the end-users (teachers and students) did not think that the IT technical support was doing well. The main reasons given were poor communication between technicians and users, and the fact that it takes a very long time to rectify non-critical failures However the designers did not agree with these comments All the respondents agreed that safety in IT laboratories was important because of the valuable cables and electronic devices All the end-users commented that students are not allowed to leave their belongings in drawers for security reasons, but all the designers felt that this was not the case. All the end-users commented that the school should be cleaned every week, while none of the designers had anything to say about hygiene There was a great gap in perception between the end-users and the designers in regard to this variable. All the end-users believed that the provision of sufficient facilities was based on budget and discipline, that there was an insufficient number of projectors in schools, and that installing computers in each classroom was one way of improving the IT systems in schools. However, the designers generally disagreed with these comments. They considered that the facilities were sufficient.
Note: Comments in italics indicate that the end-users (teachers and students) and the designers had different opinions
The end-users (teachers and students) and designers had different opinions about 7 of the 13 FM components. The design team members explained that there was a standard design for secondary schools in Hong Kong and that amendments would be made to each project based on specific requirements and limitations. However, the end-users’ expectations may not always be met due to regulations (Schedule of Accommodation, Fire Safety (Buildings) Ordinance, etc.), the size of the approved budget, the site limitations, the space available and so forth. In addition, the sufficiency and quality of the facilities and furniture (F13 and F9) provided are dependent on the size of the approved budget. Therefore, conflict may arise from the differences between the end-users’ needs and the designers’ considerations. Although all the respondents agreed that ventilation is an important component that can affect students’ concentration and health, the end-users did not believe that their schools were designed based on natural ventilation or that the design could reduce the noise from outdoors. The end-users also recommended that designers measured the noise level at the preliminary development stage to enable them to eliminate disruptions to teaching and learning. Sufficient space and lighting in a room allows a better seat allocation and provides a comfortable learning environment. However, the end-users still commented that there was insufficient lighting in the new school, that they did not want to leave any belongings in their lockers, that they preferred to arrange seats in a traditional row rather than in a group format and that they did not want to move the desks during class because it was a waste of valuable teaching time. The end-users comments reflected that the designers ignored the security of storage facilities and misunderstood the disadvantage of flexibility in classes. The end-users were also not satisfied with the design of natural lighting. The teachers, students and designers made similar comments about density, temperature, and colour and decoration. If a room has a high density, it reduces the width of the aisles between desks; and a slightly cold temperature can lead to more effective learning in the class. It was interesting that none of the respondents believed that colour and decoration can enhance students’ academic achievement as this contradicted the finding of previous studies, mentioned above, that colour and decoration can stimulate students’ learning motives. Further study on the impact of colour and decoration in secondary schools is thus recommended. Recommendations Facilities management involves multiple approaches to provide a quality environment with the least resources in order to facilitate and support the organisational operation and to fulfil end-users’ requirements. The questionnaire survey of students reflected the needs and expectations of students (end-users), while the formal interviews revealed background information regarding the 13 FM components in both traditional and millennium schools in Hong Kong. Recommendations for FM, based on the results of this study, for the three different locations are given below. Classrooms The study indicated that flexibility, lighting, temperature, safety and security, hygiene and sufficient facilities are major FM components that influence the overall satisfaction with FM in classrooms. Designers need to plan for sufficient natural lighting, a flexible
Investigating key components
235
FAC 23,5/6
classroom layout, an adjustable temperature level, lockable drawers, good hygiene, and a sufficient number of computers and projectors in classrooms. Seat allocation, density, noise, ventilation and technical support were all mentioned by the respondents in the interviews, but they did not affect the overall satisfaction with FM of the students. Perhaps, the performances of these components are stable and they basically satisfy the current requirements of Hong Kong students.
236 IT laboratories Eight FM components affected the overall satisfaction with FM in the IT laboratories: seat allocation, density, lighting, colour and decoration, technical support, hygiene and sufficient facilities. The importance of natural light, hygiene and sufficient facilities in IT laboratories cannot be ignored by designers. Since IT laboratories are not used for traditional teaching purposes, designers need to rearrange the allocation of seats, reduce the density of students’ seating pattern, and review the colour and decoration of IT laboratories in order to ensure safety, improve visual comfort, motivate creativity and enhance learning among students. Technical support and hygiene activities are currently implemented by end-users, but it is recommended that designers further reconsider their choice of building materials in order to create a hygienic environment in schools (e.g. neat finishes, air-conditioning, double glazing, etc.). Schools, on the other hand, need to employ individual facility managers and provide formal FM and computer training courses for them so that they can learn to identify specific duties of teachers (educators) and technicians (technical supporters). Libraries Seat allocation, lighting, temperature, furniture, hygiene and sufficient facilities are the main FM components that affect the overall satisfaction with FM in libraries. Since light, hygiene and sufficient facilities are the key FM components in all three locations, designers must pay attention to these components in secondary schools. Sufficient natural lighting, an adequate number of computers and good hygiene are needed to establish a comfortable and stress-free atmosphere where students can read and search for information. A cool temperature and attractive furniture can enhance secondary students’ study in libraries. It was an interesting finding that noise and ventilation have no impact on the overall satisfaction with FM in all three locations. The interviews revealed that the end-users (teachers and students) did not generally like the current designs of noise barriers and the ventilation system in secondary schools. It is recommended that designers review the current noise barrier designs (walls, partitions, windows, etc.) and window-type air-conditioners. Conclusion In recent years, the Hong Kong Government has substantially increased investment in basic education (from 1998 to 2003, there was a 13.2 per cent increase), including in the hard and soft facilities of the operational process. FM emphasises operational management for the realization of end-users’ requirements. To understand end-users’ expectations of FM in schools in Hong Kong, this paper identified 13 major FM components and evaluated the relationship between the identified FM components and overall satisfaction with FM.
Based on an empirical survey of 1,472 secondary students in four secondary schools in Hong Kong and a series of formal interviews with end-users (teachers and students) and designers from two of the schools, the study revealed that different locations within secondary schools emphasise different FM components (e.g. flexibility, temperature, and safety and security in classrooms; seat allocation, density, colour and decoration, technical support, and safety and security in IT laboratories; and seat allocation, lighting, temperature and furniture in libraries). Hygiene, natural lighting and sufficient facilities were found to be key FM components in all three locations in secondary schools. Designers need to understand end-users’ expectations in the preliminary stage of design in order to enhance learning among students and ensure that school buildings are designed to achieve educational purposes. Some important elements are the arrangement of classroom seats in rows, the avoidance of desk movement in class, the provision of natural lighting, the installation of an adjustable temperature control, the improvement of natural ventilation, the measurement of noise, the installation of a lock for each drawer, the provision of sufficient facilities in each room and the selection of building materials for hygiene purposes. On the other hand, facility managers also need to ensure good hygiene and upgrade technical support, especially in IT laboratories. One obvious limitation of this study is that the interviews focused on two schools only. However, since the interviewees included both end-users (teachers and students) and designers of both schools, we believe that the differential responses to the FM components reflected in the study do not indicate that our results are biased. Moreover, the study only examined students in Forms 2, 4 and 6. The results might be slightly different if the questionnaires were filled in by all the students in the schools. A study of all students in secondary schools is recommended in order to understand and confirm the requirements of FM from the point of view of end-users. References Ahmadi, M., Helms, A.M. and Ross, T.J. (2000), “Technological developments: shaping the telecommuting work environment of the future”, Facilities, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 83-9. Alexander, K. (1992), “Quality managed facilities”, Facilities, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 29-33. Alexander, K. (1993a), “Delivering the facilities services”, Facilities, Vol. 11 No. 6, pp. 24-7. Alexander, K. (1993b), “Identifying and managing facilities needs”, Facilities, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 18-21. Alexander, K. (1996), Facilities Management: Theory and Practice, E. & F.N. Spon, London. Clothier, P. (1996), The Complete Computer Trainer, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Education and Manpower Bureau (2003), Education Statistics, Education and Manpower Bureau, Hong Kong. Edwards, C.H. (2000), Classroom Discipline and Management, 3rd ed., Wiley, New York, NY. Friday, S. and Cotts, D.G. (1995), Quality Facility Management: A Marketing and Customer Service Approach, Wiley, New York, NY. Geisert, P.G., Mynga, K. and Futrell, M.K. (1990), Teachers, Computers, and Curriculum: Microcomputers in the Classroom, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Gopalakrishnan, B., Weng, L. and Gupta, D.P. (2003), “Facilities design using a split departmental layout configuration”, Facilities, Vol. 21 No. 3, pp. 66-73.
Investigating key components
237
FAC 23,5/6
238
Kinnear, P. and Gray, C. (1995), SPSS for Windows Made Simple, Erlbaum, Hove. Laird, S. (1994), “Total facilities management”, Facilites, Vol. 12 No. 13, pp. 25-6. McAndrew, F.T. (1993), Environmental Psychology, Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA. McKenna & Co. (1993), “Healthy and Safety: 1993”, Facilities, Vol. 11 No. 7, pp. 11-17. Michael, S.O. (1998), “Best practices in information technology (IT) management: insights from K-12 schools’ technology audits”, The International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 12 No. 6, pp. 277-88. Murdoch, K. (1998), Classroom Connections: Strategies for Integrated Learning, Eleanor Curtain, Armadale, Victoria. Park, A. (1998), Facilities Management: An Explanation, 2nd ed., Macmillan, Basingstoke. Pratt, D. (1994), Curriculum Planning: A Handbook for Professionals, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Fort Worth, TX. Rose, J. (1994), Human Stress and the Environment: Health Aspects, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Philadelphia, PA. Senter, G.W. and Charles, C.M. (2002), Elementary Classroom Management, 3rd ed., Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Shohet, I.M. and Lavy, S. (2004), “Development of an integrated healthcare facilities management model”, Facilities, Vol. 22 No. 5, pp. 129-40. Then, S.S. (1999), “An integrated resource management view of facilities management”, Facilities, Vol. 17 No. 12, pp. 462-9. Waddick, J. (1997), “Physical considerations in the development of a computer”, British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 69-71. Further reading Smith, M. (1996), Interiors Management: A Guide for Facility Managers, UpWord, New York, NY.
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-2772.htm
An approach to assess fire safety requirements in library facilities
An approach to assess fire safety
Mohammad A. Hassanain and Nagib Al Ashwal Architectural Engineering Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
239 Received August 2004 Accepted November 2004
Abstract Purpose – The objectives of this paper are to review current legislation and guidelines on fire safety in library facilities, and to present the finding of a case study to assess the provision of these requirements in the main library of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Design/methodology/approach – The authors have analyzed published literature and identified characteristics of combustible information media in libraries, causes of fire in library facilities, basic requirements of fire detection systems, basic requirements of fire suppression systems, and basic requirements of egress and evacuation. The authors then carried out an investigation to assess the provision of these requirements in the main library of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Findings – The findings from the case study conducted in the paper indicated that although the main library at KFUPM was found to have sufficient fire detection system, fire suppression system, and provision of the basic requirements of egress and evacuation, there are some recommendations for improving the status of fire safety. These recommendations are summarized as follows: a floor plan should be posted on each floor to illustrate the locations of evacuation routes, exits, and other fire safety devices; signs should be installed in the third and the fourth floor to guide students to evacuation exits; and furniture should be removed from the area in front of the stairway in the third floor. Originality/value – Fires are one of the main causes of life and property loss in cultural buildings. The high fire load of libraries makes them particularly susceptible to the spread of fire. The paper provides a systematic approach to the assessment of the provision of fire safety requirements in existing library facilities. The paper also provides insights to facility managers responsible for day-to-day operations of library and/or archival facilities. Keywords Fire, Buildings, Libraries, Safety measures Paper type Case study
Introduction Fires are among the main causes of life and property loss in cultural facilities. Library facilities are particularly vulnerable because of their high fire load. Fire load can be defined as the amount of fuel within a room or a building, which will burn to release heat and feed the growth of fire (Stollard and Abrahams, 1991). In the United States, currently over 200 library fires occur with an annual property loss exceeding $6 million (Freeland, 1999). The fire that occurred in the main library of the University of Georgia in July 2003 is an example of such a fire. The fire caused considerable damage to the second floor and sent smoke throughout the building. How and where the fire started The authors would like to thank King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals for the support and facilities that made this research possible.
Facilities Vol. 23 No. 5/6, 2005 pp. 239-252 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-2772 DOI 10.1108/02632770510588646
FAC 23,5/6
240
was uncertain but Fire Department officials suspected it may have begun in a storage area filled with discarded computers, books, and documents. The fire then spread out onto the stacks on the second floor of the library annex area in the rear of the building (DeMao and Carter, 2003). Another example of library fires is the fire that occurred in the fourth floor of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina in March 2003. The fire had broken out in Egypt’s newly opened Alexandria library. Twenty-nine people were rushed to local hospitals suffering from smoke inhalation. Fire caused destruction of the original Alexandria library, one of the world’s great centers for learning in the ancient world (BBC News, 2003). Fire safety objectives as shown in Figure 1 include preventing ignition of building materials and contents, controlling the development of fire, and protecting the occupants of the building (Watson, 2000). The objectives of this paper are to review current legislation and guidelines on fire safety in library facilities, and to present the findings of a case study to assess the provision of these requirements in the main library of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Characteristics of combustible information media in libraries Information media contained in libraries come in various forms as mentioned below. Paper-based documents. Paper-based documents contribute the bulk of the holdings of libraries. Because they can ignite from open flames, the chance that the documents will ignite depends on the intensity and duration of the heat released from the flame source. The rate of combustion during a fire depends on the ratio between the combustion-surface area of the documents and their volume. Cine film. Although an obsolete form of film media in today’s libraries, cellulose nitrate films pose a high risk to fire because of their ease of ignition. Therefore, cellulose nitrate films should be stored in a separate compartment mainly because they cannot be extinguished by smothering. Magnetic tapes. Magnetic tapes are made of polymer materials which are largely noncombustible. To ignite a polymer material, it has to be exposed to a much high percentage of oxygen than is found in atmospheric air.
Figure 1. Fire safety objectives
Magnetic discs. While magnetic and optical discs used to store computer data are manufactured using polymer materials which do not catch fire at temperature in excess of 5008C, a 100 percent loss of information takes place in a case of fire because of the heat damage to the discs. Therefore, magnetic and optical discs should be stored in separate vaults used to store only that specific type of records.
An approach to assess fire safety 241
Causes of fire in libraries While fires may result from natural phenomena such as lightning or earthquakes, or from unnatural events such as arson, the most common causes of fires in libraries are due to violations of fire safety rules as they relate to maintenance of the structure itself or personnel operations within the buildings. Older structures which have been adapted for use as libraries are particularly susceptible to structural problems which leave them at risk to fire (Shiplova, 1992).
In the United States, The National Fire Protection Association’s most recent study on the causes of fires in libraries found that approximately 40 percent of theses fires are incendiary or suspicious fires (Freeland, 1999). The rest were caused by electrical system, heating equipment, open flame, and other equipment. Smoking, playing children, natural causes, and exposure caused a few fires, but nowhere near the number associated with the major causes listed above (Freeland, 1999). This indicate that although the intent is to continue to be diligent in addressing those hazards associated with few fires, current levels of fire protection in general may be adequate. The percentage of each cause of fires in libraries is given in Table I. Basic requirements of fire detection systems Smoke is often the first sign that a fire is occurring, therefore an automatic detection system in the form of smoke detectors is a valuable tool in the early detection of a fire. Smoke detectors respond to either the visible (smoke) or invisible (molecular size) products of consumption. The primary purpose of fire detection is to respond to a fire and to transform this response into a visual-audible signal which should alert the occupants of the building (Bryan, 1982). When installing smoke detectors, which may Major causes of fires in libraries
Percentage
Incendiary or suspicious fires Electrical distribution system Heating equipment Other equipment Open flame Smoking material Cooking equipment Exposure (to other hostile fires) Natural causes Appliance, tool, or A/C Child playing Other heat sources Unknown
40.2 19.3 5 7 5.3 6.1 2.5 ,1 1.6 3.7 2.5 ,1 5.3
Source: Willwerth, 1997
Table I. Major causes of fire in libraries
FAC 23,5/6
242
be connected to the power supply mains, the following conditions (Watson, 2000) should be observed: . they should be placed at a distance of at least 4 in. minimum from wall surface; . they should be located within convective air pattern, but be kept away from excessive air movement, humidity, or cold; . they should be accessible for regularly testing; and . they should be located in open areas. The specific locations and spacing of detectors depends on ceiling shape and surface, ceiling height and configuration of contents. A detector could cover an area with a diameter not greater than 12.8 m under ideal conditions. Smoke detectors require a signal transmission system to report the fire to the fire department and sound the local alarm. Basic requirements of fire suppression systems Since one of the objectives of fire safety are to control the fire development and extinguish the fire in its early stages, the provision of a fire suppression system becomes a necessity in libraries. Water is always used by fire fighting personal to extinguish fires. Librarians have often held the strong conviction that water is destructive to books, and that other fire fighting agents could be suitable to use in extinguishing fires in libraries. Therefore, automatic sprinklers are not advisable to be installed in libraries because of the effect of water on books. The various fire suppression systems are mentioned below. Standpipe system A standpipe system should be installed in the buildings that do not have automatic sprinklers and are over 25 m height or the building not directly located on a main street where the firefighter cannot reach the building from the street. There are many measures that have to be considered when installing a standpipe system in a library. These measures are as follows (Watson, 2000): . standpipes should be located in or near stair enclosures for protection of firefighter preparing to enter the floor; . a wet system with 40 mm outlet size is suitable for this kind of occupants; . hose stations are required to be located in each floor in corridors near stairwells; and . hose station cabinets should be surface-mounted, recessed, semi-recessed, or trimless. Portable fire extinguishers Fire extinguishers can be used as a fire line defense in handling fires of limited scales. Therefore, fire extinguishers are required to be located on each floor or in large space with the consideration of these essential measures (Bryan, 1982; BBC News, 2003; Watson, 2000): . because fires in libraries are classified as class A fires, water-based, multipurpose dry chemical, halon or halon-substitute extinguishers are recommended;
.
.
.
.
.
.
water-based extinguishers should not be installed because of the damage it can cause to books; they should be located at positions that make them nearly available in the event of fire and in areas where there are specific hazards and along the normal paths of egress; 23 m is the maximum travel distance a fire extinguisher can be from class A hazards; the extinguishers have to be mounted on hangers or brackets, kept in unlocked cabinets; they should be mounted in such away that the operating instructions are immediately visible and the extinguisher is readily accessible to the user; and the extinguishers should be maintained and inspected periodically every six months.
Basic requirements of egress and evacuation Every building should be designed such that the occupants can escape when fire breaks out. They must be able to reach a place of safety without being overcome by the heat or the smoke, and therefore the time needed to escape has to be shorter than the time the fire will take to spread (Stollard and Abrahams, 1991). General principles When designing escape routes or assessing their efficiency the following requirements (Marchant, 1972; Kurki, 2002; Bryan, 1982) should be considered: . a sufficient number of exits of adequate capacity property located with convenient access; . protection of exits against fire and smoke during the length time they may be in use; . alternative exits for use in case one exit is blocked by fire; . adequate lighting of exits and path of access; . exits should lead to outside to the ground level or to some other safe places in case of a fire; . all escape routes should be free from obstructions; . all final exits should be unlocked when the building is in use; . doors on escape routes should be opened in the direction of travel; and . a plan should be posted on each floor to illustrate escape routes and exits. Distance to exits The distance to an exit from each point of an evacuation area is determined along the shortest passable route. The distance which can be traveled before smoke and heat make improvement impossible, should not exceed a limited length. In libraries, the direct distance to an exit should not exceed 30 m and a maximum of 45 m travel
An approach to assess fire safety 243
FAC 23,5/6
244
distance. This distance may be exceeded if evacuation in case of emergency is carried out through windows in a ground floor level (Kurki, 2002). Number of exits The number of exits required depends on the maximum number of people in the area under consideration. The maximum number of people occupied in libraries can be estimated on basis of the occupancy load factor which is 4.6 m2/person (Butcher and Parnell, 1983). After the number of occupants is calculated, the number of exits required can be obtained from Table II. Width of exits The minimum width of an exit is calculated on the basis of the number of occupants evacuating through the exit. The width of an exit can be obtained from Table III. The free height of an exit shall be at least 2,100 mm (Kurki, 2002). Provision of staircases Sufficient staircases should be provided in any building to evacuate people from upper stories to ground floors. Generally, more than one stairway as a means of escape is required, where the width of the staircase should allow the total number of the people in a building subject to fire to escape safely. Depending on the number of people using a library facility, the typical minimum width of staircases range from 1,100 mm for up to 220 people and between 1,100 and 1,800 mm for more people. A limit of 16 steps in one flight is normally accepted and flights should be separated by landing whose length is not less than the width of the staircase. Each internal escape stair should be contained in its own fire-resisting enclosure. They should not contain hazardous equipment or materials (Miles et al., 1988). No. of occupants
Table II. Minimum number of exits in buildings
Up to 50 51-500 501-1000 1001-2000 2001-4000
1 2 3 4 5
Source: Stollard and Abrahams, 1991
No. of occupants
Table III. Minimum width of exits in buildings
Minimum no. of exits
Up to 50 51-110 111-170 171-220 221-240 241-260 261-280 281-300 Source: Stollard and Abrahams, 1991
Minimum width of exits (mm) 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500
Assessment of the fire safety requirements in the main library at KFUPM An audit worksheet was developed and used during a walkthrough inspection survey to assess the provision of basic fire safety requirements in the main library of KFUPM. These requirements included the provision of fire detection systems, fire suppression systems, exists and escape routes. Figure 2 shows the systematic assessment approach followed while conducting the walkthrough survey in the library. A set of as-built floor plans of the main library were obtained from the Projects Department at KFUPM. The plans were analyzed for the purpose of identifying significant building changes and space-use alterations, and were used to verify the provision of current fire safety systems in the layout of the library. These set of as-built drawings were reproduced as shown in Figures 3-11. The library is a four-storey building and it serves a community of more than 12,000 people at the University. It has an available floor space of nearly 7,000 m2. It is an “open stack” library, allowing users free access to its resources. Reading areas are provided on the first, third, and fourth floors. The second floor is devoted to administrative staff of the library. The current collection of books and bound periodicals totals over 328,000 volumes. In addition, there are some 490,000 research reports on microfiche and 63,000 documents in other media, including more than 25,000 educational films and 38,000 reels of journal back issues on microfilm. Audiovisual materials are provided through
An approach to assess fire safety 245
Figure 2. The assessment methodology followed during the walkthrough inspection survey
FAC 23,5/6
246
Figure 3. The distribution of smoke detectors in the first floor of KFUPM library
Figure 4. The distribution of smoke detectors in the third floor
a well-equipped AV department with a collection consisting principally of motion pictures, filmstrips, videotapes, and audiocassettes (KFUPM Library, 2004). The scope of the study was limited to assessing the provision of fire safety requirements in the first, second, and fourth floors due to ease of access to all areas in these floors.
An approach to assess fire safety 247
Figure 5. The distribution of smoke detectors in the fourth floor
Figure 6. Locations of the hose stations and portable extinguishers in the first floor
FAC 23,5/6
248
Figure 7. Location of the hose station and portable extinguishers in the third floor
Figure 8. Location of the hose station and portable extinguishers in the fourth floor
Fire detection system Sufficient number of smoke detectors were installed in all floors. Installation of these devices was found to be in compliance with the condition stated earlier. Every smoke detector was installed in the proper position at a distance of 0.12 m or more from walls.
An approach to assess fire safety 249
Figure 9. Means of egress and evacuation in the first floor
Figure 10. Means of egress and evacuation in the third floor
FAC 23,5/6
250
Figure 11. Means of egress and evacuation in the fourth floor
The covering area for each device was found not to exceed a diameter of 12.8 m. The smoke detectors were placed in open area for the ease of accessibility for maintenance purposes. They are in locations within convective air pattern and are away from excessive air movement of air conditions. Figures 3-5 show the distribution of the currently provided smoke detectors in the first, third, and fourth floors of KFUPM library. Fire suppression system A fire suppression system was installed in the library to control the development of fire and extinguish the fire in its early stages. The fire suppression system includes a 40 mm outlet size standpipe system. Hose stations are located in every floor near the stairway enclosures. The fire suppression system also includes portable fire extinguishers for fighting fire at its early stages. Extinguishers were installed in the library at each floor and were found to be inspected periodically. There were found to be in sufficient number with a distance between extinguishers not exceeding 30 m. There were distributed efficiently in the path of egress and near the exits so they are available and readily accessible to the user. The extinguishing agents were found to be either halon or chemical powder types which are suitable for extinguishing a fire that could develop in a library facility. Figures 6-8 show the locations of the provided hose stations and portable fire extinguishers in the first, third, and fourth floors of KFUPM library. Means of egress and evacuation A number of exits and stairs are provided throughout the library to evacuate occupant in the event of a fire break-out. Alternative exit doors are available to use only in
the dangerous situations as they are linked to the alarm system. Figures 9-11 show the means of egress and evacuation in the first, third, and fourth floors of KFUPM Library. Distance to exits The distance to an exit from each point of the library is determined along the shortest possible route. The distance which can be traveled before smoke and heat make movement impossible does not exceed the acceptable length in libraries which is 45 m in the floors investigated. Figures 9-11 show the maximum travel distance to exits. Number of exits Since the number of required exits depends on the maximum number of people in the library, the maximum number of people occupying each floor of the library was estimated on the basis of a load factor of 4.6 m2 per person. The maximum number of people was estimated to be 195 persons. According to this number of people, the number of exits that should be provided is two exits. That number of exits is provided in each floor of the library as shown in Figures 9-11. Width of exits The minimum width of exit is calculated on the basis of the number of occupants evacuating through the exit. According to the maximum number of occupants that could be present in each floor in the library, the width of the exit doors is sufficient and consistent with the basic requirements. The width differs from 2,200 mm in the main exits and 1,100 mm for the alternative exits. Provision of staircases The upper floors of the library are provided with a sufficient number of staircases, each floor has three staircases. The width of the main stairway is 2.00 m and the width of the alternative stairways is 1.10 m, which complies with the basic requirements. The stairways are clearly maintained and almost clear from obstructions. Conclusion Fires are one of the hazards that cause loss of property and life in cultural buildings. Library facilities are among these types of facilities that could be exposed easily to a fire because of their high fire load. Fire safety rules and regulations should be considered as a part of the libraries’ design to save life and property. The main Library at KFUPM was found to have an overall sufficient level of fire detection system, fire suppression system, and provision of the basic requirements of egress and evacuation according to the current legislative requirements and guidelines from the published literature. Although the walkthrough inspection survey indicated a satisfactory provision of fire safety systems as evidenced from the availability and distribution of these systems through the layout of the library as shown in Figures 3-11, there are some recommendations that have the potential to improve the status of fire safety. These recommendations are summarized as follows: . a floor plan should be posted on each floor to illustrate the locations of evacuation routes, exits, and other fire safety devices; . signs should be installed in the third and the fourth floor to guide students to evacuation exits; and
An approach to assess fire safety 251
FAC 23,5/6
.
furniture should be removed from the area in front of the stairway in the third floor.
This paper serves as a systematic approach to the audit the provision of fire safety requirements in existing library facilities. It adds in practical value to facility managers responsible for day-to-day operations of library and/or archival facilities.
252
References BBC News (2003), “Fire hits Alexandria library”, BBC News, World Edition, 2 March, available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2812765.stm Bryan, J. (1982), Fire Suppression and Detection System, 2nd ed., Macmillan, New York, NY. Butcher, E.G. and Parnell, A.C. (1983), Designing for Fire Safety, Wiley, Chichester, New York, NY. DeMao, A. and Carter, K. (2003), “Fire damages UGA library”, Athens Banner-Herald, 24 July, available at: www.onlineathens.com/stories/072403/uga_20030724063.shtml Freeland, D. (1999), “Fire protection 201”, Proceedings of National Conference on Cultural Property Protection; Cultural Property Protection from the Ground up, available at: www. museum-security.org/fire-protection-201.htm KFUPM Library (2004), King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, available at: www.kfupm.edu.sa/library/library.htm Kurki, P. (2002), Decree of the Ministry of the Environment of Fire Safety of Buildings, The National Building Code of Finland, Fire Safety of Buildings: Regulations and Guidelines, Helsinki. Marchant, E.W. (1972), A Complete Guide to Fire and Buildings, Medical and Technical Publishing, London. Miles, R., Neufert, E. and Thackara, J. (1988), Architects’ Data, BSP Professional Books, Oxford. Shiplova, I. (1992), Main Principles of Fire Protection in Libraries and Archives: A RAMP Study, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris, available at: www.unesco.org/webworld/ramp/html/r9214e/r9214e00.htm Stollard, P. and Abrahams, J. (1991), Fire from First Principles: A Design Guide to Building Fire Safety, E. & F.N. Spon, London. Watson, D. (2000), Detection Devices, Time-Saver Standards for Building Materials and Systems: Design Criteria and Selection Data, D4-1-7, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Willwerth, P. (1997), Armory and Achieve Storage Building, Fire Protection Engineering and Center for Firesafety Studies, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, WPI, available at: www. wpi.edu/Academics/Depts/Fire/Courses/Samples/Armory3/fstats , 1.htm
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-2772.htm
School building investment and impact on pupil performance
School building investment
Daniel Green Faithful and Gould, Nottingham, UK, and
253
Patricia Turrell Faculty of Development and Society, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
Received June 2004 Accepted September 2004
Abstract Purpose – To provide information on a small-scale study that explores the impact on pupil performance of the recent significant government investment in school buildings in a single county of England. Design/methodology/approach – The design approach was to focus on the schools and those involved in teaching in order to explore their perspective of the link between investment and improved pupil performance. The methodology chosen was qualitative and consisted of questionnaires to a selected sample of state schools together with interviews with the Local Education Authority and a case study of a single school, all within Derbyshire. Findings – The results clearly indicate that although direct benefits are difficult to measure accurately, the schools perceive a benefit of investment which can be illustrated in pupil attainment, motivation and pupil behaviour, with an additional benefit to staff, who find that better environments improve teacher morale and motivation. Research limitations/implications – The study is of schools in one county only and includes a random sample of schools providing state education to pupils between 5 and 18 years. The data findings relate to schools that have benefited from investment by the local authority. Practical implications – The research provides a timely study incorporating useful information to all of those who have an interest in the school built environment and in particular provides support for the government investment taking place in schools. Originality/value – Research for this paper was carried out as part of an undergraduate dissertation, drawing from the direct placement work experience of the primary author and the professional experience of the co-author/supervisor. Keywords Buildings, Education, Schools Paper type Research paper
Introduction This research study provides a timely review of the impact of the government investment in school buildings on pupil performance in one area of England. The research took place in a typical county local education authority, drawing on questionnaires and interviews for data. The research findings support the view that a relationship does exist between improved performance and investment. The research followed a qualitative methodology that drew on the views of those directly involved with the “beneficiaries” of the investment, i.e. teachers and head-teachers, as well as drawing on knowledge of those involved in the building investment directly, i.e. the local authority education department. The perspective of the research is therefore not from an external and “objective” quantitative measure. The research instead decided to
Facilities Vol. 23 No. 5/6, 2005 pp. 253-261 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-2772 DOI 10.1108/02632770510588655
FAC 23,5/6
254
focus on an involved, critical and informed “subjective” (Marshall and Rossman, 1995) qualitative approach. Background The period from 1950 to 1970 saw a new school open everyday in England and Wales (Anon, 1982). Only around 10 per cent of schools have been built in the last 25 years. Between 1950 and 1970 more than 7,000 new schools were built, and these are now at, or past, the end of their 30/40 year life span (Clark, 2002, p. 01).
In 1997, the then Education Secretary David Blunkett said “improving the quality of school buildings is essential if we are to succeed in raising achievement” (Curtis, 2002). Education has been one of the main policy focuses of the Blair Government since 1997, although this declaration has been challenged more recently by a number of critics (Education Guardian, 2004). Reports from the Office for Standards in Education four years ago were stating that as many as one in five schools in England had accommodation that was in such an unsatisfactory state that the delivery of the curriculum was being affected. The condition of school buildings is accepted as an important factor in the effective delivery of the National Curriculum. As stated by Her Majesties Inspectorate of Schools, “The condition of accommodation can affect the morale of both pupils and teachers, resulting in adverse effects on the quality of education. A quarter of secondary schools inspected had inadequate accommodation adversely affecting the quality of teaching” (OFSTED, 1999/2000). While the physical environment is accepted as a prime consideration in designing hospitals and prisons, it has tended to be overlooked in school buildings. A lack of research evidence on the importance of the school environment has contributed to the years of neglect that many school buildings, especially secondary schools, have suffered (Clark, 2002). The government is now providing substantial financial investment in buildings, with the understanding that improving the quality of schools capital stock is likely to have an important influence on the learning outcome amongst pupils, but is that improvement a valid expectation? There has been evidence to support the relationship “The physical fabric of a school building conveys messages to both pupils and staff, which affects their self esteem and the way in which they approach their work” (DfES, 2002). A study conducted by the DfES found that the most successful schools “give a clear impression that the working environment is seen to be important in promoting positive achievements and attitudes” (DfES, 2002). This study implied that children are likely to perform in a building which is both attractive and comfortable to work in. Teaching staff are also affected by the condition of school buildings. The largest part of a teacher’s day is spent in the classroom. The most effective way to improve teacher’s performance is to improve their working condition (HMSO, 1977, p. 03). In terms of the link between overall school resources (i.e. total spending) and academic attainment, the results are somewhat undefined. Some US studies have found positive effects of general research measures on attainment (Goldhaber and Brewer, 1998 cited in Research Report 242, 2001). However, recent UK studies have tended to find no significant effects (Bradley and Taylor, 1999). An exception to this is Feinstein
and Symons (1999), who found that spending on teachers has a positive impact on performance and attendance, although small. One possible explanation given is that the data are sufficiently accurate, but the techniques insufficiently developed to identify any relationship (Bradley and Taylor, 1999). The Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) commissioned a major study to examine the relationship between investment in schools and subsequent pupil performance. The study was conducted between September 1999 and March 2000 by PricewaterhouseCoopers. Generally, the estimated impact of spending on pupil performance varied according to the broad type of study under consideration. At one end, there were those studies which found a broadly positive relationship. These tended to be in the architecture literature, and related to specific design features of schools and the overall quality of school buildings. At the other end, the economics literature was mostly concerned with school resources in general, and not specifically investment. Evidence for a relationship between general resources and performance was far from overwhelming (Research Report 242, 2001). The total level of financial investment the government is making available to School buildings has risen from £680 million in 1996-1997 to £3.7 billion in 2002-2003 and is expected to rise to £7 billion by 2005-2006 (Research Report 407, 2003, p. 01). These developments reflect clear belief that improving the quality of the schools capital stock is likely to have an important influence on learning outcomes amongst pupils. Fair Funding which was introduced in April 1999 as a new system of funding for schools and superseded Local Management of Schools (LMS). This system is used by Local Education Authorities (LEA) to calculate the budgets of all schools maintained by them (www.dfes.gov.uk). The School Standard Framework Act 1998 has also been formed to establish a new framework of community, voluntary and foundation schools. Fair Funding was brought in to aid this new framework by establishing a single system of funding which allows schools to self govern by increased delegation of responsibilities through funding (RIBA, 1999). Other recent government policies include New Deals for Schools (NDS), Private Finance Initiatives (PFI) and Public Private Partnership (PPP). Funding is now available to improve school facilities and standards through PFIs, however there is scepticism on the value of PFI from a number of areas. The National Union of Teachers and Unison said “PFI was an expensive way to make up for the years of neglect of school buildings and that the long-term stability of PFI projects was questionable” (Education Guardian, 2002). Central government and most LEA have been unable to define with sufficient accuracy how much investment is still required in school buildings in order to provide an adequate learning environment. Information on the condition of school buildings is improving as LEAs gradually re-survey schools. In addition, the level of investment required to improve suitability of buildings is also unknown (Audit Commission, 2003). Asset Management Plans (AMPs) were developed by Local Education Authorities in response to requirements laid down by the Department of Education and Skills (DfES). AMPs are based on surveys of school estates. They set out agreed priorities and the approaches for fulfilling them in terms of condition, suitability and sufficiency. This provides the opportunity for more continuous capital funding and better funding direction to where it can have the best impact on standards. AMPs should help to secure better value for money and encourage local decision-making.
School building investment
255
FAC 23,5/6
What cannot be denied is that the Blair government have raised the profile of spending on schools, and that investment and framework to inform decision-making on investment has had significant effect on schools across the UK. That said the years of under investment have not been addressed fully by any means yet. This study takes a closer look at one LEA and the impact the investment is having.
256 Methodology The research focus was chosen to be those who are directly involved in the education process. The authors come from a professional discipline that concentrates on the built asset, and a research focus that looked for value from the asset could have been chosen. However, the drive for increased investment in education is primarily about education, i.e. the users of the asset. A methodology was therefore chosen that would try and discover the impact on pupil performance from those directly involved in teaching. It was acknowledged that searching for a direct relationship between investment and pupil performance would be beyond the scope of this study, but it was considered that those directly involved in teaching would be able to report on changes seen in schools. Head-teachers have been involved in building performance and management for a number of years ever since 1990 LMS legislation, and an additional interview was to be held with the Head of Education and Development at the local authority in order to provide another view. The results of the data would provide an informed perception of the impact of investment on pupil performance. A second driver influenced the size and scope of the study. The study was undertaken within a limited time frame (an academic year alongside other studies) and with limited funds, and these limitations helped to focus the study onto one authority to which the researcher had direct and easy access. Thus, whilst acknowledging the constraint, the study benefited from access to participants and the co-operation of the local authority concerned to provide a “real world enquiry” (Robson, 1993, p. x). A total of 34 questionnaires were sent out to a range of primary and secondary schools, selected at random from the Derbyshire County Council Property Division database. Schools from across the education building stock, both in terms of age and size of school, were included in the study. Prior to the questionnaire being prepared, a pilot study was undertaken to test the wording of the questions, identify any ambiguous questions and assess the technique used to collect the data. Bell (1996, p. 84) describes a pilot study as: “getting the bugs out of the instrument (questionnaire) so that subjects in your main study will experience no difficulties in completing it”. In addition to the questionnaires, and with the aim to gathering further factual information and opinion, interviews were conducted with the Education Department at Derbyshire County Council and a secondary school within the Derbyshire area. The interviews were carried out with the Head of Education and Development at Derbyshire County Council and a deputy head-teacher at a secondary school that had been in receipt of a range of building refurbishment work. The interviews were designed to gauge the opinions of the LEA and schools, taking into account those people who are responsible for issuing funding for refurbishment projects and those who it primarily affects, helping to provide a balanced and critical view of the whole process.
The questionnaires were directed to the head-teacher and consisted of a brief two-page document with nine questions in total, including seven “closed” questions and two “open” questions, in order to gain more comprehensive results. The closed questions covered the detail of the type of school, type and range of building investment. The open questions focussed on improvements that had occurred if any, and invited comments on ways of identifying these improvements.
School building investment
257 The questionnaire data Out of the 34 questionnaires sent to schools, 27 were returned before the three-week deadline on 8 March 2004. This represented a total return rate of 79.4 per cent. Out of the 27 total replies, 19 were primary schools and 8 were secondary schools. All the schools had carried out some significant refurbishment works over the last five years, except for one of the secondary schools. This represents an overall figure of 96.3 per cent of schools carrying out improvements to their building stock. In order to gain an understanding on the impact of the refurbishment, it was first necessary to find out the level of improvements, which had taken place throughout the school (Table I). The aim of question four was to establish the scale of the alterations from 1 (minor) to 5 (major). For example: minor – partial redecoration and major – significant extension or school reorganisation. The more prominent results have been towards the major end of the scale. In total, 88.5 per cent would class the improvements as 4 or 5 (major) on the scale, 69.2 per cent or 18 respondents consider the works to be “major” improvements. Question 7a and 7b (a). The aim of this question was to establish whether head-teachers felt alterations and improvements had improved the teaching environment and had a positive effect on teaching and learning for pupils and teaching staff (Figure 1). The results suggest that overall refurbishments to improve the teaching environment are perceived to have had a significant positive effect on both teaching staff and pupils. Twenty-four respondents (92.3 per cent) felt there was a positive effect on pupils, whilst 25 respondents (96.1 per cent) felt the alterations have had a positive effect on the teaching staff. (b). The second part of the question asked for an explanation of how the positive effect is evident on (1) pupils and (2) teaching staff. This was an open-ended question in order to gain the teacher’s own opinion and views. Table II lists the verbatim responses listing the perceived benefits of these improvements. These results show the perceived impact of improvement is not just evident in pupils’ exam results. The new environment appears to have had a positive effect on their attitude to work and their motivation. The improved conditions also appear to have had an impact on the teaching staff by enhancing morale and self-value, this in
1 (minor) No. of head-teachers Percentage
1 3.8
Scale of improvements/alterations 2 3 4 2 7.7
0 0.0
5 19.3
5 (major) 18 69.2
Table I. Showing the scale of building improvements/alterations
FAC 23,5/6
258
Figure 1. Graph showing how alterations affect pupils and staff
turn may reflect indirectly to the improvement in the pupils by means of improved organisation and classroom management. Question 9 The aim of the final question was to establish the level of perceived improvement in student performance following the alterations. The graph summarises the variety of improvement ranging from “None” to “Major”, expressed as a percentage (Figure 2). The graph shows that having carried out refurbishment of school buildings a range of effects were seen as evident in affecting pupil performance. Nineteen per cent of schools felt improvements have not increased the level of attainment in pupils. However, 81 per cent of schools felt there had been some improvement, including 31 On pupils
On teaching staff
Raised self esteem due to improved standards, which has a positive effect on their work Children feel valued, enjoy the surroundings and therefore are better motivated Positive attitudes, improved relationships
Improvements to staffroom and classroom raises teachers self value Positive attitudes, improved self image
More independence working in a single building, instead of mobile units scattered across site Modern facilities, ideal environment, calming effect Lighter brighter working environment
Table II. Evidence of the perceived impact of refurbishment on pupils and teaching staff
Less congestion to circulation areas, more mature and civilised ethos Proud of their classroom, keen interest in their work Children pride their work and standards increase as the building and environment improve Brighter rooms, better access to resources
School now has a staffroom, helps; working/life balance, work preparation, meetings, etc. Up to date facilities, better environment Improved organisation and classroom management More comfortable teaching environment and resources improve morale Happier at school, motivated, pride in school environment Pleasant working environment, one site is less stressful
School building investment
259 Figure 2. Perceived relationship between student performance and refurbishment
per cent of schools suggesting a moderate improvement and 23 per cent suggest both a minor and significant improvement. From the results of the graphs, it is evident that the teachers see no link between the scale of improvement carried out and student performance in exams. The only apparent perceived link is the relationship between major improvements of school buildings and a minor increase in exams performance, which was noted by 18.5 per cent of schools surveyed. Some schools felt it was too early to comment on any relationships as the refurbishment work had only just been carried out or was part of a larger scheme, which was not yet complete, as can be seen in Table III. The responses from the teachers support a critical perspective of the impact of refurbishment. A positive response about these works might have been expected since the schools would have been assumed to be pleased that funds are being spent on their schools, and also perhaps because of the Hawthorne effect of being chosen as part of the study. The responses received did not provide a straightforward, uncritical and positive endorsement of the results of spending. Illustrating this view is the minority (19 per cent) who have not seen an improvement in overall attainment, and who say it is too early to judge. Scale of improvement
Student performance
1 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5
None None Significant None Too early None Minor Moderate Too early None Minor Moderate Significant Major
Number of schools 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 5 3 3 1
Table III. Student performance shown against the scale of building improvement
FAC 23,5/6
260
Interview A case study of one school that has received significant investment over a number of years was used to illustrate the perceived impact on the management of a school. The Science Department which was previously scattered across the whole site and throughout three separate buildings has now been replaced by a new modern building. It has had an incredible impact on staff and student morale. For the first time in years a quality building was put on the site, it wasn’t temporary, it was new and it had the most up to date technology and facilities. The impact on students on the first day, and on staff was magic. Exam results have increased considerably following the new build in 1996; key stage three results are way above average.
Science was chosen first as it had the worst facilities and the department was spread out over a large distance. There were also health and safety issues, for example being located on the second floor on a tower building. The government at that time was pushing development in science and technology, which opened up Grant Aid. Improvements which have come about from the refurbishment and alterations over the past few years at the school include: pupil morale, efficiency of working, the feel of belonging to the school, being able to display pupil’s works, making people feel welcome and being able to create an interesting environment. Also staff who teach in a room where water is coming through the walls and roof will not stay too long; they want to go to a school which has a high quality environment. Staff turnover has now reduced, following the improvements. The School feels it is moving from a 19th and 20th century school and into the 21st century, with new equipment, facilities and a modern environment.
The interview provided an insight into the real life of a school that had received investment and highlighted the additional benefit of a higher quality environment. This view was confirmed by the Ofsted inspection (2001), which states “the environment had continually improved and delivered value for money” following its previous inspection five years ago (Ofsted, October 2001). Conclusions This study provides some evidence of a perceived positive relationship between government investment and pupil attainment from the viewpoint of the building users. The general attitudes, behaviour and relationships between pupils and staff have improved in those schools in this authority which have had significant government investment. The study findings have illustrated that schools viewed the well-being of the teachers as an important contributory factor, and that the built environment was certainly perceived as having an effect on that well-being. However, the study failed to find a strong relationship between investment and pupil attainment levels in quantitative terms. The schools researched did not report a quantitative improvement in examination performance. The investment is still new in many schools and it may be that it is too soon to be able to follow through improvement in pupil attainment. The case-study school had identified significant improvement since earlier investment, and was convinced of the benefits being visible. In conclusion, all streams of analysis suggest there is a clear positive perceived relationship between the government investment in school buildings and the impact on pupil’s attainment levels. The relationship appears to be indirect and is difficult to
measure accurately. The well-being of staff and pupils and the environment in which they teach and learn, respectively, should not be underestimated. Evaluation of the relationship needs to consider staff attendance and turnover as well as pupil attendance and behaviour patterns if a clear picture of the relationship is to be achieved. It remains to be seen if further and larger studies can monitor a continuing hard measurable quantifiable improvement in exam and test results. References Anon. (1982), British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 3. Audit Commission (2003), “Improving school buildings”, Commission report, available at: www. audit-commision.gov.uk/reports (accessed November 2003). Bell, J. (1996), Doing your Research Project: A Guide for the First Time Researchers in Education and Social Science, Open University Press, Buckingham. Bradley, S. and Taylor, J. (1999), “The effects of school size on exam performance in secondary schools”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics. Clark, H. (2002), Building Education, Institute of Education. Curtis, P. (2002), “School buildings can affect learning”, Guardian Unlimited, available at: http:// education.guardian.co.uk/schools/story/0,5500,741008,00.html (accessed June 2003). DfES (2002), “Building Bulletin 95, schools for the future”, Department for Education and Skills, DFES available at: www.dfes.gov.uk (accessed November 2003). Feinstein, L. and Symons, J. (1999), Attainment in Secondary School, Oxford Economic Papers. Education Guardian (2002), “Teaching attack £45 billion PFI Plan”, Education Guardian, available at: www.educationGuardian.co.uk (accessed November 2003). Education Guardian (2004), “Blair failed on education, education, education”, Education Guardian, available at: www.educationGuardian.co.uk (accessed September 2004). Goldhaber, D.D. and Brewer, D.J. (1998), “Why don’t schools teachers seem to matter”, Journal of Human Resources. HMSO (1977), A Study of School Buildings – Report by an Inter Departmental Group, Department of Education and Science, Welsh Office. Marshall, C. and Rossman, G.B. (1995), Designing Qualitative Research, Sage, London. OFSTED (1999/2000), Annual Report, OFSTED, London, available at: www.ofsted.gov.uk/ inspect/index.htm (accessed June 2003). OFSTED (October 2001), Inspection Report – John Port School, Inspection Number 189826, OFSTED, London. RIBA (1999), A Guide for School Governors: Developing School Buildings, RIBA, London. Research Report 242 (2001), “An empirical assessment of the relationship between schools capital investment and pupil performance”, Pricewaterhouse Coopers, DFEE, London. Research Report 407 (2003), “An empirical assessment of the learning and other impacts of schools and capital investment”, Pricewaterhouse Coopers, Department for Education and Skills, London. Robson and C. (1993), Real World Research, Blackwell, Oxford.
School building investment
261
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-2772.htm
FAC 23,5/6
The impact of an intelligent classroom on pupils’ interactive behaviour
262
Tu´lio Tibu´rcio and Edward F. Finch The University of Reading, Reading, UK
Received July 2004 Accepted October 2004
Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this research is to determine whether new intelligent classrooms will affect the behaviour of children in their new learning environments. Design/methodology/approach – A multi-method study approach was used to carry out the research. Behavioural mapping was used to observe and monitor the classroom environment and analyse usage. Two new classrooms designed by INTEGER (Intelligent and Green) in two different UK schools provided the case studies to determine whether intelligent buildings (learning environments) can enhance learning experiences. Findings – Several factors were observed in the learning environments: mobility, flexibility, use of technology, interactions. Relationships among them were found indicating that the new environments have positive impact on pupils’ behaviour. Practical implications – A very useful feedback for the Classrooms of the Future initiative will be provided, which can be used as basis for the School of the Future initiative. Originality/value – The behavioural analysis method described in this study will enable an evaluation of the “Schools of the Future” concept, under children’s perspective. Using a real life laboratory gives contribution to the education field by rethinking the classroom environment and the way of teaching. Keywords Behaviour, Schools, Classrooms, Learning Paper type Research paper
Introduction A new learning environment The discussion about learning environments extends beyond the boundaries of a single room to a variety of settings. Learning can occur in numerous environments. Information and communication technology (ICT) are integral to this learning experience and the flexibility it affords. The measurement of successful learning can be a very complex task to accomplish, but observing and understanding a space can provide indicators for improvement in the design of learning environments. This study focusses upon new technology-based classrooms (Plate 1), referred to as intelligent classrooms. It aims to investigate the impacts of these new environments on pupils and whether pupils’ behaviour is affected by the change of environment. Methods from environmental psychology underpin the research. Facilities Vol. 23 No. 5/6, 2005 pp. 262-278 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0263-2772 DOI 10.1108/02632770510588664
The authors are grateful to the CAPES, Brasilia, Brazil for sponsorship and The University of Reading, INTEGER Intelligent and Green, The Lord Silkin School, and Wrockwardine Wood Church of England Junior School for their support.
The impact of an intelligent classroom 263
Plate 1. A technology-based flexible classroom
The UK government is seeking improvements in education in terms of both learning acquisition and school facilities. Within this context there is an ongoing initiative called “The Classroom of the Future” (DfES, 2003) which will enable lessons to be learnt for “Schools of the Future” concept (DfES, 2003). Many similar programmes in this area have been carried out worldwide. New learning spaces have been built or renovated. In this new information age, many questions have been asked. What are schools of the future going to be like? What will be the impact of technology in early education? What changes are needed in the learning environment? The design of a school, as stated by Annesley et al. (2002), affects the way pupils and staff interact, their motivation and self-esteem. She continues by saying these factors in turn have an effect on learning. In this analysis, the issue will be narrowed down to single classroom space, although it is acknowledged that other issues such as grounds and circulation areas may also play a significant role. This study investigates whether an intelligent learning environment can enhance learning experiences. The study explores key factors that seem to have some influence in this process: the flexibility of the space, the mobility of the teacher and the use of new technology. New technology enables flexibility and mobility, both of which are analysed in the study. In addition, interactions in the classroom are another factor being investigated in order to find out if these technology-based classrooms will increase or diminish them.
FAC 23,5/6
264
Plate 2. An intelligent classroom environment
An intelligent classroom Studies already indicate that students are willing to accept ICT in the classroom environment (Underwood, 1987). Technology is permeating all workspaces as observed by McGregor and Then (1999) when discussing the effects of communication and computing (technology) on all types of facilities in this information age. Dudek (2002) also argues that schools and their educational needs are changing and that information and communications technologies are expected to transform the classroom. School facilities, including the classroom, are already facing changes to meet the needs of this new age. There is a belief that “In the classroom of the future the learning environment will look and feel different” (DfES 2003, p. 79). Plate 2 shows an example of ICT in a classroom environment. The intelligent classroom, in this research, considers two aspects: technological (or technology-based) and sustainable. The technological aspect looks at the building as a product that: . makes extensive use of ICT (wireless computers, video-conferencing, interactive whiteboards, etc.) allowing individual and group work and electronic links to other schools and facilities; . has flexibility as a central theme to enable a variety of different learning environments;
.
movable, attractive and adjustable furniture suitable for a wide range of ages and sizes and allowing use of the new learning technology.
The other aspect of the intelligent classroom concept is linked to sustainability or green buildings. According to Edwards (2002) “sustainability is increasingly seen as the only legitimate architectural design issue for the 21st century” (p. 83). He also tries to establish a link among productivity, technology and sustainability and states that these three factors “are quickly being recognized as an important package of interactions, especially in working environments” (p. 83). Environmental (green) issues in the workplace are also discussed by McGregor and Then (1999). They argue that both providers and occupiers of buildings are realising, increasingly, “that workspaces need to be provided in an environmentally responsible way” (p. 121). This research investigates these sustainable workplace ideas by looking at school environment. In school buildings, we argue that being an intelligent building the building itself provides a powerful tool to educate pupils about environmental issues. Energy conservation, thermal comfort, lighting and best use of material can make significant contributions to the environmental impact of buildings. The school building itself also provides an ideal learning device to raise the awareness of children about ethical responsibilities and technological challenges regarding the environment. The definition of an intelligent classroom in this study is based on the concept of “Intelligent and Green”, which reflects the technology element in conjunction with aspects of sustainability. Edwards (2002) reinforces this idea by saying that “technology holds the key to architecture’s green future” (p. 83). This research will provide design guidelines for the improvement of learning environments in order to help enhance learning. Multi-method study approach A multi-method system was used to carry out the research in order to avoid bias [as advocated by Zeisel (1984)]. He proposes using several methods to attack one problem in order to achieve higher-quality research, arguing that “the appropriate mix of methods will be the one that enables you to achieve your ends with the greatest control over side effects” (Zeisel, 1984, p. 229). He encourages multi-method approach, suggesting that “E-B researchers and decision makers who use a multiple-method research approach will be able to use what they find out, to do what they want to do” (Zeisel, 1984, p. 229). This research is based on case studies of two new classrooms at different schools. Two main methods were used: behavioural mapping (through class observation) and questionnaires. In addition, two other tools were used to elicit information: interviews were carried out in the beginning and a feedback box was set up in the studied environment. Behavioural mapping Ittelson, Rivlin and Proshansky have developed the concept of behavioural maps as described in Horne (1999). Rivlin and Rothenberg (1976) define behavioural mapping as a naturalistic time-sample technique for describing patterns of activities and the use of physical space. It is generally believed that behaviour is affected by the environment and the environment in turn is changed or adapted to accommodate different behaviour
The impact of an intelligent classroom 265
FAC 23,5/6
266
(Horne, 1999). As proposed by Horne (1999) behavioural mapping is an efficient tool to get a clear understanding of the classroom environment. Zeisel (1984) describes similar technique named as behavioural plan annotation in which information about the relation between the environment and behaviour is recorded. Behavioural mapping was chosen since it allows several graphic maps to be produced during an observation session. Horne (1999) explored the behavioural mapping technique in her observations in classrooms. Various environment-behaviour researchers such as Proshansky and colleagues (Proshansky and Altman, 1979; Proshansky and Fabian, 1987; Proshansky and Wolfe, 1975; Proshansky et al., 1976; Rivlin and Rothenberg, 1976; Rivlin and Weinstein, 1984; Rivlin and Wolfe, 1985; Sommer, 1972; Ittleson et al., 1974, 1976) have used similar behavioural techniques. Horne (1999) has developed various constructs to help class observation techniques. Some of them are described here. Detailed explanation can be found in Horne (1999, 2002). Lesson profile, flexibility of the classroom, mobility of the teacher, and density are constructs being used in this research. Another factor, interaction, was added and is being investigated in this study in order to check the relation of the new learning environment with possible interactions among users. This factor has also been used before by Horne, but from the teacher’s perspective. Here the focus is on pupils. Behavioural mapping was used in the case studies through class observations. Every five minutes a map of the physical space or physical settings (as defined by Proshansky, 1976) was produced and information was registered. Ittleson et al. (1974) suggested time intervals of 15 minutes, but variation is possible. The observations were mapped on floor plans of the classroom, annotating layout, teacher’s movement, interactions among users and with the environment, record of activities and their duration. The constructs and terminologies The constructs and terminologies described in this section are being used in the research and originate from Horne (2002) with some adaptations. These constructs include the following. . Lesson profile is a column that identifies the clusters of activities (introduction, teacher teaching, pupils on task, transition, and conclusion; identified by Horne, 2002) to describe the different activities that occur in the classroom as can be seen in Figure 1. Here it represents 50 minutes observation within one hour lesson. . Flexibility factor of the classroom “is the total area in each room that allows change to be made by the teacher with varying degrees of effort”. (Horne, 2002, p. 143).
Figure 1. Example of a lesson profile in a 50 minute interval
.
.
.
.
Mobility factor of the teacher is the total area covered by the teacher during the lesson in relation to the total area of the room (Horne, 2002). Density is the amount of space per pupil in a classroom measured in square metres per pupil (Horne, 2002). Interactions mean relationship between users and the new learning environment. These interactions were classified into five categories in order to be quantified and to investigate if there is any relationship with the other factors. The focus of this study is the pupils and the possible interactions were identified: pupil-to-pupil, pupil-to-teacher, pupil-to-equipment, group interaction, and no interaction. New technology is being used to refer to top ICT which includes interactive whiteboards, laptops, web-tablets, video-conference, scanners, printers, digital cameras. This equipment is available for pupils and teachers and there is enough for individual work if necessary.
The physical settings Two new classrooms designed by INTEGER-Intelligent and Green as part of the UK Government project named “The Classroom of the Future”, provided the case studies for this research. The aims of this research are to investigate whether intelligent buildings (learning environments) can enhance learning experiences and their impact on pupils’ behaviour. The goal of this government project is to achieve or enhance learning acquirements through innovation in school environment. Several classrooms were designed and built around the country. Telford and Wrekin Local Education Authority (LEA) has these two new classrooms in two different schools: The Lord Silkin (secondary school) and Wrockwardine Wood Church of England Junior (primary school). These are the two physical settings used for class observation in this research. Pupils were observed in the traditional classroom as well for comparison purposes. Physical setting 1. Wrockwardine Wood Church of England Junior School is a primary school attended by pupils at Key Stage 2 with ten classes from Year 3 to 6, according to the UK system DfES (2000). The classroom of the future built in this school (Plate 3) has been used by all school pupils. One class of 28 pupils, 7-9 years of age was chosen for class observation (Table I). This choice was based on the convenience of matching the schedule of the secondary school observations considering the observer’s weekly trips. Students were observed in the new learning environment and in the traditional classroom (Plate 4 and Figure 2). The same group of pupils, the same teacher and the same subject were observed in both environments. Physical setting 2. The Lord Silkin School is the Secondary school where the other classroom of the future (Figure 3) was built in Telford and Wrekin LEA. It is the same original design with slight differences in terms of cladding, decoration and different external deck. This school is now applying to become a specialist school in business. The classroom of the future built in this school has been used by these business students. One single class of 37 pupils, 15-16 years of age (Table I) was chosen representing the second case study. Students were observed in this new classroom and in the traditional learning environment (Figures 4 and 5). The same group of pupils, the same teacher undertaking the same subject in this school was observed in two different environments.
The impact of an intelligent classroom 267
FAC 23,5/6
268
Plate 3. Classroom of the Future Wrockwardine School
No. of pupils Case study School Table I. Summary of the case study school classes studied
01 02
Wrockwardine Wood Church of England Junior School The Lord Silkin School
Age Male female Total group Stage* 15 20
14 17
29 37
7-9 15-16
Year
Year 3 and Key stage 2 Year 4 Key stage 4 Year 11
Note: *Related to DfES (Department of Education and Skills)
The behavioural mapping sample Data gathering was structured based on the case studies described above. A total of 64 class observations was planned. Pupils and teachers were observed in the new and in the traditional classroom for comparison purposes. In this way the sample has four physical settings (4 classrooms: 2 “classrooms of the future” and 2 traditional ones) in two different schools. Each lesson observed would generate ten behavioural maps in a total of 640 maps, considering that it could be reduced due to school dynamics. Observations were carried out between November 2003 and July 2004. Questionnaires Questionnaires were also used in the study. Considering the classroom a space where behaviour is an important observable factor, behavioural mapping technique fulfils and allows information to be gathered about this learning environment. However,
The impact of an intelligent classroom 269
Plate 4. Wrockwardine School – the traditional classroom
observation in turn relies on interpretation of what was observed. Swetnam (2000) argues that case studies are often classified as qualitative by definition. “Observation is essentially observer-oriented” (Allison et al., 1996, p. 9) having thus a degree of subjectivity. It means observation has limitations and information can be missed by the observer. According to Zeisel (1984) it is crucial to be aware of what you are looking for and what has to be observed. With research focus on teachers, Horne (1999) used interviews to validate the data originated from observation. In this research, another technique was used since the focus is the pupils. The use of questionnaire at the end of the observation process allowed the validation of the data collected from observations. Questionnaires were designed taking into consideration the age groups and given to the same group of students and teachers whose classes were observed. Teachers were consulted regarding the language level. A smiling face scale was added to the youngest pupils’ questionnaires to facilitate the judgement of answers, since these questionnaires were given to two different age groups (pupils of primary and secondary schools). The focus of the questionnaires was the users’ views on their experiences in the new environment. All pupils were given a questionnaire. The sample size for questionnaire in a qualitative study, as suggested by Allison et al. (1996), needs to be only large enough to ensure a wide variety of answers. It was agreed with teachers that questionnaire would be a class activity, which produced a large number of responses. Interviews and feedback box Other tools were used to get feedback from users of the classroom of the future in both schools. A feedback box was set in each “Classroom of the Future” and open-style
FAC 23,5/6
270
Figure 2. Wrockwardine School – the classroom of the future
forms were made available for users to give their feedback about the new environment. These boxes were collected at the end of the academic year. Another tool used was interviews. Some teachers and pupils were interviewed at the pilot study stage to get impressions and expectations from students and teachers about the space. Interviews were carried out a few months after the launching of the classrooms which occurred last September 2003. Preliminary results and discussion Interviews were useful for obtaining preliminary feedback from pupils and teachers. A sense of belonging (Annesley et al., 2002; Inalhan and Finch, 2004) was evident among
The impact of an intelligent classroom 271
Figure 3. Classroom of the future – The Lord Silkin School
the children who were involved in the design process somehow. It was also possible to realise that the students seemed to be stimulated by the new classroom. Analysis were in the beginning at this time of writing the paper. However, it has already shown some preliminary results that seem to be positive for the hypothesis which states that “intelligent learning environments can enhance learning experiences”. Four major factors and their relationship have been identified as follows: (1) interactions; (2) flexibility; (3) mobility; and (4) technology.
FAC 23,5/6
272
Figure 4. The Lord Silkin School – the traditional classroom
Figures 6 and 7 show how some of these factors have been observed and recorded. Each five-minute map has tracked the teacher’s movement and by overlapping them it is possible to calculate teacher’s mobility. Furniture was measured to allow for calculation of the flexibility of the classroom. Interactions were mapped graphically as shown in Figure 6. Initial analysis of the behavioural maps has shown that interactions occurred in larger number in the new classroom of the future as shown in Figure 8. This figure represents two observation sessions of the same group of pupils (secondary school), the same teacher, the same subject in two different learning environments: the traditional classroom and the classroom of the future.
The impact of an intelligent classroom 273
Figure 5. The Lord Silkin School – the classroom of the future
The flexibility of the space in the classroom of the future is much higher (93 per cent) than the traditional classroom (85 per cent), encouraging more mobility of the teacher. Also, the technology in it has permitted/forced the teacher to move around the classroom much more in the new environment (66 per cent mobility) than in the traditional classroom (15 per cent mobility). Both use of technology and mobility seems to generate/encourage more interactions to occur in the new environment. Another important finding from the maps are the lesson profiles. They indicate that in the classroom of the future, there is a tendency to have a more child-centred lesson
FAC 23,5/6
274
Figure 6. An example of a five minute map showing interactions in various categories, the layout for that lesson and teacher’s tracking
Figure 7. Graphical analysis model of the classroom showing the floor plan, the layout, the teacher’s mobility, flexibility of the classroom and interactions
(Horne, 2002) as can be seen in the lesson profile on Figure 9. Pupils spend more time on tasks. In the traditional classroom, the lesson profile (Figure 10) shows that the teacher tends to adopt a teacher-centred lesson (Horne, 2002). Relationships Findings from observation indicate some relationships between some of the factors being investigated in this research. These relationships give positive indication that more interaction are being stimulated by the new technology-based classroom.
Mobility and flexibility. Observation has shown that flexibility seems to be directly linked to the mobility of the teacher. By comparing teacher movement in the traditional and new classroom it is possible to identify greater support for mobility in the new classroom. Furniture layout is routinely rearranged and equipment is relocated. Mobility and technology. Because the new classroom has more equipment (laptops, web tablets, printers, interactive whiteboard, video-conference equipment) available for pupils to use (each student can have one piece of equipment for his own if necessary) and they have been using it. The teacher has been moving around much more in this new environment. It means that the teacher’s mobility is also higher than in the traditional classroom where equipment is available for teachers only. Pupils only use it if teacher invites them to do so. Only the teacher has been tracked in terms of
The impact of an intelligent classroom 275
Figure 8. Interactions observed during two sessions in the secondary school
Figure 9. Lesson Profile The Lord Silkin School – traditional classroom
Figure 10. Lesson Profile The Lord Silkin School – classroom of the future
FAC 23,5/6
276
Figure 11. Relationship among key factors
movement but it is possible to realize that the pupil also has more mobility in the new classroom due to the new technology available. Mobility and interactions. It is confirmed by observation that the more mobility the teacher has, the more interaction occurs with pupils. This was even easier to observe in the secondary school. In the traditional classroom, the teacher spent most of the time teaching in front of the classroom while in the new one he moved around interacting with pupils in groups or in pupil-to-pupil interactions. It also happened in the primary school. Observation indicated that the layout also influences it. Interactions and technology. The technology available in the classroom of the future allows more teacher-pupils and pupil-pupil interactions. There was a belief at the beginning of this research that interaction may drop off when students use their own individual equipment. However, observation has shown that interactions seem to increase. The teacher moves around to teach and help pupils with the equipments. Pupils also interact more with each other and many times work in groups to help each other with equipments. Interactions and flexibility. By comparing the layout in the traditional and new classrooms (mainly in the secondary school) it is possible to state that the flexibility allowed by the new classroom has facilitated interactions. The traditional classroom in the secondary school has a horse-shoe shape that encourages the teacher to stay in front of the room and students sit quietly around the horse-shoe shape desks arrangement. It produces few interactions. Most of the interactions that occur are teacher-group or one-to-one (pupils). On the other hand, in the new classroom a more flexible space has allowed more interactions as the teacher has more mobility. Pupils also have greater opportunity to interact with each other and in groups. Flexibility and technology. A relationship was established between flexibility and technology found with wireless technology together with movable furniture creating more flexibility in the observed classroom. All these relationships can be illustrated in a diagram as shown in Figure 11. It indicates that the use of new technology, flexibility and mobility all allow more interactions to occur.
Conclusions and future work This research aims to investigate the impact of new classroom environments on pupils and whether pupils’ behaviour is affected by the change of environment. The research shows a new way of examining the classroom environment with the focus on pupils. The study has shown that innovation in classroom design needs to consider technology as a key factor. Designers of schools today should consider technology as a crucial element. Pupils are comfortable and familiar with the use of new equipment and technology. Teachers are being trained and encouraged in the use of technology in their classes. The use of new technology-based environments seems to be positive in the learning process, in the delivery, interpretation and reuse of information. Pupils’ behaviour was observed to improve in these environments. The pupils seemed stimulated by the new technology and also the appeal of the classroom spaces. Teachers also felt pupils were stimulated by these new learning environments. Interactions seemed to increase as discussed previously due to factors such as flexibility, mobility and technology. This confirms flexibility as another important issue in building design and workspace design. Further studies in this research will investigate productive interactions as suggested by Littleton and Light (1999). It is expected that it will allow some understanding of whether learning acquisition has any relationship with interaction levels. The assumption that high levels of interaction are necessarily “good” needs further analysis. It seems to be clear that an intelligent classroom will demand more investment, maintenance and management. It becomes a more complex environment and needs to be well planned and designed in order to attend to the demands of teachers, pupils and the community at large. Intelligent classrooms present a new approach for learning environments. These environments seem to be a new way of stimulating pupils’ curiosity, initiative and autonomous learning. The flexibility existent in these classrooms facilitates interaction and it seems to help group and independent learning. The accessibility to and use of information, made easier through technology, introduces new practices in the classroom. A new way of learning is brought about by the intelligent classroom. In order to discriminate between effective and ineffective innovations in such environments, analytical tools such as that described in this paper should be adopted.
References Allison, B. et al. (1996), Research Skills for Students, Kogan Page, London. Annesley, B. et al. (2002), Learning Buildings, School Works, London. DfES (2000), Learning Journey: A Parent’s Guide to the Primary School Curriculum, The Stationery Office, London. DfES (2003), Classrooms of the Future: Innovative Designs for Schools, The Stationery Office, London. Dudek, M. (2002), Architecture of Schools: The New Learning Environments, Architectural Press, Oxford. Edwards, B. (2002), Rough Guide to Sustainability, Riba Publications, London. Horne, S.C. (1999) “The classroom environment and its effect on the practice of teachers” PhD thesis, Goldsmiths College, University of London, UK.
The impact of an intelligent classroom 277
FAC 23,5/6
278
Horne, S.C. (2002), “The classroom environment and its effect on the practice of teachers”, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 22, pp. 140-56. Inalhan, G. and Finch, E.F. (2004), “Place attachment and sense of belonging”, Facilities, Vol. 22 Nos. 5/6. Ittleson, W. and Rivlin, L. et al. (1974), An Introduction to Environmental Psychology, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, NY. Ittleson, W. and Rivlin, L. et al. (1976), The use of Behavioural Maps in Environmental Psychology, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, NY. Littleton, K. and Light, P. (Eds) (1999), Learning with Computers: Analysing Productive Interactions, Routledge, London. McGregor, W. and Then, D.S. (1999), Facilities Management and the Business of Space, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Proshansky, H.M. (1976), “Environmental psychology: a methodological orientation”, in Proshansky, H.M., Ittelson, W.H. and Rivlin, L.G. (Eds), Environmental Psychology – People and Their Physical Settings, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, NY, pp. 56-69. Proshansky, H. and Altman, I. (1979), “Overview of the field”, in White, W.P. (Ed.), Resources in Environment and Behaviour, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 3-36. Proshansky, H. and Fabian, A.K. (1987), “The development of place identity in the child”, in Weinstein, C.S. and David, T.G. (Eds), Spaces for Children – The Built Environment and Child Development, Plenum Press, New York, NY. Proshansky, H. and Wolfe, M. (1975), “The physical setting and open education”, in David, T.G. and Wright, B.D. (Eds), Learning Environment, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, pp. 691-732. Proshansky, H. and Ittelson, W. et al. (1976), Environmental Psychology – People and their Physical Settings, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, NY. Rivlin, L.G. and Rothenberg, M. (1976), “The use of space in open classrooms”, in Proshansky, H.M., Ittelson, W.H. and Rivlin, L.G. (Eds), Environmental Psychology – People and their Physical Settings, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, NY, pp. 479-89. Rivlin, L.G. and Wolfe, M. (1985), Institutional Settings in Children’s Lives, Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY. Rivlin, L.G. and Weinstein, C.S. (1984), “Educational issues, school settings, and environmental psychology”, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 4, pp. 347-64. Sommer, R. (1972), Design Awareness, Rinehart Press, San Francisco, CA. Swetnam, D. (2000), Writing your Dissertation: How to Plan, Prepare and Present Successful Work, How to Book, Oxford. Underwood, J.D.M. (1987) “The effectiveness of computer based learning”, PhD thesis, Nottingham University Nottingham. Zeisel, J. (1984), Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment-Behaviour Research, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA. Further reading Monteith, M. (Ed.) (1998), IT for Learning Enhancement, Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers, Lisse.
