Secularisation in Western Europe, 1848 - 1914

ISBN 0-333-59748-6

11111111 9 780333 597484

II

90101

Adz/I.Wirl' I,'dillirs: .Joc Bergin and .John Brcl1illy

Secularisation in Western Europe,

Published

1848-1914

EUROPEAN STUDIES SERIES (;tlll'm!I·;dillirs:

(:()lin.Jolll'S and Richard Ovcry

Rohert 1\lci riC I!

Greater France: A Short History of l",'cnch Overseas Expansion

Nigcil\ston

Religion and Rcvolution in F!'ance, 1780-1804

Y\,l's-I\Llril' Berct'

The Birth of Absolutism: A History of Fnlllce, 1598-l(j(j)

.lallinl' (;;llTisSOIl

A History of Sixteenth-Century France, 1483-1598

(;rcgory I Llnloll

Early Modem Italy, 1550-1800

Michael IllIghcs

Early Modem Germany, 1477-1806

Dietl'!' Langc\\'Icscill'

Liberalism in Gennany

Martyn Ixolls

Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the I"rench Revolution

IllIg'l! I\IcLcoc\

Secul ~D()

NO/I's

Bihliop;mjilly flldl',\'

VII

List

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(~llhbles

'I h'llds ill 'lh~Il(ls ill '1lTnds ill '1ITIHls in

A chn()"wledgel1zents

1'1'01l'stant religiolls pract icc in (;erlll:Jny (:atholic n~ligiolls practicc in France religiolls practice in England Cat holic religiolls pract ICC ill (;crlllaIlY

VIII

IHO IHI IHI ~()4

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I wish to thank the School of Historical Studies in the University Birmingham fill' research grants. and the Humanitics Research Board filr linancing a period or research leavc, withollt which completion or this book',.wollld have bcen vcry much more difficlllt, Variolls parts or the book have becn tried out at conkrcnCl's or seminars, I WOllld like to thank Ii)!' their helprlll COllllllcnts all those who participated in the conltTcncc 'The Decline of'Christcndolll ill Western Europe'. held in Paris in April 19~)7. and in the relevant nwctings of'the History of' Religion Selllinars at QlleclI's Univcrsity, Be!filst. and the University of' Birmingham, the Theology Seminar at thc University of Bristol, and the joint. History Seminar or the Universities of' Strathclydc and (;Iasgo\\', lowe a spccial deht to John Brellilly. Mary Heimann. Sarah vVilliams and III)' EltlH'r. T S, McLcod, filr reading and commentillg on dran typescripts. MallY other people havc gcnerously helped by discussing aspects of' the hook or scnding me copies of' their own unpllblished work, and I wOllld like to make particlllar mention of' my debts to Callum Brown. Steve Brllcc, (;t~ranl Cholvy. .Jefl' Cox. Sheridan (;ille)'. Mart in Creschat, ROlsln lIealy, Yves-Marie II ilaire, David Ilcm pton. Lucian Iliilschcr. Hart III lit Lehmann, l'et('1' Marsh. David rVlartin, Stllart Mews. SlIe Morgan. C;eoll' Robson, Michael Snape, Werner Ustorf', Till van Rahdcn and Peter vall Rooden. I would likc to thank SlIC Wright fill' advice on translations fi'om Frcnch alld Harry Buglass lilr drawing [he maps. ;\s always. I am grat cf'lI I to all mcmhers of' my filmil)' filr their varied filrms of' encollragement, and most especially to .Iackie.

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/rlnation or the French Revolution), or whereby priests, monks or nuns abandoned their orders. But then the term began to be llsed in a wider sense. The first to do so secms to havc been the historian W. E. II. Lecky who, in I HG[i, rekrrcd to a 'general secularisation or the European intellect' and specifically to a 'secularisation or politics'.! By this he mcalll. that there had been a long-term tendency lill' reason of state to replace religious considerations in relations between states and decisiolls to go to war. Soon other authors were claiming to detect secularisation in such areas as economics or art. But the hIm or secularisation seems to have been already current hclilre it was given a name. The French pioneer or SOCiology Auguste Comte argued in his highly influential COllI'S de jJ/ii/osojJ/i11' j)()sllirl(? (I H:Hl-42) t hat knowledge passed through three phases, the theological, the mctaphysical and t he posit ivc or scicnt ilic. Now, with the dawning or the scicntific age, religIOn in its traditional fimns was doomed, and Comtc devised a Religioll of Hlimanity, which would perfilrm f(ll' the modern world those necessary functions 0(' providing meaning, ritual and a basis lilr morality, which had oncc been the province or the chllrches.~ The search f(JI' a Religion or I-Iulllanity, which had already hegun during the French Revolution, has remained a central thellle or ninetccnti1- and twenticth-centllry history - though thc search is still no nearer to its goal than it was in COllltC's day.:1 Meanwhile, COlllte's fj'amework or long-term historical change, according to which religion hegins as an all-powerlid l(llTe and then gradllally

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been ill the ascelldallt.~c, [\s nne rather striking example or the t rends. in the I',dat inate. where K2 per cent or clergymen aged :'>ri and over were reckoned in I K,I!) to he Lcfiists. only ;)7 per ccnt or their YOllnger colleagucs shared t hesc s)'nlpat hies. ~I; The major rC,lson ie)r this secnlrlll or municipal corporations In IK:Ei cnabled IIOtr{J('(/1I m111' industrialists to supplant old established wealth, while 111ilitallt Nonconl(H'lllists wne I)()werfully challenging thc entrcnched power ol'tl1l' Church or England. Thcn li'Oln I K:IK, Whig and "I()r)" urban and rural clites, Ill'W and old wealth, all EICl'd the challenge orChartism, a Illass 111()\'Cl11ent with its strongholds in the working-class cOlllmunities orthe industrial north, While 'I()J'ies could rely on the support or IIigh (:hurch and Evangelical Anglicans, and the Whigs were supported by most liberal Anglicans and the great majority or Dissenters, relatively kw clergy or an\' denomination WCl'e willing to declare their support li)r the Chartists.';~1 In the years or greatest political excitcl11ent in the later I :-\:\Os and early I K40s the church loyalties or many or the working class were placed under severe strain, Some Chartists retained their links with thcir churches (most commonly some hranch or Methodism) in spite or t he lack or ol'licial support; SOl11e rejccted t he churches,

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!'iO including a spell in prison in the I !)20s when Poplar council refused to pay contributions to the London County Council. LanslJtlry told the alllllOr or this sllrn~)': Religion is not a matter I()r Sunday and Monday but I()r the whole lilt,. Education cannot bc carricd on apart froJll religion. Anything ill industry or politics that conllicts with our Lord's teaching must he IT11l0V(,(1, and mcn and wonH'n must be given opportunity so to liv(, that they express in their daily life the law or love. We Lahour Iwlievl' that It is a dellial or our Lord's teaching that w(' should light each other I()r our daily bread. In I;lcl, wc helicve t hat it is t hat personal st.ruggle to get. above each ot.her which causes l1lost or the cvil in the world and consequently we arc ;d\\"ays working to substitute in place or that. struggle co-opcrat ion. Nor was the Christian rationale f()r Lansbury's socialism a ]Jurely privatc cOIl\·iction. Whcn in I !)22 the Poplar Labour Party publisl}('d a dcl"ellcc or the imprisoned councillors, they began with a qllotation from the Epistle or .lame's, ane! Lanshury himself wrote in I !)2 i l a pamphlet on./eslis ({lid 1~(/h{)lIr. Meanwhile Stanley Baldwin, as leadcr or thc COllscl"\"ativc Party. was offering an equally explicit Christian ,iustilication li)j' his politiCS or patriotism and cbss-rcconci Iia t ion. 7:",

Conclusion So ill England Christianity was still in the I 92()s 'contested territory'. But in FrallCC and (;erlll:lny the political use of the Bihle had fi)r long hecll a conscrv,lIi\"(' mOllopoly. 111 these two countries, the t.wo or threc decades li)llowing J H·IH marked an important stage in the process hy which religion ceased to provide a common language. In puhlic dehate, religious concept s, rhetoric and symbols had hecol1le r
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PUE ll!p.IO.lll(l:) ,)ql JEql P;).lUI.\uo.) ;).1;),\\ 'lwared at the chllrch doors, t he), oneil ;-, /illlnd the \I'a)' halTcd by c)'()wds orangr), parishionCl's, determined that 110 IInhclic\'(~r should lay hands on the sacred vessels or on their saints, Sometillles olliv a tol~cn resistance was orkred. Sometimes it took \'ioicllt li)l'lns. ';\nd sometimes IllOre ingeniolls /i)l'lns or del(~ncc welT devised. III Pyrenean parishes hears wcre chained to the chllrch porch, and in 'olle wcstern parish the demonstrators armed themselves with chamber pots which they emptied over the gendarmes,~'; These conrrontations had lillie practical crkct beyond kll'dening thc Pope's resolve to hc as Ilncollciliatory as possihle. Bllt they dramatically conlirmed the French Catholics' self~i1l1age as an cmbattled millority, lighting a desperate reargllanl action ;l"'ainst the li)l'('('s or evil, and their scnsc or bcing. ill Michel i"'1 q_ Lagrc(~'s words, exiles ill their 0\\'11 cOlllltry.-' For ellemies ortlH' chllrch, incillding man)' Protestants. as well as ant i-clerical Cat holies alld Freet hinkel'S. t he passing or t he law or Separat ion was an act or cleansing, li'oll1 which France cmergcd as a ,'-)

I NS'!'ITI 'TIONS

( );) '"

I'rccr and a nobler nation. The political battle caught the poplliar imaginatioll, to the extent. that it became a sllbject I()r street-singers. i\ song cllrrent in Lyon compared the clergy to snakes and to crows, complained or their line living and thclr constant demands li)r Illoney. and conclllded that il' the state stopped paying the clergy, the mllltitude or 'grey sisters, Illonks and parish priests', 'posing as victims', wOllld rapidly disappear.~H At the local level. zealous mayors olien took the secularising crusade rurther than t.he law required. The most hotly debated issue' here was the religious ncutralit), of' public space. Until IH7~) Catholic svmbols werc everywhere. Thc Catholic Ltith was intenvo\'en with lewT)' aspect or daily lik' and oj' pllblic institutions.:!~J Crosses stood in innumt')'able town squares and beside countless countr" roads. Small statucs or saints stood at street corners. Religious I;roccssiolls had an important place in the calendar or most cOll1lllunities. Celebrations in honour or thc patron salllt or the parish would involve most or the population, includillg those who seldolll wcn t t() ch urch at ot her times. St reet s were namcd alit')' saints. Crucifixes hung on the walls o/' schools, hospitals and courts or law. Most or t his, probably, was generally t.aken li)r granted. In the republican era, much that had previously been takcn li)r O'ranted be(ran to al)l)ear olknsivc, and attacks on these symbols h h or the Catholic past hecamc an elfective means by which local tlauthorit.ies could demonstrate t.heir zeal. For instance, ,n the years IH7!) to IHHI thc Paris city council was carrying through a programmc or secularisation or schools and hospitals in advance ornationallegislation. In IH~):) when conSlTvatiw' proposals t.o resacralise the hospitals were a major issue in the Paris Illllnicipal elections, horror stories abounded in papers hot hoI' Ldi and Right ahout the atrocities committed by nurses or 'thc wrong kind'.:\11 Can:assollne III I HH I was among the lirst councils to order the rell10val or all crosses and statues or saints li'olll public places. Man), local councils stopped some or all religious processions throllgh the streets. When repllblican cOllncils tried to avoid antagonising their Catholic voters, they WlTe kept up to the mark by anticlerical newspapers, which pllblicised cases or laxity, Processions could thus take on the character or political symbols. In Nantes t hey were banned in J HH I, allowed again by a Illore (:at holic council in I HHH, and banned again (this time by the prerect or the department) in 19(J:). On the latter occasion Catholics responded by staging a 'spontaneolls' march through the streets, during- which

()I

the two thousand participants were im'olvcd in lights with hostile onlookcrs.:\ I The necd to preserve public order by averting conllicts oi'this killd providcd a means orcomhinillg anti-Catholic dltTt with an ostellsible rciigious lleutrality. Somc lllllllicipalities took a lllore rrankly allti-Catholic St'IIHT. Streets named after saints were rCllallH'd alier such ant i-clerical heroes as Voltaire. I n Paris, where the erectioll ortlll' Sacr(' Co('ur hasilica durillg the 1~7()s on the top or the Blitte or I\\Olltm,lr(rt' was a striking example of the church's cOlltilluing ahility to stamp its presclHT Oil the modern cityscape. thl' lllullicipal cOlll1cil voted mOlley in I ~)()/I fell' the erection of a statuc of the Chn'alil'r de La Barre opposite the entrance to the hasilica. La Bane had hecn execlited filr sacrilege in 17(i(i and so stood bl'sidc (.~t ielUH' Dole!, excCllted Ie)]' at heism and heresy in I !"l'I(i. as a martyr of' fiTctholight. frequcntly celehrated hy repuhlicm COlliICils.: I :2 Sinct' mall)' (:;11 holics \\'('re known to he host ile to t he Republic. pract ising Cat holics could also f;lce various li)]'lllS of direct or indirect discrilllination by the state. Indirect discrimination included the law of' I~) 1:1 which cxclll(kd I hose who h,ld not been educated Ie)!' at least threc ycars at a state school [i'om ('ntry to the civil service or the of'lic('J' corps ortlll' arm)'. Since devout I\' (:atholic Eunilies tended to sl'lld thcir childrl'll to pri\'ate schools in order to escape the 'irreligious' teaching ill state schools. the cfkct was to make it evell harder fe)r practising (:atholics to cnter state employnlent. Variolls lill'ms of' direct discrimillation w('l'e alreadv in operation. The army had fi'om I !)()() kept reports on thc religiolls activities or ol'ficC]'s. with the result that practisillg Catholics were hcld hack. while Frecmasons had good prospccts of' prolllot iOIl. (;OHTlllIICllt minist ries varied in the degree to \\'bich they excluded Catholics, Imt SOllle particularly important positions. notahly that of' prCltTI, were cfkctivcly closed to practisillg Catholics from thc 1~~()s 1I1ltii the I D4()s. (III EtCt. Larkin feHlIld olle example of' a practising Catholic who was ,I preltTt Il)r scyeral mont hs in I q:\O. ):;:\ While the Third Repllhlic's programme of' scclliarisatioll was many-sided, its (Tilt re-piece was the secularisat ion of' t hc state school system. In I ~7(i-77. :\0 per cent of' the tcachers in state prim,lr)' schools \\'('re melnhers of' religious orders; by 1~)()()-7 the proportion had dropped to less than I per cent. :\1 Meanwhile the number or lay teachers had III 01'(' than douhled, and a large proportion of' them WC1,(, convillccd rcpuhlicans, onclI very hostile to the (:;Itholic (:hllrch. Fj"()m titc later I ~7()s. teacher trailling

I NSTITI 'TI( )NS

()!)

colleges llIultiplied. many of' thcm lIoted fi)!' their strongly repllhlican and anti-clerical ethos. And ('vcn whcre teachers began their career as Catholics or as religiously neutral. thc logic of' their situatioll pllshed them in an alit i-clerical direction. Oliell hitterly opposed hy t hc parish priest and hy his more de\'out parishiollers. they fellllld their keencst sllpporters amollg militant repllhlicans. Whl'l'c there was a Catholic 'private' (repuhlican t(']'minology) or 'I'ree' (Catholic terminology) school, the lay teachcr was in dinTt rivalry with the priest. Certainly in the I K~()s and still, thollgh to a diminishing extent, in suhsequcnt decades, there were teachers who wcre pious Catholics, and there wcre also those who wished to avoid any kind of' conf'rontation. But by the first decade of' the twentieth ccntury the younger gcneration of teachers was \'tTY largely madc up 01' mcn and WOlllell on the new model - to the Lel't ill politics and more or less distanced from the Catholic Church. Clearly a wide spectrum of' rcligious attitudes was rcpresented alllong these teachers. \\Thilc some were militantly ant ireligious, t here were also many who c1aimcd to have a rcligious view of' the world, while rcfilsing af'liliation to any church. But C01l11l10n to hoth groups was a lIeg;ltive \'ie\\, of' Catholicislll. This ckarly afkctcd the ways in which subjects such as history were tallght. The teacher might be of'lici;t1ly neutral in relation to prescnt-day L~vents, hut study of' such episodes as the Inquisition. the Wars of' Religion or the Revocat iOll of' t hc Edict of' Nantes prm'idec! 1c pknty of' opportunitics (ill' criticising the church's past n'cord.: , The 1110st significant I and in many places there was the 1~lIniliar phenomcnon o\' two rival organisaliolls, more or less indistinguishable in what they actually did, bUI onc catcring (e)r Catholics and Ihe olher (ill' those detachec\ rrom the church. The rapid growlh or Calholic sporls c1llhs ill Ihis period call sed SOIllC anxicly to gOHT11IIlcnt ortiCials, who saw IhcllI as a major sourcc or supporl I()r the dlllrch/'~ cven in SOll1C areas where il was othcrwise weak, sllch as the rural regions SlllToulHling I'aris,'-':" Sport ing success enahled Cal holics 10 win symholic victories e\'('n at the nlOlllcnt orrcpuhlican political trillmph. in 1~)()!i, while t he law or Separat ion was in prcparal ion, I he Cat holic soccer challlpions or France, f:toile sportive des Dcux-Lacs, Illet (;allia Club, champions orlhe sccular league. 'The match was played in a climate orpassioll' and whcn Ihc Catholics won ~-I, Ihe victor), was greeted hv Ihe Catholic papCl's as an event or hoth political and spiritu;d c s;'gni(ic IOOlPS 1I1!1l1.l;):)

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I NSTlTIITl< lNS

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scclll,ir system - bllt OrCOllrSe ulltil alier I~)JH they had no possihility or pllt t ing any or t heir ideas illto pract icc. and t he main Cnt'ct or the growing socialist strength was to pllsh the other pal'lies into closing ranks against them. Meanwhile, Conservativcs (most or whom were Protestant) and members or t he Cat holic Ccnt rc Part y remaincd linnly wedded to the conkssional principle. Both belicvcd that religion must be at the core or the system or popular education. Personal religiOUS cOllviction certainly played a part in this. Conscn'ative politicians and higher state onicials included in their ranks considerable nllmlwrs or Pietists, who believed that education must conlribute to the salvation or the so1l1 as much as to the w('IElre or the state. and that the two kinds of' consideration were quite compatible. Similar convictions inllucnced many memhers or the Centre Party, not least those who wcre priests, though equally impol'lant in inllucncing Catholics was suspicion or the state and a strong sense or cOIl/('ssional identity. Conservatives, lilr their part, regardless or personal religious convictions, believed that religion provided t he best lillll1dat ion Ii)}' the incukat ion or pat riot ism, industry and respect lilr authority. The Emperor Wilhelm II spoke lilr many when, in 1HH~), he declared: The prime object orthe schools will he to lay the liHlndations Ii)}' a sound com prehension or bot h civic and social relat ions by cherishing revcrence lilr (;od and love lilr the Eltherland.,. ,'rhe school must endeavour to create in the young the conviction titat t he teachings or social dell10cracy cont radict not only I he divine commands and Christian morals, but are, moreover. impractical and. in their consequences, destructivc alike to the individual and , q'J the COmmlll1lt)'.·Oil the eve or the First "Vorlel War, the conlt~ssi()nal school still dominated (;erman c1ementary education. Only in Baden and Ilesse-[}armstadt was the inter-c(!I1kssional school wi(icsprca(I.!J:; Admiltedly the criticisms or I.iberals. Social Democrats and the teachers tlH'l11sclves highlighted the enormous gap between lhe views or I hose who governed (;enllany and a conSiderable proportIOn or those whol11 they ruled. In the Weimar Republic the tables would be at least partly tlll'lled. Bllt IIntil then, power in the (;erman states remaincd in the hands or those who regarded consenat ive iilrrns or religion as an essent ial basis lilr the maintenancc or the existing social order.

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vcrsed ill the Bible and in Protestant doctrine and history, strongly comlllitted to Christiall ethics, as they Ilnderstood thcm, bllt dcvoted to the rights or the individllal conscience, and sllspicious or anything overtly 'piolls'. This ('nlcrgcs clearly f'rom {;Ilnilla-Fricckrike Blldde's stlldy or middle-class childhoods ill England and (;ermany in the years I ~!I()-! q ]·1, hased on autobiographies, diaries or intervicws. All of' the ~] I (;ermans were hrollght lip as mClIlhcrs of' a religiolls denoillination 77 pcr cent as Protestants, I;) per cent as Catholics and I () pcr cent as Jews. Bllt while the overwhelming majority or the ElIglish 1llt'1ll()irists 1'ClllClIlhCl'ed their Elmily going to church rq.;ularly in their childhood, this was milch less common among the (;el'lnans. Thne W;IS in Elct a major confl:ssional dilkrencc in (;crmany: ()~ ]ler cent or the Catholics had heen hrollght up in c1l1lrch-going ElIllilies, hilt (:atholics were vcry milch of' a minority within the heavily Protestant Cnman middle class. Amollg the Protestant majorit)" only ~n per cent had heen hrollght c lip in chllrch-going Elmilics. ,:! The great lIlajority or Protestants had heell conlirnlt'd, ;IIHI man)' or thelll had also heen taught pravers or heard the Bihle read at home. However, there was a widespread kcling that religion was a necessary part or childhood that, ;It !e;lst I()}' lIlen, did not extelld into adllithood. In Eunilies where the childrell did go to chllrch - perhaps with their Illother, grandlllOther, older sistcr or a servant - Either would olien be in his st.udy working.":; In accounts or the Illentality or the IIII/(irrhfirh (;el'll1an hourgcois around the end or the ninetecnth c('ntll1'\', one gets the sense that religion was sccn as a sllitable conccrn I(lr WOlllcn, childrcn, aristocrats, and Illellllwrs or the lower c1asscs, who either had tillle on their hands or whose work W;IS or an intellect llally undclllanding kind, whereas t he work or t he bllsinesslllan, proksslOnal man or academic leli no tilllc I()}' lllore frivolous concerns. and cOllld indecci Ill' seen as a highcr I()rm or religion. Note, I()}' instance. the stress on work in Nietzsche's COIl1llH'nts on middle-class religious inciifkrcllcc in I ~~(). He stated that religious indilfere11c(' W;IS typical of t he great lllajorit yoI' (;erll1an Protestants in the lIliddle classes, cSlll'cially in the great inciustriolls centres of trade and C0111lllenT, and or the great majority or industrious scholars and the whole lIniversity population, exccpt lill' the theologians, whose existCllce anci possihilit)' t hcre providcs cvcr li'csh puzzles I()!' the

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psychologists to solve ... , They arc no enemics of religiolls CllStoms; irthcsc arc reqllired, lilr instance by t.he state, they do what is needecl, as one cloes so many things - with a patient. anclmocicst earnestness and withullt Illuch curiosity or unease.,,·1 Max vVdwr, in his Ell1lOllS lecture on 'Science as a Vocation' presentcd argumcnts on somewhat similar lines. Til he a scientist was a high and testing vocation, and one that hy implication had a qllaslreligiolls qllality. How else is one to interprct. t.he almost poet ic language used by the normally soher vVeber to describe the natllre ortlw SCIentist's calling? Yct the way in which he defined the calling was one which excluded any kind or loyalty to a church."" In I ~)()~ Paul Drews, one or the academic theologians whose existence N iet zschc deplored, came to rat her si l1l ilar conclusions in h is invaluable stlldy ur I'rotestantism in Saxon),. Writing on the big cities, Drews stat.ed that: 'First orall the pupulation divides itsclrinto two great ramps: the women as a whole arc devout (jim/llll) and /uI'clilicli, hut the world or men, bllsy wit.h a thousand qllest.iolls or lik, is either completely indirrerent to rcligious qllestions, or allows itself to be as religious as custom scems to require'."I) Til be/i'O//lIIl, howcver, was not necessarily to be kll'l:h/icli. /(il'l'hliclikeil was hound up with all sorts or qllestions conccrning one's vicw or the church as an illstitution, orthe clergy in general and, speeilieally, of the kind or people who made up t he local congregat ion - and indeed one's att.itude to the state. For many stat.e oflicials going to church was seen as part or the .lob, and f(lr many aristocrats it was seen as a matter or dllt.y; in some peasant communities there were social pressllres to attend church. But I()]' thc llrban proJ('ssionai and business classes in (~ermany (unlike England) it was largely a mattn of individllal choice. Apart from the many middle-class men who wcre religiously sccptic;11 or indilfercnl. there were <juite a lot or educated middle-class women who were highly religious, bllt seldolll or ncver wcnt to church. One or t he most powerfill inst ruments (e)r spreading the opinions or the liberal bourgeoisie was the press. With the general processes or liberalisation in t he I ~(iOs t here was a great flowering or the prcss in Cennany, and especially or papers that cOll1bined a liheral approach to politics and religion. As well as nunHTOUS local papers, a nllmber sprang lip in these years, such as the nl'rlillel' T{/p/btill/, Kii/I1I.1'11i1' ZI!I/Iillp:, or FI'IiIlI!/ill'/I'I' ZI'I/i1l1g, which had a much wider readership and assllllled a powerrul role ill the shaping of'

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on the nccd f()j' ilnpro\'(~d sanital'\' Illeasures.;\t the time ortl1l' next majo]' epidemic ill 11E)-I, t he 11;lIlle Secretary, Lord Pallllerstoll, rejected calls fill' a national day or prayer, arguing that prayers \\'ere only appropriate after all Ilecessary medical and sanitary precautions h,](1 been t'lkell.~I:\ I Ie had the support or an illlportant scction or chllrch opinion, among which the most outspoken was the Chrisli,11l Socialist and novelisl Charles Kingslcy. Kingslcy helonged to the liberal 'Broad Church' wing or J\nglicanislll, wlllch was strollgly opposed to all altempls to divide the world illlo sacred and secular spheres, which saw the pursllit or trllth in all its dirkrent 1()\'Ins as a (;()(I-given task, and thcrcl(JI'C saw the scientist, leacher or social rel(>rIller, irlllotivated by Im'C orhulllanit)', as doing what was esscntially religlOlls work, But there were still mallY c1ergYlllell who Illteprelcd such disastcrs as Ihe had harvcsls in I H(iO al1d I H() I and Ihe caltle plague in I H()G ill theological, raliter Ihan naluraL terllls. And while the clergy did show an Incrcasing tel1del1c), to an:cpl l1atllral explanations {()j' such disastCTS, they continll('d 10 believe in the possibililY or divil1e Inlervention in response to pr'l)'er. Partlclliarly fierce coni rovers}' flared in I H71, ()n Stll](lav 10 Decelllher prayers were ordered 10 he said in /\nglical1 churches {i)r the Prince orWaics, Ihel1 seriously ill. Whel1, the {(Illowing Thursday, his condition began to impro\'(:, kading to C\,(,11tU:t1 l'Ccovcr\', this was widely see11 as an a11swer to prayer exc('pl by Ihe ll1edical prof(.'ssio11, which saw il as a triumph or modern medici11c.~) I In Fra11ce, l11cdiclljcalousy was also caused by Calholic prieslsor, Illore o{ie11, pious l '(ISIIODSUO.)~IF)S SEAl )l!11I ,(IIUllllllllO.>-qIlS I! ,DlIl.l,)lll;) IllE;Hll

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religious scepticism in stridcnt ter1l1s (f(lr example, Stendh,ll) or more Sllhtlc ter1l1s (I(lr exa1l1ple, Ccorge Eliot), or who gave a pro1l1incnt role in their nOl'Cls to outspoken sccptics (l()r exa1l1ple, Flauhert's IIomais who. rllllT disciple of' Haeckel, whosc Anthroposophy, [c)]'Illulatcd in l~) I :1, drew both on Theosophy and on Christiauity. As thc Clc, t hey would ckarly show e\Tn nlOre ext remc variations. [n (;ermany in l~(i:! the numberof'l'rotcstant cOlllmunions in relation to the total Protestant population in I ~(i:! varied li'om ~;l per cent in Hesse-Nassau and Schaul1lburg-Lippe to 17 per cent in Berlin. (,Ii) discover what proportion of'adults were comlllunicants, onc would dearly need to deduct children li'om t hc populat ion total and multiple communions f'rom the COl1l111l111ion total. j\ study of' Hanover suggests that t he number of' t Ill' bt tn was small. t hough in some rural areas t hey may have been more fi-cquent.)H linl()rtunatciy, statistics of' Jewish attcndance at synagogue, or other f()rms of'.Jewish religious practice, arc scarce. Rare examples arc the British religious census of' I~!i I and the religious census of'

(;OIN(; TO CIIt'RClI

LOIldoJ) in I ~)():), the /iJrlner counting attendance on an average sabbath. and the latter OJ) the first day of' Passover. These figurcs confinn a n1l1l11ll'r of' points that arc also suggested by other sources: that attendancc at synagogue was mainly an activity or adult males IlO less thall 7i'1 per cent oj' the adults coullted at the London census in I ~)(l:\ were men; that attendance on an average sabbath was relativcly low - Elldellllan estllllatcs that about 10 pCI' ccnt of' British .Jews wcnt to synagogue on the day oj' the census in I i'I!ll; and that attendance was much higher on certain I'cstivals - an cstimated 2!l pCI' ccnt or London .Jews were counted at serviccs in the census or I ~)O:), and there were others attending smaller synagogues omittcd by the ccnslls-takers.!) Throughout the nineteenth century, alld into the carly twentieth century, complaints o/' declining attendance at synagogu{' were rik. We lind thelll In, Ii»' instance, Hamburg. in the early nineteenth century, wherc they provided a major pretext li)r the rc/ill'l11 movement. ill Paris ill the I i'l70s, and in London in the early twentieth century.IO But sinc(' precise ligures arc so seldom available, it appears to be impossible to trace the changes over time. In the remall1deroj.this chapter, thercli)]'e, I shall concentrate on the various branches o/' Christianity, and I shall not attempt to enlarge on the imprcssionistic discllssion or t rends in.J cwish religious pract icc which I provided in chapter :).

Trends in Religious Practice I f' we look at t rends across t he period li'om I i'l4i'1 to I~) 14, we Gin divide t he regions or west.ern Europc into several groups: (I) Those where there had already been a large drop in the level orrcligious practice dlll'ing the period 17!lO-li'I!lO (e.g., Pans and the Paris region, most nol'th (;erman towns). (2) Those where th('l'(' was a substantial drop during the period i'rom the mid-nincteenth century to the First World War (e.g .. England, most towns and industrial regions in France, most predominant I)' Protestant regions or soul hern and n~nt ral Germany). C) Those where the level or reli .)IlIlOUO.);) IHiE [EUOS UO 1110

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192 bd())'(.~ 17H~). Under t he Second EllIpire these st rongl)' Cat holic hun ilies would provide a lllodel I()]' ot hers, and a base lilr Cat holi(' organisations. Already in the I H40s there were signs that previously irn~ligi()lIs melllbers of' t he bourgeoisie were interested in the ielea that religioJl ('()uld provide a basis I()]' social cohesion, if' it could be detached (i'olll the reactionary extremism of' the Restoration years. In this respect the appointlllent frolll I H44 of' a series of' politically moderate archbishops helped. Once again, the years I H,IH-S I marked a turning-point. The panic induced hy the ./unc Days in Paris, and more generally the (~a rs provoked hy t he massive radicalisat ion of considerable scct ions of' the working class, the peasantry and the lower middle class during these years, led to ;1 llIajor crisis of conscience on the part of'thl' wealthy bourgeoisie. In particular they took advantage of the great expaJlsion of' Catholic secondary education (illlowing the Falloux law to p]'()vide their children with the religious schooling which c thc), had 1]('\'(']' received themsclves. )(, As in so many other religious revivals of' the ninetccnth century, it was women who led the way; but their hushands. and lllore especially their sons, f(lllowed. When in lH(iO an elderly merchant who had remained a bithf'ul disciple of' Voltaire, came to write his spiritual testament, he expressed regret at the new spiritual climate in the city, and anxiety that when he was dying SOIlU'Olle might send lilr a priest. In the laller part of the century. an inl]lortant minority or the bOl1rgeoisie (usually drawn from lowe}" down t he scale or wealt h and status) remained t rue to t he older lihtTal ;1I1d ant i-clerical t radit ions. But by I H~)2 t he religious situation seemed to have changcd so Elr that when a Parisian preacher ClnlC to deliver some Lcnt sermons he declared himself 'ovcrwhelmed' by the sight ofa congregation orseHTalthousand, or whom t wo-fin.hs were men. The new religious atmosphere was reflected in domestic piety (ElIllilics gathering to chant the Ave Maria together), in consen'atlve politics (onen inextricably bound up with Catholic 1~lith), alld ill active support filr charities or all kinds. Chaline comments that 'this world, otherWIse so hard in matters of business, and so concerned ahout its OWIl interests. cOlild show an astonishing gcnerosity, sacrificing large amounts timc and money'. I Ie cites the example or the banker, Paul Le Picard. a k;lding llll'mIJer of the St Vincent de Paul Society, regarded as a saint hy SOllle, and hy most as a hit mad.c,i In (;erlllany the relat ionship hetween polit ical and religious loyaltics was less de;lI'-cut than in France. but it was nonetheless

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important. In Berlin in t he later part or the nineteent h ccntll ry, lill' instance, a major ElCtor in the city's irreligious atmosphere was the [;lcl that most or the popuiation were supporters or the Social Democrats or the Len. Liberals, and saw the Protestant church as a st ronghold or conservat ism. Conversely. t hose groups that werc closest to the church, such as aristocrats. the military, state officials c and the lower middle class, tended to be politically conscrvative. ,:-; Church-going in Berlin had been in decline since at least the later eighteenth ccntury, so the growth or liberal and socialist politics cannot he seen as a major cause or the decline. On the other hand, this can he argued with much more plausibility ill Saxony or some west (;erlllall industrial districts, where the level or religious practice was still relatively high around the middle orthe nineteenth century. For instance, in t he I H20s and I H;)()s the vVuppertal was st ill noted as a stronghold or Protestant revivalislll, with Pietist textile employers like the Engels EU11ily and equally devout weavers. Friedrich Engels, who was horn in Barmen in I H20. complained that whcn he was growing up the only interests or the workers werc religion and drillk. By thc I HSOs, howcver, while the interest ill drink remained very much alivc. there were li-cquent comments on the decline 0(' working-class religion. Clergymell blamed the hurgeolling urban leisure world, with its theatres, conG'l'ts. dancing halls and hrothels, as well as 1ll1lllCrOUS pubs. i\ more rundamental EHtor secms to have heen the increasingly tense relations lwtween employers and workers, which made it difficult to bring lllcmhers or difkrent classes together in the same church. In the I H20s and 1H;)(ls it secms that patriarchal relations betweell merchants and weavcrs had st ill heen a reality. lilt he I H'lOs relat ions were deteriorating, especially in those hranches of the textile industry where dOlllestic production was gwing way to workshop and EIClory. III fv/ay I H4~), while Pietist merchants rcmained among the most loyal subjects or the Pruss ian lllonarchy, many workers took part in all insurrection which controlled the town or Elberkld fill' a wcek.:)~) In I HSS and I HS7 there were major st rikes. The 'old Wuppertal traditons' survived to some cxtent amollg locally horn domestic textile workers, but they becamc increasillgly marginal in the I H(iOs and I H70s with immigration from other parts or (;erman)" and t he beginnings or socialist propaganda. The history or a working-class parish later recalled that 'At that tillle there was no sectIon of society in which it was harder to declare yourselr a Christian. Many gave up going to church in order to avoid the continual

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',).1Icultllre in the later nincteenth ccntury \I'as not unique either to Catholics (as opposed to other (;CI'Ill:1 Howevcr. t here were kw COUllt ries where it developed as [;11' as in (;erlllany, and in (;crmany only the Social Democrats developed a similarly extensive net.work or organisations held toget her by a silllilarly st rong sense or grou p solidarit y. Th is

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reflected t he sense 0[' exclusion and marglllalisat ion t hat hot h Catholics and Social Democrats experienced in Imperial (;ermany - though it did nothing to bring thelll any closer together, In [~Ict the Catholic and Social Delilocratic sllb-cultures or the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had many important points or comlllon, in spite or their mut lIal antag'onism. The maior di[ference perhaps was that the Catholics were more succcssiid at appealing to women. while the Sonal Democrats appealed nllicil morc strongly to men. Catholics and socialists shared a strongly dualistic pen:eption or the world,lol which providcd a rationale [()r the attempt to provide specifically Catholic or Social Ikmocratic organisations to meet their mcmbers' every need: a militant style. expressed in mass rallies, Illarchcs through the streets. ,md suitably aggressive sermons or spceches: and a rich symbolism and iconography, including' a heavy usc or [lag's and banners, and a tcndency [l!S!P .',ltq I! IIIL\\ P;)j.Il!)S SIS! P lIl!.ill!d 0.[( I .(I.illlOJIS l!

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or nc,rlcctin o " l)Casant interesls bccause or Iheir preoccupalioll wilh h "h " ' " 11:1 " , strengthening Ihe posilion of the church, Meallwllllc, Ihe Catholic Church was experiencing in the working-class suburbs or Munich SOllle or Ihe problems thai the Protestant churches were being, albeit in ilion' acute fill'ln, in the great cities or north (~er­ many Reports rrom Catholic paslors in the working-class suburbs or Munich inlhe IHHOs and IH~)()s werc 1'1111 orcompiainls or shrinking COil h OT(,O"a Iions ' blasl)hclll)' and unhelier, and imllloralily" - nol to h menlion I'jfll/i'lIsj)()// (sneering al Ihe clergy), a vcry expressive Ccrlllan word which, like Ihe similar lerm P/ill/i'll/ipss!'!" (Iilerally 'prieslealcr'), has no idiomal ic English eqUIvalent. How literally all this should he lakcn is debatable, Prostitules and their clients were highly visible, while f;lInilies who stayed al homc saying Ihe ]"Osary were not; il is highly prohable t hat visible evils, because or t he pain they caused 10 the unwilling observcr, were given a prominence oul or all proportion to Iheir actual significance. Nonetheless il is undcniable I hal Social Democracy, wh ich mosl Cal holic priests regarded as an unmitigated evil, was advancing rapidly. I I I In EICt, durin,r Ihe l)('riod lHqO 10 1~)I2, Ihe Social Dcmocrats usually h 11_ gained o\'(']' hall' the votes cast ill MUllich in Reichstag elections. " IIowevcr, when one comparcs Ihis situation with that in France. or indecd with that in lllany parts or north (~er1llan)', thc lilllits or this anti-clericalism becollle apparent. The orators or Ihc Bavarian Peasants' Leaguc repeatedly stressed Ihat in altacking thc clergy t hey were nol altacking Ihe Cat holic religion, and levels or Cat holic praclice In the Bavarian countryside seelll to have remaincd high. "I 1 t I j(' / I'() pCI' ccnl 0 f'I'',asler G)IllIl1Unlcants ". 00>-1 Ii> was In Munlc III I onl low by the siandards or rural Bavaria, bUI would have seemed impressive in a French cily. Moreovcr, in Munich, SociallknlOcrac), and (:atholicislll were Ell' rrol11 being lllulually exclusive oplions, whatever the clergy and sOllie pari)' mililanls expecled. In olhcr paris or (;ennany il was COll1nlOn fi)r rank-,Illd-lilc party cOlllrades to conlinue to go to church, and in Ihc llIore devoul regions or Ihe country, the parly Iried to sleer clear or religious controversy, in order llot to alienate such supporters. In Munich, Ihe party secrelary was hilllselr a practising Catholic. I 17 (:crtainly sOllie Catholics, bOI h in Baval'i,l and in ot her paris or (~ermany, rejecled the church and the Catholic raith ('nlirely alier .ioining thc Social Del1locrats. Bul this situation was less C0ll11110n in (~crl11any than in France. ;\ cOlllhinal ion or I he powcrrul conf(~ssional ident il)' fdt by llIosl (;erlllan (:at holics and Ihe sl rengl h or I he all-cmbracing Catholic

'milicu' which the clergy built upon this fiHmdation meant that t here were relat ivcly f(~w who broke away enl irely.

Catholic Revival in France In OllC orthe laler scenes fi"om Roger Martin du (;al'd's./l'IIlI nil rois , sci around I~) I 0, Ihe aging hero is harangued by Iwo conserval ive and nal iOllalist Cat holic studcnts. Barois, who has been gradually losing confidence in Ihe republican and fi'l'cthinking principles which he has fi)r mosl or his lif(~ espoused, finds thai his worst suspicions arc confirmcd whcn t hc young men claim that the prcscnt gcneration or studcnts is predominantly Calholic. IIH ABcI' many years or decline, the Catholic Church in France was staging a partial recovcry. The Separation or Church and Slate in I qO!J prcsent cd t he French cln tn:h wit h major fi nancial problems. But the challcnge also had a rc\'italising crfl>ct. The years leading up to the Firsl World War saw a grcal upsurge or nell' Catholic org"'lllisat ions ami nlo\'Clllents. The ycars illll11cdialcly hcfi)J'C the \Var l11ay also havc scen a modesl incrcasc in the IHlll1ber or Cat holics going to mass, Ihough in vicw of' thc draslic regional dirkrcnccs, it is dinicult 10 generalisc. J I!) Therc were thrce aspccls to this Catholic revival. Thc church was in sonic respccts benefiling fi'om Its f'rcedol11 fi'olll slale conlrol. The crisis Elcing the church was stilTing loyal Catholics to he 1II0rt' aCli\'e and puhlic in thc praclice or their fililh and 10 launch ncw fi)l'nls or aposlolale. And thc church W,IS heing l110rc succcssf'td in altracling lIIell - espccially youllg middle-class 111('11. Lilldcr Ihc Concordat lilc crc,llion or a new parish had nccded stale aUlhorisalion, and this was v('I'Y oBcn reruscd. In ils firsl years or il1\'olunlary fi"ccdolll aBn I ~)():j, Ih(' (:;ilholic authoritics seizcd thc opportunity or building man\' ncw churches and fi)rJ11ing man\' nc\\' parishes, and Ihis conlinucd on a bigger scale in Ihe inlcr-war years.I:.!() Calholic consciousness was raised hy Ihc lll;lny Calholic ncwspapns fi)llndcd ill 111IS period, and hy I he congresses hcld in sixt), dioceses hetwecn IQ07 and 1~1l·1, alld atlended hy thc lailY or hoth sexes, as well as hy priests. The period also saw numerous conkrcnces fi)r Ihe sludy or conlemporary social problems, as wcll as a J110re sluggish grOWl h or Cal holic Iradc unions and peasanl organisations. BUI the Elstest growlh was in orgallisations fi)r women and fi)r youlh. Thc higgesl orlhcsc was the Patriotic League

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llOI)l!.lllP').I 0 S.I,))Wlll ll! ;).1UlqHIL~ P!.)LI;)P 0) ')Ioll I' polit ics.',(j M orc gencrally, religiolls COl1lmlln it it's often had a ]lrcvailillg cthos which had clear political implications. NOllconl()rlllists S;l\\, tlll'lllsclvcs as dcmocratlc, egalitarian, 1l1orally IIpright, stllrdili" indl'pendent. and tended to regard Liheral or Labollr politics ,IS a natllral cxpression or these vailles, Anglicans, Oil the othcr hand, tcnded to lay lllore stress on thc virtlles or patriotisl1l, loyalty to the Crown, respect I()]' authority, and a COllllllon-sensc, IInpuriLlIlical appro,l(:I~ to l1Iorality, and tilis readily led them in a ConservatiH' direction.'"

Religion and Nationalism The growing importance orllatiollalisln and imperialism in the later nineteenth and early twcntieth century also potclltially diminished t he importance' or religious or conressional bctors: llat ionalism could providc a hridge across the variolls conlt'ssional divides, uniting heliever and unill'licvcr, (:atholic and Protestant: equally, Ii)r the most. I('rvcnt natiollalists, there was a tendency I(lr nationalism to take Oil thc character or a nl'W Elith, replacing oldn I(ll'llls. The latter tendellcy developed rurthest in (;erlnan)", where some nationalists, regarding Christianity ,IS an cmharrassment andJudaism as all abomination, harked hack to the old 'Ii..'utonic gods. Anothcr currcnt or thOllght drew UpOll racialist idcas to give a 'scicll t i lic' hasis t () t he com pet it ion bet wcen peoples, and reject eel ( :h rist i,ll1 it\' a lid Judaism as Iacklllg all)' such scicnt i lic IiHlndat iOll. "s

However, these tendencies should not he overstated. Many I()rlllS or Ilat ionalism contained a st l'Ong religious ingredient, and rival versions or nationalism were orten an aspect or religious conflict. The association Iwtwccn Protestantism and lirst English, and later Brit ish. nat ional ident it y was or very long stand ing. The Rel(Jrlllation, the Spanish ;\rmada, the (;lorious Revolution, the wars ,lgainst Louis XIVand Napoleon were all central events III a national history which was recognised hy Anglican and Dissenter alike, and in which the central thcme was the hattlc I()]' English Protestant rreedom against I()rcign Catholic despotism admittedly, by the time or Napocoll, France had come to he associated in English Protestant minds even more with irreligion than with Catholicism. But 11 was ,I central tenet ornillcteenth-century English Protestantism that Catholicism and irreligion tended to go toge! her as dilfercnt sides or the samc coin, and t hat hot h wcre associat.ed wit h despot ism, wh ik Protestantism \\"ent together hoth with li-cedOln and with genuine piety. With the union or England and Scotland in 1707 and then or Britain and Ireland in IXOI, religion was clearly a centrall;lctor both in t he acceptance or the linion hy most Scots, \'Velsh and Protestant Irish, and in its rejection hy most Catholic Irish.'i~) Five dclinit ions or Brit ish nat ional ident it y occu r cont inllallv throughout the nineteenth century and into the twcntieth: Britain was Christian, Protestant, prosperous, civilised and rree. or course the ImpOl·tance attached to Ihe various points varied over time and varied as Iwtwcen nlcmiJers or dilferent political parties, social classes or religious cOlnl111111ities. Thus in IX[J7, the leader or Manchcster's Rcl(lrlll Synagoguc, in declaring his conviction that the British nation had a 'Divine mission to carry civilii'.ation, liherty and prosperity to the uttermost hounds or the earth', naturally omitted rererence to Christianity.fio But the most striking point is how lllany people hought the whole package, and how many saw these lin' characteristics as inter-related, with Protestantism acting as the linchpin. Britain was more truly Christian than, I()r instance, FralIn' or Italy, the later Bishop or Durham, IlcllSlcy Henson, claimed in a dehate at the (:hurch Congress in IX~)X. TillS was hecause the liTe and rational Protestant Elith was an:eptahlc to the modern agc, whereas the 'extrcme and perverted sacerdotalism or the ROlllan Catholic Church' had led to 'the great and ever waxing alienation rrolll the Church or the best conscience and intellect or the Latin races' That BrItain also owed her c1vilisat ion, rreedOlll and prosperity to her Protestantism was st rongly ilnplied by .I, E. C. \;\felldon, >

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lllrIllS or helier larg'cl), or wholly independent or Christianity. Thus British soldiers WtTe said to pray befe)]T battlc and to give thanks to Cod afterwards, and French soldiers wOllld write to their parish priest asking (i)]' his prayers. English soldiers 'who never received communion at other times wOllld do so while at the rrolll. - a chaplain cOlllmentcd: 'In SOllle it means everything that we would wish it to lllean; in others it is indllbitably a superstitious [(?cling. They helieve that having taken COllllllUlllOll they will be sak,rialcly deal! \\'ilh al Ihe beginning of'a book on Ihe rcligiolls hislory orlllC Iwenlic!ll cenlllry, 1';111]('1' Ihan al Ihe end of'a hook on I he religiolls hislOl'Y of' Ihe ninelecnl h cenlury, (1""

Conclusion

Six aspecls of' the social role or religion, a11d six possible areas or seCltlarisation, have been considered in Ihis hoolc individllal belief': limll:!1 religiolls pracl ices; I he place of' religion in public insl itul iOlls; ils parI in public debale; ils significance as an aspecl of'idcnlity; and ils relalionship wilh popular cllhllre. The c1earesl evidence orsecularisalion during Ihis period is in Ihc first Iwo areas. In all three cOllnlrics, Ihere was a subslanlial decline in Ihe proporlion or Ihe poplliation allending chllrch services or parlicipaling in co III nil III ion - Ihough the pallern of'decline \Vas very llneven. There was also a rise in the proporlio11 o/' prokss('(1 unbelievers, and a rangc of' alternalivc syslems or belief' hCC:lll](, widely available, challenging Ihe dominanl influence or Ihe \'arious religions. In Ihe Ihird and f(Hlrth areas Ihe resul!s or Ihe changes in Ihesc years were more mixed. By Ihe early Iwenlielh cenlury Ihere WCIT l1lajor difkrcnccs belwecn Ihe pariS played hy religion in Ihe [>ublic insl ilul ions or I he I h rec counlries. These dif'ft'l'enccs were I110lT significanl Ihan any cOll1mon tcndcncy, The clearest c\'idencc of' sCCltlarisalion was in France. Bul while Ihe slalc was bcing SC(,]Ilarised, Calholics were sClling up a range or counler-inslilulions. Thesc were onen quill' successf'ul. In England, Ihe slrenglh or Ihc Nonconfilrmisls, wil h their agenda of' 'religious fi'ccdom', as well as the 'Nell' Liheral' programme or expanding Ihe nalional and local slale, led 10 a creeping secularisaliol1, bUI withoul a supporling secularist ideology. And in (;ermany Ihe role or religion and Ihc churches in I hc fields or educal ion and wei EIre relllained very extensive. Furlhermore, Ihe introduclion or church laxes blld Ih~' hasis fill' Ihe continuing inslilutional slrenglh or the churches in Ihe

2Wi

C()NCl.l'SION

t\\'clltieth c('ntury olil'll contrasting- with the slllallness or SUllday cong-reg-atiolls. The dirl(:rent b,dancc or political linn's in thc three countries kd to vcr\" dill'erent relationships hetween church and state. III ptlhlic de!Jat'c t here is clear cvidencc or secularisat ion, in as 1111lch as n'lig-ion no longer pnl\'idcd a coml1lon Ianguag-c. At least ill France ;1I1d (;Cl'ln,ul)" it hecame part or the ideolog-ical weaponry or p,lrtictlbr partics, 'pr()\'iding- an cssential link between these parties and their supporters. btlt cutting- thelll oil' rrolll other sections or the clectorate. So the role or relig-ion in public debate certainly n,tlTOII"('d. Btlt it remaincd ccntral Ie)!' certain political g-rotlps. mainly on t he Right. In the linh and sixth areas, the cvidcnCl' le)r secularisation is llltlch less. Relig-iotls identities were sometimes supplanted by. Ie)!' instance. nationalist or socialist identities, and they continucd to hc modilinl by. li)r instance. social class. But the beliefS, experienccs, symhols. )"('~lationships derivcd rrom relig-ion rcmained uniquely potent as shapers or idcntity. especially since the majorit)" or the population continued to 1)(' stlhject to religious inlltlcnccs li'OIl! an carly ag-e. I\Iort'()\'cr, newer SOlIlH'S or ident it y orten had a religiolls COmpOIH'llt. In particular, nationalism and rclig-ion, thollgh potentially riyals, rreqllently intcrming-kd, producing nationalist rcIig-ions and relig-iously shaped nat ion;disllls. As Ii)!' popular culture: the weakcning- or the relationships betwccn l'rotestantlslll alld popular culture has heen Olle or the most importallt aspects or twentiethccnt ury sccubrisat ion in England and (;ermany - and one oj" t h(' big-gcsi points ordill'ercnce li'om the linited States. But this process had not g-one very Eu' hy IDI·l, and the lil1ks l)('twc(,11 C;ltholicism and popular CllltlllT remaincd close.

Returning- to the discllssioll in the Introductioll or the various possihle ways or 'telling- the story' or relig-ion ill modern western Europe: I 1)('liC\T that onc orthc ways oj"tclling- this story must be in terms or sccularisation. But, rather than one simple story-linC', we Ileed a narrative in which a variety or plots and suh-plots arc intertwined. One or thesc plots would tUl'n 011 the cmcrg-cncc or ncw 'Religions of llulllanity', and their dli)rts to devise new ritllals and mor,t1 principles and to sell t hcm to a mass Jlublic. ]\not her wOllld li)ClIS on thc rt'sponsc or Christians and .Jews to the secularist chalICllge, and t he hat tic wit h in ch urch and synagog-Ill' hct wcen modernisers and tr;l(litionalists.

2H7

I (" one 0(" these storics is to be given pride of' place it should be not secularisation, but pluralism. One or the Illost sigllificant turning-points in Europe's religious history was the Illtroductioll or a degree or toleration li'ol1! thc later seventcenth century onwards. As the religious controls werc g-radually lilted, an increasingly wide rangc or possibilities opened up, including- deism, scepticism and atheism, as well as many alternative I(mns or Christial1lty and Judaism. In the eig-htecnth celltury, revealed religion EKed powerful intcllcctllal challcnges. But the secularisation of society only hecame a realistic possihility li'om the 17~)Os onwards, as liberal and radical polit ical movements mobilised wide sect ions or the population to attack the (1II{'/1'1I lip;III1!'. Liberal. radical. and later socialist political 1ll00'cments were bitterly opposed to established churches, which they saw as major strongholds of the old order: 1()lIowers or these movcments oficn had a profiHll1d, in some respects 'rclig-ious', Etith in the possibility or achining Elr-reachingand benefiCial social changes thmugh political actIOll. By the middle of the nincteenth century, established rcIig-ion also EKed a powcrhtl challcng-c fi'om the growillg influence of scientists. many or lI'hom made immensc claims fe)r the authority and potential of sclellce. In the second hall' of the ccntury, west European societies were the scencs or fierce ideological competition. It was not simply a matter or 'religiOUS' versus 'secular', but ofnval {(lUllS orrclig-ion and rival li)rms or secularity, each battling on several rronts. There were several salicnt aspects or this plllralism. In the first place, both radical politics and thc Cllit of science had a very po\\'erhd attraction, at least f,U E llEI[I .[;)I[lI!.l '.).)!OIP 1'!lIOS.l;)d .10 .l;)IIEIU I~ -

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-ll(n '(Il[·ti!1[ .U;)IP IIEI[l ,;)IcIII'('('n urhanisat ion and sendansat lOll. While denying I hat t here was any lH'Ccssary relationship 1)('lwC('n the Iwo, he snggcst('(\ that thl'!'c was a link during thc phase which sct in around the cnd or thc nlllct('('nih century. Scc his articles 'Did lirhanizatlon Sccularize Britain?' {I rl!llI I lJis/ory Ji'll ri}()o/i, I !)i'li'l. pp. I 1·1, and 'Thc Mcchanism or Rcligious Crowth in llrhan Socielies: British Cities slncc the Eighteenlh Ccn-

NOTES

I!).

20.

:11

22.

~:l.

24.

2:'. :1(i.

tllry', in Hugh McLeod (cd.), J';lImlmlll Hl'lip,'loll ill Ihl' .-Ige 0/ (;l'l'tll Cilil's (London, I D!J!i), pp. 2:\!)-()2. llclcn Mclin, J,e/SIII,(,llIlrilhl' Chllll,!'.:ill,!!; Cil\', IN70-11J1·' (London, I!J7()), chs i'l-9; JalJlcs Walvin, I.I'ISI/I'I' IIlId SOUI'!)', ISW-IIJ'j() (London, 197i'l), eh 7, Callulll (;. Brown, 'The S('cularisation ])ecadc: Thc Hacmorrhage or the Bntish churches in thc 1!)(iOs', a paper prescnted at the COnllT('nCe 'The ])ecline or Christendolll in Western Europe, I 750-20()O' (Pans. I !)!)7). Sec also (:allulll (;. Brown, Hl'ligioll IlIlrI ,'l'ol'ith' III Sm/frlllri .111/1'1' 1707 (Edinburgh, I !J!J7), pp, I !ii'l-207. PetlT v:In Roodcn, 'Secularizatioll, Ikchristianization and Rcchristialllzation in The Nelherlands', in llartillul Lehmann (cd.), Sri/wllmSII'I'IIIIP;, lJ(,l'/m.l1 111111.1/1' 1'1111/,;. /{l'{'lmsIIIIIIISII'I'IIII,!!; i III 1I1'I/ZI'illil'heli F /I mlm ( ;iit t i ngcn, I !)!)7), pp. J;\ I-!i:l. See, e.g .. Wack (:Iark Roor and William McKinlley, (III/aimll i\lllIl/lilll' Rl'lip;lol/ (New Brtlnswick, NJ, I !)i'l7); Robert vVutlJllo\v, '1111' /{I's/mr/II 1'IlIP; O/:IIIII'nrrtll HI'II~I!;1011 (1'I'Incctoll, NJ, I Di'li'l). \\'uthnow, op. cit., pp. i(i7, :\00. For SOIlII' wesl Europcan statistics, s('(' McLeod, Hl'lip;1011 III/d 1111: I'mlill', p. 177, I havc discllssed SOIll(' 0(' these points morc (,ully In Ilugh McLl'od, 'Ikchristianizatloll and Rechrisliallil.ation: the Case or (:reat Brilain', l,iJ'f'/tfil'llI' /1'I1,!!;l'.Il'hil'ltil', II (I !l!Ji'l) , pp. 21-:12. Following R. Laurcnce Moore, Sl'llillp; Lllri: :11111'1'11'1111 Ill'fi,!!,'Ioli III/hI' i\llll'lil'ljilll(f' 11/(;111/111'1' (Ncw York, 1!1!J.\). Jeffrey Cox, I';lIp;li.lh (;hlll'(/Il'S III II ,'11'1"111111' Sool'h' (Oxl()]'(I, I !Ji'l2). i\ nHIlT extreme versioll or this argument IS pn'scnlcd 111 the work or SOllle i\nllTlcln SOCIologists, see e.g. Roger Finke and Rodlley Stark, rill' Chllli'lllll,!!,' O/AIIII'I'I((/, I 776-/IJ1)(): Will/II'J:\ IlIIdl.IlSi'J:\ III 11111' Rl'li,!!,'101I.1 1';(OIiOlln' (Ncw Hrtlnsl\'lCk, NJ I !1!l:1): Rodncy Slark and Laurcncc R.

1:1I1llaConc, ';\ SupplY-Silk Reinterpretation or the Secularization or Europe', JIIIII'IIIII/ill' Ihl' SOl'lllijil S/lIlil' ojl?l'/ip;lOl/, :\:\ (I D!),!), pp. 2:HJ;12. Similar ideas, though in highly Illl:ll1ccd le)J'\]], appcar In David I klllpton, Rl'lip;101/ a 1111 I'olillm/ CIII/II/'(' III nn/IIIII IIl/d Irl'lllIIrI (Calllbridge, I !J!)(i), which stresses thc significance oJ" the difkrcntlal ahilit\' or Hntlsh and Irish dlurchcs to 'rc/lect and propagate tite social. political and cultural aspirations or their IIlCIllI>l'!'S' (p. 17i'l). Another 'supplY-Side' int(Tprctation is Rohin (;ill. 'J'III' /\holh lit" Ihl' r;lII/il)' C/II/I'rh (London, I !)!J:\). 27 E.g .. Bruce, I?l'fi,!!,"III1I iI/ Ihl' Modl'l'II II'IIIM, pp. :17-i'l takes it as axiolllatlC that the explanation lell' secularisallon must he SOCIological, while Owen Chadwick, Salllllnwllllll, p. 1,1, insists that 'without the IIltelke/ual cllquiry the social enquiry IS I;lted to crash', 2i'l. 'j"pical o('l1luch orthe work puhlished in I !)(iOs and I !)70s would be the ClassIC sCl'les or tl'xtl>ooks Oll Illodern European 11Isiory by Eric IloiJs-

i\( )'ITS

~D.

:\().

:,/.

:\~.

:n. :,./.

:\!).

c\(). ;\7,

hamll. In '/'lII' :lgI' of NI'. cil., pp. ~(i(i·-7. !i(). Blessillg. op. ('II.. pp. I ()O-·I: Sch;iI(.'r, op. cil.. p. (i~: Rain('1' Marhach. Sli'/wlllfiSIITIIII.!!,·lIlItI s02lfil('f II'tflltll'l 1111 1(),.Il1ltrllllllfll'l'l «;iittingcn. 1!l7H),

NOTES

(i(i. See .lochclI-Christoph Kaiscr. 'SOI.ialdemokratic und "praktischc" Religionskrit ik: ])as Beispiel del' Kirchellaust rillslwwcgullg. I H7H-I DI·I·. /lrchl1 l ./i'ir Sowtlgl'schichit" ~~ (I 9H2). pp. 2fi:\-DH. I~. E. Pollmanll. IJIlIstfl'slil'l'I1ichl's /\'ire/II'III'I'glllll'lll IIl1tf sozillil' hagl' (Bcr· 1111, 197:1): II. (;rote. ,)OZililtfI'IIIOlmllll' IlIItI NI'Ii"'IOIl ('llibil]O'en h h ' I . voL 2: 'I'llI' 1~.\j}(lIlsioll oll';7'Il1I,!!,'l'iil'lll NOllcolI/ol'llllly (Oxf()l'(I, 19!)!i) p. !i~(l. Ibid., pp. !iii I-~: scc also Edward Royle, "iclo/'/{1I1 Ili//tlds (Mallchcstn. I !l7·1) Watts. op. cit .. pp. 52:1-:), :)(i I. Brellilly, op. cil., pp. ~OH-!). 2!i2-5: J I~ PalT),. nl'1II01TI/I'\' 11I1t! IMig/llll: (;IIlt!slolll' allli IIII' IJhl'rtll I'arl),. 18h7·-75 (Cambridge, I !)H(i), pp. 'I !)H~O I; McLeod, 'Religion in Labour i\iovcl1lcnts'. pp. 2!i-fi. Ellgcnio F. Biagini, IJllI'rly. Rl'lrl'lle/IIIlI'111 I/lld HI'/Imll: I'ojm/llr l.illl' I'll lis III III Iltl' ilgl' of (;llItlslolIl'. ISMI-ISSIJ (Camhridge. 1!)!)2): Nigel Scotland, t\11'lhot/islll 1I11t! Ihl' RI'l l oll oilltl' !-'il'ld ( ;IOllcester. I!lH I). p. KD. E Lllldell. SOZ/II lis III /IS 1I11t! I?t/igioll (Leipzig, I ~):\~). pp. 110-11, Cillian Rose. 'Locality, Politics and Culture: Poplar ill the I ~)~()s· (University or Londoll Ph]) thesis, I !lH~)), pp. 2:17-H, 27H-~): Philip Willialnson. 'The ])oClrinaIPolil!csof'Stallln Baldwill', ill Michael Belltley (cd.). 1'lIhiic 1I1/{/I'I'l(lff11' /)111'11'1111' (Call1hndge, I !l~l:\). PI'. I HI-~OH.

Notes to Chapter 2

Institutions

1. For an m'l'\'view. scc G. I. T Machin. I'olillcs (lilt! lit!' (;II/Ire/il's III (;/'1'Il1 linlrllll. IS32 10 18MI (Oxf()l'(1, 1977). 1Ie sces III t he I H!iOs 'tlte increase or State ncutl'ality in religion'; 'tlte advances llIade by ecclesiastical 1lI0VCllIcnts \I'l'\'e not spectacular. cOllt roversial cpisodcs were perhaps less fi'C<jllellt' (p. ~52).

2. (:alhoiic priests had since IK~~() heen paid to 111inistcr to (:at holic soldiers, hut only in I H!iH welT then' Catholic prokssional chaplains, appolllied hy tlte War OiIicc, alld Oll all cqual I()otillg with AlIglicalls and l'reshytnlallS. Kelllletit E. Helldrickson III, MII/OIIg .";111111.1: /(I'ligioll IIl1d Iltl' I'II/;Ii( 11I1Il,!!:1' o/lhl' liniisit /11'111.1', /S09-ISS5 ( :l'anhmy. N.I. I ~)~)H). p. (i:\.

N(rn:s

:1. .f.

:i.

Ii.

7, H.

D,

10. II.

12.

I :\.

I,f. I:l. Iii,

17

Frallces Kllight. 'The Bishops Diary or Edward Derringlon. enlry fill' ~(i janllary 1H:IH. (:arrs Lanl' MSS. vol. (il (Binllingham Cenlral RckrcllCc Library); (;colhey Roil· SOil. 'Religion and Irrciigion in Birll1ingham and Ihe Black Counlry' (li nil'lTsil y or Birmingham Ph \) Ihesls. l!)!17). p. 217, Sec also (;e()l~ liTy Robson. 'The Failllres of SlIccess: Working-class Evallgelisls III Early Victonan Binningham', in Derek Baker (cd,). HI'Ii,l!,'IOIIS MolrulI' lillll: BlIJp:mlJlllml a 1Ir1 SO(,IIJ/II,!!,'iml Proh/I'IIIS jiJl' 1111' (,'/111 rrli II islorlllll. SI lI' dies ill Church Ilislor)" 15 (Ox(e)l'{\. 1!)7H). pp, ,IHI-!lL (/I11i'IIIIJlJlWIII'.

N()TES

NOTES

:l. Carrs Lanc i\ISS. \'()1. (i I. cntrics li)r 1H. 2(i alld :\1 Jalluary 1H:lH. ,I. 11)1(1. . , !i. Eilecn Yeo. 'Christianity in Chartist Stl'llggle, IH:IH-·12', 1'lIsl & Prl'.II'}}I. ~) I (I ~JH I) p. 1:12, notc (i:l. (i. ;\Ian l'.cllllctt Bartletl, The Chmchcs ill BcrIllOlH/sCY I HHO-I D:\!)' n IniITrsity or Birnllllgham PhD thcsis, I !JH7), pp. 1:17-!). 7. i\lclcod. op. cit., p. :10·1. H. Ilugh i\l::l.cod. 'Class, (:olllnllllliIY and Region: The Religious (;eographY 01 NlnCi('Clllh-centul')' Ellglalld'. ill Michael Ilill (ed.), SOl'loloo'}('(!1 li'llllwo/'- oj IMi,l!;iOU II} finllllll, (i (I !J7:1). pp. ·1!)-:")2. .... D. I I ugh Mel .cod, I'il'lr 111111 l'I))Il'rlr: Wor/uu,I!: Closs Nl'fi,l!;iO}} III lierfill. IJludoll ,(Iud NI'lI' lil/k. /871J·/lJl·1 (Nc\\' York, I!)!)(i), p. II. I oy'( :hoi\'y alld II il;lirc, op. Cil., p. I !JH. II. Fcrlland Charpin, I'mlllllll' rl'fi,l!,'II'usI' urhll}ul' 1'1 lill'lllilijoll d'IIIII' (J'mudl' llif/f (MIl/sI'iffl' /S()(,-19'iS) (Paris, 1%·1). pp. 2!i4-:"). 2HH-!l2, 2!)(i-7, 2!J!J. 12. I.uciall Iliilsdl('r, 'Siiklllarisil'l'lIllgsprozessc', III Iblls~Jllrgell Piihlc

and Pamela

20. 21. 22. 2:1. 24. 2!i.

2(i. 27.

(cd,). /iiilp,'I'r II} ill'I' (;I'II'fIII/1il11 dl'l I\'I'II?('(I (;iillingcll. I!)!JI) pp. 21:1-!J. Lllnall Iliilsci!('r, 'Stallstls( 1)(' Erlasslln ;-,o klrchli( iter Bmdllllo"Il' ,,'" , III Kaspar Elm and llalls-()ielnch Loock (cds), Srrlsll/p,'!' 111111 /J1II/m}lIl': fil'lll'Ii:!!,'I' :11111 I ('r/lli'llIIiS 1'011 I\'irl'hl' lIud Crofis/fIIl/ 1111 II), IIlId hl'()'lIl1ll'lIdl'll 20 . ./1I/1I/1I1111/t'l/ (Berlin. I !)!J()). pp. '12-:1. . .... (:hcster diocesall \,isil;IIIOIl Rellirns. 177H ( :hcshirc (:ounty Rccord Onicc. Chcsln). For similar commenls scc Alan (;ill)('rl, RI'Ii,J'lOu 111111 SOl'il'/)'

III

11II/lIs/rillll';lIglllur/: Chll!'ch. Chll/}('/lIl1d SOCIil/ Chili/O'I' I /fll-.I I} /.1

(London, I ~J7(i), pp. 10-11. Oi\'(: Field, '!\ Co(lIy Pcol;le? Asp('CIS or Rcliglolls Pracllce II1lhc Dlocesc orOxli))'(1, 17:1H-I!J:Hi', SOIl/hl'mllis/o!')" II (I ~J!)2), pp. (i:)-(i.

l!i. Sergl', Bonlll'l, '\'crners et hllch(')'ons d'/\rgolllH", F. Ik'darida and J Mailroll (cds). (;fms/illlll.llll!' 1'/lIIollifl' ollllril'/' (Paris. 197:;). p. 2:12. I G. Sl:C DonaIci 1\1. l,ell'ls, /'/gh/I'II /hl'ir /)1Ir/IIII'.I.1: nil' 1~"{I(lIlg!'Ii(({/ i\liS.l1ll1l /0 H Or/UII,!!,' ('/11.1'.1 /,O}IIIIJII. 182S-ISfJ() (London. I ~)H(j). 17. Sec, e.g., B. l. Coleman. 'The Church ExtenSion iVlo\'cml'nt 111 London c.IHOO-IH(iO' (lJnil'lTsily orCamhndg-c PhD thesis. HHiH); lIilairc, {illl' (/m;/II'IIIi'?, \'01. II. pp. :"),19-:,):1; i\larlin (;rcschal, 'Dlc BerlinlT Sladlllllssion', in Eltn and Loock (cds). op. cil., pp. ·1:) 1-7:"). IH. D .. B. i\Icllhiney. '/\ (;cllllcinan ill l'V(,),), Slum: Church or Englalld MISSions III the East Elld or London. I H:17-1!J I ,I' (Pnllcelon UninTsiol r Ph J) t hcsis, I !J77), pp. I 2H-:l I I !J. (;Iclln lIolTidgc, nil' SII/HI/ioll ,·Inll.\': Origllls IIl1d I'({}-!\< /)11\'.1, IS65-llJ()() ( ;odaill1ing. I !J!J:l). For discussioll or SOIllC or the . wa\'~ Salval ionists rdaled 10 Ihe nillllrc or working-class Ilcighhourlioo;ls, scc Pamda J ·Walker. ';\ Chaste and Fcrvid Eloquence: Calhcrinc Booth and the i\lillislry or WomclI ill Ihc Salvalion /\nn)", in Bc\'erlv Mayne Ki('llzle

J

Walker (ecls), WOIIII'U i'rl'lll'hl'I:\' IIlId i'ro/Jhl?/.1 //lJ'(mgh 'fi(lo (A 1!J9H), pp. 2HH-'\02. McLcod, Pil'/Y IIl1d Pmll'/'/y, ch. G. Palll Thompson, ,";ow£!i.ll.l. Uhl'l'IIls IIl1d /,lIhollr: Thl' S/m,!.',gll' .fin' 1,0//(1011. ISS5-191·' (London, 1!)(i7). p. 2:19. McLcod. l'il'/.1' IIlId /'tm'r/.\', pp. !)-ID, -12. Ibid., p. 21; C. Willard. 'Not rc Dame de rUsinc'. ill B{'dariela and Maill'Oll (cds), oj). cit., pp. 2·1!'i-!l1. Ilartnllil Zwahr, lllr KOIIS/dll/II'I'111I,!!,' dl'.1 Pm/ellI!'ill/.1 111.1 Klo.lSl' (Berlin, 197H). Theodorc Kodilschck, (;/11.1.1' NiI'Il/lI/{() II II lid Urhllll-Illdlls/riol SOOI'/.\': lil'lldjill'll, 175()-IS50 (Cambridgc, I!)~)I), p. I!J!). WolIg-ang Kiillmann, ,)'ozlIIlgl'.Idlil'h/1' dl'/' S/ild/ 8(11'1111'11 CIIihillgen, I !)(iO), p. 1!'i7. Sce McLeod, Pie/v ({}Id I'm l er/v f()r data on lay leadership in Berlin Proll'slanl parishes, The ('U II cst im'cst Igal iOIlS or t his topic halT hecll fi)r Presbyterian cOllgregat iOlls in Scott ish cit ies: sec i\. A. McLarclI, Hl'lig/olI IIl1d Sow£! (,'111.1'.1: rhl' /)i.ml/J/{()II li'lIl'S III "Ihnt/I'I'II (London, I !J7·1); Peter I lillis, 'Presbyterianism and SOCIal Class in Mid-ninClel'nth Centnry (;lasgow: a Siudy or Nille Chnrches'. j01l1'll1l1 oj 1~l'r/r.II.\lI.I/I(({1 lIis/oJ')', :12 (I!JH I), pp. ·17-(i,1. Ohelkevich. IMig101I 111111 HilmI Soril'l\': SOIl/h I,II/dst\', 1825-/S75, (Oxfi))'(l, I !JI(i), pp. 19:").2:19, aniyses the social colliPosition or Ihe Wesleyan and PrillIilivc Melhodist lay leadership in Lincoillshire, but no silllilarly syst cllIal ic st ndy or English u rhan congregat ions has been made. Sec. however, Simon (;unn, 'The Minislry, Ihe Middle Class and the "civilizlIlg missioll" ill Manchest('l', I H!iO-HO', Socilll His/o})', 21 (19~Hj). pp. 2!i-(i, which is more implTssiolllslic, alld Clyde Binfield, Pos/OI'S 111111 I'l'o/JII' (Covcnlry, I DHcl). pp. (i()-I, all illtensive sludy ora Baptisl church in (:O\'l'nll·Y. Kodilschek, ofl. cit., eh. I D. Scc Charpin. op. cil., W. Se\\'dl. 'Social Change and Ihe Rise orWorking Class Polilics in NinetcC'nth-Centnry Marscilles·. 1'11.1'/ & l'rl'sl'll/, (ir; (HJ7·1). pp. 7!i-1 D9;.J. M. Plw),cr, ,)'(',y}((£! IJ!WI'II/1011 IIlId Hl'figlOll ill Nilll'li'I'II/h-(,'nl/lln' I~II/'()I)(' (London, I D77). McLeod. I'id), IIlId I'mlf'r/y. ch. (i. Ellen Ross, 'IInngry Children: Iiouscwivcs and London Charity', in Peler Mandler (l'd.), TIll' (iSI'S O/' r:/Illri/.\': Fhl' I'oor Oil /(I'lil'/, 11/ /hl' Nilll'll'I'II/h-(,'I'II/IIn' MI'/m/)()lis (Philadelphia, PA, I !J!)()) , pp. I (i!)-7 I, F, K. Prochaska, 'Body and Soul: Bihle Nurses and the Poor in Victonan London', l1is/o!'iml RI',I·I'(II·rh. (iO (1 !)H7), pp. ;l:Hi-·IH; L. Strul1lhinger, . ";\ has les pri':t res! A bas lcs couvellts!" The Church and the Workl'l's ill Nint'lcclllh-Ceninry Lvon·,./oll},}!II1 O/' ,';o('}({/ Jlis/IJI)" II (197H), pp. :'>-1 (j-7 , Mil/(,IIUill oj (:hri.l/illII i/y (BnkcJey,

2H. 29.

:W. ;1 I.

NOTES

N()TE.~

:12. For PI":I),(')". Sl'(' I\kLeod, l'il'/r IlIld I'o'{ll'/'Iy, pp. I D2-·1. Philip Nord, rhl' NI'II//h/il'llll i\/Oll/I'III: Sll'//i~i!,11'.\ jill' Iklllocmn' ill Nil/l'1I'I'lIlh-CI'IIIIIIT /-i '1111 n' (Calllhridge, I\L\, IDD:i), p. 4H. :11. Ihid. :F). Ralph (;ihson,.1 Socillillisio/T oj hl'wh CIlIIIOI/USI/I, 1789-191·1 (London, I ~)Hq), pp. I ~J:i-212. :I(,. Nord, op. l'Il., chs 2, :\ and (i. :17. Ihld .. chs·1 and :i; (:holvy and Iliiaire, llisloll'l' I'l'lip,'II'IISI', ISS()-19]O, pp. :Hi, :it). :IK. Nord, op. cil., ch. I, Maurice I.arkin, RI'I/P;IIIII, I'olillcs 111111 I '1'I'ji'I'IIII' II I ill hll//(I' .IiIII'I' Ihl' ISC)(}s: IJI Iil'lll' I;'!J/I!jl/{' IIlId lis 1.l'll,'!I!'." ( :allllmdge, I D~J:)l, pp. II ~J-27 :ID. Ralph (;ibson, 'Why Republicans and Catholics Couldn't Stand Each Other in till' Ninctcel1th CCl1tur(, III Frank 'Edlett al1d Nicholas At kill (cds), Nl'lip;/IIII, Socil'l\' IIlIti l'olillt'S III hlllln'SII{(,{' 17iN (Lol1dol1, I !)~J I), pp. 11:1. ·10. Rel1l; Rl;lllOnd, L'IIIIII-IN)'{(({/iSIIII' I'll hlllin': /)1' 18 f ') tI 1I0S/01ll:\" C!nd cdl1, Paris, I ~JD2), p. I H:i. ·11. (;ihsol1, 'RcpuhlicallS and Catholics', p. 11:'), citing all article in 1.1'

S2. CUllilla-Fril'derikc Budde, All/, dl'/// !!Ir'g /1/.1' liiilgl'l1l'hl'll: I\illlllll'li IlIld Fl'wd/////g III dl'llisr/II'II II/Id I'llg/isrlil'll 15iilgl'ljil/l/ilil'lI 18-10-11) J.I (;iittlllgCII, ID~J·I), p. :IKO. r)~,t Ihid., p. :')HI :).1. ./1'11.11'1/.1 '(lOll (;111 II lid !iiisl' (IRHG), III E Nietzsche, !flrT/(I', :1 vols (Mllllich. IDS:i), vol. II, pp. GlH-ID. Sf). II. II. (;ert II and (:. Wright Mills (cds), hom Mllx HIt:"I'r (Londoll, I ~J·I Hl, pp. 1:II-H, 1·12-:1. 1S:I-(). Sll. Paul DrclVs, /)11.1 /urridiritl' 1,1'111'11 til'/' 1~'llll/lgI'IiSl'it-I,lIlitl'/'isrhl'" IJlIlIll's/ul'ritl' dl's A'iil/igrnrhs .'-;lIdISI'1I (ll'thingen, I !)02), p. :HiS. :i7 \VolIg'allg Rihbe (cd.), (;I'schirhll' /il'riil/s, 2 vols (Mllnich. I!J(7), vol. II. pp. (iHO-:1. :iK. lIenry Wassermallll, :Jews and .Judaism ill the (;aI'lClllaulw', }i'llI'/iooli 01 litl' I.to Ihll:ril Il/sllllIft', 2:1 (I D7H), p. :i I, . :)!). Alli-cd Kelly, Tlw /)('.1('('111 o/' /)1I1'1t1111: TIll' l'Ollllllll'lZlllllJ1I O/' /)1I1'1t1il/is/// /1/ (;1'/'///11/1)', IS60-11JJ.I (ChapelllilL 19HI) pp. 1:i-2H; Karl Birkel', [}fl' IiI'III.II'II!'1I /lriJI'II!'riJiltltlll,ll,S(lI'/'I'/I/I', 18-1IJ-187IJ (Bedin. 1!J7:1), pp. !'iR, I ;i:l'I,IK:I-(i. (iO. David BlackbourIl, /H(II'I)illp;l'II: ,'ljJjmn//lllls o/,Ilil' ! 'ilg/l/ Mlln' /1/ nISl/llirr/(iall (;I'/,//IIIII.\' (Oxlem!. I~)~n), pp. 2KH-!lI . GI. Norhert Scltlof.\macller, 'Ikr Deutsche Ven~ill II'tr die RhcllIprovinz', in Olaf' Blaschke alld Frank-Michael Kuhlcmanl1 (cds), 1?1'1iglll// 1/11 1\(//.I·I?ITI'ICit: Mil/I'IIS Ml'llllIlillift'lI - l\risl'lI (;iUersloh, I !l!)(i), p. ·17!J. Lalollette, op. cil., pp. 2-'1:i-K; R{'mol1d, op. cil.. pp. I !)O-I; SlIIith. (;1'/,//11//1 NallOllalis/// IIlId Nl'l/gIIIlIs Co lilliI'I (I'nllceton, N.J, IDDS), PI'. 2(i-:17. (i:l. Smith, (;1'/'11/1//1 Nal/llIlIlIi.II/I, p. 22. (i'l. Ihid., pp. ~n-:17. (is. Koditscitek, op. cil., Pl" I:\S-20,1, 2!i7, li(i. SilllOIl (;lIl1n, The Ministry, the Middll' Class and the "Civilizing Mission"', pp. 2:i, ,10. (i7 E. E 11c1l110ck, Fil IIlId 1'1'01)1'1' 1'1'1'.101/.1 (Lol1dol1, 197:1), pp. (i 1-7~), I :i·I-(iD; Peter T Marsh, JosI'!)h (:IIIIII/III'r/IIIII: r:lllmlm'I/I'lIr III l'olilll'S (New llaven, CL I !)~J·I), PI'. ,I L 2·10, 27:1. (;. l. T Macllln, I'ol/II(S IllIti Ihl' (;///Il'rhl's III (;1'1'111 8U/rI/II, IS,)2--18(,S (Oxie)l'(l. I Dl7) p. I (i2. (iD. Cox, 1':lIglish Chlll'rhl's III II ,1;erlllllr Sorid.\', pp. I (i 1-2. 70. Frank M. '!llrller, Co II ItsllII,l.!,· Clllillmi ,'llIlltonl)': 1':.1'.1'111'.1' ill Virloll/l 11111'1Il'rillllll.iji' (Camhridge, I !)!l:I), p. 170. 7\. Nord, op. cil., p. :17, 1_. OzouL UI:jJ II hlilj I/{' til'S IIIsllllllelll'S, pp. I H:I-H. Ibid., pp. I ~)7-K. 7·1. Iilid .. pp. 172-4, Al1nex :1.

:n.

./011 mill til'

/10111'11.

·12. Jacquelinc LdOlll'tte, IJI !.ilm' 1'1'11.1'1:1'1'11 hillin', IS·18-19.J{) (Paris, I~JD7), pp. lIiO-1 ·1:1. Jacqucs al1d Nora Owuf', 1.11 dlJllhliqll1' dl's illSlilllft'lIl's (Pans, 1DD2) pp. 210-1 1. '1·1. E,g .. in Berlin in the 1RIOs. the court and aristocracy Elvourcd the Pietist clergy, while the city council support cd the iilll'rais sec Waltcr Wendland, Sil'hl'lI/IIII/I/I'I'I./lIhl'l' l\irrhl'II,!l,'f'sc/llf'lill' !ll'rlills (Bedil1, 1D:IO),

PI'· :\()()-:I. ·E'). Lucian 1 Wlschcr. ' Kirchlichc Iklllokrat ie lind Friill1llligkeit skultl1l'

>I(i.

-'17. 4R. ,19. SO. :i I.

illl dcutsclll'n l'rotcstantislnus', in Martin (;reschat and Jochcn-Christoph Kaiser (cds), (;fmsll'lIlIIlII IlIld DI'II/ohmlll' (Stuttgart, I D!)2), pp. I!JI-:i. (;angolrI liihingn, 'Kuiturprotestantislllus, Bi'lrgedurche und lihcraler Rcvisionisillus illl willwllllinischen Deutschland')n Wolig-ang Sc\ueder (cd.), IMigioll 111/1/ Cl'sl'l/sc/lllji /II It). Jllhritlllllll'/'l (Stuttgal'l. 1!)~J:I), pp. 27:1-·1; Iliilschcr, , Kirchliclll' Iklllokratie', pp. 200-:1. McLcod, l'il'ly 1II11II'rri'l'I'ly, p. 2:1. Arnold Ilomll'itz, 'Prnssian State alld I'rot.estant Chllrch ill the Reigll of' Wilhellll II' (Yale University PhD thesis, I ~J7(i), pp. 21 G-:12. Ihid., pp. S:I-K; Iliihingcr, op. cit., pp. 2!J:i-~J. Sec Thomas MergeL /.;(lI.\(hl'lI 1\'/11.1'.11' IIl1d KOllli-ss/IIlI: 1':lIlholischl's IJiilp,'I'I'111/1/ 1/1/ mll'l 11111 lid, I 71N-·191-1 (;iittingen, I~)~).I). E. RollE, J)IIS liil'ritlirhl' IAIt'II dl'r l"i'IIII,!l,'l'lisrhl'll 1\'il'l'hl'lI 1/1 Nit'dl'l'SlIrhsl'lI (Ilihingell. l!l 17), PI'. (iOO-1.

J

~')

N(rn:s

7ri. On the widc-ranglllg role or the yillage school teacher. sec Bartlett Singer. l'il/up:1' NO/I/li/I's III Nilll'li'I'II/h-rl'll/III)' hI/lire: !'I·il's/s. Ml/wJrs aI/(/ SrlllluIJJll/s/l'/'S (Alhan\'. NY. I ~)rn). p. I :!(i and /)(/ssiJJl. 7G. N . .J. Richards, 'Religiolls Controversy and the School Boards, lil70I DO:!', nri/ish jOllrl/l/! or I~'dlll'll/iolil// S/lidies, I il (i D70). pp. I il:\-·I. 77. IIl1gh l\lcL('oci. 'White-Collar Valllt's and thc Role or Religion', in (;eoUi-cy Crossick (cd.), Thl' I.Ollll'r Midd/I' (;fass III nn/alll. IS70-11}f.{ (I.ondoll, I ~)77), p. ilO. SOllle Anglican-dominated Boards insisted on teachers heing Anglicans. Scc Richards, op. cit .. p. I ~)'I. 7il. Cox, 1~'II,I!,1ish (;/I/Ire/II'S III 1/ SI'I'II!ar Socit:ly. p. lilil. 7~1. Marjorie Cl'\licksilank, Chllrrh I/Ild ,';/ali' III /. cit .. p. :1!J/1. Edward Royle. Ullllif'll/s. SI'I'II/lIl'Isls IIlId Hl'jlll/Jlitlllls: 1'0/111/111' hl'l'lflllllght llilil'i/IIIII. 18MI-/IJ/'j (Manchestl'l'. I!)HO). pp. 2:12-!); Leonard Smith. HI'/ig/IJII 11/11/ IiiI' HISI' II/ 1,II/JOIII' (Kede. I !)!l:I). pp. I :IO-H. For Chartist critiqncs of' till' estahlishcd chnrch. sec if. 1I. Falllkllcr. (;lilll'lIslli lilli/IiiI' Olll),l'lil's (Ncw VOl'k, l!lIH). pp. :II-!J. I()H-!); I()!' Sendarist vic\\'s. Rovlc. HIII/if'll/s. p. 2D!J. Royle. /l1II/if'll/s. p. 12!l. Nl'lI' SIIIIt'slIIllIl 11/11/ Sootly, :10 Scptclllher I D!),I. RolH'rt 'liTssell. Tlil' Rllggl'rI '/i'oIlSI'I'f'(/ I'hi/rllillirojllsis (Londoll. I D!i!J) Ilirst pnhlisllt'd I!)J ,II. pp. 17G-HH. ,ID 1-2. E S. A.s (Pleasallt Snllday Af'tl'l'lloolls) \\'CIT special scrvices I()r working III('n providcd hy Illan\' NOIlconl())'Illists chapcls c. I !)(l(). SCl' I':ric Ilohsh:mm's cssay. 'Religioll alld t hc Rise of' Socialism' ill IllS collcction IIJI/'lt/s II/ LII/JIIIII' (London, I !)H·I), pp. :I:I-/IH. Zeldill, op. cit .. \'OL I. p. 7(H. Thc 1'11/111/1' (a priest's skllll-cap) calllc to hc nsed ill ninctccnth-cclltnr" Frallcc as all ahnsive tcrlll I(lr the clergy. People declllcd too li'll'lldly to the clergy were duhhed ((1/01111.1'. There was ('VCIl :I\l allti-clcrtcd jOIII'll:d callcd 1.1/ CII/olIl'. Sec R{>lIlOnd. op. cit., p. 21·1. Row'r I\/artill On Carel. ./1'111/ nllm/s (Paris. 1!)21) Ilirst pnhlishcd H)I:II, p. (i/. I\Iary Rvan. ''\ WOlllan's Awakcning: Evangelical Rcligion and t hc Families or litica, Ncw York. IHOO-IH40', in .Ianct Wilson .lalllcs (ed.), 11'111111'11 ill ,IIIII'I'/WII Nl'liglllll (Philadelphia. PA. l!lHO). pp. DO-I: Olwl'n Ilunon, 'The Remllst ruct ion or a Church 17~)(i-1 HO I', in (;wynnc I .('wis and (:olin I ,ucas (cds). lin'lIlli/ IiiI' '!iTml" I~'s,\(/)'s III hl'lII'li NegwlIlI/lIlII/ SlIf'IIiI I lislllr), /7'),/-/815 ( :amhridge. I !)H:I), pp. :I!)-,II, Claude Langlois, 1-1' I'IIlliolioSIIII' 111/ FIIIIIIIII (Paris, I !JH'I), pp. :1 I 0-1 I. Oil'l' Fid(1. 'I\dalll alld E\T: (;clldcr in the Ellglish Frec (:hlll'ch Const it 11l'1lC).' . ./1111/'1/11/ 11/ Ftc/I'slllsllm/ !lislo!,\" ·11 (I !m:I). pp. (i:I-7!1.

1:1 I 1:12.

1:1:1. 1:\.1. I :1[').

Thc hest statistical study ort!le gcnder composition or Nonconf())'Inist cOllgregaliolls ill the later nillel'Cllth ('('ntu!'y is Roselllary ChadWick. 'Church alld Pcople III Bradl(ml alld District IHHO-I!)I·I' (lillivl'I'Sily or O:d(JI'lI I)Phil thesis. HlH(i). (;ihson. op. cit., p. I HI. (;cnevii've (;adh(lIs. '''Vous (·tes presquc la seulc cOllsolation de 1'I::glisc"', in .lean Ikhnlleau (cd.). I,ll religlOli dl' 11111 IIIhl' (Paris. I ~)D2), p. :121. (;ihson, op. nt., p. 17·1. 11)1(1.. p. I HI. I~ Piepn. A'il'thl'lIsllIllslih /)I'liisth/lillr/.\ (Frcihlll'g im Breisgall, I H~)D), p. ~:t).

I :\(i. Mel .cod. 1'11'/.1' IIl1d 1'lIl'l'I'ly, pp. 2!J-(i, I :i!)-(iO. 1:17 Ro"fl'. Rlldil'll/s. p. 1:10; Lalouctte. op. Cit .. p. D:1. I:IH. i'vld ,cod, I'ie/y IIlId l'mll'lly. pp. J(iO. I (i:l; Rickie B milia II , '''She lookcth \\'cll to t he ways or her household": the (:hanging Roic or Jcwish lI'OI1lCn in Religions Lilt· t.IHHO-I!):\(r, III (;ail Mallllgl'lTII (cd.), 1?1'1igllJlI 11/ IiiI' 1)1 11'.1 11/ 1~'lIglis/IliIOIlII'II, I7MJ-I'))O (Bcckcnhal1l. I !)H(i), pp. 2:\.I-!J7: Marion Kaplan. '!'III' t\lllkillg o/llil'./I'1f1isli t\liddft, (;/11.1'.1': 11111111'11. hllllih' 11111/ Itll'"llly III IlIIjil'rlll/ (;I'I'IIIIIIl)' (Ncw York, I ~)~)f), pp. (i·I-H·1. I :I!l. RlChard./. Eva ns. 1\'III'1/JI'II,I.!,'l'sjJliitlil' 1111 /\·lIi.\l'lTl'icli (1Iamhlll'g. I DH~»), pp. 171-2; Lalollctte, op. cit.. pp. :1:1-1-·1:;; Mary I !artman, I'itllll'lllli Mllrdl'I'I'ssl's (Ncw York. I !)7(i). pp. ~O(), 2:1!1. 1·10. I !ulion, 'Rcconstl'llctloll', p. ~2. notl'S that while open conflict hctwc('n dcvollt \\'OIlH'1l alld irreligious IlH'1I took place I()r thc first time durtllg the Rl'\'olution. clear dilft'rcnCl's ill Ien'ls orplCty wcrc al!'eady apparcnt. For Instance, ill one village Ileal' Paris in 17HO all widows and spillstcrs alld IIcarly all married WOIIIl'1l rcccived EaSln COllllllnlllOl1. hut oilly ai>oul ·I!J per (,(,Ill of' adult IIIcn did so. 1·11 . .lules Michelet, /)11 1'1'1;11'1', til' /11 hlllli//i', til' /'!~'g/isl' (Paris. I H,lf»), pp. V-\'I. 1·12. Gihson, op. cit. p. IH2; Lalouette, o\>. cil., pp. :1:1!i-7. 1,1:1. 11IIhkc Behnkcn and Pia Schlllid. 'Religioll in 'Elgehiiciwl'll \'011 Frauell zIVci Fallstudicn', in Kralll and Luth (cds), op. Cit.. pp. (j:I-77. 1'1,1. Eherhard Ikt hge. Ihl'l r/I'li /iollfIlW/./i'l' (English t ranslat iOIl, London. I DlO). pp. 20-1. I ·!!'i. Kaplan, op. cit., pp. 7:1-·1. J.i(i. Monika RlCharz,piriivlil's 1,l'hl'lIlII f)l'IIlsrh/IIIII/.:\ vols (Stllttgart, I !l7!l). \'OL I!, pp. 2~)H-!). 1'17. IIJ1(!.. II, pp. :1(iO-2. 1·1 H. Ellcll Ross. 'Survival Net works: Women's N eig-hlJolirhood Sharillg In LOlldon bd(lI't' World War 1', /lislo/'\' WOl'klflO/J./OIII'IIIl/, I!J (I!JH:I), pp. ·1-~7, elll phasies the sepa ral ion bet wccn I he worlds or WOlllell and or mCII . 1·19. Sinith, 1,llrlil'S oftli!' 1,!'islIl'l' (,'/11.1'.1', cil. !J.

N()TES

I !iO. This is stated most explicitly in Luckmann, oJ>. cil., p. 'W. I !i I. 11I1gh M cl.(·O( I, Ri'/ip;/o1I II lid Ihl' I'l'ojJ/I' oj !J'l'sll'm 1,'11 rotJl', 17S9-/9S9 (Oxlin'd, ID!l7), pp. 101-10. ! !i:!. l'al1l Thompson, with 'limy Waile), and Trcvor l.llmlnis, Ulll1l,!!; Ihl' Fishlll,!!; (l.ondon, I mn). I !i:l. Roger I\lagr,l\\", 'I'oplliar Anti-clericalism in Ninl'tccnth-Ccntllry Rllral France', In .Jailles Olwlkcvich, l.yndal Ropcr and Raphacl SallnICI (cds), Ih\i'ijililll's oj hillh (London, I !)H7), p. :Hi I I !i. I. Iln\\"art Vorliin1'11111'1' (I'l'llHTIOn, N.I, I !l~U), p. I H~; \vollgang Fnllllerich (cd.), Pm/l'llIl'I,v/u' IA'III'IIS/iill/i', ~ \'ols (Relnlll'k 1)('1 llalllhlll'g, I !)7,1) vol. l, p. ~H0. I~. Ccolfrey Robson, 'Working Class E\';lllgelisis in Early Viclon:lll Birmingham,' in Dnek Baker (cd.), Rl'li,l!,'llJIIS MIl/rUIlIIOII: nlO,1!,Ta/'/lImllllll/ SOl'lologil'llll'mhll'lII,l/iJl' Iii I' (,'/llIrrh !lisiomlll, Siudies in Chllrch Ilisiory, 10 ( )X1(m!, I !)7H), p. '\!)O. 1:1. Alrred Kelly, '/'III' /)1'.11'1'111 or /)llI'l(lll/: '/'III' I'll/ill 11/1'/:11 1111 1/ III' /)ilIWIIIISIII 11/ (;1'1'1111111\" 18W-I!Jf{ (Chapclllili. NC, IDill), pp. 1~:I-'1. 1,1. The hesl discllssion or Ihis Ihcnl(' IS Slephen Yeo, 'The Relig-ioll or Socialism', l/islol'\' 1!'lIrks/IO/' ./11111'11111, ·1 (I !l77), pp. ri-:i(i, I r). Lconard Smilh, l!l'liglOll IlIlrllhl' RI,II' IIfl,lIhollr (Kccic, I D!U), p. ,II, I (i. SlIcridan (;ill(')', 'Cal holics alld SOCialists 111 (;lasgo\\', I !)()(i-I D I~', ill KCllnclh l.lInn (cd.), !losls, 1IIlIIIIgmilis IIlId Millon/les (FolkcSloll(" I ~)H()), p. I H(i; IllIgh Mcl.cod, 'Religioll in Ihc BrilIsh L ()\\,Cll Chadwick. '/'/il' S[lCUlfln:tllioll (~r/hf' ";lIfO/"'ttll J\Jind ill/h" tViJu'/()('lllh Cmllln' (Camhndg-e, 1!)7ii). ch. 7: Kelly. op. cil.. pp. 21-g. 2·1. Kelly. op. cil., pp. :Hi-ii(i: lIug-h J\kLcod. l'il'l\' 11111/ l'oll!'I'h' (New York. I!)%) p. 27, ' . 2:>. I~cll)', op. cil.. p. 1:12. 2(i. Enliic Zola. 1'111'1.1 (Eng-lish Iranslation. Stroud I DD:I) Ifirsl published I g!)g I. pp. 'I.'!r)-(i. For Zola's 'revercncc Ie)]' sCIence', see F, \-\'. I. II emllIing-s. 1~'lIIi/1' ~olll (2nd ecln. Oxfelrc\, I !)(iii), pp. 20-21. iiii. .. '27 'rurllcr. op. cil.. p. 170. 2K. Thoillas Nippcrdcy. /)l'IIlsl'hl' (;I'.\chichll'. 18()()-1866 (Munich. 199:I), p,I%. 2!1. Eug-cn Wel)('r. 1'('11.\1111/.1 illio h'l'l1l1/1111'11 (London, 1977), pp. :lii'I-(i. :HJ. Tholll;IS Nippndcy, IMip:IIII1 1111 {flll/mith (M unich, I !)g7). p. 142. :1 I. ;\rnold lIorowilz, 'Pl'Ilssian Siale and Protestanl Church in the Reig-n of' Wilhelm I r (Yalc linivcrsily PhD Ihcsis, I !J7(i). p. 21 g. :12 . .lames OI)('lknich. 'The Relig-ion of' Music', IJ1 Jamcs Ohelkevich, Lyndal Roper and Raphael Samuel (cds), Ihsril}/iIlI'S or Nllih (London. I !)g7). p. iiG2. :\:\. TIll'Oclor Font;ull'. 1~',Ir/lIlll'J'rI (I gg2). eh. 7 :11. Nippcrdey. Rl'lip,/IIlI, p. I,ll. :Iii. LUCian Iliilscllt'r. 'Biirg-crlichc Relig-iosiUil 1m protestantischen Ikutschland des 19 . .Iahrhunderts', in Wolfgang- Schicc\er (cd.). RI'Iip;/IIII 11111/ (;1',ld/srllll/i 1111 II), jlllllllllllrlni (Sluttg-aI'l. ID!l:I), pp, 20g-I:I. The cilit of'(;()etlH' and Schiller caused considt'rable misg-i\'ing-s amongconstTvativc Pmlt'stanls. Sec (;i1ristcl I\iilde-Ilczing-er. 1""'IIII.I!,'!'lisI'III\ol/wfisrll (Tiiblllgcn, I D7(i). p. 2gg. ,IIi. Johll Brellil"'. The Schiller Cenlenal'\' of' I gii!l in Halllbllrg' (unpub'Iished papn). I am very gralef'ul loJ:lhn Brcuilly lelr allowing- lilt' 10 read Ihis paper. :17. (;angolf' IIi'iiling-n, 'Kullurproicstanlisllllls. Biirg-crkirchc unci libcraler RcvisionislIlus il1l WillH'llIIinischcn Ikulschland', ill Schiedcr (cd.). op, cil., p. 2g0. :lg. Richard ;\Iding-Ioll. /)1'11111 01 II 111'1'0. 1llI('xpttrg-atcd edition (London. I !)(iii), p. 222. :m Richard Aiding-Ion. 14;' jil), U/;,.., SII/!!' (London, I !l()g) Ilirsl published I D'I J I. p. 7g, '10. Mrs HUlllphr)' Ward. Uo/J!')'I m,IIIII'I'!' (Londoll. 1!l:)2) Ilirsl published I ggK I. pp, ~)()-I , 20.

I).

NOTES

., I, Ksdman. /)1'11111 1!lId Iltl' A/il'rfi/i'. pp. I iiO-!l. ,12. Logic Barrow. IlIdl'/II'lIdml S/nnls: S/n)'illili/islll 111111 1,'lIp;/isli Pfto{}l'illll,l. 185()-ll)lO (Londoll. 199(;), pp, 4-2\). 'I:I. Frallk ·Illrner. /Il'lwet'li SI'II'III'I' IIl1d Ht:lip:lOlI: Till' HNlI'IIOIl 10 SI'II'lIli/11' Nlllllmfislll III 1~1I11' Vil'lol'IIlll 1~lIp;/olid (New Ilaven. (;'1; I !J7,'). pp, IOgII; BarmlV, op, cit.. pp. ! 2G-7. 21 :1-17: I!. Freimark. Modl'nll' (;I'i.I/I'I'/JI'.Ir1IlJliil'l')' IIl1d 1i'lilllIr 1'1/.1.1 11th I'i'. (;roLlstadt-J)okulllenIC :IK (Berlin. Il.d,). p. ii I, See also S. C. Williams. Hl'fip:IOIiS /I1'1i!'r IIl1d Po/mill), (,'11(111)'1' ill SOIlI/llflll)'h. 1', 188()-II))l) (Oxfem\' I!)!)!), p. g2. For Ihc role of' wise l1Jen in ninetcenth-celliury rural Eng-land, sec Ohclkevicil, o]l, cil.. pp. 2g7-\l I, :HlD-1 n. ,j,1. ·limler. op. cil. ,Iii. Mark Bevir. 'Annl(, Iksant's Quest lilr 'Ii'uth: Christianity. Sccularislll and New Ag-c Thought', jOllnlll/ or />.'l'rll'sillsIICII/ lIislol'\'. iiO (I !l!J!). pp, H:)-7, ,I(i. Chushichi 'lslIwki. r;dwIII'II Co r/JI'I I 11'1; 18II-11)21): Prophl'l 01 11111111111 h'l/mL'S/III} (Callibridg-e, I !)gO). ,17, Nipperdey, Ul'fip;ioll p. ILI:I: scc also Andreas Dalllll, 'Natllrwissellschaf~ len und {)f(i:ntlichkeit in del' dcutsclH'n (;esellschafi: ZlI den ;\nliing-cn ('iner PopuBirwissenschafi nach der Rcvolul ion VOIl I g'l g', Hislorisrhl' ~I'IISl'hi/i, 2m (I !l!lg), pp. gii-(i. which nolcs a tendency among- (;\Tman popillar-scicntific wrilers '10 sacralisc nalure ilselL and 10 givc natun'worship t he character of' a sllhst it utc religion', ,Ig. Edward Royle. RIIi/irllls. S(,(,II/III'I.lls IIl1d HI'/m/JIiCillis (Manchcster. I !)gO) pp,I:12-(i, '19. Ihid .. p. 1:1:1. iiO. Sec Susan Budd. 1/111'11'111'.1 oj' [ill/lI'lil'r (London. I !l77), ii I Jacqueline Lalollellt'. LII/i/II'!' jll'lIsll' I'll />1'0110', 18,18-11)·/0 (Paris. 1!l!l7). pp. 2ii-4'1. !J~. Ihid., pp. DD-IO:L ii:\. Frank Silllon-Rits. '!\.ultun'lIe Model'llisicrung- lind Krise dcr I'elig-iiisen IkwllLlts('ins'. ill Olaf' Blaschk(' and Frank-Michael Kuhicillann (cds). IMip;1II11 1111 1(lIlsl'I'I'I'll'h (Ciit('rsloh. I !)~)(i) pp. ,I(i()- L ii't. Ihid., pp. ,l(i:I-:): LlIcian Iliilsciwr. 1I't'IIP:l'I'iI'III or/I'!' NI',IO/1I111111 (Stllttg-arl. I Dg!), pp. I ()!l-7:\. iiii . .l0c!Jcn-( :hristoph Kaiser. 'SozlaldclllOkrali(' und "pl'aktischc" Rclig-iollshitik',;1 rrlllr/i'ir SO:III~[!,'I',\'(111I'hll'. ~2 (I !)g2), p. 2g4. ii(i. Silllon-Rils, op, cit.. p. 'IGg. ii7 C. V C, Masterman, The COIllIiIIIlII 1I/I';I1,!';/IIIII/ (London, I !lO!l). pp. gg-\l. iig, Thomas Ksclman. 'The Vari('1 ics of' Rclig-ious Experienc(' in 1I rhan Franc(". in lIugh McLeoil (cd.), 1,'III'1l/II'11I1 Hl'iip:1II11 III IIII' ;lgI' 01 (;1'1'111 Cilil's (London. 19!)ii), pp. 17ii-!1. iiD. W. I.. Courtn('y (cd.). f)o H'I' RI'linl('~ (London. I\lOii), pp. 2-1:1. (iO, Ibid .. pp. !l(i-7, >

N()TES

N()TI':S

I. Ibid., pp. J :Hi-7, Ibid .. p. ~,J0. (i:l. Williallls, op. eil., pp. Ii:')-(j and /111.1.11111. (jl. Michael Walls, rill' /)i.l,II'II/I'I'.I. vol. ~: Till' r;xjHII/.I1011 or 1';'{lIIII,!!:l'fil'llf NOlI(oll/ill'llli/l'. 17 1)f-18)l) (Oxfi)J'(l, H)!J;'»), pp. 10:1-10: BaITo\\', op. cil .. p. I~.

Lllcian lliilsciJ. cII., p. :)(~: Franz Scllllahd, /)1'11/.11'''1' (;l'srllll'''/1' 1111 /1) . ./llitr"llIldl'l'/, vol. ,I: nil' Hl'lip:liiSI'II A'/'li/if' (Frcihlll'g illl Brclsgau, J D:17), PJl. 07()-1, lliilscher, 'S;iJ.~ularisien IIlgsprOl.csse', pp. ~·I :l-~l. Wolf'gang- Rihhe, 'ZUI' l':nlwicklung- lind Funkliol1 dcr Pf;lrrgelllcinricll III del' cvangclischcll KirclIc Ikrlills hIS Will Endc dn Monarchic', III EIIll and Lo()ck (cds), op. ('II., pp. ~:\:\-():I. Iliilscher, 'SiikulanSICl'llllgsprOl.csse', pp. ~·11-0~. Rll(lolf' SchliigL (;IIIII!JI' IIlId Hl'lip;illll III dl'r ,'id!lIIll1nSII'I'II11!!,' (MUllich, I ~)~) 0 ). During litc Revolutioll, Ihl' area rollnd La Rochelle was said 10 he ill(' lirsl in Francc where SOIllC parcnls ga\'(o lip haplislllg Ihelr childrcll, and d uri ng' Ihe Sccond Em pIn' I he propOl'1 iOIl or adolcscl'nlS IllISSIIlgIheir Firsl COllllllllnioll alld of' couples it,\\'illg all exclusively civilllTddillg. appcars 10 havc hccll alllong' thc higllesl ill Frallcc. E Bouiard, 111/rorfllr/101l /11 HI'lip,'Iolis Sliriolll,!!,)' (Ellglish Irallsialloll, London, ! ~)(iO), pp. ~!l-:\ J; (;tTard Cholvy and Yvcs-Maric lIilairc, Ilis/IIII'I' rl'lip,'II'II.\(' rfl' III 1-1-11111'1' ('oll/I'II/III!I'{/)'/III', vol. I: 18()()-1880 (Iilldouse, I~)DO), pp. 2~)0-(i.

NOTES

NOTES

:! I. (:1101\,)' and I I ilaire, ibid., pp. :!7-H. :!:!. (;i:l',\I'(1 Cho/\'\', Rf'figilill 1'1 sliri/II; 1111 XIX" Sihlf': lA' diociSl' dl' MIIIIIIleIIiN, (Lille, I!J7:1) i, p. 1:I(i: iVlichcl Lagd'c, All'llllllii/I. rl'figlllil elhilillirl' I'll l/rlllll' lirl'l((,!!,'//1' 1111 XIX" sihll' (Paris, 1977), pp. 7D-H:I. :!:I. (;iiJsoll. SlInll/ Ilisllln' IIr hl'l/I'lt CIlI/II!linslI/, pp. I !FJ-!l. :!.l. Olwcn I IlIftOIl. !iIlW'II.\' ill lit I' /,1111: Figltll'l'lIllt CI'IIIIIn' (Lolldon, I !)(i7), pp. IDI-:!. :!:i. Cholvy and Ililalrc, op. cil.. pp. :!7·/-H. :!(i. Sec. e.g, McLcod, PII'h' IlIld POl I(' rly, pp. I (j./-!l, citing exalllpies rrolll workillg-class ,liT, IS of Bcrlin. :!7 Philippe BOlltr)" l'lhrl's 1'1 I}((miss(s 11/1 IHlys dll Clld d',>/rs (Pans. I DHli), pp. (i!D-!l1 :!H. I Iii/scher, IIHlgl'nrlil. p. H:l. :!!l. (;ibson, Somtl llisilln' 11/ helll'lt Cllllllllios/ll. pp. :!:!7-3:!. ,10. Scc the contrasting regiollal profiles ill Chol,,}, alld Hilairc, l1islo/l'l' rl'lipy' 11.1 1', 18SII-IC))II, pp. I H!"J-:!IH. :\ I. lIugh McLeod. Rl'ligll!lI IlIld ,ljol'll:lv illl'·lIp;/llIlIl. IS5IJ-IIJI·' (Basingstokc, I !l!J(i), pp. I (i!)-%. :\:!. IIlIgh McLcod, C/IISS IIlId Hl'figioli ill lite 1.1111' l'il'llirillll Cily (London, 1!)7·1). pp. :!:i-H. More scattercd cvidcllc(' sllg'gests that religiolls 1)('lief alld practicc havc contillllcd to correlate positively with higher levels or educalioll and social status. Mass Observatloll, PII::':/I'd Pl'lIllll' (Londoll, I !),17), pp. :!H-!l. reported that III a sample of' :JOO intcnic\\'Cd in I,()lIdoll. (i(i per cCllt of'those with secondary educatloll, alld ,·11 pCI' CC1I1 oj' those wilh ollly elelllcntary education, helieved ill so Ill(' (i))'lll oj' alierlik. f\ r('c(,lIt clHlulr)' IIlio the beliefs or Ml's (iHlIld that r)·1 pl'!' C(,lIt oj'(:ollservativ(' lVII's alld :\H per CCllt oj'l.abour Ml's cl;lilllCd to be practising a religioll, which is considcrahlv Itighn thall the ligllre (iJr the adllit poplliation as a whole (Nl'w SIIIII's1111111 IIlId Sonl'l\,. :10 Scplt'lIll)('r and 7 (ktober I !l!H). ,\ survcy or lIlass at tendann' hy Cat holics ill Ellgland alld Wal('s in 1!)(iH, suggested I hat Iile rate was highest (Ii:! pCI' ccnt) I()r the (ll'Okssional and managerial lIliddle class and lowcst CHi pCI' ccnt) It)!· the IInskillcd alld sClIli-skilled working class (h'' Scc Wnncr Blessing-. SloIII IlIIrI /\.;1'1'/11' III dl'/' (;I'.II'//.Ir/I11/1 (Ciilling-en, I !lK2). pp. I D2-fj; SlIn, op. eil., p. 2(j I, ;j()(i. K7 Jonalhan Spniler. 'Roman Calholic Relig-iolls Idenlily 111 RhinelandWeSI phalia, I K()()-7()', SOl'lltilI i.llo)'\', 7 ( I !JH2) pp. :\W)-I H; idell1., /lO/iII/lI), Cl/lholieislII, pp. (i4-7:\' WI-5, D I-H. HH. Schliig-I, op. ell., pp. HO-I ()!), 17!J-!l!l. H!J. Spel'illT, 'Romal1 (:alilolic Relig-iolls Idel1lily': Jiirg-cn llenl's, Sliirlli.ll'hl' (;1'.11'//.11'/111/1 II 1Ir1 /;III/IO/i.lrlll' 111'1'1'1111' 1111 f{/II'I II hll 11/, /8.f()-/1\'70 (Koblenz. ID!Hj). DO. Thomas Merge!' /1I'I.lrhl'lI A'/I/I.l1' IInri /\.oll/i'ISIOI/ ;iill Ingen, I !)!J·I), pp. I (iD-70. DI. Thomas Merge!, 'Die sllhlile MachI del' Liehe: Ccsrhlerhl. Erzlehung lind Friinlillig-kell In kalholiscil('n rheinischcn Biirg-er!illllilien', in 11'111trawl (;iilz von Olenhllsl'n el al. (cds), />i'alll'lI IIIIII'!' rll'lII Piliriarellol dl'/' /\.irclll'lI (Stuttg-arl, I D!Jrl) , pp. 2D-:\O. !l2. Sperher, PO/JII/II), (;III/IIJ/inllll, p. (i··1. D:\. I bid., p. 25G. !H. Nolan, op. cit., p. 17!). !J5. Jonal han Spnhcr, 'I'llI' I\aise),'s 1't111'1:I (Camhridge, I !m7). pp. ,l(i 1-:1. Many historians have sllg-g-csled hig-her eSIImales or thc proportioll or Catholics vOling- Ccntre ill I H7·1, and a sllhstalllial suhseqlll'nl declille. This overlooks the Etcl Ihat a br higher pmporllon or Cal holies than Proteslants votcd in IH7·1, so Ihat the ['xtellt orCatholic sllpporl fill' Ihe Centre canJlot be deduced by Simply cOJllparlllg- Ihe PC1Tl'lIlag-l' or volers choosing Ihl' Celltre with Ihe percl'nlage or Catholics III Ihl' electorale (ibid., p. 170). !)(i. Josef Mooser, 'Das Ralholischl' MiliclI ill dcr biirg-erlichell (;cscllschaf'l: /,!llll Vcrl'inswl'sclI des Kal holizlslllus llll spiill'n Kaisl'rreich', in olar Blaschke and Frank-Michael Kuhll'llIalln (cds), l?1'/igIlJJI /III /\f//SI'ITI'II'II (( ;iilcrsloh, I H%), p. 75. !)7 . .loscf'rviooscr, 'Katholisclll' Volksrciig-ioll, Klcrtls und Biirg-crtulll in del' I.\\'eill'n I liilfiedcs I !J..lahrhllndnts.TIll'scn', In WoifgallgSchieder(l'd.), l?eliglolllllid (;I'.II'//.Il'hll/1 1111 /1J . ./allrlllllldl'J'l (SllIttg-arl, I~J!),I), pp. 1:>1-2; I Ialls-.l ii rg-cll Brand, 'Kirchlicllcs VcrcInswcscnuud Freizeitgest alt !lng-en

!lH. Marg-arel Lavinia J\nderson, 'The Limits or Secularization: On the Prohlem or Ihl' Catholic Revival in Nincteenth-celllury Germany', l/;sl(J/'/ml./o/l/'llo/,:lH (I~J~J3), p. ():>l. !J!J. Christel Kiihle-I kzing-er, I';, 1(1II{!,'idisrll-/(alli o/isdl: lilllerlJll'lIll1lgl'll Z/{ /(oll/i'sSIIJIII'/I1'1II Jlom rleilll lid /(oll/7ikl /11/ 19. II lid 20 . ./(tlllll1l1l1/erl ,'Imldlii/liell (1111 NeISjJll'/ Hliirlll'lII/mp:s (Tiihlllg-cn, 19f(i) pp, 104, 12H, J:Hi, 2(i5-

100. 101. 102.

«

](n.

104.

IO!). l()(i. 107

10K. 10D.

7H, ,179, and /HISSIIII, discusses Ihe minority-consciousness alld Ihl' scnse of Protcstant 'dominance' alllong- Catholics in \Viirltclllherg, which was rik Ihroughout the ninctccnth cenlury, and still to sOll1e extent pcrsisled at the till1e or her research III Ihc carly I !J7()s. Scc, l'.g-., Sperber, RIIIIII'/(I1I1/ Rmlim/s, pp. 7H-~). I1sc Fischer, /lIdIlSll'ia/islI'l'IIlIg, sozia/!'/' KOIl/li/;1 IlIld /1O/iIISdll' IVil/nlshi/dllllg III r/!'I' SI{/{{lgI'Illl'lllrll' (Allg-slmrg, 1977), p. 22fj. Kiihlc-IIczinger, op. cit., pp. J:I/I-,I(i; DaVid Blackbolll'll, M(lIjlillgl'll: ;1/lf!al'lIIOIIS of'tlll' Vilglll MIII:\' ill /){SIII(ll'l'liiall (;1'1'111(111), (Oxfi>r.

:\(i.

:17 :IH.

:m 40. 'II, ·12. -1:1. ,1·1. ·15. 4(j.

47, ·IH.

cOllservative speaker was accllsed by the libcrals or heing an antiSemitc, and the paper reported (1:1 October I Wl4) that cOllservatives were using the election slogan "'lie will not vote ftlr any ,lcws', In I!)] 2 leaflets distribllted in Immallllel parish were said to rekr to liberals as :Jewish Protestants' (C/imllih r/I'I' Chris/lir/iI'1I IVI'I/, :1 April l!ll :1). R6isin lIealy, 'Religion and Civil Society: Catholics, Jesllits and Prot('Stants in Imperial (;ermany', in Frank 'Ih:ntlllann (cd.), Pflmdo.\'I's Ci·"i/ Soril'/.\': NI'l!' 1'l'l'SjJI'I'/l'IIl's Oil Mor/I'I'II IJri/llill fllld (;1'1'/11(1/1\' (Oxl()nl. 19!1!l), . Scc the article on 'Konrcssion' in E, Ilofflllan-Krayer (cd.), HfllldIl'iil'/l'riJllrh til'S de/(/sr/il'" ;lbl'lp;/ll/(hl'IIS, D vols (Berlin, I !l27-:IH). Kiihlc-llezingcr, op. cil., pp. !l!)-10;1; Helmllt 'Walser Smit h, (;"1'111(111 NfI/wlI(dis/I/ (lIId /?I'lip:/O/(s COIl/lir/: C"//,, 1'(', Id('olop,y. Poli/ir", 1870-ICJI.f (Princeton, N.J, I !l!)5), pp. 22-,17; (;;mgolr lliihinger, 'Klllturprotestantismlls, Biirgerkirche llne! liberater Rcvisionis1l1lls im willwllllinischen Dcutschland' in Wollgang Schiedcr (cd.), IMipJolI IIllrl (;l'sl'l/srhfl/i /III II), .!{//ir/lll11da/ (Stullgarl, I !l\),I), pp. 2HO-L Tholllas Nipperdey, IMip;ioll IIJI {//l/iJl'llc/i (I'vlunich I !m7), pp. 15:1, 105. There is an extcnsivc literature on English anti-Catholicism in the nineteenth centllry. Sec especially .John Vlol!k, '!'III' I'ro/i's/tlll/ Cl'IIs(lIll' III (;1'1'11/ UI'I/{/ill, 1821J-18{J() (Oxf()J'(1, 1!J9I); D. G, Paz, i'1I/JIIII/I' :III/iC(I/llo/i(ls/l/ ill Mid-I"ir/ol'/tlll 1~'IIP:ll/llri (Stanf(ll'{l, CA 1992). Sec 1I ugh McLeod, 'Protestant iSIll and Brit ish Nat ional Identity, I Htr'lI !l-10', in Peter van der Vcer and IlartnllIl Lehmann (cds), N(I/ioll (11111 1l1'1i,!!,'llJII: 1'1'1'S/Jt'C/I1II'S Oil /~'II/'1)I)(' (I11r1 :Isi(l (Princeton, NJ, I !JD!l), pp. 4·1-7(), Sperber. I\II/SI'I'\ 1'1)/1'1:" p. 2H I, Ihid .. pp. 24!l-(). Ihid., pp. 5H-!1. E. Aver

['i(i. Alan ]), (;ill)('rt, 'The Land and the Church', In (;. E, Mingay (cd.), nil' Virlol'f(lII LOlllllnsldl', :! \'Ols (London, I!)H I), vol. I, pp, ,1()-!iO, !i7, Mcl.cod, Hefig/()It I/lid Soc;l'ly, pp. ~).I-I 00. See also the diSCUSSion in Wald, op. cil., clL 7, !iH. 'bl. op. cit" pp, :!ri!)-/D. ['i!). See Linda Colle)" UrilIlIlS: Ni/:e:IJI,!!; Ihl' NIIIIOII, 1707-IS)? (:!nd cdn, l.ondon, 1~)!)'I), no, Bill Williams, Thl' Mlililll,!!; or i\Il11lclll'sII'I'JI'lI'I')', /7-/()-1875 (Mallchester, I !)/(i), p, ~!iD. The lilllowing scction is hased on i\kl.eod, 'ProtcstantiSIll alld British National Idcntity',

NOTES

(i I, S/)('(III 10 1', I, H, ~:! ()etober I HDH. ():!. See J 1\, Mangan, lli!tfl?/II'/Slll Illtd Ihl' l'iclol'f(lIl IIIld /,'t/wllrt/illli I'lIli1ic Srhool: Thl' /,'lJ)l'Igl'Il(I' IIl11l COlIsolidl/llll1t or 1111 I';dll('IJIIOI/{{1 Idl'olo,!!,), « :alllImdgc I DH I), alld idCIll" nil' (;11111(',1 1';lhir IlIld 11II/)(?I'IIt/islII (1Iarlllondsworth, 19H(i), which discllss such lig\ll'es as II. II. AllIlond, headillaster of' Loretto, a muscular Christian. sports enthusiast, and ardent IInpel'lalisl. (i:\. v. L Chanccllm, /lislonji,r 1111'11' Masit'!'s (Bath, I D70), p. II:!. (i,1. Susan Thomc, 'Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of' Imperialislu: British Congrcgat lonalist sand t he London Missionary Socict y, I 7!)!'1-1 !):!!i' (UnIversity or Michigan PhD tllt'S'is, I D!)O), pp. :!~)]-:). (i!i, John M. MacKcnzie, 'Ilcroic Myths of' ElIlplrc', In idclIl, (cd,).Po/JIIllir I III/WI'III fis III II lid Ihl' Mifiitll)', 185!J-/()5() (Manchcstcr, I!)~):!), Jlp. IO!J-:IH: on Ilaw'lock and (;o)'(lon as (:hristlan national hcroes, see also KellIlcth E. Hcndricksoll, Mlllllltg SllIlIls: Rl'figllllt (Illd Ihl' I'lIhfir "illigI' or 1111' Ul'Illsh 111'111.1', 18()!)-1885 (Cranbury, NJ I ~)9H), chs H-](J. ' (i(l. McLeod, 'Protcstantislll and natIonal identity', Scc also discussions or the dcclinc of' anti-Catholicism In Wolf'l(-, op: ClI.; Paz, op. cil.; Waltcr L Amstclll, I'mil'sllllil l'i'rslls Clliholic III Ilild-1 'iriorillli I~II,!!;llIlId (Columbia, MO, I DH:!); Christophcr Ford, 'Pastors and Polcillicists: the Character of' Popular Anglicanism III South-cast l,allcasiIirc, I H'17-1 D14' (lilliversity ol'Lccds PhD thesis, I!)!)I), (i7, Douglas A. LOrliller, 'Racc, Sciellce and Cltlture: Historical (:olltinuitics and Discontinuities, IH!i()-I~)]'I', in Shearer West (cd.), l'iclor;IIIIS IlIId Nllf'(' (,\Idcrshot, I !)!)(i). Jlp. I :!-:I'\. (iH. S/)('rllllor, :!D ()etoiler I H!)H. (i!l. Christine Bolt, !'ielol'lllli Ilillllldl'S 10 NIII'I' (I ,ondon, I D71), pp. 7-!), :!(i-H: DaVid Fcldlll,lIl, i';lIgfisllIlIl'll IlIIdJl'll's: SO('f(d Nl'llIliolls IIltd Polill('IJl LIIIIII/'{', I,'I.IIJ-I!)f.! (New lIavcn, (;,1: 1!)!14), pp, H:!-II!i. 70. Bolt, op, cit., pp. I 1:\-7 71, Karen Fields, '( :hristian MiSSionaries as l\lItl-colollial Militants', '!'f,l'{)!'\' 11I1t! SO('fl'l\" :! (19H:!). lip. !);i-I OH: Thorlle, oJ!. cit" pp, 17,/-H'1. 7:!. Nipperdcy, Rl'ligl{)1I 1111 Ulllhl'l/cl" pp, I :IH-!l; Peter Walkellhorst, 'NatlonalislllllS als "politische Religioll"?' III Blaschkc alld Kllhlcl1lalln (cds), op. cit., pp. !i()!l-I:1. 7:1. Walkcllhorst, 'NationalislllllS als "politisclH' Religion"?', pp, !i H-I (i. 7,1. Ihid., pp. !i:! 1-4: Wollgang Altgcld, l\'lIllll1liz/SIIIIIS, l'mll'sitIlIIISIIIIIS,JIIIII,It11/111 (MaillZ, I!)!):!), pp. 1-,1. /:1. Spcr!J(T, 11.11;,11'1",\ Voll'J's, p, DD. 7(i. SlIltlh, (;1'1'111(111 NIIIIlI/llt1;slIl, pp, !i()-!); llartlllllt Lehlllanll, '''(;od, 0111' old ally"', III Willialll R, I (IItchisOIl and Hartlllltl Lehillalln (cds), MIlIll' If}'(' Cliosl'lI (Minneapolis, I!)!).!) p. !)()-I, !J.I, 107; Sperl WI', l'o/JIIlar (;111/lOlir;slll, pp, :!:!;,-7: W('I'I)(,), Blessing, SllIallllld Kirrlil' III dl'r (;l'sl'llsclill/i « ;iit t IngClI, I !)H:!) p. I ~)O.

NOTFS

NOTES

77, Smith, (;1'1'1111/11 Naliolllllislll, pp. 2:1-(i. 7H, [Ielmllt Walser Snllth. 'Catholics. the Nation and Nationalism In Nincteellt h-c(,lItllr)' (;crmally', paper read al cOIlf'crencc 'Religion and Nat lOllalism'. lInlv('\'sit)' of' Amsterdalll, I !lD!'i; idem., (;ITIIIIIII Nlllwlllt/iSI/I. pp. 2Ii-:\7, 7!1. For JCWlsh conccplions of' modcrll German history, scc David Sorkill, 'Thc Impact of' EnlallCipalioll on German jewry', in jonathan Frallkel and Ste\'Cn .J. Zippcrslein (cds), :Issilllilalioll IlIld COl/lll1l1ll1i1': Tltl' ./nfls /II Nilll'll'I'IIIIt-(('IlIIln' /. I ~F); J. M.Wint('1', 'Spiritllalislll and the First \Vorld War', In R. W. Davis and R. J. i-Icllllstadtt'l' (cds), NI'Iip,101i IIlId /rrl'fi,!!,IOI/ III Vil'/omlll Soul'h' (London, I !lD~). pp. I H!'i-~()(); Cairns, op, cit .. p. !J. 'I~. Bccker, oJ>. cit., p. ~)!J. ,1:1. Fontana, op, cit., pp. !'i~-:\' ,1,1. :\. J. Hoover, Cod, (;1'1'1111111\', !lJ/({ /lril!lill III Ilu' Crtal WI{/" il SI/uf!, ill (;{/,/,/!'!" NIlIIOIiI/Ii,11II (Nc\\' York, I !JH!J), pp. :\!i-7, 'I !'i. Bcckn, op. cit .. pp. ,1~-:1.

Bibliogrraphy

Alw]'cl'Olllhic, N. ct aI., 'Supcrstitioll and Religioll: the (;od of'thc Caps', III David Martin and Michael Ilill (cds), /1 So{'/olop;lm{ li'(III)()oh or Rl'fip;/o1I ill /lril!lill, vol. :1 (l,ondon, I ~)70). pp. ~l:\-l ~!J. Ains\\'ol'lh, r\., 'Religioll III the Working-Class COllllllllnity and tile h'o\tlt ion of' Socialism in Latn N int'tt'cnt h-Cent 111')' Lancashire', !lislom' Sonll{l', 10 (I !J77), pp. :I:)'I-HO. ;\Idcl'lnan, Ccolhey, 'f'lll' ./1'TtlISIt COlllllllllllh' III 81'111sIt l'o{illl'S (Oxl()!'(L I ~)H:I). - - , II/odl'l'lI /5rilisli ./1'(111'\' (Oxl()\'({, I ~)~)~). Aldington, Richard, /)CII/It % I/('J'(), IIIJ('xplll'gatl'd edition (London, I ~)(i!'i). lj{i'jilJ' Ufi"s SakI' (London, I ~)(iH; 1st cdn I D'II). Altgeld, Woligang. l\olltofizisIIIIIS, 1'1'0/1'.1'11/1111.1'11111.1', ./l/dl'lIlll/lI: (iii!'!' !'I'/i,!!:tiis lil'/l,TlI/II{I'II'

(;c/!:l'lI.l'IiI:I'

I/Ild

1/IlII1iIIIlil'l'fi,!!,'Iiisl'

fdl'I'1I

III

di'J' (;csrlllr/III'

dl's

(Maim:, I D~)~). Aminzadc, Rolalld, 'Brcaking t he Chains of' lkpcn(11'.1/11.1111'1/1 Hislof\', ,II (I !l!),\), pp. li:I-7!1. Field, C;co/frey (; .. 'Religion in the German Volksschulc, 1H!lO-1 !l:!H', I'm/,hoo/{ oj'!llI: 1,1'0 BlIl't/{ IIISlilllit', :!!i (I !lHO), pp. '11-71, Fielding, Stcvcn, (;111.1.1 IIlIrf /~'/I/I/lti/y: 11'1.111 C(l/llOlil's III 1~lIg/rlllrf, 188()-II))l) (Buckingham, I !)!):I). Fields, Karen, 'Christian Missionarics as Anti-cololllal Militants', TlII'on' IIl1d SOl'le!)', :! (I !)H:!), pp. !l!)-I OH. Finke, i{Og(T, 'An Ililsendar Amcrica', in Bruce (cd.), Hl'ligWllllllrf !Hodl'l'll/ZlIlilJII, pp. 14!i-6!l. Finke, Roger and Stark, Rodncy, Till' CIIII/,I'IIlIIg oj'illIIl'I'im, 177()-/I)l)(): Willilers IIl1rf /,IISI'I'S ill 0111' HI'IigI/JIIS /o:I'OIlOIllY (Ncw Brunswick, N.J, I!)!):!). Fischer, lise, IlIdIlS/l'lltlislI'l'IIlIg, so::.illll'/' /(olllli/{1 IlIId j)()lilisl'III' Willl'llshifdllllg /1/ rfI'l'S/lIrf/gl'lIIl'lIldl' (Allgsbllrg, I !)77). Fislllllan, w',I., 1"11.1'/ 1~'lIrf./t:l(lisli HI/dimls, /875-/1)1-1 (London, 1!l7!i). Fon t a na,.J aC<Jllcs, 1,1'.1 (1/IIIOfiqlll'sliml(,lIls jJl:lldlllll III (;1'111111t, (;III'/'I'I? (Pa ris, I !)!)(»). Fontanc, Thcodor, 1:/1 dill/nil (I HH~), In Ideill .. HOII/IIIII? IlIId (;I'dil'hil' (Munich,I1. sihft" 1,111 111' rl'flj!,'I('IISI' dI'S/){)/lI/fllIIIIIIS dll dio('(;sl' d';lrms, UUO-!!)!·! (Lillc, 1977). --'Lcs ouvricrs de Ia rl'gioll du Nord devant 1'J.:glisc calholiquc (XIX" ct XX" sit~c1es)'. III B(darida and Maitron (cds), ChrislilllllSIIII' 1'1111011111' IJll11ril'l', pp.222-4:1. --'Obscrvations sur la pratiquc rcligicuse urbaine en France pendant Ia prel11it'l't, l11oiti{~ du XX" sit,c1c', /lislHlIl/O .'IIII'm. :12 (l!)!lO), pp. :1!)7-(i7, Ilillis. Peter. 'Presbyterianism and Social Class in Mid-ninetcenth Century (;lasgow: 1\ Study oj' Ninc (:llllrches',.Iolll'lllll oj' 1~'l'dl'slslIslimf lIislllIY, ,\~ (1!)H I ), pp, ·17 -().1. Ilippcl, W. VOIl, 'Industriellcr Wandel il11 Wndlichcn Rauill', /lrl'li", ji'ir SOZiIlI,C:I'srliil'lill'. l!l (I ~)7!)), pp .. , :\-122. Ilo!JshawllI. Eric, Till' :Igl' oj'Rl'lIofllllllll. 1789-18-18 (London. 1!)(i2). --'1111' II,!!,'I' oj'Clljiilll/. 18-18-1875 (Londoll, 1!)7S). - - lJiorfds oj' f,lIholir (I .ondon, I !)S4). lIo!Iinan-Kraycr. E, (cd.), 1l11ll1f1[1iirll'l'fJIII'Ii dl's dl'lIlsl'lil'll .. Ihl'lp;fllllhl'lls. !l yols (Bcrlin. 1\)27-:IH), Hiilschcr, Lucian, Wl'flp;I'ril'lil odl'l' NI'11011111011 (Stuttgart, I 9H~)). 'Secular Culture and Religious COllll11ullity ill Ilic City: "annovcr in the I !Jth Centtu-y', 1lislJlIIIIII SlIl'm. ·12 (I !)!J()). pp. ,IO:l-11. --'Die Religion des Biirgcrs: BiirgerliclIt, Friillulligkcit und protestantische Kirchc illl 19. j;thrhundcrt', Ilislonsl'm' I,I,tlsl'liri/i. 2!)O (I !l!lO), pp.

(;/1111'(111'.1 IIlIIfn lIil/I'/" UlIl'fip:rr!ll II r/, Slmg,p;/1' IlIId NJifog:III'

--'I'vliiglichkeilen und (;rt'nzclI del' Statlstischcn Eri;lssllng kirchliclH'r Bindungen'. ill Elin alld Loock (cds). SI'I'/IO)P;I' IIlId f)/II/(()III1'. pp. :\!l-(i~. 'S;iJ.~ulansitTungsprm.esse', III I Ialls~lurgl'll Piihle (cd.), 8iilp:1'/' 1/1 rfl'/' (;I'st!fscflllji rfl'l' NI'lIzl'll (;iit ting-en. I !)~) I), pp. 2:IH-SH. 'KircliliciIe Ikl110kratie und Friinllnigkcilskultur illl dClitsclIell I'rott'Stantislllus', in Martlll (;reschat alld.lochclI-Christoph KaistT (eds), (;flr/S11'11111111 IIlId /)l'IlIo/mllil' (Stuttgart. l!l!l~). pp. IS7-~or), 'Biirgerlichc ReligiosiUit illl protestantischell Ikutschland des I ~l. .lahrhundlTts', 111 Schieder (cd.), NI'Ii,!!:ioll. pp, 191-21S, 'Secularization alld lirhanlzation III the Nineteellth Century: an Interprctative Model', ill McLcod (cd.), ,1,~'I' 0((;1'1'1/1 (;illl'S. pp, 2n'I-HH. - - ' "Weihlichc ReligiosiUit"? Dc'I' Ein/lul.1 von Religiollulld Kirchc aurdie RcligiosiUit von Frauell illl 19 . .lahrlIundcr!', in Kraul and Lnth (cds), /,·r:ll'llIIlIg. pp. 4S-(i2. LUCIan Iliilscher alld Ursnla M;inllich-l'oIcnz. 'Die Sozialstrnktur del' Kirchcngcll1eindcn IIanIlO\'t'1'S IIll I ~l. .Iahrhundcrt. Einc statistisclIc

'/'/11' (;1'/'1111111

(Det roit, 1\11. I D/D). I IclmstadttT. Richard (cd.), hl'l'dolll 11I1r/ Rl'fip;1011 ill Ihl' Nilll'll'l'IIIII (;1'1I1111,\, (Stall/eml, CA. I !)\)7). Hcllllst.adtcr, Richard J. alld Lightlllall, Bcmard (cds), Viriorillll Nlillt III Crisis (Basingstokc, I !l~)(l). I lemmings. E W. J. I~'I/Ii/I' 1,0111 (~Ild edn. Oxflm!. I D(jS). llelllpton, David, Utlip,1011 IlIld f'ofi!tm/ CII/lllrl' ill ilnlalll IlIld Irl'/i/lirl (Calllhridge, 1!)~)(i), TIll' NI'!t~I!;ilill oj IiiI' l'l'olill': MI'I/WlfislII IlIld I'o/ill/llr Nl'1ip;/lJ1I r.175()-Il)()() (Londoll, I D~)(i), Ilcndrickson, KCllllcth E. Ill, Milltillp: SlIlIIls: NI'1i,I!;/lJ1I I/lid IiiI' I'lIhfil' IlIIlIg!' oj' llie Iinlish flrlll\,. 18()l)-·1885 (Cranhll1'Y N.J. I !l!JH) , Ilcllllock, E, 1'., Fillilld I'm/wI' I'I'I'SOIlS (Lolldon. I D7,1), IIcncs. Jiirg-en. Sliidlm}/(' (;esl'f/sr/lII/i IIlId hltlhotisl'lil' li'r!'illl' /III Rlll'llIflll/d. I tmslII 111111 Ihl' f'il'lol'IIlll IlIlrt Frtll'I/I'I/i11l1 I'llb/il' SI'!tool: Till' I,' IIII'1P;t'1 I ('I' IlIld (,'olisolidlllilill 111'1111 1,'duml(()11111 Idl'olll,l!,Y (Cambridge, 19H I). Tit!' (;IIII1I'S HlIIII' IIlIdllll/lI'/'/olis/II (Ilal'llllllH{sll'orth, I D:1(i). - - 'Social DarWlllism and 1I ppcr-Class Edllcat Ion ill Late ViC'loriall alld Edwardian En):;land', III J 1\. l"lan):;an and .Jamcs Wah'in (cds), MlllllillfSS III

1I1It! MIIl'lllii\l: Middll' C/IIss iHlIs(,lllillilv III

8 1'1111 ill

!IIld

(lVianchester, I !)H7), pp. I :)!l-!l~l. MariJach, Raillcr, Siil(/(Ia 1'1.1'1('/'111 I,I!: IlIld sO~/ldl'l' Wrll/t!1'1 (;iittlllgcn, I ~)7:1).

,·IIII!'I'II'II,

1111

180()-11)·1IJ

Il) . .Il1ll1h((IIt!!'rl

l IIII1U()(;IL\I'IIY

IIIIIU(I(;R,\I'IIY

1\larcilhac)" (:hrislialle. lA' riill({'SI' d'Or/I:(IIIS SOliS /'1;/)iSCOIJIII ril' Mp;r /)1I1){{lIloll/) (Paris, I iirgcrlichell (;csclischafi: ZUIll VercinsWCSCII des Katholizisll1l1S jill sp;itcll K:lIscrn:icil', III Blaschke and KilldcIllalln (cds), Rl'lip,'I01i 1111 1"IIISI'ITI'ICh, pp. r)D-!)~. Morgall, Kenllci h 0 .. Rl'1J1rlh 11/ II NIlIIOII: II,idl's, /880-llJ80 (Oxl()i'(1, I !)H I). Morris,,!. N., Ul'lipJOIIIIII" Urbllll Chilll,!!;I': Croyrloll, ISlJ()-liJf.! (Woodlmdgc,

I D!J~). Morris, R.,!., CflO11'm 18,}2 (LOlldoll, I !)7(i). . Motzkm, (;ai>ricl, 'S;ikularisil'1'lIng, Biirgerlulll und IlItcllckluclie III Frallkrcich 1I11d [)cutschlalld', III Kocka (cd.), Ilii 'PJ'rl II III , voL II i. pp. 1,11-71. Miillel', Karl J"lillS, /IfJi'lp,lllllbl' IlIId ()cl'llllisIIIIIS III 8nlill IIl1d dn Pl'lrl'lII: flmlldl'lIbIIlP,' (Berlin, I H!)D). MlIIISOII, I, L H., 'The Londoll School Board Eleclioll or I HD·I: a Siudy III Victori;11l RcliglOus (;Ollt ],()"Cl'sy', Ihilisit .lOll nlil1 1~'dllmllOlIlll .'II II dil'S , 2:\ ( I !)7:i), pp. 7-2:1. - - '1'111' NOII({)II/iJl'llllsls (I "olldoll, I !)!J I). Ncwlllall, ;\lIbr;'y, 'The OlIice ol'CllIt:1' Rabbi: a Vny ElIglish IIISlillltjOll', ill Nigel Astoll (cd.), IMig/olis Citllllgl' III 1';lIm/w, 1{J50-llJU (Oxl()1'(l, 1!)!)7), pp. 2H!)-;lOH. Nietzsche, Friedrich, jl'llsl'Ils l'OIi (;111 111111 Biisl' (I HH(i). Nippcrdcy, Tholl1i'III1II1S111 (London, I Dii!l). Rib/)e. Wol/g·;tng, 'Zur Enlwicklung- und Funklion del' PElrrgclIlcinden 111 del' cvangl'lischclI Kirche Bcrlins hiS I.UIl1 Elide del' Monarchic'. ill Elm and I.oock (cds), SI'e/slllge 11111/ /)III/Wllil', pp. 2:1:1-(i:1. --(cd.), (;l'srlllrh/1' /iNtiIiS. 2 vols (Munich. 1!)ii7). Richards. N. J. 'Religious Coni roversy and Ihe School Boards I ii70-1 !)02', linlish ./11111'1111/ 1It'1,'r/III'11II1iIlIi/ SIIIr/il's. Iii (I !)70). pp. I iiO-!)(i. Richarz. Monika . ./iir/isehl's 1,1'/11'11 ill /)1'11 Isrh/IIIIri , ,I vols (Sluttgart. I !l7D). Roherls. Elil.a/)el h. A I+i!lllllll's 1'111('(': ,-111 Om/ Hislor\' o( IHII11I1I,l!:-C/liss HItIlIlI'II. /8c)O-Ic)·/O (Ox/iml, I Dii'I). Robson, (;cof'fi'ey, 'Religion and Irrcligion in Binningham and Ihl' Black COllnlry' (UniversllY or Birnllngham PhD Ihcsis, I D!)7). 'The Failllres or SlIccess: Working-( :lass Evangelisls in Early Victonan Birmingham'. in Derek Baker (cd.), Hl'figll!lIs MoIIPIlIIliII: lilllgmji/II(II/ 11I1r/ SIIf'l%gmi/ l)rohiI'IIIS/ill' Ihl' (;/lIIl'rh IlisloWIiI. Stlldies in Chllrch IItSIOrv, l!i (Ox/ill·d. I !)7ii). pp. ,Iii I-!) L Rogers, Rclwcca, 'The Soclalil.al ion or (;irfs in France under I ftc IlIfllIence or Religion and IlIe ClIlIrch', in Kralll and LlIlh (cds), I~'I':/{'­ hllllg, pp. ! :I!l-:')ii. Rohde,./oachim, 'Slrciflichlcr alls del' Berliner Kirchengeschiclile von I !JOO iJis IDIW, in \!\firlh (cd.), 1ll'llriige. pp. 217-·12. RolfE;, 1':.. f)IIS /ul'rh/ic/iI' IAwli rtf'/' 1'1JIIII,!!,'l'iis('hl'll /(irchl'lI III Nil,rtl'l:l'I/{-!/SI'1i (Ilibingcn. 1917). Roor, Wade (:lark, and McKinlll·Y. \Villiam. /11ll1'nUIiI Milill/illl' RI'/i,l.!;iOII (Ncw Brullswick. N.J. 1!)ii7). " " Rose. (;illian, 'Localily, Polilics and Cultmc: Poplar in Ihe I !l20s' (1Inlv('I'sil y or LOlldon Ph D t lIesis. I !lW)). Ross: Ellell. 'Slirvival Nelworks: Women's Neighbourhood Sharing in London bd()l'l' World War J', /lislol'\> /Vor/isho/) ./011/'1111/. l!l (I !)ii'I). pp. ·1-27

1

"'IBU(l( ;1:!. Steinhon~ Ant hony. 'I'mt cstants in St raslJourg. I H70-1 !) 1:1: ReligIOn and Socicty in late Ninctecnth-(;cntury Europe' (llnivcrsity or Chicago PhD t hcsis. 19%). St rik IYerda, (:arl. :1 111111.1'1' nnw/l'd: (:((Iltolies. ,';omt/isis IlIId Fll'llIislt N((llOlI((lisls ill nl'lp,'I11I1I (Lanham. i\(D, I !J!)7). Stnullhingn. 1... "'A has Ics pri'·tres! 1\ bas Ics COll\'CllIS!" The Church and the Workers 111 Nineteenth-Century Lyon.' JOllm((tlir Somil lIislor\', I I (I !)7H). pp. :>Ui-:>:I. Slnnlll(TS, Il. I':. 'The Labollr Chllrch and Allied Movelllents or the late I!Jth and carly :!Oth (;cntnries' (University or Edinhurgh PhD. 19!iH). Sun. RaYlIlond. '''lkl, l!i:i, l(i7 Hndde, C.-E, I 00, ~ I~) Buddha, Buddhislll, H, I .(~), 1(iH BllIsson, F., (i(i Bnshawal', 1', .. :):i Butler, S .. 171-~, ~HH Calvinists, I H, ~O, :\:1. H(i-7, I :I~, I ~):\-1. ~(i(i SI'I'II/SII Baptists: (:ollgregat iOllalists: Protestants (:arcassolllH', n:{, ~7H Carlile, R., I (i,1 Caq)enter, E., lIi:I-·l CastcilllaITall, ~:\H-!) catechism, 7, I~), 77.1:1·1. 177, ~I!), ~W)

(:at holic Workers' Associat ions, ~~·I ( :at holics, ~HG, ~HH in England, 17, :i~, !i.!. 71. H(;, HH, I ~(i. I :Hi, 1:17, 17~), I H(i, I H~), I ~)(i, ~()O, ~ I ~), ~:\~-:I III Francc, II, IH-I~), ~I-~, ~(i, :\~),I(l. :>~, HD, ~)2-:\, ~)1-7, III. II(i-17, IIH-ID, 12·/-(i, I ~H-D, I:\~-~), l(i7, 171, 17t), ! 77-H, I H2, I HG-H, H)O-~, I DH-9, 20,1, 21 :\-I!i, 217,

t NllEX ~2()-7f 22K-:t~, 2/1, 2:1 I-~, 2(i!i 1"Inglllg or bells, 2(i(i-7 church-going, 9, I I, I!), 21, 2:i, H(i-~H, ~)D-IOO, 121-2, I~!i-(i, 12H, I :I!), (:haptcr !i j)([SSIIIl, 27~-:I, 277-D, 2H!i, 2HD chllrch-Illellllwrshq), (i-7, I ~!), I !)!)-200, 27~) church tax ( ;l'I'lllany), !)H, 2H!) churching, 2!i I, ~7:1 (:ivie (;ospel, IO(i class mnllict, 7, ,\(j, !)]-:I, I,ll, IH4, I 1l7-~), I D,I-,I, I D:i-7 class and religiolls practic(" HH, I H2, I ~)O-:I, 200, ~O I, 210, ,12'/ (:1elllCIlC("lll, (;., I 12 clergy, 1%-7, l:i7, 27·1. 2H1l Anglican, IH, 2:>, ,17, 74, DO, 110, 117,1:1·1, l(i:l, I~)·I-!i, 1%, 202, ~·I~), ~(i:i, 277 Catholic (England), 110,1:\7,

~77

Catholic (France), I H-I ~), ~ 1-2, :1:1, :Hi, ·10,/1-:1, !i I, :'i~)-(iO, (il-:I, (i!i,!Hi, IOH-IO, 114, 117, I IH-I!), 12,1-:>, 1:1:1. 1,17-D, 177-H, I ~)!), 2,lO-1, 2·17, ~(jO, 2(j~, 2m-H, 27(i (:at holic ( ;crlllany), ~O, ,I~, :1:), :1~)-'IO, 70, 7~), I I I, 20:i, 27!) NonmnlcJrlllist (England), 2!l, ·17. ] ()(i, liD, 12:1, I~)!i, 202, 277 Protestant (France), I H, 1·10, 27(i Protestallt (;crlllany), 20, :I~-:I, :\!l-H, ·/·I-(i, H()-~, II 1,117. 1:1·1, 17G, I W), 20!)- I (), 2,/~)-r)o, 27!i, ~HO SI'I' II/SO lay preachers; nUlls

(:Icrlllont-Fcrrand, I H I Cologlle, I :)H, 177, I H!), ~(H-(i, 20H, 21 I, 22:", 22H mlpmtellrs, ~:):I, 2!)·1 COlllhes, E., (i I, I 12 COllllllllllioll, ~I, 22,12·1, 12(i, 171. 172-:", 17!)-(i, 177, IWI, ~():"-!l, ~:'H), ~7H. 279. 2H2. 2H!) First COlllnlllllioll, 21 ~), 2!iO-1, 2(i(i Comt{', 1\.,1-2, r), 1,1:1 (:ollconlat or I HO I, I H, ~ I , !)2, (i(), (ii, 177, ~I:" (,()Ilrcssion, 21, I:I:I, 1:"7, ~()D, 22(i (,()1I1(~sslollal identity, 72-:1, 7H, Chapter (i j}({SSIIII, 21l,1, 2H(i con](-ssiollal sllh-ndtllrcs, H, 20·i-r), 22·/-!i, 2,\0-1 lllutlial stereotYJllng, ~ I !)-20, 221/222-:) religlOll and I"otillg, 2()(j-7, 2~(i-:H

allti-Catholicislll; ant i-Sclll it iSIll ('()nlirll1rln cra. 17,2:1,/17, :,2 Charlisl pcriod. 20. -17-H Chrislian and i'roleslanl charaCicr or lllid,Viclorian slate, '/IH-~),

!):)-£J,

2:~r)-7

'creeping s('cularisallon', 0(i-H. 71-(i, H:I-I, I !l~)-202. 2:17-10 pluralism, 27(i-7 .1'1'1' allo Anglicans; Calholics; clergy; Freclhinkcrs; .I eli's; N 011('()! I I(lrm iSI s Elllightclllllelll, 4, 22, i-ll, !H, 17(i, 17i-l Erl.gehirgc, 122 ESSCll, 2 I 0 Eilllcal Socielies. Hi0

Eurc, I G(i Evangelical Social (:ongrcss, ·10-(i cxecul ions, :14, ,II, I I i-l-19, 1,14, :\·1:1 Falk, 1\., 77-i-l FalTar, E, 74 "aury,,I., 42, 2'1(i Fcnayrou lllllrder I rial, 12H Ferry,.I., (i(i, 1!i0 kSlivals Chrislian, 10!), 20,\, 204-0 Jcwish, 1,]1-2,17'1, 220-1 palrioli(',242 Repuhlicall, 2:;·1 Socialisl, I l!l FCllcrbach, L., 2, 20, 01, 1,1:1 Field, C., 120, 190 Fillcs du SI Espril, 20:1 Finisl(~l'C, 20:1 Fisher, Archbishop, 70 fishing COl11l111111111eS, D3, 1:12 FbuhtTI, (;., I'IH I(llklalcs, I !)O, 207-H, 2(i7-i'l, 27:1 Fonlanc, T, I 0D, 21 (i Francc Revollllioll of' 17i-l!), I, 1H, 2(i, 120, 12!), 22i'l-9 Reslorallon, 1,1, !J:I, 12~), 17i-l, 191-2 RevollllIOIl of' I H:\(), 21, 101, 190. 191 .Iuly Monarchy, 22, :rl, 12!) Revollliion of' I H,Ii-l, :1 I, :l:I, I DO .Ill ne Days, :Hi, 1!J2 Sccond Rcpublic, :1 I, D:I, 17H,

1H2,

22H-~)

Sccond Empll,(" :\1, '10, ,1:1, !H-0, 12D, I (Hi, 192, 229 Moral Order, 114, 9·1-0, ](i(i Third Rcpublic, !i-Ii, 11,22, 'J:I, ;,)9-(i9, !H-7, IO!l-IO, 112, II :l, 12(), 22i'l. 2,\(), 2·1,1-7, 2(i2,2H0

Cal holics; clergy; Freclhillkcrs; .Iews: I'rolcslanls France, 1\., !17 Franconia, i-lO, 20i-l Frallkall,J,I-10 Frcderick ill(' Gn'a!, 2-1:1 Frcelllasons, 90, 117, 12D. I DI, 24(i Frec Parishes, .11'1' Dlss{'!licrs Frcclhinkcrs ill England, 107, I (i'I-(i ill France, II,G2,(i4,!Hi-7, IOD, 112, 110, 11i-l, 12(i, 12!l, I:lD-·IO, 100, ](ili, 190,217, 227, 2(i2-,\, 2H4 in (;crman)" I (i(i-7, 217 .1('1' 11/.111 aglloslics; alheists: Sccularisls Friedrich Wilhell1l III. 2(), ,Hi Fricdrich Wilhelm I V, 20, ,11-2, :I(i, :ID, I I I I'tmcrals, 19, 2(i, ,12-,1,4,1, I 27-H, IH7, 200, 201,2GI-0, 27i-l FUlcall, i'l9 .11'1' 11/.10

(;alileo, ;') (;;Iil()}l, F., IOi-l, 10(i, I (j2 Gamhella, 1,., 94, ~)(i, 100 (;11 1'/1'111(/11 hI' , 102-:\ (;cigcr, ;\., 27 Geiscn kirchcn, 207 gCllder, 7-H, 10,22,24, :\D, 272, 2H:{

I HI

Luther, lVI., ,IG, HI, H2, 1(1:\, 122, I(;!), 212-:\. 2fl(j, 2fl7 LIII hcrans, I H, 20, 21 H LIIlhcran Ol'lhodoxy, :lfl, :IH, "II, HI. I !IH .11'1' ({/so j,lIlId('slii/'('hl'lI; Protcstants Lyoll, :\2, 1, I I H, 12(), I :\9, 1,1:"), I fl2, Ifll MassiI' (;C111 ral, 2:")(i I\laslerlllan, (:., IOH, 2HO Mallrras, C .. ,1·1

MazitTCS-CIl-Gtllinc, I !)9 MeckeIlHlrg-Slrclilz, IHO Mecklenburg-Schwerin, ,I!l, I HO Mergcl, T, I'I!), 20(i MClh()disIS,(),~,I,'17, 10fl, 12\), 1,12, I:\(i, J.l0, l'lfl, Iflfl, 16\), 17!l, I H:~, I HH-~l, 217. 220, 2flH-!1, ~7~

I ncicpcndenl, I fl,1 Primilive, D2, IH!l, IDfl, ~I!)-~O, 2fl7. ~7!l Wesleyan, flfl, H7, 107, IOH, I ~(), 21!1,27!) Meyer, M., 27 Miall, E., IOti-7 Michelcl,j., 12!1, 1,~:I, 2·14 middle class, 22, 2,1, 2'1-!l, 2H, '10, '17, fll, fl!l, H2, !)(l, !)J -2, ~H-117, 12!), 1,10, 1,11-2, U:), 141-(i, 17ti-7, 17H, 1!1l-2, 214, 2 Hi, 22H, 2(i\), 2HH lower middle class, 23, H(i, 10fl, 117, liD, 122, 132, I (ifl-() , 210,270-1 lIpper middle class, 7,\, Hti, !14, I HO, I H2, I H:\, I ~l,I-'!, l!)(i-7, ~OO-I

I1l1ssiollS, m issiollaries overseas, 2:\7, 2'IO-i. 2'lfl, 2H7 milan, Hfi-7, H!l, Ifl2 Molcscholl, I flfl Mohkc, H~ Monle Cario, :!O~ Montgclas, 211 MOIlI pcllicr, cI2-:~ Mooscl',.I .. 207 Mosl, J, 4fl Moulins,IHI MUllich, 122, 20fl, 212, 22H Miinstcr, 177, IH'\. 20fl M millo, 2 Hi M u manc, Fr, 177 music, H, HI, H9, 1'1 ,\, I flH-9, ](j I, I G·!, 2:\H, ~fl7, 270

hands, 22'1 choirs, II D, 1!l4, ~2fl, 2!l7 songs, (i,l, I 19 SI'1' II/SO hymns Nantes, (i3-'1. 17:1, IHI Napolcon I, I H, 20, ~ I, 22, 26, 2H, I!ll, 2,lfl, 279 Napoleon Ill, ,\ I, :Hi, '10, !l!l, 11'1, I,\H, I(i I Naqucl, A., 112 nal ionalism, I fl, HO-,I, 102, I I I, l(i7, 21,), 21fl, 22fl, 2:1'1-4(i, ~(iH, 27!l-HO, 2H I-~, 2H4, ~Hli Nelson, I fl:l Nellwriands, H, fl(i, 20H, 22'1 Newman, Cardinal. 2,IH Nell'lon, I., fl Nicc, I (j Nielzschc, E, 100-1, HiO, 2H!l Nlmes, I!) Nippc]'(icy, T, I fl!l, I (j'~-'1. 22fl-ti Nonmnl(>rInisls (England), (i, I Ii, 17, 2:\-4, '17-9, fl2, flli-H, 71-:1, 74, 7fl, 7f), H·I, Hfl, 92, IOfl-H, I~:l, I~fl, I,~!), 140-1, 144-:), Ifl2-'I, 171, IHH-D, I!H-li, 200, 21!)-20, 2,12-4, 2tifl-ti, 276-7, 2HO, 2HI, 2Hfl, 2H7 .11'1' II/oil) Baplisls; (;ongrcgat ionalisls; Melhodists, Pn'sllylcrians; Quakers; Salva I iOIl Army; Unitarians Nord,2lil Nor!()lk, l!lfl Normandy, I O~) Norl hamplon, H,I NOl'lhumberiand, 17fl Noll ingham, I H7 NOllinghamshirc, J 71-2, ~70 Iluns, I!), 21, fl!)-(iO, 6:\, IH, II fl, 117, 12fl, I,\(i, 22:\, 2HH Nlln'mhcrg. 17fl

1i'iIlE:\

li'illL:\

OIll'lkcvieh,.J .. I !lH-D, ~!l~, ~:):), 2:')7. 2:)~) Old Cal holies, ~1!1 Oldcnil!!rg, ;jH, ~1~1, I HO, ~Ol O'NeilL ,\.,IH (}rrhard, \\'., nD ordcrs, (iI, (i7. (iD-70, IHH SI'I' IIlso IlllnS Ol'lnii')'('s, ,I.-L., ~~D (}wen, W.. ~HO Oxf()I'{1 diocese, I ~1·1-!l (}zolll',,I. and i\L, D7 Padcri)()1'11 diocese, ~07 Painc, '1:, ~:;, I (i:), I (iD Palaliliale, :I~, :1:1, :17, IHO, ~O·l, ~OH Palillcrslon, Lord, 11·1 papacy :1 I. :I~, !Hi, ~)q, 10;,), I :IH, ~~L 22f)-(1,

~2H.

2·12

Paris, I D. ·I~, (i:l, (i7-H. HH, I I :1, I I!), I 17. I ~:), I ~(i, I ~H, I,ll, I:d. IIi I, I 71, I 77 -H, I Hl. I ~ 10, ~:) 1-2. 2()D, 27H. 2H2 COlllllilllH', IIH-ID, 1:11. IDO Pas-de-CaLlis, I ~~1, 17:), I H7-H, ~ 1·1, ~ii'l, ~(il

Paslc!ll', L., I ii7 palcl'llalisl1l, !) I. I HH, I ~)(i-7, ~O(), ~O~, 2:1:1-1 pcasanls, H(i, ~).!, 10 I. I 17, I :\~, lIi(i, lH7. 210, ~!ll, 2H:\ Pl~glly, C., ~ ].I-I ii PlTigord, ~ii~ Pl:rigllt'lIx, I H I IY'rollas, L., I!) I pilgrimage 7(), ~1·1, I :Iii, 1!l7, I !lH-~l, ~()(i, ~ II, ~:\l-~, ~r)o, 2ii;j, ~(iO, ~()7, ~(iH-~), 271, 27H, 2H:I S('(' II/SO SailllS; shrincs PilisVII,IH PillS IX, :I~, :Hi, ·10. II H PillS X, Ii 1-2 Plalo, I (iH Poincare, R., 27(i

polil ics alld rcligion rcligious language ill polilics, ~!l, :12-:1, ·1:\-7, 4H-ii I. I ~~, 2H(i salvalioll by polilics alonc, I I H-2:1. 1·1 ii--(i, I !lO, I ri I-I, I ~1()-1, 2:11, ~H7 S('(, iI/SII cOlll('ssionalldt'lllily; nallonalisln; soclalisnl; slalc and church; and lIndcr nalllcs or polil ical parllcs Pomerallla, ~ I (i popular religion, .1, II. 1·1, I :), ~!), 7:\, lIiD, ChapltT 7 jJII.mlll, ~H(i, 2~1 I S('(,II/SI1 Bible; hcalih; hylllns; 11Ick; pilgrullage; riles or passagc; saillls; shrincs Poriligal. (i~ PosillVislll, 12~1, l;j·I-!l, 11i:1, ~I·I-lii, 217, 2{)2. 2HH prayn, ·11 , (jO, D·I, 100, II :1-1·1, J:lO, 1:1 I, 20~, 272-:\, ~7!i, nH, 2H2, 2HD PrcsiJyll'l'ians, H~) prcss, ·17, 1:1·1, lIiH-D, 20H, 2(}(), 27D anll-clnical. ·11-2 Caillolic. (iH, 70, 210, 21:1 'irreligious', (iH, I DH Lihcral,!lH-D, 101-2, IO:"i, 1!11, 20 I , 227-H "rolcslanl, :\;"i SOCialisl, II~), 1:'),1, 1!Hi Yiddish, I·l(i Pn'sloll, 22:1 proccssions, ~ I. (i:I-·I, !):\, IOD. I !iD, IDI. 2:d, ~(iO, 2(i2, 2(i(i-7. 2H:I Progressivcs (England), !i7, IOH proslillillon, II'I-I!!, 212, 22:1 Prolt'Slanl i\ssocialion (I'roi('sirl/lil'mll:rt'ill), ~)H-!), I ()cI-!i Prolcslanl I ,('ague (Fl111/Ip;l'fisc/II'f nlllld), I (J:\-·I

Proleslanl Workcrs' Associalions, /:1:1

Proieslailis in England, SI'I' Allglicans; Nonconl()]-l1lisIS; and 1I1lder Ihe nalllCS or each dt'l J( >Illllial iOIl III Francc, IH-I~), II:\, !i2, (il, (i2, (i~), D!i-7, IO!), 12·1, i:I~)-IO, 177,21'1,217, 21D, 2HI in (;el'lnany, 20, ~)H-I O!i, I I~, 120-2, 1,\0, I.J:I, J 72, 17!i-7, 17D, 21 (i, 22:1, 22:)-(i, 227-H, 2,11-:1, 2,l(i, 2!i:1, ~7(i, 27!l-HO; SI'(' II/SO C:i1vinisls; Disselilcrs; 1,lIllIll'SllIfr/II'II; 1,1IIhcralis COIlScrV;tlivc, H-~), ~)H-~), 107 evangelical, H, 2:1, 2·1, 7(i, H:I, HH, 149, 22(i, 2:1H, 2HH liberal, !l7-~), 1(>:\-;j, 107, I 12, J:\~l-·IO, 1·1·1, HiO, 22:)-(i, 2:H~. 2:')7-H plClist, ,10, 7~), H I. I !l:l, 222 secular, 2,1:1 Proudhon, I~, 1:1-1·1 Prussia, l!i, I !)-20, 2·1, 27, :11-2, :1:\, :1,1, :I~), ·10-1, ,I (i, ii:\, 77 -H, DH-~), 10:;, 121, I·I:\, IHO, IDH, 2(>:\,20'1,212 Psicha 1'1, E., 2 1,1 Plidsey, 2!l(i, 2!iH-~1, 2(i~)-70 Quakers, IO:j, 12(i, 217,277, 2HO-1

27~1,

race, 2:1·1, 2:\(i, 2:ID-·II, 2·f(i Radicals (Frallce), (i I, (i(i, 1:Hi, I (i(i, 227, 2()2, 27 r)-() Ralhcllau, W., ].I:i Readillg,7 Rcdelllptorisls, 22, 20(i RcilllS, I 17 Religion or Ilumanily, I, :1·1, 1!i!i, I !i7-H, 2H(i RCIl:lII, E., !i, IO!), 1:\:1, 21,1

Rt'nnes, IHI Rcpuhlicans (Francc), :)!l-(i!l, H!l, D'I-7, IO!), I(i(i, 1m, I!lD, 2:10-1,2:1:1, 24·1-7, 2m Rhinclalld, I ~), 14 I, 20!i-(i, 207, 20~), 211. 222, 2·10 Riley, ,\., I I I riles or passage Chnsltall. 2·IH-!i I, 2(i I-G, 2HD Jewish, 221 sCCltiar, 2(i I-(i, 2HD .11'(' IIlso bapllsm; c1IlIlTiting; cOlilil'lnalioll: lilllcrals; weddings RoiJSOII, (;., I H2-:\ Rogel, II., 112 ROIllC, :12, ,IIi ROllgc,.I-, 2·' Ro 1.\ m:if.llc 1', E., 102-:1 Rouhaix, I H(i, I HH ROUCII,·IO, 1~)1-2 Rousscau,.J.,I., 22 Royle, E., Iii:) Ruhr. 12!1, 2D,1, 22:1 rmal areas, H(i, HD, I O~), 117, 122, 12:1, 12(j, 1/11-2, 1(;2,171. 17ii, 177, I H!)-(j, I ~1()-1. I D'l-!i, 1~17-~), 200, 20·1, 211-12, 22H, 22~)-:1 I, 2:1-1, 24H-!), 2!i~, 2:'):\-1, 2!i!i, 2!i(i, 2!iD-(i I S:larlalld, 70, 210-1 I dl' MOllilllll/hl', G4, II D, 2:1 I Sacred licari, Cllh or, 2:12, 24!i, 2(i() SI In's, 17,1 sainls, 2(i, (i:\-·I, 9·1, I I:), J:1!i, I H7, 211,222, 2:i:\-!i, 2(jO-I, 2(i7-!l. 27H, 2H>~, 2HH Barbara, 2!i4 Ikl'lladcllc, 2(iH-~) BI:IISC, ~(i I BrollH'r (;ollrad, 2(iH 1':101, 2!i:1

SIIITI' COl'lIf

IN[)EX

INIlEX

saints, (col/I.) lIilail'c,2(il .Io