Science and Racket Sports IV

Science and Racket Sports IV

Science and Racket Sports IV presents a selection of important contemporary research into the four core racket sport disciplines of tennis, badminton, squash and table tennis. It showcases the best of the peer-reviewed papers and keynote addresses presented at the Fourth World Congress of Science and Racket Sports, Madrid. Including contributions from many of the world’s leading racket sport scientists, researchers and practitioners, the book details cutting-edge research in six key areas:

• • • • • •

Physiology Biomechanics Sports medicine Psychology Performance analysis Pedagogy, sociology and coach education.

This invaluable collection touches on the most important issues within contemporary sport science, and explores the full range of theoretical, experimental and applied work within the study of racket sports. It is essential reading for all sports scientists, sports physicians, therapists and coaches working in this area. Adrian Lees is Professor of Biomechanics and Deputy Director of the Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences at Liverpool John Moores University. As chair of the World Commission of Sports Biomechanics Steering Group for Science and Racket Sports, he has promoted the three previous Science & Racket Sports Congresses and associated books. Author of over 20 books and chapters, he is editorial board member for the Journal of Sports Sciences, and Fellow of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences and the European College of Sports Sciences. David Cabello is Senior Lecturer in the Education Sciences Faculty at the University of Granada. Gema Torres Luque is Senior Lecturer at the Catholic University of Murcia, Spain. They co-organized the Fourth World Congress of Science and Racket Sports.

Fourth World Congress of Science and Racket Sports, 21–23 September, 2006 Held at the Spanish Olympic Centre, Madrid, Spain

Organizing Committee David Cabello (Chair) Fernando Calvo Marín Antonio Garde Olea Rogelio Chantada Lago Julián García Angulo Gonzalo de la Herrán Adrian Lees Emilio Lezana García Ángel Luis López de la Fuente Jesús Mardaras García Francisco Pradas de la Fuente Inmaculada Roldán Miranda Javier Sampedro Moliner David Sanz Rivas Gema Torres Luque Miguel de la Villa Polo

Scientific Committee David Cabello Alberto Carazo Prada Mike Hughes Jean-Francois Kahn Adrian Lees (Chair) Ian Maynard Ignacio Refoyo Román Inmaculada Roldán Miranda David Sanz Rivas Gema Torres

Science and Racket Sports IV

Edited by A. Lees, D. Cabello and G. Torres

First published 2009 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2009 A. Lees, D. Cabello and G. Torres for selection and editorial matter; individual chapters, the contributors All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-89487-1 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 10: 0–415–43556–0 (hbk) ISBN 10: 0–203–89487–1 (ebk) ISBN 13: 978–0–415–43556–7 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–203–89487–3 (ebk)

Contents

List of figures List of tables List of contributors Preface Introduction

x xii xv xxi 1

PART 1

Physiology of racket sports 1 Physiological testing in badminton

3 5

O. FAUDE, T. MEYER, M. FRIES AND W. KINDERMANN

2 Core temperature and hydration status in professional tennis players measured in live tournament conditions

14

A.J. PEARCE

3 Anaerobic performance during intermittent exercise and body composition in tennis players of different biological and chronological ages

22

E. ZIEMANN AND T. GARSZTKA

4 Comparison of laboratory and on-court testing of aerobic fitness in tennis players

29

R.W. MEYERS

5 A specific incremental test in tennis O. GIRARD, R. CHEVALIER, F. LEVEQUE, J.-P. MICALLEF AND G.P. MILLET

36

vi

Contents

6 Muscle fibre type distribution and fibre size of triceps brachialis in elite tennis players

44

J. SANCHÍS-MOYSI, A. GUADALUPE-GRAU, S. GUERRA, H. OLMEDILLAS, O. BERNALES, C. DORADO AND J.A.L. CALBET

7 Development of a tennis-specific fatigue-inducing protocol and the effects of caffeine on performance

51

D.J. HORNERY, D. FARROW, I. MUJIKA AND W. YOUNG

8 Nutrition knowledge and nutrition habits of tennis coaches

58

B.R. MATKOVIC´ , B. MATKOVIC´ AND P. TUDOR-BARBAROS

9 Correlations of physiological responses in squash players during competition

64

J.R. ALVERO CRUZ, J. BARRERA EXPÓSITO, A. MESA ALONSO AND D. CABELLO

10 Field-based assessment of speed and power in junior badminton players

70

M.G. HUGHES

11 Energy expenditure measurement in badminton players during a training camp using doubly-labelled water

77

E. WATANABE, S. IGAWA, T. SATO, M. MIYAZAKI, S. HORIUCHI AND K. SEKI

12 Kinanthropometric profile, body composition, somatotype and grip strength dynamometry in young high level tennis, badminton and table tennis players

83

F. PRADAS, E. MARTÍNEZ, P.E. ALCARAZ AND L. CARRASCO

13 Analysis of the somatotype, body composition and anthropometry in badminton players between 12 and 16 years

91

M. DE HOYO, B. SAÑUDO AND F. PARÍS

PART 2

Biomechanical and medical aspects of racket sports

97

14 Biomechanics of racket sports: developments and current status

99

A. LEES

Contents 15 Angular velocities in the tennis serve

vii 106

C. LÓPEZ DE SUBIJANA AND E. NAVARRO

16 Comparison of injuries between Slovenian table tennis and badminton players

112

M. KONDRICˇ , G. FURJAN-MANDIC´ , L. PETRINOVIC´ -ZEKAN AND D. CILIGA

17 Prevention of injuries and cardiovascular events in veteran table tennis players

118

J.-F. KAHN AND T. CHARLAND

18 Strategies and support mechanisms used by elite Australian female tennis players returning to the circuit from injury

124

A.J. PEARCE, J.A. YOUNG AND M.D. PAIN

19 The use of plantar supports in badminton and squash players

132

G.A. GIJÓN NOGUERÓN, M. GIJÓN NOGUERÓN AND D. CABELLO

20 Centre of gravity in paddle rackets: implications for technique

139

P.T. GÓMEZ PÍRIZ AND M.F. ÁLVAREZ

PART 3

Psychological aspects of racket sports

143

21 Anticipation and skill in racket sports

145

A.M. WILLIAMS

22 A perception-action perspective on learning and practice in racket sports

154

G.J.P. SAVELSBERGH, F. RIVAS AND J. VAN DER KAMP

23 Influence of training and task difficulty on efficiency of a forehand drive in table tennis

162

L. JOSPIN, V. FAYT AND S. LAZZARI

24 Tennis play simulator 1: psychomotor predispositions for tennis based on locomotor movements J. LAPSZO

169

viii

Contents

25 Tennis play simulator 2: speed of sequential ball-hitting movements under practice and competitive conditions

177

J. LAPSZO

PART 4

Performance analysis of racket sports

185

26 Computerized notational analysis and performance profiling in racket sports

187

M.D. HUGHES, M.T. HUGHES AND H. BEHAN

27 Playing patterns of world elite male and Austrian top male single’s badminton players

197

E. OSWALD

28 Comparison of the average game playing time in different scoring systems in badminton

204

L. PETRINOVIC´ -ZEKAN, Zˇ . PEDISˇ IC´ , D. CILIGA AND M. KONDRICˇ

29 Feedback systems in table tennis

208

A. BACA AND P. KORNFEIND

30 Practice oriented match analyses in table tennis as a coaching aid

214

R. LESER AND A. BACA

31 Quantitative analysis of playing efficiency in squash

220

G. VUCˇ KOVIC´ , B. DEZˇ MAN, S. KOVACˇ ICˇ AND J. PERSˇ

32 A comparison of whole match and individual set data in order to identify valid performance indicators for real-time feedback in men’s single tennis matches

227

H.J. CHOI, P.G. O’DONOGHUE AND M.D. HUGHES

33 Variability in men’s singles tennis strategy at the US Open

232

P.G. O’DONOGHUE

34 Time analysis of three decades of men’s singles at Wimbledon H. TAKAHASHI, T. WADA, A. MAEDA, M. KODAMA, H. NISHIZONO AND H. KURATA

239

Contents

ix

PART 5

Pedagogy, sociology and coach education in racket sports

247

35 New perspectives and research applications in tennis

249

M. CRESPO

36 Sport identity of Polish badminton players in the context of other selected sport disciplines

255

M. LENARTOWICZ AND P. RYMARCZYK

37 Coach education: models, characteristics and views of Greek tennis coaches

262

N. GRIVAS AND K. MANTIS

38 Modern teaching methods for tennis: what do they have in common?

269

P.G. UNIERZYSKI AND M. CRESPO

39 Season-of-birth effects on elite junior tennis players’ world rankings

275

P. G. O’DONOGHUE

40 Health-related habits of tennis coaches

282

B.R. MATKOVIC´ , B. MATKOVIC´ AND L. RUZˇ IC´

41 Integrated functional evaluation: a specific proposal for badminton

287

C. BLASCO, A. RUIZ AND R.P. GARRIDO

42 The social structure of racket sports practice in Spain

295

R. LLOPIS GOIG AND D. LLOPIS GOIG

Index

301

Figures

2.1 Core body temperature sensor pill 2.2 Measurement of a player in-match during change of ends 3.1 Directions of movement during the ‘PUST’ tennis-specific drill 4.1 Illustration of the calculation for the three intensities used 4.2 Representation of the Tan determination 5.1 Set-up of the specific incremental fitness test for tennis players 7.1 Serve velocity and RPE over the duration of the protocol 10.1 Layout of the badminton half-court for the specific speed test 10.2 Scatter plot (and linear trend lines) for vertical jump height and agility test results in male and female players 15.1 The calibration system 15.2 Filming area location 15.3 The 28-point body model 16.1 Training and competitive status of top athletes (both games) 16.2 Location of injury (both games) 19.1 Orthotic compensator elements 20.1 Lines of application of the gravity force from two different suspension points in a paddle racket 20.2 Distances from the COG to the proximal point and weight 21.1 Mean (± SE) percentage time spent viewing each fixation location 23.1a Performance in the nine experimental conditions 23.1b HR in the nine experimental conditions 24.1 The tennis play simulator – version 1 25.1 The tennis play simulator 2 25.2 Profiles of tested psychomotor factors for the best player, the tested group and freely chosen player

16 17 24 31 32 38 56 72 74 107 108 108 113 114 134 140 142 147 166 166 171 179 181

Figures xi 25.3 The profile of correlation coefficients between tested psychomotor factors and sporting results ranking for tested group 27.1 Types of service strokes 27.2 Faults and points during the return 27.3 Types of strokes during the rally 27.4 Shot frequencies in different areas 27.5 Distribution of too-short and optimal long strokes 27.6 Distribution of different kinds of strokes before point 29.1 Setup for detection of ball impact positions 29.2 Computer screen presenting a series of ball impact positions 29.3 Left: Schematic presentation of the system for calculating impact time intervals. Right: complete system without PC/PDA 29.4 Presentation of impact time intervals 29.5 Feedback training using impact position detecting system 30.1 Flowchart of applied match analysis in table tennis 30.2 Data collection screen 30.3 Success and failure of player A when starting a rally with his own service 30.4 Video feedback screen 31.1 The court divided into 29 segments 33.1 Distribution of percentage net points for different players 33.2 Relationship between the mean and SD for percentage net points 34.1 A comparison of time duration per point among match groups 34.2 A comparison of rally length per point among match groups 34.3 A comparison of time duration of first service among match groups 34.4 A comparison of time duration of second service among match groups 34.5 A comparison of time duration of ground stroke among match groups 34.6 A comparison of time between points among match groups 41.1 Quantitative evaluation

182 199 200 201 201 202 203 209 210

211 211 212 215 216 217 218 222 235 235 241 241 242 243 243 244 292

Tables

2.1 Hydration status as measured by specific gravity 2.2 Hydration status as measured by changes in athlete body mass 2.3 Core temperature at match start, peak and mean temperature 2.4 Mean core temperature responses in five players 3.1 Anthropometric characteristics of subjects (chronological age) 3.2 Anthropometric characteristics of subjects (biological age) 3.3 Physiological characteristics in anaerobic capacity and anaerobic power in biological groups 3.4 Time of ‘PUST’ tennis drills in relation to biological age 4.1 Mean and correlation data for the variables assessed 5.1 Physiological values in tennis players 6.1 General subject characteristics 7.1 Comparative physiological responses between conditions 8.1 Questionnaire with the marked true or false answers 9.1 General data 9.2 Values are mean of lactate concentration, RPE Borg Scale and mean heart rate between winners and losers 9.3 Correlation between variables 10.1 Mean ± standard deviation results for fitness test data 10.2 Correlation matrix for female subjects 10.3 Correlation matrix for male subjects 11.1 Physical characteristics of subjects 11.2 Analysis of subjects using DLW method in men 11.3 Analysis of subjects using DLW method in women 11.4 Result of dietary intake in men 11.5 Result of dietary intake in women 12.1 Biometric data in terms of racket sports practised 12.2 Skinfolds in terms of racket sports practised 12.3 Body composition in terms of racket sports practised

18 18 19 19 25 25 26 26 33 41 45 55 60 66 66 66 73 73 74 78 79 79 80 81 84 85 86

Tables 12.4 12.5 12.6 13.1 13.2 13.3 15.1 15.2 16.1 16.2 16.3 17.1 17.2 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 19.1 19.2 19.3 20.1 20.2

23.1 24.1 27.1 27.2 28.1 28.2 31.1 31.2 31.3 32.1

Somatotype in terms of racket sports practised Grip strength in terms of racket sports practised Muscle mass, arm perimeter and grip strength Analysis of the skinfolds and Σ in the 4 and 6 folds Information relative to the BMI and body composition Information relative to the somatotype Angular velocities from players A and B Maximum angular velocities key instances Percentage of injuries in muscles, tendons and joints Sum of all injuries reported by players (both games) Number of injuries reported by players (both games) Distribution of the veteran players according to their age group and gender Distribution of the injuries in veterans according to their age group Frequency of minor injuries to body parts Frequency of treatments sought for minor injuries Frequency of severe or chronic injuries to body parts Frequency of treatments sought for a severe or chronic injury Relation between the age of the players and the injuries sustained Relation between the morpho-structural alterations established and the most frequent injuries Relation of the orthopaedic elements of the support with the different dynamic alterations Numbers in each category for distances (cm) of the COG to the proximal end of the racket Numbers in each category for percentage distance (cm) of the COG to the proximal end of the racket relative to racket length Temporal structure of the experimental procedure The correlation coefficients of the tested factors with sporting results for the examined groups Basic statistics of the investigation Strokes per rally Descriptive parameters and confidence intervals for mean playing time Differences between mean playing time Percentage of strokes executed by top world players and top Slovenian players by court segment Results by discriminant analysis in terms of percentage of strokes Standardized correlation coefficients Summary of the winning and losing performances

xiii 87 87 87 93 93 93 109 109 114 114 115 119 120 126 127 128 129 135 135 136 141

141 164 174 198 199 206 207 223 223 224 229

xiv 32.2 33.1 33.2 35.1 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5

40.1 40.2 40.3 41.1 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 42.5 42.6 42.7

Tables The results of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test Skewness and kurtosis of percentage net points Percentage of points where four players went to the net Research areas suggested for scientific research in tennis Numbers of 1987- and 1988-born tennis players achieving ITF junior ranking points in different years Half year of birth of 1987- and 1988-born players with junior ranking points in each year Changes in the set of 1987- and 1988-born players achieving ranking points in 2003 and 2004 Changes in the set of 1987- and 1988-born players achieving ranking points in 2004 and 2005 World rankings of male and female players born in the first and second halves of the year who had achieved ranking points in all three years Alcohol consumption of tennis coaches Smoking habits of tennis coaches Nutrition habits questionnaire List of quantitative evaluation Racket sports participation in Spain Change in participation (% of population) in racket sports in Spain Motivation for racket sports practice Racket sports practice according to sex Racket sports practice according to age Racket sports practice according to the highest education attainment Racket sports practice according to employment status

229 234 236 251 276 277 278 278

279 283 284 285 293 297 297 297 298 298 298 299

List of contributors

Alcaraz, P.E. Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Saint Antonio Catholic University of Murcia, Spain. Álvarez , M. F. Sevilla F.C., Spain. Alvero Cruz, J.R. Sports Medicine School, Department of Human Physiology and Sports Physical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, Spain. Baca, A. Department of Sport Science, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria. Barrera Expósito, J. Sports Medicine School, Department of Human Physiology and Sports Physical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, Spain. Behan, H. Badminton Association of England, Milton Keynes, UK. Bernales, O. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Blasco, C. Department of Physical Education, University of Valencia, Valencia. Cabello, D. Faculty of Education, University of Granada, Spain. Calbet, J.A.L. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Carrasco, L. Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. Charland, T. French Table Tennis Association, Paris, France. Chevalier, R. CREOPP, Faculty of Sport Sciences, France. Choi, H. J. Centre for Performance Analysis, School of Sport, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, UK. Ciliga, D. Faculty of Kinesiology, University in Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.

xvi

List of contributors

Crespo, M. Coaching and Development Department, International Tennis Federation, Roehampton, UK. Dez¯ man, B. Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Dorado, C. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Faude, O. Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, University of Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany and the Olympic Training Center RheinlandPfalz/Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany. Farrow, D. Australian Institute of Sport. Fayt, V. UFR STAPS Liévin, Université d’Artois, France. Fries, M. Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, University of Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany and the Olympic Training Center RheinlandPfalz/Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany. Furjan-Mandic´, G. University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology, Croatia. Garrido, R.P. General Hospital of Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Garsztka, T. Department of Kinesiology, University of Physical Education, Poznan´ , Poland, and the Polish Tennis Federation Warszawa, Poland. Gijón Noguerón, G.A. Health Science School, University of Malaga, Spain. Gijón Noguerón, M. Podiatric Clinic Hnos, Granada, Spain. Girard, O. UPRES - EA 2991, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Montpellier 1, France. Gómez Píriz, P.T. University of Sevilla, Spain. Grivas, N. University Sports Centre, National University of Athens, Greece. Guadalupe-Grau, A. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Guerra, S. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Horiuchi, S. Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Japan. Hornery, D.J. Australian Institute of Sport, University of Ballarat, Australia and Tennis Australia. de Hoyo, M. Department of Didáctica de la Expresión Musical, Plástica y Corporal, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain. Hughes, M.D. CPA, UWIC, Cyncoed, Cardiff, UK.

List of contributors

xvii

Hughes, M.G. Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff. Cardiff, UK and Badminton England, National Badminton Club, Milton Keynes, UK. Hughes, M.T. English Institute of Sport, North West Region, Manchester, UK. Igawa, S. Faculty of Sport Science, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan. Jospin, L. UFR STAPS Liévin, Université d’Artois, France. Kahn, J.-F. Laboratory of Physiology, University of Paris 6, France and ITTF, Renens, Switzerland. Kindermann, W. Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, University of Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany. Kodama, M. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan. Kondricˇ, M. Faculty of Sport,University in Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia. Kornfeind, P. Department of Sport Science, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria. Kovacˇicˇ, S. Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Kurata, H. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan. Lapszo, J. Academy of Physical Education and Sport, Gdansk, Poland. Lazzari, S. UFR STAPS Liévin, Université d’Artois, France. Lees, A. Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences. Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK. Lenartowicz , M. Department of Sociology, The Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland. Leser, R. Department of Sport Science, University of Vienna, Austria. Leveque, F. UPRES - EA 2991, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Montpellier 1, France. Llopis Goig, D. Altorendimiento.net, Spain. Llopis Goig, R. Departament of Sociology, University of Valencia, Spain. López de Subijana, C. Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Alcala de Henares University, Spain. Maeda, A. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan. Mantis, K. Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace, Greece.

xviii

List of contributors

Martínez, E. I.E.S. Cabo de la Huerta, Alicante, Spain. Matkovic´, B. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia. Matkovic´, B. R. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia. Mesa Alonso, A. Sports Medicine School, Department of Human Physiology and Sports Physical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, Spain. Meyers, R.W. Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute Cardiff (UWIC), Cardiff, UK. Meyer, T. Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, University of Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany. Micallef, J.-P. UPRES – EA 2991, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Montpellier 1, France. Millet, G.P. ASPIRE, Academy for Sport Excellence, Doha, Qatar. Miyazaki, M. Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Japan. Mujika, I. Department of Research and Development, Athletic Club Bilbao, Spain. Navarro, E. Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Spain. Nishizono, H. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan. O’Donoghue, P. G. School of Sport, University of Wales Institute Cardiff, Cyncoed Campus, Cardiff, UK. Olmedillas, H. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Oswald, E. Department of Sport Science, University of Vienna, Auf der Schmelz 6A, A-1150 Wien, Austria. Pain, M.D. Department of Sport and Recreation, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. París, F. Department of Didáctica de la Expresión Musical, Plástica y Corporal, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain. Pearce, A. J. Centre for Aging, Rehabilitation, Exercise and Sport (CARES), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. Pedisˇic´, Zˇ . Faculty of Kinesiology, University in Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia. Persˇ, J. Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Petrinovic´-Zekan, L. Faculty of Kinesiology, University in Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia. Pradas, F. Faculty of Health and Sport Science, University of Zaragoza, Huesca, Spain.

List of contributors

xix

Rivas, F. Spanish Badminton Federation, Madrid, Spain. Ruz¯ ic´, L. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia. Ruiz, A. Badminton Spanish Federation and University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Rymarczyk, P. Department of Sociology, The Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland. Sanchís-Moysi, J. Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Sañudo, B. Department of Didáctica de la Expresión Musical, Plástica y Corporal, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain. Sato, T. Faculty of Sport Science, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan. Savelsbergh, G.J.P. Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands and theInstitute for Biophysical and Clinical Research into Human Movement, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK. Seki, K. Faculty of Sport Science, Waseda University, Japan. Takahashi, H. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan. Torres Luque, Gema, Catholic University of Murcia, Spain. Tudor-Barbaros, P. Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia. Unierzyski, P. University School of Physical Education, Poznan, Poland. Van der Kamp, J. Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands and the Institute of Human Performance, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. Vucˇ kovic´, G. Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Wada, T. National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Japan. Watanabe, E. Faculty of Human Health Science, Hachinohe University, Aomori, Japan. Williams, A.M. Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK. Young, W. University of Ballarat, Australia. Young, J. A. Department of Sport and Recreation, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. Ziemann, E. Department of Physiology, Academy of Physical Education and Sport, Gdan´ sk, Poland, and the Polish Tennis Federation Warszawa, Poland.

Preface

The meeting of the Fourth World Congress of Science and Racket Sports was held at the Spanish Olympic Centre, Madrid, 21–23 September 2006 and was hosted by the Spanish Badminton Association. The Congress was held in parallel with the World Badminton Championships which together with the presence of many coaches from the badminton world, provided a strong applied flavour to the Congress. The World Congress of Science and Racket Sports series began in 1993 with the first Congress being held at Runcorn, UK. The second was held at the National Sports Centre, Lilleshall, UK in 1997, and the third in Paris in 2003. They are a part of the academic programmes initiated by the World Commission of Science and Sports which, over the last three decades, has promoted applied sports science congresses on swimming, football, golf, cycling, cricket and winter sports. The broad aim of these congresses is to bring together scientists whose research work is concerned with particular sports, and practitioners in these sports who are interested in obtaining current information about scientific aspects. The aims of each congress are thus broadly similar and so when the opportunity arose to hold the congress in conjunction with a major World Championship this was welcomed. The scientific programme consisted of a series of keynote lectures, podium communications and poster presentations. The result was a well-attended congress with participants from every continent who were able to interact across the scientific disciplines and across the various racket sports. The organizers are indebted to the Spanish Badminton Federation and Madrid Town Hall whose sponsorship of the event ensured its success. The organizers are also grateful for the co-operation and support given by the following organizations and institutions: Spanish Sport Council – Ministry of Education Community of Madrid Spanish Olympic Committee University of Granada National Institute of Physical Education – University of Madrid

xxii

Preface Catholic University of Murcia World Badminton Federation Spanish Tennis Federation Spanish Tennis Table Federation Spanish Paddle Federation Spanish Squash Federation High Performance Publisher.

Introduction

This volume is the fourth in the Science and Racket Sport series and contains papers presented at the Fourth World Congress of Science and Racket Sports which was held at the Spanish Olympic Centre, Madrid, Spain, from 21–23 September 2006. Each manuscript has been subject to peer review by at least two expert referees and editorial judgement before being accepted for publication. This review process has ensured that there is consistency and a high level of scientific quality across all papers. We are particularly indebted to those anonymous reviewers without whose help this volume could never have been completed on time. The volume contains 42 papers covering all four racket sports, although several address issues which have application across all racket disciplines. The papers are organized into five scientific parts, each part representing a theme of the Congress and in most cases introduced by one of the keynote lectures. The choice of location of papers in a section was at the discretion of the editors and it is acknowledged that some papers could fit happily into more than one section. A choice had to be made and it should be remembered that this choice was an attempt to aid the reader rather than to categorize work, which in many cases represents the best of interdisciplinary research. The sections and papers indicate current research in the racket sports and provide markers for the topics that researchers are currently addressing. Less than half of the papers presented at the Congress are included due to non-submission or rejection due to lateness or inadequate scientific merit. Nevertheless those contained within are a reasonable reflection of the topics covered within the Congress programme. The editors are grateful to the contributors for their painstaking preparation of the manuscript and their willingness to comply with the publisher’s guidelines and deadlines. We are also indebted to them for rapid and helpful responses to queries raised in the editing process. It is our aim that the papers in this volume should function as an up-todate reference for researchers in the racket sports and yield important current information for racket sport practitioners. The material may motivate others

2

Introduction

to embark on research programmes prior to the Fifth World Congress of Science and Racket Sports. Adrian Lees David Cabello Gema Torres

Part 1

Physiology of racket sports

1

Physiological testing in badminton O. Faude, T. Meyer, M. Fries and W. Kindermann

Introduction Badminton is a racket sport that involves intermittent, high-intensity exercise. Professional badminton requires a high level of technical skill, tactical competence and physical capacity. From a physiological point of view it is of primary interest to know the cardiovascular and metabolic demands of badminton. The aim of this report is to give an overview of characteristics and physiological demands of badminton match-play. In addition, consequences for physiological testing in badminton are presented and implications for the design of training programmes are outlined.

Characteristics of badminton match-play Match characteristics The size of a badminton court is 6.70 × 5.18 m (single) or 6.70 × 6.10 m (double), respectively. Since the rally point scoring system has been introduced, a match usually lasts between 20 min and an hour. Average match duration in the World Championship 2006 in Madrid was 33.6 min for womens’ and mens’ singles, respectively (www.internationalbadminton.org/ results.asp). Liddle et al. (1996) analysed ten elite male badminton players during competition and observed that they covered a total distance of 1862 m during singles and 1108 m during doubles matches. These distances are covered with frequent changes in speed and direction including distinct accelerations and decelerations. During one rally, professional players reach maximal velocities of about 4 m.s−1 over a maximal distance of 8 m (Kollath et al., 1987). In racket sports, there may be considerable differences in the temporal structure of the game (Docherty, 1982; Glaister, 2005). Mean rally times in squash, badminton, and tennis range from 5 to 10 s, the work to rest ratios are reported to vary between 1:1 (squash) and 1:5 (tennis). Average rally and rest time intervals in badminton during international tournament matches were reported to be 6.4 s and 12.9 s, respectively, with an average of 6.1 shots played per rally (Cabello and Gonzalez-Badillo, 2003). More than 80 per cent

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of all rallies are shorter than 10 s (Liddle et al., 1996; Cabello and GonzalezBadillo, 2003). Stroke frequency (SF) and effective playing time (EPT) seem to be slightly higher in badminton (SF = 0.93 shots per second, EPT = 33 per cent, Cabello and Gonzalez-Badillo, 2003) compared to tennis (SF = 0.75 shots per second, EPT = 25 per cent, Smekal et al., 2001).

Physiological characteristics Knowledge about cardiovascular, metabolic and respiratory demands in certain types of sports provides the basis for adequate performance assessment and evidence-based design of training regimens. There are only a few published studies of physiological characteristics in badminton. Most of these studies were focused on heart rate data and blood lactate measurements during badminton competition. Docherty (1982) reported heart rate (HR) values of 80–85 per cent of the predicted maximal heart rate (HRmax) during badminton competition. More recent studies observed average values of 86 per cent (Majumdar et al., 1997), 91 per cent (Cabello and Gonzalez-Badillo, 2003) and 93 per cent HRmax (Liddle et al., 1996) during singles matches. These values demonstrate a high average intensity during badminton match-play. Blood lactate concentrations during high-level badminton matches were recorded between 3.8 and 4.7 mmol*l−1 (Majumdar et al., 1997; Weiler et al., 1997; Cabello and Gonzalez-Badillo, 2003). Weiler et al. (1997) analysed catecholamine concentrations during badminton training and high level competition. Although blood lactate concentrations were higher during the analysed training programme the relation between catecholamine and lactate concentrations was higher during real competition. This finding may reflect the greater psychological stress of the subjects during match-play. In addition to heart rate monitoring and blood lactate determinations, ambulatory gas exchange measurements offer the opportunity to evaluate the physiological profile of discipline-specific performance directly (Meyer et al., 2005a). Majumdar et al. (1997) estimated oxygen uptake (VO2) during badminton matches using heart rate data as well as the HR–VO2 relationship obtained during treadmill running and arrived at the conclusion that mean VO2 was about 57 per cent of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Faccini and Dal Monte (1996) observed an average VO2 during badminton match-play of 35.7 ml.min−1 .kg−1 corresponding to 60.4 per cent VO2max in seven nationally ranked male Italian players. These values are higher than those observed during singles tennis match-play in six male players who reached an average VO2 of 25.6 ml.min−1 .kg−1 (~54 per cent VO2max, Ferrauti et al., 2001). Similar average VO2 values with considerable interindividual differences (VO2 ranging between 20 and 87 per cent VO2max) were reported by Smekal et al. (2001) in 20 male tennis players of the two highest leagues in Austria. These studies, however, reported average and maximal physiological values but no measures reflecting the sport-specific exercise dynamics.

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In our own approach, 12 internationally ranked badminton players (eight women, four men, VO2max = 50.3 ± 4.1 ml.min−1 .kg−1 (women) and 61.8 ± 5.9 ml.min−1 .kg−1 (men), respectively) were studied during a simulated badminton match of 2 × 15 min with ambulatory gas exchange (breath-bybreath) and heart rate measurements as well as the determination of blood lactate concentrations before, after 15 min and at the end of the match. Match characteristics were similar to those obtained by Cabello and GonzalezBadillo (2003) and, therefore, it is tenable that the observed data may adequately reflect real badminton conditions. Mean VO2, HR and blood lactate concentrations during the matches was 39.6 ± 5.7 ml.min−1 .kg−1 (73.3 per cent VO2max), 169 ± 9 beats.min−1 (89.0 per cent HRmax) and 1.9 ± 0.7 mmol.l−1, respectively. In one single subject, VO2 and HR during matchplay varied between 45 and 100 per cent VO2max and 78 and 100 per cent HRmax (unpublished data). The results of this descriptive study revealed a high average intensity of badminton match-play. Considerable fluctuations in several physiological variables represent the intermittent nature of the game. The findings demonstrate the importance of alactacid as well as aerobic energy production in badminton. A well-developed aerobic endurance capacity seems to be necessary for a fast recovery between rallies or intensive training workouts. In contrast, anaerobic/lactacid capacity seems to be of minor importance.

Physiological testing The characteristics of badminton match-play suggest that a well-developed endurance capacity as well as the ability to generate high velocities over short distances (Kollath et al., 1987) are probably decisive in competititve high-level badminton. Therefore, important parameters may be endurance performance and speed abilities. Endurance and speed testing Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) is probably the most widely accepted single parameter for the estimation of endurance capacity in healthy subjects (Shephard et al., 1968). The VO2max values of competitive badminton players were reported to be in a range from 45 to 53.3 ml.min−1 .kg−1 (female subjects, Miao and Wang, 1988; Gosh et al., 1993;) and 55.7 to 63.4 ml.min−1 .kg−1 (male players, Faccini and Dal Monte, 1996; Majumdar et al., 1997; Miao and Wang, 1988), respectively. These values are comparable to male tennis players (57.3 ml.min−1 .kg−1, Smekal et al., 2001) and slightly lower than those of professional soccer players (50–75 ml.min−1 .kg−1, Stolen et al., 2005). Although VO2max is a generally accepted criterion for endurance capacity, there are several concerns with regard to the use of VO2max in the diagnosis of endurance performance. For instance, there are some methodological aspects which should be critically considered when using VO2max (Meyer et al., 2005b).

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In addition to the mode of exercise (e.g. running or cycling) and the protocol used to reach VO2max, it is important that subjects spend a sufficient degree of maximal effort. This should be proven by objective parameters (e.g. VO2 plateau, maximal heart rate, and maximal blood lactate concentrations). Furthermore, it is questionable if VO2max is sensitive enough to detect slight but relevant differences or changes in endurance capacity in high-level athletes (Coyle et al., 1991). There is evidence that submaximal (lactate or ventilatory) thresholds give more exact information about the endurance capacity of different individuals in homogenous groups (Coyle et al., 1991). Unfortunately, a review of the scientific literature on lactate and ventilatory thresholds will result in a variety of different ‘threshold concepts’. In our working group the model of the individual anaerobic threshold (IAT) (Stegmann et al., 1981) has been developed. Several studies have shown that it estimates the maximal lactate steady state well (McLellan and Jacobs, 1993; Urhausen et al., 1993). It has been established for testing endurance capacity in various sports, mainly endurance and different team sports. The German national badminton team in the mid-1990s reached average IAT values of 14.7 km.h−1 (Weiler et al., 1997; Weiler et al., 1996). German national squad soccer players at the same time had slightly lower values (~14.3 km.h−1, Meyer et al., 2000). In addition to endurance performance, Weiler et al. (1997) compared speed abilities of elite badminton players of different nations using a 5 × 30 m sprint test, as it is often used in various game sports (e.g. soccer, Kindermann et al., 1998; Stolen et al., 2005). It was observed that elite Indonesian players (N = 7, top 15) were faster than the German team squad players, particularly over the first 10 m. Because sprinting distance in one direction is never more than 8 m during badminton match-play (Kollath et al., 1987), Weiler et al. (1997) compared the 5 × 30 m sprint test with 10 × 10 m maximal sprinting. The authors did not find any relevant differences between groups for the 5-m and 10-m split times. Therefore, a 10 × 10 m test may be similarily appropriate for testing straight sprint abilities of badminton players. Badminton-specific testing of endurance and agility Badminton players do not run in a straight direction for long distances. They play on a small-sided court with frequent changes in running direction. A limitation of testing general endurance capacity and ‘straight speed abilities’ might be that the specific musculature and movement patterns are not engaged sufficiently. Therefore, it seems justified to use more discipline-specific approaches to assess endurance and speed abilities in badminton players. Chin et al. (1995) as well as Coen et al. (1998) employed an incremental ‘on-court’ test to evaluate badminton-specific endurance. A similar test protocol recently has been used in elite squash players (Girard et al., 2005). The test is designed as a stepwise increasing exercise test as it is common in routine sports medical context. Speed and direction are given by computerized

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flashing light signals placed on a board (six lights for four corners and two sides). The lights flash up in a randomized order with a regulated frequency. Intensity is controlled by the frequency of the lights flashing. From the lactate-workload plot it is possible to determine an individual anaerobic threshold. Chin et al. (1995) compared the rank order (based on objectice physiological assessment on the field and on subjective impressions of the trainers) of 12 Hong Kong national team players with the results of this specific endurance test (4 mmol.l−1 anaerobic threshold). They found a significant correlation of r = 0.65 and, therefore, concluded that this field test allows a reasonable estimate of players’ discipline-specific fitness levels and should be included as a means of on-court conditioning. A similar conclusion was obtained by Coen et al. (1998) who compared IAT determined from a graded running test and from the incremental ‘on-court’ test. A significant correlation (r = 0.58) between IAT determined from both tests was observed although considerable inter-individual deviations were present. Therefore, it was concluded that the badminton-specific test gives detailed information on badminton-specific endurance capacity. This information allows assessors to monitor badminton-specific endurance training on the court. Because specific and general endurance capacity do not inevitably give intra-individually consistent results, complementary testing seems reasonable. Speed abilities with quick turns, decelerations and accelerations usually are determined by agility tests. Up to now, there are no published data on agility testing in high-level badminton players. Gabbett et al. (2006) described a socalled ‘T-Test’ for testing agility in 26 young, talented volleyball players. Players must run as quickly as possible along the agility course, which consists of four cones placed 5 m apart in the shape of an inverted T. This test seems appropriate for badminton, too (sprints of 5 to 10 m with quick turns). However, there are some concerns regarding the term ‘agility’. In a current review Sheppard and Young (2006) stated that there is no general agreement on a precise definition of agility within the sport science community. The authors proposed to define agility as ‘a rapid whole-body movement with change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus’. Additionally, it is unclear which trainable components may enhance agility. From a theoretical point of view, the ability to accelerate, decelerate, and change direction rapidly might be an important prerequisite in badminton. Therefore, it seems appropriate to establish standardized and scientifically validated agility tests for badminton. Future research should evaluate adequate test procedures to obtain valid and reliable test results as well as reference values for high-level badminton players.

Implications for badminton training As it can be deduced from the characteristics of badminton match-play, aerobic and alactacid energy production form the dominant metabolic pathways

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during badminton match-play. Therefore, a fast resynthesis of phosphocreatine (PCr) stores between rallies seems to be an important factor for optimal physical performance. Tomlin and Wenger (2001) suggested that a welldeveloped aerobic fitness enhances recovery from high-intensity intermittent exercise, particularly through an increased aerobic response during exercise as well as an enhanced PCr regeneration during breaks. Therefore, it can be assumed that an appropriate endurance capacity is necessary to allow for a fast recovery between rallies or intensive training workouts. Furthermore, it might be appropriate to reproduce the intermittent nature of badminton match-play in training sessions to improve alactacid pathways. Up to now, there is only one study of a training period with regard to improvements in physical fitness in badminton players. Gosh et al. (1993) followed five female badminton players (age: 13–14 years) over a three-week training camp, which was dominated by specific on-court training at intensities in the range of 78 to 90 per cent of maximal heart rate. After the training camp they observed a 6 per cent and a 9 per cent increase in VO2max and ventilatory anaerobic threshold, respectively. As sample size was quite small and subjects were very young, the generalizability of these results to high-level athletes will have to be further evaluated. In our own study, we followed 40 international badminton players (mean age: 21.5 years) during a two months’ period of intensified training at the Badminton World Training Centre in Saarbrücken (unpublished data). The training programme focused on athletic and fitness training. Athletes trained six days per week, twice each day for a total of 21.5 hours per week on average. About 32 per cent of this training consisted of technique and coordination training, for instance low-intensity multifeeding and footwork. About half of the total training amount was specific conditioning, including high-intensity multifeeding, footwork and matches. About 20 per cent of the total time was spent for general conditioning as well as weight and power training. A total of 17 female and 23 male players completed a graded running test at the onset as well as at the end of the training camp. Within this two months’ period subjects improved their IAT up to values comparable to those found in national squad members in badminton and soccer (females: +0.7 km.h−1, males: +0.6 km.h−1). It can be concluded that intensive badminton training with an emphasis on athletics and fitness considerably improves endurance capacity of badminton players within two months. Some studies also evaluated the blood lactate responses during different badminton-specific training programmes. For instance, Gosh et al. (1993) observed lactate levels during badminton training between 3.2 and 6.2 mmol.l−1. The highest lactate values were found during training without a shuttlecock (‘shadow play’). Weiler et al. (1997) reported individual lactate values between 3.4 and 10.5 mmol.l−1 (mean: 6.7 mmol*l−1) at the end of an intensive on-court training programme (1 vs. 2, 2 × 5 min with 10 min rest). Similarly, Majumdar et al. (1997) recorded lactate levels between 8.0 and

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10.5 mmol.l−1 during five different on-court training programmes (‘shadow play’ and ‘multishuttle’ with various work-to-rest ratios). These results suggest that energetic requirements of typical intensive on-court training programmes are met with considerable contribution of lactacid pathways. Therefore, it seems obvious that metabolic pathways are trained even though they may be of minor importance in badminton match-play.

Conclusions and perspectives In summary, badminton match-play is characterized by high intensity, intermittent actions separated by short rest periods. The average intensity is about 70 per cent VO2max. Energy requirements are mainly met by aerobic and alactacid metabolic pathways. Therefore, a well-developed endurance capacity as well as good speed abilities over short distances with quick turns may be the most important performance prerequisites for badminton. The use of scientifically validated physiological tests is the basis for an evidence-based fitness assessment and for rational training recommendations. Future research should focus on the evaluation of test procedures for badminton-specific endurance capacity and speed abilities. Badminton training regimens should be designed to induce the development of a sufficient endurance capacity. Additionally, it may be advisable to reproduce the intermittent nature of the sport, particularly with regard to alactacid energy production to improve badminton specific metabolic pathways. Future perspectives might be seen in ambulatory gas exchange measurements during typical training sessions to describe metabolic processes in more detail (Meyer et al., 2005a).

References Cabello, D. and Gonzalez-Badillo, J.J. (2003). Analysis of the characteristics of competitive badminton. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 37, 62–66. Chin, M.K., Wong, A.S., So, R.C., Siu, O.T., Steininger, K. and Lo, D.T. (1995). Sport specific fitness testing of elite badminton players. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 29, 153–157. Coen, B., Urhausen, A., Weiler, B., Huber, G., Wiberg, F. and Kindermann, W. (1998). Specific performance diagnostics in badminton. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19, S22 (Abstract). Coyle, E.F., Feltner, M.E., Kautz, S.A., Hamilton, M.T., Montain, S.J., Baylor, A.M., Abraham, L.D. and Petrek, G.W. (1991). Physiological and biomechanical factors associated with elite endurance cycling performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 93–107. Docherty, D. (1982). A comparison of heart rate responses in racquet games. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 16, 96–100. Faccini, P. and Dal Monte, A. (1996). Physiologic demands of badminton match play. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 24, S64–S66. Ferrauti, A., Bergeron, M.F., Pluim, B.M. and Weber, K. (2001). Physiological

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responses in tennis and running with similar oxygen uptake. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 85, 27–33. Gabbett, T., Georgieff, B., Anderson, S., Cotton, B., Savovic, D. and Nicholson, L. (2006). Changes in skill and physical fitness following training in talent-identified volleyball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20, 29–35. Girard, O., Sciberras, P., Habrard, M., Hot, P., Chevalier, R. and Millet, G.P. (2005). Specific incremental test in elite squash players. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39, 921–926. Glaister, M. (2005). Multiple sprint work: physiological responses, mechanisms of fatigue and the influence of aerobic fitness. Sports Medicine, 35, 757–777. Gosh, A.K., Goswami, A., and Ahuja, A. (1993). Evaluation of a sports specific training programme in badminton players. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 98, 232–236. Kindermann, W., Coen, B. and Urhausen, A. (1998). Leistungsphysiologische Maßnahmen im Fußball und Handball. [Performance diagnostics in soccer and handball]. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin, 49, 56–60. Kollath, E., Bochow, W. and Quade, K. (1987). Kinematische Wettkampfanalyse im Badminton. [Kinematic competition analysis in badminton]. Leistungssport, 21–25. Liddle, S.D., Murphy, M.H. and Bleakley, W. (1996). A comparison of the physiological demands of singles and doubles badminton: a heart rate and time/motion analysis. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 30, 159–176. McLellan, T.M. and Jacobs, I. (1993). Reliability, reproducibility and validity of the individual anaerobic threshold. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 67, 125–131. Majumdar, P., Khanna, G.L., Malik, V., Sachdeva, S., Arif, M. and Mandal, M. (1997). Physiological analysis to quantify training load in badminton. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 31, 342–345. Meyer, T., Ohlendorf, K. and Kindermann, W. (2000). Longitudinal analysis of endurance and sprint abilities in elite German soccer players. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmed, 51, 271–277. Meyer, T., Davison, R.C. and Kindermann, W. (2005a). Ambulatory gas exchange measurements: current status and future options. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 26 Suppl 1, S19–27. Meyer, T., Scharhag, J. and Kindermann, W. (2005b). Peak oxygen uptake. Myth and truth about an internationally accepted reference values. Zeitschrift für Kardiologie, 94, 255–264. Miao, S.K. and Wang, S.W. (1988). The measurement of aerobic, anaerobic capacity and extremital strength of Chinese top badminton players. Abstracts New Horizons of Human Movement, 3, 252. Shephard, R.J., Allen, C., Benade, A.J., Davies, C.T., Di Prampero, P.E., Hedman, R., Merriman, J.E., Myhre, K. and Simmons, R. (1968). The maximum oxygen intake. An international reference standard of cardiorespiratory fitness. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 38, 757–764. Sheppard, J.M. and Young, W.B. (2006). Agility literature review: classifications, training and testing. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, 919–932. Smekal, G., von Duvillard, S.P., Rihacek, C., Pokan, R., Hofmann, P., Baron, R., Tschan, H. and Bachl, N. (2001). A physiological profile of tennis match-play. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33, 999–1005.

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Stegmann, H., Kindermann, W. and Schnabel, A. (1981). Lactate kinetics and individual anaerobic threshold. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 2, 160–165. Stolen, T., Chamari, K., Castagna, C. and Wisloff, U. (2005). Physiology of soccer: an update. Sports Medicine, 35, 501–536. Tomlin, D.L. and Wenger, H.A. (2001). The relationship between aerobic fitness and recovery from high intensity intermittent exercise. Sports Medicine, 31, 1–11. Urhausen, A., Coen, B., Weiler, B. and Kindermann, W. (1993). Individual anaerobic threshold and maximum lactate steady state. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 14, 134–139. Weiler, B., Urhausen, A., Coen, B., Weiler, S. and Kindermann, W. (1996). Sportsmedical performance diagnostics in badminton players. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 17, S20 (Abstract). Weiler, B., Urhausen, A., Coen, B., Weiler, S., Huber, G. and Kindermann, W. (1997). Sportmedizinische Leistungsdiagnostik (allgemeine Laufausdauer und Sprintvermögen) und Streßhormon-Messungen im Wettkampf bei Badmintonspielern der nationalen und internationalen Spitzenklasse. [Sportsmedical performance diagnosis (general endurance and speed) and stress hormone determination in competition in badminton players of national and international level]. Sportorthopädie – Sporttraumatologie, 13, 5–12.

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Core temperature and hydration status in professional tennis players measured in live tournament conditions A.J. Pearce

Introduction The physiological demands of tennis are well published (see reviews by Kovacs, 2006 and Fernandez et al., 2006) and vary between standard of player (Bernardi et al., 1998), surfaces played on (Hughes and Clarke, 1995) and playing styles/strategies (Hughes and Moore, 1998). In addition to the physically demanding aspects of tennis, another major challenge presented to players is the environment. Heat, and dehydration in particular, present major obstacles to performance (Marks et al., 2004). Dawson et al. (1985) observed that professional tennis players, competing in year-round tournament calendars, participate in a wide variety of climatic conditions from cool and dry conditions to hot and/or humid conditions. For many players, life on the professional circuit is difficult. Unlike major tournaments, such as the Grand Slams, where players may have a day’s rest in-between to recover from their matches (if they are only playing singles), for players participating in lower tiered events run by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) which includes Satellite, Challenger and Futures events, it is common to be playing on a daily basis. Adding further difficulty, timing of matches is unpredictable and in some cases a player may have to compete in several matches a day. For these players, issues of heat adaptation and hydration practices are important. The ITF and a number of National Tennis Federations have adopted policies for hot conditions whereby play will be suspended when the dry bulb globe temperature (ambient temperature) and wet bulb globe temperature (heat stress) reach a particular limit. These heat policies have been developed from generic sports medicine and military research data (Sparling and MillardStafford, 1999; Bricknell, 1996). Given that these heat policies are based on generic data, and with recent cases of players suffering from heat stress during professional tournament play, the need to develop tennis-specific guidelines has been raised by the ITF Medical Commission. To date, research in thermoregulation and hydration practices specific to tennis has only been conducted under simulated tennis conditions (Dawson et al., 1985; Bergeron et al., 1991; Kavasis, 1995; Therminarias et al., 1995; McCarthy et al., 1998).

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Therefore the purpose of this study was to examine core temperature responses and hydration status measured in professional touring players during live tournament conditions.

Methods Participants All professional tennis players who entered ITF and Tennis Australia sanctioned professional tournaments in South Australia and Victoria, Australia, in 2004 and 2005 were invited to participate in the study. Eleven players (three male, eight female; aged between 19 and 30 years of age) participated. All methods were approved by Victoria University Human Ethics Committee and the ITF Medical Commission. Data were collected over three tournaments played on hard courts. Testing Measurement of environmental conditions (ambient temperature as measured by dry globe bulb temperature (DBGT); relative humidity (RH); and heat stress as measured by wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT)) were conducted using an environmental measurement monitor (Kestrel 3000, Nielsen-Kellerman, USA). For regional tournaments where continuous oncourt measurements were not taken, measurements were obtained from the Melbourne and Adelaide Bureau of Meteorology at the weather station closest to the tournament site. Hydration status was measured using a hand-held refractometer (Atago Co., Japan) presenting a measure of the player’s urine specific gravity (g.ml−1). Players provided a ‘clean-catch’ (mid-stream) sample pre- and postmatch. Body mass before and after the match were measured to the nearest 100 g using scales which were calibrated daily during the events. Each player’s internal core temperature was measured via ingestion of a CorTemp176 core body temperature sensor pill (Figure 2.1). The sensor pill transmitted the player’s core temperature and measured by CorTemp176 wireless telemetry system during the 90-s change of ends when players were seated. The measure of progressive core temperature was taken without disturbing the players during their rest time (Figure 2.2). Due to small numbers of subjects participating in the study, descriptive statistics are presented as means and standard deviations.

Results The time duration of matches recorded during the tournaments ranged from 50 min to 160 min. No players experienced any form of heat illness during the tournaments nor adverse affects from swallowing the temperature

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Figure 2.1 Core body temperature sensor pill.

sensor. Of the 11 players participating, five progressed past the first round, with three of these players participating in three or more consecutive rounds. Environmental conditions The environmental conditions varied throughout the three tournaments. On-court ambient temperature DBGT recorded during all tournaments ranged between 17 and 38°C. However, only one of the days, in all three tournaments, saw ambient temperature exceed 35°C. Heat stress, measured by WBGT, ranged from 10.8 to 29.0°C with WBGT exceeding 28.0°C on the same day as ambient temperature exceeded 35°C. Relative humidity ranged between 14 and 93 per cent. Hydration status: urine specific gravity and body mass Pre-match hydration measures ranged between 1.003 to 1.024 g.ml−1 (mean 1.014 ± 0.008 g.ml−1) with post-match measures ranging between 1.004 to 1.025 g.ml−1 (mean 1.012 ± 0.010 g.ml−1). Table 2.1 presents individual pre-match and post-match hydration levels. In five of the matches players presented with decreased hydration status post-match (range 0.004 to 0.013 g.ml−1), however, in four matches players presented with an increased hydration status post-match (range 0.005 to 0.017 g.ml−1). Three matches showed no change in hydration status. The change in body mass (Table 2.2) from before to after matches ranged

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Figure 2.2 Measurement of a player in-match during change of ends.

from 2.9 per cent deficit to 2.0 per cent increase pre- and post-match (mean 0.09 ± 1.28 per cent deficit). Analysis of individual matches showed that in five matches, players lost weight (range 0.27 per cent to 2.9 per cent of body weight). In eight matches players showed increased weight post-match (range 0.15 per cent to 2 per cent), and in two matches no change was observed. Core temperature measures All players experienced an increase in core temperature during the match ranging between 0.1 to 2.3°C (Table 2.3). Individual analysis showed little correlation between the ambient temperature and a player’s mean core temperature (r = −0.28). Four of the five players showed an overall trend of increased mean core

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Table 2.1 Hydration status as measured by specific gravity (g.ml−1) Subject

Round 1

Round 2

Round 3 Post

Pre

Round 4

Pre

Post

Pre

Post

Pre

Post

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1.014 1.015 1.014 1.004 1.004 1.020 1.024

N/A 1.028 1.020 1.004 1.004 1.025 1.007

8 9 10 11

1.005 N/A N/A N/A

1.005

Out of tournament Out of tournament 1.020 1.025 Out of tournament Out of tournament Out of tournament 1.015* N/A 1.015 1.005 1.015* N/A 1.003 1.007 1.017 1.007 Out of tournament Out of tournament N/A Out of tournament Out of tournament 1.025* N/A 1.025 1.020 1.025* N/A

Notes: N/A refers to players unable to provide a urine sample * Rain delay affected post-match hydration status results

Table 2.2 Hydration status as measured by changes in athlete body mass (kg). A negative number represents a loss in body mass; a positive number represents a gain in body weight Subject

Round 1

Round 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

N/A* 0.0 0.2 −0.2 0.2 −0.3 1.0 0.5 −1.4 −2.6 N/A*

Out of tournament Out of tournament 0.3 Out of tournament Out of tournament N/A* 0.0 Out of tournament −0.8 Out of tournament N/A*

Round 3

Round 4

Out of tournament

1.35 0.5

N/A* Out of tournament

Out of tournament 0.5

Notes: N/A refers to players did not provide body mass sample * Rain delay affected post-match body weight results

N/A*

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Table 2.3 Core temperature at match start, peak and mean core temperature during player’s first match across three tournaments Subject

Core temperature – match start (°C)

Core temperature – peak (°C)

Core temperature – mean (°C)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

37.2 38.1 37.9 37.6 38.3 37.1 38.4 37.7 37.3 36.4 37.3

39.5 38.6 38.5 37.8 39.1 37.8 38.5 37.8 38.7 37.4 39.6

38.5 38.4 38.0 37.7 38.8 37.3 38.4 37.7 38.0 36.6 38.1

Table 2.4 Mean core temperature responses in five players who progressed past the first round Subject

Round 1 (°C)

Round 2 (°C)

Round 3 (°C)

3 6 7 9 11

38.04 36.82 38.44 37.99 N/A

37.43 38.00 38.57 38.76 38.15

Out of tournament 38.22 39.68 Out of tournament 36.44

Round 4 (°C)

38.68 Out of tournament 38.59

Note: N/A – not available.

temperature in the preceding day’s matches (Table 2.4). Of the nine matches where core temperature was recorded, seven caused an increase in mean core temperature compared to the previous day’s match.

Discussion This study is the first to present core temperature and hydration status data from professional tennis players under live competitive tournament playing conditions. All players who participated in the study were provided with a personalized report of their hydration status and core temperature results from the matches) played. The results suggest that despite inadequate pre-match and during-match hydration status in some players, players involved in ‘singular’ matches (where players are playing in their first match and/or only play one round)

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did not present with extremely elevated core body temperatures. Players who progressed through several rounds showed an increased mean core temperature compared to their previous match (in all but two matches) notwithstanding on-court environmental conditions. Given the nature of professional tennis tournaments where players are not fully aware of when they are playing (organizers schedule matches in order of play on each court rather than to time), standardization issues such as providing a urine sample, and the ingestion of the temperature sensor contributed to missed data points. Further, several athletes who initially volunteered for the study withdrew prior to the tournament or in the initial stages of their first match due to injury. Studies simulating tennis play (Dawson et al., 1985; Bergeron et al., 1995; McCarthy et al., 1998) have shown decreases in body weight that suggest dehydration. However, in this study an increase in body mass and improvement in hydration status was observed in a number of players. Four players started their matches in a dehydrated state, defined by Stuempfle and Drury (2003) as urine specific gravity >1.020, and hydratied during changeovers in the match. Despite numerous articles on athlete hydration in the coaching and sports science literature (Groppel, 2002; Mannie, 2004; Armstrong, 2006), eight of the eleven players participating in the study admitted they were unaware of their hydration status or admitted they did not prepare properly. Core temperature results from single and/or first round matches were similar (or slightly lower) to those reported by Dawson et al. (1985) and Therminarias et al. (1995), being 38.4°C in college and intermediate level players respectively. The trend of increasing mean core temperatures in players in progressive matches needs to be further explored. Further study and data collection of players’ core temperature and hydration status needs to be conducted under live tournament conditions where valuable ranking points and prize money are at stake. More importantly research must continue with a view to obtaining thermoregulatory data on days of extreme and stressful heat as the current study was limited in the actual temperature range in which data were collected. This would allow for meaningful and specific evidence-based data to assist the ITF, WTA/ATP and tennis federations in determining and regulating player heat stress, and the development of appropriate and tennis-specific heat policies.

Acknowledgments Funding for the study was provided by the International Tennis Federation and Smartplay (Sports Medicine Australia, Victoria Branch).

References Armstrong, L.E. (2006). Nutritional strategies for football: counteracting heat, cold, high altitude and jet lag. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, 723–741.

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Bergeron, M.F., Maresh, C.M., Kraemer, W.J., Abraham, A., Conroy, B. and Gabaree, C. (1991). Tennis: a physiological profile during match play. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 12, 474–479. Bergeron, M.F., Armstrong, L.E. and Maresh, C.M. (1995). Fluid and electrolyte losses during tennis in the heat. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 14, 23–32. Bernardi, M., De Vito, G., Falvo, M.E., Marino, S. and Montellanico, F. (1998). Cardiorespiratory adjustment in middle-level tennis players: Are long term cardiovascular adjustments possible? In Science and Racket Sports II (edited by A. Lees, I. Maynard and T. Reilly), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 20–26. Bricknell, M. (1996). Heat illness in the army in Cyprus. Occupational Medicine, 46, 304–312. Dawson, B., Elliott, B.C., Pyke, F. and Rogers, R. (1985). Physiological and performance responses to playing tennis in a cool environment and similar intervalised treadmill running in a hot climate. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 11, 21–34. Fernandez, J., Mendez-Villanueva, A. and Pluim, B.M. (2006). Intensity of tennis match play. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40, 387–391. Groppel, J. (2002). Heating up – plan for play in extreme conditions. ADDvantage, 26, 6–7. Hughes, M. and Clarke, S. (1995). Surface effect on elite tennis strategy. In Science and Racket Sports (edited by T. Reilly, M. Hughes and A. Lees), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 272–278. Hughes, M. and Moore, P. (1998). Movement analysis of elite level male ‘serve and volley’ tennis players. In Science and Racket Sports II (edited by A. Lees, I. W. Maynard, M. Hughes and T. Reilly), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 254–259. Kavasis, K. (1995). Fluid replacement needs of young tennis players. In Science and Racket Sports (edited by T. Reilly, M. Hughes and A. Lees), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 21–27. Kovacs, M.S. (2006). Applied physiology of tennis performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40, 381–386. McCarthy, P.R., Thorpe, R.D. and Williams, C. (1998). Body fluid loss during competitive tennis match-play. In Science and Racket Sports II (edited by A. Lees, I.W. Maynard, M. Hughes and T. Reilly), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 52–55 Mannie, K. (2004). Tip from the trenches. Coach and Athletic Director, 74, 12. Marks, B.L., Angelopoulos, T.J., Shields, E., Katz, L.M., Moore, T., Hylton, S., Larson, R. and Wingo, J. (2004). The effects of a new sports drink on fatigue factors in competitive tennis athletes. In Science and Racket Sports III (edited by A. Lees, J.-F. Kahn and I.W. Maynard), London: Routledge, pp. 9–14. Sparling, P.B. and Millard-Stafford, M.L. (1999). Keeping sports participants safe in hot weather. Physician and Sports Medicine, 27, 9. Stuempfle, K.J. and Drury, D.G. (2003). Comparison of 3 methods to assess urine specific gravity in collegiate wrestlers. Journal of Athletic Training, 38, 315–319. Therminarias, A., Dansou, P., Chirpz, M.F., Eterradossi, J. and Favre-Juvin, A. (1995). Cramps, heat stroke and abnormal biological responses during a strenuous tennis match. In Science and Racket Sports (edited by T. Reilly, M. Hughes and A. Lees), London: E&FN Spon, pp. 28–32.

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Anaerobic performance during intermittent exercise and body composition in tennis players of different biological and chronological ages E. Ziemann and T. Garsztka

Introduction Tennis is a sport characterized by a variety of demands on the human body, all depending on the level of play. Tennis requires coordination, agility, speed, quickness, cardio-respiratory endurance, local muscle endurance, strength and power. Each aspect becomes more important at higher levels of play. The somatic characteristics of body size, structure and composition are substantial determinants of athletic success. The training process of a tennis player should develop each fitness component and metabolic pathway, especially the anaerobic lactic and alactic system. Furthermore the training load may be modified by age and game style. A player’s game style and physical characteristics will have an impact on the type of conditioning the player should perform. At 14 years, girls can start an individualized physical conditioning programme according to their game style and physical characteristics recommended by the International Tennis Federation. Boys may begin such a programme soon thereafter. The question is whether biological or chronological age is more important for performance and training. The focus of this study was to assess the influence of body size and composition on anaerobic performance of tennis players from different age groups during intermittent workloads. We have investigated the relationship between anaerobic power and anaerobic capacity and body composition (fat mass, fat-free mass). Anaerobic capacity and power are usually tested in the laboratory using advanced equipment. On the court it is possible to control several features of physical ability (coordination, agility, speed and so on) but a correlation between laboratory results and the athlete’s tennis stroke rating have been shown to be poor (Kovacs, 2006). The purpose of our study was to investigate the relationship between selected physiological responses during laboratory and on-court test.

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Methods Participants Eighteen male tennis players, all members of the Polish Tennis Federation, took part in this study. They were ranked among the highest in their age categories. The subjects were separated into four groups depending on their chronological age. Preliminary testing Body composition was estimated by bio-electrical impedance using Tanita Body Fat Monitor/Scale Analyser TBF-300 on the first testing day. Then subjects performed supra-maximal 15-s Wingate tests on a cycle ergometer (Monark Sprint Bike 884E) following the procedure of Bar Or (Bar Or, 1978, 1987). This exercise was completed four times with 45-s rest between tests. Before the first Wingate test the participant performed a warm-up lasting 3 min. Then the subject pedalled as rapidly as possible for 15-s and against resistance of 0.74 N⭈kg−1 body mass. During the test we measured the following values: total work, maximal power output, fatigue index, time to peak power and time of sustained peak power. Experimental testing Two days later a tennis-specific drill (Figure 3.1) was performed. The drill was labelled ‘PUST’, an acronym derived from the Polish language words describing the movements performed. These movements were similar to those made during a tennis match (run, forehand, backhand, volley and smash). This exercise was performed with a tennis racket in hand but without a tennis ball. The elapsed time was measured by timing gates. This tennis drill was repeated six times with a 30-s break after each drill (Garsztka, 2003). Environmental conditions The laboratory test was performed in ambient conditions of 20–22 °C, and 60 per cent humidity. The field test was performed in ambient conditions of 19–21 °C and 65 per cent humidity. Statistics Statistical analysis was performed by using Statistica 6.0 for Windows. Data are presented as mean values ± standard deviation (SD). Differences between groups and between each test was evaluated by RIR Tukey test. Significance was set at P < 0.05 Correlations were computed by the Pearson Product Moment.

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Figure 3.1 Directions of movement during the ‘PUST’ tennis-specific drill.

Results Body composition The anthropometric data of subjects are shown in Tables 3.1 and 3.2. Fat mass ranged from 10 to 18 per cent. The group of 17 year olds had the highest per cent fat mass and total amount of fat (kg). There was significant difference in fat mass observed between the 17 and 15 year olds. Anaerobic performance The anaerobic performance results tests are presented in Table 3.3. The smallest difference between first and last anaerobic test was observed in the group of 16-year-old tennis players. The anaerobic capacity and anaerobic power during the last trial were 11 per cent and 9.5 per cent lower respectively than in the first test. A significant negative correlation between lean body mass and values of total work J⭈kg−1 was noticed only for the 15 year olds during the second and third tests (r = −0.92, r = −0.92) respectively. There were no other significant correlations between anaerobic performance measures and body composition in the other groups. Body mass for the 18 and 16 year olds was correlated

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Table 3.1 Anthropometric characteristics of subjects (chronological age) Subjects Mass (kg) Age 18 N=4 Age 17 N=5 Age 16 N=4 Age 15 N=5

Height (m)

Fat (%) FM (kg)

77.0±4.4 1.84±0.067 14.2±4.7 11.3±3.9 76.5±12

FFM (kg)

FFM/ FM

BMI

63.6±3.5* 6.4±2.9 22.1±0.6

1.80±0.068 18.4±5.4 14.5±5.0* 61.9±8.0

64.8±9.4 1.77±0.061 14.3±4.1

9.4±4.0

63.3±3.5 1.76±0.051 11.0±1.6

7.0±1.2* 56.1±3.1

5.1±3.3 23.4±2.8

53.3±5.5* 6.0±2.8 20.6±2.1 8.2±0.8 20.2±1.4

Notes: Values are mean range ± SD, N – number of subjects, BMI – Body Mass Index, FM – fat mass, FFM – free fat mass * 17–15 P