World of Sports Science

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WORLD of

SP ORTS SCIENCE

WORLD of

SP ORTS SCIENCE

1

VOLUME

A-L

K.Lee Lerner and BrendaWilmoth Lerner, E D I T O R S

WORLD of

SP ORTS SCIENCE

2

VOLUME

M-Z

GENERAL INDEX

K.Lee Lerner and BrendaWilmoth Lerner, E D I T O R S

World of Sports Science K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, Editors

Project Editor Kimberley A. McGrath

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA World of sports science / K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-4144-0614-5 (set hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-4144-0614-2 (set hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-1-4144-0615-2 (vol. 1 : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-4144-0615-0 (vol. 1 : alk. paper) [etc.] 1. Sports medicine–Encyclopedias - 2. Sports sciences–Encyclopedias. - I. Lerner, K. Lee. - II. Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth. RC1206.W672007 617.1’02703–dc22

2006013088

ISBN-13:

ISBN-10:

978-1-4144-0614-5 (set) 978-1-4144-0615-2 (v1) 978-1-4144-0616-9 (v2)

1-4144-0614-2 (set) 1-4144-0615-0 (vol. 1) 1-4144-0616-9 (vol. 2)

This title is also available as an e-book, ISBN-13: 978-1-4144-0613-8, ISBN-10: 1-4144-0613-4 Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

CONTENTS

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

A CK N O W L E D G M E N T S

vii

INTRODUCTION

ix

HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY

xi

ENTRIES VOLUME 1: A-L VOLUME 2: M-Z

1 455

SOURCES CONSULTED

817

GENERAL INDEX

821

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In compiling this edition, we have been fortunate in being able to rely upon the expertise and contributions of the following scholars who served as academic and contributing advisors for World of Sports Science, and to them we would like to express our sincere appreciation for their efforts to ensure that World of Sports Science contains the most accurate and timely information possible. Contributing Advisors William Atkins, MS Normal, Illinois

Bryan Davies, LLB Journalist (Sports Columnist) and Coach (Basketball) Whitby, Ontario, Canada

Antonio Farina, MD, PhD University of Bologna Bologna, Italy

Larry Gilman, PhD Sharon, Vermont

Brian D. Hoyle, PhD Nova Scotia, Canada

Peter Lonergan, MEd Director of Athletics and Head Coach, Women’s Basketball Medaille College Buffalo, New York


Bill Pangos, MPhysEd Sports Administrator and Head Coach, Women’s Basketball York University Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Alexandr Ioffe, PhD Russian Academy of Sciences Moscow, Russia

Acknowledgments The editors would like to extend thanks to Connie Clyde for her assistance in copyediting. The editors also wish to specially acknowledge Adrienne Wilmoth Lerner and Alica Marie Caferty for their diligent and extensive research on selected entries. The editors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of many at Thompson Gale for their help in preparing World of Sports Science. The editors wish to specifically thank Carol Nagel and Debra Kirby for their help and advice in launching this project. Special thanks are also offered to Gale Senior Editor Kim McGrath for her timely, skilled, and gentle guidance through various project complexities.

vii

INTRODUCTION

Sports offer both competition and a path to fitness. Accordingly, sports science has grown beyond the exclusive application of science toward improving competitive performance to applications that improve the quality of life and health. Sports and the advances in sports science have, however, increasing impact on broad segments of society— from advanced competitors wishing to enhance Olympic-caliber performance to those wishing modest improvement in the quality of their health and life through the practice of yoga or Pilates. Intended for high school-aged students and readers at the start of their studies of sports science, World of Sports Science is designed to be an interesting and useable introduction to the field. Sports often captivate younger audiences, and World of Sports Science is specifically designed to allow younger students to relate fundamental terms and concepts taught in the science classroom to their often passionate pursuit of sports. In so doing the science becomes more relevant to their daily lives and, in turn, participation and capabilities in sport are enhanced by a greater understanding of issues related to exercise physiology, biomechanics, drug use, etc. The editors have not shied from the controversies in sport related to the use of performance-enhancing drugs and have taken special care to identify the dangers and ethical concerns related to such use. The controversy in the wake of the 2006 Tour de France, in which the winner Floyd Landis was reported to have tested positive for the use of a banned substance (testosterone, an anabolic steroid) took place after World of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Sports Science went to press. At the time of this writing, Landis proclaims his innocence and official action remains pending against Landis, who faces being stripped of his Tour title and a ban from professional cycling for two years. Such incidents are becoming increasingly common across the world of sport and although the editors can not forecast the news, World of Sports Science is designed to provide students and readers with resources and readings that enable them to more fully understand the complexities of such evolving news stories. For example, entries on the World Anti-Doping Agency, WADA director Richard Pound, the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency, and Court of Arbitration for Sport provide insight in to the agencies and processes used to investigate and enforce provisions against banned substances while entries on anabolic steroids, testosterone, cycling, and a specialized article on the Tour de France (Cycling: Tour de France) provide examples of entries offering essential background reading that empower critical thinking about events in the news. World of Sports Science is a collection of nearly 600 entries that evidence the wide application of science to sport and that place special emphasis on the basic science related to introductory concepts related to muscular strength and endurance, cardiovascular efficiency, oxygen use, and the importance of flexibility—all critical elements of fitness and athletic performance. The science in this book is simplified so that the it offers straightforward but accurate descriptions of measurements of both general and specialized topics—ranging from entries related to anatomy, physiology, and kinesiology to more specia-

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INTRODUCTION

lized treatments of injury prevention, nutrition, and the calculation of muscle to fat ratios. In addition to students and a general readership, World of Sports Science is designed to be a valuable general reference for a range of specialized interests—from physical education teachers wishing to provide content-related readings that support their curriculum objectives to personal trainers wishing to give their clients fundamental reading material related to the changes in the body induced by exercise. In an effort the enhance readability and interest, the editors include biographies of athletes and others involved in sport science, technology, and history who are more readily known to students and a general readership. This is not intended as insult to the thousands of men and women who skillfully labor to advance sports science, and who are due recognition in future volumes, but rather as a calculated attempt to capture student interest by, as exemplified in the entry on champion cyclist Lance Armstrong, relating athletic achievement to some aspect of sports science or technology. The editors hope that World Sports Science serves to inspire students and readers to examine the linkage of science to sport, and encourages them toward further study. K. Lee Lerner & Brenda Wilmoth Lerner Editors London, U.K. July 2006

How to Use the Book The articles in the book are meant to be understandable by anyone with a curiosity about the relation

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of science to sport. World of Sports Science carries specifically selected fundamental topics in genetics, anatomy, physiology, physics, etc., that provide a basis for understanding the application of science to sport. This first edition of World of Sports Science has been designed with ready reference in mind: Entries are arranged alphabetically, rather than by chronology or scientific field. ‘‘See also’’ references at the end of entries alert the reader to related entries not specifically mentioned in the body of the text. The Historical Chronology includes many of the significant events in the advancement of sports science. A Sources Consulted section lists the most worthwhile print material and web sites we encountered in the compilation of this volume. It is there for the inspired reader who wants more information on the people and discoveries covered in this volume. A comprehensive General Index guides the reader to topics and persons mentioned in the book. Bolded page references refer the reader to the term’s full entry. A detailed understanding of biochemistry is neither assumed nor required for World of Sports Science. Accordingly, students and other readers should not be intimidated or deterred by the complex names of chemical molecules. Where necessary, sufficient information regarding chemical structure is provided. If desired, more information can easily be obtained from any basic chemistry or biochemistry reference.



c. 5000 The first water craft are developed in various indigenous cultures throughout the world (canoes, kayaks, and wind-powered vessels). c. 3500 BC The traditional Indian holistic medicine practices known as Ayurveda are traced to this period, as is the practice of yoga. c. 3000 BC The oldest written references to traditional chinese medicine (TCM), including various herbal medicine techniques and acupuncture, are dated to this period. c. 1000 BC Baggataway, the forerunner to lacrosse, is first played by the indigenous peoples of North America during this period. c. 1000 BC The ancient Scottish highland sports, including the caber toss and putting the stone, originated with the clan gatherings of this period. c. 800 BC The Mayan peoples of southern Mexico participate in organized high diving from cliffs into the Pacific Ocean. c. 776 BC The first Olympic Games is held at Athens. The competitions are restricted to men only; the credo of the ancient Games, ‘‘Higher, Faster, Stronger,’’ remains the inspiration of the modern Olympics.

Athens to proclaim the victory over the Persian army. The modern marathon is named for his feat. c. 275 BC Herophilus’s younger colleague, Eristratus (c. 310–c. 250 BC), asserts that veins and arteries are connected. 36 BC The first swimming races are held in Japan, as a part of the training of the Samurai warrior class. c. 100 The sport of sumo, a competition that first evolved within the Shinto religion of Japan as a means of appeasing the gods, was developed in this period. c. 393 The Olympics are abolished by Roman emperor Theodosius I, on the grounds that the Games were pagan. c. 850 Arab scholar Yaqub ibn-Ishaq al-Kindi (c. 800–870) advances an anatomical and physiological explanation of vision. c. 1200 Versions of football (soccer) are being played in various regions of Europe. c. 1275 William of Saliceto creates the first established record of a human dissection. c. 1300 Cricket is being played in a variety of forms across the south of England.

c. 700 BC The use of anatomical models is established in India.

1490 Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) designs the world’s first bicycle.

490 BC Phillipides, a messenger with the Greek army, dies after running from the site of the Battle of Marathon to the city of

1505 Leonardo da Vinci adds to a series of anatomical studies by creating the first wax cast of oxen brain ventricles.


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1540 Servetus offers the first description of the pulmonary circulation of blood. c. 1550 Early forms of tennis are being played in various regions of Europe. 1658 Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam publishes records of observations of red blood cells. 1660 Marcello Malpighi makes publishes works describing vascular capillary beds and individual capillaries. 1664 The idea of reflex action, formulated by Rene´ Descartes (1596–1650), French philosopher and mathematician, is made public. The assertion is included in a French edition of his posthumously published work on animal physiology. In his analysis Descartes applied his mechanistic philosophy to the analysis of animal behavior and first used the concept of reflex to denote any involuntary response the body makes when exposed to a stimulus. 1665 Robert Hooke publishes Micrographia, an account of observations made with the new instrument known as the microscope. Hooke presents his drawings of the tiny box-like structures found in cork and calls these tiny structures ‘‘cells.’’ Although the cells he observes are not living, the name is retained. He also describes the streaming juices of live plant cells. 1680 Posthumous publication of On Motion in Animals by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (1608–1679), Italian mathematician and physicist. Borelli studied the human body from the standpoint of Descartes’s mechanistic philosophy, describing physiology as a branch of physics and offering a mechanical analysis of the skeletomuscular system. 1746 Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis publishes Venus Physique. Maupertuis criticizes preformationist theories because offspring inherit characteristics of both parents. He proposes an adaptationist account of organic design. His theories suggests the existence of a mechanism for transmitting adaptations. c. 1750 Cricket increases in popularity throughout England. The rules are codified and formal cricket clubs are established in London. 1757 Albrecht von Haller 1757–1766), publishes the first volume of his eight-volume

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Elements of Physiology of the Human Body, subsequently to become a landmark in the history of modern physiology. 1770 Captain James Cook, English explorer, observes the sport of surfing practiced by native people in the Hawaiian Islands. 1771 Luigi Galvani (1737–1798), Italian anatomist, discovers the electric nature of nervous impulses. 1772 Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), English theologian and chemist, discovers that plants give off oxygen. 1774 Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794), French chemist, discovers that oxygen is consumed during respiration. 1796 Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin, and Francis Galton, publishes his Zoonomia. In this work, Darwin argues that evolutionary changes are brought about by the mechanism primarily associated with Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, that is, the direct influence of the environment on the organism. 1820 First United States Pharmacopoeia is published. 1823 The invention of rugby is credited to William Webb Ellis at Rugby School, England. The rules of rugby are formalized in England in 1845, the first stage in a rise in rugby’s popularity as a world game. 1829 The first Oxford-Cambridge rowing race is held on the Thames River, London. 1839 Theodore Schwann extends the theory of cells to include animals and helps establish the basic unity of the two great kingdoms of life. In Microscopical Researches into the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants, Schwann asserts that all living things are made up of cells, each of which contains certain essential components. He also coins the term ‘‘metabolism’’ to describe the overall chemical changes that take place in living tissues. 1846 The first recorded game of organized baseball is played at Elysian Fields, New Jersey. Alexander Cartwright (1820–1892) had written the first comprehensive set of rules for baseball in 1845. 1848 The Cambridge Rules, the first codefication of the rules of soccer, are created at Cambridge University, England.



1851 The first race of what would become the America’s Cup yacht racing series was contested. 1854 Gregor Mendel begins his study of 34 different strains of peas. Eventually, Mendel selects 22 kinds for further experiments. From 1856 to 1863, Mendel will grow and test over 28,000 plants and analyze seven specific pairs of traits. 1855 Barolomeo Panizza (1785–1867), Italian anatomist, first proves that parts of the cerebral cortex are essential for vision. 1858 Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow publishes his landmark paper ‘‘Cellular Pathology’’ and establishes the field of cellular pathology. Virchow asserts that all cells arise from preexisting cells (Omnis cellula e cellula). He argues that the cell is the ultimate locus of all disease. 1859 Charles Robert Darwin publishes his landmark book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. 1863 The Football Association, the world’s oldest soccer league, is founded in London, England. 1870 Gustav Theodor Fritsch (1838–1927), German anatomist and anthropologist, and Eduard Hitzig (1838–1907), German physiologist and neurologist, discover that electric shocks to one cerebral hemisphere of a dog’s brain produces movement on the other side of the animal’s body. This is the first clear demonstration of the existence of cerebral hemispheric lateralization. 1870 Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet shows the importance of statistical analysis for biologists and provides the foundations of biometry. 1873 Franz Anton Schneider describes cell division in detail. His drawings included both the nucleus and chromosomal strands. 1873 John Trudgen introduces a swimming stroke to swimmers in England that is a precursor to the modern front crawl. The Trudgen technique dramatically increases the speed and the efficiency of swimmers; the Trudgen stroke remains the staple in swim races for 30 years. 1873 Walther Flemming discovers chromosomes, observes mitosis, and suggests the modern interpretation of nuclear division.


1874 The first American football game, a variation of rugby, is played between McGill University (Montreal, ON, Canada) and Harvard. Harvard will play Yale in the first ever American intercollegiate game in 1875. 1875 The first organized ice hockey game is played in Montreal, ON, Canada. 1876 North American baseball’s National League is founded. 1878 A.G. Spalding establishes the sporting goods company that bears his name in Chicago. Spalding products form the backbone of the first ever sporting goods empire. 1878 Charles-Emanuel Sedillot introduces the term ‘‘microbe.’’ The term becomes widely used as a term for a pathogenic bacterium. 1881 FIG, the international governing body of gymnastics, is founded in Paris. 1882 Robert Koch (1843–1910), German bacteriologist, discovers the tubercle bacillus and enunciates ‘‘Koch’s postulates,’’ which define the classic method of preserving, documenting, and studying bacteria. 1882 Shihan Kano of Japan develops the sport of judo. 1882 Walther Flemming publishes Cell Substance, Nucleus, and Cell Division, in which he describes his observations of the longitudinal division of chromosomes in animal cells. Flemming observes chromosome threads in the dividing cells of salamander larvae. 1884 Elie Metchnikoff discovers the antibacterial activity of white blood cells, which he calls ‘‘phagocytes,’’ and formulates the theory of phagocytosis. 1884 Louis Pasteur and coworkers publishes a paper entitled ‘‘A New Communication on Rabies.’’ Pasteur proves that the causal agent of rabies could be attenuated and the weakened virus could be used as a vaccine to prevent the disease. This work serves as the basis of future work on virus attenuation, vaccine development, and the concept that variation is an inherent characteristic of viruses. 1887 The game of softball is invented by George Hancock in Chicago, Illinois.

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1888 Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried Waldeyer coins the term ‘‘chromosome.’’ Waldeyer introduces the use of hematoxylin as a histological stain. 1891 Charles-Edouard Brown-Sequard suggests the concept of internal secretions (hormones). 1891 Hermann Henking distinguishes between the sex chromosomes and the autosomes. 1891 James Naismith, a physical education instructor with the YMCA, invents the sport of basketball in Springfield, Massachussets. 1893 Senda Berenson Abbott, a physical education instructor at Smith College, Massachussets, revises the Naismith rules of basketball to create a version of basketball for women. 1895 Physical education instructor William Morgan, a friend of James Naismith, invents volleyball in Springfield, Massachussets. 1896 The Olympic Games are revived by Baron Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), and are held in Paris. The International Olympic Committee is established to organize all successive Olympic Games. 1897 The inaugural Boston Marathon (26.2 mi [42.2 km]) is run on a course from Hopkington, Massachussets, to Boston; 15 runners take part. The Boston Marathon becomes the most famous road race in the world. 1897 The world’s first bobsled run is constructed at St. Moritz, Switzerland. 1899 Scientist Felix Hoffman invents aspirin (acetysalicylic acid) in Germany. Aspirin, originally designed as an analgesic is the most consumed medication in history. 1900 Karl Landsteiner discovers the bloodagglutination phenomenon and the four major blood types in humans. 1901 Jokichi Takamine (1854–1922), JapaneseAmerican chemist, and T.B. Aldrich first isolate epinephrine from the adrenal gland. Later known by the trade name Adrenalin, it is eventually identified as a neurotransmitter. This is also the first time a pure hormone has been isolated. 1902 Walter Sutton presents evidence that chromosomes have individuality, that chromosomes occur in pairs (with one member of each pair contributed by each

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parent), and that the paired chromosomes separate from each other during meiosis. Sutton concludes that the concept of the individuality of the chromosomes provides the link between cytology and Mendelian heredity. 1903 The first Tour de France is organized, a 1,500-mi (2,500 km) race. Over one hundred years later, the Tour de France is the most famous cycling race in the world. 1905 Nettie Maria Stevens, American geneticist, discovers the connection between chromosomes and sex determination. She determines that there are two basic types of sex chromosomes, which are now called X and Y. Stevens proves that females are XX and males are XY. Stevens and Edmund B. Wilson independently describe the relationship between the so-called accessory or X chromosomes and sex determination in insects. 1905 The Isle of Mann motorcycle races are organized for the first time. The Isle of Mann competition remains one of the most famous motorcycle challenges in the world. 1907 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1910) investigates the conditioned reflex (1904– 1907). A great stimulus for behaviorist psychology, his work establishes physiologically-oriented psychology. 1909 Jean de Mayer, French physiologist, first suggests the name ‘‘insulin’’ for the hormone of the islet cells. 1909 The Indianapolis Speedway is constructed; this race track becomes the permanent home of the annual Indianapolis 500 auto race. 1920 The National Football League (NFL) commenced play. 1923 German-born Joseph Pilates, developer of the exercise training program of the same name, opens his first studio in New York. 1928 Alexander Fleming (1881–1955), Scottish bacteriologist, discovers penicillin. He observes that the mold Penicillium notatum inhibits the growth of some bacteria. This is the first antibacterial, and it opens a new era of ‘‘wonder drugs’’ to combat infection and disease. 1928 The Summer Olympics held at Amsterdam are the first to provide a significant number of women’s events.



c. 1930 Anabolic steroids are discovered by German scientists. The chemicals are not used in sport applications until the 1950s. 1930 The first World Cup of soccer is held in Uruguay; the host nation beat Argentina in the championship final. The World Cup is today second only to the Olympics in global sporting popularity. 1932 Charles ‘‘Chuck’’ Taylor puts his signature on the logo of the Converse All Star basketball shoe; Converse are the most popular basketball shoe in the world for almost 40 years. 1934 George Nissen of Iowa builds the first trampoline intended for the commercial market. 1935 Effa Manley becomes the first woman to both own and administer the day to day operations of a professional baseball club when she assumes control of the Newark Eagles of the Negro League.

one mile in under four minutes. Bannister’s rivalry with Australian John Landy and American Wes Santee to be the first sub-four-minute runner is one of the most compelling in the history of sport. 1956 Mary F. Lyon proposes that one of the X chromosomes of normal females is inactivated. This concept became known as the Lyon hypothesis and helped explain some confusing aspects of sex-linked diseases. Females are usually ‘‘carriers’’ of genetic diseases on the X chromosome because the normal gene on the other chromosome protects them, but some X-linked disorders are partially expressed in female carriers. Based on studies of mouse coat color genes, Lyon proposes that one X chromosome is randomly inactivated in the cells of female embryos.

1946 Bloch and Purcell develop nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) as viable tool for observation and analysis.

1957 Francis Crick proposes that during protein formation each amino acid is carried to the template by an adapter molecule containing nucleotides, and that the adapter is the part that actually fits on the RNA template. Later research demonstrates the existence of transfer RNA.

1947 Jackie Robinson becomes the first black man to play major league baseball when he is signed to a contract by the Brooklyn Dodgers.

1959 The Daytona 500 auto race, the most prestigious of the American NASCAR events, is first run at the Daytona speedway this year.

1948 The Stoke Mandeville Games for disabled persons, the forerunner to the modern Paralympics, are held at Stoke-on-Trent, England.

1961 ‘‘Wide World of Sports,’’ the groundbreaking American weekly sports program, airs for the first time. ‘‘Wide World of Sports,’’ featuring host Jim McKay, runs until 1998.

1949 Joseph Sobek of Conneticut creates a new game that he calls ‘‘paddleball’’ the game is ultimately named racquetball and it would be come a very popular sport by the 1970s throughout North America.

1962 James D. Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins are awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for their work in elucidating the structure of DNA.

1950 The first Maccabiah Games to be hosted by the state of Israel are held in Tel Aviv. Styled in the manner of the Olympic Games for Jewish athletes from around the world, the Maccabiah Games become a quadrennial event in 1957. 1951 Rosalind Franklin obtains sharp x-ray diffraction photographs of DNA. 1954 Danny Biasone of the National Basketball Association (NBA) devises the 24-second shot to clock to speed the game. His innovation will become an integral part of the game both in the United States and in all international championships. 1954 Roger Bannister of England, a medical student, becomes the first person to run


1965 A primitive form of the modern snowboard, the ‘‘Snow Surfer’’ is developed in the United States. 1965 Dr. Robert Cade of the University of Florida and a team of researchers create the sports drink Gatorade, a product that became the largest selling sports drink in the world. 1965 François Jacob, Andre´ Lwoff, and Jacques Monod are awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzymes and virus synthesis. 1966 Marshall Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana lead teams that decipher the genetic code. All of the 64 possible triplet combinations of the four bases (the codons)

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and their associated amino acids are determined and described.

and other prohibited substances at the Summer Olympics in Montreal.

1966 Sex testing (gender verification testing) is introduced at the European track and field championships.

1978 The Hawaii Ironman is started as a 2.4-mi (4 km) swim, a 112-mi (191 km) cycle, and a 26.2-mi (42 km) run. Twelve athletes finish in the 15-person starting field. Ironman events are now held throughout the world.

1967 Kathryn Switzer becomes the first woman to enter and to complete the Boston Marathon. 1967 The sport of windsurfing claims a number of different inventors; it begins to receive popular attention this year. 1968 American long jumper Bob Beamon shatters the world record by over 21 inches (53 cm) at the 1968 Summer Olympics at Mexico City. 1968 Dick Fosbury, American high jumper, introduces a revolutionary style of jumping, nicknamed the ‘‘Fosbury Flop.’’ Fosbury wins the Olympic gold medal in the event. 1972 Eleven Israeli Olympic team members are taken hostage and ultimately murdered by an Arab terrorist cell, ‘‘Black September’’ at the Summer Olympics at Munich. 1972 The shoe soon to be popularized as the Nike ‘‘waffle’’ sole is designed by U.S. track coach Bill Bowerman. 1972 The United States government passes Title IX of the Civil Rights Act into law; Title IX establishes a framework within which female athletes are entitled to equality of opportunity in all aspects of American amateur sport. Title IX was the impetus for the creation of female athletic scholarships and female sports organizations across the United States. 1973 Dr. Frank Jobe of Callifornia performs revolutionary elbow ligament surgery on American baseball pitcher Tommy John. This procedure will prolong the careers of thousands of athletes. 1973 The Iditarod sled dog race is run from Anchorage to Nome, Alaska. The Idiatord established a reputation as one of the toughest sporting challenges in the world. 1976 Romanian gymnast Nadia Comaneci, coached by Bela Karolyi, is awarded the first ever perfect score in the history of gymnastics at the Summer Olympics in Montreal. 1976 The International Olympic Committee institutes testing for anabolic steroids

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1980 The United States men’s hockey team defeats the favored Soviet Union to win the Olympic gold medal at Lake Placid. 1982 The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves the first genetically engineered drug, a form of human insulin produced by bacteria. c. 1983 Dr. James Andrews continues to develop arthroscopic surgery techniques that both repair athletic injuries and reduce the time require for rehabilitation. 1984 Michael Jordan is selected in the National Basketball Association draft by the Chicago Bulls. Jordan wins six league championships with the Bulls and acclaim as the greatest player in NBA history. 1986 Former world-class marathoner Brian Maxwell invents the PowerBar, a popular energy bar used by endurance athletes. 1986 Greg Lemond of the United States becomes the first American to win the Tour de France. 1986 The United States Department of Energy officially initiates the Human Genome Initiative. 1988 Canadian Ben Johnson is disqualified as the Olympic men’s 100-m champion and world record holder when he tested positive for steroids at the 1988 Summer Olympics. Johnson is the highest profile drug cheat in the history of sport. 1988 The Human Genome Project officially adopts the goal of determining the entire sequence of DNA comprising the human chromosomes. 1992 Jackie Joyner Kersee, American heptathlete, wins the Olympic gold medal at Barcelona, Spain, to become one of the most decorated female athletes in Olympic history. 1994 The United States passes the Dietary Supplements Health Promotion Act, a law intended to regulate aspects of the growing supplements market in America.



1998 Several cyclists in the Tour de France are found to have taken the hormone erythropoetin, EPO, a practice known as ‘‘blood doping.’’ Allegations of EPO use will plague the Tour and leading riders such a seven-time champion Lance Armstrong through 2006. 1999 Scientists announce the complete sequencing of the DNA making up human chromosome 22. The first complete human chromosome sequence is published in December 1999. 1999 The World Anti-Doping Agency, WADA, is created after several years of international organizational efforts in the sports community. WADA will become one of the most influential sports organizations in the world.

2003 The BALCO (Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative) scandal surfaces in the United States; BALCO principals are involved in the distribution of nandrolone, an anabolic steroid, and other prohibited substances, to high profile American athletes, including world record sprinter Tim Montgomery and baseball home run hitter Barry Bonds. 2003 Following initial publication in 2001, The Human Genome Project for the National Institutes of Health culminates in the completion of a more complete human genome sequence, published in the journal Nature. 2005 Lance Armstrong wins his record seventh Tour de France and retires from competition.

2001 Tiger Woods becomes the only golfer in history to hold all four major championships simultaneously.

2005 Major League Baseball (MLB) players are subpoenaed to testify before Congress concerning the use of steroids in the sport.

2003 Paul Lauterbur is awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in recognition of his contributions to the invention of the magnetic resonance imaging technology, MRI; the technology is a extremely important diagnostic tool in assessing athletic injuries.

2006 Several leading riders are banned from competition on the eve of the start of the 2006 Tour de France under suspicion of links to use of performance enhancing drugs raised by a Spanish sport and police inquiry.


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A Senda Berenson Abbott 3/19/1868–2/16/1954 AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION INSTRUCTOR

Almost 80 years before Title IX became the bedrock upon which female sports participation was constructed in American intercollegiate sport, Senda Berenson used the newly invented game of basketball to promote both physical fitness and sports participation among young women. Senda Berenson (Berenson took the surname Abbott after her marriage in 1911) was a unique figure on the landscape of collegiate athletics in 1890s. Intercollegiate sports had gained popularity in the previous ten years as a result of ad hoc contests in sports such as the newly developed American football and rowing races in the 1880s, and the rivalries that sprang up between schools such as Harvard, Princeton, and Yale would spread across the United States by the early 1900s. This newly tapped excitement regarding athletics was restricted to male teams and male sporting pursuits. At age 22, Berenson had commenced her own teaching career with her admission to a newly established women’s teaching college, the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics in 1890. Gymnastics had been a recognized program of physical education instruction for men for a number of years, as gymnastics schools had been founded in various parts of the United States, modeled after the European institutions that specialized in gymnastics training for men. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

In January, 1892, Berenson left the Boston Normal School to join the faculty at Smith College, an allfemale institution located in Northampton, Massachusetts. Berenson became the first director of physical education at the school. Shortly after assuming her duties at Smith, she learned of a game called basketball that had been invented only one month earlier by James Naismith, a physical education instructor at the nearby International Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts. Berenson learned of the new game when she read an article written by Naismith about basketball in a YMCA publication Physical Education. Berenson was intrigued by the prospect that the game could be one that might have potential benefits for her female students. Berenson met with Naismith on several occasions throughout that year to discuss basketball. As a result, Berenson organized a trial game for her female students at Smith in March 1893, using the same rules that Naismith had devised for his male participants. Consistent with the social standards of the times, men were prohibited from watching the women play. Berenson believed that the game could provide an excellent physical outlet for her students, notwithstanding the fact that women did not play team sports of any kind, nor did women participate in any athletic activities that permitted physical contact. It was not a concern regarding the physical ability of her students to play basketball in accordance with Naismith’s rules, but a regard for the accepted

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standards of behavior for young women in the late Victorian era, that prompted Berenson to modify the Naismith rules for female play. Berenson’s revisions were intended to make the game less strenuous and more inclusive for all players. It was a part of Berenson’s personal athletic philosophy to advocate aspects such as cooperative play and socialization over pure competition; Berenson remained opposed to women’s intercollegiate competition throughout her career in education, preferring intramural athletics. Berenson’s modified rules emphasized orderly play that she believed would prevent the players from becoming overly stressed. Berenson was also concerned that any game that was overtly physical for female athletes would simply be outlawed. Berenson permitted six team members to play on the court at one time. She also divided the court into three sections to which players were assigned and where they were required to remain throughout the course of the game. Berenson reasoned that these divisions would prevent the players from overexerting themselves by running all over the court; exceptional players would be prevented from dominating the game. To eliminate physical contact, the Berenson rules prevented players from grabbing the ball from another player’s hands. Players could not dribble the ball more than three times before passing or shooting the ball, nor could players hold the ball for more than three seconds when the player was stationary. The ball could only be shot with one hand, as using two hands was believed to alter the muscle structure of a woman’s chest, and thus flatten out the natural female form and to restrict breathing. Guarding, in the sense of physically preventing an opponent from moving in a desired direction, was forbidden. If a player fell down to the floor, the player was charged with a foul. Berenson could never have foreseen the trend in recent years at every level of basketball, including National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) play, to impose fouls on those players who deliberately fall to the floor in an attempt to draw an offensive foul. At Smith College, Berenson’s physical education interests expanded beyond basketball. She introduced other activities, such as fencing and folk dancing into the Smith physical education curriculum. Berenson also brought remedial gymnastics to students with special physical needs. In 1901, she introduced the sport of field hockey to Smith, and she assisted in the formation of the Smith College Gymnastics and Field Association. As a part of her

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ongoing search for new physical education and sports activities to bring to Smith, Berenson was the second American woman to attend the Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, Sweden, where she studied advanced fencing. The rules of women’s basketball were not implemented in a orderly way once other American schools discovered basketball. In 1901, the sporting goods company A.G. Spalding published the first Women’s Basketball Guide, edited by Berenson. Also in 1901, Berenson wrote the first ever women’s basketball text, entitled Line Basket Ball for Women, which provided not only rules for playing the game, but also Berenson’s philosophy regarding the sport’s positive psychological and physiological effects on women. In 1905, Berenson organized the Basketball Committee for Women and she chaired the organization until 1917. This committee later became known as the National Association for Girls and Women in Sport. Upon her retirement from education in 1921, Berenson devoted her time to other pursuits, most particularly the study of art and music. In considering the impact of Berenson’s contributions to basketball, it is clear that on one level, her version of the game was eclipsed by the desire of female athletes to play basketball as a sport, as opposed to basketball cast as a strictly female activity. The modern game played at the high school, university, and professional levels by women bears no resemblance to the almost dainty sport devised by Berenson in 1893. The importance of Berenson’s contributions to female sport in America are not rooted exclusively in her rules of basketball, but in the ethos that women be given an opportunity to play a sport on their own terms. It is this determination and effort on the part of Berenson that makes her a true women’s sports pioneer. Berenson was enshrined in the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1984, and she was inducted into the Women’s Basketball Hall of Fame in 1999. SEE ALSO Basketball; Gender in sports: Female athletes; Title IX and United States female sports participation.

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar 4/16/1947 AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL BASKETBALL PLAYER

In a sport where notable performers are often judged by the standards of the era in which they WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

KAREEM ABDUL-JABBAR

played, the skills and the achievements of Kareem Abdul-Jabbar are transcendent, both as an American college player and as a professional. Most basketball experts place Abdul-Jabbar at the same exalted level as the legendary Michael Jordan, Ervin (Magic) Johnson, Larry Bird, and Wilt Chamberlain, as the five players who occupy the pinnacle of all time basketball supremacy. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar was a renowned basketball player from the first day he attended Power Memorial High School in New York City, until the end of his final NBA game. In the intervening period of 30 years, Abdul-Jabbar achieved every single badge of greatness that the basketball world could bestow—highly recruited high school All-Star, All-American and national collegiate basketball champion, and the best and most dominant player of his professional era. In many respects, the biography of Abdul-Jabbar begins with a measurement, 7 ft 2 in (2.15 m), AbdulJabbar’s height when he enrolled at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) in the fall of 1965. Prior to his conversion to the Muslim faith in the late 1960s, Abdul-Jabbar legal name was Lew Alcindor, and as Alcindor he was the most hotly pursued and the most highly coveted high school basketball player in the history of American sports to that time. Alcindor had dominated the tough New York high school leagues in a manner never before seen, leading Cardinal Power High School to a New York schools championship, while setting records for both most points scored and most rebounds. His coach at Power, Jack Donahue, parlayed his success at Power, as well as his success coaching Alcindor to become a well-respected international coach with the Canadian men’s national basketball program. Upon his graduation from Power, Abdul-Jabbar had his pick of virtually every American college program. He selected UCLA, led by coach John Wooden, and a team that had won a national championship the previous season. In 1965, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) had a three-year player eligibility rule in place, meaning that freshmen such as Abdul-Jabbar were not permitted to play on varsity teams. It is an interesting footnote to Abdul-Jabbar’s personal history that his 7 ft 2 in (2.5 m) height caused him to be exempt from the national draft and any potential involvement in the Viet Nam war, as he was deemed to be too tall for military service. Once he was eligible for the UCLA varsity as a sophomore in 1966, Abdul-Jabbar was a significant force in leading UCLA to three consecutive national championships, from 1967 until he graduated in 1969. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Abdul-Jabbar was named NCAA Player of the Year in 1967 and again in 1969. His stunning combination of unusual height and lithe athleticism was a key factor in the NCAA decision to institute a ten-year ban on the dunk shot in college basketball, a ban that was instituted in 1967, the commencement of Abdul-Jabbar’ junior year at UCLA. Abdul-Jabbar was able to turn this apparent stymie into an advantage, as he added to his already formidable offensive skills through the perfection of a particular style of hook shot. Unlike many hooks developed by previous earlier players, Abdul-Jabbar’s technique involved a more straight-armed approach, with the ball delivered from well behind his head, rendering the shot almost impossible for a defender to block. The shot, dubbed the skyhook, became both Abdul-Jabbar’s most formidable offensive weapon and his signature shot for the duration of his collegiate and professional careers. Upon his graduation from UCLA in 1969, AbdulJabbar was as coveted a professional basketball prospect as he had been sought after when entering college four years earlier. The Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association (NBA) held the first selection of the 1969 NBA entry draft and they selected Abdul-Jabbar, whose play that season made an instant and emphatic impact upon both the NBA and the Bucks franchise. Abdul-Jabbar helped elevate the Bucks from league doormat to NBA champions in three seasons. Abdul-Jabbar averaged almost 29 points per game in his first season and he was named NBA Rookie of the Year. The Bucks had improved on their previous season’s victory totals by a remarkable 29 wins. The 1971 NBA season was even more rewarding for Abdul-Jabbar than his rookie year had been. He led the NBA in scoring and he was named the league’s Most Valuable Player. Milwaukee won the league championship, a feat that he was to repeat in 1972, when Abdul-Jabbar again led the league in scoring and collected a second Most Valuable Player award. Abdul-Jabbar had established himself as the unquestioned dominating force in NBA basketball. Abdul-Jabbar’s conversion to Islam at the beginning of his NBA career was sometimes a point of contention between the national basketball media and Abdul-Jabbar. Much was made in the press of his formal change of name from Alcindor to AbdulJabbar. With on-court dominance came a greater ability on the part of Abdul-Jabbar to control his professional destiny. Abdul-Jabbar, who won a third Most

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for his supreme talents was evidenced by the fact that his player number, 33, was retired by both the Milwaukee Bucks and the Los Angeles Lakers. At his retirement, Abdul-Jabbar held nine individual NBA records, including most points scored, most seasons played, and most blocked shots. Abdul-Jabbar was named to both the NBA list of Top 50 players of all time. He was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1995.

Basketball; Basketball shot dynamics; Basketball: Slam dunk.

SEE ALSO

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations

Young Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (in UCLA game, wearing number 33). ª B ETT MAN N/ COR BI S

Valuable Player award in 1974, asked to be traded at the conclusion of the 1974-75 season. The Bucks honored his request and in one of the true blockbuster player transactions in the history of sport, Abdul-Jabbar was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers in return for four players in 1975. Abdul-Jabbar and his dominance elevated the Lakers in precisely the same fashion it had rejuvenated the Milwaukee Bucks. Abdul-Jabbar won a fourth Most Valuable Player award with the Lakers in 1976, and he added a fifth award in 1977. In 1979, the phenomenal Ervin (Magic) Johnson was signed by the Lakers. As a collegiate player, Johnson was almost as renowned Abdul-Jabbar had been a decade earlier. The 1980 playoffs culminated in a Lakers’ championship, and Abdul-Jabbar won a record breaking sixth league Most Valuable Player award. The Lakers, powered by Johnson and AbdulJabbar, became the premier franchise in the NBA, winning championships in 1982, 1985, and 1987. In 1989, after 20 seasons of professional basketball, Abdul-Jabbar retired from the NBA. The respect

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The human skin is the largest organ of the body, providing a protective coverage for the internal structure and organs. Skin comprises an area of between 16.1 ft2 and 21.6 ft2 (1.5 m2 and 2.0 m2), at an average thickness of 0.00394 in (0.1 mm), accounting for between 15% and 18% of the total body weight. The layer of skin enveloping the body comprises three separate components: the epidermis (the outer shell), the dermis (the middle layer), and the sub cutis (the lower layer). Given its role as the protective shell for the internal organs and structure, the skin sustains constant contact and consequently, it is the most injured human organ. Skin is often subjected to cavalier, uncaring treatment on the sports field. The athletic injuries sustained to the skin are typically classified as abrasions, cuts, lacerations, and blisters. Each has a distinct meaning that is, in essence, a description of the nature and the severity of the injury sustained to the skin. In general terms, abrasions and cuts are types of less serious, more superficial skin injuries, while lacerations are often regarded as a more serious wound, posing a threat to the health to the body beyond its skin covering. The depth of each injury is the chief distinction between each term. An abrasion is an incident of superficial damage to the surface of the skin, with the injury generally penetrating no deeper than the epidermis, the skin’s outer layer. An abrasion causes the skin to be roughened and take on a reddish color, sensitive to the touch. A common cause of an abrasion is the friction produced between the unprotected skin of an athlete contacting a rough surface, such as artificial turf or pavement. While most typical abrasions occurring in a sports context involve the skin, the cornea, which is the clear surface of the eye that covers the iris, can WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ABRASIONS, CUTS, LACERATIONS

Techniques have been developed to assist athletes in speeding recovery from cuts and lacerations.

also sustain an abrasion when a sharp object such as a fingernail scrapes the corneal surface. Abrasions will generally heal within a few days of the incident. Where small foreign particles are lodged in the surface of the skin, these are commonly removed with tweezers. To ensure that the risk of infection is reduced, a topical antibiotic is often applied to the surface of the affected area. A cut is a penetration of the skin that generally results in the epidermis being punctured, causing the underlying circulatory system to be damaged, with blood being drawn into the opening. A cut may be of sufficient depth or extent to require repair through stitches to close the opening; a typical cut will not impair athletic performance beyond the time required to bandage the injury. A cut is often caused by contact with a sharp object, such as a stick or puck in ice hockey, or a cleat in sports such as rugby or soccer. The time required for a cut to heal will depend upon the extent of the damage caused to the skin. A period of from 5 to 14 days is the general healing parameter. The medical attention to resolve a cut will WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

E VEN I NG S TA NDA RD/G ET TY I MA GE S

include the cleaning of the damaged area, the removal of any foreign objects from the skin, the stitching or suturing of the opening to close it where required, and the covering of the injury with a bandage. While a cut exposed to the open air tends to heal more quickly than one bandaged, the covering will help reduce the risk of infection. Depending upon the location of the cut on the body, once bandaged and protected, this injury will not generally limit an athlete’s participation in training; most competitive sport organizations have protocols concerning the return to competition by a player who has been cut and where blood flow resulted. These procedures are directed at the safety of other participants from possible infection through blood-borne causes. A laceration is a more serious injury, described as a tearing or ripping of the skin and the fatty tissues or muscles beneath it. A laceration is often associated with a significant blood flow from the opening in the skin, as well as damage to the underlying structures. Where a cut is generally a neat symmetrical injury, a laceration will often result in jagged edges to the affected skin, and of sufficient depth that the

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blood flow from the opening is heavy. The repair of a laceration may require intricate suturing, and it may also result in a permanent scar. The depth of a typical laceration to the skin creates a significant risk of infection, as foreign particles all types have access to the tissues and the bloodstream. Tetanus, a serious disease of the central nervous system caused by microbes present in the soil, is a prime concern in treating a laceration; a tetanus injection will often be administered. The nature and the depth of the laceration will almost always require stitches to close the wound. As with the treatment of a cut, the laceration will typically be bandaged to protect the skin and the sutures. An athlete whose skin has been lacerated will often be restricted in both training and competition until the sutures have been removed (often a period of from 10 to 14 days from the insertion of the sutures in the skin), perhaps longer depending upon the extent of any other injury. As the ability of the skin to regenerate slows as the body ages (the epidermis of a 60-year-old person may be 30–80% thinner than that of a 20-year-old person), the healing time for a laceration will be significantly longer for the older athlete. As of the early 2000s, techniques have been developed to assist athletes in speeding recovery from cuts and lacerations. Octylayanoacrylate, an adhesive-like compound marketed commercially as Dermabond, has been used successfully to repair injuries of up to 2.3 in (6 cm) in length, that would have otherwise required stitches.

Blisters; Immune system; Road rash; Skin and muscle blood flow during exercise.

SEE ALSO

Acclimatization Acclimatization is an athletic training system whereby the body is forced to compensate for the stresses of a new or different climatic condition. Through compensation, the body is able to tolerate such physical stresses in a more efficient fashion, and the athlete will usually achieve better physical performance. The tolerance developed to the particular training condition will generally result in better competitive results, in competitions where the training climatic conditions exist, as well as in the athlete’s accustomed environment. Acclimatization methods consist of two types, heat and altitude acclimitazation. Heat acclimatiza-

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tion, sometimes referred to generically as heat training, is a technique directed to improving athletic performance in warm climates. The process of acclimatization is distinct from heat acclimation. Heat acclimation is the process by which an athlete becomes accustomed to increased heat, over the course of a 4- to 14-day period. Heat acclimatization is the entire spectrum of heat training, including both the initial acclimation period as well as the timeframe leading to the competition where the heat training practices will be employed. Heat training is a common technique employed in such sports as marathon running. The improved ability of an athlete to combat heat and accompanying humidity will bear a vital relationship to performance. As an example, where the athlete is accustomed to living and training in a temperate climate such as the northwestern United States or England, acclimatization to hot weather will be essential if the athlete competes in an environment such as a September race in southern California. Heat training will be tied closely to the corresponding factor of dehydration, and the ability of an athlete to replenish fluids. As there are few athletic activities that are contested at high altitudes (the exceptions include mountain climbing, alpine skiing, and events contested in high altitude locales such as Mexico City, Mexico, and Denver, Colorado), altitude acclimatization, or altitude training, does not prepare an athlete for high altitude competition, so much as develop the ability of an athlete to better utilize oxygen, which makes the athlete more effective in sea level competitions. At sea level, the atmosphere is 20.93% oxygen; this percentage becomes progressively less at greater altitudes, due to the combined effects of decreased gravity and temperature. At higher altitudes, the body compensates for the decrease in available oxygen by increasing its production of erythrocytes, commonly known as red blood cells, which transport oxygen through the body. This increased production in red blood cells begins in the kidneys, through the production of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO). The athlete who trains at altitude will develop— over a period of one to three months—a greater physical ability to utilize oxygen for performance in the thinner, less oxygen-rich air of high altitude; once trained, the capacity to produce greater numbers of red blood cells will remain a factor for a number of weeks, in an ever-decreasing amount. Altitude training is used by a wide variety of athletes, including those in sports where aerobic capacity is of prime importance, such as swimmers and cyclists, as well WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ACHILLES TENDON RUPTURE

athlete within three months of the completion of altitude training. The principle common to the theories underlying heat and altitude acclimatization is that of passive stress versus active stress on the bodily systems. Passive stresses are those features of a different training environment that will impact an athlete without special effort. For example, day-to-day living at a higher altitude or in a warmer climate requires the body to adapt to change. Active stresses are the deliberate introduction of training factors in the new environment, such as workouts in the new environment. While both types of stresses will contribute to the acclimatization process, heat without exercise will not be as effective. The human body is very adaptable to heat, and to corresponding humidity. The major physiological adjustments will be made by a trained athlete within 10 to 14 days of the commencement of heat training; most athletes will reach an acclimatization of approximately 75% (defined as an ability to perform to 75% of their top level) within five days of their exposure to a warmer climate. The most successful heat training programs will follow a progression: Altitude acclimatization, or altitude training, helps the athlete’s body to better utilize oxygen. ª JOHN NORRIS/CORBIS

as athletes in sports where the body’s anaerobic system is the focus, including sprinters and team sport athletes. Altitude training is broken further into three types: ‘‘live high/train high,’’ whereby the athlete both lives and trains at altitude; ‘‘live high/train low,’’ a regime where the athlete lives at altitude but trains at sea level; and sea-level training, where the reduced oxygen environment of higher altitudes may be replicated through an artificially configured house or training ‘‘tent.’’ The extensive scientific research regarding altitude training confirms that all three methods will enhance sea level performance. At altitude training conducted at 8,000 ft (2,500 m), the reduced level of oxygen compels the body to increase production of red blood cells, the agents for the transport of oxygen in the bloodstream. Increased red blood cell production is triggered by the releases in the kidneys of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO). Altitude training will increase oxygen capacity by between 2% and 3% within three months of commencement, a significant factor in many sports. This benefit will be lost to the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

1. Training volume and training intensity are at first reduced on the athlete’s first exposure to the hot environment. 2. Both volume and intensity are increased as the athlete begins to adapt. 3. The body mass, hydration rates, and other physical indicators must be monitored through the heat training phase. 4. Extreme care to ensure the proper hydration of athletes must be maintained.

Heat exhaustion; Hormonal response to exercise; Running strength training and exercises.

SEE ALSO

Achilles tendon rupture Tendons are the fibrous connective tissues that connect muscles to bone in the human body. A key feature of all tendons is their capacity to withstand significant forces; the Achilles tendon is the largest tendon in the body, extending from the gastrocnemius (calf muscle) to the calcaneus (heel bone). The Achilles tendon is essential to effective and graceful human movement, an integral component to all walking, running, and jumping actions that the body performs. The Achilles tendon is engaged every time

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the calf muscle contracts to propel the body forward, through the process known as plantar flexion. The mythical Greek warrior Achilles was said to be invincible, until an arrow pierced the lower leg tendon that bears his name. An injury to the modern Achilles tendon may not be fatal, but there is no question that a rupture of this critical structure can have devastating consequences on athletic performance. The Achilles tendon is liable to sustain injuries for which the consequences range from mild impairment of its function to a total disabling. Achilles tendonitis is a condition in which the tendon fibers become inflamed by friction between the tendon and its covering cellular sheath, usually through either overexertion or a lack of flexibility in the tendon and calf muscle. An Achilles tendon tear is partial separation or detachment of the fibers, caused when the tendon is overstretched. A rupture describes the condition in which either the tendon is completely torn or has become entirely detached from the heel bone. When a rupture of the Achilles tendon occurs, the athlete will not be able to move very efficiently, as the lower leg structure is now disconnected and unstable. It is impossible to walk or run normally with a ruptured Achilles tendon. A tendon rupture will often occur without warning, as the victim will often experience a sudden pop or similar stabbing sensation in the lower leg, indicating the damage to the tendon has occurred. A ruptured Achilles tendon can occur in a variety of athletic activities. As the rupture often occurs in persons who do not stretch properly prior to their athletic participation, the ‘‘weekend warrior,’’ the prototypical male athlete between the ages of 30 and 50 years who is interested in recreational sports participation, but not necessarily injury prevention, is a common Achilles casualty. The leading causes of Achilles tendon rupture include: overuse or overtraining; excessive hill running; running on hard surface such as pavement or earlier generations of artificial turf; a direct trauma to the tendon; poor or nonexistent stretching regimes; tight calf muscles; poor quality or worn out athletic shoes; and structural deficiencies such as flat-footedness. A ruptured Achilles tendon will swell noticeably soon after the injury has occurred, with bruising usually visible. Immediate first aid should be the application of ice, to reduce swelling, and moderate pressure to the injury with a compression bandage. Such an injury will require further medical attention, as a failure to treat this serious injury may result

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in an improper mending of the tendon fibers, and a corresponding crippling of the leg function. To determine whether the Achilles is ruptured, a physician will often employ what is known as the Thompson test. This test involves a seating of the patient in a chair, permitting the foot on the leg suspected as damaged to dangle towards the floor. If upon a squeeze of the calf muscle the toes of the foot do not point toward the floor, the tendon is considered ruptured. The repair of the damaged tendon will involve one of two procedures. With surgery, the ruptured pieces of the tendon will be reattached to the heel bone from which it became detached. Upon the completion of surgery, the patient will wear a cast to keep the lower leg stable, for between 6 to 12 weeks. However, if there are inherent risks in surgery, such as an unrelated physical condition, the patient’s foot will be placed in a cast. There is a greater risk of rerupture when this procedure is employed. A common fear regarding the resumption of training with the rehabilitated Achilles tendon is a loss of flexibility in the tendon. In sports such as basketball and soccer, which place a premium on lateral quickness and explosive movement, extreme care must be taken in the tendon rehabilitation process. The athlete must take care to gradually return to the level of play obtained prior to the tendon injury. Rehabilitation should be undertaken with the following considerations: 1. Assess the quality and construction of the athletic shoes to be worn. To reduce the risk of a recurrence of the tendon rupture, the shoe should be well cushioned in the heel to lessen the forces of the heel strike on impact. Where the alignment of the lower leg is believed to be a factor in the cause of the rupture, an orthotic should be considered. 2. A thorough warm up, with attention paid to the stretching of the entire lower leg structure, is of critical importance. 3. There should be a very gradual increase in both training intensity and duration in the rehabilitative process; such increases should not exceed 5% to 7% per week. 4. Hard running, such as hill running or sprinting, should be avoided in this phase.

Achilles tendonitis; Ankle anatomy and physiology; Lower leg anatomy; Lower leg injuries; Skeletal muscle; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO


ACHILLES TENDONITIS

An on-track collision resulted in a severely damaged Achilles tendon for Mary Decker (1984 Olympics).

Achilles tendonitis The Achilles tendon, the largest tendon in the human body, is the fibrous connective tissue that links the gastrocnemius (calf muscle) to the calcaneus (heel bone) in the lower leg. This structure is essential to the efficient movement of the leg in walking, running or jumping, as the tendon maintains the stability of the leg when the calf muscle contracts, in conjunction with the flexor muscles of the foot, to generate the power necessary to move. Achilles tendonitis is the inflammation that occurs between the tendon and the sheath in which it is encased, primarily through overuse, in combination with factors such as an improper or incomplete warm up prior to an activity, a misalignment of the heel, or structural weaknesses such as a lack of flexibility in the calf or foot muscles. As opposed to a rupture of the Achilles tendon, which is a completely incapacitating injury for an WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª B ETT MA NN/ COR BI S

athlete, tendonitis may persist for a period of time. It is possible to continue with athletic activities while suffering from Achilles tendonitis; however, this injury can progress to a rupture, and it will inevitably cause significant discomfort, with resultant loss of function and range of movement, unless properly treated. An Achilles tendonitis condition may be caused or further aggravated by an increase in either the intensity or duration of running workouts, a sudden introduction of either hill training or a stair-climbing program, an overly intense return to training after an absence or a layoff, a traumatic force applied to the tendon, either through a sudden, explosive movement such as a sprint start, or a jump in basketball. There are a number of sports in which the participants are particularly prone to Achilles tendonitis. Running, both on the track and on the road, exposes a participant to such risk; cross country running, with its emphasis on trails and natural surfaces, places less

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stress upon the tendon. Sports requiring quick, explosive movement such as basketball and American football have a significant incidence of Achilles tendonitis. Physical discomfort is a part of athletic activities, especially at an elite level. The distinction between the inherent discomfort of training or competition, and pain generated as a signal from the body that it has sustained an injury to a component part, is often a difficult assessment for an athlete. The diagnosis and subsequent treatment of Achilles tendonitis are often problematic for this reason. A mild pain that persists after training, a lack of vigor and explosiveness in running, and a slight swelling and tenderness experienced 1.1–1.9 in (3–5 cm) above the heel are the symptoms of Achilles tendonitis. Such symptoms may arise intermittently, or they may persist on a daily basis, for a period of months or years. The treatment of Achilles tendonitis will vary depending upon the severity of the condition, and the treatment regimen will typically consist of one or more of the following components: A rest period of from 7 to 10 days will often be recommended. The athlete does not participate in any running or jumping in this period. Athletes will often engage in swimming as a way of maintaining fitness during their recovery from tendonitis, as swimming movements do not place stress on the tendon. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications, of which aspirin and ibuprofen are well-known examples, do not cure tendonitis, but are intended to assist with the management of pain and inflammation, in conjunction with other treatment. An orthotic device designed and custom fitted to correct misalignments in the lower leg that may contribute to tendonitis may be prescribed. A compression type bandage may be worn to support the tendon and to restrict its movement. Ultrasound treatment, the direction of high frequency waves into the injured tendon, can be employed. The generation of such waves creates a warming of the damaged tissue, which in turn increases blood flow and facilitates healing. Acupuncture has been employed to reduce discomfort and to facilitate healing in persistent cases. Stretching exercises, designed to increase the strength and the flexibility of the quadriceps (upper thigh muscle) and calf and muscles of the upper foot, to create a better balanced, more harmonious leg function.

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The precautions to be followed by an athlete upon a return from Achilles tendonitis are similar to those required where the tendon is ruptured. The footwear to be used for sport must be in good condition, with special attention paid to the cushioning provided in the heel. A thorough warm-up, with a focus on the stretching of the tendon, and corresponding cool-down are of prime importance, as is a gradual, and not sudden increase in both training intensity or distances.

Ankle anatomy and physiology; Athletic shoes; Lower leg injuries; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

ACL injuries and female athletes The ACL has become one of the best-known acronym in sport. The ACL is the expression employed to describe the anterior cruciate ligament, one of the important connective tissues in the knee joint. The ACL is often associated with serious knee injury. With the rise to prominence of female athletes in numerous sports in recent years (with the passage and implementation of Title IX), the corresponding increase in the incidence of ACL injuries among female athletes has been a subject of both considerable concern on the part of sports organizations, as well as the subject of intensive sports science research. The knee is a hinge joint, created by the junction of the femur (thigh bone) and the tibia and the fibula (lower leg bones). There are six distinct sets of ligaments in the joint that provide various types of connectivity between the bones in the joint. The ligaments of the knee generally assist in maintaining the stability of the joint when it is subjected to the extension and flexion forces required for running and jumping, movements that are powered by the combined action of the quadriceps (thigh muscles) and hamstrings. The most important ligament with respect to knee function is the anterior cruciate ligament, or ACL, which is positioned in the center of the knee, providing a connection between the femur and the tibia. The passage within the knee through which the ACL connects these two bones is the intercondylar notch. The two chief stabilizing functions of the ACL are the prevention of the tibia from excessive forward movement, as well as the limitation on the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ACL INJURIES AND FEMALE ATHLETES

degree of rotation permitted to the tibia when the lower leg is extended. When the ACL is damaged, the athlete will not be able to move dynamically, as the affected knee is unstable and the joint cannot support the forces of movement to any significant degree. While ACL injuries are relatively common as a result of a blow delivered into the knee from either the lateral side (outside) of the joint, or a direct frontal blow, the majority of all athletic ACL injuries occur in non-contact situations. Non-contact causation is especially prevalent in the ACL injuries sustained by female athletes. Numerous studies conducted by both sports science researchers and major governing bodies of women’s sports such as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) have determined that the ACL injury rate among female athletes is between three and six times higher than for comparable male athletes. While female athletes may sustain an ACL injury in a wide variety of sports, basketball and soccer are the two female sports with the greatest incidence of these occurrences. The non-contact scenarios that commonly produce injury are usually ones involving a degree of sudden or explosive leg movement on the part of the athlete. Athletic movements such as a sudden deceleration that is accompanied by a pivot by the athlete, or a forward stride where the athlete plants the leg, intending to cut in the opposite direction, are two such actions that carry a greater risk of ACL injury. Jumping actions have also been identified as creating a similar risk. When a player stops suddenly to jump, as in basketball or volleyball, performs a straight knee landing from a jump, or when the landing creates a hyperextension of the knee joint (the joint is straightened beyond its normal alignment by greater than 10%), each of these mechanisms places significant additional stresses on the joint. A number of explanations for the greater risk of ACL injury among female athletes have been presented through the course of a considerable number of research studies conducted throughout the world. The research suggests that the female ACL injury rate is attributable to the combination of one or more of the following factors: the width of the female pelvis relative to the length of the femur, known as the Q line; an imbalance in the relative strength of the quadriceps and hamstrings; naturally greater joint laxity among women than men; and the use of ankle braces. The female anatomy tends to create a lower leg structure where the femur descends from the hip WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

joint toward the knee at an inward angle, departing from the perpendicular orientation of the upright body to the ground. This Q line will vary from person to person given the individual build of each person. This structure tends to make a female athlete more knock-kneed than a male. In such structures, the forces that are directed into the knee on sudden movement can overpower the ACL, as the Q line creates an inherently greater degree of instability in the joint. This anatomical difference is magnified by the tendency among female athletes to possess a greater degree of joint laxity, which contributes to the ability of the knee to withstand force. The female anatomy also provides a smaller intercondylar notch and a smaller ACL tissue structure than that found in males. The structural differences are also exaggerated by the strength imbalance commonly observed in female athletes’ quadriceps and hamstring muscles and their connecting tendons. The ideal relationship between the relative strength in these two muscle groups is generally regarded to be a 3:2 ratio in favor of the quadriceps; when one of these structures is able to overpower the other, the knee may not be able to withstand the stress, leading to ACL injury. In sports such as basketball and soccer, female athletes are often encouraged to wear ankle braces to protect the ankle against sprains. Many commercially available ankle braces worn by young female athletes are stiff, tending to radiate the forces of running and jumping upwards into the knee, forces that would otherwise be dissipated at the ankle. The repair of an ACL injury will depend on the extent of damage observed within the joint. In a serious occurrence, other connective tissues in the joint may also be damaged, such as the meniscus (the cartilage that provides cushion and absorption of force in the space between the tibia and femur). When such damage is determined, surgery will be required. Different surgical techniques are employed depending on the nature of the ACL tear. When the tear is partial, arthroscopic surgery is an option, using techniques that limit the extent of the incisions and the disruption to the surrounding structures of the knee. In serious ACL tears, when the tissue is completely torn apart, some surgeons favor techniques that employ grafts from other living tissues or from artificial products, each of which is connected to the existing ACL remnants. Given the nature of the injury, any fragments of tissue and bone are removed during this surgery.

11

ACTIVE INGREDIENT

Erik Schlopy (USA) during the first run in the World Cup giant slalom. Later in this race, Schlopy suffered a season-ending torn ACL. Studies have determined that the ACL injury rate among female athletes is between three and six times higher than for comparable male athletes. ª JO NATHAN SE LKOWITZ/NE WSPORT/C ORBIS

The recovery rate from ACL surgery for female (and male) athletes is dependent to a large degree on the quality of the rehabilitation undertaken by the individual. When the athlete avoids the temptation to rush the recovery process and not undertake movements that are unsafe for the injured knee, a typical recovery time from a torn ACL is approximately nine to 12 months, with a complete recovery expected in over 80% of such cases.

Knee injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Women and sports: Exercise data, goals, and guidelines.

SEE ALSO

Active ingredient The active ingredient in a pharmaceutical product is the working element, the component that is designed to affect a desired change in the physical condition of the recipient. Active ingredients are present in a wide range of sports-related substances, from nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

12

(NSAIDs) such as aspirin and ibuprofen, corticosteroids medications (including cortisone), a multitude of dietary supplements, and athletic aids such as sunscreen. Most commercially available drugs are manufactured in one of four formulations: capsule form, tablets, liquids (such as cough syrups), and as fluids designed for intravenous delivery (most often used in hospitals). In each case, the active ingredient of the drug is usually a very small percentage of the weight or volume of the entire product. To deliver the active ingredient in a fashion that will permit the body to best absorb it, the active ingredient is packaged with a substance known as an excipient, a chemically inert substance that transports the active ingredient. The excipient also tends to protect the active ingredient from deteriorating (such as might occur if the active ingredient were exposed to oxygen for prolonged periods), as well as assisting in its absorption once the product is in the digestive system. Flavoring, coloring, and the coating of medications are well-known excipients. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ACUPUNCTURE AND EASTERN HEALING THERAPIES

Many pharmaceutical products and dietary supplements are marketed under the name of the active ingredient contained within the product; creatine supplements are an examples of products that are marketed in this fashion. Creatine supplements are used by strength-training athletes to enhance energy production and to shorten recovery times. In a typical 0.5 oz (13.5 g) serving of powdered supplement, creatine constitutes only slightly more than 0.1 oz (2.5 g) of the product, the balance being polydextrose, used an excipient, and a variety of other compounds. The manner in which active ingredients are described in the commercial packaging of the product is subject to government regulations that mandate certain prescribed amounts of active ingredients to be included and described by labeling. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the regulatory authority. Examples of this regulation are the commonly used topical painkiller, lidocaine, often used to treat minor injuries, and sunscreens that are advertised as zinc oxide products. Lidocaine must, in fact, contain between 2% and 5% of the active ingredient; a zinc oxide sunscreen may not exceed 25% of the compound by weight.

Dietary supplements; Dose and dosage; Herbs; Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); Supplement contamination.

SEE ALSO

Acupuncture and Eastern healing therapies Acupuncture and certain herbal remedies are the best known components of the broader Chinese healing therapies known as traditional Chinese medicines (TCM). For many years, the established medical communities in the United States scorned TCM practices as a pseudoscience, and TCM was not recognized as a legitimate branch of American medical practice. Traditional Chinese medicines have a long history; the earliest medical monograph concerning TCM was compiled approximately 2,500 years ago. The North American acceptance of the acupuncture procedure occurred essentially by default, when afflicted persons, often those who suffered chronic pain from a muscle or back injury, sought out TCM treatments as a last resort to conventional medicine and prescribed pain medications. The widespread use of TCM techniques in Europe, especially in the 1970s and 1980s in the sports medicine communities of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

former Eastern bloc nations, hastened a more objective consideration of TCM practices in American athletic therapy. Today, TCM has established itself as an entirely reputable, if not yet entirely mainstream, aspect of American sports medicine. Acupuncture involves the introduction of specialized needles into the skin at predetermined pressure points. The needles are constructed of very thin steel, of varying sizes. Each pressure point is a part of a larger, interconnected system of muscular and skin channels, which act as energy pathways, or meridians, throughout the body. Acupuncture is premised on the belief that the introduction of the needles to provide pressure at the appropriate points will enhance the release of the body’s natural energy, the metaphysical energy force known as qi (or chi), which in turn assists in the restoration of proper blood flow, and a corresponding reduction in pain and increased health and recovery at the injured area. In essence, the therapy is designed to encourage the body to release its own natural recuperative powers. The needles are directed into the pressure point to a depth of approximately 1 in (2.5 cm). In a typical treatment, the needles will remain in position for between 20 and 40 minutes. Omoxibustion is a variant of the acupuncture application, in which heat is applied to the acupuncture points for the same purpose. Acupuncture places emphasis upon the optimal flow of blood and bodily fluids; improved blood flow to the injury is a fundamental purpose of acupuncture. Further, acupuncture stresses the relationship between types of injuries to a particular organ that is said to govern the injured body part in question. For example, tendon injuries are related to liver function, as the liver is the organ responsible for blood production. Muscular damage is related to the spleen, as the spleen is the organ involved in the transport of nutrients in the body. Bone damage is assessed in relation to the kidneys. Athletic injuries were a useful proving ground in the American context for the efficacy of acupuncture. Athletes found that common sports injuries, such as contusions (bruising), overuse injuries such as lateral epicondilytis (known as tennis elbow), and muscle sprains, when treated through acupuncture, were often resolved more quickly than through conventional applications. The application of Chinese herbal remedies has the same underlying principle as that of acupuncture. The selection and preparation of these Chinese mixtures is directed at the whole body, as opposed to the

13

ADHESIVE CAPSULITIS

Bees sting the knee of a patient suffering from rheumatism, combining traditional Chinese medicine with acupuncture.

ª XIAN G

SH ER EN/ EP A/ CORB I S

treatment of a discrete symptom, injury, or pain. Herbal remedies encompass a very broad range of stated applications, many of them beyond the range of sports science. Specialty natural herbal remedies evolved over many hundreds of years in China, directed at health issues as diverse as skin conditions, depression, digestion, and urological function, in addition to muscular or skeletal injuries. Two herbs have been the subject of particular interest in enhanced sports performance: ma huang and ginseng.

to concentrate its healing effect. Herbs are also mixed in desired combinations to be ingested in powder, extract, and tablet forms. Certain herbs acquired a reputation in the treatment of the injuries sustained in the practice of martial arts; these substances are mixed in a poultice and applied to the injured area. Chinese herbal remedies are available from both specialized practitioners, as well as through a multitude of both conventional pharmacies and Internet distribution.

Ma huang was developed by Chinese practitioners as a means of increasing the energy of a subject; athletes took ma huang as it was a stimulant, a natural form of ephedra. Ephedra, and its derivative ephedrine, are banned substances in international athletics and many team sports. Ginseng was reputed to have invigorating qualities, and it is widely employed as an additive with other herbal mixtures, often taken as a tea.

SEE ALSO

Chinese herbal remedies are prescribed in a number of forms. Herbal teas are a common practice, as the boiling of water and the mixing of the herb tends

14

Dietary supplements; Massage therapy; Stimulants.

Adhesive capsulitis Adhesive capsulitis is a physical condition that affects both the range of motion and the overall function of the shoulder. This affliction is also known as ‘‘frozen shoulder,’’ which is a general description of the sensation commonly associated with the condition. Adhesive capsulitis is often WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ADIPOSE TISSUE MASS

difficult to diagnose, especially among athletes, as the physical symptoms are very similar to those of rotator cuff tendinitis, bursitis, tendinitis of the bicep tendon (which attaches the muscles of the upper arm to the shoulder joint), and more generalized arthritis complaints. The shoulder is one of the most complex musculoskeletal structures in the body. The humerus bone (upper arm), the scapula (shoulder blade), and the clavicle (collarbone) are the bones that form the shoulder joints. The rotator cuff, a four-muscle formation positioned on the top of the shoulder, is responsible for the degree of motion available for upward arm movement. The joint that is most vulnerable to injury is the scapulohumoral joint, the largest of the shoulder joints, which has a joint capsule in which it is encased. The capsule encases a small amount of synovial fluid, which assists the smooth, friction-reduced movements of the bones within the joint. The precise cause of adhesive capsulitis is not well understood. The limitations in shoulder movement are often attributed to a formation of scar tissue in the scapulohumeral joint, often the result of the individual having sustained a previous injury. The medical name of the condition is attributed to the fact that the joint capsule tissue adheres to the head of the humerus bone where it meets the scapula. The condition is typically first noted by a person when the shoulder becomes stiff, followed by a loss of range of motion in the joint and a significant degree of pain that accompanies any vigorous movement, such an attempts to throw an object or to lift any significant weight. The mechanism that causes frozen shoulder is unique to the shoulder structure, as no other human joint has an equivalent disorder. Statistically, approximately 70% of adhesive capsulitis cases occur among women, most often in the non-dominant shoulder (the shoulder of their opposite hand). It is also a condition that rarely reoccurs once it has apparently completed its progression from stiff to frozen to thaw. Once the initial stiffness is noted in shoulder movement (a sensation that may persist for between three to six months), the frozen shoulder phase may also continue for a similar period. The ultimate thawing of the shoulder is a further process of usually three to four months. Treatments will often consist of stretching exercises that seek to gradually extend the available range of motion in the joint. The administration of corticosteroids will provide a measure of anti-inflammatory benefit in some cases. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Musculoskeletal injuries; Shoulder anatomy and physiology; Shoulder injuries; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

Adipose tissue mass Adipose tissue is a specialized form of connective tissue that acts to support, connect, or protect organs. It consists of triglycerides, which is are lipids that comprises a glycerol backbone with three associated fatty acids. White adipose tissue that surrounds organs helps provide cushioning to the kidneys and the lymph glands. Adipose tissue also serves an important function as an insulator against cold. The insulation property is due to subcutaneous adipose tissue, which is located in the subcutaneous layer of the skin. The adipose tissue does not conduct heat nearly as readily as do other tissues. The degree of insulation depends on the amount of subcutaneous adipose tissue that is present. In athletic endeavors, when insulation is not as critical due to the generation of heat during exercise, adipose tissue mass in athletes can be less than in nonathletes who rely on the tissue’s insulation property. For example, excess adipose tissue translates to more body weight and increased exercise effort for a marathon runner or cross-country skier. In contrast, mountain climbers benefit from the increased insulation afforded by an increased supply of adipose tissue. Adipose tissue also plays an important role as an energy source. Energy stored as adipose tissue represents a reservoir that can be drawn on when other, more easily utilizable sources of energy (carbohydrate and protein) have been exhausted. Little water is present in adipose tissue; as a result, the energy available per gram of fat is more than double the energy available per gram of either carbohydrate or protein. This energy store is not, however, as easily accessible other energy sources such as dietary glucose. The human body is not efficient in the conversion of lipid to carbohydrate. As well, the brain normally uses carbohydrates as the energy source. Finally, foods provide a ready supply of carbohydrate and protein, which will be utilized first. Excess dietary carbohydrate and protein that is not immediately utilized can be converted to fat and ultimately stored as adipose tissue. In a healthy person, this backup energy source is advantageous. For example,

15

ADIPOSE TISSUE MASS

Adipose tissue, magnified 100 times.

ª LE ST ER V. B ERGM AN/ COR BIS

a marathon runner will draw on adipose tissue as the more readily accessible energy sources are exhausted during the course of the run. However, over time, the continued intake of excess energy can lead to the creation of the plentiful adipose tissue that is a hallmark of obesity.

or ‘‘apple’’ distribution. The latter term denotes the body shape. Correspondingly, women, who generally have more adipose tissue on the lower body, are described as having producing a ‘‘pear’’ distribution of adipose tissue (other terms include gynoid, female, and lower-body segment).

The reason that white adipose tissue is an excellent energy reservoir is explainable by its structure. Up to 85% of the weight of a cell is occupied by lipid. The lipid occupies almost all the volume of a cell, with the nucleus and mitochondria typically being relegated to the periphery.

Aside from gender, ethnicity, and diet, the distribution of adipose tissue and even the amount that accumulates over time can be dictated in part by an individual’s genetic makeup. In females, the physiological changes that accompany menopause influence adipose tissue distribution, with a post-menopausal shift to an upper body distribution. Exercise is an important means of reducing the accumulation of adipose tissue.

The process whereby fat is liberated from adipose tissue is termed lipolysis. In lipolysis, the triglycerides in the adipose cells are enzymatically broken down to free the fatty acids from glycerol. The fatty acids are then available for use in muscle regeneration or as a source of energy. The distribution of adipose tissue in the body varies from person to person. In general, adipose tissue tends to be located more on the upper body in men than in women. This pattern is variously called an android, central, male, upper-body segment,

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Shedding adipose tissue as a consequence of athletic activity can bring an unhealthy risk. Since approximately four percent of body fat is vital to maintain organ function, having too little fat can be a health hazard. The standard measure of body fat is termed the body mass index (BMI), which is calculated by multiplying body weight in pounds by 700 and then dividing the results by the square of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AEROBICS

Aerobic activities are designed to increase the oxygen available to muscles by increasing the capacity of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels. ª M ARK G AM BA /CO RBI S

height in inches. A BMI lower than 18 is considered a risk factor for premature death. Elite athletes will monitor their BMI during the normal course of training and alter their diet to compensate for a decreasing reserve of fat. SEE ALSO

Body fat.

Aerobics Aerobics is a term that was coined in the late 1960s by Dr. Kenneth Cooper, then a physician at the San Antonio Air Force Hospital, to identify a series of cardiovascular exercises he had developed to combat coronary artery disease. The exercises were designed to lessen the buildup of a form of cholesterol on the walls of the coronary arteries, which are the arteries that are the conduit of blood to the heart muscle. The cholesterol buildup (plaque deposition) reduces the internal diameter of the arteries, which restricts the flow of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

oxygen-laden blood to the heart. Plaque formation can also stress the heart by making the pumping of blood to other areas of the body more difficult. The consequences can include chest pain (angina), high blood pressure, and/or a heart attack. Aerobics involves oxygen; aerobics literally means ‘‘with oxygen.’’ In contrast, anaerobic means ‘‘without oxygen.’’ Oxygen is a vital part of the energy-generating process for muscles. In concert with fats and glucose, oxygen is used to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which fuels most cellular activity. As oxygen, fats, or glucose are depleted, muscles can acquire energy from anaerobic processes. However, the generation of lactic acid as a byproduct of anaerobic pathways more rapidly fatigues muscles. Establishing a higher level of aerobic fitness permits more strenuous and prolonged exercise before the aerobic threshold is reached. Following the publication in 1968 of Aerobics, Cooper’s book about the exercise system, aerobics quickly became a popular form of exercise. Ten years later, the estimated number of Americans who

17

AEROBICS

Walking combines the cardiovascular and muscular activities necessary to strengthen the heart. Here, Japanese walking exercise guru Duke Saraye (center) gives a lesson on technique. YOS HI K AZU TS U NO/ AF P /G ET TY I MA GE S

regularly did aerobics was six million. By 1987, the estimated number had reached 22 million. In devising aerobics, Cooper viewed the cardiovascular benefits of aerobics as being central to overall physical fitness. The initial military version of aerobics concentrated on endurance, specifically, completing a 1.5-mile (2.4-km) run in 12 minutes. At about the same time, the sport of running was growing in popularity; aerobics helped boost the sport’s appeal. Following his military service, Cooper founded The Cooper Aerobics Center in Dallas, Texas, where he adapted the military-fitness focus of aerobics to fit the general population. His approach has proven to be spectacularly successful. Now called The Cooper Fitness Center and The Cooper Institute, the 30-acre facility has burgeoned into a health- and lifestyle-

18

improvement complex staffed by hundreds of exercise physiologists, physical therapists, and dieticians. Additionally, aerobics research is carried out at another facility in Denver, Colorado. During the 1970s, aerobics evolved from its running base to encompass cardiovascular activity, calisthenics, and dance. Aerobics became synonymous with a music-based group workout involving choreographed dance moves or repetitious motion. Celebrities such as Richard Simmons and Jane Fonda popularized different versions of aerobic workouts in the 1980s, from milder versions that beginners or less physically able people could handle to intense sessions that challenged even elite athletes. Other seminal personalities include Judi Sheppard Missett, who devised a fusion of aerobics and dance called Jazzercise, and Billy Blanks, who in the 1990s popularized Tae-Bo, an aerobic WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AGE-RELATED RESPONSES TO INJURY

workout that incorporates martial arts movements. Aerobic workouts remain a staple of fitness club classes in 2006. Aerobic activities are all designed to increase the oxygen that is available to muscles by increasing the physical capacity of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels. The number of red blood cells—which transport oxygen throughout the body—also increases. These aerobic benefits are produced by a regular exercise regimen involving activities that are prolonged (a typical aerobic workout lasts about 60 minutes), use large muscle groups such as the arms and legs, and are rhythmic. The general consensus among physicians and exercise physiologists, including aerobics founder Cooper, is that aerobic exercise should be the main component of a fitness program, but that it should be complemented by strength training. The latter becomes more important with age, as the loss of muscle and bone mass becomes more of a concern. In addition to studio-based aerobics, many traditional athletic activities combine the cardiovascular and muscular activities necessary to strengthen the heart. These include running, walking, swimming, cross-country skiing, bike riding, basketball, and rollerblading. Exercise machines that mimic stair climbing and bicycle riding also offer aerobic workouts. One of the main benefits of aerobics is the elevation of the basal metabolic rate, which is the rate at which energy, measured in calories, is used up (burned) to maintain the normal function of the body. This elevation occurs as the body adjusts to the increased physical demands being imposed. The visible result for the majority of people is the loss of weight. Aerobics is vitally important for competitive athletes, as many athletic endeavors require cardiovascular fitness. SEE ALSO

Pilates.

Age-related responses to injury It is one of the great and enduring ironies of sport that while fitness and athletic competition are often perceived as important components to a healthy and enjoyable passage into middle age and beyond, the aging process limits athletic performance as emphatically as any other barrier. The age-related response to injury must be considered in two ways: how age affects the physical WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ability of the body to recover from a particular injury, and the impact age has on the mental and psychological capability of an athlete to deal with the stresses of rehabilitation and recovery. In general terms, aging is a process of often gradual change to the physical structures and organs of the human body. The aging process is unrelated to, but may be accelerated by, disease, traumatic injury, or accident; aging also impacts upon the manner in which the body recovers from an injury. As the body ages, muscle mass will decrease, typically in a more pronounced fashion after age 45, as the muscle protein rebuilding and repair processes become slower and less effective, resulting in decreased physical strength. The power of the heart, and the corresponding ability of the body to transport oxygen by way of the red blood cell system, also begins a slow but perceptible decline in performance at age 40. These general aspects of aging in athletes are each influenced by the specific makeup of each athlete. Age is of particular importance in the consideration of how athlete injuries are managed and treated. In general terms, a younger person will heal from injury more quickly than an older subject with a similar injury; the recovery rate is directly related to the speed with which the body can grow new cells to repair itself. Various sports science studies have illustrated that an injured athlete of age 45 and over will recover at a rate of between 15% and 18% slower than a similarly injured 30-yearold person. Skin thickness is reduced by as much as 30% by age 50, making the skin more susceptible to cuts and lacerations. Bone density naturally decreases by approximately 10% by age 50; conditions such as osteoporosis (a common disease in persons who do not consume proper amounts of bone-building minerals) will tend to reduce bone density still further, making the skeleton more prone to fractures. From elite athletes to the recreational competitor, an injury can be as emotionally devastating as the physical limitations that result. The age of the injured athlete will often play a role in how each of these factors is resolved. Such psychological factors associated with injury include: Maturity: How will the athlete respond to any rehabilitation or physical therapy regime that may be directed? Self-confidence. Importance of sport in the life of the injured athlete.

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AGING AND ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE

The incidence and treatment of this potentially serious injury has been the study of intense research. A 16-year-old high school football player will often return to play within two or three days of sustaining a concussion; peer pressure is a common motivator, as opposed to an absence of symptoms. The recovery rate for an injured 16-year-old is as much as 100% longer than that for a 20-year-old college football player who has sustained a similar concussion. The differing rate results from the slower healing process in the 16-year-old athlete, who is not yet fully grown, and whose body’s capacity to repair itself is correspondingly less. In a similar fashion, for young athletes who have not yet reached physical maturation, injury recovery and a return to athletic activities must consider the long-term consequences upon the epiphyseal plate, known as bone growth plates. The plates are developing tissues found at the epiphysis, the ends of long bones (such as the femur, or thigh bone). Both injury and a failure to consider the consequences of damage to a growth plate may have serious long-term consequences to a healthy bone structure.

Australian athlete Stewart Vance claimed to be the world’s oldest marathon runner. KE YS TON E/ GE TTY IMA G ES

In a team sport, how does the athlete perceive their role on the team in the context of the injury? The culture of the sport itself—many sports, such as American football and rugby, have significant injury rates; the notion of ‘‘playing through pain’’ borders upon expectation with many types of injury, including muscle sprains, bruising, and broken fingers. In other sports, particularly technique-specific activities such as track and field or gymnastics, what are relatively minor injuries in relation to bodily function may significantly limit competitive abilities. Individual pain threshold and experience with earlier injuries often assist an older athlete in better dealing with the psychological stresses of injury. While as a general proposition, injury has a more pronounced impact on athletes over age 40. Concussions and other blows to the head introduce an additional factor to recovery. Concussion, a bruising of the brain caused by a blow to the head, is a common injury in contact sports such as American football.

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Injuries are the first component of a cycle that progresses through rehabilitation and recovery, to full participation. This cycle will be repeated throughout the career of any athlete, as injury to some degree is inevitable. In some sports, the mental hurdles associated with recovery are as demanding as physical rehabilitation. For the downhill skier returning from an anterior cruciate ligament tear and a bad fall, or the NASCAR auto racer who was badly injured in a crash, the injury may prompt a retirement, even where the physical rehabilitation is complete.

Aging and athletic performance; Mature athletes; Sport psychology.

SEE ALSO

Aging and athletic performance There are certain immutable truths concerning the performance of the human body as it ages, particularly as the athlete reaches age 40. The physical peak for most humans, in most sports, is between 25 and 35 years of age; during this peak period, the well-conditioned athlete can create a confluence of muscular strength, peak cardiovascular and oxygen transport, speed and reaction time, and mental capabilities (including the ability to deal with competitive pressures), all bound together by a desire to succeed. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ALTITUDE ILLNESS

The heart, as with every other human muscle, will gradually lose efficiency and power over time. A typical rule-of-thumb calculation to confirm the physiological fact of reduced heart capacity is that utilized by the American College of Sport Medicine: in males, 220 age ¼ maximum heart rate (beats/minute); in females, 226 age ¼ maximum heart rate. Athletes cannot train at a maximum heart rate for extended periods; the usual target training rate for a fit, healthy athlete will be approximately 80% of the maximum rate. It is for this reason that, as an athlete ages, the heart’s ability to work is reduced. The rule of thumb is not an accurate predictor in every case; extensive research in the triathlon and distance sports communities demonstrates that maximum heart rate may vary significantly between athletes of equal abilities. In sports such as tennis, golf, and baseball, or at specific team sport positions, such as ice hockey goaltender or the American football quarterback, the mental training and experience components are of greater importance to athletic performance. With more training and experience, an athlete can remain competitive for a longer period. The competitions sanctioned by both the Professional Golfers Association (PGA) and its European counterpart are evidence of ability of older athletes to compete, as the so-called seniors tour in each organization has a minimum age limit of 50 years or older. Jack Nicklaus won the prestigious Masters championship in 1986 at age 46; there are individual tournament winners on the PGA tour each season who are over 40 years of age. However, for sports in which strength (both muscular strength and bone density), oxygen uptake, and cardiovascular efficiency are vital to success, the aging process may be slowed, though never halted or reversed. Since 1950, the average age of world champion distance runners in the 3-mi (5,000 m) races through to the 26-mi marathons (42.2 km) ranges between 28 and 32 years of age. From this peak of ability, runners will continue to perform at levels close to their personal best into their late 30s and early 40s; performance then declines at a rate of approximately 2% per year through age 80. Swimming, which like running places a premium on cardiovascular strength, shows a similar regression from best performance times as an athlete ages. The success of female swimmers at early ages (there have been numerous Olympic gold medals and world records set by female swimmers under the age of 20) is related to both the earlier physical maturation WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

of female athletes, as well as the physical dynamics of the female swimmer in the water; the progressive decline in the performance of female swimmers due to age is similar to that of male swimmers. Consistent with these physiological constants, the oldest gold medalist in the history of all Olympic track and field events was Patrick McDonald, an American hammer thrower, who won the 1920 competition at age 42. The oldest Olympic track champion in the 1,500-m race was 31-year-old Albert Hill of Kenya, in 1988. Female competitors have the added variables of prospective pregnancy and childrearing, which will remove the athlete from intense training and competition for an often-significant period. Childbirth may also change the physical shape of a female athlete, particularly in a widening of the pelvis, which may impact subsequent athletic performance. In addition to the generalized impact that age presents on injury and the body’s ability to recover, age is a significant reducing factor in the assessment of reaction time in athletes. ‘‘Reaction time’’ is the expression used to describe a complex sequence of related actions when the body is called upon to respond to a stimulus. Every competitive sport involves a reaction time; examples include the cricket batsman deciding whether to swing at a particular ball, an ice hockey goalie moving to stop a shot, or a sprinter exploding from the starters’ block. The speed with which the athlete reacts is a combination of their ability to recognize the required response, the choices available to them, the type of reaction required, practice in responding to this situation, fatigue, and the age of the athlete.

Mature athletes; Muscle mass and strength; Osteoarthritis; Women and sports: Exercise data, goals, and guidelines.

SEE ALSO

Alpine, skiing

SEE

Skiing, Alpine

Altitude illness Altitude illness refers to physiological changes that occur at higher elevations in a body that has not adapted (acclimated) to the higher altitude. Typical symptoms of one type of altitude illness, known as acute mountain sickness, include a severe headache, nausea, and physical weakness. However, much more severe, even life-threatening altitude

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ALTITUDE ILLNESS

illnesses—called high-altitude cerebral edema and high-altitude pulmonary edema—can develop. Altitude is measured as the distance above sea level. High altitude is considered to be 8,000–12,000 ft (2,400–3,700 m) above sea level. As examples, the coastal city of Los Angeles is at sea level, while the city of Denver, Colorado, is located at an elevation of 5,000 ft (1,575 m) above sea level. A plane trip from a coastal city such as Los Angeles to Denver represents a rapid elevation change. A further elevation change, such as a hike into the surrounding mountains, can place someone in an environment to which he or she has not been acclimated. Altitude illness can result from this rapid altitude change. The principal reason for altitude illness is the reduced intake of oxygen that occurs at altitude. At both sea level and higher altitudes, oxygen constitutes about 21% of the gases that comprise air. However, the number of oxygen molecules present in a set volume of air (measured as the barometric pressure, which is the weight of the atmosphere over a set portion of the Earth) decreases with increasing altitude. At sea level, for example, the barometric pressure is 760 millimeters (mm) of mercury. But at an elevation of 12,000 ft (3,700 m), the barometeric pressure is only 483 mm of mercury. Put another way, there are less oxygen molecules in each breath of air at the higher altitude. For example, at the summit of Mount Everest (approximately 29,000 ft [8,839 m] above sea level), the available oxygen is only one-third that at sea level. While individuals such as seasoned mountain guides have climbed Mount Everest without the aid of oxygen, most climbers will need the assistance of oxygen tanks at this altitude. At higher altitudes, the body will attempt to compensate for the reduced oxygen level by increasing the heart rate and by breathing faster. Yet, even these increases will not restore the oxygen level in the body to the oxygen level at the lower altitude. As a consequence, physical adaptation to a reduced amount of oxygen must occur. If the change from a lower to a higher altitude is gradual, the physiological adaptations will occur in plenty of time. These include the production of more oxygen-carrying red blood cells, increased production of an enzyme that releases oxygen from the blood cells, and an increased pressure in the pulmonary arteries (which essentially forces air into regions of the lung that are nor normally required for breathing at sea level).

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Symptoms of altitude illness vary from mild to life-threatening. In the majority of people who are not acclimated, elevations over 10,000 ft (3,000 m) will produce headache, shortness of breath, a feeling of fatigue, dizziness, nausea, loss of appetite, and disrupted sleep. These symptoms of acute mountain sickness usually begin from 12 to 24 hours after the elevation change, and they tend to increase over the first few days, as part of the body’s acclimation process. As acclimation occurs or with descent to a lower altitude, the symptoms subside. A drug called acetazolamide speeds up breathing by blocking an enzyme in the kidney, which makes the blood more acidic. In turn, this is interpreted by the brain as a signal to increase blood alkalinity by more rapid breathing. The increased breathing rate increases the intake of oxygen. However, allergic reactions to the sulfonamide drug can occur. More moderate symptoms of weakness, shortness of breath upon exertion, and decreased coordination (ataxia) may not be relieved by routine medication. Descent to a lower altitude is the typical course of treatment. Time spent at the lower altitude can produce acclimation, and ascent to higher altitudes can recommence. Severe altitude illness, which most often occurs when the ascent to higher altitudes is done quickly, manifest with the same moderate, as well as shortness of breath when resting, the complete inability to walk, mental confusion, buildup of fluid in the lungs (pulmonary edema), and fluid leakage in the brain that produces swelling (cerebral edema). An immediate descent to a lower altitude is necessary to prevent persistent or permanent neurological injury or death (which can occur within several days). During descent, administering dexamethasone or nifedipine can lessen the symptoms of cerebral edema and pulmonary edema, respectively. The drugs do not help in acclimation, however. Altitude illness can also be treated on the mountainside using a Gamow bag. A person is placed inside the bag, which is then inflated and sealed. By pumping air into the bag, an atmosphere enriched in oxygen is created, simulating a lower altitude. After several hours inside a Gamow bag, acclimation to the artificial lower altitude will have occurred. This acclimation will persist for some hours after exiting the bag, providing enough time for a real descent to the safety of a lower altitude. SEE ALSO

Aerobics; Rock climbing and wall climbing. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AMERICAN ARBITRATION ASSOCIATION (AAA)

On the Mt. Everest Trail, a warning posted in front of the medical clinic run by the Himalayan Rescue Association. The association treats altitude-related illnesses and educates trekkers about the hazards of ascending too high, too quickly. ª J OH N VAN H AS S EL T /COR BI S

American Arbitration Association (AAA) The American Arbitration Association (AAA) is a private corporation that provides a wide range of legal services that are defined as alternate dispute resolution (ADR). Arbitration, mediation, and other related types of more informal conflict resolution are the component parts of ADR, which has become an integral part of the international sports landscape since the late 1970s. Arbitration is a process by which two parties in a dispute agree that they will avoid the conventional legal process of trial and judgment through an agreement where each undertakes to be bound by the decision of an arbitrator. Arbitration is generally a much faster process than that of civil litigation. The arbitrators available to the opposed parties also tend to have specialized knowledge and experience with respect to the issues in the dispute. In some instances, the parties in a dispute will engage the services of a mediator. The key distinction between WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

arbitration and mediation is that mediation is a nonbinding process, where the recommendations of the mediator are not binding on either party; the work of the mediator is designed to achieve a settlement or, alternatively, a reduction in the number of argued issues between two parties. In almost every case, the services of either arbitrators and mediators are funded by the parties to the dispute. In sports disputes, arbitrators are selected from a list maintained by the organization providing the arbitration services. The arbitrators will be further subcategorized on the basis of their experience in particular sport arbitrations. Many arbitrators may be lawyers, but not exclusively so; in sports arbitrations involving financial issues, the arbitrator may have a financial background. Arbitration as a tool to resolve sports disputes gained prominence in North America in the mid1970s after professional baseball players, by virtue of a ruling by the United States Supreme Court, gained the right to seek free agency, which frees a player to seek employment with the highest bidder

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AMINO ACID SUPPLEMENTS

for services at the expiration of a current contract. Arbitration became a frequent means by which contract disputes were resolved between players and teams. In amateur sport, the role of the arbitration took on special prominence with the rise of doping testing and the challenge made by some athletes as to the legitimacy of a positive test and a resultant competition ban. When athletes resorted to formal legal action to assert a claim that a doping test was flawed, the athlete invariably found that world organizations, such as the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF), were not inclined to honor an order from a court based in a particular state or country, as that court had no jurisdiction beyond the boundaries of the state or country in question. The most prominent example of litigation achieving a dubious end was that initiated by American 400-m runner Butch Reynolds in 1992, in the wake of a positive steroid test. A Cincinnati court ordered Reynolds reinstated by the IAAF, and that Reynolds was to receive $27 million in damages—neither event ever occurred. The court ruling had all of the appearance of favoring a local athlete, and the ruling lacked the credibility that would be needed to sway a powerful international organization such as the IAAF from its course of action. The creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and the establishment of it as the world authority in the ban on performance-enhancing drugs in athletics served to establish arbitrations as a preferred means for resolving drug-related disputes. The Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) does on a global basis what the AAA offers principally in the United States (although the AAA also does arbitrations work in various countries throughout the world). The AAA is specifically named in the constitution and bylaws of the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) as a designated agency for the administration and resolution of amateur sports disputes. The AAA, in this role, assists in the arbitration and mediation of matters such as the eligibility of athletes and doping infractions. The AAA also establishes on-site arbitration services, to deal with disputes that may arise in the course of a multi-day athletic event, when the resolution of the issues cannot be delayed to a better time. An example of the relationship that exists between the various sports bodies in approaches to athletic dispute resolution is found in the Zach-Lund case, determined prior to the 2006 Winter Olympics. Lund, an American skeleton racer, tested positive for the banned substance finasteride, a diuretic. Lund

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had disclosed his use of this substance as a component to a hair loss product that he had been using for a period of years; WADA banned the use of finasteride through its inclusion on the WADA Prohibited List in 2005. When Lund tested positive for the substance, he availed himself of the arbitration procedures provided by the USOC constitution; the USOC deemed that a warning was a sufficient sanction for Lund. WADA disagreed with the USOC decision, and it ultimately requested the CAS to arbitrate the matter again in advance of the 2006 Games; the CAS arbitrator expressed a measure of sympathy for Lund’s position, but varied the penalty to a one-year suspension from all international competition. SEE ALSO Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS); United States Olympic Committee; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

Amino acid supplements Amino acids are often described as one of the building blocks of human life. Amino acids are a group of 20 organic acids (containing carbon), each of which has nitrogen and hydrogen atoms in its construction. Amino acids are most numerous chemicals in the body. Amino acids are present in the thousands of different proteins that are employed within the body to construct and maintain its muscles, skin, bone, and organs. Proteins are also required in the manufacture of hormones, the chemical-signaling agents secreted in the various glands that constitute the body’s endocrine system, controlled by the thyroid gland. Proteins are also the key ingredient in the formation of collagen, the elastic tissue that permits the ligaments, tendons, and all connective tissues of the body their range of movement. Of the 20 amino acids utilized in a variety of body functions and processes, nine acids are classed as essential amino acids. These chemicals are not capable of being produced or synthesized within the body, and each must be obtained through dietary sources. The remainder are classed as nonessential amino acids, substances that are manufactured within the body, chiefly through the action of the liver. Amino acid supplements are a part of the broader range of protein supplements used by some athletes to obtain specific training advantages. Sports that place a premium on muscle mass and strength, such as weightlifting, wrestling, American football, and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AMINO ACIDS

various track and field events such as the shotput, are those athletes often seek to gain the perceived benefits of additional amino acids to assist them in their strength training. The theory in support of amino acid supplements is straightforward in its reasoning. A traditional balanced diet will be composed of 60-65% carbohydrates, 12-15% protein, and less than 30% fats, in addition to proper vitamins, minerals, and an ample supply of phytochemicals consumed as a part of the carbohydrate/protein/fat regime. Athletes endeavoring to build greater strength will often correspondingly increase the amount of protein; the desired amino acids will be extracted from these protein sources through the digestive and absorption process. Proteins are not created equal; not all protein sources contain the same amounts or quality of protein, as measured by the quality of the amino acids contained in the food. In the assessment of protein quality, the amino acid structure of an egg is the standard against which all proteins are measured. Athletes who use protein supplements will seek an increase in both the quantity of amino acids ingested, as well as a high quality protein to supply the best and most useful amino acids. It is a cardinal rule of the twin sciences of diet and nutrition that all macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) and micronutrients (all vitamins and most minerals) are most efficiently absorbed into the body through food, as the body is constructed to best receive and absorb these substances through digestion. On that basis, a protein supplement is an inferior means by which to consume proteins. The secondary issue concerning amino acid supplements is the linear assumption that if the athlete wishes to build more muscle, the athlete will require more protein to be metabolized into amino acid. The modern trend in sports science is directed away from significantly increased amino acid consumption. The formation of additional muscle tissues in response to training demands can be achieved through increases of amino acids consumption of less than 5%. Excess amino acids are not stored within the body in the manner of fats (through adipose tissue) or carbohydrates (either through glycogen or through conversion to fats). The body tends to dispose of excess amino acids through the breakdown of the acid and disposal through the renal system. Protein breakdown creates urea, which precipitates stress on the renal system. Amino acid supplements carry all of the other risks inherent in any form of dietary supplementaWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

tion. Unless the product is obtained from a known and proven source (or the athlete has the means to test the product themselves, an unlikely proposition), supplementation carries with it an element of risk. The risks assumed are both legal and physiological. The legal risks for an elite athlete in the use of amino acid supplements is the history, within the industry, of adding substances to the formulation that are either not disclosed to the consumer or are disguised in the packaging. Studies conducted in the United States after 2000 determined that up to 25% of the tested protein or amino acid supplements contained forms of anabolic steroids, or anabolic steroid prohormones (precursors)—chemicals that facilitate the production of testosterone in the body. Such substances are clearly added to supplements by manufacturers to promote greater strength and weight gains among its users, all of which would be attributed to the ‘‘legal’’ ingredients listed on the commercial packaging. The consumption of hidden anabolic products may pose a significant health hazard to consumers. If an elite athlete were the subject of a doping test and failed the test on the basis of these unknown additives, the prevailing legal view of anti-doping agencies worldwide is that of strict liability on the part of the athletes: they will be generally held accountable for anything that they ingest into their bodies.

Dietary supplements; Glutamine supplementation; Protein supplements.

SEE ALSO

Amino acids Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. The 20 naturally occurring amino acids are linked together in different sequences to generate the many forms of proteins that exist. The arrangement and chemistry of the constituent amino acids are fundamentally important in determining the shape and function of the resulting protein. For all but one of the naturally occurring amino acids, a central carbon atom is chemically bonded to a hydrogen atom (H), amine group (NH2), and a carboxylic acid group (COOH). The remaining bonding site of the carbon atom is occupied by various chemical groups, which are generically termed R groups. The R group varies according to the particular amino acid. It is this variable chemistry that is key in

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ANABOLIC PROHORMONES

dictating the contribution of the particular amino acid to the protein’s shape and function. An R group can be simple. For example, the R group of alanine is simply a hydrogen atom. However, R groups may be far more complex. One example is phenylalanine, which consists of an aromatic ring attached to CH2. Other R groups contain sulfur atoms, or various arrangements of amine, carboxylic acid, and/or a carbon to which an oxygen atom is double-bonded. The differing R group chemistries bestow varying degrees of charge to the amino acid, which in turn determines the tendency of the amino acid to associate with water. A ring structure, such as that present in phenyalanine, is more hydrophobic (‘‘water-hating’’) than R groups such as hydrogen. An amino acid containing a more hydrophobic group will tend to avoid water. In an intact protein, such amino acids will tend to be associated with pockets or recesses in the protein’s three-dimensional structure. The exception to the common amino acid arrangement is proline, which contains a five-carbon, pentagon-shaped ring with an associated amide and a carboxylic acid. Amino acids form bonds with one another to generate a chain known as a peptide. Peptide chains then bond together to generate the protein. The tendency of the constituent amino acids to associate with water or avoid water drives the protein to adopt a three-dimensional shape that is the most thermodynamically stable. Thus, proteins can be more spherical, with the hydrophobic residues buried, or can assume a flatter shape reminiscent of a pleated (zig-zag) piece of paper. The various protein configurations are important to the overall function of the protein. For example, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions (enzymes) can contain a site that can be occupied by a portion of another protein. This ‘‘lock and key’’ fit is crucial in allowing the enzyme catalyzed reaction (such as the removal or addition of chemical groups) to take place. Amino acids are important in sports precisely because they constitute proteins. Growth or repair of muscles requires the availability of protein. Supplementation of the diet with amino acid-enhanced nutrients is used to increase available amino acids used to build muscle mass. Because there are risks to nutrition alteration, all nutrient enrichment programs, especially those having controversial side

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effects, should be taken only after consultation with a physician and with the approval of a sports governing body.

Amino acid supplements; Creatine supplementation; Dietary supplements; Glutamine supplementation; Malnutrition.

SEE ALSO

Anabolic prohormones Anabolic substances or processes within the human body are those that either stimulate or facilitate the growth of bodily tissues. Anabolism is the antonym of catabolism, the term describing any process that breaks down or reduces tissue. Weight training causes micro-damage to muscle tissues; this damage is a catabolic process. An anabolic process occurs when the regeneration and repair of the tissue results from new cell growth. Hormones are the chemical messengers of the body. Hormones are produced and released by the glands that constitute the endocrine system. Each hormone is in essence a signal to an organ or a bodily process to act in a particular fashion. Examples of hormonal responses include the body’s various systems being spurred into action by the production of adrenaline from the adrenal gland, and the growth of various bones and tissues being stimulated by the release of the human growth hormone from the thyroid gland. Prohormones are chemicals that are either ingested into or created within the body. A prohormone is often described as a precursor to the formation of a hormone, without itself creating the effect of a hormone on the body. The prohormone will typically have a chemical composition that is near to that of the desired anabolic compound; enzymes produced by the liver act as catalysts in the conversion of the prohormone to anabolic hormone. Since the refinement of anabolic steroid practices in the early 1960s, the consumption of these compounds became an approach favored by many athletes seeking to become stronger and bigger. When anabolic steroids were banned from a number of international athletic competition in the 1970s (most notably, the Olympic ban in 1976), the use of steroids by athletes evolved into a contest where the primary objective was to defeat the doping test procedures, first through sophisticated masking and diuretic techniques, and later through the use of ‘‘designer’’ steroids, anabolic products whose chemical composition was slightly alerted to deceive WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ANABOLIC STEROIDS

known scientific testing procedures. Nandrolone was the best known of these designer products, subsequently banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 2003. Since the mid-1990s, athletes engaged in strength training have sought to stimulate the production of the body’s natural anabolic agent, the male sex hormone testosterone, as a means of building greater muscle size and strength, without ingesting a banned performance-enhancing substance. Prohormones were seen as the means to this objective. The commercial marketing of anabolic prohormones invariably makes reference to these supplements as being the closest product to testosterone that an athlete can obtain. The most popular of the initial anabolic prohormones was androstenedione, more familiar to strength athletes as ‘‘andro,’’ available in a number of different chemical formulations, each of which had an intended anabolic effect. Consumed as a powdered supplement, andro was effective in its role as a testosterone prohormone, as it was capable of converting, on average, between 5% and 6% of its mass into testosterone. Andro also had well-established side effects, particularly the development of enlarged breast tissue in males, a condition known as gynecomastia, as well as the risk of an enlarged prostate gland. Boldenone, an anabolic steroid used in the equine industries (horse training and horse racing), was another chemical that has been employed by body builders and strength athletes, as it is known to convert to the hormone estrogen within the liver. Anabolic prohormones are ingested in different ways: as a dietary supplement, as a transdermal (skin) patch, and as slow-release formulations through pills placed under the tongue or by way of nasal sprays. Like anabolic steroids, anabolic prohormones are consumed in defined cycles, a period of time within which a particular dose of the product is taken. Cycles are typically calculated to produce maximum benefit with minimum side effects. Anabolic prohormones are often stacked, meaning that the product is taken in conjunction with other prohormones or strength-directed products such as creatine or protein supplements. Many manufacturers of dietary supplements have added prohormone mixtures into the supplements without disclosing the nature or quantity of the prohormone on the commercial label. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) commissioned a study in 2002 that determined as many as 15% of the products WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

tested contained an undisclosed anabolic prohormone. In 2004, WADA classed andro as an anabolic androgenic steroid (a steroid that promotes the increased growth of male features), and deemed the substance a prohibited substance. There is significant evidence that the introduction of andro into the bloodstream through supplementation reduces the amount of high density lipoprotein (HDL) in the blood; HDLs are the proteins that contribute to the reduction of plaque within the walls to the arteries. Reduced levels of HDLs is counter to good cardiovascular health. Dehydroepianrosterone (DHEA) is another wellknown anabolic prohormone. Like andro, its advocates believe that because DHT is chemically close to testosterone, increased consumption of the product through diet will lead to similarly increased testosterone levels. There is no clear scientific evidence that DHT acts as an effective prohormone for testosterone.

Anabolic steroids; Coalition for Anabolic Steroid Precursor and Ephedra Regulation (CASPER); Dietary supplements; Nandrolone; Testosterone.

SEE ALSO

Anabolic steroids Of all of the substances ingested by athletes to gain a competitive edge, anabolic steroids are the most notorious. Steroids have taken on a broad, and sometimes inaccurate, range of meanings in the public consciousness, as the term is popularly and incorrectly used to describe any type of drug that enhances athletic performance. Steroids are a class of substances that share a fat-soluble, carbon-based molecular structure. Unlike water-soluble minerals like potassium and sodium, steroids are stored in cell tissues. Vitamin D, testosterone (the naturally occurring male hormone), and a range of anti-inflammatory compounds, such as corticosteroids, are steroids. Anabolic steroids are a form of synthesized testosterone, which is primarily intended to stimulate muscle growth. Anabolic steroids were first produced in the 1930s, when the international medical community began to better understand the relationship between testosterone and the development and maintenance of increased muscle mass. Russian weightlifters were the first athletes known to use steroids in a monitored, medically supervised sense; it was discovered

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ANABOLIC STEROIDS

Canadian Ben Johnson (L) shattered the existing Olympic and world records in the 100-m sprint. Johnson was later stripped of his medal when it was determined that he and others on the Canadian track team had engaged in years of systematic steroid use. S TA F F/ AF P / GE TTY IM AGES

that when anabolic steroids were ingested in cycles ranging from 14 to 30 days, the muscle-building and work capacities of the athlete were increased. Russian success in the 1952 Olympics spurred steroid research and development in the United States. By 1958, anabolic steroids were broadly available, and through the 1960s steroids became popular, albeit on an underground basis, finding a ready market among athletes in sports that placed a premium on strength and power. Anabolic steroids have a number of limited conventional medical applications, chiefly when the body produces too little testosterone, or to combat muscle wasting caused by disease. Dreams of enhanced

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performance gave anabolic steroids their athletic preeminence. Athletes who are driven to succeed are often prepared to assume risks; in the early days of steroid popularity, that risk was the unknown, as relatively little research existed as to the long-term effects of these substances on the human body. It is now beyond dispute that anabolic steroids are an exceedingly harmful substance on the body when ingested. Anabolic steroids will assist an athlete to train harder, with fewer rest periods required, and they help the body produce muscle mass at a greater rate than can be achieved in conventional training. Track and field events, particularly the Olympic sprint WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JAMES R. ANDREWS

competitions in 1988, were the first dramatic worldwide proof of the power of steroids. Canadian Ben Johnson shattered the existing Olympic and world records in the 100-m sprint; Johnson was later stripped of his medal when it was determined that he and others on the Canadian track team had engaged in years of systematic steroid use. In recent years, prominent international soccer players, track athletes, and American baseball and football players have all been exposed to have illegally taken steroids. Despite the presence of competitive sanctions in virtually all professional and international amateur competitions, coupled with unassailable evidence of the physical and psychological risk to steroid users, its use has been documented in significant numbers in North America and Europe among athletes as young as 14 years. A significant industry devoted to the science of masking steroid use when the athlete is tested at competition—usually through urine sample—has enjoyed a parallel growth to the use of the drug itself. Steroids have been declared illegal in all international sport events, due primarily to the very serious physical risks they pose to all athletes who ingest them. These risks include liver disease, high blood pressure and cholesterol, acne, severe mood swings (often referred to as ‘‘roid rage’’), and psychological dependence. Men who take anabolic steroids are also prone to develop prostate disease; women are more susceptible to baldness and disrupted menstrual cycles. The pursuit of athletic excellence will inevitably include the challenge of surpassing an established physical limit. Anabolic steroids represent risks to the modern athlete that far outweigh any shortterm competitive benefits that may be gained through their use.

Doping tests; Muscle mass and strength; Nandrolone; Stimulants; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

James R. Andrews 1942– AMERICAN ORTHOPEDIC SURGEON

Sports medicine pioneer James Andrews attended Louisiana State University, where he was the South East Conference indoor and outdoor pole vault champion in 1963. After completing his medical WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

degree, Andrews continued his orthopedic specialty studies in France with Andrew Trillant, a pioneer with respect to various types of knee surgery. Upon his return to the United States, Andrews soon became one of the first practitioners of sports medicine in the country. Andrews began to develop his specialty in orthopedic surgical techniques for athletic injuries in the early 1970s. Among other developments, Andrews refined the tissue graft techniques that were first employed by Dr. Frank Jobe, the American surgeon who developed the ulnar cruciate ligament repair procedure best known by its most famous patient, baseball pitcher Tommy John. Andrews subsequently performed successful arthroscopic surgery upon noted athletes such as pitcher Roger Clemens, football quarterback Troy Aikman, golfer Jack Nicklaus, and dozens of other high profile sports persons. Andrews was one of the founders of the American Sports Medicine Institute in 1986, one of the first medical clinics established in the United States that was devoted to sports injury treatment. Andrews continued to mix surgical practice, athletic injury consultancy, and teaching duties as a professor at both the University of Virginia and the University of Kentucky. Throughout his medical career, Andrews continued his own personal athletic pursuits as a sailor; he was a part of one of the America’s Cup challenge syndicates in 2000. The early work of Dr. James Andrews centered upon the area of orthopedic practice known as arthroscopy, a surgical and investigative procedure where the arthroscope, a thin surgical device, can be used to permit a comprehensive examination of a joint and suspected damage within the structure in a way that is less invasive than traditional surgery. The arthroscope can be inserted into a very small incision, equipped with both lights and a small cameras. The arthroscope is then positioned to relay images regarding the condition of the interior of the joint to the attending surgical team. The arthroscope can also be used to perform a biopsy, where tissue samples from the desired area can be retrieved for later analysis. In previously conventional surgical practices, particularly those involving the knee, the orthopedic specialist was required to make a deep incision the length of the joint. This procedure caused damage to much of the surrounding tissue of the joint. Andrews refined his arthroscopic techniques, so that knee operations could include a variety of repairs to torn cartilage (meniscus), damage to the articular

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ANKLE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

cartilage at the end of the bones that comprise the knee joint, and various types of ligament repair. As with many innovations to impact upon sports science, the significance of Andrews’s work is not through invention, but through the development and enhancement of existing arthroscopic techniques. Andrews was one of the first orthopedic surgeons to stress both pre-operative as well as post-operative rehabilitation in arthroscopic procedures. Andrews developed programs of physical build-up as preparation for surgery to ease the patient into a vigorous recovery. These two factors have been demonstrated by Andrews in numerous cases to significantly shorten recovery time, while reducing the risk of subsequent injury to the surgically repaired joint. The importance of comprehensive orthopedic expertise to modern professional sport is immense. Sports medicine experts such as Andrews are now able to repair and rehabilitate serious joint injuries more effectively than ever before. A well paid professional athlete who performs for his or her team is an asset to the organization; an injury to such an athlete is often a significant drain on the team payroll. The quicker and more thorough the repair and rehabilitation of an athletic injury, the better the financial position of the team with respect to the player. Andrews remains on the leading edge of joint repair techniques. In addition to continue refinements of arthroscopic surgeries, Andrews has assisted in the development of non-surgical shockwave lithography, where an injured connective tissue that naturally is the recipient of poor blood flow, such as the plantar tissue in the foot, and the patellar tendon below the knee, is bombarded with waves to stimulate healing. SEE ALSO

Sports medicine education.

Ankle anatomy and physiology The human ankle is the joint created at the point where the tibia (the shin bone) and the fibula (the outer bone running from the knee to the ankle) meet the talus (the ankle bone). Running parallel to the tibia and fibula, behind the ankle, is the Achilles tendon. The talus is positioned above the calcaneus (heel bone). The joint created where these three bones meet is known as the synovial joint, a joint where the component parts function due to the presence of a viscous, fluid lubrication between the bones. The ankle is a structure where its function is a compromise between the greater flexibility and

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range of motion as found in joints such as the shoulder, and the less flexible and more limited range of motion found in the very stable joints, such as the pelvis. The human ankle has a deceptively simple construction; understanding its strengths and its limitations is a critical component to efficient, stable human movement and athletic success. The epiphysis, which is the surface of the ends of the tibia and fibula where the ankle is joined, are lined with a smooth cartilage that is 0.07–0.11 in (2–3 mm) thick. The bones and cartilage are contained within the synovial membrane cavity, the space surrounding the tibia, fibula, and talus, which creates a friction-reduced surface in the joint. The ankle is provided further support through the bursa, which are sealed fluid sacs positioned between the bones of the ankle. The propulsion necessary to walk, run, or jump is achieved in a combination of movements coordinated between the flexors located on the top of the foot, and the ligaments of the ankle, which connect the ankle bones. The ligaments, which have a somewhat elastic construction, radiate from the talus to each of the calcaneus, tibia, and fibula. The ankle is required to bear forces of 1.5 times the body weight through walking; running, or jumping forces will exceed 3-4 times body weight. When additional twisting forces, referred to as torque, are generated through sport performance and are added to the regular weight-bearing stresses, the risk of ankle injury is pronounced. The majority of injuries involving the ankle and its related structures are sprains, a relatively straightforward and treatable condition; it is where the injury is either treated incorrectly, or where the athlete returns to training or competition too quickly, that the uncomplicated injury can escalate into a chronic problem. Everyone has a natural foot strike: the manner in which the foot comes into contact with the walking or running surface. For over 80% of athletes, the natural motion is ‘‘pronation,’’ in which the foot turns inwardly upon contact with the running surface; the less common ‘‘supination’’ is when the foot rolls outward. The manner and the degree to which the foot strikes the surface place pressure on the ankle. The natural foot strike is mimicked in the mechanisms of the ankle sprain, referred to as inversion and eversion, which are circumstances created when the ankle becomes unstable. Inversion is the common result when an athlete seeks to change direction, or ‘‘cut’’ on the playing surface, and the ankle joint moves inwards as the forces are applied. Eversion WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ANKLE SPRAINS

is the result when the ankle is rolled outwards on movement being made. Both mechanisms result in the ligaments becoming strained. Inversion may also result when a player jumps or strides and lands on an unequal surface, such as another player’s foot or a hole in the playing field. In a more serious circumstance, the ankle ligaments may become torn, requiring medical intervention. A high ankle sprain is a condition usually caused by a force being applied to the leg above the ankle, causing a degree of rotation to occur in the lower leg above the ankle joint, while the foot remains planted to the surface. In this circumstance, the tibia and fibula become separated from where these bones meet the talus, causing the ligament that connects these bones to the talus to become strained. The ankle may also be injured through damage to the Achilles tendon, either through irritation of the tendon fibers and sheath, referred to as Achilles tendonitis, or through a tear or rupture of the tendon fibers. These injuries are typically caused by either overuse, such as dramatically increased training levels in a short period, or through a sudden explosive motion that is not properly supported due to tight calf or quadriceps muscles. Any of the bones that comprise the ankle joint may become fractured through a direct blow. In sports such as field hockey or soccer, the ankle is exposed to such traumas. In addition, the ankle can become dislocated, where the tibia/fibula and talus are forcibly separated. Further, the tibia or the fibula may sustain damage known as shin splints, a micro tear of thin muscle covering the shins, through overuse or poor fitting footwear. The ankle is a joint that can be significantly protected from injury through a commitment to a specialized stretching program. In addition, many sports require athletes to either wear a brace (volleyball is a sport in which braces are a part of the competitive culture), or to tape the ankles in advance of training or competition. The basic components of good ankle care include warm-up and cool-down practices involving ankle and lower leg stretches; stretching exercises (as a part of the over all fitness program); careful attention to the heel wear and the support in athletic shoes; and shoe fit, as an improper fit may cause the foot to strike the surface and cause inversion/eversion.

Achilles tendonitis; Ankle sprains; Heel spurs; Lower leg anatomy.

SEE ALSO


Ankle sprains There may be no more common an injury in ball sports than the sprained ankle. Conversely, there is no part of the competitive human body that is afforded less respect in both its immediate care and return to sport than the injured ankle. An effective and pain-free return to competition from the misunderstood and often minimized ankle sprain requires a thorough understanding of its mechanics. In any activity where a premium is placed upon advancing an object toward an opponent’s goal, using speed and power, the ankle is the joint that bears a relentless strain. Ankle sprains occur because the ankle joint, through either sudden forces being applied to it or through the misadventure of an athlete landing on an opponent’s foot, is forced to move in a direction beyond what it is constructed to do. The most common cause of an ankle sprain due to motion is when an athlete seeks to change direction at speed, and the ankle sustains an inversion, whereby the ankle joint moves inward as the player travels outward. The ‘‘plant’’ foot is placed in the opposite of the intended direction of travel. As force is applied to shift from the plant foot to the changed direction, or ‘‘cut,’’ the anterior talofibular ligament (one of the three ankle ligament groupings) is the most frequent recipient of the excessive stress that causes the sprain. Eversion, the movement of the ankle outwards from its natural plane, is caused where the ankle joint is subjected to outward forces with the foot remaining fixed to the surface. A syndesmosis, or high ankle sprain, is a more serious type of injury. This situation can occur when the foot is planted and the lower leg is rotated, causing the talus (ankle bone) to wedge itself further between the tibia (shin bone) and fibula (outer lower leg bone), straining the ligament structure that connects these bones. This type of condition will usually be a more disabling sprain for the athlete, and requires a correspondingly longer recovery time and more intensive rehabilitation. The severity of an ankle sprain will depend upon a number of factors, including the severity of the movement causing the sprain, how quickly the athlete receives medical attention, and whether the athlete has a history of sprains. There are three categories of sprains. A Grade 1 sprain is a microscopic tearing of the fibers in one of the three sets of ankle ligament. This type of sprain will likely prohibit the athlete from continuing with the activity that

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ANKLE SPRAINS

In activities where a premium is placed upon using speed and power, the ankle is the joint that bears a relentless strain.

ª 2 005 N BA E

(PH OT O B Y BI LL B AP TI S T/N BA E VI A G ETT Y I M AG ES )

day; there will be a mild level of discomfort, and a corresponding degree of swelling, either at the time of the injury or in the following one or two hours. In a Grade 2 sprain, noticeable swelling will be observed in the vicinity of the joint. There is a complete tear of some of the ligament fibers. The athlete will have difficulty moving without assistance; some instability in the ankle joint will likely be observed as well. In a Grade 3 sprain, the ankle joint will be noticeably unstable and the athlete will be unable to bear weight on the ankle without assistance. The ligament will be completely torn or ruptured, with significant swelling and pain. Ankle sprain first aid is simple, but it is a discipline that requires thorough attention to all steps of the process. For a Grade 1 sprain, the treatment progression is known by the acronym PRICE: Protection of the injured joint, by way of compression bandages and similar devices; Rest, by not walking on it to permit the sprain to recover; Ice, to be applied at regular intervals to reduce swelling; Compression, pressure applied in conjunction with ice; and Elevation, with the injured joint elevated above the level of

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the heart for the first 48 to 72 hours after the injury whenever possible, to prevent the pooling of blood at the point of the injury. For the treatment of a Grade 2 sprain, the same PRICE principles apply; in addition, depending on the circumstances of the athlete, the ankle may be immobilized for a period of one to two weeks. When a Grade 3 sprain is diagnosed, a physician will be required to assess the surgical option or whether a cast should be applied, likely for two or three weeks. Most athletes who encounter longer term problems with a sprain are those who either come back to competition too quickly after a sprain, or those who fail to follow a proper program of rehabilitative exercises. They must also take into consideration the overriding principle that any return from any injury must be carried out progressively, with a gradual increase in workload and intensity. Exercises should include a thorough warm-up, which requires both an elevation of heart rate and resultant blood flow to all muscle structures. The athlete should be careful to work out on even surfaces. They should also ensure that their athletic shoes are in good condition. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ANTIOXIDANTS

Finally, they should include stretches of the Achilles tendon, foot flexors, and calf muscles, as well as ankle rotation exercises.

Achilles tendonitis; Ankle anatomy and physiology; Athletic shoes; Sprains and strains.

SEE ALSO

Anterior cruciate ligament

SEE

ACL injuries and female athletes

Anti-Doping Agreement

SEE

Anti-inflammatory drugs

SEE

International Anti-Doping Agreement

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

Antioxidants Antioxidant is the descriptive term given to a group of organic substances that generally function within the body to promote health through their counteraction against the potentially destructive effect of oxygen in human tissues, as carried out by agents known as free radicals. The best known antioxidants are vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin E, selenium (a mineral), and the carotenoids, the class of the pigmentation substances that color many fruits and vegetables. An example of a carotenoid is betacarotene, the substance that produces the color in carrots. Human diet is subdivided into two general classifications for the purpose of basic nutritional assessment. The first classification is macronutrients, the term that refers to all of the food products that contain carbohydrate, protein, and/or fat. The second classification is micronutrients, the term that defines all of the vitamins and most of the minerals that are absorbed into the body through food digestion. Phytochemicals are the trace substances found in plants and plant food products that are absorbed into the body as a part of either macronutrients or micronutrients; many phytochemicals also possess antioxidant properties. An understanding of the function of antioxidants begins with the process of oxidation within the body. Oxidation occurs in a number of biological processes that are beneficial to the body. The essential role of oxygen within the aerobic energy system, and the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

oxidation of various harmful bacteria that invade the body are two examples of oxygen and its positive relation to human cell function. Oxidation has a negative impact on the health of cells in certain conditions. While the oxygen molecule, described by the chemical equation O2, is often present in the body, it is not always as a stable, electrically neutral substance, but as the chemical structure known as free radicals, in which either atoms or molecules have one or more unpaired electron. When the cells have used oxygen, free radicals are often created as a byproduct of that process. Atoms or molecules in which all electrons within the structure are paired tend to be stable; free radicals are unstable and are therefore highly reactive with other molecules. The free radicals seek out atoms or molecules from which they may ‘‘steal’’ an electron to create electrochemical balance within the radical; this results in instability in the unbalanced molecule, which will in turn seek to address its newly unstable state. This process will lead to a chain reaction of electron theft, which produces damage to both the membrane of cells and the contents of cells. Heart disease, increased incidence of stroke, diabetes, cancer, macular degeneration (a disease affecting the function of the macula, a small but vital area of the retina within the eye), and the acceleration of the general aging process have all been scientifically linked to the actions of free radicals within the body. The micro-effects of oxidation within the body are similar to commonly observed oxidation in the world at large, such as the formation of rust (iron oxide) when bare steel is exposed to the elements. Antioxidants do not attack these free radicals so much as they are scavengers of them. Antioxidants possess the ability to ‘‘donate’’ electrons, typically from a present hydrogen atom with the antioxidant structure, to electrically neutralize the free radical. Different types of antioxidants perform specialized types of scavenging and free radical-neutralizing work within the body. Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin, meaning that it may be stored within the body, either in the adipose (fat storage) tissue or in the liver. Common sources of vitamin A and other betacarotenoids are carrots, squash, and broccoli, as well as all other brightly colored fruits. Vitamin E is also fat soluble; it operates to specifically protect the free fatty acids in the bloodstream and the cell structures from oxidation; the presence of these fatty acids places an important role in the overall healthy function of cells. Vitamin E is present in many types of nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, and many types of whole grains.

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ANTIOXIDANTS

The antioxidant role performed by vitamin C within the body is one of the many important functions of this chemical; vitamin C is essential to the manufacture of collagen, the protein that is the primary building material in bones and connective tissue. Vitamin C is water soluble, and it acts as a scavenger against waterborne free radicals before these agents can act against fat-soluble compounds, an event that creates the damaging chain reactions associated with cellular damage. The chemical reaction between vitamin C and the encountered free radical results in the donation of a hydrogen atom to the oxidizing radical. The presence of enzymes creates a recycling effect on the vitamin C, permitting it to scavenge other radicals. The rate at which vitamin C can scavenge free radicals is increased by a factor of approximately ten times if the scavenging process occurs in the presence of phosphates. Vitamin E has been to shown to work as an excellent co-antioxidant with vitamin C. Vitamin C is present in all varieties of citrus fruits, as well as broccoli, strawberries, and tomatoes. Selenium is plentiful in fish, red meats, and grains. It most commonly acts as an antioxidant in conjunction with glutathione peroxidase, a nonessential amino acid (an amino acid produced by the body), to protect white blood cells from the adverse effects of free radicals. The antioxidants that are contained within various phytochemicals have also been the subject of specialized research in recent years. The best known of these substances are the flavanoids, a group of polyphenols (compounds with a hydrocarbon-based structure), found in soy, red wine, raw grapes, and cranberries. Lycopene, the chemical that is responsible for the red pigmentation of tomatoes and watermelon, is a powerful carotenoid. Lignan, a chemical found in flax, barley, and oatmeal, has also been identified as a water-soluble antioxidant. Lutein is the antioxidant linked to the onset of macular degeneration; research suggests that a lutein deficiency is an underlying cause of the degenerative condition. The body is capable of producing its own antioxidant defenses through its manufacture of two different enzymes, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Enzymes are proteins manufactured by the body, primarily in the liver. Enzymes function as catalysts for a specific chemical reaction or series of reactions. When it comes into contact with a free radical oxygen molecule, SOD is the fastest reacting antioxidant available, in that it can neu-

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tralize more free radicals more quickly than any other substance within the body. Significant publicity has been generated worldwide as to whether the consumption of antioxidants through dietary supplements, in larger quantities than are otherwise available through regular diet, will have a proportionately greater and beneficial effect on health. Numerous antioxidant products are marketed on the basis of claims that the products will either eliminate or reduce the risks associated with various types of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and a multitude of conditions that occur as a result of aging. Scientific research has proved inconclusive as to whether this type of supplementation in fact achieves an antioxidant result. Studies that were specifically directed about the relationship between supplement consumption and the effect on the low density lipoproteins (LDLs) present in the blood vessels were conducted between 2003 and 2005 in the United States. LDL molecules were known to be particularly vulnerable to oxidation by free radicals, tending to cause the LDL molecules to proliferate on arterial walls, leading to the formation of plaque and creating stenosis, an unhealthy narrowing of the blood vessel that renders the individual more vulnerable to arteriosclerosis and stroke. The research in this area has proved to be inconclusive. Further studies where the test subjects were provided with large doses of vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E as supplements failed to establish any evidence of increased disease prevention. It is well established in the diet and nutritional sciences that the best manner in which to ingest nutrients of any kind and to have the nutrients effectively absorbed into the body is through food, and not supplements. The reduction of LDL and other unhealthy cholesterols in the bloodstream is most effectively addressed by examining the components of the foods consumed, as opposed to eating poor foods and then addressing a perceived cholesterol or LDL concern. Most nations of the world have published food guidelines that are similar in their scope to those advanced by the United States Department of Agriculture (the ‘‘Food Pyramid’’) and the American Heart Association. In general terms, the guidelines state that, as an alternative to antioxidant supplements, a healthy adult, eating six or more servings of grain products (bread, pastas, etc.), five servings of fruit or vegetables, between two to four servings of low fat dairy products, and a maximum of 6 oz (200 g) of lean meat or fish, will ingest 100% of the recommended daily allowances of the vitamins and minerals with antioxidant properties. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ARCHERY

Cardiovascular system; Minerals; Phytochemicals; Vitamin C; Vitamin E.

SEE ALSO

Arbitration

SEE

American Arbitration

Association (AAA)

Archery Archery is a sport that is among the oldest of recorded competitive activities. Cultures as diverse as the Chinese, indigenous North American peoples, and early Europeans placed value on the ability of men to skillfully use a bow and arrow. The legends of William Tell and Robin Hood centered upon the talent of each character to shoot an arrow with unerring accuracy. When archers were displaced in English armies through the development of firearms and cannon in the 1600s, archery gained popularity as a competitive sport. Archery was introduced to the Olympics in 1900, and the sport was contested through the Games of 1920, when it was removed from the Olympic roster as a result of disputes among the competing nations regarding the appropriate rules for competition. Archery was reinstated to Olympic status at the Summer Games of 1972. Archery is also included at the Summer Paralympics as a wheelchair sport. As with the sports of the ancient Olympics that are still part of the modern games, archery is a sport that has not changed to a significant degree since medieval times. FITA, the international archery federation, is the governing body for the sport worldwide. Modern archery is organized into men’s and women’s divisions, both as individual competitions and as team events. The usual international events require a competitor to deliver a prescribed number of arrows into a target from a variety of distances. For men, the distances are 30 m, 50 m, 70 m, and 90 m; for women, the maximum competitive distance is 70 m. The targets are divided into ten zones, with zone widths varying depending on the distance from which the archer shoots. The sport is very simple in its execution, as the archer with the most arrows delivered closest to the bulls’ eye, the center of the target, is the winner. While physical strength and general fitness are important to an elite-level archery competitor, archery is a sport where physical size is not of primary importance. As a machine, a bow is any stringed projectile weapon designed to shoot arrows. The modern bow WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

used in archery competition is of the same approximate shape and dimension as the long bows first used by the English army at the Battle of Crecy in 1346 to defeat their French enemy. The modern bow is constructed from carbon fiber and other similar composite materials to create a maximum degree of response to the pull of the archer. The shooting of an arrow involves the application of a series of physical principles. The expression, ‘‘translation of energy,’’ is important in the understanding of how the arrow is delivered with maximum effect. As the archer prepares to draw back the bowstring, the potential energy available to the arrow rests in the muscles of the archer’s arm and shoulders. Once the bowstring is drawn, the potential energy is transferred from the archer to the bowstring. When the bowstring is released, virtually all of the stored potential energy in the bowstring is transferred to become the kinetic energy that powers the arrow into flight. The flight of the arrow is a product of a number of physical factors. The velocity at which the arrow is released, the angle (calculated as the number of degrees above horizontal that the bow and arrow are aimed), the mass of the arrow, and the impact of air resistance and wind all contribute to the manner in which the arrow will travel. Archery is a deceptive sport in terms of the approach to physical training and fitness required of the competitive archer. The general desirable physical qualities in an archer are strength, particularly in the core strength elements of the abdominal, lumbar (lower back), and groin, to provide stability to the archer as the arrows are shot. Flexibility is also an important quality, as is muscular strength in the upper body, to effectively draw back and deliver the arrows. Aerobic fitness and a corresponding ability to control the heart rate of the athlete in the stress of competition is of critical importance to the competitive archer. Aerobic fitness assists an archer in offsetting the fatigue that results from standing for several hours through a competition, where during the delivery of the arrows the athlete must be strong and physically prepared to compete. The high level of mental focus required to concentrate during every attempt at a target (the archer may deliver over 50 arrows in a single session) is best supported by a body that is fit. Archers employ a variety of mental conditioning techniques to prepare themselves for an event. Many of these devices include both visualization of the physical movements that the archer will complete to shoot a perfect arrow; other techniques encourage the athlete to use imagery to relax prior to the event.

35

LANCE ARMSTRONG

Archery is a deceptive sport in terms of the approach to physical training and fitness required of the competitive archer.

MA NP REE T

ROM AN A/A FP/ GE TTY IM AGES

As a general proposition, the lower an archer’s heart rate, the steadier the aim. The rate at which the heart beats is a function of the autonomic nervous system, which controls other involuntary systems such as respiration. Most competitive archers employ one of a variety of deep breathing techniques prior to the actual delivery of an arrow to take the pulse to its lowest possible rate to create the greatest degree of stability and control over the delivery of the arrow.

Heart rate: Target heart rate; International Olympic Committee (IOC); Motor control; Wrist injuries.

SEE ALSO

Tour de France, Armstrong became one of the best known athletes in the world of international sport. Armstrong’s wins in the Tour de France were all the more remarkable as they were achieved after Armstrong had been treated for testicular cancer. Armstrong enjoyed cycling success from an early age. Competing in what was a new sport at the time, Armstrong won a youth triathlon at age thirteen; it was an accomplishment that ultimately spurred Armstrong into prize money races in both cycling and triathlon. At age sixteen, he was earning approximately $20,000 a year in race prize money.

9/18/1971– AMERICAN BICYCLE RACER

Armstrong’s precocious talent caught the attention of the United States Cycling Federation, and Armstrong was invited to train with the American developmental team in 1989. As a result of this introduction to elite level cycling, Armstrong competed in the World Junior Cycling champions that year in Moscow. By 1990, Armstrong was racing as a member of the senior U.S. National team.

Lance Armstrong is the most celebrated cyclist in American sports history. With a record seven victories in the world’s most prestigious cycling race, the

The meteoric rise of Armstrong as an international level cyclist continued through the Barcelona Olympics of 1992, when the 21-year-old Armstrong

Lance Armstrong

36


LANCE ARMSTRONG

finished a highly credible fourteenth in the men’s road race of approximately 120 mi (200 km). From the Olympics, Armstrong entered a series of prestigious European road races. He was admired for his talent but not necessarily respected by the cycling world for his racing demeanor or attitude towards his opponents. The dichotomy between talent and attitude marked Armstrong’ attempt at the Tour de France in 1993. Armstrong scored a stage win during the Tour, but he could not maintain the pace of the 21day event and he dropped out after 11 days. Armstrong did become the youngest ever World Road Race champion later than year. Armstrong began to understand that his approach to racing, an all out blitzkrieg on both course and opponents would not lead him to the ultimate success he desired. Elite road-racing cyclists must be multi-dimensional racers, a class known by the French expression ‘‘rolleur,’’ or all rounder. The rolleur is the type of rider who can win the Tour de France because he or she can sprint through the time trials, as well as endure long stretches of paced cycling, with the ability to power up the grades of the steep mountain stages. Most cyclists are better at one of the three aspects; to challenge for a Tour de France title, the racer must be a master of all of them. Armstrong added training sessions in both the Rocky Mountains and European Alps to make him more proficient at the climbing portions of multi-stage races. Although not yet a challenger for an overall Tour title, in 1995 Armstrong was the seventh ranked cyclist in the world. He also enjoyed significant commercial success, with earnings in excess of $750,000. The 24-year-old Armstrong entered a future with his best cycling evidently ahead of him; Armstrong’s demonstrated abilities to this point in his career were confirmed over the next 10 years, in a fashion that no one could possibly have foreseen. In the spring of 1996, Armstrong’s early season training had not progressed as well as he had hoped. He withdrew from the Tour de France after only six stages, and Armstrong performed poorly by his standards at both the 1996 Summer Olympic and the fall road races in Europe. Armstrong sought medical advice in October of 1996 regarding a swelling he had noted on one of his testicles; he was soon diagnosed with testicular cancer. Armstrong’s perilous physical situation became critical when its was determined that the cancer had spread to his brain. Armstrong had brain surgery, went through a number of months of aggressive cheWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

motherapy, and, in 1997, Armstrong bested odds of survival that had been only 40%. In recovery from cancer, and with no race team sponsorship available to him in Europe, Armstrong returned to training in 1997. By 1998 he recaptured his previous cycling prowess, and Armstrong intensified his training to move beyond any of his previous standards of performance. Armstrong did not enter the 1998 Tour de France, but he overpowered the 1999 Tour field, racing with greater confidence and strength than he had ever displayed prior to his bout of cancer. Armstrong was the target of very pointed allegations in the French press (many tinged with a considerable measure of either Eurocentric commentary or a blunter anti-American sentiment) regarding blood doping with the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), but he never failed a drug test of any sort that year (or at any time during his career). A report released in May 2006 by an independent Dutch agency (appointed by the International Cycling Union to investigate the charges in Armstrong’s case) ‘‘exonerates Lance Armstrong completely with respect to alleged use of doping in the 1999 Tour de France.’’ Armstrong joined Greg Lemond (three victories between 1986 and 1990) as the only Americans to have won a Tour de France title. It is ironic of Armstrong’s 1999 win that both he and Lemond, who was badly wounded in a hunting accident in 1987, each overcame profound physical adversity in the course of their Tour success. Armstrong’s victory in 1999 also placed his team, the United States Postal Service Pro Cycling Team, into the international spotlight. In multi-stage events such as the Tour de France, the individual cyclist receives the glory; without a hard working and effective team to support him, even the most gifted of cyclists has no hope of a Tour victory. A cycling team will usually determine in advance of competition who will be their featured rider. The team is then arranged to bring the team leader to the finish line. At various times, particularly in the flat sections of the race, the leader will ride behind a teammate, using the partial vacuum created by their movement through the air stream ahead to be pulled forward into the less dense air, a technique that requires the cyclist to use less energy to move at the same speed as the lead riders. This is the process known as ‘‘drafting.’’ Team members will also ride in flanking positions to protect him from collisions with other riders. When a cyclist on an opposing team makes a break from the pack of riders (the peloton),

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LANCE ARMSTRONG

Lance Armstrong has won the Tour de France seven times.

PIE RRE AN DRIEU /A FP /G E TTY IMA G ES

a team member will sometimes be tasked to ride the other cyclist down, establishing contact with the opponent and in some instances deliberately riding with greater speed to tire the opponent. Armstrong’s consummate individual cycling gifts and the strength of his supporting team were an irresistible combination from Armstrong’s first victory in 1999 until his seventh Tour championship and announced retirement in 2005. Armstrong’s supremacy in the Tour placed incredibly talented cyclists such as Jan Ulrich, whose record of a 1997 victory, five other second place finishes and a third place result would be remarkable, if it were not achieved in Armstrong’s shadow. There are several physiological aspects to Armstrong’s Tour de France success that have been examined in the course of his career. The first is the fact that Armstrong became a stronger, more powerful cyclist after the onset of his cancer and its suc-

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cessful treatment in 1997. Testing carried out at the University of Texas Human Performance Laboratory determined that Armstrong had improved his ability to use oxygen in the production of muscular energy (VO2 max) by an astounding 18% between age 21 and age 28. Armstrong was found to have a VO2 that was as much as 40% greater than healthy and trained athletic men of the same age. Coupled with this finding was the calculation that Armstrong had improved his muscular efficiency by 8% during the same period. Armstrong also possesses a heart that is approximately 30% larger than that of a sedentary person. His resting pulse rate during his peak years of competition was 32 beats per minute. Armstrong’s femurs (thigh bones) are longer than found in a typical male of his height, a distinction that permits Armstrong to develop better leverage on the pedal with each stroke, rendering his pedaling motion more biomechanically efficient. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

LANCE ARMSTRONG

Lance Armstrong and teammates celebrating during 2005 Tour de France.

ROB ER T LAB ERGE /G ETT Y IM AGES

Another conclusion reached in the physiological analysis of Armstrong conducted during this period was his body’s ability to process the lactic acid that is a natural by-product of muscular activity. In sprints or in intense efforts to climb a mountain road, when athletes are at or above their anaerobic thresholds, the point at which they are functioning at or above the 90% of their maximum heart rate, lactic acid accumulates in the working muscles. The muscles are not getting sufficient oxygen and they are relying upon the anaerobic systems. Excess lactic acid is usually communicated to the athlete through discomfort in the muscles, making efforts less efficient. Armstrong was found to have a very low rate of lactic acid production, even at very high levels of activity.

actions, such as sprinting or jumping. Slow twitch fibers are directed by the body for long term, endurance activities. The definitions ‘‘slow’’ and ‘‘fast’’ relate to how quickly the neuron that governs each fiber is fired; slow twitch fibers are fired 10 times less frequently that fast twitch fibers.

The most interesting physiological finding with respect to Armstrong and his superiority as a cyclist was with respect to the relationship between the slow twitch and the fast twitch muscle fibers in his body. In general terms, fast twitch fibers are those that are utilized by the body for short term, powerful

The various exceptional physical characteristics present in Armstrong, coupled with his powerful competitive and training instincts, are proof that a champion is both born and made.


It is an accepted physiological proposition that the distribution between fast twitch and slow twitch fibers through out the body is genetic. The studies in relation to Armstrong concluded that through years of hard training, with sessions ranging between three to six hours per day, Armstrong’s body had undergone an adaptation where his slow twitch proportion had reached 80%, an important development in his overall cycling success.

SEE ALSO

Cycling; Cycling: Tour de France; Oxygen.

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ARTHROSCOPY

Arthroscopy Arthroscopy is a surgical procedure that allows an orthopedic surgeon to view, diagnose, and treat problems inside joints such as the knee, shoulder, wrist, elbow, ankle, and hip. The procedure has been a boon to athletes because it can repair a joint problem without significantly compromising training or the loss of an athlete’s level of fitness. In a famous example, marathon runner Joan Benoit Samuelson won the 1984 United States Olympic Trials marathon only 17 days after receiving arthroscopic knee surgery. A few months later, she captured the gold medal in the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles. The term arthroscopy is derived from two Greek words: arthro (joint) and skopein (to look), and literally translates as ‘‘to look within the joint.’’ This inspection is done via an incision that is about the size of a buttonhole, large enough to accommodate the insertion through the skin of a series of instruments that are the size and shape of a pencil. Each instrument houses a fiber optic light source and a surgical tool (such as a cutter, vacuum, or ultrasonic probe) at the end that is inserted into the incision. The other end of the instrument is connected to a television camera, which allows the surgeon to view the inside of the joint. Arthroscopy can be done using a single incision, where the inserted probe contains both the fiber optics and the surgical tool. Alternately, two incisions can be made: one accommodates the optic probe and the other the surgical probe. The ability to see the joint without having to surgically expose the region is the reason why arthroscopy is relatively noninvasive and comfortable, compared to traditional surgery. Arthroscopy typically complements other noninvasive diagnostic procedures such as x-ray imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, or computed tomography. These imaging techniques can provide a lot of information about the nature of the joint problem. Arthroscopy is important in providing the final diagnosis and in actually remedying the problem. When used as a remedy, general surgery is often the final option for many injuries and illnesses. This is also true for arthroscopy. Options such as the icing of the affected joint following activity, stopping the athletic activity for a period of time, and the use of medications such as cortisone will be tried first. If these fail to alleviate the problem, arthroscopy may offer relief. The joint problems that can be successfully remedied using arthroscopy occur commonly with recrea-

40

tional and elite athletes. One example is damage to the rotator cuff, which is a group of four muscles and associated tendons that surround the shoulder joint. Inflammation of a tendon or the adjacent sac of lubricating fluid (the bursa), a tear in one of the tendons or muscles of the rotator cuff, or the pinching of a tendon against the socket joint of the shoulder disrupts the normal functioning of the shoulder. In organized sports, rotator cuff injuries are most commonly associated with baseball pitchers. Similarly, inflammation or muscle/tendon damage can occur in the joints of the wrist, elbow, hip, and knee. The injuries can result from overuse of the joint, which is a hazard of all sports, or from a traumatic impact in a sport such as football, rugby, hockey, skiing, or soccer. As with other forms of surgery, an anesthetic is required prior to arthroscopy. While sometimes general anesthesia is used, more frequently a local anesthetic suffices. Indeed, depending on the severity of the injury and the physical condition of the patient, arthroscopy may be performed during a regularly scheduled office visit to an orthopedic surgeon. More typically, however, arthroscopy is done in the hospital setting. Following the insertion of the arthroscope into the joint, fluid is introduced to expand the joint to make it easier for the surgeon to view the damage. Repairs can then be made. These include removal or remediation of a torn cartilage (meniscus) in a knee, realignment or repair of the patella (the bone of the kneecap), reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) of the knee, relief of wrist and arm carpal tunnel-induced numbness and pain, ligament repair or reattachment in other joints, removal of the inflamed lining (synovium) of a joint, and removal of loose bone or cartilage from a joint. As one example, shoulder instability resulting from a torn tendon can be repaired using an arthroscopic procedure called Bankart repair. In this technique, the arthroscope functions essentially as a staple gun. The torn ends of a tendon are reattached by means of inserted tacks. The method has a claimed success rate of upwards of 90% in preventing re-dislocation. After surgery, which typically lasts for an hour or less, the incision is sutured shut and is covered by a protective dressing to prevent infection. Discomfort is usually minimal, with only non-prescription pain medication given, if at all. Recovery from an arthroscopic procedure is typically swift and uneventful. The wound dressing is WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ASTHMA, EXERCISE INDUCED

sensitive and prone to becoming irritated, a condition known as airway inflammation. When irritated, the passages are restricted due to the presence of mucus buildup in the airway, limiting the flow of air into the lungs. The passages can also become restricted when the muscles surrounding the airways either tighten or spontaneously spasm, a condition known as bronchoconstriction. Asthma is characterized by wheezing, an inability to get the required amount of air into the lungs, as well as by a chronic inflammation of the passages. Environmental factors such as dust and air pollution may either exacerbate or trigger an asthmatic episode. There is no physical attribute more important to an athlete than being able to breathe effectively and without hindrance. Asthma is the most common and the most debilitating illness to affect the lungs and breathing passages, with approximately 17 million people afflicted with this condition in North America alone. While generally a condition that is of greater concern regarding quality of life than as a cause of death, asthma, both as a free-standing condition and in combination with other factors, can be fatal. Asthma manifests itself in a number of variations, all of which are believed to share a common genetic basis.

Arthroscopy is a surgical procedure that allows an orthopedic surgeon to view, diagnose, and treat problems inside joints. T ED H ORO WI T Z/CO RBIS . RE PRO DUCED BY P ERM I SS ION .

usually replaced with an ordinary bandage within hours of surgery. Patients usually resume their normal activities within several days. Athletes may resume a training regimen within days or a few weeks, depending on their physical condition, and under the supervision of a trainer.

ACL injuries and female athletes; Cortisone steroid injections; Piriformis Syndrome; Sports injuries.

SEE ALSO

Asthmatics who engage in athletics will commonly experience one of two related conditions during sports: an exercise-induced asthma attack, or an exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB). The progression of an exercise-induced asthma attack commences with vigorous exercise. Exercise places a demand upon the body for a greater amount of oxygen, which in turn results in an increased breathing rate. The rush of air through the passages of the lungs tends to cool and dry out the surface of the passages. Structures in the lungs known as the mast cells are believed to produce a chemical substance, a mediator, which stimulates the surrounding muscles to go into a spasm. The spasm constricts the airways, making it very difficult for the athlete to get sufficient air into the lungs.

Asthma, exercise induced

Exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) causes particular and more frequent problems for young athletes, who may not possess the knowledge of their bodies to fully understand the asthma mechanism or its dangers. It is believed that some children will lose their susceptibility to asthma attacks as they advance through puberty, and outgrow the illness by age 20.

Asthma is an affliction of the respiratory system in which the airway passages in the lungs are hyper-

EIB will commonly occur immediately after six to eight minutes of vigorous exercise, with the attack

Artificial limbs

SEE

Prosthetic research

and sport


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ATHLETE LOCATION FORM

persisting for between 10 and 15 minutes; it is most severe at this initial stage. There follows a period of between 30 to 90 minutes, during which the athlete will likely experience few, if any, effects from bronchospasm. In some cases, there may be a further recurrence of EIB one to two hours later. Other factors that contribute to the onset of an EIB episode are cold air conditions, dry air, airborne pollution and particles, preexisting allergies, and fatigue. EIB is more common in athletes who engage in sports that place a constant, high-level demand on the respiratory system, including distance running, cycling, soccer, and Nordic skiing. Swimming represents an exception: although it places significant demands upon the aerobic system, it takes place in a moist air environment. Anaerobic sports such as field events in athletics, boxing, tennis, volleyball and American football, in which the demands on the respiratory system are often intense but intermittent, place less stress on an asthmatic’s airways. There is also a strong relationship between the occurrence of bronchospasm and the intensity of the activity: the more intense the training or competition, the greater the likelihood of EIB. In some aerobic sport athletes, it has been observed that the athlete has been able to ‘‘run through’’ the asthma attack; the body’s production of the natural hormone epinephrine is believed to assist in the lessening of bronchospasm during endurance activities. Asthma is an episodic illness, and its attacks can vary in their severity from mild to acute. As a preventative, asthmatic athletes can follow several different precautions. They might use medication inhaled through a bronchodilator, known as a puffer. Such medications are typically a form of anti-inflammatory known as a corticosteroid; they are intended to reduce airway inflammation. It is also recommended that the asthmatic athletes indulge in longer low-intensity warm-ups, to lessen the risk of an EIB episode; they should also do a longer, similarly lowintensity cool down. While exercise-induced asthma must be considered a serious condition by the athlete, coaches, and parents, it is not a barrier to elite level athletic participation. Both Joan Benoit Samuelson, the first Olympic women’s marathon champion, and Jackie Joyner Kersee, a double Olympic gold medalist, are asthmatic.

Cardiorespiratory function; Cold weather exercise; Exercise, high intensity; Sport performance.

SEE ALSO

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Heptathlete Jackie Joyner-Kersee uses asthma medication after winning the women’s 800-meter race at the 1993 World Athletics Championships. ª REU TER S/ CORB IS -BE TTM AN N. RE PR ODUCED BY P ERM I SS I ON .

Athlete Location Form The Athlete Location Form is one of a number of administrative tools developed by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) for use by national anti-doping organizations in the supervision of all out-of-competition drug testing. Prior to the growth of WADA as the most important anti-doping organization in the world, out-ofcompetition drug testing was administered by national sports bodies in general accordance with the direction given by international federations such as the International Olympic Committee (IOC), as directed by their member national organizations. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ATHLETE’S FOOT (TINEA PEDIS)

These testing protocols were often administered in an irregular and inconsistent fashion from nation to nation, as there was no supreme recognized authority as to how such programs must be implemented and administered. Soon after the creation of WADA in 1999, and the corresponding adoption of WADA’s procedures as the standard by which all out-of-competition drug testing would be administered, WADA devised the Athlete Location Form and related testing procedures with the intent of providing certainty to the administering agency as to where an athlete could be located for testing at any given time. Each international sport federation or other body administering the tests could amend the form to suit the individual circumstances of the sport; out-of-competition is an expression that will have a distinct meaning in different sports, as the competitive season will vary in each. The most important aspect of the form is the disclosure by the athlete as to the training schedule and training location every day of the week. The primary training venue, any secondary training venue, the athlete’s work and study schedule, and all residences must be clearly set out for the supervising body. All training camps and competitions must also be itemized. The athlete has the ability to change any information submitted, if notice is provided in advance to the agency by way of a properly completed Change of Plan form. The strength of the WADA procedures are in their certainty, which permits transparent enforcement. A failure to accurately set out athlete location information, with an intent to hinder or defeat an outof-competition test, is a potential doping violation that may subject the athlete to a competition ban, as if they had tested positive.

Doping tests; Out-of-competition testing; U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA); World AntiDoping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Athlete’s foot (tinea pedis) Athlete’s foot is a commonly occurring skin infection, primarily of the foot, but capable of spreading to other parts of the body, particularly the toe nails and other areas of the skin where the environment is moist. It is a fungus, a type of mold similar in its organic construction to yeast and mushrooms; fungi thrive in dark, warm, moist places, spreading through spores that may survive for up to two years. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

There are more glamorous ailments to impact upon an athlete’s ability to perform than the presence of microscopic fungal spores between the toes or that are attached to the crevices of the human foot. For many, athlete’s foot is an irritant, something of an unpleasant rite of passage, especially in team sports where unhygienic communal locker rooms and shower facilities are a fact of life. Athlete’s foot will often first appear on the human foot between the toes, presenting as a red, itching patch of skin. The skin may develop a blister, leading to an increased risk of infection if the foot is not treated. In more advanced stages, athlete’s foot causes a painful, burning sensation. The condition is highly contagious, easily spreading through contact to either other parts of the host skin, or to other persons who have contact with the fungal spores, often in communal areas or by the sharing of footwear. A person suffering from the persistent itch of athlete’s foot will tend to scratch the affected area. The spores that cause the athlete’s foot infection to spread readily attach beneath the fingernails of the itching person. The particular places where the infection is most likely to spread are to the groin and the armpits, as these areas are similarly fungus friendly, being as warm and as moist environments as the foot. Athlete’s foot has a similar biology to that of the infection known as ‘‘jock itch’’ (also known as tinea cruris), a fungus that will cause significant redness and itching on the surface of the male groin. For most athletes, the athlete’s foot infection is an irritant, as opposed to a debilitating injury. However, in most sports, any distraction caused by foot discomfort will undoubtedly detract from performance. Untreated, the infection will spread, first between the toes, and often to the skin on the top of each toe, with the potential of reaching the toenail. If a toenail becomes badly infected with the fungus, the athlete will experience considerable discomfort, and the toenail may have to be removed. As athletic shoes are designed to provide support to athletes during competition, the shoe will not alleviate the condition. Athlete’s foot sufferers often find themselves in a situation where they are both distracted by the irritation and itching sensation of the foot, as well as experiencing an inability to put full pressure of the foot during running, throwing, kicking, or jumping movements. The infection should be treated immediately upon the first observation of its symptoms. Most conditions will respond readily to a topical, commercially available fungicide, which is designed to kill

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the fungal spores. In cases where the infection is resistant to these medications, more powerful pharmaceuticals may be prescribed by a physician. As with all types of infection, the fungicide should continue to be applied after the symptoms such as skin redness and itching have disappeared, to ensure that the underlying fungal spores are destroyed. An occurrence of athlete’s foot, once successfully treated, does not create any form of permanent immunity from a later infection. Good foot hygiene, especially with respect to limiting contacts with the skin of other persons in public changing rooms, swimming pools, hot tubs, and other potentially warm, wet environments, is crucial in reducing the risk of contracting athlete’s foot. An effective foot hygiene regimen will include: daily washing of the feet with soap and hot water; careful drying of the feet with a towel, paying particular attention to the spaces between the toes, to eliminate a fungal environment; wearing dry shoes and socks, selecting types that are breathable and not tight fitting; never sharing shoes or socks; using foot powders or other drying agents; wearing shower sandals or other footwear in public showers or changing areas. Diabetics must take particular care with respect to the thorough treatment of athlete’s foot. Diabetes tends to weaken the human immune system, and the opening of foot sores caused by athlete’s foot in an advanced stage may heighten the risk of a more serious infection entering the body through the openings.

Athletic shoes; Foot: Anatomy and physiology.

SEE ALSO

Athletic shoes The motto of the Olympic Games, ‘‘Higher, faster, stronger,’’ is the essence of true athletic competition: the desire to achieve. The nature of competition has spurred the development of better and more efficient athletic equipment in all sporting disciplines, since the time of the ancient Olympics more than 2,700 years ago. The footwear used by modern athletes is a most prominent example of technological progress in sport. Since the late 1800s, athletic footwear has moved from the custom product of an individual athlete who made modifications to seek a competitive advantage, to its modern status as a branch of sport science.

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High-quality athletic shoes are essential to athletic success, a product that represents an intersection between research and real-life applications. In some disciplines, the footwear is referred to as a ‘‘shoe’’; in many parts of the world, there is the soccer and rugby ‘‘boot’’; in the United States, football ‘‘cleats’’ is a common term; in track and field, athletes will refer to their specialized footwear as ‘‘spikes.’’ The evolution of specialized athletic shoes can be traced to unconnected events in England and the United States. The ‘‘plimsoll,’’ (so named for its color), which resembled the plimsoll line on cargo sailing ships (the mark placed on the hull to show where the loaded ship would be riding in warmer or colder saltwater oceans), was the first mass-produced canvas, rubber-soled shoe. As tennis became more popular in the later part of the nineteenth century, the plimsoll became the first English all-purpose sport shoe. The plimsoll concept was a motivation for the development of the American ‘‘sneaker,’’ named for its quiet wear ability, and patented as the Keds brand in 1916. The sneaker in turn led to the development in the late 1930s of an iconic basketball shoe, the Converse ‘‘Chuck Taylors,’’ made with a canvas upper supported by a thick rubber sole. When the game of soccer was in its early stages of development in England in the 1880s, players usually wore durable work boots, weighing approximately 1.1 lb (500 g), without modification. Wet playing fields in England inspired the development of lighter, cleated boots, often constructed from supple kangaroo hides. In the 1930s in Germany, Adi Dassler, the founder of Adidas, began to experiment with a more functional soccer boot; Adidas later became the first soccer shoe manufacturer to employ a system of removal cleats. Modern soccer shoes, constructed primarily of synthetic materials, weigh less than 0.5 lb (250 g). Athletic shoes, irrespective of the discipline for which they are designed, have four basic components: the upper, the insert, the midsole, and the outsole. Each component has a specific function in the overall efficiency of the performance of the athletic shoe. The upper serves to hold the shoe together, as well as to secure and protect the foot. It is designed to be as lightweight as possible and yet perform its function. The insert is the support mechanism for the foot, particularly the arch. The insert may also be designed to accommodate an orthotic, a specialty structure used to correct misalignment in the foot or legs. The midsole is the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ATHLETIC SHOES

Since the 1970s, results of studies in biomechanics have aided in the development of athletic footwear.

ª 2 00 5 NB AE (P HO TO BY

G L E NN J AM ES /N BA E VI A G ET T Y IM AG ES . )

primary cushioning component that was formerly a rubber structure, and is now commonly rubber, air, or fluid gels. The outsole is designed to provide traction and prevent wear. The chief purposes of any athletic shoe are the combined objectives of stability, flexibility, protection of the foot, and maximum traction on the running surface. To achieve these purposes, athletic shoe research in the past 50 years has emphasized the utilization of ever-lighter materials, and designs encouraging efficient movement. The thin, hard rubber of the original plimsoll sole evolved to one of molded rubber, and then injection molded PVC (plastic) by the 1970s. The modern athletic shoe sole, no matter what the sporting discipline, is now generally constructed of lightweight plastic and nylon materials. A corollary development in the athletic shoe industry has been the popularity of many types of athletic shoes with the general population that use them for casual street wear. The attraction of these products is tied to the marketing of the shoes and the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

fashion appeal, as opposed to their performance characteristics. The study of human movement, known as biomechanics, has featured prominently in athletic shoe research since the 1970s. Studies and development as to how to make the athlete most functional have been directed toward two general areas: the control of motion of the foot, known as pronation, that rolls the foot inward upon impact with the surface, which reduces running efficiency; and the effective cushioning of the foot without sacrificing weight or control. Virtually every sport in which running or lower body stability are important has benefited from the development of a specialized type of footwear; shoes are now further specialized for use in different events within the same discipline. The track spikes worn by a 100-m sprinter will have a very strong sole, to withstand the explosive power applied when the sprinter leaves the sprint blocks; the shoes worn by 1,500-m runner may appear similar, but will often employ flatter soles and shorter spikes. American football cleats for use on natural grass surfaces employ a

45

AUSTRALIAN SPORTS DRUG AGENCY (ASDA)

cleat at the toe for better pivoting; the shoes worn on artificial surfaces tend to employ a greater number of shorter cleats; a large football lineman, who will weight as much as 325 lb (147 k) or more, will wear a high-topped shoe that emphasizes stability and protection of the ankle. A smaller, faster receiver will often wear a lighter, low-cut shoe that permits greater flexibility, consistent with the position played.

Basketball shoes; Foot: Anatomy and physiology; Lower leg anatomy; Orthotics; Running shoes.

SEE ALSO

Australian Sports Drug Agency (ASDA) The formation of the Australian Sports Drug Agency (ASDA) was a product of the anti-doping drive by various international sports organizations in the late 1990s, an effort that culminated in the founding of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)

in 1999. Australia had been an active participant in the various international debates regarding the constitution of a world sports drug organization in the period prior to the creation of WADA. Australia was one of the first sports nations to declare drug-free sport as a goal that was as important as competitive athletic success. Australia has taken considerable national pride in the success of its individual athletes and teams at an international level. As a nation with a large geographic area and a relatively small population (approximately 20 million people of 2006), Australia has a higher level of athletic participation than that of the populations of United States, Canada, or any nation of the European Union. Australia is a world power in rugby, cricket, swimming, diving, and the triathlon. The ASDA has marketed its national anti-doping campaigns as a concept interwoven with national athletic pride. The stated mission of the ASDA is to protect Australia’s sporting integrity through the elimination of doping. As with all other national anti-doping agencies, the ASDA is responsible for the administration of all

Australia was one of the first to declare drug-free sport as a goal. Here, ASDA members watch during a Brisbane Broncos pre-season training session. ROB ER T CI AN FL ONE /G ET TY I MA GE S

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AUTO AERODYNAMICS

WADA-formulated testing procedures, with respect to competitions held in Australia, on both a national and international level. One example of ASDA supervision is the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the largest athletic event in the world after the Summer Olympics. The ASDA also provides contract doping testing services—when retained—at any sports event held in Australia. The ASDA is a signatory to the WADA AntiDoping Code. The ASDA operates in accordance with three general operating principles: deterrence, detection, and enforcement. In addition to these principles, the ASDA provides anti-doping health and education programs throughout Australian athletics. The ASDA, like its companion body, the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA), is responsible for all of the administration and bureaucratic support provided to all testing programs. The ASDA maintains the Athlete Whereabouts Form, known as the Athlete Location Form in other jurisdictions, which facilitates the conduct of out-of-competition testing programs. In a similar fashion, the ASDA supervises the Therapeutic Use Exemptions sometimes claimed by athletes regarding a prescribed medication.

Athlete Location Form; Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport; Change of Plan Form; U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA); World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Auto aerodynamics Automobile aerodynamics is a subscript of the broader science of aerodynamics, the study of air and the interaction with solid bodies moving through air. Aerodynamics is itself a part of fluid dynamics, which is the study of the properties of a solid object moving through a fluid such as air. An automobile is being used here as a general term describing any motorized vehicle, including cars or trucks. The aerodynamic properties of an automobile are fundamental to the performance of the machine. While the engine, suspension, transmission, and tires are the first structural components of a motor vehicle considered when automotive performance is assessed, the efficient performance of the automobile requires optimum aerodynamic performance. Aerodynamic principles are most often considered in the context of racing cars, where slight adjustments to the profile of the vehicle can affect both speed and performance characteristics such as handling and braking. For the performance of a typical WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

passenger car, aerodynamics are an important consideration in the achievement of maximum fuel economy, as well as in creating auto body styling that is visually appealing. The creation of desired aerodynamic effect in an automobile begins in a testing facility known as a wind tunnel, where models can be subjected to varying types of wind effect. The test results will include an assessment of the fundamental components of auto aerodynamics, drag and lift. Drag is the combination of all of the aerodynamic forces that act on an object as it moves through air. The force of drag operates in an opposite direction to the motion of the object. The friction created by the surface of the automobile as it moves through the air is one of the separate types of drag forces created. The principles of drag that apply to an automobile are identical to those created by the hull of a canoe or kayak in the motion through water, as air and water are both fluids for the purpose of the application of the principles of physics in determining drag forces. As a common sense proposition, drag force may be understood through the comparison between a sleek racing car and a large transport truck; the truck will more affected by drag forces than the racing car. The effect of drag on an automobile increases as a square of velocity. The power (the rate of work) required to propel the automobile through the air increases as a cube of velocity. The drag coefficient may range from a factor of 0.2, for a very sleek and highly buffed race car, to 0.4 for a standard passenger vehicle, to 0.6 or more for a pickup truck, a more angular shape. To counter the effect of drag, automobiles designed for performance will maximize down force. The faster a vehicle travels through air, the more it becomes affected by the forces of lift. The Bernoulli effect is a physical principle applicable to lift and down force. The Bernoulli effect is observed when any fluid (including air) flows around an object at different speeds; the slower fluid imposes greater pressure on the object than does the faster moving fluid. As a result, the object is forced toward the faster moving fluid. The force of lift acts on the moving automobile in a direction perpendicular to the flow of air over the vehicle. The faster the vehicle travels, the greater the effect of lift, and the more inherently unstable the vehicle becomes. Down force is achieved to counter lift by designing the bottom of the vehicle to imitate the shape of a wing of an airplane; when the air

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AUTOMOBILE RACING

General Motors employee working at new supercomputer which simulates appearance and aerodynamics of new car designs at research labs. HAN K MOR GA N/ T I ME L I FE P I CTUR ES /G ET TY I MA GE S

flowing below the vehicle is moving faster than the air above, the vehicle moves closer to the ground, as the air pressure there is less than above the vehicle: the reverse of the principle by which an aircraft takes off from the ground. Down force is enhanced in performance vehicles such as racing cars through the addition of ground effects packages, specialized components that are built into the chassis or body. One such device is a ‘‘venture,’’ a tunnel-shaped addition to the body to create further localized low air pressure. The greater the vehicle’s down force, the more maneuverable the vehicle will be at higher speeds, especially in cornering. The wings that are attached to race cars are also designed to increase down forces. The wings are angled to create a faster airflow below than above the wing. The larger the surface area of the wing, coupled with the tilt of the wing, creates down force. The wings, or ‘‘spoilers,’’ sometimes seen on passenger vehicles usually do not create an significant aerodynamic effect.

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Automobile racing; Canoe/kayak: Hydrodynamics; Formula 1 Auto Racing; NASCAR Auto Racing; Rowing: Hydrodynamics.

SEE ALSO

Auto racing, Formula 1

SEE

Formula 1 auto racing

Auto racing, NASCAR

SEE

NASCAR auto racing

Automobile racing Automobile racing is one of the world’s most popular forms of sport. The popularity of the many components of automobile racing is not through actual participation in competition; in relative terms, there are far fewer racing car drivers, mechanics, pit crew, and support personnel than there are soccer, basketball, or cricket players around the world. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AUTOMOBILE RACING

popularity of automobile racing is manifested in its global fan base. Additionally, the NASCAR racing series in the United States regularly attracts television audiences second only to American football. Automobile races such as the international Formula 1 series or the Indianapolis 500 have popular recognition and a devoted following on every continent. The first true automobile race was contested in France from Paris to Bordeaux in 1895; a race in Chicago was held later the same year. These earlier races were not tests of tactics or the aerodynamic capabilities of high-technology vehicles. The internal combustion engine was in its infancy, and a primary objective of the first automobile racers (who were often the manufacturers and developers of the engines and transmissions used in these early vehicles) was to test the engine and other mechanical designs. The growth in automobile popularity after 1900 was a stimulus to more determined forms of automobile racing. The automobile races, like the 100-m sprint in track and field or any other sport founded upon speed, provided a simple objective: the first vehicle across the finish line was the champion. The Federation Internationale de L’Automobile (FIA) was created in France in 1904; for many years, it was a supreme authority in international automobile racing. The modern world of automobile racing is fragmented into distinct racing disciplines, each governed by a body that does not necessarily give allegiance to the FIA. The first races were held on open road courses, where public streets and highways were used. As the motor vehicle evolved, becoming capable of achieving greater speeds and enduring significantly greater mechanical stresses, different types of automobile racing became available. There are now a myriad of automobile competitions, as automobile racing is organized according to car type, engine size, the nature of the race course, speed, or endurance objectives. Formula One racing, or F1, is the most popular of the automobile racing series sponsored by FIA. F1 racing represents the progression from the open wheeled road races in the early years of racing. F1 races are held in two different kinds of venues, road courses and closed circuits. Road courses are race venues created from actual street layouts within a particular city; the roads are closed to other vehicular traffic for the race, but are not otherwise especially modified from their daily urban usage. Closed circuits are race courses created to F1 specifications; WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

these courses mimic a street layout in the sense that there are differing types of curves, straight sections, and bends that require the driver to change gears, vary speeds, and execute turns and cornering maneuvers on a constant basis throughout a race. Albert Park, constructed for F1 racing near Melbourne, Australia, is an example of a closed circuit race course, with a 3.2 mi (5.3 km) irregular circuit; a race is 58 laps, totaling 191 mi (307 km). As with most types of automobile racing, F1 conducts the competitions in accordance with strict rules as to vehicle weight, horsepower, engine displacement, the ability to turbo charge the engine (a device by which greater quantities of air are introduced into the engine to permit greater combustion with the fuel and greater resultant power), aerodynamic features in relation to the ground effects achieved by the vehicle on the race course, and a host of other technical specifications. An F1 race car can possess a top speed of in excess of 200 mph (325 km/h). F1 racing has long held a reputation as the most glamorous of the automobile racing competitions, for a number of reasons. The first is the international scope of the annual F1 circuit, with races, often referred to as a Gran Prix, held on every continent. Each race is organized with a festival-like atmosphere, with a buildup to the F1 competition that consists of a number of slower racing classes and the qualification racing for starting position in the race itself, culminating in the F1 race. The preliminary qualification of drivers for an F1 race is also a feature of other forms of automobile racing, particularly NASCAR and Indy-style racing. The drivers and their teams run qualifying laps one or two days in advance of the race; the drivers with the fastest qualifying times start at the head of the field, with the slower qualifiers arranged in a grid in descending order. F1 glamor has also been founded on the nature of the competition itself. F1 has two championships in its series, the top driver and the constructor’s championship. F1 drivers receive points determined by their place in a particular race; the point total winner at the end of the season is the F1 World Driving Champion. The constructor’ s championship is the contest between the developers and manufacturers of the F1 vehicles. A constructor might have two or three different vehicles being raced as a team. A prominent example of a long-time F1 constructor is the Italian luxury automotive manufacturer, Ferrari. Each team, and its individual drivers, tends to attract

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a worldwide and passionate following. F1 vehicles are extremely sophisticated, with technical advances that may be five to 10 years ahead of what a consumer could expect on a domestic production vehicle. Another aspect of the interest in F1 racing, also applicable to all other forms of high speed racing, is the constant risk of misadventure and death to the racers. The excitement lies in the speed of the vehicles and the close proximity of the machines to one another for the entire competition. The cars might be as close as 2 in to 3 in (5–8 cm) while maneuvering at almost 200 mph. The death of an F1 racer is mourned throughout that community. The deaths of Canadian racer Gilles Villeneuve in 1982, and Brazilian world champion Ayrton Senna in 1994, did not reduce the appeal of the sport by any means. Open-wheeled automobile racing took a different direction in the United States. The Indianapolis Motor Speedway was built in the early 1900s to attract enthusiasts of the burgeoning sport of auto racing; the first Indianapolis 500, the most famous of the American auto races, was held in 1909. Known as the Brickyard, due to the covering of the rough and pitted racing surface with bricks after the first few years of racing, Indianapolis became the mecca of American open-wheeled racing. The Indianapolis racecourse is a 2.5-mi (4-km) oval circuit, with each corner banked. The Indy cars, as the vehicles that raced at Indianapolis became known, are similar in appearance to the F1 racers, but each weighs as much as 30% more, with different regulations concerning aerodynamics, turbo charging, suspensions, and other technical specifications. The Indy cars use methanol as fuel (F1 vehicles are powered by gasoline), and the Indy cars use a racing ‘‘slick’’ tire while the F1 tires have treads. The vehicles are constructed differently due to the nature of the Speedway oval. The driver at Indianapolis or any other oval race course is not required to maneuver the race car to the same degree as does an F1 driver. The heavier Indy car aids the driver in remaining low to the race track at high speeds. Champ Car is an American-based racing series that is very similar in its technical respects to the races held at Indianapolis. The distinctions between the Champ Car series, which has operated in the United States and selected international venues since 2003, and Indy car racing are born of politics, not technical specification. Champ Car series races are held throughout the United States on oval race tracks.

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The FIA also sponsors an international racing series known as the World Touring Car Championship (WTCC). These racing vehicles are specially modified production sedans, in that the vehicles appear identical from their outward appearance to the usual products offered for commercial sale by manufacturers such as Mercedes-Benz, Saab, Honda, or BMW. The WTCC races take place at a series of venues, with a European emphasis. Famous races in the WTCC series include the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the Sebring race in the United States. The widely popular NASCAR series in the United States is similar in its orientation to that of the WTCC competitions, as the NASCAR race vehicles bear the outward appearance and body silhouette of a typical North American production sedan. The outer shell of the vehicle is the only similarity between the race cars and vehicles available for public purchase, as the entire engine, suspension, and internal mechanisms of these vehicles have been custom built for racing. NASCAR, an acronym for the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing, had its beginnings in southeastern United States; vehicles that had been specially modified to outrun law enforcement agencies were raced against one another. NASCAR was founded in 1948, with the Daytona 500 one of its signature events. The modern NASCAR races are now international in scope, with events that attract huge television audiences and corporate sponsorships. The television ratings for NASCAR are generally second only to those of the National Football League in North America. Drag racing is another motor sport with particularly American origins. The natural desire of motor vehicle developers and race enthusiasts in the early 1900s evolved into a distinct sport, where the vehicles had no connection to either the race track or the production models. Known after World War II as ‘‘hot rods,’’ these machines were built with differing engine sizes and a long, low aerodynamic frame, the driver positioned in a cockpit. The fastest of these dragsters are capable of speeds in excess of 300 mph (500 km/h) over a quarter-mile (0.4-km) track. The dragsters race in pairs, accelerating at a signal provided by the activation of a light positioned at the starting line. The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA), founded in 1959, is the governing body for this sport. Rally car racing is another distinct form of auto racing, bearing a similar relationship to WTCC competition as mountain biking races bear to cycling on road courses. Rally cars are specially adapted production cars, with reinforced frames, specialty WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AUTOMOBILE RACING

The U.S. NASCAR racing series regularly attracts sports television audiences second only to that of American football.

DAR REL L

I N GH A M / G E T T Y I MA GE S

suspensions, and safety features such as roll cages built around the driving compartment. Rally races are often held on closed road courses, where the surfaces are gravel or dirt trails. The race is often conducted in stages, where the winner is the driver (and navigator) who achieve the best overall time. The most famous of the rally races is the annual Paris to Dakar rally. Vehicle durability and driver fatigue are the two of the most important considerations in that event.

the tire, the greater the ability to maneuver and to corner the vehicle. Racing slicks are the tires used by NASCAR races cars and dragsters for this reason. In wet weather, racing slicks are a more dangerous option, as water will come between the tire surface and the road, creating the potential for a condition known as hydroplaning, where the tire loses contact with the road surface as it glides along the layer of water. A vehicle that is hydroplaning cannot be readily controlled through braking or steering.

There are a multitude of science and technical issues involved in the function of all types of vehicles used in auto racing. The methods by which power is maximized in a racing engine, and the various techniques used in automobile design to achieve maximum aerodynamic effect, are two of the most technologically intense areas of motor sports. Two areas that are crucial to racing and represent applications of well-known principles of physics are tire technology and the use of banked turns on racing speedways.

The treaded tires are not as fast on dry track conditions as racing slicks; the treads in the tire function to funnel water from the road away from the tire surface to permit stability to be maintained.

Tires are manufactured from a combination of polymers and rubber compounds. As a general rule, the larger the tread pattern, the greater the contact between the tire and the road, which creates greater traction and the faster the vehicle will roll; the softer WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The tires are particularly important when the physics of the automobile racer’s ability to corner at high speed is considered. As a vehicle enters a curve, the driver must initiate the force required to change the vehicle in a direction toward the center of the curve, or the vehicle would continue in a straight line and crash. It becomes subject to a force known as centripetal force, which operates in a direction perpendicular to the direction of travel of the vehicle. Centripetal force is created by the friction between the road and the tire surface, and it is subject to two

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different physical relationships: it is proportionate to the square of the velocity of the vehicle (expressed as v2), and centripetal force is inversely proportionate to the size of the radius of the curve. When the curve has a large radius, a smaller centripetal force will be necessary to pass around the curve; a tight, hair pin turn will require a correspondingly greater degree of centripetal force to maintain control of the vehicle. The banking on some turns is a device through which the tires will have greater contact with a friction developed as the turn is made.

It is considered that the classic definition of an athlete, one who possesses physical strengths and prowess, did not apply to automobile racing. Modern race car drivers have a number of imperatives that tend to direct their physical fitness. The first is the combination of hand-eye coordination, reaction time, and general motor control, all of which are essential to the successful piloting of a high-speed racing machine. The second group of athletic skills useful to the automobile racer is a collection of mental skills like emotional control and stress management.

Race-car drivers have been disparaged over many years as not meeting the definition of an ‘‘athlete,’’ as theirs is a machine-centered, technology-driven sport.

SEE ALSO Auto aerodynamics; Computer simulations as a training tool; Formula 1 auto racing; Mental stress; Motor control; NASCAR auto racing.

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B B-complex vitamins In the early 1900s, medical science began to extend its research beyond how the body processes functioned, into the realm of why such dynamic systems as body metabolism, cell growth, and the skin developed as they did. This approach led to the isolation of what is now referred to as B-complex vitamins, commencing with the discovery of vitamin B1, thiamin, in 1903. The B-complex is so named because, while all of its eight components are chemically distinct, carbonbased, freestanding structures, they share similar characteristics. These vitamins are typically found in combination and they have been found to be most effective when working together. The B-complex vitamins are of particular importance to the proper function of the human metabolism, healthy skin, the development of proper muscle tone, the fostering of a healthy immune system and nervous system, optimum cell growth and cell division, particularly with regard to red blood cells, and the reduction of stress and cardiovascular disease. Proper amounts of the B-complex are essential to the maintenance of general health in an athlete. All vitamins of the B-complex are water soluble, meaning that they are not stored for a lengthy period within the body, and are excreted through the kidneys and urine. The B-complex must be replenished on a daily basis to ensure good health and the proper functioning of the systems. While there are a number of commercially available B-complex vitamin suppleWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ments, it is believed that a proper balanced diet will be as effective in ensuring that an athlete is consuming the optimal amounts of each B-complex component, each day. Each vitamin within the B-complex has a specific relationship to a bodily function or system, and there is a recommended daily allowance (RDA) for healthy adults. The eight different B-complex vitamins include: B1: Thiamine is essential to the conversion of the carbohydrates into glucose that the body converts into energy. Thiamine is also important in the creation of neurotransmitters, which serve as a chemical relay between the muscle fibers of the body; RDA 1.0-1.5 mg/day. B2: Riboflavin is also important to the breakdown of carbohydrates. It is essential to the maintenance of healthy skin; RDA 1.2-1.8 mg/day. B3: Niacin is important to the metabolism of food, as well as the health of the digestive tract; RDA 1.2-1.8 mg/day. B6: Pyridoxine is also involved in the metabolism of food in glucose; it plays an important role in both the production of red blood cells as well as the creation of amino acids, which are important to the creation of proteins; RDA 1.4-2.0 mg/day. B12: Cyanocobalamin is also important to the production of red blood cells; it is an important agent in the development of the sheath fibers that protect the nerves; RDA 2.0 mcg/day.

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BACK ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

B9: Folic acid, panothenic acid, and biotin are the three components of the B-complex believed to act together in the production of hemoglobin, the chemical compound essential to the transportation of both oxygen and carbon dioxide waste in the bloodstream. Folic acid, in combination with vitamin B12, is of importance to the synthesis of DNA and the resultant proper growth of cells in the body. Both panothenic acid and biotin are produced in the human intestines; RDA 150-180 mg/day. The B-complex vitamins are found in a wide variety of foods, including yeasts, whole grain cereals, rice, nuts, milk, eggs, many green vegetables, and liver. Given the water-soluble nature of these compounds, the athletic diet should be planned to provide for daily intake of sufficient B-complex foods. Given an athlete’s usual energy level, it would be a rare occurrence that a serious B-complex deficiency would occur; for the athlete, assuming that the B-complex is being ingested, the important issue will be insuring that all of the B-complex is being obtained on a daily basis for optimum functioning of the affected systems. A shortage in any of the forms of vitamin B will impact an athlete’s ability to metabolize food into energy, or the ability of the body to transport oxygen, two essentials of athletic performance. Serious B-complex vitamin deficiency is most often noted in pregnant or nursing mothers, vegetarians, and alcoholics who do not eat regularly. This condition can cause equally profound physical problems, ranging from skin disorders and stomach upset, to significant impact on muscle reaction and mental performance. There is evidence that vitamin B-complex deficiency will impair the ability of an athlete to concentrate.

Metabolic response; Minerals; Nutrition and athletic performance.

SEE ALSO

Back anatomy and physiology Whether the human body is propelled forward, backward, upward, or downward, the back is an essential component of every movement. The back is a complex structure, part rigid support and a protective, bony sheath, part intricate musculoskeletal device capable of both bearing significant forces, as well as flexing and extending through a remarkable range of movements.

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The back consists of the entire posterior, or rear, of the body from the neck to the buttocks. The back and its characteristics are best understood through an appreciation of each of its components. The spine, or backbone, is the bony structure that is divided into four separate regions: cervical spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, and sacral spine. The cervical spine comprises seven vertebrae referenced as C1 through C7, with C1 at the top of the spine. The cervical spine has three essential skeletal functions: it supports the weight of the skull; vertebrae C1 and C2 are the structures responsible for the neck and head being able to turn; and vertebrae C6 and C7 permit the flexion and extension of the neck and head. The thoracic spine is made up of 12 vertebrae (T1 through T12). This structure is capable of very little motion, as it is primarily protective. The lumbar spine, commonly referred to as the lower back, is responsible for the support of the torso when the body is upright, and to bend, extend, and rotate at the waist when the body moves accordingly. The lumbar structures are the most stressed and the most injured of any portion of the back. The sacral spine is the base of the spine that connects the spine to the pelvis. Its chief components are the sacroiliac bone and the coccyx, or tail bone. Other components of the spine include the vertebrae, the small ring-shaped bones that form the spine. The spinal column is the collection of vertebrae forming the backbone. The disks are sacs filled with a cushioning liquid that rest between each vertebra to absorb shocks to the spine. Without the disks, the vertebrae would rub and grate on another, and the spine would not be capable of a smooth, efficient range of motion. The spinal cord, which is the vital nerve structure running from the brain inside the spinal cord, is protected by the spinal column; the cord is subdivided into nerve roots that radiate into the body. The neural foramina are the openings in the spinal column for the nerve roots to branch out into the torso. Facets are the joints that hold the vertebrae together, both for the stability of the spine and to permit movement. The ligaments, tendons, and muscles stabilize the spinal column. Finally, there is the sciatic nerve, the most prominent of the nerves radiating from the nerve roots into the buttocks, below the sacral spine. The muscles that are critical to the proper movement of the spine are divided into three types: extensors, flexors, and oblique. The extensors are large muscle structures located on the posterior of the spine. The primary purposes of the extensors are to support the back when the body is in an upright position and to provide support and stability to acts WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BACK INJURIES

of lifting. Weightlifters, for example, pay particular attention to the development of these muscles. The erector spinae, a pair of muscles set on either side of the lumbar spine, and the gluteal muscles, located in the buttocks and upper thighs, are the most prominent of the extensors. The flexors are the muscles located on the anterior (front) of the spine. These muscles permit the body to flex in all directions, with particular importance to the motions of bending forward, lifting, and the arching of the lumbar (low back) spine. The flexor muscles include the abdominal muscles. The oblique muscles are on the medial, or middle, of the spine. These muscles are necessary in the rotation of the spine as well as in the maintenance of proper posture. Optimum back health is impacted upon by a variety of factors. Poor general fitness will often place undue stress on the back in daily living, stresses that become even more pronounced when the body is subjected to the stress of athletic competition. Poor posture and the repetitive strain of a number of movements, such as twisting, turning, or lifting, all may place stress on the back structure, particularly the weight-supporting lumbar area. Age is a factor in the preservation of good back health. Muscles will naturally weaken with age. A failure to exercise all back muscle groups, or the creation of imbalances in the back muscles, will place stresses upon the back muscles that may pose long-term problems.

Back injuries; Bone, ligaments, tendons; Skeletal muscle.

SEE ALSO

Back injuries It is remarkable that the back—a complex structure that is an essential component of effective athletic performance—is exposed to a variety of serious risks, and yet tends to be injured in a rather limited number of ways. The back consists of four regions: the cervical spine, the thoracic spine, the lumbar spine, and the sacral spine. Approximately 20% of all sports injuries involve either the lumbar spine (the lower portion of the back) or the cervical spine, which is the neck area. Outside of athletics, between 50% and 80% of all people will sustain a back injury at some time during their lives. The injury commonly known as a lumbar strain, or low back strain, arises in one of two ways: a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

repetitive motion or a weight-bearing motion. A repetitive motion is when lumbar spine is required to perform a twisting motion that generates significant forces upon the spine and the supporting muscles, without a corresponding degree of control of the motion. The swing of a golf club or the motion required to produce a tennis serve are examples of this type of action. A weight-bearing motion can be a series of repetitive actions or a single movement such as when an athlete lifts a weight that is either more than the body is capable of lifting or the lifting technique employed places the lower back in a position where the strain of the weight overloads the lower back structure. Weight training or the movement of any heavy object, such as improper blocking technique in American football, may cause a lumbar strain. Cervical spine injuries include neck injuries, which are more commonly caused by direct application of force to the neck, causing the neck to move when it and the supporting cervical structure are not in a position to bear or absorb the force applied. The common term ‘‘whiplash’’ is a description of a type of cervical spine injury. More serious cervical spine injuries occur when an extreme degree of force is applied, such as a blow to the head, or when the head is struck, causing it to move in one direction while the body is traveling in another, as often occurs in alpine ski racing crashes and motor vehicle collisions. A blow delivered to a receiver by a defensive back in American football or to a rugby player by an opponent as they move with the ball in a direction opposite to the force applied are also examples of the kinds of applications of force that can cause a neck injury. Injuries to the thoracic spine, sometimes referred to as the upper back or mid back, are less common. As the purpose of this component of the spine is primarily to protect and to stabilize, there is little movement by the spine. What injuries do occur in this area are most often blows delivered to the muscles of this region in contact sports, or when there is a dysfunction in one of the joints. A more debilitating back injury is a herniated disk. Any of the disks throughout the spine can become herniated; the most common is the herniated lumbar disk. This injury can occur through either repetitive stresses placed on the structure, such as in repetitive lifting or by direct trauma. The hernia arises when the soft gel within the disk ruptures and then pushes into a nerve root, causing pain. A herniated disk will often require surgery or other significant medical attention. Other common injuries to the low back region are sciatica, an irritation of the sciatic nerve that radiates

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Lumbar strain is a common injury in tennis, as motion required to produce a tennis serve generates significant forces upon the spine and the supporting muscles. CL I VE BR UNS KI LL /G ETT Y I MAG E S

from the back into the buttocks; coxodymia, an injury to the coccyx, or tailbone; and fractured vertebrae, where a vertebra sustains a fracture as a result of a direct blow. As with most sports-related injuries, there are a number of preventative measures that an athlete may take to limit the risk of a damaged back. Such measures are of added importance when the athlete has sustained a previous back injury. A stretching program, aimed at the improved flexibility of the back and its supporting structures, is essential. Back stretches should be performed on a daily basis, as well as part of a warm up prior to training or a competition. In addition to enhancing the flexibility of the structure, stretching will develop improved circulation in the back muscles. For persons who wish to become active in sport generally or those who wish to seek an athletic outlet that represents a lesser risk of back injury, sports in which the back is not subjected to high impact or twisting motions include road cycling and cross country skiing. Moderate levels of back stress will be found

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in sports such as soccer, distance running, volleyball, or basketball. Sports such as Alpine skiing, American football, wrestling, and weightlifting all present a greater risk to the health of the back and spine. Back injuries will require treatment commensurate with the nature of the injury. Minor back strain is often treated with minimally invasive measures such as ice, rest, and the use of an anti-inflammatory such as ibuprofen to reduce pain. For more serious spinal injuries, chiropractic manipulations have often been found to be helpful, as have deep-tissue massage and acupuncture. There are few drug therapies that provide any long-term assistance for a back injury, particularly lumbar injuries. Surgery is typically reserved for worst-case situations. Low back stabilization exercises, designed to strengthen the lumbar region, are essential to aid in recovery from a back injury.

Back anatomy and physiology; Herniated disks; Low back pain; Neck injuries; Skeletal muscle; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO


BADMINTON

Back pain

SEE

Low back pain

Badminton The game of badminton is one with two distinct histories. Badminton can trace its roots over 2,500 years to a number of cultures, primarily China and India (where the game was known as poona). The modern game takes its name from Badminton House, in Gloucester, England, where soldiers familiar with the game through their service in India played the game on their return home. In the initial years of its introduction to English society, the game was regarded as a genteel pastime; the rules of the sport were codified in 1895, and remain virtually unaltered today. The International Badminton Federation (IBF) was formed in 1934. The IBF has over 140 member countries. Badminton is contested in a singles’ competition format for both men and women, doubles events for both men and women, and mixed doubles. An international professional circuit, involving significant prize money, has grown significantly since 1990. In 1992, badminton was introduced to the Summer Olympics as a full medal sport. Badminton has been played in many parts of the world as a recreational activity. It is a deceptively simple sport, requiring a net, two or four people with lightweight metal or composite material rackets made in a similar shape to that of a tennis racket, and a lightweight, feathered object called the shuttlecock or shuttle. The goal is to deliver the shuttle over the net, with the intent to place it where it cannot be returned by the opponent. Badminton was traditionally viewed as a sport that anyone could play. As with many sports with relatively simple rules, sporting excellence in badminton is achieved through execution and precise movement by the athlete. As with the sports of tennis and volleyball, the badminton net regulates the nature of the game. The badminton court is a relatively small space at 44 ft by 17 ft (13.4 m by 5.2 m) or 20 ft (6.1 m) wide for four players. The net stands 5 ft (1.5 m) high. The games are scored to 15 points (women’s singles play is scored to 11 points), with points only permitted to be scored on the player’s serve. The shuttle may not be touched while in the air above the opponent’s court, and the shuttle may not touch the surface of the court. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Badminton can be played in singles or in doubles. The game was added to the event list of the Olympic Games in 1992. AP PH OTO / AL AS TAIR G RA NT

The simplicity of badminton that makes it an attractive recreational activity remains its hallmark at the elite level. The speed and the power of the shots transform badminton from recreation to a significant athletic challenge. The sport requires extremely well-developed agility and hand-eye coordination. The tactics of the game demand a command of a deft touch, to drop a shot into a precise area of the opposing court, as well as the power to deliver a smash; elite competitors can deliver the shuttle at speeds in excess of 150 mph (250 km/h). The placement of shots and the tactics to be employed are also important components of badminton success. Given the height of the net and the dimensions of the court, a tall player would seem to be at an advantage in badminton. However, the Olympics badminton championships and recent world championships have been dominated by athletes from Asian countries. The genetic traits of these athletes, which include slighter builds and smaller statures than most persons of European or North American ancestry, are ideally suited to the sport. Lateral quickness, balance, and a capacity for explosive movement are essential to badminton success. The

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technique required to deliver the primary power shot, the smash, is not a pure strength movement. When the player sees an opportunity to return the shuttle forcefully, the player will often leap, combining a scissor kick and fast arm action with the racket at the point of impact with the shuttle. The jump effectively transfers significant potential energy to a position where, on impact, the athlete converts that energy store into kinetic energy, most of which transfers to the shuttle. The physical training program for effective badminton will combine several features. Stretching and flexibility is of primary importance, as the lateral movement and explosive reactions required place a significant stress on the lower leg joints and groin tissues. Exercises that assist in plyometrics training and intervals will support the movements required in a small space. While the sport is primarily anaerobic in terms of its energy demands, it is common for badminton matches to be extended over multiple sets, with more than one match played per day. Aerobic fitness assists these athletes in their recovery from the anaerobic exertions of the sport. SEE ALSO

Exercise, intermittent; Shoulder injuries.

Balance

SEE

Gymnastics balance

Balance training and proprioception Proprioception is the internal regulatory system of the body that governs the ability to generate and maintain an effective upright posture and physical balance. An internal sensory feedback system, proprioception is the complex series of communications that signal a variation in muscle contraction made in response to any external factors. The important proprioceptors located within the body are the vestibular system (the organs and nerves of the inner ear) and the stretch receptors, nervous system components that are located in the muscles of the joints. These receptors assist in permitting the body to know where the joints are positioned at any time. A prominent stretch receptor, the Golgi tendon organ, is located at the junction of various tendons and corresponding skeletal muscle, relaying the degree of muscle tension present at any time to the brain.

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Proprioception and its importance to human movement is best understood in contrast to two other sensory concepts, the first of which is the physical senses. The five senses of taste, touch, smell, sight, and sound are all sensory devices that act as both a monitoring system and as an early warning defense for the body in relation to its environment; information is received by each sensory organ and transmitted to the brain for processing and, where required, action. In contrast, proprioception is the method by which the body regulates itself, both in terms of physical position, as well as orientation to the ground or other fixed objects. The second contrasting concept to that of proprioception is that of the human kinesthetic senses, the related notions of muscle memory and hand-eye coordination. The kinesthetic sense is similar to proprioception, in that it is an internal mechanism, but distinct by virtue of the role of proprioception in coordinating joint motion and acceleration. Proprioception has been referred to as the ‘‘sixth sense,’’ as it will continue to function in the event the physical senses cannot function. A common feature of cases involving an amputation is the sensation on the part of the amputee that the absent limb is producing pain. The vestibular system of the inner ear is a delicate bone and tissue structure that coordinates balance, orientation, and the detection of acceleration in objects near the body. The inner ear can recognize changes in each of these physical areas more quickly than the coordinated efforts of the eye (through the optic nerve) and the brain. There are two primary sub-mechanisms within the inner ear that provide data for proprioception. The cilia are very fine hairs located along the inner ear canal. These structures sense changes in acceleration, transmitted to the brain by way of the vestibular nerve. The function of the vestibular system is prominent whenever an athlete is endeavoring to track an object that has been sent into the air on a trajectory, such as a fly ball in baseball or a rugby ball kicked down the field. The vestibular system provides continual input regarding speed and body orientation to the ground as the player closes in on the ball. In addition to sports where an object must be followed in the air, airborne sports, in which the athlete’s physical equilibrium are distorted through the movements required by the sport itself, are those where proprioception skills must be developed to their fullest extent. Diving, gymnastics, and aerial WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BALANCE TRAINING AND PROPRIOCEPTION

To fully develop keen proprioception (balance) skills, gymnasts endure countless hours of training.

PH OTO BY G UA NG NI U/ G ETT Y I MA GE S.

events in skiing and snowboarding are all examples. For these athletes, training programs will be designed with the elements of the sport uppermost, and include proprioception principles that equip the athlete with the physical tools to ensure that physical balance can be maintained in any circumstance.

and connective tissues, permits the athlete to incorporate stability into every movement in sport. A welldeveloped core strength also permits a stable and maintained athletic stance, the couched playing position with knees and hips flexed, head erect, that is at the heart of numerous sports.

Balance has components that are genetically based. As a very general proposition, smaller people tend to possess better balance skills and the related features of physical coordination than do larger people, by virtue of the physiological fact that the smaller person is required to control a smaller mass, with a smaller neuromuscular system to be managed. Further, when persons of any size have structural imbalances, such as leg length discrepancies, which create unequal generation of forces in movement, it is likely that such persons will be less coordinated and less balanced in their movements.

Once core strength is in place, the athlete can develop a series of physical attributes that contribute to quickness, performed on a stable physical platform. The ability to transfer weight effectively and seamlessly is a hallmark of athletic balance. Exercises that place the athlete in a continuous series of constant and dynamic movements reinforce for the body its proprioception system.

Balance training is intended to complement the proprioception system. The first and most important aspect of balance training is the building and maintenance of the core strength of the athlete. A maximum level of core strength, the integrated efforts of the abdominal, gluteal, lumbar, and groin muscles WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Any exercise that requires the body to respond instantly to physical position will aid in balance training. Activities as varied as juggling and the use of a wobble board (a device where the athlete is positioned at the center of the board to maintain balance) are employed to perfect balance.

Gymnastics balance; Motor control; Nervous system; Trampoline; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO

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SIR ROGER GILBERT BANNISTER

Banks and curves SEE Physics of banks and curves

Sir Roger Gilbert Bannister 3/23/1929 ENGLISH NEUROLOGIST

On May 6, 1954, at Oxford, England, Roger Bannister became the first runner in history to run a one mile race in under 4 minutes, crossing the finish line in 3.59.4 minutes. Bannister’s achievement was also notable because his daily training program never exceeded 48 minutes per day. The world record had stood at 4.01.2 minutes for nine years at the time of Bannister’s achievement. Many experts believed that the 4-minute barrier might be physiologically impossible to break, as there had been concerted efforts by a number of talented runners to break the mark in that period. The 4-minute mile had a particular allure due in part to the symmetry of four minutes, four laps, and 60 seconds or less for each. Bannister was a 25-year-old medical student when he broke the 4-minute barrier. His achievement was all the more remarkable as he was concluding his medical studies and as a result, was under significant academic pressure throughout all of 1953 and 1954. To ensure that his studies were not compromised by his athletic training, Bannister ran during his one-hour lunch period. He compressed his running workouts into sessions of 48 minutes per day, where he focused upon intense interval training to build a sustained finishing kick. Bannister’s methods, born out of necessity, were in stark contrast to the usual training undertaken by mile runners at the time, where weekly totals of 70 miles (115 km) or more were common. Bannister’s two main rivals in the quest for the first four minute mile were Australian John Landy and American Wes Santee. Unlike the modern world of elite track and field competition, where there are numerous opportunities for athletes to compete against one another in any given year, Bannister, Landy, and Santee challenged the 4-minute barrier independent of one another. Landy lowered the record set by Bannister to 3.58.2 in June 1954, setting the stage for a titanic battle at the British Empire Games in Vancouver in August 1954. Landy led Bannister with less than 300 yds (270 m) to the finish line, when Bannister unleashed a remarkable

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Roger Bannister leads the first 1-mile race in history in which two runners finished in under four minutes. A P P HOT O

sprint at the precise moment that the front running Landy turned his head to see where Bannister was positioned. Bannister beat Landy with a time of 3.58.0 minutes; Landy also ran under 4 minutes to finish second. These games were the only time that Landy and Bannister would ever appear in the same race. After winning the European 1,500-m championships later in 1954, Bannister retired from competition. He became a well respected neurologist and sports administrator; Bannister headed the British Sports Council in the 1970s, where he was a key figure in an early campaign against the use of anabolic steroids in sport.

Exercise, high intensity; Running: Middle distance events; Track and field.

SEE ALSO

Baseball Baseball is a sport that encompasses more than the usual athletic features of performance, competition strategy, and player training and preparation. In WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASEBALL

the United States, baseball is a part of the social fabric. Baseball is part athletic endeavor and part folklore, defined as much by its place in American culture as by the game itself. Baseball, played on a triangular shaped playing surface, is believed to have evolved from the English game of ‘‘rounders.’’ Rounders was a variation of the sport of cricket, sharing the common features of bases being run by the offensive team and a thrown ball being batted to produce a score. By 1869, it is believed that Abner Doubleday was the first to codify the rules of what would become modern baseball. The recognizable modern elements of baseball include nine players in the field and a diamondshaped field consisting of home plate and three bases 90 ft (27.4 m) apart. The essence of the game is the confrontation between pitcher and batter, 60.5 ft (18.4 m) apart, with an inning represented by three batters being called out. Professional baseball and amateur play alike grew in popularity into the early 1900s. The National League was founded in 1876; the rival American League was formed in 1901. The first World Series, named not to signify a world championship, but in honor of the competition sponsor, the New York World newspaper, was first played in 1903. Every small town in America had baseball diamonds and teams. The cloud of illegal gambling and an effort to rig the outcome of the 1919 World Series, known as the ‘‘Black Sox’’ scandal, so named for the Chicago team at the epicenter of the controversy, was regarded as a national disgrace. The rise of players such as Herman ‘‘Babe’’ Ruth and Lou Gehrig, and the New York Yankees team in the 1920s returned baseball to a positive public light. Baseball was the unquestioned favorite team sport in the United States until the 1950s. Major league baseball was in turn supported by a vast minor professional league structure, from where prospective major leaguers were developed. The nature of the game changed after World War II, as the infamous baseball ‘‘color line,’’ an unspoken but well-enforced prohibition against African-American players competing in major league professional baseball, was first crossed by Jackie Robinson, a member of the Brooklyn Dodgers. Other baseball icons were created in the 1950s and 1960s, such as Mickey Mantle, Willie Mays, and Henry (Hank) Aaron. Like the game itself, baseball heroes occupied a place in popular culture unlike other American athletes; there was a name recognition that was bigger than the sport itself. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Until World War II, baseball was only played to any significant degree in North America (the game had enjoyed significant growth in Canada in parallel progression to that in the United States). The wartime presence of U.S. servicemen in countries such as Japan, Australia, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, and the Dominican Republic served to introduce the game to those regions. Today, each of those countries has thriving baseball cultures, with a noticeable presence in the American major leagues. However, baseball is not on the same plane as sports such as soccer, cricket, rugby, or basketball in terms of global sport status. The sport has enjoyed official status an Olympic medal sport since 1992; the International Olympic Committee has determined that the Beijing Olympics of 2008 will be the last such baseball competition. One enduring international baseball championship has been the Little League World Series, a competition for teams of youths aged 12 and under. Teams from various parts of the world participate in regional play downs for the opportunity to advance to the World Series, held each year in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, at a specially configured stadium. Modern American professional baseball, which for more than a century was said to be as ‘‘American as Mom and apple pie,’’ has undergone significant stresses in recent years. The stoppage of league play in 1994, and the corresponding cancellation of that year’s World Series, due to a dispute between the owners of the major league teams and the players union had a significant impact upon the popularity of the game. The widely held concerns regarding whether major league players were routinely taking anabolic steroids or other performance-enhancing drugs, which concerns were the subject of seemingly unending media coverage as well as a United States Senate review, impacted upon the popularity of the game; in the 60 years since the end of World War II, baseball, while remaining popular in absolute terms, has fallen from first place to fourth in American sports culture behind professional football, college football, and professional basketball as a spectator sport. Baseball has developed a number of variations over the past century. In the United States, baseball is the generic term applied to all varieties of the game. There are different types of competition that involve the batted ball as the chief manner of scoring against an opponent. Baseball, occasionally referred to as ‘‘hard ball,’’ is the traditional game, as played in the

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United States major leagues and throughout the world. Softball is a distinct form of baseball. The field of play is smaller, and the four bases are 60 ft (18.2 m), as opposed to 90 ft (27.4 m), apart. The ball is larger in circumference and is of a less dense composition than that of a baseball, which makes it much more difficult to hit as hard or as far as a baseball. The pitcher stands 40 ft (12.2 m) from the batter, and the pitch is delivered underhand, in a windmill motion. This game is the most popular women’s baseball in the world. Lob ball, or slow pitch, is similar in its rules and field of play to softball, with the key exception being the speed and trajectory of the ball when it is pitched to the batter. The game is designed to encourage the batter to hit the ball, whereas in all other forms of baseball the pitcher employs the opposite tactic. Lob ball came to prominence in the 1970s in North America as a less-taxing, more recreational and participatory form of baseball. There are a number of reasons as to why baseball has endured as a part of American sporting culture, and to a lesser degree, as an international game. The first is the absence of time constraint in the competition. Baseball and cricket (from which baseball owes some derivation) are the only team sports where there is no time limit within which the game must be completed. The inning and the ‘‘at bat’’ (the period spent by an individual batter facing a pitcher in an inning) are not regulated by time, but by the result achieved—a hit, a walk, a strike out, or an out in the field. For these reasons, a team can, at least in theory, always come from behind to win a game. Baseball is also one of the few sports where there is a series of one-on-one encounters that make up the competition. Unlike other team sports, such as football, basketball, soccer, or rugby, in which the team must function in a harmonious unit to achieve a goal, both offensively and defensively, there is a typical baseball sequence: pitcher versus batter; fielder versus runner, when the ball is hit in the field of play; and fielder versus runner, when a base runner attempts to advance on a hit or by a steal. Baseball teams must work together in the field to succeed, however, it is these individual encounters that are at the heart of the game. Baseball is also noteworthy in the sense of what type of athlete will be most successful in

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the sport. While hitting a fast moving, spinning baseball with power is aided by the development of powerful muscles, particularly in the arms, shoulders, wrists, and core (lower abdominals, trunk, and thighs), many highly successful hitters rely on exceptional hand-eye coordination, anticipation, and speed to make regular contact with the ball and generate hits. Defensively, the position of catcher has often lent itself to a larger athlete, due to the often physical contact required of the position. A bigger player is able to better withstand collisions at home plate and foul tips, where the batted ball is directed at high speed backward at the catcher. (It was these dangerous balls that led to the catcher’s protective equipment being dubbed the ‘‘tools of ignorance.’’) In other areas of the game, there is a decided premium on speed and agility. Defensive players such as shortstops, second basemen, and outfielders, and particularly the center fielder, cannot be effective unless they are able to cover significant distances and make split-second decisions as to where the ball must be thrown. Baseball also combines a unique pairing of objects making contact that gives more dimension to the game. The object of the sport is to strike a round ball with a round bat, contact that frequently produces unusual movement by the struck ball. Baseball has been the subject of many learned dissertations concerning the application of physical principles, such as what causes a pitch to curve (Magnus effect of subtle differences in air pressure on the thrown ball), why an aluminum bat will cause a baseball to travel further than a wooden bat (different coefficients of restitution in aluminum versus wood), or how an outfielder is able to track down a high fly ball (relationship between eyes and the inner ear/balance function). No sport has adherents that follow the flow of the play with a greater fascination with playing statistics than does baseball. To its devotees, the absence of time limits and the essential battle between batter and pitcher give baseball a cerebral quality.

Anabolic steroids; Baseball injuries; Baseball strength and training exercises; Softball: Slow pitch vs. the fast pitch.

SEE ALSO


BASEBALL BAT SPEED

Despite the heavy protective equipment for catchers, there are still periodic injuries. Here, New York Mets catcher, Mike Piazza, was accidentally struck by the bat during the follow-through. ª R EUTE RS

Baseball bat speed Within baseball, the term bat speed is defined as how fast a bat moves through its arc when a batter swings it. Bat speed is generally recorded as the speed from the bat’s center of mass, which is near its ‘‘sweet spot’’ (the most effective section with which to hit a ball). A batter has about one-half second to swing the bat from the time the ball is released by the pitcher to the time it enters the catcher’s mitt—what is called swing time. When considering the mechanics of the bat swing, researchers often model it based on its similarity with how a person swings a weight at the end of a rope. In both cases, the forces on the swung WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

object are exerted through the person’s hands and directed along the axis of the object. Thus, the bat speed can be determined as the swing proceeds through a series of motions involving first the hips, and then the shoulders, arms, and lastly the wrists, as the bat is driven powerfully around from the rear to the front of the batter. Before the pitch, the batter usually stands congruently above a point halfway between his or her feet. As the ball is released by the pitcher, the batter shifts his or her weight backward by rotating (or cocking) the hips toward the rear foot. The batter then steps into the pitched ball by pushing forward off his or her rear foot. A typical major league player pushes off with a force of around 250 pounds-force

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(1,110 newtons). During this initial period of about 0.2 seconds, from which the shoulders are brought around roughly parallel with the hips, the bat has reached a speed of about 6 mph (10 km/h).

is a 1.57–2.0-in (3.8–5.1 cm) variation in the location of the sweet spot between different bat types. On average, the sweet spot occurs between 5 and 7 in (12.7 and 17.8 cm) from the barrel end of the bat.

The batter then begins to rotate his or her body around the fixed front foot. As the batter continues to rotate his or her body approximately within a horizontal plane, the bat is brought across the plate with the arms. During this stage of the swing, which lasts about 0.08 seconds, the hands transmit increasing amounts of force to the bat as the body continues to rotate while pulling the bat through its arc—eventually reaching nearly 50 pounds-force (220 newtons). During the last 0.01 seconds of this period, the bat speed reaches about 20 mph (32 km/h).

The sweet spot’s location for maximizing how far the batted ball travels after being hit can be calculated scientifically. When a batter hits a ball, the bat will rebound from the force of the collision. If the ball is hit closer to the handle end, a translational (straight-line) force will occur at the pivot point. If the ball is hit nearer to the barrel end, a rotational force will occur at the handle end near its center-ofmass—causing the handle to move away from the batter. This rotating motion causes a force in the opposite direction at the pivot point. However, impacts at the sweet spot results in these two opposite forces being balanced, causing a net force of zero—something that can be measured by scientists.

In the 0.06 seconds left for the batter to complete the bat swing across the plate, most of the energy has been transferred to the bat from the thigh and torso muscles (with the arm and hand muscles serving primarily as a way to transfer energy). At this point, the force on the hands and arms attain a value of about 200 pounds-force (890 newtons). Just before the bat meets the ball, the wrists are straightened out as the remaining energy is transferred to the bat. About 0.04 seconds before the bat hits the ball, the bat speed reaches about 70 mph (113 km/h). If the ball is struck properly on the sweet spot, about 50% of the energy stored within the swinging bat is transferred to the ball. The speed of the bat is quickly reduced by approximately 30% from the reaction of the collision—to a speed of about 50 mph (80 km/h).

Baseball bats: Sweet spots and tampering; Baseball curve ball.

SEE ALSO

Baseball bats: Sweet spots and tampering Sweet spots on a baseball bat are the locations best suited for hitting pitched baseballs. At these points, the collision between the bat and the ball produces a minimal amount of vibrational sensation (sting) in the batter’s hands and/or a maximum speed for the batted ball (and, thus, the maximum amount of energy transferred to the ball to make it travel further). On any given bat, the point of maximum performance and the point of minimal sting may be different. In addition, there are variations in their locations between bats, mostly depending on the type of bat and the specific manufacturer. Generally, there

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The tampering of baseball bats to modify the bat with the intention of enhancing its performance is an illegal activity. In many cases, it involves modifying a bat by drilling a hole about 6–9 in (15.2–22.9 cm) into the barrel end. The hole is then left empty or is filled with some type of lightweight material such as cork, cork balls, or rubber. A solid wooden plug, which matches the bat’s color and grain, is then placed over the hole. The plug is sanded and varnished in order to hide the modification. Such modified bats are often called aberrant or corked bats. The modified bat differs from the original bat by its lighter weight and smaller moment of inertia (resistance to drag). Bats drilled out in this way are not allowed to be used within the various member organizations of the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues (of which the National and American Leagues are members) under the Official Baseball Rules. Other illegal ways to tamper with bats have been used in the past. Wet pine tar (a sticky substance) has been used to improve a batter’s grip on the bat. Nails were sometimes secretively driven into bats to provide a harder surface for the collision with the baseball. In the early 2000s, engineers at the University of Massachusetts Baseball Research Center in Lowell, Massachusetts, tested illegal cork bats and legal wooden bats. The test is viewed within the sporting industry as one of the most exacting scientific laboratory studies ever performed on bat efficiency. A mechanical hitting machine was used to compare the bats swung at exactly 66 mph (106 km/h). The measurement was taken at the ‘‘sweet spot,’’ which is about 6 in (15.2 cm) from the tip of the bat. A mechanical ball-throwing machine pitched the balls WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASEBALL CURVE BALL

at exactly 70 mph (113 km/h). The center’s director, James Sherwood, stated the test results showed that baseballs traveled farther when hit by corked bats because they deformed to a higher degree and this increased the energy of impact with the pitched ball (maximizing the energy changes as a result of the hit and increasing the distance the ball could travel). However, the corked bats also showed obvious stress (such as cracking) after only a few collisions. Within the study, Sherwood stated that a corked bat produced about a 1% increase in the speed of the batted ball, which related to about a 2% increase in distance traveled. For instance, a 400-ft (122 m) fly ball hit with a legal bat would produce a 408-ft (124 m) fly ball hit with a corked bat. Thus, a corked bat allowed a batter to swing the bat faster and the ball to rebound quicker. On the other hand, a corked bat, which is about 1.5 oz (42.5 gm) lighter than a solid wood bat, has less mass. A less-massive bat means that it will have a less-effective

collision with the ball. With this tradeoff—faster swing speed and springier impacted ball versus smaller mass—many experts state that the difference between the two bats is negligible. However, other experts note that such differences are why the bat continues to be illegal to use. Some studies describe a psychological benefit when using corked bats. Batters ‘‘think’’ they are able to hit the ball further and, therefore, are more efficient at hitting greater numbers of balls. Whether such physical and psychological differences warrant that the corked bat remain illegal has been difficult to determine. SEE ALSO

Baseball curve ball A curve ball is a type of pitch thrown by a baseball pitcher in which the way the ball is gripped and

Curve ball as thrown by Carl Hubbell, pitcher for the New York Giants.


Baseball bat speed; Baseball curve ball.

PHO TO BY G JON MIL I/ /TIME LIFE P IC TURES/ GETTY I MAGES.

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released and the arrangement of stitching on the ball causes additional rotation, which results in the ball traveling in an exaggerated, or curved, flight. When thrown as intended, curve balls curve distinctly as they approach the batter—what is called the curveball’s break. Credit for the invention of the curve ball in the late-1800s is generally given to American baseball player William Arthur ‘‘Candy’’ Cummings (1848– 1924). The curve ball’s first acknowledged public demonstration occurred on August 16, 1870, by major league pitcher Fred Goldsmith (1856–1939). However, for years afterward, baseball fans debated as to whether a curve ball actually curved. The controversy was settled when fast photography (photographs taken in the dark with stroboscopic lighting) was first used in 1941 by researchers associated with Life magazine, who viewed the curve ball’s path. Certain forces act on a baseball regardless of how it is thrown. When a pitcher throws a baseball, the forward movement of the arm propels the ball with a force that produces a velocity. (In the major league, pitchers often throw baseballs in excess of 85 mph [136 km/h].) A countering force called drag (air resistance) slows the ball down. Simultaneously, the force of gravity places a downward motion onto the ball. In the case of a curve ball, spin (rotation) is added to the ball when the pitcher snaps his or her wrist downward as the ball is released. Because of this action, another force called the Magnus force is able to explain the motion of a curve ball. The Magnus force, named after German physicist Heinrich Gustav Magnus (1802–1870) who described it in 1853, acts on a baseball due to the stitches located on its surface. The spinning of the stitches causes air pressure on one side to be less than the pressure on the opposite side. The ball is compelled to rotate faster on the side with less pressure than on the side of greater pressure. Because of this difference, the ball curves. When the so-called Magnus effect is used by a pitcher to throw a curve ball, a difference of forces as little as one part in a thousand—when a ball is thrown at 75 mph (120 km/h)—can produce a curve just over 1 ft (0.3 m). A baseball traveling from a right-handed pitcher rotates at about 1,800 revolutions per minute. Thus, on its trip of about 56 ft (17 m) from the mound’s edge to the plate, the ball will rotate about 16 times. According to statistics, the ball’s surface facing the third base side will rotate at about 85 mph (137 km/h), while the first base side will rotate only at about 55 mph (89 km/h). Drag is

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greater on the faster rotating side (and less on the slower side) so the ball is deflected toward the first base side—and away from a right-handed hitter. Therefore, a right-handed pitcher has a better chance of striking out a right-handed batter because curve balls will break down and away from the batter, making the ball much more difficult to hit. Likewise, a left-handed pitcher prefers to throw curve balls to left-handed batters. SEE ALSO Baseball bat speed; Baseball bats: Sweet spots and tampering.

Baseball injuries Classic baseball confrontations are decidedly physical, all-or-nothing encounters in an otherwise non-contact sport. The forces generated by playeron-player collisions can be significant, creating a risk of serious injury. Knee and lower leg injuries and concussions are common occurrences when two players collide at home plate. However, while most baseball injuries are far less dramatic than those occurring at home plate, they are often as debilitating in the longer term. Baseball has historically placed significant emphasis on training programs that stress the repetition of various physical movements, in the development of throwing, hitting, and base-running skills. The sport has a correspondingly very high incidence of injuries resulting from an overload on the ability of a structure to endure the repetitive movement, particularly arms and shoulders. The structural overload is made worse in players that employ poor mechanics in their execution of a particular baseball fundamental, which accelerates the breakdown of the joint or structure in question. The over-hand throwing of a baseball by a pitcher is an unnatural motion for the elbow and the shoulder to endure. For this reason, pitchers sustain more injuries than any other baseball player. By contrast, the underarm motion employed by a softball pitcher places a low degree of strain on these structures; it is not uncommon for softball pitchers to be active well into their 40s. The mechanism of the baseball pitch involves rotation of the shoulder joint, twisting of the upper arm and elbow, extension of the forearm, and flexion of the wrist. All of these actions are performed at a high speed, placing considerable stress on every part of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Head and facial injuries, especially at home plate, are not uncommon in baseball.

the arm. In a typical high-level amateur or professional game, a pitcher may throw 100 pitches or more in the game itself, with as a many or more pitches as part of a warm up. The stress placed upon a pitcher’s arm does not begin when the player reaches the upper echelons of competition; the nature of baseball is such that pitchers are groomed at young ages, and the physical problems that they encounter as adult athletes often have their roots in the player’s activities as a youth. A study conducted by the American Sports Medicine Institute determined that approximately 58% of pitchers under the age of 18 sustained a significant elbow injury either during or after competition. It is believed that the most physically difficult baseball pitch to throw, the curveball, is the primary cause of both elbow and shoulder injuries in pitchers. The curveball requires both the pitching shoulder and elbow to be rotated as the ball is being delivered so as to impart spin on the ball that will cause it to dip, or curve. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PH O T O B Y P A U L J A SI E NS K I / G E T T Y I MA GE S.

Elbow injuries occurring in baseball have three separate causes. The first and most devastating is an injury to the medial aspect of the elbow, the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL). As the pitcher delivers the ball, it is raised behind and above the shoulder. A significant force is then generated as the arm moves past the ear and rotates, and the UCL pulls the forearm of the throwing arm forward. As the UCL is a small structure that, as the ball is pitched, is subjected to the entire force of the arm’s movement, this force can cause the UCL to sustain a micro tear. In typical circumstances of muscle or ligature strengthening in the body, a micro tear is a part of the building and strengthening process. With the constant exposure to this force that occurs in baseball pitching, the UCL micro tear will often progress to a larger, more complete and disabling tear. The second common elbow injury sustained by pitchers is when the radius (arm bone) is brought into contact with the humerus (forearm bone) in the

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joint, resulting in bone chips that may move within the joint, causing pain. The third common elbow injury is created by the straightening of the elbow on the delivery of the ball at the point where the ball is released, which through repetition causes the elbow components to grind together. This also may result in bone chips in the joint, which can disable the pitcher. Each of these injuries will usually require surgery, and an extensive period of rehabilitation. The surgery perfected by Dr. Frank Jobe, whose most prominent patient was major league pitcher Tommy John, involves the grafting of a transplanted ligament to the damaged UCL. This procedure has extended the career of numerous injured major league pitchers. The serious shoulder injuries sustained by pitchers primarily relate to the rotator cuff. The rotation of the shoulder during a pitching motion will often lead to a grinding or displacement of the structure. Another common injury is a tear of the upper part of the bicep muscle. All of these injuries have their foundation in poor mechanics that are employed for a number of baseball seasons and have a negative cumulative effect. The swinging of the bat during a baseball game is rarely the cause of a serious injury. However, batters develop strained muscles in their arms and low back, the result of repetitive strain caused primarily in training. The explosive movement of swinging a baseball bat as hard as possible may cause a spontaneous tear or rupture of a muscle or ligament in the shoulders or back. Such occurrences are rare. As with any sport where the athlete is stationary for large portions of competition, the requirement of sudden, explosive movement such as running can pace significant strains on the body. Groin strains, as well as muscle pulls in the quadriceps (thigh) and hamstrings, are a common result. Sliding to avoid the tag of the defensive player may also cause injury to the gluteal muscles (buttock) and legs. With the exception of plays when a base runner collides with another player, baseball running injuries are rarely serious. Diving for a ball in the outfield, especially on harder artificial surfaces, may cause abrasions to the skin. Whether it is the catcher being struck by the ball with a foul tip, the batter being struck by a pitch, or

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the pitcher facing a ‘‘come backer’’ from a batter’s ball, a baseball has the potential to cause a serious injury. Both catchers and batters wear protective helmets. However, head injuries caused by a player being hit by a baseball almost always occur on line drives that strike a pitcher or infielder.

Baseball; Baseball strength and training exercises; Elbow injuries; Shoulder injuries.

SEE ALSO

Baseball strength and training exercises As with any other sport, baseball training and strength exercises must be tailored to a specific physical purpose related to competitive success. Baseball training programs are unusual in that there are significantly different physical requirements for the various positions. Improved hitting technique is a constant for all players, with variations in the training approaches of ‘‘power hitters’’ and ‘‘singles,’’ or ‘‘contact,’’ hitters. A starting pitcher in major league baseball is expected to play one game in every four or five; each performance will impose terrific and often debilitating stresses on the pitching arm. The training program for this pitcher will bear little relationship to the work out regime determined for a fielder, whose success will involve a combination of agility, speed, explosive power, and concentration skills. The training program for any baseball player will have the following components: Speed training: Players must be able to run with speed from the batter’s box, on the bases, and tracking down balls hit into the outfield. Agility training: This trains a player to react with total control of the body, from a variety of body positions, such as a crouch and a batting stance, while moving. Strength training: While baseball does not require extreme muscular strength, it does require strong, supple musculature. Proper strength training will protect the baseball player’s arm and shoulder, which is vulnerable to injury through overuse or poor mechanics and will focus on the player’s core strength and the lower back, which is vulnerable to repetitive strain injury through the twisting and extension of the hitting motion in batting practice. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASKETBALL

Mental training: Baseball places unique mental demands on its athletes by virtue of the long periods when a player is inactive, either by being on the bench or when the play is not directed in his direction (such as the outfielder who does not have the ball hit in his direction for a number of innings). Given the nature of the sport, with the premiums placed on speed and agility, an effective baseball strength training program will not primarily center on the development of bulk and large muscle mass. Free weights that are used on a low weight/high repetition basis are often very effective in developing muscles that perform well, both contracted and extended. Squat-type exercises, using light weights, lunges, and leg presses will also enhance the core strength required in the hips, buttocks, and low back. The use of exercise tubing also permits the athlete to extend arm or leg muscles through a range of motion against resistance, without significant risk of overloading the muscle structure in question. Medicine ball training is another very safe and highly effective way to combine strength training in combination with the full range of the athlete’s motion. Lifts and squats with a medicine ball, performed in sets of 20–30 repetitions, are ideal. Baseball players must be wary of any exercise that requires significant amounts of weight to be lifted over the head; overhead lifts common to the methods of strength training in other sports place stresses on the shoulder and on the rotator cuff in particular, which is a muscle structure essential to baseball performance. The rotator cuff is an assembly of four small muscles in the shoulder that permit the arm to be raised over the head; the rotator cuff also holds the upper arm bone (humerus) in place as the shoulder is taken through its desired range of motion. To keep the rotator cuff structure strong, exercises that employ the athlete’s own body weight are a safe but progressive method of building strength; chin-ups, push-ups, and lightweight dumbbell presses are good examples. Interval running is a speed training technique that mimics the short bursts of acceleration and running required in many aspects of baseball. Base running and fielding all require quick speed and reaction time. Training in intervals builds the ability of the muscle fibers present in the legs, known as ‘‘fast twitch fibers,’’ to react quickly, as well as builds muscular endurance. In a similar fashion, plyometrics will enhance the ability of a player to generate both speed and explosive power in the leg muscles. Plyometric programs, which include repetitive jumping WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

and bounding exercises, can be made a component of a baseball training program, as long as attention is paid to the significant demands placed on the leg muscles through this form of training. The intermittent nature of baseball player’s movement during a game requires that all competitors maintain a thorough stretching program. All players are inactive for the half of the game when their team is at bat, save for the batter or players on base. In the field, the pitcher and the catcher are moving on a regular basis, with 10- to 20-second intervals common between pitches; the other fielders are stationary until required to react to a thrown or batted ball. Effective stretching for these athletes will place particular emphasis on flexibility throughout the body. As befits a sport in which mental concentration is required both as a hitter and to assist a player to move instantly from the inactive phases of the game to brief, vigorous activity, mental training is important. Exercises that enhance an athlete’focus and ability to block out both crowd noise and opposing player comments will complement the physical training of the baseball player.

Baseball injuries; Mental stress; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch; Plyometrics; Quadriceps pulls and tears.

SEE ALSO

Basketball In December of 1891, the administration at the School for Christian Workers in Springfield, Massachusetts, faced a problem. The excess energies of a rambunctious class of 18 men, in training to become administrative secretaries, were causing difficulties in daily school life, as these students were bored with the standard winter exercise fare of gymnastics and other indoor recreation offered at the school. These students were studying to join the work of the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA). For safety reasons, the more dangerous games of indoor football and rugby were not permitted at the institution, which would later become Springfield College. The school athletic director asked his physical education instructor, James Naismith (1861– 1939), to invent an activity that was safer than the traditional contact sports, yet one that would require the players to expend reasonable amounts of energy. Naismith was given two weeks to create such a sport. The new game Naismith rendered to his director was a sublime invention: basketball. The game

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The 2004 NBA finals: Los Angeles Lakers vs. the Detroit Pistons. The Pistons won the championship title.

included such diverse components as a modified soccer ball, nine players per side, 13 rules of the game scribbled on a piece of foolscap, an emphasis on finesse and limited physical contact, and peach baskets for goals were hung 10 ft (3 m) above the school gymnasium floor. After the players were explained the rules, the first basketball game was played December 13, 1891. Naismith officiated, and it was evident that the players greatly enjoyed his sports invention. The final score of 1-0 proved to be an ironic birth to the high scoring, supremely athletic contests that are the hallmark of the modern game. The Naismith invention was an immediate success, as basketball garnered significant interest over

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the next 20 years across the United States, particularly at the college level. The first women’s basketball game, played with the modified rules created by Senda Berenson Abbott (1868–1954), took place at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1893. The original Naismith basketball rules are proof of the prescience of their creator. The evolution of basketball has lead to a modern game in which agility, strength, hand-eye coordination, lateral quickness, and vertical leaping ability are the most desired physical attributes sought in a player. In 1891, Naismith had seen such characteristics as required for the competitors in his nascent sport, as WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASKETBALL

evidenced by the language of his original rules: ‘‘The ball may be thrown in any direction with one or both hands. . . The ball may be batted in any direction with one or both hands, but never with the fist. . . A player cannot run with the ball. . .. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it, allowance to be made for a man running at good speed. . .. The ball must be held by the hands. The arms or body must not be used for holding it. . . No shouldering, holding, pushing, striking or tripping in any way of an opponent.’’

The claim to James Naismith as a native son is made by Canada, where Naismith was born and educated, as well as by the United States, the physical birthplace of the game as well as Naismith’s home for the final 50 years of his life. The inventor lived long enough to see the sport develop into a true world game, as Naismith attended the first-ever Olympic basketball game in Berlin in 1936. As the athletic director at the University of Kansas for 39 years, Naismith was a mentor to the legendary American university coach Forrest (Phog) Allen (1885–1974).

The 1891 rules also provided for both a fivesecond period in which a player was permitted to inbound the ball, as well as establishing the concept of player fouls, two provisions that continue in the rules of modern basketball. It is evident that the spirit of the Naismith creation remains intact today; Naismith could not have contemplated the sheer size and corresponding ability of those who would play his game in the twenty-first century.

The American origins of the sport were reflected by the dominance of American teams in international competition for the first 80 years of the history of basketball. The intense popularity of basketball in both high schools and universities in the 1930s and 1940s were the significant factors in the founding of the National Basketball Association in 1946. The NBA has been the world’s premier professional basketball league throughout its entire history.

The significant rule changes in modern North American basketball have often been in response to the impact of the talents of either an individual player or a particular tactic. There are many notable examples of such rule changes. For instance, George Mikan, the first of the talented big men to play professional basketball, stood 6 ft 10 in (1.85 m) tall, weighing 245 lb (111 k). The lane between the free throw line and the basket was widened from 6 ft (1.82 m) to 9 ft (2.7 m) in the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1947 to limit the ability of Mikan to obtain a position closer to the basket. The distinctive key shape of this earlier lane gave rise to the term by which this area is often referred in the modern game. In 1944,Mikan’s physical talents had prompted the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) to ban the blocking or deflecting of a shot by a defensive player when the ball was above the rim of the basket, a technique known as goaltending.

Television coverage promoted the game to further popularity in the United States through the 1960s, which led to the creation of a rival to the NBA, the American Basketball Association (ABA), in 1967. The two leagues merged in 1976. The Harlem Globetrotters were created in the late 1940s in New York, in part as a response to the latent racism that existed in all North American professional sports at that time. The Globetrotters also contributed to the popularity of basketball with cross-country barnstorming tours, featuring outstanding players who combined athletic talent and a lighthearted showmanship.

Another example was brought about because of Lew Alcindor (later known as Kareem Abdul Jabbar). The NCAA banned dunking in competition from 1967 through 1976, in part as a response to the 7 ft 2 in (2.19 m) Alcindor’s size and skills. Concerns regarding slow and uninspired play prompted the invention of the 24-second shot clock by the NBA in 1954, a rule that required a team with possession of the basketball to take a shot at the opposing basket within the 24-second time limit. Both the NCAA and international basketball made similar shot-clock provisions in later years, a factor contributing to the offensive aspects of the sport.


Institutions such as Syracuse University and others in northeastern United States began to organize men’s basketball teams in the late 1890s. The growth of the American university championships competition has continued virtually unabated since the end of World War II. Known popularly as the NCAA’s ‘‘March Madness,’’ the annual 64-team single elimination tournament in the top divisions for both men’s and women’s teams is a major media and cultural event in the United States. While basketball has been played at a high level throughout the world since the early part of the twentieth century, American dominance of the sport was unquestioned until the latter part of the twentieth century. The United States captured successive Olympic and world titles using university players, without any need to rely on the best American professionals available. The history of the game as a world sport was altered forever at the 1972 Munich Olympics. In a shocking and highly controversial result in the gold medal game, a contest highlighted

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by uncertainty as to the precise time remaining, the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics beat the United States for the championship. In 1992, the United States for the first time entered an Olympic team comprised only of the best NBA players, including legendary talents Michael Jordan, Ervin ‘‘Magic’’ Johnson, and Larry Bird. The ‘‘Dream Team,’’ as it was dubbed by the media, easily won an Olympic championship. While subsequent American Olympic and world championship competition Dream Teams have been composed of equally talented players, the world basketball talent pool has rapidly expanded. The 2004 Olympics competition, in which the United States men’s team was beaten by Argentina in the tournament semifinals, is a prominent example of this growth. A further indicator of the global nature of the sport is reflected by the extensive efforts made since 1990 by NBA franchises to seek out talented foreign players, both by way of the annual player selection draft, as well as through the process known as free agency, which is the obtaining of the services of a player not under contract or other obligation to another team. As an example, the 2005 NBA draft of the 60 best available players included 14 foreign selections. There are a number of theories concerning the rise in the standard of play in international basketball. There is no question that the United States remains the preeminent world power in the sport, both in terms of the sheer number of players (there are more than 1,000 NCAA member institutions alone that compete in basketball), as well as the dominance of exceptional individual American players. However, there are two important contributing factors to the leveling of the competitive field in world competition. One is that, in recent years, the American game has focused on individual player development. Athleticism and an ability to make plays by the individual have been stressed, including offensive techniques such as the slam dunk and the three-point shot, at the expense of earlier team-oriented fundamentals such as foul shooting, passing, and defensive play. The vast majority of American-born NBA players are produced by the NCAA system. Another factor in the leveling of the world competition is that the international game has developed along different lines. Sport clubs are a popular development concept, employed in Europe and elsewhere to identify and nurture exceptional athletes. Basketball sport clubs tend to encourage the development of well-rounded, multidimensional players. For this reason, a 7 ft (2.13 m) athlete such as Dirk Nowitski of

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Germany, an exceptional NBA player, would have been assumed to possess a lower level of athletic ability in the traditional American basketball culture. Nowitski was encouraged as a youth to build an elite-level range of shooting and passing skills that were formerly associated with the traditional American guard position. The international rules (known as the FIBA rules) differ in some respects from those used in North American basketball. With a wider lane and a closer three-point line, the international game encourages greater perimeter play, with a corresponding emphasis on ball-handling and passing skills for all players, irrespective of position. Vibrant professional leagues in countries such as Italy, Spain, and Brazil have created higher level playing opportunities for international players. The game created by James Naismith as a means of providing his active college students with a safe physical outlet for their energies is now one of the most popular team sports in the world.

Basketball: Strength and training exercises; FIBA: International basketball; National governing bodies; Title IX and United States female sports participation.

SEE ALSO

Basketball injuries Basketball is a game of profound athletic contrasts. There are graceful, even elegant, movements that appear to defy gravity, that occur in a larger context of physical contact between large, powerful athletes. Impact will often occur between players with little warning and at full speed, with the athletes’ bodies contorted in different angles at the point of impact. The nature of these athletic movements creates a wide variety of forces upon the basketball player’s body, which in turn creates an equally broad range of potential athletic injuries. Injuries in basketball will arise both as a specific incident of trauma, as well as an overuse condition resulting over time. As basketball demands quick and explosive movements to be made by players both running and jumping, the most common injury sustained is to the ankle. Ankle sprains occur with some frequency, either as a result of the player landing in a position where the foot is not stable, causing the ankle to roll outward on impact, or where the player lands upon another player’s foot, which also creates an uneven surface and causes the foot and the ankle to roll WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASKETBALL INJURIES

Then Los Angeles Laker, Shaquille O’Neal lies on the court after injuring his knee in the first quarter of a game. C R A I G LAS S IG / AF P /G ET T Y IMAGES

outward. It is a rare competitive basketball player who has not sustained a number of at least minor ankle sprains in their career. Many players, especially at the upper echelons of competition, wear an ankle support or brace as a preventative measure; alternatively, one or both ankles will be taped to provide additional support to the ankle. Player size is also a factor in the severity of an ankle sprain. In the National Basketball Association (NBA), the average player is 6 ft 8 in (2.03 m) tall, weighing approximately 225 lb (102 kg); in the elite European leagues, average player sizes are only somewhat smaller. The greater size of these athletes, coupled with their general ability to leap higher than the average person, will magnify the forces applied to the ankle. A less common, and potentially devastating, ankle injury is an Achilles tendon rupture. This injury often occurs in circumstances in which the player is making an explosive movement, usually leaping for a rebound or to challenge an opponent’s shot. An Achilles injury of this severity will require surgery and significant rehabilitation, with the risk that unless careful rehabilitative attention is paid to the calf muscles and supporting structure, the athlete WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

will lose a degree of flexibility and corresponding leaping ability in future. Knee injuries are also a common feature of basketball. Knee sprains commonly occur when a player twists the knee, resulting in a tiny rupture of one of the three knee ligaments; the sprain typically does not immobilize the athlete, but will require rest, ice, and compression, and often a protective padding or a brace over the joint on the athlete’return to practice or games. A more serious twisting of the knee joint may often occur when the player is planting or pivoting a foot to change direction, and the knee is then unexpectedly struck from the opposite direction. This force may result in a torn cartilage (meniscus). Once a feared injury that necessitated extensive surgery and rehabilitation, this damage is now commonly resolved through much quicker arthroscopic surgery processes. ‘‘Jumper’s knee’’ is a common overuse-related injury to the patella tendon, the fibrous linkage running beneath the knee cap to the tibia (shin bone). Excessive jumping, sometimes in conjunction with a poorly aligned knee cap, will cause the tendon fibers to become irritated and inflamed, which causes the jumping motion to be painful. This condition is best

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Ankle sprains; Basketball strength and training exercises; Knee injuries; Wrapping and taping techniques.

treated with rest and ice. The player should also examine the shoes used for excessive wear or other evidence of improper cushioning on landing, factors which may contribute to the misalignment of the leg during jumping.

SEE ALSO

The most serious and potentially limiting knee injury sustained in basketball is the tear of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). The ACL connects the tibia to the femur (thigh bone), and is the ligament in the knee responsible for ensuring the stability of the center of the joint. A blow to the side of the knee or a sudden, non-contact change of direction by an athlete can cause this injury. An ACL tear, which may be accompanied by tears to the adjacent medial collateral ligament (MCL), will prevent an athlete from meaningful running or jumping. The repair of this injury requires surgery, and the rehabilitative process can extend from 9 to 12 months.

Basketball shoes

It is to be noted that female basketball players (and female athletes generally) are at a significantly greater risk of sustaining an ACL tear. This heightened risk is due to the different construction of the female body in contrast to that of males: the ratio of the hip width to femur length in a female (known as the ‘‘Q’’ line) tends to be greater than that in a male. The Q line illustrates that a female’s ACL will be subjected to greater pressure on impact or from explosive movement than the male’s ACL. Both the knees and the quadriceps (thigh) muscles located above the knees commonly sustain injury through contact with an opponent’s knee in competition. Such injuries are generally contusions (bruises). A blow from the knee of an opponent to a large muscle structure such as the quadriceps can be both painful and debilitating. The nature of basketball creates a number of potential circumstances for hand, wrist, and finger injuries. These injuries occur primarily from the player’s hand making contact with the ball at an angle where the joint in question is not in a position to absorb the shock, or where the player falls awkwardly on the fingers or wrist. The degree of force sustained will determine whether the joint is sprained, a common event for a basketball player, which is readily resolved by taping the joint or joints in question, or is fractured. Unlike movements such as a golf swing, passing a football, or throwing a baseball, the most fundamental action in basketball, the act of shooting, is not itself an activity that is likely to lead to a repetitive strain-type injury.

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From the one-model-fits-all era of the Converse All-Star ‘‘Chuck Taylor’’ Basketball shoes, where the only consumer choices were a high-cut or low-cut model, the modern basketball shoe is a high-tech enhancement of player performance, as well as a fashion accessory that has swept beyond basketball to penetrate the world at large. Basketball places significant and spontaneous forces upon the feet, ankles, and lowers legs of the participants, which their shoes must be able to both absorb and direct. The game places a premium on instant acceleration and deceleration, lateral movement, and jumping ability. For these reasons, a basketball shoe must be constructed with the combined features of support, cushioning to absorb shock, flexibility, and stability. Both the physical build of a player as well as the individual style of play will also bear upon the type of basketball shoe to be worn. Larger players, who are supporting a heavier frame, should wear a shoe that provides significant stability, ankle support, and cushioning to better protect this player when running and jumping. A smaller player will often seek a balance between those features, and a lighter, more flexibly constructed shoe that will give advantages in quick movements and acceleration. For both safety and performance reasons, female basketball players should seek out a specific women’s model rather than selecting a men’s shoe for competitive play. As the female foot is typically narrower than that of a male, wearing a shoe designed for the wider male foot may lead to a less-stable platform upon which to run, which in turn can contribute to decreased performance, ankle sprains, or other more serious leg injuries. As with any athletic shoe, the basketball shoe has four primary parts: the upper, the insert, the midsole, and the outsole. The importance of the characteristics of each component of the shoe should be assessed according to the player’s playing needs, physical structure, and athletic capabilities. The upper part of the basketball shoe is responsible for keeping the foot secure; a snug-fitting upper is essential to the performance of a basketball shoe. Loose-fitting shoes will tend to create blisters by WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASKETBALL SHOT DYNAMICS

The midsole of the shoe is the material designed to absorb the forces of running and jumping. As a general principle of physics, the stiffer the midsole material, the better able the player to explode from the floor; the softer this material, the better cushioned the player will be. Seeking the appropriate balance between these factors is an important function of basketball shoe selection. The midsole has been the focus of specific shoe research over the past 25 years, as various compounds, including EVA (a synthetic rubber-like compound), air, gel, and different combinations of synthetics, have been introduced. The outsole is generally flat, without a pronounced cut-out for the human arch, and with a tread designed to assist in maintaining traction. For those players who participate in outdoor basketball on paved courts, there are shoes designed with a heavier, more durable rubber outsole to resist wear.

‘‘Air Jordan’’ Nike shoes worn by then-Chicago Bull center, Michael Jordan. PH OTO B Y F O CUS ON S P ORT/ GETT Y I M AGES .

rubbing against and irritating the skin, and will also tend to be an unstable shoe, causing the player’s foot to strike the floor in a fashion that creates a risk of ankle rollover or cause excessive pressure on the Achilles tendon or the knee joint. The upper may be constructed in varying styles, including high-, mid-, or low-cuts. High cuts offer the greatest degree of support to the player’s ankle (assuming that the player does not wear an ankle support), while the lower the cut of the shoe, the typically greater degree of flexibility and turning capability for the player. The upper will also have a lacing or similar closure system for the shoe, which may be accompanied by a strap that adds support for the ankle by securing the top of the upper. The insert is a feature that appears on some basketball shoe models. It is a detachable insole designed to provide arch support. Some inserts are designed to fit with a custom orthotic, a device used to correct irregularities in the motion of the foot or ankle caused by the skeletal alignment. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Basketball shoes are the most important equipment associated with the sport. Modern advertising of the shoes is almost universally focused on the linkage of a particular brand with an identifiable National Basketball Association (NBA) superstar. However, the physical qualities of the product, particularly the capabilities of a shoe to withstand one or more of the particular forces that it will be subjected to in play, are rarely mentioned. The basketball shoe will have more potential impact on both the health and the performance of a basketball player than any other item of equipment. Therefore, individual research by an athlete as to the best type of shoe is of paramount importance to competitive success.

Ankle anatomy and physiology; Athletic shoes; Basketball injuries; Foot: Anatomy and physiology.

SEE ALSO

Basketball shot dynamics The offensive object of basketball is to direct the ball through an 18-in (45.7 cm) hoop, which is supported by a rectangular backboard. There are a multitude of angles, deflections, spins, and trajectories that the shooter can utilize to be successful. Along with the often jaw-dropping, gravity-defying physical moves made by offensive players to take the ball to the basket, good shooters maintain consistent core fundamentals in the delivery of every successful basketball shot. The basketball hoop has a number of synonyms, including the basket, the hoop, the hole, the cylinder, and the bucket.

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positioned in a stiff, straight line from the hip to the ankle. Further, if the shot mechanism is begun with the knees in a flexed position, the player is quicker, more responsive, and will be able to jump higher than if the player’s feet are not correctly aligned. The shooter should be positioned in a slight crouch so that the muscles and structures of the hips, low back, and shoulders assist the body in generating lift on its jump. All sports have a variation of the ‘‘athletic position.’’ There are similarities between the baseball fielder’s crouch, the football linebacker stance, the hockey player skating stride, and others: bent knees, a slight flexion at the waist, head erect. The position of a basketball player preparing to shoot the ball is a variation. The ball will be positioned resting in the palm and supported by the fingers of the shooting hand, while the shooter’s other hand is located on top of the ball, above the shoulder and approximate eye level. The position of the ball aligns with the hand, shoulder, hip, knee to the foot to form a straight line. Shooting the ball from a lower position, such as at chest level, tends to result in the ball being pushed, and not directed, toward the basket. Pushing the ball tends to reduce the arc of the ball; the lower the trajectory, the less likely the ball will go through the basket (the opening available for the ball to enter is smaller when the arc is lower).

There are four basic kinds of basketball shots, including the jump shot, shown here. ª G RE G F I UME /N EWS POR T/C ORB I S

There are four basic kinds of basketball shots: the jump shot, the fade-away jump shot, the bank shot, and the foul shot. Each involves the same combination of shooting mechanics, and jumping from the floor. The lay-up, and its aerial extension, the slam dunk, are more simplified applications of the general shooting principles. Good shooting begins with footwork. While highly skilled players may possess the ability to contort their bodies while successfully shoot the ball, the shooting mechanism employed by most players will begin with the player’s feet planted in a position that will ensure that the ball is delivered from a stable base. The feet should be at a position that best supports the body, approximately shoulder-width apart. To anticipate movement and to create lift in the delivery of the shot, the player will be on the balls of feet, not flat-footed. The knees will also be flexed and not locked. To generate lift through the legs, the upper leg muscles and calves will not function optimally if the leg is

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In shooting position, the player is now ready to jump and deliver the shot in a smooth motion. From the ball position at approximately eye level, a good shooter will extend the shooting arm so that the basketball will not be released until the arm is fully extended. The shooting arm and the ball will be released when the shooter has reached the top of the jump. It is a simple mathematical proposition that a player who can jump 12 in (30 cm) off the ground from a determined position will be slightly closer to the hoop than a stationary, or set, shooter. The fingers, as the ball moves across the palm at the point of release, impart spin to the ball. Spin will tend to create favorable deflections off the rim and through the basket at the point where the ball makes contact. Because the ball is released from a position where the shooter’s vision can track the rim of the basket (target) and the ball simultaneously, the shooter’s aim will be improved, and the likelihood of a successful shot is increased. While it is possible to score with deficient mechanics (a fact proven regularly by less skilled or inconsistent players), in a sport where a top professional player will shoot 45– 50% from the field, mechanics and adherence to proper form by the shooter will separate success from mediocrity. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASKETBALL: SLAM DUNK

Most shooters will seek to shoot the ball directly into the rim, often visualizing the ball entering just over the front of the rim. When the shooter is at an approximate 45 angle to the backboard, an effective shot is to utilize the backboard to bank the ball into the basket. Such shots have identical mechanics to a regular jump shot; the trajectory created by the ball deflecting from the backboard permits the ball to enter a slightly wider opening to the basket than exists without the bank. The fade-away is an offensive weapon calculated to create space between a smaller shooter and a defender. Instead of jumping in a line perpendicular to the floor, the shooter ‘‘fades’’ by directing himself away from the defender, and delivering the shot at the top of the backward arc of his jump. It is difficult for all but the most proficient shooters to make this difficult shot on a consistent basis; further, fade-away shooter reduce their own chances of securing a rebound on the missed shot. The foul shot, awarded to a player for a variety of fouls committed in basketball, is of critical importance to the success of a basketball team. Statistics from high-level university and international leagues confirm that teams that shoot foul shots well tend to win games. A foul shot, delivered from behind a line 15 ft (4.5 m) from the basket, is most effectively made with the shooter in a stable position behind the foul line. The mechanics of the foul shot should mimic those of all other shots with respect to foot position, knee bend, and the alignment of the ball relative to the line between foot and shooting hand. Most foul shooters develop a personal rhythm while preparing to shoot the ball. This rhythm assists the shooter in slowing the heart rate after intense sequences of play, relaxing the body while maintaining focus and concentration. As a rule, foul shooters have 10 seconds to take the shot once the ball is handed to them by the referee. SEE ALSO Basketball; Basketball: Slam dunk; Plyometrics; Sport psychology.

Basketball: Slam dunk The slam dunk is a simple maneuver in basketball, defined as the delivery of the ball through the rim of the basket, or cylinder, by one hand or by two. Dunking is a relatively easy shot for the tall player, given that the 10-ft-high (3 m) basketball rim can be touched by the many National Basketball Association WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

(NBA) players standing flat footed beneath it. The ability to dunk the ball is more often a function of leaping ability; many dunks in competitive play are made by players shorter than 6 ft 2 in (1.8 m). From a physiological perspective, the presence of a larger number of fast twitch fibers in the calf and thigh muscles, the muscle construction that is capable of speedy reactions, is an important factor in the leaping ability of a player. The basketball slam dunk: it is only worth two points, the same value as a medium-range jumper or a simple lay up. A consistent three-point shooter will have a greater value to a basketball team than a flamboyant slam dunker. The dunk is so often an exclamation point, but not the story: a slam dunk is rarely a tactic that will win a basketball game. However, in many respects the slam dunk has come to represent basketball proficiency in the public consciousness. Lisa Leslie, a 6 ft 5 in (1.9 m) Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) player, slam dunked the ball to much acclaim. Sports television highlight packages accentuate flashy dunks, as do basketball advertising and basketball shoe promotional packages. Many players acquired an identity through their proficiency as dunkers, even when they possessed other, more sublime playing skills. Men such as Julius ‘‘Dr. J’’ Erving, Darryl ‘‘Chocolate Thunder’’ Dawkins, a notorious backboard breaker in the early 1980s, Dominique Wilkins, ‘‘The Human Highlight Film,’’ and Michael ‘‘Air’’ Jordan are notable examples. It is these players who elevated the dunk to an exciting example of body control, an emphatic statement that transcends the two-point value the shot is awarded on the score sheet. In specific game situations, the slam dunk has tactical advantages. The first is the certainty that the delivery of the ball directly into the basket brings to an offensive play. Players are taught that on an offensive rebound, they must be ‘‘strong to the rim,’’ meaning they are not to risk handling the ball for any longer than is necessary. The securing of an offensive rebound, a quick step to the basket and the dunk achieves this end, generates a possible additional benefit if the offensive rebounder is fouled, which creates a free throw opportunity, as well as the twopoint basket. The second specific tactic involving the slam dunk is the use of the lob, or ‘‘ally oop,’’ pass, where the ball handler lobs the ball to a point above the basket. The lob is taken by a team mate, who leaps to take the pass and then to slam the ball through the basket. Properly executed, the ally oop is very difficult to defend.

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20 seconds. For this reason, basketball places its primary demands on the human body’s anaerobic energy system, with secondary reliance on the aerobic energy systems. In general terms, aerobic systems utilize oxygen to burn the bodily energy sources: first, glycogen (the source stored in the liver and muscles), next, fats, and lastly, proteins. Sports such as distance running and road cycling are aerobic sports. Anaerobic activities are those in which the body burns energy for the purpose of movement without utilizing oxygen; such sports usually require intense effort over a short period of time, such as sprinting or the pole vault. Basketball, as a sport of short, intense sequences, which reoccur over a longer period such as the course of a game or a practice, places stresses upon both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. For this reason, the most effective forms of basketball training develop the physical skills necessary to play the game by placing emphasis upon both energy systems. In previous basketball eras, it was thought that conditioning was best achieved in practice sessions that involved lengthy scrimmages, as well as running drills that were as much punishment as they were productive. Modern basketball training, as with the development of any higher level athletic skills, requires methods that incorporate fitness and sport-specific skills into each element of training. To some, the slam dunk represents basketball proficiency.

ª MI K E

BLA KE/ RE UTE RS/ COR BIS

Basketball; Basketball shot dynamics; Plyometrics.

SEE ALSO

Basketball strength and training exercises Basketball is a sport that builds competitive success upon training and strength conditioning programs that encompass a broad variety of physical requirements. Like soccer and rugby, the basketball player must be able to perform all aspects of the game to at least a fundamental level. The object of the game is to put the basketball through the opponent’s basket and to, conversely, prevent the opponent from scoring. Every player is engaged at some point in a game, either ball handling, passing, shooting, and/or defensive techniques. Studies by the National Collegiate Basketball Association (NCAA) have found that an average segment of play during a game will last between 12 and

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To best achieve the objects of the game, basketball places a premium of the a number of physical attributes including: quickness, lateral mobility, agility and balance, jumping ability, coordination, physical strength, and a combination of aerobic and anaerobic fitness. Practices will involve several different elements. Drills that emphasize rapid, well-balanced and controlled movements in all directions, with the player sliding in a crouched, athletic stance, are very effective. Basketball is a fluid game, and the player’s ability to react to changing situations on the floor will be founded upon a proper stance. It is sometimes said that there are three types of basketball players: the player with the one-dimensional, straight-backed stance; the player with the two-dimensional stance, using the same upright stance and the feet wider apart; and the three-dimensional player, with feet apart, knees bent, and the body center of gravity lowered into a stable crouch. As with any other athletic movement, a crouched position will tend to be more explosive, as the athlete can utilize the large muscle structures in the body core (hips, buttocks, and thighs). Drills that reinforce to the athlete that a lower and wider stance is ultimately a faster and stronger one will be useful. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DAVID ROBERT JOSEPH BECKHAM

Sample drills reinforce speed and control and include ‘‘slide’’ drills, in which the payer mimics fullspeed defensive coverage. Shooting and passing drills are carried out at full speed with specific practice targets. Jumping ability will be developed through specific drills based upon plyometric principles. This manner of training is calculated to build explosion when jumping on the floor. As such drills are typically done at levels at or near 100% effort, rest periods of 48 hours or more should be built into the training. During practice, the ratio of work to rest should be at least 1:3 to 1:5. Effective plyometric drills include hops from a squatting position, rapid step-ups, calf raises, and repetitive leaps. Stretching of the target muscle groups is of prime importance, both before and after this drill. Hand-eye coordination and player agility can often be enhanced through individual drills with the basketball. Two- and three-ball dribbling exercises, in which the player must move at full speed keeping the balls under control with a proper dribble, are examples. Basketball was invented as a non-contact sport; it has evolved into a discipline that has very pronounced physical elements. In the center, or post, and forward positions, the physical strength of a player will determine the success in securing rebounds, driving to the basket when the floor is congested with other players, dealing with an opponent’s blocking techniques, and other maneuvers where significant contact is permitted in the course of play. Overemphasis by a player upon muscle mass and muscular strength will likely result in the loss of other aspects of the game, particularly agility, coordination, lateral quickness, and speed in moving up and down the floor. The optimum balance between strength and agility for most players will be achieved through weight training that is primarily low weights with high repetitions, as well as core strength exercises such as Swiss ball, abdominal crunches, and lunge-type exercises. SEE ALSO

Basketball shoes; Plyometrics; Stretching and

flexibility.

David Robert Joseph Beckham 5/2/1975– ENGLISH SOCCER PLAYER

David Robert Joseph Beckham, nicknamed Becks, is an accomplished soccer (football) player from England. His playing prowess is renowned; he WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

has been a member of the English national team since 1996, and team captain since 2000. It is expected that he will retain the captaincy of the English squad in the 2006 edition of the World Cup of soccer. Aside from his soccer abilities, Beckham’s charisma has made him a sought-after marketing draw for a variety of companies. He has become a prime example of the fusion between sports, entertainment, and business. David Beckham was born May 2, 1975, in Leytonstone, in the east of London. His upbringing was not one of privilege; his father was a construction worker and his mother was a hairdresser. Soccer was uppermost in the household, particularly the allegiance to Manchester United. A skilled cross-country runner, Beckman inherited his parent’s passion for soccer. In his 2003 autobiography entitled Beckham: Both Feet on the Ground, he recounts spending endless boyhood hours at a local park with his father, honing the skills that would later bring him prominence, fame, and fortune. His soccer skills were evident early. By the age of 11, Beckham had already been identified as a player of potential. Just three years later, he was offered contracts to join both the Tottenham Hotspurs and the Manchester United football clubs. On his 14th birthday in 1989, he fulfilled a childhood dream by joining the ‘‘Man U’’ organization. Playing first with the club’s youth team, he was part of the victorious Football Association (FA) Youth Cup team of 1992. That same year, he appeared as a first team player in a Premier League game, and soon thereafter signed a professional contract with the team. After a season on loan to Preston North End in the 1994–1995 season to gain playing experience, Beckham rejoined the Manchester United first team in April 1995. Over the next several seasons, he established himself as a starting player and a midfielder of great talent and influence on the outcome of a game. His ability to score from a corner kick—a feat that requires the ball to bend as it moves through the air to enter the net—made Beckham famous. His celebrity off the pitch began in 1998 when he began dating Victoria Adams, then a member of the popular singing group, The Spice Girls. They married in July 1999, and now have three sons: Brooklyn (born March 4, 1999), Romeo (September 1, 2002), and Cruz (February 20, 2005). In the 1998–1999 season, Beckham was part of a remarkable Manchester United team, which captured the championship of the Premier League, the FA Cup, and the Champions League (which consists of teams from the United Kingdom, Europe, and Russia).

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DAVID ROBERT JOSEPH BECKHAM

David Beckham. Photo by Denis Doyle/Getty Images.

Winning this ‘‘treble’’ was a first in English football, which, as of 2006, has not been repeated. Despite these heroics, his ejection from a crucial game in the 1998 World Cup, which ultimately eliminated England from further competition, made Beckham the object of derision in his country. Over the next two seasons, the relationship between Beckham and Man U manager Sir Alex Ferguson began to deteriorate, with Ferguson publicly questioning Beckham’s commitment to the game and his teammates. Despite the controversy, his play for the club continued to be stellar and endorsement contracts multiplied. By 2002, a renegotiated soccer contract (which included extra payments for the club’s use of his image) and endorsement income had made him the highest-paid soccer player in the world. Nonetheless, his career at Manchester United ended in July 2003, when Beckham signed a four-year contract to play with Spain’s Real Madrid.

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As of 2006, Beckham remains with Real Madrid. His play has been alternately exhilarating and disappointing, and the club’s record has not met expectations. As he enters the final year of his contract, it is not known whether he will seek to remain with Real Madrid or join another club. David Beckham’s career has been remarkable. If, as expected, he captains the English team at the 2006 World Cup in Germany, he would be just the sixth player from England to represent his country at three of the competitions, and only the third player to captain a team at more than one World Cup. His accomplishments were recognized by being awarded the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in June 2003. Despite the disappointment of his years at Real Madrid, his performance at the Euro 2004 tournament (in which England was eliminated after he missed a crucial penalty kick) and his alleged and unsubstantiated personal improprieties, David Beckham remains a formidable marketing tool, as his contracts with WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BETA-2 AGONISTS

sporting goods giant Adidas and razor maker Gillette attest. He is globally popular as a soccer player and celebrity.

Behavior modification

SEE

Diet,

behavior modification

Joan Benoit Samuelson 5/16/1957– AMERICAN MARATHON RUNNER, MOTIVATIONAL SPEAKER, AUTHOR

Joan Benoit Samuelson is a long-distance runner. The highlight of her competitive marathon running career came at the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Olympics, when she captured the gold medal at the inaugural women’s Olympic marathon. Her victory was all the more impressive as it came very soon following arthroscopic surgery on one of her knees. Samuelson’s running career began in the 1970s in Maine, the state where she was born and where she has lived all her life. Initially a pursuit to help her rehabilitation from a broken leg sustained in a crosscountry skiing accident, running became her passion while in high school. She was the sole female on her high school cross-country squad. In 1979, while a senior in college, she entered the Boston Marathon as an unheralded and unknown athlete. Yet, she prevailed. Her winning time of 2 hours, 35 minutes was 10 minutes faster than the existing women’s record time. She won the Boston Marathon again in 1983, after recuperation from Achilles tendon surgery, in a world-record performance five minutes quicker than the previous women’s world-best.

trials to select the members of the United States Olympic team. Despite a victory in the 1985 Chicago Marathon, Samuelson’s post-Olympic career was filled with injuries. She did, however, qualify for the 1996 Olympic trials, finishing thirteenth in a time of 2 hours, 36 minutes, 54 seconds. Early in her running career, Samuelson was a relentless trainer, typically running up to 200 mi (322 km) each week (an average of over 28 mi [45 km] per day). Later, with the additional commitments of marriage and motherhood, she became an example of how a balance between family and athletic excellence was possible. Retirement from competition did not end Samuelson’s involvement with the sport. She is the author of two books based on running (Running Tide and Running for Women) and has coached the women’s cross-country team at Bowdoin College, her alma mater. She is also a motivational speaker and provides sports commentary. In 1998, as a means of generating financial support for several children’s charities in Maine, Samuelson organized a 10,000-m (6.2 mi) road race held in her hometown. The annual Beach to Beacon Road Race, held during the first weekend in August, has since become very popular, and attracts over 5,000 runners, including a stellar field of elite athletes. The race has become a tune-up for the world famous Falmouth Road Race, held the following weekend in Cape Cod (and which Samuelson won twice). Samuelson’s victory in the 1984 Olympics provided a tremendous boost for the public acceptance of arthroscopic surgery. At that time, conventional surgery was the norm for the repair of knee injuries. Recovery from such invasive surgery could take months and was painful. Her victories at the Olympic trials and the Los Angeles Olympics were turning points in convincing people of the benefits of arthroscopic surgery.

Samuelson’s victory time of 2 hours, 24 minutes, 52 seconds at the 1984 Olympic marathon was over one minute ahead of the next competitor. Surging to the front of the pack only three miles into the race, she never relinquished the lead, and prevailed over a field that included dominant women’s marathoners, including Norway’s Grete Waitz and Ingrid Kristiansen, and Rosa Mota of Portugal.

SEE ALSO

This performance was remarkable, coming so soon after knee surgery. Even more impressively, Samuelson’s arthroscopic surgery to repair a meniscus injury came just 17 days before the marathon

Beta-2-adrenoreceptor (beta-2) agonists are drugs that act as bronchodilators. The drugs stimulate the airways in the lungs (bronchi) to open wider, permitting more air to pass.


As of 2006, Samuelson lives with her family in Freeport, Maine.

Arthroscopy.

Beta-2 agonists

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The drugs are especially helpful to asthmatics, who can suffer from insufficient air supply to the lungs due to narrowing of the bronchi. Athletes who take beta-2 agonists can also improve their athletic performance, because of the increased infusion of air. However, this type of athletic enhancement is illegal. Beta-2 agonists such as salbutamol, salmeterol, terbutaline, and eformoterol mimic the effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline that are naturally produced in the body. The latter drugs stimulate changes in the body such as bronchial dilation, which help prepare the body to react for action (the ‘‘fight or flight’’ reaction). When beta-2 agonists enter the lung bronchi, they interact with a particular receptor on the surface of the lung tissue. It is this agonist interaction with beta-2 receptors that stimulates the expansion of the bronchi. The drugs are typically delivered to the lungs via an inhaler, although they can be delivered via an injection, as a vapor produced by a nebulizer, as a tablet, or in syrup form. Bronchodilation is maintained for various lengths of time, depending on the beta-2 agonist used. For example, salbutamol stimulates dilation within 30 minutes, with maximum dilation reached three or four hours later. Eformoterol acts more quickly, with dilation occurring within three minutes after application, and maximum dilation reached after one to two hours. Both agonists are long lasting, with dilation persisting for approximately 12 hours. Other beta-2 agonists produce effects for shorter time periods. Beta-2 agonists such as salbutamol have become a concern in sports. At high doses, the drug can act as an anabolic agent to promote gain in weight, mainly in the form of muscle. However, this increased strength and the increased oxygen intake comes with a risk of health damage. As of 2006, the World Anti-Doping Agency permits the use of select beta-2 agonists (salbutamol, salmeterol, terbutaline, and eformoterol) in athletic competition only by asthmatic athletics to prevent or treat exercise-induced asthma or bronchial constriction, and then only using inhalation. Oral and injected forms of beta-2 agonists are illegal. If levels of beta-2 agonist are detected upon testing, an athlete is required to demonstrate that the drug was used for asthma. SEE ALSO

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Archery; Beta-blockers; Biofeedback.

Beta-blockers Beta-blockers are drugs taken to block the action of a chemical produced in the body (a neurochemical) called noradrenaline. It is most commonly taken as a prescription medication by patients with heart problems. By binding to beta-1 or beta-2 receptors in arteries and in the heart muscle, the normal binding of noradrenaline to the same receptors is prevented, or blocked. This slows down or blocks completely the noradrenaline-induced transmission of messages between nerves and muscles or between different nerves. As a result of injesting beta-blockers, arteries become wider. This is beneficial particularly if an individual has a heart problem, since the heart’s demand for oxygen and blood is reduced and does not have to work as hard to pump blood through the body. As well, artery dilation can relieve chest pain (angina), irregular heartbeat, glaucoma, lessen the occurrence of migraines, and even reduce nerveinducing muscle twitches and shaking. The calming effect of beta-blockers on muscle action has made the drugs a popular, though illegal, choice of some athletes whose performance depends on balance (such as gymnastics) or a steady hand (archery, shooting, and biathalon). Because an athlete will tend to use beta-blockers at the same dose that is used for genuine therapeutic use, the drug will not be detected in suspiciously large quantities. It is at that point that an athlete’s past history becomes important. If an athlete has no history of heart trouble or migraines, for example, the presence of a beta-blocker in submitted urine or blood samples may be cause for suspicion. Beta-blockers can be taken orally in the forms of tablets or capsules, an injection, or as eye drops in the case of glaucoma medication. A variety of different beta-blockers are available by prescription. Examples include: acebutolol, atenolol, celiprolol, levobunolol, pindolol, and timolol. Some beta-blockers are designed to be selective; they block beta-1 receptors more than beta-2 receptors. Beta-1 receptors are involved in heart rate and beat strength. Nonselective beta-blockers block both the beta-1 and beta-2 receptors; the latter are important in the function of smooth muscles such as the heart. Athletics who seek the illegal benefits of betablockers will likely experience side effects that include drowsiness or fatigue, reduced circulation through the hands and feet, dizziness, and a dry WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DANIEL BIASONE

mouth. Some of these effects detract from athletic performance. Rarely, more serious side effects, including memory loss and impotence, can result.

Archery; Beta-2 agonists; Biathlon; Biofeedback; Gymnastics; Shooting.

SEE ALSO

Beta-carotene Beta-carotene is one of the class of over 600 carbon-based compounds known as carotenoids. Beta-carotene is found in a variety of plants, and provides the color to oranges and carrots. In nature, beta-carotene protects these food sources from the degrading effect of oxygen. Beta-carotene is a fatsoluble chemical, requiring the presence of fatty acids to assist in its absorption into the body. In addition to carrots, beta-carotene is abundant in broccoli and other green vegetables. Beta-carotene is very similar in its structure to vitamin A (also known as retinol), a chemical essential to human health. Vitamin A is of particular importance to both vision and healthy bone development. Beta-carotene acts as a precursor to vitamin A, where the body will use beta-carotene to manufacture vitamin A if a deficiency in the vitamin is detected. It is for this reason that beta-carotene is also known as a provitamin A. Beta-carotene has attracted significant attention in the medical community in recent years due to its recognized powers as an antioxidant. Antioxidants are a class of chemicals that are ingested into the body from a variety of food sources. Each has an ability to neutralize the effect of the chemical agents known as free radicals, whose electrochemical composition compels them to seek out molecules within the body from which more electrons can be taken, so as to convert the radical into a stable molecule. The most common and the most potentially destructive of the free radicals are those composed of unstable oxygen molecules, O2. The actions of the free radicals, if unimpeded, will trigger a chain reaction of electron thievery, as each molecule attempts to correct its own electron imbalance. These chain reactions are at the root of the cellular damage caused within the body that potentially leads to the formation of cancers, and is believed to precipitate aging. Antioxidants such as beta-carotene scavenge the cardiovascular system, neutralizing the O2 radical through a donation of an electron to the radical.


The beta-carotene found in fruits and vegetables is a powerful antioxidant. ª E LEA NOR T HOM PS ON /CO RBI S

There is considerable debate in the scientific community as to the effect of additional dietary supplements of beta-carotene as antioxidants, as opposed to the ingestion of these chemicals through natural food sources. There is a clear correlation between the increased daily consumption of fruits and vegetables, and the lower risk of cancers and heart disease. SEE ALSO

Antioxidants; Dietary supplements; Nutrition.

Daniel Biasone 2/22/1909–5/25/1992 AMERICAN OWNER, PROFESSIONAL BASKETBALL TEAM

In 1946 Danny Biasone founded the Syracuse Nationals, a team that became a charter member of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Biasone was the initiator of one of the most influential rule changes in the history of the sport; Biasone devised the rule commonly referred to as the 24-second clock.

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The style of play in the NBA of the early 1950s was far different than the up-tempo and very athletic modern contests. The 48-minute game had no rule with respect to how long a team could keep possession of the ball before taking a shot. When playing a dominant offensive opponent, such as 6 ft 10 in (2m) center George Mikan, teams were inclined to ‘‘freeze’’ the ball, keeping possession for extended periods to keep the score down and to neutralize players such as Mikan. In one notable NBA game in 1950, the Fort Wayne team held the ball for an entire half of one game against Mikan’s Milwaukee team. Biasone and his fellow NBA owners realized that the slow and sluggish offensive tactics were not popular with their fans, and a legitimate fear arose among the league principals that professional basketball would not succeed as a spectator sport unless the pace of the game was quickened considerably. In 1954, Biasone devised a solution that was both simple and brilliant. He calculated that if a team was permitted 24 seconds within which to take a shot, if both teams used their maximum time allotment for each possession in a 12-minute quarter, each team would take 15 shots, or 60 for the game. Biasone reasoned that so long as shots were being taken within a set time, the fans would enjoy the pace of the game. The 24-second clock rule change was implemented in the 1954 season, bringing immediate results. The scoring average per NBA team went from 79 points to 93 points in the first year of the new rule. The various tactics employed by coaches and teams in the management of the 24-second clock by the offensive team have become an essential aspect of modern offensive basketball. The shot clock rule was later adopted, with differing time limits, by both FIBA, the governing body of international basketball, and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) of the Unites States. Biasone has been recognized throughout the history of the NBA as the man who may have saved the game from extinction with his prescience regarding how the game could be played more quickly. Biasone owned the Syracuse Nations from 1946 to 1963. Biasone was posthumously inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2000, in recognition of his contributions to basketball.

Basketball; FIBA: International basketball; National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).

SEE ALSO

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Biathlon The biathlon is an athletic event that combines cross-country skiing with rifle shooting. The event’s combination of cycles of rigorous cardiovscular exertion of skiing, followed immediately by the need for controlled breathing and steady nerves necessary for target shooting, is very challenging and demands a high level of physical fitness. A biathlon is a form of duathlon, a generic term that refers to a sporting event that is made up of two different athletic disciplines. However, the term biathlon refers to the specific wintertime combination of skiing and rifle shooting. A summertime biathlon also exists, which comprises cross-country running and rifle shooting. The origin of the biathlon was as a military training tool for soldiers in Norway’s army. Centuries ago, when today’s armored machinery was nonexistent, it was advantageous for Norwegian soldiers to learn how to quickly move about and do battle in the winter. Cross-country skiing would allow troops to move relatively swiftly and silently through rough terrain. When in position, they could use the rifles strapped to their backs for offensive or defensive action. This military training grew to include competitions. The first-known example was in 1767, and involved border guards from Norway and Sweden. As time went on, these competitions expanded to include rifle and ski clubs throughout Norway and other Scandinavian countries, and Switzerland. Aside from the pleasure of competition, the sport kept club members, many of whom could be called up for active military service, fit and trained. Biathlon first appeared at the Winter Olympics as a demonstration sport in 1924. Then, it was known as ‘‘military ski patrol.’’ By the next Olympics in 1928, the sport had been approved as an official medal sport. In the early appearance of the Olympic biathlon, only a few Scandinavian countries participated in the sport. As well, there were few agreed-upon rules. The biathlon languished and was dropped from the Olympics after the 1948 competition. Rather than the signal of the sport’s demise, its exclusion from the Olympics galvanized resolve to organize the biathlon. In 1948, the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Modern et Biathlon was formed to standardize the rules governing both the biathlon and pentathlon (a sport involving five track and field events). WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BICYCLE: BMX

A biathlon world championship was held in 1957, and the sport returned to the Winter Olympics in 1960 as a men’s event and in 1992 as a women’s event. In its original form, the biathlon consisted of a skiing over a 12.2-mi (20 km) course with four targetshooting stops between the fifth and eighteenth kilometers. At the first and third stops, each competitor shot while lying down. Then, the target was 9.8 in (25 cm) in diameter with an inner 4.9 in (12.5 cm) diameter ring. At the second and fourth stops, shots were taken while the competitor was standing. Then, because aiming the rifle was more difficult, the target was larger; a 17.7-in (45 cm) outer ring with an inner ring of 13.7 in (35 cm) in diameter. In more recent times, while the prone and standing shooting positions have been retained, the targets have been modified. As of the early 2000s, during each round of shooting, a competitor tries to hit five 1.7-in (45 mm) diameter targets positioned 4.5 in (115 mm) off of the ground and 164 ft (50 m) away, with only one shot per target permitted. The object of the biathlon is to complete the course in as short a time as possible. Shooting accuracy contributes to a quick time; originally, a shot that hit the outer rings of either target added one minute to a competitor’s time, while missing a target entirely added an extra two minutes. Currently for each one of the five targets missed, a competitor either has one minute added to the time or must ski around a 492-ft (150 m) penalty oval (each lap takes elite athletes from 20 to 30 seconds to complete), prior to reentering the race course. As well, a competitor is supplied with three extra rifle cartridges that he/she can use to hit a missed target without incurring a penalty. Once these extra cartridges have been used, penalty times/laps apply for any additional missed target. During the cross-country portion of a biathlon, athletes must carry their rifle and ammunition. As with other athletic equipment, biathlon rifles have been especially designed for the competition. The rifle stock is typically hollow to reduce the gun’s weight. No automatic or semiautomatic rifles are permitted; the rifle must be manually reloaded between shots. Modern Olympics added more varied distances and team relay events to the biathlon schedule. These include a sprint of 6 mi (10 km) for men and 4.6 mi (7.5 km) for women; individual 12.4 mi (20 km; men) and 9.3 mi (15 km; women); races where competitors begin separately; mass start races of 9.3 mi (15 km; men) and 7.7 mi (12.5 km; women); relays consisting WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

of teams of four competitors who each ski 4.6 mi (7.5 km) and have two target stops; and pursuit races of 7.7 mi (12.5 km; men) and 6 mi (10 km; women). In the latter, athletes begin the race according to their finishing times in a previous race, with slower competitors starting first. The object is to catch up and pass competitors during the race. Biathlon largely remains a sport of more northerly nations, although at the 1987 Calgary Olympics one competitor represented Puerto Rico. SEE ALSO

Beta-blockers; Shooting.

Bicycle: BMX The BMX bicycle is a small human powered machine originally designed to mimic the performance of the motorcycles built for off road racing and trail riding. These motorcycles are today referred to as motocross or Moto X motorcycles. The initial appeal of the BMX styled bicycles was the fact that the rider could emulate some of the movement of a motocross motorcycle at a fraction of the cost. BMX is today the generic description given to any of the bicycle motocross styled machines. The BMX is distinct in both style and construction from the larger, all-terrain mountain bike. The precise origins of BMX cycling are not certain. It is likely that as early as 1969 BMX bikes were being used in California by teenagers to ride on selfbuilt tracks that incorporated both straights and manmade bumps and moguls. The BMX historians point to the 1970 film ‘‘On Any Sunday’’ as the first public display of the capabilities of BMX machines. By 1974, there were full-fledged organizations in California to promote BMX racing. The international body that governs all BMX racing, the BMX Federation, was founded in 1981. The favored original BMX designs were short, solidly constructed frames with 20 in (50.8 cm) diameter wheels. The BMX bike placed the rider lower to the ground, making the bicycle easier to maneuver around the obstacles of a race course, as well providing the rider with an ability to better absorb the forces directed upwards into the bicycle frame and the rider. The seat is angled upwards from the frame, often at an angle of approximately 70 , to provide the rider with an upright body position. Most frames of higher performance BMX racing machines are constructed from aluminum. The tires on a BMX bike are constructed with an aggressive tread to assist the rider in obtaining traction on the dirt race courses.

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In recent years, the BMX bicycles have been adapted for use as freestyle performance machines. BMX bicycles, with their low profile and handling characteristics, are used on skateboard facilities such as half pipes. BMX riders perform stunts involving the bicycle being used in jumps and flips. Where BMX racing had definite elements of danger created by the speeds of the bicycles and the unpredictability of the dirt racing surfaces, BMX freestyle was a bona fide extreme sport. As with any of the sports in the extreme classification, BMX freestyle is primarily aimed at the gratification of the rider and the conquering of the risks assumed in the freestyle routine. SEE ALSO

Cycling; Cycling gears; Extreme sports.

Biofeedback Biofeedback is a term that describes two distinct sports science concepts. Biofeedback is a methodology used to obtain data relating to various aspects of bodily function in athletic performance. Biofeedback is also a training and coaching method. As a methodology, biofeedback is a monitoring process by which different kinds of equipment are used to obtain information concerning a number of different functions controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Biofeedback data will commonly include heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and other quantifiable features of human performance. Biofeedback also describes the ongoing relationship between the physical performance of the human body in conjunction with the thinking and the emotional processes of the subject. In this sense, biofeedback is a training and coaching method, one that is designed to alter the behavior of the subject; biofeedback is intended to permit an athlete to acquire a skill that may be used to best manage the relationship between physical and mental performance. In the data-gathering sense, biofeedback utilizes a number of different tools. The most common of these devices is a heart monitor, which collects data with respect to heart rate and physical performance. Heart monitors are portable devices that do not interfere in the performance of an athlete to any significant degree. Sophisticated biofeedback technologies include the measurement of heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen uptake (VO2max, an expression as to how much oxygen can be processed by the body at different stages of exertion), and the perspiration rate (an indicator of how efficiently the thermoregulatory system functions under variable stresses). In addition

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to these factors, an electroencephalograph (EEG) may be employed to monitor the brain wave activity, coupled with an electromyography (EMG), which measures the amount of tension and electrical activity in the muscles at different times, when subjected to varying stresses. The data obtained through these biofeedback measurements may be readily compared with the results of other physical tests of autonomic function, such as the analysis of urine and blood. One of the prominent biofeedback applications employed by athletes is relaxation techniques. The ability of an athlete to relax in the stressful circumstances of competition is an important component of the overall emotional control required of the athlete in competition. The development of a relaxation strategy for the individual athlete begins with the biofeedback testing to provide the physical data concerning the function of the autonomic nervous system of the athlete. The data must be gathered in a fashion that simulates the athlete’s actual competitive performance. Once obtained, the information can be plotted in comparison to actual progress made by the athlete from the start to the finish of the simulated competition. The scientist or trainer conducting the testing then evaluates the results in conjunction with the athlete. The athlete must provide their subjective input concerning the various parts of their performance. The question for the athlete is ‘‘How did I feel at each segment of the competition? How do my subjective feelings about my performance compare with the measured heart rate, perspiration rate and other data?’’. This process permits the athlete and the trainer to compare the objective data gathered through testing of the athlete’s autonomic function with the athlete’s subjective assessment of his or her performance. By comparing objective biofeedback data with subjective athletic impression, the athlete can develop strategies to combat any competitive areas where they feel increased stress or nervousness. As an example, biofeedback techniques can be employed to assist a long jumper who repeatedly commits a foot fault (where the jumper’s foot goes past the end of the jump board, rendering the jump illegal). A trainer, with the athlete performing a simulation of the event, will use the biofeedback data to identify the precise moment of excess tension in the athlete’s body during the jump sequence to assist the athlete in developing a strategy to maintain a consistent emotional level throughout the jump. The moments of excess tension will be likely be apparent in the testing through indicators such as increased WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BARRY BIXLER

heart rate and breathing function, among other data gathered. To settle this athlete, a number of relaxation techniques may be employed, including deep breathing techniques and the use of positive mental images by the athlete as an aid to concentration. Breathing exercises are intended to relax the jumper before the approach by the athlete to the runway leading to the jump. Quick and irregular breathing patterns are evidence of stress and the corresponding invocation of the body’s ‘‘flight or fight’’ response, which also signifies an elevation in levels of the hormone adrenaline. An overly stimulated long jumper is much more likely to fault than a jumper who is calm and composed. The rhythm of regular breathing is designed to settle the athlete; imagery techniques such as directing the athlete’s attention to the sensation of the air on the jumper’s body as a successful jump is performed, or the sensation of the sand in the landing pit on the jumper’s entry, create a sense of focus and concentration for the athlete on the event at hand. Biofeedback can also be used to assist an athlete in the planning of future training sessions. The determination of an athletes maximum heart rate, a target against which individual workout intensity can be planned. At moderate training levels, the desired heart rate might be 65% of the athlete’s maximum rate; in more intense workouts, the athlete might seek to achieve a heart rate at 90% or more of the maximum. In warm weather environments, urine and perspiration samples can be tested to determine whether the athlete’s diet has sufficient sodium or other electrolytes commonly lost through the body’s fluid elimination. This biofeedback data assists both the athlete and coaches to develop an appropriate hydration strategy, to ensure that the athlete’s fluid and electrolyte intake remains sufficient both before, during, and after all training and competitive sessions. There is a powerful interrelationship between biofeedback techniques and the concept of visualization. Visualization is a technique that is intended to reduce stress, to enhance relaxation, and to sustain focus by directing the attention of the athlete to a specific aspect of the athlete’s routine or performance. In this fashion, biofeedback can assist the athlete in developing mental cues to help eliminate distractions such as crowd noise or movements. Auditory (hearing) clues can also be employed as the trigger to induce the athlete to maintain the desired level of autonomic function. The type of clue that will function best for a particular athlete will be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

tailored to the athlete, as a result of the biofeedback process; there are no set rules as to which type of clue is likely to work best. In shooting sports, athletes seek to reduce their heart rate through deep breathing and other relaxation methods, as they are in their most physically stable position to deliver a shot when their body is between heartbeats. The more efficiently the shooter can breathe and reduce the heart rate, the quicker the shots can be fired. In some sports, biofeedback can be incorporated with the use of physical simulators to assist the athlete. Bobsledders are among the athletes who use a computer controlled simulator to precisely replicate the sensations that they experience on particular bobsled courses; the biofeedback data such as heart rate and its relationship to the effect of the gravitational forces experienced by the bobsledders is gathered as the simulation proceeds. When the bobsledder knows that a difficult corner or other physical element of the course lies ahead, he can anticipate that he will become more anxious or tense and prepare himself accordingly. The successful use of biofeedback data is dependent upon both the quality of the physiological testing of the athlete, combined with motivation of the athlete to use the biofeedback process effectively. The gathering of data alone will not provide a remedy to deficiencies in athletic performance.

Eccrine sweat secretion; Heart rate monitors; Heart rate: Target heart rate; Metabolic response; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO

Barry Bixler 6/10/1944– AMERICAN AEROSPACE ENGINEER

Barry Bixler is an American aerospace engineer who has made two significant contributions to modern sport science: first as the developer of a computer simulation used to study swimming strokes and second in the analysis and testing required in the development of the Speedo full body swim suits now worn by elite level racers. Computational fluid dynamics, or CFD, is the name of the software and related processes developed by Bixler to create effective simulations of swimming strokes. The purpose of CFD is to assist coaches and swimmers in developing optimal efficiency of the swim stroke. The previous methods used to analyze a swim stroke required expensive

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and time consuming physical simulations, using apparatuses such as wind tunnels and specially constructed pools. CFD is a sophisticated computer model that can account for variables such as hand and arm position, the angle of entry of the swimmer’s stroke into the water, and water turbulence. The animation involved in CFD can also take into account the individual contours of a swimmer’s body in the analysis. Since 2000 the United States Olympic swim team has made extensive use of the Bixler CFD product in the training of its athletes. The contributions of Bixler to the development of full-body swimsuits are natural extensions of his professional career in aerospace engineering. Bixler devoted considerable research to the effect of the drag forces exerted by water upon swim racers. Bixler sought to create a design that would reduce the amount of time that individual particles of water remain in contact with the swimmer’s body as the swimmer moves through the water. The shorter the time that water contacts the swimsuit surface, the less drag force is experienced. In elite swim competitions, where races are often decided by fractions of seconds, such technological applications have the potential to significantly influence the outcome of the race. Bixler and other researchers developed the idea of a cross-sectional ridge on the swim suit, designed to push the water in contact with the swimsuit away from the swimmer; this technology was incorporated into the Speedo Fastskin FSII in 2004; the technology is often compared with the skin of a shark, as the Fastskin surface is manufactured with similar contours, ridges known as denticles. The Speedo swimsuit has received significant international acclaim in the international swimming community. Bixler was recognized as contributing to one of ‘‘America’s 100 Best Innovations’’ for 2004.

Computer simulations as a training tool; Swimming; Swimming pool chemistry; Triathlon.

SEE ALSO

Blisters The blister is an irritating feature of sports participation, most commonly arising on the feet or hands of the athlete, where the athletic activity creates friction between an item of equipment making repeated contact against or along the surface of the skin. Often a very small object relative to the size of the athlete, blisters at their most innocuous are a distraction to the athlete as a result of their persis-

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tence; at their worst, they are an avenue for infection to enter the body and cause more serious harm. The most frequent type of blister found in athletic participation is the friction blister, caused when the epidermis, or outer layer, of the human skin becomes separated from the dermis, the layer of skin below. This blister will result in a bubble-shaped lump under the skin surface. The bubble is taut, filled with serum, a clear, thin fluid, formed by its leakage into the blister bubble from the immediately adjacent skin tissues. Common causes of friction blisters include: poorfitting shoes or socks; an orthotic or other device is used for the first time (creating a different wear against the skin of the foot); instances when an athlete is required to handle an object that tends to move or slide through the hands (such as the handlebars of a mountain bike, ropes and winches in sailing, or a tennis racquet); or participating sports in which an object is thrown repetitively, such as a pitch in baseball. The best treatment for a typical friction blister is to leave the blister alone. As annoying as this injury may be, a blister, properly bandaged and protected with an adhesive such as moleskin or protective gloves, will heal best if it remains intact. There is a temptation to puncture the blister dome, to drain off the seum beneath. This act increases the risk of infection entering the skin and removes the protective quality of the fluid. A small blister (less than 0.39 in [1 cm]) is known as a vesicle; larger blisters are referred to as bullae. If the blister is punctured, or within two to three days pus is noticed in the blister, or the blister appears red or is sensitive to the touch, there is a strong likelihood that the blister has become infected and the injury should be attended to by a physician. The second most common form of athletic blister is the aptly described blood blister. This type of skin injury results from either a direct blow to the skin, or when the skin is pinched as a result of being caught between two harder objects. An example of the pinching action causing the formation of a blood blister includes the hand of a cyclist caught in the chain of bicycle while making a repair. As with the friction blister, the puncture of the blood blister surface to drain away the underlying fluid and reduce the apparent pressure on the surface of the skin is not recommended. A significant risk of bacteria entering the puncture opening will result. The blister, which typically will manifest itself very quickly after a pinch or blow, should be treated with WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BLOOD DOPING

Other forms of blisters may arise in athletic activity, although less frequently than by friction or by pinching of the skin. Such problems occur chiefly through allergic reaction, through exposure to a chemical, or through contact with a poison such as poison ivy or poison sumac. Contact with such substances will cause the skin to blister and may be very contagious. Exposure to excessive sunlight, extreme cold, or extreme heat may also result in blistering to the skin.

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; First aid kits for sports; Skin and muscle blood flow during exercise.

SEE ALSO

Blood doping

Tennis players often develop friction blisters on their hands and fingers from holding their racquets. TH OMA S COE X/A FP/ G ETTY

Blood doping is defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) as the use of products that enhance the uptake, transport, or delivery of oxygen to the blood. Blood doping was a relative latecomer to emerge into the media glare of international athletics from the underworld of illegal performance-enhancing techniques. Unlike old-fashioned stimulants such as benzedrine or caffeine, or the numerous varieties of muscle-building anabolic steroids available to athletes since the 1960s, such as nandralone, blood doping seemed to be more of a gray art than a black one.

IMAGES

ice and it should be kept clean and protected by a bandage that is changed on a daily basis. A blood blister will typically take between seven and 14 days to resolve. If the blister is so large that there is interference in the normal function of the body part affected, the blister may be drained and treated; ideally, such a procedure should only be carried out in the sterile confines of a medical office. If conducted at home, the athlete should thoroughly clean and dry the affected area. Then a needle should be heated and used to penetrate the side of the blister to drain its content. Once drained, an antibiotic ointment should be applied; the dressing of the blister should be changed and the antibiotic reapplied daily. Foot blisters are reduced, if not prevented, through careful attention to the fit of the shoes and socks to be used for the particular activity. Socks that direct perspiration away from the skin surface, a process known as ‘‘wicking,’’ are also effective in blister reduction, as is the wearing of two layers of socks, one thick and one thin. In demanding, highly repetitive sports such as distance running, a layer of petroleum jelly applied between the runner’s toes will reduce the degree of friction on the skin. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The more muted response in international athletics to blood doping practices has its origins with Finnish distance runner and four-time Olympic gold medalist Lasse Viren, the man believed to be the first successful practitioner of increasing his red blood count to correspondingly improve his body’s ability to transport oxygen. After winning the 5,000-m and 10,000-m races at the 1972 Olympics, Viren raced with indifferent results in events leading up to the 1976 Olympics. At the games, Viren repeated as the gold medalist in his 1972 events, setting a world record in the 10,000-m event. Two days later, Viren finished fifth in the marathon (26.2 mi [42.2 km]), despite never having run a marathon before. Viren’s astounding achievement led many observers to conclude that Viren had done something illegal to have so dramatically boosted his performance. Long after the events of the 1976 Olympics, it was determined that Viren had likely aided his performance through blood doping, acts that were not then illegal under Olympic rules: blood doping would not be banned until 1986. Besides the WADA definition of blood doping as the use of products that enhance the uptake, transport, or delivery of oxygen to the muscles, blood doping is also the use of blood or red blood cell products, of any

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BLOOD DOPING

origin, other than for legitimate medical treatment. Blood doping may be illegally used to increase red blood cell mass in an attempt to improve the amount of oxygen that can be delivered to the muscles in endurance events. Examples of products that enhance the uptake, transport, or delivery of oxygen include, but are not limited to, erythropoietin-modified hemoglobin products (or related substances), such as hemoglobin-based blood substitutes. Blood doping is an expression that conjures visions of injecting or introducing foreign material into the blood system. A more accurate term to describe the practice might be blood building. At its most elemental, blood doping is a process by which the amount of erythrocytes (red blood cells) is artificially increased. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a red-colored protein that is rich in iron. The hemoglobin within each red blood cell is the carrier of oxygen within the bloodstream. In sports such as distance running, cycling, and cross-country skiing, the body must rely primarily upon its aerobic energy system (also known as the mitochondrial energy system) to sustain the activity. The oxygen inhaled is used by the body to breakdown glucose (a sugar that initially is stored in either the muscles or the liver) into energy. The greater volume of oxygen that can be transported by the hemoglobin in the red blood cells, the more efficient the energy conversion process within the body. An increase in the number of red blood cells is an increase in this efficiency. The body will naturally increase the production of red blood cells in two circumstances. When the body is at a high altitude, there is less oxygen available to it than at sea level; as a consequence, the kidneys trigger the production of a hormone known as erythropoietin (EPO), which will in turn stimulate the body to produce a larger number of red blood cells. The body will also increase the amount of red blood cells, over time, where the muscle mass of the body has been increased and is subjected to strenuous training. The additional muscle mass creates a requisite need for greater energy, requiring additional oxygen to be transported. There is no question that the increase of red blood cells in an athlete’s system will likely improve athletic capacity to transport oxygen, and therefore the athlete functions with greater efficiency in competition. Blood doping, which is also known by the medical term induced erythrocythemia, has involved two techniques. Autotransfusion physically removes the blood from the bloodstream of the athlete and stores it to be returned to the system at a later time. The other technique of blood doping is the injection of a synthetic form of EPO.

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A typical autotransfusion will be performed between two and three months prior to the target competition. The process begins with the withdrawal of between approximately 500 ml and 1,800 ml of blood from the athlete. The blood is placed in a centrifuge, a machine that separates the plasma, the fluid component of blood, and the red blood cells. The plasma is immediately returned to the athlete through an intravenous procedure to help maintain an optimum fluid level. The red blood cells are packaged and placed in frozen storage. Prior to the target competition (typically between one to seven days in advance), the red blood cells will be intravenously returned to the body. Research regarding the effect of autotransfusion techniques suggests that the red blood count will be increased by up to 20%. In some instances, this form of blood doping has involved the athlete receiving the red blood cells of another athlete who has the same blood type. The athlete’s chief difficulty before competition with the autotransfusion process was the likelihood of anemia (a shortage of iron in the blood), resulting from the removal of a significant amount of red blood cells, which would make continued high-level training for the target competition difficult. The intravenous process also carries the risk of the needles or equipment being shared, and the consequent exposure to contagious blood-borne disease such as HIV. Further, the introduction of the large volume of red blood cells through autotransfusion places the athlete at risk of having blood that will clot too readily, which increases the chance of a stroke, heart attack, or pulmonary embolism (blood clots in the lungs). Further, the likelihood of dehydration occurring during an endurance event is high; dehydration reduces fluid levels, with a corresponding impact on blood volume, which makes the increased viscosity, or thickness, of the blood more pronounced. With the development of synthetic EPO in the mid-1980s, the injection of this hormone replaced autotransfusion as the preferred method to increase red blood cell counts in an athlete. EPO stimulates the body’s bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. The effects of EPO are substantially the same as those achieved by autotransfusion. EPO had been an especially attractive blood doping technique because a reliable test to detect it has only existed since 2000. As with all elements of the efforts of international anti-doping regulatory agencies such as WADA, for every test designed to detect the presence of illegal substances in the bodies of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BLOOD DOPING

A lab technician at work in the Doping Control Laboratory of Athens during the final days before the start of the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, Greece. PH OTO B Y I A N WALDIE /G ETT Y IM AG ES .

athletes, parallel forces are seeking ever-ingenious ways to foil the testers. Since the EPO test was first proven effective in 2000, a number of products have been developed to mask the presence of EPO, through seemingly expanding the plasma level in the blood. Plasma expanders, as they are known, represent a further testing target in EPO usage. EPO has become a focal point in several investigations into illegal blood doping. There has been a number of high-profile investigations regarding prominent international cyclists, including Tyler Hamilton and Lance Armstrong. Three Olympic cross-country skiers from Finland tested positive for a variant of EPO, darbepoetin, at the 2002 Winter Olympics. Testing is carried out on one of two reasons: to determine whether EPO is present in the urine of the athlete, or to measure the level of hemoglobin (red blood cell protein) in the blood in an effort to assess whether the level is within normal ranges. Current EPO testing is not susceptible to either masking techniques or false/positive results. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

One variation on the use of EPO was a scheme disclosed during the 2002 Tour de France competition by Spanish cyclist Jesu´s Manzano. Manzano alleged that he was approached by his team to use the blood of a relative who had taken EPO, and thus Manzano himself obtain the benefit of red cellenriched blood without risking a positive test for the hormone itself. Blood doping and EPO usage represent an attitudinal shift in sport ethics that has coincided with the creation of WADA and with the heightened interest in the illegal use of all forms of performance-enhancing substances. From the accomplishments of Lasse Viren in 1972 and 1976, the general societal view of cheating in athletics has become broader and less tolerant. Blood doping is a less dramatic, and arguably more natural, performance enhancement than using anabolic steroids; both are now clearly perceived as violations of the spirit of what athletic competition must be.

Acclimatization; Blood volume; Cardiovascular system; Doping tests; EPO.

SEE ALSO

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BLOOD VOLUME

Blood flow

Skin and muscle blood flow during exercise SEE

Blood volume As a general matter of health, optimum blood volume is essential to the proper function of the body’s cardiopulmonary and circulatory systems. Blood is a significant mass within the body, with an average volume for an adult of 5 l. liters (l); blood typically represents approximately 8% of body mass. For an elite-level endurance athlete, the blood volume may be 30% greater than that of the average adult. Blood is composed of solid and liquid elements. Plasma, composed of 90% water, is the liquid that transports various types of dissolved particles as well as blood cells. The cells contained the human blood stream are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. Erythrocytes are the red blood cells that contain hemoglobin, the protein that transports oxygen within the body, as well as carry the waste carbon dioxide produced by the body. Leukocytes are the white blood cells that are responsible for attacking infection and other hostile organisms within the body. There are five different types of white blood cells operating within the bloodstream. Platelets are the colorless bodies that adhere to one another to create blood clots that stop bleeding both in exterior wounds as well as internal bleeding. The body regulates blood volume through the operation of the kidneys. When the kidneys determine that the blood volume is too high, water and sodium are excreted into the urine. To reverse this process, the kidney will retain sodium and increase water levels within the body. As blood, through plasma, is 90% water, this process has an immediate impact upon blood volume. The relationship between blood volume and blood pressure is an important one. Blood pressure is a function of the amount of blood pumped by the heart and the degree of resistance to the flow of blood made by the arteries. The circulatory system, the interconnected series of arteries, veins, and capillaries through which blood flows in the body, has a number of internal mechanisms by which blood pressure is controlled. When blood pressure is too great, the heart is required to work harder than is desirable, among other effects. When blood pressure is too low, it may be indicative of low blood volume, or other conditions. Increased blood volume can cause a corresponding high blood pressure.

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Blood volume is of particular interest to an endurance athlete. One of the first physiological changes observed in an athlete who begins an endurance training program is an increase in blood volume. This volume increase is the body’s response to the demands placed upon it by this type of training. Greater amounts of oxygen are required to be transported by the red blood cells, along with greater demands internally for fluid, due to increased needs to cool the body through sweating. The legitimate increases in the blood volume of an endurance athlete will be the result of determined and focused training. The natural expansion of blood volume can be enhanced through altitude acclimatization, or altitude training, as well as through heat training. The decreased amount of oxygen in high altitudes stimulates the body into the production of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) made in the kidneys. EPO then triggers the production of more red blood cells to transport sufficient oxygen to make up the deficiencies at altitude. Significant blood volume benefits from altitude training occur within one to three months of commencement; the benefits are retained on a declining basis for up to three months. When endurance athletes train in temperatures in excess of 77 F (25 C), the body will become accustomed to retaining the mineral sodium, which is commonly excreted through the skin’ pores when the body is exposed to significant heat (sweating). The greater the level of sodium remaining in the body, the greater the amount of water that will be retained by the body, which has the effect of maintaining blood volumes. Blood volumes will be increased through hot weather training within 14 days. Since the relationship between blood volume, oxygen transport ability, and endurance performance became well established, athletes have used illegal methods to increase blood volume. In recent years, these efforts have centered on the injection of a synthetic form of EPO, to increase red blood cell production. A related class of pharmaceuticals, known as plasma expanders, also achieved the goal of greater blood volume. EPO and plasma expanders are prohibited substances in international competitions and world championships; detection of such substances in the urine samples of athletes will disqualify them, as well as subject them to a suspension from competition. Unless the person illegally ingesting these substances possessed a high baseline of physical conditioning, such as a very fit, highly trained endurance athlete, the additional red blood cell and blood volume capabilities these techniques afforded would be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BOBSLED

negligible. Further, artificial increases to the red blood cell levels in the bloodstream expose the user to greater risk of stroke, due to the denser, more viscous nature of the modified blood. SEE ALSO Acclimatization; Blood doping; Cardiovascular system; EPO; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

Bobsled Sleds and sleighs have been a part of the winter transportation used in cold climates for many hundreds of years. Two thin runners, first constructed of wood and later of steel, are an efficient device for travel over snow or ice. The downward force of the weight supported by the sled is applied over the entire length the runners, which reduces the friction. At the Swiss resort town of St. Moritz in 1897, the bobsled was used for the first time. Visitors rode the invention for fun and recreation, descending along a natural ice track that was available on a hill at the resort. The early machines were simply a crude steering device attached to the runners of a sled; the name bobsled (spelled bobsleigh in Europe) derived its name from the rocking or bobbing motion that the occupants of the sled made in their attempts to make the sled go faster. It is a footnote of history that the name was the result of poorly applied science, as the laws of physics support the proposition that when sliding downhill, the less motion inside the sled, the less deviation from the optimal path of travel. The International Bobsleigh and Toboggan Federation, known by its French language acronym of FIBT, was founded in 1923. The related but distinct sport of skeleton racing, which employs a small sled operated by a single racer propelled headfirst down the race course, is also governed by the FIBT. The bobsled event was a part of the inaugural Winter Olympics in 1924. An annual bobsled World Cup circuit gained popularity in the 1980s, where the competitors race in a series that declares an annual world champion, in both two-man and four-man categories. Once exclusively a male sport, women’s bobsled became popular in the 1990s and is now included as a two-person category at the Olympics. The modern bobsleds are a product of intense technological development, where science operates to the very limit of the prescribed rules of the sport. The two-man sleds are a maximum of 8.3 ft (2.7 m) long, and weigh 858 lb (390 kg); the four-man sleds are 11.8 ft (3.5 m) long, weighing a maximum of 1,386 lb (630 kg); the permitted weights are that of crew WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

and sled combined. The steel runners must not be lubricated or heated in any fashion that would create less friction as the sled travels along the track. The modern bobsled run is an artificial ice track, constructed with a series of banked turns and straight sections. The modern St. Moritz run is a typical bobsled track configuration, with a length of 1.05 mi (1,772 m), a vertical drop of 399 ft (129 m), and an average grade of 8.1%. A four-man bobsled will typically reach a top speed of approximately 85 mph (140 km/h) during a run. The aerodynamics of the sled and the crew are crucial to bobsled performance. The sleds are a constantly evolving shape, a product of both racing and wind tunnel technology concerning the minimizing of drag on the sled. Drag is the force of the air resistance applied to both the bobsled and its crew as it moves through the air. The surface of the sled also generates skin friction, which can reduce the speed of the sled. The sleds for this reason are sleek and aerodynamically efficient; the crew members behind the driver take positions where their heads are below the line of the driver’s head, who sits at a height where only the eyes are above the top of the sled. The crew all wear sleek helmets, with uniforms constructed from materials that also reduce drag. Bobsled speed is a result of the power developed at the start and the piloting skills of the driver along the course. The start is initiated by the push from the gate, over a 165 ft (50 m) distance, within which the bobsled is pushed as hard as is possible, with the crew members ‘‘loading’’ into the sled in a synchronized sequence. As a general rule, every 0.1 seconds lost at the start, a cumulative 0.3 seconds will be lost in finishing time. The crew members wear specialized shoes with which to gain traction on the ice. Once loaded, the race is the responsibility of the driver, who must pilot the sled through the various angles and curves of the course. A driver often does not reach a competitive peak until after 10 or more years of competition, as the subtlest of driving errors in the selection of the line of the bobsled through a curve can mean the hundredths of seconds between victory and a fifth place finish. Bobsled is scored cumulatively, meaning that the total time for four runs is the measure of the competition. Drivers will typically spend hundreds of hours per year studying the courses where they will race. Modern bobsled simulators have made this aspect much easier, as the simulators may be programmed with the specifications of any bobsled run in the world, and the driver can pilot the simulator over the virtual course. Much like a flight training simulator, the devices can

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BODY COMPOSITION AND WEIGHT CONTROL

Body composition and weight control Body composition is the aggregate of the composite parts of the human structure. The body is made of water (as contained in both intracellular and extracellular formats, the latter being primarily blood plasma), fats, proteins, stored carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. The chief divisions of body composition are lean body mass and body fat, often expressed as the percentage of body fat. Lean body mass is the total of the internal organs, skin, bones, connective tissues, and muscle. Each of these structures is formed from one or more of the body’s essential ingredients. Lean body mass components are each active organisms, all of which consume energy at all times, either through function, as in the case of an internal organ or system; or through fueling and sustenance, as required by muscles, connective tissues, and bones.

The U.S. Bobsled Team at the 2005 World Cup Race.

P H OTO BY

EZRA S H AW/GE TTY IMA GE S .

replicate the effect of gravity (g force) on the driver, which on a world-class run will sometimes exceed 4.0 g forces. All members of a crew must be extremely fit. However, the drivers’ responsibilities create a specialized role for them, and they are not expected to be as powerful as the crew. Given the paramount importance of the starting push, the crew must be very fast and very powerful. In recent years, a number of former 100 m sprinters and American football players have been recruited into the bobsled for this reason. The bobsled start is a classic anaerobic exercise, lasting no more than approximately six seconds. Repetition of the sprinting starts, weight training directed at the development of muscle mass and strength (the heavier the crew, the lighter the sled and the easier the sled is to push faster), and plyometrics exercises to enhance explosion are all a part of bobsled physical training.

Computer simulations as a training tool; Exercise, high intensity; Strength training.

SEE ALSO

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Body fat is an expression that has developed a negative connotation in recent years, as elements of Western society become more conscious of factors that tend to impair general health; excess body fat is a contributor to many types of human illness and disease. Body fat is a natural part of healthy human function, essential to good health when in the correct proportion to lean body mass. The determination of the ideal proportion of lean body mass to body fat is not possible to a mathematical certainty. As a general proposition, body fat is defined as the dietary fats stored in the specialty cells of the body known as adipose tissues. Adipose tissues are predominant on females in the abdomen, hips, thighs, and breasts, while males have a greater proportion on the lower abdomen, chest, and buttocks. Body fat is also stored in both sexes near a number of internal organs; the amount of body fat stored in this fashion increases after age 35. The human body is constructed in such a fashion that this additional body fat serves to protect and insulate the body; it is excess amounts of body fat that pose significant health concerns. Body composition is also influenced by genetic factors. Body types can be classified as three general types: mesomorphic, a tall, muscular build; ectomorphic, a taller, thin, lightly boned build; and endomorphic, a shorter, stockier, rounder build. The correct proportion of body fat for an individual must be assessed considering a person’s overall general health, age, gender, and level of physical activity. The so-called ideal weight is therefore WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BODY FAT

variable, even between persons with similar builds. By way of very general boundaries, a healthy athletic male will expect to have a body fat percentage of 10% or less; a similar female, due to the genetic differences between male and female body composition, might possess body fat in the range of 14% to 18%. At the opposite end of the health spectrum, the obese male and female will exceed 30% body fat. There are a multitude of diets advertised as assisting in the reduction of body fat, and consequently, overall weight loss. In considering the benefits of such diets, it is important to consider how the body naturally uses foods. A governing rule of all bodily functions is the principle of seeking balance, a concept known as homeostasis. With weight control, where the amount of physical activity requires energy equal to that available from the amount of food consumed, the body will remain at a constant weight. When the amount of food consumed exceeds the body’s energy requirements, the body will gain weight, and the excess energy supply will be stored as body fat. When the energy requirements of exercise exceed the energy available through the food consumed, the body will, over time, use its stored body fat energy supply. This relationship is unalterable. The methods by which an individual can measure present body fat composition are varied, from the low technology and highly inaccurate body mass index (BMI) to hydrostatic weighing. The BMI is a calculation of the person’s total body mass divided by the product of height and weight. The BMI calculation is then assessed in relation to a scale. The BMI cannot provide a concrete body fat figure for an individual because the index does not involve any direct measurement. Skin fold measurement is conducted using skin calipers to measure the thickness of the skin fold in the upper arm/triceps, chest, abdomen, hips, and buttocks, each of which are areas where body fat naturally is stored in adipose tissue. Hydrostatic weighing applies the Archimedes principle, where the amount of water displaced by immersion of the individual represents the fat present. Hydrostatic weighing is accurate to within approximately 3%. Once the individual’s body fat percentage has been accurately determined, the individual can make intelligent decisions regarding the elimination of excessive body fat. For an athlete, the decision must be one of function, both present and future, as opposed to form. SEE ALSO Body fat; Cardiovascular system; Weight gain; Weight loss.


Body fat Body fat is a much used but not always well understood physiological expression. Body fat is the stored fat that is a product of the ingestion of dietary fats, as well as any fats resulting from the conversion of carbohydrates and proteins in the body. Body fats are stored as triglycerides. These compounds are formed from three fatty acid molecules, attached to glycerol, a type of sugar. Body fats are stored within specially designed cells known as adipose tissues, which tend to be concentrated around the internal organs, under the skin (subcutaneous fat) in the chest, abdomen, and buttocks in males or in the breasts, abdomen, upper thighs, and hips in females. Body fat is capable of indefinite storage; if the body does not require the stored energy as contained in the fat cells, it will never degrade or otherwise metabolize. Body fat is an excellent source of energy, as 1 gram of body fat will produce 9 Kcal (calories) of energy; both proteins and carbohydrates are capable of only 4 Kcal per gram. Fat cells that contain body fat are metabolically inert, requiring very little energy for their maintenance, unlike the lean tissue structures of bone, muscle, and the internal organs. To access the stored energy of the adipose tissues, the hormone glucagon regulates the release of triglycerides into the blood for energy production. When released from their adipose cells, the triglycerides are divided into their fatty acid and glycerol components. The fatty acids are reconstituted in the bloodstream as lipoproteins, and they are transported to the various cells as a source of energy. The glycerol is directed to the liver for processing as a carbohydrate source of energy. The amount of body fat released into the bloodstream as triglycerides is a statistical tool concerning general cardiovascular health; excess quantities of triglycerides are a well-known contributor to arteriosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases. It is unhealthy for any human to possess too little or too much body fat. Body fat performs an important role in the insulation of the body from cold, therefore playing an important role in the protection of the internal organs as well as assisting in the general thermoregulatory function of the body. Excess body fat is harmful to health in a number of ways. Excess body fat is a simple drain on the energy resources of the body, in that the organs, respiratory function, and musculoskeletal system are transporting additional mass with every step, placing a strain on the cardiovascular system and all joints. Persons with excess body fat also compromise their balance and

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BONE, LIGAMENTS, TENDONS

coordination skills, as they are maneuvering a body too large for the sensory devices that the body relies on to achieve efficient movement.

Body composition and weight control; Fat intake; Fat utilization; Obesity.

SEE ALSO

Bone, ligaments, tendons As with any structure, the human body is built upon a framework that is constructed to carry out a wide range of functions. The bones, ligaments, and tendons are each essential parts of the human framework, integrated into a mechanism, the skeleton, that is crucial to the movement, stability, protection, and growth of the entire body. Because bone is a hard, white, and seemingly sterile object, it is perhaps difficult to regard the human skeleton as an organism. The bones, ligaments, and tendons are not only a coordinated frame upon which human muscles and organs are attached and contained, the skeleton and the rest of the body are an interconnected biological device. There are approximately 206 bones in the human body. Bones generally act as connective tissue within the body. All bones are composed primarily of the mineral compound, calcium phosphate, which is a very hard substance, with a lesser amount of collagen (a protein). For this reason, bone is structured as a relatively brittle matrix, although the softer collagen cells lend some degree of elasticity when a bone sustains trauma. Not all bones possess the same characteristics, nor do all bones fulfill the same purpose within the skeleton. There are two types of bones: cortical bones and cancellous bones. Cortical bone has a denser, more compact structure than does the cancellous bone, and comprises the greater proportion of the skeleton mass. Most of the longer bones in the body are cortical, such as the femur (thigh bone). The long bones are hollow, and the center of the bone is filled with a substance known as yellow marrow. At the end of each long bone is an area known as the epiphysis, which is usually composed of cancellous bone cells; the marrow in this portion of the long bones is red marrow. Bone marrow is the body’s manufacturing center for the production of erythrocytes (the red blood cells responsible for the transport of oxygen throughout the body), leukocytes (the white blood cells that neutralize and eliminate infection), and platelets (the organisms that cause blood to clot in the case of a laceration or internal bleeding). The red

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marrow generates the red blood cells required, and the yellow marrow produces the white blood cells. Bone cells are further subdivide into three types: osteoblast, osteocyte, and osteoclast. Osteoblast cells are also known as bone-forming cells, which are located on or near the surface of the bone, producing osteoid, the compound used by the body in bone formation. Osteocyte cells are also known as bonelining cells, which are essential to the maintenance of the bone structure. Osteoclast cells are usually inactive cells that will destroy other bone cell production. Ligaments are the skeletal components that connect bones to other bones to create a joint, a flexible structure that is capable of movement and of bearing both weight and external forces applied to it. Ligaments are made of collagen, formed into short, fibrous bands. All of the body ligaments are important to efficient physical movement. However, the ligaments that are of special significance are the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), the connector between the femur and the tibia (lower leg bone) essential to knee function, and the ulnar cruciate ligament (UCL), an elbow structure essential to the success of any baseball pitcher. Tendons have a similar construction to that of ligaments: they are strong, fiber-like connectors. However, rather than connecting bone to bone, tendons connect muscle to bone, providing stability and a significant degree of resistance to external forces. Large tendons such as the Achilles tendon, which connects the gastroceus (calf muscle) and the calcaneus (heel bone), are able to withstand force due to the flexing qualities of the supple collagen that forms a large portion of the tendon structure. As with an ACL or UCL injury, a tear or rupture of the Achilles tendon is a debilitating occurrence. The ACL is a commonly and severely injured ligament in the knee joint. Female athletes are far more prone to sustaining an ACL injury than males; National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) research suggests that ratio of female basketball players to male players with an ACL injury is approximately 5 to 1. This greater prevalence of this injury among female versus male athletes arises from the different shape of the female skeleton from that of the male. The relationship between the wider female pelvis and the shorter femur creates a more acute angle than that of the male anatomy. The line that one may draw between the hip and the knee is known as the ‘‘Q line.’’ This more acute Q-line angle in female athletes results in greater forces being generated and directed in the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BONE MINERALIZATION PATTERNS

knee joint. In a sport such as basketball, there are constant opportunities for the knee and the ACL to absorb the forces of explosive movements. The skeleton of an athlete provides a number of indicators regarding prospective success in a particular sport. The size of the skeleton at certain points in the development of a child into adolescence, and later at the point where an adolescent nears full maturity, will provide an indication of the likelihood of competitive success in a particular sport. If a female athlete is 5 ft 3 in (1.6 m) at age 16, it is unlikely that she will grow significantly taller; basketball would present competitive challenges. However, skeletal size is a persuasive, but never a determinative, factor in athletic success. A lack of height, while a physical reality that limits an athlete in many sports, may be overcome by other equally important athletic considerations, such as intelligence, muscle strength, speed, reaction time, or explosive power. The size of individual bones within the skeleton may also be a useful predictor of athletic ability. Tour de France cycling champion Lance Armstrong, regarded as a phenomenal climber, a rider able to master tough, mountainous routes, has a longer than normal femur (thigh bone), which gives him greater leverage as he delivers the pedal stroke to his bicycle. In a sport such as swimming, a narrow pelvis and broad shoulders will be an advantage in powering the body through the water, as the slimmer pelvis will generally create less drag. The relative sizes of the torso (upper body) and the lower body are another indication of what sports may be most suited to a prospective athlete. The point in the body where the weight of the structure is said to be equal is referred to as the ‘‘center of gravity’’ or, alternatively, as the ‘‘center of mass.’’ Considerations of the location of the center of gravity in sport are primarily those to do with stability of the athlete’s physical movements. A low center of gravity will often translate into an ability to make coordinated movements that combine speed, balance, and power. A higher center of gravity will be useful to athletes who wish to combine speed with efficiency. The center of gravity is lower the longer the upper body. American football running backs and alpine skiers are examples of athletes who require a low center of gravity; successful marathon runners will possess longer legs relative to their torso, thus possessing a higher center of gravity. Skeletal size and bone density are largely predetermined genetically. In addition to athletic injury or other trauma, there are a number of factors that will impact upon skeletal health. For example, osteopoWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

rosis is a disease of the bones that occurs due to low bone mass. Reduced mass makes the bone generally more fragile and susceptible to fracture. This condition is thought to cause or contribute to 1.5 million fractures in the United States annually. Osteoporosis can affect persons at any age; as bone mass and density peak at approximately age 30, the disease more typically affects older persons. Approximately two-thirds of osteoporosis cases occur in women, due to combined impacts of menopausal onset and a naturally smaller, slighter bone structure. Athletic activities that require the body, and consequently bones, to bear weight will result in stronger bones, in that the natural loss of bone density will be slowed. The bones are a part of an organism that requires nutrients to remain viable. A deficiency in critical bone-maintaining minerals such as calcium (vitamin D) can create a weakened skeletal structure. Studies of girls who participate in high school sports suggest that they absorb approximately 7% more bone-building mineral than sedentary girls, a factor likely to provide them with greater resistance to osteoporosis in their later adult years.

Back anatomy and physiology; Calcium; Minerals; Skeletal muscle; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

Bone mineralization patterns Bone mineralization pattern refers to the types of minerals (calcium is of paramount importance) that are incorporated into bone, the amount of the minerals that are present (referred to as the bone density), and the possible differences in bone mineral composition and density in different regions of the skeleton. Calcium, in the form of calcium phosphate, is incorporated into bone as a highly structured crystal called hydroxyapatite. This crystallized mineral is essential for the hardness of bones, and for their rigidity—the latter is important, otherwise the bones may inadvertently bend when a force is applied. Hydroxyapatite makes up about one-quarter of the volume and approximately half the mass of normal adult bones. The calcium crystals tend to associate with fibrils of collagen in bones. The importance of calcium is underscored in osteoporosis, which involves the progressive loss of calcium. Bones become more fragile and more prone to fracture and breakage under stresses that would otherwise not be damaging. Post-menopausal women

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are especially susceptible to osteoporosis. As well, female athletes who, as a result of training stress, cease menstruation (amenorrhea) can trigger premature osteoporosis, which may persist despite calcium supplementation. In female athletes, exercise can also produce increased bone mineralization in regions that are especially stressed by the athletic activity. As one example, elite figure skaters and gymnasts can have increased bone mineral density in the bones in the lower body. In another example, physical activity in adolescence can increase the bone density of the femur (the portion of the thigh bone with the socket into which the hip joint fits). A number of studies involving female athletes has established that the increased bone density that is a benefit of exercise outweighs the potential risk of bone loss due to osteoporotic loss of calcium. Nutrition is important in maintaining bone mineralization patterns. For example, vitamin D is involved in calcium regulation, and a vitamin D deficiency can lead to the depletion of bone minerals. This is relevant to athletics, where the need to maintain a slim, lightweight body may tempt an athlete to adopt an improper diet. SEE ALSO

Body composition and weight control;

Body fat.

William J Bowerman 2/19/1911–12/24/1999 AMERICAN RUNNING-SHOE DEVELOPER

Bill Bowerman was a long time track coach at the University of Oregon. Bowerman coached numerous Olympic and world champions and he is regarded as one of the finest track coaches in the history of the sport. Renowned as a master tactician, Bowerman was the head coach of the United States Olympic track team at the 1972 Olympics, and among his runners at Oregon was the legendary American middle distance runner Steve Prefontaine. Bowerman had been sufficiently distressed by the quality of running shoes available to his track athletes in the late 1950s that he made some of their shoes himself. The first of his runners to try a pair of Bowerman’s shoes was Phil Knight, a miler on the Oregon team. In the early 1960s Bowerman subsequently formed a partnership with Knight, to manufacture and market running shoes of their own design.

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The Knight/Bowerman partnership later became Nike, a company that ultimately became the most successful sports shoe and apparel company in the world. Bowerman used his coaching experience and his knowledge of running to advance a number of innovations in running shoe technology. In 1972, using a combination of latex rubber, leather, and glue, Bowerman created a lightweight outsole for distance running shoes through the use of his wife’s waffle iron, creating the now famous Nike waffle sole. This sole, with the squares created by the waffle pattern, provided greater traction to runners on any surface, particularly a wet roadway. Bowerman also contributed to the development of the wedge heel used in Nike running shoes to create greater cushioning and stability. Bowerman also assisted in the design of both the first cushioned insoles, as well as the now standard lightweight nylon upper, the top portion of the shoe in which the foot is laced and secured. Prior to these innovations, most running shoe uppers were manufactured from canvas, other heavier synthetic materials, or leather. In a separate technological advance, Bowerman is credited with being the first coach to advocate the rubberizing of the asphalt runways used at tracks for events such as the long jump and the pole vault, making the surface more absorbent and safer for the athletes.

Running shoes; Running: Middle distance events; Track and Field.

SEE ALSO

Bowling Bowling is one of the world’s simplest sports: the object of the game is to roll a ball with force at a set of target pins, endeavoring to knock over as many as possible. It is for this reason that forms of bowling have been played in many cultures for thousands of years. There is evidence that a primitive form of bowling was played in ancient Egypt at least as early as 3000 BC. The early German Christian monks bowled. Italian bocce is similar in concept to bowling. The English played games that evolved into modern bowling and the outdoor sport of lawn bowling through the Middle Ages; Sir Francis Drake is reputed to have awaited the coming of the Spanish Armada by playing a game of bowling. The modern game of bowling was developed in the United States as a result of the import of various forms by its early settlers. The first reference to bowling being played in America is likely contained in the famous Washington Irving (1783–1859) story, Rip Van WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BOWLING

Winkle, published in 1819, in which Van Winkle, asleep for 20 years, is described as awakening to the sound of ‘‘nine pins,’’ a Dutch variant of bowling. Bowling gained considerable popularity in the United States into the 1890s. The 10-pin variation of the game was the most popular, and in 1895, the American Bowling Congress was formed. The early 10-pin games were played with wooden pins and a wooden ball. There was no mechanization of the bowling lane, and all pins had to be reset by hand, a task usually performed by a ‘‘pin boy.’’ The first significant technological development occurred in 1905, with the development of a durable, hard rubber bowling ball. The construction of the ball permitted it to be thrown harder and with greater effect at the standing pins. In 1914, the first hard composite rubber ball was manufactured, a still greater advance in the ability of the bowler to play effectively. In 1952, the first automated pin setting machine was developed. The automation of the bowling lane coincided with the advent of televised bowling competitions in the United States. The popularity of televised bowling spurred a boom in participation and the construction of bowling lanes across the country. Bowling was perceived as a sport that was both inexpensive and accessible to the average person, as well as one providing high level competition opportunities for skilled players. In 1961, the Pro Bowlers Tour began, sponsoring large prize money tournaments in cities across the United States. Bowling had enjoyed a parallel popularity in many countries during the growth enjoyed by American bowling. In Canada, a 5-pin variant was invented in 1909, and in many Canadian centers both 10-pin and 5-pin games were played. The international bowling governing body, known by its French language name, the Federation National des Quilleurs (FIQ), was founded in 1952. It maintains authority over the 10-pin bowling game played in the United States and throughout the world, as well as the nine-pin game played mainly in Europe. The FIQ has a membership of over 120 countries, and while bowling is not a medal sport in the Olympics, the FIQ has been recognized as a full member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) since 1979. Whether contested in a 5-pin, 9-pin, or 10-pin format, the object of modern bowling has remained constant throughout its history: to knock down as many pins as possible with as few bowls as possible. The 10-pin game is the best example of the rules, strategies, and training procedures that exemplify bowling. Ten pins may be played as a head to head competition, or in a team format. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The 10-pin lane is 60 ft (18 m), measured from the first pin (the head pin) and the foul line, behind which the bowler’s feet must be positioned when the ball is delivered. The lane is 3.5 ft (1.2 m) wide, and it is typically constructed from either highly polished wooden panels or an equally slick, frictionless synthetic material. Bowlers wear specialized shoes constructed with a sole that permits the bowler to slide along the surface when delivering of the ball. The lane is bordered on each side by gutters; if the ball enters the gutter, it will not score. The ball must not exceed 16 lb (7.3 kg) in weight, nor may it be greater than 27 in (70 cm) in circumference. The ball must be constructed to be 100% solid, except for the permitted finger holes bored into the ball to permit the bowler to secure a firm grip. The smooth surface of the ball (usually a plastic composite material) and the construction of the lane creates very little friction on the ball when it is delivered. The pins are set in an equilateral triangular shape, with each pin placed precisely 12 in (0.3 m) from each other. The pins are set by an automated machine, and the toppled pins are swept out of the lane by the machine between the first and second bowls. The scoring of a 10-pin game is straightforward. The game is divided into 10 competitive segments, known as frames. In each frame, a bowler is permitted two bowls to knock down the assembled pins. If the bowler does not strike down all of the pins with the two deliveries, the points scored for the frame are the number of pins knocked down. If the bowler knocks down all of the pins using both bowls, a spare is scored, where the bowler scores 10 for the frame plus a bonus, calculated as the score for the first ball in the next frame. When the bowler knocks down all 10 pins with the first ball in a frame, a strike is scored; a strike is counted as 10 points, plus a bonus from the next two balls. For successive strikes, the bonus scores are cumulative, meaning that in a 10frame game, with bonuses, a player can conceivably roll 30 strikes for a perfect game of 300. Bowling has a significant physical and mental component when contested at a competitive level. There are a number of different accepted approaches to the delivery of the ball and the accompanying footwork needed to best combine power and accuracy. No matter what approach is employed, bowling is a classic repetitive-type activity, with the ball delivered from a crouched position that has the potential to place significant strain on the structures of the wrist, elbow, shoulder, and lumbar regions.

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BOWLING

Bowling a strike.

ª PA TRICK B EN NE TT/ CORB IS

The wrist is the joint most vulnerable to injury in bowling. The 16 lb (7.3 kg) ball is released at the end of a sweeping arc motion, where the bowler draws the ball back past the waist, so as to create additional distance through which the ball may be accelerated prior to release. The arm and wrist of the bowler are taken through an eccentric motion, where all of the forces of delivery are radiated through the wrist. When the wrist is itself not stable at the time that those forces are received, the tendons of the wrist, which connect the muscles of the forearm to the hand, and the ligaments of the carpal bones of the wrist joint have the potential to be overstretched; in time, this overstretching can cause a micro-tearing of these connective tissues. Many bowlers wear customfitted orthotics on the wrist of the throwing hand to provide extra stability to the joint in its repetitive motion. Although the aerobic requirements of the sport itself are modest, bowling requires a high level of focus and mental concentration and a welldeveloped ability to manage stress. Aerobic fitness will assist the bowler in maintaining a heart rate that will contribute to effective stress management.

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Stretching and flexibility exercises are also important to the prevention of muscle strains that are associated with the repetitive throwing and footwork required. Many elite bowlers employ different forms of mental training, including the visualization of their successful shots. A bowling alley has a number of highly distinctive sounds associated with success: the sound of the ball as it travels down the lane, the distinctive collision between the ball and the pins, and the sound of the pins falling. Visualization will seek to include all of these auditory clues in the visual image to be conjured as the bowlers concentrate on the next successful shot. As the physical demands of bowling are less than those encountered in many elite sports, with a mental component that can be developed with experience, bowling is a sport where its best competitors may continue to perform at a high level into their 40s. SEE ALSO Elbow injuries; Motor control; Visualization in sport; Wrist injuries.


BOXING

Bowling, cricket

Cricket: The physics of how the ball is bowled SEE

Boxing Boxing is a physical contest between two combatants who use their fists to achieve supremacy over their opponent. Like wrestling, boxing has ancient roots, as it was well known to the cultures of Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea before it was first included in the Greek Olympics in 688 BC. Boxing was later known as pugilism, a derivative of the Latin term for a fighter, from which comes the slang term ‘‘pug.’’ Paradoxically, the often brutal and unsophisticated thuggery of the boxing ring earned the affectionate title ‘‘the sweet science,’’ as the sport became increasingly popular throughout the world in the twentieth century. In England, boxing was an underground activity into the 1700s. Fighters fought with bare knuckles, and the contests were wars of attrition, rarely decided by a single blow or flurry of punches, but through the cumulative effect of many rounds of combat. Deaths were not uncommon, and boxing, or prize fighting, was banned until the mid-1850s. A similar situation persisted in the United States during the nineteenth century, as many cities banned boxing matches. Two developments served to legitimize boxing to a significant degree. The first was the work of the Eighth Marquees of Queensbury, a member of the English aristocracy, who in 1865 published his nowfamous Rules. The 12 Rules of the Marquees have since remained the essence of boxing competitions throughout the world. The key elements of the Queensbury rules are the division of a boxing match into three-minute rounds, followed by a one-minute interval; permitting a boxer who is knocked to the surface of the ring an interval of 10 seconds to resume the fight; having each fighter wear propersized gloves; and ruling down a fighter that has been knocked to one knee. The second development to boost the public profile of boxing was the emergence of John L. Sullivan of Boston, the first world heavyweight champion in 1885. Sullivan was beaten for his title in dramatic fashion in 1892 by American ‘‘Gentleman Jim’’ Corbett, the first of the reputed scientific fighters, who relied on speed and finesse to exploit an opponent’s weaknesses. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Boxing made its debut in the modern Olympic Games in St. Louis in 1904. It has remained a sport where the competition is organized along weight classification lines, as it is presumed in boxing, like wrestling and judo, that the heavier competitor is generally the stronger competitor. With some variations as to categories, all professional boxing, as well as amateur competition, is determined by weight class. The governing body of international boxing and Olympic boxing is the International Boxing Association (AIBA; the acronym includes a reference to the term amateur that is no longer used by the AIBA). The only significant differences between professional and Olympic boxing are the use of protective gear and the length of the rounds in each bout. In Olympic competition, all fighters must wear protective headgear and each round is two minutes in duration, with one-minute intervals, and four rounds in total. Professional bouts can last from between eight and 15 rounds, depending on the weight classification and the sanctioning organization. (Professional boxing has a number of organizations, each of which claims to be the official authority regarding the rules of the sport.) Scoring in the sport of boxing is similarly varied between Olympic, amateur, and professional bodies, but the general principles are consistent across the sport. A knockout is the result of a legal blow delivered by a fighter that sends the opponent to the surface of the ring (often termed the canvas, in reference to the material used on the floors of early boxing rings), when the opponent cannot regain his (or her) feet within 10 seconds of going down. A technical knockout is one of a number of circumstances in which the referee determines that the fight cannot continue, including a fighter not being able to continue at the end of a round (‘‘answer the bell’’); or when the fighter has been knocked down repeatedly and the referee forms the opinion that the fighter cannot safely continue. Boxing matches are scored by the referee who is in the ring to maintain order and to enforce the rules of the sport, as well as by three judges stationed outside the ring who assess the fight based on a scoring system. Each punch that, in the opinion of the referee, lands on the opponent’s head or body will score a point. In Olympic competition, the gloves used by the fighters have a target area marked across the area of the fighter’s fists; only blows delivered with that part of the glove to the body or head will score. Penalties may be imposed in the scoring system for such items as a low blow, which is a punch

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delivered below the belt line of the opponent; a head butt; or any other type of contact that is not permitted by the rules. When the fight is not concluded with either a knockout or a technical knockout at the end of the last round, the fighter with the highest number of points will be deemed the winner. If the points total is equal, the fight is declared a draw. There is no question that an elite-level heavyweight fighter, who may weigh as much as 240 lb (110 kg) or more, will possess the physical capability to deliver a powerful punch. No matter how strong a fighter may be, all boxers seek to develop a range of punches and corresponding tactics in which all types of punches are employed. All boxers typically assume a fighting stance throughout the course of a match. The fighting stance is similar to the traditional athletic stance common to the execution of many sports, with the knees bent and the hips flexed to permit agility and the establishment of a stable position. In the fighting stance, the boxer’s hands are maintained in a defensive position in front of the head, to protect against punches aimed there. The jab is a punch in the arsenal of every boxer. It is a blow delivered from the shoulder, the fighter square to the opponent, with the fist snapped forward. The jab is used as a punch to establish a tactical base from which other punches may be thrown. The hook is delivered from an angle to the opponent’s body, with the blow transcribing an arc, usually targeted to the opponent’s head. A cross is a shorter punch, delivered at an angle across the head of the opponent. An uppercut is a punch that begins with the hand positioned below the fighting stance being driven upward in a short arc toward the head of the opponent. There are a multitude of variations on these basic boxing blows. A counterpunch is a blow delivered in an immediate response to one received from an opponent. A combination is a series of two or more different punches thrown consecutively. The boxer’s footwork is of critical importance to the delivery of a strong punch from a balanced position. Footwork that permits the boxer to maintain balance as the blows are delivered and absorbed is the base on which an effective punch can be delivered; an ability to move gracefully and with agility will often permit a boxer to escape dangerous encounters with the opponent. The tactics employed in a boxing match are a combination of a particular boxer’s strengths, the opponent’s perceived weaknesses, and the status of the fight at a given time. When a fighter believes that he or she is ‘‘behind on points’’ as the fight enters the last scheduled round, the fighter will be compelled to go on the offen-

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sive and seek a winning knockout. The opponent, believing to be in the lead, will fight a correspondingly conservative fight, seeking to protect that lead. Boxing training is a very physically demanding process. Boxing is a sport that is anaerobic, in terms of the intervals of high intensity activity contained within each round; it is also aerobic in its requirements that the boxer build a powerful physical recovery mechanism, to assist the body in returning to its natural balance between each round. Effective boxing programs will make ample provision for the development of both energy systems. Boxers have traditionally employed skipping and running (roadwork) to enhance their cardiovascular proficiency. Boxing, with its emphasis on stability in delivering and absorbing a punch, requires outstanding core strength development. The abdominal, gluteal, lumbar, and groin muscles and connective tissues are areas of particular attention in a boxing training program. Abdominal crunches, Swiss ball exercises, and back extension work are examples of these core strength exercises. Agility, lateral quickness, and hand-eye coordination are fundamental to boxing success. Many boxers employ different types of plyometrics exercises to maintain quickness and explosive power. The mechanics of the delivery of a punch require the instant coordination of footwork with arm action; when the blow is attempted on an unstable base, the blow will result in an off-balance body position for the fighter at the end of the delivery, compromising both the fighter’s defensive position as well as the power that can be transferred to the target. Unless the boxer is a heavyweight and therefore not limited by the rules of a weight division, all other boxers must organize their weight training in accordance with the maximum size permitted by the rule. Weight training aims to reduce the percentage of body fat in the fighter to the lowest healthy level possible to permit greater muscle development. The physical risks of boxing are many; the larger the fighters and the more power with which they are able to throw a punch, the correspondingly greater risk of injury to the opponent. Lacerations to the face, fractured noses, damage to the ear cartilage (‘‘cauliflower ear’’), and similar injuries caused by punches to these areas are common to boxers. The most serious boxing injuries are those caused by a blow or a series of blows to the head, most commonly concussion and subdural hematoma. Concussion is a brain injury in which the brain is violently moved within the fluid that supports it within the skull. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BOXING, CORNER MEN

Competitive boxing follows the 12 Rules of the Marquees. Key elements of the rules include the division of a boxing match into threeminute rounds, followed by a one-minute interval of rest. ª DARR EN S TAP LE S/ REU TER S/ CORB IS

expression ‘‘punch drunk’’ describes the effects of repeated concussions on boxers: headache, nausea, disorientation, and reduced ability to reason. Subdural hematoma is a bleeding of the brain caused by the application of force; such injuries have similar symptoms to those of concussion.

man is a person who is permitted to be present in a fighter’s corner during a boxing match in order to provide advise or assistance to the fighter. The terms trainer, corner man, and cut man have technically distinct meanings in the sport; although each term is sometimes used interchangeably with the others.

Boxing strength and training exercises; Cardio-boxing; Cross training; Exercise, high intensity; Strength training; Stretching and flexibility.

The term corner man also refers to the physical position of the corner man during the fight. The actual work carried out by the corner man will depend upon his relationship to the overall training and preparation of the fighter.

SEE ALSO

Boxing, corner men The corner man is a boxing designation that is capable of more than one meaning. In general, a corner WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Boxing is an intensely individual sport; the actual battle is waged by the fighter alone. All fighters, however, enter a fight supported by a team that coordinates all aspects of a fight’s preparation, a process that typically extends over a period of many months.

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Most professional fighters have a manager who is responsible for the over all direction of the fighter’s career. The manager arranges for fights and handles the financial aspects of the boxing business for the fighter. The trainer works with the boxer on a day-today basis; the primary role of the trainer is to prepare the boxer for his bouts. The trainer oversees all physical conditioning programs, develops the fighting technique, footwork, and tactics to be employed by the fighter, and assists with all other related fighter preparation. A trainer will invariably be present in a fighter’s corner to provide both motivation and tactical advise as a fight progresses. A corner man (also referred to as a second in some jurisdictions) may be the fighter’s trainer. However, in most cases, the corner man is the physical support system for the fighter during a bout. The corner man generally has fixed duties, both immediately before and during a bout. In preparation for the bout, the corner man will usually assist the fighter in wrapping the fighter’s hands with elasticized tape that both protects the fighter’s hands and provides support to the fighter’s wrists, enabling them to better distribute and absorb the forces generated from the delivery of a punch. The corner man also applies a thin layer of a petroleum jelly such as Vaseline to the boxer’s face; this product assists in keeping the facial skin lubricated and less likely to be opened by a cut caused by an opponent’s punch. Under the rules of boxing, the fighter’s corner is a one-minute sanctuary between the physical battles of each round. During each interval, the corner man may provide the fighter with water or approved electrolyte replacement fluids. The corner man may sponge down the fighter, or attend to any injuries sustained by the fighter. It is in this role that the corner man is also referred to as a cut man. At the elite levels of boxing, the cut man may occupy a distinct position in the boxer’s corner. The cut man uses the one-minute interval between rounds to perform distinct types of first aid. Under the rules of boxing, both amateur and professional, where a fighter is cut and the resultant bleeding continues, the referee must stop the fight, and the opponent is declared the winner. The skill of a cut man in staunching the flow of blood is highly valued for this reason. In boxing history, Angelo Dundee (b. 1923) was admired for his ability to limit the damage done by cuts to the legendary Muhammad Ali during his long reign as world heavy weight champion. Most boxing organizations approve the chemicals that are permitted at a boxer’s corner for use by cut men in

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repairing a cut. Various coagulants (substances that tend to thicken the blood to make it resistant to flowing freely) and the drug, adrenaline hydrochloride, applied to decrease blood flow in the injured area, are common substances employed by cut men. A cut man will also have specialized equipment to assist in applying ice to the cut or lacerated region, as well as to reduce swelling from any larger hematomas (bruises) that occur in the vicinity of the boxer’s eyes, restricting his vision. The cut man uses both ice and a steel device known as an enswell, to apply cold directly to a cut. Cold is a natural vasoconstrictor, as it causes the blood vessels in the vicinity of the cut to narrow, reducing the flow of blood to the area that would otherwise promote bleeding. Boxing cut men are often not formally educated in any medical or athletic training discipline. Most cut men learn through experience the best means to stop bleeding or to reduce swelling within the one minute interval between rounds. The corner man, whatever his specific role may be in a particular boxer’s entourage, also has a responsibility to watch the fighter closely as a bout progresses. The corner man often has a deep knowledge as to the physical mannerisms of the fighter. If the corner man believes that their fighter is struggling and is at physical risk of harm should the fight to continue, the corner man can signal the referee that the fight should be stopped. It is this relationship between the fighter and his corner that gave rise to the expression ‘‘throw in the towel,’’ the traditional corner man’s signal to stop a fight was to toss a towel from the corner into the center of the ring. SEE ALSO

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; Boxing; Head

injuries.

Boxing strength and training exercises The overall objectives of a boxing strength and training program are similar to those found in most contact sports, emphasizing physical fitness and endurance. Boxing is atypical in that it places equal emphasis on the ability of the athlete to deliver and to absorb powerful physical blows in competition, without significant protective equipment. Boxing has been variously described as the ‘‘sweet science’’ and as ‘‘show business with blood.’’ A successful boxer will be required to commit to a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BRONCHOSPASM, EXERCISE-INDUCED

focused and demanding physical training program that will incorporate a number of overarching principles, including: intensity; physical strength; injury reduction; training regimen variety; and mental training, especially with respect to the boxer’s ability to deal with pain. It is the nature of boxing that the athlete will compete in a series of two- to three-minute segments, or rounds, interspersed with one-minute rest intervals. The length and the number of rounds will vary depending on the age of the competitor and the level of competition. There are often shorter periods of extreme activity, as in a flurry of punches exchanged or delivered. The punching mechanism, the defensive blocking mechanism, and the boxer’s movements within the ring require a smooth synchronization of arm, core, and leg functions. Leg strength is particularly important in the stability of a boxer, as well as assisting in the generation of power in a punch. Boxers adopt a stance that is a posture similar to the crouched position of athletes in other sports, such as a fielder in baseball; this position is generally referred to as the athletic position. In boxing, this position is known as a fighting stance. This stable stance permits the boxer to better react to the movements of the opponent, as well as provide an optimum physical platform from which to deliver a punch. The short intervals within which the boxer competes place high demands on the body’s anaerobic energy system; the efficient recovery of the boxer between rounds will depend on the aerobic capacity of the boxer, as aerobic fitness is a determining factor in how quickly the heart rate returns to resting level. The entire body must be trained for a boxer to successfully compete; particular focus is placed on the neck, shoulders, bicep, triceps, wrists and hands, and the abdominal, gluteal, and leg muscles. As boxing competitions are organized on the basis of weight divisions—athletes compete against an opponent of similar size—boxing strength training is centered on relative strength, which is the strength of the boxer in relation to his weight as opposed to absolute strength. The act of delivering a punch requires the development of ballistic strength, the term used to describe the starting strength available to a boxer at the commencement of a punch. The manner in which boxing blows are generated by the arm muscles is also a factor in how a boxing strength and training regimen should be developed. The delivery of a punch involves rapidly accelerating and decelerating the fist, and to a lesser degree, the attached musculoskeletal structure. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The various training goals of a boxer can be achieved through employing all or some of the following techniques: running, plyometrics; and arm (muscle), leg (muscle), and core strength development. Running, the legendary road work (or indoor training machine work) of the boxer, will develop the aerobic capacity of the athlete. Jumping rope and skipping are exercises that allow the boxer to both build aerobic capacity and develop footwork and agility. Plyometric exercises develop ballistic strength. The plyometric exercises used by boxers focus on the explosive capability of the upper body and arm muscles; they may include the rapid performance of push-ups or chin-ups, as well as rapid repeated throws with a medicine ball. A regimen designed for arm, and particularly triceps, development is enhanced with push-ups, or similar exercises that have the effect of extending the triceps through their full range. Sessions with the boxing heavy bag, the large punching bag weighted to provide extra resistance to a punch, place additional, muscle-building stress on the triceps. Boxers also train with a speed bag, a smaller, lighter object that helps them develop reflexes and build muscular endurance. Leg strength can be developed, in part, through aerobic running. Explosive leg strength will be developed through leg press exercises and plyometric training. Finally, core strength development, that of the muscle structure of the abdomen, pelvis, and gluteal muscles (buttocks), will provide both increased protection of vital internal organs, as well as contributing to the stability of the body. Core strength exercises include sit-ups, abdominal crunches, and rowing machine workouts. It is essential to a successful boxing strength and training program that the athlete incorporate appropriate rest intervals into the schedule and pay strict attention to diet and nutrition. The demands of highlevel strength training, coupled with the forces applied to the body through boxing competition, compel many boxers to maintain a training log, where all training, rest, competition, and nutritional matters are noted.

Calisthenics; Jump rope training; Plyometrics; Resistance exercise training.

SEE ALSO

Bronchospasm, exercise-induced Exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) is a wellunderstood medical condition of the lungs and

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airways that affects respiratory function and consequent athletic performance. EIB is caused by a narrowing of the passages within the lungs; EIB is a reversible constriction of the airway structures. As air is inhaled into the respiratory system through either the mouth or the nose, the air travels through the throat and the trachea (windpipe), which divides into the left and right bronchi, the bronchial tubes that lead to each lung. If observed in isolation, the bronchi have the appearance of a branch or the spreading roots of a tree, proceeding from the thick stem nearest the trachea, to the tiny passages in which air travels to the equally minute alveoli, the clusters of air sacs within the lung, each supplied by the capillaries that receive oxygen from the inhaled air, and return carbon dioxide from the cardiovascular system to be exhaled through the lungs. These exchanges of air are a microscopic process, as there are up to 300 million alveoli attached to the surface of the lungs of a typical person. Asthma is a common condition of the bronchial passages. Asthma occurs when the cells of the bronchial tubes become swollen and inflamed, restricting the passages of air into the lungs. Asthma is believed to have a genetic origin, and it is a condition often aggravated by smoke, pollution, airborne pollens, and exercise. EIB may arise in asthmatic persons, but it is distinct from asthma as a condition (exerciseinduced asthma is a distinct subscript of asthma). EIB arises where vigorous exercise triggers a wheezing, painful cough, often associated with the sensation of a tight chest in the individual. Symptoms of EIB will usually be present between five minutes and twenty minutes after exercise begins. Persons with previously determined asthmatic conditions, exercise that takes place in cold or dry air, and a vulnerability to airborne allergies heighten the risk of developing EIB. As the colder and drier air passes along the bronchial tubes, the cells exposed to this air tend to tighten, causing the constriction of the passages. Sports where the duration of any exercise segment is less than five minutes tend not to aggravate or promote the onset of EIB. EIB is not a barrier to either general exercise participation, overall physical fitness, or competitive sports. However, care must be taken in the management of any symptoms that arise. Medications delivered into the bronchial airways by way of a bronchodilator (‘‘puffer’’), which is an inhaler device designed to deliver medication directly to the affected areas of the bronchi, are often very effective. A common active ingredient in these medications is the class

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of drugs known as B2-agonists, which relax the muscles of the airways to promote ease of breathing.

Cardiorespiratory function; Prescription medications and athletic performance; Upper respiratory tract infection.

SEE ALSO

James Nathaniel Brown 2/17/1936– AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL PLAYER

Jim Brown was arguably the finest athlete of his generation in any team sport. Brown dominated the National Football League so completely at the running back position that over 40 years after his retirement, he continues to hold many of the significant personal performance standards in the history of the National Football League (NFL). After Brown moved with his family from rural Georgia to Long Island, his potential as an all around athlete began to surface in the high school athletic leagues. Brown was a dominant football running back, basketball player, and an outstanding lacrosse midfielder. Brown was a much sought after university recruit; he ultimately accepted a football scholarship at Syracuse University in upstate New York. At 6 ft 3 in (2 m), 235 lb (107 kg), Brown was almost as large as the typical football linemen playing in the 1950s. He possessed the rare combination of brutish power and true breakaway speed, capped with a nimble footedness usually associated with a much smaller player. Brown shattered every rushing record at Syracuse, and he was touted as the leading professional football prospect at the time of his graduation from Syracuse in 1957, where he was named to the college All American team. What is less heralded but as impressive regarding Brown’s football career at Syracuse was his demonstrated ability in a number of other sports. Brown was a well regarded basketball player, talented enough to be one of the best Syracuse varsity players during his university career. Brown had elite caliber speed in the 100-m sprints; he finished a highly credible fifth in the 1956 Olympic trials in the most demanding of track and field sports, the decathlon. His decathlon result was a remarkable achievement for a 20-year-old man who did not specialize in track and field. Brown was also the best field lacrosse player of his generation. The combination of speed and power WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PAUL EUGENE BROWN

that stood Brown so well as a football running back was tailor made for the lacrosse midfield position, a position that requires a tough, intelligent player who is generally the best athlete on the team. Brown was an All American in field lacrosse for three straight seasons at Syracuse; he is the only athlete to be inducted into both the football and lacrosse Halls of Fame. Brown was drafted in the first round of the 1957 National Football League draft by the Cleveland Browns, where he immediately established a reputation as the most dangerous offensive player in the league. Brown proceeded to break almost every record for yardage gained by a running back, operating out of a Cleveland offence that revolved around his talents. Between the years of 1958 and 1965, Brown was voted onto every NFL All-Pro team. Brown was a transcendent talent in the league and he was overwhelmingly popular in the city of Cleveland. His popularity proved so powerful that Brown led a player revolt against the Cleveland coaching staff when he protested his role in coach Paul Brown’s offense in 1962. The revolt resulted in the firing of coach Brown. Under a new coach, Blanton Collier, Brown set a new NFL rushing record in 1963, gaining 1,863 yards. At the end of season, in recognition of his achievements, Brown was invited to meet President Lyndon Johnson at the White House.

In the late 1980s, Brown worked on a number of projects that centered upon community outreach. Brown founded Amer-I-Can in 1987. Amer-I-Can is an organization that attempts to instill personal growth techniques and life management skills in gang members and prison inmates. Brown has frequently spoken out regarding his perceptions of racism and its prevalence in both American sport and the community at large. Brown won innumerable awards as an athlete, culminating in his election to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio, 1971. Other running backs have since superseded Brown’s career rushing yardage totals, all of whom have played far more games than did Brown. Brown’ most noteworthy record, unlikely to ever be eclipsed, is the fact that he never missed a game in his NFL career, despite taking at times a terrific pounding from defenses focused on stopping him.

Football (American); Lacrosse; National Football League (NFL).

SEE ALSO

Paul Eugene Brown 9/7/1908–8/5/1991 AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL TEAM COACH AND OWNER

After blazing such a definitive trail on the NFL fields, Brown began to extend his interest to pursuits beyond football. Brown began to study acting, with a view to a possible Hollywood career. Brown entered into a contract with Pepsi-Cola that permitted him to travel in the off season as an executive and spokesperson for the company.

Paul Brown was the most innovative coach in the history of American football. In his long coaching career, Brown successfully led three of the most famous teams at their respective levels of play to championships—Massillon High School of Massillon, Ohio; Ohio State University; the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League.

His role in the movie ‘‘Rio Conchos,’’ a story of the U.S. Cavalry in the 1800s, led to more movie roles for Brown, placing him in a conflict with his team. When the film ‘‘The Dirty Dozen’’ was set to begin filming at the same time that the Cleveland training camp was scheduled to open in July, 1966. Brown, at age 30, shocked the sports world by announcing his retirement from the NFL to concentrate on acting.

When Paul Brown was born in 1908, American football was in its infancy. The game was slowly building in popularity in a number of American universities at that time, but the game was intensely physical, characterized by ferocious line play. The forward pass was only legalized in American college football in 1909.

Brown’s movie career never achieved the standards Brown established in sport. He was dogged by a series of unflattering domestic violence allegations; Brown was convicted of two assaults involving women, and other breaches of court orders in relation to sentences imposed on Brown as a result of those occurrences. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Brown was one of those intelligent athletes who recognized at an early stage of their career that their true talent for the sport lay in the directing of the operation, as opposed to playing a leading role. Brown was a high school quarterback at Massillon High School, where he graduated in 1926. He entered Miami of Ohio University that year, where he played quarterback but took more serious steps to solidify his dream of becoming a successful football coach.

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Brown’s first head coaching post was at his high school alma mater, Massillon. High school football was beginning to acquire a significant athletic status in the small towns of America, particularly in Ohio, the state that was in many respects the cradle of modern football. From 1932 to 1940, Brown led the Tigers of Massillon to a remarkable 59 win, 1 loss record, building the Massillon program into the most feared opponent in Ohio. Massillon drew over 22,000 fans to their home games, and the revenues from football helped Massillon High School build a state of the art swimming pool and observatory. The coaching career of Brown at Massillon alone would be a proud achievement for most football coaches. It was to the undoubted relief of the Ohio high school coaching fraternity that Brown accepted the head coaching position at Ohio State University in 1940. Brown worked his magic at Ohio State with the same speed and success as he had brought to Massillon. In 1942, Ohio State were named national champions, and it appeared that the Brown legend would grow indefinitely in the collegiate football ranks. The national military draft and World War II altered the path of Brown’s coaching career, when Brown was drafted into the United States Navy in 1942. Brown was stationed as a lieutenant at the Great Lakes Naval Training Center, outside Chicago. There he initiated a football program, making contact with a number of service personnel with whom he would be reunited after the war. In 1946, the city of Cleveland, Ohio, had been awarded one of eight franchises in the newly created professional football league, the All-America Football Conference, (AAFC). Paul Brown assumed the roles of part owner, general manager, and head coach for the new Cleveland Browns. Brown sought players who would be a proper fit into the tough, disciplined systems he planned to implement. He intentionally sought obscure players at many positions, but chose quarterback Otto Graham, known as Automatic Otto, whom Brown knew from his military service experience. In their inaugural season the Cleveland Browns won their first five games by a combined score of 142–20. They finished with a record of 12-2 for the 1946 season, winning the first AAFC Championship over New York at Cleveland Municipal Stadium. Brown coached Cleveland to championships in each of the next three seasons, as the Browns became the preeminent franchise in the AAFC.

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In 1950, the National Football League (NFL) took the Browns into the NFL (along with the Baltimore Colts and the San Francisco 49ers). It was the end of AAFC, and the beginning of the most successful phase of Brown’s coaching career. The Commissioner of the National Football League, Bert Bell, was eager to exploit the marketing power of a season opening match up between the defending champions of the NFL, the Philadelphia Eagles, and the defunct AAFCs best, the Browns. The game was dismissed as being important by the Eagles head coach, Earl (Greasy) Neale, who publicly proclaimed that the Browns were an inferior product from an inferior league. In a game that illustrated the brilliance of Brown and his coaching approach to football, the Browns dominated their first NFL contest, demolishing the Eagles by a score of 35–10. The Browns’s precision passing game, sparked by the future Hall of Famer Graham, was a textbook display of both ball control and big play capability. The Browns, and Brown, gained instant credibility in the NFL. The Browns drive to ascendancy in the NFL ended with their victory over the Los Angeles Rams in the 1950 title game. The Browns would go on to win titles in 1954 and 1955, a powerhouse team that had Graham as a threat both as a runner and passer, the 250 lb fullback Marion Motley pounding the ball on the ground, and a disciplined, rock ribbed defense that played Brown’s intense and intelligent brand of football. As with most great sports innovators, Brown’s contributions to the science of football coaching were rooted in his personal experience. Brown was a teacher at heart, and he demanded of his players a scholarly approach to the tough and sometimes brutal physicality of professional football. When Brown introduced his methods to the Browns of the AAFC, he was regarded as a coaching revolutionary. When his players arrived for their first practice of the season, he handed out notebooks and made each player write their individual assignments for each play. Brown insisted that they commit each formation to memory. Brown is unquestionably the single greatest influence on the modern day approaches to football coaching. By 1950, he was organizing the filming of his upcoming opponents and then breaking down and analyzing the game film, to better develop his formalized game plans. Brown used intricate diagrams of pass patterns, and he invented the scheme whereby an offensive guard was substituted on each play to deliver plays to the quarterback. Brown was WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PAUL EUGENE BROWN

constantly following technological developments that might aid his ability to direct a team-the current helmet mounted ear pieces that coaches use to talk to their quarterbacks during stoppages in play is a also brainchild of Paul Brown. Brown was also a contributor to the design of the modern facemask, developed by his equipment manager in the late 1940s. Brown achieved his coaching success with a military rigor. His players were expected to study their detailed playbooks nightly. Brown saw professional football as an extension of the classroom, no different than those he had supervised at Massillon High School or at the Great Lakes Naval Academy. Brown developed an incredibly complex offensive system, and he possessed in Otto Graham a quarterback with the intelligence and physical skills to implement the system to its fullest extent. In contrast to the tight formations employed until the Browns came into existence, coach Brown opened up the field, spreading his receivers and creating gaps in the defensive coverages. Brown’s pyramidical system was so precise that he needed capable assistants to aid in its implementation. Brown was the first coach to develop the concept of a full fledged coaching staff. Paul Brown would not suffer a losing season in Cleveland until 1956. The Browns poor record permitted Brown to select the highly coveted Syracuse fullback Jim Brown in the NFL draft in 1957. Jim Brown quickly established himself as the best offensive player in the NFL, but he and coach Brown never


could entirely agree on how Jim Brown should be utilized. In 1961 an aggressive advertising executive named Art Modell bought the Cleveland Browns for $4 million. Modell saw Jim Brown as a marketable commodity, and sought to promote him beyond the football field, contrary to the views of Paul Brown, who wanted a tight football ship run without distractions. In 1962, Paul Brown traded future Hall of Fame player Bobby Mitchell to the Washington Redskins without Modell’s permission. Modell, angered over being left out of the Mitchell trade process, ultimately fired Paul Brown in 1962. Brown was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame at Canton in 1967, located a few miles from Brown’s birthplace. He became the only Hall of Fame coach to return to coaching after his Hall of Fame induction when he assumed the positions head coach and part owner of the expansion Cincinnati Bengals in 1967. Brown remained as the Bengals coach for six seasons, retiring for good in 1973. More than a pioneer or an innovator, who sowed the seeds of coaching ideas that were better cultivated by others, Brown was a brilliant football mind, and he is a coach who is one of the greatest in the history of the sport, regardless of era.

Football (American); Football (American) strength and training; National Football League (NFL); Sports Coaching.

SEE ALSO

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C James Robert Cade 4/28/1927– AMERICAN UNIVERSITY PROFESSOR

The foundation of the global sports drink industry can be traced to the work of Dr. Robert Cade and the development of Gatorade, a process that Cade and a research team initiated in 1965. The hydration practices of athletes in 1965 were significantly different than they are today. Many coaches and athletic trainers actively discouraged players from drinking water or any other fluids during workouts, believing that the players would become incapacitated by cramps. Cade, a professor of nephrology (kidney function) at the University of Florida, was asked in August of 1965 by members of the varsity football team why the players lost considerable amounts of weight while practicing in warm weather, but the players never felt any need to urinate. Cade and a team of Florida researchers, including Dr. Dana Shires, turned their attention to this question. After conducting analyses of the players’ perspiration, urine, and other physical indicators both before and after warm weather workouts, Cade and his team concluded that the players sustained a significant electrolytic imbalance through the elimination of sodium by perspiration, as well as a corresponding reduction in blood volume. Cade reasoned that all of these factors would impair athletic performance. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Cade and his team devised a replacement fluid that contained sodium and a small amount of carbohydrates to assist the body in maintaining the desired electrolytic balance. The initial formulation tasted unpleasant, but after some discussion with the Florida coaching staff, the fluid was consumed by the freshman team during an inter squad scrimmage as a test. The beverage was found to be so effective in assisting the Florida football team in dealing with warm weather practice conditions, its use was mandated by the coaching staff in all games; in 1965, Florida went on to enjoy one of the best seasons in the history of the institution. The fluid was named Gatorade in recognition of the university nickname, the Gators. Cade registered a patent for the fluid; it became a commercial product when Cade sold the rights to the manufacture of Gatorade to Stokely Van Camp in 1967. With an explosion in mass participation in endurance activities such as running and triathlons during the 1970s and 1980s, Gatorade became the world’s best known sports drink. Cade ultimately arranged for a portion of the royalties generated by the sale of Gatorade to be directed to the University of Florida. By 2006, the university had received over $90 million as a result of Cade’s work. After developing Gatorade, Cade successfully continued his medical research career at the University of Florida. Cade lead various research projects that examined methods by which illnesses

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such as schizophrenia and autism could be better managed through diet. SEE ALSO

Exercise and fluid replacement; Hydration;

Water.

Caffeine Caffeine is the world’s best-known stimulant. Popular beverages such as coffee, tea, and cola-based soft drinks all contain significant amounts of caffeine, as do the cacao bean, the chief ingredient in chocolate products, and guarana, the South American root extract used in many forms. When the use of caffeine as a component of many popular analgesics is factored, or when consumed in a pure-form stimulant such as a pill, there is no question that caffeine is also the most-consumed stimulant in the world. It is believed that more than 95% of the adult population of the United States consumes caffeinated products of one form or another. Caffeine is generally believed to be mildly addictive. Caffeine is classified as a stimulant because when consumed in even small amounts, it will stimulate the central nervous system, the cardiac muscle (causing an increased heart rate), and the respiratory system. Caffeine will delay the onset of fatigue and it is a strong diuretic. Caffeine is chemically defined in the class of substances known as alkaloids, nitrogen-based compounds that are typically found in plants. Alkaloids produce a pharmacological effect on the human body when consumed; cocaine, nicotine, and ephedrine are well-known examples of alkaloids. The impact of caffeine on the body’s metabolism first occurs with respect to the substance important to the transfer of energy within the body: adenosine. When consumed, caffeine blocks the operation of adenosine, and as a result the body produces epinephrine (adrenaline), which quickly causes a higher heart rate, increased blood pressure, and greater blood flow. Athletes who are training or competing in anaerobic disciplines such as ice hockey or track and field events often consume caffeine (usually in the form of coffee or a sports supplement) to acquire a feeling of alertness and an ability to respond more quickly to the circumstances of competition. The actual effect of caffeine on performance for these sports may be more a psychological dependence on the belief that the caffeine stimulates more effective performance.

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Caffeine has a proven positive effect on the function of the body in endurance sports, where the it relies primarily on its aerobic system to provide the requisite energy to compete. The ingestion of caffeine will increase the level of circulating fatty acids in the bloodstream, which permits these fat stores to be oxidized, or burned, as fuel. Accessing these fatty acids as fuel means that the body’s stores of energy (known as glycogen), created through the processes that convert it from food carbohydrates, will not be exhausted in long competition. Marathon runners, long-distance cyclists, and cross-country skiers have been established as prime beneficiaries of caffeine when it is consumed approximately one hour before competition. The effect of caffeine on the conversion of fatty acids to energy is further enhanced if the athlete is not a regular coffee drinker or does not consume caffeine products. In an alternative to the precompetition consumption of caffeine by endurance athletes, further research has demonstrated the efficacy of caffeine in sports drinks. The carbohydrates in the caffeine-enhanced sport drinks were found to be absorbed by the body at a rate 26% faster than the rate achieved without caffeine. The ability of the body to utilize this portable energy source effectively saved bodily stores of energy. Caffeine is considered an illegal, performanceenhancing substance in Olympic competition only if found in an athlete’s system in levels in excess of 12 mcg/ml (micrograms/milliliter)—an amount that is the rough equivalent to the caffeine contained in eight to ten 6-oz (175 ml) cups of coffee—consumed within two hours of testing. In 2004, the World AntiDoping Agency (WADA) removed caffeine from its list of prohibited substances. It is unlikely that an athlete could ingest caffeine in excess of the Olympic standard without causing an adverse impact upon the body’s renal (kidney) and urinary systems, as the diuretic impact of high levels of caffeine will reduce hydration and stimulate urine production. Caffeine withdrawal is a general description of the physical symptoms noted in persons who reduce the amount of caffeine that they consume. Excessive caffeine consumption reduces the system’s resistance to the effects of caffeine, meaning more will be required to achieve the desired effect. Typical withdrawal will cause significant headaches, irritability, reduced sleep or insomnia, stomach upset, and cardiac arrhythmia. A toxic level of caffeine is the equivalent to the consumption of between 50 and 150 6-oz (175 ml) cups of coffee. There is a well-established connection in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CALCIUM

caffeine research between the ingestion of caffeine and a loss of calcium density in bones, which can lead to the onset of osteoporosis, a condition whereby the bones become brittle and more prone to fracture.

Ephedra; Free fatty acids in the blood; Glycogen depletion; Stimulants.

SEE ALSO

Calcium As the fifth most abundant element found on Earth, it is not surprising that calcium is the most prevalent mineral found in the human body. Calcium is chemically classified as an alkaline earth metal, a substance that forms ions, which are atoms with a measurable electric charge. Ions bind with free electrons in these metals to form metallic bonds, created when the electrons are shared between the atoms of the metal. The metallic bond formed by such metals tends to make these elements strong, capable of being formed or shaped, as well as being a good conductor of both heat and electricity. Calcium is not often found in its pure state in nature, as its atomic structure lends calcium to the ready formation of compound substances, such as calcium carbonate, or calcite, the essential component of limestone. Minerals are substances defined as elements that are mined from the earth; although not extracted in its pure form, calcium is defined as a mineral for the purposes of understanding its role in the function of the body. Between 2.2 lb (1 kg) and 3 lb (1.4 kg) of calcium, usually as a compound, are contained in the body of an average healthy adult person. Approximately 99% of the calcium store is located in the bones and the teeth, in the form of calcium phosphate. Calcium is also essential to the sophisticated physical processes of muscle contraction, blood clotting, and the regulation of heartbeat and the transmission of impulses through the central nervous system. Given the prominence of calcium in this variety of functions, it is imperative that sufficient quantities of calcium be consumed daily. This fact is even more profoundly important to athletes, who are placing regular and intense stress upon their skeletal structure and other systems. The stated recommended daily allowance (RDA) of calcium for a typical adult is 1,200 mg (milligrams); calcium is absorbed into the body through the action of vitamin D, which assists in the transport of calcium in food into the body. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble hormone, long identified as one of the essential vitamins to healthy human WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

function. Vitamin D is most commonly produced through the human skin by way of exposure to ultraviolet light; it is also an additive in dairy products. Calcium is available in a variety of foods as well as through mineral and athletic supplements. Foods that are rich in calcium include dairy products, sardines, salmon, green, leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach, and tofu. Healthy bone development, maintenance, and repair are directly related to optimum levels of calcium. Bones are constructed of calcium phosphate and collagen, a protein that gives the bone a measure of flexibility. The bone components form a mesh of the very hard calcium phosphate and the softer collagen. Bone formation is a dynamic process, as cells known as osteoblasts (bone-formation cells) and osteocytes (bone-lining cells) continually process calcium for bone construction. The body has a built-in fail-safe mechanism regarding bone structure: when the calcium level in the body falls below the amount required for the other processes, such as muscle contraction, calcium will be removed from the processes of bone formation and directed to the needs of the other process. For this reason, a calcium deficiency tends to impact on the skeleton more than on any other part of the body. In a similar fashion, too little vitamin D will inhibit calcium utilization, which leads to a similar consequence. A calcium deficiency is a potentially serious and progressive structural problem, the effects of which are cumulative in nature. If calcium intake is below what the body requires, bones tend to become thin and more brittle, a condition known as osteoporosis. This condition typically occurs in persons over the age of 45, and more commonly in women than men. A calcium deficiency in the diet of an athlete will create a number of interrelated consequences. Acts of resistance in training or competition, where forces are applied to the skeletal structure, tend to stimulate the growth of denser bones. When the calcium is not present as a store to be drawn upon by the skeletal formation process, the athlete’s bones will not be as strong or as supportive. As athletic activities usually require maximum muscle response in performance, a calcium deficiency has been shown to affect the reliability of the transmission of the body’ response signals, impacting upon the reaction time in given situations. Certain athletic supplements contain calcium. Calcium can be as readily ingested through a supplement as through the food diet. Excess intake of calcium leads to the risk of the formation of calcium

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oxalate, a compound that forms in the kidneys and is the chief component of kidney stones. The stones, which can vary in size, are a potential blockage of the passage from the kidney to the urinary tract, creating a usually painful impairment of kidney function. Kidney stones are caused by a combination of too much calcium, dehydration or poor hydration, and excess vitamins C or D.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Minerals; Musculoskeletal injuries.

SEE ALSO

Calf strain or pull The calf muscle is exposed to a broad range of injury-causing forces in athletic activity. This structure is a two-muscle composition, with an outer, visible component (the gastrocnemius) and an underlying partner muscle (the soleus). The outer muscle is the mechanism by which the heel is raised—a process referred to as plantar flexion—essential to walking, running, or jumping. The inner soleus is utilized to raise the heel when the knee is bent, as in cycling. As the muscles essential to generation of both efficient and explosive leg movements, any injury to this structure can limit athletic performance. As these muscles are connected to the Achilles tendon at one end, and the femur (thigh bone) at the other, tightness or any other imbalance in the flexibility of the calf in relation to the other major companion muscle or tendon groups of the leg, particularly the Achilles tendon, will create a risk of injury in leg structures. A strain of the calf muscles, often referred to as a pull, is a term that is often, and incorrectly, used interchangeably with other athletic injury descriptors. Inexact language often arises among athletes because the location and the nature of the discomfort experienced are similar with each condition. The following are the common terms, with their respective distinctions: Strain or pull: Generally, a stretch or a partial tear of a muscle or a tendon; a calf strain is a partial tear of the calf muscle fibers, usually, but not exclusively, occurring in the gastrocnemius. The strain is accompanied by sharp, sometimes piercing pain that persists. The muscle may appear to spasm, and there is the presence of tenderness to the touch, swelling, and possible discoloration at the point of the injury. Sprain: A stretch of a partial tear of a ligament and corresponding joint. Therefore, a sprained calf muscle is not possible.

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Cramp: A knotting or pulsing sensation in the calf muscles that may feel similar to a strain. The muscle may begin to twitch, causing intense discomfort. A cramp tends to be short-lived discomfort; unlike a calf strain, a cramp is not the result of muscle damage, but usually caused by low electrolyte levels (sodium and potassium, in particular) and poor hydration. Lactic acid build-up: Lactic acid is a byproduct of the fuels burned by the body for energy during exercise. If the lactic acid wastes are not properly flushed from the bloodstream, the athlete will experience a burning sensation in the muscle, not unlike that of an injury to the muscle. Calf strains can be the result of any one of the following causes: a movement that stretches one or both of the calf muscles beyond their ability to stretch; a sudden or explosive movement that generated forces for which one or both of the calf muscles was not equipped to sustain; overuse of the muscle, or muscle fatigue; or, when the calf muscle sustains trauma, by way of a direct blow. While various athletic endeavors may cause a calf muscle to be stretched so as to cause an unpreventable injury, a failure on the part of the athlete to properly stretch, both prior to the intensity of competition and as a part of regular training, is a significant contributing factor to the incidence of calf strains. Attention to the stretching of the calf muscles, in combination with similar regular stretching of the Achilles tendon, quadriceps, and hamstrings, will serve to keep the leg muscles and tendons in balance. When these integrated systems are balanced, both sudden or explosive movements, as well as the forces directed to the calf, will be supported by the entire leg. When one or more of these groups becomes inflexible, or tight, it is that area that is more susceptible to strain. As with muscle strains generally, calf sprains are graded according to the severity of the injury. Grading assists in the facilitation of the proper level of treatment and rehabilitation for the injury. A first degree sprain is a mild overstretching or tearing of one or both of the calf muscles. The primary treatment for a first-degree sprain is the application of the RICE treatment: Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation. A short period of rest should follow the injury. A second degree strain is a moderate overstretching and tear of the muscle fibers. In addition to RICE treatments, anti-inflammatory medications are often prescribed. A third degree strain is a severe tear to one or both of the calf muscles, to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CALISTHENICS

Calisthenics Calisthenics is a time-honored training and conditioning component of many sports. Team sports such as American football often place a particular emphasis on calisthenics drills as a total team warm-up, although it is clear that these drills are carried out not so much for their physical benefits to the athletes, but due to their positive effect on team building and the cohesion gained from teammates performing the exercises in unison. Calisthenics is a form of exercise where various stretching and resistance type forces are applied in a systematic fashion to all parts of the body. Calisthenics are usually performed without additional free weights or machines to add resistance to the exercise. Calisthenics are performed in sets or patterns, whereby joints, muscles, and particular limbs are isolated in an exercise. Calisthenics as a recognized discipline is an outgrowth from the gymnastics training movements in the United States in the latter part of the nineteenth century. This relationship continues today in Australia, where calisthenics is the term used to describe a sport that combines elements of dance, gymnastics, and ballet. Calisthenics also shares many similarities with pilates, the exercise system developed by Joseph Pilates in the early 1900s.

A calf strain (or pull) can occur in virtually any sport.

P HI L COLE /

A LLS PO RT/ GE TTY IM AGES

Popular calisthenics exercises include: sit-ups, crunches, squats, push-ups, jumping jacks, and bounce drills.

Upon the athlete’s return to competition or training, there must be a focus on a gradual, and not immediate, return to previous intensity levels. Effective rehabilitation will demand involvement in a year-round stretching and flexibility program; heel raises and other exercises that build flexibility between the foot, Achilles tendon, and calf muscles are important. Proper warm ups prior to competition are also essential to the prevention of recurring calf injuries. The athlete must also pay close attention to hydration, as dehydration risks muscle contractions that will contribute to the onset of a calf strain.

In doing sit-ups, on a floor or flat surface, the athlete lies face up and with the knees bent. The object of the exercise is to bend at the waist with the knees remaining flexed and the feet planted on the floor, bringing the head straight up, with the arms typically behind the head. This exercise can place significant stress on the vertebrae of the lumbar (lower) back, but it is excellent for the development of the abdominal and hip flexor muscles (responsible for the flexing of the hips and the rotation of the lower spine). Crunches isolate the abdominal muscles as the individual starts from the same position as with sit-ups, the shoulders are brought forward toward the pelvis, with the lumbar back flat and not twisted in any fashion. The training effect of this exercise is heightened if the athlete reverses the motion, bringing the pelvis toward the shoulders, or if the athlete twists alternating shoulders in the crunching motion.

Lower leg anatomy; Lower leg injuries; Muscle cramps; RICE (Rest/Ice/Compression/Elevation) treatment for injuries; Sprains and strains.

The squatting exercise is aimed at the development of the quadriceps (thigh muscles) and gluteal (buttocks). Athletes extend their arms until they are parallel to the floor and then move to a squat position

the extent that the athlete will be incapacitated from use of the leg without assistance. Serious tears of this nature often require surgical repair, and extensive rehabilitation.

SEE ALSO


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in one controlled movement, and then return to a standing position. This exercise can be made more difficult by holding weights in each hand. Push-ups (also known in England and elsewhere as press-ups) are the simplest and one of the most effective upper body strength exercises. A push-up begins with the athlete, face down to the floor, hands palm down under the shoulders on the floor, and feet together, legs fully extended. The athlete pushes the body up with the arms, with the legs assisting in keeping the body stable. When the arms are fully extended, the athlete lowers to the starting position and repeats the push up. While push-ups tend to strengthen the shoulder joints and upper back muscles, they are particularly effective in the development of the triceps and the strengthening of the rotator cuff, the muscle sleeve that aids in keeping the shoulder stable. For persons who are out of condition, or who have weak arms, push ups can be performed in a modified fashion on the knees, instead of the toes and feet, for stability. Jumping jacks require the athlete to jump from a set position with feet together, spreading the legs laterally on the jump, and then bounding back to the set position. As the bounding movement is being made, the athlete moves the arms from the sides of the body in an arc, touching hands over the head, and bringing the hands to the return position in coordination with the return of the feet to the set position. This exercise is used to generally warm up, increasing heart rate and respiration. And finally, bounce drills begin with a simple, rhythmic bouncing with the feet together, progressing to gentle lateral twofoot jumps, back and forth jumps, and progressing to jumping in a circle or a square pattern. Unlike the jumping associated with plyometric training, bounce drills are intended to stimulate heart and breathing rates, and to prepare the foot, ankle, Achilles tendon, calf muscles, and knee joints for more intense activity. Performed properly, calisthenics have a number of positive benefits to the fitness, strength, and flexibility of athletes in virtually any discipline. Calisthenics are intended to be performed in a routine, with careful attention paid to form and the completion of each movement. An example is the maintaining of calisthenic stretches for 20- to 30-second intervals, and the importance of engaging all muscle groups in the exercises. Calisthenics now fulfill a number of different athletic purposes. For the elite athlete, forms of calisthenics are used both for year-round stretching and

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fitness, as well as for pre-competition or pre-training warm-up routines. For a recreational athlete, a calisthenics program is a freestanding workout. Thirty minutes of active calisthenics is an excellent way to maintain fitness without resorting to the weight room or other equipment. For all levels of athletes, calisthenics are a useful cool down technique, to gently reduce cardiovascular stresses and to stretch overworked muscles.

Pilates; Stretching and flexibility; Warm up/ Cool down.

SEE ALSO

Caloric intake Caloric intake is defined as the amount of heat energy the body receives from eating food. The unit used to measure this amount of energy is called the calorie. It is also used to measure how much energy the body expends during human activity or inactivity such as running, walking, sitting, thinking, or sleeping. The calorie is the metric unit of measurement for energy. Specifically called the food calorie (sometimes the nutritional or dietary calorie) within the food industry, it is equivalent to the kilogram calorie, or kilocalorie (symbolized as kcal). The kilocalorie is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to increase the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree within the Celsius temperature scale. (As a note of clarity, outside the food industry the gram calorie, or the small calorie, is also referred to as the calorie and is defined as the amount of heat energy necessary to increase the temperature of one gram of water by 1 Celsius.) Thus, one food calorie is equal to one kilogram calorie, which is equal to 1,000 gram calories. The intake of food calories is an important part of how well any person maintains a healthy lifestyle. Food calories are especially important in how effectively an athlete trains and ultimately competes. Eating a balanced diet is a key part to sports nutrition. The correct combination of fuel (calories ingested), especially from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, gives a person plenty of energy for top performance whether it is running, walking, sitting, thinking, or sleeping. Carbohydrates are a very important source of caloric intake for the human body. They come in the form of such foods as fruits, vegetables, pastas, breads, cereals, rice, and honey. For a balanced diet, proper health, and peak performance, they should WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CALORIES

provide about 60–70% of a person’s daily caloric intake. Carbohydrates provide energy when the body changes the starches and sugars within carbohydrates into glycogen, which is then stored in the liver and muscles. Glycogen is easily converted into glucose in order to provide endurance and strength for short-duration/high-intensity sports activities and exercises. A person’s performance level will drop rapidly if the body eliminates its supply of carbohydrates and it is forced instead to intake proteins and fats for energy, which are less efficient fuels (calories) for the body. For maximum performance in such activities and exercises, a person should eat plenty of carbohydrates several days before the sporting event so that the body will possess plenty of glycogen within the muscles. During the event, if the competition lasts for more than an hour, the athlete should replace lost carbohydrates with additional ones. For instance, many bicyclists love to eat spaghetti before a long race because it is filled with carbohydrates. They then fill up with sports energy bars and drinks containing carbohydrates throughout the day of competition. Proteins should consist of from about 12% to 15% of a person’s daily caloric intake. They come in various foods such as beans, dairy products, eggs, and nuts. Proteins provide the human body with power to build new tissues and generate other essential functions. They are not stored in the body but are turned immediately into energy or changed into fat. Physically active people need more proteins then inactive people. Endurance athletes such as body builders often consume plenty of proteins as a way to produce fuel to build strong muscles. However, it is a falsehood that by eating plenty of protein and/or taking protein supplements a person can become a muscular person. Building muscles depends on heredity, the intensity of the workout, the amount of training, and getting sufficient calories in a daily diet. The average diet of a United States citizen contains sufficient proteins for regular muscle building. Thus, if a person does not eat enough carbohydrates, then proteins are consumed rather than allowed to perform their regular function of building new tissues. When a body has enough carbohydrates, then proteins produce about 5% of energy. If not enough carbohydrates are available, then proteins can produce up to 10% of energy. The caloric intake of fats are needed only in small amounts. They come as saturated fats in such foods as cheese, eggs, meats, and milk, and as unsaturated fats in such foods as canola oil, corn oil, and palm oil. Fats are used as the energy source primarily WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

when a person is inactive or during low to medium rates of exercise. When carbohydrates are used up, however, fats are burned instead, which decreases the performance level of an athlete because energy is produced less efficiently. For adults and for children over the age of two years, the American Heart Association (AHA) provides general dietary recommendations in order to maintain a normal weight-to-height ratio and to provide an adequate caloric intake of food. The AHA suggests that a diet should consist primarily of whole grains, beans, fruits and vegetables, low-fat and nonfat dairy products, fish, and lean meats. The diet should also consist of low caloric intakes of saturated fats, trans fatty acids (trans fats), partially hydrogenated oils, cholesterol, and supplemental sugar and salt. Caloric intake is important. The caloric intake of healthy foods is even more important to the health and well-being of all persons.

Calories; Carbohydrates; Fat intake; Protein ingestion and recovery from exercise.

SEE ALSO

Calories The calorie is generally defined as the metric unit of measurement for energy. In most fields, the calorie has been superseded by the joule, the SI unit (French for Syste`me International d’Unite´s, [International System of Units]) for energy. However, the calorie (cal) remains in common usage by nutritionists and others in the food industry as the unit of measurement for heat energy obtained from the digestion of foods. It is also used to measure the amount of heat energy expended by the human body when performing various activities. The food calorie—sometimes also called the nutritional or dietary calorie—is usually stated simply as the calorie. It is equivalent to the kilogram calorie (kcal), or kilocalorie. The kilogram calorie, or the large calorie, is defined as the heat energy necessary to increase the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree within the Celsius temperature scale. It is equivalent to about 4.185 kilojoules (where one kilojoule is equal to 1,000 joules). Further, the gram calorie, or the small calorie, is the amount of heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 Celsius. It is equivalent to about 4.185 joules. Thus, one food calorie is equal to one kilogram calorie, which is

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equal to 1,000 gram calories. When a label on food reads 4.5 calories, these 4.5 food calories are the same as 4.5 kilogram calories, or 4,500 gram calories. Many industrialized countries worldwide require their food manufacturers to label the caloric content of their products. Since 1994, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA)—through the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990—has required that most packaged food products contain a Nutritional Facts label. The FDA mandates that food manufacturers abide by these NLEA-stated guidelines with respect to the presentation of these labels, being regulated primarily by the type of food and its package size. Some of the information found on these labels includes total calories, calories from fat, total fat (and saturated fat), cholesterol, sodium, total carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron. Thus, the calories listed on these Nutritional Facts food labels are the amount of energy that these particular foods provide the body minus the energy that is expended during digestion. However, food calories are not technically measured as amounts of heat energy but, rather, as approximate comparisons of the energy density (in units of kilocalories per gram) for a large number of different food samples. Generally, a food product is first analyzed by separating it into its constituent parts (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, sugars, etc.). The results are then compared to standardized chemical tests in order to estimate the product’s digestible constituents. The results are converted into an equivalent energy value based on an internationally approved conversion table for energy densities of predetermined food samples. For instance, fats have an energy density of 9 kilocalories per gram (kcal/g), which is an especially high value. Proteins and carbohydrates have a value of 4 kcal/g. Special metabolic equipment can then be used to evaluate the caloric output (consumption) that occurs when performing specific physical activity such as running and walking. Although the calorie is used as the unit for comparing foods eaten, foods contain other substances that are needed in the human body. Some nutrients are needed because the body does not produce them or produces them in amounts that are too minute. These so-called essential nutrients are obtained from food sources such as carbohydrates, fats, minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water. Nonessential nutrients are those nutrients that are already manufactured in the human body and, thus, are not necessary to be acquired from the intake of food. One such nonessential nutrient is cholesterol.

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Each person requires various amounts of essential nutrients depending on such factors as age, gender, health, and certain other conditions. Specific health conditions such as illness, pregnancy, and breastfeeding often increase the need for certain essential nutrients. Dietary guidelines, which take many of these conditions into account, provide general information for daily nutritional needs. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) jointly publish Dietary Guidelines for Americans every five years. These guidelines, provided since 1980, help to communicate good dietary habits in order to promote health and well-being and reduce diseases and illnesses. The recommended daily energy intake values for adult men in the United States is 2,500 kcal (with a range, depending on size and age, of about 1,700 to 2,800 kcal) and 2,000 kcal (with a range of about 1,300 to 2,100 kcal) for women. When the human body eats food, a certain amount of energy is received by the body from the food. This amount of energy (number of calories consumed by humans) is called caloric intake. The particular amount of energy taken in depends on the specific foods, with some foods providing more energy than other foods. The average number of food calories for a few commonly eaten foods and drinks include: coffee (one coffee cup, 0.46 pint; 220 ml): 15.4 calories apple (4 oz; 112 g): 53 calories brown bread (one medium slice): 74 calories orange juice (one drinking glass, 0.42 pint; 200 ml): 88 calories American cheese (1.5 oz; 42.5 g): 110 calories doughnut (1.7 oz; 49 g): 140 calories almonds (1 oz; 28 g): 171 calories chicken breast (7.1 oz; 200 g): 342 calories chocolate (3.5 oz; 100 g): 530 calories The amount of energy that the human body uses up during a specific activity is called caloric output. The size and weight of a person and the amount of effort and time needed for a particular activity affects the specific amount of caloric output. For the most part, more energy is required as the intensity and strenuousness of the sport increases. The average food caloric output for a 150-lb (68-kg) person in various sports activities is the following: golf: 270 calories per hour ice skating (leisurely): 300 calories per hour WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CALORIES

Since 1994, the U.S. FDA—through the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990—has required that most packaged food products contain a Nutritional Facts label. ª KEL LY A. QUI N . TH E GA LE G ROUP .

walking on a level surface: 360 calories per hour water skiing: 390 calories per hour bicycling at 10 mph (16 km/h): 420 calories per hour racquetball: 540 calories per hour swimming (recreationally): 600 calories per hour running at 7.5 mph (12 km/h): 750 calories per hour walking upstairs: 1,050 calories per hour In any sport, food calories are an important part of how well an athlete trains and ultimately competes. Eating a balanced diet is critical to sports nutrition. The correct combination of fuel (calories) from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats gives a person plenty of energy for top performance. Carbohydrates are considered the most important source of fuel (calories) for the human body. They come in the form of such foods as breads, cereals, fruits, honey, pastas, rice, and vegetables. For a balanced diet, proper health, and peak performance, carbohydrates should provide at least half (usually about 60% to 70%) of a person’s daily calories. In addition, about 12% to 15% of a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

person’s daily caloric requirements should come from proteins. They come in such foods as beans, dairy products, eggs, and nuts. Proteins provide the human body with power to build new tissues along with other necessary functions. Proteins are not stored in the body but burned immediately for energy or converted to fat. Only small amounts of fats are needed. They come in the form of saturated fats from such products as cheese, eggs, meats, and milk, and as unsaturated fats from such products as corn oil, palm oil, and sunflower seed oil. Fats are used as an energy source primarily when resting or performing low to medium intensities of exercise. Whether planning for an endurance-type sporting event or exercising on a daily basis, the sportsminded and health-minded individual should consistently eat foods that provide the proper amount and types of calories. On the day of an extended sporting event or activity, a person is likely to perform better by following tips that include: Eat a good meal in the morning in order to provide necessary nutrients and hydration throughout the day.

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Eat meals high in carbohydrates. Choose easily digestible foods and avoid high-fat and high-protein foods. Eat three to four hours before the event, and drink liquids two to three hours before. Avoid sugary foods and drinks within one hour of an event. Drink sufficient fluids to ensure hydration—that is, about 20 oz (0.60 l) of water one to two hours before exercise, and an additional 10 to 15 oz (0.30 to 0.45 l) within 15 to 30 minutes of the event. Consume sports drinks that contain a large amount of carbohydrates in order to provide extra energy; the most effective sports drinks contain over 0.53 oz (15 g) of carbohydrate in every 8 oz (0.24 l) of fluid. Replace fluids lost to perspiration (generally drink 3 oz to 6 oz [0.9 to 1.8 deciliters]) of water or dilute sports drink every 10 to 20 minutes throughout the sports activity. Every person has different caloric requirements depending on such attributes as age, body size, health, and activity level. If a person is within his or her ideal weight range, then that person is probably getting the correct amount of calories. However, the correct type of calories must be consciously monitored by each person in order to maximize the good calories (those from healthy foods containing a high density of nutrients) and minimize the bad calories (those from unhealthy foods containing few nutrients).

Caloric intake; Carbohydrates; Energy drinks; Exercise and fluid replacement; Fat intake; Nutrition and athletic performance; Protein ingestion and recovery from exercise.

SEE ALSO

English rugby than any other sport. At the time of Camp’s death in 1925, college football was a vibrant national institution. Camp was acknowledged as the single greatest influence upon both the development of college football and its popularity with the American public. Camp introduced more innovations to the sport than any other person in the history of football. The various rule changes and innovations introduced by Camp as to how football was played made it a unique athletic contest. Camp devised the concept where each offensive play began at a designated line of scrimmage, where the offensive and defensive teams were separated from one another until the ball was put into play. Camp created a related rule whereby the offensive team would be permitted four plays, or downs, to attempt to gain 10 yards of territory on the field. Camp regularized the rules respecting the number of players per side at 11, and he created the modern scoring system of six points for a touchdown, three points for a field goal, and two points for a safety. Camp was among the first college coaches to use set offensive plays and formations in an effort to disguise the intentions of his offense. Camp also played a significant role in the formation of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1909; the NCAA would ultimately become one of the most influential amateur sports bodies in the world. Camp also initiated the concept of the year end All-American awards to honor the country’s best players. Camp was the selector of the annual All-American football team until his death. Camp was also an influential national physical training leader. He was appointed to direct the physical fitness initiatives of the United States Army during World War I.

Football (American); National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA); Sports Coaching.

SEE ALSO

Walter Chauncey Camp 4/7/1859–3/14/1925 AMERICAN COLLEGE FOOTBALL COACH

Walter Camp was the first of many larger-thanlife characters to be produced by the world of American college football. Camp captained the Yale varsity team for three seasons ending in 1881 when the game of football was in its infancy; the first ever American university game had taken place only five years earlier, between Yale and Harvard in 1876. When Camp began his collegiate career, the style of play and the rules of the game were far closer to

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Tullio Campagnolo 8/26/1901–2/3/1983 ITALIAN BICYCLE COMPONENTS MANUFACTURER

Tullio Campagnolo began his career in cycling as a racer, competing in various regional road races in Italy between 1921 and 1930. It is said that the inspiration for Campagnolo’s entry into the world of bicycle parts manufacturing came in a cold weather race in November, 1924, when Campagnolo could not WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CANADIAN CENTRE FOR ETHICS IN SPORT

remove the wing nuts holding his rear wheel to effect a repair of his gears, and he lost the race. In 1930, Campagnolo invented the first of many cycling components with which he is credited, the quick release rear hub. This device permitted the rear wheel to be released from the rear portion of the bicycle frame through the activation of a lever, without the need to remove wing nuts or any other attachment. The device would be the first of 135 inventions patented by either Campagnolo or his company. In 1933, Campagnolo his manufacturing company, an organization that would be one of the first in the sports world to make specialty components dedicated to improved sports performance. Campagnolo made the first of a series of derailleurs, the mechanisms that permit the gears of a bicycle to be changed without removing the rear wheel as had been the previous technology. The first Campagnolo derailleur was composed of two levers that were operated by the rider. The first lever was used to partially release the rear wheel from the frame to give the wheel a degree of lateral movement. Once the wheel was loosened, the second lever was used by the rider to move the bicycle chain from one cog to the other. Very skilled riders, with practice, could execute a gear change without stopping. The derailleur was a significant leap forward in cycling technology. Campagnolo’s initial design was greatly improved with the addition of a cable that permitted the rider activate the derailleur without changing position in the bicycle seat. Elite racers riding machines equipped with Campagnolo parts enjoyed significant success in the major European races. Campagnolo continued to develop cycling technology through his hands on relationship with racers, as Campagnolo believed his ability to design high quality components was directly related to the input he received from athletes. The Campagnolo derailleur was a seminal cycling invention, as the concept remains the standard by which most bicycles gearing systems are operated today. SEE ALSO

Cycling; Cycling gears; Cycling: Tour de

France.

Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson appeared to have struck a resounding blow for Canadian athletic pride WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

in September 1988, when he bested archrival American sprinter Carl Lewis to capture an Olympic gold medal and a world record on the 100-m (meter) track in Seoul, Korea. National euphoria dissolved into shock, followed by outrage, when Johnson tested positive for stanozolol, an anabolic steroid and a prohibited substance. Johnson was disqualified, stripped of his gold medal, and disgraced. In the months that followed the 1988 Olympics, a conspiracy of systemic steroid usage was found to have been at the core of the training programs of Johnson and a number of statesponsored Canadian athletes, revelations that triggered a formal inquiry. The intent was to determine how Canadian sport should be conducted in the face of widespread drug cheating in international athletics. Thus, the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) was created in 1995. While the CCES mandate is tied to the broad concept of ‘‘fair play in sport,’’ with an interest in ‘‘the ethical conduct of all sport in Canada,’’ it is the use of performance-enhancing drugs by Canadian athletes that has been central to the work of this agency. The CCES, as the arm of Canadian sport that is responsible for the administration of Canada’s anti-doping program, has worked closely with the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), whose headquarters is in Montreal, Canada, to promote the ethics of dopingfree sport in Canada and worldwide. The CCES has conducted thousands of various doping tests in conjunction with WADA since 2000. The advancement of the broader objectives of doping-free sport has also led the CCES to act as an informational clearinghouse on a wide range of sports ethics issues. Research and educational initiatives are a significant part of the work carried out by the CCES. The CCES is also responsible for the administration of the Sports Dispute Resolution Center of Canada (SDRCC), an arbitration mechanism available to any party to a dispute in Canadian amateur sport. Examples of the decisions made by the SDRCC include reviews of various sanctions imposed on athletes for a positive test for a banned substance, and the failure or refusal of an athlete to participate in the national out-of-competition drug-testing program.

Doping tests; National governing bodies; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

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CANOE/KAYAK

Cancer

SEE

Exercise as a part of cancer

treatment

Canoe/Kayak Canoes and kayaks are two of numerous examples of boats defined as a small water vessel, typically open to the elements, and powered by wind, mechanical, or human power. Both the canoe and the kayak are relatively narrow, hollow shells, pointed at both ends, and propelled by human power over water by means of paddles. For these reasons, canoes and kayaks share similar, but not identical, characteristics in how they move over water. Modern canoe and kayak designs represent thousands of years of the gradual evolution of a craft whose purpose is maximum speed and efficiency across water. Hydrodynamics is the physical study of the forces created or acted upon by fluids; water is the common fluid studied. The hydrodynamics of a canoe or a kayak will involve an analysis of how the shape of the hull (body of the boat) is impacted as it moves through or over the water. The speed with which a boat can move over water is a function of the power applied to the vessel (in the case of the canoe or kayak, the power of the paddling), and the effect of the ‘‘drag’’ created against the hull of the boat as it passes through the water. Drag is a physical concept, similar to the principle of friction; the drag equation, employed by all designers of boats, will determine how much the flow of water against the hull of a canoe or kayak will impact the speed of the craft. The key relationship in the drag equation is the faster the boat travels, the greater its drag. Water drag increases with the square of the velocity of the boat hull. The greater the drag, the more power is required to move the craft at the same speed. Three design features of a canoe or kayak will have an impact on its overall hydrodynamics: primary stability, secondary stability, and rocker. Primary stability is a measure of how stable the craft is when the hull is resting flat on the water surface. The flatter the hull, the more stable the craft; boats with excellent primary stability tend to be slower as the flat hull will produce more drag in the water. Secondary stability is the stability gained by a vessel as it heels over on its axis in the water, requiring the side of the hull to bear the weight of the vessel. The more curved the hull, the greater the secondary stability of the vessel, and the less likely it will be to capsize. Rocker is the degree of curvature in the

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hull from bow to stern along its axis. The greater the degree of rocker, the more maneuverable and generally less stable the boat will be. As a general proposition, for both canoe and kayak sprint-racing—where there is little impact on the motion of the boat through wind, wave, or opposing currents—the craft will possess a longer and lighter hull. Such construction results in less drag caused by the water, as the longer hull displaces less water, meaning that the craft has less hull below the surface and more hull above. Long, narrow, lightweight hulls, with no stabilizing keel (a main beam that provides stability), are very difficult to paddle in less calm, unsettled water, as waves and wind tend to push the narrower crafts from their intended course. Current, wave action, and water obstacles all influenced how each type of vessel evolved. The racing versions of both canoes and kayaks reflect this evolution. Both canoe and kayak racing are organized at the international level in three general divisions: short distance sprints, with single-, two-, or fourperson classes (described by the short forms C1, K1, C2, K2, etc.). Sprint racing requires paddling over relatively calm water; whitewater races are contested in narrow, fast-flowing, turbulent rivers; long distance racing is generally an open, large water body event. Each racing category involves craft that has been substantially modified by adaptations of the basic form; racing designs are a true reflection of the maxim ‘‘function over form.’’ In sprint racing, the canoes used by elite-level racers bear little resemblance to the craft that are paddled for recreational purposes. These events are conducted on short (500 m [548 yd] or 1,000 m [1,094 yd]), sheltered race courses, with considerable protection from wind and resulting wave action on the boats. The courses are divided into lanes. For example, the C1 version is relatively long (16 ft [5.2 m]) in relation to both weight and width, with no minimum width required. C1 craft are constructed with a minimum weight of only 35 lb (16 kg). The C1 paddler propels this open deck craft from a kneeling position, using a single-blade paddle, controlling the boat through the stroke, as a rudder and a keel are not permitted. Stability is sacrificed in sprint canoe racing for straight-line speed. Sprint kayaks, when observed from a distance, appear similar in design to that of the sprint canoe. The K1 version is propelled by a paddler who is seated on a fixed chair (as opposed to the boat seats that move with the stroke of the athlete in rowing disciplines). The boat is steered through both the stroke of the double-bladed paddle and a rudder WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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operated by foot action. A K1 has a closed deck, the same 17 ft (5.2 m) maximum length as the C1, but even lighter weight at a minimum 26 lb (12 kg). Whitewater canoe and kayak racing, referred to in international and Olympic competition as ‘‘wildwater,’’ may be organized on either natural river courses or artificial water courses. The courses are configured with artificial gates, through which the paddler must steer the craft, or otherwise sustain a penalty. The race course will also present natural obstructions such as boulders, rock ledges that resemble small waterfalls, and fast currents, all of which are intended to maximize the paddler’s difficulty in completing the race course. The whitewater canoes and kayaks must be strong, durable, and highly maneuverable. The athletic qualities required of the paddler in each discipline include muscular power, speed and reaction time, and dexterity. The additional and critical athletic skill demanded in successful whitewater competition is tactical ability: the athlete’s choices as to the route from the top of the race course to the bottom will be a significant performance factor. A whitewater K1 craft imposes the same requirements regarding the position of the paddler as with any type of kayak. This K1 is shorter, at 14 ft (4.5 m), than the sprint version; it weighs a minimum of 24 lb (11 kg) and it has a minimum width of 1.8 ft (0.6 m). The result is a hull not much wider than the paddler’s torso, which places the athlete as close to the surface of the water as possible to heighten responsiveness in fast-fowing water. The whitewater canoe, referred to as a Canadian canoe in the international rules of the sport, is propelled from a kneeling position using a single-blade paddle. The C1 whitewater version, at 13 ft (4.3 m) long, a weight of 26 lb (12 kg), and a minimum width of 2 ft (0.7 m), is designed to be stable and maneuverable; an expert paddler can spin the craft on its axis to obtain optimum position on the race course. The canoes used to race over long distances are constructed to be propelled in an efficient, steady state, where competitive success will depend on the ability of the athlete to maintain a consistent paddling rate over time. Long distance racing has two distinct types of competition: marathon canoe racing and dragon boat racing. The international rules that govern marathon racing events are less structured than those regarding sprint and whitewater competition. A race course must be a minimum length of 12.4 mi (20 km), with no upper limit (races of 31 mi/50 km are relatively WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

common); the course may require portages, which is the crossing of land to avoid a barrier such as waterfall, the racer carrying the canoe, paddles, and any other gear without assistance. The athletes are expected to take the water conditions as they may exist at any given time. C1 marathon canoes are very lightweight for these reasons (22 lb/10 kg is the minimum). Dragon boat racing originated in Hong Kong, a part of the festivals that pay homage to the dragon, an ancient Chinese symbol. The sport captured international notice in the late 1970s, due in part to the color and the pageantry of the decorated race boats. The sport has grown in popularity throughout the world; in China, there are an estimated 20 million dragon boat participants. A chief spur to the worldwide interest in dragon boating has been the rise of corporate team participation. Companies and charitable groups have adopted dragon boat racing as a powerful tool for building employee morale, participant fitness, and notable charitable fundraising. Dragon boat racing involves a number of factors not present in other forms of canoe racing. A typical dragon boat has 20 paddlers, a drummer to provide the cadence to assist the paddlers to work in unison, and a steersperson/navigator. Dragon boat races can be many miles in length over open lake or ocean waters, with exposure to wave action. The boat is a heavy, stable craft—by international rule, the dragon boat weighs a minimum of 550 lb (250 kg), with a maximum length of 38 ft (12.48 m). The successful dragon boat crews function as one; synchronized paddling causes the boat to move with a stable forward motion, parallel to the direction of intended travel. When paddlers fall out of rhythm, they are directing forces with each paddle that are not complimentary to one another. This unsynchronized delivery of power causes the boat to rock along its axis, which moves the boat away from the optimum line of travel. The dragon boat will travel further and require more energy from the paddlers to reach its destination. Canoeing and kayaking place similar demands on the body in competition. Sprint and whitewater racing require the development of both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The anaerobic system is used by the body in shorter, more intense forms of activity, where energy can be utilized without oxygen; the aerobic system is the primary energy system when the body requires steady amounts of energy to be delivered to its working muscles over a longer period of time. For this reason, both sprint work

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paddler during the extension of the arms in paddling, and the hip flexors, which assist in moving the body forward to make the stroke. Whitewater canoe and kayak racing places an additional training premium on shoulder strength and quickness. Dry land training for this aspect of performance will include weightlifting, especially those directed to the shoulders and upper arms. Wrist strength is essential to paddling grip. Modified plyometric shoulder and arm exercises are required to build explosive generation of the paddling power required to make sharp turns and the pulling of the craft sideways in the water (known as a ‘‘draw stroke’’). The muscular requirements placed upon the athlete in the long distance varieties of canoeing and kayaking are more focused on muscle endurance than explosive power and strength. As with all other forms of this sport, the more efficiently the athlete can use the paddle, the faster the boat will travel. Errors or weaknesses in paddling technique cause the craft to move less efficiently, or alternatively, place greater stress on both the muscular capabilities and the energy reserves of the paddler.

A kayak paddled by an expert can be taken through very rough, fast-flowing currents, with the double paddle permitting the hull of the craft to be readily spun in 180 changes of direction where necessary. ª C HA RLI E MU NS EY/ COR BI S

Canoe and kayak racing does not involve significant risk of injury by trauma. The combination of explosive power and repetitive movements, especially in the shoulders and arms of the athlete, is the chief cause of injury. Muscle strains through overuse or competitive stresses are common. The paddling mechanism in kayaking, involving the rotation of the shoulders, can lead to rotator cuff injuries.

Canoe/Kayak: Hydrodynamics; Endurance exercise; Plyometrics; Shoulder anatomy and physiology.

SEE ALSO

and whitewater training must be directed to the development of both systems. ‘‘Dry land training’’ is the term generally used by water sport athletes such as swimmers and divers to describe a workout regime that is apart from the water. The dry land program of a canoeist or kayaker designed to enhance the development of their energy systems will include aerobic training such as running, cycling, or the use of equipment such as an elliptical trainer. Interval running is a useful anaerobic dry land training method for canoeists. Both disciplines place a primary emphasis on the athlete’s shoulders, arms, and back muscles to drive the paddle quickly and effectively into the water. The kayaker, through the twisting motion required of a double paddle, coupled with the seated position in the boat, places significant stress upon the lumbar (low) back, the abdominal muscles that stabilize the

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Canoe/Kayak: Hydrodynamics The canoe and the kayak are both ancient forms of watercraft that have been adapted for a variety of purposes in modern times. In prehistoric times, both canoes and kayaks were used in cultures throughout the world for both hunting and transportation; the primary modern adaptations for both versions are recreational and athletic pursuits. Until recent times, kayaking was regarded as a subset of canoeing; today kayak racing and canoe racing are separate athletic disciplines, each with its own status at international and Olympic competitions. The chief reasons for treating the two sports WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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as one arose from the similarities in basic design and means of propulsion. While the fundamental concept of an open water craft propelled by human power delivered by paddles is common, the design of each craft, the characteristics of each as it is powered through the water, and the technique in which the paddle is moved through the water differ dramatically between the kayak and the canoe. Hydrodynamics—the characteristics of any craft as it moves through water—is a branch off of the physical science known as fluid mechanics. Hydrodynamics are contrasted with hydrostatic mechanics, the movements and characteristics of a craft that is stationary in water. A number of variables will be assessed in determining the optimal hydrodynamics of any boat, including the speed and the nature of the water through which the craft will travel, the pressure placed upon the hull, and the purpose for which the craft will be used. It is a generally held principle of boat hydrodynamics that the speed of a boat will be a function of the amount of power delivered, and the amount of resistance created by the water as the hull of the boat passes through it. It follows that the longer and slimmer the hull of a craft, the generally less pronounced the effect of friction will be. As the weight of the canoe is spread over a greater hull length, the hull will draw less water, and thus the craft will generally be less stable. Hydrodynamic research regarding the most efficient canoe hull designs suggests that 90% of the drag, or friction, on the boat is the water, while the remaining 10% is created by the hull and the paddlers moving through the air above the water. The sport of canoeing has created different competitions that take place in different conditions; small, very sleek canoes that are used to race on calm, sheltered water (flat-water); canoes that are used for competition in fast-flowing, often obstaclestrewn rivers (whitewater); and long-distance racing involving large crews paddling larger, heavier boats (dragon boats). In sprint canoe racing, the most important hydrodynamic consideration is generating maximum speed. Given the short distances traveled in a race (Olympic canoe races range from 500 m to 2,000 m), and the very calm water in which the hull sits, a long, narrow hull is used and the stability of the craft is a secondary concern. In whitewater conditions, the primary hydrodynamic considerations are stability and maneuverability; the paddler is required to both maintain balance while the canoe is subject to strong current and river flow, as well as move quickly to avoid river obstacles WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

such as boulders or other obstructions. For these reasons, a whitewater canoe will be shorter, wider, and more durably constructed than a racing canoe (whitewater canoes are usually constructed of Kevlar or a similar synthetic, flexible compound). The shorter axis of a racing canoe makes it easier to turn. Dragon boat racing and other forms of long-distance canoeing involve competitions that occur in large or open bodies of water, often with boat crews of 20 paddlers. Dragon boats, so named in reference to the origins of the sport in Hong Kong, are much longer and heavier than other canoes, as the stability of the boat is paramount to race success. Dragon boats are usually constructed with a keel, a device extending from the hull running along the axis of the craft. The keel increases the stability of the dragon boat—where a keel would impair the hydrodynamics of both a racing and whitewater canoe, it is essential in a craft that, fully loaded for racing, may bear a weight in excess of 4,000 lb (1,800 kg). Kayak racing has similar competitive distinctions, each of which affects the desirable hydrodynamics of the kayak. Kayaks are generally longer, narrower, and sleeker in design than canoes by virtue of the position of the paddler in the kayak; this design thus reduces the paddler’s center of mass to a point lower than can be achieved in a canoe. Further, the double paddle used by a kayaker is a more inherently stable and efficient method of propulsion, as power is generated in equal amounts on each side of the hull. The desirable optimum characteristics of a sprint race kayak are similar to those in canoeing: a long, narrow hull with a premium on reduced friction. Whitewater kayaks, sometimes referred to as slalom kayaks, are much shorter, with the primary focus on maneuverability. A whitewater kayak paddled by an expert can be taken through very rough, fast-flowing currents, with the double paddle permitting the hull of the craft to be readily spun in 180 changes of direction where necessary. For longer distances over open water, the sea kayak is utilized. Sea kayaks are built as either one- or two-person crafts, slightly wider and heavier given the prospect of rough waves. Unlike a canoe, the shape of the kayak hull permits the paddler, with practice, to right the hull from a submerged position. This maneuver is known as the ‘‘Eskimo roll.’’ As a comparison, if a canoe becomes submerged or otherwise swamped, it must be emptied or the craft will sink. Just as there are different hydrodynamic considerations for a canoe or kayak depending upon the nature of competition, related issues arise in

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determining what shape of paddle should be employed to achieve maximum effect. When the generation of speed is the primary consideration, most canoeists employ a bent shaft paddle, constructed with the blade at an angle to the shaft that will keep the blade perpendicular to the water and maximize power. Whitewater racers use paddles that have a shorter, squarer blade, as the nature of the sport will require the paddler to take numerous quick strokes. Distance canoeists often employ paddles with longer, narrower blades, to balance the desire to generate power and the fact that the paddler may make thousands of repetitive strokes. Kayak paddles require similar considerations. The kayak paddle carries the additional consideration of its aerodynamic properties, given that the paddle is above the head of the kayaker for a portion of every stroke, exposing the blade to the flow of air created by the kayak, as well as any wind. Kayak paddles are constructed with this consideration in mind. They have a thin handle and thin blades to make the paddle more aerodynamically efficient.

Canoe/Kayak; Environmental conditions and training; Rowing: Hydrodynamics.

SEE ALSO

Carbohydrate stores: Muscle glycogen, liver glycogen, and glucose The energy required to power the human body begins with the consumption of food, and the subsequent extraction by the body of the carbohydratebased sugars, known as glucose and glycogen. The manufacture, storage, and utilization of these sugar compounds for the energy needs of the body is an intricate and multidimensional process. Carbohydrates are compounds formed from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules. Carbohydrates are divided into two general groupings: simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates are the simple chemical structures of monosaccharides, or single sugars, such as glucose and fructose. Complex carbohydrates are composed of complex sugars known as polysaccharides, of which glycogen is the most prominent example. Foods are divided for nutritional purposes into three basic groups: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Each of these food groups is a primary source for different materials essential to the growth,

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development, and maintenance of the human body; individual foods may contain varying amounts of each of these groups. Seventy-five percent of the energy derived and stored by the body from carbohydrates is ultimately used by the body to sustain brain function; the balance is divided between muscle function and red blood cell production, essential to the transport of oxygen. The carbohydrate food group is composed of foods that are derived from plants (such as whole grain cereals and their byproducts such as breads and pastas); green vegetables, fruits, and dairy products are also rich in carbohydrates. Proteins, which are used primarily by the body to build and repair muscle tissue, are found in meat, soy products, dairy products, and some nuts. Fats, which the body converts into fatty acids, are essential to the absorption of a number of fat-soluble vitamins that are critical to body health, such as vitamins A, D, and E. Physical health will generally be maintained with a diet that comprises from 60% to 65% carbohydrates, 12-15% proteins, and less than 30% fat. When the intake of carbohydrates exceeds that which can be stored and converted to energy as glycogen or glucose, the body will store the excess carbohydrates as fat, often leading to weight gain. The body extracts carbohydrates from food sources through a process known as hydrolysis, whereby the warm fluids, commencing with the saliva in the mouth and concluding with the action of the small intestine, break down the carbohydrates in the food into glucose. As it is a simple sugar, glucose is able to be transported through the wall of the small intestine to be stored by the body in the liver. Once processed, glucose will take one of three pathways into the body. Irrespective of the route through which glucose is directed in the body, it will be metabolized into energy in the same fashion. While it is commonly stated that the body ‘‘burns’’ its stored carbohydrates, the actual chemical process has an additional component. No matter where the glucose is stored, when it is used it creates a compound known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the actual energy source within the body. The first and most direct route into the body for recently converted glucose from the small intestine is the bloodstream, where glucose is immediately available to be converted into ATP, in combination with the oxygen received into the bloodstream from the cardiorespiratory system. The second repository for glucose is the skeletal muscle system. Glucose is converted into its storage WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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form, glycogen, which is a long string of single sugars stored as a starch, a complex sugar. Once stored in the muscles, glycogen cannot be released into the bloodstream, but will be utilized as fuel to produce ATP by the muscle itself. The most important storage mechanism of processed glucose is performed by the liver. As the largest organ in the body, the liver performs a number of purifying and metabolic functions within the body, one of which is to store glucose in its glycogen form. The liver is capable of containing up to 10% of its volume in glycogen, in contrast to the 1% storage by volume carried on in the skeletal muscles. The liver both releases glycogen when it is needed for energy production, as well as regulates the amount of glucose present in the blood, critical to health (known as the blood sugar level). The process by which liver glycogen is converted into blood glucose is related to the actions of the pancreas, which monitors blood glucose levels. When the pancreas determines that blood glucose levels are too low, causing a condition known as hypoglycemia, the pancreas produces a hormone, glucagen, to stimulate a release of stored glycogen from the liver, in the form of glucose, into the blood to restore balance. When blood glucose levels are too high, which is, conversely, a hyperglycemic condition, the pancreas releases the hormone insulin to stimulate the liver to release less glucose. Impaired insulin production in the pancreas is the essence of the condition known as diabetes. When the production of insulin in the pancreas becomes impaired, careful attention must be paid to blood glucose levels, which may be tested on a frequent basis. Regulation of diet, including attention to the amount of carbohydrate consumed, is essential to the maintenance of healthy blood glucose levels. Exercise, although it may place pressure on blood glucose levels through the body’s use of carbohydrate stores to produce ATP, is believed to be an important tool in counteracting the serious potential impacts of a diabetic condition on the cardiovascular system.

Carbohydrates; Cardiovascular system; Glycogen level in muscles; Lactic acid and performance.

SEE ALSO

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are the fuel with which the body gains energy. Carbohydrates are the most prominent example of a substance that has a wide name WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

recognition, but a lesser understanding of their actual role in human energy production. Foods are generally classified for nutritional purposes into three groups: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. For the purposes of measuring how much fuel is involved in energy production, the calorie is the unit of measurement used. Nutritionally, there are simple carbohydrates (found in foods such as granulated table sugar or fruits) and complex carbohydrates (those present in typically more densely constructed foods such as rice, pastas, whole grains, and many kinds of vegetables). Complex carbohydrates are valuable both as energy and as a mineral source. Protein is the material required by the body to build muscle, as well as to repair and maintain all bodily tissues. Excess protein consumption places stress upon the kidneys, creating potential deficiencies of the mineral calcium. Proteins are present in meat of most types, fish, soy, and dairy products. Fats are essential to a healthy diet, as they are the source of fatty acids, which are crucial to the absorption by the body of fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamins A, D, and E. Fats also assist with the body’ insulation and proper cell function. As a general nutritional guideline, approximately from 60-65% of a healthy adult’s caloric intake should be derived from carbohydrates; proteins should constitute 12-15%; and fat sources should be less than 30% of a properly balanced diet. Carbohydrates are the substances that will produce the essential fuel for the demands of human movement. Carbohydrates are simple sugars, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms present in a ratio of 1:2:1. These sugars, once extracted from digested foods, are water-soluble compounds that are the fundamental energy source for many forms of organic life. In the single sugar form, carbohydrates are monosaccharides, of which glucose and fructose are the best known. The polysaccharides, also known as starches, are converted upon ingestion by the human body for storage into glycogen; as glycogen, the sugars can be converted for later use as a fuel source. The primary storage locations of glycogen are the skeletal muscles and the liver. While glycogen has a molecular structure similar to the starches found in certain green plants, there are few foods that contain glycogen; potato starches are closest in structure, and accordingly, potatoes have enjoyed a timeless reputation as a useful energy source for athletes. The complex carbohydrate starches are created in plants through the process

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of photosynthesis, whereby sunlight reacts with carbon and hydrogen atoms to create complex molecules. Plant products such as breads, pasta, cereals, beans, fruits, and vegetables will all possess varying amounts of carbohydrates. Many diets and other nutritional references make mention of ‘‘good carbs’’ and ‘‘bad carbs.’’ These descriptions are not a reflection on the chemistry of the particular carbohydrate being ingested as carbohydrates have a well-defined molecular structure. Good carbohydrates are generally those derived from whole, primarily unprocessed foods such as grains and vegetables. Consuming the requisite carbohydrates from these types of foods provides the added nutritional benefits of fiber, which assists in the good digestion of all foods in the human intestines, as well as providing vitamins essential to many metabolic processes. The so-called bad carbohydrates are those ingested through sugared, processed foods and snack foods, which have no nutritional value other than as a mediocre energy source. Excess carbohydrates, those that cannot be processed for immediate use in the bloodstream, or stored in the muscles or liver as glycogen, will be stored by the body as fat. Carbohydrates enter the body as foods in a variety of forms; the processing, conversion, and storage of carbohydrates as usable energy begins in the mouth. Hydrolysis is the process by which water and heat will break down a substance; this mechanism is present in saliva and it continues with the fluids of the small intestine. There, the complex starches are reduced to simple glucose. The glucose passes through the wall of the small intestine where it is stored in the liver as glycogen. As much as 10% of the total weight of the liver can be stored glycogen; twice as much glycogen is stored in the muscles throughout the entire body. The liver serves an additional, regulatory purpose with respect to how much glucose is entering the bloodstream at any time. Seventy-five percent of the glucose stored in the body will typically be directed to the functions of the brain, with the balance used for the purpose of red blood cell production and skeletal muscle and heart muscle activity. The function of carbohydrates both as simple sugars as well as stored glycogen is determined largely by which of the body’s energy systems is operational during athletic activity. The anaerobic energy system is the body’s method for fueling itself in shorter, more intense types of activity, in which the presence of oxygen in the muscle cells is not required to produce energy. The anaerobic system has two aspects: the anaerobic alactic system and

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the anaerobic lactic system. The aerobic system is the energy system predominately used to fuel activity that occurs over a longer period. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the fuel either used or created by each of the energy systems. It is the source of ATP that distinguishes one system from another. The anaerobic alactic system is the process employed by the body for very fast, intense physical activity that lasts no longer than 15 seconds. All muscles have a small amount of ATP contained within them, which recharges in relatively short periods; in this alactic system, the ATP is a form of instant energy to the muscle. In the anaerobic lactic system, muscle glycogen (the stored complex sugars) break down into simple glucose, which produces ATP and provides the muscle with energy. The creation of ATP is a slower process than the simple access to ATP in the cell as in the alactic system. For as long as there is muscle glycogen present, ATP energy will be produced; the usual duration of the muscle glycogen/ATP process is from 60 to 90 seconds. As this conversion to ATP energy occurs outside of the muscle cell, oxygen is not required to facilitate this metabolism. However, the chemical byproduct of the conversion of glucose to ATP is lactate, or lactic acid, which will hinder athletic performance due to its cramping effect on working muscles. As an athlete becomes more efficient, the lactate is recycled through the heart and liver and recycled into usable fuel. In the aerobic system, ATP is produced from glucose in the working muscles cells, a process using oxygen transported by way of the erythrocytes, or red blood cells. The process of the production of ATP in the aerobic system is longer than that of the anaerobic lactic, but the energy produced is for longer duration, less intense forms of muscle activity. The aerobic process of ATP does not create any waste products; the use of oxygen requires increased heart capacity to bring more oxygen-rich blood to working muscles. Fatty acids (produced by fats obtained through food) and amino acids (derived from protein) are stored in lean muscle tissue within the body. These sources of ATP, which are not as efficient as the glycogen/glucose system, work in a complementary fashion by delaying the depletion of glycogen energy reserves. ATP generated from muscle or liver glycogen is at least twice as productive in the satisfaction of the body’s energy requirements as the ATP production from fatty acids. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CARDIO-BOXING

Different types of exercise place differing demands upon the energy systems over time, and the corresponding rate by which glycogen is depleted. As a general proposition, the longer the period of exercise, and the greater the ongoing demand upon the reserves of stored energy, the greater the proportion of energy that will be derived from the fat/fatty acid component of energy production. As an example, when the athlete is exercising for 30 minutes, more than 60% of energy will be produced through either muscle glycogen or glucose released from storage in the liver. At the other end of the exercise spectrum, when the athlete has worked for 240 minutes, the fatty acid mechanism for the production of ATP energy will be in excess of 60%; muscle glycogen stores account for less than a 10% contribution. There is an interrelationship between the utilization of carbohydrate stores and the function of each energy system. In an event such as a cross-country ski race or a 31-mi (50 km) cycling race, the burst of desired energy to break from the starting line will be fueled by the anaerobic alactic system, using the readily available ATP reserve. As the race progresses, the athlete will draw energy from the aerobic system; a steep hill or sprint finish will engage the anaerobic lactic process. All three mechanisms are available at any time, with a system being predominate as opposed to exclusive. The carbohydrate demands of specific sports are also a consideration in training. An adult distance runner training at a seven-minute mile pace will burn approximately 920 calories per hour. A cyclist with similar characteristics training at a speed of 16 mph (26 km/h) will expect to consume 680 calories. A byproduct of the energy consumption by the body during exercise is the production of lactate; when oxygen depletion occurs in the burning of converted glycogen into ATP, lactate is a byproduct, which contributes to inefficiency and a sluggish performance. The commitment of an athlete to the restoration of glycogen stores within the body through proper carbohydrate intake after training or competition is of critical importance to long-term athletic success. The processes by which the body can reabsorb carbohydrates take place immediately after exercise. During training or competition, complex carbohydrate sources that can be easily consumed are energy bars and gels; however, products that contain significant amounts of simple sugars such as fructose and glucose should be avoided, as they cause a sugar spike that does not aid in carbohydrate processing into useful glycogen stored fuels. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Beans and other high complex carbohydrate foods

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FREE CORBIS

Carbohydrates are essential to the healthy functioning of the human body for athletes and sedentary persons alike. It is in this context that the so-called ‘‘low-carb’’ diets, such as the popular Atkins diet, must be understood. As a general proposition, while the low-carbohydrate diets may produce weight loss in sedentary, overweight persons, it is difficult to imagine a healthy athlete with significant energy demands being able to maintain training levels with reduced carbohydrate diets. Conversely, the growth of long-distance running, and the demands of that sport in terms of carbohydrate loading as a precompetition dietary strategy, has prompted significant research into the mechanics of precisely how the body utilizes the carbohydrates it ingests.

Carbohydrate stores: Muscle glycogen, liver glycogen, and glucose; Glycogen depletion; Glycogen level in muscles; Liver function; Muscle glycogen recovery.

SEE ALSO

Cardio-boxing Cardio-boxing is a combination of the traditional training movements of a boxer—including sparring, shadow boxing, and blows delivered to a boxing bag—structured so as to be performed in sequences, similar to those of aerobics classes, that have a primarily aerobic training effect. Cardio-boxing also developed its own offshoot, cardio kickboxing, where martial arts movements involving blows delivered with the feet are incorporated into the training routine.

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The rise of aerobics as a significant health and fitness regimen began in North America in the early 1980s. In its earliest incarnations, popularized by television versions such as the Twenty Minute Workout, aerobics was an outgrowth of calisthenics, with traditional stretching and resistance exercises performed in rapid succession, usually to music. Aerobics, through both the pace and the duration of the activity, utilizes the aerobic energy system to provide muscle energy; its exercises assist in the maintenance of cardiovascular (cardio) and cardiorespiratory health. Aerobics can be performed by a solo participant, at the participant’s own pace, or in group settings. Aerobics did not develop as an exclusively female activity, although a majority of aerobics adherents are women; it is seen as a user-friendly, non-competitive athletic alternative for people seeking the benefits of fitness, who may never have participated in other more structured, competitive sports. Over time, some aerobics enthusiasts sought out a more vigorous, total body fitness experience than that provided by regular aerobics classes. This desire led to the development and refinement of a number of aerobics variants. High impact aerobics, with an emphasis on the longer duration (sessions of one hour or more) of the fitness activity, combined with the introduction of adjustable portable platforms into the aerobics routines, to require more intense, increased resistance jumping and stepping exercises. High impact aerobics gained a measure of popularity for people who wanted a more demanding cardio workout; this variant also proved to result in a higher injury rate. It was in this context that cardio-boxing rose to prominence as a training and fitness program. Organized boxing requires an athlete to compete in matches, referred to as bouts, which are divided into segments known as rounds, which may number from four to 12 in the bout, depending upon the level of competition. Each round is typically two to three minutes in length, with a one-minute rest interval. Each round is generally a period of high energy, punctuated with periods of very intense activity, usually through exchanges of punches between the competitors. Boxing, for this reason, places significant demands on both the body’s anaerobic system for shorter energy sequences required in each round, and on the aerobic system to both provide the energy to carry the boxer through the entire competition as well as to facilitate recovery between rounds, primarily through the reduction of the heart rate to a normal level. Effective boxing training mimics these stresses

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upon the body; cardio-boxing training routines are an application of these training principles. The equipment required for cardio-boxing is geared to flexible, unencumbered movement. Shoes are preferably ones that provide maximum stability, given the physical movements required. Some cardioboxers do not wear shoes, given the martial arts influence. The participants’ clothing should permit ease of movement. Additionally, many boxers tape their hands, using a flexible wrap that is supportive of the entire hand from the knuckle to above the wrist; the tape will stabilize the wrist on contact when punches are delivered to the training bag, and also protect against the wrist being bent upon contact, a mechanism that exposes the wrist and the conjunction of the wrist, ulnar, and radial bones (bones of the forearm) to sprain or fracture. Other necessary items include boxing gloves and a boxing bag (typically a heavy bag, one that is stable, weighing 75-100 lb [34-45 kg]). While cardio-boxing routines themselves may be effectively employed as a warm up for other athletic activities, the athlete should engage in a period of stretching and loosening of the muscles prior to cardio-boxing, especially if the routine will involve blows delivered to a bag or other resistance device. Particular attention should be paid in this warm up to the hands, wrists, arms, and shoulders. As cardio-boxing is an application of boxing principles, the exercise routine includes both upper body and footwork components. There are many variations of cardio-boxing workouts, and individual preferences will create useful modifications; all involve the athlete assuming a fighting stance, the crouched athletic position adopted by boxers, with arms raised and fists positioned to both defend against and to deliver a blow. As blows are delivered, alternating left and right hands to the full extension of the athlete’s arms, there is a corresponding weight shift from each foot, so as to maintain balance. The quicker that the blows are delivered, the greater resistance to the fist, arm, and shoulder. Cardioboxing fighting stance routines can be performed with a bag, or by shadow boxing, which emphasizes the movements without the resistance of striking an object. The basic punches of boxing include the jab, the punch delivered straight from the shoulder; the hook, the punch made with a combination of a hip and shoulder turn and corresponding blow; the uppercut, a punch delivered with the fist moving forward and upward to the target. In cardio-boxing, all these WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CARDIOPROTECTION

punches can be thrown in various sequences and combinations to maximize training effect. For many athletes engaged in cardio-boxing, a heart monitor is a useful training tool. The monitor will provide an accurate count as to the athlete’s heart rate, and can provide instantaneous feedback. Heart rate is a useful, although not complete, predictor of how hard the body is working. The chief purpose of the heart monitor is to provide a guideline to the athlete as to whether the heart rate is approaching a critical range. In general terms, if a cardio-boxer determined that the workout had elevated the heart rate to what the athlete believed to near the maximum for an extended period, the athlete would consider reducing the intensity level; conversely, when the heart rate records a level of below 50% of maximum, the athlete might use that reading as a signal that the workout intensity could be increased. The kickboxing variation of cardio-boxing places greater emphasis on the legs and feet to deliver blows as part of the training sequence. As with various types of martial arts, the kick is delivered using a full rotation and extension of the body into the target. Strong leg muscles and coordination are required to be effective.

Boxing strength and training exercises; Calisthenics; Exercise, intermittent.

SEE ALSO

Cardioprotection As the phrase suggests, cardioprotection is any physical or nutritional measure that guards against injury or harm to the heart and its function, with respect to any of the bodily systems in which it is a component, including the cardiovascular, cardiopulmonary, and cardiorespiratory systems. There are various ways to help protect the heart. Regular physical exercise is important as there exists overwhelming scientific evidence that physically active people have both a lower incidence of coronary disease generally, as well less likelihood of sustaining a ischemia-reperfusion injury, commonly known as heart attack. Physically active persons also tend to survive the cellular damage caused to heart muscle by a heart attack better than physically inactive persons. Another good routine is taking nutritional antioxidants, including vitamins C and E. The principles of cardioprotection are best understood in the context of what happens to the heart muscles and arteries during an attack. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

coronary arteries (those that flow directly into the heart muscle) can become clogged with a plaque substance that is a buildup within the walls of the artery. The plaque is composed of cholesterol, a soft, fat-like, waxy substance that adheres to the artery wall, causing the artery to narrow—a condition known as arteriosclerosis. The clogged artery does not permit optimum blood flow, and there is a corresponding reduction in the ability of the body to deliver oxygen to the heart muscle. A heart attack will occur where there is an arterial blood clot that causes a reduction of blood to the heart. The period between the reduction in blood flow and the resumption of a regular flow is the measure of the severity of the heart attack. When the blood flow to the heart is interrupted for less than five minutes, the heart will typically recover normal function, with minimal damage. However, when the blood flow to the heart is interrupted for a period in excess of 20 minutes, the cells of the heart muscle sustain permanent, irreversible damage, as cardiac cell muscles do not regenerate. This cell damage results in a permanent loss of heart function and capacity to pump blood. Heart disease can be accelerated through a number of factors, such as cigarette smoking, the use of narcotics, or diet. Such factors aside, there is a clear correlation between the amount of exercise performed by an individual and the risk of coronary disease. While physical exercise is a certain cardioprotector, the quantity and the intensity of the exercise are factors that will determine the extent of the protection. Generally, the greater the intensity level of the regular exercise activity, the less risk of a heart-related illness. Regular physical exercise, defined as a minimum of four sessions of 30 minutes duration per week, where the energy demands are a minimum of 250 calories per session, tends to reduce the risk of other related heart conditions, chiefly hypertension (high blood pressure), high cholesterol, and diabetes. The same minimum level of physical exercise will protect the heart against the damage caused in attacks that threaten permanent cardiac injury due to heart cell death. Exercise promotes better collateral circulation in the body, providing the blood with a number of alternate avenues for circulation. Exercise is also believed to facilitate the production in the heart muscle of certain proteins, referred to as heat shock proteins, that strengthen these muscles when exposed to the stress of a heart attack.

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Antioxidants are those compounds that operate within the body to slow the destruction of cells. An antioxidant will tend to seek out and neutralize molecules known as radicals, which are a byproduct of chemical processes within the body and which, if left to operate within the bloodstream, tend to speed the destruction of cells. It is known that when vitamin C, vitamin E, and alpha lipoic acid are all present in the cells of the heart muscle, there is protection afforded against the cellular injury of prolonged heart attack. Vitamin E is a fat-soluble compound that is the most commonly found antioxidant in nature. Vitamin C is a natural, water-soluble substance that works in partnership with vitamin E. Alpha lipoic acid is a water-soluble acid that works with vitamin C. While all of the antioxidants identified as cardioprotectors occur naturally in foods, nutritional supplements are a further means to ingest these compounds. Multivitamins are a common source of these cardioprotectors. As with any supplement, the regular consumption of any supplement that is in excess of the daily requirements of the body creates another set of health risks. Each of these antioxidant compounds is toxic if consumed in excessive amounts.

Cardiovascular system; Dietary supplements; Genetics; Vitamin E.

SEE ALSO

Cardiopulmonary function Cardiopulmonary function is the interrelationship between the workings of the heart and lung organs. The most important function of the cardiopulmonary system is with respect to the flow and regulation of blood between the heart and the lungs, a process that centers upon the connection between the heart and the lungs made through the pulmonary artery. The function of the cardiopulmonary system is best understood when contrasted with the two interrelated, cardio-centered systems. The cardiovascular system is the method by which the heart and the entire network of blood vessels function together to direct the flow of blood through out the body. The cardiorespiratory system is a specialized component of the larger cardiovascular works. The cardiorespiratory system describes the function of the heart in relation to the body’s entire breathing mechanism, from the nose and throat to the lungs. These three systems function interdependently.

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The bodily blood volume of the average healthy person is approximately 5.8 - 6.8 qt (5.5-6.5 l). The heart, in conjunction with the action of the blood vessels, powers blood through 60,000 mi (100,000 km) of the typical circulatory system, with between 5,280 and 6,340 qt (5,000-6,000 l) passing through the hearts chambers each day. Consequently, the efficiency of heart function will depend directly on the strength of the heart muscle. Aerobic exercise makes the heart stronger and better equipped to propel blood. The power of the heart and the clear, unobstructed pulmonary artery passages performing in concert permit the efficient movement of blood to and from the lungs, where useful oxygen and waste carbon dioxide are exchanged in the microscopic lung compartments known as the alveoli. The most dangerous circumstance involving the cardiopulmonary system is a stoppage of the heart, known as sudden cardiac arrest, which prevents blood flow to the heart. Sudden cardiac arrest will generally lead to death if left unresolved for more than a few moments. Sudden cardiac arrest occurs approximately 1,000 times per day in the United States, and as frequently on a per capita basis through out the Western world. In many instances, especially for cases where the victim is over 35 years of age, the most common cause of sudden cardiac arrest is a form of coronary disease, a buildup of arterial plaque narrowing arteries and impeding blood flow to the heart. Where the victim is under age 35, and an athlete, sudden cardiac arrest has generally one of two causes. In up to 80% of such occurrences, the athlete has a congenital heart defect (an abnormality that has been present since birth), undetected through prior physical examination. It has been estimated that between 200 and 300 athletes in the United States under the age of 25 die from sudden cardiac arrest that has a congenital cause every year. The most common of these defects is a thickening of the wall of the left side of the heart (the chamber that does most of the propulsion of blood out of the organ). The other common cause of sudden cardiac arrest among younger athletes is heart arrhythmia, a condition in which the electrical system of the heart, which regulates heart beat, causes the heart muscle to quiver and then cease function. Sudden cardiac arrest rarely presents any symptom in advance of onset. The most common form of this condition is known as ventricular fibrillation. Heart arrhythmia has a number of underlying conditions, including a larger-than-normal heart, a defect or blockage in a coronary artery, an WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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inflammation of the heart muscle, or external influences such as the ingestion of a stimulant like cocaine, or a direct blow to the chest that causes heart trauma. For an athlete, while exercise is a proven cardioprotector, if one of these conditions is present the mechanisms of heart growth through exercise, coupled with increased exercise intensity, may in some circumstances lead to a sudden cardiac arrest. Such occurrences are rare when assessed in raw numbers of deaths per year, but the deaths of prominent athletes in the apparent peak of health and fitness never fail to resonate with the public. Major league baseball pitcher Steve Bechler, Cameroon soccer player Marc Vivien Foe, and basketball players Reggie Lewis and Hank Gathers are prominent athletic examples of death due to heart arrhythmia. In an ideal circumstance, particularly prior to engaging in a high intensity training program, an athlete should have a complete physical, including the review of the athlete’s personal risk factors such as a family history of heart disorder, or certain types of drug use, particularly stimulant use. This physical would also include an electrocardiogram, or ECG, a device that aids in the assessment of the regularity of heart function. The most well known understanding of cardiopulmonary function is cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). CPR is an emergency procedure used to stimulate heart and lung function when the heart stops suddenly (cardiac arrest) and when a combination of external cardiac massage (rubbing the chest forcefully) and artificial respiration is used to revive the afflicted person. If successful (CPR is more likely to be successful if administered within the first four minutes of cardiac arrest), the flow of oxygen in and out of the lungs, with corresponding flow along the pulmonary artery to the heart muscle, will be achieved. Once CPR has been administered, a defibrillator will often be used to spur a resumption of a regular heart beat. During a cardiac arrest, the organ at risk of permanent damage in the cardiopulmonary system is the heart, not the lungs. The lungs can survive an absence of respiration; the heart cannot survive an absence of oxygen-rich blood without a risk of the cells of the heart dying. Due to the nature of the construction of these cells, they cannot be regenerated in the same fashion as most other organs. SEE ALSO Cardioprotection; Cardiorespiratory function; Cardiovascular system; Oxygen; Stimulants.


Cardiorespiratory function The cardiorespiratory system and its biological alter ego, the cardiopulmonary system, are the processes that utilize the same organs to perform distinct functions for human performance. The heart and its muscular power drive the approximate 5.8 qt (5.5 l) blood volume through the entire distribution network (the cardiovascular system). The heart operates in partnership with the lungs to ensure the efficient transport of blood to and from the heart to facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide (the cardiopulmonary system). The heart also works with the entire breathing mechanism for the operation of the lungs, to service the oxygen delivery and waste-air discharge (the cardiorespiratory system). The respiratory system is an integrated series of organs and openings designed to deliver oxygen-rich air to the lungs. It is essential to athletic performance that the lungs and the airways be clear, unobstructed, and fully functional. The body has no alternate means of counteracting or compensating for a substandard respiratory system; athletic performance will suffer, as it is an irrefutable biological fact that the body’s energy stores cannot be utilized without proper supplies of oxygen. Typical conditions that impair respiratory function in athletes are asthma (an often chronic inflammation of the lungs and its airways), the bronchial tubes that restrict the passage of air into the lungs, and the congestion of the lung with fluids caused by common colds and infections. Smoking and other forms of pollution will also inhibit proper lung function. The respiratory system begins where the air is inhaled into the body, through either the nose or the mouth. All air ultimately passes through the throat and into the trachea (windpipe). The air then passes into the bronchial tunes (bronchi), which lead into each of the lung sacs. Tubes known as bronchioles flow from the bronchi, tapering into ends composed of air sacs. The air sacs are groupings of tiny, round organic structures called alveoli. It is the alveoli that are the actual functioning exchangers of oxygen and air, the point of contact in the lung where air physically enters and exits the human body. A single alveolus is one-cell thick, which permits ease of movement by oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules between the body and the alveolus. The alveolus is encircled with capillaries, the tiny blood vessels that are the means by which oxygen is passed from the alveolus into the body and through which waste carbon dioxide is passed out. The alveoli are so densely packed into

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the lungs that, if placed on a flat surface, they would form a surface of over 120 yd2 (100 m2) for the average adult. From the capillaries that are the cardiovascular point of contact with the respiratory system, the blood is directed into the circulatory system, and ultimately passes through the pulmonary artery. The act of inhaling and exhaling air occurs due to the function of the diaphragm, located below the lung cavities in the abdomen. The lungs have no muscle structure of their own. One function of athletic activity is a strengthening of the diaphragm. In any sport in which athletic endurance is a component, training that will increase the amount of oxygen available to the athlete is essential to athletic improvement. Conversely, improvement of performance will be limited if the body cells cannot obtain enough oxygen to assist in energy production with available glycogen or glucose stores. When an athlete seeks to increase lung capacity, the training objective is defined as increasing the ‘‘VO2 max,’’ a short-form expression for the maximum amount of oxygen that the athlete can usefully consume during a maximum-effort exercise: the V symbol represents the volume measured, the O2 is oxygen, and the max represents the maximum level. VO2 max is measured as the volume capacity per minute, or as a comparative measure in relation to the weight of the athlete. Known as the training effect, exercise places demands on the body for increase energy to fuel muscle activity. Heart rate increases, in response to demands for oxygen transporting red blood cells to metabolize glucose stores. Respiratory rate increases to obtain more oxygen and to take away greater amounts of waste carbon dioxide. Intense exercise, on a regular basis, will increase the amount of red blood cells and corresponding oxygen uptake. Lung size is primarily a function of genetics. The lungs have no muscle structure of their own. Increased physical training will improve the ability of the lungs to inhale and exhale air due to the strengthening of the diaphragm, the muscle that power the respiratory portion of the cardiorespiratory system. The exercise training effect is not permanent, and it is reversible through a reduction or cessation of physical activity. If an athlete reduces the intensity of endurance training, or ceases workouts due to injury or voluntary inactivity, the VO2 max will decrease. Aging and the natural reduction in cell

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regrowth and reproduction also serves to reduce the VO2 max. Studies have determined that for an average healthy young male, age 20-29, a typical VO2 max test result is between 39.9 qt (44 l) and 46.3 qt (51 l) per minute. Olympic marathon champion Frank Shorter had a test capacity of 64.4 qt (71 l) per minute; Tour de France champions Miguel Indurain and Greg Lemond had maximum oxygen uptakes of more than 79.9 qt (88 l) per minute.

Cardiopulmonary function; Cardiovascular system; Oxygen; Upper respiratory tract infection.

SEE ALSO

Cardiovascular exercise

SEE

Low-

impact cardiovascular exercise

Cardiovascular responses to fluid replacement during exercise The fundamental purpose of the cardiovascular system is the efficient circulation of blood. When the blood is transported to the body’s organs and muscles efficiently, the body is equipped to utilize its energy stores and nutrients in an optimal fashion. As plasma, the fluid component of blood, is itself over 90% water, the proper replacement of fluids into the body during exercise is a essential. All athletic activities have a common feature that, in varying degrees, places an additional stress upon the body: the requirement of the additional generation of energy. Energy to power the movement of the body and its structures is demanded, either in a freestanding mode, in such sports as such as running, gymnastics, or wrestling, or when the athlete is propelling an object, as in bobsledding, canoeing, or cycling. The body possesses two main energy systems, the aerobic and the anaerobic systems. The anaerobic system comprises two separate mechanisms, the alactic and the lactic processes. Both processes rely on the ultimate production of the compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is produced through the metabolism of the body’s stores of glucose. The nature of the activity will determine whether the aerobic energy system, or one of the two anaerobic systems will produce ATP from the available glucose reserves. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Seventy-five percent of the energy generated through the metabolism of glucose is released from the body as heat. The remaining 25% of the energy is directed to muscular contraction and the other aspects of human function and movement. The heat produced through metabolism is very dangerous to the body, and it must not be allowed to build up. The mass of the athlete is also a significant factor in determining the impact of the generation of heat. As a general rule, the larger the athlete, the greater the amount of heat that will be produced, and the greater the prospective impact on the cardiovascular system. Heat dissipates from the body through the evaporation of sweat from the surface of the skin. In endurance sports, the replacement of these fluids is essential to performance. In sports such as marathon running, long distance cycling, and cross-country skiing, a rule of thumb regarding fluid replacement suggests that the athlete, in the course of the activity, consume between 6.7 oz and 27 oz (200-800 ml) of fluid per hour of competition. Like most human systems, optimal function of the cardiovascular system will follow optimal fluid levels within the vascular network. The thirst sensation is a very poor indicator that the athlete has a lower-than-optimum level of hydration; an athlete may have a deficiency of 1 qt (1.0 l) or more before actually feeling thirsty. Where the system begins to become dehydrated, the blood plasma will correspondingly become reduced in volume, creating two important consequences: reduced ability of the blood to transport oxygen and nutrients and reduced ability of the blood to dissipate heat. The result of dehydration to the cardiovascular system may have three progressive consequences for the athlete: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, or heat stroke. Heat cramps are a condition in which the body becomes dehydrated and the blood system is not able to efficiently deliver electrolytes (salts, such as sodium and potassium), essential to muscle function. Heat exhaustion is a more serious condition, in which the athlete becomes disabled due to the inability to dissipate heat, often resulting in elevated heart rate and lethargy. Heat stroke is an incapacitating heat illness, in which the body begins to shut down some of its process; body temperature frequently exceeds 105 F (40 C), and the athlete is often not coherent. Heat stroke is fatal unless the athlete receives immediate medical attention. Proper hydration is not the only factor that will impact upon the proper function of the cardiovascular system during exercise. Related to fluid intake are environmental issues such as heat, humidity, and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

presence of wind, as well as the rate or intensity of energy expenditure. When an athlete becomes dehydrated, the ingestion of fluids to correct the shortage will not have an instantaneous effect on blood fluid. The water or similar liquid must be digested and passed through to the small intestine, a process that usually takes a number of minutes to achieve a physiological result. For this reason, athletes in endurance events will consume fluids well before they expect to feel a thirst sensation. Just as too little fluid replacement will cause significant circulatory problems, an athlete cannot guarantee proper cardiovascular function simply through constant fluid intake. When an athlete is exposed to high temperature conditions, and excessive amounts of fluids are consumed, the athlete may be subjected to a condition known as hyponatrania. Too much fluid will dilute the proportion of important salts such as sodium in the bloodstream. When coupled with the natural loss of sodium through sweat, the loss of this important electrolyte may interfere with the functions of the brain, heart, and muscles, leading to apathy, confusion, and nausea.

Cardiovascular system; Energy drinks; Hydration strategy in distance running; Hyponatremia.

SEE ALSO

Cardiovascular system The cardiovascular system is the best known of the heart-centered processes in the body. Its actual functions are sometimes confused with other cardiac systems, and thus may be misunderstood. While sometimes characterized as including all of the organs involved in the entire relationship between the heart and the body, the cardiovascular system is the circulatory system, composed of the heart and the network of blood vessels that it anchors. The cardiovascular is the body’s distributor of oxygen and nutrients, as well as the mechanism for waste transport. Consistent with its primary function, the efficient circulation of blood, the cardiovascular system is interconnected with two other heart-centered systems: the cardiopulmonary system, which controls the relationship between the heart and the lungs, and the cardiorespiratory system, the interrelationship between the heart and the general breathing mechanisms in the body, including the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide that occurs within the lungs. The cardiovascular system is a complex and extensive network. The circulatory process begins

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with a pump action in the heart muscle, known familiarly as the heart beat. Each beat is a two-part action, the timing of which is regulated by the heart component known as the SA node, whose function is in turn tied to brain signals. The first part of each beat is the longer diastole, and the second is the shorter systole. Blood pressure in the circulatory system is calculated as a function of the two components of the pulse and the resistance of the arterial wall. Each beat sends a quantity of nutrient-rich, oxygenated blood into the channels known as arteries. The arteries are relatively thick walled and highly flexible cylinders, encased in a ring of muscle. As the pumping action of the heart creates pressure in the artery through the flow of blood, the arterial walls are constructed to contract and thus slow the rate of blood as it travels through the artery. The arteries ultimately narrow into arterioles. These become the tiny capillaries, which are the system’s exchange point for actual transfer of oxygen and nutrients to individual muscle and organ cells, and the corresponding receipt of waste carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is then transferred into small veins known as venules. The venules lead to larger veins; as the vein is not constructed with any muscle to regulate propulsion of blood through it, the blood travels more slowly on its return to the heart. Near the heart, the blood enters the pulmonary artery, located on the right side of the heart, which directs the blood to the lungs to be recharged with oxygen. The blood is then pumped back into the cardiovascular system from the left side of the heart. The fluid components of blood is called plasma and is comprised of more than 90% water. The erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are the organisms in the blood that carry the chemical hemoglobin, and are thus able to transport oxygen. Red blood cells are manufactured at a rate of two million per second from the bodily stores of bone marrow. Fluid replacement during exercise has the important effect of maintaining proper blood volume, which permits the efficient transport of oxygen.

every form of athletic activity through rigorous training, the level of improvement in cardiac output will dictate the ultimate level of the athlete’s success. Cardiac output is defined as the amount of blood that the heart can pump per minute. The greater the cardiac output, the greater the number of red blood cells available to transport oxygen to working muscles, essential to the generation of muscle energy. Diet and physical activity are the crucial factors to general cardiovascular health. The heart, like any muscle, requires the stimulation and muscle building of exercise to maintain heart health. The walls of the heart will grow as a result of exercise. Diets that are not a healthy mix of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats (usually consumed in the general ratio of (60-65% carbohydrates, 15-20% proteins, and 25% fats) typically lead to excess weight, which puts a strain on heart function. Diet, especially if it is high in fats, or the athlete smokes cigarettes, can cause a buildup of plaque in the arteries. This causes both a narrowing of the channel, known as stenosis, or the hardening and thickening of the artery, the condition known as arteriosclerosis. The unhealthy artery also presents the risk that the plaque material may break off and cause a clotting of the vessel, which blocks the flow of blood to the heart. This condition is known as a stroke, and it is often fatal. If heart function loss occurs from the stroke, the result may be damage to vital organs such as the brain. SEE ALSO Cardiopulmonary function; Cardiorespiratory function; Cardiovascular responses to fluid replacement during exercise; Endurance; Oxygen.

Carpal tunnel syndrome fracture

Approximately 25% of the body’s blood is filtered through the kidneys, the organs that purify the blood as it is directed through the cardiovascular system. Some fluid waste products and toxins are extracted by the kidneys and secreted into the bladder as urine, which is passed from the body.

Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a wrist injury that causes damage to the median nerve, which radiates from the forearm into the hand. The median nerve is responsible for the transmission of impulses to the thumb and the first four fingers of the hand. The median nerve is also the transmitter of impulses to the nine tendons that provide flexion capability to the fingers. The median nerve also provides the nerve transmissions to the muscle group at the base of the thumb.

The cardiovascular system is generally the most important of the heart-centered physical systems to athletic performance. While athletes can often significantly improve muscular strength and endurance in

The carpals are a series of eight bones that connect the forearm to the fingers of the hand. The carpals and the transverse carpal ligament, a thick fiber connective tissue that binds together the bones

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of the wrist, together create the carpal tunnel, an archway through which the median nerve passes. As the tunnel is a narrow passageway containing the median nerve and tendons, any external pressure or damage to the carpal tunnel, such as a fracture, will often result in the median nerve becoming compressed and irritated, causing a loss of function. The damage to the carpal tunnel can occur in a number of ways. A common cause of CTS is repetitive strain, such as that associated with occupations in which movements are repeated, or in which particular tools such as hand sanders and grinders are in constant use. Daily computer keyboard use is also a common cause of CTS. In non-athletic scenarios, the CTS usually occur in the dominant hand of the person. In some cases, there is a congenital basis for CTS, whereby the carpal tunnel is unusually narrow. Simple aching from repetition is not a symptom of CTS; the physical restrictions caused by CTS are manifested over a period of weeks or months. The median nerve will also be damaged through compression in cases of wrist facture, which events can occur through a fall on the wrist, a violent twisting motion to the wrist, or a blow to the wrist. Not all wrist fractures will cause or contribute to a CTS condition, but when the fracture is to one or more of the carpal bones, or the fracture otherwise places pressure on the carpal tunnel, the CTS syndrome may arise. When the median nerve becoming irritated through compression, in addition to pain, the nerve impulses along the median nerve are slowed, causing a loss of performance in functions involving the hand. The symptoms of CTS are primarily a tingling, numb sensation noticed in the thumb, or the first three fingers of the hand; CTS does not affect the small finger of the hand. Of primary importance to the athlete, the afflicted person will notice a decreased ability to grip objects, and there will be a corresponding loss of fine motor control and other manual tasks. There are a number of tests that may be performed to isolate CTS from among other causes of the tingling and loss of function in the hand. The Tinel test is performed with pressure being placed on the location of the median nerve, just above the wrist. If a tingling sensation is experienced in the thumb or fingers, the nerve is likely compressed. The Phalen test involves the person extending the arm and flexing the wrist inward; if tingling is experienced, CTS is a strong possibility. In many cases, when the wrist is fractured, the pressure leading to CTS may reveal itself after the wrist bones are subsequently healed. In such circumstances, the carpal tunnel pressure may be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

released by way of surgery. An incision is made to the transverse carpal ligament that covers the tunnel through which the median nerve passes into the hand. The carpal bones are separated slightly, and in this fashion a greater space is created for the median nerve, which will serve to alleviate the pressure applied by the tunnel passage to the nerve. In some cases, the CTS condition may be treated by rest and immobilization, that is, placing the arm in a sling or through the use of a wrist brace). Anti-inflammatory medications such as ibuprofen or corticosteroids (a topical anti-inflammatory) may also assist in reducing the amount of swelling or irritation in the median nerve. Some sports are more prone to wrist fracture than others; CTS is more likely to manifest itself in repetitive wrist movement sports such as rowing, racquet sports, and cycling, or in contact sports in which the wrist has a greater likelihood of exposure to injury through the contact with sticks wielded by opponents, such as ice hockey or lacrosse.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Nervous system; Wrist injuries.

SEE ALSO

CAS, Court of Arbitration for Sport SEE Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS)

CASPER SEE Coalition for Anabolic Steroid Precursor and Ephedra Regulation (CASPER) Cervical fractures The cervical spine is responsible for a variety of spinal movements that are crucial to sport success. The cervical spine is the support mechanism for the skull and is a multidimensional turning and lifting device in combination with the muscles of the neck. The cervical spine is also the bony protection for the spinal cord that runs between the spine and the interior of the body. The cervical spine comprises seven vertebrae, numbered C1 though C7 for identification, with the vertebrae connected by way of flexible ligaments known as facets. The vertebrae are each spaced from one another by disks, which are flexible, fluid-filled membranes that provide considerable

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cushioning for the spine both as it moves and as forces are applied to it. What are commonly classified as neck injuries primarily occur at two places in the cervical spine: one is at the C1 vertebrae (the cranial cervicojunction), referred to as the atlas, the bone upon which the skull is supported; the second occurs at C2, which is the axis upon which the C1 atlas and the skull are able to pivot, flex forward, and extend backward. Not every neck and cervical spine injury that occurs in sports is a fracture. The construction of the cervical spine is relatively flexible, given the mobility provided by the vertebrae facets. The muscles of the neck are vulnerable to strains, caused by the same kinds of forces that will produce injury in other muscle groups. Fractures of the cervical vertebrae are the more dangerous injury. Any bone in the body can be fractured if it receives a force that exceeds its tensile strength (resistance to breaking under tension), or its compressive strength (ability to either bend or to absorb the force). Given the position of the parts of the cervical spine, a fracture resulting from a direct blow to the vertebrae is rare. The common mechanisms that can result in a cervical fracture include: flexion, the bending of the spine; flexion-rotation, a combination bending and rotating movement of the spine; extension, a stretching movement of the spine; extension-rotation, a combination stretching and rotating movement of the spine; or vertical compression, in which force is applied to the top of the spine, causing damage through its downward pressure. The forces generated by these mechanisms on the body are commonly present in two distinct kinds of sport: high velocity sports, such as downhill skiing, ski jumping, bobsledding, and auto racing, and contact sports, including American football, rugby, and ice hockey. In high velocity sports where the athlete can often lose control, the athlete is vulnerable to a high-speed, unprotected collision. An example is a downhill skier who misses a turn on a race course at speeds in excess of 75 mph (120 km/h) and falls, a process bringing the skier into contact with the icy surface of the hill. This movement will often cause the neck to be twisted violently, a flexion-rotation movement that will often fracture the C2 vertebrae. Such accidents are difficult to anticipate and equally impossible to protect against. Violent crashes in auto racing will produce an extension force, a much-magnified form of ‘‘whiplash,’’ in which the neck and head

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In 2002, then-Atlanta Hawk DerMarr Johnson was sidelined for the entire season after suffering four cracked vertebra in his neck following a car accident. His recovery process took nearly a year. PH OTO B Y S COT T CUNN I NG HA M/ NB AE /G ET TY I MAG E S.

continue to move forward on impact and the body endeavors to brace itself by resisting the head and neck motion; such a fracture occurs typically at the C2 vertebrae. Contact sport has its share of both intended and unintended violent collisions; a large number of the cervical fractures occurring in these sports are a product of poor technique by the athlete. American football is the sport that produces the highest number of cervical fractures of almost any sporting activity. The defensive object of the game is to stop the opposition from advancing the football, which requires the execution of a tackle on every play. The defensive player is exposed to a neck injury and, at worst, a cervical fracture or spinal cord injury, if the tackle is executed when the player intends to make contact with the ball carrier by leading with his head. The head then is at risk of being snapped in a direction opposite to the motion of the tackler’s body, causing WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CHEERLEADING

a force that risks both a spinal fracture as well as a spinal cord injury. Improper tackling technique, as well as the forces incorrectly applied to the neck of an athlete in a rugby scrum may potentially lead to a cervical spine injury. Diving is another sport in which, as a result of the distance through which the body travels and the corresponding speed developed at entry, the force upon which the body strikes the dense water is significant. The diver’s neck and cervical spine become exposed to tremendous forces readily capable of causing a fracture. A severed spinal cord and the potential for paralysis are acute in such circumstances.

Back anatomy and physiology; Back injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Neck injuries.

SEE ALSO

training, educational, employment, competitive schedule, and planned vacations. The agency may then conduct out-of-competition testing within these parameters. It is a violation of all anti-doping codes for an athlete to fail to comply with the information set out in the Athlete Location Form; if an athlete is not at the location named in the Form when the agency seeks to conduct a doping test, the athlete is liable to be sanctioned. The CPF provides the athlete and the agency with a measure of flexibility in the course of the period first prescribed by the data in the Athlete Location Form. The athlete may change any competitive, training, or residency information through the CPF, and so long as the form is completed correctly, the revised data becomes binding and operative for all parties.

Athlete Location Form; Out-of-competition testing; U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA); World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Change of Plan Form The Athlete Change of Plan Form (CPF) is one of the administrative tools employed by all anti-doping agencies that are signatories to the World AntiDoping Agency (WADA)-mandated practices regarding out-of-competition doping tests. The CPF is employed in conjunction with the Athlete Location Form to verify the whereabouts of all athletes who may be subject to such testing from time to time. When WADA was created in 1999, its mandate was to lead a worldwide battle against the use of illegal performance-enhancing drugs in international sport; at the time, there was no comprehensive international anti-doping strategy or protocol in place. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) had initiated doping testing at the Olympic Games beginning in 1976, with some member nations in the Olympic movement conducting out-of-competition testing, but the practices were not uniform. In addition to developing technical protocols for the manner in which testing and the obtaining of bodily samples from athletes would be submitted for analysis, WADA established procedures for the administration of all tests, which would be enforced by its national anti-doping member organizations; the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency and the Australian Sports Drug Agency are two such national agencies. Any athlete who is liable to be tested by the national agency will complete a Athlete Location Form at the beginning of the association with the testing process, which provides the agency with his or her comprehensive information concerning the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Cheerleading Cheerleading is an activity that has only recently been generally acknowledged as a bona fide sport. The evolution of cheerleading from a supporting player at university and North American professional sports contests, to an organized and structured competitive event is one of the more interesting athletic progressions in the post World War II period. The origins of cheerleading are defined by its name. In the early 1880s, the male supporters of the Princeton University football team began to organize yells, coordinated chants, and cheers led by a smaller group of students: the famous cheer ‘‘sis boom rah’’ originated at this time. This strictly vocal form of encouragement spread to other American institutions, and by the 1920s, cheerleaders were an established fixture at football games. The first female cheerleaders began to appear in the late 1920s, and by the 1950s, cheerleading began to incorporate tumbling and acrobatic routines. In the 1970s, cheerleading had two distinct aspects. The Dallas Cowboy cheerleaders of the National Football League (NFL) franchise became international celebrities for their sexuality and physical appeal; the Dallas cheerleaders did not perform any of the traditional movements of the university-styled cheerleaders. The second branch of cheerleading was an extension of the old fashioned precision tumbling and coordinated movements of the university-style cheerleaders. From

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Competitive cheer teams exist at thousands of high schools, colleges, universities, and competitive clubs throughout North America. ª L OUIE P SIH OYOS/ CORB IS

this second type, cheerleading became a recognized competitive sport by the late 1990s. Cheerleading is one American invention in sport that has not yet found widespread appeal in other parts of the world. There are over 25 countries that have a national cheerleading organization, particularly in Europe, where the activity is to a significant extent connected to the teams of NFL Europe. European cheerleading, unlike the American, is not connected to a high school or university, but is promoted through amateur community clubs. Contemporary cheerleading, labeled in some circles as the spirit sports and cheer team, has a number of subdivisions. Cheerleading consists of the activities at American sporting events, and also freestanding competitions. The two major forms of the cheerleading are cheerleading and dance team. There are overlaps between these two activities; it is also now common to see a cheerleading squad with two distinct components, dance and cheer team. Competitive cheer teams exist at thousands of high schools, colleges, universities, and competitive

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clubs throughout North America. Cheer team routines include male and female participants, a broad combination of the principles of gymnastics, with single person tumbling, acrobatics, multi-person human pyramids, throws, and other precision movements, combined with dance routines choreographed to music. At a sporting event, the athleticism and precision of the cheerleaders are intended to add spirit and enthusiasm to the game. In competitive cheer team, judges score the efforts of the team on a system similar to other subjective sports, such as gymnastics, synchronized swimming, or diving. Cheerleading, for all of the music and the generally perky, upbeat attitude of the participants, is a physically demanding activity. Cheerleading engages all of the fundamental components of fitness, strength, endurance, flexibility, and speed, all at a reasonably high level. A cheerleader must build significant stamina to support both practices and competitive events, some of which may exceed two hours in duration. Running, cardio machines, and any aerobic sport are a good cardiovascular fitness foundation to a cheerleading season. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CHEERLEADING INJURIES

Strength, both as a component of power and in terms of muscular endurance, is also of significance to the cheerleader. In movements where members of the team will either be supported by their teammates in a structure or thrown, individual cheerleaders are designated either as a base, a support person, or a flyer, those people on the top of the structure or those tossed in the routine. As with any gymnasticsrelated activity, the development of core strength, as centered in the abdominal, gluteal, and lumbar muscles, is essential. The cheerleaders responsible for throwing teammates either into the air, where they are caught before landing, or those occupying the base of the human pyramids, will seek to develop optimal strength in their arms, shoulder muscles, and quadriceps to execute these maneuvers. Stretching and flexibility are also crucial to cheerleading success. The bodies of these athletes are subjected to significant flexion/extension movements in a number of joints, as well as being subjected to forces from running, tumbling, and landing repeatedly. Training programs such as yoga and Pilates are highly recommended for competitive cheerleaders.

Calisthenics; Cheerleading injuries; Gymnastics; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Cheerleading injuries The perception of cheerleading as being separated from real sports in some segments of public opinion is at odds with the modern nature of the intense, highly athletic activity that has approximately one million participants in the United States alone. Cheerleading, through its primary association with high schools, colleges, and universities, tends to be a young person’s sport. As an adjunct to the generation of school spirit and the support of an institution’s athletic program, cheerleading is not regarded as a dangerous or injury-plagued activity. Cheerleading actually presents a number of specific injury risks for the participants. Data compiled by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the leading governing body of intercollegiate sport in the United States (which has formally recognized cheerleading as a varsity sport), suggests that while the injury rate among cheerleaders is relatively low in comparison to other sports, the severity of injury sustained per occurrence is relatively high. There are a number of common factors to the cause of a cheerleading injury. Among younger WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

cheerleaders, a lack of basic physical fitness among participants, especially in preparation for the coming cheerleading season is a prominent factor. At some high school and elementary schools, where proper training facilities may not always be available, the athletes practice on hard surfaces not conducive to the absorption of the forces generated in the repetitive exercise required by cheerleading. Improper coaching techniques, the failure to make available an adult spotter during movements of greater risk, and a general lack of coaching knowledge with respect to injury prevention and risk reduction in cheerleading are also contributors to the injury rate. Coaches, particularly at the younger age levels, do not always appreciate that the sport requires attention to preseason training, particularly in the areas of participant strength, endurance, and flexibility. Cheerleading has also become a yearround activity in many areas of the United States, where the cheerleading team will perform at school or institutional events throughout the entire school year in each of the traditional sports seasons of fall, winter, and spring; the cheerleaders then participate in additional competitive club cheer team events. These long seasons tend to create considerable wear and tear on the musculoskeletal joints, particularly those of the feet, ankles, knees, and wrists, as the athlete is given limited or no opportunity to truly recuperate from these physical stresses. Cheerleading, both as a practice activity and as a competitive event, is a long sequence of repetitive movements, most of which involve the leg muscles and joints. Studies indicate that over 35% of cheerleading injuries occur to the ankle or the knee. The run up and landing to the multitude of tumbling routines performed by cheerleaders are common causes of leg muscle strain and ligament sprain. It is a significant feature of cheerleading injuries that of the injuries that invariably compel the athlete to miss time from the sport, fractures and dislocations were the second most common, next to strains and sprains of soft tissue. Most cheerleading injuries are caused during a partner or multi-person team gymnastics maneuver. The most visually dramatic and the most physically catastrophic of these injuries occur when a person near or at the top of a human pyramid falls, or where the person thrown by two or three teammates in a ‘‘basket toss’’ is not caught or otherwise lands incorrectly. In such instances, the risk of a serious fracture, concussion or other head injury, or joint dislocation is significant. Less dramatic but physically debilitating injuries can occur in the pyramid structures themselves if the cheerleaders do not

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Cheerleading can create considerable wear and tear on the musculoskeletal joints—particularly those of the feet, ankles, knees, and wrists. ª P AU L A . SO UDERS/ CORB IS

possess the appropriate level of upper body strength to maintain their support position in the structure. The most common injuries sustained in these circumstances are shoulder and wrist damage. In the component of some cheerleading teams that performs only dance routines without the gymnastic elements, the injuries sustained are similar to those occurring with ballet dancers: plantar fasciitis (foot tissue inflammation), hip injuries, and other overuse injuries the most common. One specific injury cause identified in recent years among cheerleaders unrelated to the sport itself has been that of inadequate nutrition. The general public sense of cheerleading as something apart from a real sport has perhaps contributed to the failure of the sport itself to emphasize strong nutritional practices as essential to both health and competitive success. A cheerleader, participating in strenuous practices and competition, must be as aware of proper dietary and nutritional practices as any other athlete.

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In a related sense, the fact that most cheerleaders are female, and that the sport places emphasis on physical appearance, makes cheerleading a sport where coaches must be especially aware of any unusual attitudes toward eating. Bulimia and anorexia nervosa are risks in such circumstances, conditions that both psychologically and physically harm an athlete.

Calisthenics; Cheerleading; Gymnastics; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Children’sports

SEE

Youth sports

injuries

Chinese ginseng Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng) is an herbal medication that has been employed in a variety of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CHINESE GINSENG

Some of the most physically catastrophic injuries can occur when the person thrown by two or three teammates in a ‘‘basket toss’’ is not caught or otherwise lands incorrectly. ª BILL LU ST ER/ CORB I S

forms since the origins of the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) practices almost 2,000 years ago. Ginseng roots are the part of the plant that has medicinal value; the plant is a perennial, similar in its structure to types of ginseng that grow naturally in North America and Siberia. The ancient cultures that first used ginseng in teas, medicines, and in combination with other herbs believed that it was a very powerful agent, prized for its ability to increase energy, counter gastrointestinal disorders, improve sexual function, and generally improve metabolism. Modern science has studied the effects of ginseng with respect to both athletic performance and general health. In spite of the long history of ginseng, any definitively positive effects on performance have not proven conclusive. The active ingredient in ginseng, ginsenoside, is classed as an adaptogen (a substance that aids in the development of the restorative processes of the body, assisting the bodily systems in achieving balance). Ginsenoside, present in concentrations of approximately 4% in commercial preparations of Chinese ginseng, operates on the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

hypothalamic-pituitary axis, one of the linkages within the endocrine system, the crucial interconnected glandular system that is responsible for the production of all human hormones—the chemical messengers that signal organs to act in a particular way. The presence of ginseng appears to increase the production of adrenal corticotropic hormone (ACTH), the chemical that stimulates sensations of motivation and intensity during sports competition. Ginseng is a common ingredient in a multitude of commercial energy drinks, herbal teas, and athletic supplements. Many consumers recognize the name and effects of this long-used herb, more so than other natural products, in part because of its longevity as a medicinal plant. Ginseng is commonly available as a dried powder or extract, or it can be sold as the entire root of the plant. While the objective evidence of athletic improvement from ginseng may be inconclusive, unlike many other herbal formulations consumed as dietary supplements, ginseng rarely has serious side effects. As an adaptogen, there is a significant basis for the

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responsible for carrying all nerve impulses to the limbs from the brain, will not itself perform in an optimal fashion. Alternative medicine is defined as virtually any form of physical care or treatment of human ailments that is carried out by healthcare professionals who are not trained as medical doctors in Western medical schools. The treatments falling outside of the conventional Western medical techniques are sometimes the last resort of persons who cannot find relief, particularly those with chronic conditions. Well-known alternative medicines, if not practices entirely accepted by physicians and surgeons, include naturopathy (the use of natural remedies such as botanical medicines and a focus on the whole body), acupuncture (especially in the relief of muscle injuries and pain management), massage therapy, and chiropractic.

Ginseng root is used as an herbal remedy to promote healing and general strength. ª BOB K RI S T/C ORB IS

Chiropractic, a term derived from the Greek expression for ‘‘performed by hand’’ was first developed as a system of medical treatment by Daniel David Palmer (1845–1913), who determined that the proper alignment of the spine, through its interrelationship with the central nervous system, influenced a number of the body’s skeletal and muscular systems. The chiropractic view of injury treatment has never been entirely welcomed by medical governing bodies such as the American Medical Association; there is a grudging acceptance today on the part of most physicians that chiropractic has a role in the management of certain types of musculoskeletal injuries.

Chiropractic medicine and sport

Conventional chiropractic treatments center upon the alignment of the spine and other joints; the manipulation of the parts of the skeleton in question are performed by hand by the chiropractor, with the objective that the better skeletal alignment will occur in a pain-free fashion. Chiropractic treatments also often are combined with various other processes such as electronic muscle stimulation, ultrasound (the generation of sound waves that are directed at an injured tissue or structure to produce heat, with the aim of speeding the healing process), and massage therapy. Chiropractic treatment does not utilize pain-killing medications or anti-inflammatory drugs.

Chiropractic (sometimes referenced as chiropractic medicine) is one of the alternatives to conventional Western medicine that is now so well established in certain types of injury treatment as to be itself mainstream; chiropractors are now the third largest group of healthcare practitioners in the Unites States. It is the essence of chiropractic that when the vertebrae are misaligned, the spinal cord,

Given the stresses that many sports place upon the human structure, chiropractic has found favor with a significant constituency within the athletic community, both as a treatment resource and as a preventative technique. Within the discipline itself, there has emerged a specialist, the sport chiropractor, with specialized knowledge of musculoskeletal problems experienced by athletes, coupled with a

position that ginseng has a positive effect in the promotion of internal energy balance and harmony within the body, having at least an indirect assist to sports performance. SEE ALSO

Dietary supplements; Energy drinks; Ephedra;

Herbs.

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Diver jumps from a 26-m high cliff in Brontallo, Switzerland during the 1998 Cliff Diving World Championships. KA RL MA TH IS/ AFP /GETT Y IMAGE S

focus on nutrition and other natural health concepts. In the United States, this aspect of chiropractic practice is governed by the American Chiropractic Board of Sports Physicians; similar bodies exist in many other nations where sport and chiropractic have intersected. The most common chiropractic manipulation, referred to as an adjustment, is that of the vertebrae. Injuries that are commonly treated, either exclusively through chiropractic manipulation or in conjunction with other massage or a therapeutic exercise regime, include sprained joints, muscle strains or pulls, tendonitis (particularly occurring in the elbow or Achilles tendon), bursitis, and generalized joint injuries. Many athletes have derived a benefit from chiropractic adjustments as part of a comprehensive treatment plan. Chiropractors will operate in conjunction with any other treatment professionals, including a team physician and physical therapists. A significant WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

benefit of chiropractic is that as the treatments are drug free, the athlete has no pharmaceutical masking of the condition; consequently, the biofeedback to the athlete, passed along to medical personnel, is not distorted by any analgesic. Further, a drug-free treatment regime has the additional benefit of insuring that the athlete will not be prescribed any substance that might be determined to be a prohibited substance, with negative consequences for both the athlete and a team. Chiropractic has also achieved notice as a preventative system, akin to regularly scheduled maintenance for the body. Many athletes believe that they have derived a significant benefit through both tuning their alignment to its best position prior to competition and aiding the body’s recuperation subsequent to an event. Sports that have seen a particular involvement of the sport chiropractor include gymnastics, with its high potential for overuse-type injuries and

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significant forces applied to the spine, and distance running, in which both recreational runners and elite competitors seek peek biomechanical function. Chiropractic is an option for both the prevention and the treatment of injury, with an understanding that it is a discipline with a finite limit. Chiropractic manipulations may, for example, assist with the resolution of a lumbar strain, or various types of joint pain; chiropractic will not solve structural damage such as a fractured vertebrae or a ruptured Achilles tendon.

Acupuncture and Eastern healing therapies; Back anatomy and physiology; Massage therapy; Nervous system; Skeletal muscle.

SEE ALSO

CLA

SEE

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)

Cliff diving Cliff diving is an ancient athletic activity with the modern attractions of all of the extreme sports where the effect of gravity plays the most significant role. As the name suggests, cliff diving involves the execution of various types of dives from natural features such as cliffs or other high, rocky precipices that over look a large body of water. Cliff diving is closely allied to high diving, an activity that can be pursued from any high place adjacent to or spanning water, such as a bridge or trestle. The English explorers who first visited Hawaii in the early 1770s noted the chief of the indigenous peoples diving from the cliffs into the ocean, deliberately making a feet first entry into the water so as to generate little or no splash. Cliff diving was also a part of the Mayan culture of southern Mexico; La Quebrada is the most famous of these diving locales and it remains a tourist attraction today. Cliff diving is now organized on an international basis through the World High Diving Federation (WHDF), with its headquarters in Switzerland. The WHDF sanctions an annual world championship and it has established a qualification and competition judging system that is akin to the manner in which dives are judged in the more conventional Olympic settings. A basic cliff diving technique is a dive that ends with an entry head first into the water. Cliff divers are taught to extend their arms with the palms of their hands held tightly together to protect the face

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from the impact of the water. On contact with the water, the hands enter the water first, and as the diver is moving at a high speed, the hands create a stream of bubbles in which the diver is surrounded as the diver’s body makes contact with the surface. At a height of 33 ft (10 m), the diver shall strike the water at a speed of over 30 mph (50km/h). With a dive from 100 ft (30 m), the diver strikes the water at a speed of over 53 mph (87km/h). These speeds contribute to the large forces generated when the diver enters the water. For these reasons the diver’s entry must be as precise and as efficient as possible. SEE ALSO

Diving; Extreme sports.

Coaching

SEE

Sports coaching

Coalition for Anabolic Steroid Precursor and Ephedra Regulation (CASPER) Founded in 2003, the Coalition for Anabolic Steroid Precursor and Ephedra Regulation (CASPER) is an American organization headquartered in Washington, D.C. The stated mission of CASPER is to work for the legislative control of anabolic steroids and ephedra that are sold as dietary supplements. CASPER also seeks to further the education of the American public concerning the perceived health risks presented by dietary supplements that contain either anabolic steroids or ephedra. CASPER has a membership composed of high level American sports and medical organizations, including the American Council on Exercise, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the National Football League (NFL), the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency, and the United States Olympic Committee. CASPER has publicly endorsed the efforts of various U.S. politicians to bring the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004 into law. This legislation prevents anabolic steroid precursors, also known as anabolic prohormones, such as androstenedione (or andro), from being sold as a dietary supplement. The legislation would classify all anabolic steroid precursors as drugs and subject them to more stringent control within the United States. Precursors are not themselves capable of promoting muscle growth, but like all hormones, they act to stimulate an organ into a particular action. Andro, dehydroepianrosterone WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

COLD-RELATED ILLNESSES AND EMERGENCIES

(DHEA), and similar chemicals act to promote the release of testosterone, the male sex hormone, which itself will stimulate muscle growth. Ephedra has been the subject of ceaseless controversy with respect to the regulation of its commercial sale in the United States. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States moved to ban the sale and distribution of all forms of ephedra and its inclusion in supplementation in 2004; this decision has attracted significant attention as various American interests sought legal action to overturn the ephedra ban. Ephedra, a well-known stimulant, is valued in many sectors of the public, among both athletes and non-athletes alike, for its claimed therapeutic qualities. Government authorities pointed to its apparent heightening of risk of heart attack through use as a basis for its ban. CASPER seeks to have ephedra regulated as a drug and not as a food supplement; the enforcement powers available to the government through the Anabolic Steroid Control Act are significantly more stringent.

temperatures below 40 F (4 C) exposure time to cold temperature wind speed and wind temperature dampness (the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere) immersion in cold water

In cold weather conditions, approximately 60% of bodily energy stores are used for heat. The body’s energy is derived from its metabolism of glucose, stored as a fuel within the muscles and liver. When the body is required to deliver energy to working muscles in cold weather, as in endurance sports such as cross-country skiing, the potential risks from cold weather are magnified, as the body uses significant stores for athletic power. When exposed to cold temperatures, the cardiovascular system will seek to protect itself by constricting the blood vessels near the skin surface.

SEE ALSO

The combination of cold weather and wind creates what is known as the ‘‘wind chill factor,’’ which quantifies the relationship between cold temperatures and wind on the body. Wind chill is an expression for the actual effect of the environment on the body in a given atmospheric condition.

Cold-related illnesses and emergencies

The wind chill factor is best understood, for example, when the air temperature is 0 F (13 C) and there is no wind, unprotected skin will freeze in 30 minutes; when the wind speed is 20 mph (32 km/ hr) at this same temperature, the wind chill is 22 F ( 30 C), skin will freeze in as little as 10 minutes, resulting in the condition known as frostbite.

Anabolic steroids; Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act, 1994; Ephedra; Nandrolone; Stimulants.

Cold weather presents an array of potential physical problems for anyone who is active in the outdoors. Winter sports can be of particular concern to the athlete, because the cold is a problem on its own, as well as often magnifying other inherent risks. Cold is a somewhat subjective state, as some people, through either acclimatization or body type, are better equipped to tolerate cold weather. Science has determined that the threat of cold-related illness is usually considered when the outdoor temperature reaches 40 F (4 C) or below. At these temperatures, the cold weather will begin to impact on the function of the body’s cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, both of which function best when the core temperature of the body is 98.6 F (37 C). Outdoor temperature is the most important, but not the exclusive, component when assessing the risk factors that contribute to a cold weather illness. In order of importance, the factors are: WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Frostbite is the freezing of the skin or underlying body tissue. It is a serious condition, as the damage done to the body, typically to the toes, the nose, fingers, cheeks or ears, may necessitate amputation of the afflicted part. Frostbite often, but not exclusively, occurs in conjunction with the coldrelated illness, hypothermia. Hypothermia has a very simple causal mechanism—if, exposed to extreme cold, the body temperature falls below 95 F (35 C), the gland that regulates body temperature, the hypothalamus, will no longer function. The body will then become too chilled to generate sufficient energy to produce replacement body heat to raise its temperature; the essential systems will ultimately cease function. Hypothermia requires immediate medical attention to reverse the body temperature drop. There are a number of circumstances that may accelerate the onset of hypothermia, including: alcohol, caffeine, or nicotine (all serve to dehydrate the body)

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athletic activity, causing loss of fluids a cardiovascular system weakened by other factors, such as diabetes or high blood pressure) gender: females have been shown to tolerate cold temperatures better than males; (the two most-cited factors are higher typical body fat, which insulates against the cold, and a greater degree of mental toughness) fatigue poor quality or wet clothing Hypothermia and frostbite can occur independently of one another. For example, if a cross-country skier or snow mobiler falls through the ice into a body of water, the water temperature will likely be close to 32 F (0 C), given it is not frozen. The skin of the victim will not freeze while in the water, but the person will die of hypothermia in less than 10 minutes in such conditions. Frostbite will typically appear as a pale or whitish-colored spot on the skin. In its initial stages, frostbitten skin may ache or cause an itching sensation. As the affliction progresses, the victim will usually experience a loss of feeling in the skin; to the touch, the skin may feel as if it has thickened. In a frostbite emergency, it is imperative that the injured limb or portion of the body immediately be protected from further exposure to the cold. The skin may then be slowly warmed, with a heated wrap or similar covering with which the skin temperature may be gradually raised. In a case of hypothermia, it is imperative that the torso and chest be warmed first, so as to maintain a supply of reasonably warm blood in the heart to be circulated; warming the extremities may cause a rush of cold temperature blood to the heart, which may cause a sudden cardiac arrest. The victim should be kept warm, but alcohol or narcotics should not be administered.

Cold weather exercise; First aid kits for sports; Hypothermia.

SEE ALSO

Cold weather exercise Cold weather is an subjective expression that may convey different meanings to different people. In an equatorial country, any temperature below 60 F (15.5 C) is often characterized as cold; in high northern latitudes, cold weather is said to exist when the temperature is persistently in the range of 20 F ( 28 C) or colder. Like extreme heat, the human

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body possesses the ability to adapt itself to the stresses created by cold. From a meteorological perspective, cold weather is generally said to exist where the air temperature is 40 F (4 C), or below. Accompanying climatic conditions such as snow, ice, and wind will increase the effect of cold temperatures on human performance. The prevalent wind chill factor, the correlation between temperature and wind velocity, is the most important of these factors, as increased wind velocity will increase the effect of cold upon the body. Sports such as speed skating, running, cross-country skiing, and cold weather cycling are of special note in assessing wind chill, because each activity, by virtue of the athlete’s movement, will generate its own wind forces. Cold weather affects the bodily systems in different ways. The cardiovascular system, the heartconnected network of vessels that distributes blood throughout the body, responds to cold stimulus by increasing blood pressure and heart rate, and reducing the amount of blood closest to the skin surface. The airway passages of the cardiorespiratory system, which governs the breathing mechanisms, tend to narrow, making the inhalation of air more difficult. Persons who are susceptible to asthma or exerciseinduced bronchitis have greater difficulty breathing in cold air. The bodily stores of glucose, stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles and converted to the energy component adenosine triphosphate (ATP), are depleted approximately five times more quickly in cold weather, a circumstance that forces the body to switch to the conversion of body fat to ATP for its energy requirements. In addition to the effect of cold weather upon the body systems, cold weather creates unique injury hazards. Hypothermia and frostbite are the two chief cold weather injuries. Frostbite is the freezing of a portion of skin or bodily tissue through exposure to cold. Hypothermia is the reduction of the core temperature of the body from its healthy, steady state of 98.6 F (37 C) to below 95 F (35 C). In this condition, the body cannot generate sufficient heat through metabolism to keep itself warm. The hypothalamus gland, which regulates temperature, ceases to function; if the hypothermia is not treated quickly, death may result. As serious as the consequences of cold weather injury can be, the precautions available to the cold weather athlete are both straightforward and effective. One of the most important steps to be taken for cold weather athletics wearing clothing that is WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JOHN COLLINS

in cold weather. Protective screens and sunglasses are essential on bright days, especially when there is reflection on snow. In addition, water or an electrolytic fluid should be carried; dehydration is as significant a concern in the winter cold as it presents in summer heat, as a dehydrated cold weather athlete will have a correspondingly reduced blood volume. The consumption of alcohol and cold weather exercise should be avoided, as alcohol is a diuretic that tends to dehydrate the body. A thorough warm up and cool down of the body are essential to cold weather exercise. The warm up will lessen both the mental and the physiological shock of taking the body into cold. Finally, route planning is important to minimize wind chill effects for endurance sports such as running and cross-country skiing. The athlete should begin the workout by heading into the wind; in this fashion, the perspiration generated on the body will not be subject to wind chill effect on the return portion of the training.

Cold-related illnesses and emergencies; Exposure injuries; Hypothermia.

SEE ALSO

A swimmer washes himself after winter swimming at Shichahai Lake in Beijing, China. Winter swimming is a popular sport among Beijing residents. P HO TO BY CH I NA P HOT OS /G ETT Y I MAG E S.

layered to permit the athlete to remove of one or more layers, when circumstances permit. A useful layering system will include polypropylene, or a similar synthetic, next to the skin. This layer will allow perspiration to flow away, or ‘‘wick,’’ from the skin, keeping the skin drier and more insulated. The second layer will usually be a fleece for warmth. The third, outer layer will be a weather proof shell. Head covering is particularly important to the outdoor athlete because approximately 50% of all body heat generated in cold weather is lost through the head surface. Hats with polypropylene layers serve the same function for the wicking of head perspiration as on the body. A balaclava-type face covering will protect the skin from wind. Like the head, hands should be similarly protected. Also, a scarf or similar protection will assist in the warming of air as it enters the mouth and respiratory system. Harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays should also be taken into consideration. UV rays from the sun are no less powerful WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

John Collins 1933– AMERICAN U.S. NAVAL OFFICER (RETIRED)

John Collins is recognized as the developer of the world’s most famous triathlon, the Hawaii Ironman. Collins had been stationed with the United States Navy near San Diego in 1974 and 1975. It was there that he participated in some of the early triathlons organized by the local running and biking community. When Collins was transferred to Hawaii in 1977, he and a group of local athletes, including his wife Judy, discussed what type of athlete was the best, the toughest, and the fittest. From those discussions, Collins developed the idea of combining the courses and distances of three existing Hawaiian races into one ultimate athletic challenge. The Waikiki Rough Water swim (2.4 m, or 4 km), the Around Oahu Bike Race (112 m, or 191 km), and the Honolulu Marathon (26.2 m, or 42.2 km) were the distances combined by Collins into one event. The first Ironman competition did not have this name when the race was held on February 18, 1978.

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Collins had declared prior to the race that, ‘‘Whoever finishes first we’ll call the Iron man.’’ Fifteen athletes took up the challenge and twelve, including Collins, were able to finish the race. Collins placed a note in the race kits given to each of his entrants in 1978, a saying that was adopted and subsequently registered as a trademark for the Hawaii Ironman: Swim 2.4 miles! Bike 112 miles! Run 26.2 miles! Brag for the rest of your life! The Ironman went on to achieve considerable international media attention in the early 1980s as the world’s toughest sporting challenge. It spawned an entire series of international qualifiers. More importantly, the Ironman and the shorter distanced triathlons became synonymous with the concept of cross training. The various events in the Ironman require distinct training methods; an athlete could not focus upon one of the three disciplines and expect to succeed. The Ironman and triathlon boom of the 1980s and the 1990s also inspired the development of specialized clothing, such as wetsuits, as well as bicycles configured to permit easier operation and aerodynamic effect for the triathlete. Collins has been inducted into both the Triathlon and the Ironman Halls of Fame located in San Diego. SEE ALSO

Cross training; Ironman competitions;

Triathlon.

Common foot injuries With 26 bones, 33 joints, and 112 ligaments, the human foot is an intricate skeletal structure. The foot, in concert with the entire musculoskeletal system, is the launching pad for dynamic athletic movements that routinely generate forces that when absorbed by the foot, exceed four times or more the weight of the athlete. Different sports may demand repetitive foot movements, such as the strike of the foot on the ground or the track while running. Other athletic endeavors involve sudden, explosive footwork, such as in soccer or rugby. Each type of foot mechanics creates distinct prospects for foot injury. Foot injuries that occur to the bones or ligaments most often result from misalignment of the structure. Foot injuries may be placed within three general classifications: skin, toenail, or blister injuries. These injuries are not structural in nature, but are caused by an external agent. The most common examples of

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such injuries include athlete’s foot (tinea pedis), a fungal infection; ingrown toenail, in which the nail cuticle grows into the surrounding skin, causing infection; and blisters, which result from poorly fitting socks or shoes. Injuries caused by either overuse or as a result of a structural misalignment are similar in that only through significant activity do preexisting or underlying structural problems usually reveal themselves. The significant overuse sports injuries that occur in the foot include a sprained metatarsalphalangeal (MTP) joint, plantar fasciitis, misaligned bones or tendons in the foot, bunions, neuroma, calcaneal bumps, and stress fractures. A sprained MTP (big toe) joint often presents as ‘‘turf toe’’ so-called due to injuries created through running on artificial surfaces. This type of sprain is caused by a sudden bending of the big toe joint in an upward direction. This movement results in damage to the ligament of the big toe, which connects it to the metatarsal bone. Plantar fasciitis occurs when the tendon that extends beneath the sole of the foot from the heel to the toes becomes irritated, causing pain when the athlete places significant pressure on the foot through running or jumping. This condition is caused by the over-pronation (inward turning) of the foot as the foot strikes the ground while running. The condition is often corrected with the use of an orthotic, a device inserted into the athlete’s shoe to correct misalignment. The misalignment of the tendons of one or more toes cause a condition known as ‘‘hammer toe.’’ Overpronation causes the tendons to pull the toe structure out of its natural position, resulting in a bent toe and painful cramping of the foot inside a shoe. In its early stages, before the joint in question becomes immobile, a hammer toe can be corrected with an orthotic. A bunion is a bony outgrowth that extends from the base of the big toe. This condition is also caused by either over-pronation or as a result of wearing overly tight shoes. Bunions place significant pressure on the foot and can impair athletic performance. A very large bunion is often surgically removed; lesser bunions can usually be addressed with an orthotic. A neuroma is the constriction of a nerve in the forefoot between the third and fourth toe, usually caused by over-pronation; the motion of the foot as it pronates creates a measure of slackness in the metatarsal bones that then come into contact with the nerve. Depending on the extent of the damage to the nerve, the treatment for this condition will range WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

COMMON FOOT INJURIES

Argentinean tennis player Mariano Zabaleta is treated for a foot injury during game.

from the insertion of a metatarsal pad at the point of discomfort to provide better cushioning and thus limit irritation, a cortisone injection to reduce any inflammation caused by the constriction, or, as a last resort, surgery to remove the nerve. Metatarsalgia occurs when one of the five metatarsal bones is not aligned with the others; the misaligned bone will often cause pain in the forefoot during running, at the point where the metatarsal meets the toe. The condition may be corrected by a device as simple as a rubber pad inserted in the shoe at the point below the misaligned bone, so as to raise it to the same profile as the other metatarsals. Calcaneal bumps, also referred to as heel spurs, are bony growths that develop on the back of the calcaneus, or heel bone. Often associated with the development of a plantar fasciitis condition, the pressure created by the calcaneal bump irritates the tendon when the foot of the runner strikes the ground. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PA SCA L GUY OT/ AF P /G ET TY I MAG E S

The condition is primarily managed through the use of cushioned shoes and anti-inflammatories. In severe cases, the bone spur is surgically shaved away. A stress fracture is a break in a bone of the foot that is most commonly caused by repetitive stress placed upon the structure, where the alignment of the bone to the rest of the skeleton of the foot is not symmetrical. Significant overtraining in running or high intensity training on a hard surface to which the athlete is not accustomed are common stress fracture mechanisms. A stress fracture will usually be revealed in an x-ray as a small crack, or fissure, on the bone surface. Foot stress fractures often occur in the second, third, or fourth metatarsals. Given the relative size of the bones of the foot, a fracture resulting from a trauma is a regular, if not common, occurrence in sport. Such injuries include an object falling on the foot, such as might occur in a

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weight training accident, or an object forcefully colliding with the foot, such as a fast bowled cricket ball or a baseball. The calcaneus (heel bone) often is chipped when the Achilles tendon ruptures, pulling the base of the tendon away from the bone.

Foot: Anatomy and physiology; Orthotics; Running injuries; Stress fracture of the foot.

SEE ALSO

Compression treatment for injuries SEE RICE (Rest/Ice/Compression/ Elevation) treatment for injuries

Compulsive exercise Compulsive exercise, also referred to in the scientific literature as obligatory exercise, is a psychological condition with a number of possible points of origin. As a general rule, compulsive exercise is defined by that level of physical activity that repeatedly exceeds the safe or usual limits for a particular athlete. Compulsive exercise is a symptom common to two separate and distinct types of emotional disturbances on the part of an athlete: the presence of an eating disorder, or the combined effects of obsessive/ compulsive behavior that stem from a narcissistic approach to personal fitness on the part of the individual. Eating disorders are a well-known problem in society generally, as young women are frequently faced with media depictions of the female ideal that are difficult to emulate. Eating disorders become a particular concern for female athletes who participate in sports in which body image is important to performance success, such as gymnastics, diving, and cheerleading. Eating disorders are one-third of the often-described female athlete triad: amenorrhea, osteoporosis (the loss of bone density, generally after menopause), and eating disorders. Amenorrhea is the interruption or complete cessation of a female’s menstrual cycle, usually caused by poor nutrition and compulsive exercise. Eating disorders stem from circumstances in which athletes feel an irrational desire to maintain an ultra-thin build. It is common for these athletes to engage in seemingly constant physical activity to burn calories, over and above any commitment to a well-balanced training program. The compulsive exerciser with an eating disorder may often engage

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in the cycle of binge eating and purging by the use of laxatives or induced vomiting, which are the hallmarks of the condition known as bulimia. When the athlete engages in compulsive exercise without a direct connection to an identified eating disorder, the athlete typically calculates personal self-worth by the value of athletic ability; such persons become addicted to a sport lifestyle of continual training, recordkeeping, and various obsessions that center around sport. It is common for these persons to make their training requirements primary to those of education, employment, family, or social obligations. These athletes commonly link exercise to their food consumption, exercising more if they eat more. They will often attempt to ignore any injuries, never permitting their bodies to completely recover from the stresses of training. Compulsive exercise, coupled with the abuse of diet pills, laxatives, and diuretics, is also a hallmark of some athletes who compete in weight classifications. Athletes who are compulsive regarding training and exercise are most liable to become profoundly depressed if they are prevented, for any reason, from participating in their usual training. Compulsive exercise in all of its forms places significant stress on the body. When the compulsion is combined with the binge/purge cycle of bulimia, additional strains are placed on the renal system (kidneys) and the general function of the cardiovascular system, due to lower than optimum fluid levels within the body.

Habitual physical activity; Overtraining; Psychological disorders; Sport psychology.

SEE ALSO

Computer simulations as a training tool The first crude computer simulations were applications developed using the physically cumbersome and mathematically limited mainframe computers of the late 1960s. The speed of these computers was directed to creating models that predicted athlete performance in sports where biomechanics was a central analytical component, such as sprinting. These number-crunching simulations gave way to the refinements of the 1970s and 1980s, where increasingly complex computer graphics packages were developed to increase the range of activities that could be both simulated and predicted with data linked in an underlying computer program. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID (CLA)

The growth of the computer-based video game industry has paralleled the use of computer simulations as a training tool in athletics of all kinds, as both products share common concepts. The first interactive computer baseball game was developed in 1971. Simulation is a process by which the specific anticipated effects that the athlete will experience in the course of performance are replicated through a computer. The outcome of an event can be predicted by using actual data gathered concerning previous similar events. The simulation may be designed to either mimic the desired competitive or racing environment, or to project what is a desired result for the particular athlete or team. The simulation is constructed on a series of mathematical codes that are used to build the programs that are the basis for the visual and graphic replication of the simulated event. Although used in some similar circumstances as simulation, a computer model is a more limited sports training tool than simulation. A computer model represents a component of a more comprehensive simulation; as an example, a computer-designed hull for a racing yacht is a model; how the hull performs in various simulated weather, wave action, and currents is the simulation. Computer simulations are now employed in most sports, either as an instructional tool regarding technique or strategy for an individual athlete or a team or as an aid to equipment design and modification. Prominent examples include: Individual sports simulations, such as those that assist an athlete to achieve greater biomechanical efficiency and optimum body position in sports such as running, diving, skating, cross country skiing, and swimming. High speed sports in which aerodynamics will significantly affect competitive outcomes, such as downhill skiing, bobsledding, and auto racing. Team sports such as rowing and America’s Cup yacht racing are examples of how computer simulations of a particular course permit a team to race the event in advance, which permits the development of strategies and assessment of likely performance. Computer simulations used in sports represent the combined talents of four distinct disciplines: computer science, which governs the development of the appropriate programming for the desired simulation; mechanical engineering, which applies to the physical construction of a simulator and the interrelationship with the applicable software; kinesiology and human performance disciplines; WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

and sport-specific coaching expertise, which supplies the connection between the athlete and the value of the simulated activity. The processing power, ever-increasing memory capabilities, and the speed of modern computers have taken computer simulation to more realistic levels in its application as a sport training tool. In some instances, the simulator is itself a work of engineering genius, the product of a number of advanced scientific applications. The bobsled simulator is an example. As a sport-inspired offshoot of the simulators used to develop aircraft pilots, the bobsled simulator permits the athletes to be physically positioned precisely as they would be during a bobsled run. It also delivers the sensations of speed (a four-man bobsled will often reach speeds of more than 95 mph [150 km/hour]) and duration, as the races are contested on an icy track that is a minimum of 1 mi (1,500 m) long. The dimensions of the turns and the downward grade of every course on the world can be programmed into the simulator, permitting the athletes to experience the applicable G forces (a measurement of the acceleration forces felt by the body as the vehicle speeds through the turns of the racecourse). The bobsled simulator illustrates how an athlete may maximize training effect. The bobsledder can make as many ‘‘runs’’ as he or she may choose in a training day; difficult portions of the track may be driven repeatedly, and the simulator provides comprehensive feedback. Further, in a weathersensitive sport such as the bobsled, the athlete can practice year round, without the expense of travel and equipment transport. Other simulations have been developed in the traditional track and field events. Simulations are used extensively to permit sprinters to practice starts. In sports such as the pole vault, simulations are used to predict how a certain type of jumping pole will react in concert with the forces generated by a particular athlete. With the javelin and the hammer throw, an athlete may use a simulation tool to refine the precise point that will maximize the distance he or she is able to send the object. SEE ALSO

Sport performance; Sport psychology; Sports

coaching.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) Linoleic acid is a naturally occurring polyunsaturated fatty acid of the omega classification (omega is

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the group of fatty acids that are generally believed to promote good health within the cardiovascular system). Linoleic acid is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, as expressed by the chemical formula C18H32O2. The chief function of linoleic acid within the body is in the production of prostaglandins, a synthesized form of fatty acids that assist in the contraction of various types of blood vessels. Fatty acids generally, including the omega-3 commonly found in fish products, perform a variety of important functions within the body. In addition to their contribution to the health of human cells, fatty acids assist in the body’s ability to absorb the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K and, when stored within the body’s adipose tissues, these fats are an important insulation and reserve energy source. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a natural substance created through the mixture of various linoleic acid isomers (substances that are composed of the same molecules, but in a different arrangement and possessing different properties). The best-known forms of CLA are found in the products of ruminant animals, those than chew and regurgitate their food, such as cows. Fish oils, vegetable oils, and sunflower oils are also common CLA sources. As CLA plays a role within the body in the regulation of body fat, studies have demonstrated that a balanced diet with CLA-rich foods assists in the manner in which the body will utilize stored fats. So far, there is no research that confirms a definitive cause-and-effect relationship in support of the proposition that increased consumption of CLA will prevent various diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, or arteriosclerosis. However, unlike other supplements touted for their beneficial qualities with respect to these types of illness, the efficacy of fatty acids such as CLA within the body in other respects is proven. CLA is not believed to be toxic in large amounts; the consumption of excessive quantities of CLA might contribute to the production of excess body fats ultimately stored in the adipose tissues, which is where such excess CLA would be stored within the body.

Body composition and weight control; Dietary supplements; Fat utilization; Weight loss.

SEE ALSO

Contact lens technology The evolution of the contact lens from cumbersome eyewear to sports performance aid has been a remarkable one. The original, and fragile, contact

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lens was not an ideal fit in the unpredictable world of sports, although for many athletes it represented a great step forward from the only other option—bulky and peripheral vision-limiting athletic eyeglasses. Contact lens technology has evolved from the hard, glass lens to a very soft, thin plastic composite product. The development of a sport-specific contact lens has occurred in recent years, driven by the desire of professional athletes to use not simply a lens that properly corrects their vision, but one that increases their ability to see more clearly. One of the first successes reported in the use of a sport-specific contact lens was that experienced by American drag racer Gary Scelzi, who had been diagnosed with an astigmatism, caused by an irregularly shaped cornea that tends to distort vision in the subject eye. Sclezi was prescribed lenses that corrected his vision to beyond the accepted standard or optimum, known as 20/20 (where the wearer can see at a 20 ft [6 m] distance what a normal person may see at 20 ft), to 20/15. The lens was also specifically created to give Scelzi an enhanced fine-depth perception. Sclezi noted a dramatic improvement in his ability to react to the starting lights that govern drag racing. The modern sport contact lenses can also be modified to filter out certain light wavelengths to accentuate a particular visual element in a sport, often in those disciplines that involve that athlete reacting to the position of a ball in relation to a background. The lens tint is used for athletes with myopia (nearsightedness) or hyperopia (farsightedness). In outdoor sports, such as football, golf, or running, the sport lens is tinted gray-green, which permits the wearer to better distinguish between the shades of a certain color, such as the green a golfer will see on a fairway, as opposed to that of the putting surface. A number of professional baseball players wear an amber-tinted contact lens for games played in variable lighting conditions. The amber tint blocks blue light from being received into the eye, and it is believed that this enables the player to better see fast-moving objects, such as a baseball, against a fixed background. The enhanced contact lens technology may provide a certain psychological lift to the athlete in addition to the physical correction of vision. In many sports where hand-eye coordination is the premium skill, if the athletes believe that they can see the target object better, they may in fact perform better because they will mentally simulate the activity more effectively prior to making the actual play. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CORTISONE STEROID INJECTIONS

Age-related responses to injury; Motor control; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO

Cool down

SEE

Warm up/Cool down

Core body temperature Core body temperature is the physical state at which the internal organs and bodily systems function at an optimal level. Core body temperature is an aspect of thermoregulation, the body’s ability to control its operating temperature within a constant range. The ideal core body temperature has traditionally been stated as 98.6 F (37.7 C). This stated ideal temperature is in fact the approximate midpoint of the range of optimal temperatures that are sought to be maintained by the body, from a low of 96 F to a maximum of 100 F (36 C to 39 C). Every human possesses individual physiological factors that contribute to the variability of a healthy core body temperature, including the base metabolic rate (BMR, the rate at which the body consumes energy while at rest), physical conditions such as pregnancy, and the ingestion of various medications. When the core body temperature approaches the lower part of the desired range, the body will take corrective measures through its temperature control regulation system centered in the hypothalamus region of the brain. The body approaches a hypothermic state at these lowered temperatures. To preserve the ability of the internal organs to function, the hypothalamus initiates a reduction in the volume of blood circulating near the surface of the body in order to retain a greater volume of warm blood near the internal organs. These conditions often occur during participation in cold weather sports, such as cross-country skiing, or other circumstances in which athletes have significant exposure to extreme weather. If the core body temperature increases beyond the upper safe limit of approximately 100 F (39 C), the hypothalamus takes an opposite action to that employed during hypothermic conditions. To counter a hyperthermic state, the hypothalamus initiates an increase in blood volume, directing the warmed blood toward the surface of the skin to promote its cooling. The body also seeks to dissipate the increased internal heat by promoting the production of greater amounts of perspiration, which is released from the eccrine WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

sweat glands for eventual evaporation at the skin surface. When the body has sustained an illness such as a fever or an infection, or when the internal temperature has increased due to warm weather exercise, the release of perspiration will also occur. A number of instruments and techniques exist to obtain a core temperature reading. The traditional method involves the insertion of a thermometer under the tongue of the individual; this technique is subject to variables, such as the manner in which the tongue is actually positioned in the mouth or the presence of fluids in the mouth that may affect the temperature reading. An accepted alternative means for determining body temperature is the positioning of the thermometer in the armpit of the person. Again, an incorrect position that created exposure of the thermometer to either cool skin or the air itself would also produce an imprecise reading. The two most accurate methods of taking core temperature are through the use of a rectal thermometer or a tympanic thermometer. Rectal thermometers are designed to be inserted a sufficient distance into the rectum of the individual to obtain a measure at a place close to the internal organs that are maintained at the optimum body temperature. The tympanic thermometer is a modern device that is attached to a handheld instrument and inserted into the inner ear; the blood flow in the vicinity of the tympanum, the middle ear, provides an accurate indication of the temperature at the body core.

Acclimatization; Cold weather exercise; Heat stroke; Thermoregulatory system.

SEE ALSO

Corner men

SEE

Corticosteroids

Boxing, corner men

SEE

Topical

corticosteroids

Cortisone steroid injections Injections of cortisone—a steroid hormone produced naturally by the adrenal glands and that can also be synthesized—is a therapy designed to minimize damage to joints. The relief provided can enable an athlete to continue the physical activity, or, in the case of a more severe injury, can be part of a rehabilitation program.

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Cortisone is essential for proper body function. Its absence causes Addison’s disease. If untreated, the disease is fatal. Treatment consists of administration of synthetic cortisone (brands include DepoMedrol, Celestone, and Kenalog). In the larger amounts used for therapy, cortisone acts by easing inflammation—a process in which the body’s immune system (especially the white blood cells) reacts to what is erroneously perceived to be an invasion by a foreign substance, or infection. The resulting joint stiffness can restrict movement and cause pain. If relief is not provided, inflammation can be long lasting (chronic). While a steroid, cortisone is different from anabolic steroids, which are derived from a compound called testosterone. Anabolic steroids can cause serious side effects in athletes seeking to gain muscle mass and strength from their overuse, and are banned from the Olympics and other competitions. Cortisone injections are typically used to provide relief from inflammation in joints, including the elbow (different injuries are popularly dubbed ‘‘tennis elbow’’ and ‘‘golfer’s elbow’’), the shoulder (such as for the inflammation of the tendon in the rotator cuff), and the knee. Typical conditions that can benefit from cortisone injections include bursitis (inflammation of the synovial fluid-containing sacs called bursa), arthritis, tendonitis (inflammation of tendons), plantar fasciitis, back pain due to injured discs, and carpal tunnel syndrome. As inflammation eases following the injection of cortisone, the associated pain will ease. However, cortisone itself is not a pain agent. Pain is also a signal that a joint, tendon, or muscle is injured. Lessened pain may tempt an athlete into resuming active training, when a period of reduced or no training following cortisone administration is often recommended. Injections of cortisone into tendons are avoided, since they could be weakened and rupture. Also, the same site should receive only a maximum of three treatments each year, since thinning of the cartilage and skin around the injection site and weakening of tendons can occur. More frequent injections have been associated with permanent joint damage. Injection is via a needle. Often the needle is small and discomfort is minimal. However, sometimes a larger needle is necessary or manipulation of the needle following its insertion is required to properly deliver the cortisone to the affected site. Then, discomfort can be more pronounced and longer lasting. Even with the discomfort, the benefit from the

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Athlete receiving a cortisone treatment.

P HO TO BY P AUL KA NE /

GE TTY IM AGES .

injection can outweigh the continued inflammation that would result if the procedure was not done. Additionally, cortisone can be injected along with medication that reduces the pain of injection. Examples of anesthetics used include lidocaine and bupivicane. The benefit of injected cortisone is that it is released into the circulation slowly, so its antiinflammatory effects last a long time. Relief, which typically begins a day or so after an injection, can then last for months. Despite the benefit derived from its use, cortisone injections are not without side effects. These include thinning of the bone (osteoporosis), weight gain, stomach upset (which can led to formation of an ulcer), and compromised immune function (and a consequent increased risk of infection). The most common side effect is known as ‘‘steroid flare.’’ This occurs when the injected cortisone crystallizes, causing pain. The pain lasts one or several days until the crystals dissolve. As well, as with any WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

COURT OF ARBITRATION FOR SPORT (CAS)

procedure that involves breaching of the skin barrier, infection is a possibility. This risk, however, is minimal, especially if the area is swabbed with an antibacterial agent like iodine or alcohol before the injection. A very serious side effect of a cortisone injection is the death of the bone at the injection site. The condition, called avascular necrosis, occurs most commonly in the hip, knee, and shoulder. The condition sidelined football and baseball star Bo Jackson in the early 1990s (although in Jackson’s case, the malady was caused by a traumatic hit delivered in a football game). Osteoporosis can occur with cortisone use because the hormone can interfere with the body’s production of vitamin D, which in turn limits the absorption of calcium from food. Since calcium is an integral part of bone, its diminished level affects bone growth and replacement. The body’s manufacture of prostaglandin and leukotriene can also be curtailed by excess cortisone, which adversely affects cartilage. Mainly because of these potential consequences, cortisone injections are typically done only when physical therapy or other anti-inflammatory agents (typically, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen, aspirin, and naproxen) have failed. Still, with prudent application by an experienced physician, a cortisone injection can be a valuable aid to rehabilitation from athletic injury.

Figure skating injuries; Golf injuries; Gymnastics injuries; Snowboarding injuries; Sports injuries.

SEE ALSO

Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) Since its creation as an arm of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1984, the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) has grown to the stature of a respected independent authority in the resolution of sports-related disputes of every kind. Based in Lausanne, Switzerland, with offices in Sydney, Australia, and New York, the CAS hears approximately 200 cases per year. While it was the international response to the rise in the use of performance-enhancing drugs and the resulting doping cases that fueled the creation of the CAS, the Court is called upon to assist in a wide WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

range of sport conflicts, including sponsorship disputes, the eligibility of a particular athlete in accordance with a sport’s constitution, as well as the resolution of disagreements concerning competition results. The determination of issues arising in doping cases remains a significant portion of the CAS caseload. Unlike a traditional civil court, the CAS acquires its jurisdiction in a particular case only through the mutual consent of the parties involved. This procedure, known as arbitration, is designed to create a resolution binding on all parties (there are very limited rights of appeal permitted from a CAS arbitration). The chief advantage of an arbitration conducted by the CAS is its expertise in sports-related disciplines (there are more than 300 arbitrators from 87 countries qualified to hear CAS disputes); a typical civil judge will not likely possess such sports-specific knowledge. CAS arbitration is also generally a much more expeditious proceeding, with the cases heard and determined within a few months, at a lower legal cost to the participants. The CAS also offers mediation services to any requesting parties of a sports dispute. Unlike arbitration, the mediation process is not binding—the mediator will provide recommendations, with solutions suggested, but these are not imposed as a result as in the case of arbitration. Mediations are designed to permit the adverse parties an opportunity to air their grievances in an atmosphere aimed at conciliation of the dispute. The respect afforded the CAS by the international sports community is evidenced by the importance and the impact of the cases that the CAS is requested to decide. In 2003, Canadian cross country skier Becky Scott successfully appealed to the CAS with respect to her claim that she be awarded the 2002 Olympic gold medal in the 5-km pursuit event. Russian skiers Olga Danilova and Larissa Lazutina finished first and second respectively in the competition, with Scott in third place, and each athlete passed their post-event doping test. Danilova and Lazutina each failed a subsequent doping test administered in relation to another Olympic cross-country event, when the presence of a prohibited blood doping agent, darbepoetin, was detected in each skier’s sample. Scott appealed her 5-km race result on the basis that both Russian skiers were engaged in ongoing doping practices. The Scott ruling was the first time in Olympic history that a gold medal had been awarded to an athlete as a result of a CAS ruling.

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The Swiss cycling team regained a place in the 2005 Pro Tour championship after the CAS reversed a lower court decision on the riders’ earlier doping tests. PA OLO COCCO /A FP /G E TTY IMA G ES

In 2005, the CAS arbitration panel ruled that American sprinter Tim Montgomery be banned from international competition for two years as a result of doping, in spite of the fact that Montgomery had never failed a doping test. The CAS ruled that it could find a doping violation on the basis of the third party evidence called against Montgomery, most of which connected Montgomery to the Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative (BALCO) athlete steroid scandal that had arisen in the United States in 2003. In addition to the resolution of specific disputes, the CAS provides one-time event-wide arbitration services, tailored to the mechanics of disputes rising in the course of competition, such as the Olympics or the Pan American Games. The CAS also provides legal opinions on requests on sports-centered issues; when an international sport organization contemplates legislative change such as a new disciplinary code, the CAS might be requested to offer its views regarding the proposed scheme.

Doping tests; International Olympic Committee (IOC); World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

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Cramps A cramp is a sensation that may be experienced by an athlete in a number of different bodily systems. Typically caused by an involuntary contraction of muscle tissues, cramps that occur during competition are especially common among endurance athletes, such as marathon runners, cyclists, and triathletes. The most common forms of cramps are muscle cramps, occurring either during or immediately after exertion by working muscles; stomach cramps, which often occur during competition, as opposed to training sessions; and menstrual cramps, experienced by some female athletes (and nonathletes) during their menstrual cycle, when the additional blood generated by the body in the female menstrual cycle passes through the cervix (the narrow portion of the uterus where it joins the vagina). Muscle cramps are one of the most common injuries sustained in sport. This condition is usually one of short duration, and it tends to respond well to immediate treatment. A muscle cramp is an involuntary spasm or contraction of the muscle WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CRAMPS

Typically caused by an involuntary contraction of muscle tissues, cramps are especially common among athletes.

PH OTO B Y C LI VE

B RUN SK ILL/GE TTY IMA GE S .

fiber that occurs during or immediately after strenuous physical activity. The cramp is often quite painful, to the point of disabling the affected muscles and rendering the athlete unable to continue without medical attention. The cramp will first appear as if the tissue below the skin has hardened, with the skin drawn tightly over the muscle. The calf muscles (the gastrocnemius and soleus) are particularly vulnerable to cramping as they are actively engaged in the generation of movement in all running, skiing, jumping, and cycling disciplines. It is estimated that in the endurance sports, which involve the utilization of the aerobic energy system, between 30% and 70% of participating athletes will suffer from disabling cramps at some point of their athletic career. Muscle cramps, which may exist alone or in combination, are caused in the following circumstances: fatigue or overexertion; dehydration; low levels of the minerals potassium, calcium, sodium, or magnesium; ingestion of various types of medications; excessive consumption of caffeine; or failure to properly warm up and stretch the muscles When an athlete has not properly prepared the body for a physical activity through the combined WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

effect of proper pre-event hydration and carbohydrate consumption, the likelihood of muscle cramp is much greater. Inadequate carbohydrate consumption prior to competition will create correspondingly reduced levels of glycogen, the stored sugars that the body utilizes for the creation of the fuel adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Without adequate production of ATP, the muscle will become prematurely fatigued, which can lead to cramping. Insufficient hydration, both prior to and during the activity, will usually cause a decrease in blood volume, which will impair the delivery of electrolytes and nutrients to the muscles in question. Deficiencies in the minerals calcium, magnesium, and potassium, all of which play a significant role in the transmission of nervous system impulses to a muscle, as well as the regulation of heart rate, will also speed the formation of muscle cramps. Caffeine, a substance commonly consumed by endurance athletes for both its stimulating as well as its glycogen-regulating qualities, is a contributor to muscle cramps by virtue of its diuretic (an increased urine output) properties. Caffeine will often speed the dehydration of the body.

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In sports that require anaerobic energy production, lactic acid, a byproduct of the production of ATP, may cause an involuntary muscle contraction. The initial treatment of a muscle cramp includes a gentle stretch of the affected area. If the cramp arises in competition, the athlete should not immediately attempt to return to full speed. The keys to the prevention of cramps are developing a high level of general fitness, regular and comprehensive stretching of the key muscle groups, and careful attention to nutrition practices, including carbohydrate, vitamin, and fluid levels. Stomach cramps can be as disabling as muscle cramps, and as stomach problems most often arise in the pressure of competition, these cramps can have a significant negative impact on performance. For endurance athletes, stomach cramps often occur when the athlete consumes too much food or liquid during competition. When athletes eat too much food prior to an event, or when they experiment during a competition with a drink or an energy gel to which they are not accustomed, cramping may also result. In circumstances where the athlete consumes a great deal of water without having an adequate amount of sodium present in the system (a mineral lost through perspiration), a condition known as hyponatrania will arise, which results in excessive water in the stomach, which is not capable of being processed by the body. When the athlete consumes an excessive or unaccustomed amount of dietary fiber in the one to two days leading up to an event, the athlete may experience stomach cramps that precede a bout of diarrhea. Menstrual cramps will vary in intensity among female athletes. For some women, menstruation does not impact upon their training or competitive schedules. Other female athletes will often experience menstrual discomfort that ranges from a mild ache to a temporarily disabling condition, with pain radiating from the lower abdomen to the upper legs. Contributing factors to this condition include mineral level deficiencies, particularly calcium and magnesium, as well as with the predisposition of the athlete to debilitating menstrual cramps. The discomfort caused by these cramps is often reduced through the use of analgesics such as aspirin, heating pads placed on the abdomen, and gentle exercise.

Exercise and fluid replacement; Heat cramps; Sodium (salt) intake for athletes.

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Heat cramps

Cramps, muscle

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Muscle cramps

Creatine supplementation The amino acid creatine was first isolated as a component that contributed to the proper function of human muscles in 1825. Amino acids are the organic building blocks of the proteins that form muscle cells in the human body. In its form as creatine monohydrate, creatine is important to the metabolism of skeletal muscle. It is used in muscle cells to assist in the storage of energy, particularly in those sports that require explosive movement. Creatine is most applicable to the generation of muscular energy in the anaerobic alactic mode, in short-duration athletic activities of less than 10 seconds per interval, when the energy compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is available directly in the muscle, as opposed to being created through the other physical systems, which involve the metabolism of glucose and glycogen. The value of creatine as a possible supplement to enhance sport performance was first recognized by Russian sport scientists in the early 1970s, a research initiative that paralleled their work with respect to the potential applications of anabolic steroids. Creatine acquired an underground cult following among bodybuilders and weightlifters into the 1980s, who used the compound to prolong their training sessions. Creatine achieved a measure of international notoriety with the revelation that muscular British sprinter Linford Christie, 1992 Olympic 100 m champion, had used creatine supplements as part of his pre-Olympic training program. Various international rowing programs also made creatine a part of the regular nutritional supplements provided to their athletes. In the late 1990s, a number of professional American baseball players, most notably homerun record setter Mark McGwire, acknowledged that their training included regular creatine use. Creatine is not a banned substance in Olympic competition, nor is it found on the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) list of prohibited substances. There are a number of both chemical and philosophical distinctions to be drawn between creatine use and the other ergogenic (muscle-building) substances to which it is often compared, such as anabolic steroids. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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process is used in the creation of ATP. As the muscle store of creatine phosphate is depleted, the body cannot restore the prior creatine level, which results in a corresponding inability to produce ATP in the muscle. The body must then switch to the companion energy system, the anaerobic lactic system, which will generate ATP without oxygen for a further 60 to 90 seconds. ATP, when present in the muscles, is used as an energy source only in anaerobic alactic activities, which by definition are high-intensity short-duration sports. Creatine supplements are consumed on the premise that the larger the store of creatine available to the body, the better the short-term high-intensity athlete, such as a 100-m sprinter or a weightlifter, will perform. Creatine is therefore of little or no benefit in any sport where the aerobic energy system is utilized. Creatine has a proven ability to increase body mass and muscle size when consumed in conjunction with an aggressive weight training program. In studies of athletes over a one-month period, where creatine was consumed at a rate of 15 g per day, the subjects typically gained an average of 3 lb (1.5 kg) of lean body mass.

Dietary supplement, creatine.

ª EN VIS IO N/ CORB I S

The first distinction between these substances is that creatine is a naturally occurring chemical in the human body. The muscle building benefits of creatine are indirect, given the relationship of creatine to the generation of cellular energy, and they are not nearly so pronounced as those attainable through either the consumption of steroids or the injection of human growth hormones (HGH). Further, any adverse physical side effects attributable to creatine use are far less than those known to result from steroid use. Creatine supplementation poses ethical considerations as opposed to legal consequences for athletes who seek to enhance performance. Creatine is not flushed from the system as are minerals such as sodium and potassium; once created in the body through its natural processes, or ingested as a supplement, most creatine will be stored in the muscle cells. The creatine bonds with natural phosphates produced or ingested by the body, to create creatine phosphate. When the muscle requires an instant source of energy, creatine phosphate breaks down, and the energy released in this WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Creatine users also have a demonstrated ability to train with greater intensity, and shorter rest intervals than athletes who do not use creatine. However, creatine has demonstrated benefits only where the accompanying training is focused and highly regimented. The simple ingestion of creatine will have little or no positive effect on the abilities of an athlete. There is no evidence that creatine will build up in a toxic fashion within the body; excess creatine is excreted through the kidneys and urine. Creatine has a number of side effects, which have been the subject of incomplete scrutiny and scientific analysis. There is considerable evidence that the ingestion of creatine supplements is a contributing factor in the development of muscle cramps in hot or humid conditions. As with any other supplement program that involves weight training and potential weight gain, additional stresses are imposed upon the body, which may result in the muscle strain or other musculoskeletal stress.

Anabolic steroids; Muscle mass and strength; Muscle protein synthesis; Protein supplements.

SEE ALSO

Cricket Cricket is a sport that generates a broad range of reaction from sports fans. Among those who are a

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part of more action-packed athletic traditions, cricket is variously seen as a boring, tedious game. To its hundreds of millions of fans united in an intense global following, cricket is a truly international sport, one of immeasurable subtlety, sportsmanship, and athletic skill. The international contests generate a passion that is only approached by soccer’s World Cup. To play cricket as a representative of one’s country is to achieve celebrity status in countries such as India, Pakistan, the various West Indies, and South Africa. Cricket was a product of the English countryside, an ancient game that was played in a formalized fashion at least as early as the 1500s. The rules of the game were first codified in 1744; the format of cricket has been only modified, as opposed to being subjected to wholesale reconstruction, since that time. As with American baseball, the fundamental distinction between cricket and virtually all other sports is the fact that traditionally there was no time limit imposed on play; the length of the game was determined by how long it took one team to retire the other side in their turn at bat, known as their ‘‘innings.’’ The game was an exclusively English pursuit until it was locally adopted into the various English colonies around the world in the nineteenth century. Ironically, the first international cricket match was played between two countries with a more limited current cricket tradition, when Canada played the United States in 1844. Cricket is a predominately, but not exclusively, male sport. Women’s cricket enjoys a following in various countries where cricket is widely played, but the women’s game has not enjoyed the attention nor the professional organization of men’s cricket. The rules of cricket are not complicated, but there are subtleties to the game that are best appreciated through actual participation, as opposed to observation. The rules of the game include: The game is played on a field (usually a natural grass surface) that is oval shaped, measuring between 290 ft and 480 ft (90 m to 150 m) across. Within the oval is a ‘‘pitch,’’ with two marked creases in which the two batsmen will stand awaiting the delivery of a ball from the opposing team’s bowler. One batsman faces the bowler at a time, measured by the delivery of six balls, known as an ‘‘over.’’ The batsman uses his bat to protect the wicket from being struck by a bowled ball. The wicket is composed of three upright posts, known as stumps, upon which are

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set two bails, square blocks that rest on notches cut into the stumps. The batting team, or side, begins the game with one batsman at each crease. The defensive team takes their positions, one player as the bowler, the remaining 10 players placed in the field positioned to either catch or stop the ball if it is hit toward them. One of the 10 fielders is a wicketkeeper, designated to catch the bowled balls that are not hit by the batsman when bowled. The primary object of the game is to score more runs than the opposing team. When the ball is bowled, the batsman generates a run by both hitting the ball in the field, and then running to the opposite crease while his teammate exchanges positions. One run counts when each batsman has reached the other crease; any part of the batsman body or bat that touches inside the crease prior to the arrival of the ball will score the run. The bowler delivers the ball with an overhand, straight arm motion (the throwing arm may not be bent at the elbow on delivery), thrown after a run up. The ball is usually delivered with a bounce in front of the batsman, and the ball is not permitted to bounce higher than the waist of the batsman to constitute a legal ball. There are generally two types of bowlers, the spin bowler, who delivers balls that tend to curve or break as they approach the batsman, and the fast bowler, whose ball is thrown with greater emphasis on speed than movement. An elite international fast bowler can deliver a ball at speeds in excess of 120 mi (180 km) per hour. The bowler delivers six balls, which comprise an over. At the conclusion of the over, the bowler changes sides and delivers the next six balls from the opposite end of the pitch. The cricket ball is a hard-surfaced, cork, string, and leather object, with a single raised stitch seam. The ball must be 8.81 in to 9.0 in (224 mm to 229 mm) in circumference, with a prescribed weight of 5.5 oz to 5.75 oz (160 g). Unlike the sport of baseball, a cricket bowler is permitted to scuff the ball, which is typically done to make the ball spin in the air. The batsman uses a bat constructed a willow wood with a flat side, a maximum of 4.25 in (108 rmm) width, and 38 in length (965 mm). Given the speed that the ball can be delivered by the bowler, the batsman wears gloves, a helmet and face protection, and leg pads. Other than the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CRICKET

The position of the batsman permits them to react quickly to both the line and bounce of the ball, while protecting the wicket behind them. ª JUTT A KLE E/C ORB IS

wicketkeeper, who is permitted gloves and protective gear, no other fielder has any special equipment. The batsman has a number of different strategies available to him. In some circumstances, the batsman may chose to take a defensive posture toward a ball bowled, where the batsman protects the wicket from being struck by the ball by using the bat as a blocker. In other instances, the batsman may direct the ball in any direction; he is not obligated to run. When the ball is batted, and the two batsmen on the field successfully exchange positions, crease to crease, one run will be scored. If the ball is hit far enough to permit the batsmen to run between the creases twice, two runs will score. When the batsman WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

strikes the ball and hits along the ground over the boundary of the oval, four runs score and the batsmen are not required to run between the creases. When the ball is hit in the air and it crosses the boundary to the oval in the air, six runs score. Consistent with the nature of a game that developed with no time limits, a batsman may remain at bat indefinitely, subject to any tactical decisions made about the conduct of the team’s innings, or the special rules associated with different formats such as one-day cricket. As with baseball, which owes some of its structure to cricket, the batsmen on a cricket side have different specialties and defined roles within the match. Some batsmen are required to occupy the bowler, especially if partnered with an adept

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batsman. These players typically take a defensive stance, protecting the wicket and running when their batting partner is facing the bowler and makes contact with the ball. Early in an inning, often the role of the batsman, known as the opener, will be to wear down the opposition by being on the receiving end of the fastest opposition. In games where a new cricket ball is being used in play, the new ball will often be faster. The batsmen in the middle of the team’s order will be the best, most free-swinging batsmen of the side. The last batsmen tend to be the weaker members of the side, often the team bowlers. A player who is both an adept batsman and a bowler is referred to as an ‘‘all rounder.’’ One of the many intricacies of cricket is found in the fact that there are 10 different ways in which a batsman may be called out on a bowled ball. The most common ways to get a batsman out are to be bowled out by the bowler (the ball strikes the wickets and dislodges the bails), caught out when the batted ball is caught by a fielder without the ball first hitting the ground, run out, if the batsman hits the ball but fails to reach the opposite crease, or ‘‘leg before wicket’’ (LBW), when the batsman swings and misses at a bowled ball, and part of leg or pad block the ball from striking the wicket. Games can have a variety of lengths and structures. The traditional cricket game consisted of one inning per side, and such a match could take hours or more than one day to complete. The English game was famous for the break for the teams to take tea and other refreshment. In international test competitions, the countries involved will set rules for how long the matches will take; test matches usually run for a number of days. In recent years, the one-day cricket concept has evolved to a relatively fixed series of rules, where each team gets a specified number of overs, the typical number being 50 overs. While there is no time limit as to how long each over may take, the overs limit greatly shortens the traditional cricket match. Kerry Packer of Australia (1937–2005), a cricket fan and television impresario, spearheaded the formation of the World Series of Cricket and the one-day, television-friendly cricket match in the 1970s. While cricket has enjoyed a growth in professional competition in a number of countries throughout the world, including Australia and England, cricket supremacy is measured on a world scale through the test matches. Countries are certified as being worthy of participating in test matches by the International Cricket Council, the supreme governing body of world cricket. Ascendancy to test status is the supreme indication of the cricketing status of a nation. The current

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test membership includes Australia, Bangladesh, England, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, the West Indies, and Zimbabwe. The longest held and best-known international competition is that of the the Ashes, which originated in the defeat of the English team by Australia in 1882, an event referred to as ‘‘the death of English cricket.’’ When England traveled to Australia to resume the rivalry in 1883, the English captain was presented with an urn, purporting to carry the ashes of dead English cricket. The urn and the Ashes have been the prize contested between those countries since that date.

Cricket batting; Cricket: Strength training and exercises; Cricket: The physics of how the ball is bowled; Exercise, intermittent; Shoulder anatomy and physiology.

SEE ALSO

Cricket batting Cricket, like baseball, is a team game that at its essence is a confrontation between two players; in cricket, it is between the bowler and the batsman, while in baseball, which is a sporting cousin of cricket, it is between the pitcher and the batter. The degree of the engagement in the game of the other 10 players in the field in support of the bowler, and the corresponding involvement of the batsman’s partner in the opposite crease, depends entirely on the outcome of each ball bowled at the batsman’s wicket. The bowler and the batsman face one another on the pitch, the portion of the cricket playing surface that contains the wickets. The distance between the two cricket wickets is 66 ft (20.1 m). As the batsman facing a bowler has a distance of 4 ft (1.2 m) from the wickets to the edge of the crease, a bowler will deliver a ball, at the end of the run up, from a point approximately 62 ft (19 m) from the batsman. As the ball may be delivered by an elite-level fast bowler at speeds approaching 120 mph (180 km/h), a competent batsman must possess both quick reflexes and considerable nerve to make quick and accurate decisions about each ball that he faces. The batting technique employed by a batsman will be dictated by the nature of both the bowler and each ball faced; it is difficult for the batsman to impose his will on a particular circumstance, by way of attempting to strike the ball in a particular direction or manner, if the ball bowled is unsuitable. Generally, a batsman will be adopting either a defensive or an offensive attacking approach; when a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CRICKET BATTING

Game of cricket in progress.

PH OTO B Y P H IL WA LTE R/GET TY I MA GE S.

particular ball is not capable of being played as the batsman would like, it will generally be defended. Cricket batting is also a partnership between two batsmen. The batsman facing the bowler is the striker: the second batsman is the non-striker. The chief responsibility of the non-striker is to be prepared to run to the opposite crease on a struck ball, and to call to the striker as to whether they may run without being out. Often in a batting partnership, one batsman is the designated defensive player, whose role is to stand in, to occupy the bowler, to create possible arm fatigue, and place the other batsman in a position where he has a greater chance of success. Whether the batsman is seeking to drive the ball and create runs, or whether he is adopting a defensive posture, the physical stance of the batsman will have common features. The batsman will face the bowler in an athletic stance, the slightly crouched position similar to that of a defensive player in basketball, a baseball fielder, or a boxer. The batsman stands with his knees slightly bent, his weight WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

balanced on the balls of the feet, and his head level, aligned directly above the bat that is gripped so that the top of the bat is touching the ground at the batsman’s feet. This position permits the batsman to react quickly to both the line and the bounce of the ball, while protecting the wicket behind him. The bent knees allow for explosive power to be developed, both in a forward position and in a turning position, as the batsman may drive the ball in any direction once it is bowled. Cricket has a variety of terms to describe the different types of batting strokes employed by a batsman. The primary defensive, or blocking, strokes are closely tied to the foot position in relation to how the ball is bowled. When the batsman is facing a very fast bowler, the rear foot, that closest to the defended wickets, will be the foot on which the batsman’s weight will be placed when the bat is swung, as the movement of the batsman to his rear foot creates a slightly longer reaction time as regards the flight of the ball. A defensive shot has the dual purpose of

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both protecting the wicket and being driven directly into the ground, to prevent it from being caught in the air by a fielder and rendering the batsman out.

Cricket: The physics of how the ball is bowled

A variety of more aggressive strokes are employed by a batsman to put the ball into play and to create the potential for runs to be scored. Drive shots, where the swing of the bat is extended through the line of the ball’s path, are used when the batsman is seeking to hit the ball with force into a particular place in the field. The square cut is a shot to direct the ball in a perpendicular direction from that at which it was bowled. The pull stroke is a ball struck by the batsman driving the ball hard to the side of the cricket field aligned with his body. The sweep stroke is a motion in which the bat is drawn across the body in a wide arc. The lofted shot is a motion to drive the ball into the air, often aiming for the boundary. The rules of cricket (formally referred to as the ‘‘Laws of the Game’’) provide for 10 different ways in which a batter may be ruled out by the umpire. The four best known outs include:

As with most confrontations that can sometimes take on epic stature, the tools of the conflict between a cricket bowler and the batsman are very simple. The batsman strides into the crease, prepared to defend a three-posted wooden wicket with a flatsided willow bat, equipped with modest protective equipment and his reflexes. The opposing bowler has a single weapon, a hard-wound, leather-skinned ball, bound with a single raised seam, that is delivered by the bowler with a variety of spins and speeds.

Bowled out is when the ball strikes the defended wicket, causing the bails positioned on the top of the wicket stumps to be dislodged. Caught out is when the ball, when struck by the batsman, is caught in the air by any one of the 11 fielding players. Run out is when one of the two batsmen, in exchanging positions after a ball is hit into the field, does not reach the opposite crease before the ball is thrown to the wicket and used to knock it down. ‘‘Leg before wicket’’ is when a batsman swings at and misses a bowled ball, and his leg prevents the ball from otherwise striking the wicket. This determination is a judgment call for the umpire. No matter what changes are made to the format of cricket matches, the successful batsman makes his reputation on how many times in his career he has batted for 100 runs or more in a single match. This feat, known as the ‘‘century,’’ requires both batting skill and stamina, as the batsman may be on the field for several hours. Sir Garfield Sobers, of the successful West Indies Test teams of the 1960s, and Sachin Tendulkar, India standout in the twenty-first century, are two examples of batsmen who achieved legendary status for their ability to deliver centuries for their countries in international competition.

Cricket; Cricket: Strength training and exercises; Exercise, intermittent.

SEE ALSO

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The manner in which a cricket ball may be delivered is well defined by the rules of the game. The bowler is not permitted to flex the elbow of the arm used to deliver the ball, in the manner of a baseball pitcher. The arm of the bowler must generally be straight, with the elbow extended. At the conclusion of the delivery, as the bowler approaches the limit of the crease, the bowler will often incorporate a dynamic leap to bring greater force to the ball as it is released from his hand. The ball is not required to be bounced in front of the batsman, but is done so invariably to assist in the deception as to the ball’s movement as it is thrown toward the wicket. The pitch on which the bowler delivers the ball is 66 ft long (19 m); the ball must be delivered within an 8 ft (2.6 m) wide crease. There are two general methods for the delivery of a cricket ball, and two corresponding types of bowlers, representing terms as well as strategies: fast bowling and spin bowling. The type of bowling to be used will depend on both the nature of the opponent and the conditions of the pitch. A fast bowler is one who delivers the ball at a high rate of speed; a typical international caliber fast bowler will reach speeds of between 85 mph and 90 mph (140 km/hour and 150 km/hour). While the ball is delivered to achieve a measure of spin and resulting break when it bounces off the surface of the pitch in front of the batsman, the velocity of the ball is its primary feature. By contrast, a spin bowler uses a variety of techniques to induce the ball to spin sideways after contact with the pitch, to fool the batsman as to the ball’s trajectory. A typical spin bowler delivers the ball at speeds ranging from 45 mph to 60 mph (70 km/hour to 100 km/hour). By rule, an innings of a cricket match will commence with the use of a new, unmarked cricket ball. A new ball, and its tendency to bounce harder and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CRICKET STRENGTH TRAINING AND EXERCISES

Swing bowling is a delivery intended to make the ball move in flight, through a combination of three different physical factors. These factors include: the speed of the ball at delivery the imperfections of the surface of the ball induced by the rubbing of the surface by the bowler, the application of sweat or saliva by the bowler, and the effects of prior play the use of the seam As the ball leaves the bowler’s hand, the surface of the ball is exposed to two different types of airflow; the laminar flow is that of the air moving on the smooth, polished portion of the ball surface, and the turbulent flow is that directed to the roughened side of the ball. The combination of these effects is a net increase of forces directed to the turbulent side of the ball, which causes it to move in the air, or ‘‘break,’’ in that direction. There are further variants of swing bowling effect achieved through the imparting of different spins on delivery, which will result in the ball breaking in one direction in the air, and moving in the opposite direction after contact with the pitch.

Cricket player practices his bowling (throwing).

AL ES SA NDRO

A BB ONI ZI O /AF P /G ET TY I MA GE S

faster from the surface of the pitch, makes it a desirable ball to be thrown by the fast bowlers. As the match goes on and the ball is marked by the effects of play, as well as the permitted scuffing of its surface by the bowlers, a ball is created that is preferred by the spin bowlers. There are distinct physical principles underlying each of the fast bowling and the spin bowling techniques. Fast bowling is further subdivided into two categories: the seam bowling method and the swing bowling method. Seam bowling involves a delivery where the seam of the ball is vertical to the ground, and the rotation imparted to the ball on delivery is horizontal. When this ball strikes the surface of the pitch, it tends to move unpredictably and therefore is difficult for the batsman to hit. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Spin bowling relies more on the technique of the bowler on delivery than it does on the velocity of the ball. There are a number of different mechanisms for the imparting of spin by the bowler; each involves the application of the same physical principles. Using either the action of the wrist or the fingers being drawn along the surface of the ball, the ball is delivered with a sideways spin. This spin is intended to induce ‘‘drift,’’ the expression describing the deviation of the ball from a straight trajectory. Spin bowling allows for the generation of the ‘‘Magnus effect,’’ whereby the spin of the ball creates different velocities on each side of its surface, causing the path of the ball to be deflected. The Magnus effect, coupled with the different imperfections on the pitch when the ball strikes it, can create a very unpredictable ball for the batsman to contend with as it approaches. The rougher the ball surface, the better the ball may adhere at the point of impact, causing an even greater potential for erratic movement on the bounce. SEE ALSO

Baseball; Cricket; Shoulder injuries.

Cricket strength training and exercises Cricket is a game that would appear to require little muscular strength. Viewed from a distance,

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cricket is such a seemingly gentle pursuit that the notion of strength training and exercises would seem to have a limited application. However, as with many sports that involve relatively lengthy periods of low activity punctuated by intervals of extreme muscular focus, cricket is deceptively difficult and it also presents significant physical training challenges for the athlete, especially at an elite level. For batsmen, bowlers, and fielders, the primary energy system utilized during competition is the anaerobic lactic and alactic processes. In the acts of bowling, batting, and fielding, the intervals of activity requiring energy generation to power the athletes’ muscles will almost certainly be fewer than 40 seconds. As all players in cricket are at some stage of a match called on to bat and field, much basic fitness training will be common to all players. Cricket training is not exclusively an anaerobic focus. Players are often either stationed in the field or at bat for a number of hours at a time. Cricket, as both a traditional English summer sport as well as a competition played year round in warm, humid regions such as India, Australia, and the West Indies, places the demands of the environment on the players. Enhanced aerobic fitness and a strong cardiovascular system assist the players in dealing with the fatigue and impact on their attentiveness in the course of a long match. The areas of particular fitness attention at each cricket position include: Bowler: The nature of the position requires that a bowler have the ability to move explosively in the run up to delivery, as a speedy run up will physically translate into a faster delivery of the ball; the arm, shoulder, and core body strength and stamina are essential to deliver the ball repeatedly. Fielder: The fielder must be prepared to react to the ball when hit, and to get to a ball, field, and throw, all as a part of a game that may last six hours or more at one time. Speed of movement and agility are critical to this position. Batsman: Brute muscular power is not a liability to this position, but reaction time, batting technique, and balance in the crease are of primary importance. A batsman may be required to maintain his position for a number of hours. The cricket batting stroke relies upon core strength, particularly in the abdominal and oblique muscle groups, the gluteal muscles, and the upper arms and shoulders.

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A cricket strength and training program will of necessity address anaerobic, aerobic, and weight training, and reaction time/coordination agility drills. The aerobic training necessary to assist the player in maintaining strength and to battle fatigue during a long match need not be intense. In the course of a weekly training program, two 45minute to one-hour sessions of moderately paced running, cycling, or other activity, at approximately 50-60% of the athlete’s maximum heart rate will be a strong base. The goal is improved stamina and recovery times in the course of the primarily anaerobic requirements of cricket competition. The anaerobic qualities of cricket are evident in the requirements of all positions. Plyometrics drills that stress jumping repeats and similar explosive movements are a useful drill for the cricketer. In a similar fashion, interval running exercises that mimic the conditions of the cricket fielder, by requiring short explosive runs of between 32.8 ft and 164 ft (10-50 m) at a segment, will tend to assist in developing the sprinting abilities of the fielder in tracking down a ball to be retrieved and thrown back to the wickets. These drills can be performed with the athlete beginning from a standing start, a running start, and a prone start, as if the fielder had dived for and missed a ball, so as to emulate the types of starts that the fielder would encounter in a game situation. Variations of interval training that develop the lateral speed of the fielder, to react to a batted ball, include foot speed drills, where the athlete must negotiate his way through a series of squares, moving sideways as quickly as possible. There is no physical size or weight limit placed on cricketers; the nature of the sport and its ‘‘all rounde’’ characteristics tend to encourage athletes with a measure of agility, at the expense of muscle. Muscle development is however an essential component of proper cricket training programs. Highrepetition, low-weight regimes are commonly seen as the best way to balance the contrast between muscular size and agility. The key muscle structures that should be developed for improved cricket performance are the triceps (important to both throwing and batting), the upper chest muscles (batting and bowling), and the abdominal and oblique muscles of the torso (stability in all aspects of the game).

Cricket; Cross training; Endurance exercise; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO


CROSS TRAINING

Cross country

SEE

Running: Cross

country

Cross-country skiing

SEE

Skiing,

Nordic (cross-country skiing)

Cross training The concept of cross training is a relatively recent athletic application, in which a training regime includes the use of one distinct athletic discipline to build skills or fitness in another. In the not-so-distant past, sporting success was equated to the devotion of an athlete to the discipline. For an individual pursuit such as running or cycling, devotion was translated into the athlete spending every training opportunity engaged in one aspect or another of the sport to simulate competition. In team sports, the athlete would play or practice at every available moment; where there were no formal practices or games, the striving basketball player, soccer player, or ice hockey player would find a pick up game in their sport to continue the quest for excellence. Increased popular interest in multi-sport events such as the triathlon in the 1980s, and the appreciation by the wider sport community of the training demands that such sports required, spurred a broader interest in the use of cross training. It became a fashionable approach to physical improvements in a very wide range of sports. While the triathletes may have popularized multi-sport training regimens, the benefit of placing disparate—and sometimes contrary—demands on the body had its origins well before the Hawaii Ironman event rose to prominence in the 1980s. European sports trainers had advocated variety and intensity in athletic training regimens since the 1940s, usually through the introduction of cycling or an aerobic sport like soccer into an anaerobic training discipline, both for the building of strength as well as an understanding that, for the mental health of a serious athlete, ‘‘a change is often as good as a rest.’’ In the fabled 1972 Summit Series, an eight-game battle between the Russian and Canadian ice hockey powers, the superior skating speed, overall fitness, adept footwork, and balance demonstrated by the Russian players was later attributed to their cross WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

training that included cycling and intense soccer games. The physical preparation required in American football, a sport highly disciplined in its tactics and regimented through rules that stress positional play, has developed into a cross training emphasis that varies position by position. Running backs and receivers, the fast and powerful players who account for most of the scoring in a football game, have been engaged in high-level interval running, plyometrics, and weightlifting programs for many years. Long before the development of sport science as a freestanding branch of academic and physical study, running was a common training adjunct to a wide range of sports. The mechanisms by which running generally assisted athletes were improperly understood, but there was a general understanding among athletes and trainers that distance running added strength and stamina to a competitor. Boxers are a notable example of this long-held knowledge; the sport is anaerobic in nature, as the athlete is required to expend significant amounts of energy in short intervals. Running provides the boxer with the endurance that permits a speedier recovery to resting heart rate and respiration levels before the next round in a fight begins. Today, the principles of effective cross training are well established. Cross training generally is accepted as building a better all-around athlete, while providing a measure of protection for injury through increased fitness, as well as reducing the mental fatigue associated with a lack of training variety. Cross training also permits an injured athlete to continue with workouts and thereby reduce the degree of fitness that might otherwise be lost to injury. The specific areas of human performance that are addressed in a typical cross-training program include: cardiovascular fitness; power, through increased muscle strength; speed; agility/reflexes; the use of all three of the body’s energy systems, the aerobic system (endurance), the anaerobic lactic (intense energy demands of up to 90 seconds in duration), and the anaerobic alactic (short, very intense energy requirements); musculoskeletal flexibility; and mental acuity. In many sports, the effect of cross training is achieved through simple means. A marathoner will today often augment a training program that involves running in excess of 80-100 miles per week (130160 km), with a focused stretching, yoga, and weight training series, to assist with general fitness and help the body recover more quickly from the primary

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CURLING

U.S. speed skaters cross train via bicycle and inline skating as part of their training regimen.

activity. Weight training has become an equally common cross training component of virtually every sport, as the science supporting cross training is clear that overall muscle strength is important to general athletic success. The triathlon and the decathlon are the sports that most keenly bring into focus the principles of cross training. The triathlon, usually made up of swimming, cycling, and running segments that may be variable in length, is popular because it is a competitive sport for hundreds of thousands of participants who enjoy the training variety of the three disciplines. It is impossible to succeed in a triathlon unless the athlete spends significant training time and effort in each aspect. For events such as the Hawaii Ironman, the individual segments are so demanding (the run portion, after the competitor has completed a lengthy swim, followed by a road cycling segment, is a full 26.2-mi [42.2 km] marathon) that the training, which is a cross training schedule, will be very time consuming. The decathlon presents an even more difficult cross training proposition. The athlete must prepare

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P H OTO BY DOU G PE NS I NGER /GET TY IMA GE S.

for ten different sports, each of which will engage systems and techniques that are almost contrary to the others. The 100-m sprint, requiring the short-term power of anaerobic alactic energy system, is a virtual polar opposite to the combined speed and endurance of the 1,500-m race. The high jump, with its emphasis on the takeoff, finesse, and form, has vastly different physical demands than those inherent in the shot put or the javelin.

Decathlon; Fitness; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch.

SEE ALSO

Curling Curling is a sport that is played on a sheet of ice. Long a popular wintertime sport in northern countries such as Canada (it is the official sport of the province of Saskatchewan), Sweden, Norway, Scotland, Switzerland, Denmark, Scandinavia, and the United States, it has become global and is now played in Japan, China, New Zealand, and Korea. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CURLING

Brushes sweep the ice in front of a stone during the 2005 European Curling Championship. P H OTO B Y SA NDR A BE HN E/ BON G ART S/ GE TTY IMAGES.

Curling has been a medal sport at the Winter Olympics since 1998. Curling involves the controlled release and aim of heavy granite stones toward a target located at the other end of the ice (which, in the parlance of the sport, is called a ‘‘sheet’’). Two teams of four alternately each ‘‘curls’’ their allotted two stones at the target. During the period of time when each team delivers the total of eight stones (called an ‘‘end’’), team strategy can shift from trying to guide a stone nearest to the bulls-eye of the target (the house) to attempting to hit and remove the stones of the opposition. Depending on the number of stones nearest the target, a team can store no, one, or several points in an end. The object of curling is to outscore the opponent at the conclusion of the even number of ends (typically eight or ten). Curling dates back centuries. It may have begun in Scotland in the sixteenth century, or even earlier, in the Netherlands. By the seventeenth century, the sport was an active part of Scottish wintertime sports. Canada’s curling roots are just as deep. Indeed, the first organized sporting club in North America is the Royal Montreal Curling Club, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

which was founded in 1907. Just 25 years later, the first curling club was formed 1932 in the United States. One of the unique aspects of curling concerns the playing surface. While hockey and figure skating also take place on ice, the nature of the surface is much different in curling. Because an important facet of the sport is the ability to control the movement of the curling stones, the ice is specially treated to provide friction. This is done by spraying a mist of water over the solid ice surface. The spray freezes to create a pebbled texture. In contrast, the ice surface for skating and hockey is designed to be as smooth and frictionless as possible. As a curling match progresses, the ice pebbles are worn down by the stones. This changes the character of the ice during the match, which in turn alters the movement of the curling stones. Having to adjust to these changing conditions provides another challenge for the curlers. The ice sheet used for a curling match is 146 ft (45.5 m) long, almost as long as a conventional hockey rink, but at 14 ft 2 in (4.3 m) it is only about a third the width of the hockey surface. Indeed, in a

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curling tournament such as occurs at the Olympics, three ice sheets can be placed on the ice surface. Part of the appeal of a curling tournament (called a bonspiel) is being able to see three matches in progress simultaneously. The object of curling is to aim the stones to the center of the house. An ice sheet contains two houses, near each end (this allows play to be shifted from one end of the ice to the other end as the ice deteriorates). The bull’s-eye of each house is centered by a line drawn down the middle of the sheet. Two other lines called ‘‘hog lines’’ are drawn at a right angle to the center line. Each hog line is located 37 ft (11.3 m) from each end of the sheet. To score a point, a rock delivered from one end of the sheet must cross the hog line at the other end. If it does not, it is removed from play. A granite curling stone is heavy. At a maximum of 44 lb (20 kg), it is difficult to manipulate. To deliver the stone, a curler holds onto a handle positioned on top of the rock and then, by lifting the rock slightly as they push off from a foot-stop (the ‘‘hack’’), the curler slides forward and gently releases the stone. The release, which has to occur before the nearest hog line, is often accompanied by a gentle twist of the handle, which spins the stone. It is this spin that will cause the stone to move in the direction of the spin as the stone slows and the small portion of the concave underside that actually contacts the ice is affected by the pebbly ice surface. As the stone moves down the sheet, the ice in front of it can be kept clear of debris by two of the team members (usually the ‘‘lead’’ and ‘‘second’’) who sweep the ice. Originally, brooms were used for this function. Now, specialized brushes are used. All four members of a team curl stones. Each member has two attempts in each end. They curl in a defined order; the lead, second, third (also called the ‘‘vice,’’ or the ‘‘mate’’), and the ‘‘skip’’ (who is in charge of the squad and literally calls the shots). The last stone delivered (the ‘‘hammer’’) alternates between the two teams with each end. The ability to accurately deliver the heavy curling stone to within inches of the intended target requires great skill and makes curling exciting to watch. Furthermore, in each end of a match, the constantly shifting strategy as different combinations and locations of stones occur add another dimension to the sport.

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Curve ball

SEE

Baseball curve ball

Cycling Next to the various forms of competitive running, cycling is the most popular sport in the world where the human body provides propulsion power. The bicycle has captured the imagination of great thinkers and the mass of humanity alike for hundreds of years, commencing with the designs of the Renaissance scientist and thinker Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). The first truly functional two-wheeled machines were developed in Europe in the early 1800s, usually built with a large front wheel to overcome the absence of a gearing system to assist with the efficient delivery of power to the wheels. Bicycle technology grew quickly through the mid-1800s, and the first bicycle race was organized in France in 1868 in response to the rising popularity of cycling. The development of simple gearing systems, which made hill climbing and greater speeds more readily attainable, was followed by the advent of mass-produced bicycles. The twentieth century saw the introduction of rubber inflatable tires and the invention that made multi-geared bicycle systems a reality. Paul de Vivie (1853-1930), known by the evocative name Velocio, invented the first functional derailleur, which refers to the assembly of bicycle chain, sprockets, and supporting mechanism to move the chain between sprockets and therefore create multiple gearing. Bicycle racing on the roads began in earnest in 1903 with the inaugural Tour de France, an annual event that is contested on a demanding race course that loops through the regions of France. The Tour is the most famous bicycle race in the world, and the desire of cyclists to succeed in the Tour de France and the other European races that followed it spurred further technological developments in cycling. Frames became lighter, as first aluminum (in 1977) and later, carbon fiber composite frames, made the bicycles faster. The gears, handle bars, and other components also became more aerodynamic and efficient. The birth of the universally popular mountain bike is very difficult to pinpoint; there have long existed bicycle enthusiasts prepared to ride their machines over rough and difficult terrain. In California in the 1970s, there slowly grew a bicycling community that rode some of the uneven trails of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CYCLING

Sierra Mountains on modified, heavy-framed bicycles that could absorb a significant pounding. In the 1980s, the mountain bike became a recognized cycling form, as these machines also became lighter, stronger, and more maneuverable. With the insertion of both front and rear wheel shock absorbers, the mountain bike became a very durable and relatively speedy vehicle. Mountain bike racing itself grew into a world event, with a first inclusion in the Summer Olympics in 1996. A third form of bicycle racing grew directly from the development of the road-racing bicycles in the early 1900s. The ‘‘velodrome’’ is a specially designed indoor oval circuit, typically 330 yd (300 m) in length, on which bicycle racers compete in a number of different formats. The velodrome became a prominent bicycle-racing venue in the early part of the twentieth century. These contests differed from the road races as they tended to be shorter, sprint races, often conducted as a time trial as opposed to the declaration of the race winner as the first racer past the finish line. The three types of bicycle racing have been precisely codified into separate disciplines; the tactics and the training associated with each is sufficient to permit each a designation as a separate sport, as opposed to existing as a subset of the sport of cycling. All types of bicycle racing are conducted at various times in most regions of the world; the Olympic Games is the only venue where all three disciplines are contested at one time. Road racing, of which the Tour de France is the most famous example, is today the preserve of yearround professional athletes. The most notable rivals of the Tour for international prestige are the Giro d’Italia and the Tour of Spain. Each of these races has individual and team components, in which the event is divided into segments referred to as stages; the overall individual champion is the rider who finishes the entire course in the shortest aggregate time. The winner of the Tour de France is regarded as a true international sports hero, and the race encourages a dynastic quality in its champions; since 1969, Eddie Mercyx (Belgium, five victories), Miguel Indurain (Spain, five victories), Greg Lemond (United States, three victories), and Lance Armstrong (United States, seven victories) are examples of this multi-year superiority. Road races that are conducted in one-day formats, as opposed to stages, are held either as a mass start, also referred to as an inline road race, or as a time trial. As the name suggests, the mass start involves the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

racers heading off from the starting line in a pack; the combination of riders attempting to secure a better position, acceleration, and inevitable collisions often results in falls near the start. A time trial is conducted with each rider starting in 1.5-minute intervals. The winner is not the first to cross the finish line, but the rider with the best overall time. Both types of road racing are contested at the Olympics; a Tour de France-style multi-day stage race is not. The Olympic road-racing distances consist of mass start and time trial types of races. In the case of the mass start, the race is a number of circuits of a city road course; male competitors race between 135 mi and 150 mi (210 km and 240 km); women race between 50 mi and 75 mi (80 km and 126 km). The time trials type of race has more of what cyclists refer to as a sprint element; men race on a course between 28 mi and 34 mi (45 km and 55 km) long; the women race on a course that is between 15 mi and 21 mi (25 km and 35 km) long. Mountain biking is also a men’s and a women’s competition at the Olympics. The race course comprises a number of circuits, often with dramatic changes in elevation; falls and crashes are not uncommon. Track racing is the most varied of the Olympic cycling disciplines; it is common for an Olympic cyclist to race in a number of the distances provided for in velodrome racing. Velodromes are typically composed of a highly polished wooden track, two 180 -banked turns, and two connecting straights. Velodromes may vary in length; the Olympic velodrome at Athens used for the 2004 Games was 800 ft (250 m) long and 22 ft (7 m) wide. The best-known forms of track racing include the individual and team pursuit racing, the time trial, and the match sprint. In individual and team pursuit racing, the racers start at opposite sides of the track. This form of racing does not permit a standard cycling tactic, known as drafting. Drafting is the technique used in sports (auto racing is a prominent example) in which an opponent in the lead generates a wake in the air that results in a partial vacuum being created in the air behind the opponent. Cyclists will position themselves as close as they can to the rear wheel of the leading athlete to take advantage of the reduced air resistance of the vacuum as well as the minor drag of the air being pulled by the opponent. At an opportune moment, the trailing cyclist will accelerate to ‘‘slingshot’’ themselves past the leader. In a time trial event, the racer competes against the clock. In the match sprint, two racers simultaneously start on the track, with the first 875 yd (800 m) a slow jockeying for position, and the

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Mountain cycling race courses comprise a number of circuits, often with dramatic changes in elevation. Falls and crashes are not uncommon. ª S . AN D RE AS /Z E FA /CO RBI S

final 218 yd (200 m) a sprint for the finish. Tactics and position on the banked track are of critical importance in this form of racing. The training programs employed by all cyclists have a number of common features, given that the dynamics of powering a bicycle are essentially the same for a road, mountain, or track bicycle. An important aspect of any cyclist’s month-to-month training is a program of stretching and calisthenics, often accompanied by yoga or a Pilates program, to both increase flexibility and to assist with recovery from the rigors of long races. However, sprint racers will often add plyometrics exercises to assist in developing more explosiveness in the quadriceps and calf muscles. Mountain bikers must utilize their upper arm strength to negotiate the obstacles presented by the terrain; these athletes derive a

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significant benefit from structured weight-training programs. Road racers have found that a weighttraining/resistance program directed at the abdomen, lumbar spine, and related muscle structures provides them with strength in the saddle in long daily cycles. All cyclists will develop a training system that will incorporate a form of interval training into the workout structure, in which the intensity of work, both sprinting-based and hill climbing, is performed in repeated segments of varying distance, time, and intensity. As with many sports, the increase in professional competition and the corresponding financial rewards led to the use of a variety of performance-enhancing substances by cyclists. Prior to the development of reliable drug testing procedures in the late 1980s, a number of Tour de France riders were injured or WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CYCLING

Lance Armstrong is one of only a few multi-year winners of the Tour de France.

killed due to heart failure caused by the combination of ingested chemical stimulants and the exertions of the race. Stimulant usage in cycling by way of amphetamines, used to assist riders in battling fatigue and keeping them alert, gave way to more subtle applications, including the naturally occurring ephedra, or ephedrine. The demands of long-distance cycling had posed an often ultimate test for even the most skilled and fit of road racers. Blood doping, in the form of transfusions of the cyclist’s own blood, had been experimented with by various cyclists in the late 1970s, prior to the practice being outlawed. The removal of blood from the body of the athlete, freezer storage of the extracted blood, and the reinfusion of the blood into the body in the week before a competition was a process known to increase red blood cells available to the body for better oxygen transportation during the activity. The physical transfusion carried with it a number of risks, including that of excessive blood clotting that might lead to stroke. In the 1980s, the hormone produced by the body to stimulate red blood cell production naturally, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª WOLFGAN G RA TTA Y/ REUT ERS / CORB IS

erythropoietin (EPO), was first synthesized. Additional EPO was naturally generated by an athlete who had red blood cells depleted through injury, or when the athlete was training at an altitude where the body required more red blood cells to combat the lack of oxygen. When EPO could be injected into the body, with the resultant creation of additional red blood cells, a startlingly effective performance enhancement was created. EPO is a certain method for improving oxygen capacity, especially when combined with vigorous training. It was banned as a supplement, along with other plasma-expanding drugs, by various international sport bodies, including the International Olympic Committee, in 1996. Controversies have swirled over the reputations of a number of international cyclists regarding their actual or presumed EPO use. One example was the Phonak cycling team, competitors in many of the leading European races, had four of its members test positive for EPO or related compounds between the 2003 and the 2005 seasons.

Cycling strength training and exercises; Endurance; Exercise and fluid replacement; Road rash.

SEE ALSO

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Bicycle chains connecting gear wheels.

ª R OYA LTY- FREE /CO RBIS

Cycling gears Cycling gears are circular discs with teeth around the circumference that are used to generate torque (rotating) motions on bicycles. The use of several gears on a bicycle provides a variety of gear ratios for peak efficiency or comfort for the cyclist. The gear ratio is the proportional relationship between the speed of rotation and the used gear. Particular gear ratios are used in consideration of the type of terrain that the cyclist is traversing and of the particular ability and style of the cyclist. For instance, it may be more efficient to use a higher gear when biking down a hill, but it may be better suited to switch to a medium gear when cycling on a flat path and to switch to a lower gear when cycling up another steep hill. In such cases, a lower gear will require the rider to pedal at a faster pace but with less force (forward motion). Conversely, a higher gear provides for a higher speed at a given pace, but necessitates a greater force be exerted by the cyclist. Different cyclists have different preferences for pace and pedaling force in various situations.

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The switching of gears increases or decreases a particular pace by changing the amount of resistance on those gears. Such gearing can affect how much or how little the cyclist’s leg muscles, heart muscle, and lungs are exercised. In addition, the more gearing available on a bicycle, the easier it is to find the best pace (what is often called cadence). The number of speeds a bicycle possesses can be calculated by multiplying the number of chain rings (type of gear located near pedals) by the number of the cogs (type of gear located near rear hub). For instance, a 27speed bicycle with three chain rings in the front and nine cogs in the rear has 27 possible gear ratios. A 3speed bike with one chain ring and three cogs has only three possible gear ratios. Some of the earliest bicycles, which are now considered single-speed or fixed-gear bicycles, had one chain ring in front and one cog centered around the rear hub, which multiplies into only one possible gear ratio. Power is transmitted primarily from the cyclist’s legs to the rear wheel through the pedals, crankset (metallic piece that connects a pedal to the frame), chain, and rear hub. A cyclist can produce only so much WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CYCLING INJURIES

power and, thus, cycle at only so much speed. Gearing allows the cyclist to optimize this restriction in power generation. That optimization occurs through the shifting mechanism mounted on or near the handlebars. It gives the cyclist the ability to choose which gears the chain uses. During the shifting of the gears, the chain moves up and down on a cassette (series of cogs) and between the chain rings, thus, allowing the cassette and chain rings to work in unison with the pedals. The type of shifters varies depending on the style of bicycle, such as off-road (mountain), hybrid (cross between mountain and racing), and on-road (racing). However, in almost all cases, cables are connected from the shift levers to the derailleur gears. Most bicycles use derailleur gears to change the gears. That is, when triggered by levers, derailleurs mechanically guide (derail) the chain—by pushing it closer to or further away from the bike’s frame—so that it moves the chain from one gear to another while minimizing any excess slack in the chain. Specifically, a cable from the right shift lever runs to the rear derailleur that controls the rear cassette around the hub of the rear wheel. The rear derailleur moves the chain across the cogs for the smaller, more precise, changes in gear ratios needed for most shifting. Another cable runs from the left shifter to the front derailleur that controls the front chain rings (large circular rings) near the pedals. The front derailleur moves the chain across the chain rings to alter the large changes in shifting. For instance, one shift in the front derailleur can quickly and efficiently change from a slow uphill climb to a fast downhill sprint. All bicycles work better and last longer when properly maintained. Cyclists should regularly maintain their bicycle by cleaning and lubricating exposed moving parts. Especially important are the cycling gears, which will last longer when the chain and gear mechanisms are cleaned and lubricated on a regular basis. Gears should also be regularly checked to assure that they are working properly and that cables and other related mechanisms are moving freely. Many simple bicycle repairs can be done by the cyclists, though most gear repairs should be performed by professional cycle mechanics. SEE ALSO

Cycling.

Cycling injuries In a sport that requires the participant to maneuver relatively fragile, lightweight machines at high WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

speeds, the injuries sustained by cyclists range from those caused by overexertion, to those incurred in dramatic, high-speed collisions, sustaining traumas that severely impair the cyclist’s health. All forms of bicycle racing carry the risk of an injury caused by the forces generated through the mechanics of pedaling a bicycle. Each of the three varieties of cycling racing creates a risk of injury specific to the event. Cycling racing may be one of road racing, which is conducted as either a singleday competition on a road course circuit, or as a multi-day stage race, such as the Tour de France. Road racing in either format places a premium on the athlete’s endurance, generating significant stresses on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, as the races may last from four to six hours in length per day. The races are often conducted in very warm or humid conditions. Road racing also requires an ability to generate shorter, very powerful bursts of energy to sprint for position or to climb hills. Road racers do not alter their posture on the bicycle from a seated position, except to stretch or, depending upon the technique employed, to sprint or to climb hills. Racers commonly find themselves in a group of riders, universally known as a peloton, which in an elite road race may be moving at speeds in excess of 25 mph (40 km/h). A single jostling between two riders in these circumstances can lead to a multiple bicycle/ racer collision. The riders may also be in close quarters as they descend hills sufficiently steep that the cyclists often achieve speeds of 60 mph (100 km/hour) or more. Mountain bike races typically take place on rugged outdoor trails and involve significant changes in elevation. High-speed collisions between the competitor and trees, rocks, and other natural obstructions are common: as an outdoor event contested in summer climates, heat, rain, and wind are all potential injury factors. Unlike the relatively smooth ride of a road-racing bicycle, the ride of a mountain bike generates significant forces upon the body of the racer. The rider is required to change position frequently, to both absorb the shocks of the ride and to achieve optimum aerodynamic effect when available. In terms of environmental impact upon the athlete, track racing is the most sterile form of cycling. Conducted in facilities known as velodromes, which are most often a covered or enclosed oval racing facility, the speed of the racers and the banked nature of the tracks create a physical risk for the athlete.

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particularly in the gastrocnemius (calf muscle) or the quadriceps (thigh muscle). Knee strains are often caused by either the repetitive nature of pedaling, or by tightness in the illiol band, which runs from the knee joint to the hip, due to muscle imbalances in the thigh. Tendonitis in both the patellar (knee cap) tendon and the Achilles tendon similarly result. Head injuries in cycling occur in two circumstances. Notwithstanding the speeds that cyclists achieve in competition, both through the application of their own muscle power and as a result of the effect of gravity in the descents on steep hills, many cyclists do not wear adequate helmet protection. The human head striking pavement or a fixed object such as a tree branch creates a serious risk of permanent injury or death for the rider. Similarly, the speed generated places the cyclist at risk of being struck in the face by flying insects that can cause damage to the skin or eyes. Given the amount of time spent outdoors, cycling also presents a greater than usual risk of overexposure to the sun.

Competitive bicyclist after a fall.

PH OTO B Y A LE XAN DE R

HA SS EN ST EIN /B ONG AR TS /G ET TY IMAG E S.

The cycling injuries that arise in all three types of competition are those that involve the skin, the legs, and the head. ‘‘Road rash’’ is the universal euphemism for the abrasion damage done to cyclists’ skin when they slide or are dragged along the riding surface on a fall. A common mechanism for this injury is a missed turn, causing the bicycle wheels to lose contact with the surface. The damage caused by road rash is often magnified due to foreign particles being forced into the surface of the skin, including road tar and oils, which can lead to infection. Leg injuries can occur to any of the muscles, tendons, or ligaments that are involved in the production of power or the resistance applied by the stroke of the pedal. Common leg injuries are muscle strains,

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Road racers are particularly vulnerable to heatinduced injuries, due to both the existing environmental factors, as well as their exposure to the reflective heat from paved road surfaces. Dehydration and a resultant loss of electrolytes essential to proper bodily functions is a risk in this aspect of the sport, which commonly lead to potential heat exhaustion or heat stroke. When the rider is consuming fluids, but is not attentive to sodium levels, the debilitating condition known as hyponatremia may occur. Mountain bikers are exposed to a considerably greater degree of force to be absorbed by their bodies through the contact between the bicycle and the terrain of the race course. Much of this force is absorbed in the hands, through the vibration of the handle bars, which can lead to a variety of strain injuries to the muscles ranging from those in the wrist to those in the shoulder. Mountain biking also presents a risk of contact with outdoor allergens such as poison ivy and poison oak. Successful track racing places a greater emphasis upon explosive leg action than either road or mountain bike racing. Injuries that often result from a single movement, such as Achilles tendon ruptures and hamstring tears, are more prevalent in track cycling.

Cycling; Exercise and fluid replacement; Heat exhaustion; Lower leg injuries; Muscle cramps; Road rash.

SEE ALSO


CYCLING STRENGTH TRAINING AND EXERCISES

Cycling strength training and exercises Whether a cyclist competes as a road racer, a mountain biker, or as a velodrome (graduated oval track) sprint specialist, the mechanics of cycling have common features. The legs of the athlete are used to propel the bicycle, with the body in a primarily seated position. This repetitive physical action places similar demands upon the bodies of each type of cyclist, both with regard to the musculoskeletal structure as well as the energy-producing body systems. The development of both the cardiovascular and the cardiorespiratory systems are essential to the physical demands created in all forms of cycling. The ability of the athlete to most efficiently inhale and utilize oxygen, referred to as the ‘‘VO2max,’’ has long been understood as a key performance benchmark for cyclists; the more oxygen the cyclist can consume while working at peak effort, the more energy can be expended. Conversely, the sprint racer, whose primary energy system is the anaerobic system, builds aerobic capacity as a recovery tool, as greater endurance will permit the rider to maintain short intervals of intense effort more readily. To build short-term speed and hill-climbing ability, road racers and mountain bikers apply the principles of interval training used by runners and swimmers. The intervals are typically of varying distances and, in the case of hill training, of varying degrees of difficulty. The intervals are performed, with an appropriate rest period between (a common work-to-rest ratio is 1:3, or greater). Research studies confirm that road racing success is as dependent upon the ability to generate powerful intervals as it is upon long-distance endurance capabilities. It is thought that for elite racers, given the large portion of a race that may be spent riding in the pack, or peloton, where the dynamics of the large group of riders in cutting resistance make large portions of the race relatively easy. The ability to make an explosive, anaerobic burst will define success. Interval training that does not involve the bicycle is equally beneficial to the lungs and anaerobic system training; the body does not differentiate between the activities that draw upon it for energy, the body answers the demand. For this reason, hill running and interval running will improve the ability of the cyclist to utilize the anaerobic energy systems. Given the importance of the cardiovascular system to effective cycling, any other form of exercise in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

which the athlete is required to move against resistance will be of benefit. Distance running, the use of stair climbers, other elliptical training devices, and rowing machines all create a cardiovascular benefit that is immediately transferable to cycling. All cyclists have an interest in a lean physique. The greater the amount of excess weight carried on the bicycle, the greater the effort demanded to propel the greater mass. Larger body size will create a more significant degree of wind resistance for the rider, as well as an increase in the rolling resistance between the tires and the surface of the road. Cycling exercises will address the secondary purpose of optimum weight maintenance for these reasons. In addition to the exercise derived from the sport itself, cycling places a premium on the strength and flexibility of the legs. A strength and training emphasis is an important part of a balanced program that develops all leg muscles, as imbalances between thigh and calf, Achilles tendon, calf and foot, or quadriceps and hamstrings will ultimately lead to inflexibility and the greater likelihood of leg injury, especially when the cyclist attempts to move explosively. The potential for the body to be rather rigidly positioned in the saddle for lengthy periods creates a need for training exercises that will counter this effect. Stretching programs, both those dedicated to the leg muscles and joints, as well as whole body stretches, will help negate the stiffness typically generated by long periods of riding. More dynamic programs that both stretch the muscles and tissues as well as build strength include traditional calisthenics such as push ups, crunches, and squat exercises, yoga, and Pilates. Leg strength is essential to cycling success, but as with the muscles of the leg itself, an imbalance between the power of the leg muscles and the muscles of a cyclist’s upper body can lead to strain, especially in the lower abdomen and lower back structures, which must resist the downward forces generated by the pedal action of the cyclist on every stroke. Swimming is an exercise that emphasizes an overall body balance, particularly through the development of the upper back and shoulders, without placing an additional strain of the leg muscles that are consistently worked to a high level in cycling. Weight training is another proven effective measure to achieve balance between the upper and lower body capabilities of the cyclist. As large increases in body mass are counterproductive to the cyclist, routines that require relatively low weights and higher numbers of repetitions will tend to create the desired

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CYCLING: TOUR DE FRANCE

Cyclists in a training session during a rest-day of 2005 Tour de France.

JAVIE R S OR I ANO /A FP / GE TTY IMA G ES

effect. To ensure that the leg muscles are exposed to resistance in ranges of motion other than that of the bicycle, exercise machines such as the leg press and routines using low weight dumbbells such as lunges and squats are very effective.

cycling in the public consciousness that is even greater than the Boston Marathon occupies for marathon running.

Cycling; Diet; Endurance exercise; Exercise, high intensity.

SEE ALSO

Cycling: Tour de France The Tour de France, also known as the Tour, is the most famous and the most important cycling race in the world. The Tour has an association with

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The Tour de France was founded by Henri Desgrange (1865-1940) as a newspaper promotion; Desgrange stated then that his idea of a perfect Tour de France would be an event where only one rider finished. This sentiment has influenced the Tour and its legendary difficulty since its inception in 1903. The enduring appeal of the Tour de France is rooted in a combination of a national passion for cycling in both France and all other European countries, coupled with a tough, sometimes hellishly demanding race course that traverses every region of the nation during the three weeks of the competition. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE


The first Tour of 1903 was over 1,500 miles (2,500 km) in length, divided into only six segments. Racers were expected to ride their bicycles through the night, and none of the racing machines was equipped with more than a single gear. The first derailleur, the mechanical device that permits the bicycle chain to move freely between the rear wheel cogs of the bicycle to allow the rider to change gears, was only permitted for use on the Tour in 1937, despite having being invented by Tullio Campagnolo some years earlier. It is a testament to the appeal of the Tour de France that American Lance Armstrong, the unprecedented seven time Tour champion, is likely the best known modern day foreigner in France. The Tour de France is primarily contested as stage race, where the competition is divided into daily segments known as stages. In the 2006 Tour, the race consisted of 20 stages that represented a total distance of 2,230 miles (3,600 km). Most stages commence with a mass start, where all of the cyclists begin the stage at the same time. The winner of an individual stage wins a prize as well as a measure of acclaim, but the most important consequence of the cyclist’ performance day to day is their accumulated time from the beginning of the competition. The winner of the Tour de France is not required to succeed in an individual stage to win the event, although many dominant Tour champions win stage races. In addition to the daily stages, the Tour contains a number of time trial stages. Unlike the mass start of the regular stages, where the riders race as a group, the time trial is conducted as a battle between the individual racers and the clock. Each cyclist is sent from the start at intervals, and the cyclist will spend most of the trial racing either on their own or in the company of a limited number of racers, depending upon whether the racer either catches a cyclist who started the trial ahead of them or if they are caught by a racer who started the trial behind them. The time trial results of each racer form a part of their Tour totals. At the beginning of each day’s racing, the current leader of the Tour de France wears a distinctive yellow jersey, known in French as the maillot jaune to signify to both the other racers and the spectators on the route the identity of the current Tour leader. In recent years, the Tour de France has begun with a stage known as the prologue. As the Greek origins of the name suggest, a prologue is the introductory event to a larger production. The Tour prologue has been held in places other than France, with the course covered in the prologue not contiguous with the rest of the Tour route. The Tour has opened WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

with prologues in Germany and Ireland, with the cyclists, their gear, and all team personnel flying to the first French stage the next day. Prologues raced in such venues are a recognition by the Tour organizers that the race attracts passionate fan and spectator support in every place where its racers compete. The traditional final stage of the Tour de France is a segment that finishes along the Champs-Elyeeses, the famous thoroughfare in Paris. The Tour de France regular stage routes are further categorized in terms of the terrain over which they pass. Tour success is dependent upon a number of diverse factors, none of which is more important that the ability of the racer to conquer the infamous mountain stages that take the racers through demanding sections of the French Alps. The stages of the Tour are described by the general classification of flat, medium mountain, and mountain. The mountain passes through which the Tour course winds for between seven and 10 stages depending upon the route selected by the Tour organizers are so grueling that the outcome of most Tours will de decided by the ability of the racers to climb and to descend the mountains. The mountain climbs are so important to the ability of the racers to successfully complete the Tour that the race has a separate sub category, the ‘‘King of the Mountain,’’ a prize given to the rider who demonstrates the best climbing ability. Mountain climbs are graded on a scale of 1 through 4, plus the ‘‘hors’’ (other) category, with points awarded for the fastest time to reach each peak. The rider who is the King of Mountain wears their own distinctive jersey, in red polka dots. A grade 3 climb is a 5% grade for at least 3 miles (5 km); a grade 2 climb is a grade of 8.0 to 8.5% for 3 miles. A grade 1 climb is a longer climb, usually between 9 and 12 miles (15-20 km or more), at a grade of approximately 5%. The hors category are the most difficult climbs, as these involve an elevation change of at least 1,000 ft (300 m), over an average grade of at least 7% It is a daily battle for the racers to ingest enough food to have sufficient energy available to battle the racecourse. The average racer will expend approximately 10,000 calories per day in the mountain stages and between 6,000 and 7,000 calories in the flatter portions. It is a frequent occurrence for a rider to ‘‘bonk,’’ the North American slang for simply running out of energy mid stage. Each of the great champions of the Tour de France has been what the French cycling fans refer

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to as a rolleur. A rolleur is, an all round talent who can perform well in the more sprint like time trials, who can ride with the mass pack of the cyclists (the peloton) for 90 miles (150 km) or more in the flay stages, and who possesses the strength and the will to race through the mountains. Racing tactics and sophisticated equipment are an important aspect of Tour success, but the physiological characteristics of the rider will also dictate whether a racer will become a Tour champion. As with many sports, particularly endurance sports such as distance running, cycling is an activity in which any one can participate, without necessarily being competitive. The elite cyclist must first possess a particular physical structure that permits an optimum strength to weight ratio. The strength to weight ratio consideration is of even greater importance when the rider is moving their mass and that of the bicycle against the force of gravity on grades in the Tour mountain stages that exceed the steepest grades that a motorist will encounter on a typical paved North American roadway. The physiological testing conducted on several Tour de France champions in recent years offers significant support for what physical characteristics are necessary to succeed in this demanding race. Lance Armstrong participated in a series of examinations conducted by the Human Performance Laboratory at the University of Texas during the period in which he won seven Tour championships (1998-2005). The first test studied Armstrong’s strength to weight ratio. At a race weight of 162 lb (74 kg), Armstrong generated over 490 watts of power, more than any other cyclist tested, including the legendary Miguel Indurain (a five time Tour champion between 1991 and 1995), who had competed at a weight of 175 lb (81 kg). Indurain was noted for his remarkable resting pulse of less than 40 beats per minute. Armstrong was also found to have improved his VO2max levels, the amount of oxygen used by muscles for energy production during a set interval (usually 1 minute), by over 18% Armstrong’s oxygen capabilities were measured at 85 ml of oxygen per kilogram of muscle mass per minute (a superior, well trained athlete would likely never exceed a reading of 55 ml). Armstrong’s capabilities are all the more remarkable as he successfully battled testicular cancer that had spread to his lung in the years prior to his Tour de France success. The physiological testing of Armstrong also revealed evidence that his body had undergone an adaptation with respect to the distribution of fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers. It is an accepted physiological proposition that the

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Lance Armstrong cycles toward the finish line of the 2004 Tour de France. The Tour de France is one of the most grueling events in sport. ª JACKY N AE GE LEN /R EUTE RS/CO RB IS

proportion of fast twitch to slow twitch fibers is genetically determined in each person. Fast twitch fibers are those that are fired more rapidly by impulses provided a governing neuron; fast twitch fibers are essential to short intense muscular effort such as sprinting. Slow twitch fibers are the structures that power the muscles in endurance events such as Tour de France cycling. The testing of Armstrong suggested that his training regimen of daily cycling, between three and six hours per day for many years, had altered his slow twitch structure to a percentage of representing greater than 80% of his muscle mass. As a general proposition, the more slow twitch fiber present in the body, the better suited the athlete will be to endurance sports. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CYCLING: WIND TUNNEL TESTING

Armstrong was also found to produce less lactic acid in his muscles, resulting in less disruption of his rhythm in his mountain climbs due to the discomfort of lactic acid formation. It is a testament to the intense physiological demands of the Tour de France that doping has exerted an influence throughout the Tour history. In the early days of the race, alcohol, ether, and other substances were commonly used by the riders to dull the pain of their exertions. In the 1960s, the use of performance enhancing amphetamines were common. British rider Tom Simpson died as a result of amphetamine use in the 1967 Tour. In the late 1990s, the doping focus in the Tour turned to the use of erythropoietin (EPO), the synthetic variety of the naturally occurring human hormone that stimulates red blood cell production. EPO consequently provides the user with a greater capacity to transport oxygen, a significant advantage in endurance sports such as cycling. Several cycling teams were implicated in EPO use, with a number of individual cyclists banned for EPO use. Armstrong was at the epicenter of various EPO allegations, although he has consistently denied using performance-enhancing drugs and has never been the subject of a real-time positive doping test. SEE ALSO Cycling; Cycling gears; Exhaustion; Physiology of exercise.

Cycling: Wind tunnel testing A wind tunnel is an apparatus used to determine the complex interactions between a high-speed, velocity-controlled stream of air and the forces exerted on a solid object. The movement of air around an object, whether it is an airplane, bicycle, automobile, or person, is considered aerodynamic flow. When wind tunnel tests are performed on bicycles, they help to optimize the cyclist’s position on the bicycle and to improve the aerodynamic design of bicycles, cycling equipment (such as bottles, wheels, helmets, and handlebars), and clothing. Thus, wind tunnels are important tools for maximizing performance in cyclists competing in such international bicycle races as the Tour de France.


The wind tunnel’s structure consists of a large chamber where giant motor-driven blades are positioned at one end in order to simulate air flows comparable to actual wind conditions. The floor consists of a huge aerodynamic balance, where the smallest movement imposed on the test object can be measured, recorded, and analyzed by instruments and computers. Such equipment provides a relative measure of aerodynamic efficiency. The path of the air stream around the bicycle and/or cyclist can be studied by generating smoke streams to make the airflow visible, attaching materials (such as ribbons) that flow with the wind’s direction, or using optical devices. Generally, a bicycle is secured on the floor of a wind tunnel with two struts—the front strut is attached to the hub of the front wheel and the rear strut is attached to the bicycle’s frame. During the test, the wind speed and direction are changed to provide an assortment of force and moment of inertia data. Results taken from wind tunnel tests have shown that only a minority of drag (about 30%) comes from the bike itself. The majority of drag (up to 70%) is due to the cyclist, primarily the position of the cyclist; the positioning of the cyclist’s hands, forearms, and shoulders; and the amount of time spent to reach the best aerodynamic position. Specifically, tests have shown that for best aerodynamic position the cyclist’s thumbs should be placed above the handlebar extensions and parallel with the road; forearms positioned parallel with the road; elbows in front of the knees; shoulders positioned low; and head positioned up and stationary. Wind tunnel tests also show how to aerodynamically design clothing and equipment such as shoe covers and helmets in order to minimize drag. Such tests show that for the least amount of drag, the air should remain attached to a rider as much as possible, especially on the trailing side of the hips. Based on wind tunnel results, manufacturers use various orientations and types of textures to control airflow over rider wearing skin-tight clothing (commonly called skinsuits). Technology has advanced to the point that many skinsuit fabrics are considered better than shaved skin for aerodynamic flow.

Cycling; Cycling gears; Cycling strength training and exercises; Cycling: Tour de France.

SEE ALSO

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D Adolph Dassler 11/3/1900–9/6/1978 GERMAN MANUFACTURER

Adolph ‘‘Adi’’ Dassler was one of the world’s first designers and manufacturers of specialized athletic shoes. The soccer shoes and track spikes made by Dassler in the 1920s became the foundation of the international sports shoe company Adidas. Dassler and his brother Rudolph ‘‘Rudi’’ Dassler founded the world’s first athletic shoe company, Gerbruder Dassler (Dassler Brothers) in 1924. In 1920, Adi Dassler, who was an enthusiastic soccer player, designed the first cleated soccer boot; he also devised the first spiked track shoes at that time. The initial Dassler athletic shoe manufacturing was done in the home of Dassler’s parents. The track shoes were very lightweight, with a thin-soled construction and a leather upper. These shoes were designed to be a snug fit, to permit the runner to obtain a maximum benefit from each stride, as the amount that the runner’s foot moved from side to side on impact was reduced through this design.

company to found Puma shoes, an organization that would ultimately rival that of Adi Dassler in Europe. Adi Dassler renamed his company Adidas, an acronym formed from his own name. Dassler also introduced the now famous three stripe Adidas logo at that time. Dassler continued to develop new kinds of athletic footwear. In 1949, he patented the Adidas soccer boot with removable rubber cleats. The cleats were fitted with a screw, and the cleat length could be adjusted for weather or field conditions. This technology was credited by the German national soccer team as playing an important role in their World Cup triumph in 1954. Adidas began to manufacture other sporting goods, particularly sports clothing, in the 1960s. Adidas has been the official supplier of FIFA soccer balls and the balls used at the World Cup since 1970.

The Dassler company achieved considerable renown among track and field athletes during this period. In 1936, Jesse Owens, the legendary American track star who won four gold medals at the Summer Olympics, wore track shoes manufactured by Dassler.

Dassler was an effective marketer of the Adidas brand; it became synonymous with sports shoes through the 1960s, and into the 1970s held as much as 70% of the lucrative North American sports shoe market. Many notable athletes, including four-time Olympic gold medalist Al Oerter and basketball legend Kareem Abdul-Jabbar wore Adidas shoes. Dassler’s death in 1978 triggered a series of internal battles at Adidas that saw the company lose a significant portion of its market to Nike.

The Dassler brothers abruptly ended their corporate partnership in 1948, when Rudi Dassler left the

SEE ALSO


Basketball shoes; Soccer; Track and field.

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GEORGE DE MESTRAL

George de Mestral 6/19/1907–2/8/1990 SWISS TEXTILE COMPONENT DEVELOPER

In 1948, George de Mestral, the inventor of VELCRO, was inspired in the development of his creation when he observed how the burrs produced by woodland plants adhered to the surface of his pants and his dog’s coat. When de Mestral examined the burrs under a microscope, he was fascinated by the hooks that extended from the burr, forming a secure connection with the attached material. It was this observation that led de Mestral to conceive of a two-sided fastener for clothing, with one side constructed of a series of tiny hooks, designed to catch the opposite softer fabric surface. The name VELCRO was also de Mestral’s invention. He joined two words, velour, a plush woven fabric, and crochet, the type of knitting performed with a hooked needle. de Mestral patented VELCRO in 1955, and the product became very popular in a wide variety of applications. Beyond its original appeal as a device to fasten articles of clothing, VELCRO soon became used throughout industry performing a multitude of functions. VELCRO is now a part of such diverse processes as medical operations and the carry bags used to transport laptop computers. VELCRO has become a very important part of sports performance. VELCRO fasteners can be readily adjusted to any desired tension, making them important in such devices as ski boots, gloves and many types of outerwear. In events where the athlete must make a speedy transition from one element of the activity to the next, such as is required in the triathlon, the VELCRO fasteners can be opened or closed faster than any other design. The helmets used in sports such as hockey, football, and auto racing are adjusted in various places on the helmet shell to customize the fit of the helmet to the athlete’s head using VELCRO straps. Safety equipment such as landing mats in gymnastics and track and field are often secured with VELCRO VELCRO closures have played a particular role in youth sports, as they render running shoes easier to use for very young participants. While there are other manufacturers of similar fastening products, VELCRO is the generic name by which all such products are known. de Mestral was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1999.

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Triathlon; Women’s sport clothing and protective equipment; Youth Sports Performance.

SEE ALSO

Death spiral

SEE

Figure skating: The

death spiral

Decathlon The decathlon is a supreme test of all-around athleticism, the sport competition whose champion may claim the title ‘‘world’s greatest athlete.’’ The term is derived from two Greek words, deca, meaning ten, and athlon, signifying competition. Although there are decathlons held throughout the world on a regular basis (e.g., the annual Gotzis, Austria, competition and the biennial World Track and Field championships) the most significant elite contests, the Olympic decathlon event, possesses the most notable history. It is an irony of this sport that the almost superhuman abilities of world class decathletes are largely ignored by the international sports community in the four-year interval between each Olympics. The men’s decathlon is a ten-event discipline, conducted in five-event segments over a two-day period. The decathlon is designed as a test of all aspects of athleticism—speed, strength, power, agility, and endurance—all within the context of the traditional track and field disciplines. From the track component of athletics, the decathlon draws the 100-m sprint, the 110-m hurdles, and the 400-m and 1,500-m races. From the field aspect, the decathlon includes the shotput, the javelin, the discus, the pole vault, the high jump, and the long jump. The first day of competition begins with the 100-m sprint; the final event of the competition on the second day is the 1,500-m race. The equivalent multi-sport competition for women is the heptathlon, a seven-part competition consisting of 100-m, 200-m, and 800-m races, and the high jump, long jump, javelin, and shotput. The heptathlon is an enduring symbol of the more historically prevalent distinctions between male and female athletics competitions. As women now compete in every individual competition that comprises the decathlon, there is no physiological reason as to why there is not also a decathlon for women. The decathlon was first contested in the Olympics in 1912. The winner was the legendary American athlete Jim Thorpe (1887–1953), who later starred in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DECATHLON

the fledging American football leagues that lead to the creation of the National Football League (NFL) in 1920. American Bob Mathias (Olympic champion 1948 and 1952) and Daley Thompson of Britain (1980 and 1984 champion) are the only men ever to win multiple Olympic decathlon gold medals, a testament to the demands of the decathlon. In its earliest incarnation, the decathlon scoring system was weighted in such a fashion that an athlete who dominated in two or three of the ten events would likely win the championship. The modern decathlon champion is determined through a scoring system that makes all events nominally equal in value, but where an athlete will be scored in accordance with his or her performance relative to the world standards at the time of the competition in the specific event. The athlete thus is scored by the relative quality of his or her performance, and not against the other athletes in the competition. The International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF), the governing organization of track and field, sets points totals for each event on an annual basis that are correlated to both the event as well as corresponding achievements in each of the other nine events.

The high jump is one of the ten events of the decathlon. PH OTO BY MAR K DA DSWELL/GE TTY IMA G ES.

The decathlon is the ultimate test of individual athleticism for a number of reasons. The nature of the ten events place stress on the aerobic energy system (the 1,500-m and the general stamina required to perform multiple events to a high standard over two days), the anaerobic lactic system (the 400-m race is the best example), and the anaerobic alactic system (the short intense generation of energy demanded in the 100-m and the high jump utilize this energy system). With events that require running, jumping, and throwing, each in more than one technique, every part of the musculoskeletal system is directly engaged at a high level in every competition. The decathlon also places a premium on both extreme muscular power, highly developed finesse, and hand-eye coordination. The pole vault and the shotput are prominent examples of decathlon disciplines where speed, power, and grace must be effectively combined. It is for this reason that, while decathletes have tended to be large men, relative to both the general male population as well as male track and field athletes generally, the decathlon is less typecast in the effective and successful physiques than many other sports. There have been very large, highly successful decathletes such as world champion Christian Schenk of Germany, who competed at a height of 6 ft 6 in (1.95 m), weighing 240 lb (110 kg). Mike Smith of Canada was an elite international competitor in the 1990s with a build similar to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

that of Schenk. At the opposite end of the elite spectrum, world champions Robert Zmelik of the Czech Republic and American Dan O’Brien each reached the pinnacle of this sport standing less than 6 ft 2 in tall (1.85 m), and weight less than 210 lb (95 kg). Given the decathlon structure, with running, jumping, and throwing balanced, champion decathletes are strong and exceptionally well-coordinated individuals who can tolerate extreme physical training stresses. Preparation for the decathlon competition is similar to embarking on the ultimate cross training program. The athlete must practice the technical aspects of every event to a high standard; the best Olympic decathlete in any of the ten disciplines will possess a personal best in that element that is likely quite close to a world standard. For example, the world record in the 100-m sprint is approximately 9.8 seconds, and the winning competitor in this portion of the decathlon will run a time of close to 10.3 seconds. Not only will the training for these events impose significant demands on a competitor, the decathlete will be required to engage in weight training and other specific supplementary programs to ensure balance and total fitness.

Cardiovascular system; Cross training; Exercise recovery; Pentathlon (women’s).

SEE ALSO

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DECONDITIONING

Deconditioning On a general level, deconditioning is a gradual physiological process whereby the level of physical conditioning and corresponding physical performance ability of the individual is reduced. ‘‘Out of shape’’ is the common expression used to convey this meaning. On a more sport-specific level, deconditioning is sometimes used as a planned period of inactivity to achieve a specific physiological end. Two vastly different circumstances are the best examples of the deconditioning process. When astronauts and scientists work for extended periods in the manned stations that function in the weightless environment of space, the most common observable physical phenomenon in the space station inhabitants is a pronounced loss of muscle mass, reduced cardiovascular function, and reductions in bone density. The space stations have no facility where the residents can use their muscles against resistance, the counterforce required to build muscle. The decline in cardiovascular function stems from the same reason. The loss of physical fitness is unrelated to the otherwise sound nutritional practices observed by these space travelers. Persons who have been bedridden with an illness for a significant time are subject to the same types of physiological deterioration as the astronauts. Muscles that are inactive and that are not required to perform the usual baseline functions associated with posture and support of the musculoskeletal system will decline over time. The process of deconditioning as it applies to overall general fitness ranges from a decline from peak fitness to a loss of competitive fitness, to a sedentary, non-athletic life, to a physically reduced condition where previously healthy body functions are at risk in the face of stress of any kind. The natural athlete, who is not required to train to compete on a high level, is more myth than reality. There are individuals who are fortunate enough to have either superior genetics, such as a higher-thannormal base metabolic rates (BMR), or tend to stay more naturally slim than other persons. Certain individuals have other natural qualities, such as balance and hand-eye coordination, which are available for use in what are otherwise deconditioned bodies. The rules regarding the preservation of muscle structure, bone density, and cardiovascular fitness are dependent on the exercise of each of these essential bodily systems to maintain strength and fitness. Deconditioning often occurs as the result of a cycle that begins with an injury, when the athlete

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does not maintain a level of physical activity through the period of recovery. Although the period within which deconditioning will occur varies from athlete to athlete, a measurable loss of muscular and cardiovascular fitness will be observed in most athletes after a period of inactivity of 14 days or longer. After the inactive period, it is common for the athlete to return to training at a level similar to that which he or she was accustomed at the peak level. When this approach is adopted on the athlete’s return to training, the athlete is exposed to a greater risk of injury due to the reduced physical capabilities created by deconditioning. The new injury will often trigger a further spiral of inactivity and physical reduction. In such circumstances, the athlete must be firmly directed to return to training at a very reduced level in comparison to any previous training standards, to undertake a slow and steady rebuilding process. In bodybuilding and strength training, deconditioning is used in a strategic manner. Strength training principles with respect to the building of muscle mass are founded on the principle of overload, in which the muscles are sufficiently stressed to produce micro-tears in the muscle fiber as a result of regular workouts. The body will naturally repair this damage with the production of myoblasts, the muscle cells that form in the areas of cellular damage. The repair cells ultimately produce a bigger and stronger muscle. Strength training research suggests that when the athlete has worked in accordance with a focused strength program, a structured downtime period at the end of the training cycle, which may extend from approximately five to ten days, will prove beneficial to ultimate muscle gain. The muscles at the end of the scheduled deconditioning will retain all of the myoblasts produced by the body to repair the micro-tear tissue, while preserving the ability to sustain further tears to generate new myoblasts. Deconditioning has also proven beneficial in the control of heart arrhythmia in athletes. Arrhythmia is a condition that can cause heart rate to accelerate out of control, leading to heart failure and death if first aid—in the form of defibrillation—is not immediately available. Arrhythmia is a condition that is both genetic in origin as well as presenting as a factor contributing to the overdeveloped heart muscle wall observed in some elite-level athletes. Deconditioning periods of approximately nine weeks, followed by a gradual return to athletic training, have proven to reduce the incidence of arrhythmia reoccurrence. SEE ALSO

Fitness; Health; Longevity; Overtraining. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DELAYED ONSET MUSCLE SORENESS (DOMS)

Frank Deford 12/16/1938– AMERICAN SPORTS WRITER

Frank Deford is the most acclaimed sport writer and commentator of the modern era in the United States. Deford joined the staff of Sports Illustrated in 1962, after his graduation from Princeton University. He pioneered a writing style that was virtually unknown in the sports writing genre, the essay, in which the writer’s opinions concerning a sporting event were as prominent as the events themselves. Deford and his association with Sports Illustrated has produced a wealth of material that covers almost every imaginable aspect of American sport, including reporting on the impact of science and technology on sport. Deford has also reported on use of illegal substances by athletes, and how their actions impact larger issues for both sports and society. In 2006, Deford’s weekly columns in Sports Illustrated included opinions regarding the issue of steroid use in baseball, boxer Joe Louis and racial issues in boxing, and the end of Catholic school supremacy in college basketball. He has addressed issues that were both popular such as the World Series or the Super Bowl, as well as issues that are more obscure or esoteric. As was the case with H.L. Mencken, the legendary Baltimore newspaper columnist and commentator who was prolific in his writing between 1910 and 1948, Deford has created a definable style to his work, that has enhanced both Deford’s broad appeal and his longevity as a writer. Deford’s style is often tinged with humor and irony. He often is irreverent in the support of a particular point, as evidenced by his famous observation, ‘‘I believe that professional wrestling is clean—everything else is fixed.’’ Deford is also the most decorated American sports writer in history. He has been named Sportswriter of the Year on six occasions. Deford has also won an Emmy award for his work on television as a commentator. Deford has written 14 books, and he has appeared as commentary on National Public Radio in the United States. SEE ALSO

Football (American).

Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) Delayed muscle onset soreness (DOMS) is a well-known consequence of many forms of muscular activity. DOMS is a delayed reaction to exercise, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

typically not experienced or observed for 12 hours or longer after a particular athletic event. DOMS is characterized by acute soreness in the muscles, often in conjunction with localized swelling. The most common type of DOMS is experienced when the athlete has participated vigorously in a new or an unaccustomed activity, for instance, the athlete participates in a 15-mi (25 km) run where the longest distance previously covered was 5 mi (8 km). DOMS is a part of the natural adaptive processes of the body to the new muscles stress to which the musculoskeletal system has been subjected. DOMS is most common when the activity requires the muscles to perform an eccentric contraction, where the muscles are subjected to a nervous system impulse to produce movement while the muscle is being extended away from the body. Running downhill, the delivery of a boxing punch, and movements such as pushups are classic examples of eccentric contractions. An unfamiliar eccentric contraction often produces a micro-tearing of the muscle fiber, which is the cause of both the subsequent pain and the related swelling. DOMS must be contrasted with other manifestations of muscle pain that occur as a result of exercise. Muscles that are sore immediately during or after an activity are typically the subject of simple muscle fatigue, often more pronounced due to the inability of the body to efficiently remove waste products generated as a part of cellular energy production from the muscle; lactate is an example of waste. Muscle cramps also have a separate cause from that of DOMS, and result of reduced fluid levels and a corresponding disruption in the optimal level of electrolytes—particularly sodium—within the body. Reduced levels of sodium impair the ability of nerve impulses to be transmitted into the muscle to regulate the firing of the appropriate neuron that provides the muscle fibers with the command to contract. This condition is readily corrected by rest and an infusion of fluids and electrolytes. In addition to the requisite degree of caution that an athlete should observe in the attempt at a new and strenuous exercise without appropriate conditioning, the risk of DOMS can be reduced through the implementation of a focused warm-up and cool-down regime. DOMS may persist for a period of days after its onset; exercise of the non-affected areas will help the athlete preserve a better level of fitness while the DOMS-afflicted muscles heal, as will gentle manipulation of the muscles through stretching and massage.

Cramps; Exhaustion; Muscle cramps; Musculoskeletal injuries; Sprains and strains.

SEE ALSO

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DIET

Diet In its technical sense, a diet is a food schedule that represents a disciplined pattern of consumption. Diets are created or designed to achieve a particular state of health, including larger or smaller body mass, higher or lower levels of intake of particular food types, or to regulate the intake of accompanying vitamins, minerals, or other supplements to improve physical performance. Diet has both broader and deeper meanings in its use by both the general population and athletes alike. The expression ‘‘you are what you eat’’ is one with which everyone can identify. Technical aspects aside, a diet is both the checklist as well as the yardstick to determine how the body’s essential systems perform on the fuels provided. The quantity of a diet and its quality are measured in different ways. Quantity is determined by the number of calories contained in the total foods consumed. In physics, a calorie is defined as the unit of measurement that represents the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 C; for dietary calculations, a calorie is 1 kilocalorie, or 1,000 calories. The dietary calorie is best understood with reference to what it represents. The most familiar comparison to quantify the dietary caloric measure is that 1 lb (2.2 kg) of excess fat on the human body represents 3,500 calories of either food intake or required energy expenditure. All foods are capable of being measured by their caloric value, because all foods will be converted by digestion into a form of energy, whether the substance enters the body as a carbohydrate, a protein, or a fat. When a diet is set out in writing, it will refer to both the size of the food product to be consumed, as well as its corresponding caloric value. The greater or smaller the portion of the food consumed will determine the proportionate calculation of the number of calories in the particular diet. The number of calories represented by the diet is of importance is determining whether the amount of energy available through the diet will sustain an athlete through the workouts and competitions. If a body has too little fuel available through food consumption, it will either resort to converting fat or protein stores into energy, which are not efficient processes, or the body will simply not be able to perform as intended. When the calories represent the quantity of the fuel available to the body, the components of the diet will represent the fuel quality: all calories, for the purpose of optimum human health and athletic

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performance, are not of equal value. All diets are composed of three general types of foods: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The proportion of each of these components in a diet is critical in the achievement of general health, as well as the specific desired benefits to enable an athlete to perform in a particular discipline that itself places specific demands on the body. Carbohydrates are broadly understood as the fuel used to power the body, both in its muscular movements as well as its nervous system, cardiovascular system, and organ function. Carbohydrates are the compounds found in many forms of plant life that are a byproduct of photosynthesis, the reaction between sunlight and the plant structure. Carbohydrates are generically classed as sugars, and they are typically divided into three subcategories: simple sugars, or monosaccharides, of which glucose is an example, so called because they possess a simple carbon/hydrogen/oxygen structure; double sugars, or disaccharides, such as sucrose; and complex sugars, also referred to as starch, known as polysaccharides, which are stored in the body for future energy uses as glycogen in both the liver and the skeletal muscles. Glycogen, reduced to glucose, is the product used by the body to create adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the ultimate fuel product converted to muscular energy. The most prevalent sources of carbohydrates typically found in the human diet are those derived from plant sources in their natural or harvested state, such as potatoes, grains, fruits, and vegetables, as well as those plant sources that are processed or refined into food products, such as bread, pastas, and all sugar products. In the typical diet of a healthy adult person, carbohydrates will form approximately 60-65% of the daily total caloric intake. Proteins are nitrogen-based molecules that are closely related to the body-building compounds known as amino acids. Proteins are essential to the building, maintenance, and repair of all muscles in the body. While protein can be utilized as a source of energy, it is inferior to both carbohydrate and fat supplies in this regard. Proteins are found in a number of food sources, the best known of which are animal meats, soy beans, and its derivatives, and dairy products. The body generally requires 12-15% of its diet as proteins. Fats are the third component of the diet structure. The term fat has a highly negative connotation in popular culture, as dietary fats are equated with the excess fatty tissue acquired in the human body when the output of calories, through exercise, is less than the caloric value of the foods consumed. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DIET

fats consumed for the purposes of diet are defined as organic compounds that are constructed in various combinations of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen molecules. Fats are a highly concentrated and inefficient source of bodily energy that are present in numerous foods, and are subdivided into two types. Saturated fats are those that are consumed primarily through animal meats, and excess consumption of animal fats in diet will often lead to a corresponding excess of cholesterol present in the body. Cholesterol is a type of fat known as low density lipoproteins (LDLs), which in excess amounts are a known inhibitor of good cardiovascular function. Unsaturated fats are found predominately in plants and fish products. Unsaturated fats contain high density lipoproteins (HDLs), which are a key to healthy cardiovascular function. The body extracts, or otherwise converts, some available fats into fatty acids, which play a vital role in the ability of the body to absorb and metabolize certain fat-soluble vitamins such as A and E, which are essential to healthy human function. The best known of these ‘‘healthy fats’’ is omega-3, which is found in salmon and tuna oils. Another form of fatty acid, trans fatty acid, or trans fat, is commonly found in fried foods made with vegetable oils and commercially prepared baked goods; trans fat has a negative effect on the cardiovascular system as it is believed to contribute to the clogging of arteries. A healthy diet, which is often referred to as a balanced diet, will not usually exceed 30% fat. In addition to an appropriate caloric value, suitable to the energy required by a person, and a balanced diet, certain food agents are desirable additions to assist with the digestion and the processing of the food consumed. Fiber (also known as roughage) is the term used to describe the food component that is desired not for its caloric or other nutritional value, but as a digestive aid. It cannot be processed for energy by the body, and fiber therefore does not have a caloric value. Foods such as apples, beans, and corn and other plants possess high amounts of soluble fiber, which assist slowing the digestive process and permitting nutrients to be better absorbed; insoluble fibers, present in foods such wheat and oat bran, make the elimination of solid wastes from the body easier by adding bulk to the waste products. Another essential aspect of diet that is not related to the caloric value of the food are the dietary vitamins and minerals consumed through food. As with fiber, vitamins and minerals are not a part of the energy sources, as the body does not convert WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

them in the fashion that carbohydrates are converted. Vitamins and minerals are commonly regarded as an interchangeable nutritional package; they are separately defined components of diet, that often work together to enhance health. Vitamins are a group of substances that are of critical importance to the body’s metabolism (the creation and processing of stored energy); vitamins are also an integral part of the growth and maintenance of the musculoskeletal system, as well as the prevention of disease. There are 13 vitamins that are essential to optimal human function, each referenced by a letter: vitamin A, the vitamin B complex (a grouping of eight separate but related compounds), and vitamins C, D, E, and K. All vitamins, with the exception of D and K, are obtained through diet; vitamins D and K are the products of synthesis within the body, a process that indirectly requires proper nutrition to occur. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat soluble, which require free fatty acids to facilitate storage and which will be absorbed into the body systems to function as required. The remainder of the necessary vitamins is water soluble, permitting absorption directly into the bloodstream through the digestive process and the working of the small intestine. Water-soluble vitamins are not stored within the body and each must be consumed on a daily basis. Minerals are inorganic substances found naturally in the earth; the name is derived from the ability to mine the substances underground. Minerals entering the body through foods are in some instances elements in their pure form as found in the periodic table; other minerals are elements in compound form. The most common example is table salt, or sodium chloride; sodium is the mineral required for the proper function of a number of the body’s systems. There are many minerals required to achieve optimum human function. The most important minerals are calcium (also, the most plentiful mineral in the body, essential to bones, teeth, the transmission of nerve impulses, and muscle function), sodium (which assists in the regulation of blood volume and related blood pressure), and potassium (known as an electrolyte, critical to athletic performance and essential to general body development and growth). An example of the chemical partnerships formed in the maintenance of the body is the relationship between vitamin D and calcium, which are interdependent in the formation of bones. Mineral stores can become quickly depleted through the stresses placed upon the human systems through exercise. A reduction in mineral levels cannot be compensated by way of assistance from

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of the amount of protein consumed. Given the body of each individual athlete may pose variations from the expected dietary requirements, two athletes on the same training program may have slightly different patterns of food consumption. Dietary supplements are commonly consumed by athletes to ensure that the proper daily nutritional requirements are met. Numerous investigations into the relative ability of the body to absorb vitamins and minerals from food versus pill or powdered supplements suggest that these nutrients are best ingested from food; for water-soluble nutrients, it is very difficult to ingest sufficient amounts in any fashion that poses a danger of overload, as the excess amount is passed out of the system. There is a risk presented from the over-consumption of fat-soluble nutrients: excess consumption of vitamin D may lead to the formation of calcium-composed kidney stones.

Carbohydrates; Fat intake; Protein supplements; Sport nutrition.

SEE ALSO

Diet, behavior modification The food pyramid.

ª GA BE P ALM ER /COR BI S

internal body processes. Mineral shortages can be addressed to a significant degree with the consumption of energy drinks during competition, and by way of supplements consumed as a regular part of diet. While the approximately 60% carbohydrate to 15% protein to 25% fat dietary ratio, together with optimum fiber, vitamin, and mineral consumption, will support a typical healthy adult, there are a multitude of dietary variations used to achieve specific athletic purposes. The low carbohydrate diets advanced for weight loss purposes and often popularized in the media are usually an unsuitable dietary basis for serious athletic training programs. Carbohydrates are the prime food source for the ultimate production of muscular energy; if the ratio of carbohydrates were significantly reduced in an athlete’s diet, the body would be required to seek energy production from either proteins or fats. Neither of these groups is as efficient in the production of ATP as is carbohydrate-derived glucose. In the specialized circumstances of elite performance, diet components can be strictly analyzed and adjusted for optimal athletic benefit. As an example, a weight training program aimed at building a greater degree of muscle mass might result in an adjustment

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Dietary habits are a complex amalgam of personal preference, ingrained custom, and societal influences. The modification of behaviors in relation to the pattern of food consumption is an intricate process, as these diverse factors are not readily addressed with one dietary tactic or approach. Diet is both the summary of the foods consumed by an individual, as well as the actual or predicted schedule of such consumption. When constructed in advance of any ingestion of food, the diet is a planning and organizational tool: athletes, persons with restrictions regarding food allergies or medication, or persons endeavoring to either gain or to lose weight employ diet in this fashion. When used as a review of precisely what a person may have consumed over a designated period, a diet is an analytical device, where past consumption can be compared to physical or performance changes noted in the body. For these reasons, diet is a powerful tool for the modification of behavior. The most common desired form of behavior modification in relation to food is the curbing of overeating and resultant obesity. The most straightforward method of weight reduction is based upon simple physics—if human caloric output exceeds caloric intake (where activity/exercise energy demands are greater than the food energy consumed), the human body will lose mass, because it must convert mass into energy. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DIETARY SUPPLEMENT HEALTH AND EDUCATION ACT, 1994

As with many simple, direct solutions, diet quantity restrictions alone have proven to be generally unsuccessful in controlling excess weight, especially over an indefinite period. A simple diet that proposes to reduce 500 calories per day will not succeed in a vacuum; the societal pressure to eat, as evidenced by the appearance of mass-marketed and sometimes unhealthy food choices, makes the maintenance of the required willpower to unilaterally cut back on food consumption a very difficult task for many people. Further, even those persons who have previously reduced weight in this fashion often discover their eating habits to have been only temporarily modified. This incomplete behavioral change often results in a ‘‘yo-yo’’ dieting scenario, where excess body mass is gained and lost on a number of occasions. A yo-yo weight gain and weight loss places significant additional stresses on the musculoskeletal structure. Initiatives to build a better diet must be supported by one or more additional behavior modifiers. These include exercising, maintaining a food diary, creating a list of foods to avoid, and counting calories. Exercise is key, especially those activities that require elements of endurance exercise, in increments of at least 30 minutes per day, four times per week. Endurance exercise, which utilizes the aerobic energy system to power the body during the activity, tends to have both higher energy requirements as well as providing a metabolic ‘‘afterglow,’’ where the body will experience an increase in its resting metabolic rate, meaning more energy will be consumed at rest. Within a food diary, individuals record the types and quantities of food consumed. These records serve to reinforce good dietary habits as well as provide a reference point on a review of the diet progress. Also, it can help individuals identify foods that stimulate excess appetite so that they can avoid them. Finally, it is important to count the calories both anticipated in a scheduled diet, as well as those actually consumed. Most national food guides and other nutritional sources provide accurate information as to the caloric value of foods, by portion size. The principles of behavior modification in relation to diet apply to all persons seeking a definable physical result in the performance of their bodies. Athletes who are outwardly very lean and fit, especially in aerobic sports where the body’s energy is derived from the consumption of carbohydrates, can fall into poor dietary practices and not be aware of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

certain vitamin and mineral deficits based on their weight or body shape alone. For the athlete, it is sluggish performance, or a corresponding desire to improve performance, that will provide incentive to modify dietary behavior. Athletes and less active people also share the temptation to seek out a quick fix to their dietary concerns, often in the form of a supplement. For the athlete, the supplement may be vitamins, minerals, or weight-gaining, protein-type additives such as creatine. For the weight-loss person, there are numerous so-called diet or weight-loss formulas. Research into the efficacy of weight-loss formulas confirms that a broad-based modification of diet behavior is a far better long-term solution, as the modification is being made with the body’s well understood and natural mechanism, food. Appetite suppressants are sometimes employed by people who wish to lose weight on a long-term basis, as well as athletes such as boxers and jockeys, who must intermittently qualify for competition in a specific weight category. Such suppressants, which are often significant amounts of caffeine or other stimulants, are the antithesis of a modified behavior, representing an ultimately short-term solution to an ongoing dietary problem.

Dietary supplements; Fat oxidation; Free fatty acids in the blood; Metabolic response.

SEE ALSO

Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act, 1994 The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) was passed by into law by the Congress of the United States in 1994. The Act was itself the product of a long period of intense lobbying by both the broadly based nutritional supplements industry as well as a number of American consumer groups, whose goal was to have established a consistent legal framework for the regulation of the dietary supplement industry. It is believed that members of Congress received as much constituent commentary about the need to pass the proposed DSHEA as it did regarding any other national legislation at the time. The Act references indicators of this intense public interest, citing American surveys that determined that almost 50% of then 260 million citizens regularly consumed dietary supplements, including vitamins, minerals, or herbal products.

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DIETARY SUPPLEMENT HEALTH AND EDUCATION ACT, 1994

Dietary supplements had been a part of the American commercial food industry for decades prior to the passage of the DSHEA. In the 1938 predecessor to the DSHEA, the Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act, dietary supplements were generally regarded as ‘‘foods for special dietary use,’’ but the definitions employed in the 1938 law did not contemplate many of the modern supplements. For this reason, many forms of dietary supplements occupied a legislative netherworld until 1994, as they were not regulated food additives, such as coloring or tenderizing compounds, nor were they perceived as drugs, those substances used as medicines or as narcotics. Prior to 1994, many dietary supplements were regulated as pharmaceuticals by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This federal government agency had assumed responsibility for dietary supplement regulation by advancing the position that all supplements without a defined nutritional value were a food additive, and were to be regulated as such. The industry and consumers desired legislation that created a clear division between prescription drugs and dietary supplements. There were other societal factors that impacted upon the development and the passage of the DSHEA. American society, in step with most others in the Western world, was increasingly affected by the speed of change in all aspects of life. The lack of time available to many American citizens to prepare food in the home had, in part, contributed to the development of the sprawling fast food industry. The prevalence of relatively high-fat, low-nutrient fast food products sparked concerns regarding the nutritional needs of Americans, which in turn contributed to the desire to remedy dietary deficiencies with readily available supplements. The preamble to the DSHEA sets out many of the findings of the U.S. Congress that supported the enactment of a comprehensive dietary supplement law. The first of the key Congressional determinations in support of the legislation was that the weight of current scientific research underscored the importance of nutrition and dietary supplements in the general promotion of good health and disease prevention in the United States. The preamble also identified the proven linkages between the ingestion of certain dietary supplements and the prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer. Congress stated that healthful diets may mitigate the need of expensive medical procedures (when the DHSEA was passed in 1994, the United States was estimated to spend over one trillion dollars on health care, approximately 12% of its gross national product,

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with increases in this amount forecast if efforts such as the promotion of health were not successful). Congress also stressed the fact that American consumers were placing an increasing reliance upon non-traditional health care providers. Further, it was clear that consumers were taking a far greater degree of initiative in personal health care, through their own decisions concerning the use of appropriate dietary supplements. The legislative preamble also noted the economic aspects of the dietary supplements legislation. In 1994, the dietary supplements industry represented an integral part of the economy of the United States, with a positive balance of trade generated in a multibillion dollar industry. The industry required a proper balance between regulation of its activities and the ability of its members to effectively market and distribute its products. In an overarching manner, Congress also recognized in the preamble that dietary supplements had been determined to be safe for use in a broad range of circumstances, and safety concerns expressed about such products by members of the public were relatively rare. Many states created high-profile task forces or agencies to coordinate health and wellness issues at a state level, in the wake of the DHSEA. The New York State Taskforce of Life and the Law is one such example. As passed by Congress, the DSHEA balanced the continued availability of a very broad range of safe, high-quality dietary supplements, consumer access to better, more complete information about the products, and governmental enforcement. The first portion of the legislation seeks to clearly define the term dietary supplement. This term had been used interchangeably with expressions such as nutritional supplements, vitamin supplements, and protein supplements. The legislation defines a dietary supplement as a product, other than tobacco, that supplements the diet, containing either alone or in combination one of the following components: vitamins, minerals, herbs, amino acids, or any concentrates or extracts of these substances. Vitamins are a broad group of naturally occurring substances that enhance human function, growth, and development. Minerals, the naturally occurring elements required for the function of many body systems, are often consumed in combination with vitamins, as the function of some minerals is dependent upon the presence of a specific vitamin. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS

relationship between the mineral calcium and vitamin D is an example. Herbs or other botanical products may be dietary supplements either in their natural state or as extracts added to a supplement. Amino acids are the chemicals that function as the building blocks within the body to form proteins, essential to muscle development. The DSHEA also defines any product to be a dietary supplement that is not represented to be the sole meal in any diet or when the product is labeled as a dietary supplement, to meet the definition. The definitions also provide that a dietary supplement shall be deemed to be a food (as opposed to a drug), for the purposes of the DSHEA. The DSHEA set out its definitions of how a dietary supplement could be ingested. Powder forms, gels, gel capsules, and tablets were all permitted as forms of these products. In addressing the consumer protection aspects of the dietary supplement industry, the DSHEA provides a number of specific rules concerning the role of the FDA and the obligation upon the manufacturers of dietary supplements who make claims about the qualities of a supplement, and to properly label all products as to both the nature and the content of the package. With regard to the sale of a new product suspected of being a dangerous dietary supplement, the DHSEA establishes that the government, through the FDA, bears the burden of proof of establishing all such risks. The DHSEA permits manufacturers to use documentation such as academic articles or other publications or statements as to the value of the supplement, so long as the statements are not suggesting a medical treatment or cure may be affected through usage. Manufacturers are also required to list all ingredients and their quantities present as contained in a dietary supplement; failure to have 100% of the quantity of a stated ingredient or to otherwise misbrand or mislabel a product is an offense under the DSHEA. The DHSEA also provides for the enforcement of good manufacturing practices by the FDA among the members of the dietary supplement industry in the United States. The failure of a manufacturer to prepare, package, or store its products in reasonably safe conditions is a violation of the statute. The DSHEA sets out a mechanism by which the government may from time to time establish regulations to govern all aspects of the supervision of the manufacturing and distribution process. The dietary supplement industry has continued to grow since the enactment of DSHEA. As with many WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

aspects of government legislation, the legislative framework and the actual relationship between the industry, consumers, and government are not mirrored in real life. The FDA, while active in the monitoring of false or misleading claims about the efficacy of numerous products such as weight loss programs that often include a dietary supplement component, has initiated prosecutions regarding dietary supplements on an infrequent basis. The most notable instance was the FDA ban on the sale of ephedra in 2004, after a long and acrimonious exchange between the FDA and various producers of ephedra or ephedra-related products. Ephedra in its natural form is a plant, in which the known stimulant ephedrine naturally occurs. Ephedra has been a mainstay of traditional Chinese medicines for centuries, and it has been used for a variety of purposes, including colds, asthma, and headaches. Ephedra had been used more recently as an ingredient in various herbal weight loss supplements. Considerable controversy in relation to ephedra products developed in 2002, and after a lengthy study, the FDA banned ephedra on the basis of what was referred to as a ‘‘risk/benefit analysis.’’ The FDA determined that there was significant consumer risk in the ingestion of ephedra in these supplements, citing scientific research regarding increased risk of heart attack as one aspect. In April 2005, the Federal Court of the State of Utah overturned the FDA ban as it related to ephedra quantities of less than 10 mg per day. The court determined that the FDA had a specific obligation, as the overseer of the legislative framework and the regulations, to establish that low amounts of ephedra presented a specific and definable risk. The court specifically interpreted the DHSEA as providing no basis to conduct a risk/benefit analysis, but rather that the FDA was required to establish an unreasonable risk to the consumer through the ingestion of the product. The DSHEA in 1994 did not contemplate the sweeping purchasing powers available to consumers through the Internet and the corresponding ability of Americans to obtain all manner of dietary or other supplements offshore, in a manner not within the scope of the DHSEA.

Dietary supplements; Ephedra; Ephedra-free supplements.

SEE ALSO

Dietary supplements Dietary supplements are a very broad class of substances that are taken and consumed in the same fashion as food. Such supplements are generally

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intended to add nutritional value to the diet through their use. Supplements were well understood by native cultures throughout the world for thousands of years prior to the development of the scientific method. Examples include the addition of animal organs to the diets of the hunters of native tribes in early North America, the introduction of the herb ginseng by the Chinese into many foods to provide additional nutrition, and the harvest of guarana by Amazonians to fortify prepared foods.

kinds of foods dietary supplements, including vitamins (substances that assist in the healthy development and regulation of human metabolism and cell development); minerals (elements that are essential to musculoskeletal growth and function, as well as the operation of the central nervous system; herbs (botanical products that typically are used as sources of vitamins, minerals, or other substances); and amino acids (the central components of proteins used to build and maintain muscle and tissue).

Perhaps the most enduring symbol of a historic organized dietary supplement practice is the nickname given to British sailors in the seventeenth century; they were called limeys for their consumption of limes to counter the effect of scurvy, a potentially fatal vitamin C deficiency. Scurvy was a constant threat to seamen, who typically existed through long voyages on dried biscuits and salted meats. English sailors did not understand the biological mechanism of the limes that supplemented their diet, but they understood that the technique worked.

An important and frequently misunderstood distinction is that between a dietary supplement and a drug. A drug is a substance that is either an entire medication, or forms a component of a medication. Although the distinction between drug and supplement may be a fine one in some circumstances, drugs are generally closely regulated regarding use or requiring a prescription from a medical doctor, with the object of curing, treating, or preventing the recurrence of a disease or illness. For this reason, a drug administered by a physician might contain substances that in other circumstances are dietary supplements.

The science of diet supplements gained favor in the early part of the twentieth century, as the vitamin B complex began to be isolated in laboratories, starting with thiamine in 1903. Research conducted during World War II, both to assist in providing soldiers in the field with better rations as well as experiments directed to assist prisoners of war with speedier means of recovering lost weight, were a spur to further supplement development. In the United States and most other countries of the Western world, the science of diet supplements grew into a very robust industry by the early 1990s. The seemingly limitless speed with which society moved fostered a huge fast-food industry, where the desire for convenience dictated the use of processed foods with questionable nutritional value. In many nations, dietary supplements have been promoted as a preventative measure to combat the effects of diseases as diverse as diabetes and macular degeneration, a loss of vision caused by malfunction of the macula, the central part of the retina, attributed to an amino acid deficiency. In 1994, the United States, through an enactment known as the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA), established a comprehensive scheme of regulation for the manufacture, distribution, sale, and marketing of all dietary supplements; many countries throughout the world have similar legislation in place. The DSHEA created the term ‘‘dietary ingredient’’ to describe the component that would make certain

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‘‘Dietary supplement’’ is an umbrella term, one that may include a number of other more general expressions, some of which have meanings that tend to overlap with others. For many years, the phrase ‘‘nutritional supplement’’ has been used interchangeably with dietary supplement, including any food or food-like product that will add nutritional value to a diet. Vitamin supplements are an equally generic description of various kinds of vitamins, either as a single vitamin (such as vitamin C), a vitamin B complex (with the eight members of the complex taken together), or as a multivitamin (with numerous vitamins in varying amounts). Protein supplements are often a reference to amino acid supplements, or inaccurately, to chemically derived substances such as creatine. Like vitamins, mineral supplements refer to single minerals such as calcium, or to multiple minerals. No matter what kind of descriptors are used to define dietary supplements, these products traditionally had been consumed by both the general population as well as the athletic community. Supplements might be taken to improve general, day-to-day health. A body that has an optimal level of vitamins and minerals, in conjunction with a reasonable balance between carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, will tend to function better and more efficiently. Supplements are taken for a specific physical condition such as to address an iron deficiency (for cases of anemia), or to address a mineral deficiency such as calcium. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS

Supplements are also ingested as a preventative, such as fiber supplements to act as a defense to bowel or colon cancer, or to fine-tune and bolster athletic performance. For example, an athlete might take electrolytic drinks (containing among other substances sodium and potassium, minerals that are necessary to the function of the neurological and fluid systems) to maintain balance, or take creatine or amino acid supplements to build muscle mass. Most health and nutritional experts agree that the best way for the body to obtain the benefits of vitamins, minerals, and other dietary substances is through foods obtained through a properly balanced diet, as opposed to taking pill, powder, or other forms of supplements. However, there is no chemical distinction between a compound such as vitamin A in pill form and that contained in foods such as eggs or milk; taken in proper amounts, the impact upon the body will be the same. The chief risk of taking a dietary supplement in the concentrated form of a pill or tablet is the risk that a person might accidentally ingest too much of the supplement, as some vitamins and minerals are toxic in large quantities, such as vitamin A and vitamin D (working in conjunction with calcium). Other supplements can be harmful to the processes of the body, such as using high levels of sodium. The supplements that are taken for simple health promotion and protection do not specifically target a particular physical condition. These are dietary products intended to supplement existing good health and bodily function, an assurance and a safety net as opposed to a solution. For example, multivitamins are found in various combinations, advertised to supplement either the entire vitamin A through E range, or segments of it. Every vitamin and mineral has a proscribed recommended daily allowance (RDA), and as vitamin C and some of the vitamin B complex are water soluble, they are not stored in the body. Consequently, a supplement may address those shortages. Herbal products, often sold in the form of teas or beverage ingredients, have a long history as dietary supplements. Preparations made from plants such as ginseng root and ephedra (ma huang) are said to assist with digestive, urinary, and sleep patterns. Also, fresh cultured bacterial yogurt is consumed as a supplement to strengthen the immune system. The mineral zinc is taken as a supplement to strengthen the immune system. In some limited circumstances, even alcohol, as a form of fermented sugar, is properly characterized as a dietary supplement. Alcohol, in limited amounts (less than the equivalent of ten WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

4-oz units [125 ml] of wine per week), where the person has no other relevant physical restrictions, has been established as a factor in reduced blood pressure and other symptoms of poor cardiovascular health. Many dietary supplements are taken to help eliminate an existing physical condition. Bowel disorders and accompanying constipation are problems that are common with persons who eat inordinate amounts of highly processed foods. The gastrointestinal system has evolved to require roughage, or fiber, to assist in the waste disposal process through the bowels. Fiber powder supplements have been developed, using a variety of natural fibers and herbs, to compensate for dietary shortfalls. Menstrual pain is a reality for millions of women. The dietary supplements that include combinations of vitamin B6, calcium, and magnesium are taken to help the body create its own relief from menstrual pain. Osteoporosis, the thinning and weakening of skeletal bone structures, is another condition that typically affects females, as its origins are related to calcium depletion tied to the nursing of children, combined by the effects of menopause. Calcium supplements are a common addition to the diets of persons with osteoporosis. Many dietary supplements are taken for the express purpose of preventing the onset of a particular ailment, such as cancer and heart disease. Prevailing medical and nutritional theory indicates that a balanced diet, regular exercise, and the avoidance of unhealthy habits such as smoking, recreational drug use, and excessive alcohol consumption, are the most logical route to long-term health. The medical evidence is equally clear that in most cases there is not likelihood of harm from the ingestion of dietary supplements that appear to mimic the other components of a proper diet. The dietary supplements used by athletes tend to have a specific performance focus, as opposed to being engaged as a preventative measure. Athletes, especially as they approach elite levels of training and performance, encounter progressively greater physical challenges that tax their bodies and tend to increase all dietary requirements. In events where the margin between victory and defeat may be measured in fractions of seconds or in inches or centimeters, the athlete, through a carefully monitored diet, must ensure that every conceivable body function is capable of being engaged to a maximum level. Athletes will notice through performance whether they have optimum vitamin and mineral levels. Further, the recovery time that they experience

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after a difficult training session or a competition is a powerful indicator of nutritional health. The athletic dietary supplements are generally taken on a daily basis. In training and competitions, for marathon runners or triathletes, supplements are intended to replace carbohydrate stores consumed during the event as well as electrolytes such as sodium and potassium. These supplements may be consumed as fluids, energy bars, or gels. Supplements provide post-training or competition boosts to the bodily stores to assist in recovery. Protein or creatine supplements assist in the development of muscle mass.

Glutamine supplementation; Minerals; Protein supplements; Supplement contamination.

SEE ALSO

Disability classification Disability classification is the method used throughout the Paralympics movement to create and administer equitable athletic competitions. The mission of Paralympics sports is to be as inclusive as possible regarding athletes who possess one of a broad range of physical and intellectual disabilities. It is the equity of the classification process that is an asset of the Paralympics movement, which seeks to promote elite athletic performance within an everexpanding range of events. The Winter and Summer Paralympic Games are modeled after the Olympics competitions; the Paralympics are a quadrennial event that is staged at the same city and sports venues of the corresponding Olympic Games. Each disability classification supports a number of freestanding athletic events. Each event is contested within the parameters of the classification, without relation to any other class of athletes who may be participating in the same sport. The rules of the Paralympics movement with respect to the determination of the appropriate classification of an athlete or team begin with the consideration of the appropriate disability category. There are six broad Paralympics categories: amputee, cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, wheelchair, vision impairment, and ‘‘others.’’ The amputee category is defined as one where the athlete has lost at least one major musculoskeletal joint; the ankle, knee, and elbow are common examples. The loss of a single finger or a toe would not qualify an athlete for inclusion in this category. Cerebral palsy is a genetic disease that affects the function of the centers of the brain that direct and control muscular movement. Many athletes who suf-

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fer from cerebral palsy compete in events that require wheelchairs. Intellectual disability is a more subjective determination than that employed in physical disabilities. The Paralympics define this disability as one when the athlete was afflicted with the disability prior to reaching the age of 18 years, and when there is proof from either physicians or other third party specialists that the athlete has a limitation of mental function in two or more specific areas. Academic performance, communication skills, community living skills, the ability of the athletes to safely care for themselves, and their ability to live on their own are the standards against which the disability is assessed. Wheelchair athletes are those who have sustained a minimum of 10% loss of function in the lower limbs. The most common illness or injuries sustained by these athletes are catastrophic traumas that cause either paraplegia or quadriplegia (the loss of function of two or four limbs from a spinal cord injury), poliomyelitis (the disease affecting the neuromuscular system and the ability of the athlete to control lower limb movement), or amputation. Vision-impaired athletes range from those whose eyesight requires significant correction by way of lenses to athletes who are entirely blind. Others (les autres in French) is the category that is reserved for disabled athletes who do not meet the requirements of the previous five categories. A common disability found in the les autres category is that of dwarfism. Once an athlete has been categorized, the classification process then is conducted within each sport. An example is the 400-m race on the track at the Summer Paralympics. This event is contested in separate classifications created within each of the categories; an amputee athlete who is missing a leg below the knee will compete against athletes with a similar extent of disability; athletes with a single above-the-knee amputation, or athletes with a double amputation will compete in their distinct events. In all events of this nature, the determination of the precise classification is that of a functional assessment: what the athlete is physically able to do. Track and field (known in the Paralympics rules as athletics, consistent with the Olympic nomenclature) and swimming are the sports that have the greatest number of individual Paralympics event classifications. Track and field is divided into over 50 classifications; swimming has over 14, and each classification supports a number of different competitions. The game of goal ball, an indoor variant of soccer as contested in the Paralympics, uses technology to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DISABLED INDIVIDUALS AND REGULAR PHYSICAL EXERCISE

eliminate any disputes regarding the degree of disability due to vision impairment among the athletes. Goal ball competitors each wear goggles that render all athletes 100% blind during the competition. Paralympics wheelchair rugby is another team event where classification of the athletes is critical to preserving fair competition. All athletes on a team are graded in advance of competition as to the their capabilities, with the most capable athletes graded as high as 3.5 points, the least capable scored at 0.5 points. A team has four players in action on the field at all times, and the team grade may not total more than 8.0 for any four athletes throughout the particular game. Basketball uses a similar classification formula.

Paralympics; Prosthetic research and sport; Special Olympics.

SEE ALSO

Disabled individuals and regular physical exercise From a sports perspective, a disability may be any physical or mental incapacity caused by an injury or a disease, which places a limitation on the participation of the individual in sport. Physical disabilities are commonly the result of a genetic disorder, disease, injury, or as a result of aging; mental disabilities, as defined by organizations such as the Paralympics and Special Olympics, are referenced as ‘‘intellectual disabilities.’’ As a general rule, disabled persons of all types are less physically active than their able-bodied counterparts. The effect of a serious disability will often have the twin effect of removing the person from participation in athletic activities that he or she previously enjoyed, coupled with the emotional burden of seeking out athletic alternatives in societies where sports participation opportunities for the disabled are not always readily available. When the disabled person becomes a sedentary individual, there will be an unavoidable impact on the health and function of all key bodily systems: disabled persons and able-bodied persons must have the stimulation of exercise to maintain proper physical health. The ability to control body weight through strict diet and the monitoring of caloric intake is only one half of the health equation for any person. Any physical exercise in the face of a disability will invariably be a benefit to the health of the body’s various operating and regulatory systems. The range of limitations created by disability is extremely broad. Common disabling conditions where WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

regular physical exercise may be continued are structural conditions such as osteoarthritis, paraplegia (paralysis and loss of function in the lower limbs), the amputation of a joint, a range of cardiovascular diseases such as arteriosclerosis and high blood pressure, and genetically induced conditions such as multiple sclerosis (which causes a deterioration in nervous control of the muscles). The benefits of regular physical exercise to disabled individuals are both physiological and psychological. The ability to participate in exercise tends to generate a significant increase in the positive outlook of the individual; the self-confidence that is built through the successful participation in any sports activity tends to translate into a more vibrant attitude towards daily living. An exercise routine for the disabled is accepted as a significant means of combating stress; the neurotransmitter, endorphin, the chemical produced by the pituitary gland during exercise, provides the same natural pain suppression and moodelevating qualities for all persons who exercise. The physiological benefits to exercise for disabled persons are of significance. One of the most commonly observed physical conditions in the disabled is excess weight, which occurs in a direct relationship to a sedentary lifestyle. The consequences of excess weight are well known, with impacts that extend throughout the body. Physically disabled persons are more prone to the development of diseases such as type II diabetes, cholesterol-related conditions attributable to the greater presence of low density lipoproteins in the bloodstream, and high blood pressure. The reduction of weight through exercise will generally reduce the impact of all cardiovascular disease. Excess weight, coupled with the limitations of either wheelchair or prosthetics use, places additional strain on the joints of the musculoskeletal system, contributing to the early onset of osteoarthritis, the degenerative deterioration of the articular cartilage located at the end of the bones where joints are formed. Resistance exercises, those involving the use of weights, as well as the resistance generated through walking or running, will naturally improve muscle strength and bone density; the stress on the skeleton naturally stimulates bone cell formation. Stretching and flexibility exercises are a crucial component for the regular exercise program of a disabled individual. Many forms of disability require the person to assume a posture to achieve movement for which the body is not designed. Crutches and other assistive devices are common examples of the means required of the disabled to propel themselves. A stretching program is recommended, one where the

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Exercise in the face of a disability will invariably be a benefit to the health of the body’s various operating and regulatory systems. PH OTO B Y CAN CAN CH U/ GE TTY IM AGES

body is subjected to both passive stretches (where the floor or the body weight of the individual provide the resistance to the muscle group being stretched) and active stretches (where the targeted muscles and joints are moved beyond the usual range of motion with the assistance of a therapist or partner). An important byproduct of exercise for the disabled person is an improved ability to achieve a deeper and more restful sleep. Sleep is an important aspect in the preservation of both emotional balance and physical health in all persons, particularly those who must also conquer a disability.

Cardiovascular system; Fitness; Health; Paralympics.

SEE ALSO

Discus The discus is a sport of great antiquity. The discus thrower is a competitor immortalized by Homer and other classical Greek writers as the perfect symbol of

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all that athletics represented. The discus was a men’s event at the first modern Olympic Games in 1896; a women’s discus event was added in 1928. In addition to its place as a freestanding Olympic sport, the discus is one of the events that comprise the decathlon. Discus is also a competition sanctioned by the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) at the biennial World Track and Field Championships. As with all of the events from the ancient Games that have survived into modern times, the discus is a deceptively simple sport: the object is to hurl a slightly elliptical, circular-shaped disc from a defined throwing area further than one’s competitors. The throw is started in a throwing circle that has a circumference of 8.25 ft (2.5 m). The completed throw must fall within an area on the field that is bounded by a 40 wide arc. The discus is constructed of wood, with a metal rim encircling the disc itself; the discus used in men’s competition weighs 4.4 lb (2 kg), with the female version weighing 2.2 lb (1 kg). The most successful Olympian in the history of discus is American Al Oerter, who won gold medals WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DISCUS

in four consecutive Olympic Games, between 1956 and 1968. Strength is an important component in achieving success in the sport of discus. The ability to deliver the discus with maximum force requires a strong and supple upper body, supported by powerful legs to move the athlete through the throwing circle explosively prior to the release of the disc. As with all other Olympic field events, muscular strength must be paired with a smooth and dynamic technique. In the early days of Olympic competition, the discus throwers assumed a crouched stance, facing away from the field where the throw would be delivered. The athletes then made a quick half turn, releasing the disc at the end of the motion, extending from the crouch to impart the power of the body’s upward movement to the disc on release. The original throwing circles were a grass surface; with the advent of a concrete throwing circle in the 1950s, the athlete could move much more quickly across the throwing area, thus generating significantly greater power that was transferred to the disc on release. The throwing technique subsequently evolved to a movement that was a three-quarter turn by the thrower in the circle, accompanied by a skip as the thrower prepared to move explosively from the starting crouch position to generate greater throwing power. The most important factor in the creation of acceleration for the discus is in the power of the thrower’s legs as the athlete moves through the throwing circle. The general attention paid to the powerful crouch position in discus is biomechanically similar to the sports of shotput and hammer throw. Discus has a feature unique among Olympic sports: the aerodynamics of the disk as it travels from the hand of the thrower. The angle of release achieved by the thrower will ultimately determine the success of the throw. As the discus travels through the air, it is affected by the two fundamental physical principles of aerodynamics, lift and drag. If a disc is delivered from the hand of the athlete at an angle precisely parallel to the ground, the air flowing both over and under the moving disc would be expected to travel at the same speed. If the discus is thrown so as to create an angle of attack, causing the air moving over the top of the discus to travel faster that the air below, the slower air will create a higher pressure on the surface of the disc than the air on its top, creating lift and forcing the discus upward. This relationship between the effect of air speed and the generation of lift is known as BerWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The deceptively simple sport of discus throwing has survived into the modern Olympic games from those of the ancient Greeks. ª AR ALDO DE LUCA /CO RB IS

noulli’s principle, and it is observed in diverse sports circumstances, including automobile racing and sky diving. Drag is a minor component in the assessment of the flight characteristics observed in discus, as the profile of the object as it presents to the air is very narrow and the surface of the object is very smooth, with little skin friction to slow it as it passes through the air. The determination of the most appropriate angle of attack of the disc upon release will be dictated by an important variable: wind direction. Science has determined that a discus delivered by an elite thrower at the optimal angle into a head wind with a velocity of approximately 20 mph (32 km/h) will receive the additional effect of air speed passing over the discus and the resultant lift created that will produce a throw that travels 25 ft (8 m) further. The available IAAF data suggests that the optimum angle at which the discus should be released is between 33 and 38 . If the angle of attack is too great (i.e., the area making contact with the wind as the leading edge of the discus is too large), there will be a greater measure of drag, negating any beneficial effect of lift. If the angle is sufficiently severe, creating a separation of airflow over the discus, lift cannot be achieved. SEE ALSO

Hammer throw; Javelin; Shotput; Track and

field.

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The discus throw is one of the ten events that comprise the decathlon.

Disks

SEE

Herniated disks

Distance running

SEE

Hydration

strategy in distance running

Diuretics As with many sport science terminology, the term diuretics has various meanings, each determined by the circumstances of its use. In its strict and most technical sense, a diuretic is any agent that promotes the production of urine from the kidneys, and a corresponding excretion of urine from the body; diuretic is from the Greek words meaning ‘‘through urine.’’ In popular language, diuretics are taken to be anything that acts to dehydrate or reduce the fluid levels within the body. An understanding of diuretic function begins with the manner in which water operates within the human body. Water is essential to the function of numerous human systems, including the operation

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ª TIM PA NN ELL /COR BIS

of the cardiovascular system. Blood, through its fluid component plasma, is 90% water. Water is ingested through both fluids and foods, and it enters the bloodstream through the digestive process, centered at the small intestine. The kidneys are the organs whose primary function is the regulation of both the amount of fluid within the body as well as the chemical and electrical balances of those fluids. The kidneys comprise one of four components of the excretory system, where waste products are processed and removed, although the excretion of waste is a secondary function of the kidneys. The kidneys, the ureter (a muscular connective tube), the bladder (which stores urine), and the urethra are the mechanisms by which urine is generated and transported. When the cardiovascular system directs blood into the kidneys, the pressure conveyed along the renal artery (the main blood conduit to the kidney) forces water and some water-soluble products from the blood, where the kidney filtration structure collects them and redirects the product to the bladder as urine. The reabsorption of water by the body is triggered by the antidiuretic hormone, ADH. ADH is WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DIVING

produced by the pituitary gland when signaled by the hypothalamus, a regulatory center in the brain, that the fluid levels within the body have dropped. ADH will signal the kidneys to absorb more water into the blood to increase fluid level; the urine produced is therefore more concentrated. When the body has too much fluid in its system, the hypothalamus signals a reduction in ADH, which increases the amount of water absorbed by the kidneys, with a resultant larger, and more dilute, urine production. Interrelated with the operation of ADH is the presence of sodium in the blood and kidneys. Sodium is the mineral essential to the regulation of water retention and excretion in the body. It is regulated by a kidney hormone, aldosterone. When fluid levels are low, aldosterone precipitates a release of sodium from the kidneys into the bloodstream; through the process of osmosis, water enters the blood. Diuretics function through the disturbance of the fluid level balance achieved by the kidneys, and through the hormones that act as the signals to increase or decrease fluid levels. Diuretics are also specifically chemically formulated to combat various types of illnesses. Diuretics are present in many foods. Herbal mixtures containing dandelion root and parsley have a proven diuretic effect. The bestknown food products possessing diuretic properties are those that contain caffeine or alcohol. Caffeine—the most consumed stimulant in the world—is prized by athletes for both the additional ‘‘spark’’ given to powers of concentration as well as its fatigue-fighting qualities. The presence of caffeine in the bloodstream as a byproduct of digestion will induce the production of ADH as well as a greater output of urine. Caffeine will therefore tend to reduce blood volumes and presents a mildly negative impact on the function of the cardiovascular system unless countered with increased fluid intake. Alcohol, as found in varying quantities in beers, wines, and spirits, is readily soluble in water and it is equally readily absorbed into the bloodstream through digestion. Alcohol will also trigger a milder increase in urine production through the kidneys; the impact of alcohol as a diuretic for an athlete is usually more pronounced when the athlete has indulged in the consumption of alcohol the day before training or competition, as alcohol has few performanceenhancing qualities. There are a number of diuretics that have been created chemically to assist in the management of various conditions. These products may be classified WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

as acetazolamide (or similar products), thiazides, or ‘‘loop’’ diuretics. Acetazolamide compound is used in the treatment of glaucoma and various types of seizures, when the reduction of fluid pressure in the eye or other organs is critical. Thiazides are a class of substances that are used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure) through interfering in the usual kidney processes that permit sodium to be reabsorbed, leading to the osmosis of water into the bloodstream. So-called loop diuretics, which are designed to reduce edema, or swelling, in the organs or tissues. An unforeseen, yet highly effective, diuretic application arose regarding athletes who were subject to various types of doping tests that involved a urine sample. Diuretics, given their tendency to impel the body to produce greater amounts of urine, create a flushing effect on the entire renal system, resulting in the discharge of evidence of anabolic steroids, erythropoietin (EPO, the blood-doping hormone), or other metabolized particles of evidence. Both the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) as well as the International Olympic Committee (IOC) now penalize athletes for the presence of diuretics in a doping test in the same fashion as a positive text for the performance-enhancing substances themselves.

Caffeine; Exercise and fluid replacement; Hydration.

SEE ALSO

Diving Diving is one of the disciplines that comprise the international aquatic sports, as administered by FINA, the French acronym created from Federation Internationale de Natation. In the company of swimming, water polo, open water sports, and synchronized swimming, diving has the obvious common attribute of water. Diving, both with respect to its evolution as a sport and its current training and competitive practices, is a closer athletic cousin to gymnastics than it is any other athletic activity, as diving does not require any particular swimming skills beyond the ability of the competitor to swim out of the pool at the completion of a dive. Diving has been a part of the Summer Olympics since 1904. FINA convenes an annual World Championship in all diving disciplines. Diving is also a wellknown club sport in Europe, China, and Australasia, and it is a popular sport at both the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) level as well as in U.S. high schools.

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Russian divers Dmitry Dobroskok and Gleb Galperin at the 2005 FINA World Championships.

P HOT O B Y AL EX AN D ER H AS SE NS TE I N/

BON G ART S/ GE TTY IM AG ES

Diving is both a men’s and women’s sport, and it is contested in three distinct competitive formats, in all of which the divers strive for perfect form from the moment that they prepare to execute the dive, to their subsequent entry into the pool below. The oldest form of diving, predating the Olympic competitions, is now regularized into platform diving, where the competitors make their dives from a 33-ft high (10 m) rigid platform. In 10-ft (3 m) springboard diving, the diver executes the desired movements from a springy narrow platform that extends over the pool. In platform and springboard competitions, the diver competes alone. In synchronized diving, two divers endeavor to synchronize their movements from the diving platform, into the air, and as they enter the water. All forms of diving are sports where the subjective opinion of a group of judges are tabulated. In

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each event, there are numerous recognized dives, each of which is assessed a level of difficulty factor that is determined by FINA. Difficulty factors assist judges in providing a consistent approach to scoring in a competition. Judges are not permitted to deviate from the level of difficulty assigned to a particular type of dive. FINA has also developed a series of guidelines as to what a judge should look for in the assessment of a particular dive. Platform diving has over 80 dives that have been assessed a level of difficulty, and there are over 60 such categories in springboard. These guidelines aside, the judge is otherwise free to score a dive on a subjective basis, with a zero score representing a failed dive, and 10 the mark of a perfect dive. Depending on the level of the competition, diving is scored on a round-by-round basis, with the winner of an event the diver with the best cumulative score. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DOPING TESTS

No matter what height or style of dive to be attempted, all dives have four components: the approach, the take off, the technique, and the entry. The gymnastics relationship to diving is most evident in the manner in which the athletes achieve their desired body positions in flight from the board. The distance from the platform to the water provides an opportunity for the divers to perform more intricate physical maneuvers, but the principles are the same in each movement. The shape of the diver in flight will generally be one of four orientations to the water. Straight position is movement that is perpendicular to the surface; a pike is a position where the diver is bent at the waist; a tuck is created where the diver pulls the knees to the chest in flight; and free is a straight position combined with one other movement. As with any sport where the ability of the athletes to control their form in the air is essential, divers seek a combination of muscular strength and a high degree of flexibility to build an ideal range of motion in the joints of the body. Divers can often practice elements of their routines indoors, on trampolines, to replicate the body control required in a dive. The maintenance of form both in long competitions and through practice requires significant stamina. A measure of explosive movement is often required at take off, necessitating significant leg strength. The ability of a diver to both visualize and to imagine the sensations of air and water during a dive are critical psychological training tools employed by elite-level competitors. Divers and their coaches employ mental imagery to assist in their emotional control of the dive.

a much longer athletic history. Long-distance swimmers in the nineteenth century experimented with stimulant use. Road-racing cyclists in the early days of European racing employed caffeine, ether, and sugar mixtures, and in the 1960s, barbiturates use was common among cyclists to delay the onset of fatigue and to sharpen their reflexes. The use of ‘‘greenies,’’ or amphetamines, was commonplace in many team sports in North America; major league baseball players in the United States were a prominent example of such users until such stimulants were banned in 2005. Doping in many respects has represented a reflection of the desire of athletes to find the limit of their performance capabilities. The science of doping tests, as an enforcement mechanism, has typically lagged behind the ability of athletes to take a performance-enhancing substance with impunity. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) banned the practice of doping in 1928; at that time, the IOC had only the word of the competitor that they were not taking any illegal substances, as there were no reliable scientific tests available, nor was there a protocol for the administration of any tests. The chasm between the ability of athletes to secretly use performance-enhancing substances, and the power of governing bodies to regulate the practice through detection narrowed in the 1970s as various international sports bodies, including the IOC and the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF), began to provide organizational resources to develop efficient and trustworthy testing processes.

Doping is the generic term used to describe a broad variety of prohibited or unethical acts involving the use of a drug or a blood product to improve athletic performance.

International scandals such as the positive steroid test of 100-m sprint champion Ben Johnson at the Seoul Olympics in 1988 created an impression that doping primarily involved steroid use. Doping tests can involve the detection of the following types of performance enhancing substances: anabolic steroids (in a multitude of formulations); stimulants (including amphetamines and cocaine); tetrahydrogestinone (also known as TGH, a growth hormone); modafinil (a sleep disorder medication with stimulant properties); erythropoietin (also called EPO, a synthetic form of a naturally occurring hormone produced in the kidneys that is essential to the production of red blood cells; EPO is known as a blood-doping agent); diuretics (used to increase the creation and excretion of urine, and to flush out the traces of various substances otherwise detectable in doping tests); and gene doping (the modification of muscle structure through genetic means).

While doping in a number of forms has received widespread international publicity since the 1960s, the use of performance-enhancing substances has

In its first formulation, doping was a cottage industry without formal scientific research or experimentation. Athletes, through individual trial and

Balance training and proprioception; Gymnastics; Stretching and flexibility; Swimming.

SEE ALSO

Doping, blood

SEE

Blood doping

Doping tests


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error, ingested substances that today seem unbelievable—an example was the combination of strychnine (a poison believed to have stimulant qualities) and alcohol taken by an Olympic marathoner during the 1904 Games. When the approach to doping became a scientific endeavor, doping testing acquired a greater importance. The use of substances such as steroids was a part of prescribed athletic schedules, carefully scrutinized in the same fashion as event technique and diet. Not only was testing necessary to ensure the hypothetical level playing field for all athletes in a particular competition, testing was seen as an instrument to preserve the broader ethical aspects of fair play in sport. In recent years, the rationale behind doping tests has expanded to the preservation of athlete health. There is a clear intersection of competitive fair play, ethical purity, and athlete safety and education in the practices and procedures in modern doping tests. Doping tests are a highly scrutinized process themselves. Testing science has been made a cornerstone of many athletic institutions, including the IOC, WADA, the IAAF, the international soccer body FIBA, and many professional sports organizations. National championships conducted in most sports throughout the world also provide for a form of doping testing. In the national and professional examples, it is the competitive pressure to succeed to the next lucrative and professional level of the sport that often has prompted performance-enhancing drug use. The commercialization of sport has created a downward pressure on amateur athletes to engage in doping practices; doping testing is not common in amateur team sports such as North American college football, club rugby, or cricket. Athletes at some levels believe that if they can achieve professional status, doping will no longer be necessary and the testing to which they are likely to be exposed will not be a serious hindrance to their career. After it was formed in 1999, WADA took the international lead in the formulation of anti-doping policies and procedures. WADA invited all major international sport organizations to sign its codes of practice regarding doping testing, both in and out of competition. After some resistance, particularly from the international cycling body UCI, the WADA standards of practice became the accepted world standards of doping testing as regards the physical procedures used, the substances sought for detection, and the process to resolve complaints or appeals. The umbrella document that organizations sign as indicative of their agreement with WADAprescribed practice is the World Anti-Doping Code.

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There are two broad types of doping testing conducted. ‘‘In competition testing’’ are those tests conducted under the authority of the event organizers, such as an Olympic Games, World Cup, or Tour de France competitions. The event publicizes in advance its rules regarding who will be tested, for what substances, and in what circumstances. Typically in an athletics competition, there will be some measure of random testing of competitors, as well as specified testing of the top finishers in each event. In team sports, most testing is by way of random selection of representative team members for testing after each game. Most international events now work in conjunction with WADA regarding both testing procedures and the determination of the substances that shall be banned from a particular competition. WADA publishes a list of prohibited substances on a yearly basis, with updates or modifications where required. The time lag between the publication of the targeted substances and the competitions to which they shall apply is to ensure that no athlete has been using a substance that is legitimately believed to be legally employed. An example of such a substance is ephedrine, the naturally occurring stimulant found in ephedra plants and elsewhere. Banned by WADA, ephedra formed a part of many herbal and other supplements that may not have been as clearly marked regarding composition. The publication of the WADA rules encourages athletes to make appropriate due-diligence investigations as to the contents of all foods and supplements that they ingest. The second type of doping testing employed is ‘‘out of competition testing.’’ This test is carried out in the same technical fashion as the testing conducted at the athletics event venue; the purpose of this testing is to monitor athletes to ensure ongoing compliance with national and international doping rules. Athlete monitoring throughout of competition testing has a number of possible applications. Effective and transparent doping testing by a national sports organization that sends teams or athletes to international events provides credibility to the organization. In many countries, the sponsorship and support of the athlete by state or federal governments is tied to the athlete’s regular participation and compliance with random doping testing. Increasingly, the collective bargaining agreements between major professional sports and their player associations make provision for random, out of competition testing. It is clear that in North American professional sport, such testing is as much to secure favorable public opinion as it is engaged for competitive, fair play issues. American WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DOPING TESTS

Doping control sign at the 1996 Summer Olympics.

ª NE I L RAB I NOWI T Z/COR BI S

football and major league baseball have been the subject of widespread public commentary regarding a perceived lack of institutional desire to combat steroid and amphetamine use by players. Doping testing can technically be carried out with samples of blood, tissue biopsy, or other bodily products such as feces or semen. However, international WADA-sanctioned testing will center on the securing of a urine sample, or less commonly, a blood sample, from an athlete immediately after the completion of the event. The typical in competition doping test follows precise procedures. All testing is conducted under the authority of a doping control officer, who has authority regarding who is tested and the chain of custody over the physical sample, from production by the athlete to publication of a result. WADA procedures are predicated upon a principle of no-advance notice to the subject athlete. A chaperone escorts the athlete to a doping control station, where the urine sample is physically collected from the athlete. Prior to testing, the chaperone is responsible for verifying the identity of the athlete. The athlete, once notified after an event that he or she will be tested, is responsible for any foods or fluids consumed, as well as notifying the doping offiWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

cials of any medications consumed (certain medications that may legally be consumed by athletes may impact upon the testing process). The athlete may also have a representative present to assist with any forms to be completed. Then the sample collection team obtains two samples of urine, designated as the A and the B samples, using sterile equipment and approved scientific methods. A witness or other member of the collection team must be permitted to observe the urine enter the collection equipment; 100 ml of urine is the desired testing volume. Each athlete must personally seal both the A and the B containers. The samples are stored in an appropriate facility under the direction of the doping control officer. A WADA-accredited laboratory is assigned to test the samples. International organizations, in accordance with WADA guidelines, each determine what the limits of performance-enhancing substances that may be permitted in the system of an athlete. Designated A samples are tested first; when a positive test results with the A sample, the athlete is notified and the B sample is then tested. With increased attention paid to proper scientific procedures, the defense of mistake and lab error are

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extremely rare where a positive test is indicated. The penalties for a positive doping violation are significant: disqualification, loss of awards, team disqualification, suspension from competition, and loss of government support are all likely consequences of a positive doping test. The next frontier for doping testing is that of genetic manipulation of the athlete, a practice known as gene doping. The genetic manipulation of a human system such as the production of erythrocytes (red blood cells), with a corresponding increase in oxygen-carrying capacity, is a science in its infancy. As was the case with steroids, EPO, and other doping mechanisms, the determined gene-doping athlete will likely have a jump start of detection.

Anabolic steroids; Blood doping; Out-ofcompetition testing; Stimulants; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Dose and dosage Dose and dosage are terms commonly interchanged in both the language of sports science as well as that of everyday speech. A dose is the specific quantity of a therapeutic agent to be administered in a given instance, such as a drug or a medicine that is measured to be taken at one time. Dosage is a broader term that represents both the size of the dose in question as well as the intervals at which the dose is to be taken. As an example, when penicillin is prescribed to combat an infection, the stated dose might be 10 mg, while the dosage, considered the rules for the administration of the penicillin, could be set as 10 mg to be taken three times per day. Doses are commonly, but not exclusively, used in reference to prescription medications, which are those substances legally available through the direction of a medical doctor. The consumption of sports supplements is often referred to in measurements that include references to dose. Further, many sport supplements, particularly those that include vitamin and mineral components, are described as containing specified percentages of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of a particular nutrient. Closely allied to the concepts of dose and dosages is that of an overdose, in which a person accidentally or deliberately ingests an amount in excess of the prescribed recommended limit of a particular substance. In most circumstances, an overdose is a poisoning of one or more of the body’s systems,

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creating a toxic concentration in the bloodstream or the organs of the body. The determination of an appropriate dose to be administered is partly a medical determination, made by the prescribing physician, and partly the result of scientific testing and development by the manufacturer of the product. Before a drug may be marketed in most countries of the world, the drug and its anticipated effect on the body must be tested, using human subjects. The investigative process is generally referred to as the clinical trial, or the clinical study, of the drug in question. A clinical trial will ultimately assist the manufacturer in determining precisely how the product is absorbed, metabolized, and excreted from the body. The trial will also determine how the drug interacts with other known medications. The clinical trial begins with experimental testing that, if successful, will lead to preclinical testing with animals, to assess the effect on live subjects. If the preclinical testing shows sufficient promise, three stages of clinical tests will be conducted: one, to ascertain safe human use; two, the sampling of a broader range of human subjects; and three, to expand the human subject range and to finalize dosages to be recommended. A failure to adhere to any government- or regulatory agency-imposed guideline regarding the conduct of the clinical trial and the corresponding determination of the appropriate recommended dosage for a drug will result in the product not being approved for human use. The dosages and the otherwise recommended amounts for other sport supplements are usually subject to the same level of testing as are new pharmaceutical products. Dietary supplements, including the nutritional and vitamin products used by athletes, may set out the percentage of the RDA that the product contains in any given vitamin or mineral. However, the amounts recommended for athletic consumption are those of the manufacturer, not as approved by a regulatory agency. As of 2005, dietary supplements are not subjected to the requirements of a government regulatory agency, and so have not generally been scrutinized as vigorously for what substances may be disguised or not displayed on an exterior label. In some circumstances, particularly with respect to over-the-counter (OTC) medications, there is a temptation on the part of an athlete to conclude that if the stated recommended dosage for the product is ‘‘x,’’ in some circumstances two times ‘‘x’’ or three WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DRUG EFFECTIVENESS

times ‘‘x’’ or even more at a given time will consequently provide a greater benefit. Overdoses can occur as readily with such products as may otherwise result for prescription drugs. Multivitamin preparations are a further example of the potential for over-consumption. When an athlete believes that, due to hard training or dietary lapses, they are not receiving the optimal daily amount of vitamins through diet, the athlete may ingest larger amounts of vitamins by way of supplements to make up the perceived shortfall. Many of the vitamins in a multivitamin product are water soluble, meaning that they are not retained in the system but are flushed out by the renal (kidney) system through urine. Many multivitamin products are manufactured to contain significant amounts of minerals; excess multivitamin consumption above the recommended amount may lead the athlete to inadvertently consume large amounts of minerals such as iron and calcium, which are not readily flushed and which can collect in toxic amounts within the body. Commonly available analgesics such as aspirin and ibuprofen can also lead to troubles for the athlete. These products, often ingested to relieve minor pain or muscle soreness, can cause significant physical problems, including pronounced stomach distress and convulsions, especially when the recommended amount is not followed.

Minerals; Nutrition; Prescription medications and athletic performance; Stimulants; Supplement contamination.

SEE ALSO

Drafting

SEE

Dropkick

Auto aerodynamics

SEE

Rugby: The mechanics of

the dropkick

Drug effectiveness Drug effectiveness is the key measure of whether any pharmaceutical product is permitted to be marketed to the public. A drug is defined in two separate, but related, ways. The first is that it is a substance employed in the diagnosis, treatment, or prevention


of disease, while the second definition is that a drug is any chemical that acts on the central nervous system to produce a change in mood or behaviors. Drugs are often the subject of legal definition in legislation regulating their manufacture or sale. The effectiveness of a drug is closely linked to its safety. It is for this reason that the legal approval for the administration of a particular drug is assessed on a risk/benefit analysis. If a drug is known to generate significant side effects in a consumer, it will have a reduced effectiveness, notwithstanding the drug’s ability to counter a particular physical condition. Aspirin is an example of a drug whose effectiveness was reconsidered over time, as it was found to have applications to conditions other than its original purpose—the relief of pain. Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), the active ingredient in aspirin, had been employed as an herbal remedy (willow bark) for centuries prior to the synthesis of ASA in 1898. A nonprescription, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), aspirin in the 1980s began to be recommended by physicians to reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke, as ASA was proven to have bloodthinning properties. The range of aspirin’s effectiveness as a drug was greatly expanded. With the expanded range of aspirin applications came newly identified risks, the chief of which related to stomach irritation and the potential formation of ulcers. The effectiveness of aspirin, the most consumed pharmaceutical product in North America, is therefore weighed against the risk presented to each individual user. Beta-blockers are substances administered to persons at risk of heart attack, acting to slow the heart rate and to reduce blood pressure. While highly effective in this role, the use of such drugs is prohibited through the World Anti-Doping Code, rendering the substance ineffective for a competitive athlete seeking such a physical advantage. Another aspect of drug effectiveness is the increased tolerance that the body sometimes develops over time. A number of corticosteroid antiinflammatory drugs, which rely on the body’s systems being triggered into action, become less effective over time.

Dose and dosage; Glucocorticoids; Prescription medications and athletic performance.

SEE ALSO

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E Ear drops Ear drops are a generic method for introducing both saline and antibiotic medications into the ear. The ear is an organ that is continually exposed to both the risk of infection as well as numerous other structural injuries, the most serious of which is a punctured ear drum. The ear is divided for medical purposes into three parts—the outer ear, which includes the external cartilage and the canal leading into the areas inaccessible to the touch; the middle ear, a chamber that accesses the ear drum, the most important structure for unimpaired hearing; and the inner ear, which contains the small and intricate canals of the vestibular system, the device within the body that provides ongoing information to assist with balance and the ability of an athlete to track an object that is traveling through the air. Ear drops are most often employed to counter the effects of ear infections that can arise from a number of external sources. One common source of ear infection is the blockage of the Eustachian tube, the passage from the middle ear to the throat, a drainage canal that carries away from the ear bacteria trapped by the mucus that is present with the tube. When a person swallows, the tube opens and the mucus is passed from the tube, into the throat, where the bacteria are ultimately carried away for destruction by stomach bile. The tube also assists in the regulation of air pressure between the ear and the mouth cavity. When the Eustachian tube becomes WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

blocked, the trapped bacteria often multiply in the upper portion of the tube and the middle ear cavity. The resulting middle ear infection is known as otitis media. Blockages of the Eustachian tube can result from an upper respiratory system infection, such as sinusitis (sinus passage infection), an allergic reaction, or the presence of smoke or other foreign particles. The otitis media that results will often cause both a temporary hearing loss and localized pain to the subject. The second type of infection that may occurs in both the middle or inner ear is otitis externa, often referred to by the mechanism that most frequently creates the infection: swimmer’s ear. This condition occurs where water enters the ear through the outer canal, becoming trapped along with companion bacteria within the middle ear. The infection created by the presence of bacteria develops on the surface of the skin of the ear canal. If not properly treated, swimmer’s ear can also cause significant pain and a partial hearing loss. Infections of the ear are most often treated through the administration of ear drops, where the active ingredient designed to counter the infection is delivered to the affected area in a fluid that is dropped into the ear canal. The fluid is designed to travel into the middle or inner ear, as may be required. In ideal circumstances, the ear drops will be administered by a second person, in order that the subject can place their head at an optimal angle for the antibiotic to enter the organ. Antibiotics can take many forms in the treatment of ear infections;

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various corticosteroids are sometimes employed to counter inflammation, and aminoglycosides, of which streptomycin is the best known. These chemicals interfere in the growth of bacteria so as to reverse their spread, ultimately killing these cells. The risk in the administration of some antibiotic formulations in the middle ear is that some antibiotics are toxic to the sensitive membranes of the inner ear, a consequence called ototoxicity. Ototoxicity most often arises where an antibiotic is directed at a middle ear infection, but due to the presence of an undetected perforated ear drum, the medication passes into a region for which it was not intended. The other risk of antibiotic application to counter ear infections is the creation of a resistant strain of bacteria. This can occur when antibiotics do not kill the entire infection, and some of the bacteria survives and is then, resistant to various antibiotics. Ear drops are also used to deliver nonmedicinal substances into the ear cavity to assist in the break up and removal of ear wax that has become impacted in the ear canal. Ear wax, known by its scientific name cerumen, is produced by the glands located in the skin of the outer ear, to provide the ear with lubrication, and to trap dirt and foreign particles that might otherwise enter the middle ear. When ear wax accumulates, it can impair the hearing of an individual. Various sterile solutions are employed to loosen impacted ear wax; many of these products contain glycerin or similar chemicals that act to soften the wax to permit it to be safely removed from the ear canal. Ear infections are most common among children under the age of two years, a circumstance related to the fact that infants are not completely protected by their still developing immune system. Ear infections and ear wax conditions can affect persons of any age.

Balance training and proprioception; Eyedrops; Prescription medications and athletic performance; Topical corticosteroids.

SEE ALSO

Eastern medicine

SEE Acupuncture and Eastern healing therapies

Eating disorders in athletes Eating disorders are a serious issue in the conduct of the training and the performance of many different types of athletes. While the pixie-sized

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female gymnast is a common subject of scrutiny in these analyses, eating disorders are a significant problem in a wide range of sports, affecting both male and female participants. The expression ‘‘eating disorder’’ is a generic one. It includes the defined psychological disorders, bulimia and anorexia nervosa, as well as any efforts made by an athlete to alter his or her physical shape, without proper regard for overall physical health. Eating disorders may arise through the self-perceptions of the athlete as to the appearance of his or her body, or through the direction of a coach, the stresses of competition, or similar pressures. Eating disorders tend to affect athletes under the age of 30. Athletes are more vulnerable to the onset of eating disorders than are people in society at large, due to the very nature of what makes for athletic success. The required commitments to intense sport training, with its physical demands combined with the prospect of achievement, invariably attracts persons who are competitive, and often perfectionist by nature. In almost every sport, especially as the athlete progresses to elite levels of competition, the athlete will experience an increasing emphasis from coaches, trainers, and other support staff on the recording of personal data. Physical factors such as weight, the dimensions of the body, physique, and percentage of body fat become increasingly important as the elusive ‘‘competitive edge’’ is sought. This monitoring will cause some athletes to become overly attentive to the finer details of their physical appearance, when the minute changes from week to week or month to month become a concern, even when such changes will have no objective impact on performance. Christy Heinrich (1972–1994), an international-level American gymnast who was told that she was too fat to compete at the Olympic Games, and who subsequently died of an eating disorder, is a profound example of this obsession with appearance. While any sport may create an environment in which an eating disorder may arise, certain disciplines are prominent. Sports where the appearance of the athlete is either a stated performance factor or is present by implication through the culture of the activity are the most likely to breed eating disorders. For female athletes, gymnastics, diving, swimming, and figure skating are the most common sports where eating disorders arise. Various studies have estimated that as many as 60% of female gymnasts in the United States have felt pressure at some point in their competitive career to engage in eating disorder practices, due to the profound pressure existing in the sport to fit a small, slender prescribed body type. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ECCRINE SWEAT SECRETION

petition, will cause significant damage to the physical systems required to sustain performance. The anorexic person will demonstrate a fixation with food types and calorie counting, as well as a pronounced weight loss. Anorexia can lead to malnutrition, an interruption in a female’s menstrual cycle, and the risk of future osteoporosis (loss of bone density and strength), and even death. Bulimia is a condition caused by the same underlying motivations as anorexia, but manifests in a different way. Bulimia will stimulate the athlete to eat to excess and then to purge through vomiting. Bulimic persons often have injuries to the mouth and esophagus (passage from the mouth to the stomach) caused by the induced vomiting, as well as damage to their teeth through exposure to excess amounts of stomach acid. Dehydration is also common. Bulimics also are fixated on their weight, and they are commonly depressed. As both anorexia and bulimia are mental health conditions that manifest in physical ways, the treatment of these conditions will require mental health therapies, such as counseling, that are supported by the efforts of the sports coach.

Various studies have estimated that as many as 60% of female gymnasts in the U.S. have felt pressure at some point in their competitive career to engage in eating disorder practices. P HO TO

There are other eating disorders that are of lesser risk to the athlete, but which are both unhealthy and unlikely to aid in competitive success. ‘‘Crash diets,’’ so called because they involve a sudden interruption of regular eating habits in an effort to lose weight, tend to deny the body its essential fuels, vitamins, and minerals. Another eating disorder is the use of laxatives to increase the production of wastes, in an effort to generate a sudden loss of weight. Excess laxative use will cause dehydration.

B Y HE IN Z KLUE TME IER/ TIM E L I FE P I CTU RES /GE TTY IMA GE S .

Diet; Nutrition; Psychological disorders; Sport psychology.

SEE ALSO

Other sports with a specific weight orientation are also activities in which an eating disorder may arise. Wrestling, boxing, and various rowing categories have specific weight limits that the athlete must meet, or be disqualified from competition. In rarer circumstances, distance running, with its premium on leanness and strength-to-weight ratios, can create pressures an athlete that may trigger an eating disorder. Anorexia nervosa, known commonly as anorexia, is a condition in which the person simply restricts food intake to the point of virtual starvation. Anorexia is a mental disorder with profound physical consequences; it carries with it a very bitter irony, that the desire of an athlete to improve their physical appearance, to create a slim, healthy look for comWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Eccrine sweat secretion The eccrine sweat glands are one of two parts of the body’s exocrine gland system, the system that regulates the release of fluids through the skin. The eccrine glands release sweat (perspiration), a fluid comprising water and various minerals, chiefly sodium. An eccrine gland does not lose any cellular material through the secretion process. The eccrine sweat glands are located throughout the skin surface, with the exception of the lips and the sexual organs; the greatest concentration of these glands is in the axilla (armpits), palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. The second type of exocrine glands are the

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apocrine glands, which chiefly produce and secrete scents unique to each person and are associated with the body’s sex hormones. These glands secrete small amounts of sweat, and are located primarily in the vicinity of the armpit and genital regions, opening through the hair follicles. Both the eccrine glands and the apocrine glands are located in the dermis, the underlayer of the skin, with a duct leading through the epidermis to the surface. The average adult person has approximately 2.5 million excretory ducts leading to the surface of the skin. Because the chief function of the eccrine gland is secreting sweat, these glands play an important role in thermoregulation. The sweat released by way of the eccrine glands is an important way to cool the body, especially during warm weather exercise, as the sweat excreted from the eccrine glands evaporates on the skin surface. The most common form of malfunction in the eccrine glands is a blockage of the ducts leading to the skin surface. When the duct is blocked or ruptured in the dermis, a condition known as miliaria rubra (prickly heat) may result, causing a painful reddish inflammation of the skin. The condition is most common in infants and obese people, as well as others exposed to heat for extended periods. The rate at which any person produces eccrine sweat is determined by factors such as genetic makeup, the level of individual physical conditioning, and the acclimatization that the person has developed with respect to heat. The rate and composition of eccrine sweat is often analyzed by sports scientists to assess how often and with what type of fluid replacement product an athlete should hydrate. Elevated concentrations of sodium in sweat will usually require an athlete to employ a hydration strategy that includes greater levels of sodium replacement, such as that available in salt tablets or sports drinks. In warm weather exercise, if an athlete is observed to be producing little or no eccrine sweat, such a circumstance is consistent with the onset of hyperthermia, which if untreated often leads to the serious and potentially fatal condition of heat stroke. Excessive sweat can also be induced through psychological effects. When an athlete is affected by the nervous pressures of competition, as an example, the eccrine glands located in the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet will be stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system to produce greater amounts of sweat.

Acclimatization; Thermoregulatory system; Warm weather exercise.

SEE ALSO

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Elbow: Anatomy and physiology As with many human joints, the relatively simple anatomy of the elbow disguises a remarkable capability in both its range of motion as well as the forces it is capable of bearing. The elbow is composed of three bones, cartilage coverings at the end of each bone, ligaments, tendons, and companion larger muscles. The elbow is also the conduit to important nerve and blood vessel networks. Although popularly referred to as a single structure, anatomically the elbow is three separate and interrelated joints, each of which bears a name that essentially defines its position and function. The humerus, ulnar, and radius bones are the skeletal composition of the elbow. The humerus, the large bone of the upper arm, forms the top of the elbow joint. The humerus is met by the larger of the forearm bones, the ulna, which is located on the opposite side of the forearm from the thumb. The position where these bones meet is the ulnohumeral joint, forming a hinge that possesses a range of motion of approximately 180 . The humerus bone is also joined by the radius at a point above the elbow hinge, forming the radiohumeral joint; the point where the radius and the ulnar bones meet is also capable of movement, as the superior radioulnar joint. All three joints are enclosed in a single enclosure named the synovial joint capsule, so named for the synovial fluid, a lubricating compound present in all human joints. The end, or head, of each of the three bones in the joint is smooth to facilitate the turning and rotation of the joint as it moves. Ease of motion in the joint is further assisted through the presence of articular cartilage. This substance is found on the surface of all human bones that are capable of movement. The thickness of articular cartilage on the bone surface of some weightbearing joints is as much as 0.25 in (0.5 cm) thick; at the elbow, the cartilage is very thin and slippery, performing the dual role of absorbing forces that are received in the joint, as well as reducing friction between the bones as the elbow joint moves through its entire range of movements: flexing (a movement that brings the hand closest to the shoulder), extending (where the elbow is fully straightened to a locked position), as well as the movements that cause the rotation of the hand palm upwards, referred to as supination, and downwards, known as pronation. The elbow ligaments connect the three bones of the joint one to another, to permit stable and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ELBOW: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

controlled movement. The ligaments are similar in both appearance and properties to a short, flexible piece of cord. The elbow has four primary ligaments that create its range of motion. On the medial (inside) of the elbow is the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL), which connects the ulnar bone to the humerus. On the opposite, or lateral, side of the elbow is the radial collateral ligament (RCL), which connects the radius to the humerus. These ligaments play a role in most movements performed by the entire elbow joint, and they are consequently the ligaments most prone to elbow injury. The remaining two ligaments connect the radius to the ulnar bone, to ensure balance through the entire joint when it is flexed or rotated. The muscles that power the flexing of the elbow are the biceps, brachialis, and brachioradialis muscles. The bicep is the largest and the most prominent muscle in the flexing action. Each bicep is connected to the skeleton by way of a tendon. To permit the elbow to perform the complimentary extension action, the tricep is the responsible muscle. It is also connected to the bones of the elbow by a strong tendon. The muscles of the wrist that enable extension and flexion are also connected to the elbow. The anatomical partnership that exists between the wrist, hand, and elbow in a multitude of movements results from the tendons that connect the elbow to the various muscles of the wrist and the hand. The lateral epicondyle tendon functions as this connector, joining the elbow on the outside of the forearm immediately below the hinge of the ulnar and humerus bones. The medial epicondyle performs a similar function on the inside of the elbow. Like the UCL and RCL structures, these tendons are required to bear stresses in almost every form of elbow movement, making them vulnerable to injuries such as tendonitis. To cushion the elbow from external forces, the joint contains a bursa, a sac of fluid that reduces friction and increases force absorption around the bones of the elbow. Of the three sacs of bursa that form a part of the joint, the olecranon bursa is the most important, as it is located above the point of the hinge formed between the ulnar and humerus bones. In circumstances in which steady or significant pressure is placed on this part of the elbow, the olecranon is vulnerable. The elbow is also a pathway for three important components of the central nervous system, responsible for the control over movement. Each of the radial, ulnar, and median nerves runs from the shoulder to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

the hand of each arm by way of its own nerve tunnel. The constant bending of the elbow joint places a measure of pressure on these pathways. The final anatomical component of the elbow joint is the blood vessels that both transport blood to the hand as well as the muscle requirements of the elbow. The brachial artery runs through the elbow to act as the sole supply of blood to the hand and the wrist. The elbow was designed to carry out a number of functions, most of which are complimentary to the movements of the hand, wrist, and shoulder. As with so many other aspects of human physiology and the adaptations made for sport, there are a number of motions to which the elbow is subjected in athletic competition that present the risk of injury to the structure. In terms of the physiology of the elbow and its components, both the ulnohumeral and the radiohumeral joints are described as modified hinge joints. The third elbow skeletal component, the superior radioulnar joint, is a pivot joint. The pivoting motion is that which creates supination and pronation of the forearm and hand. The combined presence of the biceps and the triceps muscles permit the elbow a movement that ranges between 135 and 160 in a normal person; women will sometimes have a greater degree of range of motion in the elbow. The elbow is the subject of significant sportgenerated force. Different sports impose widely variable kinds of stresses on the elbow. The physiology of the elbow can be examined in the context of different types of sport movement, subdivided as throwing mechanics, strength sports, and sports in which the elbow absorbs force that is not related to its own motion. Throwing motion sports include baseball pitching, cricket bowling, American football quarterbacking, rugby, and basketball. In each activity, there is the common factor of a repeated action and stress on the elbow through delivery. Baseball is clearly the most significant sport for elbow injury, especially in the delivery of the curve ball and similar breaking ball pitches, as the pitcher must turn the elbow of the pitching hand with significant force prior to delivery of the pitch. The repetition of this action places significant stress on the UCL. In contrast, the motions of the cricket bowler (consistent with the rules of the game regarding delivery of the ball) limit the twisting forces being applied to the elbow. In American football, rugby, and basketball, the elbow is not required to receive large forces in the making of a pass, or in basketball, the taking of a shot.

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The elbow carries a number of functions, most of which are complimentary to the movements of the hand, wrist, and shoulder. ª R OYA LTY- FREE /CO RBIS

Striking motion sports include golf, tennis, ice hockey shooting, and lacrosse. Each of these sports requires repetitive motions in which the elbow absorbs a degree of force to strike or send the ball forward. Golf and tennis strokes place the elbow in differing positions upon impact, whereas hockey and lacrosse, while repetitive, present little variation in the manner in which the elbow is required to move. Strength sports, such as wrestling, boxing, and weightlifting, each requires the athlete to move very quickly and place the elbow in positions of bearing large forces. In weightlifting, if the athlete overestimates his or her ability to bear a particular weight, the elbow is exposed to a traumatic injury. In boxing matches or wrestling, the elbow will be engaged in striking or grappling movements where forces can be applied unexpectedly. External force sports such as gymnastics, an athlete can miss a particular element of a routine, causing him or her to lose balance and to put out a hand

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to stabilize. Such sudden application of force to the arm will radiate to the elbow joint, often resulting in a partial dislocation (subluxation) of the elbow, a full dislocation, or a fracture of one or more of the elbow bones. The contact nature of sports such as American football, hockey, rugby, or Alpine skiing (in which the skier misses a gate or otherwise falls at a high rate of speed on a hard surface) also present a risk of fracture to the elbow on contact no matter what position it may occupy at the point of contact.

Baseball injuries; Elbow injuries; Sprains and strains; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

Elbow injuries As with most sport injuries, those occurring to the elbow and the surrounding structure are either caused by a sudden trauma or force WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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directed into the joint, or by the impairment of overuse. The elbow is not subjected to the same physical stresses as those commonly experienced by an athlete to the ankle or the knee, but an elbow injury can be as debilitating as any other, given the elbow’s prominence in the mechanics of throwing, lifting, and propulsion in many sports. The elbow joint is created by the confluence of three bones: the humerus, the radius, and the ulna. The three bones are joined into a functioning joint by the ligaments that connect the bones to one another and by the tendons that join both the upper and lower arm muscles to the structure. The elbow joint is cushioned by bursa, the fluid-filled sacs of which the olecranon is the most prominent. The elbow also contains meniscus, or cartilage, that serve to cushion the bones of the elbow as they are rotated and extended through movements such as throwing. The elbow has two characteristics that are responsible for its range of motion. The elbow can bend (flex) and completely straighten (extend) due to its hinge shape. The joint can also act as a ball and socket mechanism, as witnessed by the rotation of the hand to either a palm up or palm down position. Acute injuries to the elbow are frequently caused by either a sudden fall, or by a blow absorbed by the structure. The athlete will fall without warning on an outstretched hand, which creates very heavy forces, most of which are not absorbed by the hand but, instead, radiate along the forearm to the elbow joint. As the elbow is often in a flexed positioned at the moment of impact, the applied forces will drive and rotate the elbow out of its socket, creating either a subluxation (partial dislocation) of the elbow, or a complete dislocation. The severity of the dislocation, coupled with the history of the particular person, will determine whether the dislocation will require surgical repair. Surgery will usually be required when there is a misalignment of the elbow bones. A fracture of the end, or head, of the radial bone can occur through the same mechanics as does the dislocation of the elbow. A serious elbow injury that arises with frequency in baseball is the tear of the ulnar cruciate ligament (UCL). This injury arises through the specific mechanics required to throw particular pitches in baseball, primarily the curve ball or pitches that direct twisting forces into the elbow. When a pitcher is required to throw a curve ball, the shoulder and then the elbow rotate as the pitcher delivers the ball WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The elbow is not subjected to the same physical stresses as an athlete’s ankle or knee, but an elbow injury can be as debilitating as any other. PH OTO B Y R OBE RT CIAN F LON E/ GE TTY IMA G ES .

with as much force as possible; the faster the ball is thrown, with the rotation imparted by the pitcher, the greater the likelihood of the ball achieving a greater degree of curve along its path. The significant forces of this pitch are not always well absorbed in the small UCL; over many repetitions, the UCL will become sprained, and ultimately fatigue into a fullsized tear. The UCL may also rupture in a single instance. UCL strains that debilitate younger pitchers are sometimes known as ‘‘Little Leaguer elbow.’’ A UCL tear will prevent the athlete from pitching; for many years it was perceived as a career-ending injury. In the 1970s, Dr. Frank Jobe of California pioneered a surgical procedure where tissue was grafted into the UCL, with considerable success. This surgery is now the accepted standard of elbow ligament reconstruction.

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REVEREND WILLIAM WEBB ELLIS

The overuse injuries that are sustained by athletes to their elbow joint are varied; all are often worsened by poor athletic technique, in conjunction with the repetitive stresses. Overuse injuries to the elbow include medial epicondilytis, lateral epicondilytis, and bursitis. Medial epicondilytis, or golfer’s elbow, occurs to the inside of the elbow joint, a result of the repetitive overloading of the forearm muscles. Lateral epicondilytis, or tennis elbow occurs to the outside of the joint, as a result of overloading the outer forearm structure. Bursitis is an inflammation of bursa, fluid-filled sacs, particularly those located at the hinge of the joint. A sudden swelling of the elbow in this area may be evidence of a correspondingly sudden trauma to the bursa; a gradual or persistent swelling is common to a chronic injury. The bursa can become irritated through constant pressure being placed upon the exterior of the elbow joint, at the point of the hinge. Most forms of overuse elbow injury can be treated through an application of the RICE method (Rest/Ice/Compression/Elevation), as well as the administration of over-the-counter pain medications. Bursa injuries may require the application of a corticosteroid, an anti-inflammatory agent. If the athlete is to engage in any form of sport where the injured elbow may incur physical contact, the joint will likely require protection in the form of a wrap or padded bandage.

Elbow: Anatomy and physiology; Musculoskeletal injuries; Range of motion; RICE (Rest/Ice/Compression/Elevation) treatment for injuries; Sprains and strains; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

Elliptical trainers

SEE Stationary bicycles, elliptical trainers, and other cardio training machines

goal in an effort to score. The forward movement with a ball handled in this fashion has been frequently cited as the revolutionary act that gave rise to the game of rugby. A plaque commemorating Ellis and his actions in 1823 was erected at Rugby. After graduating from Rugby, Ellis went to Oxford, where he was a highly regarded cricketer. He was subsequently ordained as a minister in the Church of England. Ellis appears to have had no further connection to the development of rugby (also known as rugby football) after entering Oxford. While it is highly probable that Ellis played a game that is an ancestor to modern rugby while at Rugby school, it is highly doubtful that Ellis was either its inventor or its developer. Research has illustrated that for as long as 50 years prior to Ellis coming to the Rugby school, students were playing a number of variations of soccer (football) where the players were permitted to play the ball with their hands. The rules of these local Rugby school games were constantly changing; for example, there was no apparent limit on the number of players permitted to take part in a game. It is impossible to credit Ellis as being definitively the first player to catch a ball and move forward, there is little question that someone made a forward run with a ball in the fashion attributed to Ellis in the Rugby school games at some time between 1820 and 1830. It is also noted that the local game played at Rugby had no special ball, as a conventional soccer ball was used. The modern rugby ball was not designed until many years later. The ability of a rugby player to catch the ball and to move forward down the field after the catch was established in the first codification of the rules of the game in 1845. SEE ALSO

Rugby; Soccer.

Emergency kits

Reverend William Webb Ellis 11/24/1806–1/24/1872 BRITISH CHURCH OF ENGLAND RECTOR

William Webb Ellis is credited with the invention of the modern game of rugby. While at student at the Rugby school, an English boys’ preparatory school in 1823, Ellis is reputed to have caught a ball kicked in the air during a game that was played as a local variation of soccer. After catching the ball, Ellis is said to have run forward towards his opponent’s

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SEE

First aid kits for

sports

Cornelia Ender 10/25/1958– GERMAN PHYSIOTHERAPIST

Cornelia Ender was the most dominant female Olympic swimmer of her generation. In the 1972 Summer Olympics, at age 13, Ender won three silver medals. In the 1976 Olympics, Ender won a total of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ENDURANCE

one silver and four gold medals. Ender set a world record in each of her gold medal swims. She was the most identifiable athlete on the East German (German Democratic Republic) swim team, a group that stunned the athletic world in 1976 by winning 11 of 13 womens’ races, having won no races in the 1972 Games. At age 17, Ender was a very large and powerfully built young woman; her physique was the subject of considerable media commentary at the 1976 Games in Montreal. Ender ultimately broke 32 world records during her competitive career. Through the 1980s, East Germany regularly occupied the third place position in total medals won in Olympic competitions; a nation of approximately 17 million people competed on a relatively even athletic footing with the Soviet Union, the United States, and all other large nations. When East and West Germany were reunited as one nation in 1990, hard evidence was uncovered regarding the systematic administration of anabolic steroids and other performance enhancing drugs to the members of various East German athletic teams in the 1970s and 1980s. Ender became a focal point for these enquiries given both her success in the pool and the massive musculature of her shoulders and her thighs through the period of her competitive success. In 1991, Ender revealed that she was first injected with what she later knew to be anabolic steroids when she was 13 years old. The injections were monitored by the East German team leaders and physicians. Ender was provided with no other information regarding the safety of the injections, except that the injections were to assist her with her recuperation in training. Anabolic steroids had been banned by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1974, and the first steroid drug testing program was instituted by the IOC in 1976 for the games in Montreal. Ender gained 18 lb (8 kg) in the three-month period leading to the 1976 Olympics; at the time she attributed the additional muscle mass to her intense training efforts. Notwithstanding the conclusive evidence of the state sponsored doping of Ender and other East German Olympic champions, there has been no action taken by the International Olympic Committee to strip Ender of her medals or to remove her records from the official Olympic standings. Ender retired from competitive swimming after the 1976 Olympics. Ender has worked as a physiotherapist in Germany since 1984. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SEE ALSO Anabolic steroids; Doping tests; International Olympic Committee (IOC).

Endurance Not all forms of athletic endeavor involve the development of physical endurance qualities, but every successful athlete will be required to withstand or overcome a variety of both physical and mental hardships in the pursuit of their goals. As a noun, endurance is the state of being that requires perseverance; it is a word that conveys persistence, an ability to finish an event or a program in the face of challenges. It is also a descriptive term, such as in ‘‘endurance’’ exercise. Endurance has a number of dimensions. The presence or the enhancement of athletic endurance will occur in concert with the development of six different aspects of sport training, each of which is a freestanding component of athletic performance. These aspects include speed (defined as distance time); power (defined as force distance time); strength (represented as a weight moved over a distance, force distance); muscular endurance (which is the development of the muscles or specific groups of muscles to provide muscular strength over time); cardiovascular endurance (which is the stamina to maintain heart rate, blood volume, and circulatory efficiency over time); and mental endurance (which is a subset of the broader study of sport psychology, the mental and emotional toughness or strength of will to complete a set athletic task). The development of endurance in any of these areas is unlike other types of sport training, in that the typical tools of athletic skill development are not essential. Unlike the honing of techniques necessary to succeed in a sport, such as the building of an effective tennis serve or bending a soccer free kick around a defensive wall, agility, hand-eye coordination, reflexes, and peripheral vision are not required. Attitude and a desire to become stronger and more enduring as an athlete are the most important features of improved endurance, which will be developed using the larger body systems as opposed to fine motor skills. Genetics and environment also play a role in the ability of particular athletes to excel in sports in which endurance is a particular feature. African runners from countries such as Kenya, which is located in the Rift Valley, have proven to be the most successful middle-distance racers and marathoners in the world. These athletes are raised at altitudes of

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approximately 6,500 ft (2,000 m) above sea level; they generally possess slim, relatively short, and lean bodies in an environment where the cardiovascular system will be stimulated to produce a greater number of red blood cells to compensate for the lesser amount of oxygen in the air. These factors, coupled with intense training programs, all contribute to Kenyan dominance as superior endurance athletes. There is considerable evidence that when an athlete trains to a very high level in a particular discipline, the composition of the muscles may also change. Human muscles comprise two types of fibers: fast twitch fibers, so called for their utility in sprint and power functions, and slow twitch fibers, which are predominant in endurance events. Elite athletes such as cyclist Lance Armstrong have been tested over the span of their competitive career regarding the fiber composition in their legs. Examination revealed that Armstrong increased the slow twitch composition of his leg muscles, making him more efficient in long-distance cycling racing, a process that occurred after years of intense training. The type of sport will dictate when each of the three energy systems of the body will be engaged and to what degree. In sports where energy is required in short intervals of less than approximately 90 seconds, the anaerobic alactic or the anaerobic lactic systems will be utilized. These systems are not themselves endurance sport systems. In sports such as longdistance cycling, running, or cross-country skiing, the aerobic system is used to produce energy. This energy system is the process typically associated with physical endurance abilities. All energy systems, no matter what the sport, require the development of endurance as a recovery mechanism; the ability to physically maintain a particular level of activity will assist the athlete who competes in short, intense intervals to return to the higher, more intense level more quickly. As with all other physical attributes, endurance is a quality that can deteriorate just as readily as it was developed. Endurance is a type of fitness, and if the components necessary to support endurance are not brought into play, the endurance aspect of the athlete will decline. If a basketball player training for a sport in which the anaerobic lactic system provides the bulk of the necessary energy completes a program of 3-mi (5 km) runs four times per week in preseason, that athlete will have developed a measure of endurance capability he or she did not previously possess. Even though playing or practicing basketball every day once the season starts, if the

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athlete does not continue with his or her aerobic fitness program, that endurance aspect of his or her conditioning will decline. Just as readily, a return to aerobic activities will rebuild endurance. No matter how vigorous the athletic effort to develop physical endurance, the mental ability to persevere is a more ephemeral quality. Mental toughness and doggedness of approach are not a constant in any athlete; all athletes will experience high points and depressions in their personal confidence and self-perception as to whether they can truly complete a training assignment or competition. The mental endurance component, while rooted in the concepts of stamina and determination, varies from sport to sport. A weightlifter, who must focus on each lift lasting only seconds as a discrete event in competition, will seek to develop a mental endurance to take him or her through competitions that may last for hours.

Blood doping; Cardiovascular system; Endurance exercise; Hydration.

SEE ALSO

Endurance exercise Endurance is the ability of an athlete to withstand external physical pressures over time, or to maintain competitive and training focus under pressure. It is a component of many aspects of sport; endurance sports have come to have a wellunderstood and distinct meaning. Endurance sports are those that rely primarily on the aerobic system to provide energy for the performance of the activity. The aerobic energy system, in contrast to the anaerobic systems, both lactic and alactic varieties, will produce energy in a steady mode, where energy can be produced in relatively constant amounts for long periods. The anaerobic system draws upon stores of the sugar glucose, which is stored by the body in both the liver and in the muscles in the form of glycogen. The glucose will be employed by the body in a chemical process whereby the actual aerobic fuel, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is created and burned through the introduction of oxygen transported by the erythrocytes, the red blood cells of the bloodstream. The red blood cells also remove the carbon dioxide and other wastes in the production and consumption of ATP. The greater the efficiency of the delivery and removal mechanisms as supported by the blood and the underlying cardiovascular system, the greater the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ENDURANCE EXERCISE

Members of the U.S. Naval Academy Freshman class climb over a set of bars during an event called ‘‘Sea Trials’’ at the Naval Academy. Sea Trials is a 14-hour event which tests physical endurance in varying scenarios. PHOTO B Y MARK WILSO N/ GE TTY IMAGES.

capability of the anaerobic system to produce energy, which is another definition of human endurance. Any sport or training program that serves to increase the strength of the heart, by requiring the heart to pump more frequently over time, will tend to increase the volume of blood that the heart is able to pump through the cardiovascular system. An increase in blood volume will result in greater amounts of glucose and oxygen being transported for energy production, as well as more speedily removing waste. Sports scientists generally agree that athletes will enjoy measurably increased endurance if, with no prior aerobic training, they seek to attain a workout level of four times per week for a minimum of 30 minutes per training session. Aerobic fitness increases with both the duration and the intensity of the training. Although useful as a guideline only, the aerobic range, which is the heart rate at which benefits to the aerobic system and corresponding endurance occur, is generally believed to be 60-85% of the athlete’s maximum heart rate. Unlike other muscles WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

of the musculoskeletal system, the heart muscle does not sustain cellular damage that requires repair to be carried out by the body. Many aerobic sports are well known for their cardiovascular strengthening powers. Distance running, cross-country skiing, distance swimming, cycling, and distance forms of canoeing and kayaking are such disciplines. The combination of calisthenics, dance routines, and jumping exercises made popular in the 1970s took the name ‘‘aerobics’’ from the purpose of the activity. A sport does not have to be a particular designated aerobic activity to provide aerobic benefits to the participant. Any athletic activity modified to generate endurance that elevates the heart rate and requires the body to produce energy aerobically will achieve similar results. Examples are interval running, carried out to shorten the rest period between each work portion.

Cardiovascular system; Cross training; Endurance; Exercise, high intensity.

SEE ALSO

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A number of brands of energy drinks include extracts of ephedra, a plant whose leaves contain the stimulant ephedrine. Ginseng, a root that has been favored by herbalists for many centuries for its restorative properties, is also found in energy drink formulations.

The amino acid, taurine, is found in numerous energy drinks. PH OTO B Y B USINESS WIRE VIA GE TTY IMAGES.

Energy drinks Energy drinks are a fairly recent sport product phenomenon. These products are marketed to consumers on both sides of the boundary between that of the traditional nutritional supplements and the fluid replacements used by athletes. Energy drinks are also intended as a revitalizing source of instant energy to active people, particularly the college and university student demographic, throughout the world. An energy drink is a product that is intended to increase powers of concentration and reduce the effects of fatigue. In recent years, many athletes have consumed energy drinks of various types for these reasons, especially when they seek a relatively mild stimulant to aid performance. A sports drink is one manufactured for athletic use, with the primary purpose being fluid and electrolyte replacement (particularly elements such as sodium and potassium), which are lost through perspiration and the excretion of urine. Sports drinks generally will include some sugars, in the form of carbohydrates. Energy drinks are manufactured throughout the world; a broad variety of ingredients is employed. Virtually all energy drinks contain caffeine, either as a freestanding additive, or through other ingredients chosen for their natural caffeine content. These common sport drink ingredients are cola, various types of tea, coffee extracts, and guarana (a plant that is native to the Amazon basin). These materials are used either singly or in combination with one another in the manufacture of energy drinks.

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Energy drinks typically contain between 10% and 13% sugar by volume. The amount of caffeine present in an 8-oz serving of an energy drink will range between 70 and 80 milligrams (mg) of caffeine; this is the approximate amount of caffeine that is commonly present in a 5-oz cup of strong coffee. Caffeine is a substance that has a different effect on each person. The amount of caffeine in an energy drink may have a pronounced effect on someone who consumes very little caffeine, and it may conversely produce a very modest effect on the system of one who habitually consumes large amounts of caffeine on a daily basis. If an athlete were to consume energy drinks on a regular basis as a source of stimulant, the athlete would likely notice that over time, greater amounts of the drink and its corresponding caffeine are required to produce the desired stimulation; the greater amounts of caffeine would also impact on the ability of the body to maintain an optimal fluid level, given the diuretic qualities of the substance. In many respects, most energy drinks may be described as a more caffeinated, slightly sweeter form of soda pop. The labeling on an energy drink must be carefully examined to determine what is contained in the formulation. In addition to the primary ingredients of interest in energy drinks to the athlete (caffeine, ephedrine, sugars, and flavoring), other substances have been introduced to energy drinks that are of unknown long-term impact on consumers and athletes alike. One example is taurine, an amino acid that is a naturally occurring component of the body’s digestive process. Taurine is stated to enhance the stimulant effects of caffeine, yet it has never been definitively scientifically established to work in this fashion, nor is it clear what other effects, positive or negative, such additives bring to these beverages. Energy drinks are sometimes mixed with alcohol to create a perceived high-energy cocktail. There are also alcoholic beverages that contain caffeine or other additives to produce stimulation of the central nervous system. The combination of alcohol and caffeine or other stimulants will produce diuresis, the process that triggers the increased production of urine in the kidneys. The presence of a stimulant in an alcoholic beverage will tend to mask the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND TRAINING

otherwise progressive effects of intoxication by alcohol, concealing fatigue but not altering the physical effect of alcohol on the body. Consumers of these beverages will tend to become more dehydrated, thus causing increased blood pressure and heart rate. Energy drinks are a generally poor choice as a substitute for a sport drink with regard to fluid replacement. Given its higher percentage by volume of sugar, the fluid component of the energy drink will be absorbed more slowly into the body. The caffeine and other likely stimulants will act as diuretics. Energy drinks are also a poor selection if the intention on the part of the consumer is to supplement the diet. The energy drink typically contains few, if any, proteins, fiber components to aid digestion, vitamins, or minerals. While the amount of caffeine in an energy drink is of the quantity that has been scientifically proven to both stimulate the central nervous system, as well as assist in the increased utilization of fat stores as energy in endurance sports, energy drinks are of limited benefit to an athlete. SEE ALSO Caffeine; Ephedra; Exercise recovery; Fatigue; Stimulants.

Energy expenditure

SEE

Total daily

energy expenditure

Energy metabolism SEE Skeletal

muscle function and energy metabolism

weather data over a period of time. This factor is used to determine the climatic regions of Earth, those places that are said to share a common pattern of weather. Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given place on Earth at a particular time; weather includes the temperature, the moisture (both as a percentage in the air and as the type and severity of rainfall), wind, cloud cover, the presence of phenomena such as storms, and barometric pressure readings. Weather by its nature is an indication of present atmospheric events or forecasted events in the short term. Environmental conditions is the term with the broadest meaning in a sport context. The environment may be any outdoor or indoor condition that potentially impacts on performance. The environment will include prevailing weather conditions, the physical nature of the venue, such as topography or altitude, as well as manmade factors such as pollution, traffic that impacts on events such as cycling, or noise, such as stadium noise. As American marathoner Alberto Salazar humorously observed prior to the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic race, he varied his training from his usual 100 mi (160 km) per week or more on the roads, to running in place in his garage, with his automobile engine running and the door closed, to better imitate the famous Los Angeles smog the runners would encounter on the Olympic race course. The ability of an athlete to overcome environmental conditions is closely tied to the training concept of acclimatization, which requires a focused training approach concerning a specific condition that an athlete expects to face in an upcoming competition or event. Acclimatization is rooted in the inherent ability of the human body to adapt to its surroundings over time in all circumstances.

Weather is the one omnipresent variable in sport. From unexpected windstorms in a cycling race, to a malfunctioning air conditioning system that renders a basketball gymnasium insufferable, athletes in every sport must train and compete in less-than-desirable environmental conditions. Success in competition will often depend on how seamlessly the athlete was able to incorporate anticipated climatic and other factors into everyday training Routines.

Environmental conditions involve one or more different circumstances, as a condition to be faced in regular training or as an anticipated condition that will be encountered at a future time. There are general training principles to be employed to compensate or to overcome each of these environmental conditions; some factors are present in only certain types of sports and therefore demand specialized approaches to their resolution. Environmental conditions include warm weather, cold weather, high altitude, rugged topography, manmade impacts on air quality, wind speed, rain, time zone changes, indoor atmospheric conditions, and crowd noise.

Climate, weather, and the environmental conditions are terms commonly used in describing various external impacts on sporting events and athletes: each word has a distinct and separate meaning from the others. Climate is the recording and tabulation of

Warm weather, which is often accompanied by high humidity, is likely the most common adverse environmental factor encountered by athletes. Warm weather and humidity are also readily adapted to through a gradual introduction of the body to the

Environmental conditions and training


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unaccustomed heat, through both day-to-day living in the warmer conditions as well as training. Most heat acclimatization programs suggest training at approximately 50% capacity for the first four to seven days of the program. Most athletes will achieve 75% heat acclimatization within 10 days of commencement, with 100% tolerance within 21 days. All heat training requires a careful attention to hydration (the average adult requires a minimum of 1 qt (1 l) of fluid replacement per hour in temperatures that exceed 75 F (24 C); heat and humidity will increase the body’s production of sweat, released as the cardiovascular system brings blood closer to the surface of the skin for cooling. Cold weather may be accompanied by snow. Unlike hot weather, which requires the gradual immersion of the athlete into the hostile environment, cold weather conditions require the creation of protective clothing barriers that keep the environment out. Layered clothing, with an inner polypropylene layer that will wick, or direct, perspiration away from the skin of the athlete, is of critical importance. The greater the amount of water at the skin, the lesser the thermal (warming) quality of the skin and the clothing next to it. Training in cold weather is less important to the acclimatization of the body than is warm weather work; cold weather can also present hydration problems, as the energy generated in the activity and fluid lost to perspiration are less apparent but equally impacts the body. High altitude is technically any altitude where the oxygen available to the body is less than at sea level; altitudes in excess of 6,500 ft (2,000 m) are generally considered to present a significant challenge to peak athletic performance. At this altitude, the body is forced to produce a greater number of erythrocytes (red blood cells) to transport oxygen, to attempt to address the oxygen deficit. Many athletes over a three-month period will develop the physical capacity to achieve a greater oxygen capacity than they could attain at sea level. High-altitude training benefits will be retained by the athlete, in decreasing levels, for between one to three months after the cessation of the high-level training. Hilly or rugged topography for runners and cyclists—especially those who are accustomed to flat terrain—will require specific training. Hill training is often accomplished through a combination of interval work or the use of stationary exercise machines that permit the athlete to adjust the grade and resistance of the workout. Manmade impacts on air quality, sometimes in concert with high humidity, are likely impossible to

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replicate. Training in heat and humidity is believed to be the safest alternative. Wind speed can present an unsettling element to athletes competing in disciplines where the accustomed techniques may be disturbed by wind. Running, cycling, and ball sports played on wide-open fields that are exposed to the wind are all those that require attention. Even the performance of competitors in a sport such as sailing, where wind is an essential element of propulsion, may be affected if the wind is significantly different than the typical conditions experienced; sailors used to strong winds may struggle with their form and their tactics in light breezes, and vice versa. Rain, often in combination with wind or other inclement weather, can have a dramatic impact on the tactics and the outcome of almost any outdoor sport. Rain will alter the playing surface of fields, requiring athletes to consider changes in footwear, particularly cleat length. Wet equipment, such as soccer balls and rugby balls, has different physical characteristics than when dry. Overcoming rain, if a condition operating alone, is as much a mental discipline for an athlete as it is a physical one. Other than those athletes who, due to their build (shorter, with a lower center of gravity), may run better on a muddy field—rain is an equalizer. As with cold weather and snow, rain is the factor to be prepared for with appropriate gear. Time zone changes and daylight saving time impacts can make competition even more difficult. International competition will often necessitate travel through a number of time zones. For a volleyball team based in New York that will be competing in Hawaii, there will be a four-hour time difference; for the cricketer in Bombay preparing to play in England, there is a six-hour difference. The body becomes accustomed to a daily rhythm, sometimes referred to as the body clock, which is connected to sunrise, sunset, and usual patterns of sleep. Travel to a time zone that is a number of hours advanced or behind what the athlete is used to can cause disturbances in performance. The potential impact of a time zone change can be addressed by getting to the venue a number of days in advance of competition. Indoor atmospheric conditions, including warm and humid, can often be replicated for practice purposes. Crowd noise is a particular issue when visiting teams travel to a game played at a large indoor or outdoor stadium, where the team cannot hear its own signals. American football, where the quarterback WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

EPHEDRA

calls a series of signals to teammates prior to the start of a play, is the best example of possible interference through crowd noise. Professional teams often construct large sound systems and direct highly amplified noise at the team to ready them for the sensation of playing in such conditions. True adaptation to an anticipated environmental condition is only achieved when the athlete is able to succeed in competition conducted with the expected conditions in place. While the physiological factors involved in taking the muscle, thermoregulatory, and cardiovascular systems to a state of readiness for a race in a different environment are the chief aspect of such training, the ability of the race day athlete to ‘‘tough it out’’ in adverse conditions is a hallmark of the champion.

Acclimatization; Cold weather exercise; Exposure injuries; High altitude effects on sport performance; Warm weather exercise.

SEE ALSO

Ephedra Ephedra, a short form for the scientific name ephedra sinica, is also known as ma huang, Mormon tea, and other descriptions. Ephedra leaves have been a component of the holistic practices known as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for over 3,000 years. The healing and recuperative qualities of the ephedra leaves have been highly valued in the treatment of numerous physical conditions. Ephedra is a green shrub-like plant native to various parts of China, Japan, and eastern Asia. A similar species was discovered by the settlers to the western United States in the early 1800s, and the plant is now cultivated in various parts of the world. Ephedra is particularly effective in the reduction of swelling in the mucous membranes of the nose and the breathing passages leading to the lungs. Breathing disorders such as asthma and hay fever have proven especially responsive to ephedra

Cold weather can present hydration problems, as the energy generated in the activity and fluid lost to perspiration are less apparent, but equally impacts the body. PH OTO B Y S IM ON BA KER /GET TY I MAGE S.


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treatments. Ephedra leaves, when administered either as a tea or in combination with other herbs, were also known to create a general stimulant effect on the heart and the central nervous system. Ephedra remains a popular natural supplement in both sports specific formats as well as those intended to promote general health and wellness. The substance that provides ephedra with its therapeutic properties are the alkaloids (a nitrogenbased substance that is neutralized by acids) known as ephedrine and pseudo-ephedrine. Both ephedrine and pseudo-ephedrine are stimulants, each very similar in chemical composition to the other, and each possessing properties similar to those of the natural hormone and stimulant adrenaline. Depending upon the source of the ephedra, ephedrine will comprise between 30% and 90% of the active stimulant in ephedra. Ephedrine is extracted from ephedra leaves to produce crystals that are highly soluble in water; for this reason ephedrine may be readily added to powdered solutions or used in the manufacture of tablets. The important effects of ephedrine upon the systems of the human body are: central nervous system stimulation; a restriction of blood vessels in the extremities of the body; an increase in heart rate; a corresponding increase in blood pressure; an opening of the bronchial passages and ease of breathing. Since the 1970s, ephedra has attracted significant attention in North America for its perceived enhancement of athletic performance as a stimulant and its weight loss capabilities. It also acts as an agent to induce thermogenesis, which is the utilization of body fat stores as an energy source. All of these applications have generated controversy centering on the safety of ephedrine usage.

community that ephedrine is a reasonably effective performance-enhancing drug. Given the wide availability of ephedrine in commercially available formulations, elite athletes who are subject to rigorous drug testing and formidable consequences for a positive test, must themselves be very cautious regarding what supplements they consume as part of their preparation for competition, as the chance of an inadvertent consumption of ephedra or ephedrine is always present. Ephedrine has generated controversy in a number of countries for its effects in addition to those regarding athletic performance. Ephedra, in its herbal form (and refined ephedrine) were long-time staples in various weight-loss formulations. Stimulants of all types are known to depress appetite; research— including that conducted by the U.S. Food and Drug Agency (FDA)—tended to demonstrate an increase risk of heart attack among some type of ephedra users, particularly those with pre-existing high blood pressure. The FDA moved to ban the sale of all ephedra supplements in the United States in 2004, in the face of significant public protests. Thermogenesis (expenditure of energy by the body) became a popular athletic training concept, particularly among body builders seeking to reduce body fat content. Thermogenesis supplements sought to force the body, in some circumstances, to utilize fat stores for the production of energy during exercise as opposed to carbohydrate stores. A number of supplements were formulated using ephedrine, often in combination with caffeine, to stimulate the body. The true effectiveness of thermogenetic products is not well established; the use of stimulants, especially in combination, poses risks to persons with pre existing heart or circulatory problems.

Caffeine; Doping tests; Nervous system; Stimulants; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Ephedrine, as a component of over-the-counter cold medications, enjoyed a strong underground reputation as a stimulant among athletes in many sports. National Hockey League (NHL) players have been reputed to be among the most persistent ephedrine users, who consume the substance in the form of Sudafed, an over-the-counter cold medication. Hockey players are on the ice in shifts lasting no more than 60 seconds at a time, and the players have found that the ephedrine seems to provide an edge in their performance. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) lists ephedrine as a prohibited substance, rendering an athlete liable to disqualification from an international sporting event and accompanying suspension, if the ephedrine found present in the athlete’s system exceeds 10 micrograms per milliliter (mcg per ml). There is a consensus in the international sport science

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Ephedra-free supplements In one form or another, the herb ephedra has been used in supplements for more than 3,000 years. Practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) have valued ephedra, or ma huang, for its powers as a general restorative, an asthma remedy, and a dilator of the bronchial passages to ease breathing. A North America variant, known as Mormon tea, was used by the settlers of the southwestern United States in the 1800s to the same effect. Ephedrine, the active component of ephedra, was first discovered in 1885. Further research in the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

EPHEDRA-FREE SUPPLEMENTS

imported to, or sold in the United States, determined that a significant health risk existed for the public through the consumption of ephedra supplements. Consequently, in 2004, all ephedra supplements were banned in the United States. The U.S. prohibition was made against the backdrop of the sudden death by cardiac arrest of Baltimore Orioles pitcher Steve Bechler, who was believed to have been taking ephedra supplements at the time of his death. Related research carried out in England and other European laboratories stimulated similar regulatory restrictions on ephedra throughout the European Community. Ephedra-free supplements were developed to fill this regulatory void. Manufacturers have sought to replace the proven stimulant effect of ephedrine with a number of compounds, including caffeine, Citrus aurantium, ginseng, and synthetic compounds.

Bottles of dietary supplement, Ephedra.

ª J AM ES LEYN S E/ CORB I S

1930s led to the synthesis of ephedrine, as well as the invention of the class of synthetic drugs known as amphetamines, which possess similar decongestant powers and stimulant effects on the central nervous system. The use of these types of drugs was not regulated in many parts of the world until the 1980s, during a time when ephedrine was used extensively as a performance-enhancing stimulant by athletes and as a weight loss tool by the general population. Research in three different forums resulted in the regulation of the use of ephedrine. The World AntiDoping Agency (WADA), a successor organization to the different agencies of the International Olympic Committee that had attempted to regulate drug use in sport through the 1990s, conducted extensive research into the performance-enhancing qualities of ephedrine. WADA regulations prohibit the use of ephedrine by athletes in amounts greater than 10 mcg per ml in any international sports competition over which it has authority. The United States Food and Drug Agency (FDA), which is responsible for the regulation of all dietary supplements manufactured, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Caffeine is a well-known stimulant, although it has a lesser impact on the central nervous system than ephedrine. Supplements commonly include caffeine-rich substances such as black tea, cola nut extract, or guarana (a root obtained in the Amazon basin). Citrus aurantium (commonly called bitter orange) is a compound similar in composition to ephedrine; the active component is synephrine, a stimulant. While a legal component of supplements distributed and sold for general health and purported weight loss qualities (often referenced as having ‘‘fatburning’’ properties, or thermogenesis), synephrine is listed as a WADA-prohibited substance. The risks associated with bitter orange/synephrine use regarding the effect upon the user’s heart rate are not demonstrably different that those established through ephedrine research. Ginseng and willow bark are herbs reputed to have aspirin-like effects on athletic performance, working as an anti-inflammatory in the musculoskeletal system. Engineered compounds such as DMAE (2-dimethylaminoethanol) are reputed to provide memory-enhancing and increased energy performance powers. As of 2006, long-term research on the effects of DMAE is not yet available. By the scientific standards of objective testing over time, using large population samples, the period between the identification of difficulties with ephedra use and the introduction of ephedra-free supplements is a short one. It may be that so long as any stimulant that mirrors the properties of human adrenaline is used, issues will arise regarding the safety of the use of such compounds in relation to the heart and the central nervous system. The practitioners of traditional Chinese medicines valued ephedra not as a sport supplement, but as a general restorative and balm to the health of a person. If ephedra were

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EPO

At the French National Drug-Testing Center, urine samples are placed into a centrifuge which concentrates the urine, enabling detection of various substances, including drugs. ª H EKI M I AN J ULI E N/ CORB I S S YG MA

accepted simply for those general health qualities, the bans on its use in competitive sport would be rendered separate. Ephedra and its replacement, Citrus aurantium, do not have a long life within the biology of the body; they are both readily processed, broken down, and excreted, as each is water soluble.

Caffeine; Mormon tea; Stimulants; Supplement contamination.

SEE ALSO

EPO Erythropoietin (EPO) is a glycoprotein produced by the kidney and, to a lesser extent, by the liver. EPO is also a hormone, which is a compound that is secreted into body fluids to be transported to another organ, where it causes an alteration in some aspect of metabolism. Specifically, EPO is transported via the blood to the bone marrow, where it binds to receptors. This binding stimulates the bone marrow to produce more

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red blood cells (erythrocytes). Medically, EPO has a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of certain forms of anemia, a condition where the numbers of red blood cells are abnormally low. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a molecule that transports oxygen. By increasing the red blood cell content and, consequently, the content of hemoglobin, the oxygencarrying capacity of blood is elevated. The athletic boost provided by EPO can be produced naturally (and permissibly) by training at higher altitudes, which stimulates the production of more red blood cells in response to the decreased content of oxygen in the air. However, EPO content can also be boosted by directly injecting the compound into the bloodstream, or via transfusion with blood that has been previously removed from an athlete. These latter strategies, which are termed blood doping, are illegal in athletics. Because aerobic activity relies on the availability of oxygen and its use by muscles, the ability of EPO to increase the oxygen in blood for the muscles has been recognized and exploited by some athletes. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

EQUESTRIAN

The illegal athletic use of EPO has not deterred its use in sports such as marathon running, speed skating, Nordic (cross-country) skiing, and cycling, where endurance is a critical element of success. The enhanced athletic performance produced by EPO comes with health risks. The associated increased thickness (viscosity) of the blood due to the presence of the compound and the loss of water from dehydration during vigorous exercise can make an athlete more prone to a heart attack or stroke, due to the lodging of blood in a constricted region of an artery.

Cycling: Tour de France; Doping tests; High altitude effects on sport performance.

SEE ALSO

Equestrian Equestrian events are among the most regal and the most visually striking competitions staged in the world of sport. Equestrian is the only Olympic sport where a human is partnered with an animal; aside from sailing, equestrian is the only Olympic sport where men and women compete on an equal footing in the same arena.

Jumping is one of the best known of the equestrian disciplines. ª LE O M ASON /CO RBIS

Equestrian has been a part of the Olympic Games since 1900. The inclusion of equestrian competitions was inspired by the ancient chariot races of Greek and Roman times. Equestrian is a sport associated with wealth. When the cost of quality horses, their ongoing care, training, and travel expenses are calculated, the significant financial outlay required to participate in equestrian events reduces the accessibility of these sports.

horse and rider are partners. The rider is required to take the horse through a pre-determined course within the show ring, during which the rider provides a subtle series of commands to guide the animal. The dressage competition has included a music component since the 1996 Olympics, where the horse and rider team perform a series of free style movements that are judged for their grace, aesthetic appeal, and choreography to the music.

The International Federation of Equestrian Sports, FEI, is the body recognized by the International Olympic Committee as the governing authority in these sports. The FEI governs eight distinct equestrian competitions—jumping, dressage, eventing, driving, endurance, reining, vaulting, and para-equestrian. The best known of the equestrian disciplines, by virtue of the structure of Olympic competition, are dressage and jumping.

The jumping competition, often referred to as show jumping, is a physically demanding aspect of the equestrian sport. The horse must be directed by the rider over a course located within an outdoor arena. The course is identical for all competitors, with a fixed length and predetermined obstacles of varying heights and dimensions, all of which must be completed within a set time. The horse and rider are subject to penalty faults for either dislodging an obstacle or if they fail to compete the course within the prescribed limit.

Dressage, a French expression for ‘‘training’’ is a competition that takes place entirely within a designated show ring. The horse and rider endeavor to demonstrate to a panel of judges the degree of training that the horse has achieved, coupled with the extent of obedience and control that the rider is able to maintain over the horse. The dressage is sometimes compared to a form of dance in which the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The three-day event, also known by the short form ‘‘eventing’’ is the third of the Olympic equestrian competitions. It is contested by horse/rider teams, with no substitution of either a horse or a rider once the event begins. The three-day event is composed of a dressage competition, a cross-country race, and a

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jumping competition conducted on successive days. Unlike the enclosed and controlled atmosphere of the dressage and jumping arenas, the cross-country event is a series of outdoor races that culminate in an open field gallop conducted over a race course that includes a series of jumps built for the natural terrain, where the riders must cover a distance of approximately 6,200 yd (5,700 m) in length. The cross-country course also includes a water obstacle that requires the horse to be virtually immersed in the water. The demands on the horse in this event are significant, and it is as much a test of the ability of the horse to recover between the competition each day, as it is a challenge for the rider to direct their attention to three entirely different types of competition in sequence. General musculoskeletal fitness is important for an equestrian competitor. The events take place over a number of hours at a given time, and welldeveloped aerobic fitness assists riders in preventing fatigue. Excess weight on a rider is undesirable, given the nature of all equestrian events. An important feature of equestrian success is a rider’s ability to exert strong emotional self-control, so as to maintain focus, especially when faced with the need to make instantaneous decisions involving the manipulation of an animal that may weigh over 1,500 lb (700 kg). Given the required mental element of equestrian, and the importance of rider experience, many riders are able to successfully compete past the age of 40 years. No one breed of horse is used in Olympic or international equestrian events. In the history of the Olympic equestrian competition, successful horses have ranged from those that are the product of a carefully developed equine bloodline, to animals that were salvaged from a variety of circumstances because a horse fancier observed features or characteristics that were likely to render them suitable for the rigors of equestrian. An equestrian team requires a significant support group, including groomers, trainers, veterinarian support, as well as coaching for the riders.

International Olympic Committee (IOC); Modern pentathlon; Recreational sports.

SEE ALSO

Ergogenic An ergogenic product is any substance or mechanical device that is used with the intention of improving athletic performance. In particular,

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ergogenic products include anything employed to increase the body’s ability to produce energy or to speed the recovery of its systems from physical activity. An ergogenic aid is one designed to create a competitive advantage for an athlete. The term ergogenic casts a very broad net. All dietary supplements consumed by athletes, including those manufactured from protein, amino acid, and vitamin complexes, are ergogenic. Creatine, anabolic prohormones (sometimes referred to as precursors given that these substances are closely related in their chemical structure to the anabolic hormone testosterone), and anabolic steroids are also ergogenic compounds. An estimated 50% of the general population of North America and over 75% of all athletes take some form of ergogenic product; the closer the level of performance of an athlete to elite status, the more likely that the individual engages in the consumption of ergogenic products. The primary consideration regarding the usage of any ergogenic product is its benefit when weighed against the likely risks. For relatively simple mechanical ergogenic devices such as a heart monitor, the risk of usage is virtually zero, while the benefit from the biofeedback data generated by the machine is often considerable. The more challenging assessment of the value of ergogenic products is with respect to those that are consumed into the body. Creatine, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and caffeine are each common ergogenic substances where the risk/benefit analysis is a crucial consideration for an athlete. Creatine is an important component in the body’s production of energy in short-term high intensity exercise, such as a 100-m sprint or weightlifting. The body synthesizes its store of creatine from amino acids ingested in dietary proteins. There is now considerable scientific research that creatine supplements may create a slight advantage for an athlete in both short-term energy as well as the ability of the athlete to recover from exercise; conversely, creatine supplements will likely be of little or no benefit to endurance athletes, as the aerobic energy system does not utilize creatine in this fashion. Consuming creatine for any purpose other than its narrow ergogenic parameters provides no benefit to an athlete. DHEA is an anabolic steroid precursor, and its ingestion may precipitate the greater production of testosterone within the body. DHEA is one of the many ergogenic substances banned in sports competition, and by the World Anti-Doping Agency. These steroid precursors, like anabolic steroids, have a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

EVENT TESTING

demonstrated ability to improve muscle mass, but at a significant physical risk to the athlete. They represent the best example of ergogenic benefit being outweighed by both athlete health and the desire for a level playing field among competitors. Caffeine is likely the most commonly consumed ergogenic substance in the world. It is a proven stimulant to the central nervous system and plays a role in the manner in which the body’s fat stores are metabolized in endurance activities. Excessive caffeine consumption negates any ergogenic effect, as the user will experience irritability, restlessness in movement, and increased diuresis (urine production and fluid loss).

Anabolic prohormones; Anabolic steroids; Creatine supplementation; Dietary supplements; Protein supplements.

SEE ALSO

Erythropoietin

SEE

EPO

Event testing The drive for athletic success and the science of performance-enhancing substances are, by definition, parallel pursuits. The experimentations conducted with homemade potions and elixirs consumed by athletes in the nineteenth century have given way to high technology supplements, with sport-specific physical and psychological objectives. The use of performance enhancers has fueled an ongoing, decades-old debate as to the ethics of such practices, contrasted by often powerful commercial and nationalistic forces that are prepared to reward athletic achievement over moral rectitude. The use of performance-enhancing drugs is now a very widely practiced aspect of sport, which has fueled a broad-based, scientifically rigorous and more publicly accepted approach to athletic event testing. The use of anabolic steroids by Russian and Eastern Bloc weightlifters and power sport athletes in the 1950s was not capable of ready scientific detection. The testing for illegal performance-enhancing substances is now a foundation to every international, national, and collegiate competition in every major sporting discipline in the world. The theory behind rigorous drug testing and the practical results of such programs remains an imperfect fit. Of historical interest is the fact that the Olympic Games conducted gender verification testing commencing at the 1928 Olympics, when female athletes WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

first rose to prominence, through the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta. This testing was aimed at detecting men who might be inclined to pose as female athletes, with the verification conducted first by a direct gynecological examination and, after 1968, by laboratory analysis of vaginal samples. Event testing is the term applied to any type of testing for prohibited drugs or other performanceenhancing substances used by athletes in the course of or immediately upon the conclusion of a particular competition. Such testing, also referred to as in-competition testing, applies to both individual sports as well as team events. Event testing is contrasted with out of competition testing, which is a process whereby a supervising agency conducts random testing of athletes, without notice to the athlete that the test is pending. Event testing may be directed towards the detection of a broad range of substances that are ingested by some athletes to enhance performance generally, or to supplement a particular aspect of their personal training, health, or fitness. As competition dates are well known to athletes or their support personnel many weeks or months in advance, it is equally understood that a drug test will likely be conducted at that event. Athletes with such knowledge and desire may then tailor their use of an otherwise illegal substance so as to not have traces of the material in their blood or urine on the day of the competition. For this reason, if properly organized, a random out of competition test is likely to be a greater deterrent to illegal substance use by athletes than one carried out in event. The advancement of international event testing, including the development of testing regulations and the ultimate supervision of procedures, rests with the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). WADA was constituted in the mid-1990s as a result of the impetus of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to make international athletics drug free. WADA has exerted a demonstrable impact upon the world of elite sport competition. Every national Olympic Committee is a signatory to WADA. WADA was created as the ultimate coordinating and supervising body in the international war against ‘‘doping,’’ the term used to broadly describe the introduction of any performance-enhancing substance in to the body. Virtually every international sports governing body, including IOC, soccer’s Fe´de´ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), basketball’s Fe´de´ration Internationale de Basketball Association (FIBA), the Cycling Union International, are signatories to the WADA Anti-Doping Code, which empowers each organization

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to employ WADA drug-testing procedures in their competitions. WADA also coordinates extensive scientific testing regarding both substances as well as detection methods through its own laboratories as well as partnerships throughout the world.

ratory, must itself comply with the WADA-published procedures concerning substance testing.

Individual nations have created their own antidoping agencies to work with the individual governing bodies of the various sports in their countries; these anti-doping bodies have also adopted the WADA Anti-Doping Code in the administration of their own competitions. By adopting a WADA-styled process regarding both event testing as well as out of competition testing, the governing body in question establishes an element of due diligence concerning athlete supervision, as well as a heightened credibility for the results achieved. Athletes who have a history of negative tests for illegal substances are perceived as ethical.

The accredited testing facility is required to test the A sample first. In the event of a positive test, the designated officials are notified. The officials will then notify the athlete as well as the supervising or governing body. The B sample is then tested as a confirmation of the A sample test. When the B sample test does not confirm the positive A sample, the test is deemed to be a negative test; the benefit of the doubt in the testing process is designed to favor the athlete.

The general rules with regard to the conduct of a WADA model event test in individual sports include a number of sequential steps, beginning with the published definitions of banned substances. WADA publishes a comprehensive list of every substance to be banned from international competition on January 1 of each calendar year. This list is definitive. Individual sports organizations, both national and international, may also publish their own rules regarding prohibited substances. With the ground rules established as to what substances are prohibited, the doping tests are conducted in accordance with a similarly published protocol. The entire doping test process is supervised by a designated official, often referred to as the doping control officer. Events are predetermined as to how many athletes will be tested at the conclusion of the competition. A typical selection will require the top three finishers, plus two or three other athletes at random. An athlete who is the subject of a doping test is escorted to the doping control area, where the procedures are explained to the athlete. The athlete is permitted only such fluids as will not affect the tests, such as decaffeinated drinks. The athlete then provides a sample (typically a urine sample), in circumstances where it is impossible to switch a concealed urine sample or otherwise modify the sample. The athlete and the doping control officials then mutually ensure that the sample is sealed after being divided into an A sample and a B sample. The sample is then stored in a manner sufficient to ensure its preservation, and transported to an accredited facility. To be accredited, the facility, usually a labo-

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The athlete is not identified on any sample submitted, except by a code or number, which is known only to doping control officials.

It is to be noted that both in the WADA AntiDoping Code, as well as in similar provisions created by national governing sports bodies, the possession of a prohibited substance, the refusal to comply with a legal event-testing request, as well as an attempt to use such a substance, attract anti-doping sanctions. The focus of the testing carried out in a particular event will necessarily be reflected in the nature of likely performance enhancements believed prevalent in a particular sports discipline. The three broadest categories for testing are for muscle-building steroids, stimulants of a wide variety, and blood doping through the use of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO). On an international basis, the three most tested groups of athletes, reflecting the popularity of these sports worldwide, are soccer players, track and field athletes, and cyclists. In team sports, the dynamics of event testing are different. Many amateur sports have out of competition testing procedures, for which compliance is essential to the receipt of athlete sponsorship and funding from state or government agencies. The event testing in sports such as soccer is based upon a random draw of two or more players, who are notified immediately upon the conclusion of the match in question. Players who were disqualified or who were injured during the course of the game will typically be excluded from the testing draw. In professional sports, event testing is not as common and it is the product of a number of complicated factors. The evolution of anti-doping testing procedures in any form has been a much slower creation. The perceived lagging of professional sports to embrace a fully operational drug testing regime is ironic, given that the incentive to use performanceenhancing drugs, in the securing of a place as a professional athlete as well as to maintain elite athletic status and the possibilities of great financial rewards, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE IN ATHLETIC TRAINING

is far greater in professional sports than in any other discipline. The Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), the most powerful soccer body in the world next to FIFA, endorsed the WADA Anti-Doping Code in 2004. Prominent professional leagues such as the National Football League (NFL), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the National Hockey League (NHL), all based in North America, have each been engaged in protracted disputes with their respective players associations over a comprehensive drug testing policy that would encompass events. Each league employs a variant of out of competition testing that is as directed to negative publicitygenerating recreational drugs, such as cocaine, as it may be said to target performance-enhancing products.

Anabolic steroids; Blood doping; Out-ofcompetition testing; Stimulants; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Evidence based practice in athletic training Evidence based practice in athletic training, or EBP, is an extension of the broader concept of evidence based medicine as popularized in sports medicine in recent years. EBP is founded upon a number of progressive concepts, the first of which is that in order to treat a real life physical problem observed in an athlete, the treating therapist or trainer must have access to relevant and current resources. Athletic trainers are the professional persons that typically are a part of a larger sports medicine organization or network. Athletic trainers are most often the first line contact between an athlete and all required professional sports medicine treatment and education. An athletic trainer is responsible for such diverse physical training issues as injury prevention, recognition, and preliminary evaluation through first aid response. Athletic trainers provide ongoing care and support to athletes through the provision of such services as athletic taping of injured musculoskeletal structures; the athletic trainer, often working under the direction of a physiotherapist, assists in the day to day management and rehabilitation of an athletic injury. Athletic trainers are an essential feature of team sports, and qualified trainers will be included in large scale athletic organizations such as a univerWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

sity or a national track and field team; the services of athletic trainers are commonly engaged at commercial sport facilities such as health and fitness clubs. Athletic trainers are subject to government regulation in many countries; in some jurisdictions, athletic training is a course of either community college or university study, coupled with practical experience in the field. National organizations such as the American National Athletic Trainers Association, provide both a measure of self regulation to their industry, a variety of professional designations, and a membership resource for continuing education. The body of academic literature now available to athletic trainers, therapists, and sports scientists with respect to the assessment and treatment of all manner of physical injuries and conditions is immense; trainers may find themselves swamped when undertaking a search through the available material for helpful information concerning a particular clinical problem that they seek to treat. EBP is a methodology that assists a trainer as to how they can utilize research materials to assist in making the best sports therapy treatment decisions. Prior to the advent of Internet-based information sources such as comprehensive search engines, topic directed chat rooms and user forums, and on line periodicals and texts, the research available to the athletic trainer was restricted to library resources, hard copy material that was not always current, or through consultations with fellow professionals. The sheer volume of published scientific data concerning training issues is now immense; the availability of the Internet is also a stimulus to trainers and other professionals to circulate their research on any given topic. It is estimated that for an athletic trainer to remain completely current in the field, the trainer would have to read between ten and twenty periodical articles per day that are published or are otherwise available via the Internet, an impossibility for most athletic trainers given the practical demands of their day to day responsibilities. EBP is a means by which the research findings from diverse Internet, hard copy, and other sources may be effectively synthesized into a useful application to a clinical training problem. EBP is in essence a search strategy that will assist an athletic trainer in the formulation of research guidelines that can be applied to every research problem. The first step in any EBP application is the formulation of the most accurate and the most succinct wording of the training issue to be researched. As a general academic proposition, the more focused

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the question to be answered, the more effective the resulting research. As an example, an research issue described as ‘‘best method to tape an knee where the athlete suffers from tendinitis’’ is very broad, as there are a number of tendons in the vicinity of the knee that might be afflicted; a better, EBP styled question would be ‘‘best method to tape a knee with patellar tendinitis,’’ which permits a focused approach to research. The evolution of Internet search engines such as GoogleÒ has spawned a science in the developing of keyword search techniques. With a tightly focused research question, directly tied to the practical problem faced by the athletic therapist, the results of an Internet search are more likely to be relevant to the issue. In this fashion, EBP can be effective in producing a more restricted body of academic material for the athletic trainer to evaluate, a saving of time and a likely greater quality of research.

Sport performance; Sports medical conditions; Sports medicine education.

SEE ALSO

Exercise, aerobic

SEE

Aerobics

Exercise and fluid replacement The relationship between exercise and the level of fluids present in the body is as important as any to effective athletic performance. The intensity and duration of the exercise are variables to be considered on the exercise side of the equation. Factors such as heat, humidity, physical illness, all substances ingested by the athlete prior to the event (including those with a diuretic effect), and the types of fluids consumed during competition will also impact on this relationship. Fluid replacement may involve a number of distinct products—water will be the common component of any exercise fluid. Exercise by its nature requires the body to generate energy to perform the required movements. Energy is produced by the body in one of three specific systems: the aerobic, the anaerobic lactic, and the anaerobic alactic systems. Each of these processes involves the cardiovascular system, the network of blood vessels in which the flow of blood is regulated to a significant degree by the power of the heart. Blood is the transportation system within which the raw material for human energy-producing fuel is carried. The average adult person contains a

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blood volume of approximately 1 gal (5 l); trained athletes and larger persons may possess a greater quantity of blood. Sugar, stored in the muscles and the liver as glycogen, are reduced into its simple form, glucose, which is then used to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which produces energy when exposed to the oxygen carried in the red blood cells of the bloodstream. The waste byproduct of the energy production process, carbon dioxide, is then carried away by red blood cells to be ultimately exhaled through the lungs. The blood of the cardiovascular system is essential to energy production. The fluid component of blood is plasma is 90% water by volume. The maintenance of this level in the blood plasma is therefore essential to the ability of the body to produce energy. Where the plasma loses some of its water volume, it does not move as quickly through the blood vessels, and it tends to coagulate more readily. The minerals essential to a variety of exercise functions, such as sodium (important to both fluid regulation and the transmission of nerve impulses to muscles), potassium, and calcium (bone formation and maintenance) are all dependent upon the cardiovascular system to function properly. Exercise also produces heat, irrespective of the present external temperature surrounding the body. The body cannot function if the accumulated heat generated by its energy production is trapped below the surface or within its organs; the body compensates for the production of heat through the generation of perspiration, or sweat. Blood warmed in the production of energy process moves closer to the surface of the skin, where the capillaries, the smallest of the vessels, release fluid composed primarily of water, with minerals such as sodium and potassium also present. The external temperature and humidity will also affect the production of perspiration, as the body will produce greater volumes of perspiration to seek a balance between its internal temperature and that it is experiencing as skin temperature. While perspiration is the primary means by which the fluid within the body is depleted during exercise, water may be released from the body by other mechanisms. During exercise, as blood is circulated through the body, it is filtered through the kidneys, where the nephron functions to remove toxins or waste materials. Water is also separated from the blood; the amounts of water released through the processes of the kidney are related in part to the balance of minerals sensed by the kidney in the bloodstream. The combination of these waste WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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substances will be ultimately excreted from the body as urine. The amount of urine produced will usually be a secondary factor in determining how much fluid will be necessary to return the body to an optimum state, or homeostasis. The body also releases a smaller amount of fluid through breath, especially in colder temperatures. The body will generate fluids in the throat and breathing passages to compensate for the generally lower humidity in colder weather. This fluid is then released through the breathing mechanism. The other circumstance that will cause a significant amount of fluid loss is a serious injury in the course of exercise, such as a laceration, when an amount of blood plasma will escape through the wound. Two commonly ingested substances will impact upon the body and its fluid levels maintained through exercise. Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant. While heightening the ability of the body to react to external circumstances, it is also a diuretic, causing a chemical reaction in the kidney that stimulates the production of urine and causing dehydration. Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant that is highly water soluble, meaning that it will be absorbed readily into the bloodstream. Alcohol also creates a pronounced diuretic effect. The mineral most central to the balance between the ability of the body to produce energy and the maintenance of fluid levels is sodium. The kidney acts on signals sent by the hypothalamus gland to maintain the sodium level in the body; when the sodium level is too high, sodium will be retained in the kidney and a lesser amount of water excreted as urine to achieve the desired balance; when sodium levels fall below the necessary level, water will be directed out of the bloodstream and converted into urine for excretion to arise the proportion of sodium to available fluid. No matter how rapidly, either alone or in concert, the factors contributing to dehydration may occur within the body, the warning mechanism—thirst—is a slow and uncertain indicator as to the degree of fluid loss. The average person will only experience thirst after the body has lost 500 ml of fluid, or over 10% of the amount of water in blood plasma. A significant decrease in performance results when fluid loss is equal to 1–2% of total body weight. It is for this reason that athletes implement hydration strategies that include the consumption of appropriate fluids before, during, and after training or competition. The physical symptoms of dehydration include overheating; loss of speed, muscular power, agility, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

and coordination; muscle cramping (known as heat cramps); headache, dizziness, and nausea. More advanced cases of heat illness, known as heat exhaustion, can lead to heat stroke. The strategies to combat fluid loss through exercise begin with the preparation for an event through conclusion. In chronological order, such strategies will include the following components: Water is almost always a suitable rehydration fluid choice. Sports drinks, with a quantity of carbohydrate and minerals, are often desirable. Every athlete and coach should have a hydration plan for every workout and every competition, specific to the demands of the sport. A hydration plan for an indoor badminton event will not be the same as the plan desired for a triathlete in a running workout. The exercise session must begin with the athlete well-hydrated. The color of the athlete’s urine is a useful indicator of hydration level: dark urine is often indicative of dehydration. As a rule of thumb, an adult athlete should consume 17 oz (500 ml) of fluids approximately two hours before the scheduled event, and a further 7 oz (200 ml) of fluid approximately 20 minutes in advance. Fluid taken during the exercise session is intended to match the fluids lost to perspiration and urine. These fluids will range between from 8.5 to 10 oz (250-300 ml) every 20 minutes or more frequently if necessary. At the conclusion of the exercise, the athlete must immediately hydrate; this process should be completed within two hours of conclusion. The most significant variable in the determination of how hydration will occur is the level of acclimatization the athlete enjoys with respect to the exercise environment. It is possible to over-hydrate the body, a circumstance that may result in a condition known as hyponatremia, or hyper-hydration. Hyponatremia is caused when the sodium level of the body during exercise becomes too low, due to either a low sodium level prior to the commencement of exercise, or the depletion of sodium stores during exercise. Hyperhydration, or water intoxication, floods the body with fluid and drives the sodium level into an imbalance. This condition occurs with some degree of frequency among endurance athletes. It is a deceptive condition, in that the athlete may actually be able to hear the sound of water moving in the stomach as the competition progresses; the athlete would be forgiven for believing that this sound is consistent with

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good hydration. In fact, the water is not entering the small intestine and it is not being processed for use in the cardiovascular system, due to the shut down of the regular physical processes that occur when sodium is depleted. If not treated, the body will potentially shut down those systems dependent upon sodium, such as the transmission of nerve impulses, and death may result.

Blood volume; Cardiovascular system; Heat cramps; Hydration; Water.

SEE ALSO

Exercise, high intensity Focus, commitment, maximum level of performance, and ‘‘pushing to the max’’ are all commonly recognized markers of intensity in exercise. Intensity may be defined as a maximum level of physical effort directed to a specific activity or movement in sport; as a matter of safety, the development of an athlete’s physical skill will be the foundation of intense training, as intense efforts built upon poor technique often leads to injury and frustration. Intensity is a marriage of mind and body. The execution of high intensity exercise programs requires a progressively greater mental and emotional commitment to the objectives of the training to which the athlete is subjected; to continually bear physical discomfort that will invariably accompany high intensity exercise, the activity must be relevant in the mind of the athlete. High intensity exercise may refer to a general overall physical training program; it may also describe a specific or isolated routine or set of exercises with a high intensity focus. Racing in a multi-day cycling competition and a 30-minute sprint training session on the track of a velodrome are both high intensity exercises, as each will demand a maximum level of performance. All sports require a high intensity at some phase of competition. Intensity levels can never be assessed in a vacuum when considering their relative relationship to sports performance. Intensity with which exercise is performed must be measured in conjunction with both the duration of the exercise in a given session, as well as the frequency during a given training period. The formulation of a successful high intensity exercise program will require the variables of intensity, duration and frequency to be adjusted on an ongoing basis to account for athlete fitness, training gains and objectives.

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High intensity exercise has several proven physiological benefits apart from the specific training and performance objectives of individual exercise programs. As a general proposition, the greater the intensity of an aerobic training program, the greater is the ability of the athlete to inhale and transport oxygen in the cardiovascular system to working muscles as a part of the production of energy (known as the VO2 max calculation). The greater the VO2 max capability in an athlete, the generally greater the ability to succeed in aerobic sports such as cycling and distance running. The second general consequence of high intensity exercise is the greater loss of subcutaneous fat (body fat) by athletes who area part of a program that includes high intensity exercise components. The body, when participating in high intensity exercise, will utilize fat stores more readily it will do in regular exercise systems. The anaerobic and aerobic systems will by pass the usual glycogen transport and metabolization of glucose into the energy fuel adenosine triphosphate (ATP), instead converting fats into fatty acids for the same ultimate purpose. Further, consistent with the rules of physics, if two athletes of approximately the same size and weight run the same 6 mi (10 km) distance, they will be expected to use almost the same amount of energy, even when one runner travels at a rate of 6 minutes per mile (1.6 km) and the other moves at 10 minutes per mile. The faster runner will expend more energy to cover the distance than the slower runner; the slower runner will be expending the lesser amount of energy over a longer period. However, if the two athletes trained at these levels over time, the faster runner would develop a significantly higher VO2 max, with an accompanying greater physical ability to perform at a higher level. High intensity exercise can be subdivided into two general areas: high-intensity strength training and high intensity aerobic training. There are crossover training effects between many of the exercises found in each of these groups, where the exercise has a multiple application. High-intensity strength training was once the exclusive domain of weightlifters, body builders, and athletes in sports that placed a premium on muscular strength, such as American football. The principles and the techniques used to develop effective weight training exercise programs are now well understood to have wide application in any sport where muscle strength, the cross training of the musculoskeletal system, and the development of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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mental strength to push physical limits in training will enhance ultimate athletic performance. The ratio of the interrelated factors of intensity, frequency, and duration is of heightened importance in the development and ongoing assessment of any high-intensity strength training program. Strength training involves muscle contractions that are often explosive in their execution, with a correspondingly greater risk of injury. The recovery period after any high intensity workout will be in direct proportion to the intensity of the workout and how often the workout has been performed in the period. The following high-intensity strength program is modeled upon a weightlifting training regime; the principles that are the foundation of this model are applicable to any high-intensity strength exercises, such as a plyometrics jumping program as may be employed by basketball or volleyball players, or the strength-building exercises specific to the equipment in sports as diverse as boxing and kayaking. The overall purpose of the program is to exercise all muscle groups in the body, to ensure a degree of balance and to reduce the risk of overdevelopment of one muscle group at the expense of tightness and imbalance in another; muscle imbalance is a leading cause of muscle injury. Complete two to three sessions per week, no sessions are consecutive to enhance recovery. Perform at least one set of each prescribed exercise. Perform every exercises at a maximum resistance level of between 70% and 80%. Perform each set with between eight and 12 repetitions of the movement. Each movement must be performed in a controlled fashion, with the desired muscle groups for the exercise the only muscles engaged. The time taken by an athlete to complete a typical weightlifting exercise should be one-third lift effort to twothirds lowering effort. The exercises must be progressive; once the specific movement can be completed without undue strain, the weight work load can be increase 5%. The range of motion sought in each exercise is 100%. A well-crafted high-intensity strength training program has a number of built-in protections against one of the scourges of athletic development: overtraining. Overtraining will often arise when the training loads placed on the athlete, particularly in high WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

intensity situations, exceeds that which the body can bear over time. Many athletes and coaches fall into the sports quagmire that begins with the path marked ‘‘if a little more intensity in the workouts is good, more intensity must be better.’’ Overtraining, also referred to as staleness or burnout, is not a training state so much as it is an outcome of a high intensity program. Break periods in the exercise routine and changes in the established routine are often useful components to high intensity work of any type. As distance running became a popular racing fixture in the late nineteenth century, training methods employed were typically centered on relatively high mileage churned out at steady speeds. Emil Zatopek, the Czech legend who won the never-duplicated triple championship of the 5,000-m, 10,000-m, and marathon events in the 1952 Olympics, was the first notable runner to employ high intensity interval running techniques in his training program. Zatopek discovered through personal trial and error that he could run faster in the long distances through running short, very hard, and fast interval segments. Over the next fifty years, intense interval training became a staple for elite and recreational runners the world over. Similar high intensity training principles have been applied to all aerobic sports, including cycling, swimming, and cross-country skiing. High-intensity exercise employed in aerobic training is founded upon the principle of periodized training. Periodization is a concept that is similar to the schedule outlined in the high-intensity strength exercises, with the key difference that it is formulated over much longer time intervals; a year is a typical periodization time frame, with broad time periods such as a three-month interval having correspondingly general interval training objectives. The broad time periods are then broken into much smaller training modules, with specific interval proscribed. Periodization has demonstrated benefits in aerobic sports in addition to increased VO2 max and reduction of body fat. As an example, in their build up to the competitive roadracing season (often four to six months in duration), members of the Kenyan national distance running team will spend three months engaged in very intense, interval-based track focused workouts. The road races will be routinely 10-km to half-marathon events (6 mi to 13 mi); the workouts involve running 40 400-m intervals, with a 60-second rest period between each; each 400-m segment will be run in under 60 seconds. The intense demands of such workouts, which total 16 mi (26 km) in a single session, enhance both speed and recovery ability.

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SEE ALSO Cardiovascular system; Exercise, intermittent; Lactic acid and performance; Overtraining; Oxygen.

Exercise, intermittent Intermittent exercise is a phrase used to describe a variety of different physical training types. The terms ‘‘intermittent,’’ which means to stop and start at intervals, and ‘‘interval,’’ as in interval training, are used somewhat interchangeably. In most circumstances, interval training will be conducted as a high intensity exercise activity. By its nature, exercise is not aimless; it involves physical exertion that is directed to the development, increase, or maintenance of physical fitness. Intermittent exercise is both a description of the intensity of the activity as well as its nature. Intermittent exercises of various types are best known where they have been employed as components to endurance sports. Disciplines such as distance running, road cycling racing, and mountain biking require the body to produce the energy necessary for physical performance through the aerobic energy system, which primarily utilizes stores of carbohydrate products, in the form of glycogen, reduced as energy is required, to the sugar glucose. To generate energy, the body—through the cardiovascular system—transports oxygen and other nutrients essential to muscle function. The greater the ability of the heart to power blood volume to the muscles, the likely more efficient the production of energy and the removal of wastes such as carbon dioxide will be. Intermittent exercise programs will tend to increase the oxygen transporting capacity of the body, often referred to by the shorthand VO2max. As a further general rule, the more intense the intermittent period of training, the greater the VO2max. By illustration, suppose two equally athletically talented and physically fit cyclists are monitored over a training period of six months. One cyclist maintains a set exercise program of 60 minutes per day. The second cyclist rides the same distances at the same speed as the first for four days per week; his or her remaining three workouts are higher intensity, intermittent workouts of four 15-minute segments—each separated by rest intervals of five minutes. The intermittent training cyclist would expect to obtain an increase in measured VO2max levels in the ranges of 5–15%. The maximum oxygen uptake of an endurance sport athlete is not a guarantee of competitive suc-

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cess. Physical techniques, tactics, the strength of the musculoskeletal system generally, and other fitness factors will all play a role. What is virtually certain in these sports is that all other factors being equal, the athlete with the best ability to power blood through the cardiovascular system and process oxygen has the best chance for competitive success. As a further general proposition, the more intense the work performed in the intermittent period, and the shorter the rest interval, the greater the impact upon the VO2max. Intermittent training also tends to produce a heightened ability in the body to rid itself of lactic acid, a byproduct of aerobic energy production and a performance inhibitor. There have been a number of high level scientific studies conducted in an effort to resolve the question as to whether intermittent exercise tends to reduce the fat stores in the body more efficiently that regular single duration exercises. It is believed that during the post-exercise recovery period that the body does not utilize fat stores any more readily than it would after regular forms of exercise; it is likely that the noted fat losses in many of these studies are actually confirmation that the appetite of an athlete involved in intermittent exercise programs will be more readily suppressed, resulting in a reduction in fatty foods being consumed. Sports that are powered by the anaerobic energy systems also benefit from intermittent exercise programs with an aerobic emphasis. In a sport such as rugby, all of the body’s energy will be produced by the anaerobic alactic system, where the ATP is available in the muscle for short bursts of activity up to approximately ten seconds, and it is stored in a fashion that requires the ATP to be replenished very frequently. In the anaerobic lactic energy system, the body must sustain an energy level in segments of play greater than approximately 10 seconds and less than 90 seconds. Intermittent exercise training will assist the athlete in increasing the anaerobic threshold, which is the speed at which the athlete may function without drawing unduly upon lactic system. The aerobic system is the measure of the athlete’s ability to recover from intense activity through the increased transport of oxygen. The best specific measure of the recovery powers of an athlete in intermittent exercise is the ability of the athlete to attain a resting heart rate after the interval is completed. The biathlon, the traditional winter Olympic event involving intense cross-country skiing and the calm precision of target shooting, is an example of a discipline where the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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heart rate of the competitor may be pushed to levels very close to the maximum rate during the skiing portion of the event, followed by a required settling of the athlete’s physiology to shoot at a target from a prone position. If the athlete is unable to reduce the heart rate for the shooting component, the ability to deliver the shots will be compromised.

Endurance; Exercise, high intensity; Sport performance; Warm up/cool down.

SEE ALSO

Exercise as a part of cancer treatment There is a growing body of evidence that various exercise programs are of significant benefit to persons undergoing cancer treatment. Cancer is the broad classification of diseases where human cells grow in a malignant fashion within the body, resulting in the destruction of an organ or system, with death a common result. Cancer treatments have traditionally included radiation therapy to destroy malignant growths, various forms of anticancer medications, and the surgical removal of the affected area. Many cancer treatments involve modification of diet. All cancer treatments are highly stressful to the body and such procedures commonly cause significant physical weakness and fatigue in a cancer patient. Cancer treatments and the threat of death that accompanies the disease in almost all of its forms will also place significant mental stress on most patients. Exercise programs tend to assist cancer patients with respect to the physical consequences of their treatment as well as in lessening the mental health impacts. The primary objective of an effective exercise program for these persons is the appropriate tailoring of exercise volume and intensity to the patient’s condition. An intense, highly vigorous exercise regime may be counterproductive to the patient, as the body may not be able to absorb the combined stresses of therapy and a physical activity program that requires its own significant recovery period. As a general rule, a moderate exercise program developed in consultation with the treating physician, such as four sessions of cycling per week, or running every other day at a pace where the patient elevates the heart rate to 60% of the maximum rate for 30 to 40 minutes, achieves significant physiological benefits. Cancer treatments place significant demands on the body; any process by which the body’s strength is WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

maintained or enhanced will assist the patient in countering fatigue and the muscle weakness commonly associated with the treatments. Exercise regimes that are properly implemented will specifically aid the patient in preserving the healthy function of the cardiovascular system. Depending on the type of exercise program initiated, the cancer patient would typically expect to be able to maintain body weight, reduce the risk of increased body fat associated with a sedentary lifestyle, and, through the stimulation of the endocrine and related systems, the patient can maintain the strength of the body’s immune systems. Exercise promotes natural sleep patterns, an important factor in dealing with the stresses of cancer treatment. The psychological benefits of exercise for the cancer patient may be as important as the physical consequences. Cancer studies have confirmed a profound relationship between exercise and heightened self-esteem for persons undergoing cancer treatments. Regular exercise, in addition to the release of the natural hormone, endorphin, which tends to elevate mood, also provides a positive focal point for the patient in the midst of often difficult and emotionally grueling procedures.

Disabled individuals and regular physical exercise; Fitness; Health.

SEE ALSO

Exercise physiology

SEE

Physiology

of exercise

Exercise recovery Exercise is the exertion of the body to achieve a physical purpose. Physical movements, no matter how structured, will require a period of rest to permit the body to be restored to a state where it can exercise once more. The observance of the fundamental rules concerning the perpetual process of exercise and recovery is essential to sport success; tired athletes can not train or compete at their highest possible level if they have not permitted themselves recovery. All exercise, whether viewed as the workout on a particular day, or as part of a larger program or training system, has a built in recovery factor. Aerobic sports are those where the duration of the activity is relatively long, but not indefinite. Recovery from the aerobic exercise begins the moment that the activity ceases. Anaerobic sports are built on short

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borne or otherwise tolerated as the athlete continues to perform at the highest level possible. The further an athlete advances in a particular discipline, the more often this decision will arise.

Former pro football player Dennis Byrd performing leg extension exercise on weightlifting bench as part of his recovery from a paralyzing collision during a game in 1992. P HO TO BY KI M BE RLY

Muscle recovery is achieved by the athlete in a number of ways. Rest is the easiest solution to overtaxed muscles; therapy such as massage and various stretching programs suited to the muscle group in question; cool down stretches ease the body to recovery after vigorous workouts by taking the muscles gently through a full range of motion and help prevent cramping and stiffness. In the period following a hard workout or competition, cross-training exercises will serve to keep the body working, thus maintaining over all fitness, while not unduly stressing the muscles that were most stressed by the activity. Examples of effective cross training as a recovery tool are swimming or cycling after an event such as a run, or as a respite from a vigorous contact sport such as rugby.

BUTL E R/ T I M E LI F E PI CT URES / GE TTY IM AGES .

intervals that naturally presume a rest or recovery space between them. The length of the recovery period in relation to the active exercise period is a function of both the duration of the exercise as well as the intensity level at which the body performs the exercise. Assuming a constant level of fitness, the recovery period to follow a 10-mi (16 km) walk would be expected to be shorter than that following a 10-mile run at the maximum pace that the athlete can sustain. Exercise recovery has four specific divisions, each of which has its own recovery principles. The divisions are: musculoskeletal recovery from the stresses and forces of training and competition; recovery of the large-scale systems that power the body during exercise, particularly the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems; restoration of the energy stores depleted by exercise, especially carbohydrates and minerals; and psychological recovery often necessitated when competitive and training stresses place a mental burden on the athlete over a period of time. Sore muscles and joints are the easiest aspect of any athlete to identify as being in need of a recovery period after training sessions or competition. One of the great challenges of athletic participation is a true understanding of the difference in the signals sounded by the body between the pain of an injury, physiological damage requiring decisive treatment and rehabilitation including probable enforced rest, and discomfort caused by exercise, which can be

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Recovery of the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems is achieved through a reduction in the intensity of activity through the recovery period. The heart, the organ central to the function of both systems, rarely will benefit from a recovery program that eliminates any stress on it above the sedentary level. It is the body’s fluid level, primarily water, that is critical to the recovery of the cardiovascular system, as the reduction of body fluid that occurs through the heat generated by exercise will correspondingly reduce the volume of fluid in the blood plasma, which lessens the ability of the blood vessels to transport oxygen, fuel in the form of glucose and other nutrients throughout the body. When an athlete has lost from 2% to 3% of their body weight in fluids, the recovery of the cardiovascular system to an optimal fluid level can take several hours; the recovery of depleted minerals (such as sodium) to assist in the operation of the cardiovascular system may be a longer process, depending upon how much mineral was depleted. Fluid level recovery is one part of the bodily equation, the restoration of the energy available for exercise is the other. The restoration of depleted energy stores will commence the moment that carbohydrates are consumed after the activity, either through energy drinks or by way of food. A return to the athlete’s usual level of carbohydrates is a process that depends on the carbohydrates present in the foods consumed, and the level of physical activity in the rest period that may draw on these energy stores. The recovery of the muscles, body systems, and energy stores of an athlete after exercise can each be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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estimated with reasonable precision, given the known and predictable qualities of the components involved. Psychological recovery from exercise is a true variable. Every athlete reacts in a different way to similar stresses. After prolonged and difficult periods of training, or key competitions, many athletes build short rest breaks into their program to maintain mental freshness in their approach to the sport. In some instances, the spirit of the maxim ‘‘a change is as good as a rest’’ is employed, when the athlete continues to train at a significant level, but in an alternate sport.

Carbohydrates; Fatigue; Glycogen depletion; Massage therapy; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

to describe the protective qualities of the HSPs with respect to heat. Exercise in warm weather accelerates the production of HSPs at a greater rate than simple passive acclimatization. Conversely, thermotolerance is not a permanent protection against heat stress and resultant cell damage. Once thermotolerance is acquired, if the athlete is not exposed to warm weather conditions for a period of many months or years, the body will require another period in which to adapt to warm weather. In seasonal climates, such as those found in northern Europe and North America, athletes must adjust to summer training and competition to achieve the desired thermotolerance on an annual basis.

Acclimatization; Thermoregulation, exercise, and thirst; Thermoregulatory system; Warm weather exercise.

SEE ALSO

Exercise and thermotolerance Thermotolerance is the ability of the body and its cellular structures to withstand the destructive stresses of heat that exceeds the optimal core temperature range of human performance, from 96 F to 100 F (36 C–38.5 C). Thermotolerance is the end result of a successful program of heat acclimatization, where an athlete trains with the specific purpose of making the body functional in a warmer climate to which the athlete is accustomed. When a person moves to a warmer climate than that in which he or she has previously lived, there will be a natural acclimatization to the warmer temperature; this process is known as passive acclimatization. To achieve a speedier result, an athlete will use exercise and a gradual buildup in both training volume and intensity over an approximate 14-day period to achieve a 100% heat acclimatization. Exercise places additional heat stresses on the body during this acclimatization period. The function of the cardiovascular system generally, the ability of the body to maintain an ideal fluid/mineral balance, and the transmission of nerve impulses are all impacted by unaccustomed heat. In extreme circumstances, the stress of heat resulting in a core temperature that rises above the body’s favorable operating range will initiate the destruction of cells, with organ damage and death the ultimate result. The process of thermotolreance that occurs from the heat training conducted by an athlete is related to a physiological response in the body. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are chemicals produced by the body in response to prolonged heat stress. HSPs act to protect the cells from heat damage that would otherwise occur; scientific literature uses the expression ‘‘molecular chaperone’’ WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Exhaustion The state of exhaustion is one that is a common occurrence in all forms of athletic performance. It is a description that is intended to reflect a final, often dramatic, result of one or more bodily processes on the brink of failure. Where there is exhaustion, there must be an extreme level of fatigue, to the point where relief must be sought by the athlete or a catastrophe will invariably follow. Exhaustion is a term employed in three distinct contexts in sports science. Physical exhaustion is the expression used to describe either musculoskeletal fatigue or a general inability to physically continue to perform at the desired level due to all energy stores having been consumed. Physical exhaustion is most common in those sports where the activity occurs over a longer period of time, as in distance events of all types; it may also arise through prolonged training for shorter duration events. Mental exhaustion is the loss of mental keenness. Mental fatigue can occur during an event, such as an endurance race, but more commonly this state occurs in a cumulative fashion, due to factors such as the pressure of high level competition or the stress imposed upon the athlete through daily training sessions. Terms such as ‘‘burnout,’’ ‘‘staleness,’’ and ‘‘brain-fag’’ are expressions of mental exhaustion. Heat exhaustion is a subset of physical exhaustion, but as it arises in specific environmental circumstances, it has a separate and welldeveloped set of physical indicators.

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Reggie Evans of the Seattle Supersonics flops on the ground in exhaustion during a game.

ª 2 005 N BA E (P HOT O B Y SAM F ORE NCICH /

NB AE VIA G ET TY IMA GE S. )

Physical exhaustion is a condition that is most commonly revealed by extreme fatigue on the part of athletes, where they are no longer physically capable of performing at their accustomed level. As physical exhaustion typically occurs in endurance sports, it is the aerobic energy system that is central to an examination of the mechanics of this condition. When the body requires energy for activities lasting longer than approximately 90 seconds, it will fuel itself through the production of the energy source adenosine triphosphate (ATP), using available stores of glucose. ATP is produced as the culmination of a process whereby the bodily carbohydrate stores, glycogen, are converted to glucose and transported through the red blood cells of the bloodstream to the muscles where the ATP conversion occurs. The red blood cells also transport the oxygen required to metabolize, or burn, this fuel; the blood also removes the waste products and carbon dioxide produced in this process. The simplest and most common form of physical fatigue is when the body simply runs out of the primary sources of carbohydrate required to manufacture energy in the form of ATP. When the body determines that it has no more glycogen available to

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it (the liver regulates the level of these sugars present in the bloodstream), it will revert to the consumption of stored fats to convert into energy sources. Fats are a comparatively lesser, more inefficient fuel for energy production. As with any machine, when the fuel sources are spent, the body cannot continue to perform. An inability to produce energy does not only affect the muscles and other working components of the body, but also the functioning of the brain and the central nervous system; a depletion of physical energy stores will cause significant reductions in concentration and mental function. Absent any other physical factors contributing to the physical exhaustion, such as extreme cold or altitude, this circumstance will be corrected through rest and the ingestion of appropriate carbohydraterich foods to redress the bodily balance. The other most common potential causes of physical exhaustion in an athlete, occurring either singly or in combination with other factors, include: illness (such as cancer); poor long-term nutritional habits (such as lacking vitamins or minerals necessary to the function of the energy systems); mental stress; environmental condition (e.g., air pollution); and dehydration (when the fluid level of the body is reduced, the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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volume of fluid in the bloodstream is correspondingly less).

understood exposure injuries of frostbite and hypothermia.

Physical exhaustion is also an expression used to describe the testing processes used to calculate performance measures such as VO2max, the maximum amount of oxygen that an athlete can process, which is a powerful indicator of endurance sport fitness. Physical exhaustion is also the stated limit to carbohydrate depletion tests and interval training of all types. The immediate, short-term athletic goal in each of these mechanisms is to train to physical exhaustion; the long-term objective is to extend the prior physical limits.

Exposure to warm temperatures, often in combination with significant humidity, can cause heat injuries, including hyperthermia, which has three progressive components: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. Significant exposure of unprotected skin to direct sunlight may also cause sunburn, a condition arising more commonly, but not exclusively, in warm weather environments.

Mental exhaustion can arise in a number of circumstances in relation to both training and competitive circumstances. Professional team sport athletes who are required to play a number of games over a period of weeks will often complain of a lethargy and lack of motivation. Hard training, especially when the individual components are repetitive, can occasionally result in a similar mental fatigue. Heat exhaustion a progression in the overheating of the body known as hyperthermia. When the body is working, especially in warm or humid conditions, it cools itself by forcing warm blood to the surface of the skin, which results in the production of perspiration, which in turn both dehydrates the system and depletes the body of the mineral sodium. The symptoms of heat exhaustion are severe thirst, generalized weakness, and a loss of coordination (due to reduced mineral levels, which aid in the transmission of nerve impulses to the muscles). The next stage in this progressive heat illness is a heat stroke, which may result in cardiac arrest and death. A notable fatality due to heat stroke was that of Korey Stringer, National Football League (NFL) lineman, in 2001 during a hot weather training camp session.

Acclimatization; Exercise recovery; Fatigue; Muscle glycogen recovery.

SEE ALSO

Exhaustion, heat SEE Heat exhaustion Exposure injuries Exposure injuries arise in extreme environmental conditions. The exposure of the human body to cold temperatures, either alone or in combination with wind, immersion in cold water, or the existence of snow and ice is the mechanism for the commonly WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Cold weather is commonly defined as an air temperature of 40 F (4 C) or below. Cold weather exposure injuries in athletes usually occur in circumstances when there is a prolonged exposure to the effects of the elements in sports such as cross-country skiing or mountain climbing. In these instances, even when the participant has taken the precautions as proper clothing and footwear, the physical systems are worn down through a combination of exertion and the elements. In cold weather conditions, the athlete will be required to produce energy for the sport, as well as the body generating sufficient energy to remain warm. When the athlete becomes dehydrated due to exertion, or when the thermal (warming) qualities of protective clothing are reduced due to the accumulation of perspiration next to the skin, the body will not function at its optimal level. In response to the threat of the cold, the blood vessels constrict, and body heat is lost. In such circumstances, when the body temperature falls from its normal 98.6 F (37 C) to less than 95 F (35 C), the body enters into the condition known as hypothermia, when it is unable to warm itself. If a victim is not provided immediate care, hypothermia is a fatal condition. External factors that may contribute to the onset of hypothermia are a previous exposure to cold injury, as well as the presence of alcohol in the cardiovascular system. Hypothermia may also occur in circumstances when the air temperature is not within the cold weather range. When a sailor is subjected to spray from the water surface that is very cold (below 40 F [4 C]), or more commonly, when the sailor falls overboard and is immersed in water that exposes the body to a surrounding temperature that mimics the cold weather environment. Hypothermia can occur within 10 minutes of exposure to cold water, and often more quickly if the victim is fatigued. Air temperatures in cold weather must be further considered with respect to the wind chill factor, the relationship between wind velocity and actual impact upon the human skin. As a general proposition, the

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greater the wind velocity, the more pronounced the effect of cold on exposed skin. Exposure of inadequately protected skin to cold air, or cold air made more pronounced in its effect due to wind, may lead to frostbite, which is a freezing of the outer skin and the two subcutaneous layers. The most typical body parts to be injured through frostbite are the extremities, including nose, ears, cheeks, fingers, and toes. When caught at an early stage, and the body parts gently warmed in a protected environment, the affected areas can be restored; in severe cases, cell death in the tissue will result and the tissue (or limb) must be removed. The mechanisms of hyperthermia and its components are tied directly to the effects of dehydration on the cardiovascular system. When the fluid levels of the body become depleted, typically due to the generation of perspiration and minerals, chiefly sodium, the fluid levels of the bloodstream are correspondingly reduced. Lower blood volumes lead inevitably to an inability of the body to generate energy in response to performance or training requirements. In its early stages, which are manifested through the symptoms of heat and muscle cramping, hyperthermia is treated by fluids and rest. In its more pronounced stages, hyperthermia represents potentially fatal consequences. Sunburn is perhaps the most common exposure injury. It is caused by overexposure to the ultraviolet rays that form a part of sunlight. Individual susceptibility to sunburn is varied; factors such as skin pigmentation, age, and genetics all play a role. Mild cases of sunburn are generally not believed to be serious by themselves; there is significant scientific study in support of the theory that the effects of sunburn are cumulative; prolonged exposure of unprotected skin to the sun is a proven cause of skin cancer. Athletes who compete in disciplines where they are often exposed to direct sunlight are particularly at risk, including cold weather athletes; ultraviolet rays persist in sunlight irrespective of temperature, and solar effects are often deceptive when the air temperature is low.

Cold-related illnesses and emergencies; First aid kits for sports; Heat exhaustion; Hypothermia; Thermoregulatory system; Warm weather exercise.

SEE ALSO

Extreme sports Extreme sports have obtained a both significant profile and following during recent years. The defini-

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tion of what constitutes an extreme sport is fluid, as new extreme sports are introduced on a regular basis; all extreme sports tend to produce a profound surge of excitement in the athlete (an ‘‘adrenalin rush’’), while requiring the athlete to assume significant physical risks. As a general rule, an extreme sport will require the athlete to perform at a high rate of speed, where the athlete is subject to significant effects of gravity, or where the athlete is exposed to special dangers due to the performance of a stunt with limited, or no, safety equipment. The expression extreme sports is a relatively recent media creation, popularized by international events such as the ESPN ‘‘X Games’’ and the Australia ‘‘Gravity Games,’’ held annually in Perth. There have always been athletes prepared to take remarkable risks in the pursuit of a personal sports goal, from the first daredevils who attempted to conquer Niagara Falls during the nineteenth century using barrels and other contraptions, to risk takers such as American motorcycle jumper Robert ‘‘Evil’’ Knievel. Wellestablished modern sports such as bobsled, luge racing, and parachute jumping, each possessing inherent speed and risks, would clearly have been accepted as extreme sports had the concept been current at the time of their invention in the early twentieth century. Extreme sports is a notion that extends beyond the strict confines of a rigid classification system. While many extreme sports are the subject of intense competition on an international level, the greater appeal of these activities for their participants lies in the combination of the achievement of successfully conquering a difficult athletic objective, while exposing one self to potential injury or death. Extreme sports tend to be individual as opposed to team pursuits; personal fulfillment is often a very powerful feature in extreme sport participation. With technological developments a significant factor in the development and identification of new extreme sports, the classification is open for the inclusion of any activity that meets the general definition of speed, risk, and difficulty. The largest demographic in the extreme sports is that of ages 12 through age 35. While males constitute the majority of extreme sports participants, most extreme sports are not restricted by requirements of greater muscularity or speed. Extreme sports tend to place primary emphasis upon the technique used by the participants. Another compelling distinction between the definition of conventional sport and the extreme sports category is the lesser importance in the extreme sports of the classic pillars of physical fitness WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

EXTREME SPORTS

(endurance, muscle strength, speed, power, and flexibility). The successful extreme athlete must build significant levels of all around fitness to participate in sports such as rock climbing, which engages every muscle in the body. That same fitness level, while useful, is not essential to participate in extreme sports such as a sky diving or motocross. The extreme sports tend to place less emphasis upon formal coaching and training, due to their appeal to individual athletes. It is both a hallmark and an attraction of the extreme sports that a novice to the particular sport can participate very soon after their introduction to the activity. Conventional sports such as American football and cricket have extensive and rather rigid rules of play that must be adhered to by the participants; extreme sports have rules that are typically broad and subject to adaptation by an individual athlete. It is a part of the ethos of the extreme sports that a sport must be perceived as one beyond the mainstream or possess an otherwise counter cultural edge to be a true extreme sport. Bobsled is a fast and extremely dangerous sport, where the sled and crew hurtle down an icy track at speed exceeding 90 mph (135 km/h). Bobsledders assume serious risks of harm, but as bobsled is established as one of the sports of the Winter Olympics, it is rarely regarded as an extreme activity. In contrast, snowboarding, also a multi-disciplinary Olympic sport, is perceived as an extreme sport because the snowboard can be readily extended into more extreme environments such as a ungroomed mountain slope in a way that the bobsled or other regulated sports cannot be taken. Another distinguishing feature regarding the sports included in the extreme sports category is the nature of the equipment required by the athlete. Most of the equipment is relatively simple to operate, such as a skateboard, bungee cord, or wakeboard; in some sports, a simple piece of equipment is used in conjunction with a mechanized device, such as a tow boat or other transportation. Extreme sports are played in the air, along the surface of the earth, and on and below the surface of the water. Within the extreme sports classification, activities can be further sub-divided into two groups: sports that are inherently extreme in their execution, and those sports that are made extreme by the adaptation of an additional feature. The inherently extreme sports are those that from the time of their invention possessed all of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

qualities of danger, thrill-seeking, and specialized technique. The extreme sports that require the participant to enter into a controlled fall from a height in the air are readily identified as extreme sports. The aerial extreme sports include sky diving, bungee jumping (where the athlete jumps from a fixed structure, such as a bridge, attached to a cord that restrains the jumper from striking the surface), hang gliding (where the glider is suspended from a wind powered craft), and parasailing (the subject is towed by boat and the parachute is used to elevate them into the air). Sky diving and bungee jumping require the athlete to transported to a height, where they are released; a parachute performs the same function as the bungee cord attached to the athlete’s leg, as it controls the landing. BASE parachute jumping (Building, Antenna, Span, and Earth) is a form of sky diving where the participants jump from very tall fixed structures using parachutes, often in contravention of local regulations, a further extreme sport hallmark. Hang gliding and parasailing permit the athlete to both control the manner of their ascent into the air and descent to the surface. In all case, a common feature of these extreme sports is the fact that the control that the participant has over the successful conclusion to the jump or the ride is never complete—wind and other environmental conditions area constant threat to athletic success and safety. The most prominent of the ground-based inherently extreme sports are rock climbing and skateboarding. Rock climbing requires greater overall strength and fitness than perhaps any other extreme sport. Skateboarding, in all of its variations, requires highly developed balance and proprioception skills. Skateboards are very simple machines, typically constructed from a composite synthetic material and technologically advanced wheels. Tony Hawke is the American boarder who took skateboarding and the multitude of dangerous, acrobatic half pipe tricks into the public consciousness in the late 1990s. The skateboard and its rider can be manipulated into a variety of spins, twists, and flips high above an unforgiving concrete surface. The inherently extreme water sports include both surfing and free diving, activities that exited for centuries before the extreme sports label. Both sports have the common risk of drowning or otherwise sustaining a serious injury. Competitive water skiing, including the modern variants of wakeboarding (a device similar in shape and function to a snow board) and knee boarding, presents serious risks to

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the users as they perform aerial tricks and jumps from fixed platforms at high speeds. With the addition of elements that may include duration of the event, obstacles, or through the combination of risk factors, many sports that are mainstream athletic activities become extreme. There are numerous examples of these adaptations. Canoeing and kayaking are activities that have existed since pre-historic times. When a canoeist or kayaker challenges a set of white water rapids that possess the power to obliterate the craft and send the paddler to their death, an extreme element is added. Rafting on dangerous white water rivers possesses a similar quality. Similarly, the marathon and other distance running races present risks to participating athletes due to the combination of musculoskeletal stress and the demands paced upon the cardiovascular system. These risks are generally well known and the athlete seeks to limit their effect through proper training. Ultra marathoning is the extreme variation, where the runners often cover distances of 100 mi (160 km), over rugged terrain with the additional environmental risks presented by wild animals, elevation changes, and temperature variations. The ‘‘ECO Challenge’’ is an extreme race that has been organized at different locations throughout the world in recent years. It is an extreme sport contested over a number of days that requires its participants to traverse wilderness areas by running, biking, and kayaking. The mountain bicycle was one that was readily adapted for extreme sport participation, especially when taken into wilderness, off-road areas. BMX (bicycle motocross) is an example of a machine that is readily operated on a suburban street; the BMX machines are used in a wide range of extreme sport competitions, both racing over courses specially adapted to provide the rider with the challenge of bouncing over mogul like hills, as well as performing a variety of aerial stunts. SEE ALSO

Rock climbing and wall climbing; Sky diving.

Eyedrops An eyedrop is a generic term that describes any manner of liquid medication applied directly to the surface of the human eye. Eyedrops, depending on their formulation, may be used to treat a mechanical problem with eye function, such as a chronically dry

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eye, or as a relief from friction caused by foreign objects, including dirt or the presence of a contact lens. Eyedrops are also administered to treat numerous kinds of illnesses and disease that may affect the permanent health of the eye. The eye is a complex structure that is exposed to a number of forms of stress in its daily function. Vision is achieved in the human eye when light enters the opening in the center of the colored part of the eye (iris), called the pupil. The cornea and lens, both located near the surface of the eye, focus incoming light onto the retina, located at the rear of the eyeball. The eye continuously adjusts the amount of incoming light to maintain a constant quality of image. These images are transmitted to the brain by way of the optic nerve. The conjunctiva is a membrane immediately adjacent to the upper and lower eye lids that covers the visible portion of the eye; it is kept moist through the action of nearby tear ducts. The eyeball is connected suspensory ligaments that enable it to withstand forces generated by the motion of the body. Keratoconjunctivitis sicca is the medical condition known as chronic dry eye, which results from the body’s inability to produce sufficient tears to keep the surface membrane moist. Tears are important to the overall function of the eye, because they lubricate the eye surface, reducing friction between the eyelid and the eye surface. Tears also act as the vehicle by which both oxygen and essential proteins for nourishment are carried to the eye membrane surface. Under circumstances in which the tear ducts become inflamed, tear production is reduced. Medicated eyedrops including cyclosporine and other anti-inflammatories, both steroidal and nonsteroidal, are often employed to correct this malfunction. The eye often becomes irritated by allergies, airborne pollens, or through exposure to harsh chemicals such as the chlorine used in public swimming pools. When the body is susceptible to an allergy, it will produce the chemical histamine as a counter to the allergic effect; histamine increases the production of bodily fluids such as mucus and tears. Airborne particles often create redness and irritation on the surface of the eye. There are many nonprescription eyedrop medications commercially available to provide temporary relief from these conditions; the eyedrops clean and lubricate the membrane. Infections of the conjunctiva are called conjunctivitis, commonly known as pink eye. In forms of this WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

EYEDROPS

French tennis star Mary Pierce applies some eye drops before she starts her first round match.

infection that are either caused by bacteria or virus, pink eye is highly contagious; pink eye is especially common in institutional or group settings, such as schools or sports teams, since it is easily transmitted by close personal contact. Eyedrops containing anti-infective agents are also employed after an eye operation. A common serious eye injury sustained by athletes is a partially or fully detached retina, which can happen when a hard blow, such as a boxing punch or contact with the head in any contact sport, or a severe fall in sports such as cycling, causes the retina to become separated from the back of the eyeball. A partially or fully detached retina results in blindness in the affected eye if not treated. Eyedrops are used to limit the risk of infection after the surgical reattachment procedure is complete.


G ER RY PE NN Y/A F P/ GE TTY I M AG ES

Eyedrops are also commonly administered to treat infections that occur due to the improper wear or inadequate cleaning of contact lenses. In contact lens wearers, the infection often takes the form of a fungus, which may extend along the entire cornea, causing both discomfort and impairment of vision. The majority of contact lens-related infections are not a serious threat to long-term eye health or vision. Another common sports injury is a cut or scratch on the cornea, the outer membrane of the eyeball. This can happen when the eyeball is struck by an opposing player’s finger or other object. The resulting injury can be extremely painful. Antibiotic eyedrops are often prescribed for these injuries. SEE ALSO Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; Dose and dosage; Ear drops.

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F Fiona Fairhurst ENGLISH INVENTOR

Fiona Fairhurst made a unique contribution to sport science through the combination of her expertise in textiles and her background as a competitive swimmer. As the director of Research and Development for the Speedo, the multinational swimwear manufacturer, Fairhurst made an ongoing contribution to the development of the Speedo Fastskin models of racing swimsuits. Fairhurst is either the sole or co-patent holder on a series of full body swimsuit designs that incorporate both modern computer simulation research and the hydrodynamic properties of sharkskin. Using a computer simulation technology known as computational fluid dynamics, or CFD, a process first developed by American aerospace engineer Barry Bixler in 2000 to assist the United States Olympic swim team in their training, Speedo was able to test various designs and fabrics to determine which would be most the effective in reducing the drag forces created when a swimmer moves through the water. Fairhurst combined the results generated by the CFD technology with her own textiles research to develop the revolutionary Speedo Fastskin, a full body suit that provides a benefit of up to 3% greater efficiency in the water to the athlete. Fairhurst’s research lead her to conclude that a fabric that could be manipulated to mimic the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

function of sharkskin would be most effective. A shark possesses skin that has a pattern of ridges known as denticles that reduce the amount of water actually brought into contact with the skin, thus reducing the drag force on the shark. The second purpose in the tight-fitting Fastskin suits is the prevention of water from entering into the space between the swimmer’s skin and the inside surface of the suit, so as to make the suit as hydrodynamic as possible. The extremely snug fit was intended by Fairhurst to reduce the amount of extraneous muscle movement in the swimmer’s body, especially in the abdominal and gluteal regions, in order that the swimmer’s profile remain unchanged as the swimmer moves through the water. For this reason, the Fastskin takes a number of minutes to be properly positioned once it is on the swimmer’s body. In addition to the results of the CFD technology used to test the suits, Fairhurst arranged for the suit to be tested by world class American swimmer Michael Phelps in early 2004 at a flume built at New Zealand’s University of Otago. The flume is a small pool of water where strong artificial currents can be generated for the purpose of assessing the performance characteristics of both a swimmer and swimsuit technology. The Phelps tests served to confirm the results predicted by the CFD simulations.

Computer simulations as a training tool; Swimming; Swimming pool chemistry.

SEE ALSO

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JAMES M. FARIA

James M. Faria AMERICAN INVENTOR

James Faria and Robert Ted Wright were the co-developers of artificial stadium turf for the Monsanto Company in 1965. The impetus for artificial turf research and development was not the furtherance of professional sport, as might be assumed by the fact that these products are most visibly displayed in athletic stadiums. Monsanto, a large chemical products company, had become interested in the development of an artificial grass after the United States government had commissioned a study in 1958 that had concluded that inner city schools did not have sufficient green space to permit outdoor physical education activities. Monsanto saw an opportunity to develop a surface that could address this need. In 1965, Faria and Wright had developed their product to the point at which the manufacturing process could be patented. Wright invented the fiber that comprised the artificial grass, and Faria invented the process whereby the fiber was woven into a base that could be laid over any surface. Faria and Wright patented their invention as monofilament ribbon pile product. Monsanto initially determined that it would market the product as Chemgrass. Chemgrass became famous almost by accident. When the Houston AstroDome, the world’s first domed stadium was constructed in 1965, its owners intended that the playing surface would be natural grass. Despite intensive efforts, natural turf could not be grown inside the AstroDome. Faria, acting without the authority of Monsanto, entered the company into an agreement with the AstroDome ownership to have Chemgrass installed. The name of the product was changed to AstroTurf, a name that quickly became the generic term for all forms of artificial grass used in sports stadiums. The legacy created by Faria and Wright’s invention is an interesting one. Astroturf was a remarkably popular playing surface choice for both indoor domes and outdoor football stadiums in the 1970s and into the 1980s. Although players in sports such as American football generally disliked playing on it, the surface was thought to be extremely unyielding, leading to repetitive strain injuries in the hips and the joints of the lower legs. Many football players sustained a type of chronic ligament injury known as ‘‘turf toe,’’ for the same reason. Sliding along the surface in the course of a tackle or when diving for the ball also tended to cause abrasions to the players arms and legs. FIFA, the international soccer governing

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body, would not permit games to be played on artificial turf, citing both a higher injury rate and the unnaturally higher bounce of the soccer ball off the playing surface. Artificial turf has a distinct advantage in the conduct of certain sports. It tends to be a faster surface on which to run, making games like field hockey much quicker when played on the artificial surface. Technological developments that have built upon the original AstroTurf design have produced second and third generations of artificial surfaces that are significantly softer and more player friendly than the original AstroTurf.

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; Foot: Anatomy and physiology; Football injuries.

SEE ALSO

Fasciitis, plantar

SEE

Plantar fasciitis

Fast pitch SEE Softball: Slow pitch vs. the fast pitch

Fast twitch muscles

SEE

Muscle

fibers: Fast and slow twitch

Fat

SEE

Adipose tissue mass; Body fat

Fat burners Fat burners, as with many terms employed in sport science, is a term that has a different meaning depending on the audience to which it is directed. For nutritionists and those assisting with the development of athletic performance, a fat burner is a product directed at the utilization of stored fats and their conversion into free fatty acids in the production of energy to fuel the body. In the athletic research community, there has been considerable scientific interest in whether there are mechanisms by which the body can conserve carbohydrates and at the same time consume fats; the scientific literature refers to these substances as ergogenic aids, and the process is known as thermogenesis. In the weight-loss industry, a fat burner is a more general reference to the myriad of products said to stimulate the burning of fat generally. At a number of points, these definitions intersect. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FAT INTAKE

An understanding of the theory behind fat burners is founded on both the general nature of the foods consumed, and the three energy systems that are used by the body at various times, depending on the nature of the physical activity in which it is engaged. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the general nutritional subdivisions of the human diet. Carbohydrates are the primary source of body fuel, as they are converted through digestion into stored sugars, which become the primary mechanism by which the body is powered. Proteins are a rarely utilized energy source; proteins are primarily a muscle building and muscle maintenance source. Fats represent a broad range of food compounds. Those in the form of fatty acids are essential to functions such as the utilization of a number of vitamins, and others that are superfluous or even harmful to healthy physical function. For a serious athlete, careful attention is paid when food is being selected and prepared that it contains little or no harmful fats. For the non-athlete consumer, eating foods with harmful fats is something of a given; the issue becomes how can such components be ‘‘burned,’’ or eliminated. Fats are an attractive energy resource, as they contain a greater amount of energy potential than do carbohydrates, and there is a greater amount of fat in the human body than that which is stored as carbohydrates at any given time; conversely, fats require a greater amount of oxygen to process energy. The trick is to find how and at what point during physical activity does the body utilize fats to produce the raw material, known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), that is used for muscle energy? As a general proposition, the amount of fat in the body that can be contributed to energy production will depend on the intensity of the activity in question. When the activity is low intensity—such as tai chi, gentle aerobics, or walking—almost all of the required energy will be produced through the available blood glucose. At moderate activity levels, such as those present in jogging at a rate of 7.5 minutes per mile, or cycling on level terrain at a speed of 15 mph (25 km/h), the required exertion on the part of the athlete is at 60-65% of their maximum ability to consume oxygen (VO2max); the utilization of fatty acids and muscle glucose for energy production is approximately equal. At high activity levels, such as those found in a competitive distance running, the body energy will be drawn almost entirely from glucose. It is in these circumstances that the fat burners, or ergogenic aids, have been analyzed, as the greater the amount of fat that might be used, in theory the longer and more efficiently the endurance athlete could perform. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Many of the commercially marketed fat burners include a stimulant in their composition. Ma huang (ephedra), guarana, coffee, and the ingredient bitter orange all operate to either stimulate the ability of the body to conquer fatigue or to suppress appetite. In its former function, longer workouts will necessarily mean a greater expenditure of calories. In the latter, if athletes have had their appetite suppressed, they are unlikely to consume the same amount of fat in their diet. Given that the body’s primary energy source is its stored carbohydrate energy, a supplement will not create a ‘‘magic bullet’’ whereby stored fat will be converted to glucose, bypassing the stores of this substance in the muscles and liver. Whenever the body has increased physical demands over its available stores, it will naturally draw upon available fats, converting the fat cells into fatty acids that may be utilized. Athletes, subject to the demands of their individual sports, should not consume more that 30% fat in their diets; often 20-25% is preferred. Of the fats consumed, the preferred sources would be fish and plant sources such as olive oil and canola oil; fats from animal sources, which are saturated fats, should be kept to a minimum, as should the trans fats found in processed foods and commercially prepared baked products such as potato chips. SEE ALSO

Caffeine; Ephedra; Fat oxidation; Weight loss.

Fat intake Fats are a food group description that includes a number of substances consumed in the typical diet. In the narrowest chemical sense, fats are a compound form of various kinds of fatty acids, found in various kinds of animal fats, vegetable fats, and oils. The type and the quantity of fats consumed by the human body are a very important factor in both athletic performance and in human health. Fats, along with carbohydrates and proteins, form the cornerstones of daily human nutritional needs. Although the ratio between each group may vary depending on individual circumstances, a general relationship of 60-65% carbohydrates, 12-15% proteins, and less than 30% fats is accepted as a healthy one. All of the food groups are possible sources of fuel production within the body. It is important to distinguish between fat intake, the simple act of the consumption of the food group, and fat oxidation, the process by which fats are converted into an energy source.

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There are different kinds of fats. Saturated fats are most commonly contained in animal meats, dairy products, and cooking ingredients such as shortening. These fats are of little benefit to the manner in which the body functions. Saturated fats are linked to the production of low density cholesterol, an agent generally known as a cause of clogged and thickened arteries, which is a condition called arteriosclerosis. Unsaturated fats are found in food sources such as olive oil, many nuts, canola products, and soy. These fats have a protective quality in that they contain the fatty acids necessary to the absorption of vitamins A, D, and E into the body. Unsaturated fats have two subdivisions, polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats. Polyunsaturated fats contribute essential fatty acids, so named because they cannot be produced by the body internally. There are three types of essential fatty acids, including linoleic acid (such as omega-3), arachnoidic acid, and linolenic acid. Each of these acids is beneficial to the function of various systems in the body, particularly the reduction of low density cholesterol and the function of the central nervous system. Trans fatty acids, commonly known as trans fats, are a substance that rose quickly to dietary prominence after the year 2000. Trans fats are exceedingly rare in natural foods, but are common in vegetable oils that have been hydrogenated, meaning they are converted into a solid form—such as a block of shortening. Like saturated fats, trans fats provide little nutritional value to the function of the body; they are a proven contributor to the formation of cholesterol in the bloodstream. Trans fats are of particular concern because smaller amounts of trans fats will contribute to disproportionately greater low density cholesterol formation in the bloodstream. The human body does not discriminate in the manner in which fats are consumed; fats generally take longer for the body to digest than carbohydrates. When not processed into fatty acids, fats will be stored in adipose tissues, located either under the skin or in and around the internal organs. Adipose is derived from the Latin for fat. While fat is an essential component of a healthy diet, the consequences of the consumption of foods with too great a percentage of ‘‘bad’’ fats are not limited to less than optimum physical performance. Certain types of the ‘‘healthy’’ fats contain a considerable number of calories; the conscientious dieter must balance not only the value of the potential fat-containing foods, but also the richness of the healthy fat products. As an example, canola oil is a healthy alternative to animal lard; the caloric value of

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the canola oil is a consideration separate from the presence of healthy fats. For a highly trained athlete, fat consumption in the 25% range of total foods consumed (which would be suitable for a typical healthy adult) may not necessarily satisfy the needs of elite athletic performance. Each determination will itself be entirely specific to the needs of the sport or a position played within the sport. Team sports such as American football create a wide variety of physical demands; a fast wide receiver may weigh 190 lb (85 kg), with a percentage of body fat of 7%, whereas a lineman may weigh 290 lb (130kg) and carries a percentage of body fat of 15%, needed to support the energy demands of significantly greater muscle mass. As a general rule, an athlete will be able to maintain a lesser percentage of body fat through lesser quantities of fat in the diet, subject to the demands placed on the body through training. SEE ALSO

Carbohydrates; Diet; Fat oxidation.

Fat oxidation Athletes are said to ‘‘burn’’ energy in the pursuit of their athletic goals; scientists refer to this process of internal bodily fuel consumption as oxidation. Both descriptions are accurate, the body requires both a fuel source (stored as one of the three sources: carbohydrates, fats, or proteins) combined with the delivery of oxygen to create energy. Fats are a food group that includes a number of substances consumed in the typical diet. In the narrowest chemical sense, fats are a compound form of various kinds of fatty acids, found in various kinds of animal fats, vegetable fats, and oils. Once consumed, all types of fat have the potential to be employed as fuel within the body; the type and the quantity of fats consumed are a very important factor in both athletic performance and general human health. Fats, along with carbohydrates and proteins, form the cornerstones of daily human nutritional needs. Although the ratio between each group may vary, depending upon individual circumstances, a general relationship of 60-65% carbohydrates, 12-15% proteins, and less than 30% fats is viewed as a healthy one. The intake of fat is the process of consumption; the oxidation of fat is the end use conversion into human energy. While all three sources of energy may be consumed for this purpose, there exists a clear hierarchy as to when each is used for energy production. Proteins WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FAT UTILIZATION

are the least desirable source of energy for all of the human energy systems, due to both the manner in which proteins are stored, as well as the significant amount of energy required to release the constituent parts of a protein into a useful form for energy conversion. Carbohydrates a useful energy form, and they are the only source of energy that the body will use to power the central nervous system and the process of erythrocyte (red blood cell) production. Fats have their uses as a fuel source because they are capable of virtually unlimited storage in the body, in the adipose cells created by the body for the storage of fat, and stored fats are utilized for a broad variety of functions. Fat oxidation is not linked to the amount of fat consumed through diet. The body will have a positive balance of fat when there has been an excess consumption of energy sources (e.g., overeating), or a restriction in accustomed physical activity. When the amount of carbohydrates consumed is increased, the greater the percentage of carbohydrates consumed as energy will increase. This will necessarily decrease the amount of fats oxidized, increasing the available amount of fat. When the food energy is decreased, or when exercise levels are increased, fat oxidation will typically increase. The body will not readily convert excess carbohydrates into fat stores; it will first seek to use them as energy. This process means that, while a high level of carbohydrate intake does not always lead to increased fat stores, high intakes of fat will generally be reflected in the fat stored in the adipose tissues. The process by which stored fats become energy sources begins with how fat is released from the adipose tissue. Fats are digested through conversion into free fatty acids, which are stored in a form known as triglycerides in the adipose tissue. Various hormones will trigger the release of the triglycerides from adipose tissue. These triglycerides, through the process known as lipolysis (a breakdown of the stored fats), are reduced to two distinct components: glycerol, (which is processed by the liver for further use), and fatty acids (which are released into the bloodstream). The fatty acids are transported to the mitochondria, the portion of a cell that produces power within each cell. The transport of the fatty acids to the mitochondria is facilitated by the enzyme carnitine, a transport mechanism that is found in food sources such as red meats and poultry. The mitochondria are also a storehouse for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), as well as the enzymes necessary to permit ongoing cellular construction. In the mitochondria, the fatty acids are oxidized in the process that creates adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy-producing fuel. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Various research studies have considered whether greater amounts of fatty acids could be oxidized if carnitine levels were elevated through supplements. Such increases were determined to have no discernible effect of fatty acid oxidization. The oxidation of a molecule of fatty acid released from a fat cell stored in the body is a complete process. No portion of the fatty acid transported to the mitochondria is left over from the chemical process producing ATP.

Fat intake; Fat utilization; Free fatty acids in the blood; Muscle glycogen recovery.

SEE ALSO

Fat utilization Fat is one of the three general classes of energy sources ingested as food. As with the other sources, carbohydrates and proteins, fat is processed by the body in the manner that makes it most useful for energy production both immediately and in the longer term. The term ‘‘fat’’ encompasses a number of subcategories of fats, each of which is utilized by the body in different ways. The uses to which fats are directed within the body include: a source of stored energy fuel; a vehicle by which important nutrients, such as the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E are absorbed; and the production of certain cholesterols, known as high density lipoproteins (LDLs), or ‘‘good cholesterol,’’ which assist in the reduction of artery-clogging compounds in the blood. The stored fats within the body are an important source of energy. Fats are utilized by the body in a manner complimentary to carbohydrate use for many functions. Carbohydrates are the chief source of fuel for the energy required to propel the movements of the musculoskeletal system during athletic activities; carbohydrates are also the exclusive source from which the brain and central nervous system are supplied with their energy needs. When fats are first digested in the intestine, they are converted for both ease of movement as well as storage into fatty acids. When the amount of fatty acid in the bloodstream reaches a level that the body senses create an imbalance, a mechanism is triggered whereby these fatty acids are essentially captured by available adipose tissue, specialized fat storage cells located in various parts of the body, with particular concentrations at the abdomen and buttocks. Adipose tissue is capable of absorbing and indefinitely storing fatty acids.

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The male and female anatomies are constructed differently with respect to adipose tissue storage. The breasts, waist, hips, and buttocks are the primary adipose tissue locations on the female body. Men generally have fat cell storage in the chest, abdomen, and buttocks. Both men and women have internal adipose tissue located around the kidneys and the liver. The body also has a limited intramuscular fatty cell storage capability. Contrary to the claims made by certain elements of the weight-loss industry, ‘‘spot reducing,’’ the notion that certain areas of adipose tissue can be utilized to extract fat cells in priority to others, is without scientific foundation. The body accesses its stores of fats for energy on a general, and not location-specific, basis. When the energy requirements of the body exceed available energy stores, the body signals the release of fat cells for energy conversion, irrespective of physical location. Once a fat cell is released from adipose tissue storage to be converted into energy, the fat cell will be reduced into its two constituent parts, glycerol, an energy component that is directed through the bloodstream to the liver to be reprocessed into glucose, and fatty acids. The fatty acids are transported to the mitochondria, the local powerhouse of the working muscle, where it is used in the same fashion as available glucose, the carbohydrate energy product, to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the actual fuel consumed for energy. Vitamins are essential to healthy human function. Vitamins that are water soluble are not stored within the body. Each must be replenished on a daily basis through food consumption. A number of vitamins are fat soluble, meaning that each requires the presence of fatty acids in the digestive process as a medium for absorption into the body. Fat-soluble vitamins, which are stored in the liver, include vitamins A and D (each essential to bone growth and general health), vitamin E (a protective substance within the cardiovascular system), and vitamin K (a material essential to blood clotting). In contrast to the essential functions of fat as an energy source and medium for vitamin absorption, other fats contained in the human diet are harmful to overall physical performance. When the fat ingested is a saturated fat (such as those contained in animal products), it will be digested and processed into a form that lends to the creation of low density lipoproteins (LDLs), a fat-related structure that assists in the creation of plaque and other substances that clog and narrow the vessels of the cardiovascular system. Narrow or constricted arteries do not function correctly, and serious conditions such as

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high blood pressure and stroke are significant risks of this condition. By contrast, various unsaturated fats (including a number of plant-based fats) will precipitate the creation of high density lipoproteins (HDLs), which counter the action of LDLs, reducing the buildup of plaque otherwise generated by saturated fat consumption. Fat as a insulator is a much misunderstood and overplayed aspect of fat utilization in the body. Fat is essential to human function, given its critical role in the absorption of vitamins and the production of energy. Fat is not essential to insulate the body either in cold or heat; the construction of the cardiovascular system and the presence of vessels near the skin surface perform this function. A body fat percentage of between 5% and 15% is desirable in a lean athletic male, depending on the physical demands of the sport. Physically fit women, by virtue of their structure, would be similarly expected to possess a body fat percentage of between 7% to 20%. SEE ALSO

Diet; Fat intake; Fat oxidation; Vitamin E.

Fatigue Fatigue, like perspiration and aging, is an inevitable feature in the career of any athlete. Fatigue is both a physical and a mental state, representing that point in a difficult training session or competition when the body demonstrates a reduced ability to work efficiently, with a feeling of weariness that cannot be mentally overcome. Fatigue can develop over a short period of time in the course of an event or in practice. It may also slowly develop in the athlete as a cumulative effect after weeks or months of intense physical effort. As fatigue can occur in both training and in competitive situations, it is a condition largely determined by the approach taken by an athlete to workouts. Both the duration of training sessions and their intensity are factors underlying the presence of fatigue. The relationship between workouts and a competitive schedule is also an important consideration. The existence of fatigue, and the ability of the body to overcome its effects, is also closely linked to diet and nutrition, the quality of sleep enjoyed by the athlete, scheduled recovery periods, and external factors such as employment pressures, educational studies, and injury. Fatigue is generally episodic. By addressing the identified underlying causes of fatigue, an athlete can reduce or eliminate its impact upon athletic WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FEMALE EXERCISE AND CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH

performance very quickly. When the symptoms of fatigue continue in the face of efforts to eliminate them, the athlete must consider the possible existence of chronic fatigue syndrome, a physical condition that requires a comprehensive medical review.

the same waters but are otherwise relatively rested. In such circumstances, the thought processes of the tired sailor quickly become impaired, and the ability of this person to make decisions regarding rescue options are much reduced.

Exercise quality can be assessed using two different yardsticks. The power with which an athlete can perform is closely related to the concept of the intensity of the exercise. The intensity will be tied to such physical factors as the maximum oxygen uptake of the athlete (known as the VO2 max), the power of the heart to propel blood through the body, and muscular strength. The second measure is the work capacity of the athlete—the amount of exercise that can be performed.

The effects of fatigue are also demonstrated upon the cognitive and the learning capabilities of athletes in both training and in competition. Coaches seeking to teach a technique to an athlete will have greater instructional success earlier in an intense workout, as the athlete will be able to focus on the teaching message without the interference of the fatigue signals sent by the body. In team sports, instruction to the team is often best reserved for a distinct strategy session as opposed to the practice field for this reason.

Using the power intensity and work capacity definitions, fatigue presents in some important aspects of athletic performance. Muscle fatigue is the most common kind of reduction of physical capacity. Muscle fatigue is a decrease in the available power coming from the muscle over time, and it arises in three different scenarios. In short distance activities such as sprinting, when the muscle is directed to make a maximum number of muscle contractions in a short period of time, fatigue sets into the muscle when the fast-twitch fibers cannot maintain muscle tension. Through training techniques such as interval training, the muscle fibers are conditioned to respond for longer periods to keep fatigue away from the function for longer periods. In longer activities such as distance running, the muscles are directed to contract more slowly, through the present slow-twitch fibers. In these types of activities, the fatigue will arise through a combined effect of muscle repetition and depleted energy stores. Localized muscle fatigue occurs in sports such as kayaking or distance cycling, when a large muscle group is working on an anaerobic basis and the balance of the body is being powered aerobically; the anaerobically powered muscles will experience fatigue not experienced in the rest of the body. Fatigue has a pronounced impact upon the central nervous system and its functions. A fatigued system will tend to have a heightened sensitivity to cold, as well as a reduced ability to maintain a body temperature to prevent the onset of hypothermia (a potentially fatal cold weather condition in which many systems of the body, including optimal brain function, begin to fail when the body temperature is reduced to 95 F [35 C] or below). Tired sailors who fall into cold water will tend to have their body temperature fall at twice the rate as those who enter WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Glycogen depletion; Overtraining; Sleep deprivation and sports performance.

SEE ALSO

Fatty acids

SEE

Free fatty acids in the blood

Federations, International

SEE

International federations

Female athletes

SEE

Gender in sports:

Female athletes

Female exercise and cardiovascular health The impact of exercise on the female cardiovascular system, in general terms, is identical in many respects to the relationship between male physical activity and cardiovascular health. It is when the specifics of various training aspects are considered in relation to the female structure that gender distinctions arise. Men and woman have identical heart, lung, and circulatory structures in terms of how the organs and blood system function in relation to one another and to the related human systems; male and female bodies respond similarly to the stresses of athletic activity upon crucial processes such as the central nervous system and the musculoskeletal system. Male and female athletes exhibit similar responses to the different types of energy requirements imposed on the body by various sports; the thresholds for the

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FEMALE EXERCISE AND CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH

Tennis player Martina Hingis has her blood pressure taken in the cardiovascular women’s health booth. Hingis has served as a healthy role model for women during a campaign against heart disease. JOH N T. B ARR /AFP /G ET TY IMA GE S

engagement of the anaerobic alactic, anaerobic lactic, and aerobic systems of energy production are virtually the same. Cardiovascular health is as important a consideration for women of every age as it is for men. Cardiovascular disease kills more women yearly in North America than all forms of cancer combined. Further, there is now considerable research data to confirm that women may have a slightly higher risk of myocardial infraction (heart attack) after menopause than men in the same age group (over 50 years of age) due to generally lower levels of the female hormone estrogen being present in the body. A similar examination of female exercise patterns in the postmenopausal population suggests that increased exercise for these persons will lead to a lessened risk of heart attack, arteriosclerosis (the thickening of the arteries), and a generally improved blood flow.

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The specific considerations of postmenopausal females aside, the physical gender differences between the relative exercise performance capabilities of men and women are ones of scale, not type. It is important to note that there is no overlying social consideration or sexism in the assessment of the training capacities of women versus men; these factors are physiological, rooted in the genetic development of the male and female bodies. These physical differences undoubtedly impact how women should train their cardiovascular capability. It is the relative size of the female heart, lungs, and available blood volume that govern the function and the maximum limits of both the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems. Organ size is roughly proportionate to overall body size. For this reason, men will generally possess a larger heart, lungs, and greater blood volume than women. The heart muscle in a male will be larger and stronger, with a greater


FENCING

ability to propel blood more quickly and efficiently, than the female organ. A greater blood volume will result in a larger oxygen transport capacity, and a resulting superior energy burning with which to fuel muscular activity. In general terms, these larger organs and supporting systems create in a male of similar general fitness to that of a female a greater ability to consume and process oxygen, known as the VO2max. The VO2max is essential to extending the limit of an athlete’s physical best performance; it will tend to be a capacity that is approximately 10% greater for the male than the female athlete, a statistic supported through observations across a broad spectrum of sports, including cross-country skiing, cycling, marathon running, and rowing. The 10% difference is borne out in the comparison of the best times for men and women in sports as varied as the marathon and the 100-m sprint. Independent of blood volume, in females, the red blood cells (erythrocytes) have 10% less hemoglobin in the red blood cell composition than that of men. Hemoglobin is the substance within the cell that physically carries available oxygen to the muscle destination where energy is being created and consumed. The musculoskeletal structures of women and men are identical in terms of the composition of the muscle fibers and the relative proportion of fasttwitch to slow-twitch fibers. Circumstances such as lactate accumulation in the blood, as a byproduct of strenuous exercise, occur in the same fashion in athletes of both sexes. Women engaged in training activities to build their cardiovascular capacity can train using the same principles and approaches as male athletes; it is the maximum training volume that will be of particular concern. In general terms, an elite female athlete should train to 85–90% of the volume of a similar male athlete. Training programs that exceed this limit and in essence emulate a male training regime, particularly in endurance sports, will risk the occurrence of both physical injury and overtraining-induced burnout on the part of the female athlete.

that inhibited female athletic performance until recent times. Women were not permitted to compete in an Olympic marathon until 1984. But this was due to the attitudes present in the governance of international athletics, not as a result of cardiovascular weakness.

Hormones; Women and sports: Exercise data, goals, and guidelines.

SEE ALSO

Fencing Fencing is a modern sport with ancient roots. The origins of fencing may be traced to the swordfights of ancient Egypt that are known to have been held as early as 3000 BC. Fencing developed as a distinct form of competition in Europe through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as dueling became increasingly subject to criminal prosecution. The thin, specially manufactured dueling swords became the preferred fencing instrument during this time. By 1900, three forms of fencing had evolved as distinct competitions: e´peé, foil, and sabre. Fencing was introduced into the Olympic Games of 1900 as a men’s sport. Women’s fencing became an Olympic competition through the inaugural women’s foil event in the 1924 Games. International fencing is governed by the Fe´de´ration Internationale d’Escrime, or FIE, with member national governing bodies in most countries of the world. In addition to Olympic competition, the FIE sanctions an annual world championship in all three fencing disciplines, both for individual competitors and as a team competition. Fencing clubs are relatively common in Europe; in North America, fencing is a sport supported by larger universities and by various military units.

The pelvis of a female athlete is proportionately wider than that of a male due to the natural ability of women to become pregnant and to give birth. The width of the female pelvis is a contributing factor to the far greater incidence of the tear of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in the knee.

The foil is the fundamental fencing instrument. Constructed of polished steel, the foil is a maximum of 42 in (110 cm) in length, including the protective guard, with the tip topped with a button-shaped device to reduce the risk of injury. The tip of the foil is electrified, as is the protective equipment worn by the fencer, to determine when the fencer has registered a scoring strike against the opponent. The fencer wears other extensive protective equipment, including a full mask covering the face and head of the athlete, full protection for the torso and groin, as well as breeches and gloves.

The physiological differences that are at the root of the comparative abilities of male and female athletes in disciplines where cardiovascular strength is paramount are distinct from the numerous social barriers

All fencing competitions involve two athletes in combat, which takes place on an a defined competitive area known as the piste. The fencers must face one another across the piste, which is marked by two


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Fencing at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, Greece.

ª CAR EN F IROU Z/RE UTE RS/COR BIS

parallel lines behind which the fencers must begin the competition. Each fencer is connected to the rear of the piste by a wire spool, which transmits the hits registered and sustained by a fencer into the control system positioned at the center of the piste, which displays hits and misses with red and white colored lights. A referee is also stationed adjacent to the piste to ensure that all movements are in accord with fencing rules.

turning aside of an attack through the use of the weapon to block the blow. There are intricate rules in all three competitions as to what maneuvers constitute a proper defensive parry.

All three types of fencing begin with the two competitors coming to an ‘‘on guard’’ position, where they are sufficiently far apart that they cannot make contact against their opponent with their weapon. Upon the command of ‘‘play’’ being given by the referee, the bout begins. The bout ends when one fencer accumulates the prescribed number of hits (a figure that varies depending on the level of competition), or at the end of a fixed time for the bout (typically nine minutes). Each successful contact with the defined target area of the body of the opponent is scored as a hit.

Successful fencing requires a combination of speed, balance, manual dexterity, and strategy. At the club level, fencing is often a mixed, male and female competition, due to the premium placed on quickness and hand-eye coordination, as opposed to muscular power. Most fencing conditioning programs emphasize a combination of aerobic and anaerobic components; excess weight is a significant detriment to effective fencing, as such a condition will detract from the speed of the athlete. Specific attention is paid to the development and enhancement of the athlete’s footwork, as fencing requires very fast and explosive movements to occur in a relatively small space upon the piste. Fencing also places a premium on the ability of the athlete to move fluidly, and stretching and flexibility in the musculoskeletal system is an essential aspect to fencing fitness.

In e´peé, the only legal means to score is with the point of the weapon only making contact with any part of the opponent’s body and clothing. In all disciplines, the fencer uses the weapon to both thrust towards the opponent, and to parry, which is the

The fencing movements implemented in attacks, counter attacks, and the assumption of defensive positions are a combination of decisive physical movement and tactical experience. The mental aspect of fencing is sufficiently important that it is

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common for fencers to be successful in the sport into their 40s and beyond. The injury rate in fencing, given the protective equipment worn by all competitors, tends to be relatively low in comparison to other sports.

Exercise, high intensity; Motor control; Plyometrics; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

FIBA: International basketball Of all of the great world team sports prominent in the twenty-first century, only basketball can be said to be entirely American in its origin. Invented by Canadian James Naismith in 1891 in Springfield, Massachusetts, basketball was a pure creation and not a derivative game or a long-evolving sport in the manner of soccer, cricket, rugby, and baseball. The rapid growth of basketball in the 1920s and 1930s, primarily at the American high school and college levels, led to a worldwide interest in basketball competition. This led to the creation of the Federation Internationale de Basketball Amateur (FIBA) in 1932. As was the custom with international sports bodies, in which French was the typical language medium, FIBA is a French acronym. The founding members of FIBA were Argentina, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Romania, and Switzerland. Basketball was first accepted as an Olympic sport in 1936. In 1989, FIBA removed the term ‘‘amateur’’ from its name, so as to embrace basketball at every level from around the world and to permit both amateurs and professionals to compete in FIBA championships. Professional basketball players competed in the Olympics for the first time at Barcelona in 1992; this event was notable for the participation of the U.S. ‘‘Dream Team,’’ a dominant collection of National Basketball Association (NBA) superstars, lead by the supremely gifted Michael Jordan. FIBA is now the world-governing body for international basketball. It comprises of over 200 national basketball associations; virtually every country in the world has a structure with which the game is organized. As with most international sporting organizations, FIBA is the sole recognized authority regarding basketball by the International Olympic Committee, regarding both rules and the qualifying competitions to advance to the Olympics. FIBA also convenes world championships in men’s, women’s, and various youth divisions every two years; international championships are not held in an Olympic year. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FIBA is divided into five distinct zones for qualification and organizational purposes, including Africa, the Americas (both North and South), Asia, Europe, and Oceania. FIBA is constituted as a not-for-profit entity; the most important parts of the FIBA mandate are the establishment and periodic review of the Official Rules of Basketball, equipment specifications, facility sanction for its competitions, the appointment of international officials, and the regulation of any international player transfers. The codification of the international rules of basketball has followed a tortuous path. The FIBA rules of competition are significantly different than those that govern National Collegiate Basketball Association (NCAA) competition, or those used by the NBA. The FIBA international rules control does not yet extend to the United States, which remains the largest basketball-playing nation in the world, evidenced not only by the power of the NBA, the most visible and successful professional league, but also by the approximately 1,100 NCAA member institutions, whose game rules differ slightly again from NBA regulation. The chief differences between the three sets of rules are not tremendous, but each is significant enough to affect both the tempo of the game and the tactics employed. NCAA rules provide for a 35second shot clock for men and a 30-second shot clock for women. Both FIBA and the NBA provide for a 24-second shot clock. The lane between the foul line and the basket differs in each format: it is rectangular in shape in the NCAA, a wider rectangle in the NBA, and a broad-based parallelogram in the FIBA rules. The three sets of rules each provide varying three-point shot arc distances. FIBA and NCAA games are 40 minutes in length; the NBA contest is one of 48 minutes. In FIBA, a ball that goes out of bounds may be quickly in-bounded without having the referee handle the ball first. A FIBA player may also touch the ball when it is anywhere in or above the cylinder of the basket; any such touching of the ball in either NBA or NCAA rules is referred to as a goal-tending violation. Although not significant to the essence of the game, FIBA rules present a challenge for North American players unaccustomed to them. Conversely, the recent and ever-rising influx of highly skilled European and South American basketball players into the NBA is confirmation that adaptation to the professional rules by these players has been relatively seamless. The trends evidenced by recent Olympic and FIBA world championships suggest that while the

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United States remains the most prolific basketball nation in the world, FIBA and its impetus to the promotion of a world game have fostered a stimulating competitive climate.

Basketball; International federations; National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).

SEE ALSO

Field events

SEE

Track and field

Field hockey Field hockey is a game that has been played in varying forms and in different cultures for over 4,000 years, as the striking of a ball with a stick either towards a goal or away from an opponent is a universal sporting concept. While field hockey bears an initial physical similarity to ice hockey, the closest sporting cousin to field hockey is soccer, both in respect to the shape and dimensions of the playing field, and the 11 players common to each sport. The rules of the modern field hockey game were first codified in England in the mid-1800s. Field hockey has become a popular sport throughout the world, particularly in many European countries, India, and Pakistan. In North America, field hockey enjoys a primarily female following, where it is competed at both a high school and a university level. The governing body of world field hockey is the International Hockey Federation, the FIH, founded in 1924. Field hockey was first introduced into the Olympics in 1908. The object of field hockey is to direct a hard plastic ball using a stick into the opposing goal. The ball can be advanced up the field against the opposing team by a player dribbling the ball, which includes any use of the stick to keep the ball under control while the player moves down the field; by passing the ball; or by driving the ball ahead and running after it. The field hockey pitch is a 100 yd by 60 yd (90 m by 55 m) rectangular surface; the surface may be either natural grass or artificial turf. The introduction of artificial turf in field hockey, a process which began in the late 1970s in elite competition, has proven to be one of the most significant changes in the history of the game. Players can run faster, and the reduction in friction between the ball and the artificial surfaces has created a faster style of play with a ball that tends to run true on all passes and shots. Each team has 10 players in the field, plus a goal keeper, who protects a goal that is 7 ft high and

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12 ft wide (2.1 m by 3.6 m). The goal is at the center of a 16-yd arc, within which the ball must be shot for a goal to be counted. Like soccer, there is also provision for a penalty stroke, awarded for serious infractions committed with the arc. The penalty stroke is taken from a designated spot 7 yd (6.4 m) in front of the goal. Minor infractions are the subject of a penalty corner, which is similar to an indirect free kick in soccer. On the penalty corner, the ball is directed into the shooting area for a shot by a team mate, as opposed to being driven directly at the goal. A tactical departure from soccer is the absence of an offside rule, meaning that any player on a field hockey team is permitted to take a position behind the last defender. One of the remarkable features of field hockey is the fact that each stick is designed to permit only a right-handed shot. The stick is approximately 3 ft (0.9 m) long, and it must be carried by each player in a manner that does not pose an undue risk to one’s opponents. The ball similarly may not be struck or directed in any manner that, in the opinion of the referee, poses a risk to other players. The composition of the stick, often from carbon fiber or composite materials, creates a greater coefficient of restitution in the stick shaft that was possible with stiffer wood construction, which results in greater energy being transferred from the muscles of the player to the ball when it is struck. Coupled with the reduced friction of an artificial surface, the field hockey ball can be passed or shot on goal with considerable velocity. For this reason, goalkeepers wear protective equipment similar to that worn by their ice hockey equivalents—chest protectors, upper body protection, a full mask and helmet, and shin protection. Field hockey is intended as a non-contact sport, and the deliberate strike of an opponent with either one’s stick or body at any time in a game will result in the imposition of a penalty. The legal method of preventing an opponent from advancing a ball or making a pass is with a tackle, the field hockey term for the use of the stick by the defender to take the ball from an offensive player. An elite-level field hockey game is 70 minutes in length, and as with all running sports, emphasis is placed on both aerobic and anaerobic fitness of the athletes in the course of training. Core strength, the inter-related development of the abdominal, gluteal (buttocks), and lumbar (lower back) muscles, is essential to field hockey success, as a successful athlete must move in a stable and explosive fashion forwards, backwards, and laterally. Physical size WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FIFA: WORLD CUP SOCCER

Unlike other global sports such as basketball, where there is a lack of international unanimity regarding the rules of the sport, FIFA, through both custom and stature, reigns supreme. The first organized soccer governance occurred in 1863, with the founding of the Football Association in England. The Football Association codified its rules of play, and as international competition began to be more popular among European teams in the latter part of the nineteenth century, there arose an increasing interest in the formation of a corresponding governing body. FIFA was created for this purpose in 1904. FIFA’s membership and authority over the game increased each year thereafter. The first World Cup championship took place in Uruguay in 1930, and, other than the intervention of World War II, the World Cup has been held every four years since that time.

A tackle during a field hockey game.

M AN AN V ATS YA YAN A/ AF P/

G ET T Y I MA GE S

alone is not a significant advantage in field hockey. As a primarily outdoor, warm-weather sport, field hockey players must pay particular attention to the development of strong hydration practices, coupled with training that serves to acclimatize them to warm-weather competition. SEE ALSO

Exercise, intermittent; Ice hockey; Soccer.

FIFA: World Cup Soccer Soccer, known as football outside of North America, is the ‘‘beautiful game’’ to its multitudes of fans. Soccer is played in every corner of the world and inspires its own frenzy every four years with the convening of the international championship known as the World Cup. There is no competition on Earth that mobilizes such passion or that is as inclusive as the qualification for this event. The World Cup is entirely controlled through the international governing body for the sport of soccer, FIFA, the French language acronym for the Federation Internationale de Football Association. A testament to the status of soccer as the world’s most popular sport, FIFA is unquestionably the most powerful and all-encompassing world sports body. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FIFA is responsible for many aspects of the governance of international soccer, including the sanction of a multitude of age group championships for both men and women, the maintenance of a worldranking system, the resolution of issues pertaining to the nationality of players, and the annual review of the rules of the game. Technical innovations such as the use of goal line cameras and high technology balls are items falling under the authority of FIFA. The greatest ongoing responsibility undertaken by this organization is the organizing of the World Cup. Every member country organization (virtually every country in the world) has the right to attempt to qualify for a World Cup. Qualification begins almost three years in advance of each tournament, with each country placed in one of six qualification groups, based upon geography. A fixed number of teams from each group will qualify for the World Cup; by rule, the host country and the defending champion are provided an automatic position. The FIFA groups include Africa; Asia; Europe; North America, Central America, and the Caribbean; Oceania; and South America. Thirty-two teams are ultimately selected to play in the tournament. Once the teams have qualified, FIFA, using its ranking system, will then seed the top eight teams in the competition, and each seeded team will be placed at the head of a pool of four teams, referred to as a ‘‘group.’’ The seeding process, which has a significant competitive impact, is based on a formula employed by FIFA that takes into account the play of each of the selected teams over the previous three years. The balance of the teams is grouped according to a random draw. Traditionally, there is one group of four teams that is very evenly matched and where no team, irrespective of seeding, has a clear advantage heading into tournament play. Such pools are referred

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to as a ‘‘Group of Death.’’ The announcement of the World Cup seedings is a much-anticipated event; the seedings are typically determined six months in advance of the World Cup competition. The World Cup competition, from the preliminary round games through the Cup final, will last approximately one month. Teams are permitted rest days between competitions. As a number of venues are employed in a World Cup, the competitors and their supporters will generally be required to travel to different locations within the host country as the games are played. Security at World Cup matches has been a more prominent feature of the event in recent tournaments; some countries with supporters that have reputations for rowdiness are the subject of intense scrutiny. FIFA are also responsible for the approval of the stadiums in which the competitions will take place. Unlike sports such as American football or baseball, FIFA is extremely particular about the nature and quality of the surfaces on which its competitions are held. For many years, FIFA would not sanction any international soccer game to be played on an artificial surface, citing both a higher injury rate and unnatural ball movements on such surfaces. In recent years, with significant improvements being made in artificial turf construction, FIFA has authorized a number of test competitions using artificial surfaces; while the 2006 World Cup (won in overtime by Italy) in Germany was played on natural grass, it is anticipated that significant international events, including a future World Cup, may be performed on artificial surfaces.

International federations; Soccer; Sport psychology.

SEE ALSO

Figure skating Figure skating is a very athletically demanding sport where a series of jumps, spins, and complicated steps are carried out on ice with the accompaniment of a selected piece of music. The skater, who can compete individually or with a member of the opposite sex (a pair) or as a member of a larger group, performs these moves while wearing ice skates. The combination of athletic power, artistic grace, interpretation of the music, and balance has made skating a popular participation and spectator sport. In northern climates, people have skated for centuries. Yet, figure skating in its present format only originated in the nineteenth century. The International Skating Union—still the sport’s governing body—was formed in 1892. This group convened followed the first

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skating championship, which was held the year before in Europe. In 1896, interest in figure skating had become global, and the first World Championship was held. At that time, the competitions was restricted to men. In 1902, Madge Syers entered a competition. Her participation was officially frowned on, and she was banned from completing the competition. However, her participation spurred the sanctioning of women’s figure skating competitions, the first of which was held only four years later in 1906. In the early years, competitions only involved individuals. Pairs skating was introduced at the World Championships of 1908. The same year, in London, figure skating became an Olympic sport. Originally, figure skating was a very technical pursuit, with skaters concentrating on the execution of their moves and not on any sort of artistic interpretation. This changed with the participation of American figure skater Jackson Haines. He brought an expressive style to the sport. Although he won the 1863 and 1864 American championships, he was judged harshly for his skating style. This view continued well into the twentieth century. Indeed, during the 1970s, Canadian figure skater Toller Cranston experienced judging backlash when he introduced radical new adaptations into his routines. By the 1980s, however, artistic innovation and interpretation of the music had become recognized as an integral part of the sport. In contrast to sports like American football and hockey, where near-total body armor is required, figure skating equipment consists exclusively of the skates. The skate design differs from that used for hockey. In the latter sport, the skate is constructed to protect the feet from the impact of a hard rubber puck moving at high speed, and from the accidental slashing from other competitors’ sharp blades. In contrast, in figure skating the skate needs to be more flexible, to allow the athlete to leap and spin, while at the same time being strong enough to withstand the forces generated during jumps and spins. In the past, figure skates were always handmade of multiple layers of leather, to provide a blend of flexibility and strength. Skates are still made this way today, although synthetic materials are also used. A more recent innovation in figure skate design has been the incorporation of a hinge near the mid-point of the skate. This allows the upper part of the skate boot to tilt forwards and backward, which can make jumps more comfortable and provides increased stability. Figure skates now also have a vertical groove on the inside heel, which reduces strain on WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FIGURE SKATING

the Achilles tendon. As well, some skaters prefer to have a more elevated heel on their skates, to position their weight more over their toes. The blade of a figure skate is similar in several ways to the blade of a hockey skate. Both are made of metal. As well, the surface of the blade that contacts the ice is not flat. Rather, the blade is sharpened so that it is concave, producing two edges that contact the ice. Having edges allows the blade to cut into the ice, which is essential for balance and to create a powerful skating stroke. An experienced figure skater can alternately push off the inside and outside edges, which creates a powerful stride that still looks elegant. Hockey and figure skate blades are curved along their length, with the ends of the blade flaring up. However, this flare is much less pronounced in a figure skate blade than in a hockey skate blade. This is because figure skating movements focus more on balance; having an increased amount of the skate blade in contact with the ice aids in maintaining this balance. Another major difference between hockey and figure skate blades is also related to function. Figure skate blades often have a series of jagged teeth at the front, where the blade curves upward. These ‘‘toe picks’’ are used to dig the blade into the ice, providing a stable point that is used as a pivot when beginning a jump. In practice, a figure skater’s equipment can include padding. Since training can involve tumbles, protection of elbows, knees, and even the buttocks against a bruising impact with hard ice is a good idea. Padding is not allowed during competition. The only other equipment in competitive figure skating is the costume. Since the artistic interpretation of the musical selection is a crucial facet of the event, an outfit can be important in enhancing the impact of a performance. Typically, female skaters’ outfits are physically revealing; flesh-colored tights are worn for warmth. In figure skating competitions such as those held at the recent 2006 Winter Olympics in Torino, Italy, skaters can perform individually (singles) or with a partner of the opposite sex (pairs). In both the events, the competition consists of a short program of about two minutes and a free skate. In the short program, the skaters must perform a number of compulsory moves; pairs are required to perform moves independently and as a couple. In the free skate, which is nearly five minutes long, skaters have more latitude to perform moves that reflect their individuality and creativity, although a number of compulsory moves must be included. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Ice dancing is another popular event. The compulsory dance is a portion of ice dancing that resembles ballroom dancing, while skaters have more creative latitude in the original dance portion. In ice dancing, some moves are performed independently by each skater. These are done in synchrony with the partner. Other moves require the skaters to maintain physically contact with one another. Figure skating can also involve a large group of skaters (up to 20 and more) who perform synchronized movements and complex formations on the ice. This event is generally done in exhibitions, rather than in a formal competition. Jumps are a crowd-pleasing aspect of figure skating. The sight of a skater launching into the air, spinning up to four times (a difficult jump known as a ‘‘quad’’) and, hopefully, landing safely, is breathtaking. A jump is often initiated by the planting of a toe pick into the ice (although jumps are done without the aid of this toe plant) and simultaneously swinging the free leg forward and the arms clockwise or counterclockwise (most figure skaters prefer a counterclockwise rotation during the jump). This propels the skater into the air and begins the rotation of the body. As the skater becomes airborne, the arms are usually tucked into the body to make multiple rotations easier, although former Olympic champion Brian Boitano could reach upward with one arm during jumps (a difficult modification that has been dubbed the ‘‘Tano’’). There are a variety of jumps, according to whether the jump is initiated using the inside or outside edge of the skate blade, and whether the toe pick is used or not. The jumps include the toe loop, flip, lutze, salchow, loop, axel, walley, and split. Skaters are constantly experimenting with new moves to create new jumps. In a spin, skaters remain in contact with the ice, and rotates their body. The rotation takes place using the portion of the blade that lies behind the toe pick. The arms are held close to the body to help the skater rotate rapidly. In one type of spin, the body is positioned vertically (an upright or corkscrew spin). In another spin, the skater bends forward at the waist while extending the free leg behind the body, parallel to the ice (the camel spin). Finally, a skater can bend the skating leg low and point the free leg forward (the sit spin). Variations of these three basic versions create a variety of spins. A spin can begin as a skater moves along the ice, or can be initiated by a jump. Steps and turns are coordinated and complex foot movements that are done as the skater moves

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Aljona Savchenko and Robin Szolkowy in action during pairs free skating program. PH OTO B Y ALE XAN D ER H AS SE NS TEI N /B ON GA RTS /G E TTY I MA GE S .

over the ice surface. They are intended to demonstrate a skater’s physical dexterity. Figure skating is one of the marquee sports at the Winter Olympics. In the recent past, the Olympic competitions were marred by judging that was rumored to be biased for some athletes. Indeed, in the Salt Lake City Olympics of 2002, Canadian pairs skaters Jamie Sale and David Pelletier were initially denied a gold medal because of deliberately low scoring by a French judge. After the biased scoring was admitted to by the judge, the Canadian pair were awarded a gold medal. The debacle of the 2002 Olympics was pivotal in convincing the International Skating Union to revamp the scoring system. The new system was adopted in 2004, and was first used in Olympic competition at the 2006 games held in Torino, Italy. It has a defined marking system that assesses each movement on the ice, rather than the more personal assessment of the judges that was the basis of the earlier scoring

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system. Furthermore, while all 12 of the judges submit marks, three of the scores are randomly excluded from the final pool of marks that are used to determine the overall assessment of a performance. The intent is to make scoring more transparent to both the competitors and spectators and fairer to the skaters. As before, marking takes into account the technical merit of each skating movement and the artistic flair brought to the performance. The former (the technical mark) involves adhering to the various specific motions that are part of each jump, spin, or other movement and aspects that include adhering to the time limit set for the skate. The latter (the presentation mark) involves an assessment of how the selected piece of music has been interpreted and the originality and emotion an athlete brings to the performance.

Curling; Figure skating injuries; Figure skating, ice; Figure skating: The death spiral.

SEE ALSO


FIGURE SKATING: THE DEATH SPIRAL

Irina Rodnina performs a death spiral with the help of Alexei Ulanov from the Soviet Union during their free program 1972 Winter Olympic Games. STA F F /AF P /G E TTY I MA GE S

Figure skating: The death spiral The death spiral is a figure skating movement. It is unique to pairs skating. In pairs skating, the male and female skaters independently perform a series of coordinated jumps and spins. As well, the female member of the duo can be lifted, thrown into a jump, or, in the case of the death spiral, held by her partner to perform an athletic and daring maneuver. To execute a death spiral, both competitors glide along the ice. Then, by planting a toe of a skate blade into the ice, the male anchors himself into position. The toes of the blade often have a series of jagged teeth, which helps the blade dig solidly into the ice. Typically, the other skate will be positioned in front of the planted blade and at a right angle. By putting some of his weight along the entire length of the forward blade, more stability can be created for the male as he supports his partner. The death spiral begins as the male faces toward his partner and, keeping hold of one of her hands, begins to crouch and shift his weight downward and to the rear. This allows him to maintain his balance as the female begins to spiral around him. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

As the female partner glides around the male, she shifts her body so that her back is oriented toward the ice. In combination with her partner, she is lowered toward the ice and increases the radius of her circle around her partner while spinning. Finally, her body is nearly horizontal to the ice surface and her head thrown backward is almost touching the ice. Then, as her partner shifts his body weight forward and gradually straightens from the crouching position, the female decreases the radius of the circle, so that she spirals back up to a standing position. If executed properly, the death spiral is a very crowd-pleasing movement. It requires great athleticism, strength, and balance from both skaters. As well, the female must place her trust in her partner, since without his support during the maneuver she would crash to the ice. The death spiral is one of a number of required maneuvers in a pairs competition. The quality of the move is assessed by a panel of judges using a number of criteria and a series of marks allotted. These marks contribute to the overall score for the skaters’ performance. SEE ALSO

Figure skating; Figure skating injuries.

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Figure skating dynamics of leaps and throws In figure skating, a leap is a move where a skater leaves the ice to jump into the air. Some of the many types of leaps include the waltz (a half-turn rotation), loop (where a skater takes off and lands on the same foot), and Salchow (similar to the waltz jump; it was originated by Swedish World figure skating champion Ulrich Salchow). A throw, in pairs figure skating, is a move in which usually the man propels the woman into the air; however, in similar pairs competitions a pair of women or men compete. The throw was invented by American Olympic figure skater and World and Olympic figure skating coach Ron Ludington. The first type of throw was the throw Axel, named after its Norwegian inventor Axel Paulsen. Since then, many different types of throws have been invented, including the throw loop, throw Salchow, and several types of death spiral throws. Throws are also classified as to the number of rotations: single, double, triple, and quadruple. Throws involve physics because as a skater leaves the ice to jump into the air, several simultaneous forces are in play. A force, in physics, is defined as a physical action that tends to alter the position of an object with mass, and is equal to the object’s rate of change in momentum. Simply said, it is the push or pull one object exerts on another object so that an action can take place. In figure skating, for instance, a skater pushes off the ice in order to be propelled upward into the air. Whether it is a leap or throw in figure skating, the basic dynamics are similar. In the case of the leap, only the skater preparing to jump is involved in propelling oneself into the air. While in the throw, one partner helps to propel the other skater into the air. One force involved in a leap is the horizontal force of the skater’s blade across the ice. Its force is directly related to the speed of the skater going into the leap. If the skater is moving slowly—that is, possessing a small amount of linear momentum (straight-line motion)—the force will be smaller than if the leap is begun with a greater speed, with a larger amount of linear momentum. Horizontal momentum can also be converted into vertical momentum. This vertical force is exerted by the combined efforts of the skating ankle and knee, the free leg, and the arms. As a skater increases in speed, the skate toe is hurled into the ice and the leg is used to propel the skater upward. The faster a

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Zhang Hao (L) of China throws his partner, Zhang Dan, during their short program of pair event in the figure skating Grand Prix series final in Tokyo, 2005. TOR U Y AM ANA KA/ AF P /G ET TY I MA GE S

skater’s speed when preparing for a leap, the higher and farther the skater will be able to jump. These actions—the kick of the leg, along with the push of the ankle and knee and the upward movement of the arms—provide vertical thrust for the leap. Another force involved in a leap is the rotation of the skater. This rotation involves horizontal and vertical forces being applied to rotate the skater. The rotational force is provided initially by the lifting action of the outside arm. Thus, angular momentum is carried into the leap by applying a torque just like a spinning top. When the skater is in the air, the arms are positioned close to the body to make the rotation faster. The skater also stretches out the body, along with positioning both legs close to one another, to order to speed up the rotation. The dynamics of jumps are rapidly gaining importance as competitive figure skaters add new and more difficult moves to their repertoires. In the 1980s, triple WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FIGURE SKATING, ICE

jumps were considered the most difficult jump. In the 2000s, quadruple jumps—in which a skater must jump high enough and spin fast enough to rotate four times before landing—have become more common in international competitions. Triple Axels, triple Lutzes, and triple Salchows are also complex jumps that are becoming more common in competitions.

importance of precisely replicating a set figure on the ice gave way to the various forms of open ice movements that are central to the modern sport.

To look at the mechanics of the jump, experts in human biomechanics (the scientific study of motions) use high-speed cameras and computer analysis programs to measure the speed and height of jumping skaters. Reflective markers are placed at various locations on the skater’s body so that video cameras can record the ever-changing positions. The computer software analyzes the recording to determine such data as the most effective jump height, body position, and rotational energy. Three-dimensional images show the various jump stages so that modifications and improvements can be made to the skater’s performance.

The international governing body of figure skating is the International Skating Union, the ISU, founded in 1892. The ISU is also responsible for governing the diverse sports of short and long track speed skating and synchronized skating. Figure skating is divided into men’s and women’s singles, pairs skating, and ice dancing. Competitive figure skating includes rules for the conduct of competition within each division. Single and pairs skating competitions include a short program, in which each skater must execute a series of required elements within a set time limit; a free skate, in which the skater is permitted to execute their own chosen elements in their own selected sequence; and an interpretive free skate. In ice dancing, the teams must perform a number of compulsory dances, an original dance, a free dance, and an interpretive dance.

Research has shown that the height and length of a jump are proportional to the horizontal and vertical forces generated at takeoff. If the vertical thrust (energy generated by arms, knee, ankle, and leg) is much greater than the horizontal force (speed on ice), then the jump will be high in altitude, but not very long in distance. If, however, the horizontal force is greater than the vertical thrust, then the jump will be long, but not very high. Proper planning and integration of these jump forces are important to ensure that the jump is performed properly.

Many of the jumps and other figure-skating movements were derived from particular skating techniques introduced by a competitor at an earlier era. The Salchow, a standard jump that involves moving from the back edge of the skater’s rear skate to the back edge of the opposite skate, while performing one or more rotations in the air, was developed by the Swedish champion Ulrich Salchow in 1909. The Lutz, another multi-rotational jump now a standard feature of skating, was created by European champion Alois Lutz in the 1940s.

Figure skating; Figure skating, ice; Figure skating: The death spiral.

SEE ALSO

Figure skating, ice Figure skating has a long-held reputation as one of the world’s most glamorous sporting disciplines. It is a sport that appears deceptively easy, highlighted by fluid, artistic physical movements on ice with a musical accompaniment. The underlying essence of figure skating is a demanding, exacting marriage of athletic ability and emotional control. The name ‘‘figure skating’’ stems from the traditional scoring method used to assess each competitor. Figure skaters were required to each execute a prescribed shape, or figure, on the ice with the blades of their skates. The closer the skater could achieve the perfect figure, the higher they would score. As the sport evolved from a strictly technical craft to one of high-paced athleticism and artistic expression, the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Figure skating has attracted significant controversy throughout its history by virtue of the manner in which certain high-level competitions have been judged. Unlike a sport that is under a referee’s direction and control, where the game in question is decided by the outcome of play on the field, figure skating judging is a highly subjective assessment of performance. Prior to a number of wholesale revisions of judging practice in the wake of a judging scandal that arose in the 2002 Olympics, judges were permitted to collaborate and discuss how various skaters would be ranked; this practice led to abuses and well-substantiated instances of negotiations between judges from various countries, organized into voting blocks, regarding the outcome of a competition. The ISU amended its judging practices in 2004, whereby each element of an individual skater’s performance was judged independently; level of difficulty, the skill of the skater in transition form one element to another, overall performance and execution, choreography, and interpretation are the stated

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judging benchmarks. No judge at a competition is permitted to communicate with another in the course of the scoring of the competition. The physical demands upon a figure skater are profound. The skater’s body is subjected to the impacts created by a variety of jumps and landings on a hard, unforgiving ice surface, with skates that are not designed to perfectly absorb the forces generated at takeoff or on landing. Skaters are for this reason subjected to significant risk of repetitive strain injuries, particularly in the musculoskeletal structure of the legs and hips. Figure skaters sustain significant falls when a landing on the ice if a movement is not executed correctly, with a risk of both lacerations from the blades of the skates as well as trauma to various parts of the body from the landing. Off-ice training for a competitive figure skater is a year-round endeavor; the intensity and the frequency of off-ice programs are dictated to some degree by the intensity of the skater’s competitive season. The off-ice training programs are directed to the specific needs of the skater in the competitive environment across a broad range of training areas, with emphasis placed on core strength training, aerobic training, anaerobic training, mental training, nutrition, dance and creative movement, and stretching and flexibility exercises. The development of the core strength of a figure skater is the most important strength training aspect to a skater’s off-ice program. Well-developed abdominal, groin, lumbar (low back), and gluteal muscles are essential to the development of a skater’s ability to maintain physical control both in skating across the ice surface, and in the execution of jumps, particularly those involving twisting, rotational movements. Mental training, especially that in which the skater is directed to use visualization techniques and imagery, often assists skaters to remain fluid in their skating movements and in control of their emotions in the midst of intense competitive circumstances. It is implicit in the sport of figure skating that the strength-to-weight ratio of the skater is an important factor in competitive success; as a general physical proposition, the lighter the skater, the easier it will be for the athlete to move quickly and to perform the jumps and acrobatic movements. In pairs skating, a smaller, slimmer female partner makes the execution of the movements where the male partner must raise the female partner from the ice surface, known as lifts, easier to perform.

Exercise, high intensity; Gymnastics; Musculoskeletal injuries; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

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Figure skating injuries Figure skating, which involves balance, flexibility, strength (the male in a skating duo may have to lift and hold the female skater above his head), explosive power when launching into a jump, and the jarring impact of touchdown from a jump. All these can stress the muscles, bones, joints, and skin, and so can produce injuries. Such injuries are suffered by both recreational skaters and elite athletes. For the recreational figure skater, injuries happen most commonly due to falling. The impact with the hard ice surface can be bruising. Then, icing the injured area and rest are usually sufficient to deal with the discomfort. However, a fall can cause more serious injuries to both the recreational and elite skater. A backward tumble can cause the head to strike the ice. This can produce a concussion. Skaters are advised to tuck their head forward when falling, so that the brunt of the impact is taken by the shoulders. Another fairly common injury that occurs as the result of a fall is wrist injury, which usually occurs when skaters instinctively put out their arms to brace themselves for the impact. A wrist injury can be a relatively mild sprain, whose pain and swelling subsides within days or weeks, or can be a fracture or complete break. Fractures or breaks can occur in the radius and ulna bones of the forearm, and in a small bone called the navicual, which is located near the thumb bone. A fracture or break requires the immobilization of a cast. Competitive skaters, who do not want to forego training while the wrist heals, can opt for a lightweight fiberglass cast that does not hinder balance. Knee injuries can occur in a fall. Usually, the injury is minor, leaving the skater with a sore knee and a bruise. However, a blow can more seriously damage the kneecap, even throwing the kneecap out of alignment. If not corrected by physiotherapy, the misalignment can cause progressive damage to the knee and the cartilage that keeps the knee stable. The result is called chondromalacia patellae. Knees can also be damaged by the twisting force created during jumps or spins. Most commonly, such injury involves the ligaments that properly position the knee joint. Injury to the medial collateral ligament causes pain on the inside of the knee; rest and physiotherapy usually are sufficient for recovery. Damage to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), which produces pain at the front of the knee and can make the knee unable to support a skater’s weight, can require surgery to correct. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FIRST AID KITS FOR SPORTS

to lessen strain on the tendon. Tendonitis that affects the bottom of the feet is called plantar fasciitis; use of anti-inflammatory medication can help, as can fitting with custom-made orthotic inserts. Tendonitis can also occur in the ankle. The feet can become deformed due to the physical stresses of skating. The most common deformity is a bunion, which is a bulge on a joint of the big toe. The top of the toes can also become calloused, a condition called hammer toes. Both conditions are caused by an improper fitting boot, which allows the foot to move inside the shoe. The explosive power required to propel a skater upward into a jump puts tremendous pressure on leg and groin muscles. Muscle strains and tears can be a result. As a recent example, U.S. figure skater Michelle Kwan was hampered by a groin injury for much of 2006. Her injury made it impossible for her to compete at the trials to select the skaters who would compete at the Winter Olympics in Torino. While it was ruled that she could join the team, her injury proved too debilitating, and she withdrew on the eve of the women’s competition.

Figure skater Elvis Stojko, wincing in pain due to groin injury, later takes the silver medal for men’s free skate competition at Winter Olympics. P H OTO BY N ORB ERT S CH MIDT//TIME LIFE PICTURES/ G ET T Y I MA GE S.

Injuries to other joints can occur over time with the repetitive motions and stress of skating. The hip joint is particularly susceptible. Deterioration of the hip can drive a skater from the ice. For example, hip injuries forced the retirement of 1996 U.S. men’s champion Rudy Galindo, and the replacement of both hips while he was still in his 30s. Foot injuries are an ever-present part of figure skating. A skater’s feet are tightly secured in a leather or leather-synthetic composite boot, and so bear the brunt of the forces generated during the various motions on the ice. Repetitive stretching of the Achilles tendon located at the heel of the foot can cause inflammation (tendonitis). Modern ice skating boots can have a notch on the inside rear of the boot WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Figure skating injuries have increased in severity during the 1990s. Until then, competitions required skaters to glide in a series of defined patterns to generate shapes that included a circle and a figureeight. These gentle actions required balance. However, in the 1990s, the figure-carving maneuvers were eliminated from skating competitions and replaced with more physically demanding, and crowd-pleasing, jumps and spins. The increased physical stress began to take its toll.

ACL injuries and female athletes; Cortisone steroid injections; Sports injuries.

SEE ALSO

First aid kits for sports Injuries are a part of athletic training and competition. Thorough physical preparation on the part of an athlete, team, or coach may reduce the risk of injury, but such precautions will never guarantee that some form of physical emergency will not arise in the course of the event. The properly stocked first aid kit is as essential to safe sport as is any other item of equipment. The utility of a particular first aid kit is dependent upon a number of factors, including that the kit contains all of the basic components necessary to administer basic first aid to anyone, in sufficient quantities for any anticipated occurrence, that there

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FIRST AID KITS FOR SPORTS

First aid kit.

GE TTY IM AGES

is the inclusion of the specific first aid materials related to the specific sport, and there is a familiarity with all of the contents of the first aid kit on the part of the person(s) responsible to assist in case of an injury. First aid kits should be constructed of a sturdy, waterproof material to ensure that the adhesive materials it contains remain dry. To accommodate ice packs, the kit should have an insulated compartment. When a first aid kit is shared among various persons, it is essential that a regular inventory be taken of its contents. There are also components of the first aid kit, particularly medications such as anti-inflammatories and creams, that will have a ‘‘best before date’’ that should be adhered to. It is also important that all first aid materials are current and within the manufacturer’s specifications for safe use. The basic first aid kit typically will contain the following materials: a first aid manual bandages in a variety of sizes, shapes, and widths, including moleskin for blisters and abrasions soft gauze bandages hypoallergenic first aid tape, in a sealed dispenser

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elastic bandages, to wrap and provide compression to the injured area or to secure an ice pack elastic wrap, as a pad for athletic tape triangular bandages to be fashioned into a sling or tourniquet white athletic tape nonstick gauze pads antiseptic wipes and dispenser antiseptic first aid cream aloe or similar soothing topical cream product two or three instant cold packs (chemically activated) anti-inflammatory capsules such as extra strength ibuprofen products anti-diarrheal product scissors thermometer flashlight mouthpiece to assist in the administration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) neoprene joint brace tweezers, to assist in extracting foreign material from cuts and abrasions WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FITNESS

snap-seal type plastic bags energy bars and powdered electrolyte replacement drinks sterile container or water bottle to mix sports drink fluid cell phone and access number to local EMS and hospital index inventory card for first aid kit disposable gloves For a first aid kit that will be accessible in support of outdoor pursuits, a supply of sunscreen, antihistamine, and an anti-allergy needle (often containing epinephrine) to be administered in case of a bee or other insect sting are important additions. If an athlete were to contract an outdoor poison (such as poison sumac or poison oak), calamine lotion or similar topical product can be carried. Cold weather environments will pose special problems for the first aid provider. In addition to the structural injuries that may arise in outdoor athletic activities such as skiing or snowboarding, the risk of the athlete being subjected to excessive cold while receiving first aid assistance is considerable. Persons who are under stress or who are fatigued are more vulnerable to the effects of hypothermia, the physical condition that occurs when the core temperature of the body falls below 95 F (35 C). All first aid kits prepared for cold weather venues must also contain heat packs, a blanket, and other suitable protective equipment. In support of endurance athletes, the availability of a fluid that replaces electrolytes, such as sodium or potassium, may assist in the relief of the effects of both hydration and low levels of these important minerals in the body. A first aid kit in many sports is a natural extension of the treatment acronym, RICE (rest/ ice/compression/elevation). In many instances of injury, this treatment will begin as soon as the athlete is sufficiently settled to receive first aid attention. In this regard, while the basic kit will contain a quantity of the chemically activated cold packs, to properly administer the RICE program, the first aid provider may require a greater quantity of cold power in intervals of 15-20 minutes of ice to the affected area, than is possible with the chemically activated ice packs. In sports where sprains are common, it is a useful practice to prepare a number of ice packs from natural ice and store them in an insulated carrier. Alternatively, reusable ice bags can be stored and accessed in the same fashion. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; Calf strain or pull; Cold-related illnesses and emergencies; Youth sports injuries.

SEE ALSO

Fitness Fitness is a concept that supports many sports science meanings. In its most general application, fitness describes the current levels of both physical health and physical capabilities present in an athlete. Athletes have an innate understanding of what fitness is through personal experience; physical fitness is the expression that is also used to describe the optimal physical condition or ‘‘shape’’ of an athlete at a given time. The traditional definition of physical fitness as employed by sport experts until the mid-twentieth century concerned the range of the physical capacity of an athlete; current definitions have evolved to include a greater focus upon the general health of every bodily system that might influence fitness. The foundation question in any determination of physical fitness is the assessment of the athlete’s ability to perform athletic activities vigorously, a process that involves a consideration of five distinct benchmarks. These benchmarks include: aerobic or endurance fitness, with regard to the function of both the cardiovascular system and the cardiopulmonary system; muscular endurance, representing the ability to generate sustained muscle output; muscular strength, the maximum available power; flexibility, defined as the range of motion achieved in the movement of the joints, the combined effect of the elasticity of muscles, tendons, and ligaments; and body composition, determined by the percentage of body fat in contrast to bone and muscle structure. A physically fit athlete may possess greater degrees of fitness in one or more of the five individual fitness headings than another: fitness is a cumulative measure. As an example, a world-class soccer player may not possess formidable muscular strength, but this deficit, which is usually of secondary importance to success in that sport, will be amply compensated in the other four categories, particularly those of endurance and flexibility. Conversely, when an athlete is demonstrably fit in only one of the five areas, it is unlikely that he or she shall possess true comprehensive physical fitness. This phenomenon is often observed in disciplines such as weightlifting, in which the athlete is able to generate remarkable muscular strength, but may possess less measurable fitness in the remaining categories. Fitness is a concept which also may be understood in contrast to other familiar aspects of human

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Regular participation in exercise such as step aerobics can help individuals achieve a strong level of physical fitness. P HO TO B Y M ART IN RO SE / BON G ART S/ GE TTY IM AG ES .

performance. Physical fitness is commonly linked to considerations of life expectancy and longevity. The questions posed by these considerations seek to answer if physically fit persons tend to live longer than sedentary, unfit persons, or if a commitment to lifelong physical fitness actually extends life expectancy, or if such a commitment simply makes a genetically predetermined allotment of years more pleasurable. There appears to be little question that healthy living practices, combined with a program of physical fitness, will help reduce the risk of early life-ending diseases such as arteriosclerosis and other potentially fatal conditions of the cardiovascular system. Cardiovascular disease is the cause of more death among women in the Western world than all forms of cancer combined. Exercise contributes to the reduction of excess body weight and lessens all of the strains placed on the various physical systems that are caused by obesity. However, elimination of an early cause of ill health or death is not itself the extension of the limit of life expectancy.

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Fitness is sometimes sought by adult persons who have lived a demonstrably unhealthy adolescence or young adulthood. In many circumstances, these persons are seeking to reverse the negative lifestyle practices that have impacted their fitness for many years. No matter how devoted to a more healthful lifestyle in later adulthood a person may become, it is unlikely that the poor fitness choices made by an adult earlier in life can be entirely reversed. If the strength and density of physical structures such as the musculoskeletal system were compromised due to a calcium deficiency, or if the cardiovascular system was subjected to excess quantities of plaque-creating cholesterol, the impact of such negative factors may not be eradicated by subsequent health and fitness choices; however, the harmful effects will be lessened over time. Since the early 1900s, medical science has developed techniques to eliminate numerous previously fatal conditions, particularly in terms of both the prevention of communicable disease, as well as interventions that preserve life. There exists no empirical WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FOOT: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

evidence to confirm that athletes live longer than non-athletes; athletes are more likely to enjoy a healthier, more desirable quality of life. It would appear that the only provable manner of extending one’s life from an otherwise expected limit is to maintain strict control of calorie consumption and limit the related negative impacts of excess weight. SEE ALSO

Cross training; Habitual physical activity;

Longevity.

Flexibility

SEE

Stretching and flexibility

Fluid replacement

SEE

Exercise and

fluid replacement

on the surface of the water, an action that can permit the boat to plane across the surface. The keel on a Soling class craft is fixed in position, making the keel a constant consideration for the skipper. While all forms of sailing engage the same basic principles of wind power and movement, whether the boat is a 10-ft (3 m) long skiff or an America’s Cup yacht, each competitive class of sailboat requires specialized training and an understanding of distinct techniques if a sailor is to achieve competitive success. Fogh sufficiently mastered the Soling class to win a bronze medal in the event at the 1984 Summer Olympics. In winning the bronze medal, Fogh became the first person in Olympic history to win a medal in competitions held 24 years apart. Fogh’s longevity in Olympic competition is also confirmation that sailing is an activity that can be practiced long past the usual physiological boundaries of other sports. Fogh was inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame in 1985.

Hans Fogh 3/8/1938– DANISH-CANADIAN OLYMPIC AND INTERNATIONAL SAILOR

Hans Fogh began his international sailing career in the late 1950s shortly after emigrating to Canada from Denmark. Fogh achieved his first significant success in international sailing when he captured a silver medal at the 1960 Olympics skippering an entry in the Flying Dutchman class. Fogh would demonstrate mastery of two distinct kinds of sailing craft over the next 25 years. Fogh followed his Olympic success with a 1962 world championship in the Flying Dutchman category, followed by a world sailing title in 1974. It is the second part of Fogh’s sailing career that is of special interest from a sports science perspective. In the early 1970s, Fogh switched his competitive focus from the Flying Dutchman class, a relatively small dinghy (19 ft, 10 in or 6 m in length) with a crew of two, to the Soling class, a keelboat design that measures 26 ft 11 in (8 m) in length. Soling class boats require a three person crew, and the boat is equipped with sails that provide a significantly greater sail area and quite different performance characteristics than a Flying Dutchman dinghy. Dinghies are designed with a small centerboard that is deployed to provide stability when the boat is maneuvered, particularly when the wind is blowing across the beam of the boat (perpendicular to the path of the boat). The centerboard can be raised at appropriate moments to reduce the drag of the hull WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SEE ALSO

Sailing; Sailing and steering a sailboat; Sailing

physics.

Foot: Anatomy and physiology The human foot is at once the most functional, the most intricate, and the most punished part of the anatomy. The intricate skeletal structure of the foot has been compared to the combined machinery and durability of a fine Swiss watch, a tool capable of propelling the body in any direction at high speed, while sustaining forces that are many times a person’s body weight. As the structure that supports the body in every aspect of upright movement, the foot is exposed to constant physical stresses, some of which are exacerbated by conditions such as footwear and weather. As with many other components of the human anatomy that are functioning constantly, the foot is only noticed when it fails to function in its usual reliable fashion. The foot has evolved over the hundreds of thousands of years of human physiological development into a mechanism that is both a complex machine and a foundation piece for the body. Including the bones of the ankle, the foot comprises 26 separate bones, many of which are relatively small and delicately fashioned. Over 100 muscles, tendons, and ligaments combine with the skeletal bones to create 33 separate joints in this flexible and dynamic structure. An intricate series of blood vessels and nerve pathways run within individual networks enclosed by

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X-ray of the human foot

ª FI R EFLY P RODUCT IONS/C ORB IS

foot tissues to support the cardiovascular and neurological demands of movement. The sophistication of the skeletal structure of the foot is underscored by the fact that the bones of the two human feet constitute almost 25% of all bones in the human body. Where an irregularity or imbalance occurs in the structure of the foot, it will often cause other anatomical structures to be affected. For example, if a person tends to strike the ground forcefully on the front of the sole of the foot as opposed to the heel, greater degrees of force tend to radiate into the knee joint or hip. The bone structure of the foot is divided into three parts: the forefoot, the midfoot, and the hindfoot. The forefoot is made up of the bones of the five toes, which are collectively known as the phalanges. The phalanges are connected to the other bones of the foot by a longer connecting bone, called the metatarsal, at joints created at the ball of the foot with each toe. The forefoot is capable of supporting one half of a person’s body weight. The midfoot is the portion of the foot that is designed to absorb the shock created by human movement. The midfoot is constructed of five tarsal bones, and it is supported by the plantar fascia, the ligament that is essential to the function of the arch of the foot. The plantar fascia extends along the entire length of the foot, attached at the calcaneus (the heel bone, the largest bone in the foot) to the forefoot. The hindfoot, including the ankle structure, is connected to the bones of the lower leg by the talus, the ankle bone. The joint

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created at the heel and the ankle is the subtalar joint, which permits the ankle to be completely rotated in clockwise and counterclockwise directions. The 20 muscles that generate movement in the foot are as subtle and sophisticated in their structure as the companion foot skeletal bone. Along with the Achilles tendon, these muscles are responsible for the generation of the all types of movement by the foot. For example, the anterior tibial muscle permits the foot to move upwards, as is required to lift the forefoot off the ground. The posterior tibial is the muscle that supports the arch. The peroneal tibial muscle controls the movement on the outside of the ankle, such as the turning of the foot on its outside edge. Extensors are used to assist the ankle to raise the toes when the body is preparing to stride forward. Flexor muscles stabilize the toes on the ground, especially when the body is stationary and upright. The Achilles tendon, which connects the heel to the gastrocnemius and soleus, or calf muscles, is the largest and strongest tendon in the body. The Achilles is required to provide stability to the entire lower leg structure of the anatomy whenever the body runs or jumps. The ligaments of the foot create joints with the ability to significantly flex the food and to bear great weight. The plantar fascia is the longest of the foot ligaments, acting as a cushioning device for the entire structure during movement. Each toe has small joints created by ligaments to provide flexibility for each of these appendages, independent of the rest of the structure. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Each movement of the foot is a synchronized series of musculoskeletal movements made in coordination with both the ankle and the lower leg. Every movement of the body that involves its propulsion, whether forward, backward, or upward, is made in an integrated way by these components. In sports where the foot is in a stationary position, it remains functional. An example of this state is rowing, where the primary emphasis of the athlete is on the delivery of the stroke of the oar in the water, and the foot is constantly flexing and assisting with the overall balance and stability of the body in the craft. In pursuits such as shooting and sailing, the stationary feet of the athlete contribute to the effective performance of other physical tasks by the athlete.

Achilles tendon rupture; Ankle anatomy and physiology; Lower leg anatomy.

SEE ALSO

Foot, fracture

SEE

Stress fracture of

the foot

Foot injuries

SEE

Common foot injuries

1845, and American football occurred by way of Montreal, Canada. The British garrison stationed there in the 1860s had taken up rugby and that game had achieved some local popularity, with the first formal match taking place in 1865. In 1874, McGill University of Montreal played Harvard in a rugby game that included some modifications of the rules concerning the number of players and the tactics that could be employed. The potential for both speedy play and rough, emphatic tackling made this variation of rugby an almost instant success. The initial McGill v. Harvard contest spawned further competitions between a number of American university teams in the years that followed. Various attempts to standardize the rules of what was the new American football first occurred in the late 1870s, continuing through the early 1900s. In an initiative spearheaded by the coach of Yale University, Walter Camp (1859–1925), widely recognized as ‘‘the father of American Football,’’ the rules of the game became consistent across the United States. It was during this period that American football became less of a rugby variant and far more of a distinct sport. The foundation rules that led to this distinction included:

American football is a remarkable combination of planned and highly organized team play, conducted through the physical, often brutally violent, encounters between offensive and defensive players. Football is the preeminent spectator sport in the United States. Football is played at the highest professional level in the 30-team National Football League (NFL). Hundreds of U.S. colleges and universities at various levels of competition as sanctioned by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) also participate. There are also thousands of very active high school and community football programs.

There are 11 players a side, as opposed to the 15 of rugby. In Canada, a further variant developed, with 12 players per side, but otherwise using similar game rules. The elimination of the rugby scrum, which was replaced in football with a line of scrimmage. The offensive team was required to have seven players along the line of scrimmage. As of 1906, the forward pass became a legal offensive tactic; in the earlier rugby derivation, only the backwards pass, the lateral, was permitted. The size of the football field was established at 100 yd (30 m) in length, plus two 10-yd (3 m) end zones. The field was made approximately 50 yd (15 m) wide.

American football is derived from the English game of rugby, itself a reworking of the much older sport of soccer. There is considerable historical debate as to when the first version of an American football game was actually played; in 1869, the universities of Rutgers and Princeton of the eastern United States played a game that had a number of the elements later identified as those of football, including the tackling of an opponent. The more direct connection between rugby, a 15-man contact sport whose rules were first codified in England in

American football is a battle for territorial supremacy, where control of the field, through the control of the ball, is ultimately rewarded by a greater opportunity to score. The basic offensive object of the game remained similar to that of rugby: to advance the ball across the opposing team’s goal for a touchdown (similar to the rugby ‘‘try,’’ or alternatively, to kick the ball through the opponent’s goal posts for a field goal (similar to the rugby ‘‘drop goal’’). The value given to these different scoring options has been varied by rule as the game has

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evolved; the modern football scoring standards are six points for a touchdown, three points for a field goal, one point for a kicked convert after a touchdown was made, two points for a convert scored by the ball being taken across the goal line (as an alternative to the kicked convert), and a two-point safety, awarded to a defensive team that tackles an offensive ball carrier in the offensive team end zone. The primary defensive object of the game has remained constant through the history of American football: to prevent the progress of the offensive team, primarily through the tackling to the ground of the ball carrier. Where the offensive team is required to come to a set position prior to any attempt to move the ball forward against the defensive team, the defensive players are permitted freedom of movement behind the line of scrimmage. The growth of football in the universities of the eastern United States in the late nineteenth century was mirrored by the growth of local clubs and leagues that were the forerunners to modern professional football. Loose associations of clubs in the states of Ohio and Pennsylvania spurred the creation of intense local rivalries, which became an environment for the first professional players. In 1892, former Yale star William (Pudge) Heffelfinger (1867–1954) became the first known footballer to be paid for his athletic services when he took to the field for the Allegheny Athletic Association against their rivals from Pittsburgh. Professional players became a common but not universal feature of these club contests. The most famous of the early professional players was the noted 1912 Olympic decathlon gold medalist Jim Thorpe, who was a star performer for a number of Midwestern U.S. teams in the period prior to 1929. In the early days of American football, the college and university competitions were by far the most glamorous and the most popular with the sporting public; the phrase ‘‘college football’’ includes both four year-degree granting colleges as well as universities, and the terms college and university are used interchangeably. The college game structure was formalized through the creation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association (IAAUS) in 1906, in part to limit the rising injury rate in this violent, hard-hitting sport for which protective equipment was both primitive and optional. The IAAUS was a forerunner of the modern National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the governing body for most aspects of American intercollegiate athletics since 1939. Walter Camp was one of the developers of the first All American collegiate team selections, which made household names of himself, coach Knute Rockne of

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Notre Dame, and his quarterback George Gipp, and the various rivals of the Ivy League schools such as Princeton, Yale, and Harvard. The Rose Bowl, first contested between two selected top university teams in 1902 in California, was followed by the creation of the Sugar, Cotton, and Orange Bowl games, each involving elite college teams and played on New Year’s Day. College football became cemented into the sport hierarchy of America: the bowl games remain a prominent fixture today, as a part of the American college football championship process known as the Bowl Champion Series, whereby a national champion is selected. From the formation of the IAAUS in 1906, there followed the formation of regional collegiate conferences, which themselves engendered often intense inter-school rivalry. The football team became a symbol of the identity of a university, which fostered alumni interest in the games. The concept of the athletic scholarship was also a significant factor in the growth of the extent and the quality of the play in intercollegiate football. Athletic scholarships were ostensibly a device by which universities could now recruit players to their teams who otherwise may never have been in a financial position to attend a university. With the scholarship came the inevitable abuses of college admission; as scholarship practices became refined, a clear division arose in American intercollegiate athletics between those schools that would not alter their academic admissions practices to improve their football or other sports teams, and those institutions that would. In the period between the formation of the NFL in 1920 and the end of World War II, the professional game grew while remaining in a subordinate position to the college game. Unlike modern football, in which the best college players inevitably move to a lucrative professional contract, in the 1920s not every college star moved on to compete at a professional level. The first great college player to move into the professional ranks in this era was the legendary Harold (Red) Grange (1903–1991), who upon graduation from the University of Illinois signed a contract with the Chicago Bears of the NFL. Grange played for Chicago for nine seasons, and his presence in the league went a considerable distance to legitimizing an organization seen as distinctly second rate when compared to the college game. Professional football burst into a preeminent position on the American sports landscape at the end of World War II. The return of service personnel, many who had played for talented American armed services teams, presented a great availability of football talent. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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By the late 1970s, football at all of its levels combined had become the most popular spectator sport in the United States. PH OTO BY S COT T B O EH M/ G ET T Y I M AG ES .

One such example was multidimensional star Otto Graham, who quarterbacked a Navy service team coached by the man who, in 1946, would secure the professional football services of Graham and a number of other former service personnel, Paul Brown, founder of the Cleveland Browns professional team. The greatest stimulus to the advancement of professional football was the advent of television. The pro game was now available to a very wide audience, and teams such as the New York Giants, the Baltimore Colts, the Green Bay Packers, and the Cleveland Browns, and their star players, became household names. Television had another remarkable benefit for the NFL franchises, as television rights were sold by the league at ever-increasing rates. The NFL and its member clubs divided all television revenues equally. This device permitted the so-called ‘‘small market teams,’’ based in smaller population centers such as Green Bay, Wisconsin, to compete on a more equal footing with those teams headquartered in a metropolis such as New York or Chicago. The NFL also shrewdly positioned itself regarding competition from rival leagues. With respect to both the All America Football Conference (1946–1950) and the American Football League (1960–1967), the NFL WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ultimately absorbed the strongest of the rival league franchises, making itself stronger in the process. By the late 1970s, football at all of its levels combined had become the most popular spectator sport in the United States. The interest in football is based in part on the nature of the game and on the wide attraction that football holds, given its status as a high school and college sport. Football also generates huge revenues for the gaming industry; the ‘‘Las Vegas line,’’ representing the wagering odds determined for a particular game, is a part of the American football lexicon. As with the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the training of its future players, the NFL enjoys what is in effect a no-cost development program provided by the NCAA. In contrast to American baseball and North American ice hockey, each of which maintains expensive developmental leagues known as the ‘‘farm system,’’ prospective NFL players are groomed in the intense NCAA systems at no cost to the NFL; NCAA football is itself a significant source of revenue to its member schools. NCAA institutions in turn obtain their players from the thousands of high school programs operating in the United States. Football excellence is defined by the modern Super Bowl, the championship awarded at the

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conclusion of each NFL season. The Super Bowl is an event marketed worldwide, attracting in excess of one billion television viewers. The Super Bowl has become a spectacle that transcends the athletic competition. In recognition of the international interest generated by the Super Bowl, the NFL has established a developmental league known as NFL Europe, with teams in a number of European cities, manned almost exclusively by American players. In recent years the NFL also entered into a development agreement with the Canadian Football League to secure easier access to trained players from that organization. American football has an extremely high injury rate among its players. In the NFL, most teams experience an effective rate approaching 100%; the average career of an NFL player is less than four years, due primarily to the effect of injury. Many collisions in American football are extremely violent and unpredictable, given the nature of the game. In the period since 1980, the size of a typical offensive lineman has increased to more than 300 lb (135 kg). Knee injuries, particularly cartilage and ligament tears, are relatively common among all players.

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA); National Football League (NFL); Preseason strength training.

SEE ALSO

Football (American) strength and training By its nature, American football presents a number of distinct training challenges. It is a game in which every player is subject to intense, often sudden and violent physical contacts. For decades, American football coaches have preached a primal survival-ofthe-fittest message concerning football training. Football also has distinct elements that require subtle, highly developed tactical and motor skills. In the execution of a single play, there may be large, powerful linemen colliding with one another, while the quarterback and a receiver engage in a duet in which the ball is delivered into a player’s hands on the dead run from a distance of 50 yd (44 m). Football is a game of positional play: each position is distinct, and each position player has responsibilities designed to contribute to overall team success. Unlike rugby or soccer, in which every player must have a reasonable level of skill in every one of the essential aspects of the game, with certain specialties built in, football rules limit what certain

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players are permitted to do on the field of play. These limits imposed on each position make skill development for these players similarly restricted. From the strength and training perspective, every position exposes the players to at least the potential for significant physical contact and injury, with some contact anticipated and some spontaneous. There area broad range of physical capabilities that must be trained and developed to a basic degree in every football player. Some positions require that a particular training emphasis be directed to one or more of these areas. A prominent training area is that of muscular strength and endurance. Football is an often violent contact sport, and serious weight training is essential to performance and to protect the body. The related concept of physical power is also enhanced through specific physical development. To both increase the athlete’ range of motion, and to enhance the ability of the musculoskeletal system to both absorb and to recover from violent contact, flexibility training is employed, including calisthenics, stretching programs, yoga, and Pilates. The aerobic fitness and endurance capabilities of the players are important, as improved endurance provides a physiological base for the player to support the significant intermittent exercise aspects of football, permitting the athlete to recover more readily between intervals. Tied to this training aspect is the development of the anaerobic lactic and alactic energy systems; the average play in football has a duration of less than 10 seconds; developing the capability to give a maximum effort in each interval is crucial to football success. Every football position imposes an obligation on a player to move explosively, both on the line of scrimmage and in the open field; play at each position is enhanced by various plyometric training techniques. In particular, the successful running back, wide receiver or linebacker possesses the ability to generate a burst of speed. Coupled with the emphasis upon distinct positional requirements of football, the strength and training regimens must take into account a number of other factors. The first is the notion of ‘‘periodization of training.’’ Football training, as preparatory for a physically demanding sport, will take into account the phases of the competitive seasons. Football will generally have a preseason, a competitive season, and an off-season. Each of these seasons will have a unique training focus. The off-season is the longest of the football training intervals. If the NFL were used as an example for WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FOOTBALL FIELD GOAL PHYSICS

the length of the periods, the competitive season is September to January, the off-season is January to June, and the preseason is July and August. In the six-month off-season, the player will first recover from any injuries and engage in rehabilitation. The player will then devote most of his training energies to building greater strength in each of the basic physical qualities required for the sport, with specific emphasis placed on the needs of his position. The modern, exceedingly well-paid football player is expected to maintain a high level of fitness through out the year. A wide receiver, who must be explosive and acrobatic in the pursuit of the football, might spend considerable time on a plyometrics and interval sprint running program. An offensive lineman, with responsibilities to protect the quarterback, might seek to obtain extra development of his upper arms and shoulders. Additional focus in training is in addition to the basic strength and fitness requirements. The preseason represents a shift in training focus for all football players. While basic physical training programs are maintained, the preseason training camp is intended to introduce the individual player to broader team concepts. Virtually every offensive and defensive maneuver in football requires individual positions to function in a synchronized way; training camp drills are designed to advance team concepts that are built on individual performance. The football season is a highly regimented series of training events that lead to a weekly game. Strength and other physical training continue, but at a reduced level. Recovery from the rigors of the preceding game, by way of therapy, is a significant part of the weekly preparation for the players. The training emphasis is as much on tactics and the execution of plays as with any other aspect. Aerobic training such as stationary bicycles is often employed as a recovery tool. What is an appropriate training and strength development program for a physically mature professional football player is not likely to be appropriate for a 15-year-old high school sophomore. As with any strength program, careful attention must be paid to the fact that the growth plates and other development indicators must be respected. Lifting weights that place undue strain on the musculoskeletal system and its ability to grow, or exposing the body to contact for which it is not prepared has the potential to cause permanent injury.

Exercise, intermittent; Football injuries; Plyometrics; Weightlifting.

SEE ALSO


Football field goal physics Kicking a field goal in football involves accuracy, distance, and height. Although the contact of the kicker’s foot with the football is the visible result, the mechanism to complete this task involves physics. When preparing to kick a stationary football for a field goal, the kicker will approach the ball as he increases his velocity (v). When in front of the ball, the kicker will place his non-kicking foot firmly on the turf to establish a solid base. By swinging his hips around the hip joint, the kicker brings the kicking leg forward in a smooth arc with a small bend at the knee. As the foot contacts the ball, the kicking leg snaps straight so the whip-like motion of the kicking leg increases the angular velocity (o) of the leg to about 20 radians per second (60 ft [18.2 m] per second). The resulting collision launches the football so it (hopefully) sails through the goalposts. The principles of conservation of angular momentum and conservation of kinetic energy are involved in kicking a field goal. When momentum and kinetic energy are conserved, as they are approximately conserved when kicking a football, there is no loss in momentum and energy before or after the collision. Therefore, initial momentum and energy before the collision is equal to final momentum and energy after the collision. The physics of kicking a field goal involves angular momentum: L equals Io, where I equals moment of inertia and o equals angular velocity. The moment of inertia equals mass times the length of the axis of rotation that passes through the kicker’s hip joint, where leg mass is about 35 lb (16 kg) for an average kicker, ball mass is 0.91 lb (0.413 kg), and axis length is about 3 ft (0.9 m). For the collision, the equation for the conservation of angular momentum involves the momentum of the kicker’s leg and ball before the collision equaling the momentum of the leg and ball after the collision. Kicking a field goal also involves linear kinetic energy: KElin = (1/2)mv2, where m is the kicker’s mass (around 215 lb [97.5 kg]) and v is the velocity of the kicker’s straight-line (linear) running motion (usually about 15 ft [4.6 m]) per second immediately before the collision). The physics of the kick also involves rotational kinetic energy: KErot equals (1/2)Io2. Like momentum, the kinetic energy of the ball and kicker before the collision is equal to the kinetic energy of the ball and kicker after the collision. A football is at rest before being hit by the kicker’s foot; therefore, its kinetic energy is zero. The

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Football injuries American football has long encouraged a tough, take-no-prisoners attitude as a central ethic of the sport. While there are significant rules in place to govern the protection of the participants and the general safety of the game, these regulations deal with the minimization, not the prevention, of serious potential harm. The typical team in the National Football League (NFL) will experience an injury for almost every player on its roster in the course of a year, some of the seasonending variety. The size of the athletes at every position in the NFL has increased substantially in recent years. As an example, in 1980 there were only 20 men who weighed in excess of 300 lb (135 kg) in the then 28team league; as of 2006, the average NFL offensive lineman exceeds that weight. It is a simple proposition of physics that the faster and heavier the players are who come into collision, the greater the likelihood of an injury. When lower percentage body fat of the modern player and greater muscular power and refined tackling techniques are added to the equation, American football becomes a potentially dangerous sport.

Although the kicker is probably not conscious of it at the time, he is using the principles of conservation of angular momentum and conservation of kinetic energy. ª R EUTE RS/CO RBIS

kicker runs forward with straight motion so linear kinetic energy is used before the collision. The football’s path immediately after it is hit by the foot involves simple straight-line motion; thus, the ball’s kinetic energy is linear. The kinetic energy of the kicker’s leg is the most complicated form of kinetic energy because it involves rotational kinetic energy of the kicker’s leg rotating about its hip joint and linear kinetic energy as the kicker’s leg travels with the kicker as he continues to run in straight-line motion after the collision. Although other appropriate numbers can be used to calculate various parameters of the field goal kick, if the above numbers are inserted into appropriate equations, the football’s speed immediately after being kicked is about 126 ft (38.4 m) per second, or 93 mi (150 km) per hour. SEE ALSO

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Greater athletic size has translated into a correspondingly greater number of non-contact injuries sustained by these athletes. The most common of these injuries include: Hamstring strains and tears are caused by explosive running movements. Groin pulls and tears are usually caused by quick lateral movements or stretches that overburden the groin. The serious injury sometimes referred to as a ‘‘sports hernia’’ is in fact a tear of inguinal ligament in the groin. Ankle sprain is an injury more common in football than in other sports, representing the damage caused by a twisting motion in the upper aspect of the lower leg, and pressure from the ankle bone (talus) applied between the bones of the lower leg, the tibia and fibula. Achilles tendonitis and ruptures happen frequently. Heat-related injuries occur especially in preseason training camps held in the summer months, or in games that are played indoors. Heat cramps, resulting from dehydration and low mineral levels are common, particularly among the larger athletes. Repetitive strain injuries to the shoulder structure and the ulnar collateral ligament of the throwing elbow are sometimes sustained by the quarterback. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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American football has an extremely high injury rate among its players; the average career of an NFL player is less than four years, due primarily to the effect of injury. ª BILL VA RIE/ CORB IS

The possible range of injuries caused by contact in football is almost as infinite as the ranges of motion through which the body may move during competition. It is an irony of the game that the protective equipment is a key instrument in injury causation. The helmet is the primary example of such a device. When contrasted with rugby, the protective equipment-free sport from which American football is chiefly derived, the difference in the injury rate is startling, even when the different physics of the permitted tackling and types of contact are taken into account. The head and the neck of the football player are prime injury areas. A greater emphasis on proper tackling technique in recent years has reduced the incidence of serious neck injuries to an intended tackler; when the tackler leads with the helmeted head, there is a significant risk of serious concussion, neck fracture, and cervical spine and spinal cord injury. Helmet-to-helmet contact, especially when WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

both players are moving together at full speed, is a frequent cause of concussion. The large size of the linemen blocking one another and the development of blocking techniques whereby the blockers seek to jam their hands on the shoulders of the oncoming opponent places significant strain on the entire shoulder and elbow mechanism, leading to potential dislocations of either joint, and repetitive strain injuries. The fingers of the hands of every football player are exposed to dislocation from the manner in which the ball may strike the hands, or if they are otherwise stepped on or twisted. Most players now wear protective gloves to provide additional support for the delicate joints of the fingers. Knee injuries are the leading cause of disability among football players. Some serious tears of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) do occur in noncontact situations, when players have their feet get

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caught in the playing surface; the majority of football ACL injuries occur when the player is moving in a particular direction, and is struck on the knee causing the joint to move in an opposite and forceful way. The large men who play the line positions may be injured in this fashion when a player behind them is rolled onto the back of their legs while they are upright and endeavoring to block another player; their extreme weight accelerates the movement of the knee, causing the injury. For this reason, many linemen wear knee braces even if they have never sustained an ACL injury.

Knee injuries; Range of motion; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Football: Mass, momentum, and collisions Tackles (acts of forcing opponents to the ground) and blocks (acts of preventing opponents from interfering with movements toward the goal) are types of collisions in football. The forces that two or more football players exert on one another due to their mass and momentum can be described by the three laws of motion developed by English physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727). Newton stated within his first law of motion that any object of mass at rest (velocity, designated as v, is zero) will tend to stay at rest, and any object in motion (velocity is not zero) will tend to stay in motion at the same speed and direction (acceleration, designated as a, is zero), unless acted upon by a force. Applied to football collisions, the more massive a football player (the more he weighs), the less likely he is to be slowed down, sped up, or diverted by an outside force, such as opponents. The first law is often called the law of inertia because the term inertia means the resistance to motion. For instance, the quarterback who desires to score a touchdown when very near to the goal line will often use the quarterback-sneak. In this scenario, the interior offensive line of players is used as a massive wall to block the defensive line so the quarterback can sneak around or over his men who are very resistant to being moved back. Newton stated within his second law of motion that the acceleration of an object of mass (m) is dependent on the net force (Fnet) acting upon the

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object and the mass of the object itself. In other words, the second law can be stated: Fnet ¼ ma. Acceleration refers to how rapidly an object is changing its speed with respect to time. Force is the action that speeds mass up (acceleration) or slows it down (deceleration). With regard to football, the second law shows how much force is expended when one player blocks or tackles another player. Although weight is usually used when referring to how much a person like a football player weighs, the player’s mass is more important when applied to the second law. Mass is a measure of how much matter (total number of atoms) an object possesses. On Earth, one pound of mass is the amount of mass associated with an object that weighs one pound. Imagine a linebacker who weighs 240 poundsmass (lbm) hitting a fullback who also weighs 240 lbm and who is running at 9 yd per second. After the collision, the fullback’s final speed is zero. From the time the linebacker first touches the fullback to the time his forward motion is stopped is about 0.2 second. The deceleration is 135 ft per second2. With the fullback’s mass (240 lbm) multiplied by the deceleration (135 ft/sec2) the resulting net force becomes 32,400 lbm-ft/sec2. To produce a result in pounds of force, it is known on Earth that a force of one pound (lbf) will give a one-pound mass (lbm) an acceleration of 32 ft/sec2. Therefore, the result ends up as: 32,400 lbm-ft/sec2 1 lbf/(1 lbm/32 ft/sec2) ¼ 1,013 lbf. In other words, the force is equivalent to about one-half ton in the negative (backward) direction. Newton stated within his third law of motion that for every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Mathematically this can be written as F12 ¼ F21, where F12 is the force that body 1 exerts on body 2 and F21 is the force that body 2 exerts on body 1. The minus sign shows that the forces are in opposite directions. Since both players exert the same force on each other during the collision and continue to do so over the same time interval, but in opposite directions, then one player gains exactly the same momentum (mass velocity) that the other player loses. Therefore, the net change in the momentum of the two players is zero. This is called conservation of momentum. For instance, if one player who is 300 lbm and running at 20 fps collides with a second player who is 190 lbm and standing still (0 fps), then the initial momentum of the two players is due entirely to the running player because momentum of the two players initially is: m1v1 þ m2v2 ¼ 300 lbm 20 fps þ 190 lbm 0 fps ¼ 6,000 lbm-fps. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FOOTBALL PASSING AERODYNAMICS

Tackles and blocks on the football field are governed by the fundamental laws of classical physics—Newton’s three laws of motion. B ETT MA NN /COR BI S

After they collide, the initial momentum is conserved so that after the hit their final momentum must also be 6,000 lbm-fps. If, after the collision, the running player rolls on the ground at 4 fps, then the final velocity of the previously stationary player must be: m1v1 þ m2v2 ¼ 300 lbm 4 fps þ 190 lbm v2fps ¼ 6,000 lbm-fps.

many times, as fast as possible in order to maximize range. When a quarterback releases a well-thrown, tight-spiral pass, many forces are involved in the action. In order to accomplish this so-called perfect pass, the quarterback would be well advised to study the forces experienced by a football moving through the air—what is called aerodynamics.

Solving for v2, the answer shows that the previously stationary player is now traveling at 25.3 fps.

A football thrown as a pass into the air has inertia; that is, the tendency of an object in motion to remain in motion. However, because of the force of gravity, which pulls the ball down, and the force of air resistance, which slows the ball down, the quarterback must balance the forward momentum that he provides the ball (through the motions of his arm and body) with the rate at which gravity and air resistance pulls and slows it down.

Even though it does not appear that tackles and blocks are orderly on the football field, each and every one of them is strictly governed by the fundamental laws of classical physics—compliments of Newton’s three laws of motion. SEE ALSO

Football (American); Football injuries.

Football passing aerodynamics The basic purpose of a football quarterback when throwing a pass is to throw the ball as accurately as possible to minimize the chance of an interception and, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Aerodynamics is involved during the pass because the football will travel further and straighter if it is spinning about its long axis—the axis that is pointing in the direction the ball is being thrown. Thus, quarterbacks throw a football with an overhand or sidearm motion in order to impart a spin onto the ball. When thrown with spin, the ball’s angular

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Professional quarterbacks in the NFL can throw a football up to about 80 yd (73 m) from a set position.

momentum (movement due to rotation around an axis, a product of mass and angular velocity) points in the direction of its long axis. At the same time, torque (force that causes twisting and turning) due to air drag (wind resistance) is pointing perpendicular to the angular momentum. As the ball travels on its semi-parabolic arc, wind torque produces a small change in the ball’s angular momentum, which allows the ball to continue to rotate around its trajectory. Thus, spinning stabilizes the football through angular momentum and torque—allowing it to continue to travel in a tight spiral. When thrown in this manner, the ball gains an orientation that gives it the smallest possible crosssectional area against the oncoming air, which causes the least amount of aerodynamic drag. If the ball does not spin properly, air travels excessively under its tip as it descends, causing it to tumble and lose some of its forward momentum due to a greater cross-sectional area being exposed to the wind. However, when the quarterback does throws a pass with the proper amount of spin, the football will travel the maximum amount of distance. In the 2000s, professional

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ª B ET TMA NN /CO RBI S

quarterbacks in the National Football League (NFL) can throw a football up to about 80 yd (73 m) from a set position. SEE ALSO


Football (U.S. soccer)

SEE

FIFA:

World Cup Soccer

Formula 1 auto racing Formula 1 Auto Racing, best known by its acronym, F1, has a deserved reputation as one of the world’s most expensive and glamorous sports. F1 is the most prestigious and the best known of the motor sports regulated by the Fe´de´ration Internationale d’Automobile, the FIA. F1 is the form of automobile racing that is directly descended from the open-wheel vehicle competitions that became popular in Europe in the late 1890s. The global popularity of F1 racing is WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FORMULA 1 AUTO RACING

attributable to the speed and the sophisticated, hightechnology development of the vehicles; the presence of competitions in every region of the world; and nature of the sport’s sophisticated circuits. The individual drivers and their racing teams are internationally recognized sports figures, with each F1 race car built and maintained at a cost of over 10 million dollars. The arrival of the F1 racers and their respective entourages at an F1 venue is a large-scale media event.

rear of the vehicle. Each wing is designed to operate as an aircraft wing does, but in reverse; the wing is angled into the approaching air to create airflow where the air passing over the top of the wing moves more slowly than that passing below. The physical effect of these disparate air speeds, known as the Bernoulli principle, is to create a greater pressure on the top of the wing than on the bottom, resulting in a downward force applied to the vehicle.

The F1 race tracks, or circuits, vary in length and dimensions. Each is irregular in its format, requiring the drivers to execute a variety of different racing maneuvers in the course of the race. A typical F1 course is either a road course, which involves the use of the closed streets of a particular city as the venue; or a specially designed and constructed race course, which is a stylized version of a street layout. The race course features common in the F1 circuits are curves; hairpin curves (where the angle exceeds 90 ); straightaways; and chicanes, or ‘‘S’’ turns, each strategically placed on the race course. No single F1 circuit is like another; the typical race course is approximately 3 mi (5 km) in length, with the race consisting of between 50 and 70 laps of the course.

The F1 wings achieve down-force effect at a tactical price. The wings also interfere in the ability of the race cars to pass a vehicle ahead, as the turbulence of the lead car creates an uneven airflow over the trailing vehicle’s wing, reducing the stability of the trailing vehicle at high speeds. The solution to this problem is the introduction of separate wings mounted on the rear of the race vehicles, with a space between each wing to permit the turbulent air generated by the leading vehicle to pass over the trailing car unimpeded.

An F1 competition is divided into two separate parts—qualification laps and the race. Qualification has the dual purpose of determining the starting positions of each driver, as well as providing the race team with information to make any necessary technical adjustments in the race vehicle in advance of the event. The driver with the fastest qualifying lap time begins in the lead of the starting grid; the slowest qualifying drivers are set at the rear of the starting grid. F1 vehicles are the product of rigorous engineering and intensive testing processes. The rules of F1 provide that each vehicle must be powered by engine that does not exceed a displacement of 2.4 liter, in a V8 (eight cylinder) construction; the engines must be normally aspirated as opposed to turbocharged. The aerodynamics of the F1 race cars are is highly sophisticated, and are second only to the function of the engine and its transmission in importance to racing success. A high-powered, open-wheeled F1 racer functions in a manner that requires the application of several aerodynamic principles. As a general rule, the faster a vehicle travels along a race course, the more it shall be inclined to lift from the surface of the roadway and therefore become unstable in its handling. Race car engineers developed means of producing down force, to counter the natural lift produced by the vehicle. Down force is achieved in the opposite direction of lift, through the utilization of wings positioned on the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

In recent years, the shape of the standard race car silhouette has also evolved. Many of the racers are now very narrow in the body and low to the ground behind the driver’s cockpit, so as to reduce drag and to maximize the amount of air available to make contact with the rear wing, to increase ground effect and down force. The tires of the open-wheeled F1 racers account for approximately 60% of the drag encountered by the vehicle as it moves through the air. The silhouette of the tires themselves represent a compromise between aerodynamics and ensuring that the vehicle possesses sufficient tire surface to properly corner and handle at high speeds. All successful F1 drivers are extremely fit athletes; bravery and ‘‘nerves of steel’’ remain very important attributes of a driver, but these are not determinative of driver ability. It is common for the F1 driver to experience the force of gravity in the vicinity of 3.5 g of force; in races that may last 200 miles (320 km) or more, such forces may be sustained by the driver hundreds of times. These effects are felt most profoundly in the head and neck of the drivers; F1 provides for a mandatory HANS system (head and neck safety), where the head and helmet is loosely constrained by a system that permits movement independent of the internal restraint of the body by seat belt systems to reducing the risk of a whiplash injury. Over all aerobic fitness and a well-planned hydration strategy are essential components of racing, especially in hot weather. Hydration is often only possible at pit stops, regulated by F1 race rules, when the vehicle is fueled and tires are often changed.

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The typical Formula 1 race course is approximately 3 mi (5 km) in length, with the race consisting of between 50 and 70 laps of the course. PH OTO B Y R OBE RT CIA NFLON E/ GE TTY IM AGES .

Auto aerodynamics; Automobile racing; NASCAR auto racing.

SEE ALSO

Richard Douglas Fosbury 3/6/1947– AMERICAN HIGH JUMP CHAMPION

Dick Fosbury became a household name during the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City when he won a gold medal in the high jump competition. Fosbury’s innovative jumping style was dubbed the Fosbury Flop, and it was a technique that revolutionized the sport. As a high school track and field athlete in Oregon, Fosbury had been instructed in the execution of the then current standard jumping technique, the straddle jump. To perform the straddle method, the jumper approached the bar and planted the foot closest to the bar, with the trailing leg kicked upwards. The jumper would then attempt to clear the bar with a rolling motion of their body in the air.

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Fosbury struggled with the straddle jump, and at age 16 he began to experiment with a technique that involved a scissor kick movement at the beginning of the jump; Fosbury then turned his back to the bar at takeoff, taking himself head first and backwards over the bar with his body horizontal to the ground. The physical result achieved by Fosbury was a twist of the body followed by a somersault, as the knees were driven upwards as the head was directed across the bar. Fosbury also employed a curved run up in his approach, as opposed to a straight on run at the bar. The curved run up, combined with the angular momentum created by the twisting motion of the jumper at take off, provided Fosbury with slightly greater lift. Fosbury also discovered that by positioning himself horizontal to the ground as he proceeded over the bar, adjustments could be made in the air with respect to his body position, such as a greater arch of the back and hips, to obtain the greatest possible height over the bar. Using his new technique, Fosbury increased his jumps by over 12 in (30 cm) in its first year of use. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CHARLIE FRANCIS

Using the Flop, Fosbury jumped to an Olympic record in Mexico City, 7 ft 4.25 in (2.24 m). The most enduring aspect of Fosbury’s jumping technique is the fact that virtually all elite level high jumpers since 1968 have adopted it. By the time of the 1976 Summer Olympics, all three high jump medalists used his technique. The world high jump record using the Fosbury Flop has been taken to 8 ft 0.5 in (2.45 m). Fosbury was elected to the United States Olympic Hall of Fame in 1992. SEE ALSO

High Jump; Track and Field; Vertical Jump.

Ronald Foxcroft 5/8/1947– CANADIAN SPORTS EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURER

Ron Foxcroft’s development of the innovative Fox 40 sports whistle was a consequence of his distinguished career as a basketball official. Foxcroft had been the only Canadian ever to officiate in the National Collegiate Basketball Association (NCAA) championships. Foxcroft was also a highly regarded international basketball referee who handled many important games, including the men’s Olympic gold medal game between the Soviet Union and the United States in Montreal in 1976. Foxcroft invented the Fox 40 whistle as a result of his experiences as a referee and the problems he encountered with the malfunction of conventional whistles. On a number of occasions, Foxcroft had worked as an official in a tension packed basketball games where he had attempted to call a foul, only to have the cork pea in the traditional whistle jam in the whistle cavity, causing the whistle to malfunction with no sound produced. At an Olympic qualification game in Brazil in 1984, Roxcroft’s whistle froze as he was attempting to call a foul against Brazil’s opponent. When no sound was produced, the enraged local fans triggered a riot that ended the game.

chamber. The Fox 40 produces a clear and distinct whistle as a result of the shape of the plastic mouth piece and the tuning of its three air chambers. The Fox 40 can be heard up to one mile away from the user. For these reasons the Fox 40 has become the official referee’s whistle of professional sports leagues such as the National Basketball League, the National Football League, the NCAA, FIFA, the governing body of international soccer, and numerous others. The Fox 40 is now the preferred sports whistle of organizations that oversee aquatic sports, such as the international federation FINA, as the Fox 40 performance is not affected by exposure to water; a cork pea whistle will deteriorate in moist or humid environments. The Fox 40 is sold in over 100 countries, and the Foxcroft invention plays a role in hundreds of athletic contests every day around the world. Foxcroft is a member of the Canadian Basketball Hall of Fame.

Basketball; FIFA: World Cup Soccer; Sport Performance.

SEE ALSO

Charlie Francis 10/13/1948– CANADIAN TRACK COACH

Charlie Francis, sprint coach, and Ben Johnson, disgraced Olympic champion, are names forever linked in the history of anabolic steroid use among track and field athletes. Francis was Johnson’s longtime coach and mentor when Johnson tested positive for the presence of an anabolic steroid after he had won the 1988 Olympic Games 100-m race in a world record time of 9.779 seconds. Francis was one of the first track and field coaches in North America to incorporate steroid use directly into the training programs he created for his athletes.

Foxcroft appreciated through his work as an official that the only piece of equipment that simply could not fail a referee was the whistle. The Fox 40 designed by Foxcroft was patented and first manufactured in 1987.

Despite his initial denials of any wrongdoing in 1988, Johnson was stripped of his gold medal by the International Olympic Committee; his track and field career was ruined and Johnson was disgraced. Public reaction in Canada to the actions of Johnson was so profound that the government convened the world’s first public inquiry (the Dubin Inquiry) into the use of performance enhancing drugs in sport.

A conventional pea whistle produces sound by means of the vibration of the pea against the interior chamber of the whistle. The Fox 40 whistle has no moving parts and no pea or other apparatus to become jammed or clogged due to dirt entering the

Francis was a former Olympic class sprinter who turned to coaching in the late 1970s. His testimony at the Dubin Inquiry shocked the athletics world. Francis told the inquiry that he had supervised the injection of steroids into Johnson and other leading Canadian


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Austrian Herbert Nitsch is helped after fainting at a depth of 117 yd (107 m) during the men’s individual free-diving world championships in France. JACQUE S M UNCH /A FP/ GE TTY IM AGES

sprinters because the use of steroids among the world’s elite athletes in the sport was rampant. Francis had organized the administration of steroids to his athletes with the assistance of a Canadian physician, Dr. Jamie Astaphan. The doses provided to each athlete were carefully monitored. Francis testified that virtually all of the world’s top sprinters were taking some form of performance enhancing substance and that the only way that Francis could keep Johnson and other Canadian runners competitive was to engage in steroid use. The testimony of Francis created a sensation. The Dubin report, published in 1990, concluded that there was clear evidence of widespread drug use in sport, particularly track and field. Canada acted upon many of the Dubin recommendations and consequently propelled itself to a place among the world leaders in the campaign against performance enhancing drugs in sport. Canada is the headquarters of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Francis inquiry testimony in 1989 was prescient, given the subsequent information made available in

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relation to both the systemic steroid use by East German athletes, as well as the American revelations concerning the positive drug tests of prominent athletes that were not reported to the appropriate international agencies at the time. Francis remained a vocal opponent of international athletics drug testing policies. In 2003, he briefly coached Tim Montgomery, the American sprinter and former world 100-m record holder who was implicated in the Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative (BALCO) steroid scandal that resulted in Montgomery’s suspension from track and field.

Anabolic steroids; Out-of-Competition testing; Running: Sprinting.

SEE ALSO

Free diving Free diving is an unconventional form of unassisted descent into the depths of a body of water, usually in an ocean or lake setting. Free diving is usually WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FREE DIVING

Free divers can suffer blackouts (shallow or deep water blackouts) due to lack of oxygen to the brain or pressure changes as they make the ascent back to the water’s surface. JA CQUE S M UNCH /A FP/ GE TTY IM AGES

classified as an extreme sport, one of an ever-increasing number of athletic activities in which competition with other participants is secondary to personal risk-taking and the sense of achieving a personal objective. Hang gliding, heli skiing, and rock climbing often include the dangers associated with extreme sports. For many freediving enthusiasts, the purpose of the sport is to explore underwater worlds where the diver is unencumbered by scuba gear and the attendant equipment noises that drives away marine life. The International Association of Free-Divers (IAFD) is based in Grand Cayman Island, in the Caribbean, a place famed for its many reefs and diving venues. The fundamental object in free diving is to determine how far below the surface or for how long the diver can function on a single breath of air. In competitive free diving, where the athletes seek to travel to the greatest depth on a single breath, the sport is often referred to as competitive apnea. Apnea is the medical term for the cessation of breathing. As with any other sport, there are techniques which may be practiced to increase the diver’s ability


to successfully remain under water for an extended period of time. The simple method of practicing the holding of one’s breath for ever-increasing periods is the first and most basic practice element in the sport. Prior to the actual execution of a free dive, many divers will perform a series of hyperventilations, where they inhale and exhale at a much faster than normal rate. Hyperventilation tends to artificially depress the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) remaining within the body, as the cardiorespiratory system is repeatedly cleared of the gas by the rapid breathing process. It is the presence of CO2 that otherwise triggers the body’s autonomic nervous system to stimulate breathing, the process regulated by the hypothalamus region of the brain; hyperventilating temporarily blocks the effect of this mechanism. Free divers are not required to be technically proficient swimmers but for both safety and to descend into the water as far as one possibly can, the free diver must be a powerful swimmer. The increased pressure on the body imposed by deep water is significant. At sea level, the regular pressure of the air upon the skin is 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi); each 1 ft measure of water

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depth increases the pressure upon the body by 0.43 psi. At a depth of 100 ft (30 m), the water pressure will total 43 psi. Given the physical risks associated with increased water pressure on the body at the depths to which a free diver may descend (depths in excess of 150 ft [45 m] by free divers are common), lean muscle mass and an overall high level of general fitness is required. Free diving and the associated stresses on both the cardiorespiratory and the cardiovascular systems pose significant problems for persons with poor fitness, especially because the diver’s heart rate will slow (bradycardia), and the blood vessels constrict to reduce blood flow to the limbs and retain as much blood as possible in the vicinity of the internal organs. Free diving may be performed with a snorkel, a form of breathing tube used by swimmers under water. In most types of this sport, the diver wears a mask; in many categories the competitors wear fins to assist them with their propulsion during ascent and descent. In its competitive forms, free diving is organized into one of three categories: constant weight, variable weight, and no-limit diving. Constant weight diving requires the diver to maintain the same weight, assisted or natural weight, throughout the entire dive. In the variable weight categories, the divers are permitted to carry up to 66 lb (30 kg) of ballast to assist with their descent; the ballast can be released when the diver reaches their underwater objective. No-limit free diving permits the diver to descend with a weighted line and sled, with the return to the surface assisted by an air-filled device. In 1999, Umberto Pelizzari of Italy established what was accepted by the IAFD was the deepest free dive of all time by descending 150 m (495 ft), in a total elapsed time of 2 min 57 seconds. Patrick Musimu of Belgium descended to a depth of 689 ft (209 m) in the Red Sea, in 2005. As befits its reputation as an extreme sport, free diving poses a number of risks of serious injury or death to its participants. A shallow water blackout is the expression used to describe cerebral hypoxia, a condition caused by a lack of oxygen being received into the brain. The body consumes all of its stored oxygen in the process of the energy production needed to propel the body underwater. The body’s production of CO2, a natural byproduct, continues to build to a point where the body is not able to release it, due to the effect of a hyperventilation performed prior to the dive. A deep water blackout generally will occur when the diver has swum to a depth of greater than 150 ft (45 m), resulting in a partial pressure drop during the

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diver’s ascent to the surface. In these circumstances, the diver’s lungs, which contracted in response to the greater water pressure experienced as the diver descended, maintain their reduced partial pressure on ascent, causing the blackout condition. SEE ALSO Diving; Gymnastics; Motor control; Stretching and flexibility.

Free fatty acids in the blood Free fatty acids are one of the outcomes of the food digestion process. These acids are described as ‘‘free’’ because they can be transported in the bloodstream without the aid of any other carriers. The human diet is categorized into three subdivisions: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It is the digestion of fats that leads to the further process known as hydrolysis, which creates a number of different fatty acids in the body, each with a unique and specific function. Essential fatty acids are those necessary to a particular aspect of human metabolic function; these fatty acids are not otherwise created through the body’s natural processes. The most crucial function of these fatty acids is the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins necessary to the processes of bone building, blood clotting, and central nervous system maintenance. These vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Similar to the essential fatty acids are those found in fish oils and similar foods, the omega-3 group. On the negative side of the health ledger, some fats ingested by the body and broken down through hydrolysis are the trans fatty acids, which are created in the hydrogenation, the rendering of liquid fats into solid form oils that contain saturated fats such as animal fats and lard. The trans fatty acids are a proven facilitator of the presence of unhealthy low density lipoproteins (LDLs), which are believed to contribute to the formation of plaque in blood vessels, a leading cause of arteriosclerosis, stroke, and other cardiovascular ailments. Fats are a source of fuel that the body can utilize to produce energy. As fats are not capable of being processed by the body in their natural state, the fat molecules must be altered to permit absorption into the body after digestion. The body has mechanisms that permit it to recognize fats and to store them for future energy purposes; each fatty acid molecule, possessed of two carbon atoms, will ultimately generate a total of 17 units of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy product created by the body; approximately four times as much ATP can be realized from a similar amount of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FREE WEIGHTS

carbohydrate energy source, glucose. It is for this reason that the body is equipped with special storage areas known as adipose tissue, each of which is a sophisticated series of cells equipped to both store and to release fat when signaled to do so. Adipose tissues store fat in the same manner in which it naturally occurs in food. However, the fats are broken down on digestion within the body, and they are reformed into the storage form known as triglycerides, a term that describes a collection of three fatty acid molecules bound together with a glycerol molecule. Each fatty acid molecule is an extended chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The process of hydrolysis separates the stored fats into its two separate compounds, fatty acids and glycerol. Glycerol has properties similar to alcohol and sugar; after the release by the adipose tissue, the glycerol is passed through the bloodstream for return to the liver for a conversion into a useful energy source, glucose. The free fatty acids released from adipose tissue can be utilized anywhere there is an energy need within the body. The process of releasing these compounds begins with a signal from the pancreas, the organ responsible for the monitoring of glucose concentrations in the blood. When a low glucose level is detected, the glucagon hormone is released to stimulate glucose release from the stores of glycogen in the liver. If the blood level of glucose is too high, the body releases the hormone insulin. In this circumstance, fatty acid production will be stimulated through the further trigger of the chemical lipase in the adipose tissue. The ultimate destination of the released fatty acids is the mitochondria of the subject cells that require energy. The mitochondria is the powerhouse of every cell. There is a well-known correlation between the consumption of caffeine and the metabolizing of free fatty acids. Caffeine promotes the process of lipolysis, the breakdown of the triglycerides stored in the adipose cells. There is also a scientifically established linkage between the increased presence of fatty acids in the bloodstream and the onset of diabetes, the disease whereby the body produces insufficient amounts of insulin to properly regulate the level of blood sugars (glucose). While fat, in the form of fatty acids, is a very desirable energy source, it is dependent on the presence of oxygen to be useful. In circumstances where energy is required by the body more quickly than oxygen can be delivered to the required location, the body will switch to its less energy efficient anaerobic system. When the body is using one of its WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

anaerobic energy systems, it cannot burn fat, but it will simply generate less energy and will sustain a greater glucose depletion. SEE ALSO

Cardiovascular system; Fat utilization;

Oxygen.

Free weights Weight training is composed of three separate components. Free weights are physical training aids designed for use in isolating resistance to a muscle or muscle group, when the weight is not supported or otherwise connected to a machine, pulley, or lever. A barbell or dumbbells are classic examples of free weights. In contrast, a weight machine is a device in which the resistance created against the muscle is through mechanical means; the user is generally placed in a fixed position in relation to the equipment. The third component, calisthenics, is often overlooked as having a role in the development of muscular strength; calisthenics has both strength exercise components such as pushups and squats, as well as flexibility exercises that make the body more efficient and less prone to injury. A comprehensive and effective weight training program will incorporate each of free weights, machine weights, and calisthenics. To understand how each discipline can be best employed, it is important to understand how training develops human muscles. Improved muscle strength is achieved through the principle of overload, which is the increase in the intensity required of a particular muscle, such as the bicep (upper arm), or a muscle grouping, such as the quadriceps (the thigh muscles). Overload can be achieved in three ways: through increased resistance, the increase in the amount of the weight to be lifted; by increasing the number of repetitions at which the weight will be lifted (for example, increasing the number of repetitions from seven times to ten times per set); and increasing the number of sets at a particular weight (as in two sets at 100 lb/45 kg to three sets at 100 lb/45 kg). Once the basic principle of overload is understood as fundamental to strength training, factors for the training routine must each be tailored to the age, physical development, and capabilities of the athlete, in conjunction with the goals that the athlete seeks to achieve through increased strength. Those factors include: the amount of weight to be lifted; number of repetitions, and recovery time.

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Free weights are designed for use in isolating resistance to a muscle or muscle group.

PH OTO B Y JE S SE D. GARR AB RAN T/ NB AE/ GETT Y

I MA G E S.

The amount of weight to be lifted in any given aspect of the weight training routine will be a factor; as a general rule, the body type of the athlete, including the ratio of fast-twitch to slow-twitch muscle fibers (fast-twitch athletes have a generally greater ability for explosive movement, including weightlifting)

each represent the optimal weight training method for some, but not all, purposes. Free weights have advantages over machine training in a number of areas: they are more cost effective, more versatile, develop a broader range of physical skills, and may be used anywhere.

The number of repetitions of any movement is important. The development of pure strength is generally achieved with fewer repetitions and greater weight; muscle endurance is heightened through lesser weights and greater repetitions.

Free weights are more cost effective because a single set of barbells can be used in a wide range of training routines. Most machines are constructed for a limited series of movements. The simplicity of the free weight in contrast to a machine represents significant savings of cost and potential maintenance expense.

The recovery time between each set is critical. When heavier weights are being used, the recovery time will be necessarily greater. The recovery time between each weight training session should be adhered to. The development of muscle strength requires a rest period for the repair of the muscle tissue. Weight training cannot be effective if conducted on a daily basis. Free weights and machines are often contrasted in terms of whether one method of weight training is better than the other. Free weights and machines

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Free weights are a versatile training tool, as there are no built-in limits on how the weight can be deployed. If an athlete feels that a particular free weight program is becoming stale or that he or she is losing interest, the program can be entirely redesigned using the same equipment; machines do not permit such flexibility. Free weights require more of the athlete in their use, as the entire body, including the central nervous WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

FRISBEE SPORTS

system, must be engaged to produce balance and hand/eye coordination. Once an athlete has become accustomed to free weight training, it may be used in any venue; machines are often more idiosyncratic, and each machine requires the athlete to become accustomed to the measures of resistance and ranges of motion. The chief drawback of free weight usage is the greater risk of injury. Inherent in proper free weight training is the employment of good posture; poor form can lead to imbalances when the weights are lifted, which can result in injury. Further, the heavier the weights used in training, the more important a training partner or spotter becomes for the athlete.

Muscle mass and strength; Preseason strength training; Variable resistance exercise; Weightlifting.

SEE ALSO

Freestyle skiing

SEE

Skiing, freestyle

Frisbee sports The Frisbee sports are an eclectic group of activities that center upon the use of a flying disc to achieve the object of the particular game; Frisbee is both the trade name of one of the many discs in use throughout the world today, as well as the accepted generic term for any sport disc. The history of the flying disc as a sporting device can be traced to Yale University in the period prior to World War II. The Yale students invented games that involved the tossing of metal pie containers through the air. The first commercially marketed flying disc was sold in 1948, constructed of a hard plastic material; the Wham-O company produced its first patented Frisbee in 1954. Other manufacturers followed with their own discs, and the ‘‘Frisbee toss’’ was a popular pastime into the 1960s. The appeal of the Frisbee is rooted in its aerodynamic properties. When thrown gently, the disc appears to float in the air, making it a relatively easy object to both throw and catch. The disc moves in a manner that creates different air speeds above and below the disc. When the leading edge of the disc is tilted to create an angle of attack, the slower moving air below the disc creates an upward pressure on the disc that serves to keep it aloft longer. The movement of the Frisbee in the air is subject to the similar forces at work in the function of an aircraft wing, a phenomenon known as the Bernoulli principle. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

In the hands of an expert, and subject to wind conditions, a Frisbee may be thrown hundreds of feet, and it’s flight characteristics permit numerous kinds of trick throws. Many flying disc sports were developed as a result of the popularity of the Frisbee. The best known of these games, each of which has attained a world wide following, are Ultimate Frisbee, Disc Golf, and Freestyle. Ultimate Frisbee was created in 1966 in New Jersey, where it soon gained a following among high school students as a game that required team work and creativity in which to succeed. The first ever university Ultimate game was played between teams from Rutgers University and Princeton in 1972. The World Flying Disc Federation, WFDF, was founded in 1984. Today Ultimate Frisbee is played in over 30 countries and it is contested as a world championship on an annual basis. The most significant feature of Ultimate Frisbee is that it may be the only competitive sport that does not require a referee or judge of any kind; the players themselves enforce the rules of the game. The general object of an Ultimate Frisbee team is to advance the disc across the opponent’s goal line into an end zone on a field 110 yd (100 m) long and 45 yd wide (37 m) through passes that may be made in any direction. No player may hold the disc for longer than 10 seconds at a given time, and a change of possession between teams occurs where the disc is intercepted, where the disc strikes the ground on a pass, or where the disc is caught out of bounds. As physical contact is not permitted, Ultimate Frisbee has proven to be a very popular game for mixed gender teams. Agility, speed, and lateral movement are the attributes of a successful Ultimate player. The object of Disc Golf is similar to that of the conventional game of golf. A Disc Golf course is constructed to require each player to throw their disc towards a target hole; as in conventional golf, the player who takes the fewest throws to place their disc inside the target on each hole will be the winner. The rules of the game also provide for penalties where the disc is thrown out of bounds or into a water hazard. Disc Golf courses are often laid out in wooded areas, to create as many natural obstacles as possible for the competitors. Formal Disc Golf courses exist in all 50 American states, and in over 20 countries world wide. Modern Freestyle Frisbee evolved as a distinct disc sport in the early 1960s, through groundbreaking

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disc and the other four fingers on its top. The disc can also be thrown in a fashion similar to that of the Olympic discus. Frisbee sports do not demand a particular body type for a successful competitor. Hand eye coordination, agility, and a measure of flexibility are important physical characteristics for competitive Frisbee. Jumping ability is especially advantageous to Ultimate Frisbee, as the disc is often thrown into circumstances where an offensive and defensive player will jump to attempt to secure the disc.

Exercise, intermittent; Recreational sports; Vertical jump.

SEE ALSO

Joe Franklin Fulks 10/26/1921–3/21/1976 AMERICAN BASKETBALL PLAYER

Frisbee is played in over 30 countries and world championships are held on an annual basis. PH OTO BY CA TH RIN MU ELLE R/ BON G ART S/ GE TTY IM AGES .

tournaments such as the International Frisbee Tournament and the Canadian Open Frisbee tournaments of the early 1970s. Competitors participate as teams, where team performance is judged for its style and technique. There are a number of ways in which the Frisbee may be thrown effectively. The most common throwing technique is the backhand, where the player stands sideways to the target. The player grips the disc with four fingers on the throwing hand under the rim of the disc, and the thumb above. With the weight of the player shifting from their back foot to the lead foot, the disc is released with a circular arm motion. At an angle of attack of approximately 30 , the disc tends to fly effectively as it generates lift. Players wishing to develop greater power in the Frisbee throw may adopt a sidearm delivery, slinging the disc with two fingers with a snap of the wrist on delivery. The ‘‘thumber’’ is delivered in a similar fashion to the sidearm throw, with the thumb under the

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Most innovations in sport are rarely an invention, so much as they are a development or a refinement of an existing method or accepted procedure. The introduction of the one-handed jump shot to the game of basketball by Joe Fulks is a prominent example of a successful sporting refinement that altered the game forever. Joe Fulks was raised in the state of Kentucky, which has long possessed a deep passion and enthusiasm for the sport of basketball. Kentucky high school basketball in the late 1930s and early 1940s had its own following and media coverage, as it does today. Joe Fulks was recognized as an All-State player in 1940, his senior year at high school. In that era, talented players tended to remain within their own state to attend university, and it was believed that Fulks, known as ‘‘Jumping Joe’’ for his ability to quickly elevate his 6 ft 5 in (193 cm) frame to secure rebounds, would attend the University of Kentucky to play for its legendary coach, Adolph Rupp. Fulks instead enrolled at the smaller and less prestigious Murray State University, where he played to considerable acclaim from 1941–1943. In 1943, Fulks entered the United States Marine Corps where he served for the duration of World War II. Professional basketball was not a well-established sport at the beginning of the post war period. College basketball, with its well-established rivalries and alumni support, remained the pre-eminent form of American basketball on a national scale. A number of professional leagues had attempted to establish a presence in the eastern United States, the most WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JOE FRANKLIN FULKS

notable of which was the Basketball Association of America (BAA). On his return from military service, Fulks was a much sought-after professional basketball commodity. He ultimately signed with the Philadelphia Warriors of the BAA in 1946. The style of play in the BAA in the years that followed bears little resemblance to the up-tempo, highly athletic version of basketball played both in the modern National Basketball Association or at an international level. Professional basketball did not utilize a 24 second shot clock until 1954, which meant that the game pace could often be slowed as a tactical device by an opponent. Shots taken at the basket were either a layup or a two-handed set shot, with the player’s feet on the floor at the time the ball was delivered. Conventional basketball wisdom in that period emphasized team play and passing; scores rarely reached 70 points for one team. It is in that competitive context that the achievements of Joe Fulks can be fully appreciated. Fulks began to experiment with an unconventional shooting technique, where he controlled the ball with one hand, using the other hand as a guide or support for the ball as he prepared to shoot it towards the basket. Fulks executed the one-handed shot through a seamless delivery that began with a jump made from a stable position, with both feet at approximately


shoulder width apart. As the body moved upwards, Fulks extended his entire body, with the ball delivered to the basket at the top of the player’s jump. It is unclear whether Fulks invented the now-standard jump shot, but there is no question that he popularized it. The advantages of the jump shot were soon obvious to Fulks’s BAA rivals. Fulks could bring his body closer to the basket at the time of the delivery of the shot, improving the chances of the shot being successful. The jumping motion permitted Fulks to rise above his defenders to better avoid a potential blocked shot. The continuous motion that Fulks developed as a part of his shooting mechanics provided Fulks with a rhythm that assisted him in the coordination of the entire shooting movement. Armed with his jump shot, Fulks became the leading scorer in the BAA in both 1948 and 1949. When the BAA was absorbed into the NBA, Fulks continued his scoring prowess, averaging over 20 points per game in his professional career; his single game-scoring record was 63 points in 1949. Fulks was inducted in the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1978. He was the victim of homicide in 1976. SEE ALSO

Basketball; Basketball shot dynamics; Vertical

Jump.

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G Gender in sports: Female athletes Female athletes have competed at least as long as there have been recorded histories of athletic competitions. In the period prior to 1900, women enjoyed a long history of participation in sports ranging from running to sailing and swimming. It was the general societal recognition of female athletic talent and achievements that traveled a far more tortuous road. At the first of the ancient Olympics in 776 BC, female competitors were barred from the competition; married women were not allowed in the stadium as spectators. Women organized their own games in homage to the goddess Hera, wife of Zeus, competitions that took place every four years for at least four centuries. Baron de Coubertin (1863–1937) was the driving force behind the birth of the modern Olympic Games. De Coubertin was as opposed to female Olympic participation as the ancient Greeks had been. There were no events for women in the first modern Games of 1896, and in very small increments in the succeeding 100-year period, women’s athletics was slowly developed into an almost equal partner to men’s Olympic competitions in both the summer and winter Games. Diverse circumstances drove the popularity of women’s sports in the world beyond the Olympics, particularly in North America. Team sports such as softball, volleyball, soccer, and basketball, at both the amateur levels of high school and university competition, as well as several professional individual WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

female athletes in tennis, golf, and figure skating, created a heightened interest in these sports. The greater public awareness of elite female athletes generated a corresponding increase in grassroots sports participation. Title IX, the American legislative initiative that reinforced the notion of funding equality in the support of male and female university sports, represented legislative confirmation that female athletic status was firmly entrenched. In Europe and in Australia, there existed a similar recognition of female athletics by the 1980s. It remains to be seen if the perception that women’s sports are less entertaining and less skillful than those of men will be entirely eradicated over time. Female sport involves physiological elements that have the potential to impact performance. The desire to have children is often a significant factor that influences the career of a female competitor. Time away from training, coupled with inevitable changes to body shape, is often a circumstance that is a barrier to the return of an athlete to high-level competition. In sports such as Alpine skiing, basketball, volleyball, and running events, the risk of a female athlete sustaining an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear in the knee is as much as five times greater than that to a male athlete. The relatively wider pelvic structure of the female athlete than that of the male, in comparison to the length of the femur, as well as common imbalances occurring in quadriceps muscle and hamstring strength, all contribute to these serious knee injuries, which will often require reconstructive surgery and a lengthy rehabilitation.

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to her iron levels; iron lost through menstruation can contribute to anemia. Osteoporosis is a disease in which the density and the strength of the skeletal bones are reduced, usually due to a dietary deficiency. The mineral calcium is of chief importance to bone and tooth formation. In combination with vitamin D, calcium is required in the construction of bone cells and the repair of any damage to the bone structure.

Eating disorders in athletes; Knee injuries; Nutrition; Title IX and United States female sports participation; Women and sports: Exercise data, goals, and guidelines.

SEE ALSO

Gender in sports: Male athletes

Female volleyball players during the 2004 Olympic games in Athens, Greece. AL EXA NDER N EM EN OV/ AF P/ G ETT Y IM AG ES

There is a further set of conditions that sometimes impact female athletes that are an outgrowth of a combination of physical factors and the social pressures that women face. These conditions are commonly referred to as the ‘‘female triad,’’ representing three discrete circumstances that can significantly inhibit the female athlete. Disordered eating is a problem that is usually revealed as one of anorexia nervosa (a refusal to eat) or of bulimia (eating, often in an uncontrolled binging fashion, followed by deliberate vomiting or purging by laxatives). Disordered eating may arise when female athletes, often in their teenage years, seek to lose weight to either improve performance, to meet apparent body type demands of the sport, or the stated expectations of their coach concerning the appearance of the athlete. Amenorrhea is the loss, or the irregular occurrence, of the athlete’s menstrual period, triggered by a decrease in the amount of estrogen present in the body. Estrogen is the hormone produced to regulate menstruation. Regular menstruation will result in the female athlete being required to pay close attention

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While most aspects of the entire body of sport science knowledge are founded on principles applicable to all athletes, specialized issues arise from considerations of both age and gender. Male athletes, female athletes, and young athletes all face unique training and performance issues. Male athletes have been dominant on a global basis in almost every sporting activity, in terms of their far greater number of participants, the well-entrenched traditions associated with many forms of male sport, as well as the demanding physical nature of many sports. For these reasons, a great number of athletic issues have been viewed from an entirely male perspective. Beginning with the ancient Olympics, competitive sport has been an overwhelmingly male-dominated arena. Female sports did not exist in any organized or formal fashion until the twentieth century; the 1928 Olympics represented the first wide-scale international women’s track and field competition. Women’s baseball teams attracted a certain level of notoriety in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s, but these leagues were viewed by the public as something of a novelty, as opposed to a serious athletic endeavor. Even when female athletes achieved a measure of achievement, so long as there has existed a male alternative in a sport, those male athletes have been accorded greater fame and financial reward than their female counterparts. Notwithstanding the physiological differences between men and women that fundamentally affect performance, the male athlete is perceived as the better athlete. A portion of the global sporting public is unable or unwilling to distinguish between female athletic ability, which encompasses all of the physical factors that combine to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

GENDER IN SPORTS: MALE ATHLETES

such as wrestling were eliminated at over 100 American universities, to achieve the balance required by Title IX. Government initiatives cannot alter the significant differences in the approaches that male athletes versus female athletes take with respect to almost every sport. These differences include:

One of the great male athletes, Jesse Owens. ª H ULTON - D EU TS CH CO LLE CTION /COR BIS

create athleticism, as well as more intangible traits such as decision-making, hand-eye coordination, peripheral vision, and agility. The domination of the male athlete and male team sports prompted a number of government initiatives throughout the world, aimed at not so much a redress of the perceived inequality in the acceptance of female athletes as the competitive equals of men, but to increase the status of female athletics. The legislative initiatives taken in a number of counties such as the United States to enforce equality across the entire athletic spectrum have not changed perceptions so much as they appear to have altered the actual degree of female participation in a number of sports, particularly at the American university level. Title IX is the generic name given to the American female sports initiative, which provides for an equal funding formula in the financial support provided to sports in U.S. universities. An unforeseen consequence of Title IX was the elimination of a number of male sport programs in the American university system governed by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Male sports WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The motivation for persons to participate in sport is often different for male and female athletes, distinctions that have been identified in athletes commencing in adolescence, and reinforced through the early adult years. The competitive motives for sport participation are paramount for young males. These athletes value sport for its inherent challenge; they equate enjoyment of the activity with their personal competence in it. Female athletes, while committed to technical success in the sport, often focus on the social aspects of participation. Female athletes have been the subject of academic research that establishes that females tend to have a lower level of selfconfidence about their athletic participation than do males in similar circumstances. Females often place a greater emphasis upon the collateral benefits of sport, the sense of camaraderie and identification with a team (in individual sports, those bonds are strongest with their coaches and the athletic environment). As male and female athletes grow from adolescence into physical maturity, the physical drills and training programs must be modified to suit the physical differences that exist between male and female athletes. The key differences between male and female physical capabilities include: The maximum amount of oxygen that a male athlete can process in the production of energy, the VO2 max, will exceed the capacity of a similarly trained female athlete by as much as 10%. Men possess greater muscular strength and endurance. Men tend to have a lower percentage body fat than women with similar training and athletic capabilities; an extremely fit elite male 100-m sprinter may have a percentage body fat as low as 5% to 7%; an elite female sprinter will rarely achieve a 10% level. The training and coaching approaches to male athletes and female athletes must reflect the inherent physiological differences between the genders.

Aging and athletic performance; Mature athletes; Women and sports: Exercise data, goals, and guidelines; Youth sports training.

SEE ALSO

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Genetic prediction of performance A human gene, the tiny unit of matter made up of a sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is the fundamental item in the determination of heredity. Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of all organisms. How much athletic ability present in a particular person is attributable to genetics, and how much is determined by training and other adaptations made by the athlete. Genetics has long played a role in the understanding of sports performance. Certain body types are well suited to particular types of athletic functions and movements. The Rift Valley of Africa, which includes countries such as Kenya and Ethiopia, has produced more world- and Olympic-champion distance runners than any other place on Earth, due to the slender, relatively long-striding people of that district, who live at altitudes in excess of 6,562 ft (2,000 m). These physical attributes have created a superlative human form for distance running. The people who live near the Baltic Sea in northeast Europe, including Lithuanians and Russians, possess tall, lean, muscular frames, ideally suited to sports such as basketball. These two examples are based on a broad range of experience and athletic success that these groups have enjoyed in the stated sports; genetics research seeks to uncover the scientific foundation in support of these observations. Genetics is a science distinct from considerations of race or ethnicity. Since 1990, there have been intense research undertakings that have delved into the issues surrounding human genetics, the most comprehensive of them the Human Genome Project. It is now understood that 99.9% of the human DNA sequence is common to all of the world population. The 0.1% remainder is the source of all genetic differences between people. With the intermingling of different populations over the centuries, it may be no exaggeration that while there are certain clear genetic traits that are common to broad groupings of people, individual uniqueness is so profound that every person of the world’s population of almost seven billion could be described as being their own race. The conflict between how much athletic ability is rooted in individual genetics as opposed to the influence of training and other factors is often expressed as ‘‘nature versus nurture.’’ Genetic makeup will never be determinative in the success of an athlete in a particular sport; gene structure will be a very useful indicator by potential success that must be

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weighed with the nurturing that athletes receive in their chosen disciplines. Although precise attribution between athletic nature and nurture are impossible, it is a generally accepted sport science proposition that genes represent approximately 50% of athletic variation in performance, with 50% attributable to both the individual athlete’s response to training, as well as social factors, such as the support provided to the athlete in pursuit of his or her goals. An example is the very tall northern European male, who at a height of 7 ft (2 m) would seem to be a far more attractive recruit to the sport of basketball than a person 5 ft 10 in (1.7 m). The gene-governing height present in the taller male represents a potential dominant physical factor, but never a determinative one, as height is but one component of basketball success. Coordination, agility, spatial sense, determination, resilience, and intelligence are all traits that are essential; each is one that may not be capable of development in an athlete, irrespective of height. The fact that a runner comes from the Rift Valley area of Africa, with the genetic makeup that has been a basis for the multitude of successes for similar athletes in middle distances and the marathon, does not guarantee elite athletic status, as training and the determination to compete against similarly endowed and talented runners will spell the difference. Genetics provides certain indications, but not crystal clear predictions, of future success in any sport. An identified genetic trait, coupled with specific training adaptations, will generally create the desired sport result. There are a number of critical training factors constructed upon the inherent individual physical traits that will influence athletic success. The ability to increase one’s maximum oxygen uptake, expressed as VO2 max, is one such factor. A greater VO2 max represents a correspondingly enhanced ability to convert the bodily fuel sources into energy. VO2 max is a genetic characteristic that may be typically increased through training between 10% and 15%; exceptional athletes have experienced VO2 max gains of 30%. As a further example of the interrelationship between genetic makeup and training determination, studies with elite endurance athletes such as cyclist Lance Armstrong confirm that intense, long-term endurance training will modify the ratio of fast-twitch, explosive muscle fibers and slow-twitch, endurance fibers present in the musculoskeletal structure, producing more useful sport-specific muscles. It is also apparent that the importance of genetics in the prediction of athletic performance is less pronounced when the sport requires the development of a specific set of technical skills, placing primary emphasis upon efficient technique and error-free WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

GENETICS

Genetic research has tended to confirm that while certain types of people have a genetic predisposition to success in certain types of sport, that favorable genetic makeup is never a guarantee that the athlete will achieve success. ª AN DREW BR OOKE S/ CORB I S

execution. The physiology of the athlete is of less importance in sports such as tennis and golf, where repetitions of defined, predetermined maneuvers— such as a tennis serve or a pitching wedge shot in golf—will determine success.

inherited traits, as a branch of the broader science of biology. The term genetics was coined in 1905; the science was rooted in the work of biologist Charles Darwin (1809–1882), which he conducted on heredity in the mid-nineteenth century.

The mental toughness or determination of the individual athlete is also a potential equalizing factor when balanced against apparently superior genetics. It has been said that sport success represents a combination of preparation, training, determination, and genetic makeup.

Genetics is a branch of scientific research that has moved with remarkable speed in the past 100 years. In 1908, the first breakthrough discovery that was entirely founded upon genetic principles was the understanding of the role played by genetic defects in inherited disease.

SEE ALSO

Genetics; Sport performance; Track and field.

Genetics Genetics is the science of variation in humans and animals. It examines the nature and extent of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The era of modern genetics began in 1977, when the components of the human genetic code were first identified. Deoxyribonucleic acid, best known by its acronym, DNA, was definitively identified as the molecular grouping that carried all human hereditary material, either in the nucleus of every cell in the human body, or in the mitochondria, the cellular powerhouse where energy for physical movement and function is produced. The discovery of the extreme intricacies that

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become mutated, which represents a permanent alteration in its DNA structure. In 1990, a massive scientific project was initiated by the U.S. Departments of Energy and Health, undertaking a comprehensive study of the entire gene collection in the human body, a structure referred to as a genome. The Human Genome Project, as this study was called, involved partners from numerous other countries, including England, France, China, and Canada. On its completion in April 2003, the Human Genome Project had successfully completed the rough work involved in the mapping of the three billion pairs of the DNA sequence, as well as that in relation to the between 20,000 to 25,000 human genes.

Better understanding of the role of genetics in human development has lead to more accurate assessments of the importance of genetics relative to training and athletic success. ª DIGITA L A RT/ CORB IS

lay at the heart of the DNA sequence became itself a distinct branch of molecular biology. The DNA sequence was further determined to be stored as a code within each cell; more than 99% of all three billion DNA bases within a human cell are the same in all people, with less than 1% of the DNA underlying human physical and mental distinctions. It was also discovered that DNA can replicate itself. It is against this backdrop of the science of the function of the DNA molecule that the human gene can be understood. Genes are the basic units of human heredity, passed from parent to child. A gene is composed of pieces of DNA. Each gene constitutes an instructional guide for the body in the manufacture of protein molecules, the building blocks necessary to the physical construction of the human body. There are two copies of each gene in every cell, one from each parent. A gene will remain in its original hereditary structure within the body, or it may

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The explosive growth in the amount of knowledge gained through the scientific examination of human genetics has been reflected in a number of aspects to sports science. Better understanding of the role of genetics in human development has lead to more accurate assessments of the importance of genetics relative to training in athletic success, the ‘‘nature versus nurture’’ debate. Genetic research has tended to confirm that while certain types of people have a genetic predisposition to success in certain types of sport, that favorable genetic makeup is never a guarantee that the athlete will achieve success. The genetic structure is believed to be approximately 50% of the sports success equation, with the remaining components being training approaches, the general social environment, and intangibles such as mental drive and willingness to compete, neither of which is perceived as having a genetic basis. The next great frontier in the context of genetics, ethics, and sport is gene doping. Gene doping is the concept of introducing an athletically favorable set of genes into an athlete to enhance an aspect of his or her existing performance capabilities. It is believed that gene doping would naturally focus on a limited number of traits in an elite athlete, such as increased upper body strength or oxygen uptake, as opposed to the genetic makeup of the entire body. Gene doping is an approach that is an extension of the experimental medical technique known as gene therapy, which is premised upon the notion that genes may be injected into a human body and either reverse or correct an illness or a disease that has a genetic basis. While there has been a number of encouraging results in the laboratory regarding gene therapy, the results concerning humans are inconclusive. Gene doping is of particular concern to sports ethicists because the fact that successful gene doping trials have not been publicized does not mean that experimentation has not taken place. The ability of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ALTHEA GIBSON

national and international sport-governing bodies to detect the evidence of such scientific enhancements of performance through testing is often years behind the development of the illegal procedure, as was demonstrated by persistent gaps between the widespread use of illegal performance-enhancing substances and the results of testing for both anabolic steroids and the blood doping agent, erythropoietin (EPO). The World AntiDoping Agency (WADA) has banned gene doping, without having any effective means to positively determine whether an athlete has engaged in such a procedure. SEE ALSO

Hormones; Juvenile obesity; Longevity;

Obesity.

Althea Gibson 8/25/1927–9/23/2003 AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL TENNIS PLAYER, PROFESSIONAL GOLFER

Althea Gibson is an enduring symbol of the changes that began to be rendered in American sporting culture in the 1950s. Gibson became a focal point in the gradual recognition by mainstream American society that sports was an activity where success was ultimately achieved through talent and not skin color. Gibson’s perhaps unintended role as a trailblazer was all the more remarkable due to her rise to prominence in the then most racially segregated of sports, tennis. Althea Gibson was born in South Carolina; her family moved to New York City in 1930 and it was in New York that Gibson was introduced to tennis. Gibson first played the game at the all black Cosmopolitan Club in Harlem, winning her first tournament at age 15. It was evident from her very first tournament success that the tall and athletic Gibson possessed a remarkable if unrefined game, and she quickly earned a reputation as a tough and sometimes combative player. She moved to North Carolina at age 15 to take advantage of better year round weather for tennis training. Upon her completion of high school, Gibson accepted an athletic scholarship to Florida Agricultural & Mechanical College (now Florida A & M University), at Tallahassee, a historically black educational institution. An early springboard for Gibson’s later professional success was the American Tennis Association, ATA, the oldest all black sports organization in the United States. The ATA was created in 1916 to both provide African American players with access to competitive tournaments, and to act as a counterWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

weight to the racially exclusionary influences of the United States Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA), the sport’s governing body. The USLTA was legally permitted to enforce racial segregation in the structure of its tennis championships, consistent with American law until 1954. Gibson won 10 consecutive ATA national championships beginning in 1947. Gibson was also influenced in her drive to tennis excellence by ‘‘Sugar’’ Ray Robinson (1921-1989), the prominent world champion boxer who was influential in his own right in the elimination of competitive barriers then in place for many black boxers. Robinson and his wife Edna had spoken to Gibson on a number of occasions prior to her departure to North Carolina, to encourage her in her tennis ambitions. Gibson attempted to enter the USLTA national championships in 1950. Her application was initially rejected by the USLTA national executive, notwithstanding Gibson’s success at a number of high level USLTA regional events. Gibson ultimately played in the United States Open in August 1950, becoming the first African American woman to do so. When contrasted with meteoric rise to professional stardom and wealth often enjoyed by modern teen age professional tennis players, Althea Gibson’s success in the years after 1955 is all the more remarkable as she played no competitive tennis between 1952 and 1955, due to the combined effects of her pursuit of a career in physical education upon her graduation from Florida A & M, coupled with a measure of disillusionment with her tennis game. In most athletes at any elite level of competition, the period between ages 25 and 28 often represents the player’s athletic prime. Gibson worked as a university athletic department administrator during these three years. Under the tutelage of tennis coach Sidney Llewellyn, Gibson rebuilt her game and her confidence in 1955. Gibson developed a formidable serve and volley game, the tennis strategy where the serving player comes immediately to the net to attempt to put pressure on the opponent. Serve and volley tennis has fallen out of favor on a number of modern tennis surfaces, but it remains an effective strategy on grass courts such as England’s Wimbledon. Llewellyn and Gibson believed that a serve and volley game was one that allowed Gibson to use her lateral quickness, agility, and her aggressive nature to the fullest advantage. Gibson also added an overpowering second serve to her shot-making arsenal. After participating in a good will tour in Southeast Asia organized by the United States government, Gibson was invited to make her first appearance at Wimbledon in 1956. Although she did not advance at the English

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championships that year, Gibson won her first ever major tennis title, the French Open, that year. Gibson became the most dominant player in women’s tennis in 1957, when she was the finalist at the Australian Open, followed by the women’s singles championship at Wimbledon. Her triumph at the 1957 U.S Open, a feat repeated in 1958, brought Gibson national recognition as the dominant female athlete in America, as she was named Female Athlete of the Year in 1957 and 1958 by a number of news media organizations in both years. Gibson also became the first African American woman to appear on the cover of Sports Illustrated magazine. For all of her undoubted athletic talent, women’s tennis in the late 1950s provided virtually no opportunities for a player of Gibson’s skill an opportunity to earn a living, as the national championships such as the United States Open and Wimbledon were strictly amateur competitions. Gibson was not able make enough money to support herself through tennis, and she shocked the world tennis community with her retirement from competitive tennis at age 30, in 1958. It is a further testament to the remarkable athletic talents of Althea Gibson that she then became a professional golfer with comparatively little formal instruction. Although never a dominant player on the women’s tour, Gibson played professional golf until 1967. She was the first African American woman to hold a membership in the Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA). With the rise of a bona fide professional tennis circuit in the early 1970s, Gibson attempted a comeback as a professional player in 1971. Gibson’s athleticism and tennis skill were not sufficient to overcome the inevitable toll that time had taken on her game, and Gibson found that she could not effectively compete with the younger players at her age of 44. It is an enduring irony of tennis that Gibson, in many respects was a trailblazer for black tennis stars such as Arthur Ashe, Serena and Venus Williams, all of whom achieved both world wide fame and considerable wealth from a sport in which the sublimely talented Gibson could not earn a living in the late 1950s. After her retirement from competitive sports, Gibson worked as an athletic commissioner in New Jersey. She was also active in the promotion of physical fitness among young people in that state. A series of strokes debilitated Gibson to the point where she retired from her employment in 1992. Gibson died in 2003 after spending a number of years in poor health. SEE ALSO Gender in sports: Female athletes; Golf; Tennis.

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Charles P. Ginsburg 7/27/1920–4/9/1992 AMERICAN ELECTRICAL AND RADIO ENGINEER, INVENTOR

A native of California, Charles Ginsburg graduated as an engineer from San Jose State University in California in 1948. Ginsburg commenced employment with a San Francisco area radio station, where he worked in day-to-day radio operations. In 1952, Ginsburg was recruited by California-based Ampex Corporation to lead a research team that was seeking to develop a better method for visual recording that could be used for television. The then-current technology was cumbersome, because recordings could not be made except through machines that were required to pass magnetic tape through the recording device at very high speeds, to achieve a desired high frequency result. The Ampex team lead by Ginsburg built the first videotape recorder (VTR) in 1952, registering a patent for the technology that same year. The VTR permitted the recording of visual images with the magnetic tape moving at regular speed. The VTR proved to be so effective that CBS, the national American television network, incorporated the VTR into all of its productions by 1956. In the 1960s, the VTR was a part of all of the rocket launches conducted by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The VTR was the forerunner to the video cassette recorder (VCR) popularized after 1971 by the Sony Corporation and others. The development of the VTR had two profound impacts upon the television industry. The first was that the VTR simplified the editing of any television program, because the recording tape could be conveniently replayed to the desired position. The second impact, of particular importance to television and sport, was the ability to provide an instantaneous playback of the recording of a sporting event, in either regular speed or ‘‘slow motion.’’ The Ginsburg technology is the technical forerunner of all manner of video replay now used in sport to resolve disputes concerning rulings made during a game or sports event by an official. Ginsburg’s work was much appreciated by the television industry. Ginsburg and the Ampex Corporation received an Emmy award for their contributions to television technology in 1957. Ginsburg was inducted into the United States National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1990. SEE ALSO

National Football League (NFL). WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

GLUCOCORTICOIDS

Ginseng

SEE

Chinese ginseng

Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids are a group of steroid compounds that are both naturally occurring and synthetically manufactured. They act as an anti-inflammatory and as agents that suppress the immune system. Also known as corticosteroids, these agents generally act to suppress the body’s ability to cause inflammation both upon the surface of the skin as well as in that occurring in muscles and joints. The process by which glucocorticoids are released within the body begins in the adrenal cortex of the brain. It is there that special hormones (providing chemical signals to the body) are released to trigger the production of one of three materials: peptides, proteins, or steroids. Steroids are a multipleringed molecule, closely related to the fats ingested by the body; vitamin D, cholesterol, and the female hormone estrogen are all steroids. The steroids produced through this process within the body are not to be confused with anabolic steroids, artificially manufactured drugs used in the building of muscle mass. The signal from the adrenal cortex that ultimately results in the release of a cortisol steroid is intended to provide anti-inflammatory relief to the portion of the body that needs it. Cortisone is delivered through the bloodstream to the affected area, and it will continue to be produced by the body for so long as inflammation is signaled to the adrenal cortex. Glucocorticoids have been synthesized for use as anti-inflammatory medications for many years. The best known of the synthetics are prednisone and cortisone; each has a similar function. Prednisone is very similar in its chemical composition to that of cortisone, but often has a more pronounced and immediate effect than cortisone. Prednisone is commonly prescribed to combat inflammation associated with arthritis, bursitis as it may occur in any joint of the body that is constructed with a cushioning fluid sac known as the bursa, and synovitis, the inflammation of the fluid structures surrounding joints such as the ankle. Prednisone is administered in a tablet form. The usage of prednisone may lead to pronounced side effects, including mood changes, increased appetite, a heightened risk of infection due to the negative impact on the immune system, and fluid retention. In the longer term, prednisone can contribute to osteoporosis, as it may interfere in the proper conversion of calcium to bone formation. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Cortisone has a long history of specific sports injury applications. Injuries that are caused by overuse or repetitive strain have commonly been targeted for cortisone therapy. The cortisone used is a synthetic version, and is typically administered by way of injection directly into the affected area. The cortisone provided in an injection, due to the concentrated amount delivered in contrast to that manufactured naturally in the body, is intended to have a pronounced and immediate anti-inflammatory effect. Cortisone does not possess any analgesic, or painkilling, properties. Cortisone is often administered to counter the inflammation caused by the following injuries and conditions: arthritis (usually caused by damage or other wearing away of the cartilage lining in a joint); shoulder bursitis (caused by an inflammation of the bursa); finger, wrist, and elbow strains, including carpal tunnel syndrome; and knee and ankle sprains. Cortisone also has a number of negative implications, especially in situations of long-term usage. Cortisone will tend to interfere in the vitamin D/calcium absorption process, fundamental to bone and tooth maintenance. This interference promotes general bone weakness. Cortisone also limits the development of collagen in bones. There are also concerns held throughout the sports medicine community that, when cortisone is injected into a joint already loosened by ligament damage, the joint will continue to create stresses on the remaining cartilage and accelerate further joint damage at the expense of immediate anti-inflammatory relief. As importantly, long-term use of any anti-inflammatory may create a false sense of security on the part of an athlete. Medications such as cortisone are not a cure for an underlying structural problem that exists in a joint. If the anti-inflammatory becomes a substitute for corrective treatment of a joint injury, the damage to the joint may be increased. This concern is particularly acute in circumstances where the original injury was caused by repetitive strain such as pitching a baseball. The use of an anti-inflammatory, injected to permit the athlete to overcome the limitations of the inflammatory condition, may also accompany adjustments made by the athlete in his or her motion or delivery. This combination will sometimes result in the stresses of the repetitive motion to be redirected into another part of the immediate musculoskeletal structure, causing separate strain.

Dose and dosage; Hormones; Musculoskeletal injuries.

SEE ALSO

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GLUTAMINE SUPPLEMENTATION

Glutamine supplementation Glutamine is one of 20 amino acids found in the human body. Amino acids are the basic component of proteins, the compounds that are essential to the formation of muscle and tissue within the body. The function of each protein is determined by its genetic code. Glutamine is classified as a nonessential amino acid, as the body does produce its own glutamine. A combination of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms, glutamine is the most abundant of the amino acids and it is involved in more human metabolic processes than any other such chemical. If the body were to become deficient in its own production of glutamine, it is abundant in food sources such as poultry, fish, and beans. Glutamine contributes to a number of important functions within the body. The most prominent of these actions is the contribution of glutamine to the formation of proteins for muscle and tissue construction, particularly those of the intestinal tract. Glutamine also aids in the formation of the cells of the small intestine, the area where the many important transfers between the digestive process and absorption into the cardiovascular system and organs occur. Glutamine also is a secondary but meaningful contributor to the reduction of the time required for postoperative healing and repair within the body. Glutamine has a reputation as a ‘‘brain food’’— the connection between glutamine and brain function is due to the role it plays in the formation of glutomic acid used by the brain. Glutamine is an important component in the metabolism of nitrogen. Glutamine plays a key role in the maintenance of the overall health of the immune system, the process by which the body is protected from viruses, and other transmitted dangers to health. When consumed as a dietary or nutritional supplement, glutamine is primarily used by weightlifters and strength sport athletes. It is intended to replenish amino acid stores consumed by the body through intense and repetitive resistance exercise. In a related application, glutamine is occasionally used as a treatment for muscle cramps. Glutamine is commercially available both as a freestanding supplement in powder form, as well as through its use as an ingredient in multiple purpose supplements. When administered on its own, glutamine is typically taken in quantities of 500 mg. The similarity in names between monosodium glutamate, the flavor enhancer in foods known as MSG, and glutamine often causes confusion; MSG has none of glutamine’s chemical properties.

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The two fundamental questions posed by athletes concerning any intended nutritional supplement usage are whether the supplement will improve performance, and whether the supplement safe for use. The more determined the athlete is in the pursuit of success, the more often the performance question overrides any concerns regarding the product’s safety. Glutamine is a useful supplement in the recovery of amino acid stores that will become depleted after a heavy weight training workout. When an athlete is pursuing the creation of greater body mass, glutamine will aid the process provided that all other components of effective training are in place. Glutamine is a training aid, but it is not a shortcut to a more powerful musculoskeletal frame. In addition to its amino acid replacement capabilities, the most prominent positive feature of glutamine is the fact that it is nontoxic. Glutamine is also used by endurance athletes to prevent a decrease in the function of the immune system after long endurance-type events such as a marathon. Endurance sports tend to create stresses upon the immune system, and a decreased immune effect is a factor underlying a greater risk of infection in the body arising after the event; such effects are in part counteracted by glutamine supplements. The possible negative consequences of glutamine use are related to the relationship between glutamine ingestion and the possible trigger of a rise in the insulin level within the body. It is for this reason that glutamine supplements are not recommended for persons with kidney or liver disease. The bodybuilding industry has fostered a number of unsubstantiated claims concerning the muscledeveloping qualities of glutamine that are extrapolations of the provable science supporting glutamine role in the restoration of amino acid stores. The most prominent of such claims are the stimulation of human growth hormone production in the pituitary gland, as well as the role of glutamine in the cure of ulcers in the stomach. No scientific evidence exists in support of either of these propositions. A further concern with the use of glutamine supplements is that of any consumption of a multipurpose supplement that may have a number of compounds used in its formulation that are incompletely described in its packaging. Care must be taken to ensure that the constituent parts of the supplement are all ones that the athlete can consume, and that each component safely interacts with the others.

Dietary supplements; Protein supplements; Supplement contamination.

SEE ALSO


GLYCOGEN DEPLETION

Glycerol Glycerol, also known as glycerin, or glycerine, is a hygroscopic (water-absorbent) fluid. In its pure form, it is a sweet-tasting, colorless, odorless, and viscous liquid that is 100% soluble in water. Simply put, glycerol is a combination of sugar and alcohol; glycerol is the term used whenever the biological qualities of this compound are discussed. Glycerol, either in a freestanding state or as a derivative compound, is an important feature in a number of important chemical functions within the body. The first of these is glycolysis, the process by which the carbohydrate product glucose is converted to a usable energy form. Glycolysis is a Greek word, a combined meaning ‘‘sweet’’ and ‘‘splitting,’’ which neatly summarizes how the glucose molecule is reduced for the purpose of fuel production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Glycerol, in the form of glycerates, is created in this process. Glycerol is also an important component of triglycerides, the storage form of fats that are ingested into the body as food. These compounds take their name from the fact the glycerol binds three fatty acids together into one compound for storage. Triglycerides are stored in adipose tissues, chiefly located at the abdomen and the buttocks. Glycerol is commonly referred to as the backbone provided to the fatty acids that are the largest component of the fats when they are stored in their triglyceride form. Glycerol and fatty acids are released through the breakdown of fats through the process of lipolysis. Adipose tissues are those specially constructed in the body to accommodate stores of fat for future energy use. When the adipose tissues are triggered to release their fat stores, the triglycerides are reduced to their two constituent parts, fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids are directed into the bloodstream for transport to a desired muscle for conversion into energy; the glycerol is transported to the liver where it is reformulated into glucose, and ultimately redirected for energy creation. In its state as found outside of the body, glycerol has many uses. It is approximately 60% as sweet as granular table sugar and is consequently used as a food and beverage sweetener. Glycerol and its derivatives are also used as humectants, substances that will keep materials moist (as glycerol is a powerful water-absorbing agent). Glycerol also has a number of uses as a lubricant. Glycerol has been the subject of considerable sports science review. The main research focus has centered on the question of whether the ability of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

glycerol, if added to the water or other fluids consumed by endurance athletes as part of their competition hydration strategy, would assist in the creation of a hyper-hydration state, in which the effect of a particular quantity of fluid consumed in hot or humid conditions would be increased. In theory, the consumption of glycerol with fluid will increase the effective concentration of the water, known as the osmolarity, in the blood and the tissue of the athlete. This increased osmolarity would remain until the glycerol was removed from the bloodstream by the kidneys and broken down by the body. The simple ingestion of large volumes of water will also increase osmolarity, but only in the short term; the body will quickly begin to produce greater corresponding amounts of urine to offset the osmolarity effect. Numerous scientific studies had been conducted employing varying amounts of glycerol in relation to fluids, with inconclusive results. The bulk of these studies were conducted using exercise samples that were of moderate intensity, approximately 50% of the subject’s VO2 max. At the 2004 Athens Olympics, American marathoner Deena Kastor won a bronze medal in what was widely viewed as a very surprising result. In the hot weather conditions of that intense championship race, Kastor had hydrated herself with a glycerol solution. Further research has tended to confirm that in high-intensity endurance exercise scenarios, glycerol will promote greater hydration than water alone. Glycerol is broadly available as a supplement for the purpose of producing a hyper-hydration state; until 1997, glycerol was a prohibited substance in international athletics. Glycerol is now permitted for use by athletes by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Glycerol, in the form of iodinated glycerol, is sometimes prescribed as an expectorant, a medication designed to loosen the phlegm and mucous of the lungs and the breathing passages in asthma or bronchitis sufferers. It has a number of side effects, particularly nausea, headaches, and stomach upset. SEE ALSO

Fat intake; Liver function.

Glycogen depletion Glycogen is the storage form of glucose, the source of human energy derived from carbohydrates consumed through food. To assist in the storage process, molecules of glucose, a sugar composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms, are strung together to form glycogen, a complex molecule known as a polysaccharide.

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GLYCOGEN LEVEL IN MUSCLES

The skeletal muscles and the liver are the two chief storage facilities for glycogen. Approximately 1% of muscle mass is glycogen; between 8% and 10% of the liver’s weight is stored glycogen. The skeletal muscles store two times as much glycogen as does the liver. The breakdown of stored glycogen, and the further utilization of glucose, is a process known as glycogenolysis. When carbohydrates are first consumed, the digestive process creates useful units of glucose, whose presence is a signal to the body that is registered at the pancreas, the organ responsible for the monitoring of glucose levels in the bloodstream. The recognition of the glucose presence triggers the production of insulin, a hormone created in the pancreas for the regulation of the amount of glucose sugar present in the bloodstream. Excess glucose is subsequently directed to the liver to be stored as glycogen. The body has a complex regulatory mechanism in which the liver is prompted to release glycogen in its glucose form when required to balance blood sugar levels. Muscle-stored glycogen is not so flexible in terms of its deployment in the body; once stored in a muscle, the glycogen is not capable of being shared with or transported to other areas that might require fuel. Muscle glycogen must be used at the point of storage. Once reconverted to glucose, a series of chemical reactions will take place; the single glucose molecule interacts with phosphate compounds to ultimately generate two molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the ultimate body fuel source. Very small amounts of ATP are present in the skeletal muscles at any given time, sufficient for the generation of power in circumstances in which the anaerobic alactic energy system will be required. Such events are almost exclusively immediate activities that last less than 10 seconds. In all other circumstances, ATP must be manufactured through glycogenolysis. Seventy-five percent of the glycogen available to the body through carbohydrate consumption, in its energy-convertible glucose form, is used to service the energy requirements of the brain and the central nervous system. The balance of glucose stores is directed to the purposes of erythrocyte (red blood cell) formation, skeletal muscle development, and the function of the heart muscle. The relationships that exist between glycogen and athletic performance are straightforward, and each may be summarized as follows: The greater the ability of the body to store glycogen, the greater the ability to carry out physical tasks. The lower the levels of glycogen present in the body, the less intensity with which the athlete

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can perform or train, and the lesser amount of work time will be available to the athlete. The average total storage of reserves of glycogen will last a typical adult person between 12 and 14 hours; when the adult person is engaging in exercise of a moderate level of intensity, such as marathon running, the glycogen supply will be exhausted in approximately two hours of activity. In a marathon, ‘‘hitting the wall,’’ the feeling of a pronounced loss of energy and fatigue, is in part a function of glycogen depletion. When the body has sustained a complete or a near-total depletion of its glycogen stores, it will take approximately 24 hours for the body to both ingest sufficient food of the appropriate carbohydrate proportion, as well as convert the ingested carbohydrates into glycogen. There are a number of mechanisms employed by elite athletes to increase the ability of their body to store greater amounts of glycogen. One such method is commonly known as ‘‘carbo loading,’’ whereby the athlete begins to consume large carbohydrate-rich meals as endurance training is tapered in anticipation of a key competition. This process tends to effectively increase the amount of glycogen stored in the body, and thus aids performance, so long as the athlete does not sustain a weight gain due to too severe a tapering of training. A reverse method, which is employed by some endurance athletes, is to reduce the intake of carbohydrates during training, with a corresponding reduction in glycogen, as a stimulation to the body to make a maximum use of available fat stores.

Carbohydrate stores: Muscle glycogen, liver glycogen, and glucose; Cardiovascular system; Muscle glycogen recovery.

SEE ALSO

Glycogen level in muscles Glycogen, the stored form of the carbohydratederivative glucose, is an essential aspect of the ability of the body to generate fuel for both athletic and sedentary activities. The main storage centers for glycogen are within the liver and the skeletal muscles; approximately twice as much glycogen is stored in the muscles as is retained in the liver. For an athlete who is placing significant demands upon those energy reserves, the consumption of between 8 and 10 grams of carbohydrate per 2.2 lb (1 kg) of body weight per day will be required to keep the glycogen levels optimum. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

GOLF

Muscles that are supplied with appropriate amounts of glycogen for breakdown into glucose, and the further processes necessary to produce the fuel source, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), will lead inevitably to an increased endurance capacity on the part of the athlete. When glycogen levels in muscles are depleted, there is a resulting muscle fatigue, with a corresponding loss of protection to the joint. Sports such as Alpine skiing illustrate this progression. There is a greater incidence of downhill skiing accidents at the end of the ski workout, versus at the beginning. The repetitions on the hill cause a depletion in muscle glycogen, which presents a greater risk of injury to the athlete. When the body is at rest, its energy requirements are 80% from fat stores, 15% from carbohydrates, and 5% from proteins. During exercise, the proportionate contribution from the energy sources within the body changes dramatically. Muscle glycogen and blood glucose (the product of the glycogen stored in the liver) become the predominate sources, with plasma fatty acids (the product of converted fat stored in adipose cells when released into the bloodstream) and intromuscular fat stores playing a secondary role. The factors that will influence the relative importance of muscle glycogen, blood glucose, and fats during exercise include: the intensity of the activity; the duration of the activity; the level of training previously attained by the athlete; the initial level of muscle glycogen available to the athlete; the amount of carbohydrate supplement consumed, if any, during exercise (providing an additional potential energy source). The effectiveness of carbohydrate-loaded sports drinks during competition is restricted to a rather narrow window. These fluids contain carbohydrates intended to provide an additional mid-competition energy boost, typically a combination of simple sugars (monosaccharides), such as fructose and glucose, mixed with water and flavoring. When the amount of carbohydrates is greater than 6–8% by volume, the body will have difficulty digesting and processing the carbohydrates during the event. The type of physical activity dictates which of the body’s energy systems will be engaged, and for how long. These engagements will determine what impact is directed to muscle glycogen levels through and at the conclusion of the activity. For those sports that require short, explosive bursts of activity, the anaerobic alactic system is employed. These sports are typically ten seconds or less in the duration of any given interval, and the muscular activity will be fueled by ATP that is present in the muscle. These WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ATP stores recharge without significant strain on the bodily glycogen reserves. Activities that are of approximately 90 seconds maximum duration require energy generation from the anaerobic lactic system. Those of greater duration will engage the aerobic system. Both of these energy systems will require supplies of glycogen for both the immediate conversion of glucose into ATP; the demands of the aerobic system are significantly greater due to the duration of the demand. Many athletes, particularly in events such as the marathon, speak of ‘‘hitting the wall,’’ a euphemism for the sensation of being without energy and in an extreme state of fatigue. When athletes experience this physical state, they have a significantly reduced supply of glycogen in their muscles, particularly with respect to the muscles actively working and involved in the event. As a contrast, when the athlete experiences a glycogen depletion in the liver, the athlete will experience the condition known as hypoglycemia, a dangerous reduction in blood sugar, which often causes dizziness and disorientation. Diet is the most effective tool to maximize muscle glycogen, both pre- and post-competition and training sessions. An athlete in training will require appropriate carbohydrates on a daily basis to ensure glycogen stores for competition; the ingestion of carbohydrate drinks and similar supplements after exercise will tend to speed the return of the glycogen stores to their usual levels. The most difficult of endurance events will not prevent the athlete from returning to an accustomed muscle glycogen level within 24 hours.

Diet; Exercise recovery; Glycogen depletion; Muscle glycogen recovery.

SEE ALSO

Glycogen recovery

SEE

Muscle

glycogen recovery

Golf Golf is a sport played on an a course consisting of 18 areas, called ‘‘holes.’’ For each hole, a hard, specialized ball is hit from a starting area (the tee) towards a target section of turf (called the green) located varying distances away. Located on the green is a cup into which is set a flagstick. The flag allows the golfer to locate the cup from his/her position on the tee and, because the flag can move in the breeze,

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GOLF

to assess the wind speed and direction. The object of the sport is to hit the ball into the cup. Depending on the distance from the tee to the cup, a set number of shots (or ‘‘strokes’’) is allotted to get the ball from the tee into the cup. This number of shots is referred to as ‘‘par.’’ On shorter holes, typically ranging from 90 to 200 yd (82–110 m) in length, the par is three. Holes between 200 yd (182 m) and approximately 470 yd (430 m) are usually par four, with longer holes rated as par five. The tally of the scores for the 18 holes represents the final score (the standard is 71 or 72). If a golfer has shot a lower score, he or she is said to have shot under par. A higher score is over par. The game of golf today is very different in character and technology from a pastime that began on the eastern coast of Scotland in the fifteenth century. Then, equipped with a stick or club, shepherds would hit a small rock at targets set on sand dunes and pathways. At that time, there were no cups to aim at and no set number of holes. Within a few decades, ground was being specifically set aside and maintained for the pastime. By the latter decades of the sixteenth century, golf had become very popular throughout the British Isles. The game spread to France when Mary Queen of Scots went to study in that country. Indeed, the origin of the word ‘‘caddie’’ (a person who assists the golfer in judging what shots to play and carries the golfer’s equipment bag) derives from the French term cadet for members of the French military, who assisted her during her golf outings. The first golf club was formed in 1744. The Gentlemen Golfer’s of Leith even sponsored an annual tournament and awarded a trophy to the winner. The course consisted of five holes. Golf is famous for the numerous rules that govern play. Rules include the use of the same ball on a given hole unless the ball is lost, assessing an extra shot as a penalty if a ball has to be moved from water, having to play the ball from whatever position in which it has come to rest (‘‘play the ball where it lies’’), and playing in a determined order with the person farthest from the cup playing first. Many rules have been enacted to deal with the tremendous technological changes of the game. As scientific advances have altered the game (the equipment, the playing area), the rules have attempted to maintain the importance of human skill to the outcome. By 1552, the St. Andrews Society of Golfers had been formed. The golf game played today stems from this club. For example, the club established the parbased scoring method (it is also referred to as stroke play) and built the first 18-hole course. By the end of the nineteenth century, the club (now renamed The

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Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews) had assumed control for the rules of golf. Later, in 1894, the United States Golf Association was formed and assumed some responsibility for the rules. By the mid-1880s, golf equipment had become more specialized; proper clubs had been devised. Wood was the material of choice for the shafts, and the club head of woods (clubs whose hitting surface was nearly perpendicular to the ground, and which were intended to propel the ball at a low angle for a long distance). Other clubs were forged of iron (called, logically, irons) and had a hitting surface that was oriented at various angles to the ground to produce shots of varying heights and distances. The club grip was typically of strips of wound leather. The golf ball was a sphere of wood or tightly packed feathers wrapped in a sphere made of stitched-together pieces of horsehide or cowhide. The modern-day golf ball is similar to the original wooden or hide-bound golf ball only in its shape. A series of technological changes have completely changed the performance of the ball and, consequently, the game of golf. The first innovation in golf ball design occurred in 1848, when balls formed from heated sap of the sapodilla tree were introduced. Once the sap cooled, these gutta-percha-resin golf balls (‘‘gutties’’) were harder than their feather-cored predecessors (‘‘featheries’’). This allowed more of the energy built up in the club face during the golf swing to be transferred to the ball. The result was a longer flight of the ball. Also, because the balls became much less expensive to produce, golf became a sport that many could afford to play. It was soon noted that a smooth-surfaced ball did not fly as far as a ball with surface pocks. Guttapercha balls made with minute bulges over its surface became very popular. In 1898, a golf ball was introduced in which a core consisting of wound rubber thread was covered with gutta-percha. The core increased the amount of energy transfer from club to ball, increasing shot length yet again. As well, recognizing the improved aerodynamics produced by surface pocks, various cover patterns were tried. By 1908, the dimple pattern had been introduced. This pattern was refined still further during the 1930s. By blowing smoke over differently pattern balls, William Taylor experimented with different dimple patterns to find those that produced the most uniform movement of air over the ball’s surface. The result was a ball that would not be directed offcourse during flight by irregular patterns of air flow. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

GOLF

England’s Lee Westwood at the 2005 PGA championship. The PGA celebrated its 90th anniversary on April 10, 2006.

ª DARR EN

S TAP LE S/ REU TER S/ CORB I S

This consistent pattern of flight has provided another opportunity for golfers to affect the ball’s flight. By imparting a clockwise or counterclockwise spin on the ball during impact with the club, a ball can be made to deliberately bend to the left or right during flight. As golf ball design evolved, the rules of the game were revised to prescribe standards of ball weight, size, and dimple pattern. Then, as now, the intent is to standardize the technology so that human skill remains a predominant factor in scoring. With the invention of the gutta-percha golf ball, control of the flight and distance of the ball became possible. This meant that the golf clubs then in use were outmoded. Golf club design was refined to provide this control. Shafts made of hickory and then of steel and aluminum provided more strength, making a quicker swing possible. As well, these shafts resisted the tendency to rotate during the back swing and down swing (rotational force is also called torque). More recently, shafts constructed of graphite WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

have maintained the shaft strength while allowing clubs to become lighter and easier to swing more smoothly. Steel, aluminum, and graphite shafts also allow the bulk of a club’s weight and center of gravity to be concentrated in the club face. This permits most of the energy from a golf swing to be focused on the area of the club face that contacts the ball (called the ‘‘sweet spot’’). The golfer’s arsenal of clubs expanded during the mid-1880s to include club faces made of iron. Construction of differently angled club faces allowed the same swing to produce a shot that went lower and farther, or higher and shorter. This control allowed golfers to more precisely aim for the cup. Originally, the face of an iron was smooth. Introduction of horizontal grooves in the club face and the roughening of its surface made it possible for the ball to travel up the club face during impact. As a result, the ball could spin off of the club face, rather than

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GOLF BALL CONSTRUCTION AND FLIGHT DYNAMICS

just flying off. Because the ball spins backward during flight, it will tend to stop more quickly on impact with the ground. This allows a golfer to shoot just beyond the cup and either to spin the ball back closer to the cup or to stop the ball almost immediately on impact. This has resulted in even more control of the ball near the cup. Today, a golfer will carry several woods and about seven irons in their golf bag. The woods propel the ball the farthest; smaller woods offer more control if a target area is small and can be used more easily when attempting a long shot from the fairway. The designation wood is a misnomer today, since most of these clubs are made of metal. This innovation of the 1980s increased the energy transfer from club to ball. During the 1990s, introduction of composites of new materials allowed woods to be made much larger than before, while reducing the overall weight of the club. Many golfers find oversized clubs easier to control and capable of producing a longer shot. On the green, a golfer will use a club called a putter to roll the ball over the grass and into the cup. There are literally thousands of different designs of putters. The grips on a golf club have also changed, from leather strips to a variety of synthetic materials that cushion the hands, soak up moisture, and absorb the impact of the ball strike. As with golf balls, the rules of golf have been revised to set standards for the construction, size, weight, and design of clubs. Although not a necessary part of the game, golf shoes can be an aid to better golf performance. The reason is the sole of the shoe, which contains hard rubber discs that grip the grassy surface. This provides more stability for the golfer during the swing. As well, anchoring the leading foot can provide a pivot around which the golfer’s weight can shift during the swing. Weight shift is another way that the energy of the swing can be efficiently transferred to the ball. Until the 1980s, golf shoes were equipped with short metal spikes called cleats to provide the anchorage. But, spikes damaged the turf, and so were replace by the plastic discs. The technology of golf, which is driven by science, has dramatically changed the way the sport is played since its inception. Yet, the fundamental nature of golf—to accurately control the forward progress of the ball—has remained unchanged over centuries.

Golf: Why graphite-shafted clubs produce longer drives; Tennis racquet construction.

SEE ALSO

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Golf ball construction and flight dynamics After a long history in which the golf ball has changed drastically in materials and style, its current construction is directly related to the dynamics of its flight path (trajectory). The lift and drag properties of the golf ball and its speed and spin rate have been— and continue to be—critical components in how golf balls are constructed. Golf balls were originally made from wood. They traveled no more than about 100 yd (91 m). Later, Scottish golf enthusiasts made balls with boiled goose and chicken feathers, which were tightly wrapped inside a leather cover. Around 1850, the ball’s construction was changed to gutta-percha—at that time, a elementary type of rubber. These golf balls were able to travel about 200 yd (182 m). Later, sap from Malaysian trees was used to make balls. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a two-piece ball was developed that had a rubber core encased in gutta-percha, now pliable natural latex. Eventually, the dimpled surface of the modern golf ball was adopted to stabilize the flight of golf balls. According to the United States Golf Association (USGA), all golf balls must possess a diameter not less than 1.7 ins (4.3 cm) and weigh no more than 1.6 oz (45.9 g). Besides this requirement, modern golf balls vary somewhat in construction. Most modern golf balls are a two-piece construction, having a thin cover of a plastic resin called Surlyn and a large rubber core. Three-piece golf balls are characterized by a middle layer of material that is squeezed between the core and the cover (those parts found in the two-piece ball). The middle layer is rubber thread (windings) stretched many times its original length in a process called compression, or the degree to which the inside of the golf ball is wound tight. These golf balls are designed to produce increased spin. In both ball types, the more compressed the core, the farther, on average, the ball travels when hit because there is less deformation of the ball at impact. Therefore at impact, the energy transfer from club to ball is maximized. A harder ball also allows the ball to roll farther. The dimpled pattern on the golf ball creates aerodynamic lift, which allows the ball to remain in the air longer. Dimpled design has changed significantly over the years, from random patterns, to ordered rows, to more complicated interstitial designs, along with different depths, shapes, sizes, distribution pattern, and numbers of dimples. For instance, the number of dimples varies from 300 to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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slower relative to the air around it, so there is less drag flowing over the ball. In addition, the boundary layer around the ball allows turbulent air to slow down its spin (or rotation). Spin rate is associated with the flight speed a golf ball attains while rotating on its axis. It is measured in revolutions per minute (rpm). The spin rate of a ball hit by a driver generally ranges between 2,000 and 4,000 rpm. Excessive amounts of spin cause the ball to carry vertically too high (thus losing horizontal distance) and too little spin prevents the ball from gaining enough vertical distance (also reducing horizontal distance). The proper spin rate is critical in order to accomplish the ideal parabolic path for a golf ball. Although many factors have made a direct impact on increased driving distances in golf (such as improvements in drivers), one of the most important factors has been the improved construction of the golf ball. In fact, in great part due to improved golf ball construction, touring members of the Professional Golf Association (PGA) have increased their average driving distance from about 257 yd (235 m) in 1980 to about 280 yd (256 m) in 2001. SEE ALSO

Dimples on the surface of the golf ball play a key role in the speed once hit. PH OTO GR AP H BY KE LLY A. Q UIN. TH OM SON GA LE.

500 dimples, with most golf balls ranging between 350 and 450 dimples. By scientifically experimenting with dimple characteristics and the construction of particular golf balls, manufacturers can optimize the resulting trajectory for both distance and control. In addition, as the air travels around the ball, the dimpling of the golf ball creates a smaller wake (disturbed air behind ball) and, thus, much less aerodynamic drag than a golf ball with a smooth surface. In fact, a dimpled golf ball has about one-half the drag of a smooth one. Thus, a golf ball with welldesigned dimples will travel over twice as far as a smooth-surfaced golf ball. The Magnus effect, named after German physicist Heinrich Gustav Magnus (1802–1870) who described it in 1853, is a lifting force that is experienced by rotating bodies such as golf balls as they travel through a fluid medium such as air. With respect to a golf ball, the Magnus force is an upward push due to drag differences at the top and bottom parts of the dimpled golf ball. The top part moves WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Golf; Golf swing dynamics.

Golf injuries Injuries associated with golf tend to be chronic, and arise from the overuse of a weak or malfunctioning area of the body. Because golf is not a contact sport, the sort of traumatic injuries due to collisions are not typical. The most common golf-related injury is pain in the lower back. Recreational golfers who play only sporatically can suffer from back pain because the motion of the golf swing places an unusual strain on the back muscles. A recreational golfer’s swing is often not as finely-honed as the swing of a more experienced golfer or a top-flight professional. Instead, the swing may be jerky and involve a sudden lash at the ball, which puts a stress on the muscles of the lower back. Even professional golfers can experience back problems. This has become more prominent since the 1990s, when propelling the golf ball further down the fairway became the aim for many professional golfers. Before this, accuracy was paramount, and the golf swing tended to be slower and more rthythmic. In the era of ‘‘power golf ’’ many golfers have adopted a greater shoulder turn with less turning of their hips. While this swing can produce a faster

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swing, it comes at the expense of greater strain on shoulder and back muscles. The golf swing also places a stress on the spinal column, which can result in the compaction of some of the discs that separate the bones of the spine. Relief from herniated discs requires the aid of a physiotherapist or chiropractor and, in more severe cases, corrective surgery. Another vulnerable part of the golf swing is the top of the back swing. An over-extension of the swing in an effort to generate more power in the subsequent down swing can hurt the shoulder muscles. Another part of the body that can be injured in golf are the wrists and hands. Becuase the golf swing culminates in an impact with the golf club and the ball, a shock is generated. This is akin to the shock produced when a baseball bat contacts the speeding baseball. If a swing is properly executed, the force of impact is minimal and does not hurt. However, a ‘‘mis-hit’’ can hurt the hands and wrists. Although contact of the club face with the ground occurs during the swing, a controlled swing removes just a bit of the turf. When a swing is less controlled, a club may dig deeper into the ground, and the club speed can be slowed quickly and dramatically. This can also happen when a shot is taken out of the deeper grass lining the fairways (the ‘‘rough’’). The sudden loss of club head speed from a ‘‘fat shot’’ puts a great strain on the wrists. Although uncommon, wrist fractures can also occur. Wrist injuries can also result from excessive hand motion during the back swing and down swing. Some golfers believe that flexing the wrists during both phases of the swing will produce a more powerful stroke. Instead, the stroke becomes less powerful and inflammation can develop in over-used wrist ligaments and tendons. Tendon injuries in the wrist and hand such as inflammation (tendinitis) and De Quervain’s disease can result if the golf club is gripped too tightly during the swing. Some golfers will grip the club very tightly, assuming that this will produce a more powerful swing. In fact, the opposite is true. Moreover, a gentle grip is less debilitating. The swelling and pain of a tendon injury can make golf impossible. Use of a wrist support and anti-inflammatory medication can provide relief of milder injuries, but more serious injuries often require surgery. Joints are another potential target for golf-related injuries. The elbow joint is repeatedly used and can become inflamed. The same condition occurs in tennis. Indeed, lateral epicondylitis is popularly known

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The sudden loss of club head speed from a "fat shot" puts great strain on the wrists. ª ROYA LTY -FREE /C ORB IS

as ‘‘tennis elbow.’’ In right-handed golfers, the outer part of the left elbow is especially vulnerable (the location is reversed for left-handed golfers) due to the contraction of the muscles and tendons that occurs as the club head nears the golf ball. This contraction helps maintain the club head on a controlled arc so that proper impact is made with the ball. Overuse injury to the muscles and tendons on the inside of the elbow (usually the elbow on the forward or ‘‘leading’’ arm) is called medial epicondylitis. This is popularly dubbed ‘‘golfer’s’’ elbow. Besides elbow pain, this condition also produces wrist pain and a weakened grip. Short-term relief for elbow injuries can be provided by cortisone injections. Use of thicker grips on the golf clubs can also help. Longer term relief usually requires a revamping of the golf swing to end the chronic muscle and tendon aggravation. The hips and shoulder joints can also be injured. As with the elbows, the injuries result overuse. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

GOLF: PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SWING

Shoulder injuries involve inflammation of tendons and bursa (the fluid-filled sacs surrounding tendons; the conditions is called bursitis). Muscle injuries can alter the movement of the shoulder joint; the condition, which is called a rotator cuff injury, also can afflict baseball pitchers. A common cause of golf injuries is the lack of a warm-up prior to beginning a round of golf. Stretches that target the shoulder and back muscles are particularly important. Nonetheless, to their chagrin, many golfers regard stretches as a non-essential facet of the sport. Until the 1980s, even professional golfers paid little attention to physical fitness and flexibility, believing that the sport was not rigorous enough to require a conditioning regimen. That attitude has changed, and nowadays the fitness trailer is an everpresent site at professional golf tournaments. Weight training to strengthen key muscle groups and flexibility exercises are as important to top-level golfers such as Tiger Woods as the time spent on the practice range honing their shots.

ACL injuries and female athletes; Cortisone steroid injections; Sports injuries.

SEE ALSO

Golf: Psychology of the swing The physical motion of swinging a golf club at a golf ball is only one facet of hitting the ball straight down the fairway and accurately at the green. The mental facet of the golf swing is just as important as sound swing mechanics. A well-struck golf ball requires a swing that is confident. If there is hesitation about what type of shot to play, where to aim the ball, or the club that has been selected for the shot, the swing can become tentative and awkward. Often, such a mechanically faulty swing will send the ball far off target or scuttling along the ground in a ‘‘worm burner’’ of a shot that goes far short of the anticipated distance. Instead, a golfer needs to have committed to the shot that he or she is about to play. This mental committment usually produces a confident and mechanically sound swing that will produce a good result. An important part of the psychology of the golf swing that instills this committment is to focus on the task at hand and, at the same time, relax both the body and the mind. Focusing involves trying to form a mental image of what the shot will be like. Some golfers describe this moment as an out-ofWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

body experience, where they mentally watch themselves strike the ball and send it precisely where they intend. For others, this moment involves deciding where the shot should be played, taking into account factors such as wind speed and direction, distance to the target, and obstacles that must be negotiated to get to the target. Both of these mental exercises help focus the golfer’s concentration on what they are about to do. Relaxing the body is important, because a sound golf swing is one that is relaxed. If there is tension in the hands, arms, or legs, a swing will not be smooth and coordinated, and a bad shot will likely be the result. Some golfers will stretch and flex their arms and legs during their preparation for a shot, which helps loosen their muscles. At the same time, a golfer will try to relax mentally. If a previous shot was faulty, the golfer will try to put that out of their mind. Anger is not helpful in golf. The physical and mental approaches form part of what many golfers call a ‘‘pre-shot routine.’’ By approaching each shot in the same way and using a uniform sequence of actions, a golfer can prepare themselves mentally for the shot. Pre-shot routines are as individual as the golfer. Mental confidence in a golf swing comes from practice. By honing the swing on the practice range, the swing becomes second nature. As well, the golfer is able to determine exactly how far each golf club will send the ball. For example, a professional golfer is able to ‘‘drive’’ the ball over 300 yd (275 m), while a sand wedge will send the ball much higher in the air for less than 100 yd (91 m). Over time, as practice instills confidence, golfers do not need to mentally dwell on the mechanics of the swing. This frees up their minds to focus on the type of shot they wish to play. That being said, part of swing psychology can involve a particular mechanical facet of the swing. For example, a golfer may remind themselves to keep one elbow close to their body or to make sure they swing their hips during the downswing. However, such reminders are usually a small part of a checklist that a golfer will go through during their pre-shot routine. With these reminders and having assured themselves that their stance is correct and that they are aiming in the desired direction, the mental focus will then shift to visualizing the perfect shot. Practice is not useful just for the recreational golfer. Even the elite golfer practices daily. For example, Vijay Singh, the second-ranked professional golfer in the world as of 2006, typically practices four

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swing. As his trust in the new swing grew, he regained his stellar abilities and, as of 2006, had once again become the preeminent golfer in the world. SEE ALSO

Biofeedback.

Golf swing dynamics The dynamics of the golf swing is important to every golfer’s game. To hit a golf ball, the golfer swings a club while standing at the side of a motionless ball positioned on the ground. Such a swing involves angular motion. In physics, angular motion is defined as the movement of a body about a fixed point, or axis. Speed, velocity, acceleration, momentum, mass, torque, kinetic energy, and centripetal force, are some of the concepts involved in the golf swing. For instance, the twisting motion of the swing produces torque (rotating motion) on the club. This force changes with the angular velocity (rate of rotation) of the club, which causes additional rotation to take place.

A mechanically faulty swing will send the ball far off target or scuttling along the ground in a ‘‘worm burner’’ of a shot that goes far short of the anticipated distance. ª LWA -DAN N TAR DIF/ CORB IS

to five hours every day in addition to playing a round of golf. The psychology of the golf swing becomes an extremely important part of the game when a golfer decides to change their swing. A golfer may choose to alter their swing to achieve more power or more accuracy, or to ease the physical strain of the current swing. When changes are made to a long-established swing, the natural feeling of the action is lost for a time. Then, it becomes important for the golfer to practice until the new swing becomes natural and reliable. Only then can their mind be freed from focusing on how the swing is performed and instead focus on what they wish the swing to achieve. In 2004, Tiger Woods, then the world’s number one-ranked golfer, decided to alter his swing to ease the strain on his lower back and to produce a more consistently accurate shot. For a time, his performance sufffered as he worked to master the revamped

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Since most club heads weigh approximately the same, the head’s velocity at the impact point is an important concept for hitting a golf ball long distances. The faster the head is swung, the greater the amount of kinetic energy—which is proportional to the head’s mass times its velocity squared—that will be transferred from the head to the ball. This energy transfer results directly in a faster ball speed off the golf tee. The swing involves the rotation of the human body in order to accelerate the club head so that it will collide with the ball. The right-handed golfer stands to the side of the ball with the left shoulder and hip pointing in the flight direction. The club is gripped with the right hand below the left hand. The hips and knees are slightly bent, and the arms hang off the shoulders. In physical terms, the swing can be viewed as two levers: one lever consisting of the combined efforts of the shoulder, arms, and hands rotating about an axis through the upper chest and a second lever consisting of the club rotating about an axis through the golfer’s hands. With this in mind, the swing consists of four parts: backswing, downswing, impact, and follow-through. The backswing (or upswing) is a coordinated backward movement of the club and the golfer’s hands and a rotation of the golfer’s trunk. The golfer’s weight shifts to the right, while the pelvis and shoulders are turned, the arms lifted, and the elbows and wrists bent. At the completion of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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The faster the club is swung, the more energy is transferred to the ball, thus increasing the distance it travels.

ª H . S PI CH TI NG E R/Z E F A/

CO RBIS

backswing, the hands are above the right shoulder, with the club pointing approximately in the direction of ball flight. The downswing assures that, when arriving at the impact point, the club head is moving at maximum speed and in the required direction and the clubface is moving in that identical direction. The downswing begins with forward movement of the hips, which occurs just before the club head reaches the zenith of the backswing. The hip’s forward motion rotates the upper body and moves both levers through the beginning of the downswing. The relative positions of the shoulders, arms, hands, and golf club are fixed. When the left arm becomes horizontal, the hands continue their path through a circular arc at constant speed while the club head’s speed increases rapidly as the angle between the club shaft and left arm straightens. At the end of the downWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

swing, the right elbow is brought down and close to the body’s right side. During the final moments, the wrists are rolled through approximately 90 so the back of the left hand and the clubface are brought around perpendicular to that direction. At this time, the forces on the golfer’s hand resolve into two components: the radial force (centripetal force) that acts toward the axis that the shoulders-arms-hands lever rotates (which restricts the motion of the handgrip to a circular arc), and the tangential force that acts in a direction parallel to the path followed by the handgrip (which helps to accelerate the club). The critical features of the swing at the moment of impact are the position of the club head, the orientation of the clubface, and the velocity at which they are moving. Generally, the club face is at a

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GOLF: WHY GRAPHITE-SHAFTED CLUBS PRODUCE LONGER DRIVES

90 angle to the required direction; the club head’s center of gravity is directly behind the ball’s center; and the club head is moving forward with maximum speed. The follow-through consists of a continued rotation to the left. At the end, the golfer’s weight has shifted almost completely to the left foot, the body is turned entirely to the left, and the hands are above the left shoulder with the golf club positioned over the player’s back. The golf club acquires its energy from three sources: the golfer’s torque acting on the arms as they move through the downswing’s arc; the potential energy of the arms and club at the top of the backswing (which turns to kinetic energy as the arms and club drop down during the swing); and the work done by the golfer during the shifting of the axis of the swing.

Golf; Golf ball construction and flight dynamics; Golf: Psychology of the swing.

SEE ALSO

Another advantage of a graphite shaft that produces a longer shot has to do with a property called torque, which is a force that tends to cause rotation. In this case, the rotational force is imparted on the club head that is positioned at the end of the shaft. As the club is swung backward and then forward in the golf swing, the club head will tend to rotate. Thus, as the club head makes contact with the golf ball, the head may not be pointing straight down the target line, but instead might be angled slightly off-target. The result, even with the finely crafted golf swing of a professional golfer, could be a golf ball destined for the woods. A graphite shaft is more resistant to torque, so the club face will stay truer to the target line, if the golf swing is executed properly. Graphite allows a golf shaft to have the ideal blend of strength and lightness. This produces a quicker golf swing, with more energy to propel the golf ball, along with the strength to resist the swing forces that would otherwise misdirect the club head. The result is longer and straighter shots. SEE ALSO

Golf: Why graphite-shafted clubs produce longer drives When golf was played centuries ago, a ball that went 100 yd (91.4 m) after being struck with a golf club was considered a formidable shot. Nowadays, the various technological refinements have made shots of 300 yd (274 m) and more routine for the accomplished golfer. One of the main reasons for this astonishing increase in distance is the construction of the shaft of the golf club. For most of the twentieth century, shafts were made of steel, which contains iron, chromium, carbon, and sometimes other elements. In the 1980s, club manufacturers introduced shafts made of graphite—a form of crystallized carbon. The different construction of graphite and steel confers different properties to the shafts made of these materials. Both graphite and steel shafts are strong, and so will stand up to the rigors of the club face hitting a golf ball at high speed (professional golfers can generate a club head speed in excess of 100 mi/161 km per hour). But a graphite shaft is lighter than a steel shaft. This weight difference can translate into an additional 2 to 4 mi (3.2 to 6.4 km) per hour of club head speed with the graphite shaft, which, in turn, means the ball will fly 6 –12 yd (5.510.9 m) further than if struck with a steel-shafted club.

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Tennis racquet construction; Trampoline.

Robert W. Gore 8/8/1939– AMERICAN CHEMICAL ENGINEER

As the developer of GORE-TEX, Robert Gore helped to revolutionize the outdoor clothing and sport footwear industries. Gore is a chemical engineer and academic who invented a compound known as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) in 1959. Gore had originally envisaged PTFE as an ideal insulating material for electrical wires and cables. He experimented with PTFE and discovered that when heated, PTFE could be stretched and expanded, creating fibers that could be woven into a fabric that was chemically inert and therefore resistant to any degradation due to heat, cold, wind, or ultraviolet rays. This expanded form of PTFE was first discovered by Gore in 1967. Gore continued with his research with a goal to make the fabric commercially viable. Gore’s invention was subsequently marketed as a clothing fiber under the brand name GORE-TEX. The manufacturing process was patented in 1972, with the first commercial sales of GORE-TEX made in 1976. Of all American patents issued since 1975, the GORE-TEX patent is one of the ten most-cited patents in applications received at the United States Patent Office. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

COLEMAN ROBERTS GRIFFITH

Golfer practicing at driving range.

ª LE LAN D B OBB E´ /CO RB IS

GORE-TEX is the best known protective fabric of its kind in the world, and the name has become the generic term for all manner of waterproof and windproof materials used in the manufacture of outdoor clothing.

penetrating to the wearer below. In this fashion, the fabric assists in reducing the chances of the wearer becoming cold due to the effect of water making clothing damp and thus increasing the heat loss sustained by the wearer.

Soon after its commercial introduction, GORE-TEX quickly became a popular material for use in all types of outdoor sports equipment, such as jackets, gloves, shoes, and boots, because it is both durable and waterproof. GORE-TEX is typically placed between an outer fabric and an inner lining. An important performance feature of GORE-TEX is that it is breathable; if an athlete wishes to wear layers of clothing that can be removed as required if temperatures change, GORE-TEX does not trap perspiration either against the wearer’s skin or between itself and an interior layer of clothing; the moisture passes from one layer through the next. This process, used by outdoor athletes to achieve both comfort and protection from the elements, is known as wicking.

In recognition of his work in developing GORETEX, Robert Gore was inducted into the American National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2006.

The ability of the GORE-TEX fabric to repel water was further enhanced by a polymer coating added in the manufacturing process that is designed to penetrate to the individual fibers. The polymer increases the ability of the fabric to cause water to bead and run off the GORETEX surface without being absorbed into the fabric or WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SEE ALSO

Cold weather exercise; Extreme sports;

Sailing.

Governing bodies

SEE

National

governing bodies

Coleman Roberts Griffith 1893–1966 AMERICAN SPORTS PSYCHOLOGIST

The recognition of sports psychology as a distinct branch of the study of human psychology is a

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DELOREZ FLORENCE GRIFFITH-JOYNER

relatively recent development. The modern accepted definition of sports psychcology is the study of the mental and emotional factors that both influence and are themselves influenced by exercise and sports participation. In competitive sports, psychologists work with both coaches and athletes to develop appropriate methods to assist with the motivation and improved performance of the athlete. The world’s first sports psychology laboratory was established in Germany in 1920. In 1925, Coleman Griffith, recognized as the father of this science in the United States, established the first ever sports psychology facility in the nation, the Athletic Research Laboratory. Griffith had commenced his research into various sports science and psychology issues in 1918, and he introduced the first university level courses in sports psychology at the University of Illinois in 1923. It is a testament to the impact of Griffith’s pioneering work that his research focus in 1923 was quite similar to many of the important areas of sports psychology today. Griffith conducted experiments into the relationship between physiology and psychology, exploring relationships such as the tension of muscles during athletic performance and reaction time. Griffith had a particular interest in the relationship between the individual personality of the athlete and performance, as well as the impact of the competitive environment on the mental outlook of the athlete. As a result of Griffith’s work at the University of Illinois, he published two seminal sports psychology books. The first, the Psychology of Coaching, written in 1926, is the first ever sports psychology text. Griffith followed this work with the The Psychology of Athletes in 1928. With the onset of the Great Depression in 1930, Griffith’s psychology laboratory could not be sustained and it was closed in 1932. In 1938, Griffith was hired by the Chicago Cubs baseball club to provide advise as to the psychological factors at play in the structure and performance of the team. Griffith was the first psychologist ever retained by a professional sports team for this purpose; Griffith worked with the Cubs for three seasons, with few of his recommendations implemented by the team management. Griffith’s work is all the more significant when one considers that there was no major sports psychology research conducted in North America from the time of the closure of the Griffith laboratory until the mid-1960s.

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Mental stress; Motivational Techniques; Sports psychology.

SEE ALSO

Delorez Florence Griffith-Joyner 12/21/1959–9/21/1998 AMERICAN OLYMPIC SPRINTER

Florence Griffith-Joyner is, arguably, the most successful female sprinter in history. A combination of phenomenal speed on the track and a flair for fashion made Griffith-Joyner, dubbed Flo Jo by the American media, the most visible Olympic athlete in the United States in the 1980s. Griffith-Joyner established world records in both the 100 m and 200 m distances, among other achievements during her career. Since her sudden death at age 38 due to a seizure in 1998, the Griffith-Joyner legacy of track supremacy has been colored to a significant degree by the persistent allegations of her use of steroids and other performance enhancing substances. Griffith-Joyner grew up in very difficult personal circumstances in the housing projects of Los Angeles. Griffith-Joyner demonstrated an early proficiency as a sprinter, with sufficient talent to secure a track scholarship to the University of California-Northridge in 1978. Griffith-Joyner quit both school and her track training the next year to assist in the support of her family. To that point in her career, there had been nothing in her results or attitude toward her track career that suggested that Griffith-Joyner would be a future Olympic gold medalist and world record holder. Through the influence of her university track coach, Bob Kersee, Griffith-Joyner returned to both track training and her education, enrolling at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) in 1979. Kersee coached Griffith-Joyner during her career at UCLA, where Griffith-Joyner forged a reputation as one of the premier collegiate sprinters, winning National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) championships in both the 200m and the 400m distances. Griffith-Joyner was selected to the United States Olympic team in 1984, when the city of Los Angeles hosted the Summer Games. With Kersee continuing as her coach, Griffith-Joyner won the silver medal in the 200 m event. After the 1984 Olympics, GriffithJoyner retired from running and she did not compete for a period of three years. Griffith-Joyner resumed WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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her training in 1987, in preparation for the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, South Korea. A noteworthy feature of the success enjoyed by Griffith-Joyner was the interrelationship in the careers of Griffith-Joyner and American Olympic and world record holder, heptathlete Jackie JoynerKersee. Griffith-Joyner had married Joyner-Kersee’s brother, Al Joyner, in 1987. Joyner-Kersee married Griffith-Joyner’s long time coach, Bob Kersee. Griffith-Joyner ultimately replaced Kersee as her coach with her husband Al Joyner, in advance of the 1988 Games. In the United States Olympic qualifying meet in July 1988, Griffith-Joyner ran what remains the world record time in the women’s 100 m, 10.49 seconds, a remarkable achievement given that Griffith-Joyner broke the existing record by 0.27 seconds. In a sport where records fall incrementally, by one and two hundreds of a second at a time, the GriffithJoyner run represented not only the fastest 100 m time in history, it was also the greatest single race reduction of the world record time for the 100 m in history. Griffith-Joyner continued her sprinting dominance at the Seoul Games. Griffith-Joyner won both the 100 m and the 200 m sprints en route to the capture of four Olympic medals in total, the greatest number of medals ever won at a single Summer Olympics by a female athlete. The media paid close attention to the various fashions worn by Griffith-Joyner on the track, a colorful series of outfits offset by her long and prominently colored finger nails. She was publicized during the Games as a bold, supremely talented athlete who went against the grain, but in a fashion that was cheerful non-conformist, as opposed to the making of a political or personal statement. Griffith-Joyner was portrayed as the modern mixture of female style and athletic substance. As a result of her Olympic triumphs, GriffithJoyner was named the United States female athlete of the year for 1988 by virtually every national media organization. Griffith-Joyner retired from competition after the 1988 Olympics. The critics of Griffith-Joyner regarding suspected steroid use pointed to the fact that Griffith-Joyner announced her retirement at the height of her fame and the peak of her apparent talent, soon after the International Amateur Athletics Federation, (IAAF), announced that it would be instituting a program of out-of-competition drug testing for elite level athletes. Griffith-Joyner remained out of the sports limelight until 1993, when she was appointed the co-chair of the President’s Council on Physical Fitness. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The rumors that Griffith-Joyner was using of performance enhancing drugs began to circulate at the Seoul Olympics. The fact that Griffith-Joyner had never failed a drug test of any kind became secondary to other events that transcended her triumphs at the Games. The most prominent story of the entire Games had been the shocking disqualification of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson, winner of the men’s 100 m championship, who had subsequently tested positive in a post race drug test for the presence of an banned anabolic steroid in his system. All sprinters were now subjected to significant media commentary regarding drugs used, a scrutiny that appeared to carry with it a strong measure of cynicism; many observers believed that most, if not all Olympic sprinters were ingesting some form of performance enhancing substance. In 1989, Darrell Robinson, a former United States national 400 m champion, indicated that he had sold a human growth hormone (HGH) to Griffith-Joyner in 1988. Griffith-Joyner denied the allegation, as she did any other suggestions that she had ever used any form of illegal drug. The manner of Griffith-Joyner’s death served to contribute to performance enhancing drug use speculation, as Griffith Joyner died suddenly in her sleep of asphyxiation caused by an epileptic seizure, at age 38 in 1998. The manner of GriffithJoyner’s death fueled a new round of speculative comment that Griffith-Joyner’s suspected use of performance enhancing drugs had contributed to the untimely death of this athlete. An autopsy performed on Griffith-Joyner’s body that did not reveal any direct evidence of the use of performance enhancing substances did not stem the speculative tide. It is unlikely that the rumors surrounding GriffithJoyner concerning drugs can ever be definitively answered. Her world record in the 100 m has survived many challenges since 1988, and Griffith-Joyner’s Olympic achievements secured her place in the history of track and field.

Anabolic steroids; HGH; Running: Sprinting; Track and Field.

SEE ALSO

Groin injuries SEE Hip and groin injuries Groin pulls and strains In many respects, the groin is a most unglamorous part of the athletic anatomy. Groin is a catchall term, generally describing the place where the

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upper thigh and the trunk of the body join together; the groin is also commonly stated to include the genitalia. In the stricter sports medicine sense, the groin is the intersection of the abductor muscles, responsible for the flexion of the upper leg, and the abdominal muscles at the fold created where the pelvis and the muscles, tissues, and bones of the thigh meet. A strain of a muscle, also known as a muscle pull, is a tear of the muscle fiber, the extent of which is determined by the nature and the extent of the tearing. Strains may range from a slight stretch of the muscle (sometimes referred to as a micro-tear, due to the fact that any stretching will rip the muscle fabric) to a complete rupture. A muscle strain will result in a limitation of physical movement that generally corresponds to the degree of severity of the tear. Groin strains are caused primarily by quick, explosive efforts to change direction or to accelerate. These types of movements tend to place significant stress on the abductors. Sports such as American football, soccer, and gymnastics commonly result in groin injuries. The symptoms of a groin pull or strain will typically include one or more of the following: pain in the groin, often both persistent and severe; movement that is stiff, awkward, and limited; sensation of weakness when a person attempts to move the thigh muscle closest to the affected area; painful lateral movement; a significant tear in the muscle often involves bruising observable on the upper inside portion of the thigh; and in a worst-case scenario, the muscle attached to either the femur or the pelvis will detach with a particle of bone. The immediate treatment for a suspected groin strain is conservative. The injured person should cease the activity, and commence a progression of RICE applications (rest/ice/compression/elevation). In some settings, such as professional sports, it is a relatively common occurrence for the injured athlete to receive an injection of painkilling medication. Most of these injections are made directly into the afflicted area to assist the athlete to continue. Such treatment is a danger to the long-term health of the athlete, as the initial groin muscle tear may worsen after the injury. Because the usual pain sensors are deadened by the analgesic effect of the injection, the injury may become more serious. The general recovery time from a groin pull may be as little as seven days (in the case of a mild strain), to as long as three months or more when there is a complete tear. The rehabilitation of the injury will be assisted if the athlete concentrates on the development of a combi-

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New York Yankees pitcher Roger Clemens (L) throws to catcher Jorge Posada (R) in the first inning against the Boston Red Sox in a June 2000 game. Clemens was replaced for the second inning after he pulled a groin muscle. JEFF ZELEVANSKY/ AF P/ G ET T Y I M AG ES

nation of strength and flexibility in the groin and all adjacent muscle groups. In recent years, the most debilitating of athletic groin strains is inaccurately referred to as a ‘‘sport hernia.’’ While a hernia is an injury that occurs in a similar location of the body—the lower abdomen and its muscle structures—a true hernia involves a tear in the muscle abdominal wall, which causes the internal tissues to protrude. Heavy weightlifting or similar explosive muscle stress is a common hernia cause. The sport hernia (also known by the sports medicine name Gilmour groin) was formally identified by a British physician who had treated successive elitelevel soccer players for chronic groin strain injuries. In each case, the ligament that supports the inguinal canal, through which the male spermatic cord passes to connect to the scrotum, becomes torn through sudden lateral or darting movements. This most serious of groin strains requires surgery, with no guarantee of success given the nature of the torn ligament and its relationship to the surrounding muscle structures. Noted American football player Donovan McNabb is one of many athletes in recent years to undergo this procedure.

Hip and groin injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Sprains and strains; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO


GROWTH

Growth Growth, as used as a term to discuss the human body, has a number of meanings. In general terms, growth is the process towards full development and physical maturity. At a biological organism level, growth represents the change in a cell from a simple to a more complicated structure. All human cells are formed with mechanisms that foster growth, and all cell creation taken together combines to define the growth of the human body. Growth in the human body is regulated by a remarkably complicated group of internal components that are linked to the particular hereditary traits of the individual, which are compartmentalized in the genetic structure of every person, and coded in the DNA contained within each gene. These internal components, both with and in response to external factors such as the environment and exercise, regulate human growth processes through the release of the growth hormone, known as somatotropin. Hormones are chemicals produced by the body to regulate its own cellular processes and organ function. Many hormones are commonly the subject of interest in a sport science context; erythropoietin (EPO) is the substance secreted by the kidneys that signals increased production of erythrocytes (red blood cells) for increased oxygen transport in the bloodstream; adrenaline is the hormone produced by the adrenal gland, located near the kidney, during periods of excitement or stimulation to increase circulation and muscular activity. The growth hormone is produced by the anterior pituitary gland, a small structure located inside the skull. The main endocrine gland is the pituitary gland, a structure that permits the flow of a hormone directly into the bloodstream. It is often referred to as the ‘‘master gland’’ of the body, as it regulates the performance of other glands. The release of growth hormone by the pituitary gland is the most important regulator of physical development, as this chemical will determine the rate of cell growth, sexual development, and physical traits. The process initiated by the release of growth hormone from the pituitary gland sets into motion a complicated series of biochemical relationships. The growth hormone is a compound known as a polypeptide, which comprises 191 different amino acids, the formation material from which proteins, the building blocks of muscle and tissue formation, are made. The sequence of the amino acids within each polypeptide is determined by the individual genetic code of the person, which is contained in the DNA. Increases in the release WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

of growth hormone by the pituitary gland boost the synthesis of protein, and correspondingly impact both the speed of cell growth and metabolism. Conversely, natural release of the growth hormone declines from a peak at age 20; by age 40, the typical adult produces only 40% of the growth hormone available at peak. For this reason, supplement forms of human growth hormone have attracted significant attention in the athletic community as well as with the general population. While the growth mechanisms of the body may be set into motion and regulated by the hereditary impulses determined by the genetic structure of every human, factors external to the body are as important to growth. Diet, including foods, vitamins, and minerals, is the most important of these growthimpacting factors. If a dietary deficiency exists with respect to a particular aspect of growth, the impulses sent to the body to increase cell formation through hormonal release will be ineffective. An example of this contrast is found in bone growth. Calcium, in combination with vitamin D, is essential to the creation of osteoblasts, the building blocks of skeletal cells. The release of growth hormone from the pituitary gland may send a signal to the bones to create more cells, but if the raw materials for construction are inadequately supplied, there will be insufficient growth. The existing structure will also experience a reduced capacity to repair itself. Environmental factors may also affect growth. The exposure of young children to toxins such as air pollution has a proven inhibiting effect upon the growth of the entire physical structure, including the cardiorespiratory system and skin. The long bones of the body such as the femur (thigh bone) and the humerus (upper arm) are designed to grow to mature size over a period of years. The increases in length, circumference, and density of such bones are facilitated in part by the physis (growth plate), the portion made of developing tissue located near each end of these long bones; the epiphysis is the head or the extremity of the bone. The growth plate function is to regulate the pattern of shape and development of the mature, fully formed bone, a maturation process that begins at birth and is generally completed by age 20. As the growth plate is the last portion of the bone to harden into maturity (a process known as ossification), it is more vulnerable to injury. Damage to the growth plate of a youth that is not properly treated can result in shortened or deformed bones in adulthood. When the human growth hormone became the subject of intense scientific research in relation to its potential use as a nutritional supplement, particular

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Growth hormones Growth hormones are the chemical stimulation that initiates cell division, bone growth, and a number of other physical processes within the human body. The nature and impact of growth hormone released from the anterior pituitary gland, often referred to as the ‘‘master gland’’ of the body, is uniquely determined within every individual. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) provides the governing code to human genetic structure. The manner in which DNA is organized within the human gene is the blueprint for how the growth hormone will tend to impact on the physiological processes of the body.

The pituitary gland regulates the secretion of the growth hormone into the blood stream. The release of the growth hormone decreases after age 20. ª THO MAS BR UMM ETT /COR BIS

emphasis was placed upon those sports where physical size and strength are at a premium. The growth hormone has been synthesized, and is widely distributed under the acronym HGH; human growth hormone has also been extracted from the pituitary glands of cadavers for this purpose. A wide range of scientific studies has confirmed that in its natural as well as in its synthetic form, human growth hormone will tend to permit the increase in physical strength and endurance when combined with a focused training program. The hormone generally stimulates the liver to produce a chemical known as IGF-1, which has the dual effect of stimulating the production of myoblasts, a key to the development of muscle growth, and facilitating cartilage and bone cell growth. Additional human growth hormone appears to generally increase the metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. The period within which human growth hormone has been examined scientifically is relatively short; definitive conclusions regarding the safety of its use as a supplement are not yet available. However, it is clearly a potential performance-enhancing substance, and it is a prohibited substance in elite athletics of all types. Human growth hormones in supplement form are also listed as a prohibited substance by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). SEE ALSO Diet; Growth hormones; Health; Muscle mass and strength.

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While the growth hormone is a crucial component of physical development in the childhood and adolescence of all humans, the body depends on the regulatory effects of this chemical for its entire lifetime. Growth hormone is the term used to describe the natural chemical produced by the body; the synthetic form of the growth hormone is identified by the acronym HGH. The human growth hormone (HGH), also referred to as somatotropin, is released from the pituitary gland as a polypeptide, a collection of 191 amino acids that are the essential components of proteins, and used by the body to build and maintain muscle, organs, and tissue. While the growth hormone is released in various forms from the pituitary, referred to as sonatotrope cells, all are centered on a protein-developing capability. The pituitary gland, which regulates sexual reproduction and other developmental features, also produces and secretes other hormones; the growth hormone is the largest such production. A number of external factors will influence the stimulation of or the reduction in the amount of growth hormone flowing from the pituitary gland at a given time. Circumstances that stimulate the pituitary include exercise, particularly when there is significance resistance involved in the activity, as in weight training, sleep, and the ingestion of dietary proteins such as meat or dairy products, or when the level of glucose in the blood system is low, a condition known as hypoglycemia. Factors tending to reduce pituitary growth hormone output are the ingestion of dietary carbohydrates, and the increased level of glucocorticoids such as prednisone and cortisone in the bloodstream. Growth hormone secretion typically peaks at night, approximately one hour after the person has fallen asleep. The production of growth hormone is highest in the early childhood years, between the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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ages of three and six. The most pronounced peaks of hormone delivery to the body by the pituitary gland occur during adolescence, in the usual developmental spurts that accompany puberty. After age 20, production of growth hormone declines steadily; the amount of hormone produced at age 40 by the pituitary gland is approximately 40% of the level generated at age 20. Growth hormones have a number of separate but related functions with respect to the performance of many bodily systems. During the periods of the body maturation from childhood through adolescence and into adulthood, the primary function of the hormones is to provide a building-up effect, through the stimulation of cells, that is accomplished by the interaction of the growth hormones and various types of protein receptors located on the surface of the cells. The crucial areas of human growth and development that are either directed or influenced by the presence of growth hormone include the long skeletal bones, chiefly, the femur (thigh bone), fibula (lower leg), tibia (shin bone), and humerus (upper arm), through the stimulation of the physis (growth plate), which is present on all such bones near the epiphysis, or head, at each end of the bone, and the cartilage cells. Growth hormones will in turn trigger the production of insulin-like growth factor 1, known as IGF-1, a chemical similar to insulin, the hormone produced in the pancreas in response to the elevated presence of sugar in the bloodstream. Insulin signals the liver to store greater amounts of glucose to reduce blood sugar levels. Growth hormones also trigger the increase of muscle mass, when the body is subjected to appropriate physical exercise. Growth hormones also cause the increased retention of the mineral calcium, and the specific mineralization of bone, particularly phosphorus, which is required for the construction of bone cells. The health of various organ systems, including the renal system (kidneys), is affected by growth hormones, as is the promotion of lipolysis, the process by which fats ingested into the body through diet are reduced into their constituent fatty acids and glycerol and made useful as energy sources. Fatty acids can be employed as a direct source of fuel, in the creation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP); glycerol is processed by the liver into, and is ultimately stored as, glycogen. Although rare conditions, both deficient and excessive amounts of growth hormone can cause serious health problems. The two major conditions of excessive amounts are acromegaly, which is the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

establishment of a slow developing, growth hormoneproducing tumor that may remain hidden from detection, and pituitary giantism, which creates a super-accelerated bone and tissue growth. When the hormone is not released in large enough amounts, the person will experience reductions in physical size, strength, levels of energy, and often a reduced bone mass and density, known as osteoporosis. Significant areas of interest regarding the uses of the human growth hormone have arisen since the late 1970s, which have consequently spurred scientific research. These areas of research include hormone treatments for growth hormone deficiency diseases; as a counter to the effects of weight loss caused by wasting diseases such as AIDS and cancers; as a supplement to those persons in their adolescent years who wished to grow taller; as a possible means to reverse the natural aging process; and as a training aid and supplement to athletes engaged in power and strength-dominated sports. Much of the research has been conducted with respect to athletic performance, given the significant commercial rewards for both a successful developer of a growth hormone supplement and for any athlete who might derive the corresponding athletic benefits. When the human growth hormone became the subject of intense scientific research in relation to its potential use as a nutritional supplement, particular emphasis was placed upon those sports in which physical size and strength are at a premium. In the 1980s, reports began to circulate, often unsubstantiated, that various bodybuilders, weightlifters, and professional American football players had experimented with growth hormones. The growth hormone has been available in a synthesized form for over 20 years, where it is widely distributed in both North America and Europe as HGH; the first human growth hormone made available for non-medical purposes had been extracted from the pituitary glands of cadavers, to be either taken in pill form or injected into the bloodstream. A wide range of scientific studies have confirmed that in its natural as well as in its synthetic form, human growth hormone will tend to stimulate an increase in physical strength and endurance of an athlete, when combined with a focused strength training program. The natural and synthetic forms of the hormone stimulate the liver to produce IGF-1, which has an established dual effect of stimulating the production of myoblasts, a key to the development of muscle growth, as well as facilitating cartilage and bone cell growth, in addition to its increased lipolysis effect. The additional human growth

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Laboratory technician checks a blood sample during testing for the banned human growth hormone, EPO.

hormone taken as a supplement appears to increase the metabolism of the body that, subject to other external factors, will result in a potential weight gain achieved through muscle development, with a corresponding loss in body fat percentage. The period within which human growth hormone has been examined scientifically is relatively short, and much of the use of both natural hormone and HGH has occurred in clandestine circumstances; definitive conclusions regarding the safety of its use as an athletic nutritional supplement are not yet available. It is well known that in the early days of HGH use, the hormone was often a part of a larger mixture of substances, including anabolic steroids; the effects of these substances in combination are a focus of physical study. However, growth hormone undoubtedly possesses significant potential as a performance-enhancing substance, and for this reason it is a prohibited substance in elite athletics of all types. Human growth hormone in supplement form is specifically listed as a prohibited substance by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). WADA is often a secretive agency with regard to how tests for certain

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prescribed substances are conducted, to ensure that a user of a banned substance does not enlist as yet undiscovered means to mask or otherwise defeat the testing procedures. Substances such as growth hormone, both as a natural and synthetic product, cannot usually be detected in the bloodstream or urine of an athlete. The testing developed for human growth hormone in international athletics will center upon the presence of other related particles in the blood. Such particles are often known as metabolites. Growth hormone produces elevated levels of IGF-1 in the bloodstream, in measurable amounts after each dosage. It is the discovery of such metabolites that will be the key to detecting the usage of HGH by athletes.

Growth; Injection; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Growth plate injuries Every one of the long skeletal bones in the body has a growth plate that governs its rate of the bone WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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growth and development. This growth plate, or physis, is located near the end of each long bone, adjoining the head of the bone, called the epiphysis. The release of growth hormone, somatotropin, interacts with the cells of the growth plate during periods of cellular creation. As a child grows, the growth plates harden by a process known as ossification of the bone cells, eventually disappearing when the body reaches maturity. Thus, growth plate injuries are, by definition, damage sustained by a child or an adolescent. Bones such as the tibia and fibula (lower leg), the radius (forearm), and the femur (thigh) are structures that commonly sustain growth plate damage. The growth plate in a child or adolescent is often softer than the supporting ligaments and connective tissues, because bones form more slowly, rendering the growth plate more vulnerable to fracture. The period in physical development when the bones are at the greatest risk of a growth plate injury is near the end of puberty. Growth plate injuries are twice as likely to occur in boys as in girls, due primarily to the fact that girls reach physical maturation approximately two years earlier than boys, coupled with the greater degree of participation of boys in physically riskier activities. Approximately 30% to 40% of all growth plate injuries in both sexes occur in the competitive sport environment. A further 20% of growth plate damage occurs in recreational sports such as skateboarding. These injuries regularly occur as a result of both direct trauma as well as through overuse or repetitive strain being placed upon a bone, such as the throwing shoulder or elbow of a youth baseball pitcher. The long bones of the fingers (phalanges), the radius, and the tibia/fibula structure are the most common sports-related growth plate fractures. Fracture of the growth plate is the most common type of injury sustained to this portion of the bone. Diagnosis and treatment of such an injury are complicated by the speedy recuperative powers of children; damage to the growth plate can go undetected and quickly heal in a fashion in which the bone is misaligned. A system of growth plate fracture classification was first devised in the 1960s, known as the Salter-Harris system, with five progressively more serious fractures described. In recent years, the Peterson classification system was developed, adding a sixth category of fracture. The categories and the general treatment methods range from Type I to Type VI. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Type I is a fracture of the bone above the growth plate, with a line extending into the growth plate. These fractures are treated by immobilizing the bone in a cast. Type II is a fracture of the bone in part of the growth plate, and a crack of the bone shaft. This is the most common type of growth plate fracture, typically requiring a cast; the fracture may also require surgery, often to insert a pin, or similar device, to stabilize the structure as it heals. Type III is a complete fracture of the growth plate. This injury will require surgical repair. Type IV is a fracture that results in a breaking off of the end of the bone (epiphysis). This injury will also require surgical repair. Type V is a fracture of the bone shaft, growth plate, and the end of the bone. This injury presents a significant risk of permanently arresting development of the bone, due to the potential future inability of the growth plate to function. Surgical repair is required. Finally, type VI is a fracture of the bone that is sufficiently traumatic to result in portions of the bone being removed, as might occur in a serious motor vehicle collision or gunshot wound absorbed by the bone. Surgical repair and reconstruction are necessary with this type of injury. A common injury that occurs in young athletes that is very similar to a damaged growth plate is the patellar tendon ailment known as Osgood-Sclatter disease (OSD). Occurring primarily in adolescent boys, OSD is the result of a lesion that grows on the surface of the tibia, in the area of the epiphysis. This lesion creates an irritation on the tendon that connects the tibia to the patella (knee cap). The rapid bone growth is genetic in origin; when coupled with the stresses of running and jumping, OSD can cause significant pain to a young athlete; swelling and a lack of flexibility in the knee joint are common symptoms. OSD usually resolves itself when the person reaches physical maturity, but the condition will require attention, including rest, ice, stretching exercises, and efforts to ensure that the quadriceps is strong and balanced in relation to the lower leg. The other mechanisms of injury that create potential risks to the growth plate include situations of child abuse, such as the repeated shaking of a child; exposure to extreme cold and resultant frostbite to bones such as the fingers; radiation as used in childhood chemotherapy; and inherited musculoskeletal disorders. SEE ALSO

Growth; Knee injuries; Thigh and upper leg

injuries.

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Gymnastics Gymnastics is a sport with a long history as a training and fitness aid, first as preparation for military service and later as a physical education activity. The Greek word gymnos, meaning ‘‘naked,’’ is the root word for gymnastics, as it was in this physical state that the original gymnasts performed their routines. Used in its comprehensive sense as a means of developing physical fitness, gymnastics is defined as a series or defined set of physical exercises, each intended to build and to illustrate stamina, strength, balance, and coordination. Gymnastics exercises are performed on a flat surface such as a floor, with some types of gymnastics maneuvers intended for execution upon specially designed equipment. Gymnastics was accepted as one of the fundamentals to the attainment of complete physical fitness as that concept evolved into the broader notion of physical education. It is for this reason that the terms ‘‘gymnasium’’ and ‘‘gym class’’ came to represent all manner of physical training and activity. Germany’s John Basedow (1723-1790) is generally recognized as the original proponent of gymnastics as a part of the education of young people. Basedow’s influence extended throughout Europe into the 1800s, as gymnastics clubs dedicated to physical fitness principles were established. Vaulting over a stationary object and complicated floor based exercises were popular. Frederick Jahn (1778-1852), the inventor of now standard pieces of gymnastics equipment such as the pommel horse and the parallel bars helped to spur the development of gymnastics in the Untied States. The Turnverein, a form of German gynmnastics club, was well established throughout the eastern United States by 1900. Competitive gymnastics was formalized into a broadly based administrative structure through the formation of the Federation Internationale de Gymnastiques (FIG) in 1881. Today there are affiliated national gymnastics associations in virtually every country in the world. FIG sets all standards for the competitions staged in both the Olympic Games as well as the annual World gymnastics championships and regional competitions, such as the European championships and those organized by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Gymnastics has a worldwide following—the television ratings for Olympic gymnastics are among the highest of any sport. Like figure skating, gymnastics has an aesthetic as well as an athletic appeal. Olga Korbut, the Russian gymnastics star of the 1972 Olympics; Nadia Comenich, the Bulgarian athlete who superseded

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Korbut in terms of international renown at the 1976 Games; and American Mary Lou Retton in the 1980s, are three such examples. FIG also has international authority over a broad range of sports disciplines that are defined as gymnastics. Artistic gymnastics is the competition conducted in men’s, women’s, and team categories, encompassing most of the movements popularly associated with the sport of gymnastics generally. Rhythmic gymnastics is a women’s only event, where the competitors move in a series of floor exercises set to music, employing demonstrative aids such as balls and ribbons in the flow of the routines. Trampoline is a sport that has been developed for international competition since the 1980s, where the athletes perform pre-determined aerial maneuvers, in a scoring concept similar to freestyle skiing or diving. Artistic gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, and trampoline are all Olympic sports. FIG also supervises sports derived from traditional gymnastics, including sport aerobics, sport acrobatics, and general gymnastics—a form of group gymnastics activity. These sports are organized into various forms of competition, and each enjoys a regional as opposed to an international appeal. Artistic gymnastics is the best known and the most popular of the gymnastics variants. Men’s gymnastics includes six distinct specialties: floor exercises, movements that involve tumbling and other forms of dynamic movement in a finite area; vault, a fixed apparatus over which the athlete leaps with the aid of a springboard, executing one of a variety of movements from the top of the apparatus before landing; pommel horse, a stationary object with specialized hand grips on which the gymnast performs a set routine of movements; the horizontal bar (sometimes referred to as the high bar), a fixed apparatus on which the gymnast performs a routine of various spins and strength exercises; the parallel bars, a structure on which the athlete uses strength, balance and coordination to move along the bars in a choreographed routine; the rings, suspended above the floor, on which the gymnast suspends himself through out the routine, using the rings to execute flips and other coordinated movements for a set period. The women’s gymnastics competition is constituted with different events. Women perform the floor exercises and the vault event in a fashion similar to that of the men. The additional women’s competitive events are the balance beam, where the gymnast performs a series of movements on a sprung wooden beam 4 in (10 cm) wide and 16 ft long (5 m), set WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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approximately 4 ft (125 cm) from the floor surface, and the uneven bars, where the athlete moves from bar to bar in a series of twists and movements dependent upon the athlete’s ability to control the direction of the centripetal forces that are generated by the circular rotations of the gymnasts body as she moves from bar to bar through the routine. In gymnastics competition, individual athletes are scored on each apparatus, as well as on a cumulative basis for the individual as well as the team. Like sports such as diving or figure skating, the judging of gymnastics is subjective, with a complex series of guidelines developed by FIG with the relative degree of difficulty of each maneuver attempted by the competitor factored into the score. Nadia Comenich, at age 14, was the first competitor in Olympics competition to receive a perfect score from all judges in an event. No other sport places a greater premium upon the development and maintenance of a strength to weight ratio in the athlete. Every gymnastics event will require intense training directed to explosive and yet graceful, coordinated movement. As a general biomechanical proposition, the lighter the body mass coupled with the maximum amount of lean muscle mass and muscle strength, the more dynamic and more powerful the athlete. Examples with in gymnastics that emphasize this proposition most profoundly are the men’s rings event and the women’s balance beam. In each discipline, for significant periods of time, the athlete must balance their entire body weight with both precision (as is mandated by the scoring system) and muscular strength. For these reasons, gymnasts tend to be relatively short, slim, muscular individuals, with significant fast twitch fiber present in their musculoskeletal structure. Fast twitch fibers, those that respond most quickly to the nerve impulses that emanate from the brain, are essential to promote the speedy reaction times and powerful movements required in every gymnastics routine. Examples of fast twitch muscle activity are prominent in the run up to the commencement of a series of floor exercises, and the approach to the vault, both of which are executed at a sprint. The greater the amount of speed that the gymnast can generate at the opening of each of these exercises, the greater speed with which each will be executed. Gymnastics is a sport where balance on a stable surface such as the floor and balance in the air are equally valued. Core body strength is a very important muscular strength component for the gymnast. Core strength, the seamless and interrelated power of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

the abdominal, lumbar (low back), groin, and gluteal muscles is the body’s chief mechanism in the establishment of a strong and stable position as the gymnast moves across the floor or in the air in relation to all of the gymnastics apparatus. Strength coupled with flexibility is the most important overall physical requirement in gymnastics. Flexibility, which promotes optimal range of motion in the joints of the athlete, is essential to both produce the most efficient movement, as well as protecting the athlete to a degree from the rigors of the sport, particularly the repetitive nature of both training and competition. Gymnasts, who are extremely vulnerable to over-use injuries, use a variety of sophisticated stretching exercises to enhance flexibility and to limit injury risk. Gymnasts are exposed to a wide variety of injuries, from those that result from falls from the various pieces of gymnastic equipment, to a wide variety of sprains and muscular strains occurring during the execution of a routine. Ankle and foot injuries, resulting from the absorption of landing forces, are the most common gymnastics injury. The essence of gymnastics training is repetition, and as with any sport, the repeated execution of a physical movement will create repeated stress upon the musculoskeletal structure. Chronic strains, sprains, and recurrent injuries such as shin splints (the micro tearing of the fascia muscle of the lower portion of the shin) and stress fractures, particularly in the lower legs, are relatively common. The energy requirements in gymnastics are significant. Gymnasts frequently train for over two hours per day, and the proper gymnastics diet must include both the components of the traditional ‘‘balanced diet,’’ as well as any dietary supplements to ensure that the body can restore itself. The training of young gymnasts has attracted controversy throughout the world. Young athletes, beginning at ages 6 or earlier, are often encouraged to join formal gymnastics clubs. Gymnastics is a sport where, particularly among its female participants, the ideal gymnastic frame is very slender (often under 110 lb [50 kg] for women). Female gymnasts are often regarded as not having a competitive career after they have entered their early 20s. The pursuit of athletes with a so-called ideal gymnastics body has placed a significant number of female gymnasts at risk of engaging in the poor nutritional habits and physical stresses that create the female triad—ammorhea (loss or interruption of the normal menstrual cycle), eating disorders (anorexia and bulimia are the most common), and subsequent

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U.S. gymnast, Blaine Wilson, performs on the rings during the World Gymnastics Championships.

osteoporosis, a loss of bone density most often related to a lack of calcium in the female diet. Eating disorders are the most dangerous of the problems attributable to a desire to stay within a particular body type for gymnastics. The athlete’s self perception, or the direction from a coach, either expressed or implied, can frequently trigger this often destructive psychological condition.

Balance training and proprioception; Gymnastics injuries; Gymnastics landing forces; Motor Control; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Gymnastics balance Gymnastics, like many sports, requires physical training that builds the overall fitness of the athlete. Although the concept may be stated in different ways, the tradition definition of physical fitness, when assessed from the perspective of the health and the function of the body, includes elements of strength, power, speed, endurance, and flexibility. Balance, together with agility and motor control, is

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one of the essential components necessary to produce superior athletic performance. Balance is a combination of innate sense and the development of combined physical and mental training. Balance is fundamental to gymnastic success, no matter how otherwise skilled and fit the athlete may be. Balance is the achievement of physical harmony in both movement and stationary positions; a gymnast must incorporate the notion of balance into every aspect of the execution of every routine. Inherent to the development of balance in any gymnastics routine is an understanding of the body’s center of gravity and its importance to fluid movement. The determination of the precise center of gravity will make the performance of aerial movements more efficient, particularly those involving a 360 rotation of the body. The center of gravity in an athlete is defined as the point at which the body will rotate if no other external forces are applied. The physical structures of men and women vary due to the different position and relative width of women’s hips to their femur length; for this reason a woman’s center of gravity is slightly lower on the body than that of a man. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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the sport dictates that the athlete will sustain significant forces during every gymnastics routine, particularly during the landing sequence of a particular maneuver. Gymnastics is a sport where competitive success is built upon the precise movements that are developed through intense and repetitive practice, a circumstance which lends itself naturally to overuse and repetitive strain injuries that may potentially occur in every joint of the body. Less frequently, an athlete will make an error during a routine that results in a fall or other trauma.

Key to the development of balance is an understanding of the body’s center of gravity and its importance to fluid movement. ª P ATR I K G I AR D IN O/ CORB I S

The repetition that is at the heart of gymnastics training assists the athlete in sustaining balance through a routine. The bodily mechanism of muscle memory, also known as proprioception, is the ability of the body to understand and coordinate each part of the body, relative to each other, without reference to the traditional senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and sight. As a gymnast understands through repetition where all of the musculoskeletal joints are positioned as a movement is performed, the body will achieve balance without reliance upon the five senses. The function of the inner ear and vestibular system are well understood as being connected to the proprioception system; an inner ear infection can cause significant difficulty for a gymnast for this reason.

Balance training and proprioception; Gymnastics; Gymnastics landing forces; Motor control.

SEE ALSO

Gymnastics injuries Gymnastics injuries are an unavoidable aspect of the sport, with the frequency and the severity of these occurrences rising in proportion to the ascent of an athletes towards elite status. The causes of gymnastics injuries are usually interrelated. The physics of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

In gymnastics, the object in every dismount from an apparatus or concluding movement is to ‘‘stick the landing,’’ the colloquial expression where the athlete is able to land emphatically on both feet in one stride or bound, without the need to steady themselves through the taking of an additional stabilizing step. In many routines, the athlete lands on a mat that provides a measure of cushioning, this does not absorb all of the landing forces generated by the athlete. Where the athlete lands with legs angled in an position where the landing forces will be distributed unevenly, or with their legs rigid, the landing forces pose a significant risk of injury to gymnasts, primarily to the feet, ankles and knees of the athlete. The gymnasts are subject to long workouts that tax every joint and muscle structure in the body. The hands and wrists absorb significant forces in floor exercises and all work involving devices such as the horizontal bar, the vault, or the parallel bars. All other musculoskeletal joints from the hips through to the toes are involved to some extent in every gymnastics routine. The most common injuries are those to connective tissue structures, particularly muscle strains and ligament strains. Studies conducted by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) determined that the most common form of shoulder injury occurs in relation to the parallel bars and horizontal bar, as a result of the athlete performing handstands on the bars during the routine. Both rotator cuff damage, the structure of four muscles positioned at the top of the shoulder responsible for much of the rotation available in the joint, and clavicle (collarbone) fractures are common injuries among gymnasts at the NCAA level. Elbow injuries are usually a result either a ring routine or a floor routine, where the elbow becomes hyper extended (forced more than 10 past its maximum range of straightening motion) on landing. The other joint most susceptible to hyperextension is the knee, usually as a result of a missed landing where the leg strikes the landing mat in a fully extended (straightened) position.

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Forearm injuries are most often observed in young gymnasts whose bone structure is not completely formed. The repetitive stress of landing that are absorbed in the forearm distresses the bone’s growth plate, the softer area located at the epiphysis of both the ulnar and radial bones of the forearm. Foot and ankle injuries are the most common of gymnastics injuries. These may also be repetitive strain or chronic injuries, as well as the result of a single incident, such as the athlete landing awkwardly at the edge of the mat, causing the ankle to twist. The longer bones of the foot, the metacarpals, are vulnerable to stress fractures through overuse, as is the lower shin of the tibia. As with every other sport where athlete’s must generate sudden and explosive movement through leg drive, an anterior cruciate ligament injury (ACL) is a risk in gymnastics participation. Consistent with the research conducted with respect to ACL injuries in other sports, female gymnasts are between two to six times more likely to sustain an ACL injury than a male gymnast, primarily due to the relative width of the female pelvis in relation to femur length. This structural factor creates greater pressure upon the knee as the athlete jumps or accelerates. The nature of the gymnastics landing, where the athlete is under competitive pressure to ‘‘stick the landing’’ directs greater pressure into the knee joint. Spinal injuries are less common but often ones that serve to destroy the career of a gymnast. The lumbar spine region (the low back) is a frequent location of sprains and contusions, most often as a result of chronic stress. The cervical spine, the seven vertebrae complex that extends from below the base of the skull, forming the spine of the neck, is most often injured during a fall or other accident involving a piece of apparatus. A significant contributing factor in the cause of gymnastics injuries, particularly among less organized gymnastics activities, is the absence of a proper spotter, a person stationed near to the performing or landing area to assist in the event of an athlete having trouble with a routine. A thorough and focused warm-up and cooldown period is fundamental to gymnastic injury prevention. Most warm-ups will include exercises to elevate the heart rate, followed by a series of both static and dynamic stretches aimed at the stretching every muscle group. Stretching and flexibility are so crucial to gymnastic health and competitive success that most serious gymnasts will

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Injured American gymnast, Kerri Strug.

ª DUOM O/ CORB IS

undertake their personal stretching regimen on days away from training and whenever they feel the need to loosen their muscles.

Eating disorders in athletes; Gymnastics; Musculoskeletal injuries.

SEE ALSO

Gymnastics landing forces Landing forces in gymnastics are the impacts generated upon the completion of a jump of other air borne maneuver. Both the aesthetic appeal of gymnastics and the systems used to score a particular performance consider the manner in which the athlete is able to land at the conclusion of a routine. ‘‘Sticking the landing,’’ the ability to land as efficiently and as emphatically as possible, is a concept where the athlete may not take an extra stabilizing step. Sticking the landing invariably results in the direction of maximum landing forces into the body. Force is defined by the equation Force ¼ mass acceleration. As a corollary principle, the amount of downward acceleration produced as an athlete seeks WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

GYMNASTICS LANDING FORCES

American gymnast Shannon Miller grabs her knee in pain after she was injured on her first vault landing in the 2000 U.S. Olympic Gymnastics Trials. ª RE UTE RS /B RIAN S NIDE R/C ORB IS

to generate an upwards force to perform a jump will be equal to the downwards acceleration measured at the landing. Where the athlete uses a springboard to produce greater acceleration, as in diving or the vault exercise in gymnastics, the acceleration will be the product of the athlete’s muscular power and the effect of the springboard. Gymnastics landings are usually performed from either a height above the floor, as in the dismount from equipment such as a pommel horse or uneven bars, or as the concluding segment to a series of floor exercises. The ability of the athlete to control the landing forces will translate directly into both improved scoring and physical safety. The control of the landing force is dependent upon two general factors, the control of the body’s momentum at landing and the ability of the athlete to dissipate the forces directed into the body to achieve an even impact upon the body. The precondition to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

the control of the landing forces of gymnastics is the physical training of the athlete. If the gymnast lacks the musculoskeletal strength and flexibility to sustain the forces, which particularly impact upon the soft tissue structures, the repetitive nature of gymnastics training and competitive routines will greatly increase the likelihood of injury to the athlete. The importance of overall physical fitness in gymnastics in relation to the effect of landing forces upon the body is confirmed by the fact that ankle and foot injuries are the most common incident in gymnastics. These body parts are also the most frequent base upon which a landing is executed. The landing forces generated by gymnasts are so significant relative to their usual physical size that even the slightest variations in the equipment used by the athletes can produce a significantly different landing force result. As an example, the protective mats used in gymnastics are made by various

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manufacturers, with different patterns of seam fabrication. Where a gymnast lands directly upon a rigidly sewn seam, as opposed to the flat mat surface, the landing forces will not dissipate as evenly, and the amount of force directed into the body through landing on the seam may be increased by over 10%. In a similar fashion, where the landing is executed directly on top of a spring in the mechanism (such as the entry into a vault routine), the forces will be absorbed differently than if the athlete strikes an area where the spring support is aligned differently. The landing forces of male versus female athletes are also significantly different for most gymnastics apparatus. In the run up to a floor exercise or vault, the male athlete is able to typically generate greater speed, due to their larger proportion of lean muscle mass and consequently greater available muscle power. The speed of the male gymnasts, coupled with greater mass, will produce a greater force to be ultimately directed into the body, a calculation that does not include the additional muscle power that will be created by the male gymnast in the propulsion of his body from the surface of the vault. Most landings in gymnastics include a spinning or other angular movement by the gymnast. This motion is referred to as the athlete’s angular momentum, and as with the acceleration generated by the athlete at the beginning of the jump movement, the angular momentum at landing will be identical to that created at the take off into the jump. Gymnasts seek to control the effect of angular momentum through the maintenance of their body position in the air for as long as possible, to permit themselves the time to control these forces on the impact of landing. In most sports, one of the inherent means that forces of all types are absorbed is through the athlete’s utilization of the athletic crouch or athletic stance. The athletic crouch positions the athlete in a posture that keeps the head and spine erect, with the legs bent, so as to permit both the rapid and efficient movement of the athlete in any direction, as well as maintaining a position where a force may be received and absorbed without compromising performance. In gymnastics, the athlete rarely is engaged in movements through the course of a routine that require the athletic crouch. The spinning, twisting, and artistic elements of gymnastics demand balance, strength, and flexibility in a variety of positions. However, the landing of the gymnast is a specific adapta-

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tion of the athletic crouch, as this is the most inherently stable athletic position. The athletic crouch permits the immediate distribution of the force at landing through the slightly flexed legs, into the hips and through the upper body. A desirable side effect of the exposure to landing forces by gymnasts, particularly among female participants, is the increase in bone density in the bones that chiefly absorb the landing forces, the bones of the legs and the lower spine. The repeated exposure to landing force compels the body to strengthen these structures through the deposit of bone building minerals. SEE ALSO Gymnastics; Gymnastics vaulting; Plyometrics; Vertical jump.

Gymnastics vaulting The vault is one of gymnastics signature pieces of apparatus. A component of both women’s and men’ competition, the vault is shaped like a table, with a rectangular flat surfaced sprung top, measuring 4 ft high, 5 ft long and 11 in wide (120 cm by 160 cm by 35 cm). The landing area in which the athlete descends at the completion of the vault is 12 in thick (30 cm). In the early history of gymnastics, the equipment was known as the vaulting horse. The object of the vault is to perfectly execute an acrobatic routine that has four distinct components, rendered as a seamless exhibition of speed, power, balance, and body control, both in the air and at landing. The rules of the vault competition require that the athlete make contact with the top of the vault during the execution of the intended routine. The portion of the vault that occurs prior to the athlete making contact with the top of the vault apparatus is the pre-flight, with the segment from contact to the landing referred to as the postflight. The vault for female competitors is positioned perpendicular to the runway, the width of the vault facing the competitor, with the vault oriented in a position parallel to the runway for male competition. A gymnast begins a vault routine by running with maximum speed toward the vault along a run way that is 3 ft wide (0.9 m) and 82 ft long (25 m). The athlete’s purpose in generating this run up speed is the desire to create the momentum required to carry the athlete further and higher in the post-flight phase of the vault. The vaulter ends WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

GYMNASTICS VAULTING

the run by bounding from a springboard, driving the legs explosively into the board surface, with the legs then driven forcefully upwards behind the gymnast to assist in the movement of the gymnast on to the top of the vault. When the hands of the gymnast are in position on the top of the vault, the gymnast will then execute one of a number of recognized vaulting maneuvers; the height gained in post-flight, the distance traveled from the vault, and the ability of the vaulter to land with one motion, avoiding an extra steadying step on impact (known as the ability to ‘‘stick’’ the landing) are the general qualities prized by gymnastics judges in vaulting. Each of these general principles is applied to the specific routing chosen by the gymnast. Vaulting has four recognized ‘‘families’’ of vaults, of which the Yurchenko, named for a Russian vaulter in the early 1980s, may be the most familiar. Each family of vaults is subdivided into individual variations, each often named for a former gymnast who either invented or developed the particular routine. Virtually all vaults include a form of handstand, somersault, and twisting motion. Given the speed of the run up and nature of the body motion generated during the post-phase, the forces directed into the musculoskeletal structure of the gymnast are significant, and the risk of injury is ever present. Tasha Schwikert of the United States performs a vault during the World Gymnastics Championships. ª R I CK R I CKM AN/ N EWS P ORT/ CORB IS


Gymnastics; Gymnastics landing forces; Plyometrics; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

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H Habitual physical activity Habitual physical activities are those requiring any movement by the large muscle groups of the musculoskeletal system, including walking, running, cycling, as well as more passive activities such as gardening and any employment-related pursuit that demands similar muscular output. Physical activities are commonly rated according to two essential benchmarks: the degree of intensity required, often described as low, medium or moderate, and high intensity activities, and the duration of the activity. An activity is distinct from exercise, as the former is a more generalized, less structured concept, and the latter is a planned physical activity, specifically undertaken to improve the physical fitness of the participant.

that habitual physical activities that are of at least moderate intensity and duration are important to the resolution of each of these issues. Structured athletic programs are a habitual physical activity. Serious athletes clearly receive the physical benefits of sport participation; the risks to the health of these athletes usually originate with the risks inherent to the sport, which detract from its positives.

The description of a physical activity as ‘‘habitual’’ elevates the undertaking from regular or mundane to something that is a part of the lifestyle of the participant. When something is performed out of habit, there is an ongoing willingness to join in without coercion, coupled with a regularity that is either daily or near that rate. Although not always labeled as such, habitual physical activity has been recognized as the backbone to healthy living for many centuries.

There is a direct impact that habitual physical activity has on various groups. For children and adolescents, numerous research studies have confirmed an alarming increase in the incidence of obesity in grade school and high school students, both male and female. A number of factors have been cited in this respect, including the rise in popularity of computer-based video games, and a decline in some countries in mandatory physical education courses in schools. There is no doubt that with the increase in obesity levels in these age groups, there has been a correspondingly dramatic rise in the incidence of juvenile diabetes, an irreversible condition that will likely result in life-long health problems. When children are required to engage in physical activity, either structured, as in competitive sport, or unstructured physical play, child obesity rates are demonstrably lower.

Habitual physical exercise has been the subject of worldwide scientific review with respect to the relationship between such exercise and the prevention of cardiovascular disease, the reduction in respiratory illness, and a general elevation in quality of life. The general proposition that can be advanced is

As for adult cardiovascular health, there is clearly a long-term relationship between habitual physical activity and the reduction of common risk factors regarding heart health, which include the buildup of plaque that causes cholesterol in the blood vessels and high blood pressure.


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MARIEL (MIA) MARGARET HAMM

Counter to other influences of modern lifestyle, there is a well-supported belief that physical activity will at least act as a partial counterweight to the negative aspects of diet, including the consumption of high fat. While there are tremendous benefits when habitual physical activities are put in place with children, persons of any age and virtually any condition will derive a discernable benefit from physical activity. There are few circumstances where typical habitual physical activity will be harmful to a participant, other than the generally accepted risk of a pursuit. Bicycles will occasionally sustain a flat tire and cause the rider to fall to the ground, and runners will sometimes step into a road pothole and suffer a sprained ankle or foot injury. These events are unforeseen. In rare circumstances, habitual physical activity may transform itself into something approaching an unhealthy addiction or preoccupation with the activity. The boundary between commitment to fitness and obsession is crossed when participants lose sight of why they continue to engage in longer and longer sessions, even while the physical structure becomes debilitated. This circumstance has been occasionally observed in devotees to aerobics and distance running. SEE ALSO

Cardiovascular system; Fitness; Metabolic

response.

Mariel (Mia) Margaret Hamm 3/17/1972– AMERICAN SOCCER PLAYER

Mariel Margaret (Mia) Hamm is one of the world’s best soccer players and attracted a huge following in the United States. During her collegiate years and as a member of the U.S. Women’s National team, she became the best all-round women’s soccer player in the world. After being a member of national teams that won two world championships and two Olympic gold medals, she retired from international competition in December 2004. She was born in Selma, Alabama in 1972. She was one of four daughters of an Air Force pilot. Early in her life, Hamm discovered and developed a passion for the game of soccer. Her talent was also evident early; she was selected as an All-American in soccer while still in secondary school. By the age of 15 she was already a member of the U.S. Women’s National Team. Two years later, in 1989, she enrolled at the University of North Carolina (UNC) in Chapel Hill.

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Playing forward, she soon established herself as one of the stellar members of a squad that won four consecutive National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) championships. She completed her university education, graduating with a degree in political science. During her collegiate career, Hamm was a threetime All American in soccer. Upon graduation, she had become the Atlantic Coast Conference all-time leader in goals scored (103), assists (72), and points (278). She was the conference player of the year in 1990, 1992, and 1993, and in those same years led the nation in scoring. As well, she received the HondaBroderick Award as the nation’s outstanding collegiate female athlete in both 1994 and 1995. Her soccer ability, determination, and sportsmanship earned her the nickname ‘‘Jordan’’ after a predecessor at UNC, basketball superstar Michael Jordan. In recognition of her illustrious collegiate career, UNC retired her number. At the national level, her contributions were no less outstanding. While she did not score her first goal in international competition until her seventeenth game, she became a prodigious scorer thereafter. Internationally, she was a member of the teams that placed second at the 1987 Olympic Festivals and first at the 1989 and 1990 Festivals, won the Women’s World Cup in 1991 (where, at 19 years of age, she was the youngest member of the squad) and 1999, placed third in the World Cup held in 1995 (where she was the tournament’s most valuable player with five goals and six assists) and 2003, and captured gold medals in the Summer Olympics of 1996 and 2004. From 1994 through 1998, she was named U.S. Soccer’s Female Athlete of the Year Hamm’s robust and aggressive style of play helped break down the stereotype of an elite woman athlete as being passive and loath to engage in a physical contest. As evidence of this passionate play, in 1999 she became the world’s leading scorer (female or male) in international competition. In 2001, Hamm was one of the founding members of the Women’s United Soccer Association, a women’s soccer league in the United States. While the league folded after three seasons, it raised the profile and interest in women’s soccer in the United States. Through the Mia Hamm Foundation (http:// www.miafoundation.org) established in 1999, Hamm devotes a great deal of time and energy to raising awareness and funds for bone marrow research and in providing encouragement and support for female athletes. Her interest in leukemia stems from WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HAMMER THROW

Olga Kuzenkova of Russia throws the hammer in the women’s hammer throw final at the 2005 Seiko Super track and field meet. KA ZUHIR O N OGI/AFP /GE TTY IMA GE S

personal tragedy, the 1997 death of her brother Garrett from leukemia. It was he who encouraged her athletic interests during childhood.

She has been singled out as one of three athletes who have changed the nature of their sport (the other two are Michael Jordan and Tiger Woods).

Among the additional accolades she has received are a cover photo and story in a 1997 issue of Women’s Soccer World and a 2003 issue of Sports Illustrated (then only the second female soccer player to appear on the cover), selection as the 1997 Women’s Sports Foundation Athlete of the Year, selection as ESPN’s Female Athlete of the Year for 1998 and 1999 and ESPN’s Best Soccer Player in 2000 through 2004, being named one of the Most Beautiful People of 1997 by People magazine, and being the flag bearer at the closing ceremonies of the 2004 Olympic Games.

Hamm married to Christian Corry, a pilot in the Marine Corps, in 1994. They divorced in 2001. In 2003, she married baseball player Nomar Garciaparra.


Soccer; Soccer injuries; Soccer: (U.S.) Strength and training exercises.

SEE ALSO

Hammer throw The hammer throw is an athletic event that conforms with the traditional ethic of the Olympic

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Games: higher, faster, stronger. The basic object of the event is to toss a 16-lb (5 kg) ball-shaped weight, thrown with a handle attached by a 4-ft (1.2 m) long chain, as far as one can, while the thrower remains within a ring marked on the ground. As with many Olympic sports, hammer throw athletes toil in virtual anonymity in the four-year intervals between games. The hammer throw derives its name from an ancient throwing sport in which an actual hammer, fitted with an additional weight, was the object tossed. The modern hammer implement evolved to its current standard prior to the inclusion of the hammer throw as an Olympic event in 1900. Women were not permitted to participate in sanctioned international competitions until 1995. The hammer throw became a full-fledged Olympic event in the year 2000. The hammer throw is a simple event that requires a more sophisticated combination of brute force, flexibility, agility, and sure footwork. There is no question that great muscular strength is essential to success in the hammer throw; muscle alone, however, will not take a competitor to the pinnacle of this sport. The hammer is thrown by the athlete first spinning his or her body while holding the hammer handle, within the throwing circle, to build up hammer speed. The athlete maintains a low body position as he or she spins with the hammer, with knees bent, making either three or four turns within the circle. Force and speed accelerate the hammer. As the hammer is a fixed mass, ignoring the effects of wind, the athlete’s ability to accelerate the hammer and angle of release determine subsequent the distance of the throw. The athlete delivers the hammer by making an explosive movement with the legs, arms, and trunk coordinated in one action, to send the hammer as far as possible. The athlete may not touch any part of the field outside of the throwing circle until the hammer has landed, or the throw is disqualified. Competitors of the former Eastern Bloc countries dominated this sport from the period starting at the end of World War II. The hammer throw is a sport that attracted scrutiny as one highly attractive to athletes that would be inclined to use performance-enhancing anabolic steroids; the top results ever recorded in this discipline were achieved in the early 1980s, when steroid testing was far less sophisticated.

Anabolic steroids; Exercise, high intensity; Muscle mass and strength; Shotput.

SEE ALSO

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Hamstring injuries Unlike many names given to the parts of the anatomy whose origins are rooted in Latin or Greek, the term ‘‘hamstring’’ derived from the old English word hamm, meaning the thigh. The hamstrings are frequently injured while an athlete executes a sudden, explosive movement, sometimes accompanied by a change of direction. When the hamstring is injured in this fashion, the athlete will feel an immediate sensation of pain, often accompanied by a ‘‘popping’’ sensation. In a more severe case, bruising will appear in the vicinity of the injury. In these circumstances, the hamstring structure cannot withstand the forces applied to it and an immediate and often debilitating injury is sustained. The hamstrings are two separate tissues, commonly regarded as a single connected structure. The hamstrings are the prominent tendons located behind each knee; they attach to the second portion, the powerful hamstring muscles, technically known as the posterior thigh muscles. The hamstring muscles have three components: the semimembranosis, the semitendonosis, and the biceps femoris. The hamstring tendons connect these large muscles, which begin at the buttocks, to the bones of the lower leg, the tibia, and the fibula. Functioning as a unit, the hamstrings are responsible for both the flexing and extending of the knee joint, as well as the extending of the hip through the movement of the thigh in a reverse direction. The hamstrings are of supreme importance in sports that require a powerful thrust, such as sprinting and jumping. Elite and recreational athletes alike will spend considerable effort in training to develop hamstring strength, through training devices such as plyometrics drills and interval sprints. Hamstring injuries result from direct stresses applied to the tendon; the hamstring may also contribute to serious injuries that occur in related musculoskeletal components. Injuries to the hamstring muscles can be grouped into the following categories: hamstring pulls, bruises, structural imbalance injuries, and illio-tibial band injuries. Hamstring pulls include all types of muscle tears and strains. Pulls or strains are a form of muscle or tendon damage that results from the overstretching of the tissue fibers; the stretching often results in tears of varying sizes and disabling effect. These injuries are classed by severity from Grade 1 strains, as a slight strain that might not necessarily prevent an athlete from continuing in an event, to Grade 3 WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HAMSTRING INJURIES

Felix Sanchez of Dominican Republic lays on the track after he pulled his hamstring in the men’s 400-m hurdles final at the 2005 IAAF World Athletics Championships. P H OTO BY M ICHA EL S TEE LE/ GE TTY IM AG ES .

strains, defined as a rupture of the muscle or tendon structure. Bruising is a common hamstring injury. The large hamstring muscles are vulnerable to bruising as a result of a direct blow, as may be sustained in sports such as rugby, American football, or ice hockey. Given the size of these muscles, bruising can significantly interfere with the contraction of the muscle fibers. Hamstring bruises will frequently impair muscle function and cause significant discomfort to the subject. Structural imbalances are an often subtle but profound cause of hamstring injury. Where there is an imbalance in the relative strength of the hamstring structure and the quadriceps, located at the front of the thigh, this circumstance may cause misalignment resulting from the position of the knee in relation to both sets of thigh muscles. It is believed that this imbalance is a contributing factor in the cause of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, especially where the ACL tear arises without external force being applied to the knee. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The illio-tibial (IT) band is the strong connective tissue that runs from the knee joint to the hip, providing support and stability to both the quadriceps and the hamstrings, which can become overly rigid if it is not properly stretched, creating further leg alignment problems. The IT band will be made correspondingly tighter when the hamstring or the quadriceps becomes highly developed. In the event of a hamstring injury, the first medical attention to be directed to the injury should be a variation of the RICE (rest/ice/compression/elevation) principle. The greater speed with which such steps are taken with respect to the injured hamstring, the less likelihood the athlete will experience a buildup of scar tissue in the muscle or the tendon, a significant factor in the reduction of an athlete’s ability to fully stretch the hamstring in the future. Most hamstring pulls and tears will heal with rest and appropriate treatment, including the use of an anti-inflammatory. Only in the most severe circumstances, a complete rupture of the tissue, will surgical intervention be required.

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An important preventative measure in the reduction of hamstring injuries are concerted stretching programs. Careful attention to joint flexibility is of prime importance in the prevention of hamstring injuries. Focused warm-up and cool-down stretches assist in protecting the hamstring. Research into the cause of imbalance-related hamstring injuries suggest that the hamstring tendons and muscles should be approximately 50–60% as strong as the quadriceps muscles. Sports such as sprinting will naturally lead to an imbalance between these two components. In such circumstances the athlete will utilize different forms of weight training, including plyometrics, to improve hamstring strength relative to the quadriceps.

Hamstring pull, tear, or strain; Sprains and strains; Thigh and upper leg injuries.

SEE ALSO

Hamstring pull, tear, or strain The hamstrings are an interconnected series of tendons and muscles located behind the knee that, for the purposes of sport training, are usually regarded as a single collective structure. The hamstrings begin with the prominent tendons located behind each knee that begin with their connection to the top of each of the fibula and tibia, the bones of the lower leg. These tendons attach to the powerful hamstring muscles, technically known as the posterior thigh muscles, which extend the entire length of the leg, attaching to the gluteal muscles at the top of the rear leg. The hamstrings are some of the largest muscles in the body, composed of the semimembranosis, the semitendonosis, and the biceps femoris. A pull, a strain, or a tear are injuries caused to either muscles or tendons; each injury results from an overstretching of the tissue in question, and the distinction between a pull and a strain, which are different terms used to describe the same mechanism, and a tear, is only a matter of degree. A sprain, which is occasionally misused in describing muscular or tendon injuries, is an occurrence involving a ligament and a skeletal joint. Hamstring strains and tears result in circumstances where the hamstring is subjected to the stress caused by an explosive force, such as that through acceleration or a dramatic change in running speed. Sprinters and hurdlers who begin their races from a fixed position in the blocks, American football receivers who are stationary at their line of scrimmage, basketball players, and rugby wingers who are required to break to a position on the field to receive

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the ball are athletes that are most commonly subjected to hamstring injuries. Strains and tears in the hamstrings are also a risk in sports where any sort of explosive leg drive is required in the execution of the event, such as the shot put, javelin, hammer throw, and the high jump. Managed correctly, a hamstring strain or tear may be restricted to a one-time occurrence. However, hamstring injuries often carry the additional descriptor, ‘‘nagging,’’ the usual result of poor rehabilitation of an initial injury. While the great majority of hamstring strains and tears resolve without surgery, injury management requires care and prudence regarding a return to competition. No matter what degree of severity results from a hamstring injury, the first aid applied must include the RICE method (rest/ice/compression/elevation). As the injury will involve an overstretching or a tear of the muscle or tendon fibers, there must be sufficient time away from competition and training to permit recovery. Injury recovery periods can often be a time of useful analysis of prior training methods that may have contributed to the injury, such as an imbalance between the strength of the hamstrings relative to that of the quadriceps. When these two muscle structures are imbalanced, the leg will often be misaligned, placing additional stresses on either the hamstring or the knee and the ligaments. Most hamstring conditions will benefit from a focused approach to stretching, both as part of daily routine, as well as the development of warm-up and cool-down programs to improve the flexibility of the entire hamstring. In hot weather training and competition, the hamstring is particularly vulnerable to injury. The dehydration of the body that often occurs in hot weather will often reduce the supplies of various electrolytes—particularly sodium and potassium— which are responsible for the transmission of the signals regulating muscular activity in the central nervous system. This condition will frequently cause muscle cramping, a muscle dysfunction that can contribute to a hamstring injury due to the imbalance created by the cramped muscle. The ratio between the weight of the upper body and that carried by the legs and directed through the hamstrings when the legs move is also a factor in the cause of hamstring injuries. In circumstances where a person gains significant weight due to the inactivity resulting from injury or illness, or when an athlete embarks on a significant upper body program, the hamstrings will be exposed to greater than accustomed stresses. In these circumstances, hamstring injuries are far more frequent. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

GEORGE HANCOCK

Athlete working with team physiologist in stretching hamstring.

GR EG WOO D/ AF P /G ET TY IMA GE S

Hamstring surgery is almost exclusively reserved for the tear that is a complete rupture of the muscle or the tendon. Such procedures are usually successful from the perspective of the repair being completed and the athlete making a full physiological recovery. However, the nature of these injuries is such that surgical success is not measured by whether the incision is completed healed, but rather by the degree to which the athlete can return to full pre-injury flexibility and explosiveness in action. There is no guarantee that a completely torn hamstring can ever be rehabilitated to 100% strength and efficiency. There is also the related mental component that often applies to this type of injury; the athlete must be able to completely suppress any fear of recurrence if the injury is to be entirely conquered. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Hamstring injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Thigh and upper leg injuries.

SEE ALSO

George Hancock AMERICAN REPORTER

George Hancock is recognized as both the inventor and the early developer of the game of softball. The story of how the first softball game was created is well established in the history of American sport. On the Thanksgiving weekend of 1887, a group of young men who were either graduates or supporters of the Harvard and Yale institutions were gathered at the gymnasium located at the Farragut Club

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in Chicago. They were awaiting word, by way of telegraph, as to the outcome of the Yale-Harvard football game played that afternoon. College football, although only in existence for approximately 12 years, had become popular with the American sporting public. As was customary at that time (and prevalent today), many of the men in attendance at the Farragut Club had a wager placed on the outcome of the game, among them George Hancock, who worked as a reporter for the Chicago Board of Trade. When the Yale victory was announced, one Yale supporter picked up a boxing glove lying nearby and threw it towards a Harvard supporter, who struck the glove with a stick. Hancock was so taken with the action of the two men that he declared that there should a ball game played then and there. Hancock bound the boxing glove tightly, to create a soft, oversized baseball. Using a cut down broom handle for a bat and foul lines marked with chalk on the gymnasium floor, the first ever game of softball was played inside the Farragut Club gymnasium. Hancock was so enthused by his invention and its potential for play as indoor baseball that he had a more symmetrical oversized ball constructed within a few days following the Thanksgiving game. Permanent foul lines were painted on the floor of the Farragut Club gymnasium, and Hancock had a small, rubber tipped bat made for indoor use. Hancock created a set of written rules to govern a baseball game played with in the confines of a gymnasium. These rules were formally published in 1888, as the new game devised by Hancock gained popularity in the Chicago area. The critical features of Hancock’s game were the smaller playing surface and the corresponding reduction in the batter’s ability to hit the pitched ball with significant force. It is clear form the game constructed by Hancock that he wanted the players in his indoor game to value tactics, such as where the batter might be able to put the ball in play, over brute hitting strength. Although there have been considerable variations in how the game has been played after it was adapted for outdoor contests, those features applied by Hancock have remained constant through the evolution of softball. Other players, taken with what Hancock had created, modified the softball game for outdoor use within the year, playing on a diamond smaller than that required for baseball. In response, Hancock developed the rules for what he described as Indoor-Outdoor baseball in 1889. In less then two years, Hancock’s rather spontaneous invention at

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the Farragut Club was being played in various cities and towns in Illinois and Minnesota. The name softball was given to Hancock’s invention, but it was not the only name; depending upon the locale, the game was also known as kittenball, pumpkinball, and mushball. The first woman’s game of softball was played in 1895. Softball became the standard from of women’s baseball through-out America and the world in the twentieth century. Softball also evolved into two distinct formats, as determined by how the pitcher was permitted to deliver the ball to the batter. Softball (sometimes called fast pitch) permitted the pitcher to deliver the ball as fast as desired, using a windmill type pitching motion; slow-pitch (or lob ball) requires the pitch to be delivered at a specified arc and height so as to reduce the speed of the pitch and to encourage putting the ball in play in the field. A remarkable feature of the story of George Hancock and his invention of softball is that very little is known of his life after the publication of his indooroutdoor rules of 1889. It is unclear whether Hancock played a role in the further development of the game after that time. It is also noteworthy that George Hancock is not enshrined in the National Softball Hall of Fame, as might otherwise befit the inventor of a sport now played in at least 100 countries in the world. SEE ALSO

Baseball; Softball; Softball: Slow pitch vs. the

fast pitch.

Hand injuries No anatomical feature combines strength, functionality, beauty, and expressiveness to a greater degree than the human hand. The ability to move the thumb in relation to the other fingers is a physical feature unique to the human species. The hand can contribute to remarkable feats of strength, while performing extremely delicate fine-motor functions. The injuries that are sustained to the hand in sport range from those that are an irritation, to those that cripple. The hand comprises 27 bones and 27 muscles, including the wrist joint. Individually, the bones are small and vulnerable to injury, but when constructed into the complex structure of the hand, these bones are part of a strong, seamless unit. The bones of the wrist are the carpals, which meet the ulnar and radius (the bones of the forearm) to create the wrist joint. In the opposite direction, the carpals link to the metacarpals to form the skeletal aspect of the palm of the hand; the metacarpals extend to the fingers, joining WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HAND INJURIES

Taping a rugby player’s finger after injury.

ª DUOM O/CO RBIS

the bones, called the phalanges, in each finger. The joints created at the intersection between the fingers and the bones of the palm are the metacarpophalangeal joints, or the knuckles. A frictionless substance, articular cartilage, located at the end of each bone in the hand, assists in the movement of each finger and joint. Ligaments connect each of the bones. The larger muscles of the hand begin in the forearm, with the smaller muscles employed in the movements of the thumb are connected to the carpals in the wrist. The hand also contains three nerve pathways, the largest of which, the median, runs through the carpal tunnel at the wrist. The hand is supplied by blood through a series of arteries that run through the wrist, palm and fingers. As the hand and its structural complexities are employed in one respect or another in almost every conceivable sport, the exposure to injury and the range of damage that might be sustained to the hand is almost unlimited. It is possible for any bone to become fractured, or any ligament to be sprained or torn. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Examples of the more common hand injuries include: gamekeepers thumb; rupture of the scapholunate ligament; fracture of the scaphoid bone; finger dislocation; injury due to unexpected force; carpal tunnel syndrome; blisters and lacerations; and tendonitis. Gamekeepers thumb is a rupture of the ligament forming the palm side of the thumb joint; this injury occurs when the thumb is jammed forcefully away from the palm through either a fall, or an object such as a ball is driven against it. As with all forms of hand surgery, the procedures are delicate and the rehabilitation must be unrushed and carefully monitored. The scapholunate ligament, which is positioned across the top of the wrist, can be ruptured by a fall onto an outstretched hand. This injury is a serious event, and will often necessitate surgery. Located at the wrist is the scaphoid bone; a fracture to this bone is common in falls in cycling, where the rider puts out a hand to stop the fall. If this injury is not detected immediately, as it is often mistaken for a simple

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sprain, the scaphoid can become diseased due to the onset of necrosis, a death of the bone structure. Any finger can become dislocated due to force being applied to it; in everyday parlance, athletes speak of fingers becoming ‘‘jammed.’’ Sprains and dislocations of the smaller finger joints can usually be corrected through splinting and immobilization of the joint; dislocations of the larger joints, such as that at the base of the thumb or the individual fingers, will often require surgical repair to mend the ligament that often becomes torn, to hold the displaced bone in proper position. The bone immediately above the wrist and below the fourth and fifth finger can be fractured through the unexpected application of force, such as experienced by a golfer who grounds the golf club. If the carpal bones and ligaments creating the carpal tunnel become compressed onto the median nerve, the function of the hand can be significantly compromised. This condition is known as carpal tunnel syndrome. The position of the hand renders it vulnerable to abrasions, cuts, and lacerations of all manner of severity. Blisters occur on the skin of the hand in sports such as baseball and cricket, where a ball is delivered with both force and spin, causing repetitive friction across the skin. The tendons of the hand are also vulnerable to tendonitis, a condition resulting chiefly from repetitive motions that cause strain and resulting fatigue in the tendon fibers.

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; Blisters; Carpal tunnel syndrome fracture; Wrist injuries.

SEE ALSO

Handball

object of team handball is to advance the ball through either individual attacking movements or by coordinated passing between teammates. The ultimate intention of the offensive team is to throw the ball into the opposing team’s goal for a score. The primary means by which players touch or direct the ball is by their hands, but all other parts of the body may be employed for the control of the ball, with the exception of the feet. In this fashion handball is an alter ego to soccer, where the emphasis in the control of the ball is with the feet of the players, and the rest of the body with the exception of the hands is available to a player for ball control. Team handball is played on a large rectangular indoor surface that has dimensions of approximately 130 ft by 65 ft (40 m by 20 m). The goals are positioned at each end of the playing surface, 6.5 ft high and 10 ft wide (2 m by 3 m). A semi-circular arc defining the goal area is marked on the playing surface 20 ft (6 m) in front of each goal. The only player permitted within the goal area is the goal keeper, except where an opponent enters the space by incidental means in the course of play. The players do not wear any significant protective equipment. A free throw line is fixed 30 ft (9 m) from each goal. As the name suggests, a free throw is a possession awarded to a team by the referee as a result of an infraction committed by an opponent. The ball is capable of being handled with relative ease in one hand by any player: at the elite men’s level, the ball has a circumference of 24 in (58 cm to 60 cm), with a weight of approximately 1 lb (450 g). Players will commonly deliver a shot on goal by way of an overhand throw, a sidearm throw, or variations of each that produce a bounce shot at the goal.

Team handball, which is also known as European handball and Olympic handball, is a sport contested by teams comprised of six players plus a goal keeper. The sport is governed by the International Handball Federation, which oversees both Olympic competition as well as annual world and regional championships.

The rules by which a player and team may advance the ball on the floor in handball are somewhat complicated. A player is permitted to take up to three steps with the ball in any sequence, and the player may hold the ball for a maximum of 3 seconds. The ball may be dribbled, in the manner of a basketball, and it may be passed to a teammate by any means so long as it is not kicked. Team handball does not permit the holding or physically striking of an opponent. The fast-paced nature of handball commonly produces team scores of 20 goals or more, which leads to numerous game situations where the permitted obstruction of a player’s path leads to significant physical contact.

The offensive and defensive strategies of handball are similar to soccer in many respects. The

All shots on an opposing goal must be taken from beyond the arc that defines the goal area. Where a

Handball is a ubiquitous term used to describe two distinct sports whose evolution occurred without any reference to one another. Each sport is played throughout the world; the only true similarities that exist between these sports is the use of a ball as the scoring object, and the fact that each form of handball is played by both men and women.

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HANDBALL

Handball match in Kiel, Germany.

PH OTO B Y L UTZ BON GART S/ BON G ART S/ GE TTY IM AGES .

ball is directed out of bounds, it is returned to play by way of a throw in. Balls that are sent past the goal and the end line out of play by the opposing team are returned to play with a goalkeeper’s throw. Both of these devices are similar to their soccer counterparts, the throw in and the goal kick. The referee has the power to impose temporary suspensions, where players are sent off from the playing surface for a two-minute period. More serious fouls may result in the award of a penalty shot taken from a designated spot 23 ft (7 m) from the goal. Success in team handball is built upon team play and precise passing schemes. The athletes tend to possess significant aerobic fitness, lateral quickness, and excellent balance. The ability of a player to deliver an effective shot while off balance, either as WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

a result of contact or as a part of an effort to avoid an opponent, is an important handball skill. The second form of sport that takes the name of handball is descended from an ancient sport native to Ireland, where a game originated that required the players to throw a ball a ball against a wall in ways that the shot on its rebound could not be returned by the opponent. This handball game became popular at various English private schools by the mid-1800s, and it was subsequently exported to the United States through immigration from England, where the growth of handball was driven by its popularity in both the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) facilities and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU). One wall games ultimately became the four wall court game played today through out the world, where individual

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competitors or doubles teams pursue the same object as that first created in the old Irish game. Four wall handball is similar in its playing principles to those of racquetball or squash, with a more simplified rules set. A four wall court is 20 ft wide, 40 ft long and 20 ft high (6 m by 12 m by 6 m), with a small rubber ball delivered by each player against the walls through a hard slapping motion to direct the ball; each player wears gloves to protect their hands. A player drives the ball against the front wall from behind a service line. If the ball is not returned by the opponent, or if the ball bounces more than once after rebounding from the front wall, a point is scored. A player may only score on their own serve. A player may not impede, or hinder an opponent from returning a shot. Four wall handball is a game which also requires significant aerobic and anaerobic fitness, as each contested point has no limit as to time or the number of shots that may be taken. Competitive players will often dive for well hit balls; lateral quickness, core strength, and the ability to move explosively within a small space, while maintaining one’s balance and concentration on the next shot are the components to handball success. Tactics, especially in ball placement and anticipating the direction of the next shot taken by an opponent, are of critical importance. A part of the tactical considerations is an understanding by the player as to how the ball is likely to rebound from the walls of the court on a shot. The relationship between the angles at which the ball strikes the walls, and the effect of any spin imparted to the ball when struck by the opponent, form an important part of handball tactics. SEE ALSO

Racquetball; Soccer; Squash; Stretching and

flexibility.

Tony Hawk 5/12/1968– AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL SKATEBOARDER

Tony Hawk has parlayed teenage excellence in the operation of a skateboard into a profile career as the most recognized athlete in the history of the extreme sports. Among other physical achievements, Hawk was the first skateboarder to execute a 720 rotation during a trick. He followed this trick with the development of a 900 rotational maneuver that he first demonstrated at the X Games in 1999.

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Tony Hawk.

PH OTO B Y MAT SZWAJKO S/GETTY IMAGES.

Hawk was a professional skateboarder in the then lucrative California pro circuit at age 14. At age 16, he was regarded as the very best skateboarder in the world. As a professional skateboarder, Hawk has won more events than any other athlete. Hawk’ meteoric rise to professional acclaim coincided with the worldwide boom in skateboarding in the 1980s. He also became skateboarding’s most recognizable symbol; he was used in the marketing campaign by the shoe manufacturer Airwalk among other commercial linkages to his skating skills. The first skateboards were pieces or plywood attached to roller skates. As the tricks attempted by skateboarders became more involved, the composition of the equipment included fiber glass and composite materials, with sophisticated wheels. The physical principles that govern skateboard jumps and tricks has never changed. As with other extreme sports, skateboarding becomes more dangerous when the force of gravity and the corresponding speed of the skateboarder are WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HOWARD HEAD

more pronounced. Hawk achieved his considerable reputation through successfully navigating dangerous half pipe layouts that cause the skateboarder to be sent several feet above the surface of the half pipe at high speeds, often upside down. Skateboarding suffered through a decline in popularity in the early 1990s. Hawk helped precipitate the revival of skateboarding in the late 1990s with the introduction of a PlayStation home entertainment video game, entitled Tony Hawk’s Pro Skater, a product that served to introduce Hawk and his high flying acrobatic talents to a new generation of young people. Hawk achieved the distinction of gaining name recognition among an audience who never saw him compete at the height of his professional powers in the late 1980s. Pro Skater has been released in a number of successive versions. Hawk has become a fixture in the television commercial medium, where his skateboarding is used as a backdrop to the advertisement. Hawk’s line of skateboards, known as Birdhouse boards, and his line of proprietary skateboard clothing are also symbols of his commercial appeal. SEE ALSO

Extreme sports; Skateboarding; Youth Sports

Injuries.

Head and spinal fractures

SEE

Cervical fractures

Howard Head 1914–1991 AMERICAN ALPINE SKI INVENTOR, TENNIS RACQUET DEVELOPER, AVIATION ENGINEER

Few people can claim a role in the development of one revolutionary sports product. American engineer and inventor Howard Head was the impetus behind two separate and groundbreaking sports equipment designs—the metal laminate alpine ski, and the oversized Prince tennis racquet. His contributions to the world of sport earned Head fame as ‘‘the patron saint of the average athlete.’’ Head graduated from Harvard as an aviation engineer in 1936. He first attempted to downhill ski for recreation in 1947. Head found skiing very difficult, a problem he attributed the heavy wooden skis standard in the sport, as opposed to his own lack of skiing ability. Relying on his aviation training, Head believed that a much lighter and user-friendly ski could be designed. Head became so attracted to the prospect WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

of designing a better and more effective downhill ski that he left his employment as an aviation engineer to devote all of his efforts to this task. Head commenced his research into a better ski design, with his prototypical efforts resulting in a ski constructed in the shape of a metal ‘‘sandwich,’’ with a plastic honeycomb separating the two ski surfaces. The initial efforts by Head to produce a useful ski proved unsuccessful, as the model skis were prone to break too readily, and the aluminum surface tended to freeze during use, causing snow to collect on the surface. Head undertook a lengthy period of trial and error testing, funded in a large part by his success as a poker player. Head perfected his ski design by first adding a coating of plastic laminate to create a frictionreduced surface between the ski and the snow, a surface that wax could also be applied to. The edges of the ski were made from a fine one-piece steel component. The Head Ski Co. was formed in 1948 and, by 1950, the first commercially marketed Head ski, the ‘‘Head Standard’’ was sold in the United States. Users of the Head skis found them to be flexible, highly responsive when the skier executed a turn, and generally easier to use than the skis made with traditional wood construction techniques. By 1955, Head skis were the leading brand sold in both Europe and the United States. In 1955, Head added features to reduce the vibration created by high speed downhill skiing. Polyethylene and neoprene rubber were added to the top layer of the ski to absorb these downhill forces and to reduce high-speed vibration in the ski. Head skis became a popular choice among elite skiers of this era. Jean Claude Killy, the French world champion, began to use Head skis in 1960. The success of the Head ski company prompted numerous imitators. Head Ski Co. was sold to the American manufacturing concern AMF in 1971. In the late 1960s, Howard Head had played tennis on an occasional, recreational basis. As with his frustrations experienced in downhill skiing, Head believed that tennis racquets were too difficult to use. In particular, Head theorized that the conventional racquet’s sweet spot was too small. The sweet spot is the name for the area on the face of the racquet where the ball is struck most efficiently. The efficiency of the sweet spot is due to a higher coefficient of restitution, defined as the amount of the energy initially carried by an object that is returned to the object when it collides with a second object, such as a tennis racquet. Head believed that an expanded sweet spot would make the return of the

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ball much easier and more effective, especially for the average player.

athletic competition, fractures and other forms of damage to these bony structures are relatively common.

Head formed a tennis division at Head Sports Co. in 1968. Head personally patented an oversized metal racquet, with over four times the total hitting area of a conventional racquet, and a sweet spot that was twice the size of that found in typical racquets. Head moved to Prince Tennis Racquets in 1971 as its chairman, where he led the rise of the Prince racquet to a place of prominence in the world tennis market. Head secured patents on numerous oversized racquets designs, thereby extracting permission for use fees from many rival tennis manufacturers who wished to enter the expanding oversized racquet market.

A concussion is a distinct form of injury to the brain that results from a blow to the head and skull. A concussion may arise without a fracture or any other bone damage taking place. A concussion is not a lifethreatening injury, but it may have serious consequences both in the short term as well as regarding the future health of the recipient, especially if there are subsequent concussions received. In medical language, a concussion is one of a number of forms of the injury known as a closed head injury.

In 1978, American Pam Shriver, playing with an oversized Prince graphite racquet, was the youngest ever United States Open tennis finalist. In addition to the sweet spot technology developed by Head, the oversized Prince racquets were constructed to provide the player with a defined moment of inertia, a characteristic that reduced the amount by which the racquet turned in the player’s hand upon impact with the ball as a shot was delivered. Both the Head ski and the Prince oversized tennis racquet have made an enduring impact upon their respective sports. Upon Head’s death in 1991, the papers, correspondence, patent documents, and related memorabilia of Howard Head were provided to the Smithsonian Institute.

Skiing, Alpine; Tennis; Tennis serve mechanics.

SEE ALSO

Head injuries The head, containing the most important human organ, the brain, is the nerve center of the body and is built upon the skeletal structure of the skull and the cervical spine. These bones both protect the brain, and move the head upward, downward, and rotationally. The anatomy of the skull consists of the cranium, representing the container in which the brain and related organs are protected, and the mandible, or jaw bone. The skull is also comprised of a series of more delicate bones that forms the structural aspects of the ear. The cranium is a further series of distinct bones, including the bones in support of the ears and the orbits, or eye sockets. The mandible is connected to the rest of the skull by the temporalmandibular joint (TMJ), a powerful hinge mechanism. Given the frequency with which the head comes into contact with other objects, or otherwise sustains significant forces in the course of

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A concussion may arise if the head, and ultimately the brain, receives a significant blow resulting in trauma. In sports where the head is exposed to such physical actions as tackling, a fall to the ground as in skiing, or a collision with an opponent in auto racing or hockey, concussions are most common. When the blow causes the recipient to feel faint, to lose consciousness for a brief period, or to otherwise not retain complete physical control, the concussion is generally classed as mild. When the blow causes a prolonged loss of consciousness and a resulting period in which the athlete has difficulty with mental functions such as memory, balance, and coordination, the concussion is termed severe. The additional symptoms of a concussion are persistent headache, nausea, and a loss of short-term memory. In sports such as ice hockey and American football, blows to the underside of the chin are common. These may lead to concussions, as the TMJ is driven upward and backward by the mandible. A protective mouth guard has been proven an effective form of protection from the consequences of these blows, as the mouth guard tends to prevent the lower jaw from being forced back into the skull. Medical attention should be immediately sought for any person for whom a concussion is a suspected event. There is a culture in many contact sports that a speedy return to the playing field is a badge of honor; because concussion has the potential to pose a cumulative risk if the brain receives another trauma, the injured person should undergo a thorough physical evaluation. The assessment of the present concussion should occur within the context of the following factors: the history of the injury, with particular emphasis upon the exact contact that led to the concussion, and the length of any period of unconsciousness the medical history, including any prior concussions as well as current medications a complete physical examination, including a determination of the existence of a companion WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HEALTH

A baseball umpire is taken off the field on a stretcher after being hit in the head by a foul ball during a game.

injury to the cervical spine (neck), which might have happened if the injured person was attempting to deliver a blow such as a rugby or football tackle, or bleeding from the ears or nose, indicative of internal injury a head x-ray or CT scan Most concussion treatments will involve a combination of ice applied to the point of impact to reduce swelling, along with an acetaminophen-type pain reliever, and rest. In cases of a single concussion incident, most athletes make a complete recovery after a period of rest and no exposure to contact to the head; a condition known as a post-concussion syndrome will arise in approximately 10% of single concussion cases, in which the symptoms of dizziness and troubles with memory persist. The most significant concern regarding concussions is their cumulative effect; it is not uncommon for the combined impact of two or more concussions to result in a dangerous condition, marked by bouts of significant memory loss WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª RE UTE RS/COR BIS

and physical coordination problems. Boxers, ice hockey players, and American football players are vulnerable to these repeated occurrences, and numerous athletes in these sports have been forced to early retirement from competition due to concussion.

Football (American); Musculoskeletal injuries; Neck injuries; Nervous system.

SEE ALSO

Health Health is a word used in a multitude of circumstances to convey a variety of different meanings. In its most general usage, health is a word to convey a state of being, a reflection of the overall condition of an organism, from the state of an individual cell to that of the entire body, at a particular time. Health is synonymous with a soundness of mind and body, consistent with a freedom from disease or abnormality.

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HEALTH

Health is a word whose origins extend to the Old English expression used when drinking or offering a toast to a person’s welfare. When paired with different adjectives, health becomes a specific descriptor of many physical or mental conditions, a focused phrase that can be adapted to create a perspective describing more discrete measures of performance. Although used in a broad range of contexts, health has a number of fundamental aspects. A sound diet, with a proper distribution of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, combined with the ingestion of sufficient quantities of vitamins and minerals is the first such component. Exercise sufficient to maintain a proper weight, as well as stimulating the various human systems such as the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal structures, is another important component. Sleep sufficient to permit the rest and repair of the body is another critical foundation to human health. Health is also used to represent a companion state when paired with the term fitness. While health is an all-encompassing expression of the present physical condition of the human body, fitness is a word that is properly used with respect to the level of muscular and cardiovascular conditioning. While both health and fitness are states that must be achieved and maintained, as opposed to simply persisting for an indefinite period, it is likely impossible to possess one of these positive physical attributes without also having the other to at least some degree; for example, poor health and excellent fitness would be a difficult and dubious achievement. It is when the mental health of an athlete is added to the consideration of total health and fitness that apparent contradictions may arise. The closer one comes to achieving elite status in a sport, the more crucial the maintenance of optimal mental health will be. Mental health includes such diverse components as concentration skills, psychological preparedness, the ability to maintain commitment to training regimes, and the ability to properly distinguish between normally occurring discomfort and actual injury. No athlete, from the recreational level to the world-class competitor, can ever perform at the maximum level as an automaton, a machine able to entirely divorce current mental state from physical performance. Comprehensive health and fitness will include all of the mental and physical aspects associated with human performance. The word health is often paired with a broadly descriptive adjective, such as good health, excellent health, poor health, or failing health. Health is given a clearer and more precise meaning when it is applied to a specific aspect of the human

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Exercise is key in establishing and maintaining good health.

ª KIM

ERIKS E N/Z EF A/ CORB I S

experience, such as physical, mental or spiritual health; the well-known nostrum that begins ‘‘early to bed, early to rise’’ was humorously adapted by American humorist James Thurber to state: ‘‘Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and dead.’’ Health is commonly used as a part of a description or assessment of the function of a defined physical process, particularly in various sports science contexts. Examples include cardiovascular health, cardiorespiratory health, and heart health. Health in these applications is used to provide a general overview or assessment of the function involved; the substitution of the term ‘‘fitness for health’’ conveys a better impression of the functionality, both in capability and capacity, of the subject physical system. Health is also used as a modifier as well as a noun. The most common examples are health promotion and health protection, general expressions of the advancement of wellness that often include the promotion of sport. The advancement and maintenance of health usually includes specific sport or more general physical exercise as a primary tool in these pursuits. Health, as an adverb, is found is expressions such as healthy living, lifestyle, outlook, or diet; the opposite, unhealthy, may also be used. SEE ALSO

Age-related responses to injury; Diet; Fitness;

Sleep. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HEART RATE MONITORS

Heart rate monitors The importance of heart rate to the assessment of physical performance in athletes has been well understood for more than 200 years; the tools for the collection and the measurement of such data were limited until the twentieth century. The first electrocardiogram, a leap forward in the scientific ability to analyze the heart and its patterns, was developed in the 1920s by Dutch physiologist Willem Einhoven (1860–1927). The electrocardiogram is a device that permits the measurement of heart rate by way of a direct connection between a person’s heart and the machine. Prior to the electrocardiogram, heart rate was typically measured through the manual application of the recorder’s fingers on the skin of the person near the location of a major artery, such as at the wrist (radial artery) or the neck (carotid artery), to feel the pulse, count the rhythms, and measure the rate against a stopwatch. The measurement of pulse by way of the fingers was an inaccurate method to gauge heart function. It was difficult to obtain statistical data concerning heart function while the athlete was participating in the activity. The portable heart monitor, a variation of the electrocardiogram, was developed as one of a number of biofeedback tools available to assist athletes in a number of ways. To appreciate how the heart monitor is able to record heart rate, it is important to understand how the heart is stimulated to beat, as well as the relationship between the speed and frequency of heartbeat with the overall performance of the cardiovascular system. Heart rate, most commonly measured as the number of beats per minute, is directly tied to the cardiac output: the more the heart beats, the greater the volume of blood that is directed through the blood vessels of the body. As a very general physical proposition, the more blood available to transport energy products such as glucose, fluids, nutrients, as well as carry away wastes from the generation of energy, the greater the body’s physical capabilities. The heart beat rate is controlled by pace-making cells within the heart. The primary pace-making capacity is located within the sinoatrial node, known as the SA node. A secondary pace-making function is carried on at the arterioventricular node, the AV node. The actual transmission of the electrical current within the heart to stimulate its beat is influenced by a complex relationship between the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Heart rate monitor.

ª R AN DY F A RI S/ COR BI S

outflow of potassium ions from the heart muscle and a corresponding inflow of sodium ions. It is the detection and the measurement of this electrical current that is at the essence of a heart monitor. The heart monitor has two parts. The monitor attaches to the body by means of a chest strap, with electrodes that make contact with the chest above the heart. The strap is secured by straps to ensure consistent recordings from the heart. The data gathered by the monitor is conveyed, either by a wire connection or, more commonly, through a wireless pathway to a display worn on the person’s wrist. All heart monitors provide both instant ‘‘snapshots’’ of heart rate at a given time; the more sophisticated of heart monitors will also permit the user to simultaneously record such related physical data as predetermined personal heart rate zones, and whether the present workout is sufficiently difficult or moderate to ensure that the target zone is reached. Working at a target heart rate is useful knowledge for any athlete; it is data that is of prime importance to elite athletes, who seek to maximize their workout quality. The heart rate monitor feedback concerning target rate is also of great utility to those athletes that have concerns about their heart health and wish to avoid an inadvertent or unplanned strain upon their heart. Middle-aged athletes that play a vigorous sport such as basketball or ice hockey are often vulnerable to a heart attack precipitated by overly vigorous play; the heart monitor can assist in keeping such athletes within a predetermined, safe use target. The heart monitor can also provide related data as to estimated caloric consumption. For athletes that engage in distance event sports, such as cross-country skiers, runners, and cyclists, there are heart monitors equipped with global

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positioning system (GPS) technology, which makes available sophisticated data as to the relationship between portions of a particular course and heart rate generated at those segments. Heart rate data is stored in a downloadable format for further and future analysis, often in conjunction with other performance tools such as times achieved, weights lifted, or other indicators of physical performance. The most comprehensive of fitness assessments will involve the heart rate data produced through the use of a heart monitor, coupled with the testing of the related physical concepts, including the athlete’s maximum oxygen uptake, stated as VO2max, the perspiration rate, and the recovery rate measured after specific activities.

Cardiovascular system; Exercise, high intensity; Stationary bicycles, elliptical trainers, and other cardio training machines.

SEE ALSO

Heart rate: Target heart rate The human heart rate is the measure of the number of times that the heart beats in one minute. Heart rate is used synonymously with the expression pulse rate. A target heart rate is the desired heart rate for a particular individual when engaging in physical activity of known length and intensity, calculated with reference to the person’s age, level of fitness, and any physical limitations such as illness or disease. Heart rate is one of the best known indicators of general physical fitness. The expected resting heart rate (when not exercising) for a healthy child is between 80 and 90 beats per minute, for a healthy adult female approximately 75 beats per minute, and for a healthy adult male an approximate figure of 70 beats per minute. The determination of an athlete’s target heart rate has a number of benefits. Establishing the appropriate target rate is of particular importance to two distinct classes of athletes: the elite competitor and the athlete who is either seeking to achieve a better fitness level or who has an identified cardiovascular limitation such as heart disease or other irregularity. For the elite athlete, the target rate is a guideline with which the athlete can plan the most effective training sessions; for the limited athlete, the target rate is a safety mechanism, which will aid in the prevention of a heart problem during exercise. The calculation of a target rate is subject to a number of variables. For this reason, there are

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Monitors, as shown here, are used to measure and observe the performance of the cardiovascular system. ª L EO MA SON /C ORB I S

numerous formulae that have been published as authoritative methods to determine the target. Whatever method is used, there are a number of common factors, including differentials for age and gender. It is a well-established physiological fact that as persons grow older, their heart capacity and their corresponding maximum heart rate diminish. Similarly, by reason of genetics, women have a slightly lower maximum heart rate than do men. The generally accepted standard, subject to the consideration of personal levels of fitness or other factors, is that the maximum heart rate for a male will be approximately 220 minus their age; the target will be established at between 60% and 85% of the maximum. A number of high blood pressure medications are designed to lower the resting pulse of the individual; the presence of such medications would impact a target rate calculation.

Biofeedback; Cardiovascular system; Heart rate monitors.

SEE ALSO


HEAT CRAMPS

Michael Johnson warms up for 200-m race at Olympic trials after suffering a heat cramp earlier in the day.

Heat cramping

SEE

Whole-body heat

cramping

Heat cramps Heat cramps are the most common type of heatrelated injuries that are sustained by athletes. The impact of heat upon the function of the human body is a progressive form of injury, with heat cramp being the mildest and most readily treatable form, heat exhaustion the next most significant heatrelated occurrence, and the culminating stage of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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heat injury, known as heat stroke, the final and the most dangerous development. The cardiovascular system is the first line of defense within the body to combat the effects of heat. Any form of exercise will generate heat through the processes of energy production to power physical movement, no matter what the external environmental conditions may be. In activities taking place in a warm environment, where temperatures affecting an athlete are increased due to air temperature, the athlete’s clothing or equipment, or the intensity of the effort, the body temperature will tend to rise beyond the standard of 98.6 F (37 C). The cooling mechanism of the body in response to increased heat

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is a subtle and sophisticated one; the first response is to attempt to reduce body heat to a point where it is relatively close to that of the surrounding environment. The cardiovascular system is constructed to permit the surface of the skin to be cooled through capillary (small blood vessels) action, in which warm blood, heated through the production of energy, is delivered to the skin surface where the capillaries are located. Warm water, in the form of perspiration, is released through the skin. The efforts of the body to reduce its internal temperature are not without consequence. Excess perspiration, composed almost exclusively of water, with smaller amounts of sodium, calcium, and other minerals, reduces the amount of fluid available to the volume of blood plasma, the fluid component of blood that forms approximately 90% of its volume. Lesser blood volume will result in a correspondingly reduced ability of the cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen, nutrients, and energy stores throughout the body. This is the state generally known as dehydration. It is in such circumstances that heat cramps most commonly, although not exclusively, arise. The heat cramp is a form of a forceful muscle contraction or spasm, often quite painful, most frequently observed in a limb that is actively involved in the sport or exercise in question. In runners and cyclists, heat cramps occur in the gastrocnemius (calf) or hamstrings and quadriceps (thigh) muscles. Other symptoms include dizziness or apparent disorientation, weakness, vomiting, skin that is hot and sweaty to the touch, and a rapid heartbeat. Overexertion of a muscle or muscle group will often be an underlying cause of heat cramps. Also contributing to both the existence as well as the persistence of a heat cramp are a failure on the part of the athlete to properly warm up or stretch out the affected muscle groups, as well as a failure to properly hydrate the body both before and during the activity. There is a documented higher incidence of heat cramps among less-conditioned as opposed to elite-level athletes. The impact of dehydration on the muscles is a correlation to the optimal balance of water, sodium, and calcium in the system. Sodium and calcium are minerals that are a part of the group of vital substances functioning within the body known as electrolytes, chemicals capable of transmitting electronic signals from the central nervous system to the working muscles. The production of perspiration and the creation of imbalances in the electrolytic system contribute to the creation of heat cramps. The mechanism of heat cramps is such that it is possible, although less likely, to sustain a heat cramp injury in

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cool weather, as dehydration and electrolyte imbalance can occur in any weather. Heat cramps should be treated aggressively. The person should immediately be directed to a cooler environment, with moistened towels applied to the affected muscles. The muscles can be stretched gently, but the injured area should not be rubbed or vigorously massaged. Diluted concentrations of electrolytic sports drinks can also be administered to assist in the elevation of mineral levels. Given the strain to which the muscle has been exposed, the athlete should not resume play for at least 24 hours after the heat event. Appropriately treated, heat cramps should have no long-term effect on the athlete.

Acclimatization; Cardiovascular system; Cramps; Hyponatremia.

SEE ALSO

Heat exhaustion Heat exhaustion is the second in the triad of heat-related injuries, more serious than the muscle spasm contraction known as heat cramps, and less dangerous a condition than heat stroke. All three injuries have a similar causation mechanism. Each injury is most commonly precipitated by the combined effects of heat and dehydration. Heat exhaustion is physical fatigue that is made more pronounced by the effect of heat on the body. Younger athletes, or athletes less experienced with the effects of heat on their systems, are prone to heat exhaustion. The common symptoms of the heatrelated injury are similar to those that accompany muscle cramps: dizziness and a somewhat disoriented affect, nausea and vomiting, and a tendency to faint. Heat exhaustion also tends to elevate the core body temperature to the range of 101 F to 102 F (39 C to 40 C). In mild cases of heat exhaustion, the symptoms may be alleviated by removing the person from the warm environment, ensuring that he or she rests and consumes fluids for hydration. In more severe cases, it may be necessary to have the person receive medical attention, including treatment such as intravenous fluid replacement, particularly when the person has vomited to a significant degree and the ingested fluids do not stay within the system. Heat exhaustion can bring down any athlete, irrespective of the level of fitness, experience with hot weather competition, or personal training regimen. Heat-related injuries of all types tend to occur WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HEAT EXHAUSTION

A proper cool-down along with hydration can help prevent heat exhaustion.

more frequently with athletes that are in lesser degrees of fitness. The key aspect to the prevention of heat exhaustion is proper hydration. Hydration has a number of components. It is such an important aspect of athletic performance that hydration must be approached through strategy, as opposed to that of an afterthought. Pre-hydration is the period leading up to an event; an athlete can tailor the daily consumption of fluids with the upcoming event in mind. A healthy person will consume approximately 64 oz of fluids daily. An athlete may adjust this consumption as the event approaches. Pre-hydration will also include the fluid consumed on the day of the event prior to competition. Hydration is the process of consuming fluid during the competition, usually either water or sport drinks with specialized electrolyte or carbohydrate elements. Rehydration is the equally important process of returning fluids of the body to their optimal levels. Hydration goes to the root of the mechanism of how the body keeps itself cool. Heat is generated by the body in every instance of energy production; warm weather and humid conditions make the elimination of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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heat from the body even more important. The body produces perspiration through the combined functions of the cardiovascular system bringing warm blood from the core of the body to the extremities and the release of fluids. Consequently, the amount of water in the body decreases, along with lesser amounts of electrolytes, which are minerals such as sodium, potassium, and calcium. The combined effect of electrolytic and fluid loss is the cause of muscle cramps. Heat exhaustion is primarily related to fluid loss. The onset of dehydration is a problem for the body that is progressive: as more water is lost, the less efficient is the cardiovascular system, as the fluid loss directly affects the blood volume available to the system. As fluid levels decline, the body cannot produce as much cooling perspiration. Humid weather compounds this problem as the perspiration, once produced, cannot evaporate as readily into the air, leaving the body temperature elevated. While the most effective preventative of heat exhaustion is water, the intensity and the duration of the exercise will also be a significant factor. Athletes that exceed their own training limits in a competition are vulnerable to heat-related injury. Athletes from

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temperate climates who compete in warm weather sporting events are particularly vulnerable to heat exhaustion. These individuals must consider a period of acclimatization to bridge the accustomed temperature and humidity to that of the competitive venue. In some circumstances, the athlete may ingest sufficient quantities of water and yet not combat the effects of heat exhaustion. In such circumstances, the proportion of sodium relative to the volume of water present in the body may fall to a stage in which the body is no longer in equilibrium. In addition to the consequences of heat exhaustion, the body becomes subject to a condition known as hyponatremia, in which the water ingested cannot be used to perform its intended cooling function.

Acclimatization; Hydration; Thermoregulation, exercise, and thirst; Warm weather exercise.

SEE ALSO

Heat stroke Heat stroke is the most serious of the three progressive forms of heat-related injury. Heat stroke is an insidious condition, as it commonly reaches an irreversibly fatal level by the time first aid or emergency measures are available. Heat stroke is a leading global cause of preventable death, in both athletic and non-athletic circumstances. The heat-related injuries of heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke are progressive in nature, in the sense that muscle cramps is the least serious, heat stroke is the most serious, and each injury has common factors in causation, formation, and treatment. Heat stroke can, however, arise without the person necessarily moving through all of the symptoms of the lesser two conditions. When the circumstances are present, heat stroke can present itself without other symptoms. Heat stroke represents a wholesale failure of the human thermoregulatory system, whereas the symptoms of heat exhaustion and muscle cramping caused by heat cramps might be equated to thermoregulatory equipment breakdowns. Heat stroke is caused in one of two situations: when the body is unable to cool itself due to extreme environmental conditions, or when the body produces excessive amounts of heat. In the normal function of the body, heat may be dissipated in four separate ways. Conduction is the ability of the body to transfer heat by direct contact with a cooler object. Conduction will account for approximately 2% of heat loss. Convection is the

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process where body heat is transferred to the air surrounding the body. The humidity of the immediate environment will have an impact on the ability of the air to absorb body heat. If the body temperature is 100 F (38 C), and the surrounding, or ambient, temperature is 105 F (41 C), the body will absorb warmth from the air, and it will not transfer heat. Convection will account for 10% of the heat dissipated by the body in normal circumstances. Radiation is the process where body heat is transferred to the surrounding environment by electromagnetic waves. As with convection, so long as the ambient temperature of the air is less than that of the body, heat will be transferred away from the body. Approximately 65% of the excess body heat is transferred by radiation. Evaporation is the heat transfer process in which liquid perspiration produced on the skin is released into a vapor. In normal circumstances, approximately 30% of the heat from the body is released in this fashion. The losses of fluid from the body during exertion in hot weather are remarkable in proportion to the size of the body. A 200 lb (98 kg) person exercising at a moderate level in 90 F (32 ) temperatures will lose between 30 and 60 oz (1–2 l) of body fluids during every hour of exercise. If the fluids are not properly replaced, the body’s initial protective response mechanism to conserve valuable fluid is to reduce its core temperature. This is achieved through restricting the flow of blood to the peripheral parts of the body, particularly the limbs. Ultimately, the body does not have a mechanism with which to carry away the heat, a process that results in a reduced flow of blood to the brain and central nervous system impairment. If unchecked, and body temperatures continue to rise, there will be clear physical impairment of the person, including dizziness, nausea, and an inability to speak coherently. Organ failure and death are inevitable results of untreated heat stroke. Sports that present the greatest risk of heat stroke are those played out of doors in warm weather conditions. Soccer, rugby, American football, and distance running are particular examples, as each combines the necessary environment with an activity that places significant stresses on the capabilities of the body, in addition to the dissipation of heat. Cycling can also contribute to the creation of heat stroke, but as the speed of the bicycle creates convection, cycling presents a lesser risk that the field sports. Medical attention for the athlete that has sustained heat stroke is essential. The preliminary actions will include the immediate removal of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HEEL SPURS

Heat stroke can be the result when the body is unable to cool itself due to extreme environmental conditions.

PH OTO B Y S TUA RT

F RA NK L I N/ GE TT Y I M A G E S .

athlete to a cooler environment. Often the administration of intravenous fluids will be required. A gentle lowering of the core temperature of the athlete, combined with the consumption of fluids, is the early objective of treatment. Immersing the athlete in cold water or ice bath is a shocking event for the body in these circumstances and is dangerous. It may take 24 hours or longer to restore the fluid levels of the injured person. The athlete should be restricted from any form of training for a period ranging from four to seven days. The physical and the neurological function of the athlete should be assessed as a consequence of this serious heat injury, given the risk of both muscle and organ tissue damage.

Hydration; Hydration strategy in distance running; Nervous system; Warm weather exercise.

SEE ALSO

Heel spurs An understanding of the formation of heel spurs is closely linked to the causation of the related WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

inflammatory condition of the foot, plantar fasciitis. The heel bone, known as the calcaneus, is the largest bone in the foot. It is subject to significant forces with every stride, or at every occasion when the foot is required to bear body weight. The plantar fascia is the long fibrous tissue that supports the arch of the foot, anchored at one end on the surface of the heel, and connected at the other end to the ball of the foot, or forefoot. Plantar fasciitis is an irritation of the plantar tissue; the specific site of discomfort can be anywhere along the tissue band. Small calcium deposits, appearing as a thin bony growth in an x-ray, will sometimes form on the outer edge of the heel bone. These are heel spurs, which occur in widths that range from 0.1 in 0.3 in (1 mm to 5 mm). In approximately 70% of all plantar fasciitis cases, heel spur formation occurs, but the two conditions are not necessarily dependant on one another. The plantar fasciitis condition is believed to be the primary cause of pain in the foot; the bony heel spur is a structural abnormality. The pain is produced as a result of the irritation, similar to tendonitis,

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caused to the plantar tissue. These combined conditions are common in persons over the age of 45 years, due to accumulated stresses generated on the foot; athletes in sports such as distance running are most susceptible to the onset of plantar fasciitis. There are a number of factors that often contribute to the combined development of plantar fasciitis and heel spurs. Imbalances in the relationship between the calf muscles, Achilles tendon, and the muscles of the foot are the most prominent contributors. When the calf muscles are tight as a result of not being properly stretched, the plantar structure is overstretched and it becomes irritated. When an athlete uses footwear that is not sufficiently supportive, particularly in the shoe construction that contacts the heel, known as the heel counter, the junction between the heel bone and the plantar may be unnaturally stressed. The combined effect of heel spurs and plantar fasciitis will never present a life-threatening condition to an athlete or a sedentary person. The conditions are most noticeable when the person is first mobile in the morning, and it tends to lessen as the foot and the plantar tissue are stretched by normal movement as the day progresses. The result of these conditions on both performance and day-to-day comfort can be dramatic. It is virtually impossible for an athlete in a running sport to perform to an optimal level if foot pain is experienced throughout all training and competitive sessions. There are numerous remedies that may be utilized in the treatment of a heel spur or plantar fasciitis condition. The least invasive approaches, useful in the short to medium term, include: rest; stretching programs for both the foot and specific plantar tissues, as well as the calf muscles and the Achilles tendon, to achieve a better balance between those structures; the application of ice to the entire bottom of the foot after all sports activity; anti-inflammatory medications; taping the foot for additional support during training or competition; an orthotic to correct misalignment in the strike of the foot; and shoes with proper fit and additional cushioning and support in the heel. In the longer term, when the less invasive strategies have not succeeded in countering the effects of these conditions, some athletes have obtained relief through cortisone injections. Cortisone, as a powerful synthetic anti-inflammatory, is a prescription medication that must be carefully weighed as an option due to the pronounced risks generally associated with this type of glucocorticoid injection in a small structure such as the heel (risk of rupture of the plantar).

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Surgery is almost always a final resort. In this procedure, the goal is to loosen the tight, inflamed plantar tissue through a procedure known as a release. Such procedures are not always successful; if the plantar is made too lax, the person may become flat footed, or in some cases the delicate nerve pathways of the foot may be damaged. A procedure that has received greater prominence in recent years is a non-invasive extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT), in which waves are directed to the affected tissue, to stimulate a micro-tear of the plantar fiber, an event that is believed to stimulate healthy plantar growth.

Achilles tendonitis; Foot: Anatomy and physiology; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

Herbs Herb is both the name given to the harvested product of a particular type of vegetation as well as a classification of the vegetation itself. Herbs are distinct in their structure and lifecycles from all other forms of plant life. The stem of an herb is not a hardy, woody structure as is found in a tree or shrubbery; the herb plant typically dies down to the ground after it has flowered in a particular season. The stem, fruit, seeds, leaves, or roots may all be harvested as herbal products. Herbs are grown in three different types of plants. Herbs that are grown from a seed to be cultivated and harvested in a single year are known as annuals. Those herbs that are planted in a season to flower and produce their fruit in a second year are known as biennials; perennials are those herbs that grow and are available for harvest year by year. Herbs have been valued for their medicinal and restorative powers throughout the history of humans on Earth. The development of herbal remedies until the twentieth century was founded primarily on the folk medicines and traditions of various cultures throughout the world, where indigenous plants were used in a multitude of ways until the development of manufactured pharmacological products pushed herbal preparations into the shadows. A revival of interest in natural medicines has spurred the development of a global industry centered on herbal products, diet and nutritional supplements, and an expansion of traditional Chinese medicines (TCM), of which herbs were an important component. There is an ever-growing body of sport science research that supports the usefulness of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HERBS

Pharmacist works at a Chinese herbal medicine store (Beijing, China).

herbal products to enhance general health and athletic performance. There are hundreds of herbs used either as freestanding products or as components of supplements, teas, or lotions. Common herbs that have a recognized effectiveness include: Alfalfa is a plant whose leaves are rich in minerals as well as the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E. The aloe vera plant, native to parts of Africa and the Caribbean, possesses leaves with wellknown analgesic properties, and is prized as an ingredient in topical burn lotions. The burdock plant produces a root that assists in kidney function and healthy blood circulation. Chamomile is a plant whose qualities as a digestive aid have been recognized since the Middle Ages. Echinacea is a plant possessed of natural antibiotic qualities; it is commonly found in cold remedies. Garlic plants have been used to combat illnesses of many types for thousands of years. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª RE UTE RS/COR BIS

Ginger was a preventative medicine in ancient Chinese therapies, particularly as a stabilizer of the digestive system and to combat headaches. Ginseng root was another significant component of Chinese practice, believed to be a powerful stimulant to physical and mental endurance. The root of the guarana plant, native to the Amazon basin, is a source of the stimulant, caffeine. Guarana is commonly found in sports energy drinks and supplements. Hawthorne berries enjoy a long history in the Chinese practices. They are a plant product widely employed as a diuretic, and as possessing soothing qualities to the digestive system. Hawthorne berries are referred in modern language as a bioflavonoid, a substance that possesses both antioxidant (a substance with the ability to counteract cell damage and disease) and anti-inflammatory properties. Cranberries and blueberries are other wellknown examples of bioflavonoids.

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Licorice, a plant extract, is often used in combination with other herbs in supplements as an aid to the respiratory system. Ma huang, also variously known as ephedra or Mormon tea, is a backbone to the traditional Chinese herbal practices. Ma huang is the leaf of the ephedra plant, a source of the stimulant, ephedrine. The physical properties of ephedra and its ability to increase energy and reduce fatigue have been the subject of intense scrutiny in North America in recent years, due to concerns regarding the potential heightened risk of heart attack through its consumption. Ephedra and ephedrine are prohibited substances in competitions subject to regulation by the World-Anti Doping Agency (WADA). The rose hip is the portion of the rose flower that remains intact after the petals have fallen away. Rose hips are a comprehensive source of vitamin C. Although best known as a soft drink flavoring, sarsaparilla was widely employed by the Native American and Chinese cultures as an antiinflammatory and urinary tract cleanser. Yellow dock is a plant commonly used in supplements as it is rich in the mineral, iron, and it is an excellent cleansing agent.

Dietary supplements; Energy drinks; Ephedra; Supplement contamination.

SEE ALSO

Heredity

SEE

Genetics

Herniated disks The human spine extends from the skull to the coccyx, or tailbone. It performs several crucial anatomical functions for human movement and function; it is a support structure for the skull, a component for the movement of the head and neck, and a protective mechanism for the vital spinal cord and the internal organs. The spine is composed of 24 hard, semicircular bones known as vertebrae, organized in a column. The individual vertebrae are connected by durable fibrous tissue known as facet joints; each vertebra is afforded both separation from adjacent bones as well as cushioning from stresses and strains of movement and applied forces by its intravertebrae disks. Each disk is composed of a cartilage-like substance,

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annulus fibrosis, that contains a gel substance that, when subjected to most physical stresses, is remarkably durable. When pressure is applied to the center of the disk, the gel content may be forced against cartilage shell, causing it to break down and rupture. This rupture is also known as a herniation of the disk; it may also be known as a ‘‘slipped disk,’’ although it is not an accurate description of the mechanism. The condition will often result in pain for the person, as the gel content of the disk may leak onto the nerves of the spinal cord, causing pressure to be applied this structure. When the disk does not break, but when its surface bulges out as a result of the pressure applied to it, the condition is known as a bulging disk. Bulging disks do not necessarily cause pressure and resultant pain on the adjacent nerve structures; a bulging disk is at greater risk to herniate than a normal intravertebrae disk. In its most extreme form, a herniated disk will both rupture and portions of the cartilage exterior of the disk will float freely in the area outside of the disk. The mechanisms of a herniated disk are numerous, given the wide range of both movements and forces to which the vertebrae and the disks are exposed. The primary location of a herniated disk is in the lumbar region of the spine (the low back); the second most likely location is the cervical spine, the seven vertebrae that form the top of the spine below the skull. Any type of direct force that is applied to the disk can potentially cause the gel center of the disk outward into the exterior wall. Herniated disks can result from a sudden or explosive movement, such as the lifting of a heavy object or a sudden twisting of the spine; the most frequent cause of disk herniation is exposure to regular loads or strains on the disk over a period of time. In many circumstances, what is believed to be a sudden herniation of a disk is the result of a culminating incident involving a previous bulging or otherwise damaged disk. If the herniation results in pressure being applied to the spinal cord or the associated nerve endings, pain sensations will tend to radiate along the arms or legs. Depending on the location of the herniated disk, the consequences may extend beyond the musculoskeletal structure. If a lumbar disk is damaged, the pressure produced may impact on the nerve structures responsible for the regulation of the function of the bladder and bowels. The herniation of disks occurs most commonly in persons after age 35; it is believed that the regular stresses of daily living often create a favorable basis for disk damage to occur. In addition to the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HGH

A three-dimensional computer model of a human growth hormone (HGH) and its receptors.

subjective observations of the affected person, diagnostic tools such as x rays, the injection of radioactive dye into the spinal canal for observation of narrowing that would be indicative of a herniated disk, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are indicated. The identification of the precise location of a herniated disk is often difficult. In addition to the high-technology analytical tools, there are a number of physical tests employed to isolate the location of a herniated disk. Various movements of the body, including the straight leg raise to determine the existence of pressure on the nerve roots that emanate from the spinal cord at the lumbar spine, are used to assist in the process. Surgery is generally regarded as an absolute last resort in the treatment of a herniated disk. Many such injuries will resolve themselves with therapy over time. Chiropractic manipulation is sometimes employed as a technique to free the limitations of movement caused by the damaged disk. Acupuncture has also been more frequently employed in recent years to alleviate the pain of the contacting disk WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª CORB IS

against the nearby nerve system. Massage therapies, ultrasound, and anti-inflammatory medications are all components to a comprehensive pain management and treatment program. When surgery is performed to repair the disk, the severity or invasiveness of the procedure will vary depending on the extent of the disk damage. In some circumstances, the disk can be re-inflated with a synthetic gel; in others, the damaged portions of the disk will be removed from contact with the nerve structure. SEE ALSO

Back injuries; Neck injuries; Nervous system.

HGH HGH is an acronym for human growth hormone. This anabolic hormone is normally produced by the pituitary gland in the brain, although synthetic (manufactured) HGH is now available. In 1989, the use of HGH as a performance enhancer was banned by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

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Whether naturally produced or injected, HGH stimulates the growth of muscle, bone, and cartilage. Prior to the advent of the synthetic version, HGH was usually obtained and purified from pituitary glands removed from human cadavers. HGH is produced throughout life, but is especially important during childhood and adolescence, when its increased production results in more pronounced body growth. In adults, where body growth has virtually stopped, the hormone normally assumes an important role in metabolism. First discovered in 1956, the therapeutic benefits of HGH in the treatment of childhood growth retardation were quickly recognized, and it began to be used only three years later. The chief athletic lure of HGH is the increased muscle size that can result from its use. Because a bigger muscle is usually stronger, athletes in events that require power and explosive strength may be able to gain a performance advantage. Weightlifting and sprinting are two sports that have well-publicized histories of HGH misuse by some competing athletes. Increased muscle mass can also lessen the time needed to recover from training, making an athlete capable of sustaining a more intense training regimen. For athletes who choose to exploit illegal means of enhancing athletic performance, HGH can be an attractive choice because being a naturally produced compound, the detection of HGH is not necessarily an indication of illicit use. Moreover, the levels of HGH normally present in the body can vary by more than 100 times from person to person, depending on someone’s fitness and nutritional state. Thus, benchmark normal and abnormal levels of HGH are difficult to define. The potential athletic benefits of HGH carry risks. An excess amount of the hormone can lead to acromegaly, which is the condition of the renewed and abnormal growth of hands and facial bones in adults. Internally, growth of the heart, liver, and kidneys can cause potentially life-threatening problems such as cardiomyopathy. In the latter, the abnormally enlarged heart does not pump blood efficiently and develops an irregular beat. As well, hormonally induced rapid cell growth has been linked with the development of cancer.

Anabolic steroids; Doping tests; Glucocorticoids; Nandrolone; Prohibited substances (competition bans).

SEE ALSO

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High altitude effects on sport performance Athletes will typically experience two different types of effects upon their ability to perform at highaltitude venues. The first is physiological, determined by the body’s reaction to a thin, less-oxygenated atmosphere. The second effect is impacts that are sport-specific but equally pronounced: how the physical components of a particular sport are altered in high altitude performance. High altitude is the description given any locale where the athlete begins to experience the limitations that a reduced oxygen intake place upon the body. Scientists generally classify elevations of 6,500 ft (2,000 m) as high altitude because of the pronounced difference in oxygen content; the effect of altitude may be experienced at lower elevations. The human body has a built-in mechanism to counter the effects of low oxygen in the immediate atmosphere. When the body senses that it is not receiving its accustomed level of oxygen, it determines that it must produce a greater number of erythrocytes (red blood cells), which carry oxygen to the bloodstream. The increase of transportation capability means that the body will be optimizing the amount of available oxygen. The process by which erythrocytes are increased commences with the release of a hormone in the kidneys known as erythropoietin (EPO), which acts as a trigger to the production of erythrocytes centered in the bone marrow of the long bones of the body, primarily the femur (thigh). The acclimatization of the body to an oxygen-reduced environment is not instantaneous; high altitude adaptations begin immediately. An athlete will be as much as 75% accustomed to the thin air within 7–10 days of exposure to the conditions, with full acclimatization within 15–20 days. High altitude training is a proven effective performance-enhancing tool, as the ability of an athlete to utilize greater amounts of oxygen will naturally support improved capabilities. The physiological benefits of high altitude training continue for between one to three months after the return of the athlete to sea-level training conditions conditions. The physics of high altitude sports performance and the advantages derived by the competitors in such venues are as varied as they are emphatic. The 1968 Olympics held in Mexico City were the first games staged at a high altitude (7,349 ft [2,300 m]), and the number of world records set was indicative of the impact of the thinner air on performance. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HIGH ALTITUDE PULMONARY EDEMA

American Bob Beamon set a long jump event record of 29 ft 2 in (9.3 m), which shattered the then-existing standard by over 2 ft (.6 m), in a discipline where records are almost always broken in increments of fractions of an inch. Lee Evans of the United States set a world record of 43.86 seconds in the 400-m race, a mark that stood for almost 20 years. Records fell in almost every track event from the 100-m to the 1,500m; the longer distances posed difficulties for the athletes that were not entirely accustomed to the high altitude effects. Intense research conducted in the wake of the world record onslaught at Mexico City confirmed that the reduced wind resistance and drag upon the competitors’ bodies in the thin air permitted the athletes to move with greater efficiency. So long as the event did not involve prolonged duress to the aerobic energy system and its dependency upon maximal amounts of oxygen, an athlete could expect better performances in higher altitude. Not only does the moving body encounter reduced air resistance, any objects thrown, such as a discus or javelin, would tend to travel further as well. The effects of high altitude are well known in different professional team sports. The visiting soccer team to venues such as Mexico City and La Paz, Bolivia (where the stadium attitude of over 11,000 ft [3,400 m], is the highest in international soccer), will likely not be able to perform at a maximum level unless it has trained at altitude. To a lesser but measurable degree, Denver, Colorado’s Mile High Stadium, situated at 5,500 ft above sea level (1,700 m), has been regarded as a difficult competitive environment for visiting American football teams since it was opened.

American Bob Beamon set a long jump event record at the 1969 Olympics held in Mexico City. AP P HO TO

Altitude is a significant performance factor in the game of baseball, especially with respect to how far a batted ball will carry in the thinner air. The professional baseball stadium in Denver is known as a hitter’s park for this reason, as are a number of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) venues in the western United States that are constructed at elevations greater than 5,000 ft (1,550 m). Research conducted at various times has concluded that a baseball will travel between 3% and 7% further in air at these altitudes than a similarly struck ball at sea level, assuming that the temperature is constant. An object will travel further in warmer, less dense air than it will in cold air.

illness

In the sports of both American football and rugby, a ball can be kicked further in thinner high altitudes than at sea level. American football coaches and their specialist field goal kickers will be inclined WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

to attempt field goals five to seven yards further from the goal in a high altitude venue for this reason.

Acclimatization; Blood volume; Cardiovascular system; Oxygen.

SEE ALSO

High altitude illness

SEE

Altitude

High altitude pulmonary edema High altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is one of a number of related altitude sicknesses that can affect persons exercising at altitudes they are not accustomed to. HAPE will typically occur at elevations greater than 6,500 ft (2,000 m). The common feature in all types of altitude sicknesses is the onset of hypoxia, a deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching the body’s, particularly the brain, where there is otherwise an adequate supply of blood. At high altitudes, the amount of oxygen in the air available to the cardiorespiratory system is less than the amount available at sea level, as the reduced

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HIGH ALTITUDE PULMONARY EDEMA

Doctors examine a climber who experienced HAPE (high altitude pulmonary edema) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m) on Mount Everest.

ª G AL E N

ROWE LL/C ORB IS

effect of gravity makes the air less dense. There is less oxygen available to enter the body through the lungs; at an elevation of 10,000 ft (3,100 m), the body will have approximately 90% of its normal oxygen level at sea level. HAPE occurs when the body has not been provided an appropriate opportunity to adjust its internal mechanisms to the reduced oxygen environment. This process, known as ventilatory acclimatization, requires approximately four days in which to occur. An important aspect of this acclimatization process is the body’s increased production of both erythropoietin (EPO), the hormone that stimulates the production of oxygen transporting red blood cells, and hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying component of the red blood cells. HAPE occurs in three separate, but related, high altitude circumstances–where the subject has made a rapid ascent to an altitude above 6,500 ft; where the subject has engaged in vigorous exercise at high altitude; where the subject has been exposed to very cold weather. In all circumstances, the body is not able to direct sufficient amounts of oxygen into the

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body. The onset of HAPE is also affected by the genetic makeup of the individual, as some persons are more susceptible to the onset of HAPE. The symptoms of HAPE do not usually present themselves until the subject has been at the unaccustomed altitude for 48 hours or more. The most prominent symptoms are a decreased tolerance to exercise and low blood pressure. The injured person may also experience a retinal hemorrhage. The primary treatment for HAPE is to transport the subject to a lower altitude or to introduce oxygen into the subject’s respiratory system. If untreated HAPE can be a fatal condition. There are many ski resorts and lodges through out both Europe and the mountainous districts of North America that at elevations above the level where HAPE may present a risk. A study of Colorado resorts determined an incidence of HAPE of roughly one case per 10,000 skiers per day.

Cardiopulmonary function; Cardiovascular system; High altitude effects on sport performance.

SEE ALSO


HIGH JUMP

Attila Zsivoczky of Hungary competes during the high jump event in the men’s decathlon at the 2005 world athletics championships in Helsinki, Poland. R UBE N SP RI CH /R EUTE RS /CO RBI S

High jump The high jump is one of the most elemental of athletic contests. The athlete is required to leap unaided, except for human propulsion, over a horizontal bar placed at a predetermined height, with the height being incrementally raised until no remaining competitor can clear the standard. In competition, a jumper is generally given three opportunities to clear the bar at a particular height. While it is unclear as to whether the high jump was included as an event in the ancient Olympics, this discipline has been a part of the modern Olympic Games since their inception in 1896. The high jump, while very simple in its structure and its competitive format, is an intensely technical sport, in which the successful athlete will combine innate physical talent, speed, footwork, and a highly developed ability WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

to control the body in mid-air as the bar is approached. A typical high jumper is tall and slender, so as to achieve a desirable strength to weight ratio in the propulsion of the body over the bar. These athletes also generally possess a high percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers in their legs, the muscle components that assist in developing explosive movements in their take-off from the ground to the bar. The technique employed by the first Olympic high jumpers in 1896, methods that with modification remained the standard in the sport for almost 30 years, was the ‘‘scissor kick.’’ The basic movement of the scissor kick involved the run up to the bar, followed by a lift of the leg closest to the bar, and a scissoring motion with the trailing leg to achieve clearance. In the quest to conquer higher standards, techniques that permitted the body of the jumper to be delivered with the torso parallel to the bar were

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HIP AND GROIN INJURIES

developed; the ‘‘western roll’’ and the ‘‘straddle’’ are both the names and the descriptions of these movements. The 1968 Olympics high jump competition was won by American Dick Fosbery, who had modified the traditional approaches to the event into a new technique that was dubbed the Fosbery Flop. Fosbery approached the bar with a run up from a diagonal position, and then jumped as he twisted his body to direct his head and shoulders over the bar, with his torso, buttocks, and legs trailing behind. The Fosbery Flop, with various minor adjustments, has remained the essential high jumping method for both men and women since that time. The progression of the world record standard of the high jump was profound between the first modern Olympics of 1896 to the early 1960s, from the mark of 6 ft 5 in (1.97 m) to that of 7 ft 5 in (2.28 m). The current world record was set in 1993 by Javier Sotomayor at 8 ft 1 in (2.45 m); the best women’s high jump is that of Stefka Kostadinova, achieved in 1987, a height of 7 ft 1 in (2.09 m). The reasons for the stall in the progression of the world record standard, relative to developments in other Olympic events, is unclear. The high jump, as with many track and field events, is a prominent one at the Olympics and at the biennial World Track and Field Championships; it is not otherwise a sport that attracts significant media attention. The high jump is also of some notice as a component of the decathlon and modern pentathlon events. High jumpers compete in considerable numbers, but with relative anonymity throughout the world, from the sports clubs of Europe to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) championships of American universities. The training methods of a high jumper will incorporate elements of speed, strength, explosiveness, flexibility, and significant mental training and concentration. The run up to the bar and the take-off from the ground to the air are the aspects of the sport that blend the first three of the training areas. The contortion of the body while moving across the bar requires continuous reinforcement of the musculoskeletal flexibility of the athlete. As with any individual sport, the athlete must steel him or herself to the fact that there will be missed jumps in any competition; the ability of the jumper to recover from a miss and to refocus his or her efforts on the next jump are essential to competitive success.

Decathlon; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch; Plyometrics.

SEE ALSO

368

Hip and groin injuries As with so many terms that are used to describe parts of the human body, there exists both a generic usage and a more precise anatomical or sports science-specific meaning for both the hip and the groin. The hip is known as the vicinity of the body that extends from the waist across the pelvis to the top of the thigh on each side of the body. The groin is known as the area surrounding the fold in the body created where the top of the thigh meets the abdomen, including the genitals. Both structures are in fact more acutely defined, both by position and by function, within the musculoskeletal structure of the body. The hip is composed of four bones and a series of connective ligaments, with the joint created by a bony extension, the trochanter, which meets with a ball-shaped end situated at the top of the femur (thigh bone), that fits into the pelvis to form a joint referred to as a ball and socket. The hip is secured by an overlay of abductor muscles and tendons that permit the leg to be moved through in a 360 sweep, although the latitude of movement in the hip joint is more pronounced in forward and backward positions than laterally. The groin is the intersection of the leg abductors and the muscles of the lower abdomen. The movements of the hip necessarily impact upon the groin structures. Many of the stretching and flexibility exercises designed to promote stretch and optimal function in the hip will promote similar health in the groin muscles. Hip injuries are generally classed as overuse, repetitive strain injuries, and those caused by trauma. As the hip is a large joint that is both the subject of stresses with every step taken, as well as being relatively poorly protected with an insufficient covering of tissues to shield it, hip injuries are a common feature of many sports. Runners and those involved in running sports commonly sustain hip bursitis, sometimes referred to as trochanteris bursitis. As with many weightbearing joints in the body, a cushioning sac, known as a bursa, is positioned within the joint to aid in the absorption of shock generated either through movement or by contact against it. When the bursa becomes inflamed through irritation caused by excessive strain, it will cause pain for the athlete. Hip bursitis is treated by conservative measures, namely the application of the RICE (rest/ice/compression/ elevation) treatment applied to the site of the pain. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HIP AND PELVIS ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The illiol band is the connective tissue that runs from the outside of the hip to the knee, providing stability to the thigh muscles. An improperly stretched illiol band can cause pain in the hip region. Injuries similar in its cause are strains to the hip flexor and abductor muscles, necessary to the lifting of the leg. Where an imbalance exists between these typically strong tissues and those of the abdomen or the gluteal (buttocks), the athlete can experience a weakness in the muscles. Fractures of the hip are most common among elderly persons, especially those who suffer from osteoporosis, a disease that causes a weakening of the bone due to decreased bone density. A hip pointer is an injury to the joint caused by a direct blow, such as that in sports such as American football or ice hockey. The pointer, so called as it typically occurs on the most prominent point of the joint, is a bruise of the bone that, in some cases, can be evidence of a fracture. In many circumstances, the wear and tear upon the hip leads to a condition known as osteoarthritis, where the protective linings of the hip bones in the socket of the joint have become progressively worn away. When treatment of the condition becomes progressively less useful, a hip replacement, known as a hip arthoplasty, may be performed. In this surgical procedure, the entire hip joint is removed and a mechanical hip is implanted. Two-sport athlete Bo Jackson, award-winning American football player and major league baseball player, may be the only athlete to ever return to elite-level competitive sport after receiving an artificial hip. Groin injuries are almost invariably a result of quick, lateral movements, often in combination with acceleration made from a standing start. Soccer, American football, rugby, and tennis are sports where there exists a significant incidence of groin injury. The least debilitating of the groin injuries is the groin pull, or as it also known, the groin strain. As with any other strain, this injury is cause by an overextension of the muscles of the lower abdomen, causing the muscle to stretch or sustain a micro-tear. A typical groin strain will resolve with rest and gentle stretching over seven to 10 days. The more serious groin injury is a complete tear of the groin, either as a significant number of fibers or through the complete rupture of the tissue. A tear will sideline an athlete for as long as three months, or longer. Extreme care must be taken with the rehabilitative process; in the specialized form of groin tear known inaccurately as a ‘‘sport hernia,’’ which is a tear of the inguinal ligament located directly above WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

X-ray of a fractured hip.

ª R OYA LTY- FR EE /COR BIS

the scrotum, surgery is required to repair the tear, with a convalescence and recovery of up to six months.

Groin pulls and strains; Hip and pelvis anatomy and physiology; Musculoskeletal injuries; Sprains and strains.

SEE ALSO

Hip and pelvis anatomy and physiology The hip and the pelvis are two distinct but entirely interrelated parts of the human anatomy. The pelvis is a large semicircular bone complex that forms the base on which the torso and upper body are positioned. The pelvis, which is a rigid and inflexible portion of the skeleton, is built to provide a foundation of the movement of other parts of the anatomy, particularly the back and the legs. The pelvis also permits the weight of the entire upper body

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to be evenly distributed to the legs, which are connected to the pelvis through the hip joints. The pelvis is comprised of three bones arranged in a ring: the ilium, which is formed in the shape of a wing, rising on each side of the pelvis; the ischium, which forms the middle portion of the pelvis; and the pubis, the bone at the base of the pelvic structure. The pelvis is connected to the skeleton of the upper body by way of the sacroiliac, a fused joint at the connection between the lower portion of the spinal column and the pelvic bones. The sacrum and the coccyx (the tailbone) are the bottom portion of the spine that make the connection to the pelvis; the presence of a ligament connecting the sacrum to the pelvis is not a typical joint, as the pelvic structure is capable of very little flexion or extension on its own. The pelvis also protects the lower organs of the abdomen, particularly those of the renal and intestinal tracts. Also important is the rigid and supportive structure of the pelvis, an essential aspect of the ability of the body to move dynamically through the legs. If the pelvis were less stable, the legs would not be able to generate either propulsion or their range of motion. The hip joint is a structure of four bones, forming a ball and socket joint between the pelvis and the femur (thigh). The hip joint variously provides the body with stability for weight-bearing activities involving the legs, as well as mobility through the nature of the hip structure. The hip joint is also the mechanism by which the forces brought to bear upon the body are transmitted from the upper body, though the hip joints, to the lower legs. The portion of the femur of particular importance to joint movement is the head of the femur, which fits into the acetabulum, the cup-shaped portion of the pelvis that creates the ball and socket hip joint. The stability of the hips in relation to the function of the pelvis is secured by a ligament that connects the femur to the acetabulum across the notch, or gap, created between the two bony surfaces. The snugness of the fit between the head of the femur and the acetabulum is achieved through the presence of the labrum, which covers its surface. Where the surface of the acetebulum makes contact with the head of the femur is a cartilage, a smooth, fibrous material that assists in the movement of the joint. The thinning or other reduction of this cartilage will result in various forms of arthritis. The acetabulum labrum is material that eliminates excess space between the bones of the joint, a circumstance that would tend to make the joint overly loose and inefficient in movement.

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The human pelvis.

P H O T O BY A NDR E A S F E I NI NG E R / T IM E & L IF E

PICT URES/ GE TTY IM AGES.

The hip joint is capable of a remarkable range of motion, due to the construction of the joint, supported through the presence of the four sets of muscles and connecting tendons that operate together with machine-like precision. The hip flexors, extensors, adductors, and external rotators combine to provide a 360 range of motion. The importance of the hip joint is not confined to the range of motion that it permits the upper leg, but also through the considerable muscular power and endurance that is delivered in concert with the motion. The hip joint flexor supports the process of flexion, the movement of the hip joint that produces a bend, which helps propel the legs forward and upward. Extension is the hip action that straightens the leg. Rotation is the ability of the hip joint to direct the femur and the upper thigh through the 360 range of motion. Adduction is movement of the hip muscles that draws the femur and upper thigh toward the body; the adductors are important stabilizing muscles in running. The hips and pelvis are directed through a number of nerve endings, the most important of which is the sciatic nerve. The pelvis is not capable of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DIEDERICK HOL

independent movement as it is not a joint. However, it is a structure with a reasonable degree of flexibility, absent the weakening of the pelvis of hip bones due to osteoarthritis or osteoporosis, two similar and degenerative bone conditions that can cause fractures. The female pelvis is slightly wider and shallower than that of the male, to facilitate the female in childbirth.

Back anatomy and physiology; Hip and groin injuries; Thigh and upper leg injuries.

SEE ALSO

Hitting, baseball

SEE

Hockey, field

Field hockey

Hockey, ice

SEE

SEE

Hockey, roller

Baseball bat speed

Ice hockey

SEE

Roller hockey

Hockey, women’s

SEE

Women’s ice

hockey

Diederick Hol 1970– DUTCH MECHANICAL ENGINEER

Diederick Hol is a Dutch mechanical engineer who developed a revolutionary application based upon the ‘clap’ speed skate in 1996. This technology is now standard in the manufacture of the equipment used in the sport of speed skating. Athletes using this type of skate have lowered the existing world records in both men’s and women’s competition at every race distance since 1997. Hol was a graduate mechanical engineering student in 1995 at Delft University when he first began to experiment with an old speed skating technology, the clap skate. The first clap skates were patented in Holland in the late nineteenth century, but the invention had not ever been pursued to the extent of manufacturing a commercially saleable product. In 1995, speed skates had undergone very little by way of technological improvement for over 100 years, other than refinements in the construction of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

the boots. The essence of the speed skate was its long blade, capable of assisting the skater in generating greater speeds that those skates used for ice hockey. The longer the skate blade, the greater amount of ice that can be covered by an athlete in one stride (shorter blades are used in hockey due to their greater maneuverability, in a game where the athlete changes direction frequently). Conventional speed skates were constructed of a boot, attached to the long blade in a fixed position. The clap skate was designed with a hinge positioned at the ball of the foot, so as to permit the skater’s heel to become detached from the blade with each stride. The clap mechanism replicates the motion of the foot observed in sports such as running and cross country skiing, where the power produced in each stride is culminated with an extension of the toes pushing of from the surface. Speed skating is a very popular sport in many parts of Europe, particularly in the Netherlands (Holland) where it is the national winter sport. In reviewing the clap technology, Hol reasoned that the skater could develop a greater amount of force to be exerted with every stride, as the entire musculoskeletal structure of the lower leg would be engaged in the action. In particular, the extension motion of the knee and the plantar flexors, including the gastrocnemius (calf muscles) could be better utilized with the clap technique. Hol also observed that with the clap mechanism, the forceful push off with the toe did not cause the blade to be forced deeper into the ice surface, creating additional drag between the blade and the ice. The forces of the stride continued to be directed along the axis of the skate blade, making it more efficient. The skater is also able to generate a more natural stride and cadence. Hol constructed a spring mechanism to permit the skater the skate boot and the hinge operated at the same angle as the skater’s body in the turn. By permitting the skate to move with the motion of each turn, the skater expends less wasted energy (i.e., any energy not directed to forward motion). In 1997, the Dutch national speed skating team were the first elite athletes equipped with the new technology, amid significant controversy that the clap skates were a mechanical advantage as opposed to improved equipment. The International Skating Union (ISU), the governing body of the sport, ultimately ruled that the clap skate was legal, as the athlete was required to use their own power to perform.

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HORMONAL RESPONSE TO EXERCISE

The impact of the clap skate upon speed skating competitions was profound. Elite athletes were able to reduce their times by as much as one second for every 400 m (440 yd); 14 world records were broken in the first year of the international use of the clap skate. Hol has also played a significant role in the developing of in line skate technologies, particularly the Dual Box frame. This construction is designed to produce a better transfer of energy from the inline skater to the skate through modifications in the degree of elasticity in the inline skate frame construction.

International Federations; Physics of banks and curves; Speedskating.

SEE ALSO

Hormonal response to exercise Hormones are the chemical messengers employed by the body to carry specific signals to a particular organ or system. Hormones are produced at various centers located within the body, known as glands. The hypothalamus is an organ that asserts control over many glandular functions. The hypothalamus is a crucial command center in the brain that is continually engaged in a number of processes that direct responses by the body to address external stimuli such as heat, a need for greater blood volume, or a reaction to stress. The most important of the glands controlled by the hypothalamus is the function of the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland functions both as a generator of hormones for particular physical and chemical response functions as well as those that regulate other glands in their production of hormones. Hormones have a regulatory purpose in relation to human function, as they are intended to act as a prompt, or triggering, mechanism to direct certain systems to act in a particular way. When produced by a gland, hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream for transport to the desired center. The study and the science of hormone function is known as endocrinology. Exercise has profound effects on the function of a number of glands and their corresponding impact on a number of systems through the release of specific hormones. The first gland to exhibit a response to exercise is the pituitary gland. This structure produces and secretes a number of different hormones for different purposes, of which the human growth hormone (HGH) is the most important. Exercise will trigger the generation and release of human growth hormone by the pituitary gland to stimulate the body

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to increase its production of bone, muscle, or connective tissue cells. Human growth hormone was synthesized for use as a muscle-building supplement as a direct result of the desire by some athletes to become bigger and stronger. The pituitary gland also regulates the function of two other glands whose hormones are released in response to exercise—the thyroid gland and the adrenal gland. The thyroid gland is located at the base of the neck. Once stimulated by the pituitary gland, the thyroid produces two distinct hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These hormones are responsible for raising the level of activity in the systems essential for exercise performance. The stimulus provided to the thyroid gland to generate T3 and T4 hormone production and release into the bloodstream creates corresponding increases in the heart rate and blood pressure of the cardiovascular system. These hormones will also influence the thermoregulatory system, particularly with respect to body temperature during exercise. These thyroid hormones also elevate the level of alertness present in the brain and the central nervous system during exercise: the concepts of concentration and reaction time are more focused as a result of the various systems being directed to work at a higher level. The adrenal glands are constructed as a pair, with a single gland, built with two parts, located above each kidney. The adrenal will produce a number of hormones in response to the receipt of a hormone from the pituitary gland, adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), which signals the adrenal gland to take action. Three hormones are the most important of the chemicals commonly produced by the adrenal gland in response to exercise. The first is cortisol, one of a class of substances known as the glucocorticoids. Cortisol performs a number of functions when it is released into the bloodstream: it causes the blood pressure of the cardiovascular system to rise, it will trigger an increase in the level of glucose in the bloodstream, and it acts as an anti-inflammatory agent. The second main exercise-induced adrenal hormone is aldosterone, which causes a bodily response to anticipated dehydration, through its impact upon kidney function. Aldosterone causes the kidneys to increase levels of sodium and water retention as a result of a signal that is first sent from the hypothalamus regarding the overall fluid levels of the body. Aldosterone correspondingly produces less urine, while releasing greater amounts of potassium into the renal system. The thirst mechanism, the physical sensation experienced by people that they have a need for water, is slower and much inferior to the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HORMONES

internal chemical regulation-monitoring process maintained by the hypothalamus and the related glandular responses; by the time thirst is sensed, the body may be significantly dehydrated. The third important adrenal hormone is adrenaline, which is produced when the body, through the hypothalamus, determines that it is now exposed to circumstances of excitement or self-defense. This release of adrenaline is often described as the ‘‘fight or flight’’ mechanism. Adrenaline is a stimulant, similar in its chemical construction to ephedrine. The release of adrenaline has the immediate effect of both increasing the strength and the frequency of heart contractions, as well as speeding the breakdown of the stored carbohydrate glycogen into glucose for immediate conversion into muscle energy. Erythropoietin (EPO) is a protein hormone produced by the kidneys when the body senses that the level of available erythrocytes (red blood cells) is too low to properly transport the oxygen and nutrients required for the production of energy, particularly through the aerobic energy system. Training at high altitude is a common technique to naturally stimulate EPO production. The effects of increased EPO and the correspondingly higher levels of red blood cells within the bloodstream will continue, in diminishing amounts, for between one to three months after the altitude stimulation that created a greater presence of EPO is discontinued.

Cardiovascular system; Exercise, high intensity; Hormones; Women and sports: Exercise data, goals, and guidelines.

SEE ALSO

Hormones The regulation of the coordinated effort between the various organs, cells, and systems within the human body is a remarkable communications structure. The messengers that transport the signals for all manner of activity between the various centers of the body are the chemicals known as hormones. Hormones are also known by their biological classification, endocrines, which are defined as the chemicals that are carried by either blood or by the tissue structures of the body to a determined place, to initiate a predetermined action. These structures are in contrast to the exocrines, which include the saliva and the tear duct products of the body; the exocrine structures do not direct their product within the body, but expel chemicals from the body. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Hormones are produced by the small organs known as glands. Glands produce the chemicals used to signal desired changes in cellular or system performance through the receipt of materials from the bloodstream and then fashioning the particular hormone specific to the gland. The important glandular structures of the body are organized into a hierarchy. The impetus for most hormonal production begins with the signals that are transmitted by the hypothalamus, the portion of the brain that is responsible for the coordination of many forms of organ and system responses. When the hypothalamus determines that the body must take action of some kind in response to an external stimulus, such as an athlete preparing to compete in a soccer game, a series of chemical signals are transmitted from the hypothalamus to the organ known as the ‘‘master gland,’’ the pituitary. The pituitary is responsible for both the ongoing maintenance and regulation of several critical functions, including the production of the human growth hormone (HGH). The pituitary also regulates the function of the glands that ultimately provide the distinct chemical responses directed by the hypothalamus, the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. Insulin and glucagon are hormones produced in the pancreas, the small organ located below the stomach. These chemicals are substances that operate in contrast; insulin is the regulatory agent essential to the maintenance of an optimal glucose balance, signaling the liver to store more glucose when the blood sugar level is too high, whereas glucagon conveys the opposite signal, to release greater amounts of glucose into the bloodstream, when the levels are too low. In an ideal state, the influences of insulin and glucagon upon blood glucose levels are balanced. The female ovaries and the male testes also have glands that are related to human reproduction. Each of these organs contain endocrine cells that permit the organ to produce the hormones necessary to produce eggs in the case of the female, and sperm cells in the case of the male. The hormones produced by the glands are one of two general types: protein hormones (which include related substances known as peptides and modified amino acids), and steroid hormones, composed of various types of ringed, carbon-based molecules. The distinct structure of each determines how these hormones are physically transported through the bloodstream and tissues of the body. While insulin and glucagon operate in reference to the present level of one another (antagonistically), many important hormones are secreted in response to the presence or absence of the substance to which they are directed.

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dehydration. Erythropoietin (EPO) is produced in the kidneys. This hormone will trigger increased production of erythrocytes (red blood cells), whose increased numbers within the bloodstream provide the body with a greater capacity to transport oxygen, to counter the effects of high altitudes, and to correspondingly reduce oxygen levels upon the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. Hormonal imbalances sometimes occur within the body. Such imbalances may be caused by external factors, such as improper diet, or through natural processes such as female menopause.

Cardiovascular system; High altitude effects on sport performance; Hormonal response to exercise.

SEE ALSO

Hormones, growth

SEE

Growth

hormones

Hot weather exercise

SEE

Warm

weather exercise

The male sex hormone, testosterone, contributes to the maintenance of the body’s general energy levels necessary for effective function in all physical activities. T IM E & LIFE P I CTUR ES

Other important hormones and their glandular production sites include the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, and adrenal glands, as well as erythropoietin (EPO). The pituitary gland (located in the brain) functions as the master gland, with a distinct regulatory function in relation to the thyroid and adrenal glands, as well as the production of the human growth hormone, the substance that regulates both the rate and timing of growth patterns within the body. The pineal gland produces melatonin, a hormone that is important in the regulation of the production of other hormones. The thyroid gland (found in the neck) regulates a variety of related metabolic and energy-generating functions, through the production of a number of specific hormones. The adrenal glands (one located at each kidney) produce adrenaline, the ‘‘fight or flight response’’ hormone, which influences heart rate, respiration, and other organ functions when adrenaline is released, in response to circumstances of excitement or threat; the adrenal glands also produce the hormonal direction to the kidneys to conserve water and sodium and to maintain the balance between those substances in the body when the glands are signaled that there may be imminent

374

Hurdles Hurdles is the term given to a diverse set of track disciplines, a reference to both a series of individual sprint competitions as well as comprising a part of larger, multi-sport events. The common element to any hurdles competition is the barrier itself, an upright obstacle 36 in (0.9 m) high for men, 30 in (0.75 m) high for women, set at evenly spaced intervals on the race course. In outdoor track and field competition, the hurdles are run at distances of 110 m and 400 m for men and 100 m for women. The 110-m hurdles is also one of the ten events that comprise the decathlon; the 100-m hurdles is the corresponding event in the women’s seven event heptathlon. The other traditional Olympic event that includes the hurdles is the men’s 3,000-m steeplechase, where a water barrier and hurdles must be cleared by the competitors in a 7.5-lap course. Hurdling is an extremely demanding sport at every distance, as it requires the athlete to run as explosively as the sprinters, while incorporating the finesse and the technique required to fluidly clear each barrier. The training techniques for all manner of hurdling place significant emphasis on plyometrics training to build and maintain lift as the runner WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HYDRATION

Hydration Hydration is the process by which water is ingested and absorbed into the body. Given the essential role that water plays in so many bodily processes, hydration is crucial to human function at any time. Hydration is of special importance as a part of the preparation, participation, and recovery of every athlete from the stresses of training or competition. The antonym of hydration is dehydration. In the nomenclature of sport science, water and fluid replacement have similar meanings, with the two words used interchangeably. The other companion terms employed in connection with hydration include pre-hydration, the ingestion of water prior to a training session or competition; over-hydration, a circumstance caused by the ingestion of water when the body’s sodium levels are too low, which prevents the proper absorption of the water; and rehydration, the act of water replacement at the conclusion of the dehydrating events.

Bruised lower legs of a hurdles runner.

ª JOSON/ ZEFA/CO RBI S

approaches each hurdle, and maximum flexibility through the hips and pelvis to optimize each clearance, as well as to reduce the risk of injury. Hurdling success is synonymous with running efficiently. Every barrier that is either knocked down by the runner or otherwise clipped by a runner’s foot or leg is an impediment to a fast time. Conversely, bounding high over each hurdle results in the runner covering a greater than optimum distance to the finish line. Hurdlers in every category spend considerable amounts of training time in practicing the precise coordination of their footwork and leg action necessary to approach each hurdle with speed and efficiency. As an example, most male hurdlers in the 110-m event use seven or eight strides to reach the first hurdle, and after clearing it, take three strides exactly between the remaining hurdles to the finish line. With this approach, the runner takes shorter strides at a faster cadence to propel forward. In addition to maintaining a precise stride pattern, the hurdler seeks to be as low over the barrier as possible without striking it, a position that keeps the runner’s center of gravity as close as possible to the ideal sprinting position, thus maximizing the forward speed. SEE ALSO

Decathlon; Running hurdles; Track and field.


Sports science has played a significant role in the advancement of the knowledge available to the athletic community concerning the importance of hydration. In the preseason American football training camps of 50 years ago, water on the sidelines was unknown; many coaches believed that water consumed during competition tended to bloat athletes, and water was handed out very sparingly. Athletes in many endurance activities, where the hydration needs of the body are most acute, would not carry or otherwise have fluids available for their use during events. It is well understood in modern athletic training that water is the key to athletic comfort and performance. Hydration, by definition, refers to water; in modern practice, hydration is often achieved through the use of a combination of water-based fluids, energy sources such as glucose-based products, and electrolytes such as sodium. An understanding of the supreme importance of hydration in sports begins with the function of the cardiovascular system. Plasma, the fluid component of blood, is 90% water; the volume of the blood contained within the body is approximately 5 qt (5 l). When the water level in the body is reduced, the blood plasma levels are correspondingly less, which renders the blood less efficient as it is slower and thicker within the blood vessels. How the blood plasma loses some of its water composition is tied to the function of the body’s thermoregulatory system, which is the process by which the body maintains its internal temperatures

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within relatively narrow operating limits, irrespective of what the temperature outside of the body might be. The thermoregulatory system includes the internal devices by which the body regulates its internal temperature, the most important of which are contained in the brain, liver, and cardiovascular system. The normal human temperature is 98.6 F (37 C) within the core of the body. Temperatures may vary on the peripheral surfaces like those of the cheeks, if exposed to cold or other factors. During athletic activity, the body generates greater energy to provide muscle power; this metabolic process itself generates heat. In addition to the actual production of energy, the body is often exposed to external heat sources, such as warm outdoor conditions or an overheated gymnasium. To combat the effect of these conditions upon the core temperature, the thermoregulatory system will prompt the cardiovascular system to transport warm blood from the core of the body to the cooler surface skin. Through the action of the tiny blood vessels (capillaries), fluid, in the form of perspiration, is released to the surface of the skin through its pores. Subject to the humidity present in the immediate atmosphere, the perspiration will evaporate from the skin when released. Perspiration is almost entirely composed of water, with some sodium and other minerals included. In this fashion, while the body endeavors to cool itself through perspiration, valuable water is lost from the cardiovascular system, and its function is potentially impaired. The loss of water through perspiration has other important effects upon other performance systems. The central nervous system (CNS) conveys a ceaseless stream of signals to the working muscles of the body during an athletic activity. When the body sustains reduced levels of water through perspiration, it tends to also create a shortfall of sodium, a mineral of importance to both the monitoring of water levels that occurs in the kidneys, as well as with respect to the transmission of CNS signals. Muscle cramps, an involuntary spasm of the muscle tissue, commonly occur when an athlete is both dehydrated and when the body has sustained a loss of sodium. There are a number of important hydration steps that every athlete should take, irrespective of either the sport or the athlete’s level of ability, for both the preservation of the athlete’s ongoing physical health and performance improvement. The first is the regular consumption of water. Water taken regularly throughout the day is essential to the maintenance of a proper hydrated state, sufficient to support the additional stresses of training or competitions. One gallon of water, divided into approximate servings of

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eight 8 oz glasses each, will satisfy the typical daily requirements of most persons, in addition to what may be consumed through the needs of sport. Water is utilized best by the body if it consumed in equal portions throughout the day. In the sedentary periods between exercise sessions, the consumption of high carbohydrate meals tends to promote the overall efficiency of water absorption into the body. All athletic hydration strategies should be based on the premise that dehydration will begin to occur in advance of the activation of the human thirst mechanism. By the time that an athlete actually feels thirsty, the body fluid supply will be as much as 1 qt (1 liter) below its optimal level. Water or any alternate fluids used to promote hydration should not include either alcohol or caffeine, as each of the substances functions as a diuretic, those substances that promote the production and excretion of urine, a process that dehydrates the body. For greatest effect during exercise, water or other appropriate fluids should be consumed immediately prior to and throughout the workout, at roughly equal intervals; 15 minute intervals for consumption is a useful standard. After the workout or the conclusion of the competitive event, fluids should be immediately replaced in the body. Water is best absorbed into the body when it is consumed at a temperature of approximately 40–45 F (4–7 C). Hydration has a number of other specialized considerations. The body becomes dehydrated at night because its cells and organs continue to function; water should be consumed both at the end of the day and upon waking the next morning. The presence of a cold or other illness will generally increase the body demand for water. Children tend to become dehydrated more quickly than do adults; the hydration pattern for young athletes should be adjusted accordingly. Dehydration is not to be understood in the same terms as an injury or other structural impairment to the musculoskeletal system. Dehydration is a correctable state, a deficiency that, if unchecked, will lead to other consequences. At its most benign, dehydration causes fatigue, muscle cramping, and an overall poor level of physical performance. In its more advanced states, dehydration will be a contributing cause of hyperthermia, which includes one or more of the heat-based illnesses, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. Hyponatremia is not a heat illness, in the sense of being directly triggered by the consequences of the body’s efforts to cool its core temperature by way of perspiration. Hyponatremia is over-hydration, where WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HYDRATION STRATEGY IN DISTANCE RUNNING

Pure water often provides more immediate usefulness to the human body than sports drinks.

the body has ingested too much water to be processed in the normal digestion and distribution channels. Hyponatremia occurs when the amount of sodium present is too low. The presence of sodium in water level control in the nephron is the body’s mechanism to determine how much water should be maintained within the bloodstream and how much should be diverted to the bladder as urine to be excreted from the body. When water is ingested in circumstances of abnormally low sodium levels, the water will usually remain in the stomach, as the body becomes progressively more dehydrated. If unchecked through sodium replacement, hyponatremia can be fatal. It is a condition that occurs most frequently in long distance events, such as the marathon, the Ironman competitions, or long distance cycling events. The type of substance to be used for water or fluid replacement is subject to a number of variables. Pure water will never be a poor selection, given its immediate usefulness to the human system. Formulated sports drinks are often consumed by athletes in response to high-intensity activities. Sports drinks WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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typically do not become absorbed into the body through the digestive process as quickly as water; however, these products are often formulated to contain electrolytes and other useful minerals, as well as containing small portions of carbohydrate in the form of glucose. Carbohydrate concentrations of less than 8% by volume are the most useful in this regard. Water, taken in conjunction with small amounts of sodium in the form of salt tablets, tends to be absorbed more quickly by the body than does water alone. Sport drinks with larger quantities of carbohydrate tend to be more difficult to digest, especially if the product is consumed during competition.

Cardiovascular system; Endurance exercise; Hyponatremia; Thermoregulatory system.

SEE ALSO

Hydration strategy in distance running Hydration, the process by which water is ingested and absorbed into the body, is of paramount-

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Boston Marathon volunteers hold out water cups to passing runners at the water stop in Newton, Massachusetts.

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importance to all athletes. The stresses imposed on the human body in the various athletic events that constitute distance running are significant; hydration is supremely important to both athletic success and the safety of all participants. Successful hydration requires a measure of planning. The development of a hydration strategy will depend on the nature of the event, the anticipated weather conditions, the outcome of any acclimatization to either heat or altitude that the athlete has been subjected as part of training, and the physical attributes of the athlete. Distance running includes the events known as the middle distances, ranging from 1,500 m to 10,000 m, long distance races, which include the 10,000 m, the half marathon (13.1 mi; 21.1 km) through the marathon (26.2 mi; 42.2 km), and longer ultramarathon races, and cross-country running, where the race distances vary from approximately 3 mi to 6 mi (6 km to 10 km). Similar hydration strategies will be employed in endurance sports such as crosscountry skiing and cycling.

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Hydration strategies in distance running are founded upon two distinct physiological considerations: the function of the human thermoregulatory system, combined with the performance of the cardiovascular system during exercise. The thermoregulatory system is responsible for the maintenance of the core body temperature within an optimal range, whether the external air temperature is very hot or very cold. The cardiovascular system, in its myriad of tasks in support of human functions, transports warm blood from the core to the cooler skin where, through the action of the capillaries, water in the form of perspiration is released. This process reduces the amount of blood in the cardiovascular system, because water constitutes 90% of its fluid volume. Reduced blood volumes translate into reduced capabilities in the cardiovascular system to transport oxygen, a critical aspect of energy generation in sport. Sensible hydration strategies assist the athlete in maintaining fluid volumes, which in turn preserve cardiovascular capabilities and maintain optimal body temperature. The best strategies will have the following components: WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Daily hydration: The body performs best when the athlete has engaged in good day-to-day hydration practices, which includes regular water consumption through the course of each day, whether or not the athlete is engaged in either training or a competition. Pre-hydration: The athlete consumes between 1–2 qt (1–2 l) of water approximately two hours before the start of the competition or training session. Race or event hydration: The actual amounts of water to be ingested will vary subject to the factors noted above. In a shorter distance race, an elite athlete may only consume fluids at one interval; in a longer race, such as the marathon, it is common of elite athletes in hot weather to take on water or other fluids every 1–2 mi (2–3 km), in quantities of 8 oz or more (200 ml). The objective of all distance runners is to consume enough water during training sessions or competition to maintain 100% replacement of fluids lost through perspiration. This approach has replaced the older theory that it was important for a distance athlete to drink all that they can. In many countries, supervisory bodies responsible for the organization and sanction of distance races have published guidelines to assist athletes in their race day planning, as to how fluids should be consumed. The United States Track and Field Association (USTAF) is one such body; the USTAF has access to current sports science research to assist in the preparation of its guidelines. Sanctioned races will also provide explicit rules as to where on a race course an athlete is permitted to obtain fluids. Known as ‘‘feeding stations,’’ an athlete is typically permitted to take on water or other electrolytic fluids that the organizer will provide; the athlete may also have a supply of personal fluid replacement choices at a feeding station. Sports science research conducted over a variety of sports contested in hot weather confirm that, when the athlete loses even as little as 2% of fluids, the performance may decline by as much as 10%. Individual race hydration strategy will be determined by how the athlete performs in practice sessions; as an example, a runner who weighs 160 lb (73 kg) prior to a 15 mi (25 km) run, who weighs 157 lb at the end of the training session, will plan his future hydration strategy with the knowledge that 3 lb (1.5 kg) of fluid were lost as perspiration during the training simulation.

Cardiovascular system; Endurance exercise; Hydration; Water.

SEE ALSO


Hypertension Hypertension is the medical term used to describe the physical condition of high blood pressure. Approximately 50 million people in the United States are afflicted with hypertension, with similar proportions of the populations of other Western countries also at risk. High blood pressure is more commonly found in older adults (defined as persons over the age of 50); persons of African descent in these countries are more seriously affected, due to genetic reasons. Hypertension is a multidimensional health problem that occurs when the pressure created within the arteries by the usual functioning of the cardiovascular system places excess pressure on the arteries. The causes of high blood pressure are varied. The cardiovascular system delivers blood and its cargos of energy fuels, oxygen, and nutrients through the power of the heart. Each heartbeat creates pressure along the entire arterial system. The flow of blood and the function of all related systems will be optimal at a range of blood pressures. Blood pressure that is too high for the arterial vessels, or less commonly, blood pressure that is too low, create malfunctions within the entire cardiovascular network. There is often more than one discrete cause of hypertension in any person. Typically, a number of circumstances exist to create the basis for the condition, which can include: genetic structure (there is a significantly greater likelihood of high blood pressure if one or both parents of a person had hypertension; lifestyle factors (eating habits, excess weight, level of physical fitness, particularly the level of aerobic fitness, excessive alcohol consumption, and smoking; one or more of these circumstances will increase the risk of the person developing high blood pressure); medications (certain medications that will contribute to high blood pressure include decongestant nasal sprays and various anti-inflammatory medicines); kidney and various hormonal (endocrine system) disorders. Hypertension presents difficulties in its detection because it provides few outward physical symptoms. Instead, high blood pressure is the connection to a series of potential fatal events, including stroke, heart attack, heart arrhythmia (irregular heart beat), and kidney failure. The only determinative investigation for the existence of hypertension is the blood pressure test. Using a device attached to the person’s arm, at heart level, the pressure generated by the cardiovascular system is measured using two indicators. As the heart beats, the power of blood being

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Hypertension-related vascular effects primarily involve diminution in diameter of the retinal vessels.

pushed along the artery by this pulse creates pressure on the arterial wall. The peak level of this type of blood pressure at each beat is known as the systolic pressure. During the rest interval between each heartbeat, the measure of resistance within the small arteries of the cardiovascular system to the flow of blood is determined. This pressure is referred to as the diastolic pressure. Blood pressure is a variable within all persons; factors such as recent physical exercise, the consumption of a stimulant such as caffeine, emotional state, and medication may all significantly influence the outcome of a blood pressure test. For this reason, blood pressures are often measured a number of times before any definitive conclusion will be reached regarding the likely existence of hypertension. A reading of 120/80 (the figures are as calculated from the blood pressure test equipment scale, measured in mm of mercury, or mmHg) is accepted as a healthy blood pressure standard. When the systolic reading exceeds 140, or when the diastolic measure is greater than 90, or when both indicators are above these limits, the probability of the presence of hypertension is very high.

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ª DR. CHAR LES J. BALL /COR BIS

While hypertension may be difficult to lower significantly, it can be managed effectively through a number of means. Physical fitness and accompanying weight management, with their resulting improved cardiovascular health, are essential components to any treatment of hypertension. Increased weight places stress on the heart and cardiovascular system; the foods typically consumed by adults who are overweight are those high in fat, a substance that tends to lead to the creation of plaque, an arteryclogging substance. When arteries are clogged in this way, the passage through which blood passes becomes smaller, resulting in a correspondingly greater volume of blood being directed against a smaller vessel, increasing pressure on the artery. Physical activity tends to stimulate the production compounds known as high density lipoproteins (HDLs), which have a plaque-resistant effect within the arteries. Prescription diuretics are sometimes administered to stimulate urine production, with a corresponding reduction in fluid and blood volumes, which tends to ease pressure within the arteries. Other medications, including angiotesin and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Bob Irving experienced hyponatremia while competing in the 1998 Desert Sun Half Ironman in Grand Junction, Colorado.

A P P H OTO/ JIM

M CKN IG H T

vasodilators, are prescribed to assist in the constriction and the relaxation of the walls of the arteries.

Cardiovascular system; Diet; Genetics; Weight gain.

SEE ALSO

all conditions. The regulation of sodium is carried out in a number of mechanisms, beginning with the nephron, a center forming part of the kidney. The kidney is a part of the excretory system that produces urine, an important aspect of how the body regulates its fluid and sodium levels.

Hyponatremia, defined as a low concentration of sodium in the bloodstream, is more commonly known as ‘‘water intoxication,’’ a condition that tends to occur most commonly in athletes competing in endurance sports. Hyponatremia also arises in conjunction with certain forms of kidney disease and medication use.

The initial signal to initiate any changes in the sodium level present in the body occur in the hypothalamus, the portion of the brain that serves as a signal and command center. The hypothalamus directs the thyroid gland regarding changes that it senses within the fluid system; these changes are acted on by the nephron, in determining whether further sodium will be retained in the organ to maintain sodium balance, or whether sodium will be released.

Hyponatremia is connected to both dehydration and sodium levels within the body during endurance exercise. The body maintains a relatively constant balance in the sodium level present in the blood, in

In circumstances where the entire body is under stress, such as in the performance of an endurance event, dehydration is a common fact. When the body ingests fluids, typically water, without its proper

Hyponatremia


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sodium level in place, the proportion of sodium in the system is correspondingly reduced. As sodium is essential in its role as an electrolyte for the transmission of the messages of the central nervous system to the musculoskeletal system, reductions in sodium create malfunctions throughout the body. The symptoms of hyponatremia are similar to those caused by dehydration: confusion and disorientation, accompanied difficulties in muscle function, and nausea. If untreated, hyponatremia can lead to the onset of a coma, and death. It is relatively common for some competitors in extreme endurance competitions such as the Hawaii Ironman event, to simultaneously experience both dehydration and hyponatremia: the athletes reach the end of the second stage, the bicycle portion, experiencing a feeling of thirst and the sensation of a bloated stomach that makes the competitors feel nauseous. The chemical composition of perspiration and the cardiovascular system assist in the understanding of sodium imbalance in endurance sport. Perspiration contains between 2.0 and 3.5 g of salt per quart (liter) when released from the body. A common rate of perspiration among endurance athletes is 1 qt (1 l) or greater per hour of competition; in an event such as the Ironman, where an average skilled competitor will take 12 hours to finish the race, an athlete will lose over 12 quarts/liters of fluids through perspiration, a sodium loss totaling between 24 and 42 grams. As with athletic hydration strategies, the consumption of appropriate amounts of sodium in the days leading up to an event is essential. It is impossible to effectively consume sufficient sodium by way of sports drinks to address a sodium shortfall during the event; most sports drinks would require the consumption of as much as two quarts/liters of their fluid to permit the ingestion of 1 gram of salt. A target for athletes during Ironman-type sports is to ingest 1 gram of sodium per hour of competition. An alternative cause of hyponatremia is the ingestion of excessive amounts of fluids. In the first great popular running boom of the late 1970s and early 1980s, the common wisdom regarding hydration tactics was to consume as much water or fluids as possible during the course of a marathon or endurance event. When the amount of fluid ingested exceeded the amounts lost to perspiration (a relatively common occurrence in cooler temperatures), the sodium levels in the body became proportionately less. As it is the proportion of sodium to the fluids in the body that determines how water levels will be regulated, and not the absolute amount of sodium

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that dictates proper system function, the risk of hyponatremia was greatly increased. As pronounced as the physical symptoms of hyponatremia may appear, the condition is capable of a ready cure. If salt is ingested, in the form of a salt and water mixture, a sport drink with sodium added, or through a food such as soup with salt, the sodium balance will begin to readjust to its healthy levels within minutes. If treated quickly, hyponatremia will not cause any long-term negative effect, not will it damage any of the internal organs involved in the maintenance of the sodium and water balance, such as the kidneys.

Hydration strategy in distance running; Sodium and sodium deficits; Thermoregulatory system.

SEE ALSO

Hypotension Hypotension is a state of low blood pressure in the cardiovascular system. It represents the opposite cardiovascular condition to that of hypertension, or high blood pressure. Hypotension presents a lesser risk of poor health or death to a person suffering from this condition than does hypertension. There are many people who have lower than normal blood pressures who are healthy in every other respect. Low blood pressure in such persons is rarely subject to any medical treatment. It is quite common for high performance or elite-level athletes to possess lower than normal blood pressures. The term hypotension is often used to differentiate between blood pressure that presents a dangerous condition and healthy low blood pressure situations. Hypotension can be a very dangerous condition. Like hypertension, one cause of hypotension is the genetic structure of the person; some people have a predisposition to onset of this ailment. Hypotension will arise most commonly in adults as opposed to children. The other usual causes of hypotension can include the impact of a prescription medication; emotional stress; a recent blood donation, which reduces blood volume in the cardiovascular system; a significant loss of blood through injury or accident; the use of diuretics, both prescribed and those contained in the human diet, such as caffeine and alcohol; diabetes; and use of narcotic analgesics, or painkillers. Although there are many healthy variables to the often stated ‘‘ideal’’ blood pressure, medical science has accepted the standard of 120/80 as normal for the general population over 40 years of age; healthy WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HYPOTHERMIA

young adults may have blood pressures in the range of 110/75. Blood pressure is tested through the use of a sphygmomanometer, an inflatable sleeve that is placed around the upper arm. The device is then inflated to a sufficient pressure to stop the flow of blood, and as the pressure is slowly released, the force of the blood returning to the arteries can be measured. As with many scientific determinations reduced to a popular short form, the expression has a more complicated meaning. The reading produced through the use of the sphygmomanometer is a measurement of pressure in mm of mercury, or mmHg. The expression 120/80 is two blood pressure measurements. The first is systolic, which is the calculation of the peak pressure placed on the arterial walls of the cardiovascular system as the heart beats. The second figure represents the diastolic pressure that is generated by the blood flow at the small arteries of the system during the interval between heartbeats. A consistent systolic pressure of less than 100, a diastolic pressure of below 65, or both readings occurring together, are compelling indications of the existence of hypotension. A common sports circumstance that creates hypotension is the dehydration that often occurs in an endurance event. If the athlete does not hydrate properly, the production of perspiration by the body in the regulation of its internal temperature will often dramatically reduce body fluid. Loss of fluid will cause a corresponding loss of blood volume, reducing blood pressure. In such circumstances, when the athlete is competing hard, all stresses upon the anatomy are magnified. The first symptom of hypotension as an impact on performance is a feeling of dizziness or lightheadedness; in a progressive fashion, if steps are not taken to both stop the activity and to obtain aid, a condition known as ischemia may result. Ischemia is the reduction in the amount of blood flowing to the heart or the brain. Like the accompanying dehydration, ischemia is not restricted to hot weather athletics, although it more commonly occurs during such events as the pronounced fluid loss required to reduce blood pressure is often heat related. The situational low blood pressure that can arise through dehydration is readily combated through the employment of an effective hydration strategy, both before, during, and after the event. Orthostatic hypotension is a condition that arises when a person experiences feelings of lightheadedness or disorientation when the body position is changed, such as from being seated to standing upright. In this circumstance, the blood vessels are not able to adjust to the change in pressure. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Unlike hypertension, there are few treatment options for low blood pressure, other than the elimination or reduction of the noted risk factors. In rare cases, medication to raise blood pressure may be prescribed.

Cardiovascular system; Genetics; Hypertension.

SEE ALSO

Hypothermia Hypothermia is the physical state in which the core temperature of the body is significantly below its healthy norm of 98.6 F (37 C). Hypothermia is a condition that is the opposite of hyperthermia, the excessively elevated temperature present in an overheated body. Hypothermia most typically occurs in cold weather circumstances, where the body is inadequately protected from the elements, or where external sources of heat are not available. The ability of the human body to dissipate heat through perspiration and the functions of the cardiovascular system is far better than its ability to retain heat in response to environmental conditions. Hypothermia is not itself an illness or an injury, but it represents the triggering mechanism for a number of cold-related outcomes, including organ damage and failure of the cardiovascular system. Hypothermia is a separate and unrelated condition to the injury known as frostbite, which is a freezing of the tissue and skin; given the cause of frostbite, hypothermia and frostbite often occur in the same circumstances. Hypothermia is popularly associated with cold, snowy, and intemperate weather. While such conditions are a background to hypothermic events, this condition can occur where the air temperature is 40 F (4 C) or lower; it is also a common result for sailors, paddlers, or rowers that become soaked in cold water temperatures, either through the spray created by moving boats, or if the athlete is actually immersed in cold water. Athletes that are either waiting to join a competition, such as cross-country runners prior to race start, or football players standing on a sideline, are also vulnerable to hypothermia in some conditions. The generally recognized risk factors associated with the potential for hypothermia include: Low air temperatures, often combined with inadequate clothing or protection; the reflex

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Fire department personnel wearing dry suits which allow them it be in 38 F (3 C) water for up to four hours before hypothermia sets in. A P PH OTO /TE LEGRA PH H ER ALD, CL IN T AUSTIN

action of the body to cold exposure is to shiver, an involuntary effort to generate heat. Wind chill, the combined effect of temperature and wind on the human body; wind chill is a deceptive phenomenon, as it may occur in all types of cold weather environments, including sunshine. As a general proposition, at temperatures below 40 F (4 C), winds at speeds as low as 5 mph (8 km/h) can significantly induce increased sensations of cold; the greater the wind speed, the more pronounced the effect of cold will be. Moisture; skin that is wet, though either excess perspiration or environmental effects, will freeze more readily than dry skin. Moisture will also magnify the effect of wind chill. Consumption of alcohol, which tends to stimulate blood flow in the peripheral parts of the body, an action that contributes to heat loss. Amount of skin exposed to the elements by the athlete; exposed skin permits heat to be lost by both convection and radiation to the immediate environment.

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Consumption of caffeine or any other diuretic, which acts to reduce fluid volumes in the cardiovascular system. In its mildest manifestation, hypothermia causes pronounced shivering, numbness, and a cold feeling through out the body. As the body temperature remains low, the symptoms become more pronounced, as the person will experience an inability to move quickly or decisively, accompanied by dizziness and confused thinking. At its most extreme, the affected person will experience a rigidity of the muscles, followed by a lapse into coma. At a body temperature of less than 95 F (35 C), the person must receive immediate attention or, as a result of a progressive decline in the function of the organs and the internal systems, death will result. Once detected, the management of hypothermia is a straightforward process. The first and most important consideration is the removal of the injured person from the cold environment. It is important that while the person is made warmer, that he or she not be so heated as to induce perspiration, which will result in a reduction of body fluid available to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

HYPOTHERMIA

circulate and slowly warm the person. The second treatment step is the removal of any wet clothing and dressing the person with dry clothes, or wrapping the person in a blanket, as wet clothing has very poor thermal qualities. The temptation to rub or otherwise seek to stimulate circulation in the extremities of the hypothermic person should be resisted; such efforts may direct cold blood from the limbs to the heart, causing a sudden shock to that organ. The warming of the hypothermic person is best done gradually.


In outdoor cold weather endurance events, such as cross-country skiing, it is possible for a case of hypothermia to occur at the same time the athlete is experiencing dehydration. The return to normal fluid levels will determine how quickly the thermoregulatory system can resume normal function.

Acclimatization; Cold-related illnesses and emergencies; Hydration; Hypothermia; Thermoregulatory system.

SEE ALSO

385

I Ice (cold) treatment for injuries

RICE (Rest/Ice/Compression/Elevation) treatment for injuries

SEE

Ice hockey Ice hockey is a sport that has a passionate following throughout many countries in the Northern Hemisphere. Played on an ice surface, with six skaters side by side and physical contact permitted, the primary object of ice hockey is to direct a flat disk, known as the puck, into the opposing team’s goal, using a bladed stick. The origins of the game are not entirely clear; as with many sports that are now well established through both rules and conventions, ice hockey is derived from a number of sporting influences. It is clear that first in the Netherlands and later in England, the old game of field hockey may have been played in some adapted fashion on ice in the 1700s. The town of Windsor, Nova Scotia, located on the eastern coast of Canada, has long proclaimed itself as the birthplace of hockey; the Windsor claim is founded on a reference in a book written by noted Canadian author Thomas Haliburton (1796–1865), who made reference to seeing the game played by young men on the pond near Windsor as early as 1800. The Windsor version of hockey history links the evolution of hockey to the old sport of hurley, a field game played with a curved stick and a ball that today remains popular in Ireland. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Other ice hockey histories focus on the first organized game, one played between students from McGill University in Montreal in 1875. Although played with nine men per side, as opposed to the modern six-player rule, the McGill contest bore a reasonable similarity to the modern game. McGill has a strong connection to two other important sport developments; it claims to being the birthplace of modern American football, through the game its rugby team played against Harvard in 1874, and that the 1891 inventor of basketball, James Naismith, was a McGill graduate. The first organized hockey league was formed in Kingston, Ontario, Canada in 1885. With Canada’s generally long and severe winters, natural ice was readily at hand in most parts of the country, and ice hockey quickly became established as the preeminent athletic activity in Canada. In 1892, the thenGovernor General of Canada donated a challenge cup to symbolize hockey supremacy in Canada; this cup later became the famous Stanley Cup. The world’s first professional hockey league was formed in the iron-mining district of the Michigan Upper Peninsula in 1904. A series of leagues followed, with professional hockey being stabilized in 1917 by the formation of the National Hockey League (NHL), with teams in eastern Canada and the northeastern and north central parts of the United States. The Stanley Cup became the championship trophy of the NHL. The NHL remains the most successful and the most competitive of the professional ice hockey leagues in the world; similar leagues in Sweden,

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Finland, Russia, and other northern European countries have also thrived. Canada introduced ice hockey to England and parts of northern Europe in the late 1800s. The rising popularity of European ice hockey was the impetus to the creation of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) in Paris in 1908. It is an irony of the history of ice hockey that Canada was not a charter member of the IIHF. There would prove to be significant friction between Canada and its NHL-focused game and the powers of international hockey for many years, a situation not unlike the tensions that persisted between American basketball and the international organization, FIBA. Ice hockey has been a fixture of the Winter Olympics since their inception in 1924; the use of the distinguishing modifier ‘‘ice’’ with hockey, curious to North American ears, results from the popularity of the earlier established field hockey in all other parts of the world. The rules of ice hockey are essentially consistent between the North American/NHL-oriented version, and those promoted by the IIHF, which is also played at the Olympics. With the rise of the status of European players in the modern NHL, coupled with the influence of NHL players on the style of play at both the Olympics and the annual world championships, the game has become a much more homogenized product. Ice hockey is played on a surface (rink) that is 200 ft long by 85 ft wide (60 m by 25 m) in the NHL; the IIHF surface is wider, with dimensions of 200 ft by 100 ft (60 m by 30 m). The size of the respective ice surfaces generated differing styles of play as the game evolved. NHL hockey, on the smaller surface, lent itself to a more physical style of play, while the international game promoted strategies that emphasized skating and passing. The ice surface is encircled by a barrier known as the boards, topped with a plexiglass barrier, totaling approximately 8 ft (2.5 m) in height. The puck is a disk of vulcanized rubber; the net at which the puck is directed is 4 ft high and 6 ft wide (1.2 m and 1.8 m), with a crease marked in front of it for the protection of the goaltender (goalie). The goaltender wears specialized leg pads, heavily padded pants, a chest protector, and specially constructed skates to assist in keeping the puck out of the net. The goaltender also wears a trapping glove on the catching hand, and a large rectangular blocking glove on the hand with which he or she holds the special goal stick. As hockey pucks at an elite level of play routinely are shot at the net at speeds in excess of 100 mph (160 km/h), goaltending is a dangerous position.

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The other ice hockey players wear skates, protective shin guards, heavily padded pants, a combined shoulder pad and abdominal girdle that functions as an upper body armor, as well as heavily padded gloves and a helmet. In all forms of amateur hockey in North America, as well as all European hockey, the use of a face visor is mandatory. Notwithstanding the extensive protective equipment, the physical nature and the speed of ice hockey creates many opportunities for injury. The five players stationed on the ice in front of the goaltender are typically three forwards and two defensemen. The forwards primary function is to create offensive chances in the other team’s zone; the defensemen are responsible for preventing scoring opportunities from being completed by their opponents. All hockey players must have reasonable skating skills, both in terms of their ability to move quickly on the ice, as well as being agile. Body checking is the term used to describe the technique of stopping an opponent with one’s body; if the opponent has possession of the puck, the rules permit that player to be knocked down. There are rules with respect to the movement of the puck on the ice. Like soccer, ice hockey has an offside rule that is very important to the tactics employed to advance the puck toward the opposing goal. Further, if a player from his/her own side of center ice shoots the puck down the ice and across the opposing teams goal line without it being touched by an opponent, the play is called an ‘‘icing’’ and the puck will be returned to the end from which the puck was shot, and the result it a face-off in a designated space near the goal. Ice hockey uses two types of officials to supervise its games. The referees are the ultimate authority on the ice. It is their responsibility to call the various infractions that might occur, known as penalties, to determine whether a goal has been legally scored. The subordinate officials are linesmen, that are responsible for determining offside calls, icing, and similar other technical matters. Penalties are assessed in the course of play; they are one of three types: technical infractions, such as too many players on the ice or the use of illegal equipment; minor penalties, such interference with another player as they attempt to move to a particular place on the ice, holding another player, hooking an opponent with one’s stick, or slashing with the stick; or major penalties, such as fighting, spearing with the stick, or deliberate attempts to injure an opponent. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ICE HOCKEY

Roughing during NHL hockey game.

ª A ND RE W WAL LACE /R EUT ERS /C ORB IS

One significant rule difference between international hockey and the NHL variety is the treatment of fighting between players. In the international game, fighting leads to a game misconduct, an automatic expulsion for the remainder of the contest. The same rule is in place in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) sanctioned games. In the NHL, fighting attracts a five-minute penalty for the combatants. It is for this reason that there has existed in the NHL for many generations a subset of player known popularly as the team ‘‘enforcer,’’ or less kindly as the ‘‘goon,’’ a player whose responsibility is to protect other members of the team from any physical liberties that may be taken by an opponent.

prior to 1972, Canadian hockey was represented on the international stage by various national senior level champions, whose skill level did not approach that of the stars of the NHL. Two events altered the Canadian world view. The first was the rise of the former Soviet Union as a true ice hockey power in the 1950s and 1960s; the amateur teams previously sent by Canada to win world or Olympic championships were now no match for the Soviets and their innovative approaches to the game. The 1972 Summit Series, the first-ever set of contests between the best Soviet players and the NHL-based Canadian players, narrowly won by Canada in a dramatic eight games, proved the power of Soviet hockey.

Canada, with justification, long perceived itself as the preeminent ice hockey nation in the world. Much as the United States sent its best college players to successfully claim Olympic championships

The second development was the arrival of European and American trained players to the NHL, a trickle that began in earnest with defenseman Borje Salming of Sweden in 1973. The NHL became a truly


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international collection of players; by 2005, over 40% of its membership was born outside of Canada. While Canada remains the most successful of the ice hockey nations, Russia, the United States, Sweden, Finland, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia all are capable of assembling very strong teams composed of players who compete for teams in the NHL.

Exercise, high intensity; Ice hockey injuries; Ice hockey strength and training exercises.

SEE ALSO

Ice hockey: Forces in the check The ice hockey body check is the most emphatic defensive tactic available in the game. Like the slam dunk in basketball, a ‘‘big hit’’ often changes the momentum of a contest. A body check is an attempt by a defensive player to stop or limit the progress of an offensive player through the use of his/her body. The rules of ice hockey provide that this check may only be directed toward a player who has possession of the puck: the rules also provide some latitude as to how long and in what manner a player may be said to ‘‘finish the check,’’ by maintaining physical contact after the offensive target has lost possession of the puck. The defensive player administering a body check must use the shoulders or hips to deliver the desired contact; the use of the stick, gloves, forearms, or knees are prohibited by rule, but with the speed of movement on the ice it is difficult in some circumstances to accurately determine the exact mechanisms of contact. A number of factors contribute to the amount of force that will be created and absorbed as a result of the collision created between two players in any given body check, including: the speed with which either player is moving at the time of the collision the acceleration of either player at impact the direction in which each player is moving (a consideration of vectors, the magnitude of the force applied and its direction), resulting in the angle of impact between the players the mass of each player (body weight plus that of equipment worn by each player) whether the check was anticipated or unexpected by the offensive target whether the contact occurred with the offensive player being driven into the barriers (boards) surrounding the ice surface, or if the contact resulted in an open ice hit

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The forces created in an ice hockey check are those governed by the basic physical principle, a product of the mass of the players and the speed with which they are traveling at impact. Ice hockey players informally grade the quality of a check by the use of expressions such as ‘‘getting a piece’’ of an opponent where the check delivered was incomplete, to ‘‘a great hit’’ to describe the type of contact that results in either knocking the opponent to the ice or the otherwise successful elimination of the opponent from that particular sequence of play. The boards surrounding a modern ice hockey surface, which include the plastic glass attached to them, are not rigid structures. The boards are designed to absorb a considerable degree of force from the bodies that are directed into them. A completely fixed and rigid structure that did not permit absorption of the forces of a body check would create a significantly greater risk of injury for the player taken to the boards. The boards will play a significant part in the measure of the forces created in a check, as often the check target is relatively stationary when the blow is delivered. Depending on the angle of the players’ bodies at the point of contact, the player receiving the check may sometimes have his/her head knocked into the glass partition, creating a greater potential for concussion. The more forceful checks are those delivered in the open ice of the playing surface. Often, these collisions occur when an offensive player looks down at the ice to see the puck in preparation for an offensive maneuver, as he/she approaches the opponent’s zone. These checks are often executed when the offensive player is momentarily not aware of the position of the oncoming defender. The defensive player will move forcefully, accelerating toward the offensive player and, as he/she prepares to make contact, the defender will generally lower his/her shoulders and hips to create better stability in preparation for the forces delivered and those that will be absorbed from the target. The defensive player does not have time in these high speed encounters to precisely determine what part of the offensive player he/she will strike. Any contact that results in a trip of the offensive player with the defender’s stick, a punch delivered in conjunction with the check, or an apparent blow to the head of the offensive layer will usually result in a penalty being assessed against the defender. Modern shoulder pads are constructed with a plastic composite surface that creates an extremely rigid and inflexible point of contact with an opponent. Given the weight of a typical professional WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ICE HOCKEY INJURIES

Ed Jovanovski (R) of Canada checks Ville Peltonen of Finland during their ice hockey 2000 World Championship match. ª RE UTE RS/COR BIS

player (an average of 210 lb [95 kg] in the National Hockey League), and speeds that may approach 20 mph (30 km/h) at impact, the equipment is both a protective device and a weapon in the course of the delivery of a body check.

Ice hockey; Ice hockey injuries; Preseason strength training.

SEE ALSO

Ice hockey injuries The combination of stick use, a high-speed projectile, and vigorous physical contact makes ice hockey a sport in which injuries occur with regularity. Most of these occurrences are within the natural WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

flow of the game and they are unavoidable; some common hockey injuries are a result of play that goes beyond the framework of the rules, yet are accepted as a risk of the sport. For position players, being all players except the goaltender (goalie), the most common unintentional injuries are those sustained as a result of a body check or other contact either with an opponent or created by the opponent driving the player into the boards surrounding the ice surface. The boards, and the Plexiglas material that is built above them, are designed to absorb a considerable degree of the force created by contact. The average National Hockey League (NHL) hockey player is approximately 6 ft 1 in tall (1.85 m), weighing 210 lb (95 kg); each player wears another 30 lb (12 kg) of protective equipment. Collisions can occur when one player is stationary

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ICE HOCKEY INJURIES

The most common unintentional injuries in hockey are those sustained as a result of a body check.

ª DOMI N I C E BE NI CH LER /RE UTE RS /

CORB IS

and driven forcefully into the boards, or when two players collide at speeds approaching 20 mph or more (30 km/h). The combination of size and speed in these circumstances creates tremendous forces. In circumstances where either one of the players is positioned awkwardly at the time the blow is delivered, or when the player is not expecting physical contact, injuries commonly arise. When the player is driven into the boards, the injury is often more serious. All manner of musculoskeletal injuries are caused to ice hockey players in this way.

the head, and the ever-present risk of such contact, concussions are a particular concern to ice hockey players.

The most serious injury caused by the types of body checks permitted by the rules is that of concussion. Players in every league in the world must wear helmets, but this protection is not complete given the forces created by body checks. Due to the cumulative nature of the damage caused by repeated blows to

A number of different injuries occur due to accidental contacts between players, the sticks used, and the puck. Sticks have caused many serious injuries through the history of ice hockey; significant facial scarring and the loss of an eye are the most serious. When a defensive player attempts to block a shot

392

A particularly dangerous contact that occurs in open ice situations is knee-to-knee contact between offensive and defensive players. This event is the most common cause of the serious knee injuries that arise in ice hockey; most other knee injuries are more minor twisting-type mechanisms, often arising when the player catches a skate in the ice when attempting to change directions.


ICE HOCKEY RINKS

directed at his/her team’s goal, broken bones, particularly to the ankle and lower leg, are common, in spite of the protective equipment worn.

rink have been unchanged since outdoor competition; the terms hockey rink and hockey arena are used interchangeably.

Goaltender is the most dangerous position on a hockey team; to face the pucks that are shot at speeds in excess of 100 mph (160 km/h) requires courage, as well as the physical skills of agility and hand-eye coordination necessary to prevent goals from being scored. The goaltender absorbs significant physical punishment, both from the pucks stopped as well as through collisions with opposing players in the vicinity of the goal crease. Unlike the position players in front of him/her, the goaltender must move quickly and acrobatically with his/her arms and legs; injuries to the hamstrings, groin muscles, and lower abdominal muscles of the goaltender are common.

Ice is fundamental to the sport. A smooth ice surface permits the players to skate and maneuver more rapidly, and the puck travels with more consistency on the surface. In the games played under the jurisdiction of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), the ice surface is an oval shape, 200 ft (60 m) long and 100 ft (30 m) wide. In North America generally, and in all National Hockey League arenas, the ice surface is 85 ft (25 m) wide. The outdoor rinks of early ice hockey have not entirely disappeared; in parts of northern Canada and the United States and throughout Scandinavia and Russia, where the winters are very cold, many communities enjoy outdoor hockey. However, natural ice is the most common surface for play; it is produced in modern arenas equipped with sophisticated ice-making facilities. The best known element to the maintenance of artificial ice is the Zamboni machine, the invention of Frank Zamboni (1901–1988), who had sought a more efficient means to resurface the ice in his southern California skating rinks that he built in the 1940s. Zamboni machines, or a variant, are used in almost every ice hockey rink in the world.

As with many team sports, it is the illegal and unsanctioned types of physical contact that often result in serious injuries to the participants. Hard slashes with the stick to an opposing players’ forearms or gloved hand while they are carrying the puck on their stick have been a frequent cause of broken wrists and fingers. Cross checks, an illegal delivery of a two-handed blow with the hockey stick to an opponent, often from behind, can cause injury to the torso or back of the player. Fighting, both the consensual variety and that precipitated by one player, is a further cause of injury. The worst incident of this type in the recent history of the NHL occurred in March 2004, when Todd Bertuzzi of the Vancouver Canucks delivered a vicious blindsided blow to the head of his Colorado opponent Steve Moore, and ultimately causing the fracture of one of Moore’s cervical vertebrae. A significant number of injuries to NHL players are caused by the illegal actions of an opponent, through the administration of such blows, or through the use of the stick to strike or spear an opponent.

Ice hockey; Ice hockey: Forces in the check; Musculoskeletal injuries.

SEE ALSO

Ice hockey rinks In the early days of organized hockey, the ice hockey rink was an outdoor, natural ice surface, with rough wooden barriers that were positioned to keep the puck on the playing surface. As the game evolved into a spectator sport, ice hockey became an indoor sport played on artificial ice, with its surface and its sheen maintained by sophisticated grooming equipment. The essential aspects of the modern ice hockey WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The wooden barriers erected around natural ice surfaces for early hockey games gave the modern feature their name, the boards. Modern rink boards are no longer made of wood, but are a composite plastic construction to ensure truer bounces of the puck when deflected or shot into their surface. The boards are constructed in sections that have a degree of flexion built in; these sections are also designed to absorb some of the forces generated when a player is checked into them; in earlier times, the fixed boards were a significant cause of injury on a body check, as all the forces of the check were absorbed by the recipient player. The boards circle the entire ice surface, and the boards themselves are topped with a Plexiglas or a similar plastic composite surface, referred to throughout the hockey world as ‘‘the glass.’’ The boards and the glass together form a barrier 8 ft (2.5 m) high through the straight portions of the rink oval, and the glass rises to a height of approximately 15 ft (5 m) at each end behind the goals. In many rinks, there is a further netting constructed above the glass to keep errant pucks from being sent into the spectator seating. Notwithstanding the presence of the glass and netting, most hockey rinks have signs erected warning spectators of the dangers inherent in the flying pucks.

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ICE HOCKEY: SLAPSHOT VELOCITY AND HOCKEY STICK TECHNOLOGY

In North America generally, and in all NHL arenas, the hockey rink measure 200 ft (60 m) long and is 85 ft (25 m) wide. ICON SMI/CORBIS

The playing surface has a series of lines painted on it that assist in governing play. The ice is divided by a center line and a center face-off circle; each team defends a goal on their side of center, with the opposing goaltenders changing ends at the conclusion of each segment of the game, a period. Each goal has a line extending through it, the goal line, which is the reference point for the determination of a goal being scored. There are two face-off circles, one at each end. A face-off occurs when there has been a stoppage in play, usually as a result of the puck being directed out of play, a penalty being called, or the puck being held by the goaltender. The offensive area in each end is defined by the blue line, which creates a zone approximately 25 ft (22 m) long; if a player receives the puck from a teammate ahead of the blue line, the player is determined to be off-side. If a player shoots the puck from his/her side of the center ice line across the opposing goal line, the puck is returned to the offending team’s area for a face-off. The goal defended by the goalkeeper is a cageshaped structure, measuring 4 ft (3.3 m) high and 6 ft (1.85 m) wide; the goal posts are rounded,

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constructed of steel. The posts are set on very short fixtures extending from the ice, which permit the goal to move from its moorings if players come into contact with it; in the early days of hockey arenas, there were many injuries caused to players who either struck the immovable steel goals, or if the structure was lifted, players were hurt by the long pins sticking from the ice. The goal is also marked by a defined crease, painted onto the ice surface. The size of the crease varies from hockey jurisdiction to jurisdiction; it is intended to protect the goaltender from being interfered with by opposing players.

Ice hockey; Ice hockey injuries; International federations.

SEE ALSO

Ice hockey: Slapshot velocity and hockey stick technology The slapshot is the most formidable weapon in an offensive ice hockey player’s arsenal. Delivered by the drawing back of the hockey stick blade to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ICE HOCKEY STRENGTH AND TRAINING EXERCISES

of artificial materials. It was believed that such sticks would provide players with an advanced degree of flexion in the shaft of the stick, allowing greater energy to be imparted from the force of the shot into the puck. These research initiatives centered on increasing the coefficient of restitution (COR) of the hockey stick. By the late 1990s, a number of manufacturers had composite stick products available for the mass ice hockey market. Various products employ either single components or combination substances such as plastic, carbon fiber, fiberglass, Kevlar-type materials, and other synthetics in their construction. These modern hockey sticks typically have a significantly higher COR than traditional wood designs; various testing of these composite sticks has demonstrated that slapshot velocities increase by approximately 7–10% when the stick is employed by a skilled player. There are a number of variables that will impact upon the velocity achieved through the slapshot. Where the shooter is able to move into the puck, when he/she is skating and then striking the puck on the move, the puck will have imparted to it not only the energy created by the shooter’s slapshot motion, but also the transferred speed of the shooter on the approach. By virtue of the principles of COR, a puck that is shot as it is moving, by virtue of a pass to the shooter, can be shot harder than a puck struck from a stationary position. Professional hockey players are often capable of firing a slapshot at speeds in excess of 100 mph (160 km/h). ª DA VID S TOE CKLE IN/ CORB I S

approximately waist level or higher, the shooter drives the blade of his/her stick through the puck with maximum force. Although not as accurate as the more controlled wrist shot, professional hockey players are often capable of firing the puck at speeds in excess of 100 mph (160 km/h) at the opponent’s goal. In the early days of ice hockey, the sticks used by players were constructed entirely of wood, with a straight blade. The slapshot was popularized by Montreal Canadiens star Bernie ‘‘Boom Boom’’ Geoffrion, in the 1950s. Bobby Hull was the first player to successfully employ a curved stick blade to deliver his slapshot in the National Hockey League (NHL) in the 1960s. The curved blade provided Hull with both additional velocity to the shot and it imparted an erratic dip to the flight of the puck when shot toward the opposing goal. In the early 1980s, serious research commenced concerning the creation of a hockey stick composed WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SEE ALSO

Cricket batting; Ice hockey; Range of motion.

Ice hockey strength and training exercises The successful ice hockey player will possess a diverse array of physical skills. It is impossible to succeed in this sport as a specialist in only one of its dimensions; the sport demands a measure of ability in each of its fundamental aspects: skating, puck handling, and playmaking, passing, shooting, and the physical side of the game, the delivering and the absorbing of a body check. Ice hockey is much like basketball, soccer, and rugby in the sense that its elite-level players are rarely one dimensional. A comprehensive ice hockey training program must address each of these components of the game. Strength and training will be divided between on ice drills, which are focused in season or in the preparatory preseason, and off ice,

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called dry land training. Such training divisions form a part of the ‘‘periodization’’ of training. Skating ability is the single greatest distinguishing factor between the elite-level international competitors and those who are merely talented ice hockey players. The pace of the game is so swift, with tactical decisions and physical contact occurring with such regularity, speed is essential. Skating ability is a balance between technique, for a smoother and more effortless stride and explosive leg strength, to provide both acceleration and an ability to remain balanced when struck by an opponent. As the action in ice hockey is divided into shifts of one minute or less, the anaerobic lactic energy system of the body will be relied on to provide the necessary energy for play; training will be employed to build this system. Skating speed is developed through ice drills that emphasize interval sprints, especially those that mimic the types of movements, over the corresponding distances required of players in games. Skating seemingly endless circuits of an ice surface are sometimes employed to build aerobic fitness, which is useful in developing recovery time between shifts for the athlete, but most aerobic fitness occurs in the dry land phase of training. It is the nature of ice hockey that skating skills are built upon through every form of on-ice activity. All drills that center on the tactical aspects of the game, such as passing, playmaking, and defensive techniques, require attention to be paid to skating and footwork. At times in the competitive season, even the most adept skaters will practice maneuvers involving full-speed sprints, using pylons or stationary objects around which they must move. The dry land training aimed at improving skating ability will include work in the following areas: stretching and flexibility exercises (skating places significant stresses on the upper leg muscles, the hamstrings and the Achilles tendons, and the groin muscles); weight training exercises (these assist in generating power, both in the leg muscles themselves and in the core of the body for balance and agility during skating; leg presses, various forms of squats and lunges, and rowing machine routines also help; cycling (either on a stationary bicycle or out of doors or on the various types of stationary exercise machines, will assist the ice hockey player in cross training the muscles of the legs. Ice hockey requires a significant degree of physical strength; some players will be more inclined to deliver the hard, crunching body check than others, but all players must be resilient when faced with long seasons in which such contact occurs game to game. The typical National Hockey League (NHL) player weighs over 210 lb (95 kg); high-speed collisions with athletes of

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that size pose risks of injury unless precautions are taken through increased muscular fitness. Well-developed muscles are both protection to the musculoskeletal system from injury as well as the means to provide an emphatic physical response to an opponent. The development of the core strength, with emphasis on the abdomen, shoulders, and lower back of the athlete is a primary feature of ice hockey dry land training. Variations on the standard circuit training routines are often employed by ice hockey players seeking greater overall upper body strength. Chest exercises such as the bench press and the inclined press, shoulder presses, as well as dip and chin-up exercises, are usually a part of such a program. Pure arm strength, while useful to the ice hockey player, particularly in the delivery of a hard shot, as well as being able to battle for position in front of the goal, or along the boards of the playing surface, is less important than the development of a solid, balanced upper body. Many of the athletic skills that are a part of the successful ice hockey repertoire are those of handeye coordination and fine motor skills. Many hockey players play other sports for both recreation and as a method of keeping such faculties sharp; sports such as golf, tennis, and racquetball are common examples. Soccer has been a well-known cross training device for European ice hockey players since the rise of the former Soviet Union to world-class status in the 1950s and 1960s; many Canadian players have also played the sport of box lacrosse during their ice hockey off-season, which, like hockey, is a sport that involves both intense physical play and the development of manual dexterity in the use of a stick. The one specialist on an ice hockey team is the goaltender. This player will train far differently than his teammates, as goaltending success is entirely dependent on a combination of very quick reflexes and coordination, coupled with a strong understanding of shooting angles, positional play, and a relentless mental approach. Much of the strength and training exercises for an ice hockey goaltender focus on the enhancement of the goaltender’s flexibility; stopping the puck requires the goaltender to often perform as a contortionist, moving up, down, and from side to side wearing over 30 lb (13 kg) of equipment. Groin pulls, low back muscles strains, and hamstring pulls are an occupational hazard of this position, and all goaltenders work diligently on various routines to stretch these parts of the body.

Cross training; Exercise, intermittent; Ice hockey; Musculoskeletal injuries

SEE ALSO


IDITAROD

Detroit Red Wings stretching before a game.

ª A NDY CLA RK/ REUT ERS/ CORB IS

Iditarod The Iditarod dog sled race is one of the most formidable athletic challenges in the world. The event traverses the rugged wilderness of Alaska in the winter, a course measuring 1,150 mi (1,854 km) from the city of Anchorage in southern Alaska to the town of Nome to the north. The Iditarod is often referred to ‘‘The Last Great Race.’’ The rules of the Iditarod are straightforward. Each team of between 12 and 16 dogs, directed by a sled driver known as a ‘‘musher’’ must travel the course unassisted. It is common for the racers to travel through snow storms and intense cold for days on end. The course typically takes between 10 and 17 days to complete, and each team must bring on its sled sufficient supplies, including dog food and warm clothing to bear the harsh Alaskan environment. The Iditarod has proven to be an event where female athletes can compete on an equal footing with men. Libby Riddle was the first of a number of successful female Iditarod racers when she won the event in 1985. Given the distance to be traveled by the musher and their dog team, the concept of strength to weight ratio becomes of critical imporWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

tance; a female driver, who typically will weigh less than a male driver, presents a smaller mass to be transported over the race distance. Strength to weight ratio is also of importance in the selection and efficiency of the sled dogs used in the Iditarod. Breeds such as the Siberian Husky and the Malamute, dogs that are native to cold weather climates, have proven to be effective Iditarod racers. Most dogs in the Iditarod weigh less than 55 lbs, yet they possess both the strength and the stamina to maintain high speeds in the most challenging of conditions. The dogs are kept fit through an off season training program that involves pulling sleds and carts on wheels and similar exercises. The psychology of handling the sled dogs during the race is of utmost importance if the team is to complete the Iditarod course. The sled dogs tend to be gregarious animals that are intensely loyal to the musher. The dogs perform best in an environment where they perceive the activity to be fun, as opposed to work. Many of the Iditarod dogs compete in the races for several years, a testament to both the handling and the nature of the these breeds.

Cold-related illnesses and emergencies; Cold weather exercise; Endurance exercise.

SEE ALSO

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ILIOPSOAS SYNDROME

The pelvis and the hip joint bear the weight of the entire upper body. These structures must efficiently transfer the load created by the upper body weight, while at the same time absorbing the forces that are transmitted upward through the legs into the hips and pelvis by the force of the feet striking the ground. To assist in the absorption of these forces, the hip joint contains a small gelfilled sac, known as the iliopsaos bursa. Bursa are a common cushioning feature in other human joints; they are prominent in the structure of the spine, shoulder, and elbow.

Iditarod huskies.

ª P ET ER GU TTM AN /COR BIS

Injuries

SEE

Sports injuries

Iliopsoas syndrome The iliopsaos muscles are a part of the set of tissues that form a part of the hip joint known generally as the hip flexor muscles. These muscles are necessary in the forward flexing movement of the hip. The iliopsaos are also crucial to the ongoing stability of the lower lumbar region of the back. Weak or otherwise poorly positioned iliopsaos muscles are frequently cited as a key contributing factor in the weaknesses associated with an inefficient running stride. This muscle is connected to the femur (thigh) by means of the iliopsaos tendon. The hip joint over which the iliopsaos is positioned is defined by the connection made between the femur and the portion of the pelvis known as the acetebulum, which together form the ball and socket joint that is the hip.

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Iliopsaos syndrome is the name applied to two distinct but related conditions of the hip joint. Hip injuries generally account for as much as 5% of all sports injuries. The first, iliopsaos bursitis, is caused when the bursa becomes either inflamed or irritated; the second, iliopsaos tendonitis, arises when the fibers of the iliopsaos tendon become inflamed. Tendonitis may be an acute, shorter term ailment, or a chronic condition. In either circumstance, the fibers of the tendon have sustained tiny disruptions to the individual structure of each, known as a micro-tear. Tendonitis may also manifest itself as a related condition of its own, peritendonitis, which is an inflammation of the soft tissues that surround the tendon fiber, without damage occurring to the tendon itself. In many cases, the onset of one of these conditions will cause the other. Both aspects of the syndrome produce similar symptoms, including significant pain localized to the hip joint, stiffness of movement in the hip, coupled with a ‘‘cracking’’ or ‘‘popping’’ sound when movement is attempted that involves the joint. Participation in a number of different sports may create stresses on the iliopsaos bursa. Various gymnastics routines and track sprinting, which requires repeated and explosive movement from the starting block in a crouched position, are prominent examples of potential iliopsaos stress. Rowing is also an activity that burdens the iliopsaos, through the sliding and resistance motions required. Iliopsaos syndrome may also arise from a significant blunt trauma to the muscle structure, such as a hard tackle in football or rugby. A failure to adequately stretch the iliopsaos and the surrounding hip flexor structures is a common underlying factor in assessing the cause of this condition. There are also training regimes that can contribute to iliopsaos syndrome, particularly repeated hill running and forms of resistance training such as leg presses and squats. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ILIOTIBIAL (IT) BAND FRICTION

Young athletes are particularly vulnerable to iliopsaos injury. Different aspects of the musculoskeletal system grow during the growth spurts that occur during adolescence. During these periods of growth, the iliopsaos can become inelastic, relative to its adjacent muscle structures. The tightness of the iliopsaos tendon can create a chain reaction into the gluteal muscles and the low back, resulting in an increased curvature of the lower spine, commonly known as lordosis of the spine. The forces placed upon the spine by lordosis directly stress the vertebrae and lumbar disks, all of which create irregularities in the gait of the athlete. The chain reaction that precipitates irregular gait places its own stresses on the lower limbs and joints, with a prime location of injury the patellar (knee) tendon. The rehabilitation of an iliopsaos injury will start with a rest from the activity that initially caused the injury. As with virtually all soft tissue injuries, the immediate implementation of RICE (rest/ice/compression/elevation) treatment is an important step. Applications of heat, combined with massage therapy, are often useful in the reduction or minimization of the effects of scar tissue. Stretching exercises that place the hip joint, lower back, abdomen, and upper leg muscles through their ranges of motion are critical to iliopsaos health. As iliopsaos syndrome is often the result of repetitive practices, it is important for athletes to review their previous approaches to warm-up and cool-down protocols, to ensure that the structure is fully stretched.

Hip and groin injuries; Sprains and strains; Thigh and upper leg injuries.

SEE ALSO

Iliotibial (IT) band friction The iliotibial (IT) band is a long series of tissues that begin with a connective tendon at the hip, passing along the outside of the thigh to connect to the tibia bone of the lower leg at a point below the knee. The major component of the IT band is the tensor fascia lata, a muscle. The IT band is essential to all aspects of effective running motion, forward, backward, and laterally. The most important aspect of the IT band is the prevention of adduction, or inward movement, of the upper leg during running. The IT band also aids in the stability of the quadriceps, as it WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

protects the large thigh muscle, acting as a barrier on the outer aspect of the thigh. The natural motion of running places significant demands on the IT band. As the band is required to stretch with every stride, the extension of the IT band is coupled with the stresses presented by other irregularities that affect how the legs move during the running motion, such as uneven leg length, which may cause the condition known as over-pronation, in which the foot rolls inward to an excessive degree. Running laps on a track in a single direction, or a workout along a uneven crowned road, may all precipitate further stresses on the IT band. IT band problems may also arise when distance runners enter the preseason phase of their training and they increase their mileage too quickly relative to their training base, or when the runner wears shoes that are overly worn on the outside of the heel. While running is the primary source of IT band injuries, the sports of weightlifting and cycling can also contribute to this condition. The friction associated with the overuse or associated injury to the IT band usually is first noted as pain on the lateral or outside edge of the knee. Less frequently, the pain may be noted at the hip where the IT crosses the hip joint. The knee pain does not always occur when the athlete is at rest; pain will often become sufficiently prominent after running approximately 2 mi (3 km). The resultant knee pain may often be most prominent while the athlete is running downhill. In addition to sensations of pain near the knee joint, the affected area is usually tender to the touch and somewhat swollen. IT band friction can persist indefinitely unless treated; treatment may take up to six months to be completely effective, although most cases of IT band friction will resolve themselves within six weeks, if rehabilitation is thorough. As painful as IT band friction may be for the athlete, it is usually a problem that is capable of being permanently remedied. The solutions are diverse and they must be assessed in the context of the individual circumstances of each athlete. The remedies include can include: reducing both the volume and the intensity of training; running only on smooth, flat surfaces, to minimize the stresses on the IT band; using ice after all workouts; considering the use of anti-inflammatory medications for a brief period (not to exceed 10 days); beginning and maintaining a thorough stretching and flexibility program; employing crosstraining methods; using custom-made orthotics; and

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returning to full workouts should be progressive, with increases of no more than 5% training volume per week to further protect against reinjury.

Hip and groin injuries; Stretching and flexibility; Thigh and upper leg injuries.

SEE ALSO

Immune system The human immune system is a series of defensive shields with which the body is equipped to repulse both outside attacks as well as any internal uprisings that occur within its organs, communications networks, or bloodstream. The immune system is a series of interdependent parts that begin at the surface of the skin. A number of the internal organs contribute to the function of these defenses. The lymph glands and the cardiovascular system are the means by which the active agents of the immune system are transported throughout the body. Immunology is the specialized scientific study of immune system function. Immunity is a characteristic of the human body that is present through two general mechanisms. Innate immunity is the manner in which the response to certain types of threat is genetically determined. The components of the body that contribute to its innate immunity are those that work to prevent or repel the entry of foreign matter, including the skin, the lungs, and the mucus contained within them. Secretions such as tears, saliva, and vaginal discharges that remove potentially harmful organisms are a function of the innate immune system. The second general aspect of human immunity is its acquired or adaptive nature. Lymphocytes are important cellular mechanisms that are created by the body for the purpose of adapting to the threats presented to the body. The immune system produces a number of specialty cells, known as antibodies, whose function is to target pathogens and build immunities. The innate and the adaptive characteristics of the immune system do not operate in isolation from one another. The response to biological threat made against the body is often the subject of a two-tiered reaction, engaging both innate and adaptive responses. The immune system has a number of weapons with which it will respond to a threat to the body’s health. Antigens are any substances that are capable of eliciting an immune response from the body. Anti-

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gens may be such microscopic particles as a strain of dangerous bacteria or a virus; a nail or a sliver of wood that punctures the skin is also an antigen. Certain aspects of the immune system function as antigen specific, designed to combat a particular threat that is identified by the body. Other immune system components are systemic, in that they operate by means of their recognition of certain types of potentially dangerous cells; when the cell is not recognized by the immune system, it is attacked and destroyed. Certain types of illnesses, such as multiple sclerosis, are conditions that affect the autoimmune system. These illnesses are progressive, as they direct the systemic parts of the immune system to attack themselves. The third class of immune system response is built upon the memory of the immune system as it developed from the knowledge of a prior immune threat. When the immune system has been the subject of a previous attack by a foreign substance, it responds with a greater force to repel the invader on the next occurrence. Inoculation against disease, which involves the injection of a small amount of dangerous living bacteria into the body, is a preventative measure that permits the body to build a successful future defense mechanism against specific threats. Diseases such as poliomyelitis, or polio, are prevented in this fashion. The blood circulating through the cardiovascular system has a number of immune system responsibilities. Blood is comprised of three major components with respect to immune function: plasma, which is approximately 90% water; erythrocytes (red blood cells) in an approximate volume of 5 million cells per mm3; and leukocytes (white blood cells), in a usual volume that ranges from 5,000 to 10,000 per mm3. When blood volumes are low due to dehydration, the ability of the circulatory system to provide support to the immune system is reduced. Red blood cells are the transport mechanism for the cardiovascular system, particularly with respect to the delivery of oxygen and other nutrients essential to the production of energy. White blood cells are infectionfighting agents within the bloodstream and a backbone to the preservation of immunity; the generally fatal condition of leukemia is a cancer of the blood that occurs when the white cell production system self-destructs through the production of an abnormally high number of white blood cells. The lymph system has two primary components: the first is the bone marrow, responsible for white WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

INJECTION

roids, and the ingestion of stimulants such as cocaine. Poor nutrition, either alone or in combination with insufficient exercise, will have a negative impact upon the immune system.

Cardiovascular system; Mental stress; Sports medical conditions.

SEE ALSO

Injection An injection is the act of administering a precisely determined quantity of a liquid substance into the body. The usual injection techniques involve the insertion of the needle below the surface of the skin, a method referred to as a subcutaneous injection. Injections may also be directed into a specific tissue or organ of the body. Injections may also be administered by intramuscular means (an insertion directly into a target muscle), intravenously (through a tube connected to the bloodstream that delivers predetermined quantities), or by needle-free injection technology. An illustration of the immune response initiated by the presence of a foreign pathogen. ME DIS CA N/ CORB I S

blood cell production, and the second is the thymus gland, a small organ located above the heart. The secondary organs of the lymph system are located near the usual entrances into the body by foreign objects, which are known as pathogens. The first such organs are the adenoids and the tonsils, located in the throat, which are in close contact with all foods, liquids, and other substances passing into the body. The second secondary organ of the lymph system is the spleen, a structure that, among its responsibilities, is a center for the reprocessing of dead and damaged red blood cells that are extracted from the bloodstream. Another group of secondary organs are the lymph nodes, which are designed to act as filters to strain out particular organisms that may present a threat to the health of the body; these nodes are located in the neck, armpits, and groin. In the lymph nodes and elsewhere in the immune system are bacteria specially created by the body to consume potentially dangerous foreign bacteria. These eating substances, known as macrophage, attack antigens. There are a number of other external factors that may influence the efficiency of the immune system. Stress has been proven to decrease immune function, as has the abuse of alcohol, the use of corticosteWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The first hypodermic needles were developed in Europe in 1853; the term ‘‘hypodermic’’ is the combination of two Greek terms meaning ‘‘below the skin.’’ The modern form of the plastic syringe was patented in 1959. The science underlying the hypodermic needle is simple: the hollow needle tube delivers the desired material into the body below the skin, where it will enter the cardiovascular system to be transported by the bloodstream to either a specific destination, or it will be circulated for a systemic benefit throughout the body. In sports, injections are commonly used for the legitimate purposes of the administration of analgesics (painkillers) and anti-inflammatory medications such as cortisone, which are often injected directly into an affected joint. Injections are notorious in sport as the means for illegal and often dangerous substances consumed by athletes. The most common of these injections are those involving human growth hormones (HGH), some liquid compositions of anabolic steroids, and a variety of stimulants. Athletes taking such substances sometimes share the injection needle with a training partner, which creates a risk of disease or infection being transferred between the two users. Former major league baseball All-Star Jose Canseco described how he and other noted ballplayers shared needles to inject one another with steroids in bathrooms and other nonsterile environments. In some circumstances, the best hygienic practices give way to an emergency such as an anaphylactic

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reaction caused by an insect sting. In such cases, the administration of the medication, often by way of a pen-shaped needle containing antihistamine, must be performed as quickly as possible. In all other circumstances, proper procedure is often as critical as the injected substance to good long-term health. Proper injection practices are designed to prevent the transmission of blood-borne diseases. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that every year approximately 25 million people worldwide are infected by a disease that was contracted by the person as a result of unsafe injection procedures. The most common of these transmitted diseases are hepatitis B, hepatitis C (both serious inflammatory conditions of the liver), and HIV/AID (the usually fatal disease of the immune system). Each of these diseases transmitted by unsafe injection is particularly dangerous because the bloodborne pathogens passed to the person have a delayed reaction within the body; the person may not have symptoms of infection for many months after the condition has become well established in the body. These diseases are highly contagious. Another common outcome of a poor injection procedure is the development of an abscess, an infection occurring at the point of the entry of the needle into the body. An abscess will most often occur where the needle used was itself not sterile, or where the injection was performed in such a fashion as to create an opening in the surface of the skin that becomes infected. If left untreated, the abscess may either damage the skin, or it may permit bacteria to enter into the bloodstream from the infected area. This abscess may, in some circumstances, lead to the development of the poison blood condition known as septicemia, or sepsis. The sharing of needles among one or more users is the most common unsafe injection practice. A safe injection procedure will ensure a reduction of risks for both the subject and the person performing the injection. The hallmark of a safe injection practice is the use of a sterile, single-use syringe and needle, where the usage of which is restricted to one patient. If in the course of preparing for an injection the tip of the needle is touched by unprotected skin, the needle should be disposed of and a replacement needle used. In addition to the quality of the needle, both the needle and syringe after use should be disposed of by way of a secure, puncture-proof container. The person administering the injection should ensure that his/her hands or any other part of the body that is

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An injection ensures that a precisely determined quantity of a liquid substance into the body and can target specific tissue or a specific organ. ª R OYA LTY- FREE /COR BIS

likely to come into contact with the recipient of the injection are thoroughly washed, or sanitized with alcohol or a similar substance, prior to injection. All areas where infection might conceivably fester must be scrupulously clean. The administrator should wear disposable latex gloves during the administration of the injection. The surface of any place where the injection was administered (such as a training table) should be thoroughly cleaned, and any towels or coverings used should be washed separately. The opening in the skin should be swabbed with alcohol or a similar sterilizing agent, and covered with a bandage to ensure that no blood comes into contact with any other object after the injection. Care must taken with the manner in which the syringe is filled with the substance to be injected. The person performing the injection must ensure that only the fluid, and not trapped air bubbles, are injected into the patient; the injection of air may cause a potentially fatal occurrence in the cardiovascular system of the subject. When a person receives an injection on a regular basis, it is important for the health of the skin that the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

INTERNATIONAL FEDERATIONS

injection site be rotated among various locations on the body. The abdomen, upper arms, buttocks, and thighs are appropriate areas.

Blood doping; First aid kits for sports; Glucocorticoids; Hormones.

SEE ALSO

Injections, cortisone

SEE

Cortisone

steroid injections

Insulin resistance

SEE

Obesity and

insulin resistance

International Anti-Doping Agreement Agreements between nations to develop uniform approaches to combat the use of performanceenhancing substances were limited to specific sports until the 1990s. Through the leadership of the International Olympic Committee, representing the member countries of the Olympic movement, an impetus was created to establish a world body that would govern all aspects of anti-doping practice and procedure. In 1995, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom were the signatories to the first such initiative, the International Anti-Doping Arrangement (IADA). Each of these countries had been prominent in the international effort to combat the use of performance-enhancing substances, particularly anabolic steroids. Other countries, including France and Sweden, became parties to the IADA shortly thereafter. The stated mission of the IADA is to develop common anti-doping practices among each of the IADA member nations, and to harmonize existing practices where possible, and to ensure that the practices employed are identifiable as world best practices, and to use this standard to influence other sport nations to follow suit. As with corporations throughout the world that have sought and obtained approval for their standards of practice in both manufacturing and quality control, the IADA anti-doping measures and protocols, known as the International Standards for Doping Control (ISDC), were accepted for certification by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

To further develop anti-doping initiatives, the members of IADA entered into a partnership with the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). The centerpiece of the enforcement practices of WADA, the World Anti-Doping Code, had its standards for testing developed by the expertise available through the IADA membership. The key components of the WADA partnership are the provision of training for all other countries that wish to implement ISO standard anti-doping mechanisms on a national level. The progress made by both the IADA members and WADA in this area has all occurred since 1999, the year in which WADA was formally established. The influence of the IADA member countries continues to spread as a agency separate from the larger sports organizations. When WADA established a regional office in South Africa in 2003, that country became a signatory to the IADA initiative.

Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport; Doping tests; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

International basketball

SEE

FIBA:

International basketball

International federations There are a number of purposes to the creation of international sport federations. Each federation is a symbol of the global nature of the athletic discipline represented; sports are often seen as the only meaningful common bond that is shared between otherwise diverse global communities and cultures. Sport federations usually seek to reflect the diverse nature of their membership, an important quality as many international federations are supported with government funding of a direct or an indirect nature. The most visible work carried out by an international sports federation is the conduct of its competitions. The effort to ensure championships that are demonstrably fair, efficiently conducted, and profitable where possible, creates positive promotion for the particular sport. This is the overriding objective of the work carried on by most international sports federations. The least glamorous aspect of federation business is the governance of the operations of the organization. Worldwide sporting bodies are complicated and often highly dynamic structures that require diverse and often imaginative management systems.

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International sports federations are generally one of two types. The first are those organizations that are responsible for large-scale events or festivals that include many different sports. These events are annual, biennial, or quadrennial, such as the Olympic Games or the Maccabiah Games. The second type is the individual sport federations that are responsible for those sports contested on an international basis. The Federation de Football Internationale, or FIFA, is perhaps the best known of these world organizations. The best-known and the most powerful of the event-centered international federations is the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland, the IOC is selected from the representatives of national Olympic organizations from around the world. In addition to physically administering the competitions that comprise both the Summer and Winter Olympic Games during the designated period, the IOC is responsible for coordinating the very intricate processes of host city and venue selection for upcoming games, determining the selection process and qualifying standards in each Olympic sport in advance of each competition, and the negotiation of immensely valuable games sponsorship and worldwide broadcast rights. The IOC also works with national governments in the coordination of its work; it is also a partner with the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in the regulation of the sensitive and high profile in-competition doping tests. The process through which the Olympic host city for a Summer or Winter Games is selected is entirely controlled by the IOC. To be named host Olympic city is of particular benefit to the successful bidder, as the value of the construction of new facilities, the huge influx of tourism, and the lasting benefit to a community associated with the Olympics all make the pursuit of an Olympic bid lucrative. The IOC has faced numerous international political stresses during its history. In 1972, the Summer Games at Munich was marked by the hostage-taking of 11 Israeli athletes by a group of Palestinian terrorists. In 1976, the Summer Games of Montreal were the subject of a boycott by a number of African nations over the participation of then-apartheid South Africa; the Winter Games of 1980 in Moscow and in 1984 in Los Angeles were each affected by boycotts: the 1980 action by the United States and countries sympathetic to its position, and the 1984 refusal by the former Soviet Union and certain of its political allies to participate. Each boycott was motivated by politics conflict, not athletic issues. The IOC sits at the apex of an Olympic pyramid that is constructed upon national Olympic committees

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that are powerful in their own right. Organizations such as the United States Olympic Committee work in concert with the IOC, as the supreme body for all Olympic-related competition in the United States. There are other international sports federations that are responsible for major, multi-sport competitions. The Commonwealth Games, which is open to athletes from countries that form the British Commonwealth (the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and India are prominent examples), are an event similar to the Summer Olympics in the scope of the sports contested; the Commonwealth Games are held every four years, at the mid-point between Summer Olympics. The competition is directed by the Commonwealth Games Federation. The Pan American Games are staged every four years (in the year prior to each Summer Olympics). The Pan American competition is open to nations and competitors in all 42 North and South American countries; it is organized by a permanent international body known as PASO, the Pan American Sports Organization, which is based in Mexico City. The International Association of Athletic Federations (IAAF) is an international body with a span of influence within its discipline that is as broad as that of the IOC in the Olympic realm. Track and field events in North America encompass a wide variety of sports; the IAAF convene annual world championships within each athletics discipline, ranging from cross-country running to the hammer throw. Every two years, the IAAF stages a world track and field championship, where all of the athletic disciplines are contested in a multi-day event. As with the Olympics, the IAAF world championships are subject to a nationally based selection process, as determined by the national athletics/track and field federation in each country. Virtually every sport that is contested on any international basis is directed by an umbrella international federation. In many such situations, the international body is supreme in all matter that impacts on the sport in question; in others, the federation is structured as a clearinghouse for the resolution of issues that impact on the particular sport or international competition. The features of these single sport federations that are common to each include: world governance of the sport; all regulatory and discipline matters associated with international competition; division or responsibilities between national federation members and the world body; consistent rules of play; technical development, including training and coaching; convening and supervision of international championships. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

INTERNATIONAL INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONSULTATIVE GROUP ON ANTI-DOPING IN SPORT

Federation de Football Internationale (FIFA) and the World Cup, are synonymous in any description of world soccer, the unquestioned most popular sport in the world. The quadrennial World Cup championship, which is the culmination of three years of qualifying play, is entirely controlled by FIFA, from the determination of the host country, the venues in which the game swill be played, rule changes, and technical innovation, including ball construction and the use of goal-line cameras. Every soccer competition that is intended as being recognized as an international match must be sanctioned by FIFA. A measure of organizational cross-pollination in soccer has been achieved as FIFA is now partnered with the IOC in the conduct of Olympic soccer, a technique employed by the IOC in many of its Olympic sports. FIFA is not the only international soccer federation. The Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) is the governing body of European soccer. UEFA convene a Champions League, the annual European club championship, various European age group championships, and the immensely popular European Cup, held every four years. The Cup is the second most-watched television event in the world, next to the World Cup. UEFA, with 52 member countries, is a powerful federation. It is entirely autonomous within its own sphere in terms of how the competitions are organized, the provision of anti-doping testing, and other qualification matters. It is not subordinate to FIFA in the administration of its own affairs, but it operates a game that is entirely consistent with that overseen by FIFA. The Federation de Basketball Amateur (FIBA) is modeled in many respects after the FIFA example. FIBA administers a truly world game, and its competitions culminate in a biennial world championship, with a selection process that draws from every region of the world. The growth of FIBA did not always parallel its influence, as for many years the United States—the preeminent basketball power in the world—was reluctant to commit to the provision of its best players at the world champion level. The best American players, professionals in the National Basketball Association (NBA), were not readily persuaded to compete in FIBA championships. The other points of contention between the FIBA model of basketball and the American game have traditionally centered on the differences in the playing rules. FIBA has steadily persuaded all of its member nations to implement the FIBA standard at all levels. In the United States, with thousands of high schools, over 1,500 university programs, and the professional leagues playing American rules, it is doubtful that a regulatory harmony can be negotiated. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The United States is not isolated from FIBA; the rise to prominence of successful foreign-born players in the NBA has given a truly international perspective to the game, a development encouraged by FIBA. Other world sports are organized in similar fashions. The Federation Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) is responsible for both the traditional six players per side indoor game, as well as the world beach volleyball championships. The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) regulates all international ice hockey competitions; the IIHF encountered a problem for much of its history that paralleled the tensions that existed between FIBA and United States basketball, namely the influence of Canada, the world’s most dominant hockey nation. International cricket, cycling, rugby, and swimming are all directed by powerful international organizations, selected by the member nations to provide overall direction and to convene the international championships. There are a number of international sport federations that do not purport to influence the direction of the conduct of the sport at large, but which have a measure of hegemony over an aspect that is well entrenched. Examples of sole-purpose, one-sport organizations include the Americas Cup competition, a challenge sailing event first contested in 1851. In recent years, when a challenge has been issued, a number of yachts will compete to determine the ultimate challenger to the trophy. The current Cup holder typically forms a consortium to maintain control of the revenues and the rules of the event.

FIBA: International basketball; FIFA: World Cup Soccer; International Olympic Committee (IOC); Maccabiah Games.

SEE ALSO

International Intergovernmental Consultative Group on Anti-Doping in Sport The movement to combat doping in sport has not been restricted to traditional sport-governing bodies. In 1999, the International Intergovernmental Consultative Group on Anti-Doping in Sport (IICGADS), was a product of a first ever assemblage known as the International Summit on Drugs in Sport, in November 1999. Australia, as the host country for the 2000 Sydney Summer Olympic Games, convened the meeting, which was attended by numerous international governmental and sport representatives. The purpose of the summit was to establish a public profile for

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the anti-doping movement in advance of the 2000 Olympics.

Olympic committee in each member country, all national sports federations, and the member athletes.

The IICGADS was formed as an interim, nonexclusive group, as it wished to operate as a sounding board for the views of all national interests with respect to anti-doping practices. In its beginnings in 1999, the IICGADS intended to work as an intermediary where required with the newly established World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA); it was the stated particular concern of the IICGADS at its 1999 summit that the organizational structure of WADA fully reflected the international sport community, and that all WADA initiatives reflected the principles of independence, accountability, and transparency.

In 1892, Pierre de Coubertin (1863–1937) of France declared his intention to spearhead a movement to revive the ancient Greek Olympics. It was in furtherance of de Coubertin’s dream that the IOC was created in 1894. De Coubertin was the first president of the IOC, holding the position from 1896 to 1925. In 1896, the first modern Summer Olympics were held in Athens; the inaugural Winter Olympics were staged in Chamonix, France, in 1924. The IOC has steadily expanded both the scope of the Olympics and its own corresponding influence since that time. De Coubertin envisaged an Olympic Games event that would function as the centerpiece of a worldwide athletics movement. At the heart of the authority of the IOC is the Olympic Charter, first published by de Coubertin in 1894. The Olympic Charter is the bedrock document of the Olympics, and every country that seeks to participate as a member of the Olympic Movement must acknowledge both the supremacy of the Charter as well as the authority of the IOC to enforce its provisions.

In successive summits held annually from 2000 through 2003, the IICGADS expanded the membership of its group. It advocated worldwide government participation in WADA, coupled with an international harmonization of anti-doping regulation. By 2003, in the lead-up to the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics, the WADA Anti-Doping Code was adopted by most international sports bodies. Due in part to the lobbying efforts of the IICGADS, WADA has become the preeminent force in the enforcement of anti-doping in sport, as well as its best-known educational and public relations vehicle. By 2003, the IICGADS had a membership of 103 countries. The organization formally requested that the United Nations Education, Science and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) formally commit to an international effort against doping in sport; the motto employed by the IICGADS in this political campaign was ‘‘doping threatens to kill sport as surely as it kills athletes.’’ In 2005, UNESCO adopted an international convention against doping, intended to reinforce the efforts of WADA, as well as further promoting antidoping policies in sport throughout the world.

The original Olympic Charter reflected de Coubertin’s idealistic view of the role to be played by athletics in the world at large; those sentiments are unaltered in the current Charter language. It is the ability of the IOC and its Olympic partners to amend its regulations to adopt the Charter to the realities of the modern athletic world that confirm the resilience and the status of the IOC.

International Olympic Committee (IOC)

The first significant amendment of IOC practice was with regard to the participation of female athletes in the Olympics. De Coubertin, notwithstanding his idealism regarding the power for good that sport represented in the world, was opposed to female participation in the Games. Subsequent IOC decisions reflected the fact that the exclusion of female athletes was a clear contradiction of the spirit of the Olympics as embodied in the Olympic Charter. It was in 1928 that women first participated in a broad range of track and field events and the number of female Olympic events has increased steadily since the 1970s, The Olympic Charter now provides that, for a sport to be included in the Olympics, it must provide for female competition.

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) is the supreme organizational authority with respect to the Olympic Games. It is one of a number of bodies that are often referred to as the Olympic Movement, which includes the organizing committee for each individual Summer or Winter Olympics, the national

The IOC has found itself at the center of numerous political controversies throughout modern Olympic history. The fact that the Olympics have been used as a forum to advance political causes is not surprising, given the primacy of the Olympics in sport. The IOC is not well equipped to respond effectively to

Doping tests; International Anti-Doping Agreement; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

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INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTEE (IOC)

International Olympic Evaluation Committee in session.

ª KI V RI N/ I TAR -TA SS /CO RB IS

circumstances where the Games are used for an overt political purpose; the Olympic Charter specifically provides that the IOC and the Olympics are nonpolitical instruments. The most prominent examples of nationalism or other political ends being featured through the Olympics include: The 1936 Berlin Games were staged by Nazi Germany in the advancement of its ideologies respecting white racial superiority. The 1968 ‘‘Black power’’ demonstration on the medal podium by American sprinters Tommy Smith and John Carlos in Mexico City. The 1972 hostage-taking and the subsequent murders of 11 Israeli athletes by Palestinian terrorists in Munich. The 1976 boycott of the Summer Olympics by a number of African nations, protesting the inclusion of then-apartheid South Africa. The 1980 reciprocal boycotts of the then-Eastern Bloc nations, and the United States-led boycott in 1984, the impetus for each being the various consequences of the Cold War. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The various efforts to prevent doping at the Olympics by the IOC have been intensified as science has developed more effective detection methods. The IOC essentially transferred its anti-doping enforcement wing to the newly created World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999. The IOC is a full partner in the ongoing efforts of WADA. The most dramatic evolutionary change made by the IOC in the course of its history is that regarding the status of professional athletes in the Olympics. The modern Games were founded at a time when the true amateur occupied an elevated position in all sports. Professionals, with the exception of American baseball players, were perceived as second-class athletic citizens. A notable example of the stature of the amateur is found in the treatment of Jim Thorpe (1888–1953), the American Olympic decathlon champion at the 1912 Olympics. Subsequent to his victory, it was discovered that Thorpe had played semi-professional baseball in Pennsylvania for money. The IOC stripped him of his medal and his championship. At that time, athletic endorsements, so common today, were a clear violation of Olympic rules.

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A most formidable foe of professional influences in the Olympics was IOC president Avery Brundage (1887–1975), the American who held the post from 1955 to 1972. Brundage believed that the overwhelming trend of international sport to allow professional athletes was to be resisted by the IOC. Numerous controversies over this classification of athletes arose during his tenure. Notable examples were the ever-increasing development and dominance of Eastern Bloc state-supported sports teams, contrasted with the prohibition against athletes such as professional soccer players, American professional basketball players, and Canadian professional ice hockey players. The modern Olympic Games are not only open to all manner of athletes—amateur and professional— the IOC now oversees a revenue-generating Goliath. Both Summer and Winter Olympics provide revenues to the IOC from three distinct streams: international television and radio broadcast rights; licensing, particularly agreements where the licensee is permitted to use the five ring Olympic symbol; and sponsorships, through agreements with clothing manufacturers, high technology suppliers, and similar products. The IOC directs approximately 92% of its Olympic revenues into sport or promotion worldwide, with the balance used to fund its large international operations.

International federations; Maccabiah Games; National governing bodies.

SEE ALSO

Ironman competitions The champion of the grueling Olympic decathlon is often described as the world’s greatest athlete. The winner of the Hawaii Ironman event, a world championship competition involving open water swim, bicycle ride, and marathon run, can lay a legitimate claim to the title, ‘‘World’s greatest endurance athlete.’’ The Ironman is a sporting competition with relatively recent origins. It comprises longer distances in the same disciplines that constitute the triathlon, an Olympic event with prescribed distances of a 1.5-k swim (1.0 mi), 40-k cycle (25 mi), and a 10-k run (6 mi), with the Ironman elements. The term ‘‘Ironman’’ is now accepted as both the generic term for any form of long-distance triathlon, as well as the name of the sanctioned events that have fixed distance classifications and international entrance qualifications.

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Ironman competitions have two distinct historical points of origin. The first formal triathlon race was held at Mission Bay, California, a competitive progression made from the informal joint training sessions of runners, cyclists, and swimmers who lived in the area. In 1978, in a development independent of that in Mission Bay, a debate had simmered for some time among the endurance sport athletes of Hawaii as to which of their sports was the most demanding. At that time, Hawaii hosted three separate endurance races: the Waikiki Roughwater Swim, an open water race of 2.4. mi (4 km) in the Pacific Ocean; the Around Oahu Bike Race, which looped around Oahu island for 112 mi (170 km); and the Honolulu Marathon, at 26.2 mi (42.2 km). The first Ironman competition simply took all three of the existing Hawaiian endurance races and combined them into a single competition; the distances have remained unchanged since 1978. John Collins, a retired United States Navy commander, and his spouse, Judy Collins, organized the first Hawaii Ironman in October 1978. Collins declared prior to the race that, ‘‘Whoever finishes first we’ll call the Iron man.’’ Fifteen athletes started the inaugural race, and twelve managed to finish. Ironman competitions are such a demanding event that they seem beyond the range of the recreational athlete. The demands upon the body, in terms of the training required, the physical effects on the body, as well as the variety of techniques to be employed in each of the athletic components, were initially seen as so great that the Ironman was seen as a sideshow to more serious athletic endeavors. The Ironman did not receive wide-scale publicity until 1982, when it was first broadcast on national American television. That publicity, with both the rise to dominance in the sport of American Dave Scott, a sixtime Ironman champion in the 1980s, as well as the increasing popularity of the triathlon, were the factors that propelled the Ironman into an international sports niche. In 1986, a purse of $100,000 was established, a then-unheard of prize for a triathlon; the annual first prize for both the male and the female champion now exceeds that amount. The Hawaii Ironman was imitated in various parts of the world in the 1980s. Ultimately, the Hawaii Ironman, an event that is now the property of the World Triathlon Corporation, has become the de facto world Ironman championship, as athletes from around the world race in sanctioned international qualification events for the coveted Ironman slot, a place in the Hawaii event. Given the demands of the Ironman distance, athletes will usually seek to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

IRONMAN COMPETITIONS

qualify in the year prior to the targeted Ironman. The modern race is divided between professional athletes and age group contestants, and the total field exceeds 3,000 athletes. The World Triathlon Corporation is a world sports organization that has accepted the World Anti-Doping Code in the governance of its events, as developed by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). International triathlon distances, which are governed by the International Triathlon Union, are now harmonized with those used in the Hawaii Ironman and its qualification races. A sprint triathlon is defined as a swim/bike/run event where each segment is approximately one half that raced at the Olympic distance. The Olympic triathlon is both the name of the event as well as that sanctioned for the Olympic Games. The ‘‘half Ironman’’ involves race segments precisely 50% the length of each Ironman component, with the Ironman distances the longest form of competitive triathlon. The training required to complete a Ironman event is one that places significant demands on every aspect of the endurance and energy systems of the body. Like the decathlon, the Ironman is an ultimate testament to excellent cross training techniques. The elements of technique in each of the disciplines, diet and nutrition, sleep, overall musculoskeletal strength and flexibility, and technological concerns with respect to the cycling component are all essential; a failure to adequately prepare in any of these areas may lead to a competitive failure. While a number of professional Ironman competitors may have the ability to live in a climate similar to that of the event, most athletes will have to include acclimatization techniques in their training programs. Many athletes who take up Ironman training have previously completed a number of shorter triathlons. It is inconceivable that an athlete would attempt as the first triathlon the Ironman or the half Ironman distance. The experience of the athlete in the shorter races will provide him or her with an inventory of the personal strengths and weaknesses in each of the components of the race. The training of the athlete to succeed in the challenges presented by the longer Ironman distances will begin with a determination of what areas require more extensive training than others, without sacrificing the abilities achieved in that segment. Most athletes enter Ironman training with a pronounced preference for one of the swim, bike, or run aspects; swimming is generally regarded as the most difficult of the Ironman sections, and over 60% of all Ironman champions have come from a swim specialty background. The elite distance WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

runners and cyclists usually possess a very slender frame, which is a difficult transition to the rigors of open-water swimming. Each of the Hawaii Ironman course segments has significant variables that are subject to environment. The swim, raced in open ocean waters, can be subject to intense wave action and current. The cycling course, which is conducted on the roads through the ancient lava fields, often subjects the cyclists to swirling winds and significant heat over the longest of the race components, typically five hours for the elite Ironman racers. The run portion is similarly affected by heat and wind; the athletes are particularly vulnerable to these effects because, at the beginning of the run, they have been in the warm, often dehydrating environment for many hours. Virtually all of the sanctioned qualifying races for the Hawaii Ironman have their own unique course topography and environmental conditions to overcome. Athletes who consider attempting the Ironman distance, whether in Hawaii or elsewhere, will generally possess a high level of basic fitness. The training for the Ironman will therefore center on developing that existing base, with particular emphasis on techniques to improve efficiency in all three aspects of the competition. The training, which will extend over a period of months, will employ the principles associated with the ‘‘periodization’’ of training, with built-in peaks and rest periods to ensure injury prevention and mental sharpness. In addition to the actual swim, bike, and running training required, the periods will include both weight training and stretching and flexibility exercises. The stretching and flexibility exercises used to prepare for Ironman competition are intended to achieve a number of purposes. Stretching will assist in recovery from hard workouts, in which every muscle group will be employed. Stretching will also assist the body to remain in balance, as a preventative against the injuries attributed to muscle imbalance, such as groin pulls, calf strains, and Achilles tendon injuries. Weight training, both with free weights and machine weights, serves a number of training purposes. Weight training also aids in the balance that the body must possess to be effective in completing three athletic disciplines where arms, shoulders, core, upper, and lower leg muscle groups are essential. Given the hours that are of necessity spent in the actual training for each segment, weight training can also represent a change in routine that is beneficial to the mental outlook in a challenging sport.

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Midori Ito 8/13/1969– JAPANESE FIGURE SKATER

Midori Ito was the first female figure skater in history to land the demanding skating maneuver known as the triple axel. Even among the relatively diminutive athletes that comprise the elite of women’s figure skating, Ito was small, standing 4 ft 9 in tall (1.44 m). In her competitive career, Ito acquired a reputation as a very athletic skater, capable of prodigious leaps and jump sequences. Ito won the world skating championship in 1989, and she was a leading skater throughout her career. Ito won a silver medal at the 1992 Winter Olympics competition.

Athletes beginning the swimming leg of the 2005 Ironman Triathlon. ª AN DREA S ME I ER/ RE UTE RS/ COR BIS

In the actual event training, technical points will be emphasized where the athlete has prior triathlon experience. Mechanical issues, such as the maintenance of stroke technique in the water, proper aerodynamics on the bike, and achieving an optimal efficiency in running stride, are all matters that will receive ongoing attention as each plays a crucial role in the ultimate speed that the athlete can achieve in each portion of the race. The Ironman, like all triathlons, has the further technical issue of transition. The events are many hours in length (the male course record at Hawaii is in excess of eight hours, and the female course record is over nine hours), but as races are often decided by seconds, Ironman competitors will seek out the aspects of the race where time can be saved. The transitions from swim to bike, and from bike to run, involve equipment, shoes and clothing. The more organized athletes are heading into the transition area, the quicker they will be onto the next segment. Ironman competitors will practice and hone their transitional skills.

The triple axel is regarded as the most difficult jump in women’s skating. It is the only jump that is executed from a forward position. The skater is required to make a deep knee bend with one leg, while reaching forward with both the free leg and arms to jump into the air. Once airborne, the skater will bring her arms close to her body and her legs tight together, as the closer the extremities are to the skater’s trunk the greater the amount of acceleration the skater can develop with her spin. A properly executed triple axel will produce a rotation of approximately 5 revolutions per second; 3.5 revolutions requires the skater to remain airborne for seven tenths of one second. The difficulty of the triple axel is confirmed by the fact that only four other women after Ito first performed the jump in 1988 have landed this jump in competition. In preparation for the rigors of attempting the triple axel, Ito typically practiced for 20 hours per week in the summer months and 30 hours per week in the winter seasons. Ito sustained two fractured ankles in her training during her career and a host of lesser injuries. It is an interesting feature of Ito’s career that while she was arguably the greatest athlete among the figure skaters of her era, she was not renowned for her skating artistry. Judges during Ito’s competitive career did not appear to value her jumping ability in a fashion that entirely compensated for her perceived lack of artistic presentation.

Figure Skating; Figure Skating dynamics of leaps and throws; Vertical Jump.

SEE ALSO SEE ALSO

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Cross training; Cycling; Hydration.


J Vincent Edward Jackson 11/30/1962– AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL PLAYER, PROFESSIONAL BASEBALL PLAYER

Bo Jackson is one of the most heralded athletes in the history of American sport. Jackson was a successful collegiate sprinter at Auburn University, prior to embarking upon two successful sporting careers, the first as a highly regarded outfielder and slugger in major league baseball, the second as a devastating running back in the National Football League (NFL). Jackson’s ability to continue with his professional sports career after undergoing hip replacement surgery is a remarkable feature of his athletic legacy. Jackson had a remarkable physique that was well suited to both baseball and football. At 6 ft 1 in tall (1.8 m) and 230 lb (110 kg), Jackson possessed both brute strength and remarkable speed and balance. Jackson won the Heisman Trophy in 1985, awarded to the best player in American college football. As remarkable as any of the many highlights of Jackson’s professional sports career is the injury that he sustained in 1991 while playing football with the Oakland Raiders of the NFL. Jackson sustained damage to his hip when he was tackled hard by an opposing player. The injury subsequently resulted in a condition known as avascular necrosis (AVN). WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AVN is caused where a bone sustains either a temporary or a permanent loss of its normal blood supply. When the blood supply is interrupted, the bone tissue will die and the bone will collapse. AVN most commonly occurs at the epiphysis, the region located at the end of the long bones of the body. In Jackson’s case, the AVN occurred at the head of the femur, where the femur meets the pelvis to create the hip joint. As a result of AVN, Jackson was required to undergo a arthroplasty of the hip, otherwise known as a hip replacement. The nature of the hip replacement and the fact that significant physical contact such as that sustained in football meant that Jackson would not play in the NFL again. Jackson spent the entire 1992 year engaged in various forms of physical rehabilitation. In a noteworthy comeback, Jackson returned to major league baseball in 1993. He did not possess the same speed that had been a signature of his athletic prowess prior to his injury. Jackson ultimately retired from baseball after the 1994 season. Although he could not play to the standard that had made him feared in two sports, the fact that Jackson could return to professional sports at all after undergoing a hip replacement is a significant achievement, one unique in North American professional sports.

Baseball; Football (American); Sports Medical Conditions.

SEE ALSO

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Freidrich Ludwig Jahn

and style in the manner in which the exercise is performed.

8/11/1778–10/15/1852 GERMAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION INSTRUCTOR

SEE ALSO

Freidrich Jahn is widely regarded as the founder of modern gymnastics. Jahn received his first instruction in gymnastics at age 13. Jahn, who subsequently became a teacher and physical education instructor in Berlin, was motivated in the promotion of gymnastics as a tool for greater physical fitness as a result of his political beliefs. From his youth until his old age, Jahn was a staunch German nationalist at a time when Napoleonic France exerted significant control over Europe, including the regions that now comprise Germany. On at least one occasion, Jahn was imprisoned for his political views. Jahn promoted gymnastics in society as a tool where young people could remain physically fit in a pro-German environment. Jahn advocated physical fitness among youth as a weapon against oppression. Jahn referred to his gymnasts as ‘‘Turners,’’ and the outdoor recreation areas devoted to gymnastics practice and physical education were called Turnplatz, the first of which Jahn opened in 1811. The clubs established by Jahn for gymnastics were known as Turnverein, a name which has endured in Germany as one describing a gymnastics club. Jahn’s text Deutsche Turnkunst (German Gymnastics) was published in 1815, the first instructional text concerning gymnastics principles ever written. In 1819, the Turners were prohibited from assembling by the government, as they were perceived as fomenting political divisions within the country. By 1840, the Turners were once again legitimized. Gymnastics became so popular in Germany after 1840 that when the Turnverein concept spread to the United States through German immigration, the number of these clubs established throughout America by the later part of the nineteenth century exceeded 150. Jahn was also active in the development of various pieces of gymnastics equipment that are the backbone of the modern sport. Jahn devised the first horizontal bar, or high bar, used by male gymnasts to perform various flips and turns. Jahn also built the first parallel bars, upon which the athlete uses both bars to perform various movements that place significant emphasis on upper body strength. The vaulting horse, known simply as the vault in modern gymnastics, was also a Jahn invention. The vaulting horse requires the gymnast to jump over the horse using a combination of athleticism in the jump

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Gymnastics; Gymnastics vaulting; Pilates.

Javelin The javelin is a sport that is a descendant of the many forms of competitions contested in various parts of the ancient world that involved the throwing of a projectile. The javelin was one of the events that formed a part of the ancient Olympics, and it was included in the inaugural modern Olympic Games in 1896. The javelin is ultimately governed by the umbrella track and field body, the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF). Javelin competitions are best known through the exposure given the sport at the Summer Olympics, where the javelin is an event separately contested by men and women. Javelin also is a part of the biennial World Track and Field championships and various regional athletics meets. Javelin competitions are a part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) annual track and field championships. It is also one of the events that comprise both the decathlon and heptathlon. The javelin bears a number of technical similarities to the other traditional field sports that require the athlete to throw a projectile as far as possible. The shot put, the hammer throw, and the discus all require the athlete to consider a variety of physical factors, including the effect of wind, the angle at which the object is released, the height at which the object is released, and the speed of the object upon release. It is the specific aerodynamic considerations of the javelin itself that separate this sport from the other throwing events. The projectile used in javelin consists of three distinct parts—the head, constructed from a light weight metal; the shaft, made from carbon fiber or other composite synthetic materials; and the grip, the portion of the javelin where the object is held by the thrower prior to delivery. Unlike the footwork and resultant body position that is sought by an athlete to produce a successful shot put throw or discus release, the rules of javelin prohibit a spin or twisting of the thrower’s body prior to the release of the javelin (the back of the competitor may not face the throwing line at any time prior to the release of the javelin). The projectile is thrown in an overhand fashion after a high speed run to the throwing line by the athlete. The speed of the athlete at the precise moment of delivery, coupled with the arm strength and the technique of the thrower, combine to create WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JAVELIN

The standard weight of a javelin in women’s competition is 1.32 1b (600 g).

the forces that propel the javelin as it leaves the hand of the competitor. The standard weight of a javelin as prescribed by the rules of the International Amateur Athletics Federation is 1.76 lb (800 g) for men’s competition and 1.32 lb (600 g) for women. The javelin shaft is of hollow construction to increase the available surface area exposed to the air in flight. As a general physical proposition, the greater the available surface area of the shaft in relationship to the weight of the projectile, the further the javelin will fly as it benefits from a greater degree of lift. As the javelin moves through the air, the distance it travels will be significantly affected by the air flow created above and below the projectile. Unlike a discus, which is subject to the lift created by the force of air pressure applied to the underside of the disc (an application of the Bernoulli principle), the flight of the javelin creates a separation of the air flow above and below the shaft. In this air flow separation, the air flowing beneath the shaft is the source of the force providing lift and it helps sustain the flight of the javelin. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª R OYAL TY-FR EE/ COR BIS

The javelin design ensures that the head of the javelin travels lower than the shaft through the air during flight, to ensure a greater likelihood of the head being the first part of the projectile to strike the ground. The javelin should stick into the surface on landing rather than skip horizontally on contact. The rules of javelin prohibit the javelin tail from striking the ground before the head. The desired flight characteristic is achieved by constructing the javelin with the center of gravity (the average location of the javelin’s weight) being positioned ahead of the center of pressure of the javelin (the average location of the pressures received by the javelin in flight). Oscillation is a specific type of vibration that may occur in any object, including those in flight. Oscillation is defined as a periodic motion that occurs between two limits; when a javelin shaft oscillates in flight, it appears to quiver. Because an oscillating motion occurs perpendicular to the forward path of the javelin, oscillation represents energy delivered by the athlete at the beginning of the throw that is wasted. As a general

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proposition, the greater the oscillation in the javelin shaft in flight, the less efficient the throw and the shorter the distance the javelin will fly. To counter the oscillation of the shaft in flight, the thrower imparts spin to the shaft by rotating the shaft on release. The rotation of the shaft counters any perpendicular vibration and it makes the javelin more stable in the air. An elite level javelin thrower will cause the javelin to spin at a rate approaching 25 rotations per second. Oscillation in the javelin shaft is also minimized by delivering the javelin into the air on the identical vertical plane as the intended flight path of the javelin. The most prominent physical characteristic of an elite javelin thrower is a strong upper body and shoulder structure, coupled with legs sufficiently powerful to deliver a fast run up at delivery. Coordinated footwork by the athlete as the end of the run up is approached is essential to both preserving the speed developed during the run, as well as delivering the javelin from a stable body position. The athlete will seek to incorporate the maximum allowable twist of the body at release to generate angular momentum that will be directed into the shaft. SEE ALSO

Archery; Discus; Hammer throw; Shotput.

Herbert Jenks 1915–1977 AMERICAN ENGINEER

The fiberglass pole used in the pole vault since the late 1960s is the chief reason why the world record in this event has been improved by a greater percentage margin than any other Olympic sport since 1968. The poles used by vaulters progressed from hardwood, to bamboo, to aluminum, and ultimately to fiberglass within a period of approximately 40 years. Since 1968, all Olympic and world champions have used a pole manufactured from either fiberglass or a composite product that has included fiberglass. Herbert Jenks was a pioneer in the development of this record setting technology. The physics of pole vault create an event where each component of the attempted jump builds directly on the previous step. The fast approach down the runway towards the bar leads to the aggressive plant of the pole by the vaulter. The athlete uses the speed and power of the approach and plant to take off and extend into the air; the vaulter’s exten-

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sion over the bar requires the pole to be in a vertical position as the bar is cleared. The greater flexibility of the fiberglass pole as opposed to any other materials permits the athlete to achieve a greater bend in the pole when it is planted. This quality of fiberglass means that the athlete can position their hands higher on the pole, further from the point of the pole when it is planted. The further along the pole the athlete can grip the pole, the generally higher they will be able to jump. Herbert Jenks was a fiberglass engineer with the Browning Arms company in the late 1950s, where he was engaged in the manufacture of fiberglass tubes used in archery. Jenks began to design and build fiberglass vaulting poles in 1960; he is the first person in North America to patent a fiberglass vaulting pole. Jenks worked with a number of different pole designs until 1968, most notably the Browning Sky Pole and the Black Cata-Pole, designs used by many leading vaulters of the era; he created the first pole with a small tapered grip area, to achieve a better position for the vaulter’s hands. Jenks also designed poles that were variably weighted, with the weight distributed along the pole to suit the individual preferences of the vaulter. Jenks patented a number of his later pole designs as well as training others in the art of manufacturing a vaulting pole. In 1976 Jenks was issued a further patent with respect to the manufacturing process of a then state of the art pole produced by AMF-Voit, an American manufacturing concern. SEE ALSO

Pole vaulting; Track and Field.

Joint noise: Popping and cracking Popping and cracking sounds in the course of the movement of human joints are natural—and often disconcerting. These sounds are made in two general circumstances: when the sound is accompanied by pain in the moving joint, and when the sound occurs with the movement alone. Most joints in the body have common construction features. Two or more bones create the skeletal component, with the bones at their point of contact covered by a slick, friction-reducing material known as articular cartilage. The joint is encased in a capsule that contains synovial fluid, a substance also designed to reduce friction in the joint. Present in the joint is often a bursa, a gel-filled fibrous sac that acts to cushion impacts received at the joint. The bones at the joint are secured to one another by WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ARTHUR JONES

ligaments; the joint usually is powered by muscle and tendon groups secured to the bones. Joint noises that are not accompanied by pain often occur in the joints of the ankle, back, knee, knuckles, and neck. Such sounds are caused in joints for a variety of reasons. For example, the ankle has three different ankle joints, created by the conjunction of each of the talus (the ankle bone), and the tibia and the fibula (the bones of the lower leg). Through movement, if one of the three corresponding sets of ligaments that secure these ankle joints rubs the joint, the sound may occur. Another example is the back. The bony structure of the back is the spinal column, the arrangement of vertebrae and the ligaments known as facets. Slight misalignments that do not impair either the intravertebral disks or surrounding muscles can cause a cracking sound on movement. In the knees, movements such as suddenly rising from a seated to an upright position, or stretching the knee from a flexed to an extended position can produce this often prominent sound in the joint. Common causes of knee joint popping or cracking include a slight misalignment of the patella (knee cap), or the movement of the different ligament structures across the joint. When the ligaments move, it is often against the bones of the joint, which creates a slight stretching and then mild snapping back to their accustomed position. The knuckles are the metacarpophalangeal joints, which are often the site of joint noise that results when people deliberately pop or crack their knuckles. The act of pulling on the knuckle using the attached finger creates a gas bubble in the synovial fluid that surrounds the joint. By pulling on the knuckle, the joint is increased in size by approximately 15%. The popping sound occurs twice in this transaction, once as the finger is pulled to create the larger space in the fluid sac surrounding the knuckle, and again as the joint returns to its natural size and position. Repeated deliberate popping of these knuckle joints tends to cause an inflammation in the joint. And finally, the sounds made in the neck occur in a similar fashion to those in the back, by the action of the spinal column; the neck is supported by the cervical vertebrae. A common expression used to describe the sensation prior to the cracking sound or sensation is a ‘‘crick’’ in the neck. When the joint noise is accompanied by a painful sensation, the noise is usually a symptom of a joint injury or degenerative condition. When the noise from the knee occurs in conjunction with pain in the joint, the cartilage in the knee, known as the meniscus, is commonly torn or otherwise worn. Pain will also occur in the knee if a piece of cartilage has WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

broken away from its position and it is floating within the synovial fluid in the joint. When cartilage pieces float into the space between the bones of the joint, there will be pain. Ankle pain often has a similar cause. In most joints, pain that accompanies the sound of a pop or a crack is a symptom of arthritis. It is common for arthritic pain to manifest itself without any sound from the joint on movement. A popping sound is also a common contemporaneous event with a serious rupture of a ligament or a tendon. Such occurrences are usually painful, but not exclusively so. A popping sound is often experienced by athletes who sustain an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear, an Achilles tendon rupture, or a rupture of the hamstring. The pop is caused by the structure being torn completely in two. A pop in the knee joint may also occur when medical attention is being provided to a damaged knee. In some circumstances, the floating cartilage present in a damaged knee joint may cause the knee to become locked into position. In the course of the gentle maneuvering required to loosen the joint, the knee may generate a pronounced popping sound.

Back injuries; Bone, ligaments, tendons; Musculoskeletal injuries.

SEE ALSO

Arthur Jones 1924– AMERICAN DEVELOPER, EXERCISE EQUIPMENT

Arthur Jones was a pioneer in the design and development of variable-resistance exercise machines. His Nautilus brand of machines, patented and first introduced in the United States in 1970, set a standard for the fitness industry. Nautilus technology was first conceived by Jones as having significant benefits to the medical profession for use in the rehabilitation of injured persons. At the peak of Nautilus popularity, over 2,000 fitness clubs in the United States used the Nautilus name. Many professional sports teams used Nautilus equipment, the first being the Miami Dolphins football team in 1971. As with many inventions, the Nautilus name became a generic reference for any type of fixed exercise machine. At the heart of Jones theories regarding the utility of his machines for maximum muscular development over the use of traditional free weights, such as dumbbells and bench press exercises, were his views

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about how muscle development was best achieved. The Nautilus machines were designed to isolate the function of specific muscle groups during an exercise. It was Jones’s belief that by isolating the muscle function, the user would be forced to apply the best possible form in moving the target muscle. With proper form came the best possible extension and flexion of the muscles and joints being isolated. In conjunction with the emphasis on form, Jones developed a training system that became known by the acronym HIT, high intensity training. Jones believed that short, intense workouts provided a superior return to the athlete than what was then the standard weight training workout, one that was long and involved the lifting of a high volume of weights. Jones was an advocate of precision in the HIT training sessions. He specified 16 different Nautilus machine exercises, with one set of each exercise performed to failure (where the athlete could no longer perform the exercise), three times per week. Jones also advocated that the athlete spend no longer than 15 to 30 seconds between each exercise, so as to build in an aerobic component to the resistance workouts. Jones personally trained American bodybuilder Casey Viatu in the early 1970s; Jones claimed that Viatu gained 63 lb (29 kg) of lean muscle in a 28-day period using his methods on Nautilus equipment. Jones also trained Arnold Schwarzenegger, the noted bodybuilder, in 1973. Jones moved to the development of exercise machines directed to the rehabilitation of medical patients; in 1986, he created the MedX line of machines for use in rehabilitative medicine.

Free weights; Resistance exercise training; Weightlifting.

SEE ALSO

Michael Jordan 2/17/1963– AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL BASKETBALL PLAYER

Michael Jordan is universally regarded as one of the greatest basketball players in history. His brilliance at both ends of the floor sustained Jordan for an epic 19-year professional career. Jordan is also arguably the most famous cultural and marketing icon of the modern age, as his association with Nike shoes created a global identity for Jordan and Nike products that transcended his considerable athletic talents.

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Michael Jordan’s formative years and his early playing career suggested only potential athletic success, as opposed to certain greatness and international fame. Born in Brooklyn, New York, Jordan moved with his family to North Carolina at age 7. North Carolina is a region of the United States where basketball—particularly at the collegiate level—is a most celebrated sport. An early irony of the many that are associated with Jordan’s later brilliance on the basketball floor is the fact that he was cut from his varsity high school team when Jordan was in the tenth grade. Jordan went on to enjoy a successful high school career, but he was not widely recruited by the national college basketball powers in the United States, attracting only a handful of serious scholarship offers. Jordan did demonstrate sufficient potential with his high school play to attract the attention of the University of North Carolina’s legendary head coach, Dean Smith. Jordan ultimately accepted the North Carolina offer and he began his university playing career in 1981. Smith, whose career at North Carolina is regarded as one of the most successful in the history of college basketball, was a coach who did not generally feature the talents of individual players as was often the case at other college programs. Smith was a proponent of a balanced, disciplined, and patterned type of offensive basketball in which all players were expected to contribute, without necessarily achieving noteworthy individual statistical totals. Jordan’s national recognition as a great college player began when he sank the winning basket against Georgetown in the 1982 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) championship game. Jordan’s career at North Carolina climbed an upward path, culminating in his selection as the NCAA Player of the Year in 1984. The second irony of Jordan’s career is the fact that despite his renown in the world of college basketball, Jordan was not the first overall selection in the 1984 National Basketball Association (NBA) professional draft; he was selected third, by the Chicago Bulls. In the summer prior to the beginning of his NBA career, Jordan was a member of the American basketball team that captured the 1984 Olympic gold medal at Los Angeles. Jordan was an instant NBA success on an otherwise undistinguished Chicago team. The first of many honors accorded to Jordan in his NBA career was his recognition as the league’s outstanding rookie player in the 1984-1985 season. The commencement of Jordan’s NBA career was also the beginning of his association with Nike, the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JACQUELINE JOYNER-KERSEE

shoe and sporting apparel company. Nike had a significant global profile prior to their establishment of Jordan as their prime marketing spokesperson. When Jordan signed on with the Chicago Bulls, he began a marketing relationship with Nike that was to last throughout his career and beyond. The first stage in the marketing campaign was the release by Nike of a basketball shoe called the Air Jordan, a label that integrated Jordan’s renown as a leaper and as an emphatic dunker, with the performance characteristics and styling of the shoe itself. Nike devised a logo to coincide with the launch of the Air Jordan product, a silhouette of Jordan leaping towards to the basket to dunk the ball; this logo remains a part of Nike’s basketball shoe marketing campaigns today. Air Jordan shoes acquired a cachet among consumers that transcended basketball. The Air Jordan became to basketball footwear what Converse AllStars had represented to an earlier generation of players. People who had never seen an NBA game were now aware of Michael Jordan. As Jordan’s NBA career rocketed upwards, Nike released yearly versions of the Air Jordan, making it the most popular brand of modern basketball shoes, sparking a host of imitations from Nike’s rivals. Jordan’s overall brilliance on the floor was rarely contained by his opponents, and it was illustrated in a variety of ways. In 1986, he scored 63 points in a playoff game against the Boston Celtics, a league record. In 1988, he was named NBA Defensive Player of the Year, leading the NBA in a number of statistical categories. With the arrival in Chicago of forward Scottie Pippin and coach Phil Jackson, the Bulls became the dominant NBA franchise in the late 1980s and into the early 1990s. Jordan won a second gold medal at the Olympics in 1992, when he played with the United States Olympic team (known as the Dream Team in recognition of its assembly some of the greatest basketball players in the history of the NBA). By 1993, Jordan had led the NBA in scoring four times, and he been named the NBA’s Most Valuable Player three times. Jordan was now earning upwards of $30 million a year, not including the millions of dollars more that he earned endorsing commercial products, including Nike. The murder of Jordan’s father, James Jordan, during an apparent robbery attempt in 1993, prompted Jordan’s first retirement from the NBA. The period of his retirement was devoted to an attempt to secure a place as a major league baseball player; the attempt was ill-fated, as Jordan was unable to advance beyond the minor league baseball level. Jordan returned to the NBA with Chicago in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

1995, a season in which he again was again named the league’s Most Valuable Player. After further sustained brilliance, Jordan announced his second retirement in 1999. Among other honors, Jordan was named one of the top 50 players in the history of the NBA in 1996. Jordan’s career in Chicago had garnered Jordan fame as the greatest basketball player in the history of the sport. Jordan assumed a position as part owner and President of the Washington Wizards NBA franchise in 2000. In 2001, unable to resist the desire to play again, at age 38 Jordan sold his interest in the Wizards to permit his return to the league as a player with Washington. This last segment of Jordan’s career was his least memorable, and beset by injuries, Jordan retired for a final time in 2002. His personal achievements, including six NBA championships, ten scoring titles and a host of statistical records, are not matched by any other player. Jordan’s contemporaries attribute much of his playing success to his relentless competitive spirit and desire to win. A further irony of Jordan’s career is that the only demonstrable black clouds to ever present themselves over his achievements were the lingering issues that appeared to related to Jordan’s gambling habits. Numerous stories appeared in the international media concerning Jordan and his monies lost in wagers. In some media quarters, Jordan’s penchant for gambling was termed an addiction; the pressure on Jordan was sufficiently acute that he made an appearance on the nationally televised newsmagazine 60 Minutes to declare that while he had gambled in the past, he had never compromised his family’s security, nor had he ever made illegal or inappropriate wagers involving sports. Jordan stated that his particular gambling weakness was wagering on golf games.

Basketball; Basketball shoes; Basketball shot dynamics; Basketball: Slam dunk.

SEE ALSO

Jacqueline Joyner-Kersee 3/3/1962– AMERICAN OLYMPIC HEPTATHLETE

Jackie Joyner-Kersee was one of the most accomplished athletes ever to compete on behalf of the United States in the Olympic Games. Her early career triumphs in the long jump were the impetus to

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her sensational career as a heptathlete. JoynerKersee’s victory in the Olympic heptathlon in 1988 earned her both international acclaim and the title bestowed upon her by the international media, that of the world’s greatest female athlete. Joyner-Kersee grew up in the 1960s in difficult circumstances in East St. Louis, Illinois, then one of the poorest cities in the United States. Her brother, Al Joyner, would also become a highly successful athlete, winning an Olympic gold medal in the triple jump. Joyner-Kersee’s talent as a multi-dimensional track and field athlete carried her into the national athletic spotlight in 1976 when she was 14 years old. Joyner-Kersee won the first of four consecutive American junior pentathlon championships (a fiveevent, truncated version of the Olympic heptathlon). Joyner-Kersee was also a successful high school basketball; when she graduated from high school, Joyner-Kersee received an basketball athletic scholarship from the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA). Her athletic prowess was noticed by Bob Kersee, the track and field coach at UCLA. It was Kersee who suggested in 1980 that JoynerKersee devote her athletic training to the heptathlon. By 1982, under Kersee’s tutelage, Kersee had become sufficiently prolific at the seven heptathlon disciplines that she qualified for the 1982 world heptathlon championships. The heptathlon, the women’ athletic equivalent to the decathlon, is comprised of the 100-m hurdles, the 200 m and 800 m races, combined with the long jump, high jump, javelin, and shot put. Joyner-Kersee’s rise to international prominence in athletics accelerated in 1984, when she won an Olympic silver medal in the heptathlon. Joyner-Kersee established a world record in the long jump in 1985, with a jump of 23 ft 9 in (7 m). In 1986 she set a new world record in the heptathlon at the Goodwill Games in Moscow, accumulating a total of 7,148 points; each event has its own point scoring scheme that is totaled in a complex calculation. In recognition of her world record performances, JoynerKersee was awarded the 1986 Sullivan Award as the United States’ finest amateur athlete, as well as numerous other awards. In 1986, Joyner-Kersee married her long time coach Bob Kersee. Joyner-Kersee’s return to the Olympics in 1988 touched off a run of success that has never been rivaled by a female track and field athlete. At the 1988 Olympics, Joyner-Kersee won gold medals in the both the heptathlon and the long jump, extending her world record heptathlon points total to 7,291 points. The Games were noteworthy on a number of

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levels, most particularly the explosive steroid scandal precipitated by the positive drug test of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson. In this environment, the remarkable double Olympic gold medal achievement of Joyner-Kersee was not given the degree of media illumination it might otherwise have attracted. Joyner-Kersee was also the subject of media commentary at Seoul that had nothing to do with her athletic performance. Significant publicity had been directed towards the public rift between her husband and coach, Bob Kersee, and his former protege, American sprinter Florence Griffith-Joyner, who had married Joyner-Kersee’s brother, Al Joyner; Al Joyner became Griffith-Joyner’s coach. At age 30, a point in the careers of many track and field performers when they have an extremely difficult time in maintaining elite performance levels, Joyner-Kersee repeated her gold medal performance at Seoul in the heptathlon at the Barcelona Olympics in 1992. She also won a bronze medal in the long jump at those Games. With the Olympic scheduled for Atlanta in 1996, Joyner-Kersee expressed her intense desire to compete in another Olympics on American soil; Atlanta would represent a fourth consecutive Olympics, a remarkable achievement in the world of multi-sport competitions such as the heptathlon. No athlete in the men’s decathlon or the heptathlon had ever won a medal at 34, Joyner-Kersee’s age in 1996. At the Atlanta Olympics, Joyner-Kersee sustained a hamstring injury and she was forced to withdraw from the heptathlon. Joyner-Kersee was able to win a Olympic bronze medal in the long jump. As the string of Olympics success enjoyed by Joyner-Kersee appeared to have ended at the 1996 Olympics, Joyner-Kersee continued to compete in track and field events, but she began to direct her primary attention to charitable causes and projects. Two key initiatives made by Joyner-Kersee included the Nike company PLAY (Participate in the Lives of American Youth) program, the raising of funds for local youth activity centers in East St. Louis, and the establishment of a scholarship fund, the JoynerKersee Community Foundation. In 1998, Joyner-Kersee took what was a unique step for a track and field athlete by becoming a certified player agent with the National Football League Players Association. Joyner-Kersee created a sports management company in support of her work as a player agent to represent a number of athletes in a variety of sports. By the end of that year, JoynerKersee was the agent representing a number of NFL players. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JUDO

Joyner-Kersee continued to successfully compete at an international level. In 1998, Joyner-Kersee won a gold medal in the heptathlon in the Goodwill Games. After this victory, she announced that she was retiring from sports, but the powerful hold of competition was not finally shaken until the 2000 United States Olympic trials, where Joyner-Kersee unsuccessfully attempted to make her fifth straight national team. Joyner-Kersee continues with her various professional and charitable works following the 2000 Olympic trials. She established and maintaines a youth organization headquartered in East St. Louis, the Joyner-Kersee Boys and Girls Club. SEE ALSO

Long jump; Track and Field.

Judo Modern judo (formally known as kodokan judo) is the result of a synthesis of a number of medieval Japanese fighting systems made by Dr. Jigoro Kano (1860-1938) in 1882. Modern judo is closest in form to the older martial art of jujitsu. Judo, a Japanese term that translates as ‘‘the gentle way,’’ incorporates a complex series of throwing maneuvers, wrestling and grappling techniques, including pin moves, choke holds, and joint locking holds in the course of combat. Judo was first introduced into Olympic competition in 1964, and it has subsequently become accepted as a high level sport for both men and women. Judo has significant world wide appeal both as a recreational club activity, with participants who seek a measure of improved physical fitness and personal pleasure, as well as status as an elite level sport. Worldwide judo competitions are sanctioned through the International Judo Federation (IJF), an organization with national governing body members in most nations of the world. Judo is organized as a weight category competition, as larger athletes would possess a natural competitive advantage against smaller athletes, given the nature of judo and its physical requirements. Judo has a standardized ranking system for its participants, which may range from children under 10 years of age to persons in their 70s and beyond. Athletes are judged on their ability to execute various standard throws and holds; the athlete is awarded their judo ‘‘belt’’ with the color of the belt signifying their level of proficiency. Black belts are reserved for the masters of the sports, known as dans—a tenth level black belt is the highest level ever awarded in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Throughout the course of the contest, the judoka are scored in their movements by three judges, one of whom who is on the mat, the remaining judges are positioned on the edges of the competitive surface. ª DIM I TRI IU NDT/ CORB IS

judo. The award of a belt is not necessarily related to Olympic or international competitive achievement. Unlike other forms of martial sport, such as boxing or karate, success in judo is not bases on the ability of the competitor, referred to as a judoka to strike more quickly or to strike an opponent harder. Judo is a sport of coordination, where balance, strength, flexibility, and timing are employed create tactical advantages. In the period prior to 1900, judo formalized many of its movements and techniques. A result of this process was the definition of the proper judo throws in the Goyko No Waza, the standard syllabus of all judo. The syllabus is updated through consultation with the international judo community, with the last revision providing for the inclusion of a total of 67 different throws. Many throws involve the competitor using their hands, feet, and body in

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combination; a certain number of the throws are counter throws, where the defender converts the power of the attacking athlete’s movement into the energy in their own response. All judo participants wear an identical uniform, the judogi. The competitors wear no other clothing or footwear during the course of competition. The objective of competitive judo is to defeat the opponent in one of three ways—to successfully throw the opponent on to their back; to hold the opponent on their back for a period of 25 seconds; to disable the opponent by way of a choke hold or an armlock that prevent further opponent movement. Judo is the only Olympic sport where choking or the potential fracture of an opponent’s arm are legal techniques. Throughout the course of the contest, the judoka are scored in their movements by three judges, one of whom who is on the mat, the remaining judges are positioned on the edges of the competitive surface. The judges assess not only the raw numerical value of the score, but the quality or any impressive aspect of a single maneuver. Points are also scored through the award through penalty; points are not deducted from the offender’s score, but added to the opponent’s tally. As a general rule, a judoka may attempt to knock over the competitor by attacking their legs, by sweeping the feet of the opponent from under them, or by performing one of the many permitted throws. Much of judo success is built upon the ability of a competitor to execute the desired throw while establishing a low center of gravity through which to move dynamically across the mat. Many judo moves are also executed in mid-air, and the understanding by the judoka of the importance of maintaining a low center of gravity is essential in landing in a stable position. The brute strength that athletes often develop through weight training may assist in judo, but will never likely be determinative as to competitive success. Training exercises that emphasize balance and coordinated movement within which the athlete is able to move explosively are the foundation of judo success. As the body of a judoka may be twisted and contorted by the application of opponent force during an event, stretching to achieve maximum flexibility and range of joint motion are essential to prevent fluid movement and to assist in the prevention of injury.

SEE ALSO

Sumo.

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Boxing; Karate; Stretching and Flexibility;

Jump rope training Jumping or skipping rope is one of the simplest of all training programs. Jump rope routines are adaptable to almost any sport, because the act of jumping rope develops the universally beneficial combination of manual dexterity, hand-eye coordination, and stamina. The skipping rope may be seen by some as a children’s game, but it has wide-ranging applications to most athletic activities, particularly as a cross training exercise. Boxing is the sport most often associated with the use of the jump rope as a training aid. As a discipline where leg strength and explosiveness is essential to putting the body into the correct position to deliver a punch, boxers would often skip for lengthy periods both before and after their sparring sessions or other gym workouts. In recent years, skipping rope has been crafted into a more formalized part of the training of many athletes. Jumping rope has an appeal as an athletic training system for a number of physiological reasons. The act of repetitively swinging the rope in a circular motion around the body is a useful form of cardiovascular training, as the exercise will naturally elevate the heart and respiratory rates of the athlete. The athlete is required to use the muscular power of the arms and the more explosive muscles of the legs to maintain the rhythm of the skipping motion. The length of the skipping session also dictates what energy system of the body will be utilized—it is a simple matter to craft short, intense skipping training segments that are designed to work the anaerobic systems; if the athlete is required to skip for segments longer than two minutes at a time, the aerobic energy system will be stressed. A key aspect of skipping rope is the whole body coordination demanded to perform the skipping movements. The footwork and arm motions of skipping may be varied in both intensity as well as cadence. Coupled with other programs such as stretching or various forms of weight training, skipping rope can be the center piece of an intense conditioning program, as the energy required to skip is significant when calculated on a calories-expended-per-minute basis. While skipping rope at intense levels may have significant plyometrics effects on the muscles of the lower legs, skipping at a moderate pace is a useful form of rehabilitation for many injuries.

Cross training; Exercise, intermittent; Plyometrics.

SEE ALSO


JUVENILE OBESITY

Boxer jumping rope in the ring.

ª S HA WN F REDE RICK/ CORB I S

Juvenile obesity Obesity is generally defined as a physical condition in which the person possesses a harmful amount of excess body fat. Unlike the term ‘‘overweight,’’ which is often misused as a synonym for obesity, a person who is a few pounds over ideal weight will not be considered as obese; a harmful or a dangerous amount of excess body fat is of the quantity that impairs either normal physical movement, limits the ability of the person to partake in normal aspects of an active lifestyle, such as exercise, or otherwise presents a significant risk to bodily systems such as the cardiovascular, renal, or other systems. Juveniles are those persons under the age of 18 years; in assessments that take into account physical maturation, females are often considered adults physWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

iologically at age 16. A juvenile is one whose physical maturation is not yet complete. A juvenile is distinct from a child, whose sports science definition is a person under the age of 12 years. Teenagers is a familiar expression used to describe juvenile persons. There are a number of objective measures used to determine whether a particular person is obese. The first is the determination of the precise amount of fat carried on the body, referred to as the percentage body fat. Measuring the skin that can be pinched or folded at the abdomen and triceps will provide a reasonable estimate of body fat, because most body fat is stored in the adipose tissues located directly beneath the skin. Displacement tanks are also used to calculate how much mass is required to displace known amounts of water. It is generally held in the scientific community that 30% body fat is a hallmark

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juvenile obesity. Through North America and most areas of the Western and developed world, juvenile obesity rates have increased by as much as 300% since 1980. Genetics are a contributing, although secondary factor; research has determined that if young person has an obese parent, there exists an increased risk that the child will also become obese. The two greater contributing factors to the rise of juvenile obesity are increased food consumption, particularly carbohydrates and fats, coupled with significantly reduced levels of physical activity. The modern lifestyle of the teenager is significantly influenced by technology. Television, computers, and various hand-held devices form a significant portion of leisure activities. This cultural shift emphasizes the television screen, instant messaging, and the video game console as central to the life of many young people. While these pursuits do not exclude other, more physically active and energyconsuming activities, the rise in juvenile obesity has occurred in the context of a technologically focused youth culture. Juvenile obesity has four major health impacts, all of which tend to worsen in their effect into adulthood unless remedial measures are taken by way of diet and increased physical exercise. These major health impacts include type 2 diabetes, hypertension, osteoporosis, and depression.

Throughout North America and most of the Western and developed world, juvenile obesity rates have increased by as much as 300% since 1980. ª N AJLAH FE AN NY/ COR BIS

of obesity; a person may be unhealthy due to excess weight at lower body fat levels. One common measuring tool for obesity, the body mass index (BMI) is a calculation that correlates height and weight. The BMI is an unreliable obesity measure for juveniles who have not completed their musculoskeletal growth. The BMI does not distinguish between healthy large body mass, such as muscle, or body fat. Conversely, those juveniles, particularly females, who suffer from bulimia, the eating and purging disorder, may be very thin and yet possess a body fat percentage in excess of the 30% mark. The eating and exercise habits established when a person is young are most often the patterns carried through to adulthood, as are the significant health problems that are either caused or contributed to by

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Type 2 diabetes is the non-insulin dependent form of diabetes, It is a serious illness with potentially devastating impacts on the cardiovascular system, kidney function, vision, and the body’s ability to combat infection. Hypertension (high blood pressure) represents an inability of the arteries in the cardiovascular system to bear the normal pressures generated by heart action. In addition, skeletal bone formation occurs almost entirely within the first 20 years of life. Poor nutrition may hinder bone development if essential minerals are not sufficiently consumed in the juvenile years; physical inactivity in youth deprives the bones of healthy resistance forces that aid bone density. Osteoporosis will often manifest itself in the later adult years. In addition to all of these, these, the vicious circle of juvenile obesity creates a negative body image in the mind of the young person, which often leads to a depressive condition. The strategies to combat juvenile obesity are straightforward. The promotion of a diet that is more directed to whole foods, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables, with less emphasis on or availability of processed, high fat, and calorie-rich content is the first component. Diet modification must be coupled WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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with regular and increased physical activity. American culture is a particular example of the notion that sport must be organized for young persons to participate; all forms of energy-producing exercise are useful counters to juvenile obesity. Whole lifestyle, not


simply caloric intake or energy output, is the most effective measure.

Diet; Fitness; Nutrition; Youth sports performance.

SEE ALSO

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K Karate Karate is an ancient Oriental martial art, with millions of participants organized into clubs around the world. Karate, meaning ‘‘the empty hand,’’ is a fighting system that was influenced by both the practices of the Zen Buddhist religion as well as a variety of older Chinese forms of combat that were present in the Okinawa Island culture in the period after AD 1500. After Japan captured Okinawa from China in 1895, karate was exported to Japan, where it evolved through a variety of distinct forms of practice, or schools. The Shokotan form of karate, as popularized by Gichin Funakoshi (1868-1957), became the best known and the most influential form of karate in the world. The control by Japan of neighboring Korea from 1910 until the conclusion of the World War II in 1945 resulted in the introduction of karate into Korea, which had possessed a number of indigenous martial arts forms. The melding of Japanese karate with the Korean martial art of taekyon ultimately created the modern Olympic sport of taekwondo. Karate became a popular training and self defense technique in the United States and elsewhere in the Western world after 1945, through the exposure to the sport by American armed services personnel who had served in Japan or elsewhere in the Far East. The World Karate Federation (WKF) is the international governing body for all forms of competitive karate. Since 1990, there has been a significant international lobby at the International Olympic CommitWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

tee (IOC) seeking the inclusion of karate in the Summer Olympics, to join the presently included sports of judo and taekwondo. The supporters of the inclusion of karate have not been able to muster the 75% IOC support needed by IOC rule to establish a new Olympic sport. Karate prowess is recognized by way of performance standards illustrated by the belt worn by the participant. The color of the belt, signifying the ability of the athlete, is a concept derived from judo. Karate has been portrayed in western culture as a remarkably aggressive and violent discipline, particularly as it has been popularized by Hollywood filmmakers and the media. These variants of karate, sometimes referred to as full contact karate, place a significant emphasis upon the degree of injury inflicted upon the opponent as opposed to the technique employed in the delivery of the blows. Competitive karate is not as freewheeling and as individualistic as is portrayed in these settings. Karate, as envisaged by Funakoshi and his later disciplines, is a true self-defense art, meaning that the principles of karate are built upon a response by the practitioner to a first move or threat. Unlike judo, which is characterized by smooth, flowing movements that generate offensive opportunities in combat, karate is a highly structured system of arm strikes, thrusts, and kicks, all performed without the aid of protective equipment or weapons. Each offensive movement has a corresponding defensive response. Funakoshi established five rules for the training and conduct of karate. Each of these rules is at the foundation of much of the karate training that is

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Karate is a highly structured system of arm strikes, thrusts, and kicks—all performed without the aid of protective equipment or weapons. ª R OYA LTY- FREE /CO RBIS

engaged in through the world by elite level athletes and recreational participants alike. The first rule was: ‘‘Be deadly serious in training. Your opponent must always be present in your mind.’’ The second rule provided that ‘‘train with both heart and soul without worrying about theory; karate cannot be learned without theory alone.’’ The third rule provided that to be true to karate, the practicioner ‘‘must avoid deceit and dogmatism.’’ The fourth rule specified that one must ‘‘see yourself as you truly are; each of us as good qualities and bad.’’ The final Funakoshi rule stated that ‘‘the ultimate aim of karate lies not in victory or defeat, but in the perfection of the character of its participants.’’ These five rules underscore the relationship between mind, body and spirit that exists at the heart of karate in all of its forms. Karate competitions take place upon a flat mat, supervised by a referee who observes the contest from the mat, and referees stationed on the edge of the mat surface. The competitions are one of two types, kata and kumite.

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Kata is a stylized form of competition, where the athletes perform one of over 90 series of karate moves. The athletes are judged for their ability to execute the movements. Kata practitioners develop their abilities by using visualization techniques, in mock anticipation of an attack. Kumite is the sparring or combative form of karate The competition is divided into rounds, with points scored by each contestant at the discretion of the judges. As with judo, the form maintained by the fighter in attempting a particular maneuver is a component of the score awarded the fighter. Various types of physical contacts are prohibited and are subject to penalty, including blows delivered to the groin, or an attack initiated by the head, elbow, or knee of the fighter. Where a penalty score is assessed against a fighter, the penalty point is added to the total of the opponent.

SEE ALSO

Boxing; Judo; Sumo; Taekwondo. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BELA KAROLYI

Bela Karolyi 9/13/1942– AMERICAN GYMNASTICS COACH

Bela Karolyi and his innovative approaches to women’s gymnastics helped to transform the sport in the 1970s. One of the most famous coaches in the history of gymnastics, Karolyi commenced his elite level coaching career by guiding the Romanian women’s team, headed by Nadia Comenich in the mid1970s. Karolyi made a successful transition to the sporting culture of the United States where he trained notable American teams and individual gymnasts such as Marie Lou Retton. Karolyi’s enduring appeal as a coach and his drawing power have anchored a state of the art training facility that he heads in the United States. Karolyi’s coaching career was highlighted by success at a relatively young age. After obtaining a university degree, Karolyi became a full time gymnastics coach. By the time that he was 26 years old, Karolyi had established a national training facility for Romanian gymnasts. It was at this facility that Karolyi first introduced his own theories regarding gymnastics training, the most prominent of which was the introduction of sophisticated gymnastics routines to very young gymnasts. Karolyi was not the first gymnastics coach to specifically seek out small boned and slender young female gymnasts for international competition. In gymnastics disciplines such as the vault and the uneven bars, the fundamental principles of biomechanics and the specific forces at play in gymnastics confirm the likely greater opportunity such athletes possess to leap higher and more explosively. Karolyi became a strong proponent of the intense training required to take smaller and younger gymnastics further into the international arena. Karolyi believed that these athletes, with their small body masses and greater inherent ranges of motion in their joints, were better suited to the acrobatic flips and leaps, the dramatic form of gymnastics Karolyi believed would lead to international success for his athletes. In 1971, Karolyi was first introduced to both American culture and the current gymnastics training techniques used by American coaches through his participation in a tour by the Romanian national team of the United States. This tour, made during the height of the Cold War, would serve to create a permanent desire on the part of Karolyi to move the United States. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The 1976 Olympics in Montreal was the first international triumph for both Karolyi and his Romanian team. Karolyi’s prize student, 14-year-old Nadia Comaneci proved to be one of the great stories of the Games, winning a number of gold medals, in addition to scoring the first perfect mark in the history of Olympic gymnastics. Karolyi continued as the head coach of the Romanian team in the period leading up to the 1980 Moscow Games. A number of leading gymnastics nations, including the United States, boycotted the Olympics. Karolyi was distressed by what he perceived as significant inequities in the Olympic gymnastics judging, as he expressed complaints that the judges had improperly inflated the scores of certain competitors from other Eastern Bloc nations ahead of his favored Romanian athletes. Comenich had failed to win an expected Olympic gold medal. Karolyi tendered his resignation as the Romanian national team coach after the Games, an gesture that was rejected by the Romanian authorities. In 1981, Karolyi took advantage of a Romanian national team tour of the United States to renounce his Romanian citizenship, seeking political asylum from the American government. Karolyi would ultimately become an American citizen in 1990. Karolyi was quick to solidify his new position in the United States: by the fall of 1981, plans were in place for Karolyi to open a gymnasium in Houston. With $40,000 in backing from a small group of investors, Karolyi opened the Sundance Gym in Houston in the early months of 1982. He brought his first American team to a regional competition soon afterward, winning the Texas Class I title. Karolyi’s international reputation and newly acquired American training base soon lead to a number of coaching opportunities as the United States readied itself for the 1984 Los Angeles Games. The most prominent of the American gymnasts trained by Karolyi in his private coaching capacity at that time was 15-year-old Mary Lou Retton, who won two individual gold medal at the Games. Retton was the first American woman ever to achieve a perfect score in an event. In a sport where it was common for a coach to have assisted with only one member of a national team, Karolyi’s reputation and coaching influence was so profound that he regularly had three or four athletes at any given time selected to the United States national gymnastics team. Karolyi parlayed his student’s Olympic success into a remarkable private gymnastics training academy; at one point there were over 1,400 students associated with his Texas training facility. His return

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to Olympics coaching was anti-climactic, as the United States women’s team posted a disappointing finish in the 1992 Olympics. Karolyi regrouped to lead the American women into the 1996 Olympics at Atlanta, where the team secured a gold in the team competition, highlighted by the efforts of Kerri Strug, who was injured mid way through the event but continued to compete in spite of her injury. Gymnastics coaches have an often well deserved reputation for being demanding of their athletes. Gymnastics, with its profound emphasis on both repetitive movements and long training sessions, is a grueling sport. Karolyi was seen in some quarters of the gymnastics world to be an over bearing, dictatorial mentor. More unsettling were the allegations that Karolyi had reprimanded various gymnasts for being overweight; in a sport that is vulnerable to athletes becoming subject to eating disorders, such criticisms were the subject of great debate. Karolyi was inducted into the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame in the Lifetime Achievement category in 1997. There have been criticisms of his methods since his early successes with the Romanian team and the legendary Comenich. In the face of lingering controversy over his aggressive coaching style with such very young female athletes, Karolyi’s innovative contributions to the sport of women’s gymnastics endure into the twenty first century.

Gymnastics; Gymnastics injuries; Gymnastics landing forces; Sports Coaching.

SEE ALSO

Kayak

SEE

Canoe/Kayak

Gary Gordon Klein 6/9/1952– AMERICAN ENGINEER

In 1973, Gary Klein was a graduate student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). As an engineer and as a competitive road racer, Klein was interested in developing a bicycle frame that was stronger and more responsive than those currently available. Klein developed a prototypical oversized tube design aluminum frame as a part of an MIT independent study course, a design he took to limited production in 1975.

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The Klein frame was revolutionary; Klein may not have been the first person to theorize as to how aluminum could be employed as a material in frame construction, but he was the first to advance the concept of the oversized aluminum frame. Steel had been the material of choice for most cycle manufacturers as it is a stiff material, approximately three times as stiff as aluminum. Conventional wisdom in the early 1970s world of cycling manufacturing was that an aluminum bicycle, while lightweight, would lack the stiffness to perform. Aluminum bicycles were derided as spaghetti bikes, frames that lacked the stability required by a serious athlete. Klein theorized that if the tubes used to construct the frame were of a larger circumference, an aluminum frame would possess an even greater stiffness at a lighter weight than the conventional steel frames. Klein’s aluminum frames were approximately 15% lighter than the conventional models. Klein determined that a 1.5 in circumference aluminum tube (3.75 cm) was approximately five times stiffer than a 1-in (2.5 cm). Klein developed a proprietary welding process to compliment his frame designs, creating smooth, aerodynamic welds at each join in the frame. Klein ultimately patented 18 different designs and processes in relation to his aluminum frames. The modern Klein designs have maintained a cutting edge status among both mountain biking and road cyclists. The frames manufactured today are a variety of aluminum and carbon fiber composite constructions. Klein parlayed his frame development into the multi-faceted Klein Bike company, producing mountain bikes and road bicycles for the international market. As modern bicycle development moves further in direction of frames made from carbon fiber composites, it is likely that the Klein oversized aluminum frame will be given its proper recognition as an important historical step in the development of faster, lighter, and more responsive bicycles. SEE ALSO

Cycling.

Knee: Anatomy and physiology The knee joint is an intricate mechanism that functions as a hinge in the creation of all motion in the legs, as well as assisting in the provision of support by the legs to carry the mass of the upper body. The knee is also the primary support for the body when in a kneeling position. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

KNEE: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Damage to any part of the knee’s framework can result in surgery.

The bones that provide the framework to the knee are the femur (thigh bone), the tibia and fibula (the bones of the lower leg), and the patella (the kneecap), which is positioned over the approximate center of the joint. As the knee is constructed as a hinge, there is little movement in either the femur or the lower leg bones in the function of the knee. The patella is constructed so as to glide along the femur; the patella provides protection to the interior of the joint from forces directed to the front of the knee. Between the head of the femur and the heads of the tibia, the heads of all of the bones that meet at the knee joint are covered with a substance called articular cartilage, a slick, frictionreducing fiber that is present in almost all other joints in the body. There are two meniscuses, a type of cartilage that serves to both provide shock absorption to the joint as well to assist in the reduction of the friction that would otherwise occur when bones come into contact. As with most other joints in the body, there is a synovial capsule surrounding the joint, in which a viscous fluid, designed to aid in the lubrication and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª M. MO¨ LLE NB ER G/ ZEFA /COR BIS

general flexibility of the structure, is present. This lubricant is the synovial fluid. The meniscus can become injured both through a gradual wearing down of the fiber, as well as through a ligament tear. The articular cartilage can also become worn through the accumulated stresses of athletic activity; the expression ‘‘bone bruise’’ is an injury to this cartilage lining on the heads of these bones. The internal knee joint is contained within a network of ligaments, each which performs a specific stabilizing function. The tibial collateral ligament is connected to the two meniscuses present in the joint. The transverse ligament stretches from one side of the joint, below the head of the femur, to the opposite side. The patellar ligament connects the kneecap to the tibia. The fibular and tibial collateral ligaments assist in the stabilization of the joint through the connection with each of those lower leg bones to the femur. This ligament is often referred to as the patellar tendon; as it connects one bone to another, it is properly a ligament.

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The most prominent knee ligaments from a sports science perspective are the anterior cruciate, medial collateral, and posterior cruciate ligaments. It is these ligaments that are most frequently injured in the course of sports, particularly those activities involving physical contact to the knee. The anterior cruciate, known as the ACL, is responsible for a significant degree of the stabilization at the front of the joint. The ACL connects the tibia to the femur, hence its importance in providing stability to the joint overall. Damage to the ACL renders any type of lateral or explosive movement impossible. The medial collateral ligament (MCL) runs along the outside of the knee joint, and it is the ligament that will receive a direct application of force with any contact to the outside of the leg. The posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) stabilizes the rear of the knee joint. These ligaments are vulnerable to injury not only from a direct force applied to the knee, but also from the forces created by sudden twisting or explosive movements. The hinge effect of the knee joint is determined by its relationship to both the upper and lower leg structures. The knee is joined to both the gastrocnemius and soleus (calf muscles), as well as to the quadriceps and the hamstrings of the upper leg by tendons. It is these muscles working in concert that permit the virtual 180 extension of the knee. The hamstrings are of particular importance to the overall muscular balance of the knee joint; ACL injuries in particular will often arise when the hamstring structure is weak in proportion to the rest of the leg muscles. Optimal knee function is essential to the basic movements required in virtually every sport. Whether the athlete is standing, walking, kneeling or crouching, running, jumping, skiing, skating, or cycling, each of these movements is achieved through either the flexion or the extension of the knee joint.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Knee injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries.

SEE ALSO

Knee: Genetic and non-athletic conditions affecting performance For sports that require effective running, jumping, or propulsion of any form, the knee is one of the

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most scrutinized parts of the anatomy. There are a number of conditions, unrelated to the stresses of training or competition, that may affect knee joint performance. As a part of the living organism that is the human body, the growth and inherent structure of the knee is determined by the genetic makeup of every individual. Human genetics, as determined by the individual codes contained in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), occasionally create unusual conditions affecting the development of the knee and its surrounding structures. The knee is a joint with a unique construction. It is a hinge joint, and it is capable of only a very small range of rotation; it has a primary function in movement to flex (bend) and to straighten (extend). Created at the juncture of the femur (thigh bone) and the lower leg bones, the tibia and the fibula, and protected by a bony patella (kneecap), the knee joint is a complex construction of cartilage, tendons, and ligaments, all of which contribute to the stability of the structure during both movement and forces applied on contact. The cartilage of the knee, known as the meniscus, is positioned to provide both shock absorption and a reduction of friction in joint movement. The long patellar tendon runs from the joint to connect the lower leg. The quadriceps muscle of the thigh is also secured by tendons to the knee. The hamstring muscles at the rear of the thigh and the gastrocnemius (calf muscle) are the muscles connected to the knee that power its flexion. There are seven different knee ligaments, the strong, fibrous tissues that secure the bones of the joint; these tissues are essential to the stability of the joint. The best known of the knee ligaments, due to the frequency of injury in sports, are the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), the medial collateral ligament (MCL), and the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL). The PCL is designed to prevent the femur from moving forward onto the tibia during movement; the ACL is constructed to prevent the femur from moving backward. As a flexion and extension joint, the knee will not generally rotate on its axis. At times when the knee is bent, with the foot on the ground, there may be a degree of rotation in the femur as it acts in the knee joint. The tibia moves during a walking or running motion to permit an efficient foot strike. There are many genetic conditions that may impact the efficiency and the stability of the complex functions of the knee, with a number of rare genetic WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

KNEE: GENETIC AND NON-ATHLETIC CONDITIONS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE

bone and muscle diseases that affect all joints, including the knee, such as Marfan syndrome, a hereditary condition that alters both the elasticity of the tendons and ligaments of the body, as well as bone growth. Malfunctions of the pituitary gland and irregularities in the production of human growth hormone due to genetic reasons may cause abnormal joint growth. There are four common genetic circumstances that specifically impact the health and development of the knee joint. These circumstances include: Growth plate development: Growth plates are the portion of the longer bones of the body where the length and the thickness of the bone are governed. A debilitating condition that may occur throughout the body is known as osteochondeces, which is caused when the normal progression of bone growth in a young person from cartilage-like cells to bone is disrupted. In some circumstances, the growth plate grows more slowly than the surrounding ligament of tendons. Osgood Schlatter disease (OSD): OSD is a commonly occurring condition in adolescents. Similar in cause to growth plate injuries, OSD arises when the patellar tendon pulls on the surface of the tibia to which is connected, but due to the differing rates at which the structures grow, if the tibia grows at a pace greater than the connective tendon, an imbalance occurs and knee pain will often result. OSD often occurs after the young person has experienced a growth spurt; OSD will almost always resolve itself through the normal growth processes of the body. While it is operable, OSD can cause pain in young athletes sufficient to limit their participation in competitive sports until the growth of the respective structures is even. Structural imbalances: When the musculoskeletal structure is not in balance or proportion, the movements required in sport will often create uneven forces to be directed into the joints, particularly the knee. Common imbalances of this type are differing leg lengths or a corresponding misalignment of the hip joints and pelvis structure. As the athletes propel themselves forward, as in all running sports, or from landing after a jump, the forces generated will be distributed unevenly, which creates both a misalignment of the knee at the point where forces are directed into the joint, and an inability to properly absorb or redirect WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

the force. As all forces related to leg movement ultimately are directed through the knee joint, the consequences of imbalance are cumulative. This condition is most often genetic in origin; it will more often lead to wear and tear injuries as opposed to those occurring in a single incident. Structural predisposition: Female athletes have a structural predisposition to the serious knee injury known as a tear or rupture of the ACL. In some circumstances (most commonly when the ACL is damaged through a collision), the athlete will also experience a tear of the MCL. Numerous studies of this injury have determined that a female athlete may be five times as likely to sustain an ACL injury as a male athlete. This frequency results from the relationship of the knee in the female anatomy to the pelvis and the femur; the wider female pelvis, in proportion to femur length, causes a greater degree of force to be directed into the knee than typically occurs with males. Other non-athletic conditions that may contribute to the impairment of knee joint function in sport are also wide-ranging. The most common are prior, non-athletic injuries, inadequate diet and nutritional practices, substance abuse, and conditions of either overweight or obesity, both previous and current. Previous injuries unrelated to sport often create limitations for an athlete; these conditions may be unknown or not fully appreciated until the athlete undertakes training. Incidents such as a prior motor vehicle or industrial accidents may not have been treated in a comprehensive fashion at the time of the occurrence, leaving the true consequences, or sequelae, to be resolved, often incompletely, long after the fact. Growth plate fractures sustained by adolescents are an example; they are sometimes overlooked and dismissed as a childhood event; the fracture will often heal quickly, but improperly, creating a limitation of movement that is only discovered years later. The knee may have been the object of a prior partial ligament tear or prolonged bouts of tendonitis that become less manageable when training programs are undertaken; what is tolerable in ordinary daily living, such a small piece of cartilage floating in the joint, which causes occasional discomfort, may become impossible in a sport context where movements are made for maximum effect. Diet and its companion, nutrition, are factors external to the structure of the body, though their influence is exerted relatively evenly on every aspect of joint health and development. Healthy bone and

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The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is frequently injured in sports activities.

connective tissue growth and development require appropriate nutritional support; examples are ongoing supplies of minerals such as calcium, coupled with vitamins A and D, for the stimulation of strong, dense bones and teeth. Deficiencies in this supply to the body have a finite period within which they might be addressed; once a person reaches age 20, and sometimes sooner, the bones cannot be revisited in any biological fashion, and any weaknesses through poor dietary practices created during childhood and adolescence cannot be remedied. The ideal weight of any athlete is never a finite figure; such weight will occupy a healthy range, subject to age, build, muscularity, the sports pursued by the athlete, and similar factors. At the ideal weight, the knee joint will be subjected to forces that it is likely able to tolerate. The further the athlete is from the ideal weight, the greater the risk that of an injury to the knee, as the joint will be bearing weight for which it is not equipped or designed. As the body

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ª JOE G IZA/REUTERS/ CORBIS

stands, each knee bears approximately 50% of the weight of the body; as the body runs, the forces directed into each foot and up into each knee can approach three times the body weight of the athlete. Ten pounds (4.5 kg) of excess weight will translate into 30 lb (13.6 kg) of increased force with each stride; sports such as basketball generate similar forces on landing from a jump. An overweight athlete creates the dual risk of strain to the knee through wear and tear, as well as the creation of forces sufficient to tear or rupture a knee ligament. SEE ALSO

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Genetics; Knee

injuries.

Knee injuries A knee injury is any form of damage caused to either the bony aspects of the knee joint or its WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

KNEE INJURIES

accompanying ligament, tendon, or cartilage structures. There are an almost unlimited variety of ways in which the knee either absorbs the forces of movement, such as those occurring in any running or jumping activity, or in which it comes into sometimes violent collision with other objects. It is for this reason that the nature and the severity of knee injuries is wide ranging. The knee joint acts a hinge, flexing and extending in concert with the muscles of the upper and lower leg. The knee function is essential to the ability of the body to propel itself forward, backward, upward, or in a lateral direction. The knee is a rather small mechanism relative to both the mass of the body that it assists in support, as well as in proportion to the forces exerted on it in movement. The size of the joint, coupled with the very limited rotational movement permitted the joint, increase its natural vulnerability to injury. The skeletal components of the knee joint are the femur (thigh bone), the tibia and fibula (the bones of the lower leg that extend to the ankle), and the patella (kneecap), which is the protective cap positioned over the front of the joint. Two meniscuses, which is a cushioning cartilage, are positioned between the femur and the head of the tibia and fibula. The joint is effectively stabilized by a network of ligaments connecting the joint bones, of which the anterior cruciate (ACL), the medial collateral (MCL), and the posterior cruciate (PCL) are most subject to sports injury. The patellar tendon is a connective tissue situated below the kneecap. Knee injuries occur as a result of three distinct types of mechanisms: overuse injuries, which are often related to either structural imbalances or postural factors; twisting or explosive movements that do not involve any external contact; and contact to the knee joint that causes structural damage. In some cases where a twisting or explosive movement is coincidental with the delivery of a significant force to the knee, the outcome will often be a catastrophic knee injury. Overuse knee injuries occur most typically in sports involving intense repetitive motion. Distance runners are particularly vulnerable to such injuries, as the forces generated are often magnified in one knee or the other due to imbalances in the athlete’s leg length or pelvic and hip joint alignment, which results in an unequal distribution of forces. Over time, the knee cartilage can become worn and, as the knee loses some of its absorbent quality, running can produce pain. This condition is often addressed by the use of an orthotic, an insert in the running shoe that stabilizes gait. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Serena Williams (USA) celebrates after a victory in her first tournament after an eight-month lay-off from a knee injury. ª G REG OR Y S H AM US/ RE UTER S/ COR BIS

Another common knee injury that arises in basketball and similar sports in which the athlete seeks to be explosive in movement is an irritation of the patellar tendon. This form of tendonitis is known as ‘‘jumper’s knee.’’ The repeated extension and contraction of the tendon in the jumping motion can cause it irritation through contact with the adjacent bone. In an extreme case, where the tendon is weakened through tendonitis, it may spontaneously rupture as the athlete attempts to jump. Serious knee injuries will sometimes occur without the knee being subjected to the force of external contact. When an athlete is moving across an uneven surface, if a foot becomes lodged in a hole or depression, the knee may be violently twisted in a direction opposite to that in which the athlete was moving. These forces can cause a variety of injuries to the joint, ranging from a dislocation of the knee to a sprain or tear of one of the ligament structures. Similar injuries occur on playing surfaces where the athlete’s foot sticks without warning to the surface. The effect is similar to the foot becoming caught in an uneven surface, as the knee tends to be moving in a forward direction when the sticking mechanism twists it in an opposite manner. The earlier versions

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of the artificial surfaces used in football and baseball facilities in the United States were notorious for these serious non-contact injuries. This mechanism has also been the cause, although less frequently, of similar basketball knee injuries. The type of footwear worn by the athlete, particularly cleat length in field sports, is also a contributing factor to the degree of adhesion between the athlete and the surface. The most dramatic knee injuries arise when the knee joint is the subject of a direct blow. The severity of the injury is not solely determined by the amount of force delivered to the knee; the angle of the impact, the position of the knee at impact, and any prior injury to the joint, particularly the ligament structures, are important factors. As a general rule, a blow to the side of the knee places greater stress on the ligaments. A blow delivered to the kneecap from a head-on position can result in a number of consequences. The least serious of these is a hyperextension of the knee joint, where the joint is forced past the 180 line that represents the line of the leg when the knee is fully

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extended. A severe hyperextension may also cause ligament damage. A blow of this nature, if sufficiently forceful, may also separate the natural connection of the femur and the tibia and fibula structure, resulting in a dislocation. When the joint is dislocated, there is usually significant ligament damage as well; these events often require surgery. Depending on the nature of the blow, the patella may sustain a fracture, often a consequence of an unprotected fall onto a hard surface. A blow delivered laterally to the side of the knee as the foot is planted will often result in severe sprain or complete tear of the anterior cruciate and medial collateral ligaments. The knee has no power to absorb or redirect forces that are applied from that direction, which results in the ligament tear. A tear of this structure is a serious limitation on the structural integrity and the movement of the joint, and reconstructive surgery coupled with significant rehabilitation is invariably required if the athlete seeks to return to the particular sport.

Basketball injuries; Football injuries; Knee: Anatomy and physiology; Lower leg injuries.

SEE ALSO


L Lacrosse Lacrosse is a game that is entirely North American in its origins. The native peoples of the continent played the game known variously as baggataway, and the ‘‘little brother of war’’ for thousands of years prior to the arrival of European explorers in the mid1500s. For the native people, lacrosse was a game that was entirely preparatory for the battles of warfare. Lacrosse took its present name from the French missionaries. They gave the sport its name by virtue of the resemblance between the game’s distinctive hooked wooden stick and the crosier, or crosse, carried by church bishops. The native North American version of lacrosse was played over distances spanning village to village, with contests lasting for a number of days. The games were extremely violent and serious injury and death to the participants was a common occurrence. Modern lacrosse is not a deadly sport, but it does reflect a measure of the physicality and the athleticism required in the native game. Modern lacrosse has two distinct variants. The best-known version on a worldwide basis is field lacrosse, a game played by both men and women on a field the approximate size and dimensions of a soccer field. The men’s and women’s games have significant rule differences however. Each team has ten players on the field at any time. Each player also has a stick, with a netted pocket at the end with which to catch the lacrosse ball. The ball is constructed of hard Indian rubber, and the object of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

game is to throw the ball into the opposing goal. The goal is 6 ft2 (0.5 m2), and it is situated in a crease that is a 9-ft (0.8 m) radius around the goal. Each team plays with a goalkeeper, defensemen (sometimes known as ‘‘long sticks,’’ by virtue of their specialized sticks used to assist in keeping attackers from the goal), midfielders, and attack players. The defense and the attack must each remain on that half of the field, while the midfielders are permitted to roam the entire field. A shot fired by a lacrosse player may exceed 100 mph (160 km/h); the game is fast paced and the men’s game is a physical one. The players wear a protective helmet with a full face, shoulder pads that include a protective girdle, padded gloves, and cleats suited to the playing surface, which is either natural grass or an artificial surface. Players are allowed to use their shoulder to body check an opponent who is within 9 ft (2.74 m) of the ball. Players are permitted to use their sticks to check the stick of the ball carrier. The defense players are permitted to use their longer sticks to jab at an opponent. In the women’s version, any physical contact other than that incidental to the play is illegal; the stick check is the prime defensive tactic in the women’s game. The basic tactics of field lacrosse are similar to aspects of both basketball and soccer. The spacing of the players and the use of teammates to screen opposing defenders to create advantageous passing angles are important. Lacrosse is one of the quintessential team games, and it is rare for a single player to dominate. Noted field lacrosse players include Jim

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The United States is the preeminent nation in the relatively small world of international field lacrosse. The game is a popular sport at the collegiate level, particularly in the eastern U.S. ª P AUL A . SOUDE RS/CO RBIS

Brown, the legendary football star who was an AllAmerican collegiate lacrosse player while at Syracuse University in the late 1950s, and the twin brothers, Gary and Paul Gait, who dominated play in both collegiate lacrosse and a number of senior level and professional leagues for 20 years. The United States is the preeminent nation in the relatively small world of international field lacrosse. The game is a prominent sport at the collegiate level, particularly in the eastern United States, and there is a national championship convened by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) each year. The U.S. has dominated the international field lacrosse championships; other prominent nations are Canada, Australia, and Great Britain. The second lacrosse variant is box lacrosse, a game that evolved in Canada during the late 1800s. Using hockey rinks that were generally unused in the summer months, box lacrosse is played on a surface approximately 200 ft (60 m) long, by 85 ft (25 m) in width, six players per side—five runners and a goaltender. The same ball as that used in field lacrosse is

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employed in the box game; the players, with the exception of the goaltender, wear similar equipment as their field counterparts. The chief distinctions between the two games are the manner in which the opposing player can be hit, and the dimensions of the goal crease. The 6-ft (1.8 m), semicircular crease in box lacrosse permits the offensive players to get much closer to the goaltender, who wears full body equipment as a result of being exposed to very hard shots delivered at close range. The goaltender must possess significant hand-eye coordination and also make long passes from the crease to initiate offense by way of the fast break. Box lacrosse games are typically high scoring encounters. The significant tactical difference between box and field lacrosse is the ability of a defensive player to check the opposition player who possesses the ball with a cross check, delivered with two hands on the stick, anywhere between the opponent’s shoulders and waist, except for a blow to the back. Box lacrosse is a very physical game for this reason, but as all players are flat footed on the playing surface and in a relatively balanced position when the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

LACTIC ACID AND PERFORMANCE

Lactic acid and performance The role of lactic acid in athletic performance is one that is widely misunderstood. Lactic acid, or lactate, is a natural byproduct generated through the production of energy in the body, and is produced by the body at all times. The relationship of lactic acid to the ability of the body to perform must be assessed in two parts: the function of the lactate itself, and the adverse effects of the hydrogen ion produced in the reaction that creates lactic acid. Lactic acid is formed through the metabolism of the carbohydrate energy source glucose during the production of energy in the cell. The ultimate energy fuel is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is produced in the cell. Lactic acid in the cell will itself metabolize into ATP, a process by which energy can be produced without oxygen, known as the anaerobic lactic energy system. This is the energy production mechanism utilized by the body for athletic events that are generally less than 90 seconds in duration. The method by which lactic acid is broken down to produce ATP is much quicker than the aerobic processes, those that require oxygen to be delivered by way of the cardiovascular system.

North American Indians played baggataway, now known as lacrosse. ª B ETT MA NN /COR BI S

check is delivered, the forces of the check do not often tend to result in serious injury to the recipient player, when contrasted with other contact sports such as ice hockey or football. Long the virtually exclusive domain of Canada, box lacrosse is now played professionally in the National Lacrosse League with 12 teams based in various American and Canadian cities. The professional players come from both the field and the box lacrosse traditions. The World Indoor Lacrosse championship, with teams from eight countries was first contested in 2003.

Ice hockey; International federations; National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).

SEE ALSO


The acidic aspect of lactate is due to the presence of a hydrogen ion in the lactate molecule. The ion is the portion of an atom that creates an electric charge. This ion is itself a byproduct of the production of lactic acid, and the ion is the cause of the muscle problems frequently associated with lactic acid presence in the muscles. Lactic acid will begin to accumulate in the muscles when the athlete begins to operate above the anaerobic threshold, which is generally accepted as representing 80–90% of the maximum heart rate of the athlete. This ion will eventually make the blood sufficiently acidic that the breakdown of the energy source glucose is slowed, another negative impact on athletic performance. In these circumstances, athletes will often complain of a burning sensation in their working muscles, a condition that is sometimes accompanied by difficulties with muscle coordination or movement. These symptoms may persist after a high intensity event for as long as 48 hours. These physical consequences are attributable to the hydrogen ion and not the lactic acid itself. For this reason, lactic acid is mistakenly regarded as a waste product. In addition to its initial role in ATP conversion, lactic acid will continue to recycle as a source of ATP. It does not remain pooled or stored in the muscles as waste, for as long as the muscles create

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emands for energy, lactic acid will be converted into ATP. The greater the demands for energy, to the point where the body cannot rely on stored fatty acids as a fuel source, the more readily carbohydrates will be converted, meaning the greater the amount of lactic acid available for conversion. Lactic acid is not necessarily used at the muscle location in the body where it was first generated; lactic acid can be transported through the bloodstream to a destination within the body where it is needed for ATP production. Depending on the body’s needs at a particular time, lactic acid is also capable of being converted into glycogen, the storage form of glucose, in the same fashion that blood glucose is stored, to be maintained in the liver and released into the bloodstream when required. In endurance races such as cross-country skiing, marathon runs, or long distance cycling, the phenomenon referred to as ‘‘second wind’’ is a result of lactic acid effect. In the early portions of such activities, the body will obtain most of its energy from carbohydrate sources. This in turn causes the production of large amounts of lactic acid; in the latter stages of the endurance event, the lactic acid becomes an important fuel source. Certain organs of the body have a preference for lactic acid as a fuel source during endurance events, with the same bias that the brain and the central nervous system rely on carbohydrate sources for their energy needs. These organs and tissues include the heart, slow-twitch muscle fibers, and the muscle associated with breathing, the diaphragm. Lactate is used in some sport and energy drinks due to its quality as a fast-acting fuel source. The lactic acid serves as a glycogen replacement source in the recovery phase from an endurance event. The recovery from intense exercise is also enhanced through the implementation of high intensity interval training, which serves to increase the speed with which lactic acid is recycled in the bloodstream. Interval programs will also assist the body in the speed with which the hydrogen ion associated with muscle dysfunction is flushed from the system.

Cardiovascular system; Cramps; Endurance exercise; Exercise recovery; Muscle cramps.

SEE ALSO

Paul Christian Lauterbur 5/6/1929– AMERICAN PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY

Paul Lauterbur, along with Peter Mansfield of England, is credited with the development of one of

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the most important diagnostic tool in the history of medicine–the magnetic resonance imaging machine, the MRI. The MRI provides the results of the examination by way of an image that may be immediately reviewed by a physician. The MRI is used to provide images of all internal human organs in a highly precise and non-invasive fashion. MRI examinations present no known side effects to the subject. Magnetic resonance (MR) technologies relied on advances in physics during the 1950s. First used in clinical trials in 1980, by the mid-1980s MR imaging was an accepted and widely used diagnostic technique. MRI scanners rely on the principles of atomic nuclear-spin resonance. Using strong magnetic fields and radio waves, MRI collect and correlate deflections caused by atoms into images of amazing detail. The resolution of MRI scanner is so high that they can be used to observe the individual plaques in multiple sclerosis. The human body has a water content that constitutes approximately 66% of the body’s total weight. Hydrogen atoms are therefore plentiful within the body due to their presence in water molecules. Lauterbur determined that the manner in which hydrogen atom nuclei oscillated (moved between two different points) in the presence of a strong magnetic field could be measured in a fashion that the resulting data could be reproduced as an image. The image depicts the differences in both water content in the region of the body being examined, as well as the movement in the water molecules. The water movement as reflected in the image generated by an MRI scan assists physicians in detecting pathological changes (structural or functional changes due to illness or injury) in the structure of the body. MRI technology has proven to be of particular benefit in the analysis of many forms of cancer and brain and spinal cord injury. The MRI has also proven to be of particular benefit to injured athletes. MRI examinations are often the preferred diagnostic tool in the assessment of overuse and repetitive strain injuries, such as stress fractures frequently sustained in the lower legs of runners. Many professional sports teams and university sport programs either have their own MRI technology or the programs have immediate access to MRI testing. Injuries to joints such as the knee had previously required various forms of exploratory surgery to assess the extent of damage caused to the athlete. The MRI provides team personnel with a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ROBERT STEVEN LEDLEY

relatively definitive answer in a short period time regarding the nature and the extent of an injury. Teams can now make appropriate personnel decisions, such as promoting a player to take the injured player’s place on the roster with much greater speed and certainty.

Musculoskeletal injuries; Sports Injuries; Sports Medical Conditions.

SEE ALSO

J. Noxon Leavitt 1938– CANADIAN ENGINEER

Noxon Leavitt began his career developing camera systems for Westinghouse that primarily were employed for either military surveillance or security purposes. In 1974, Leavitt left Westinghouse to found Istec Ltd., a company that would later become WESCAM, a world leader in a number of different camera technologies and applications, including the film industry and sports. Leavitt won a number of Emmy awards in the television industry for his technological advances in camera function, as well as an Academy Award in 1989 for his continued work in the development of new camera technologies. The WESCAM system was designed to be mobile and remote controlled. It is a system that combines sophisticated camera technology, shock absorption in the mounting of the camera to cushion any vibration received from the vehicle transporting the camera, and a gyroscope based stabilizer to orient the camera to the intended target as the vehicle moves. Housed within a large ball, the WESCAM could be mounted to a helicopter, boat, or any moving object. The WESCAM technology has been utilized at a number of high profile sporting events since it was unveiled in the early 1980s. WESCAM was the first camera to be used mounted in a helicopter at a football game at the Fiesta Bowl in 1983. In 1996 at the Olympic Games, the WESCAM was mounted to a track positioned next to the running surface, in order that athletes could be filmed from moving camera that was operated by remote control. At the 2001 X Games, the extreme sports championships sponsored by the sports television network ESPN, a WESCAM system was built into an athlete’s helmet to capture the movement of the competitors racing in the downhill BMX competition. In 2002, ESPN contracted for the use of WESCAM technology at series of golf WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

tournaments and drag racing events telecast by the network. On-board cameras, connected to a base station by wireless transmitters, have brought an immediacy to the coverage of motor sports that was not previously possible through the use of conventional camera coverage. Similar applications of the WESCAM systems have been employed in the coverage of the America’s Cup yacht races. The most recent application of these mobile camera systems is marketed as the Stealth camera; these cameras are designed to pass over a sports venue to provide noiseless aerial video. Sports such as golf, with its requirement of quiet over the course, and football, a game played over a large area, are suited to this application. SEE ALSO

Golf; NASCAR Auto Racing.

Robert Steven Ledley 6/28/1926– AMERICAN PROFESSOR, PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOPHYSICS

Robert Ledley was the inventor of the first full body computer axial tomography (also called CT, computed axial tomography or CAT scans). The CAT scan is a imaging device that uses conventional x-rays to create an image of the entire body of the subject. The scan is produced in three dimensions, as the x-rays are taken through rotation around the body at varying angles in cross sections. Prior to the technology developed by Ledley, CAT scans were restricted to the subject’s head, and precautions had to be taken through the use of water as an insulator to protect the subject from over exposure to x-rays. Ledley developed x-ray detectors and he redesigned the methods by which x-rays were emitted in the course of perfecting his CAT scanner. During the early 1970s, enhanced digital capabilities spurred the development of computed tomography (derived from the Greek tomos meaning slice) imaging, invented by English physician Godfrey Hounsfield. CT scans use advanced computer-based mathematical algorithms to combine different reading or views of a patient into a coherent picture usable for diagnosis. Hounsfield’s innovative use of high energy electromagnetic beams, a sensitive detector mounted on a rotating frame, and digital computing to create detailed images earned him the Nobel prize. As with x-rays, CT scan technology progressed to allow the use of less energetic beams and

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vastly decreased exposure times. CT scans increased the scope and safety of imaging procedures that allowed physicians to view the arrangement and functioning of the body’s internal structures on a small scale. The impact of CAT scan technology upon sports medicine has been profound. CAT scans are a useful diagnostic tool in the detection of blood clots that often arise as a result from blows to the head of athletes in contact sports. CAT scans are regarded as being a better method than either conventional x-rays or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with which to determine such deformities and injuries within the body as the extent and definition of fracture lines on bony structures, small calcified objects within the joints, and loose bodies such as cartilage that has become dislodged within the joint. CAT scans are also useful in the assessment of bone erosion (often due to structural deformities within the joint), and general losses of bone mineral and bone density. CAT scans are also commonly employed to assess structural problems such as those that occur in the patellar tendon and femur that underlie the condition known as Osgood-Schlatter disease (OSD), a condition that arises due to unequal rate of growth between the patellar tendon and the femur in adolescents. Like the MRI, the CAT scan has the advantages of speed and relative certainty when used to assess athletic injuries. Decisions regarding the treatment and management of the athlete can be made with greater speed. In a professional sports context, the quicker a definitive decision can be made regarding an athletic injury, the better a decision the team may make concerning a replacement to the team roster.

1984 to 1986. It was this background that provided Lennon with a solid grounding in the related concepts of aerodynamics that he applied to his aero bar design. Lennon was not the first designer of bicycle handle bars that extended outwards along the length of the frame over the front wheel. Lennon was the first to build a bar that was aimed at achieving a narrower and more aerodynamic profile for the rider. The Lennon bars were constructed to achieve a number of subtle differences in body position from conventional handlebars. The bars generally permitted a measure of rest on the part of the rider in the stress otherwise directed into the rider’s back, as a significant part of the rider’s body weight rested on the aero bars. The position of the bars also encouraged a low head and a horizontal torso, two features that reduced drag. The position of the elbow pads on the aero bars brought the rider’s body into a narrower profile. Lennon patented his aero bar design in 1987. By way of a licensing agreement, the bars were built by Scott, a leading triathlon bicycle company. In 1989, Greg Lemond, the first American to win the Tour de France cycling race, used the aero bars designed by Lennon on the time trial bicycle that was instrumental to Lemond’s victory that year. Aero bars are now a mainstay in the world of triathlons. The Lennon design has been modified by the addition of gear shifting at the end of the bars within easy reach of the rider. This development permitted the rider to maintain their best aerodynamic position while changing gears. Lennon’s creativity was further evidenced in the development of a specialized snowboard teaching program that he created in 1991. Lennon again applied his knowledge of downhill ski training and aerodynamics to develop these teaching tools.

Bone, ligaments, and tendons; Musculoskeletal injuries; Sports Medical Conditions; Sports Medicine Education.

SEE ALSO

Boone Lennon

Lisa Deshaun Leslie

1950– AMERICAN INVENTOR

7/7/1972– AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL BASKETBALL PLAYER

Boone Lennon is an inventor whose single creation, the sleek specialized handlebars used by triathletes known as aero bars, revolutionized the riding techniques used in the sport.

Lisa Leslie was a groundbreaking women’s professional basketball player. The first woman to dunk a basketball in a regulation game, it is Leslie’ considerable range of skills at both the offensive and the defensive end of the floor that have made her one of the finest female players in the history of the game.

SEE ALSO

Prior to developing the aero bar, Lennon had coached the United States Alpine Ski Team from

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Cycling; Ironman competitions; Triathlon.


LISA DESHAUN LESLIE

Lisa Leslie was born in Inglewood, California, a suburb of the basketball hotbed of Los Angeles. Leslie was 6 ft (1.8 m) tall by the time she had reached the seventh grade, and she was projected to become a basketball star from a young age. Leslie grew to a height of 6 ft 5 in (1.96 m) by the end of her high school career. Unlike many female players who are remarkably tall, Leslie possessed remarkable balance and coordination. She was lean and powerful, physically strong enough to defend players who outweighed her by 30 or 40 lb (14–18 kg) Leslie demonstrated the quickness and over all court sense of a smaller and quicker player. A high school All-American selection, Leslie was a hotly recruited university prospect when she graduated from high school in 1989, ultimately accepting a basketball scholarship to the University of Southern California (USC) Trojans. Prior to the beginning of her university playing career in 1989, Leslie was a member of the United States world champion Junior women’s team. Leslie was an instant success at USC. She was named the nation’s freshman basketball player of the year in 1990, as she was instrumental in the strong season enjoyed for the Trojans. The following year, Leslie was selected to her next national team; as a member of the United States University Games squad, Leslie won a gold medal in 1991. Leslie had now established herself as a dominant collegiate basketball force, as she won two Naismith Awards during her career at USC—the award given to the nation’s outstanding female player. At the conclusion of her four-year USC career, Leslie was named to the Goodwill Games team that won the gold medal in that competition in 1994. As was the case for many talented American female college players in the early 1990s, the end of Leslie’s collegiate career posed a difficult question. As there was no women’s professional league then in existence, Leslie’s playing options were restricted to a handful of foreign leagues, most established of which were based in Japan and Italy. In the autumn of 1994, Leslie left the United States to play in the vibrant Italian league with the established club, Sicilgesso. Leslie was an instant star in Italy, averaging over 22 points and 11 rebounds per game against players who were primarily the best of Europe and the United States. In 1996, Leslie played a key role in the gold medal victory by the United States in the Olympic basketball competition hosted at the Atlanta Games. In the semi-finals, Leslie set a single-game scoring record with a 35-point outpouring against Japan. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

With the formation of the Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) in 1997, Leslie returned to the United States to join the Los Angeles Sparks. Leslie wasted no time in asserting herself in the WNBA as one of its most dominant players. Her height, athletic ability, shot blocking ability, and shooting range gave the Sparks a multi-faceted weapon. In addition to leading the Sparks to a WNBA title in 2001, Leslie has set numerous individual records, including most rebounds in a single game and a variety of scoring records. Leslie was named both the league and playoff Most Valuable Player in 2001, and she established the mark as the all time leading scorer in WNBA league play. There was significant media attention paid to the slam dunk executed by Leslie in a WNBA game in 2002. The media coverage of Leslie’s dunk was consistent with other examples of how the media regarded women’s basketball, as this dunk was portrayed as an example of how Leslie was able to do something in a game that was regularly done by men. The coverage of the dunk, an isolated incident in Leslie’s career, tended to overshadow Leslie’s consummate basketball skills, ones that were far more important to her team’s success than the ability to dunk the ball. Leslie’s prowess as a rebounder and her ability to change the complexion of a game with her quickness and shot blocking ability became subordinate in some circles to a single emphatic shot. Another noteworthy aspect of Leslie’s performance over the years is the fact that she has enjoyed a relatively injury-free career, in both the college and professional ranks. Her physical durability has been a significant contributing factor to her success. Leslie has pursued a number of activities away from the basketball court. Prior to the 1996 Olympics, Leslie signed a contract with the prestigious Wilhelmina Models agency; she has been featured in Vogue magazine and she has endorsed a number of products in television commercials. Leslie is one of the few WNBA players with a sufficient public profile to secure a commercial endorsement contract. Leslie has also made a number of guest appearances in a variety of American television situation comedies. Leslie has also proved to be a rarity among professional athletes in her continued educational pursuits in the course of her playing career. She received her undergraduate degree in Communications from USC, and at various times during the basketball offseason since 1994, Leslie has taken further courses to obtain her Masters of Business Administration. Leslie has also been active as a national spokesperson for breast cancer awareness and prevention.

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In some basketball circles, describing a female player as playing like a man is regarded as vaguely sexist and demeaning of the female athlete’s true abilities. In the case of Lisa Leslie, such comparisons in playing style are warranted. Leslie’s athleticism and approach to the game has been favorably compared to one of the great centers basketball history, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. Lisa Leslie has not revolutionized women’s basketball so much as she enhanced it with her grace and undeniable star quality. She has provided an incalculable measure of credibility to the WNBA through the first ten years of its existence.

Basketball; Basketball: Slam dunk; National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).

SEE ALSO

skier to carve into a downhill turn, using a combination of the metal edges skis and a low body position to forcefully cut through the snow for a faster, more aggressive turn. Prior to the advent of the metal edge, skiers tended to turn on top of the surface of the snow. Skiers could also go faster downhill in a forward position as the metal edges permitted the skier to assume a more aggressive forward position on the skis. For these reasons the metal edge permitted a more dynamic style of skiing that was soon adopted by racers in all Alpine disciplines. It is unknown as to whether Lettner obtained any commercial advantage from his patent. SEE ALSO

Skiing, Alpine; Sport Performance.

Ligaments

SEE

Bone, ligaments, tendons

Rudolph Lettner 1898–1975 AUSTRIAN INVENTOR

In the late 1920s, Rudolph Lettner was a recreational skier who enjoyed the slopes of the Austrian Alps near his home in Salzburg. Like many skiers of that time, Lettner sustained considerable wear on the edges of his wooden skis due to the abrasion of ice and snow against the ski surface. Lettner, a metal worker by trade, sought to create a solution to the damage caused to his ski edges that would ensure that the skis lasted longer. Lettner fashioned a steel edge that was intended for use on all Alpine skis; Lettner patented his design in 1930. Lettner’s original metal edges were not built-in as part of the ski manufacturing process; the Lettner metal edge was screwed into the framework of the finished ski. While the edges achieved the preservation of the ski surface that Lettner sought, the edges were very sharp and many skiers were fearful of being slashed by the edges through normal usage. Lettner also found that in many types of weather and snow conditions, snow would freeze to the metal edges, impairing the performance of the ski. This problem was also encountered by ski developer Howard Head in his testing of the famous all metal skis that he designed in 1949; the adherence of snow to the steel was ultimately solved through the lamination of the ski surface. The most enduring legacy of the Lettner metal edges was not the preservation of the wooden ski, but the development of an entirely new ski technique. Lettner discovered that the metal edges permitted a

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Liver function The liver is the largest organ in the human body and one that performs a multitude of important functions, both alone and in concert with other organs. The typical weight of a healthy liver will range from 2 lb to 4 lb (1 kg to 2 kg). The liver is situated in the upper portion of the abdominal cavity, below the diaphragm, and it forms a part of the biliary system of the body, which is the network that includes a series of ducts, the gall bladder, the bile duct, and the liver. The kidneys are positioned next to the liver. The liver is surrounded by a dense network of connective tissues and blood vessels; the liver is brought into contact with a large amount of the blood present in the cardiovascular system at any time. The liver contains at any given moment over 10%s entire blood supply (approximately 15 oz, or 0.5 l). The functions of the liver are constant and essential; the liver operates on an involuntary basis, directed by the central control of the body as exercised through the hypothalamus, in combination with the automatic nature of most liver processes. It is for this reason that liver failure or a serious impairment of the liver function is a catastrophic event for the body. The liver plays an important role in the metabolism of carbohydrates in a number of different ways. The liver acts as a processor in the formation of glucose from a number of different sources. When triglycerides are released to create energy from their WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

LONG JUMP

storage in the special fat cells, adipose tissue, the triglycerides are broken into two parts: fatty acids, which are applied to energy manufacture, and glycerol, the alcohol sugar. The liver scavenges the glycerol from this process and converts it to glucose. The liver also converts lactate, or lactic acid, that is produced as a byproduct of the generation of energy. Lactate is also converted into glucose. The glucose converted by the liver is either distributed into the cardiovascular system for energy production, or it is stored in the liver in the form of glycogen. The liver will store other glucose ingested into the body than that which it converts from lactate or glycerol; the liver can store glucose representing as much as 10% of its organ weight for indefinite periods. The liver contains the largest store of glycogen next to that of the skeletal muscles. The liver and its central role in the production of energy is also evident in its conversion of fats ingested through food products into the triglycerides necessary for storage. The liver is also a permanent reservoir of several important substances, including vitamin B12, iron, and copper. The fetal blood supply is almost entirely centered on the liver until very late in the gestation period. The liver produces almost all of the red blood cells required by the fetus, until the bone marrow is fully developed. As the organ through which all of the blood of the gastrointestinal tract will pass, the liver carries out a crucial purification and detoxification role for the entire body. Because the liver is a passageway for a significant quantity of blood, it is an organ that is consequently exposed to an inordinate number of the body’s diseases. The liver is a common secondary site for the transference and development of various cancers, a process known as metastasis. The liver produces the bile that is ultimately passed into the small intestine, where the bile assists in the digestive process by carrying away waste products. When the bile does not properly enter the digestive system, it will cause the blood supply to become tainted with its yellow coloring, a condition known as jaundice. In addition to jaundice, which is usually a treatable condition, the liver is susceptible to the onset of a number of serious diseases. The most common liver ailment is one of the three types of hepatitis, an inflammation of the organ. Hepatitis is both communicable, and at its most destructive, hepatitis is a fatal condition. Cirrhosis of the liver is a type of cellular destruction of the organ caused by repeated exposure WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

to large amounts of toxin; the most common agent of liver cirrhosis is excessive consumption of alcohol. Given the importance of the liver to both glucose processing and the general maintenance of good health, liver problems will significantly impact on the ability of an athlete to perform at the highest level. The liver is well insulated within the abdominal structure so that physical damage to the liver by way of a trauma is very rare. SEE ALSO

Cardiovascular system; Fat intake.

Liver glycogen SEE Carbohydrate stores: Muscle glycogen, liver glycogen, and glucose

Location forms

SEE

Athlete Location

Form

Long jump The long jump is one of the traditional Olympic events, having been included in a varied form in the ancient Greek Games. It was a part of the Olympic revival in 1896. The long jump is a classic field event, in that it is conceptually very simple, yet a very difficult discipline to master. The long jump has four distinct components—the approach, the takeoff, the jump, and the landing. The athlete begins the approach by running at a very high speed toward the board that marks the take off point for the jump. As with sports such as the pole vault, the amount of speed that the athlete can develop in the approach translates (if the proper technique is applied) into distance achieved in the jump. Many 100-m sprinters, such as Americans Carl Lewis and Marion Jones, have also been adept long jumpers for this reason. The take off is a difficult coordination of foot position, coordination and the maintenance of speed from the approach. If any part of the jumper’s foot extends beyond the board, the jump is ruled a fault, and the jumper must repeat the jump (a jumper is permitted a limited number of attempts, and a fault is counted as an attempt). The object of the jumper is to execute a take off that creates an optimal angle blending forward speed and vertical jump. The accepted optimal angle of the jumper’s body to the

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Longevity Longevity is a concept that is frequently considered in a number of sports contexts. In its strictest sense, longevity refers to a long biological life. In the usual athletic expressions, longevity is an aspect in the assessment of an athletic career, where a durable competitor demonstrates an ability to play a sport or to take part in an athletic activity over an extended period of time. Longevity often engages a number of related concepts; it is a state that is often best understood when it is contrasted with other sports science descriptions. Health is a broad expression of the physical state that usually is a precondition for longevity to exist. Longevity in the pursuit of a sport will include good health as a long-term proposition. Fitness also is a physical state with wide-ranging implications for an athlete, as the maintenance of optimal physical condition, for either the support of healthy living practices or to achieve a competitive edge is also a long-term project. By contrast, poor fitness and athletic longevity are incompatible.

Marion Jones landing in the pit after long jump.

ª DUO MO/COR BIS

ground (using the completely upright position as 90 ), is between 18 and 25 As the jumper moves through the air, the arms will be brought forward and then rotated backwards, to provide the jumper with both stability and a powerful approach to landing. The jumper endeavors on landing to move forward on impact, to create a mark in the landing area that is made with the jumper’s feet and not their buttocks or their hands; the mark made by the jumper on landing closest to the take off board is the mark used to measure the distance on the jump. The Olympic long jump competition in 1968 provided one of the most stunning results in the history of sport. American Bob Beamon broke the then world record by 21.75 in (0.55 m), an astounding increase over the previous standard, when he jumped 29 ft 2.5 in (8.9 m). The enormity of Beamon’s achievement is best reflected in the fact that as of May 2006, the Beamon record from 1968 remains the second longest jump in history. SEE ALSO

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Decathlon; Track and Field; Vertical Jump.

Life expectancy is defined by a scientific calculation of the anticipated length of an individual life, based on a range of empirical factors, including genetic background, environmental factors, exposure to disease, and nutrition. Life expectancy implies a sense of certainty that a certain age will be achieved by an individual; longevity is an achievement of a longer than statistically probable life expectancy. Athletic careers can be assessed by the same standard; in American football, where the average career is slightly greater than three years, due primarily to the risk of debilitating injury, a playing career of 10 seasons is one of longevity. Quality of life is another concept often factored into considerations of both life expectancy and longevity; taken together, the three expressions create a comprehensive goal for many people: the utopia of a long, happy, and healthy life. Sports participation will invariably present the same goals, activity that is rewarding, long lasting, and injury free. Wellness is a modern, overarching concept that includes quality of life, and total health, encompassing the mind, body, and spirit. There are two further specific physical factors that bear upon the concept of longevity. An athlete who has enjoyed a lengthy career will have been injury-free for most of the period, or alternatively able to recover quickly from injuries as they occurred. The genetics of the individual often impact WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

LOW BACK PAIN

Longevity is not always the preserve of the successful professional athlete. Many people train and compete in anonymity, in the pursuit of entirely personal athletic goals. The longevity of these performers in an ever-increasing number of sports is reflected in the world wide proliferation of Masters’ competitions, which are generally defined as events for athletes aged 40 years and older, with discrete age divisions in progressive increments of five years. Notable examples of athletes who achieved longevity in their athletic careers include George Blanda, a successful National Football League (NFL) quarterback and placekicker for over 20 seasons, in a sport where a long career is ten years; Gordie Howe, a successful professional ice hockey player for 30 seasons; Sir Garfield Sobers, world class competitor and record holder in international test cricket for 21 years; Michael Jordan, who maintained superlative skills as an National Basketball Association (NBA) player through age 40; and Ron Hill, the English marathoner who was first to break the two hour, 10 minute barrier in that event, who maintained a record of never missing a day training in over 30 years. Each of these athletes shares a number of common attributes despite being competitors in diverse sports: good health, a zest for their game or pursuit, and an ability to maintain a high skill level over an exceptionally competitive period. Longevity can often be achieved by general good health, nutrition, and exercise throughout life. ª KARL WE ATH ERL Y/C ORB IS

upon the likelihood of injury as well as the speed with which the athlete can recover. There are a number of well-established factors that contribute to the longevity of an athletic career; each is of the same relative importance to the pursuit of longevity. First, proper diet is extremely important. The consumption of healthy foods, with the nutrients and other building blocks of growth, body maintenance and performance cannot be compensated for in any other fashion. In addition. Next is total fitness. The athlete who is active for a long career will engage in comprehensive fitness practices, with an emphasis on balance achieved through training that develops all around flexibility, strength, and endurance. Also, the maintenance of good overall health, avoiding fluctuations in body weight, and periods of physical inactivity. Finally, mental freshness. The athlete who achieves longevity in their career is able to maintain a freshness or spark in their approach to sports. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SEE ALSO

Endurance; Fitness; Health.

Low back pain The low back is the region of the body situated above the pelvis and the hips. This part of the body is also known as the lumbar region. The skeletal support for the low back is provided by the lumbar spine, the assembly of five vertebrae that are connected to the pelvis by the bony structure known as the sacrum. The lumbar vertebrae are each separated by intravertebral disks, which are composed of a fibrous material, in which a thick gel material is enclosed. The disks act to absorb the forces received by the vertebrae, as well as working to stabilize the lumbar spinal column. The lumbar spinal column encloses the spinal cord, the transmission route for all signals generated by the brain; it also provides openings in the bony surface of the vertebrae for nerve endings to extend into the tissues of the body from the spinal cord. The lumbar spine is made flexible due to the facet joints, the ligaments that connect the vertebrae one to

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LOW BACK PAIN

additional or excessive body weight for extended periods. Sudden twisting or turning movement is often the cause of low back pain where the low back is already significantly stressed or damaged. Lifting heavy objects can result in low back pain. If the low back is not in an optimal position at the point when the force is exerted to lift the item, both the muscles and the spine are susceptible to damage. Such injuries occur in athletic and non-athletic circumstances, particularly where the movement is attempted without the benefit of a proper warm up and stretching of the low back structure. In addition, if someone is struck in the lower back area, the force associated with the blow, such as an ice hockey body check, or a tackle in other sports, can damage the low back. In extreme cases, the force can produce a fracture of one of the vertebrae. And finally, when a blow is given to either the top of the spine that radiates down the spinal column to the low back, or a similar radiation of force from a blow delivered at the buttocks and pelvis that radiates upward. In rare circumstances, low back pain may be triggered through no physical cause; such cases often involve a problem with a nerve in the vicinity. X-ray showing site of chronic lower back pain.

ERICH SCH RE MP P/

PH OTO RE SE AR CHE RS , IN C.

another. The spinal column is connected to the larger muscle and tendon groups that both support the spine and power the bending, twisting, and turning mechanisms of the low back; the abdominal, gluteal (buttocks), lateral, and oblique muscle groups work in concert to facilitate low back movement. As the lumbar vertebrae are both the weightbearing segment of the spine as well as essential to flexion and extension motions, the low back is subject to significant stresses in both sport as well as everyday human activity that often lead to injury and consequent pain. Low back pain is not restricted to one cause; the condition may be attributed to a number of circumstances, some of which are cumulative and others which are the result of a single physical occurrence. There are a number of common causes of lower back pain. For example, pain can occur if the low back is subjected to the stresses caused by a slumped posture, or by excessive periods of being seated in a position in which excess body weight rests on the low back where it is not adequately supported, such as in computer use, the lumbar vertebrae and their disks may become damaged. Also, the low back will be more susceptible to strain if it is required to bear

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The most common cause of low back pain is a strain in the muscles adjacent to the lumbar spine. In many cases, such pain will resolve itself through rest. In some cases, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) are used to assist in the management of the condition. The follow-up to ensure the prevention of this type of injury will include an emphasis on proper stretching of the low back muscle groups, as well as the technique employed in all manner of twisting, turning, and lifting. A back brace, a flexible assistive device worn around the midsection, may also be used in the rehabilitation of this type of injury. A medical examination may reveal the existence of a degenerative disk disease (DDD); the presence of DDD is not itself evidence of the cause of back pain, as many people have the condition without limitation of movement. In many cases, DDD, which includes a narrowing of the disk space, precipitates back pain. A failure to properly warm up and stretch the muscles and the structure of the lower back is the leading cause of injury to this part of the anatomy. Stretched and properly stimulated muscles, along with elevated heart rate and respiration that accompanies a proper warm up, will prepare the low back, especially where it will be the subject of explosive lifting movements or twisting motions.

Back injuries; Hip and pelvis anatomy and physiology; Neck injuries.

SEE ALSO


LOW-CARBOHYDRATE DIETS AND ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE

Low-carbohydrate diets and athletic performance Low-carbohydrate diets have been the subject of intense scientific and public interest for many years. As Western society continues to struggle with rising rates of obesity, in both the adult and the youth population, ‘‘lowcarb diets’’ in a number of different formulations have become popular weight loss options. Diet represents a summary of the food consumed by all humans; all foods will be defined as being one of three dietary categories: carbohydrates, the plantbased foods digested by the body to produce glucose and other sugars; proteins, the source of amino acids used to build and restore muscles and tissues; fats, obtained from both animal and plant sources. The traditional balance between these three diet categories to create a healthy diet was accepted by nutritionists as a ratio of 60–65% carbohydrates, 12–15% proteins, and less than 30% fats. It was equally conventional wisdom among sports scientists that dramatic reductions in the amount of carbohydrates ingested by the body would lead to an inability on the part of the body to fuel itself during athletic activity. There is a measure of historical support for the low-carb diet as an athletic training aid. The ancient Greek Olympians trained by eating a diet restricted to animal meats, and the warriors that played lacrosse in native North America also ate an almost exclusively meat diet in preparation for competition. Carbohydrates have long been viewed as synonymous with energy. In addition to the requirements of the body that are part of sport, the brain and the central nervous system are built to receive their required energy from carbohydrate sources. A lowcarbohydrate diet will be one in which the proportion of carbohydrates is less than 33% of dietary intake. Such diets are distinguished from specific athletic diets in which carbohydrates are reduced slightly, but not eliminated, to achieve an express short-term result (such as increasing proteins for a short period in certain muscle building programs). Athletes and nonathletes alike have been attracted to the low-carbohydrate diet formulations as a means of achieving a quick weight loss. The overriding physical rule with regard to weight loss diets of any kind remains constant: no matter how a diet is constituted, if the number of calories consumed is exceeded by the energy produced by the body over time, there must be a net loss of weight. Low-carb diets will generally achieve this result, parWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ticularly in the short term. Through the elimination of carbohydrate sources, many low-carb diets have as much as 500 fewer calories available for consumption on a weekly basis. The greater weight loss is achieved through the increased diuresis, which is the production of urine, as a low-carb diet will stimulate the release of glycogen stored in the liver and muscles of the body. The utilization of glycogen, converted to glucose, requires water, and wastes in the form of urine are the ultimate consequence. After a period of two to three weeks, the body will essentially stabilize in its new low-carbohydrate state. The restriction of carbohydrates such as fruits, vegetables, and grains has consequences for athletes and nonathletes as well. These foods are the best sources for a number of the body’s noncaloric nutritional needs, including calcium, magnesium, iron, and components of the B-complex vitamins. Low-carb diets will lead to the increased production of uric acid, with long-term consequences for the healthy function of the kidneys. Low-carb diets also are likely to lead to a risk of long-term bone maintenance deficiencies, as calcium is not properly converted into the bone-building cells, which may lead to osteoporosis, the bone thinning and loss disease. The low-carb diets that are a high fat, low-carb formulation may create other health problems for the consumer. High-fat diets will generally lead to the increased generation of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), a type of cholesterol that leads to the build-up of plaque in the blood vessels and contributes to the impairment of the entire cardiovascular system. An athlete must proceed with extreme caution before embarking on a low-carb diet program. It may be that in the short term, in a carefully managed environment, an athlete might achieve a weight loss goal through the modification of the carbohydrate component of the diet. In most situations, weight loss can be achieved through careful attention to overall caloric intake, without sacrificing nutritional needs or risking long-term damage to the body. A well-defined exception to this principle is the technique employed by some endurance athletes, particularly marathon runners, to stimulate increased ability to store carbohydrates. High mileage runners approaching a competition may restrict their carbohydrate intake for a period of days, while maintaining their training levels. The athletes then engage in a practice known as ‘‘carbo loading,’’ in which they consume large amounts of carbohydrates, which the body stores in its depleted glycogen reserves, for a desired effect during competition.

Carbohydrates; Diet; Glycogen depletion; Muscle glycogen recovery.

SEE ALSO

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LOW-IMPACT CARDIOVASCULAR EXERCISE

Low-impact cardiovascular exercise Low-impact cardiovascular exercise has traditionally been viewed as the gentlest of workouts, the domain of the mall-walking senior citizen. This misconception is corrected when assessed from a physiological point of view; low-impact exercise and low-intensity activities are entirely different physical concepts. The amount and the duration of the impact directed into the muscles or the joints of an athlete are a function of the force sustained by the body during the activity. Sports such as basketball, with its running and jumping, or rugby, with its physical play, are by definition sports that are high-impact activities. Running, with its repetitive generation of forces directed into the joints, is also a high-impact endeavor. Low-impact exercise may be of reduced intensity, but the two expressions are not synonymous. Impact is the degree to which the body is subject to the force of the exercise; intensity is the measure of how hard the body must work to perform the exercise. Intensity will include the output of the cardiovascular system, the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems, and muscular activity, all of which may be at a high level without stressful impacts being directed into the musculoskeletal system. There are a number of low-impact cardiovascular exercises that may be performed at any level of intensity. These workouts include various strength and stretching routines, walking, swimming, recreational cycling, crosscountry skiing, and aerobics-based programs such as cardio-boxing that do not involve contact or resistance elements. Exercises that involve intense stretching and strengthening components are the quintessential low-impact activity. Many of the elements that comprise these activities are performed with the body placed in a stable and stationary position, with only the body weight of the athlete or the resistance created by stretching the particular musculoskeletal groups, which results in the application of a force on the body. Calisthenics, yoga, pilates, and aerobics routines where jumping and bounding components have been removed, are each a low-impact activity that is capable of being performed with great intensity for a significant workout interval. Cardio-boxing is an aerobics workout offshoot that has become popular for its total body fitness benefits. In some cardio-boxing variations, the athlete

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is required to punch or deliver other blows to a heavy boxing training bag, a movement that creates a high degree of resistance, particularly to the arms and shoulders. In the cardio-boxing routines that involve intricate footwork routines, jumping rope, and various types of feinting and shadow boxing, the participant combines a low level of impact on the body with often high-intensity movement. Walking can generate a significant amount of force through the impact on the physical structure, as the force of each stride moves through the foot, ankle, knee, and hip joints. For some individuals, their physical condition may result in further damage being caused through the absorption of these forces. For most persons, walking represents a low-impact exercise that may be performed at a gentle pace, or with an intense whole body motion, at speeds in excess of 5 mph (8 km/h); typical conventional walking is done at approximately 2.5–3 mph (4–5 km/h). This type of activity is sometimes referred to as power walking. Swimming is a good example of an activity that is generally one of low physical impact on the entire body, and yet as intense as the participant wishes it to be. The energy required in swimming is significant; the body consumes more calories per hour in energy while swimming than it does in distance running, with additional concurrent demands placed upon the cardiovascular system and the respiratory system. Cycling at a recreational, non-competitive level is also a low-impact pursuit. Such cycling will generally place the rider in the seat, a stable and consistent position for the entire activity; the stresses created by cycling are those generated in hard sprints or hill climbing. Mountain biking is an aspect of cycling that will tend to produce higher degrees of impact on the joints, due to the rougher riding surface. As with walking and swimming, the cyclist may work at a high level of cardiovascular intensity while placing more moderate stress on the musculoskeletal system. In northern climates, cross-country skiing is a preferred low-impact cardiovascular workout. Unless the athlete is vigorously driving the ski poles into the snow surface to increase speed (sometimes referred to as a double poling technique) most of the body’s joints move in a single direction, consistent with the skier’s rhythm. The distance traveled, snow conditions, and degree of friction between the ski and the surface, the topography, and the fitness of the individual skier are all factors that determine the intensity level of the exercise. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

LOWER LEG ANATOMY

Nordic walking is a unique form of low impact exercise.

AP PH OTO/ ROB G RIFFITH

Effective low-impact cardiovascular exercise should be capable of elevating the heart rate of the participant to a level greater than 50% of maximum. Low-impact cardiovascular exercises are inherently a low physical risk activity; they are effective for both the maintenance of general fitness as well as tools to assist rehabilitation.

Cardio-boxing; Cardiovascular system; Yoga and Pilates.

SEE ALSO

Lower leg anatomy

lower leg, all movement is initiated by either a flexion or an extension of the knee joint. Either movement will stimulate a corresponding action on the part of the calf muscles and the attached Achilles tendon. These structures are themselves attached to the flexor and extension muscles of the ankle and the foot, which govern how the foot will be moved. The entire process of knee action to foot position is not a continuum, progressing down the lower leg. It is an integrated, system-wide response to a stimulus transmitted by the brain to the central nervous system and simultaneously received at the nerve endings in the muscles of the lower leg.

The lower leg is a remarkable structure, where each of its sophisticated components must work in harmony with the adjacent mechanisms to achieve support for the body or movement. No portion of the lower leg anatomy is capable of independent physical action.

When the lower leg components respond in harmony to the direction of the nervous system to achieve the desired physical movement, all components must be functioning properly. When one of the lower leg anatomical parts is not capable of a proper response, the entire structure is compromised.

The lower leg anatomy is composed of five distinct parts: the knee joint, the shin, the calf, the ankle, and the foot. In terms of the general functions of the

The knee joint is the hinge mechanism that initiates the propulsion of the lower leg. A flex of the hinge, powered by the hamstring and quadriceps


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by the stresses of either poor running mechanics or overuse directed into the tissue adjacent to the tibia. The tibia and the fibula provide support for both the calf muscles and the Achilles tendon. The calf muscles are a two-part structure, the larger gastrocnemius and the underlying soleus muscle. These are connected to the knee joint at one end, and through the Achilles tendon are joined to the calcaneus, the heel bone. The calf muscles and the Achilles working in concert link the flexing and extending motions of the knee to the movements of the ankle and the foot. The ankle joint is created at the junction of the tibia, fibula, and the talus, the ankle bone. There are three separate joints formed by these three bones, all of which are secured by a protective structure known as the synovial capsule, which encloses the joint in a fluid that both protects and lubricates the joint. The three bones are connected by way of three separate sets of ankle ligaments. The structure of the joint and the manner in which its ligaments are arranged permits the ankle to be rotated, flexed, and extended in all directions.

When one of the lower leg anatomical parts is not capable of a proper response, the entire structure is compromised. ª R OYA LTY- FREE /CO RBIS

muscles of the upper leg, will bring the other parts of the lower leg upward. The skeletal components of the knee joint are the protective patella, or kneecap, the femur, or thigh bone, connected at the joint to the tibia, the shin bone, and the fibula, which are the long bones of the lower leg. The integrity of the knee joint is secured by the sets of ligaments connecting the three bones, as well as through the stabilizing effect of knee cartilage. The tibia and the fibula are commonly treated as a single skeletal structure. While neither bone is capable of independent movement, the chief function of these bones is in the formation of the knee and the various ankle joints, as well as providing support over a significant anatomical distance the tibia (the shin bone), relative to the overall body height, can range in length from approximately 10 in to over 20 in (25–50 cm) in healthy adults. The shin is covered with a very thin tissue that represents the limited cushion between the surface of the tibia and the skin. The most common ailment involving the shin is medial tibial stress syndrome, or shin splints, caused

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The ankle is attached to the bones of the foot at the talus, which is positioned above the calcaneus, the largest of the bones of the foot. It is the heel that absorbs a significant degree of force in every movement made through the lower leg. The ankle and the foot skeleton are comprised of 26 different bones, many of which are small, but are secured through the sophisticated structure of the foot anatomy. In addition to its bone structure, the arch of the foot is secured through the plantar, which extends from the heel to the forefoot, often referred to as the ball of the foot. The metatarsal bones are the five structures extending from the ankle to the toes, or phalanges, which extend from the base of the metatarsalphalangeal joint. Each toe is secured by its own set of ligaments; movement of the toes in relation to the rest of the structure of the foot is achieved through a complex system of tendons and small muscles on the top, the sole, and the sides of each foot.

Ankle anatomy and physiology; Foot: Anatomy and physiology; Knee: Anatomy and physiology.

SEE ALSO

Lower leg injuries The lower leg is the term that describes the portion of the anatomy of the leg that extends from the knee to the foot; there are many musculoskeletal injuries that occur along this entire structure that WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

LOWER LEG INJURIES

meet the definition of a lower leg injury. As the joints of the knee, ankle, and foot are each highly specialized mechanisms with unique structural considerations, they are considered on their own and not as part of the lower leg injuries. The injuries described here are those restricted to the tibia and fibula bones, which provide the skeletal framework for the shin and the calf, as well as those injuries involving the tibial and fibular connective tissues. The mechanisms that cause injuries to the lower leg are almost infinite in their variety. The bones of the lower leg are often fractured through blunt force trauma in contact sports or in high velocity activities such as Alpine skiing or bobsled. The Achilles tendon is the major connective tissue between the gastrocnemius and the soleus, which together are the calf muscles, and the foot. The Achilles tendon is exposed to a number of stresses that can lead to an impairment of its function; the Achilles is often susceptible to either tendonitis, or an immobilizing tear or a rupture of its fibers. The calf muscles can also sustain strains and tears in both contact and non-contact circumstances. A common lower leg injury that directly impacts both the structure and the function of the lower leg is often characterized as a shin splint. As with many sports injuries, the general term involves a consideration of a number of other more complicated and serious outcomes. A shin splint is broadly defined as an inflammation of one of the components of the lower leg: the bone, the muscles, or the tendons located below the knee and above the ankle. The symptoms of shin splits are a localized pain while running, that usually becomes more pronounced after the athlete has been running for a number of minutes; the pain persists after the training session has ended. Shin splints can be sufficiently painful to keep an athlete from running for several days at a time. Treatments for shin splints are an extension of the RICE (rest/ice/compression/elevation) treatment, and in most cases, shin splints are a transitory condition. Shin splints are in many cases the result of the unequal forces created by uneven leg length when the athlete’s foot strikes the ground during the running motion. This condition is often treated effectively through the use of an orthotic. When the pain from an apparent shin splint persists, the condition may be one of two other serious lower leg injuries, each of which presents significant treatment issues for the athlete. These potential injuries are compartment syndrome and stress fracture. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

X-ray of lower leg fracture.

S COTT CA MA ZI NE/ PH OT O

RE S EAR C HE RS , I NC .

Compartment syndrome occurs when the connective tissue surrounding the muscles of the lower leg become the subject of a pressure buildup caused by the fluids in the muscle that are generated through normal athletic activity. Each connective tissue forms a compartment, and the pressure created within each compartment by the muscle fluid can place excessive stress upon the nerve fibers that extend into each compartment. This condition is debilitating, as it prevents the athlete from putting any significant weight on the affected leg. Compartment syndrome may also result in numbness in the lower leg or foot. The usual and conservative treatment for compartment syndrome is rest, stretching, and the application of the RICE principles; in severe cases, a surgical procedure known as a fasciotomy, which involves a micro-incision of the compartment to relieve the pressure buildup, may be employed. A stress fracture is a localized break in the bone structure. The tibia is a very common location for stress fractures, as the forces generated by every stride taken by the athlete will radiate into the tibia. Most stress factures are caused by repetitive stresses directed into the specific area of the bone; some

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stress fractures result from a combination of repetitive forces and an underlying structural problem such as a calcium deficiency that has caused a weakening of the bone. The nature of the pain associated with a stress fracture is the distinguishing feature between it, a compartment syndrome condition, and a shin splint. A stress fracture will often not be bothersome at the beginning of a workout, but as the stresses on the bone continue, the pain in the area of the fracture will often be excruciating. A stress fracture will not be noticeable when the athlete is at rest. Due to the very localized nature of the fracture, this condition is not always one that can be pinpointed by way of x ray. A stress fracture also has a lengthy rehabilitation period attached to it; six months is a common time frame for recovery. All lower leg injuries are ones that can be exacerbated by poor quality footwear and hard, unforgiving training surfaces. Once a lower leg injury arises, the athlete should undertake a complete analysis of the training methods, equipment, and diet, as the combined effects of the physical stresses of the sport and a nutritional deficiency must be eliminated to entirely cure most lower leg injuries.

Achilles tendon rupture; Calf strain or pull; Knee injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries.

SEE ALSO

Luge Luge —which means sled in French and which is also the name of the sport—is a winter sport. An individual, or a pair, lies horizontally and face-up (a supine position) with the legs pointing forward on a specialized sled equipped with two blades (runners) and hurtles down an icy course. The course, which twists and turns down a hillside, is usually also used for the sports of bobsled and skeleton. The object of luge is to get to the bottom of the course in the fastest aggregate time over a set number of runs. Today, the course is covered at speeds that can approach 55 mi (150 km) per hour, equivalent to the speed of a car on a highway. This blinding speed is accomplished on a device that has no brakes and where steering is provided by slight movements of the legs or shoulders to move the runners. The result is a breathtaking event to watch.

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In the nineteenth century, sledding (or sliding) was a popular winter pastime at European resorts and spas. In 1883, the first race was set up on a 2.5 mi (4 km) trail that joined the villages of Klosters and Davos in the Swiss Alps. The race triggered an interest in sliding. By 1913, a governing body was founded in Germany. The Internationale Schlittensportverband (International Sled Sports Federation) governed the sport until 1935, when it became incorporated in the Fe´de´ration Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT; also known as the International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation). The first world championships were held in 1955 in Oslo. By 1957, the burgeoning popularity of the sport (now called luge) resulted in the formation of an independent governing body (Fe´de´ration Internationale de Luge de Course, FIL, International Luge Federation). Luge became an Olympic sport in 1964. The sled used in luge is a fiberglass shell with slightly raised sides. The two runners on the underside protrude from the front of the sled and curve upward and in. The front of the sled has channels that accommodate the legs of the athlete. When properly positioned in the sled, the feet contact the inwardly curving front portion of the runners. By maneuvering the runners, the sled can be steered. Directional changes must be done smoothly and delicately, since at 93 mph (150 km/h) a sudden change would be disastrous. A luge run begins with the athlete (or pair) sitting in the sled. To start the sled in motion, the slider grasps handles that are positioned at the start. Pushing the sled back and forth while grasping the handles to build up momentum, the slider finally pulls the handles back in an explosive motion to propel the sled forward and down the course. It is then that the run begins to be timed. During the descent, the slider seeks to stay in the horizontal position as much as possible to maintain an aerodynamic profile. The racing suit and even the racing shoe (a ‘‘bootie’’) worn by the athletes are designed to slice cleanly through the air. Raising a head to glimpse the track ahead can slow a descent. Thus, an elite-level luge rider negotiates the course largely by feel, knowing when to apply pressure to the runners to guide the sled through the turns via the quickest route. This delicate piloting takes place as the slider experiences almost five times the force of gravity, which is nearly the same as is felt by a pilot of a jet WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ALOIS LUTZ

Courtney Zablocki of United States in action during the women’s single Viessmann Luge World Cup (2005) in Germany.

PH OTO BY

CH RIS TIAN F IS CH ER/ BO NGART S/ GETT Y I M AG ES .

fighter. A successful luge slider must be in superb physical condition. Each competitor and the sled are subject to weight regulations, and the design of the sled must conform to defined criteria. As well, the sled runners must be within a set temperature range relative to the air temperature. All these restrictions act to remove variations between competitors. The winner is the competitor who can most skillfully pilot the sled down the icy course in the quickest aggregate time. A luge run can be a natural course or can be artificially constructed complete with a refrigerated track. In North America, artificial luge runs constructed for the Olympics held in Calgary, Lake Placid, and Salt Lake City are still used as training facilities. Two other artificial tracks are located in Michigan. Other artificial and natural tracks are located in Europe and Japan. Although the United States won silver and bronze medals in luge at the 1998 Olympics held in Nagano, Japan, the sport is the domain of European countries, in particular Germany. A combination of coaching,


skilled sliders, and superior sled making technology has kept Germans sliders on the luge medal podium for decades. SEE ALSO

Auto aerodynamics; Bobsled.

Alois Lutz 1898–1918 AUSTRIAN FIGURE SKATER

The three most notable jumps performed in modern figure skating are named for their originators— the Salchow, for Ulrich Salchow, the Axel, for Axel Paulson, and the Lutz, named for Alois Lutz, the Austrian who first performed this maneuver in competition in 1913. The Lutz is a jump that illustrates how the toe picks that are cut into a figure skater’s blades are used to the best advantage. The toe pick is the serrated portion of the skate blade located at the toe that permits the skater to achieve stability when

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ALOIS LUTZ

preparing for a jump or executing a pivot, by driving the pick into the ice surface. The Lutz has three phases in its execution, with a preparatory period, the jump, and the landing. The rules of figure skating judging provide that the skater must not only execute the takeoff and aerial components of the jump, the skater must also land flawlessly if they are to receive the maximum score available for the jump. Each figure skating jump is assigned a recognized level of difficult to be factored into the scoring of the skater; the Lutz is recognized as the most difficult of the jumps requiring the skater to use the toe pick. To perform the Lutz, the skater begins the preparatory phase by skating in a wide arc. The skater will use the edge of the skate blades to push off form the ice surface to generate lift. The Lutz requires the

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skater to move from the back edge of one skate to land on the back edge of the opposite skate. As the skater transcribes the arc, the skater uses the toe pick to drive their body in a direction opposite to that of the arc skated. As the skater jumps from one edge to the other, the skater will perform a single, double or triple rotation in the air. The number of rotations, described as a single, double, triple Lutz, add to the degree of difficulty. Alois Lutz executed what would later be referred to as a single Lutz in 1913. Donald Jackson, the Canadian world champion, was the first man to execute a triple Lutz, in 1962.

Figure Skating; Figure Skating dynamics of leaps and throws; Vertical Jump.

SEE ALSO


M Maccabiah Games The Maccabiah Games are a quadrennial athletic festival held at the permanent host country, Israel, and open to Jewish athletes from around the world. Known as the Jewish Olympics, the Games are second only to the Olympics in both the number of participating countries and of competing athletes. Judah Maccabee was a legendary Jewish warrior who battled the ancient Greeks in what was then Palestine in 160 BC. In 1927, the Jewish movement that had been founded to promote better physical fitness among the Jews living in the ghettos of European cities adopted the name of this warrior as their symbol. The Maccabi World Union was later founded to promote physical education within the broader Jewish heritage. In the face of rising social pressures on European Jews, particularly in Germany and in the Soviet Union, the Maccabi World Union soon became a symbol of the worldwide Zionist movement and the drive to create a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Today, it is under the auspices of the Maccabi World Union that the Games are staged. The first Maccabiah Games was held in Tel Aviv (in the former Palestine) in 1932. The Games resumed in 1950, following the disruptions caused by World War II and the subsequent founding of the


state of Israel in 1948. As of 1957, the Games have been held in Israel every four years, the seventeenth edition taking place in 2005, with 50 nations and over 6,000 athletes participating. The Maccabiah delegation from the United States, a country with a large Jewish community, included more than 900 athletes. The Games have a format similar to that of the Summer Olympics, with track and field events, swimming, boxing, soccer, basketball, and volleyball competitions. The Maccabiah Games are a member of the Olympic movement headed by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). As with national Olympic organizing committees, the member countries of the Maccabiah Games have national Maccabiah organizations that direct the qualifying competitions for each Maccabiah Games in their respective countries. Israel, the permanent home to the Maccabiah Games, is a country that has been in a state of war with a number of its Arab neighbors since its creation in 1948. The Games have been affected at various times by these regional tensions, but to a large degree, through a combination of comprehensive Israeli security measures and the fact that the Games are a demonstrably peaceful event, disruptive incidents have been few.

International federations; International Olympic Committee (IOC); National governing bodies.

SEE ALSO

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MAGNESIUM

Magnesium Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element found within the human body; a 190-lb (86 kg) person possesses approximately 1 oz (23 gr) of magnesium in various places. Approximately 50% of the mineral is stored in the bone structures, and approximately 50% is located within various cells, and organ and tissue structures. One percent of all of the body’s magnesium is contained within the cardiovascular system. Magnesium plays a role in more than 300 of the biochemical reactions that are essential to human performance, ranging from the maintenance of the skeletal structure and organ health to the function of the cardiovascular and central nervous systems. While pure magnesium is an element found on the periodic table, it is not obtained in its natural state from the Earth due to its chemical composition, which makes magnesium react with a number of other elements to form compounds, particularly those involving oxygen, sulphur, and hydrogen. The active ingredient in the bitter water first discovered in an English well in the early 1600s, which later became known as the tonic, Epsom salts, is magnesium sulphate, or MgSO4. The popular digestive aid, Milk of Magnesia, also uses magnesium in its composition. Magnesium is an important component of chlorophyll, the chemical that makes living plants green. For this reason, many of the excellent dietary sources of magnesium are plant products such as green vegetables, most whole grains, beans, and nuts. Well water that is drawn from ground that has a significant mineral composition, sometimes referred to as hard water, will usually contain significant amounts of magnesium. Magnesium is typically contained in foods that also have significant amounts of potassium and dietary fiber. As foods are digested, any magnesium is absorbed into the body through the small intestine. The magnesium not processed into the body is excreted through the kidneys in urine. It would be difficult to consume magnesium in quantities sufficient to induce a toxic reaction; magnesium deficiency is a far more important dietary issue. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) of magnesium is 420 mg per day for a male over 30 years of age; the RDA for a 30-year-old female is 320 mg per day. While calcium, in combination with vitamin D, is the most significant mineral presence in the construction and the maintenance of the human bones, magnesium plays a significant role in the transport of calcium to the required areas of bone development.

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The combined operation of trace minerals, including magnesium, is a preventative in the onset of osteoporosis, a common bone density disease, especially among post-menopausal women. Magnesium is also a factor in the manner in which the skeletal muscles respond to the directions transmitted by the central nervous system. Although less crucial in this respect than sodium or potassium, magnesium is necessary in the manner in which signals are sent to working muscles during exercise. Magnesium plays an important role in the determination of blood sugar (glucose) levels, as well as the manner in which proteins ingested through food are synthesized by the body. In a related fashion, magnesium also acts in the regulation of heartbeat and the functions of the immune system. As with the many influences of magnesium on the metabolisms of the human body, magnesium is not usually the lead actor, but works in a supporting capacity. Magnesium levels within the body can be influenced by a number of factors, in addition to the obvious failure to consume sufficient magnesiumrich foods. Medications that possess a diuretic quality have been established as contributing to a negative impact on the body’s ability to retain magnesium. The medications that are particularly reactive to magnesium in this fashion are those used in the treatment of disorders such as Crohn’s disease, a serious illness of the intestinal system. In a similar fashion, the excess consumption of caffeine has the effect of reducing magnesium stores within the body. A magnesium deficiency will not be manifested in a sudden or dramatic physical fashion. The early symptoms of a magnesium deficiency may include a loss of appetite, generalized weakness, and fatigue. If the condition worsens, the person will experience difficulties in concentration (similar to other electrolytic disruptions in the body), and ultimately, low levels of both calcium and potassium will occur. The most effective way to restore low levels of magnesium is by way of improved diet, especially through green vegetables and whole grains. In some circumstances, the levels may be increased through the use of magnesium supplements. Given the nature of the element, magnesium can be restored to its appropriate concentration in the body within a number of days. Magnesium is a component of a number of dietary and training supplements, in a variety of compounds. SEE ALSO

Calcium; Minerals; Sodium and sodium

deficits. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MALNUTRITION

In less-developed countries, malnutrition is the leading cause of infant death.

Male athletes

SEE

Gender in sports:

Male athletes

Malnutrition Malnutrition is an imbalance in diet that occurs in one of two ways. In its first manifestation, malnutrition is caused by a diet that includes too little food, resulting in a caloric shortfall in the body. When the body cannot process sufficient food to generate the energy that it requires for its purposes, the person is stated to be malnourished. Malnutrition is also the result of insufficient nutrients being consumed and available to the body through diet. In this form of malnutrition, it is possible for the body to be adequately nourished in terms of calorie consumption, but subject to deficiencies of both macronutrients such as protein, the building blocks used by the body for muscle and tissue construction and maintenance, and micronutrients, those trace amounts of vitamins and minerals that are essential to the function of a multitude of bodily processes. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª FIN BA RR O’RE I LLY /RE UTE RS /COR BIS

A significant contributor to the two forms of malnutrition is the failure to provide adequate amounts of fiber in diet. Fiber is essential to the optimal digestion of all foods. Fiber is itself not a food group, it is not an energy source, and it is not digestible. However, fiber is often linked to foods that possess substantial quantities of various micronutrients; when fiber is below optimal levels, the body will not properly digest and process those foods. Malnutrition is a matter of degree. In children, particularly those in less-developed nations, malnutrition is a leading cause of death. This worst-case aspect of malnutrition is the starvation of the child. In less pronounced but serious circumstances, children who are malnourished will not develop to their fullest physical or mental capabilities. A deficiency in the amount of calories consumed results in children who are undersized, as their bone and muscle development is stunted. The combination of an inadequate caloric intake and essential vitamins and minerals will often limit the intellectual development and mental capacity of the child. An aspect of inadequate food intake is a condition known as protein energy malnutrition. The generation of energy by the body ultimately results in the generation of a substance known as adenosine triphosphate

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Carbohydrates; Minerals; Protein supplements; Vitamin C.

(ATP), a process that occurs within the individual cells. Where the body has too few carbohydrates available to produce the energy source glucose, the body will break down its proteins to resolve the shortfall.

SEE ALSO

The deficiencies in various vitamins and minerals that result in malnutrition are reflected in a variety of conditions, some of which are capable of remedy, others of which are permanent in their physical consequences. Among the most prominent of these deficiencies is that involving the mineral calcium, a condition that often occurs in conjunction with a shortage of vitamin D. Calcium is the key mineral in the formation and maintenance of the skeletal bone structure; calcium is the most prominent mineral in the body. Vitamin D is essential to the processing of calcium in bone formation, maintenance, and repair. A shortage of either substance will result in structural problems in bone formation. A prolonged deficiency in either of these micronutrients will create permanent skeletal weaknesses.

Effa Manley

A number of other conditions flow from vitamin and mineral deficiency. For the athlete whose body is subjected to the stresses of muscular activity and the competitive environment, even a small deficiency in one of the micronutrients can have a negative impact on athletic performance. For example, while a vitamin A deficiency impacts function of the immune system, a deficiency of the B complex has a broad range of negative impacts. The various components of the B vitamin complex are crucial to the breakdown of carbohydrates into useful energy sources, the maintenance of healthy skin and other organs. Vitamin C is essential to the maintenance of the health of the body’s connective tissues, the central nervous system, and the function of the adrenal glands. The deficiencies in other minerals, particularly sodium, potassium, iron, and magnesium impact on a number of essential human systems. As an example, when the presence of the electrolytic minerals such as sodium and capacity is reduced, as often occurs if the body is dehydrated, the fluid-leveling ability of the body is significantly impaired. Iron is crucial to the function of the ability of the cardiovascular system, through the red blood cell component hemoglobin, to transport oxygen in the creation of energy. Nutritionists recommend that, whenever possible, both macronutrients and micronutrients should be obtained from food sources. Information concerning the best sources is widely available. Dietary supplements, including vitamin and mineral formulations, are commonly used by athletes to ensure that they have no hidden or undetermined deficiency that has arisen through the stresses of training.

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3/27/1900–4/16/1981 AMERICAN NEGRO LEAGUES BASEBALL TEAM OWNER

In the 1930s and 1940s, Effa Manley was known as the Queen of the Negro Leagues. Manley first rose to prominence in the sport of baseball as the coowner of the Brooklyn Eagles in 1935, a club she operated with her husband, Abe Manley. In 1935, major league baseball was an entirely segregated sport, and the Negro Leagues served to provide a professional baseball outlet for black players and their predominately black fan base in the cities of the northeastern United States. During World War II, the Negro Leagues prospered and its teams developed many outstanding players. Many of these players ultimately moved to the major leagues after the Brooklyn Dodgers obtained the services of Negro League star Jackie Robinson in 1947, breaking baseball’s color barrier. Manley was a social activist during the 1930s, when she was instrumental in organizing a store boycott in Harlem to pressure white business owners to hire more black sales clerks. Manley was also a well regarded member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Manley achieved her greatest prominence in the Negro Leagues after 1936, when she and Abe Manley moved the Brooklyn Eagles to Newark, New Jersey. Manley was the driving force in the operation of the Newark franchise, where she was responsible for all financial and business decisions regarding the team. Manley was admired as an owner who cared abut the players welfare in all respects; she and her husband sponsored a team in the Puerto Rican winter leagues at that time to ensure that the Newark players had employment in the off-season. After Jackie Robinson left the Negro Leagues in 1947, major league baseball began to sign other Negro League stars, including Newark’s Larry Doby and Don Newcombe, both of whom would ultimately be enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame. The Negro League was no longer viable, and the league folded in 1948. Manley lobbied unsuccessfully for compensation from major league baseball for the loss of the players developed in the Negro Leagues. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MASSAGE THERAPY

Effa Manley was the only female owner in the history of the Negro League. In 2006, she became the first woman to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. SEE ALSO

Baseball.

Marathon

SEE

Running: Marathon

Mass, muscle

SEE

Muscle mass and

strength

Massage therapy Massage therapy is the healing process by which the soft tissue of the body is manipulated by the hands of a trained therapist. Soft-tissue therapy includes the skin, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and the capsules that encase the various joints of the body. Massage is a therapeutic technique that has been employed for many centuries in a number of cultures. Modern massage therapy has significant aspects in common with traditional Chinese medicines, including acupuncture and the use of various herbal remedies and the application of poultices, with the most important being that it is a proven aid to the enhancement of a number of physical functions. Massage therapy is directed to a number of separate but related physical purposes. Injured muscles can be effectively manipulated to deliver pain relief in the affected areas; tight or contracted muscles can be relaxed through the application of various levels of manual pressure, especially when the muscles have been subjected to the stresses of athletic competition and training. The various massage techniques are effective in stimulating blood flow in the body. Massage is also useful in improving the function of the lymphatic system and the central nervous system. Massage therapy is also employed for the purpose of relaxation. Stress is created in a number of circumstances for an athlete, both as a direct result of the production of the hormone adrenaline when the body perceives itself confronted by exciting circumstances, and indirectly through the accumulated effect of stressful circumstances. Diverse and critical functions such as heart rate, immune system, and the digestive tract are all adversely impacted by stress. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

There are well over 50 different defined techniques used in the various applications of massage therapy. Many of these techniques are used in combination. Four common forms of massage therapy used to assist in the resolution of athletic injuries include: Acupressure: This therapy is closely related to acupuncture procedures, which involve the utilization of the chi, the inherent healing energy believed to be present throughout the body, by manipulation of the tissues at defined pressure points. These pressure points are connected to the function of the internal organs and the circulation of blood throughout the body; their stimulation is designed to aid in the direction of healing power to an affected area. A technique similar to acupressure is that of shiatsu, a Japanese-derived system that involves the application of finger pressure to pre determined zones of the body. Rolfing: This is a vigorous form of massage that involves a manipulation of the skin to effect a loosening of the underlying muscle structure. Rolfing is employed both as a preventative as well as a therapeutic treatment. Swedish massage: This is a technique in which the basic direction of the hands in the course of the application is toward the heart of the person. The central object of a Swedish massage is improved circulation; it has also been employed as a technique to reduce scar tissue in muscle groups. Sports massage: These techniques are often an amalgam of massage therapies designed to reduce injury and inflammation, to relax the athlete, and as use as both a warm up or a cool down ritual. A vigorous massage applied for up to 20 minutes, generally one hour in advance of competition, often prepares the athlete. Postevent, a massage will stimulate circulation, especially in the region of the working muscles, flushing out metabolic waste materials such as those related to lactic acid production. Athletes seeking the benefit of massage therapy, no matter what type, will often receive the benefit of fascial techniques. These are manipulations that are intended to focus on the fascia, the general term for the connective tissues located at the joints throughout the body. In this context, the fascia may include cartilage, ligaments, tendons, and muscles in the vicinity of the joint. A well-known fascia problem experienced by athletes is plantar fasciitis, where the connective band between the heel and the forefoot under the arch of the foot becomes inflamed.

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The illiol band between the hip and the knee joint is another connective tissue that may become stressed in athletic activity. It is a testament to the legitimacy of massage as a therapeutic technique that many elite-level athletic organizations and individual athletes regularly undergo massage therapy. Many teams have a fulltime athletic therapist on their staff, whose focus is as much injury prevention as it is therapy. In many jurisdictions, massage therapists are a part of a larger regulated industry, where formalized training and licensing are mandatory.

Acupuncture and Eastern healing therapies; Exercise recovery; Musculoskeletal injuries; Sports medicine education.

SEE ALSO

Mature athletes Until the first mass participation running boom in the 1970s, the term mature athlete was an oxymoron in the United States. Mature was popularly associated with the words ‘‘old’’ and ‘‘deteriorated’’ from a sport perspective, and aside from the so-called ‘‘beer leagues’’ in sports such as men’s basketball and ice hockey, older athletes were unorganized. Any such persons who remained fit were usually operating on an entirely individual basis. Society at large generally perceived such persons as somewhat eccentric, as opposed to being health conscious or sports minded. Competitive athletics in all forms was regarded as the preserve of the young. Running and its mass participatory focus changed perceptions about the older athlete and their capabilities. The combination of a changing societal demographic, with the baby boom generation passing age 40, and the nature of the races themselves, with hundreds or thousands of entrants, created a phenomenon that became known as master’s competitions. In most sports, there are a set of unalterable physiological imperatives that create a limit on the age at which an athlete, male or female, can continue to perform at the highest level. Those factors will include the decline in the function of the cardiovascular system, a circumstance that is connected to both the reduced ability of the heart to pump a maximal quantity of blood, reflected by the reduced maximum heart rate, coupled with the inevitable decrease in the capacity of the athlete to utilize oxygen, known as the VO2max. While training and careful attention to health may slow the decline of these essential athletic sys-

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Master’s competitions are now a fixture in many sports, including basketball, soccer, and rugby. ª P ATR I K G I AR D I NO/ CORB I S

tems, it is impossible to maintain peak physical performance past the approximate age of 40 years. A combination of other physiological factors contributes to the decrease in the ability of the body to build muscle and to possess the same level of muscular power and endurance. In particular sports, these physiological limits imposed by aging are accentuated by the demands of the particular discipline; it is rare to see a competitive female gymnast or figure skater active in their late 20s. Master’s competition grew from the premise that while athletes over age 40 could not reasonably compete with those in their physical prime, mature athletes could compete within their own age groups in a fashion that was both participatory and equitable. Master’s competitions are now a fixture in many sports, both in individual pursuits such as tennis, squash, and athletics, as well as in team sports such as basketball, soccer, and rugby. In most master’s disciplines, the age groupings are set at five-year intervals. These divisions mirror the general progressive decline of the capabilities of the human body; just as a 45-year-old runner will have difficulty competing with a 25-year-old runner, where all other factors are equal, a 60-year-old athlete will not generally be competitive with a 45-year-old athlete. In some sports, there are rule modifications made to ensure that the safety of the competitors is preserved within a competitive framework. Examples WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JIM MCKAY

include the popularity of non-contact ice hockey among players over age 40. The growth of participation in sport among older athletes has propelled the growth of the World Masters Games, a celebration of the competitive aspects of master’s competitions. The Masters Games are held every four years; the 2005 version, which was hosted in Edmonton, Canada, attracted over 20,000 athletes in an Olympic-style format. Studies conducted using the results of both the Master’s Games track and field competitions, as well as international events with a significant master’s component, such as the New York marathon and the London marathon, illustrate the rate of progression in the decline from elite performance standards as the athletes age. The world record for races ranging in distance from the 100 m to the marathon was, on average, between 5% and 7% faster than the age group world records for ages 40 to 45. The 50-year-old age group most declined by a further 3% to 6%. To age 80, the best performances continued to decline at a rate of approximately 1% per year, while a comparable decline was noted in the comparison of various strength events such as weightlifting. Although the actual level of performance may decline with the effect of age, the training approaches adopted by mature athletes are limited only by the decreased ability of the body to work at the same physiological level, due to the metabolic changes of VO2max and maximum heart rate. Mature athletes often discover that their mental attitude towards sport, including such factors as their determination to succeed and their competitive urges, does not change in keeping with their reductions in physical ability.

Age-related responses to injury; Aging and athletic performance.

SEE ALSO

was a trained nutritionist, and together they sought to create an energy source that an endurance athlete could consume before, during, and after races and training sessions to assist the body in its recovery from the depletion of its energy stores. Maxwell had initially thought that with his years of racing experience and his wife’s nutritional knowledge, their ideas could simply be sold to a large food products company; no organizations expressed interest in Maxwell’s ideas for an energy bar. The original formulation of the PowerBar was developed in the Maxwell’s kitchen at their home in California in 1986. The bar was designed as a high carbohydrate, low fat energy source, made entirely of natural ingredients. It was determined by testing both elite level racers and more recreational runners that a PowerBar was best consumed with water. Maxwell later developed a companion PowerBar gel that was easier to ingest if the athlete was in motion. One of the chief attractions of the PowerBar and its gel formulation was its portability and its convenience. The PowerBar was initially sold on site at races and by mail order. It proved to be one of the most remarkably successful athletic supplements ever created. With the sustained fitness boom of the late 1980s and early 1990s producing record numbers of runners and triathletes, there was a fertile ground for the growth of the PowerBar market. Once Maxwell had established a market for the PowerBar, a significant number of competitors created their versions of sports energy bars. PowerBar also established itself with non-athletes as a healthy alternative snack food. Maxwell sold PowerBar to the Nestle company in 2000 for a reported $375 million dollars. Maxwell, the former marathoner and health food innovator, died of a heart attack in 2004 at age 51.

Carbohydrates; Dietary supplements; Exercise recovery.

SEE ALSO

Brian Maxwell 3/14/1953–3/19/2004 CANADIAN AMERICAN NUTRITION ENTREPRENEUR

Brian Maxwell was an elite marathoner in the 1970s, achieving third place in the world marathon rankings in 1977. Maxwell had encountered stomach cramping and problems in the later stages of marathons and he decided to seek a solution. Maxwell knew that at approximately 21 mi (34 km) into a marathon, the point in a race well known to marathoners as ‘‘the wall,’’ the body’s carbohydrate sources are severely depleted. Maxwell’s wife Jennifer WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Jim McKay 9/24/1921– AMERICAN TELEVISION SPORTSCASTER

Jim McKay is a television sports host and commentator who became identified with Wide World of Sports, a groundbreaking weekly sports program aired in the United States between 1961 and 1998. Wide World of Sports was produced using then state of the art broadcast technologies. McKay was also the primary television commentator as the events

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surrounding the hostage taking and murder of 11 Israeli Olympic team members unfolded at the 1972 Munich Olympics. Prior to his involvement with Wide World of Sports, Jim McKay had been a respected television host and personality since the late 1940s in various capacities in local and network television in the northeastern United States. In 1961, he was approached by the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) to act as host for Wide World of Sports, a program then contemplated as summer television programming that would expose esoteric and unusual sports to the American viewing public. Wide World of Sports proved to be so popular that it was continued into the following television season. The show became one of the longest running sports programs in history, and McKay acted as the host of the program from 1961 to 1998. The producers of Wide World of Sports perceived its mandate as one dedicated to sports that were out of the mainstream of the common feature of American sports television at the time—American football, baseball, and basketball. ABC broadcast the Hawaii Ironman in 1982 on this premise, the first international media attention ever paid to the event. The rapid growth in the popularity of both the Hawaii Ironman concept and the sport of triathlon generally can be traced to this broadcast. A signature of the Wide World of Sports program was the intonation by McKay of an introductory homage to sport, that included the phrase, the thrill of victory, the agony of defeat. This expression became one of the best-known (and often parodied) phrases anywhere in the world of sport. The program played a film montage as McKay’ voice could be heard, a series of film clips that were coordinated with the words McKay spoke. The segment played in conjunction with the words, the agony of defeat, became impressed upon the consciousness of the American public and it made a folk hero of an obscure Yugoslavian ski jumper. In 1970, Vinko Bogataj was commencing his jump in the World Ski Flying championships in Germany, when he lost control in his descent down the ramp as he neared the end of the track. Bogataj fell at a high speed from the ramp, crashing through various barriers and tumbling a considerable distance into the spectators watching the competition. Wide World of Sport was present to film the event and Bogataj’s spectacular crash became forever linked with McKay’s narration. That a segment such as Bogataj’s fall was captured on film is a testament to the production of Wide World of Sports, lead by then unknown television sports producer Roone Arledge (1931–2002). Arledge

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would later create the next ABC signature television program, Monday Night Football, in 1969. A visionary, Arledge was one of the first domestic users of the first Atlantic satellite, the means by which Wide World of Sports could provide live sports broadcasts to the United States from around the world. This technology is commonplace today. In 1965, when the satellite was first utilized by ABC, a satellite transmission of any television programming was a rarity. Arledge also made use of the relatively recent television production inventions of slow motion and instant replay in the Wide World of Sports broadcasts. In 1972, as the Olympic hostage crisis unfolded, it was McKay who was the communicator to the world of the information concerning the crisis, an event that ABC broadcasted live. McKay became associated with Olympic coverage generally, and he was a host on subsequent Olympic broadcasts in which ABC had a broadcasting interest until 2002.

International Olympic Committee (IOC); Track and Field.

SEE ALSO

Medical conditions SEE Sports medical conditions

Medical education SEE Sports medicine education

Mental stress Mental stress is a component of sport that is more pronounced in its effects on the athlete the more significant the event. Mental stress in the pressure brought to bear on the existing mental balance or emotional equilibrium of any person; the symptoms of mental stress will most commonly be exhibited when the demands of a situation are seen as exceeding the personal resources that the individual can bring to bear on them at that moment. Mental stress is distinct from the broad variety of mental health conditions that are defined as illnesses, such as depression or a post-traumatic stress disorder. Stress is a more transient and focused circumstance, usually tied to well-defined and identifiable factors that are close to the subject. Stress is also a distinct psychological condition from anxiety, which is a feeling of a lack of control over one’s future circumstances. Stress is usually related to the pending present event. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MENTAL STRESS

situations often result from a number of conditions, including: competitive pressure, the desire and the drive to succeed; training pressures, the ongoing stress of adherence to daily targets, mileages, or performance standards; the external pressures created by coaches or teammates to achieve; financial pressures created through either the cost of participation in a sport or as a career component; or the consequences of an injury, accompanied by the stresses of rehabilitation or fears of recurrence.

Most sport psychology techniques used to harness the energy of mental stress center on the ability of the athlete to focus on the event to the exclusion of all other thoughts and distractions. P HO TO BY TI M E & LIF E P IC TURE S/ G ETT Y IM AG ES .

Mental stress is commonly regarded as a negative circumstance in sport as well as daily living. It is often the response of the person to stress that determines how the stress ought to be characterized. Many athletes in particular train to channel their stress into positive influences on the outcome of an athletic event; this concept is better known as ‘‘healthy stress.’’ Stress is a combination of instinctive and learned reactions. Mental stress represents a delicate balancing act for the athlete; when the athlete feels little or no stress in an important circumstance, he or she is often too relaxed and not sufficiently activated to achieve the best result. When the athlete feels the effect of mental stress in a fashion that he or she cannot control or harness for his/her own benefit, it is equally unlikely that a strong result will be achieved. Stress arises in a number of different circumstances for an athlete, irrespective of ability level or athletic experience; elite competitors often tend to feel the effects of stress more profoundly. Stressful WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

As a companion to the internal emotions associated with mental stress, this condition has a number of physiological reactions. Most of these consequences are triggered by the body’s recognition of a dangerous circumstance, which initiates what is often referred to as the ‘‘fight or flight’’ response. The brain signals the adrenal gland to release the hormone adrenaline as a first-line response to a stressful circumstance. Adrenaline almost instantly creates a rise in both the heart rate and blood pressure, preparatory to any required muscle action. The body automatically raises its blood sugar level, and blood is directed to the extremities of the body, preparatory for physical action. The negative consequences of the release of adrenaline are increased excitability and a reduction in motor control skills. Controlling the impacts of stress is therefore of crucial importance to athletic success. Of fundamental importance to athletes and their ability to separate the positive aspects of stress from the negatives is the distinction between mental stress and physiological or training stresses. Physical discomfort and fatigue associated with training are inherent in sport and must not be a source of mental stress. Increased physical fitness will act as a barrier to the negative consequences of undue mental stress. The channeling of mental stress by the athlete from that of a limiting condition into a positive force can take a number of directions; an entire body of science, sport psychology, has evolved to assist the sports world in better understanding the principles underlying the control of mental stress in athletes. Most sport psychology techniques used to harness the energy of mental stress center on the ability of the athlete to focus on the event to the exclusion of all other thoughts and distractions. Catch phrases such as ‘‘blocking out pressure,’’ ‘‘getting into the zone,’’ and ‘‘positive self-talk’’ are tools employed by athletes to put their mind in an optimum position to assist the body. Simulation is an important stress-defending mechanism, useful in many athletic disciplines. When athletes know the obstacles to be faced in a particular event, their stress over performance will

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generally be reduced. It is also important for an athlete to appreciate that the strengthening of one’s abilities to counter the harmful consequences of mental stress is not an instantaneous process; stresschanneling strategies take time to develop and require experience in their execution, in the same way that an athlete develops motor skills.

Hormones; Nervous system; Sport psychology.

SEE ALSO

Metabolic response A metabolic response is any reaction by the body to a specific influence or impact. Metabolism is a general term describing the organic process in any cellular structure. A metabolic response can occur with respect to individual cells, a gland, an organ, or a process such as the cardiovascular system. Metabolism is often understood in terms of the metabolic rate, which is the amount of energy expended by the body in a given period. Metabolic response, when stated without reference to a specific action, is a neutral term; metabolic responses occur and may be correspondingly assessed or measured in respect of a wide variety of circumstances. Metabolism is a variable in the assessment of human performance. Metabolic function is subject to such individual factors as age, heredity, gender, level of physical fitness, and others. It is also well understood that while metabolisms are unique in every individual, there are certain generalizations regarding body types and structures that can be used in any consideration of metabolic function. There are three general body types, also known as somatotypes, that have a specific metabolic function, namely ectomorphs, mesomorphs, and endomorphs. An ectomorph is a person with a generally slim, light build, with a faster metabolic function that makes it generally difficult to both gain weight and build muscle. A mesomorph is a more solid, muscular build, one that tends to be suited to explosive movements and contact sports. The mesomorphic build is usually associated with a moderate metabolism. An endomorph is a person with a shorter, more rounded and thicker frame, often with a higher percentage of body fat, who usually has a slower metabolic function. Most persons have a body type that is a blend of two or all three of these body types. The body may exhibit a metabolic response to any type of external factor or change. Some common metabolic responses to different stimuli received by

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the body are improved physical performance, an ability to synthesize proteins, weight change, and response to injury. Changes in diet or nutritional practices are used to achieve an improvement in a physical attribute or capability. Athletes often tinker with their diet by means of both foods and dietary supplements to assist in achieving improvements in their performance. Diet alone can significantly influence the physical performance of an athlete. As a single factor or agent for change, diet will not improve athletic performance; it will permit athletic improvement to occur through its support of more intensive physical training, while reducing the risks of both injury and illness. Diet will also facilitate changes in the manner in which the body processes particular proteins, as the effect of exercise on systems such as protein synthesis into muscle continues beyond the extent of the particular training period. When a diet is altered from a traditional balanced ratio of approximately 60% to 65% carbohydrates, 12% to 15% protein, and less than 30% fat to one of greater fat composition, a prominent metabolic response is the generation of a greater number of low density lipoproteins (LDLs), a form of cholesterol that contributes to reduced cardiovascular function and longterm arterial disease. The manipulation of diet may also achieve a metabolic response with respect to how the body uses its stores of carbohydrates and fats for the production of energy. The most common desired metabolic response through diet is that of either weight gain or weight loss. A significant industry has grown around the sale of products that are described as metabolic response modifiers, all of which profess to modify the user’s metabolism to stimulate weight loss. The efficacy of these products is not well established. If an athlete consumes a reduced number of calories through the diet, and the athlete does not alter his or her particular pattern of physical activity, the metabolic response will be weight loss. When an athlete seeks to build muscle and adds a protein supplement to the diet, in concert with a specific weight training routine, the athlete will expect to gain some desired muscle. An undesirable metabolic response may occur if the athlete consumes excessive amounts of protein in the training diet, causing the formation of acids that tend to interfere in normal bone function, making the athlete a long-term subject for reduced bone density and osteoporosis. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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An injury or illness produces a pronounced metabolic response. A significant trauma to the body will trigger a ‘‘fight or flight’’ response, which will trigger the production of the hormone adrenaline. The perceived threat to the body will also initiate an increase in the body’s energy demands, reflected in increased body heat and an increased rate of conversion of glucose from glycogen. Changes in the physical intensity of athletic activity, either by training practices or competitive schedule, will generate a metabolic response. This response is particularly evident when assessing the nature of muscle composition in an athlete. When an athlete seeks to improve endurance ability, the training program will correspondingly focus on endurance exercise. The muscle groups involved in the generation of power in the exercise, each with a set pattern of distribution between fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers, will respond by making a slight adaptation in which more fast-twitch fibers are utilized for the muscle. Overtraining will produce the metabolic response of decreased immune system function, among other possible responses. SEE ALSO

Diet; Muscle protein synthesis; Nutrition.

Middle distance running

SEE

Running: Middle distance events

George Lawrence Mikan 6/18/1924–6/1/2005 AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL BASKETBALL PLAYER

In modern basketball, a 6 ft 10 in, 245 lb (2.09 m, 110 kg) center is something of a rarity—most National Basketball League players at that position are taller and much heavier. George Mikan, the man who revolutionized center play in the late 1940s and early 1950s, would be unlikely to succeed at his fabled position today. Like all athletes who truly changed the way in which their sport was played, Mikan, the 6 ft 10 in giant of his day, blazed a trail that all modern post players have followed. When George Mikan first gave serious consideration to playing college basketball, many observers believed him to be too tall and ungainly for the speed and intricate passing systems then employed by most college teams. Mikan enrolled at DePaul University, where he was coached by the legendary Ray Meyer WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

(1914–2006). Meyer saw a potential offensive weapon in the relatively slow and ungainly Mikan, and he worked with Mikan relentlessly to build the big man’s overall fitness and agility. Meyer ran Mikan through a variety of individual drills to develop his coordination. Mikan was made to skip rope, shadow box, run various distances both inside the gymnasium and out, a training program that was unheard of for large basketball players at that time. Most importantly with respect to Mikan’s long term impact on basketball, Meyer had Mikan spend countless hours practicing hook shots, using both his left and his right hands. Mikan also worked on the offensive rebounding techniques that Meyer believed Mikan would be able to employ using his size and reach. This series of shooting and footwork drills evolved into a sequence known universally among modern basketball coaches as the Mikan drill. The long hours of practice paid off as Mikan’s footwork continued to improve through out his college career. When Mikan enrolled at DePaul, the National Collegiate Athletic Association, (NCAA) of which DePaul was a member, prohibited freshmen from playing varsity sports. This three-year eligibility rule correspondingly limited Mikan to a three-year university playing career. In those three seasons Mikan established himself as the greatest force ever to play at the NCAA level until that time. In his junior and senior years, he led the NCAA in scoring. Mikan helped DePaul to an 81–17 record during the course of his university career. Mikan’s dominance at DePaul also spurred the first basketball rule amendment directed specifically at his ability to change the game. In 1945, the NCAA instituted a goaltending rule, to prohibit a defensive player from either touching the ball when shot by an offensive player at any time on its downward arc towards the basket, or from playing the ball in any way to sweep it from the basket if the ball was on or inside the rim of the basket. Mikan had been a force with his shot blocking prior to the rule change; he remained very effective at altering the manner in which the opposing player shot the ball after the new rule was instituted. Professional basketball in the United States in 1946 was composed of a number of small and struggling leagues, each battling to survive. Mikan was the greatest possible gate attraction that any league could possibly secure at that time, as he was the best-known college player in the United States. In 1946 Mikan signed his first professional contract with the Chicago Gears of the National Basketball League (NBL); his contract provided a then astounding

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$25,000 signing bonus, with a further $12,000 per season for five years. After winning the league championship in 1947, the Gears promptly folded, and Mikan was selected by the Minneapolis Lakers of the NBL in a dispersal draft. Mikan would remain with the Lakers for seven seasons, as the Lakers joined the Basketball Association of America (BAA) in 1948, ultimately moving to the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1949. It is a remarkable sidebar to the history of George Mikan that the Minneapolis Lakers’ NBA championship in 1950 was the third title won by the Lakers in three years, each in a different professional league. Through the 1954 season, Mikan continued to be one of the dominant players in the NBA. He regularly placed among the top five players in every scoring statistical category. Mikan was at the peak of his basketball powers when in 1954, he announced his retirement from basketball, citing a desire to quit while he was still at the top of his game. Mikan decided to pursue the practice of law. Mikan’s legacy in professional basketball includes the institution of two further rule changes. When Mikan commenced his professional career, the key, the lane that runs from the circle that encompasses the free throw line, extending underneath the backboard to the baseline, was six feet wide (1.8 m). Mikan would position himself at the edge of the key (as an offensive player was permitted stand inside the key for a maximum of three seconds), using his size to gain a significant advantage against a defender, as the tall Mikan and his remarkable hook shot ability was positioned only three or four feet from the basket. The effectiveness of this technique, known in basketball as establishing a post up position, was reduced when the NBA widened the key to 12 ft (3.6 m), to take Mikan further from the basket when he posted up. The second rule change, the institution of a 24 second clock, was made by the NBA in 1954, in an effort to speed the pace of the game and to force teams to shoot within the prescribed period. Mikan influenced the introduction of this change, as a team lacking a large dominating center such as Mikan could slow the game to a crawl by holding the ball, controlling the tempo and keeping the big post player out of the game, as Fort Wayne did to Mikan’s Lakers in a game in 1950. Fort Wayne stalled the entire game to negate the threat of Mikan. The institution of the 24 second clock was an innovation that helped establish the NBA as an exciting spectator product. Mikan never really left basketball after his retirement as a player. He served as the Lakers general

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manager in the 1955–1956 season, and he unsuccessfully coached the Lakers during the first half of the 1957–1958 season. When the now-defunct American Basketball Association (ABA) organized in 1967, Mikan accepted an offer to become the league’s first commissioner, a position he held for two years. The ABA was noteworthy for the development of stars such as Julius (Dr. J) Erving and Dan Issell, as well as the introduction of a red, white, and blue basketball. Mikan was named the greatest player of the first half of the twentieth century. He was also named as one of the 50 greatest players in the history of the NBA in 1996. At the time of his death in 2005, Mikan was lauded by numerous other greats of the game for his enduring contributions to basketball. Shaquille O’Neal paid for Mikan’ funeral in tribute to Mikan’ influence on the career of O’Neal and other great centers. Hall of Fame players Bill Walton and Kareem Abdul Jabbar both credited Mikan in their own progression to basketball stardom.

Basketball; Basketball shot dynamics; Basketball: Slam dunk; Basketball: Strength and training exercises.

SEE ALSO

Patrick Miley 5/10/1958– SCOTTISH SWIM COACH

Patrick Miley, a helicopter pilot and amateur swim coach, developed a prototypical swim rate monitoring device that he named the Aquapacer in the mid-1990s. One of the fixed principles of swim training is that to improve swimming speed, the swimmer must increase either stroke length or stroke rate while maintaining the other at its current level. Stroke rate improvement engages a number of possible training techniques, including methods of reinforcing fixed stroke rates through training. In a long workout, it is sometimes a difficult proposition for the swimmer to maintain a desired stroke if the athlete is fatigued or otherwise loses focus. The Aquapacer technology represented a breakthrough in training stroke maintenance. By 2000 Miley had developed a comprehensive training aid by which a coach could program a central control mechanism to convey signals to swimmers as they trained, using a receiver the swimmer attaches to a swim cap or goggles. The receiver then signals the stroke rate to the swimmer. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MINERALS

The rate can be varied during the workout to permit the swimmer to engage in tempo training. The Aquapacer’s usefulness as a swimming training aid was cemented at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney, where 30% of the gold medal winners in swimming used the Aquapacer in training. The Aquapacer is regarded as an excellent motivational tool for swim training because, much like an electronic metronome in music, the swimmer is required to keep pace. Although developed with elite level athletes in mind, the Aquapacer market has expanded to include Masters age swimmers and recreational swimmers who wish assistance in maintaining a consistent stroke pace as they complete their workouts. In its latest version, the Aquapacer is manufactured as a multiple receiver unit, where a number of receivers can be programmed for the use of different swimmers at the same time. The Aquapacer is also available as a single unit that is programmed and attached to the swimmer’s goggles or cap. In addition to its use as a stroke rate training aid, the Aquapacer can be employed to assist in assessing the fitness level of a particular athlete or the speed with which an athlete may be recovering from an injury. SEE ALSO

Biofeedback; Swimming.

Miller greatly reduced the effect of friction from the outer garment to the skin of the breast. The design also permitted the breasts to be held in a much more stable position, so as to reduce the excessive movement that was cumbersome for female runners who wished to run more quickly and efficiently. The Jogbra was a design that served as an example of the dictum, ‘‘form follows function.’’ The Jogbra was almost an instant commercial success. Miller saw her design and the resulting appeal of the garment as a feminist statement, an article of clothing that served to empower women by making athletic participation much easier. Miller served as the president of Jogbra until 1990, when the company was sold to the multinational women’s apparel manufacturer, Playtex. Miller subsequently parlayed her commercial success with the Jogbra into a political career; Miller was elected a state senator in Vermont for the first time in 2002. A version of the original Jogbra is displayed at the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D.C., as an example of twentieth century technology. The Jogbra was the first example of the garments now known generally as sports bras, an industry that has grown in direct proportion to the increased participation of women in athletics generally since 1977.

Musculoskeletal injuries; Women’s sport clothing and protective equipment.

SEE ALSO

Hinda Miller 1950– AMERICAN FITNESS CLOTHING DESIGNER, DISTANCE RUNNER

Hinda Miller was the co-developer of the Jogbra, one of the truly iconic items in the history of women’s fashion. In 1977, Miller was a Vermont clothing designer who had taken up distance running for fitness. Miller and two other women were searching for a solution to the problems they were encountering with respect to being able to run comfortably. Miller and other women found that without adequate support for their breasts, the natural rhythm of the running motion created significant strain on the supportive tissues of their breasts, as well as friction created by the outer apparel against their nipples and other sensitive skin. Miller and her colleagues designed a bra that was modeled to a certain degree after the features of the male athletic supporter. The bra that Miller designed was fashioned with external seams only, appearing when worn as if it were inside out. In this fashion, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Minerals Minerals are the inorganic elements that are required for a number of essential human functions. Minerals take their name from the fact that in their natural state, these are substances capable of being mined from the ground. The minerals relied on by the body in its natural processes are distinct from the organic compounds within the body, each of which has one of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, or oxygen, alone or in combined compositions. Minerals are primarily absorbed into the body through the foods consumed in the typical human diet. As minerals are a part of the soil where plants are grown and cultivated, minerals become a part of the formation of the cellular structure of most plants that are directly harvested for food; plant minerals are also present in the feeds consumed by animals that are subsequently used for human food. Minerals are utilized by the body in many different ways, both in the growth and the sustenance of the musculoskeletal structure, as well as in the

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effective function of the systems that carry out the operations of the body. Minerals play an indispensable role in many aspects of human function including: bone and tooth formation, construction, and maintenance; skin, tissue, and internal organ function; the transmission of messages through the central nervous system into the peripheral nervous system, the muscle function directed by the somatic and autonomic nervous systems; blood function and heartbeat regulation within the cardiovascular system; and aid to the digestion and the conversion of foods into energy sources. Minerals are classified as one of two subtypes: macrominerals, which are those nutrients that the body requires in a minimum amount of 200 mg per day as a recommended daily allowance (RDA), and microminerals, which are often as important as macronutrients, but are required in trace amounts of a RDA less than 200 mg per day. The most notable macrominerals are calcium, chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and sulphur. The chief microminerals are cobalt, iodine, iron, and zinc. Calcium is the most productive mineral in the body, essential to bone and tooth construction. It is also present in a lesser capacity in the bloodstream, where it influences the mechanism of blood clotting. Calcium is an important component in the transmission of nerve impulses and resulting muscle contractions controlled by neurons. Calcium is most commonly found in dairy products, but many green vegetables are also a source of this mineral. Calcium is absorbed into the body through the companion action of vitamin D, a fat-soluble compound. Phosphorus is found in dairy products, and it is a mineral that is also chiefly related to the development and construction of bones, possessing a similar linkage to vitamin D as that of calcium. Phosphorus is a mineral that is present throughout the entire human body by virtue of its presence in the nucleic acid that forms a part of every cell. Magnesium is a mineral whose chemical influence is exhibited across a range of human function, as it is also present in all human cells. Ingested through plant products such as nuts and soy beans, magnesium is a necessary component in the metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins. Sodium is a another of the omnipresent minerals. Sodium is primarily found in table salt, in the form of sodium chloride, as well as in green vegetables such as spinach. Sodium, as an electrolyte (a metal capable of transmitting an electrical charge), is essential to the body’s ability to maintain homeostasis, or ongoing balance of both its fluid levels, through kid-

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ney function, as well as the ability of the muscles to respond to signals directed to them from the central nervous system and the brain. Potassium has a similar chemical composition and a companion effect on muscle function. Potassium is also an essential part of the regulation of heartbeat, as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates. Beans, whole grains, and bananas are the most abundant sources of potassium in the diet. Chlorine is a substance found in various bodily fluids, where it assists in the maintenance of the balance between acids and bases in the body known as the pH balance. Chlorine is of particular utility in the stomach and the digestive processes through its contributions to the formation of the stomach acids used to break down foods. Chlorine is primarily obtained through the chloride component of table salt. Sulphur is a mineral that is employed by the body as a component in the formation of the proteins used to build muscle. Sulphur is also an agent in the various detoxification processes centered in the liver. Sulphur is usually significant in foods that are a part of the protein group in the human diet, including eggs, some meats, and some varieties of beans. The microminerals are ingested into the body in vastly smaller quantities than many of the macrominerals, but the importance of micromineral function is out of proportion to the quantities of these minerals. Iron is an essential component of hemoglobin, which permits the red blood cells of the cardiovascular system to transport oxygen. Cobalt is a vital aspect to the function of vitamin B12, a part of the vitamin B complex. Iodine, often added to table salt, is essential to thyroid gland function and the production of growth hormone. Zinc, in addition to assisting in general cell growth, is a constituent of insulin, the hormone essential to the regulation of glucose in the bloodstream. SEE ALSO

Calcium; Diet; Magnesium; Nutrition.

Modern pentathlon The modern pentathlon is the only sport specifically invented for inclusion in the Olympic Games. The founder of the modern Games, Baron de Coubertin of France, created the modern pentathlon as an embodiment of everything demanded of a true Olympian: athleticism, strength, grace, finesse, and coordination. De Coubertin determined that this event would have five distinct components, which WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MODERN PENTATHLON

The equestrian event (horse riding) is one of the five events in the Olympic modern pentathlon.

symbolized the five rings of the Olympic emblem and the five corresponding continents of the Olympic movement. The modern pentathlon begins with a pistol shooting competition, followed by epee (a type of fencing), swimming, equestrian (a horse jumping competition), and concluding with a cross-country running race. In the ancient Olympics, the pentathlon was a significantly different competition. There were a series of events within each of the disciplines that formed the pentathlon contest. The three running events ranged from a sprint of approximately 200 yd (200 m) to a race of over 1 mi (1.5 km) in length. A jumping event, discus, and the javelin were included, as was an equestrian competition. Wrestling, boxing, and a primitive form of martial arts, pankration, were also included in the pentathlon at various times throughout the history of the ancient Olympics. De Coubertin, who served as president of the International Olympic Committee from 1896 until WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª M I KE B LAKE /R EUTE RS /CO RBI S

1925, was a staunch advocate of the event, believing it to symbolize the ideals of the ancient Games. De Coubertin was successful in securing the inclusion of the pentathlon into the Olympics of 1912, strictly as a men’s competition, and it has remained an Olympic event since that time. A women’s pentathlon was added in 1980. The disciplines that comprise the modern pentathlon are so disparate that few modern athletes embrace the sport, relative to the popularity of most other Olympic sports; the modern pentathlon is not contested with any public fanfare outside of each Olympic Games. The five events of the pentathlon are contested in a single-day format. The opening event, the shooting competition, is conducted by way of each athlete firing a 4.5 mm air pistol at a stationary target positioned 11 yd (10 m) away. Twenty shots are fired at 20 targets during this period, and each shot is scored relative to the center of the target. The second pentathlon event is the epee fencing event, which is

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conducted as a round robin tournament; every athlete fights one fencing bout with every other athlete entered in the event. A victory in each segment of the round robin is counted toward the athlete’s ultimate score. Swimming is in many respects the most important part of the pentathlon competition, as the physical techniques essential to swimming success are usually acquired at a younger age than those that can be taught to an athlete in all other pentathlon disciplines. The swim is a 200-m freestyle event, and the time achieved by each competitor is scored on a ranking system. It is common for successful pentathletes to enter the sport from a competitive swimming background. The equestrian portion of the pentathlon requires each horse and rider to negotiate a course with 15 jumps each 4 ft (1.2 m) in height, stationed at various intervals around a course that must measure between 350 m and 450 m in length. As with a regular Olympic equestrian event, a missed jump is subject to a deduction from the overall score of the athlete. Each athlete must compete on a horse randomly selected by the event organizers. Unlike any other multi-sport event, the crosscountry running portion of the pentathlon represents both a race and an opportunity to salvage victory or an improved placing through the manner in which the race is conducted. The cross-country race is handicapped based on the standing of the athletes in the first four events. A time for the 3,000-m course that is less than the established standard gives the athlete a points bonus. The runners leave the starting line in the order of their standing going into the final event, creating the visual incentive for the trailing athletes to catch the runners ahead of them. It was the dream of de Coubertin to create the quintessential Olympic event through the modern pentathlon. There is no question that the pentathlon is a demanding discipline, due largely to the diverse events. The five events are a classic depiction of an athletic ideal; they are also a sporting eccentricity, especially in light of the relative rarity of equestrians, fencers, and target shooters to the bulk of the modern sporting population. The modern pentathlon is in many ways the ultimate cross training challenge, from the endurance and technique of swimming and running, to the rarefied skills necessary to succeed in the shooting, riding, and fencing events.

Cross training; Decathlon; Ironman competitions.

SEE ALSO

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Mormon tea Herbs are a part of the plant world that have been harvested by many cultures for thousands of years. Herbal products, usually the leaves, roots, and fruit that possessed specific reviving and recuperative qualities, were processed into useful medicines and dietary supplements. The plant known as Mormon tea is one of the best known of the herbal medicines to be created by the North American native cultures and the later arriving settlers and frontiers people of the American West. Mormon tea is a part of the family of plants known by their botanical name, ephedra. A green bush that grows in thin, spiky branches, ephedra grows in a number of variants across Europe, central Asia, and in pockets of both North and South America. Mormon tea is closely related in its structure and its chemical composition to ephedra, also known as ma huang, one of the important herbs used in the traditional Chinese medicines in use for many centuries. In every place in the world where an ephedra species has grown, an indigenous culture discovered its medicinal properties and employed them in a variety of ways. Mormon tea exists in a number of species and it grows in reasonable abundance in the semiarid plains of the part of the North American continent that includes the states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. It acquired the name Mormon tea because the beverage that was made from the steeping of the dried stems of the ephedra plant in boiling water was deemed not to violate the rules of the Church of Latter Day Saints (Mormon), whose people began to settle in what is now Utah in the mid-nineteenth century; Mormon people were forbidden from consuming caffeine. In other parts of the American West, the beverages brewed from the ephedra plant were known by equally colorful names: desert tea, squaw tea, and whorehouse tea. The irony of the name Mormon tea is found in the chemistry of the plant and the corresponding attributes of the tea made from its leaves, which possesses stimulant properties that exceed those of caffeine. The active ingredient that made Mormon tea prized by the native cultures that came before the Mormon settlers is ephedrine and its close chemical cousin, pseudo-ephedrine. These chemicals are present in varying amounts in Mormon tea, depending on the variety of the plant. Both ephedrine and pseudo-ephedrine are stimulants that have pronounced effects on the central nervous system. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MORMON TEA

Mormon tea plant.

ª DAV I D M UEN CH/ CORB IS

Ephedrine is proven to influence aspects of human function such as: increasing heart rate and blood pressure; functioning as a bronchodilator, a substance that tends to provide relief from breathing problems such as asthma through action on the bronchial passages; heightening and stimulating powers of concentration; assisting in combating fatigue. Ephedrine and the herbal products that contain it were not well known outside of the holistic medicine community until the 1970s. Two developments cast greater public interest on the uses of ephedra products. Athletes began to consume supplements that contained ephedra in greater numbers to take advantage of the stimulant qualities of ephedrine. It was determined that significant competitive advantage was derived from ephedra consumption, and any ephedrine and pseudo-ephedrine products were banned in both Olympic as well as most international WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

athletic events. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) bans both substances if they are present in amounts greater than 10 mcg per milliliter in the urine or the blood of an athlete when tested. In sports leagues that have not yet placed themselves under the authority of all aspects of the WADA Anti-Doping Code, synthetic forms of ephedrine and pseudo-ephedrine, often in the form of a decongestant, are often consumed immediately prior to competition by athletes seeking its stimulant qualities. National Hockey League (NHL) players have attracted widespread attention to this practice in the years following 2000. The second aspect to the rise in the notoriety of all ephedra products was the composition of dietary supplements, especially those promoted by the weight loss industry. As with all stimulants, the increase in heart rate and blood pressure tends to act as an appetite

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suppressant. After significant controversy, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the use of all ephedra ingredients in U.S.-manufactured supplements in 2004. The FDA concluded that ephedrine had a significant role in increasing the risk of heart attack in the users of ephedra products.

The level of athletic competition is often an important factor as to how the team or athlete can be motivated to perform at their highest level. A team that competes at an international level may possess different dynamics than those present in the members of a youth league team.

For athletes who use supplements with natural ingredients, the risk of inadvertently ingesting ephedrine or pseudo-ephedrine remains significant. Ephedra plant products continue to be mixed into supplements that are manufactured outside of the United States. The testing and third-party scientific analysis of natural diet and nutritional supplements are not usually as rigorous as that conducted in the pharmaceutical industry.

The skill level of the athlete, the gender of the athlete, and the age and the relative sophistication of the athlete are all factors as to how the subject athletes can be effectively motivated. The Hollywood style coach, screaming and neck veins bulging, who delivers a ‘‘blood and guts,’’ ‘‘win one for the Gipper’’ emotional speech does not have a place in every locker room.

Dietary supplements; Ephedra; Herbs; Stimulants; Supplement contamination.

SEE ALSO

Motion, range of SEE Range of motion Motivational techniques Motivation is the stimulus given to athletes to continue with and improve in their chosen sport. Motivation can come from a number of sources: coaches, teammates, supporters, and self-help methods can all be effective means of motivating an athlete to perform. Motivational techniques are an aspect of the broader branch of sports science known as sports psychology. The mental aspects of sport are now understood to be essential to athletic success. Sports psychology traces its roots to the work of an Indiana University professor in the early 1900s, Norman Triplett, who made a connection between the performance of cyclists who rode alone versus those who rode in groups of two or more. The effective motivation of athletes is an essential aspect to success in sports of every kind. The motivational requirements of every athlete are as unique as the athlete themselves. The first factor in the assessment of how an athlete may be effectively motivated is the nature of the sport played. As an example, a sport that involves repeated physical contact such as rugby or American football places entirely different stresses on both the mind and the body than does tennis or cross-country running. The motivation of a team will often differ from that of the individual athlete; teams possess a unique collective athletic personality.

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The nature of the training and the competitive seasons in which the sport occurs is also influences the motivational approaches to be taken. The periodization of training is the concept that provides for the division of an athletic year into components, the best known of which are the preseason, competitive season, and the off-season, all of which may be the subject of more finite divisions. The motivational techniques to successfully encourage an athlete to train effectively over an extended period of preseason work or to steer the athlete towards an upcoming competitive schedule are not necessarily the same approaches used to stimulate a best effort on race day or game day. Motivation is rarely successful as a one-time instrument. Successful motivational techniques are built on the relationship between the athlete and the person seeking to motivate the athlete, usually a coach. If the coach does not know the athlete well, the athlete will not inherently trust the words of the prospective motivator. If the athlete senses that the motivational tools are not sincere or that they are directed to some ulterior purpose, the motivation will fall flat. Knowledge of the athlete and the existence of a trust relationship between coach and athlete will permit the coach to understand what it is about their athlete’s unique personality that will permit motivation to occur. This knowledge will take the coach and the athlete to the activation point, that region of the athlete’s persona that will trigger a best effort. Through the relationship, a coach, for example, will know if the athlete (or the team) responds to a visceral challenge, or whether the motivation question is best approached on a more intellectual footing. Long-term motivation, the practices that are emphasized day to day through the athletic season, often are based on goal setting. The ultimate goal for an athlete may be to compete at an Olympic Games WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MOTIVATIONAL TECHNIQUES

What works to motivate one team, may not work successfully for another.

five years hence; the intermediate goals may center on intermediate competitions, and the short-term goals may involve setting a personal training best in the discipline two months in the future. Each motivational goal is a progression that bears a logical connection to the next target. Many athletes have failed to continue with sports where the goals set were either unrealistic or were ill-considered. With the concept of goal setting comes the notion of reward as a motivator. In elite-level competitors, the pursuit of a lucrative professional career and monetary reward is often a powerful motivator. For recreational athletes, the motivation to complete a tough workout when the athlete is fatigued may result in a reward of a day off from training or an indulgence such as a rich meal that is not normally permitted in the athlete’s diet. The management of stress and its impacts on the athlete are an important aspect of motivational techWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª E D B OCK/ CORB I S

niques. The ability to overcome the pressures of competition, or the effects of external environmental factors such as family, educational, or employment pressures will often be determined by the ability of the athlete to be motivated beyond the stressful factors to a mental state where the athletic activity is of primary importance. Successful athletes are able to motivate themselves to perform. For some, this is an innate part of their psychological makeup, and they might only require coaching direction as to how to keep motivated to perform. The technique of positive self-talk that reinforces with upbeat self-analysis and selfimagery is one of a number of ways that the individual athlete can strive to remain focused on training and competition.

Mental stress; Sport performance; Sport psychology.

SEE ALSO

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MOTOCROSS OR MOTO X

Motorbike (motorcycle) race in Belgium.

JOH N TH YS /A FP / GE TTY IMA G ES

Motocross or Moto X Motocross (also known as Moto X) is a form of motor cycle racing that originally took place on trails and off road venues. Motocross machines tend to be much lighter with a smaller engine displacement than conventional street motorcycles. The motocross machines are designed to be both maneuverable over rough terrain and constructed to absorb the significant forces created by the motorcycle’s contact with the terrain. Motocross races are organized according to classifications determined by the engine size of the machine. The first motocross races were held in England prior to 1930, in events known as ‘‘scrambles.’’ The international motorcycle sports governing body, Federation Internationale Motocycliste (FIM), sanctioned the first ever motocross events in 1947. In the late 1960s, the first North American motocross events were held. A typical outdoor motocross race course is between 1.0 and 1.5 mi (1.5 km to 2.5 km) in length. Most courses are built from a combination

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of natural terrain and man made alterations to the track to make it as demanding as desired by the organizer. A modern variation of motocross is Super Cross, where the riders compete on a circuit artificially constructed inside a sports stadium. The Super Cross course is a series of irregular curves, artificial mounds and straightaways, with the riders seeking to complete a fixed number of laps in the shortest period of time. Motocross has a similar interest in continuous technological improvement common to all sports where machinery places a key role. The largest of the motocross motorcycles have engines with a displacement of approximately 550 cc, supported by a structure that weighs less than 250 lb (115 kg). This combination of relatively powerful engine, light frame, and very strong suspension permit the machines to operate at high speeds. Riding an FMX machine in competition is an extremely strenuous and physically demanding activity. The control of the motorcycle, both as it is operated at full speed as well as through jumps and turns WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MOTOR CONTROL

requires muscular strength and stamina. The training to participate in FMX riding will include a considerable amount of aerobic fitness, as well as ensuring that the entire body subjected to stretching and flexibility training. The lumbar (low back) of the rider is particularly susceptible to strain due to the impact directed into that region through jump landings. SEE ALSO

Extreme sports; Motorcycle Racing.

Motor control Motor control is a broad term that describes the general ability of a person to initiate and direct muscle function and voluntary movements. Motor control is a concept that is distinct from the many involuntary muscle actions of the body, such as shivering when cold or flinching when an object is directed at a person without warning. A related expression, ‘‘motor skills,’’ refers to the ability to perform specific physical movements; motor control is also the acquisition and development of a series of distinct motor skills. Motor control is divided into two subsets. Gross motor control is the ability of a human to move a large muscle group or segment of the anatomy; the waving of an arm is an example of this type of movement. Fine motor control is the ability to manipulate precise movement, such as handwriting. All motor control is an integrated product of three aspects of the human anatomy: muscles, bones, and the central nervous system. The voluntary motor system, also known as the somatic nervous system, is the structure that permits and creates motor control. The system takes its name from the part of the brain known as the motor cortex, from which the signals to initiate movement originate. The impulse from the motor cortex travels along pathways through the brainstem into the spinal cord. The nerve cells of the spinal cord connect to a vast and intricate network to control the skeletal muscle movement. Motor neurons, the specialized mechanisms that communicate to the muscles, are a continuation from the nerve roots that branch out from each vertebra in the spinal column to the muscle over which control is required. There are a number of pathways essential to the function of the voluntary motor system, of which the pyramidal system is the best known and the most extensive. The voluntary, or somatic, motor system that provides the body with motor control is in contrast to the autonomic system, which begins with the regWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ulation directed by the distinct regions of the brain, including the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus regulates the function of many of the essential bodily systems, including heart rate, blood pressure, and electrolytic balance. The hypothalamus communicates much of its direction to these involuntary structures by way of the chemical signals, hormones, that are directed to the glandular network headed by the thyroid gland. Every healthy person will be capable of both gross motor control and fine motor control. In many sports, athletic success is measured in the fine distinctions between athletes in terms of their coordination (particularly their hand-eye coordination), balance, and overall body control. Many aspects of motor control are hereditary; others are linked to the body type of the individual. As an example, a 5 ft 10 in (1.7 m) point guard on a basketball team is expected to be able to execute complex physical movements, such as dribbling the ball with either hand at full speed under defensive pressure. The 6 ft 10 in (2 m) basketball forward is not likely to be able to move with the same grace and speed as the guard. With practice, the taller and less coordinated athlete could achieve improvements in this particular skill, but it is unlikely that he or she could surpass the smaller and quicker player. Body type and heredity aside, all athletes have the capacity to improve their motor control through the practice and the repetition of distinct motor skills. In many sports, the drills that form the basis of improved motor control ability are collateral to the sport itself. Cross training techniques are often employed to enhance a particular motor ability that is desired for a sport in an athlete. A notable example is the use of jumping rope in sports such as boxing; the repeated coordination of the athlete’s footwork and hands in the act of skipping improves the athlete’s overall coordination. American football has a time-honored training technique where players are required to move at full speed while negotiating a series of tires placed in a pattern; this drill builds the ability of the body to coordinate a jump vertically with a movement laterally to avoid falling into the obstacle, a non-contact simulation of the agile movements required on the playing field. ‘‘Muscle memory’’ is a muscular attribute linked to the development of motor skills. When an athlete is sidelined from an activity due to injury, the athlete will return more quickly to his or her previous level of motor ability due to the memory preserved in the nervous system as to how the motion stressed the subject muscle or structure.

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MOTORCYCLE: FREESTYLE

Competitor at Monster Jam freestyle motocross event.

M I CHA L CIZEK/ AFP /GETT Y I MAGE S

A physical injury to any aspect of the voluntary motor system will impair motor control. A concussion or damage to the spine or spinal column is a frequent cause of such injuries. When a nerve becomes pinched or otherwise damaged through trauma, such as a carpal tunnel nerve fracture in the wrist, the pathway for the major nerve ending into the muscles of the hand, there will be similar limitations of movement. Motor control can be significantly impaired though stresses imposed on other bodily systems. When athletes become dehydrated, they will commonly sustain an imbalance in their electrolyte levels, particularly that of the mineral sodium. A sodium deficiency will impair the ability of a nervous system transmission to be communicated to the working muscle.

Hormones; Nervous system; Sport performance.

SEE ALSO

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Motorcycle: Freestyle Freestyle motorcycle, or FMX, is another activity classed as an extreme sport. FMX riders do not race their machines; the motorcycles are used to perform a variety of stunts and trick riding, often at both significant speeds as well as involving an aerial component. FMX competitions became popular when this sport was added to the lineup of the annual X Games, the international extreme sports competition. FMX is a competitive sport where riders are judged subjectively on the quality of the tricks performed. However, as with any of the extreme sports categories, the emphasis is not placed upon competition so much as it is focused upon the personal challenge to the rider of taking the activity where it had never gone previously. A leading example of the successful FMX rider is Travis Partrana (b. 1983) of the United States, who was the first FMX rider to land a back flip on a motorcycle in competition, where the motorcycle does a single revolution on its WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MOTORCYCLE RACING

Competitors in the Motorcycle Grand Prix of Catalonia in Barcelona, Spain.

PH OTO BY F RA NC O OR I GL IA/GE TTY IMA G ES .

Extreme sports; Motocross or Moto X; Motorcycle: Freestyle.

axis while traveling forward in the air. Partrana has also executed both a double back flip, as well as a back flip while taking the motorcycle in a 360 rotation parallel to the ground. Many of the FMX stunts require the rider to become airborne through the use of a ramp.

SEE ALSO

There is a significant connection between the type of tricks performed in FMX and those executed in skateboarding, BMX bicycling, and other extreme sports. To practice a stunt as inherently dangerous as a back flip while seated on a motorcycle, some clubs have constructed specialty ramps and landing areas where the rider has a reduced risk of injury in a fall.

The history of motorcycle racing began with the development of the internal combustion gasoline engine in the latter years of the nineteenth century. The first motorcycles were bicycles to which a crude engine was attached to the rear wheel to provide power.

Motorcycle racing

The training on the part of an FMX rider to successfully complete a back flip is progressive. The rider will often attempt his first such stunt on a small engine machine, with a displacement of 50–75 cc. Most of the elite performers in FMX use machines of at least 250 cc or greater; the faster the rider can jump of the end of the ramp, the more time in the air the bike will remain, permitting the rider a correspondingly greater time within which to make the flip.

As with the development of early racing automobiles, the first competition motorcycles were built in a variety of styles, as racing pioneers experimented with both two and three wheel configurations. The first motorcycle race involving exclusively two wheel designs occurred at Surrey, England, in 1897. The sport quickly became popular in both Europe and the United States; the world body responsible for the establishment of motorcycle racing standards, the Federation Internationale de Motorcycles Club, now known as the Federation Internationale de Motorcylcism (FIM) was founded in 1904.

Protective equipment is essential to FMX riding. Riders wear helmets and face shield, as well as full body armor.

Motorcycle racing evolved in two distinct directions—competitions organized according to the nature of the racing to be conducted, and races open


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to specific sizes of motorcycle engines, a determination based upon either engine displacement (measured in cubic centimeters) or the degree of customization permitted to the motorcycle. The first motorcycle races were held on open road courses, the most famous of which is Great Britain’s Isle of Man TT (or Tourist Trophy) event, first staged in a number of different classifications in 1907. Hill climbing races and dirt track racing on both quarter mile (400 m) and half mile (800 m) ovals became popular in the United States in the 1930s. This form of racing has continued to the present day, on surfaces where the racers regularly exceed speeds of 100 mph (160 km/h). Specialized closed circuit road tracks, similar in concept to the courses built for Formula 1 automobiles, were constructed in various parts of the world to accommodate the extremely high powered performance racing motorcycles beginning in the 1970s. This form of racing, organized as ‘‘MotoGP,’’ involves motorcycles that are built for racing only, as opposed to stock motorcycles that race in other racing classifications: stock motorcycles are very similar to those available for public use through commercial sale. The MotoGP class of motorcycles are so powerful that the engines must be de-tuned, a process where the otherwise available power of the motorcycle is mechanically restricted, to permit the rider an opportunity to control the motorcycle that has the capacity for tremendous speeds but relatively little contact between the tires on the machine and the surface of the track, when compared to a racing automobile. The small degree of tire contact restricts the amount of control that the rider can exercise over the MotoGP motorcycle by way of braking or cornering if the machine were permitted to travel at its maximum available speed. Motor cycle drag racing, where the machines race on quarter mile (400 m) paved strips also promoted the use of sophisticated engine technologies, where modified engines 1300 cc and larger cover the distance at speeds in excess of 150 mph (241 km/h) at the quarter mile marker. Motorcycle drag racing in the United States is organized under the auspices of the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA), the organization that organizes automobile drag racing. The motorcycle drag races are known as the Pro Stock Bike series. Motorcycle racing became a popular off road venture, from smaller scale motocross events that are staged both indoors on modified surfaces that include artificial jumps and moguls to challenge the racers, to the dangerous multi-day endurance racing events such as the Paris to Dakar, Africa event. These

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motorcycles are constructed with heavy suspensions to absorb the significant forces that are generated when the machine is bouncing on a dirt trail or other off-road surfaces. Motorcycle racing requires an understanding of a number of different physical principles. One of the most dramatic of these applications is observed when a racer executes the racing technique known as cornering. On a closed course racing circuit, the riders will be observed with the motorcycle angled into the turn, with the rider’s inside knee positioned very low, appearing to skim over the track surface as the motorcycle moves at high speeds through the turn. As the rider corners, three different physical elements are at play to influence the movement of the motorcycle: the downward pull of gravity upon the motorcycle and rider, the friction between the tires and the track surface, and the centripetal force acting to the outside of the turn. The perfectly executed turn will be the product of the rider leaning the motorcycle at an angle where the force of gravity is at equilibrium with the centripetal force that is acting to force the motorcycle upright. If the lean into the turn is too acute, the motorcycle will fall over; if the lean is insufficient, the motorcycle cannot make a sharp, efficient turn. If the rider enters a turn with no lean at all, the motorcycle is likely to fall towards the outside of the turn. One common feature to almost all types of motorcycles is the acceleration capability of the machine. If the motorcycle accelerates too rapidly, the front wheel will be pushed off the ground, a phenomenon known as a ‘‘wheelie.’’ Some wheelies are executed by motorcyclists as a stunt; the wheelie when unexpected can flip the motorcycle over on its longitudinal axis.

Automobile racing; Balance training and proprioception; Motocross or Moto X.

SEE ALSO

Muscle cramps Muscle cramps are experienced by most athletes at one time or another. Such cramps are an involuntary and usually painful contraction of a skeletal muscle, most often in a structure that is actively providing muscle power at the moment of the onset of the cramp. The surface of the affected area will present as hard and contracted, with the skin appearing as if drawn tight over the muscle. A muscle cramp will invariably occur without warning. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MUSCLE CRAMPS

a failure to stretch or properly warm up prior to activity dehydration, and the related problem of sodium deficiency low blood sugar (glucose) levels magnesium deficiency calcium deficiency the presence of the hydrogen ion that is a byproduct of lactic acid formation in working muscles thyroid gland irregularity kidney dysfunction side effects of certain medications Muscle cramps are more common is certain types of sporting activity, and the cramps tend to occur in distinct parts of the body in the course of those activities. In sports involving running, both as an event and as fundamental to team sports such as soccer, rugby, and American football, muscle cramps most frequently occur in the gastrocnemius (calf), the hamstrings, and the quadriceps (thigh) muscles. In cycling, the calf muscles are a frequent cramp location. As a general rule, muscle cramps will occur near the end of physical activity, when the body has been subjected to stress for a considerable period.

A cricket player falls due to a leg muscle cramp.

A P P HOT O/B I KAS

DA S

Muscle cramps are distinct from muscle twitches, another involuntary muscle action. Twitches are distinguishable from cramps by virtue of three features: their general isolation from the working muscles, an absence of pain when the twitch occurs, and the negligible impact of muscle twitching on performance. Twitches frequently occur in the eyelids and small muscle groups of the body. A twitch may be brought on by external pressures such as stress, or the excessive consumption of caffeine or other stimulants. The cause of muscle cramps is variable, and the investigation to determine the basis for the occurrence will usually be linked to the nature of the activity and the environmental conditions in which the activity took place. The most common causes of muscle cramps, a number of which will occur in combination, include: fatigue strenuous exercise and overuse of particular muscle groups WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The onset of a muscle cramp is a disabling event. The first action to relieve the condition is the gentle stretching of the affected muscle. A stretch of the tissues that is slow and that does not itself create a further stress on the muscle will provide relief from the muscle contraction. At the point when the athlete can sense some reduction in the tightness of the cramp, the principles of the RICE (rest/ice/compression/elevation) treatment can be applied to the injured area. In some circumstances, the athlete can continue to gently stretch the muscle with the ice applied. As many cramps are related to the dehydration of the body, the athlete should consume fluids immediately. Muscle cramps are a warning bell to the athlete. As the muscle cramp is often a symptom of a more serious physical issue that requires attention, the resumption of the athletic activity after the onset of a cramp must be monitored carefully. The development of a muscle cramp is an excellent opportunity for an athlete or a coach to assess the training practices, hydration, and diet of the athlete to determine what aspects of the overall sport regime may have contributed to the problem. The prevention of a recurrence of the muscle cramp will also involve a review of the fitness level

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of the athlete. If the work required of the athlete exceeds his or her capabilities, the body will be more quickly fatigued. It is important that when an athlete seeks to increase a training or competitive workload, such increases are incremental, and usually no more than 5% per week. Proper hydration and sodium levels must be maintained. When an athlete becomes dehydrated, the body will generally lose both its ability to properly cool itself as well as sustain a decrease in required levels of sodium. Sodium deficiencies contribute to an inability in the muscle to receive nerve impulses, which may contribute to cramping. Athletes must ensure that they follow a hydration strategy before, during, and after all training and competitive events, as dehydration is a cumulative condition. Magnesium, calcium, and sodium are all minerals that are best consumed by way of food sources. The diet of the athlete should be analyzed to ensure that there is adequate provision for these minerals in the foods consumed. A thorough and effective warm up, which includes an elevation of cardiovascular and respiratory function, combined with the stretching of all of the body muscle groups, will serve to both prepare the entire body for the stresses of the activity, as well as serve as a preventative against cramps. SEE ALSO

Cramps; Diet; Hydration; Minerals.

Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch Muscles are the instruments that power all movements made by the human body. Muscles are defined as being contractile tissues that are capable of extension and contraction to generate movement. The body uses three different types of muscles for various purposes: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles. Skeletal muscle, also known as striated muscle, is the type that constitutes most of the muscle mass within the body. Cardiac muscle is the specialized tissue found only in the heart. Cardiac muscle is activated involuntarily through the function of various impulses, including those directed through the autonomic nervous system controlled by the hypothalamus, the regulatory region of the brain. Smooth muscle is the tissue that lines the hollow organs of the body and it is also the subject of involuntary control, the autonomic nervous system.

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All types of skeletal muscle are constructed from densely knit fibers, which are provided the nutrients necessary for their function by capillaries, tiny blood vessels extending from the arteries of the cardiovascular system. Muscle fibers are bound into bundles, called fascicles, to form a working unit. The ultimate control over every muscle fiber is exerted by the brain, through the transmissions that it directs to the body through the central nervous system. These transmissions emanate from the brain through the spinal cord, and ultimately through nerve pathways to neurons located within every muscle. The neuron is the local control mechanism that regulates the function of a group of muscle fibers; one neuron may control as many as 2,000 individual fibers. Given their function of the control of physical movement, these devices are known as motor neurons. The speed with which the neurons communicate with their related fibers dictates the characterization of the fiber as either a ‘‘fast twitch’’ or a ‘‘slow twitch.’’; all muscles possess both fasttwitch and slow-twitch fibers. Fast-twitch fibers and slow-twitch fibers possess the same capacity to generate muscular power. Fasttwitch fibers are activated by their neurons at a rate ten times faster than the rate of activation for slowtwitch fibers. The distribution of fast- versus slowtwitch fibers in the muscles is primarily an inherited characteristic, determined by the genetic coding of each person. While it is common for a person to have muscles with a relatively even distribution of fastand slow-twitch fibers, some persons inherit a tendency to a significantly greater number of one type of fiber over the other. Such persons tend to excel in the sports best suited to their muscular composition. Fast-twitch fibers are further subdivided into two sub-categories, fast twitch (IIa) and an intermediate speed twitch fiber (IIb). Fast-twitch fibers are relied on by the body to propel it in short, intense bursts (such as those required in sprinting, weightlifting, or other short duration, explosive movements). Slowtwitch fibers are the units employed by the body to provide the power for endurance activities. The manner in which the two kinds of fiber are utilized is tied to their construction as well as to the function of the neuron. Slow-twitch fibers possess a greater quantity of mitochondria, the portion of the human cell that acts as a powerhouse within each cell in the production of energy. Slow-twitch fiber cells can process greater amounts of oxygen to assist in the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the body’s fuel for the production of energy. For this reason, slow-twitch fibers are relied on when the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MUSCLE GLYCOGEN RECOVERY

muscle must extend and contract repetitively, as in distance running or cycling events. Physiological studies confirm that extensive endurance training will create an adaptation by the body, in that the intermediate fast-twitch fibers (IIa) may be converted to slow-twitch fibers over time. The training that will assist in the development of fast-twitch fibers involves the repeated activation of the appropriate muscles. Techniques include isometric training, in which the muscle is held in a resistance-generating position for set periods. The clasping of both hands and pulling them with equal force from each arm is a simple isometric movement. A goal of isometric exercise is to ensure that the targeted muscle is contracted and extended in a disciplined fashion, which encourages an optimal relationship between each neuron and the muscle fiber group. Weight training, particularly the lifting of significant amounts with short rest intervals in each set, also stimulates fast-twitch fiber development. The best known of the explosive training techniques aimed solely at the development of fast-twitch fiber is plyometrics. These programs that usually emphasize intense jumping and interval sprint training—which often are used by sprinters, hurdlers, basketball players, and other athletes that seek to become more explosive in their movements—are the best-known techniques to develop fast-twitch fibers in the leg muscles. The muscle becomes conditioned to respond to the stimulation provided to the neuron as dictated by the demands of the exercise. When the body senses that the number of fast-twitch fibers available to perform the movements are insufficient, neighboring fibers will be co-opted into assisting the existing fast-twitch fibers.

Endurance exercise; Muscle mass and strength; Plyometrics.

SEE ALSO

Muscle glycogen

SEE Carbohydrate stores: Muscle glycogen, liver glycogen, and glucose

Muscle glycogen recovery Muscle glycogen recovery is the process through which the muscles of the body are replenished with carbohydrate sources that have been depleted through the energy expended in exercise. The muscles that are the target of this recovery to an WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

optimal glycogen level are the skeletal muscles, those structures that are actually engaged in the movement of the body; the other muscle groups, the smooth muscles of the internal organs and the cardiac muscles do not possess a capacity for glycogen storage or conversion to fuel in the muscle. Glycogen is the form in which the carbohydrate glucose is stored within the body; the skeletal muscles typically contain two-thirds of the body’s supply of glycogen at any time, or a quantity measuring approximately 2% of skeletal muscle weight. Most of the remaining glycogen in stored in the liver, where it is released into the bloodstream for transport to cells for energy production. Exercise by its nature places demands on the body to provide energy to power the muscles in movement. When the energy sources, particularly glycogen, are constant at the commencement of the activity, these supplies will steadily diminish, and if not replaced to any degree during the activity, the glycogen must be recovered and the supplies restored at the conclusion of the activity. Most glycogen is entirely consumed from muscle stores within 15 minutes to 30 minutes from the commencement of the exercise; in disciplines such as sprinting, where the fast-twitch muscle fibers are the components of each muscle that are of primary importance, the athlete may exhaust all of the stored glycogen reserves with 10 minutes of muscle effort. Weightlifters and other power sport competitors place similar demands on their muscle glycogen supply. Of the glucose that is initially stored as glycogen and then converted for use in the energy-producing processes, 75% is directed to the brain and the functions of the related central nervous system; it is from the approximate 25% remainder that red blood cell production, skeletal muscle, and heart muscle functions are ultimately fueled. Skeletal muscle glycogen depletion is a natural result of physical movement, which depletions are especially pronounced in athletic activity. Such depletion, if not corrected, carries with it risks to the structure and the function of the body. The primary danger associated with this depletion is damage to cells and muscle structures. When the body is unable to access muscle glycogen, it may trigger the breakdown of cell structures to create an alternative energy supply. Muscle glycogen depletion also places significant stress on the overall function of the immune system. Muscle glycogen depletion is most effectively counteracted through diet; athletes who understand the demands placed on their muscle glycogen stores

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will plan how they shall achieve glycogen recovery through the foods ingested before, during, and after their workouts and their competitive events. There are a number of techniques employed by athletes to bolster their muscle glycogen levels, with each approach specific to the nature of the glycogendepleting physical activity. In sports where explosive, fast-twitch muscle movement is essential, the muscle glycogen is best restored through a post-activity meal that is rich in carbohydrates. This meal can be consumed within 30 minutes of the conclusion of the activity, as the body is most receptive to the recovery process at that time; the body’s ability to ingest and synthesize carbohydrates into useful glycogen declines in the hours following the physical activity that depleted those reserves. Ideal muscle glycogen recovery will be performed through a series of small meals, as opposed to a single large meal that the body will not able to digest and process as readily. When the meals include a measure of protein replacement (the explosive muscle power activities that tax the glycogen stores often will require restoration of protein levels as well), a dual benefit is achieved. A well-established method of ensuring that an endurance athlete has sufficient muscle glycogen is the process known as ‘‘carbo loading,’’ when the athlete deliberately reduces carbohydrate consumption in the diet while continuing the training and energy expenditures. The athlete then loads carbohydraterich foods into the system, which tends to flood the muscles with glycogen. This technique, or a variation, is used after an endurance event such as a marathon race to restore muscle glycogen levels. The development of specific sports fluid replacement products that contain carbohydrates (as well as useful electrolytes and water) has permitted athletes to more readily ingest carbohydrates during a workout or a competition. As a very general guideline, the body will process such carbohydrate sources most efficiently when the amount of carbohydrate in the fluid is between 6% and 12% by volume. This technique is effective in events that approach two hours or more in length, depending on the intensity of the athletic effort in question. For most athletes competing in events such as the Hawaii Ironman, such mid-race carbohydrate ingestion is essential.

Carbohydrates; Glycogen depletion; Glycogen level in muscles; Overtraining.

SEE ALSO

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Muscle mass and strength The expressions ‘‘muscle mass’’ and ‘‘muscle strength’’ are often used concurrently, but each has a separate sports science meaning. Muscle mass is the physical size of the muscle; muscles are often large due to exercise and concentrated physical training, but not exclusively. Muscle strength is one of the accepted components of total fitness, which includes endurance, flexibility, power, and speed. For almost every conceivable athletic purpose, muscle strength is a more valuable commodity than mass. However, in many contact sports, particularly those with specific roles for players in specific positions, muscle mass is important to the ability of the athlete to obtain and establish position against an opponent; the strength and sport-specific techniques employed by the athlete once that positioned is established will be the more important attributes. The concepts of muscle mass and muscle strength are also separated from muscular power, a concept that implies explosiveness, and muscular endurance, which is the ability of the muscle to work at a steady performance rate over time. This athletic distinction between muscle mass and strength is apparent in players such as an interior lineman in American football; a rugby forward, particularly those who play in the front row of the scrum; and a center in National Basketball Association (NBA) competition. In elite-level international rugby, the pack of eight forwards will weigh an average of 250 lb (113.3 kg); the laws of physics are immutable, for if the respective techniques of each group are equal, the pack of 250-lb players, working together, will dominate a team with 220-lb (99.8-kg) players, even when the lighter athletes have greater individual muscle strength. In American football, where the average lineman weighs over 300 lb (136 kg), most tactics involved in line play are founded on the principle that once the player has position, he will be difficult to root out. Basketball, while nominally a non-contact sport, places a significant premium on the large center who can establish an anchored offensive position adjacent to the basket, through which his or her team will operate their sets. In individual sports, such as wrestling or boxing, muscle mass is also an important aspect of how the competitor develops the tactics to combat the opponent. The amount of mass behind a blow delivered will be a significant factor in the ultimate force applied to the opponent. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MUSCLE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Muscles cannot become either larger or stronger through any device other than the proper application of diet and training principles. ª JONA THA N CAV EN DIS H /CO RBIS

Muscles cannot become either larger or stronger through any device other than the proper application of diet and training principles. Anabolic steroids— much publicized as a means for athletes to become bigger and stronger—are only a training aid, not a magic elixir. Steroids assist in muscular development only when the athlete is carrying out the physical training necessary to develop the muscles. The essential components to a program that will enhance the muscle mass of an athlete will include: Muscles are constructed of fibers that are created within the body from the proteins synthesized in the food ingestion process. The muscle mass-seeking athlete must ensure that the diet supporting the training program has the necessary quantities of protein. A conventional balanced diet has approximately 12%–15% protein. In some configurations, the protein component may be adjusted to comprise 25% of food intake, subject to the individual needs and attributes of the athlete. Free weights tend to create a greater muscle mass than the muscle group-specific exercise WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

machines commonly used in health clubs and weight rooms. As the athlete must control a free weight through its entire range of motion, the targeted muscle and all ancillary muscle groups are also engaged in the act of lifting each weight, a process that extends the workout effect into a larger muscle region than the machines, which limit movement to the targeted muscle. The number of exercises performed with regard to each muscle group, defined as sets of exercises, will impact on muscle mass. As a general rule, the greater the number of repetitions, the lower the resistance, the greater the muscular endurance, the less the muscle mass. For this reason, muscle mass tends to be developed with lower numbers of repetitions per set, performed with greater amounts of weight. Muscle mass and strength are not mutually exclusive training goals, notwithstanding the different methods by which one may seek size and strength. Muscle strength may be attained through the simplest of means—gradual increase in workload imposed on the muscles that are desired as strength increase targets. Muscles tend to get larger as they become stronger; when a strength program is accompanied by endurance training or other significant energy production and corresponding caloric output, the athlete will often possess highly defined muscles, with reduced mass but increased muscular strength.

Anabolic steroids; Creatine supplementation; Growth; Skeletal muscle.

SEE ALSO

Muscle protein synthesis The synthesis of muscle protein is essential to the body’s ongoing growth, repair, and maintenance of its skeletal muscle groups. The other types of human muscle tissue, cardiac muscle and the smooth muscles that are part of internal organ structure, are constituted through different cellular processes. Proteins are the compounds comprised of amino acids—the building blocks of tissue formation within the body. The synthesis of protein is the method by which muscles are constructed. The human body synthesizes protein from diet at a rapid rate while the body is growing through adolescence and into young adulthood. The rate at which protein is synthesized slows significantly after age 20. It is for this reason that even among active, highly trained adults, the actual rate of muscle growth will be far less in relative terms to that of a healthy teenager.

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In an adult athlete, the synthesis of muscle protein is also related to how the muscles are being exercised. Other than the ongoing repair and maintenance of existing muscle tissues that may be damaged through the course of daily living, human skeletal muscle will never get larger or stronger through either sedentary activities or the consumption of particular foods or supplements. Muscular activity is a prerequisite of meaningful muscle development, built on protein synthesis. All forms of physical activity will direct specific stress into a muscle. In a sport such as distance running or cycling, the stresses are cumulative, the combined effect of repetitive movements that are at a relatively lower level of intensity. In activities that involve explosive and powerfully focused movements (such as weight training) the forces directed against the muscle are much more significant, and they occur over a much shorter time span. In each circumstance, the muscle will naturally break down, a process known as ‘‘catabolism.’’ The breakdown includes the physical separation of the fibers that comprise the muscle structure. The subsequent repair of the damaged muscle is ‘‘anabolism,’’ the building up and the growth of the existing and previously damaged fiber. Anabolic steroids take their name due to their contribution to the building up of muscles. Protein synthesis is the mechanism by which the body affects this repair and muscle growth: as a very general proposition, when the body produces more synthesized protein than it consumes through its catabolic processes, muscle will be developed. There are measurable ways to determine the balance in the body on an ongoing basis between its catabolic and its anabolic states. The essential amino acid, leucine, is used as an indicator of the state of this balance in more sophisticated sports science analyses. A positive leucine balance is evidence that this acid is present in the cells, a condition consistent with protein anabolism. Leucine is a component of numerous commercial protein supplements taken to stimulate further protein synthesis in the body. Muscle protein synthesis is also considered in the context of sore, damaged, or overused muscles. Sports research in this area has focused not so much on whether the ingestion of protein is likely to be useful to the athlete, but at what point after the exercise should the protein be consumed so that the body can derive a maximum restorative and musclebuilding effect. The combined effects of carbohydrate consumption and protein consumption have also been thoroughly considered in recent years.

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The sports science community supports the usefulness of carbohydrate replacement immediately after exercise. Such replacement tends to deliver glycogen to the affected muscles more quickly; in addition, the entire body has a replenished supply of carbohydrates from which the whole of the musculoskeletal system can be restored. When proteins are consumed along with carbohydrates immediately after exercise, the catabolic process is not stopped within the affected muscles; the process of protein synthesis is immediately stimulated (a kick-start is an expression commonly employed in the research to describe the effect). This action leads to the prevention of further protein loss in the muscle. As the degradation of the muscle due to strenuous exercise will not reach its peak for approximately three days after the exercise that affected the muscle, it is important to continue the ingestion of protein. The maintenance of consistent dietary practices is essential to the body’s ability to respond on an ongoing basis to the demand for muscle protein synthesis. The body has a need to ensure effective muscle protein synthesis throughout the course of an athletic career. With the rise in masters level participation in a wide variety of sports (generally defined as competitions for athletes aged 40 years and older), older athletes are affected by catabolic and anabolic processes. The body’s response to the increased consumption of protein after exercise does not significantly vary with age, for either men or women.

Diet; Growth; Protein ingestion and recovery from exercise.

SEE ALSO

Musculoskeletal injuries Musculoskeletal injuries constitute the largest class of athletic injuries sustained in sports. Any injury that occurs to a skeletal muscle, tendon, ligament, joint, or a blood vessel that services skeletal muscle and any related tissues is a musculoskeletal injury. The musculoskeletal system is the structural movement-generating component of the body. The capacity for movement is closely allied to the relationship between the musculoskeletal and the neuromuscular systems, which is the interconnection between muscular movement and its control through nervous system impulses. Sport participation along with a healthy and active lifestyle involve an inherent risk of musculoskeletal injury. The majority of these injuries are resolved without significant long-term consequences WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

MYOSTATIN

(or sequelae in medical language). The usual shortterm consequences of musculoskeletal injuries will include the following limitations to physical function, irrespective of the part of the anatomy to which the injury was sustained: Decreased physical strength: Muscular ability will begin to decline after 24 hours of inactivity. Nerve impulses slow: At optimal health, the nervous system can transmit some nerve impulses, such as those crucial to coordination and reaction, at speeds of over 300 ft (100 m) per second. Inactivity through injury will reduce the overall ability of the nervous system to stimulate movement. Circulation and metabolic rates will slow. Bone mineral density decreases: Injury tends to slow the rate at which calcium and vitamin D operate in union to produce new bone cells. Collagen, the cellular protein material that provides bone with the elasticity to absorb forces directed into the otherwise hard mineral surface, is not generated at pre-injury levels. Collagen level decreases in the connective tissues, primarily tendons and ligaments, making these structures stiffer, less elastic, less responsive to movement, and more vulnerable to injury. Reduced cardiorespiratory function: The ability of the body to process oxygen, described VO2max, will decline by a limited amount in the first few days of inactivity due to injury, with pronounced declines exceeding 10% of peak oxygen uptake after 15 days. Reduced glycogen storage: Both the musculoskeletal muscles and the liver, the primary storage sites within the body for glycogen, will not maintain peak storage levels absent muscular activity that places demands upon the body’s ability to utilize glucose, converted from glycogen. The most common cause of musculoskeletal injury is a combination of physical overloads created by overtraining or by the repetitive use of a joint or a particular muscle group. Virtually every sport has a potential for this type of injury; these injuries are more often caused by training routines than by the stresses of a single competition. Distance running is a sport that by its nature will often create conditions for both overtraining as well as leg and foot injuries that are attributable to the repetitive strains of the activity. The injuries sustained in running are rarely connected to a single event, unlike the injuries of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

many contact sports; running injuries commonly are a combination of the mileage covered by the athlete in a given training period, the pace with which the training distances are run, the nature of the terrain covered in training, as well as the unique physical characteristics of the athlete, such as structural deformities or imbalances and age. These overloads lead to micro fractures of the bone structure, muscle and tendon tears, and ischemia, the reduction of blood supply to an organ or tissue. In a cross-sectional analysis of the frequency of injury occurrence among athletes of all ages and ability levels, the greatest number of musculoskeletal injuries occur to males between the ages of 15 and 25 years. The distribution of the frequency of the different types of musculoskeletal injuries is relatively equal between male and female athletes, although different types of specific injuries occurred more frequently due to the physiological differences between men and women. The most striking of these examples is the far greater risk that female athletes face regarding a prospective anterior cruciate ligament knee injury, due to the relatively wider pelvis in relation to femur length in the female anatomy. Various sport and government organizations in North America and Europe have analyzed musculoskeletal injury rates. Approximately 25% of all athletes will expect to sustain a musculoskeletal injury in a 12-month period. The more fit and the more sophisticated the athlete, the more likely the risk of injury, due in part to the fact that such injuries often occur to athletes performing at a higher level with greater physical stresses and risks. The research on such injuries also confirms that foot and ankle injuries are the most common of musculoskeletal injuries, constituting approximately 25% of these occurrences. Knee injuries of all types are the next most common, representing 22% of musculoskeletal damage. Back injuries are the next most prominent occurrence, at 11%. Injuries to the lower leg, thigh, hip, shoulders, and the hand/forearm structure each occur at frequencies of between 5% and 10%.

Ankle sprains; Back injuries; Hand injuries; Knee injuries; Shoulder injuries.

SEE ALSO

Myostatin Myostatin is a gene, one of the units of heredity consisting of a sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that determines the inherited characteristics

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of every individual. It is a gene that contributes to the differentiation in growth factors, including physical size, and regulates muscle development. Unlike those factors that spur the growth of human structures, myostatin prevents muscles from growing too large. It is protein-produced in the skeletal muscle cells, interacting with the production of myocytes, the cells that ultimately form muscles. Interest in myostatin is a relatively recent phenomenon. While the function of myostatin within the human body is a biological research frontier, the ability of certain cattle breeds to grow to enormous, well-muscled stature, particularly the Belgian blue, is well understood, as it is a breed that inherently possesses less of the myostatin gene. Muscle size is both an inheritable trait as well as an attribute that may be altered through physical training, coupled with diet. A large number of proteins, referred to as growth factors (GFs), operate in different ways within the body. A GF will generally signal a cell as to its rate of growth and any differentiation from other cells. Some of these proteins, such as insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), influence cell growth throughout the entire body; myostatin has a specific impact restricted to muscle cell development. In a healthy human, the effects of how the various GFs operate is best understood in the context of how the body recovers from a muscular injury. When a cyclist sustains a tear to the gastrocnemius, one of the two calf muscles, the repair of the torn segment commences almost immediately after the injury is sustained. IGF-1 controls the creation of the cells necessary to enable the damaged muscle fibers to be rebuilt and repaired. Depending on the nature and the extent of the damage to the muscle, the repairs triggered through the action of the IGF-1 hormone will continue over time. It is a central principle of weight training and muscle development that the creation of tears in the fibers of the muscle are necessary to build a larger muscle. It is for this reason that weight training programs should provide for rest intervals that will allow the repairs to be affected at the cellular level and for the muscle fibers to grow. Acting alone, IGF-1 would be the facilitator of unchecked muscle growth and development. Myostatin appears to act as a counterbalance to the stimulation of muscle cell growth, as it serves to slow and ultimately limit the number of new cells created to build new muscle. As muscle size is inheritable, there exists the potential to create a variable gene, where the

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increase in muscle size in an athlete could be achieved through a decrease in the action of the myostatin. The precise details of how myostatin operates within the muscle cells are not yet known to sports science, as myostatin first became the subject of published scientific commentary in 1997. The principles of myostatin function are sufficiently understood to support the significant research undertaken to develop a myostatin inhibitor. Such research is directed not only at the athletic advantages that are believed to flow from such a product, but also to combat muscle-wasting diseases such as muscular dystrophy, various cancers, and AIDS. Research directed at both cattle and poultry, both of which have myostatin-type genes, have confirmed that, in theory, a myostatin inhibitor will permit greater muscle growth in human athletes. Supplements known as myostatin blockers have become prominent in the weight training and bodybuilding markets. These products are widely advertised throughout the health and fitness industry, with seemingly countless variations available through the mass marketing of the Internet. The products that make the claim as possessing myostatin-blocking or inhibiting capabilities have not been the subject of scientific verification. Further research on myostatin will focus in part on the risks of the wide-scale use of this prospective inhibitor. The impact of a myostatin blocker on the function of the heart and cardiovascular system is unknown. With greater muscle size through the administration of myostatin blockers, the risk of additional strain on tendons and bone structure through increased muscle mass must also be considered. The prospect of genetic doping with respect to the limitation of the action of the myostatin gene is one that has been considered by international sport. The fear of agencies such as the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) is the development of a technology where a myostatin inhibitor could be injected into a specific tissue, permitting the enhanced development of the subject muscle. In a more benign fashion, testing for the presence or extent of the myostatin gene in an individual has other potential applications. Testing for the extent of the myostatin gene would be useful in determining which persons would be best suited to sports involving significant muscular development.

Anabolic steroids; Genetic prediction of performance; Genetics; Nandrolone.

SEE ALSO


N James A. Naismith 11/6/1861–11/28/1939 AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION INSTRUCTOR

James Naismith invented basketball in 1891 to provide an outlet for some energetic male students at the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) Training School (now Springfield College) in Springfield, Massachusetts. The simplicity and the athleticism inherent in Naismith’s creation remains the essence of modern basketball, one of the true world games. Naismith’s roots extend into both Canada and the United States. Born at Almonte, Ontario, a small village located near the Canadian capital of Ottawa, Naismith’s first athletic success was achieved while he was a well regarded undergraduate student at Montreal’s McGill University, beginning in 1883. Naismith was a classic all round athlete, a success in sports as diverse as rugby, gymnastics, and lacrosse. Naismith played for McGill in at least one of the early rugby football games against Princeton University, contests that were the forerunners to modern American football. When Naismith beganed graduate studies in theology, Naismith’s professors disapproved of his active athletic career. However, Naismith advocated that it was possible, and even desirable, to encourage young men to pursue both an athletic and a spiritual life. This philosophy was central to much of what Naismith accomplished throughout his later career in athletics. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

While attending university in Montreal, Naismith became acquainted with the YMCA, an organization that had been founded in London in the early 1800s. The YMCA established branches in Montreal and Boston in 1851. At the Montreal YMCA, Naismith approached the Association administrators regarding his desire to become a physical education instructor who combined spirituality and physical training in a program for young athletes. It was as a result of these discussions that Naismith joined the faculty at the international YMCA training school located at Springfield, Massachusetts in 1890. In the winter of 1891, during his second year at Springfield, Naismith was placed in charge of the indoor physical education program. His students consisted primarily of bored but otherwise active older teenagers and mature men who had tired of available winter indoor sports options, primarily gymnastics. The senior physical education instructor directed Naismith and his colleagues to develop a new indoor game to occupy their students; two weeks was the timeline permitted to create the new game. To create a new sport, Naismith sought inspiration from the outdoor sports with which he was familiar, such as soccer, lacrosse, and rugby football, with modifications to suit an indoor format. As the new game would be played on an unforgiving hardwood floor, a new sport that involved tackling or excessive physical contact was not feasible. As Naismith considered other ideas, he recalled a childhood game called ‘duck on the rock’, where the players threw balls into empty boxes or baskets. Naismith’s

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first creative step towards the invention of basketball was to place peach baskets placed at opposite ends of a court. To pose a greater challenge to the players, Naismith raised the goals above the height of the court. As the gymnasium at Springfield had an indoor running track situated 10 ft (3 m) above the floor of the gymnasium, Naismith selected this height as the position of his basket goals, goals that Naismith attached directly to the facing of the indoor track. It is one of the legends associated with Naismith and the development of basketball that the gymnasium janitor became very upset with Naismith for having the bottom of the janitor’s valuable peach baskets removed to save Naismith’s players the time and the trouble of climbing a ladder to retrieve the ball. With his concept now given a rudimentary physical structure, Naismith, with the assistance of several colleagues, devised a set of 13 rules to govern the play of the created game. Among the first rules were several important concepts, each of which has survived in one form or another in the modern game. These fundamental concepts were: (1) no running with the ball in hand (a rule which that lead to the codification of the rules respecting dribbling the ball); (2) no tackling or rough body contact; (3) the freedom of any player to obtain the ball and score at any time. In December 1891, Naismith’s students were the participants in the first ever game of basketball. The score was 1-0, and the new sport was an instant success. Basketball quickly spread to other countries through the national and international structure of the YMCA. Basketball was played in at least 12 countries within two years of its invention. On a local level, Naismith passed along his knowledge to Senda Berenson Abbott, the head physical education instructor at near by Smith College, a female institution, where Abbott modified the rules of the game for her female students, with the first games played at Smith in 1893. Naismith was humble regarding the success of basketball. He was pleased that he had created a popular and beneficial sport. Naismith was apparently content to let his game evolve as it might, and he left Springfield to obtain a medical degree at the University of Colorado in 1898. Naismith soon after became the assistant athletic director at the University of Kansas. He left Kansas to serve as a captain and an Army chaplain with the United States forces in World War I. In 1918 he served as the YMCA

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Secretary in France, before returning to the University of Kansas as its Director of Athletics from 1919 until 1937. Naismith was a part of two important developments in the history of basketball in his tenure at Kansas. The first was his influence on the career of Forrest (Phog) Allen (1885–1974), the legendary University of Kansas coach, a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame, and one of the great college coaches, innovators, and tacticians in the early development of basketball. The second development occurred shortly before Naismith died at age 78 in 1939. Naismith was on hand to witness the introduction of basketball as an official Olympic sport at the 1936 Summer Games in Berlin. Although he generally shied away from public acknowledgement with respect to his role in the creation of basketball, Naismith accepted an invitation to the Games’ inaugural ceremony, and he agreed to throw the ball up for the opening tip-off at the first Olympic basketball game. Naismith has received considerable posthumous fame for his creation of the sport of basketball. His game has evolved dramatically since 1891, but basketball, with its freedom of movement and its emphasis on skill and execution, has remained true to the spirit of Naismith’s creation. He was the initial inductee into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1959. SEE ALSO Basketball; International Olympic Committee (IOC); Sports coaching.

Nandrolone Nandrolone is an anabolic steroid, one of the class of muscle-building chemicals often employed by athletes to improve their strength and durability. Steroids are substances composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules, constructed in rings. Nandrolone occurs naturally in the human body in extremely minute quantities. It has a chemical composition that is very similar to testosterone, the male hormone, which is also a steroid and essential to the growth and development of the male body. Nandrolone is also a similar composition to that of progesterone, the equivalent female hormone. For these reasons, nandrolone has been valued as a training aid since it was first developed. The application of anabolic steroids to sports was discovered by accident in the 1930s; steroids became the subject of systematic testing by Russian and Eastern Bloc sports scientists in the 1950s when WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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weightlifters were provided the substances in controlled circumstances and significant performance gains were measured. Nandrolone was an anabolic steroid created in the course of the experimentation that arose in the 1960s regarding general steroid use. Nandrolone became popular in the 1980s as a preferred steroid choice as it was perceived as having fewer side effects than other anabolic steroids, particularly those of increased growth of body hair and sudden, unpredictable outbursts. As with all other steroids, nandralone was proven to reduce fatigue, and increase the rate at which muscles and overall strength could be developed while permitting athletes to train harder. Nandrolone is obtained through injection. It is marketed in North America under the trade name Winstrol; in England and Europe, it is marketed as DecaDurabolin. Although anabolic steroids were established as a performance-enhancing drug in the late 1960s, the capacity of sports science to provide athletes with them far exceeded the ability of sports regulatory agencies, such as the International Olympic Committee (IOC), to police their usage. The IOC declared anabolic steroids illegal for all Olympic competitions in 1976, but effective and scientifically verifiable steroid testing methods did not exist until the early 1980s. As science progressed in its ability to detect steroids, in most cases through the presence of trace evidence known as metabolites detected in urine samples, that progress was a defined compound at one time. The ability to detect one variety of steroids was not proof of the detection of a compound of similar chemical composition. The IOC did not have access to reliable testing for nandrolone until the late 1980s. Once the science was available, the testing for nandrolone was further complicated by the fact that nandrolone is a naturally occurring substance in the body. The test procedures would be required to take into account this fact; for this reason, the legal limit of nandrolone permitted in the body was fixed at 2 mcg per ml of urine. It was established through significant rounds of scientific testing that, for athletes who consumed nandrolone, they would be expected to produce metabolites excreted in urine at levels 100 times the natural level of nandrolone present in the body. In the 1990s, world champion sprinters Linford Christie of Great Britain and Merlene Ottey of Jamaica were the subject of positive tests for nandrolone, as was Czech tennis player Petr Korda. In 2006, National Hockey League player Brian Berard tested positive for this steroid as well. The involvement of these high profile athletes in nandrolone use is a testament to its WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

popularity and perceived usefulness as a training supplement. Nandrolone positive tests have attracted further controversy from the scientific perspective, as further study has been directed to the issue of whether intense exercise, combined with a high protein diet and the use of the supplement creatine, is capable of increasing the natural production of nandrolone within the body, so as to generate a false-positive steroid test. The most common defenses proffered by athletes in cases of a positive nandrolone test have been either that the positive test was due to a dietary supplement that was unwittingly consumed by the athlete that contained nandrolone, or that the body naturally produced nandrolone in the course of the processing of the proteins contained in the diet or supplement. As with every other anabolic steroid, there are proven long-term health risks associated with the use of nandrolone. In the short term, nandrolone will usually stimulate the production of acne on different parts of the body. All steroids will tend to make the user more edgy and irritable, prone to mood changes, and short tempered; the extent of this side effect is variable. In the medium term, the body of a male nandrolone user will undergo physiological changes that may include the development of breasts, as well as reduced sexual drive and ability. For female users, an interruption or cessation of the regular menstrual cycle is a common consequence of all forms of steroid use. The most dangerous consequences of steroid use are long term. Because nandrolone and other anabolic steroids mimic the effect of testosterone in the body, as well as stimulating its release, the excess quantities of the hormone must be broken down; this is the function of the liver, the organ primarily responsible for cleansing and cleaning functions in the body. An increased risk of the development of liver tumors is a well-established consequence of steroid use. The other serious long-term effects of nandrolone usage include a generalized greater risk of cancer, as well as the potential expansion of the heart muscle, leading to cardiac arrest.

Anabolic steroids; Creatine supplementation; Supplement contamination.

SEE ALSO

Nasal sprays Nasal sprays are a common method by which various types of medications are delivered into the body. Nasal sprays are powered by either a gas-

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peak level if their body produces histamine at its natural response rate. Nasal sprays containing an antihistamine compound are often effective in reducing the level of histamine produced by the body. As a result, the nasal passages remain clearer. The sprays, depending on their formulation, are fast-acting; cromolyn sodium is a well-regarded allergy nasal spray for this purpose. Antihistamine sprays are available both as a prescription medication and as an over-the-counter (OTC) product. Nasal sprays are also used to deliver allergy medications that are designed to address allergic reactions that occur in other parts of the body, as the blood vessel structure of the nasal passages is an effective entry point into the cardiovascular system for the ultimate transport of the medication to the targeted cells.

Nasal sprays are often used as a medium by which medications can be delivered into the body. WILL & DE NI MCIN TYRE /P H OTO RES EA RCH ER S, INC .

pressurized device (often carbon dioxide), or by a pump mechanism. The contents of the nasal spray are delivered into each nostril by the insertion of the spray nozzle and the compression of the spray device. Nasal sprays are most often employed to counteract breathing-related ailments, including allergies, the effects of air pollution, and infections of the upper respiratory tract such as sinusitis, an inflammation of the tissues in the sinus passages. Allergies are caused when the body detects the presence of an antigen, a foreign substance that the body determines to be harmful when it makes contact with the body’s immune system. In the case of airborne antigens, the response by the body includes the production of histamine, a chemical that creates the watery eyes and excess mucous production that is typically associated with an allergic reaction. Many persons find breathing difficult in these circumstances; athletes are generally not able to function at a

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Corticosteroids are also delivered into the body by way of nasal sprays. These substances are synthetic derivatives of the body’s naturally produced anti-inflammatory hormone, cortisone. Corticosteroids are particularly effective in countering the swelling and inflammation of sinusitis. In severe cases of this infection, an athlete will experience sinus pain through the heavy breathing of vigorous exercise as air rushes in and out of the upper respiratory system, as well as any sudden changes in the position of the head that result in variations of pressure in the sinus. Commercially available decongestants often include ephedrine or similar stimulants in the composition. Ephedrine acts to stimulate the dilation of the blood vessels in the nasal passages. There are risks associated with long-term use of these types of nasal sprays because the user may feel dependent on the spray, promoting an unnatural dilation of the vessels. A simple saline solution is sometimes employed by athletes as an aid to washing out the nasal passage, clearing excess mucus and permitting easier breathing. The saline aids in simply cleaning the passage in a sanitary fashion. Athletes who are performing in dry, less humid conditions often employ these sprays; the body’s ability to process the air inhaled is most effective in slightly humid conditions, which the nasal passage can replicate if a saline spray is administered from time to time.

Bronchospasm, exercise-induced; Cardiorespiratory function; Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); Prescription medications and athletic performance.

SEE ALSO


NASCAR AUTO RACING

NASCAR auto racing The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing, or NASCAR, was founded in the United States in 1947. Throughout its early years, NASCAR was a series of automobile races that involved vehicles that bore a very near resemblance to the vehicles then being produced for commercial purposes in post World War II North America; the typical NASCAR race vehicle was a factory manufactured sedan. ‘‘Stock’’ is the term employed throughout all motor sports to signify vehicles that have not been significantly modified in terms of the size and displacement of the engine, suspension, or transmission. Stock is often employed in the same circumstances as the expression ‘‘street legal,’’ a phrase meaning that the vehicle in question complies with the rules respecting highway operation in a particular jurisdiction. The first NASCAR races in the late 1940s and early 1950s attracted a significant following, particularly in the southeastern United States. Many of the races were often contested on dirt track ovals, where the competitors raced 0.5 mi (0.8 km) for each lap. NASCAR racing took a significant step forward with the construction of its super speedways, the most notable of which was built at Daytona, Florida in 1953. NASCAR racing gradually moved away from its stock format to vehicles built for the specific demands of racing in to the late 1950s; the development of the 355 cubic inch displacement V8 engine by General Motors was one of the early landmarks of that progression. Modern NASCAR is a sport that enjoys a strong following in North America, and a steadily growing international fan base. NASCAR successfully marketed its racing product on a combination of the vehicle performance, the nature of NASCAR racing (which requires the drivers to operate the vehicles at very close quarters to one another at speeds that frequently exceed 150 mph (241 km/h), which sometimes leads to relatively frequent and spectacular collisions), and the personalities of the successful drivers. ‘‘King’’ Richard Petty became a NASCAR icon, especially as he was followed into racing competition by a son and a grandson. Junior Johnson, Dale Earnhardt, and Rusty Wallace attained similar levels of public acclaim. North Carolina and the adjacent southern states have remained the epicenter of NASCAR, as a number of highly regarded tracks are located in the region; many of the prominent racing teams are also headquartered in the vicinity. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The modern NASCAR race vehicles have a silhouette similar to the production vehicles built for commercial sale by their sponsors. Beneath the outer shell of the vehicle, the NASCAR race car is a combination of high technology and older styled automotive features that are mandated by NASCAR rules. These machines are capable of speeds in excess of 200 mph (322 km/h) on a race track straight away. The driver is secured within a roll cage through a series of safety mechanisms, designed to deflect the forces of collision away from the driver’s body. With the rise in the television appeal of NASCAR, most of the vehicles are equipped with on board television cameras that provide a view both of the driver as he operates the vehicle, as well as a vantage point on both the movements of opposing drivers and any the collisions that occur during the race. The typical NASCAR race car is powered by a V8 engine, built to run at high speeds in warm weather conditions without failure for several hours at a time. Each engine is capable of producing as much as 750 horsepower, with an engine design that forces much larger quantities of air into the engine for combustion than does a conventional engine design. The carburetor, the mechanical device that mixes the required amounts of air with fuel in an internal combustion engine, is a ‘‘low tech’’ instrument in the face of modern technology such as fuel injectors; NASCAR rules prohibit fuel injector use. As a result, large amounts of air and fuel can be mixed, increasing the potential power to be generated by the vehicle. A NASCAR team will employ two different body types in a racing season, depending upon the length of the track. On short tracks, where the circuit is fewer than 0.75 miles (1.2 km) in length, the racing teams seek a vehicle that will handle the tighter turns and the shorter straight-aways in an optimal fashion. In such conditions, vehicles handle best when they are able to generate down force, the physical quality achieved where the aerodynamics of the vehicle force it closer to the surface of the race track when traveling at high speeds. Down force permits greater handling characteristics in the tires while cornering, which allows for greater vehicle speed on these shorter courses. NASCAR places technical limits on engine capability at the longer, super speedway courses, where there are longer straight-aways and a consequently greater risk of high speed collisions. The most prominent of these tracks are Daytona and Talladega. The most effective of the limitations is the mandatory use of restrictor plates on the super speedways. The carburetor mixes fuel in vapor form, with air directed

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Driver Jeff Gordon leading the field in a NASCAR race.

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into the carburetor through an intake manifold. The greater the flow of air from the intake manifold into the carburetor, the greater the amount of fuel drawn into the carburetor. The more fuel available to be mixed in the carburetor, the greater the volume of combustible mixture to be consumed by the engine, resulting in more engine power and greater potential for speed. The restrictor plate is a metal barrier with a pattern of holes drilled through it that is placed between the intake manifold and the carburetor. The plate restricts the flow of air into the carburetor, creating a smaller available volume of fuel and air to be mixed and combusted in the engine, reducing available engine power and speed. All NASCAR racers are constructed with a number of aerodynamic features. The most obvious of these are such items as the air dams (the skirting that extends from the body of the vehicle encircling the structure except for the wheels) and rear spoilers (the wings attached to the rear of the vehicle to assist in producing down forces that push the vehicle closer to the road surface and enhance stability, especially

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when moving through a corner at high speeds. In addition to these features, standard NASCAR race tactics include drafting behind a lead vehicle. Drafting is the procedure where a driver positions his vehicle directly behind the lead vehicle, so as to take advantage of the partial vacuum created by the lead vehicle movement through the air. By positioning the second vehicle on the bumper of the first, the second vehicle is essentially pulled through the partial vacuum by the lead vehicle. It is common in NASCAR races to see multiple vehicles drafting, one after another. In contrast to open wheel racing such as Formula 1 Auto Racing, the driving tactics of NASCAR are usually less complex, as the NASCAR circuits are almost always an oval with all vehicles heading in an identical fashion for between 200 and 600 mi (322-966 km). Drafting at very close quarters, the bumping of vehicle ahead to gain an advantage, and very daring passes at high speeds on banked turns are standard driver practice.

Automobile racing; Formula 1 auto racing; Motorcycle Racing.

SEE ALSO


NATIONAL COLLEGIATE ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION (NCAA)

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) is a governing body unique in the sports world. The NCAA is an organization that blends athletic governance, academic regulation over its participants, and revenue generation under one tightly structured umbrella. While primarily a body that is devoted to the advancement and supervision of sport in an amateur setting, the NCAA methods regarding the stewardship of intercollegiate athletics are consistent with classic corporate organization models. The NCAA was founded over 50 years after American intercollegiate sport established a niche in the public consciousness. From the first truly intercollegiate football games in the 1870s, football rivalries grew in the universities of the eastern United States. The rules of the game were not fully formalized until 1906, when the forward pass became legalized. The early contests were both hard fought and dangerous, including ‘‘gang tackling’’ and tactics such as the ‘‘flying wedge,’’ a device by which the ball carrier was shielded by his ten teammates in a wedge formation that was thrust full-speed into the opposition. Serious head injuries and skeletal fractures were relatively common, and after a number of football player fatalities in the early 1900s occurred during intercollegiate contests, the then-president of United States, Theodore Roosevelt, was subject to considerable public pressure to ban football from intercollegiate athletics. At the urging of Roosevelt, representatives of 13 universities met in 1905 with the intention of making football safer. From these meetings came the formation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS), which was constituted with 62 members in 1906. The IAAUS became the National Collegiate Athletic Association in 1910. The membership of the modern NCAA is an aggregation of over 1,000 institutions. In the nomenclature of American intercollegiate athletics, the expression ‘‘college sports’’ includes colleges, which are four-year degree-granting institutions often specializing in liberal arts programs, as well as universities, which tend to offer more comprehensive academic programs, including postgraduate and doctoral studies. Junior colleges are not a part of the NCAA framework; these are two-year institutions that offer associate degrees. Junior colleges have their own national governance and structure. It is not uncommon for junior college student athletes, particularly in basketball, to transfer to a college or university program after completion of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

their two-year program; such players are often referred to as a ‘‘juco transfer.’’ While the initial focus of the IAAUS and the successor NCAA was the regulation of football safety, intercollegiate sports of all types experienced a dramatic expansion after the end of World War I. The NCAA provided governance over the men’s intercollegiate sports of its member institutions only until the late 1970s, offering no championship opportunities for women until that time. The first collegiate track and field championships were organized by the NCAA in 1921, and through the succeeding years the NCAA expanded its sanctioned championships to include team sports such as baseball, whose first College World Series was held in 1947, ice hockey in 1948, soccer in 1959, and lacrosse in 1971. The history of the national collegiate basketball championships highlights the rise of the NCAA in contrast with other bodies that have been a part of competitive college sports landscape throughout the history of the NCAA. Created in 1901 by James Naismith at what is now Springfield College in Massachusetts, basketball enjoyed a remarkable growth at a collegiate level. In 1901, a group known as the Helms Committee determined the national champion through a vote of its members. In 1937, a business group based in Kansas City organized a national basketball championship, with an emphasis on small college participation. This organization later became known as the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA); the NAIA exists today as a distinct governing body with a membership of over 250 academic institutions. In 1939, the NCAA assumed control of the Helms Committee, and it convened its first tournament that year. At the same time, the National Invitational Tournament (NIT) was born, a tournament where college teams were invited to play in a single knockout elimination format at Madison Square Garden in New York City. For many years, the NCAA and NIT competitions were not mutually exclusive, (City College of New York won both events in 1950, the only institution to do so) and the NIT had equivalent prestige to that of the NCAA championship. By the 1960s, the NCAA basketball tournament had become the premier college postseason tournament, and by the 1980s, the NIT was relegated to an event for teams that could not qualify for the NCAA championship. In 2005, the NCAA acquired all rights to the NIT competition, which is now operated under the NCAA auspices. The growth of all NCAA sports prompted the creation of different competitive divisions in the early

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1970s. It had become evident that in many sports, smaller institutions had difficulty competing against larger and better-funded schools that offered better and more comprehensive forms of athletic scholarships, thus attracting better athletes. The tension between the academic purposes of postsecondary education, and the corresponding attention paid by admissions directors to College Board results and high school grades, and the value accorded athletic success at many institutions has been an undercurrent in the work carried out by the NCAA in its regulatory capacity since the 1930s. In modern America, where the cost of university education will commonly range from $20,000 to $50,000 per year of study, a ‘‘full-ride’’ athletic scholarship is a significant prize, as it is common for students to graduate from university with student loan debt in excess of $50,000. As an attempt to standardize the practices of the institutions, the NCAA created competitive divisions in 1973. All NCAA member schools must comply with the rules with respect to their division in order to compete within the sports championships offered at each division. The divisions include:

for each gender, with each sport having a minimum number of games required in each season. In revenue-generating sports such as football, Division 1A schools must comply with minimum stadium seating requirements, and all such Division 1 institutions are capped regarding the amount of financial aid that they may offer to prospective student athletes. A significant feature of many Division 1 sports programs is the ability of the school to recruit its prospective athletes on a national and international basis.

Division 1: Schools are permitted to offer full athletic scholarships, in accordance with both NCAA rules regarding entrance grades and the recruitment of athletes. Division 1 schools tend to be the larger academic institutions, although not exclusively so. There are over 350 Division 1 schools in the NCAA. Division 2: Schools are permitted to offer both full athletic scholarships, partial athletic scholarship (often the value of tuition or a similar component of the full academic costs), or scholarships that combine both academic and athletic components. There are 25 different sports championships contested in Division 2 by approximately 200 member institutions. Division 3: Members tend to be smaller, academically centered colleges and universities. Athletic scholarships are prohibited among the approximately 430 NCAA institutions at this level. For the sport of football only, the NCAA created the subdivisions of Division 1A and Division 1AA in 1978.

The NCAA imposes standard rules regarding participation in its championships, including minimum academic averages and a power to test athletes for prohibited substances such as anabolic steroids.

Since 1973, the NCAA has created an extensive regulatory framework regarding the structure of each division. In addition to the rules with respect to the availability of athletic scholarships, each division has requirements for its participating institutions. In Division 1, all members must provide seven varsity sports

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Division 2 schools are required to offer a minimum of four varsity sports for both men and women. Division 2 schools are not bound by the facility requirements of Division 1. Division 2 student athletes are often recruited on a regional as opposed to a national basis. Division 3 schools offer no financial aid based on athletic ability, as the athletic departments at these institutions are funded as with any other aspect of the institution. While highly competitive, Division 3 athletics emphasizes the athlete over the nature and the quality of the facilities.

Almost all NCAA institutions are organized into conferences for the purposes of competitive play. Each conference is a regionally based entity, and conference play between the member schools comprises the bulk of a school’s competitive schedule in a season. Conferences such as the Big Ten began as football leagues. The Big Ten, whose most famous members include Ohio State and University of Michigan, was first organized in 1896. It is an irony in the formation of the Big Ten that it was created for the express purpose of ‘‘restricted eligibility to athletics for bona fide, full-time students who were not delinquent in their studies.’’ This sentiment has bothered college and university administrators to the present day across the United States. Although most conferences have an extensive tradition, which has served to create passionate interschool rivalries, some athletic conferences came into being to take advantage of increased television revenues that flow to the conference and ultimately to its member institutions. The most successful of the relatively recent conference formations has been the Big East Conference, created in 1979 to both increase the level of competition for its member schools and to take advantage of a media market centered in the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE


Michigan State and North Carolina battle during the semi-finals round of the 2005 NCAA men’s Final Four Tournament.

ª P E TER

J ON ES /R EU T ERS /C ORB I S

basketball hotbeds of New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. The NCAA governed men’s sports exclusively until 1979; the organization of women’s intercollegiate athletics had begun on an ad hoc basis with a golf championship in 1941; other championships in a number of sports were convened throughout the 1960s, to little national attention or acclaim. The Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) was founded in 1971, as a separate governing body from the NCAA. With the passage of the federal U.S. legislation known as Title IX, which provided a number of guarantees regarding women’s sport and its funding relative to male sports, women’s sports of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

all types enjoyed an unprecedented growth in American colleges and universities; by 1980, the AIAW had over 900 member institutions. The NCAA organized its first women’s basketball national championship in 1982, and this action prompted the disintegration of the AIAW. From 1982 forward, the NCAA has organized its women’s championships along the same lines as those in male sports. A large portion of the current work of the NCAA is with respect to its generation of revenues from the major championships held in the Division 1 men’s sports of basketball and football. March Madness, as national basketball championship is popularly known, attracts a huge television audience; each of

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the conferences to which the 64 successful qualifiers belong receives a share of the monies from the tournament, as does the individual team and their athletic department. The BCS, the corresponding football championship series for Division 1A teams, also generates hundreds of millions of dollars in television revenues for the NCAA. The concept of the student athlete has been one of constant attention from the NCAA throughout its history. The chief criticism of college sports in the United States has been the perception that in many sports, particularly those where the athlete has the potential to move on to the professional ranks, have been rife with abuses. The most common criticisms are with respect to recruiting students who do not have the grades that would qualify them for admission to the institution from high school, the payment of illegal monies or gifts to student athletes while they are attending the college or university, or the failure to vigorously monitor the academic progress of student athletes while they are in attendance at the institution. The NCAA has in place a number of very specific rules concerning each of these areas, the violation of which carries significant sanctions. These penalties include the suspension of the sports program from NCAA competition, the disqualification of the individual athlete, the loss or restriction of future scholarships to the program in question, and similar penalties. Critics of NCAA governance often point to the companion rules regarding the manner in which teams may train, with up to 20 hours per week in practice, additional weight room and personal training obligations, and extensive in-season travel as conditions that entirely contradict a student athlete model. The most prominent of these initiatives has been the attention paid to student athlete graduation rates, particularly among black athletes. As of late 2005, the NCAA states that 62% of all student athletes graduate within six years of their commencement; the graduation rate among the student body as a whole is 60%.

Basketball; National governing bodies; Title IX and United States female sports participation.

SEE ALSO

National Football League (NFL) The National Football League (NFL) is one of the most successful professional sports organizations anywhere in the world. The NFL successfully marketed a game that has no significant participatory base outside of North America to global prominence

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through the media frenzy of the Super Bowl, its annual championship game. The NFL was founded in 1920, a league that was a progression from the semiprofessional clubs that had sprung up in the working-class towns of the eastern United States, particularly in the states of Ohio and Pennsylvania. The NFL’s birth took place against the backdrop of the higher profile competitions and rivalries that were developing between the university teams of the era. The Big Ten Conference, which included such noted football institutions as Ohio State University, the University of Michigan, and Northwestern University, was located in the same region as many of the new professional franchises. Each school had an established fan base, both as a result of the glamour attached to college sports, as well as through the loyalty that college alumni possessed for their former schools. The NFL began its existence as the American Professional Football Association (APFA) with a membership of 22 teams in 1920. Olympic decathlon champion and accomplished footballer Jim Thorpe was named the first president of the association. Many years before the racial makeup of NFL coaching staffs became a controversial issue, in 1921 Fredrick ‘‘Fritz’’ Pollard (1894–1986) was the first African American to lead an NFL team. After two years of play and a number of reorganizations among the membership, the APFA changed its name to the NFL in 1922. By 1925, the NFL had established tentative roots in small cities such as Canton, Ohio, Green Bay, Wisconsin, and Buffalo, New York, as well attracting franchises to New York and Chicago. In an effort to stimulate a broader public interest in the game and to build the credibility of the new league, collegiate All-Americans Ernie Nevers and George ‘‘Red’’ Gramge, the most famous football players of the era, were signed to NFL contracts. The Great Depression of the 1930s and World War II combined to blunt the ability of the NFL to grow; the NFL did not have a franchise in the western United States until the 1940s. During this period, the NFL remained a distant third choice in the popularity of the American team sports public, far behind baseball and college football. The end of World War II was accompanied by the return of servicemen who had played high level football in the armed forces. The All-America FootballConference, established as a rival to the NFL, signed many of these players, and by 1950 the franchises from the All-American Football Conference were absorbed into the NFL. More importantly, the 1950s WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

NATIONAL GOVERNING BODIES

the Super Bowl took its first step as a media event in 1970 when an AFL team, the New York Jets, defeated the heavily favored NFL team, the Baltimore Colts. By 1990, the Super Bowl was one of the top three rated television broadcasts on North American television; single 30-second commercial spots were sold for over three million dollars each, with the public reaction to the commercials a media subject by itself. The quality of the game, which was often significantly below the level of play during the NFL regular season, was often secondary to the Super Bowl spectacle. With increased television exposure, a collateral force drove the popularity of the NFL: the wagering industry. The ‘‘Vegas line,’’ the established odds on every game played each week in the NFL, became a part of North American slang. Fantasy (or ‘‘rotisserie league’’) football became a popular pastime by the year 2000; fantasy leagues are created by participants who each select mock teams comprised of actual NFL players, with the week-to-week statistics accumulated by the chosen players representing the method of scoring in the fantasy league.

In 1922, the American Professional Football Association changed its name to the National Football League and fielded 18 teams. Today, it boasts 30. P HOT O B Y PA UL SP I NE LLI / GE TTY I M AG ES .

spawned a revolution in American society—television sports, to which NFL football was ideally suited. With television coverage came an unforeseen bonanza for the NFL team owners; where the survival of franchises had previously depended on gate receipts, television revenues, which the NFL owners agreed would be divided equally among the member clubs, were crucial to the stability of the league. Teams from relatively small media markets such as Green Bay had essentially the same available resources to spend on their teams as did large-market centers such as New York or Los Angeles. A group of football entrepreneurs who had sought to take advantage of the increases in the growth of football had formed the rival American Football League (AFL) in 1960. It was the merger of this league with the NFL in 1967, initiated by NFL commissioner Pete Rozell (1926–1996) that created the championship known as the Super Bowl. From a rather pedestrian merger game in its first two years, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The NFL has continued to expand its revenue base, in the face of a number of issues that carried with them negative publicity. Anabolic steroid use is regarded by the public as an ever-present feature of NFL life, yet the occasional positive test for these performance-enhancing substances has evidently not diminished public appeal. The NFL is one of very few sports leagues anywhere in the world that does not have to spend significant monies on player development. The NFL, other than through the maintenance of the franchises of NFL Europe, a developmental league, has the benefit of the successful National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), whose college football program supplied virtually all of the players who compete in the NFL. ‘‘Free agency,’’ the ability of players to sell their services to the highest bidder, has altered the competitive landscape in the NFL, as franchise owners are driven to achieve immediate success, as opposed to building a team with a consistent player base.

Football (American); National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA); National governing bodies.

SEE ALSO

National governing bodies National governing sports bodies are found in every country of the world. These organizations may exist in relation to a single sport, such as the

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United States Soccer Association, or with respect to a group of sports that are traditionally treated as aspects of one sporting discipline, such as the Canadian Ski Association. On a broader basis, the national sports bodies may regulate a wide range of individual sports, such as the national track and field associations, or a sport concept, such as participation in the Olympic movement. The first and the most durable of the national governing bodies has been the Football Association (FA), the governing body of English soccer. The FA was created in 1863 to provide structure to fast-growing sport of soccer; the FA regularized the rules for the size of the field, dimensions of the goals, permitted equipment, and the rules of play. Once the FA had established itself credibly as the ultimate authority in the English game, it was in a position to sponsor and convene a national championship: the FA Cup, the world’s oldest domestic sports championship. The first FA Cup was awarded in 1872, and the modern Cup Final remains a powerful symbol of English sport.

National governing bodies in sport are at the apex of the sport in their country. The national body is supreme within a particular country in the following aspects of the sport, including: The leadership of the national body will generally be created by through the election or appointment of persons from smaller, subordinate regions or states within the national framework. The national body in turn will be the official representatives of the country to the appropriate international sport authority. The various national Olympic Committees that exist in every country of the world are supreme in Olympic matters within their own nation, but are from a part of the hierarchical pyramid below the Olympic apex, headed by the International Olympic Committee. The national body is the supreme authority for the interpretation and the application of the rules of the sport within the country. In many sports, such as track and field, the rules applied by a particular country in its competitions are universal. In other sports, the national body enforces and administers a set of playing rules that may vary from the international standard. Notable examples of rule variation being permitted by a national governing body are in basketball, where the game as played at the amateur level and administered by the United States Basketball Association differs from that

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supervised by the international body FIBA, and ice hockey, where the North American game is played on ice surfaces smaller than those sanctioned for international competition. The national body supervises all national championship competition, including the selection of a national team. The national body will provide the means by which competition venues are selected; the national body will certify courses, approve stadiums, or otherwise ensure that all standards for the convening of a competition are met. The national body will be responsible for all coaching certification within the sport. In many countries, to coach at a regional or national level, the coach is required to pass such testing as may be determined by the national body. The certification process often involves both technical knowledge of the sport as well as a more generalized expertise in sports theory. Many national sport bodies take the lead in their culture in the promotion of healthy sport practices, often in conjunction with government agencies. Sport education will also include the dissemination of information concerning international rules and competition standards for items such as performance-enhancing drugs. The national body will be the sole liaison in the sport to any companion international body; the national body will also deal directly with international organizations such as the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

There are a number of sports organizations that have significant control over a particular sports activity on a national level, but which are not a governing body. The professional sports leagues, such as the National Football League (NFL) or the various national soccer leagues in existence throughout the world are professional associations, distinct from national governing bodies in that they do not regulate the sport on a national level. The professional leagues are forprofit entities that do not have any influence or authority over the regulation of the sport beyond the bounds of the league members. Conversely, such national leagues are not bound by the authority of the governing body for the sport established within the country. It is common for professional sport leagues to have a relationship with a corresponding national governing body, such as that existing between the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the United States Basketball Association (USBA). WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

NECK INJURIES

International Federations; International Olympic Committee (IOC); National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).

SEE ALSO

NCAA

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) SEE

Neck injuries Injuries to the neck may originate with the bones of the cervical spine, the disks present in the spinal column, the spinal cord, the nerves that extend into the neck, or the muscles that work with the cervical spine to create movement. The neck is generally described as the region of the human anatomy that extends from the base of the skull to the top of the shoulders. It is supported by the cervical spine, a portion of the backbone that is a series of seven vertebrae, semicircular bones that are assembled into a column. Between each vertebrae is a disk, a ring-shaped fibrous structure that is designed to assist in the absorption and cushion of the shocks received by the spine. The vertebrae are connected to one another by facets, ligaments that permit the various vertebrae to flex in movement. The cervical vertebrae are constructed to permit the head and the neck to move the head forward, backward, and in rotation. Vertebrae are designated in accordance with their position in the spine; the cervical, or neck, vertebrae are numberd C1 through C7, with the C1 vertebrae being the structure that supports the skull. The vertebrae are shaped to provide bone protection to the spinal cord, which extends from the brain through the length of the spine; the brain and the spinal cord are the components of the central nervous system. From the spinal cord emanate nerves from individual openings in each of the vertebrae, extending into the body to create the network of muscular control and direction that is the peripheral nervous system. A serious injury to the spinal cord has the potential to ultimately compromise the entire peripheral system. The muscles that work most closely with the cervical vertebrae to provide movement are the splenius capitis, which is positioned on both sides of the neck along the spine, and the trapezius, the muscles that connect the base of the neck to the shoulders. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The neck is subjected to a number of direct traumas in many different sports. The most common types of sport injuries that involve either the neck of the cervical spin include: Fracture of the cervical spine: This serious injury most commonly arises when the athlete has the neck driven forcefully into the shoulders. Common mechanisms of this injury are a football tackle, when either the ball carrier or the tackler has his/her head driven in a compressive fashion into the cervical vertebrae, which are forced into one another. This fracture may also occur when a diver strikes his/her head upon either the bottom of a swimming pool, or if he/she is diving from a significant height, where the diver’s head collides with the water surface at an acute angle. Whiplash: This is an injury that may occur in similar circumstances to those of a cervical fracture. Whiplash most commonly is the result of the body moving and then coming to a sudden stop, with the head and neck continuing to move forward in a violent motion. Whiplash is a common outcome of collisions in sports such as auto racing, ice hockey, American football, and other contact sports. The reverse of the whiplash mechanism occurs, to the same physical effect, when a boxer is punched to the head, causing the skull and neck to be forced backward, while the rest of the body is relatively stationary. Unlike a fracture, whiplash is a soft tissue injury. Pinched nerve: This is the generic term used to describe a circumstance when one of the components of the nerve network that extends from the spinal cord becomes the subject of pressure, often from physical contact. The pressure prevents the nerve from functioning correctly, which may create a loss of function in the muscle serviced by the nerve. Disk injury: As with any other part of the back, the disks that separate the cervical vertebrae may become irritated, or the disk may become herniated, where its gel content leaks out and creates pressure upon the adjacent nerves. The herniated disk can occur as a result of a single movement, such as a strenuous lift, or the condition may arise over time through repeated stresses to the neck or poor posture. Spinal cord: An injury to the spinal cord is usually the most serious neck injury. Spinal cord damage usually occurs along with a significant force or impact. When the spinal cord becomes

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Rugby player is taken from the field with a neck injury after a tackle.

severed, the person will almost always lose the function of either the lower limbs (paraplegia), or all of the the limbs, (quadriplegia). Improper technique in contact sports is the leading cause of cervical spine and neck injuries in sport. When the athlete is either instructed to initiate contact with the head, or when they are reckless in the manner in which their head is exposed to such contact, neck injuries are a far more probable outcome. American football, where all players wear a helmet that in some circumstances accentuates this risk, and ice hockey, where the athletes are subject to being driven into a the barrier surrounding the playing surface, are each higher risk sports for a neck injury. SEE ALSO

Back injuries; Head injuries; Musculoskeletal

injuries.

Nervous system The sophistication and the incredible dimensions of the human nervous system are the basis for the

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PH OTO BY M ATT K IN G /G ET TY I MAG E S.

infinite range and subtlety of human movement. The nervous system, centered by the brain, generates every impulse that is directed into the musculoskeletal system for the stimulation of both muscular movement and reaction. The brain is the organ that operates the body; the human mind is the more intangible concept, connected to the physical organ and the nervous system, but extending into the aspects of intelligence, reasoning abilities, and human perception. The brain is the most far-reaching organ in the body, with its influence and its control over every aspect of human function extended by way of the network that is the nervous system. Physical abilities that are at the essence of athletic ability, including muscular control, hand-eye coordination, reaction time, and the utilization of the body’s composition of fast-twitch versus slow-twitch fibers, are all determined by the brain. As the chief component of the nervous system generally, the brain is positioned at the top of the first branch of the nervous system, familiar as the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS has two parts, the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain Spinal cord Spinal nerve Radial Median Ulnar

Femoral Sciatic

Common peroneal

The human nervous system.

Tibial

THE G A LE GR OUP

brain and the spinal cord, that extend from the region of the brain known as the brain stem, located at the base of the skull. The spinal cord runs through the spinal column, a bony protective structure, to the base of the spine at the pelvis. The spinal cord is WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

primarily composed of nerve cells, known as neurons. The brain is divided into a series of regions, each of which has a distinct responsibility for a function of the body. The cerebellum, located near the base of

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A nerve cell.

ª ROY ALTY -F RE E/C ORB I S

the brain, is the learning center of the brain. The hypothalamus, connected to the pituitary gland, regulates body temperature and other functions that are a response to external stimuli. Whenever any of these control centers seek to transmit a message to another part of the body for action, the message begins it travel along the spinal cord. The central nervous system is connected to a far more extensive nerve network. This structure is the peripheral nervous system. Unlike the central nervous system components, which are protected by the bone of the skull and the spine, the elements of the peripheral nervous system are not protected, extending through the tissue in pathways. The peripheral nervous system is a highly complex series of nerves and neurons that extend to every part of the body. The peripheral nervous system is itself subdivided into two major operational systems: the somatic (or voluntary) nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic system directs movement and the control of the skeletal muscles. The nerves that extend into the muscles ultimately terminate in a motor neuron, the device that transmits the particular

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instruction to the adjacent muscle fibers. The speed with which the particular neuron is designed to direct its impulses into the muscle fiber will dictate whether the fiber is a fast-twitch or slow-twitch fiber. The other branch of the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic system, has three further subdivisions. As the name implies, the autonomic system is responsible for the regulation of a number of bodily functions that are either involuntary, or where the body generates an initial response that may be the subject of further voluntary action. The sympathetic nervous system includes the management of the body’s ‘‘fight or flight’’ response, triggered when the brain, after receiving stimulation of a threat or other challenge, directs the production of adrenaline, the hormone that stimulates heart rate, respiratory function and the expansion of blood vessel capacity. The counterpoint to the sympathetic nervous system is the parasympathetic nervous system, whose function is often summarized as the ‘‘rest and digest’’ response. After stimulation, the parasympathetic system acts to calm the body, through stimulation of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS)

salivary gland to encourage eating and slowing the heart rate. The third aspect of the autonomic system is sometime regarded as a separate nervous system, due to the nature of the organs that it controls. The enteric nervous system regulates the stomach and colon. The nervous system functions as an entity, with the brain providing the ultimate direction. Although many nervous system functions are involuntary, damage to the central nervous system in particular can dramatically alter nervous system function as a whole. Much of the response of the nervous system to injury or impairment is one directional, for if the body senses damage to a lesser aspect of one of the subordinate components to the nervous system, it will endeavor to compensate; brain or spinal cord injuries do not permit alternate paths or compensatory routes.

Motor control; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch; Neck injuries.

SEE ALSO

NFL

SEE

National Football League (NFL)

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) Nonsteroidal drugs take their name from the class of compounds created to act as an anti-inflammatory and analgesic (painkiller). A steroid is a compound that may occur both in a natural form as well as through synthesis. Steroids are defined chemically as substances that possess 17 carbon atoms, arranged in a series of four rings. Many of the natural steroids are hormones, the chemicals that are involved in the control of many physical processes. The most notable of these steroid hormones are the male hormone testosterone, the female hormones estrogen and progesterone, vitamin D, and adrenalin. The naturally generated anti-inflammatory cortisone is also a steroid. Anti-inflammatories are those agents that are intended to reduce the pain and swelling caused when a joint becomes irritated, often through overuse. Ice is a common treatment for an inflammation or swelling of a muscle tissue or joint. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) also tend to reduce fever. NSAIDs function by neutralizing the cyclooxgenase (COX) enzyme that is produced at WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

the site of a musculoskeletal injury. Enzymes are proteins that act as a catalyst in specific types of biological reactions; at the injury location, the COX enzyme will naturally generate inflammation. COX enzymes are present in the body in two forms, COX-1 and COX-2. COX-1 is present in cells throughout the human body. It plays an important role in the regulation of the protection of the stomach lining, the regulation of salt and fluid balances, and the flow of blood to the kidneys. COX-2 is found primarily in the immune cells and the cells of the central nervous system (CNS). Each produces prostaglandins, the actual cause of inflammation and pain. NSAIDs function by inhibiting these enzymes that otherwise produce prostaglandins. The most well-known of the NSAID class of medications is aspirin, or acetasalicylic acid, first synthesized in 1899. The history of this active ingredient of aspirin as an analgesic and as an anti-inflammatory is much longer. More than 3,000 years ago, the use of extract of the myrtle plant, which contains salicylic acid was used to relieve joint pain and inflammation. Willow bark, which also has salicylic acid in its chemistry, was used by Hippocrates, the founder of modern medicine, as a pain reliever more than 2,500 years ago. The use of boiled willow bark as a pain reliever and as a general aid to muscle and joint pain continued through the Middle Ages. Felix Hoffman (1868– 1946), a scientist employed by the pharmaceutical company Bayer, modified the salicylic acid extracted from plant sources to produce aspirin, which became the largest selling pharmaceutical product in history. Aspirin has been a generic drug, not the subject of a corporate patent, since the 1930s, and it continues to be marketed by Bayer and numerous other pharmaceutical companies. Aspirin was found to be effective as an antiinflammatory, although the actual mechanism of how it acted on the COX enzymes was not determined until the 1970s. The second most famous of the NSAIDs is ibuprofen, approved for use in the United States by the Food and Drug Agency (FDA) in 1974; it is marketed under trade names such as Advil and Motrin. Both aspirin and ibuprofen are regarded as milder formulations of NSAIDs, with generally fewer side effects and a less pronounced antiinflammatory action than more recently developed products. The current generation of NSAID medications are sometimes referenced as COX inhibitors. It is a testament to the familiarity of these agents within the sports world that NSAIDs are consumed by all manner of athletes to help them manage minor

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pain. In the long-distance running world, aspirin and ibuprofen are commonly taken by recreational athletes before a marathon to anticipate the anti-inflammatory effects desired. There are a number of physical advantages to the use of NSAIDs over other steroid-based anti-inflammatories, all of which must be assessed against their demonstrated risks to the user. These advantages include: There are fewer adverse reactions noted in NSAID use. Low-dose NSAIDs such as aspirin and ibuprofen have the additional demonstrated benefit of enhancing circulation; there is significant scientific data supporting aspirin and ibuprofen as inhibitors of excess blood clotting and reducing the risk of heart attack. NSAIDs are effective in the ongoing management of the pain associated with osteoarthritis. The use of NSAID, especially over the long term, presents risk of gastrointestinal tract bleeding, with risks of stomach, liver, and kidney disease. There are well-known interactions between NSAIDs of all types and other medications. As all NSAIDs have a blood-thinning capacity, the use of NSAIDs in conjunction with bloodthinning medication as used by some persons to lessen the risk of stroke may be dangerous.

Glucocorticoids; Herbs; RICE (Rest/Ice/ Compression/Elevation) treatment for injuries; Topical corticosteroids.

SEE ALSO

Nordic skiing SEE Skiing, Nordic (crosscountry skiing)

Nutrition Nutrition has two separate but related meanings when considered in relation to sports science. Nutrition is the course of academic or scientific study directed to the relationship between diet and the health and function of the human body. Nutrition is also the actual nourishment of the body, the supply of the substances that sustain it. As with many of the overarching concepts that often affect nutrition, the broadly applicable areas of diet, exercise and fitness, health, and longevity will often come into play; nutritional practices never exist in the abstract.

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For the athlete, proper nutrition is as essential as the training that underlies a sports program. It is impossible for an athlete to reach the physical potential unless those efforts are supported by healthy food, vitamin, and mineral intake. Health scientists have determined that a balanced diet, one that provides proper amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, is the foundation to good overall nutrition. Although the proportions may vary from person to person, the usual guidelines are approximately 60-65% carbohydrates, 12-15% proteins, and less than 30% fats. The governmental authorities in many countries publish scientifically based guidelines concerning optimal nutritional practices that mimic the carbohydrate/protein/fats ratio, using descriptions that employ quantities of each food group as opposed to finite measurements. Governmental attention to the concept of healthy nutrition, coupled with more active lifestyles, has increased throughout the Western world as populations have become demonstrably more overweight and obese since 1960. Weight gains have been accompanied in dramatic rises in related health conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular problems. In the United States, the federal Department of Agriculture is the agency responsible for the promotion of healthy diet and nutritional practices through the publication of the Food Guide Pyramid, first released in 1992. The successor guide, known as MyPyramid, was revised and published in 2005. MyPyramid illustrates the balance between healthy food consumption, activity, and rest, with information concerning other general nutritional issues. The MyPyramid rendering breaks the traditional carbohydrate, proteins, and fats divisions into six parts: grains, vegetables, fruits, oils, milk, and meats/beans. The user-friendly divisions of MyPyramid contemplate healthy consumption as a part of a strong nutritional practice in the same approximate ratios as the traditional divisions. Devices such as MyPyramid emphasize the interrelated nature of health as achieved through diet and nutrition. How the individual moderates consumption of each component of a diet will determine how nutritional his/her dietary practices are likely to be. The components of a typical diet include: Carbohydrates are essential to the production of energy within the body, particularly through the processing of foods into glucose and its stored form, glycogen. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

NUTRITION

Vegetables play a key role in maintaining balanced nutrition.

ª EN VISIO N/C ORB I S

Proteins are containers of amino acids, essential to the formation, development, and maintenance of muscles and tissues. Fats are stored within the body as triglycerides, released as glycerol and fatty acids, which are essential to both energy production and the absorption of numerous vitamins. Minerals are required for both bone construction and the efficient functioning of hundreds of various human systems, including fluid levels and the effective transmission of nerve impulses in the body. Vitamins are the chemicals responsible for both healthy function of the digestive and absorption processes, as well as the function of bone construction. Athletic supplements, such as creatine, have a pronounced impact on the body during training, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

which will necessitate careful monitoring of the consequences of training on both the body and its dietary and nutritional needs. Supplements must correspond to athletic need, such as the use of creatine in training for explosive, anaerobic sports. Caffeine, euphemistically referred to as a food group due to its large consumption, has no nutritional value; the effects of caffeine as both a stimulant as well as a diuretic require careful attention to be paid to its impact upon the body. Alcohol is technically a carbohydrate, as its active compound breaks down into sugar and carbon dioxide when digested, although it is a poor nutrient. Alcohol also must be very carefully regulated as a healthy nutritional aspect, given its impact on the central nervous system and the effect of alcohol as a diuretic.

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Alcohol also impacts the thermoregulatory system, making its ingestion even more subject to scrutiny in cold weather exercise. One important benchmark of success in nutritional practice is the formulation of the pre-event and post-event meals that are nutritionally sound. As a general rule, subject to the individual needs of the athlete or the dictates of competition, the following meal pattern will support the nutritional needs of the athlete, including: 1. A regular meal that has a carbohydrate emphasis, between four hours to six hours prior to the event. For a morning competition, this meal can be taken the night before. 2. A small, carbohydrate-rich meal can be taken two hours prior to the event. 3. A very low fat snack can be taken 30 minutes to 45 minutes prior to the event. 4. A small carbohydrate-rich meal can be taken within one hour of the event. 5. A further, larger carbohydrate-rich meal can be taken within three hours of the event. Each of the post-event meals is intended to immediately replace lost stores of both carbohydrates and nutrients; the body absorbs these replacement foods best closer in time to the event. Proper nutrition will always include adequate rehydration.

Carbohydrates; Diet; Fat intake; Growth; Minerals; Vitamin C.

SEE ALSO

Nutrition and athletic performance The relationship between nutrition and athletic performance is as certain as the connection between physical training and athletic success. The physical demands of all sports necessitate the consumption of healthy foods, with the correct proportion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The types of foods consumed must also contain optimal amounts of vitamins and minerals, all supported by appropriate and consistent hydration levels in the body. Athletic performance is an expression that is distinct from many of the broader sports science concepts, such as health, fitness, or longevity. Athletic performance describes the efforts made by an athlete to attain specific performance objectives over a period of time. The natural talent or fitness of the athlete will impact the level of performance; all ath-

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letes ultimately measure performance by their own standards. Performance is usually regarded as an aggregation of individual results, such as performance over a month, or a season of competition, as opposed to a single or isolated activity. Athletic performance includes not only the assessment of a particular result, but also the concept of recovery; how quickly an athlete can return to the regular training or routine is an important performance factor, as recovery will dictate how the athlete is able to prepare for the next event. Nutrition places a vital role in the improvement of every aspect of performance. There is no single wonder food or miracle supplement that will guarantee perfect nutrition for an athlete. Science has determined that while there are many ways to nutritionally enhance a diet that is deficient in respect of one or more components, the best approach for athletes and non-athletes alike is to consume a traditional balanced diet, variations of which have been promoted by most governments in the world for over 40 years. There is also strong scientific support for the proposition that subject to modification of caloric intake, due to the energy requirements of sport, the type of diet that provides nutritional value to athletes is very similar to that consumed by the healthy non-athlete. The balanced diet is usually expressed in one of two ways: as a ratio of the carbohydrate, protein, and fat food groups, or as a food pyramid, where the recommended daily consumption of different kinds of food within the three food groups is defined by portions or quantities. The Canada Food Guide and the formulation named MyPyramid, developed and published by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), are two examples. In each recommendation, daily amounts of whole grains, dairy, vegetables, fruits, fish, and meat products are specified, as are suggested methods for cooking and food preparation that will maximize the nutritional value of each food. It is a central premise of the balanced diet, whether viewed from the apportionment of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, or by food type and portion, that if the right kinds of foods are consumed, the person will invariably obtain the other crucial nutritional benefits, including the necessary amounts of vitamins, minerals, fiber, and fluids. Carbohydrates such as whole grains, fruits, and vegetables are all excellent vitamin and mineral sources; examples are whole grains, which provide both the vitamin B complex and dietary fiber to aid in digestion, and citrus fruits, all of which are rich in vitamin C. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

NUTRITION AND ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE

The development of a specific nutritional plan for an elite-level athlete will represent variations, as opposed to any wholesale changes, to basic nutritional approaches. A common belief among strength athletes, such as weightlifters or those seeking to build muscle, is that their diet must reflect their training through a greater consumption of protein, essential to muscle building and repair, through both foods and dietary supplements. While in short-term situations an athlete might increase protein to assist in a weight program, as a general proposition these athletes require only minimally greater amounts of protein on a daily basis to support their training levels than do other athletes. Some athletes share the same misconception concerning the fat component of the balanced diet; fats must be reduced, in the belief that the body will be leaner. This approach overlooks that fats are themselves an excellent energy source for the body, released from their storage in the adipose tissues as


fatty acids, which are utilized by the cells to produce energy, and glycerol, which is processed by the liver into glycogen. As importantly, when athletes seek to reduce the quantity of fats from that suggested in a balanced diet, they potentially impair the ability of the body to absorb fat-soluble vitamins, including vitamin D, critical to the ability of the body to use calcium in bone construction and repair. The one class of athlete who may require a more significant deviation from the patterns of the healthy diet is the young athlete, whose body will be experiencing normal growth increases and be subject to the demands of athletic activity. The nutritionally sound diet for this athlete will often require both greater quantities of each food group, as well as careful attention to the levels of minerals such as calcium and magnesium, which are essential to the growth of the musculoskeletal system. SEE ALSO

Carbohydrates; Diet; Minerals; Nutrition.

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O Obesity In its simplest expression, obesity is a physical condition where the amount of fat stored within the cells of the body significantly impairs the overall health of that individual. Obese persons are visibly overweight, with their physical ability to move without strain significantly reduced. Obesity is a designation that is a part of a body mass continuum that begins with the term underweight, or skinny, continuing through ideal weight, overweight, obese, and an ultimate condition, morbid obesity. Obesity is a significant health problem throughout the industrialized world, and in many countries it has replaced smoking and the illnesses related to that habit as the most important societal health concern to be addressed, especially among young people. Obesity has become so prevalent that, in the last 30 years, the study of obesity and its causes has evolved into a distinct medical specialty, bariatrics, a term derived from the Greek word baros, meaning weight. There is no unanimous agreement as to how obesity should be defined in terms of the physical size, the percentage of body fat, or physical capabilities of a person. A common tool used in the assessment of obesity is the formula known as the body mass index (BMI). The BMI was developed as a method to assist in the determination of a particular person’s weight relative to a range of ideal weights, calculated in reference to height. BMI is determined by dividing the weight of the person by their height WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

squared. Subject to a number of physical variables, BMI defines the positions on the index using the following reference points: ideal weight, 18.5–25 BMI; overweight, greater than 25 BMI; obese, greater than 30 BMI; and morbidly obese, greater than 35 BMI. The BMI definitions are subject to significant individual factors, as a person’s body type and other genetic features may influence weight without necessarily creating the adverse health concerns of obesity. An example is the large, muscular athlete who will often possess a ratio of lean body mass to fat that is far higher than the average sedentary person; the BMI may otherwise categorize this athlete as overweight or obese. Conversely, a sedentary female adolescent may be tall and appear very slim, but due to the combination of an unhealthy diet and little exercise, she may possess a significant amount of body fat. An alternative definition of obesity is determined through the determination of body fat percentage, the relationship between stored fat and overall body mass. Body fat can be measured with some degree of precision, using tools such as skin calipers, to measure skin folds at the places on the body where fat-storing adipose tissue are most concentrated, such as the chest, abdomen, triceps, and upper thighs. Water displacement machines can also accurately determine body fat percentage. While there is no strict consensus in the medical community on what amount of body fat will render a person obese, most definitions set 20% or greater as a baseline. Whatever measure is employed as yardstick to determine whether a person is obese or is

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significantly overweight, the body and its ability to function are severely compromised, both in the immediate term and with respect to the longevity of the person. The most common health problems that arise as a direct result of obesity are cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and various forms of osteoarthritis. Cardiovascular function is the first casualty of a body whose weight is far in excess of the ideal. The heart is required to pump blood through an oversized structure, which places significant stress on overall cardiac function. The typical fat-rich diet of the obese person leads to the creation of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), a form of cholesterol that forms plaque within the blood vessels, resulting in narrower arterial passages and a greater risk of stroke. The incidence of diabetes in the Western world has risen by over 50% since 1970; the prevalence of juvenile diabetes has climbed even more dramatically. Diabetes is generally caused through the inability of the body to generate insulin, the hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates the glucose levels within the bloodstream. The onset of diabetes is often due to a combination of factors, with obesity and a sedentary lifestyle chief contributors. Osteoarthritis and other diseases of the joints and the connective tissues are a common result of obesity. The mechanisms are very simple—if the body is genetically designed to support a particular mass, the body will eventually break down as it is not be able to adequately support the excess weight. The health risks and the limitations of obesity are not restricted to the observable examples. Bariatric science has established that the overall health risks associated with being persistently overweight, if not clinically obese, are far higher than those for the balance of the population. Numerous medical studies, including those of the American Medical Association, confirm that persons who were overweight through their middle age (approximately 40 years to 60 years of age), were at a significantly greater risk of dying from heart disease or diabetes by age 65. The obvious cure to obesity is to restrict the number of calories consumed and to adhere to an exercise program. As obesity so often carries with it a host of psychological and physical health problems, many obese people undergo bariatrics surgery, which involves either restricting the size of the stomach to limit intake through the insertion of a gastric band, or physically stapling the stomach to create a smaller-sized organ.

Diet; Health; Juvenile obesity; Obesity and insulin resistance; Weight gain.

SEE ALSO

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Obesity and insulin resistance Obesity is a condition that is defined by a range of physical factors, the most important of which is the excess amount of fat stored within the body of any person. Obesity is the most extreme form of excess weight; the greater the excess, the more limited the person will be in physical capabilities, and the more significant the corresponding strains placed on the bodily processes such as the cardiovascular system. Obesity carries with it an inevitably greater risk that the person will develop and die from a serious disease. One of the most common physical consequences of obesity is the development of insulin resistance. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas as a part of the body’s mechanism of processing and regulating the level of glucose in the bloodstream. After food has been consumed, insulin acts as a chemicalsignaling device to maintain glucose levels at a steady rate. The countervailing hormone to insulin is glucagon, which will signal the body to correct a glucose level that is too low through the release of glucose, stored as glycogen, from the liver. In a synthetic form, insulin is used as a medication, injected directly into the bloodstream of persons who suffer from type 1 diabetes (also known as juvenile diabetes), the disease caused when the body is not able to produce any, or enough, insulin. These insulin injections are essential to the survival of patients in these circumstances. The discovery of synthetic insulin by Frederick Banting (1891–1941) and Charles Best (1899–;1978) of the University of Toronto in 1921 is regarded as one of the great advances in the history of medical science. Insulin is essential to the health of millions of diabetics throughout the world. Insulin resistance arises where the ability of insulin to regulate and to signal changes to glucose levels in the blood is decreased. When the cells of the body become insulin resistant, the message that should otherwise be conveyed to the cells by the presence of insulin is not the subject of an immediate response from the body. When the cells do not respond to the insulin signal for glucose balance, ever-increasing amounts of insulin are produced in the pancreas, which treats the lack of cellular response to the presence of insulin to mean that more insulin is required. Insulin resistance is a form of biological misinformationthe body believes that it must increase the amount of glucose. When the insulin message is finally acted on by the cells, there is a flood of glucose into the cells from the bloodstream, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PATRICK O’GRADY

which creates a condition known as a hypoglycemic reaction, more commonly stated as low blood sugar. Insulin resistance produces a cycle of repeated spikes in blood sugar level will eventually exact a toll on the pancreas and its ability to produce insulin. When the body is not protected by its blood sugarleveling mechanism, it is vulnerable to the opposite condition, hyperglycemia, excessive blood sugar. When insulin resistance is untreated, death is a likely event.

program to counter insulin resistance must be flexible and responsive to the effect of these variables.

The risk of becoming diabetic, or insulin resistant, is genetic in origin for some persons, creating a greater likelihood of becoming diabetic no matter what environmental factors are involved, including diet and lifestyle. There is, however, no question that all persons who are overweight or obese are at far greater risk. As an obese person gains excessive weight, they subject their pancreas to long-term stresses in insulin production.

SEE ALSO

Insulin resistance has other serious consequences, as it will often lead to the progressive illness known as the metabolic syndrome, which is the combination of a series of distinct physical conditions. Each component of the metabolic syndrome is potentially dangerous to human health when present alone: type 2 diabetes (diabetes mellitus), hypertension (high blood pressure), hyperlipidimedia (the production of excessive levels of low density lipoproteins, a harmful cholesterol that causes plaque to form inside the blood vessels, which causes a narrowing and the potential for restricted blood flow), and obesity, characterized by the presence of a ‘‘beer belly,’’ the presence of fat deposits that are more pronounced along the abdomen.

6/7/1936– AMERICAN GOLF EQUIPMENT DEVELOPER

The onset of type 2 diabetes creates a further series of health risks. Type 2 diabetics have a proven greater risk of cardiovascular disease, renal (kidney) failure, and the risk of various infections, particularly when the skin is cut or a sore develops. Type 2 diabetes can often be controlled through a comprehensive program of proper diet (with careful attention to the amount of carbohydrates consumed), weight management, and an exercise program, coupled with medication, chiefly insulin or those of the thiazolidinedione type. The diet formulations required for persons with insulin resistance will involve a consideration of the glycemic index, a food-ranking system that assists in determining which types of food are absorbed more slowly and steadily into the body, and which are absorbed quickly. As glucose levels in the blood are never constant, due to variable impacts of environment, exercise, illness, stress, or similar factors, an effective WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Insulin resistance is an irreversible and progressive condition; once the body’s cells do not respond to insulin, the glucose levels must be controlled through human intervention and monitoring. In obese persons, insulin resistance is another stressor on the body that heightens the considerable risk of early mortality.

Carbohydrates; Hormones; Juvenile obesity;

Obesity.

Obesity, juvenile

SEE

Juvenile obesity

Patrick O’Grady Patrick O’Grady is a golf equipment sales executive and equipment developer who was responsible for the promotion of several equipment innovations in both North American and international golf, most notably with respect to golf shoe technology. O’Grady’s early employment career had little bearing on his subsequent professional success in the golf industry. He was a soldier in the United States Army until 1955, and upon his discharge into civilian life, O’Grady worked in a variety of businesses until his entry into golf merchandising in 1961. O’Grady had become a respected member of the golf equipment industry when he joined the Etonic shoe company in 1985. Etonic was a respected manufacturer of golf shoes and related golf equipment. Between 1985 and 1997, O’Grady was a key figure in the development of three distinct technical advances with respect to golf shoe design—the waterproof golf shoe, the first biomechanical golf shoe insole, and the spikeless golf shoe (known as soft spikes). Golf is both an international sport and one of the world’s most popular recreational activities. The nature of the activity is one that attracts both elite professional talents as well as those persons of almost any age who play golf for its own sake. Golf is one of the few sports that can be played by any healthy person to their own ability. The golf handicapping system, where a lesser player can compete with a better player through the provision of a stroke

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advantage to the lesser player, is one of golf’s attractions. It is the nature of golf that its players will seek any competitive advantage, however slight, through improvements to equipment. Golf club and golf ball technology alone is an international multi-billion dollar sub-industry. It is that light that the developments with respect to golf shoe technology as championed by O’Grady should be examined. Early golf shoes were constructed from conventional footwear; these shoes were as much a fashion statement as they were intended to assist the player. The early spiked shoes were made from wing tip styled Oxford shoes with small steel spikes inserted through the soles of the shoe. The conventional golf shoe as it was marketed by 1980 had a number of ongoing design problems. As golf is an outdoor activity, the shoes did not always stand up to wet weather; the golfer’s feet would be exposed to the wetness of the ground for extended periods of time. Golf shoes at that time were not manufactured with any particular design attention given with respect to how the golfer’s foot was supported by the shoe, particularly at the insole. As a function of biomechanics, the more secure the foot could be positioned with in the golf shoe the greater the prospect of an effective swing. Where the foot is secure, the golfer’s body will be more stable as the forces of the golf swing are directed into the ball. Where the foot was subjected to an unequal force, such as those caused by excessive pronation (where the ankle and foot rotate inwards on contact with the ground), or supination (where the foot and ankle rotate outwards), the ability of the golfer to maintain stability throughout their entire swing is affected. The spikes fitted to golf shoes were viewed as essential to assisting golfers with stability in their swing; the cost to golf course maintenance due to the damage caused by metal spikes to the surfaces of greens was a significant issue at many golf clubs. Further, the fundamental enjoyment of golf was seen as compromised when players were subjected to a playing surface that had been chewed up by the metal spikes of preceding players. As one with a leadership role in the merchandising of golf equipment, O’Grady received significant feedback from recreational golfers and club professionals regarding the quality of the equipment sold by Etonic. O’Grady worked with Etonic technical personnel in each of these three areas of golf shoe technology to improve the product. To assist golfers in achieving biomechanical efficiency, golf shoes were

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constructed to accommodate an orthotic if the player required additional stability. Modern waterproofing fabrics such as GORE-TEX were incorporated into the linings of the shoe to repel water. The spikeless shoes were constructed with a series of studs made from various rubber compounds. The studs were often configured into individual and removable cleats. The spikeless design was proven to provide the golfer with stability equal to that of the conventional metal spikes while preserving the surfaces of greens. It is a testament to O’Grady’s understanding of the golf market that each of the developments in which he had a role in 1985 had became the standard in the golf industry by 2000. In recognition of his contributions to the development golf equipment, O’Grady was recognized for his contributions to American golf by the United States Professional Golfers Association (PGA) in 2004. SEE ALSO

Golf; Recreational sports.

Older athletes

SEE

Mature athletes

Scott Olson 3/9/1959– AMERICAN INVENTOR

Scott Olson, along with his brother Brennan, are credited as the first developers of a commercially viable inline skate. In 1979, the Olson brothers came across a pair of old inline skates in Minneapolis. They were competitive ice hockey players and each possessed a strong understanding of how skaters propel themselves across ice. The Olson brothers acquired the skates and they began to experiment with the configuration of the skate wheels and the construction of the boot. As hockey players, they saw the potential of inline skates as an off-season training aid. The notion of using wheeled skates to travel on dry land was not a novel one in 1979, as roller skates, with a box shaped wheel configuration, had been available for decades in the United States. The concept of inline skates, where three or four wheels were positioned in a straight alignment, had been patented many years prior to 1979, but the concept had never been commercially marketed. In theory, an inline configuration would provide the user with greater maneuverability and the wheels WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ORTHOTICS

would present less rolling resistance than conventional roller blade wheels, and consequently permit the user to travel at greater speeds on paved surfaces. Where the user desired speed, the wheels on the inline skate could be of greater circumference, as larger wheels provide produce as they travel further in each revolution (there is also a correspondingly greater amount of energy required to initiate the movement of the larger wheels). Smaller circumference wheels will permit ease of stopping for the user and are preferred for the performing of tricks. The inline skating motion is one where the skater will naturally shift their center of gravity to a point above each leg as it drives the respective skate forward. In doing so, there will be a greater efficiency of motion, as the full weight of the body will be hind each stride.

of competitive inline skating hockey competitions popular in various parts of North America. Inline speed skating races, conducted both on indoor tracks as well as on road courses, became one of the earlier recognized extreme sports. The success of Rollerblade prompted a number of corporate competitors to enter the inline skating market after 1990.

Scott Olson ultimately added four wheels made from urethane (ethyl carbamate), a hard rubber compound, to a boot obtained from an old ice hockey skate. Olson added a rubber toe brake to assist the user in stopping, positioned in a similar fashion to the toe picks that assist a figure skater in stopping and performing jumps. Olson argued that a boot such as that used in ice hockey was required to provide the user with both flexibility and ankle support. The urethane wheels provided efficient, reduced friction movement in relation to one another as well as a measure of traction not available between metal roller skate wheels and pavement.

Scott Olson continued his career as a developer of fitness products after selling the Rollerblade company. Olson patented a design called the RowBike a two-wheeled machine that is configured like a bicycle, but one that is powered by the rider who employs a rowing motion. The action of the rider is similar to that of the railroad hand carts in use in the early days of railroading in North America.

A rubber heel brake was subsequently added to the design, a device that permitted a skater to depress their heel and stop quickly and remain in a stable position. Between 1979 and 1983, Scott Olson directed the research and development of the inline skates that he had created. Olson formed a company, Rollerblade Inc. to further the production of the product. The initial Rollerblades were popular, but as with many new products, there were flaws in the original design that limited performance. The most common difficulty occurred in the wheels and their tendency to not run smoothly due to the build-up of dirt inside the ball bearing mechanism within each wheel. However, Olson’s initial belief as to the utility of the Rollerblade as a off season hockey training aid was also embraced by the cross-country skiing community. The natural motion required to propel oneself on inline skate permitted the off season skiers to approximate the skiing motion on pavement. In 1983, Olson sold the Rollerblade company. In the late 1980s, the Rollerblade product became extremely popular with recreational users who sought fitness. Rollerblades also became the basis WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Inline skating has also become a performance art, with tricks and various stunts performed at skateboard parks. The skaters use fixed structures such as half pipes and ramps to generate both speed and the hang time necessary to complete complex aerial routines. It is a testament to the foresight of the Olson brothers that the terms Rollerblade and blading are cemented into everyday North American language; the generic term for any inline skate is a rollerblade.

SEE ALSO

Recreational sports; Roller hockey; Roller

skates.

Olympic Committee (IOC)

SEE

International Olympic Committee (IOC)

Olympic Committee, U.S.

SEE

United States Olympic Committee

Olympics, Special

SEE

Special

Olympics

Open water swimming

SEE

Swimming: Open water

Orthotics Orthotics include a broad range of physical aids used primarily to correct structural problems in the feet, knees, lower back, neck, and wrists. An orthotic may be any orthopedic device that is external to the body. Orthotics is also the name given to the medical

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field that provides specialized consultation and advice concerning corrective devices. Orthotics are distinguished from prosthetic devices, which are artificial or mechanical devices that replace an absent limb. An orthotic may have one or more purposes, including to provide support to a limb or joint; to protect and prevent a part of the body from exposure to a particular range of motion; to assist in a particular function or movement; and to correct a specific structural weakness or imbalance, particularly through the realignment of the joint or structure. The most common orthotic devices are foot orthotics, which are designed to correct the irregularities in the runner’s gait that lead to both uneven foot strikes on the ground and consequent injuries; neck braces, which are primarily to restrict neck movement when the person has sustained a neck muscle sprain or similar injury; a back support, often referred to as a truss or girdle, designed to provide additional support to the lumbar vertebrae and muscle structures; knee braces of various kinds, all of which are structured to provide support to the joint where it has sustained a structural injury such as ligament damage, as well as to restrict it from being bent or twisted; and wrist supports, which are designed to maintain the strength of the wrist, in conjunction with the thumb joint. For athletes, the most common reason for orthotic use is the desire to correct an inherent structural or alignment problem, most often in the manner in which the athlete runs. When the athlete has one leg longer than the other or the arch of one foot higher than the other, the running motion will naturally generate unequal forces from the moment the foot strikes the ground. This force radiates into the sole of the foot, particularly the plantar and heel, through the ankle joint, along the lower leg, into the knee, and is ultimately absorbed by the hip joint. Each of these points is vulnerable to the repetitive nature of the running motion, causing damage to its structure. An orthotic, typically a lightweight molded insert, will be custom designed for the runner to be worn on the inside of each shoe to create a more even footfall and correspondingly equitable distribution of the forces. These shoe insert orthotics have become quite popular and are not restricted to correction of alignment of the structures of distance runners. The efficiency and the ultimate performance of athletes in every running discipline will be influenced by structural misalignment, including track running and all field sports.

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Brace orthotics perform a different role for the athlete. Neck and knee braces, the most common of these appliances, are intended primarily to restrict the ability of the subject joint to move in a fashion that might cause a re-injury. Neck braces, modified to fit even an American football player while wearing other protective equipment, are sometimes worn by players who have either sustained a minor neck muscle strain or who have a history of neck problems. The neck brace will assist in the prevention of the neck being extended. In a similar fashion, knee braces are almost always worn by athletes who have sustained a previous injury, often to the medial or anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), the connective tissues that essentially hold the femur (thigh bone) to the tibia and fibula (shin bones). When the athlete has had reconstructive ligament surgery, the brace serves to prevent the knee from being forced from one side to the other, which places undue stress on the repaired joint. To provide the maximum degree of desired support, an orthotic brace must extend beyond the target joint. Knee braces that are the most supportive will extend from the calf muscles, with a hinge at the joint, to the quadriceps. Effective ankle braces will often be designed to extend from the top of the Achilles tendon, secured at a point near the forefoot. The best orthotics are those custom-made for the individual. A foot orthotic will be constructed from a casting made of the foot of the athlete; the relevant medical specialist, often a podiatrist, will often utilize a video image of the gait to best determine how to customize the device to suit the particular needs of the athlete.

Knee: Genetic and non-athletic conditions affecting performance; Musculoskeletal injuries; Running injuries; Running shoes.

SEE ALSO

Osgood-Schlatter disease Osgood-Schlatter disease is described as osteochondrosis of the tuberosity of the tibia (also known as the shinbone). With this condition, there is pain about 2 to 3 in (5 to 7.5 cm) below the kneecap, where a tendon inserts into a bony protrusion called the tibia tubercle. In about 25% of cases, the pain can also exist on both sides of this area. First described in 1891, Osgood-Schlatter disease is named for Robert Bayley Osgood and Carl B. Schlatter. Since the condition tends to disappear with age without treatment, Osgood-Schlatter disease is more correctly considered to be a symptom. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

OSTEOARTHRITIS

Whether described as a condition or disease, and even though it usually persists for only a few years at most, the hallmark knee pain is disruptive and painful for adolescents. Rapidly growing active boys and girls between 11 and 15 years of age are most commonly affected. Boys are approximately three times more susceptible than girls. This may reflect the past tendency of adolescent boys to participate more in physical activities than girls. However, those times have changed. With girls increasingly being part of the game, rather than being on the sidelines, the incidence of OsgoodSchlatter disease in adolescent girls may well rise. The pain can arise from a single event such as a blow to the knee. More often, however, the pain arises from the repeated flexing of the knee against a quadriceps muscle that has become abnormally tight due to rapid body growth during adolescence. This strain aggravates the tibial area. So, typically, Osgood-Schlatter disease is an overuse injury. For some sufferers, the pain is mild and periodic and occurs after athletic activity. For others, the pain can be severe and constant. Usually, only one knee is affected, although for a small percentage of people, both knees become painful. When pain is mild, it is possible to continue with sports activities by following some or all of the treatments. However, severe pain can cause an athlete to stop engaging in sports entirely until the problem is resolved. Because flexing of the knee aggravates the injury, adolescents who are involved in certain athletic activities are especially prone. Sports that involve a lot of knee motion, jumping, and rapid side-to-side movement, such as soccer, gymnastics, basketball, figure skating, and distance running, can lead to Osgood-Schlatter disease. Swelling of the area below the kneecap and pain that is accentuated when the area is gently pressed are diagnostic hallmarks of Osgood-Schlatter disease. Once a diagnosis is made, treatment can involve curtailing athletic activity, applying heat before the activity to increase circulation, applying ice after activity to help prevent inflammation, taking regular doses of an anti-inflammatory such as ibuprofen, and even wrapping the knee to restrict movement. Some or all of the treatments are continued until there is little or no discomfort or pain following exercise. This may require several months. Stretches that strengthen the bone, tendon, and cartilage in the knees can help lessen the chances of a reoccurrence of pain. One exercise involves stretchWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ing the quadriceps (the muscles in front of the thigh) by grasping a foot with the hand on the same side of the body and pulling the foot up until the heel touches the buttock. This can be done standing up or lying stomach-down on the floor. The stretch is held for about 30 seconds. Another useful stretch focuses on the hamstring, the muscle located in the back of the thigh. For this stretch, a person sits with one leg straight out in front and the other leg is bent so that the sole of the foot touches the other leg. Leaning forward and keeping the extended leg straight produces stretching in the back of the thigh. The stretch is held for about 30 seconds. Other stretches can be done as well. It is advisable to consult with a physician or a physiotherapist before starting a stretching program. With their guidance, a diligent stretching routine can help get an athlete back into action. The symptoms of Osgood-Schlatter disease can persist for several years. However, most typically, symptoms disappear within 12 to 14 months, soon after the end of the growth spurt experienced by many adolescents (generally around the age of 14 for girls and 16 for boys).

Bone mineralization patterns; Bone, ligaments, tendons; Osteoporosis; Recurrent stress fractures.

SEE ALSO

Osteoarthritis Osteoarthritis, also known as degenerative arthritis, is a disease which may arise in any human joint. Over 100 specific types of arthritis have been identified by medical science. Osteoarthritis is classified as a rheumatic disease, meaning that it is an affliction that is isolated to the particular joint structure without attacking any other organ or bodily system. Osteoarthritis is the general description of the progressive breakdown and loss of cartilage in the joint: there are a number of factors that may contribute to both the origin and the development of the condition. Joints are created in the human musculoskeletal system where two or more bones meet. All bones consist of hard mineral compounds, primarily those including calcium, the mineral that gives bones their hard surface and density, with a measure of the protein collagen present to provide a measure of elasticity to the bone surface to permit the structure to absorb impact. At the joint, the epiphysis (the area

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at the end of every bone), is coated with cartilage, a protein substance that provides both cushioning and a reduced friction surface on which the other joint bones can move more readily. These coverings are known as articular cartilage. There are two general types of osteoarthritis. Primary osteoarthritis does not have a specific cause and is generally attributable to the aging of the body. For many people, the wear and tear to their joints from the repetitive nature of human movement causes the cartilage in the joints to thin over time. Pieces of cartilage fiber tend to peel away from the surface of the bone structure, and where the cartilage thins bone spurs may occasionally develop, further limiting joint movement. Primary osteoarthritis is also known as rheumatism. Secondary osteoarthritis arises from specific and definable physical circumstances. Hereditary causes occur in people born with unequal leg length or similar structural imbalances that tend to create unequal stresses on weight-bearing joints during movement. These stresses will often cause damage to the cartilage in the affected joint. These alignment or structural deficiencies particularly contribute to the formation of osteoarthritis in the joints of the foot, knee, hip, or lower spine. Another circumstance the leads to secondary osteoarthritis is sports injury, in which excessive force is directed into a joint and will often cause the cartilage to tear or to partially tear. The most common cartilage tear injuries in sport occur in the knee. A torn knee cartilage often occurs in conjunction with other injuries to the knee structure, such as the patella (knee cap) or one of the ligament structures. Secondary osteoarthritis also occurs in the obese, those persons who are overweight, which places a significantly greater strain on all weight-bearing joints, rendering the joint more vulnerable to injury. The symptoms of secondary osteoarthritis are pain in the affected area, accompanied by swelling and limited mobility in the joint. Persons who have sustained longer term cartilage loss in the knees often appear bow legged, due to the fact that the cartilage, having thinned on the epiphysis, has created a narrowing in the space between the femur and the tibia and fibula. The bow-legged appearance is the result of the bones meeting at a different angle than when the epiphysis had optimal cartilage covering. The loss of knee cartilage is the most common basis for total knee replacement surgery in North America.

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X-ray showing finger joints which have been immobilized with pins to remedy severe osteoarthritis. ª LE STE R V. BE RG MA N/ CORB IS

Osteoarthritis often occurs in the regions of the spine that support movement, particularly the cervical spine, the seven vertebrae that support the neck and the skull, and the lumbar spine, the lower back region located above the pelvis. In the joints formed by the individual vertebrae in these areas, when cartilage is reduced, bony spurs, which are composed of the same calcium and mineral material used to build and repair bones, will tend to form on the surface of the vertebrae. These spurs interfere in the natural motion of the spinal joints, and the spurs will sometimes irritate the spinal nerves that emanate from the spinal cord, causing significant pain. Other than the history communicated by the patient to an examining physician, the primary diagnostic tool available to determine the extent of osteoarthritis is x-ray technology. The x-ray results will reveal where there is either an observable loss of cartilage, a narrowing of joints spaces, or the presence of bone spurs.


OSTEOCHONDRITIS DISSECANS

The treatment options for the relief of osteoarthritis are limited. If the cartilage is capable of being repaired, arthroscopic surgery may be employed to both suture the damaged cartilage as well as to remove free-floating particles of cartilage in the joint, that may further impair its movement through becoming lodged in the space between the bones of the joint. There have been a number of successful, yet experimental surgeries performed in recent years where new cartilage was successfully cultivated outside of the body and then injected into the joint to encourage a re-growth in the damaged area. In many cases, the subject will obtain relief from over-the-counter medications such as acetaminophen, or nonsteriodal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen, or the more powerful NSAIDs, Cox-2 inhibitors, that block the development of the inflammation-causing enzymes at the site of the injured cartilage. A more immediate anti-inflammatory procedure is the injection of a corticosteroid such as cortisone directly into the affected joint. As there is no certain restorative treatment for cartilage that has been thinned away from the interior of the joint, athletes who suffer from the affects of osteoarthritis often must reduce both the frequency and the intensity of their activities to manage the pain of this condition.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Calcium; Minerals; Osteoarthritis.

SEE ALSO

Osteochondritis dissecans Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) is the general heading given to a series of degenerative joint diseases, all of which center on the inflammation or detachment of cartilage from the joint surface. All joints in the human body have a number of common characteristics. A joint is created by the meeting of two or more bones. The joint is stabilized and supported by ligaments, which connect the bones of the joint together; the nature and extent of the movement of the joint is determined by the configuration of the bones in the joint; a hinge joint such as the elbow will move differently than the hip, which has a ball and socket construction. At the epiphysis, or end, of the bones that form joints, there is usually a condoyle, a rounded segment on the bone surface that makes the movement of the bone against the opposite side of the joint easier. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

condoyle portion of the epiphysis is covered by articular cartilage, a layer of slick, frictionless material that both provides ease of movement for the joint as the bones move against one another, as well as a degree of additional cushion to absorb the forces directed against the end of the bones. OCD arises when a fragmentary piece of cartilage, most often with a piece of bone attached, separates from the surface of the condoyle. The fragment may remain on the surface of the articular surface, where it appears, if observed by way of x ray, as a lesion. Most often, the fragment will float loosely within the joint space, which is filled with synovial fluid. When the fragment moves into the space between the bones of the joint, the fragment will often prevent the full extension and consequent range of motion of the joint. The result is both a loss of full movement and significant discomfort. The person will often experience significant pain during an athletic activity, and a corresponding stiffness in movement at other times. In some circumstances, due to the position and the size of the loose fragment, the joint, particularly a knee or elbow joint, will seem to ‘‘stick’’ as the athlete attempts to fully extend the structure, much like a sensation experienced when the transmission on a motor vehicle that does not function properly when moving from gear to gear. OCD is caused most often by a trauma or series of traumas absorbed by the affected joint. A related cause is ischemia, the restriction or loss of blood supply to a part of the body. When the bone to which the cartilage is attached has its blood supply interrupted, the fragmentation of the cartilage may occur. The most common site for the onset of OCD is the knee; the condoyle located on each side of the bottom of the femur (thigh bone) are the areas where cartilage and bone fragments most frequently become dislodged. The elbow is the second most likely structure to sustain an OCD occurrence; OCD in the elbow is sometimes referred to as bone chips. A less common location for OCD is the ankle joint, at the talar dome, the rounded portion of the talus (ankle bone). Athletes account for approximately 60% of all diagnosed cases of OCD. OCD often occurs in athletes whose bones have not yet reached full maturity, as the articular cartilage and underlying bone in the epiphysis is not developed. Athletes engaging in contact sports, gymnasts, and baseball players form the largest group of persons injured through OCD. Research confirms that over 40% of the athletic injuries involved one or more significant traumas to the knee. The diagnosis of the injury and the determination of the most appropriate treatment options depends

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on the elimination of all other possible causes. In the knee, the OCD symptoms are similar to those of a fracture and a serious sprain. A partial tear of the meniscus (the cartilage-like cushioning device on each side of the interior of the knee joint) can also result in loose cartilage pieces being present in the joint. Both x-ray images and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology can isolate the precise location of the fragment. In many cases, arthroscopic surgery can remove the offending object. In some circumstances of elbow OCD, young athletes, often injured through baseball pitching, have successfully had the damaged portion of the articular cartilage grafted onto the bone surface. When the fragment is surgically removed, the typical recovery time from procedure to full resumption of sports is a minimum of three months. OCD is of particular long-term concern to athletes. OCD carries the additional risk of the development of osteoarthritis, the chronic inflammation and deterioration of the cartilage in the affected joint, at a rate of incidence that is far higher than that of the general population.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Elbow injuries; Knee injuries; Osteoarthritis.

SEE ALSO

Osteoporosis Osteoporosis, the degeneration of the bone structure through a progressive reduction in bone mass and bone density, is one of the leading bone diseases, whose prevalence in most countries of the industrialized world has increased dramatically over the past 20 years. In the United States alone, it is estimated that 1.5 million fractures per year are directly attributable to osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is a skeletal condition that is tied almost exclusively to the life style, dietary, and exercise habits of its subjects. Osteoporosis most frequently affects the hip, spine, and wrist, making the bones fragile and less able to absorb a shock or a blow. The progress of osteoporosis is not forecast by the development of specific symptoms; it is painless, first manifesting itself with a fracture, often in the course of a fall or other accident. An understanding of the causes of osteoporosis begins with the formation and the growth of bones. Bones begin their development in the body at birth, and continue until full maturation at the approximate age of 20. The mineral calcium is the most important element in the formation of the cells that are used in bone construction. Calcium is found in many food products, particularly milk and other dairy products.

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Calcium requires the presence of vitamin D in the body to be properly absorbed into the various systems where it plays a role in human function; even when a person is otherwise consuming appropriate amounts of dietary calcium, a vitamin D deficiency will contribute to a calcium deficiency. There is no substitute within the human biology for calcium in bone construction, and when the bone does not receive the proper amount of this mineral, the bone cannot be either as dense or as hard as it must be to function properly. Collagen is another component of bone formation. Collagen is the protein-based substance that gives the otherwise inflexible bone some measure of elasticity on impact. Although far less important to lifelong bone health, a deficiency in this protein during the adolescent period will contribute to the potential for bone disease later in life. The mineral potassium is also an essential but less substantial part of the bone development process. The healthy formation of bones during the period prior to physical maturity also requires a healthy and active lifestyle. Exercises and sports that require the bone to bear resistance, such as running, jumping, cycling or any other movement where forces are directed into the bone structure, assist in the development of both bone mass and density. Later in life, bone mineral density is the indicator relied on by the medical community in assessing the health of older bones. There is considerable sports science evidence that confirms that young people who participate in sports or other regular and structured physical activities are far more likely to have healthy bones in their later adult years. While the foundation of healthy bones is established as a young person approaches physical maturity, the issue of lifestyle continues to be operative in bone health through adulthood. Participation in activities that provide resistance continues to assist the body in the maintenance of bone density. While it is an unalterable genetic fact that adult bone mass will begin to decrease after age 40 in most persons, the rate of this decrease is significantly slowed by the combined attention to diet and exercise. Post-menopausal women are the largest single group of persons afflicted by osteoporosis, which generally is most often diagnosed in persons who are over the age of 50 years. Menopause tends to cause a reduction in levels of estrogen, the female hormone. As many women breastfed one or more children, there exists a potential limitation on the amount of calcium that such women received into their own bodies during such periods. For other affected persons, the most common factors identified WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

OUT-OF-COMPETITION TESTING

Out-of-competition testing Out-of-competition testing is the second of the two major components in the conduct of comprehensive testing of athletes for the presence of performance-enhancing substances. This type of testing is generally known as doping tests. Irrespective of the particular national or international sport federation that might be responsible for the athlete in question, in-competition testing is conducted on an athlete selected for a specific competition, such as an Olympic event or at a World Cup match. Out-of-competition testing is any such testing of an athlete not in competition, or in any way associated with the athlete’s immediate participation in an event or match.

Illustration showing a hip fracture due to osteoporosis.

JO HN

B AVO SI/ PH OTO RE S EAR CHE RS , INC.

as contributing to osteoporosis include a bone fracture of any type that occurs after age 50, insufficient intake of calcium and vitamin D, low testosterone levels in males, sedentary lifestyle, excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, and the use of corticosteroid medications, such as cortisone, for extended periods. Osteoporosis is an almost entirely preventable disease. It is also an incurable and progressive condition, as once bone mass is decreased, it cannot be increased, but simply maintained. If aggressive steps are not taken to address the identified causes of the condition, the bone mass will continue to deteriorate, with the bones being prone to fracture more readily. The approaches to healthy bone development over a lifetime are the same techniques to be employed in countering the effects of osteoporosis. These approaches include a balanced diet (with emphasis on calcium and vitamin D consumption), weightbearing, resistance exercises that require the bones to respond to force, and abstinence from smoking. In some circumstances, a physician may prescribe supplements to assist with the maintenance of proper calcium levels in the body.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Calcium; Minerals; Osteoarthritis.

SEE ALSO


Since the advent of in-competition scientific testing for performance-enhancing substances, particularly processes aimed at the detection of anabolic steroids, stimulants, and blood doping hormones such as erythropoietin (EPO), uncertainty had existed as to the effectiveness of a testing process where the fact of an upcoming test was known to all participants. Many performance-enhancing substances could be consumed by an athlete until a date in advance of competition; the athlete would then suspend the taking of the product to permit the testing to take place, and resume consumption after the test. Alternatively, the presence of such substances might be chemically masked, or the processing of the illegal substance assisted with the consumption of other pharmaceutical products such as diuretics. The challenge for sports organizations was to develop a comprehensive model to permit the investigation of illegal substance use throughout the entire year. This challenge was long in being remedied, as the difficulties faced by sport organizers to detect anabolic steroids best illustrates. Steroids were first used in a systematic fashion by Eastern Bloc weightlifters, wrestlers, and other strength-event athletes in the 1950s. American competitors, having observed the success of their Eastern rivals, began to employ steroids in their own training. The sports science community was well aware of the performance-enhancing power of anabolic steroids, but there existed no reliable and efficient method of physical testing for these substances. Anabolic steroids were first declared to be illegal by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. Testing methods were crude and uncertain by modern standards. When science began to develop certain tests that identified steroid metabolites, the substances produced by the body as a byproduct or breakdown of

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steroids within the body, testing at the Olympic level began to take on a meaning and an immediacy that it previously lacked. A serious of high-profile positive doping tests, including that of sprinter Ben Johnson at the 1988 Summer Olympics, which resulted in the disqualification of his world record race in the 100 m, created a sense of urgency in the international athletics community regarding performance-enhancing substances of all kinds. It was in this culture that various international sports groups took affirmative steps to counter doping. The rise to prominence of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in the late 1990s was a significant stimulus to the development of established and transparent out-of-competition testing practices. With the acceptance by the IOC and its member countries of the WADA Anti-Doping Code, the sports bodies that were aligned primarily to the Olympic movement or the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF), moved their constituent national memberships to adopt the same out-of-competition procedures provided by the WADA Code. At a national level, amateur athletes who receive government funding must comply with their home federation rules regarding out-of-competition testing. With the sophistication of doping science keeping apace with the ability of sports federations to access scientific developments in test procedures, the random out-of-competition test is a powerful weapon. The broader world of international sport now has three different types of comprehensive doping testing being utilized: the WADA regulated model, the testing conducted in professional sports leagues where the testing procedures are negotiated between the league and the players association through a collective bargaining agreement (CBA), and athletes participating in sports where the testing is conducted on an ad hoc basis. The procedures created by WADA regarding both in-competition and out-of- competition testing were intended to be comprehensive in their scope. The signatories to the WADA Anti-Doping Code include the national Olympic committees of virtually every nation, major world sports bodies such as the IAAF, FIFA, FIBA, as well as the national anti-doping agencies in each country; the United States Anti-Doping Agency, the Canadian Center for Ethics in Sport, UK Sport (Great Britain), the Australia Sports Drug Agency, and the Anti-Doping Commission of India are examples. By adopting the WADA Code, each sports body agrees to conduct all doping tests in

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accordance with its procedures. WADA does not determine which athletes should be subjected to out-of-competition testing, as this is a matter for the national and sports bodies on an individual basis; WADA provides the procedure to be followed where such tests are administered. As a general rule, sports agencies will make known whether an athlete will at any time be subject to an out-of-competition test. In addition to compliance with rules with respect to ongoing financial aid, testing creates a track record of its own—when an athlete is subsequently tested at competition in circumstances that may raise issues as to the quality of the test procedures, series of ‘‘clean’’ tests may establish a measure of credibility to a protest to the result. Further, the administering association, through transparent out-of-competition testing of its members, establishes its own credibility. Out-of-competition doping testing under the WADA Code may take one of two forms: a random test, or a test conducted on a predetermined date, known as an advance notice test. Random testing is organized on the basis that the athlete provides sufficient data that he or she might be reached at any time. Most organizations will permit one unexplained failure to contact the athlete; it is common for a second such problem to initiate a process where the athlete may be deemed to have failed the test unless he or she exhibits complete cooperation to the testing authority. When the athlete has no advance notice of the test, he or she will be chaperoned continuously from the moment of contact from the testing officials until the sample is provided. The test is usually a urine sample, as this is the easiest and least intrusive means of obtaining bodily fluids for testing. WADA has detailed protocols about the manner in which the sample is physically placed into a test container, the sealing of the container, and its secure transport to an accredited test facility. The test must usually provide for a designated A and B sample, with the B acting as the basis for a second test if the A sample tests positive. The athlete is deemed to have tested positive when both the A and the B samples generate that result. The prescribed standards for what actually constitutes a positive sample are published by WADA on an annual basis. With many prohibited substances, there are permitted levels to be present in the body; the test is aimed at detection of illegal levels of the substance. An example is the anabolic steroid nandrolone; it is a prohibited substance, but as nandrolone naturally occurs in the human body in minute WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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quantities, a positive test for the steroid is not the discovery of the presence of nandrolone in the subject urine sample; a positive test results when the nandrolone metabolite is present in amounts exceeding the prescribed level of 2 mg per liter in urine. When the athlete is subject to advance notice of a test, he or she will be directed to attend a designated Doping Control Station at a fixed time and date. As with the athlete who cannot be located for the purposes of a random test, the failure of an athlete to attend an advance notice test may trigger consequences that include the test being deemed to have a positive result. In such circumstances where the test is conducted under the auspices of the WADA Code, the athlete will be suspended for a period of time from competition; in most national governing bodies, a deemed failure of a doping test will generate a twoyear suspension. Repeat offenders will often face a lifetime ban from the sport. Although uneven in its application in some sports, the high-profile efforts of first the International Olympic Committee, and later WADA, to create a worldwide anti-doping protocol produced an undoubted domino effect. An example is large amateur sport organizations such as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) that have drug testing regimes both in-competition and out-ofcompetition that mirror the WADA approach. Professional sports organizations across the world were much slower to adopt comprehensive anti-doping procedures than were the Olympic movement and international multi-sport associations such as the IAAF. The interest of professional sports, the generation of profits for the ownership of teams, and the desire of players to achieve often exceedingly lucrative professional status, took a clear precedence over concerns regarding fair play or the significant health concerns surrounding performance-enhancing substances. The Tour de France, the world’s foremost cycling road race, is sanctioned by the International Cycling Union (ICU). In the period prior to 2004, the ICU conducted its own anti-doping tests for the Tour; the Tour had a history of athletes who used various stimulants. In 2004, the ICU became a signatory to the WADA Code, making the Tour a professional event that has bound itself to the same standards as the international athletic community. Professional soccer leagues that are sanctioned by FIFA, whose leagues include the high-profile English Premiership, the Serie A of Italy, and the German Bundeslega, another party to the WADA Code, are also subject to the same rules with respect to out-of-competition testing. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

North American professional leagues have long been resistant to a WADA-styled out-of-competition testing protocol. In the case of professional American football, ice hockey, and baseball, each sport and its players association have negotiated a CBA governing all aspects of their relationship, including drug testing. As a general rule, each CBA provides that there will be out-of-competition and in-season testing at designated periods. The penalties imposed for illegal substance use in North American professional sport are typically more lenient than those imposed in WADA-style testing. A first offense for the use of a banned substance in American football is a four-game suspension; a similar violation of the Major League Baseball policy is a 10-day suspension. The professional leagues have a seemingly far greater laissez faire attitude to this issue. The ice hockey public has never expressed significant concern over the widespread practice among NHL players in the pre-game consumption of decongestants that contain ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, prohibited stimulants under the WADA Code. Steroid use among baseball sluggers became well known in the late 1990s, but it was a revelation that did little to affect the overall popularity of the sport.

Doping tests; EPO; Prohibited substances (competition bans); U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA); World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Overtraining Overtraining is the description given to a particular athletic approach to the physical development required in a sport, when the training workload or volume of the athlete exceeds their present ability to perform. This general understanding of what represents excessive training is defined more comprehensively in the recognized sports medicine condition, overtraining syndrome. Overtraining syndrome is a neuron-endocrine disorder, when the function of the hormones, the chemical messengers that stimulate a wide array of functions within the body, are disrupted. This condition leads to a wide range of physical, emotional, and behavioral consequences for the athlete. While the syndrome most commonly affects high-performance or elite-level athletes, overtraining can result in any circumstance where the athlete’s current training workload exceeds present abilities. Overtraining can affect athletes in any sport.

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Simply, overtraining is excess. No athlete has ever achieved competitive success without taxing the body in training to a point very close to the physical limit. Successful athletes are often intense, driven people who ignore certain physical signs of injury or other dangers to their health in the pursuit of their competitive goal. It is this athlete who most commonly falls victim to the overtraining syndrome. Overtraining can also impair more recreational athletes, who through inexperience, may not understand what their body is telling them as they increase their training volume in pursuit of a personal goal. Overtraining syndrome occurs most often among recreational athletes who are training for a marathon or similar event. Athletic training is founded on the fundamental principle of workouts followed by rest; as the workouts intensify, a rest interval consistent with both the intensity and the duration of the workout becomes crucial. In this cycle, the rest period is the means by which the body becomes stronger, because while at rest, the body restores the cardiovascular system and the glycogen stores to greater levels than existed prior to the workout. While at rest, the body also enhances the enzymes utilized by the mitochondria in each cell to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the ultimate energy fuel source. If the body has sustained periods of insufficient rest, the restoration processes do not occur and the body is not able to repair itself. When the balance between workouts and rest is not sustained, the body becomes fatigued, leading to a cumulative exhausted state that is the overtraining syndrome. Overtraining is distinct from the natural and day-to-day variables that occur in training; one or two poor workouts because the athlete feels tired may be a signal as to workout practices, but are not evidence of the overtraining syndrome. The overtraining syndrome is also referred to as staleness or ‘‘burnout.’’ It often presents with a number of physical and emotional indicators, including: decreased performance levels, including an inability to properly complete regular workout assignments rise in resting heart rate to 10% or greater than usual rate depressed mood heightened feelings of mental stress, often arising from performance expectations, or coaching or team pressures reduced immune system function and greater vulnerability to infection; lymph glands (a

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component of the immune system) often swell; the production of lymphocytes, the cells manufactured by the immune system to fight infection, is reduced lower testosterone function and reduced sexual desires generalized muscle and joint pain insomnia gastrointestinal problems

The treatment to resolve an overtraining syndrome is rest. The amount of rest required will usually be proportionate to the period of overtraining; as an example, if the athlete has been overtraining for two months, he or she may require a two- to threeweek period of rest before resuming training. The bodily systems most affected by the syndrome, especially the immune system, must be restored to full capacity or the syndrome will likely return. The return to training must be gradual, with careful attention paid to both the intensity and the volume of the workouts. When an athlete has been afflicted with the overtraining syndrome, a training log will often assist in reminding the athlete and any support personnel to keep the workouts within the physical capabilities of the athlete. There are no pharmaceuticals or dietary supplements that will serve to cure overtraining syndrome. If in the course of the overtraining period the athlete had not been eating a balanced diet or otherwise consuming all necessary foods, vitamins or minerals, these points can also be addressed in the rest period. A plant extract, Eleutherococcus senticosus, has been tested in Eastern Europe as a potential aid to assisting the body in overcoming the fatigue associated with overtraining syndrome, with some success; it is not marketed commercially.

Carbohydrate stores: Muscle glycogen, liver glycogen, and glucose; Fatigue; Muscle glycogen recovery; Recurrent stress fractures.

SEE ALSO

Oxygen The element oxygen is essential to all human life. It is the most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, and it is the second most abundant element in the air, constituting approximately 21% of the Earth’s atmosphere. The human body ingests oxygen primarily through the respiratory system, with the cardiovascular system the vehicle by which oxygen is then transported for uses throughout the body. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Oxygen is also a constituent part of such vital energy sources as the carbohydrates that are converted to glucose, which in molecular form is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms aligned as C6H12O6. Oxygen is also essential to the structure of the dietary fats absorbed and stored in the body. Triglycerides represent the storage form of such fats; when released from the adipose storage cells, these molecules break down into fatty acids and glycerol, which is a substance with a carbon/hydrogen/oxygen structure similar to glucose. Oxygen is an agent in virtually all metabolic processes. Oxygen also is a part of most organic molecules in the body, the building blocks for all living things. The importance of oxygen to an athlete is most obvious in the healthy function of the respiratory system, without which competitive athletics would be impossible. Air is inhaled through the mouth or nose and ultimately passes through the bronchial tubes into the lungs. Within the lung cavity, there are tiny, thin-walled alveoli, air sacs that are connected to the wall of the lung and which are each a part of a dense network of capillaries, the blood vessels that act as exchange mechanisms. Inhaled oxygen passes through the sac wall to directly enter the cardiovascular system, and waste carbon dioxide passes out into the lung. Once the oxygen enters the bloodstream, it is transported by a component of the red blood cells, hemoglobin. The oxygen is taken to the cellular sites within the body where energy is being generated. While the body can produce energy without the presence of oxygen, through its two anaerobic systems, for limited periods of time, ultimately the aerobic system will be required. It is the presence of oxygen that permits the release of energy for long-term physical needs from the body’s ultimate physical fuel source known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the product of a complex process that involves the breakdown of glucose or fatty acids. Sports performance is impossible without the supply of oxygen in an uninterrupted fashion. When supplies of oxygen are restricted, the body must make adaptations to correct the shortage. The most common environmental change that limits the body’s oxygen supply is as a result of the body performing at an increased altitude. As altitude increases, the


atmosphere is described as becoming ‘‘thinner.’’ The molecules in the air are less dense as the effect of gravity is less pronounced, and the amount of oxygen present in the elevated atmosphere is reduced. From the sea level percentage of approximately 21% oxygen, at Denver, Colorado’s famous Mile High Stadium, located at 5,500 ft (2,400 m), the oxygen percentage is reduced to approximately 18%, and at the soccer stadium in Quito, Ecuador, with an elevation of 9,300 ft (2,850 m), oxygen is only 15% of the available air. There are only two mechanisms available to counter the reduced amount of oxygen entering the body at those altitudes. The first is the process known as acclimatization, where the athlete spends a period of time in the oxygen-reduced environment prior to the anticipated event. Research confirms that the adaptations required by the body will be complete within two to three weeks of living and training in the thinner air. Acclimatization spurs the production of a hormone in the kidneys known as erythropoietin (EPO), which is the chemical signal to the body to produce a greater number of erythrocytes (red blood cells) to counter the effect of less oxygen; if there is less oxygen available to be transported, the greater number of red blood cells can more efficiently acquire what available oxygen there is to be consumed. In a related way, the goal of enhanced oxygen transport has been the reason for the development of synthetic versions of EPO, used as the primary blooddoping agent. It is common in sporting events to see oxygen being administered on the sidelines to athletes. It is evident that there is a belief that such practices will aid athletes in their recovery and permit them to return to play more quickly. In events contested at sea level, such oxygen aids are not anything more than a placebo to the athlete; the lungs cannot absorb oxygen any more readily than if supplied by the air. At elevation, where the athlete is not acclimatized to the thinner atmosphere, the portable oxygen supply may be a modest assist to recovery.

Blood doping; Cardiorespiratory function; EPO; Glycogen depletion.

SEE ALSO

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P Paralympics The Greek word para is a suffix commonly employed in medical and scientific usage in reference to disciplines or circumstances that are stand beside or are comparable to a preexisting condition. The Paralympics are the disabled athletes version of the Olympic Games in both summer and winter, each conducted in the same competitive venues with similar competitive structures as the Olympics. The Paralympians and many of their Olympic counterparts share another common athletic attribute—their Games are the only true showcase of their talents in a sports world otherwise dominated by exploits of teams and players competing in professional leagues. When the modern Olympics grew from the stewardship of Baron de Coubertin (1893–1937), who sought to emulate the ancient Olympic ideals of ‘‘higher, faster, stronger,’’ the Paralympics have taken a direction that is in many ways a symbol of the inclusivity and the respect that disabled persons are now accorded throughout the world; the motto of the Paralympics, ‘‘Spirit in Motion’’ is an extension of the broader vision of the Paralympics movement, ‘‘Empower, Achieve, Aspire,’’ an encapsulation of the stated purpose of the Paralympic Games, to enable Paralympians to achieve sporting excellence and inspire and excite the world. The roots of the Paralympics stem from the carnage and the human suffering caused by World War II. Sports clubs for disabled persons had existed since the late 1800s, but these groups were not a part of any national or regional organizational structure. In 1944, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

the British government opened a treatment facility for badly injured armed forces personnel at the town of Stoke Mandeville. The chief physician at the facility, Dr. Ludwig Guttmann (1899–1980), instituted sport programs for the wheelchair-bound patients as a part of their overall physical therapy. By 1948, the programs had evolved from purely therapeutic applications to recreational sport, and the first Stoke Mandeville Games were held for wheelchair athletes. In 1952, the inaugural effort was expanded when a Dutch group of disabled persons joined the British facility to create the first disabled athletes sports organization, the International Stoke Mandeville Games Committee. By 1960, the Stoke Mandeville initiative had evolved into the forerunner of the modern Paralympics movement. The Paralympics are now contested in the same years as the Olympics. The Paralympic movement is headed by the International Paralympics Committee (IPC), which is representative of over 160 national Paralympics committees, as well as four distinct international sports federations, each formed to advance and regulate the interests of specific athletic interests: cerebral palsy, vision impaired, intellectually disabled, and wheelchair/amputee athletes. The IPC is a member of the Olympics movement, and it is a signatory to international sports protocols such as the World AntiDoping Agency’s Anti-Doping Code. The Paralympics are a distinct athletic avenue from the Special Olympics movement, which is a global organization devoted to athletes with intellectual disability. Paralympic events are largely traditional individual and team Olympic sports that have been modified

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to accommodate the physical limitations of the competitors. Sports developed specifically for disabled athletes include boccia, a sport designed for persons afflicted with cerebral palsy that requires balls to be directed toward a target, with the competitor seated in a wheelchair, and goalball, a competition where vision-impaired athletes react to the sound of a ball being directed toward an opponent’s goal. The classification of athletes is a process at the root of the rules of competition in both the Summer and Winter Paralympics. Disabilities are often unique to each athlete, and to ensure fair competition, the IPC developed rules regarding the manner in which athletes would be classified in each sport. The classification process involves both technical and physical assessments of each athlete, in concert with observations of the athlete both in and out of competition. The key tool in the determination of an athlete’s classification is the degree of function. There are six general areas of classification, which include: Amputees: These are athletes who have had a minimum of one major joint in a limb removed, often a knee or an elbow. In some classifications, an amputee will compete using a wheelchair. Cerebral palsy: This classification refers to athletes who suffer from one of a group of motor disorders that impair movement and motor control. Cerebral palsy athletes often compete in wheelchairs. Vision impaired: This classifies athletes with all manner of sight limitations, from those whose sight ranges from correctable vision problems to those are experience 100% blindness. Spinal cord injuries: This classification is for athletes whose spinal cord has been damaged so as to limit movement in arms, legs, or both. Parapalegia and quadrapalegia are the most common conditions. Intellectual disability: This classifies athletes who have either lower functioning mental abilities or who suffer from a specific limiting disability. The intellectual function of the athlete is assessed through the determination of a number of factors considered as a whole, including self-care, community use, home living, level of social skills, and leisure and work pursuits. The intellectually disabled athlete must have been so disabled prior to age 18. Others: This classifies athletes whose disability limits their ability to move but does not fit into one of the first five headings. Dwarfism, the genetic disease whereby growth is severely stunted, is an example.

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The wheelchair is a common denominator to many of the athletes in the six general classifications. As a general rule, an athlete must have at least 10% loss of function in their lower legs to be permitted into the wide range of wheelchair-based events. The modern wheelchair is a sophisticated piece of athletic equipment, with each type of machine designed for a specific application. The wheelchair basketball athletes, whose sport involves significant contact between the competitors while on their machines, are significantly different than the ultra-light, very sleek racing versions used both on the track and on the roads for distance racing. The progression in the development of racing wheelchairs mirrored the technological advances in the design of racing bicycles, as each relies on light metals such as titanium and carbon fiber composites in construction. Within this framework, each of the Paralympic sports develops its own event specific classifications. As an example, Paralympic alpine skiing has three visually impaired classes (to differentiate between varying levels of sight), seven amputee classes (to encompass the ranges of amputee and prosthetic usage), and three seated ski divisions, for different types of quadriplegia. Athletes compete only against competitors who fall within their designated range of disability. Athletics, or track and field, provides the opportunity for the greatest range of competitions at the Summer Paralympic Games. When possible, given the purpose of the Paralympics, the rules of the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) are employed in competition. Various athletics events, such as wheelchair racing, are the subject of significant competition at annual international events as well as venues such as the Boston Marathon and other international races. The IPC maintains an active world record databank in all of the disciplines. The particular interest of both the Paralympic movement and its member athletes is the continued research and development of more effective sports science applications to assist the disabled. Known as the VISTA conferences, the IPC convenes a biennial event to further the science of disabled sport. One focus of the VISTA conferences has been the enhancement of physiological testing methods to further refine the classification of disabled athletes. The IPC became a signatory to the WADA Code with an appreciation that doping could be as serious a matter in Paralympic competition as in any ablebodied one. In 2004, the IPC instituted, with WADA, an out-of-competition testing program, providing for both random drug tests and those conducted with a measure of advance notice to the athletes. In further WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Winners at Paralympics Games in Sydney, Australia, 2000.

ª RE UTE RS/CO RBIS

recognition of its athletic constituency, the IPC maintains a Therapeutic Use Exemption list, where athletes may apply to the IPC to use an otherwise banned substance for treatment purposes. A common example of such a medication is any member of the corticosteroid class of anti-inflammatory. Most Paralympic athletes have trained and competed in obscurity throughout the history of disabled athletic competition. The Olympics are the most publicized sports event in the world; the Paralympics, which follow every Olympic festival, garner a very small fraction of the media attention. The world at large may respect and admired these Paralympic athletes for their efforts in their achievements in overcoming disability, but it is a respect that is muted, especially in the global sport media. The perception of the Paralympic athlete as one performing in the shadows of the able-bodied was altered to a considerable degree in Canada in 2004 by Chantal Petitclaire, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

winner of five gold medals in various wheelchair events at the 2004 Athens Paralympics, the greatest ever Paralympic performance. Petitclaire spoke out publicly about her concerns of being cast as an athletic second-class citizen, not capable of having the magnitude of her accomplishments measured on an equal footing against those of able-bodied athletes in the voting for Canada’s female athlete of the year. Petitclaire asserted that any other consideration of her achievements in the Paralympics denigrated the efforts of all disabled athletes. Petitclaire’s crusade was endorsed by the Canadian sports media, and she was ultimately the recipient of the national female athlete of the year for 2004. Petitclaire was the first such disabled athlete to be recognized for a mainstream athletic award in North America.

International federations; International Olympic Committee (IOC); National governing bodies.

SEE ALSO

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PEDOMETERS

Pedometers

Pele´

A pedometer is a device that is capable of measuring the distance traveled by a person for a given period. A pedometer is the size of a pager or cell phone, and it is worn on the hip or secured by way of a belt to the person’s body. The pedometer is calibrated to the user’s stride length to provide an approximation of distance traveled; pedometers are most accurate when used to determine distances walked as opposed to running.

10/23/1940– BRAZILIAN SOCCER PLAYER

As a pedometer is a digital instrument, it may be readily integrated into other forms of biofeedback, including a heart monitor. The pedometer can also measure average rates of speed. Some models of pedometers also have a feature that determines the number of calories consumed by the user through the time period in which the pedometer is worn. While a pedometer is not a device commonly used by serious or elite-level athletes, it is a powerful motivational tool for many recreational athletes or persons interested in improving the general standard of their personal fitness. When people do not have an interest in conventional exercise programs, such as team sports, running, or fitness classes, or where they have impediments to participation as a result of lifestyle or employment commitments, the pedometer can serve to provide an ongoing incentive to incrementally boost the amount of physical activity in which they engage on a daily basis. Pedometers have become sufficiently popular that research has determined some rough guidelines for the person seeking improved fitness. Ten thousand steps per day is now cited as a target for those who seek to maintain a base level of cardiovascular fitness and weight control; for the average person, 10,000 steps is approximately 5 mi (8 km) of total daily movement. When a person seeks to lose weight and obtain enhanced cardiovascular risk reduction, the suggested targets are 12,000 steps to 15,000 steps per day (6-8 mi [10-13 km] of total daily movement). For additional cardiovascular fitness, it is recommended that the user walk 3,000 of the target step distance at a quick pace without stopping (1.5 mi or 2.5 km). In recent years, formal walking programs have gained popularity, especially among people with a history of heart problems. ‘‘Mall walkers’’ is a generic term that is frequently applied to walkers who use indoor shopping malls to walk in a controlled environment. SEE ALSO

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Biofeedback; Heart rate monitors; Treadmills.

Edson Artantes do Nascimento, more famously known by his childhood nickname of Pele´, is one of the best soccer players ever to play the game. Nearly three decades after his retirement from competitive soccer, he is still idolized in his home country of Brazil. His ‘‘bicycle kick’’ started not only a movement in aggressive play but spurred sports scientists to break down the mechanics of previously simple actions such as striking the ball. Pele´ was the son of a soccer player. His soccer skills were evident early in his life, despite the lack of training facilities and equipment that were the result of poverty. By the time he was 11 years old, he had caught the attention of Waldemar de Brito, a famous Brazilian soccer player of the time. Invited to play for de Brito’s amateur team, Pele´’s talent soon brought him a professional contract offer from the Santos football club. He joined Santos in 1956, when he was just 15 years of age. Pele´’s professional debut was an auspicious four-goal performance. Later the same year, now 16 years old, he was a regular player for Santos, led the league in scoring, and joined the squad of the Brazilian national team. Pele´ played for Santos from 1956 to 1974. During that time, he scored over 1,200 goals (the most by any soccer player to date) and assisted on over 1,100 others in 1,360 games. His career on the Brazilian national team spanned 15 years, from 1956 until 1971. In international competitions, he averaged one goal per game. Playing at midfield, Pele´ had offensive and defensive skills that made him the best player in the world of his era, and debatably the finest player ever to play soccer. He was an exceptional attacker, whose speed and exceptional passing ability with either foot allowed him to move the ball quickly and accurately upfield. When given the opportunity to score, he seldom missed. He could direct the ball, with power and precision, using his head. He was also a skilled defender, and thus able to hinder the advance of the opposition players. Of all his prodigious skills, Pele´ is most famous for a move dubbed the ‘‘bicycle kick.’’ In this move, he would leap into the air, somersaulting during flight, so that his feet moved above his head. In a coordinated motion that looked similar to the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PENTATHLON (WOMEN’S)

pedaling motion of bike riding, he would kick the ball with one of his feet. The move was performed with his back to the net; the kick would send the ball rocketing toward, often into, the net. Two years after joining the national squad, Pele´ led his team to victory in the World Cup. Only 17 years old, he was a dominant player, especially in the team’s victory match, in which he scored twice. He played in three more World Cups, in 1962, 1966, and 1970. Brazil was victorious in the 1962 and 1970 campaigns. During his career, Pele´ was coerced to join European soccer clubs with tremendously lucrative offers. However, to ensure that his career would not take him away from Brazil, the government officially declared him to be a national treasure. After his retirement from Brazilian soccer competition in 1974, Pele´ resumed his professional career in 1975 by joining the New York Cosmos of the fledgling North American Soccer League. His salary— reportedly $7 million for three years—was the highest at that time. His presence helped popularize and legitimize soccer in North America. He retired from competitive soccer in 1977. In his two-season career with the Cosmos, he scored over 100 goals and had 65 assists. Since then, he has been an active participant in activities of the United Nations, including UNICEF and U.N. environmental initiatives. The honors he has received include an honorary British Knighthood in 1992 and recognition as Athlete of the Century by the International Olympic Committee in 1999 (although he never played in Olympic competition). In an age when video games have become universally popular, Pele´ is also noteworthy for being the first sports figure featured in a video game, a product of the Atari company that was called Pele´’s Soccer. Pele´ remains an internationally recognized personality and soccer ambassador.

Pentathlon

SEE

Modern pentathlon

Pentathlon (women’s) The women’s pentathlon is a part of a continuum of multi-event competitions, the roots of which extend to the athletic traditions of the ancient Greeks. Pentathlon is the Greek word for a five-part competition, and in ancient times, the pentathlon was often used by Greek governments to assess the potential of men for military service. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The ancient pentathlon blended strength, speed, and agility. The five events were a short footrace (the distances varied depending on the place of the competition), wrestling, a long jump in which the athlete was weighted down, the javelin throw, and the discus. As with all athletic events at that time, the contest was restricted to men. The pentathlon for women was first introduced into the Summer Olympic Games in 1964. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) had been slow to add women’s events to the Olympic Games; there was a lingering belief that women could not physically perform certain strength and endurance sports. In 1964, the women’s pentathlon had the requisite five events, but with a different focus; the events were conducted over a two-day period, with the first three events contested on the first day, the remaining events the next day. The first women’s pentathlon included 80-m hurdles, the shot put, the high jump, the long jump, and the 200-m sprint. Preparation for the pentathlon is a variation of the cross training principles employed by athletes in many sports, with less emphasis on endurance training than would be a part of a triathlon or a decathlon program. Explosive muscular movement, such as is developed through interval sprints and plyometrics training, as well as the flexibility and agility required for the high jump and the long jump are crucial. Shot put training is a further extension of muscle power and the coordinated approach required to combine technique and strength. The women’s pentathlon was included in the Summer Olympics from 1964 to 1980. In the era of the political Cold War that existed between Western nations and the Soviet Union-led Eastern Bloc, success in the pentathlon was primarily with the Eastern Bloc nations; their athletes captured 10 of the 15 medals awarded during the time period that the women’s pentathlon was an Olympic event. As with many of the sports that did not enjoy a high profile in Western nations—of which the hammer throw, a traditional field event, and team sports such as handball, are examples—the Eastern Bloc nations and their state-based, systematic approaches to athletic training targeted the women’s pentathlon as one where success could be achieved on the Olympic stage. Due to increasing demands from many nations within the Olympic movement to have consistency and equality between all male and female sporting competitions, not only in the quantity of the events, but also in the maintenance of the balance between running and field events, the women’s pentathlon was replaced in 1984 by the heptathlon, an expanded version of the women’s pentathlon. The transition from the pentathlon to the heptathlon (a seven-event, two-day discipline) was generally welcomed, as the

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heptathlon presented greater athletic challenges for the female competitors. Yet there remained critics of the IOC who argued that the only proper female multi-sport event should be a female decathlon to create prefect symmetry between the male and female competitions. The women’s pentathlon is now something of a historical footnote, a bridge in the history of women’s athletics at the Olympics between the days of limited female participation and a far broader range of women’s events. The women’s pentathlon was the first multi-sport women’s event to be included in the Olympic Games. The 1984 Olympics were also significant in this respect for the inclusion of the marathon as a women’s event for the first time. Since 1912, another pentathlon event had been contested at the Summer Olympics, the modern pentathlon. This five-event discipline, comprised of pistol shooting, fencing or epee, swimming, equestrian (horse) jumping, and cross-country running, was a designated men’s event until 2000, when the IOC created a women’s modern pentathlon competition. To further involve multi-sport competitions in the Olympics, the IOC added the triathlon for both men and women in 2000. The women’s pentathlon has not disappeared as an international athletic competition. The International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) sanctions the heptathlon as a women’s world championship event, and the pentathlon is the equivalent indoor track and field championship, typically during in the winter track and field season. The IAAF pentathlon was introduced at the world indoor track and field championships in 1993, with the 60-m sprint, 800-m run, high jump, long jump, and shot put as the constituent elements. The IAAF standard pentathlon is also a national indoor track and field championship in many countries, and in collegiate competition such as the American National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).

Decathlon; Ironman competitions; Modern pentathlon.

SEE ALSO

Performance

SEE

Sport performance

Chantal Petitclerc 12/15/1969 CANADIAN PARALYMPIC ATHLETE

Chantal Petitclerc is one of the most dominant athletes in the history of both the Paralympic movement and all wheelchair sports. Petitclerc is one of

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the few athletes in any sport to hold multiple world track and field records at one time. Petitclerc was raised in a rural area near Quebec City, Canada. At age 13, she sustained an accident where a barn door fell on her, damaging her spinal cord and rendering Petitclerc a paraplegic. Soon after she had recovered sufficiently to resume such activities as she could, Petitclerc discovered wheelchair racing. Petitclerc has been actively engaged in wheelchair sports since that time. After completing her university studies, Petitclerc qualified for the 1992 Paralympics in Barcelona. At those Games, Petitclerc demonstrated some of the talent that would later propel her to the peak of wheelchair sports, winning bronze medals in both the 100m and the 800m events. In 1996 at Atlanta, Petitclerc established herself as the most dominant female wheelchair racer in the world, as she won two gold and three silver medals in the various wheelchair track events. Petitclerc followed this powerful result with a two gold, two silver performance at the 2000 Paralympics in Sydney. At age 34, Petitclerc entered the 2004 Athens Paralympics as a favorite to win multiple medals. She captured an unprecedented five gold medals, winning every wheelchair event in the event distances from 100m to 1,500m, establishing three world records in the process. Wheelchair racing is a demanding sport at any distance. In the shorter events of 400m or under, the racer seeks to combine an explosive start by driving their arms powerfully to rotate the wheels on the chair, combined with a sustained, high tempo rhythm to generate as many revolutions of the wheels as possible. As with all sprinters, sprint distance wheel chair racers employ interval training techniques as an essential component of their preparation, incorporating high intensity intervals and recoveries. Fifteen hundred meter events generally involve different training approaches for the wheelchair racer. The interval work carried out for sprinting is secondary in preparation for these events to training at longer distances that build aerobic fitness in the athlete. An explosive start is of lesser importance in the 1,500-m event than is the ability to maintain a steady pace and then utilize a finishing kick. Petitclerc’s ability to win at every distance between 100m and 1,500m in wheelchair events is a testament to her ability to incorporate these disparate training requirements into one overall athletic program. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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With her considerable success, Petitclerc has enjoyed the benefits of various sponsorships in receet years. The most prominent of these benefits is the wheelchair used by Petitclerc in her races. Petitclerc uses state-of-the-art three-wheeled machine. The wheels are sloped inwards towards the athlete at an angle of 13 , with the frame specially configured to suit the build of Petitclerc. The wheelchair frame is constructed of tubular aluminum, and the entire machine weighs less then 14 lb (6 kg). The wheels on the Petitclerc wheelchair are constructed from carbon rims. Each wheel is very thin to create a highly aerodynamic profile. The wheels are inflated to an air pressure of 180 psi (pounds per square inch), to ensure that the rolling resistance of the wheel against the track surface is minimized. The steering mechanism is adjustable to permit the angle of the machine to correspond with the lane in which Petitclerc will be competing. In Canada, controversy arose after Petitclerc had achieved her successes at the Athens Paralympics. Athletics Canada, the government sponsored agency involved in the supervision of Canadian sport, determined that Petitclerc would be named the disabled female athlete of the year for 2004, with 2003 world 110-m hurdler Perdita Felicien, the female athlete of the year. This decision touched off a significant public debate about the importance of disabled sport in society as a whole, and how an athlete such as Petitclerc should be regarded in comparison to other athletes. Petitclerc indicated that she believed that she was being treated as a second class athletic citizen by Athletics Canada, and that her accomplishments at Athens must be weighed on their own terms; she refused the Athletics Canada award. The Canadian sports media voted Petitclerc the female athlete of the year in 2004. Petitclerc is active as a spokesperson for a number of charitable organizations. SEE ALSO

Paralympics; Track and field; Wheelchair

sports.

Phosphate Phosphates are an essential aspect of the function of the human body, particularly in the systems relied on in the production of energy, as well as in bone formation. A phosphate is a molecule created WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

by the combination of one phosphorus atom, and four atoms of oxygen, stated in the chemical form PO4. Phosphorus is one of the elements listed in the Periodic Table, and it is a substance well known beyond the processes of human biology as a powerful component in applications as diverse as munitions manufacturing and fertilizers. If consumed in its pure form, phosphorus is highly toxic. Phosphorus is also flammable in the air. In its phosphate form, phosphorus is a significant presence in the body, comprising approximately 1 lb (0.5 kg) of the total mass of the average adult. Phosphates are present in a wide variety of food groups; it would be highly unlikely that a person consuming a typical balanced diet of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats could ever experience a phosphate deficiency. A healthy adult will have phosphates present in the blood. The phosphates that are most important to human function are adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and calcium phosphate. ATP is the crucial energy storage and transportation mechanism present in the muscles of the body. ATP is the ultimate fuel produced and consumed in the production of the cellular energy necessary for the contraction of muscles. Adenosine is a product of nucleic acid, an essential building block in cell formation. Nucleic acid is the portion of the cell that contains hereditary and other related information; deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the best known of these nucleic acids. To create ATP, adenosine combines with three phosphate molecules. ATP also has an important role in the synthesis of proteins within the body. The portion of each cell that acts as the powerhouse for the utilization of ATP by way of chemical reaction is the mitochondria. ATP is used by the cell to produce energy both anaerobically (without the presence of oxygen) and aerobically (with oxygen). The ATP molecules contain very high amounts of energy potential, and the breakdown of the ATP molecule in the mitochondria releases very large amounts of energy relative to the size of the molecule, a characteristic due to the presence of phosphorus in the ATP molecule. The primary means by which ATP is created within the body is through the processing of glucose, itself a product of the carbohydrates consumed through food. When processed by the body for the production of energy, one glucose molecule will ultimately render two molecules of ATP. Once formed, ATP is replenished and recycled within each cell indefinitely; ATP is a partner to a reversible reaction that involves a series of conversions involving phosphocreatine (creatine phosphate) that are at the hub

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of the energy production process. The creation and the reduction of ATP is continuous, as ATP is not stored within the cell in the fashion that glucose or fats can be retained for periods of time in the body. ATP and phosphocreatine are a part of an ongoing recycling process that creates and produces approximately one kilogram of ATP per hour within the entire population of cells in the body. For athletes who have higher energy demands than the general population, the consumption of appropriate carbohydrates is one method of ensuring that the ultimate ATP capacity of the body remains intact. Without glucose, the manufacture of ATP will be limited. Calcium phosphate is the compound that is essential to the formation of the bone cells. An imbalance in the optimal levels of calcium and phosphates will result in an inability of the body to maintain a strong bone structure. Persons with kidney disease are particularly vulnerable to the effects of such an imbalance. When the kidney fails to maintain the healthy ratio of calcium to phosphorus, usually though a shortfall in its release of vitamin D, the compound that permits the absorption of calcium into the bloodstream, phosphate levels with in the blood rise. This increase in phosphates itself initiates a release of a hormone from the parapituitary gland (PTP), which chemically signals the bones to release stored calcium into the bloodstream to restore the balance between calcium and phosphorus. Over time, the release of calcium from the bones to the bloodstream in the disturbed vitamin D/calcium/phosphate balance can lead to osteoporosis, a loss of bone mass and density that causes a irreversible weakening of the bone. When phosphate levels rise, the condition is commonly treated by extra supplements of vitamin D to ensure proper calcium absorption. High phosphate levels in the bloodstream are also a powerful indicator of the presence of ketones, the byproduct of excessive fat products in the blood, caused by ketoacidosis. This condition is a symptom of type 2 diabetes, the adult-onset version of this disease. In recent years, there has been significant sports specific research into the effectiveness of phosphates as a training supplement. Research with the compound sodium phosphate, which involved athletes in controlled conditions engaging in a form of phosphate loading, where predetermined amounts were consumed for a number of consecutive days in training for endurance events, suggested, without concluding, that there could be a reduction in the buildup of lactic acid, accompanied by a slight increase in VO2max, the maximum of oxygen the

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athlete was capable of processing. Given that there are no adverse impacts known in the ingestion of sodium phosphate, the loading practice is, at worst, neutral.

Dietary supplements; Minerals; Phosphocreatine.

SEE ALSO

Phosphocreatine Phosphocreatine is a substance that, in its chemical partnership with adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is fundamental to the ability of the body to produce muscular energy. Phosphocreatine, which is also known as creatine phosphate is a compound constructed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus, in the molecular structure C4H10 N3O5P. Phosphocreatine is formed naturally within the body, with over 95% of the compound stored within the muscle cells. Approximately 5 oz (120 g) of phosphocreatine is present in the body of a healthy adult; the levels of the compound do not fluctuate to a significant degree. When phosphocreatine stores become reduced, the body replenishes its supply from one of two sources. The first source is amino acids, the muscle- and tissue-building blocks present in all proteins. The liver produces phosphocreatine from amino acids. The body also receives dietary creatine primarily through the consumption of meat. The role of phosphocreatine in the production of the energy required to produce muscular contractions must be understood in the context of the three pathways or systems through which the body produces energy, and the circumstances that dictate which pathway will be relied on at any given time. The aerobic system is the primary means by which muscular energy is produced, where the activity involving muscle movement lasts longer than approximately 90 seconds. The anaerobic lactic system responds to demands of between approximately 10 seconds and 90 seconds. The anaerobic alactic is the system employed where the energy need is short and intense, up to 10 seconds in duration. In each of these systems, the cells engaged in energy production will utilize ATP, itself the ultimate product of glucose stored in the body. ATP is essential to the life of the cell. Phosphocreatine is not an energy source itself, like ATP, but it is crucial to the cyclical chemical reaction that is repeated in the mitochondria of each cell to continue the availability of ATP. When the need for energy is immediate and of short duration, as with weightlifting or a short WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PHYSICS OF BANKS AND CURVES

sprint, ATP will provide the energy; phosphocreatine is available in the cell to be immediately broken down into its phosphate component, to provide further materials for the recycling of greater amounts of ATP. This recharging process can occur with tremendous speed during the 10-second period that the body utilizes the anaerobic alactic system, creating an indefinite cycle of energy generation and replenishing ATP, through the agency of phosphocreatine. The rate at which phosphocreatine is broken down depends almost entirely on the intensity of the muscle contraction required. Once other sources of fuel, through the aerobic system, are made available, the phosphocreatine stores will be restored. The amount of phosphocreatine available to restore ATP through periods of intense muscle exercise are small. It is for this reason that muscle fatigue will be noticeable to the athlete through this process, even when the activity is of short duration. The essential role of creatine phosphate in the ATP generation and restoration process spurred significant interest in the use of creatine as an athletic supplement. By virtue of the energy system that is primarily influenced by phosphocreatine, most interest in this compound as a training aid has come from athletes in sports where explosive power is of critical importance, including weightlifters, velodrome sprint cyclists, and race sprinters. Creatine supplementation has been proven to assist athletes in extending their maximum ability to work. As with most minerals otherwise available in through a balanced diet, such supplementation is not required to address a deficiency, but to seek optimal performance. The body has difficulty absorbing phosphocreatine, and it is for this reason that the common creatine supplement is in the form of creatine monohydrate. The body can readily produce the necessary phosphocreatine once the creatine has been ingested; phosphocreatine is manufactured in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Studies also demonstrated that when creatine supplements were combined with a carbohydrate component, the ability of the body to retain phosphocreatine was significantly increased. As the period within which the cell is working and will require phosphocreatine to assist in the ATP cycle, the greater the amount of creatine phosphate to be retained, the greater the likelihood that the ATP cycle can be extended. When phosphocreatine in the muscle breaks down, it is not reprocessed into a working form. Phosphocreatine metabolizes into a substance known as creatinine, which is excreted through the kidneys and passed as urine. The level of creatinine in the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

blood is a useful indicator in the determination of kidney function; high levels of creatinine are a symptom of an inability of the kidney to filter the creatinine wastes.

Creatine supplementation; Glycogen depletion; Phosphate.

SEE ALSO

Physics of banks and curves A bank in a racetrack is an upward slope toward the center of the track that is designed to hold objects such as cars and people on the track at high speeds and, thus, reduce the chance of the object going off the track. A curve is a bend in a track that has no upward slope, as in the case of a bank. Banks and curves within, for instance, the sport of auto racing are especially challenging because of the principles involved in classical physics. English physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) stated within his first law of motion that any object of mass at rest will tend to stay at rest and any object in motion will tend to stay in motion at the same speed and direction unless acted upon by a force. The first law is often called the law of inertia because the term inertia means the resistance to motion. Because of inertia, the race car and driver, when coming upon a bank or a curve, would normally continue on a straight line on a racetrack if some force were not applied to them. Thus, the car and driver would miss the bank or curve and crash into the outside wall of the track or leave the track entirely. In order for the race car to change direction— that is, to navigate through a bank or curve on a racetrack—a force must produce a change in direction (but not necessarily a change in speed) toward the center of the bank or curve. This type of force is called centripetal force (or center-seeking force), and it acts perpendicular to the car’s velocity. It is defined as mv2/r, where, in this case, m is the mass of the race car traveling in a circular path of radius (r) at a constant velocity (v). (The equation changes if the racing track is not circular in shape; that is, if r is not constant.) When the driver changes the direction that the tires are moving by rotating the steering wheel, friction is produced between the car’s tires and the racetrack—that is, centripetal force is produced. As the equation implies, it is directly related to the square of the speed (the magnitude of the velocity) of the car. In the worst-case scenario, if the car is traveling too fast,

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the frictional force is not strong enough to hold the car on the racetrack. The centripetal force is also inversely related to the radius of the banking or curving track. The larger the radius of turning, then the less force needed to make it through the bank or curve.

Automobile racing; Formula 1 auto racing; NASCAR auto racing.

SEE ALSO

Physiology of exercise The physiology of exercise is a broad concept that addresses the central issue as to how the body adapts itself to the demands of physical activity. Physiology is the academic study of the various processes, systems, and functions of the human body as influenced by the performance of physical activity. Exercise is a term that has a variety of possible meanings, each dictated by circumstances. In a sports context, exercise is the performance, conditioning or training undertaken in respect to a particular athletic or sporting purpose. Exercise may also be directed to improvement of a person’s general health, physical fitness, or as physical therapy, to augment an existing treatment to remedy or to ameliorate the effects of a disease or illness upon the body. The term exercise physiology is used to identify the corresponding course of academic study offered at universities around the world. The human body undergoes adaptations on a continuous basis. Sport tends to heighten the power of the body to adapt to training, competition, or other circumstances, as sport is often the most profound stress experienced by the body. As an example, when the body is subjected to a fever, where the subject’s temperature becomes significantly elevated above its usual range centered at 98.6 F (37.7 C), the body’s metabolism (the overall rate of activity in the body’s processes) increases; the running of a marathon may increase metabolic rates to many time their normal level. Virtually every process and organ within the body is affected by exercise. As an example, the skin, the largest human organ, undergoes physical changes when exposed to the environmental factors encountered in sport, such as increases and decreases in external temperatures. The physiology of exercise is tends to center upon the most important physical systems to athletic performance: the cardiovascular system, the cardiorespiratory system, the thermoregulatory system, body composition and the

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musculoskeletal system. It is these aspects of human function that tend to have the greatest impact upon the ability of an athlete to maintain or improve their level of performance in any sport. The cardiovascular system is the physical network composed of the heart and its connected arteries, veins, and capillaries. The cardiovascular system is the vehicle through which the oxygen and fuels required by the cells within the body are supplied; the cardiovascular system removes all waste products from the cells and organs for disposal. When the body is subjected to exercise, and its increased physical demands, the cardiovascular system is forced to work more quickly and more efficiently to fulfill bodily needs. A number of physiological changes occur over time to this system through exercise. The first and the most fundamental change to the cardiovascular system is with respect to the function of the heart. The cardiac muscle of the heart will grow stronger over time, as the heart becomes adapted to working harder during exercise. A stronger and more efficient heart reduces the resting pulse of the subject; as the heart strengthens, it does not have to beat as frequently as when at rest to achieve the same effect in the pumping of blood through the cardiovascular system. The greater flow of blood available to a person who regularly exercises tends to reduce the amount of low-density lipoproteins within the blood vessels that can form a harmful blockage known as plaque, a condition that tends to narrow the passage within each artery. Exercise does not make the arteries larger, but these vessels become more elastic through exercise permitting a greater and more beneficial blood flow through out the body. The second important physiological change experienced by the cardiovascular system due to exercise is the reduction of blood pressure. Blood pressure is defined as the force of blood being pushed against the walls of the arteries of the cardiovascular system. High blood pressure has two components; systolic pressure is that measured during a heartbeat, and diastolic pressure is that present between heartbeats. Blood pressure is measured as the relationship of systolic to diastolic levels. High blood pressure, expressed as a measurement greater than 140/90 mmHg (millimeters of mercury, a unit of atmospheric pressure), is a condition where the heart is forced to work harder than it was designed in order to direct blood through the entire system. High blood pressure raises the risk for heart attack and stroke. Subject to other genetic factors or environmental WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE

impacts such as smoking, exercise will tend to reduce blood pressure. Athletes almost always possess a blood pressure reading significantly lower than that normally found in the regular population. The most profound impact of exercise upon the cardiorespiratory system also affects the function of the cardiovascular system. The maximum volume of oxygen that an athlete can consume during exercise is known by the expression VO2max. Particularly in the endurance sports, where the athlete is fueling their body by way of the aerobic energy system, endurance training will increase the athlete’s VO2. The ability of athletes to increase their maximum oxygen capacity is universal; female athletes will generally possess a VO2max ranging between 60% and 75% of that of a similarly conditioned male, due to the greater muscle mass present in a male athlete which must be serviced through the delivery of oxygen to the energy producing cell. Female athletes are as strong as a male counterpart when muscle strength is measured per unit, as per cubic inch of muscle (cm3). Exercise improves the ability of the cardiorespiratory system to take oxygen from air inhaled into the lungs, and then load and transport it more efficiently. Greater efficiency in the movement of blood through the cardiovascular system permits greater amounts of oxygen to be transferred from the respiratory system; lung size does not increase due to exercise by any appreciable degree. Thermoregulation is the ability of the body to maintain the optimal internal temperature levels for the function of all organs in different external environment conditions. Where the athlete is unaccustomed to warm weather exercise, the body will adapt through the process of acclimatization to the new conditions. Within a period of approximately 14 days, the positive physiological changes typically noted through heat acclimatization include expanded blood volume (corresponding greater blood capacity), reduced heart rate (making the heart more efficient), increased direction of blood to the skin surface and the capillaries (greater cooling effect on blood through directing the blood to the cooler skin surface), and an increased conservation of sodium to promote more effective hydration (to preserve the optimal proportion of sodium to water, a part of the body’s osmoregulatory system). Body composition is the most visible of the physiological changes often observed to have occurred through exercise. The body is constructed from body fat, lean muscle mass, and the organs and skeletal bone, the dimensions of which are not altered through exercise. Body composition is affected by two distinct WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

exercise mechanisms—through a reduction in the percentage of body fat in a subject, and through the increase of lean muscle mass developed through specialized exercise. Body fat is the storage form of the triglycerides that are processed by the body from the fats consumed through diet. These fats may be stored for indefinite periods in the adipose tissues located in the region of the abdomen, pelvis, buttocks, and chest. Exercise, when combined with proper attention to diet, will result in a weight loss in any subject where the amount of caloric energy required to fulfill the body’s needs, including exercise, exceeds the amount of caloric energy sources ingested as food. One pound of body fat (0.4 kg) represents approximately 3,500 available calories of energy. Muscle development through exercise programs often occurs in conjunction with the reduction of body fat that results from the difference between energy intake and output. In the early stages of weight reduction where the subject is participating in muscle building resistance exercise, it is common for the subject to experience frustration in terms of their desired weight loss, as the body fat that is available to the body as fuel is countered by the gain of denser muscle tissue. The musculoskeletal system undergoes a multitude of physiological changes, in addition to the additional muscle produced through particular types of training. Stretching and flexibility exercises tend to create a greater range of motion in all of the joints that are subjected to these stresses. Where the joints of the body are able to move more dynamically, the related structure will generally be capable of both faster, more powerful and more stable movement. A joint with an improved range of motion is less likely to become overstressed and injured. The bones of the musculoskeletal system also undergo structural changes that result from exercise. Resistance, either through weight training, or in activities that require running or other forces to be directed into the body, generally tends to increase bone density. In addition to creating greater muscle mass, exercise will have an effect upon existing muscle structures. All humans possess specific kinds of muscle fibers, each of which is distributed relatively evenly throughout the muscles of the body according to the genetic makeup of the individual. The two general muscle fiber types are fast twitch and slow twitch fibers. The designation between fast and slow is determined by the frequency with which the neuron that governs the impulses that control the contraction of the particular fiber. Fast twitch neurons fire at a rate of approximately 10 times greater frequency

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than does a slow twitch neuron. The effective function of fast twitch fibers is essential to anaerobic sports such as sprinting and jumping. Specialized exercise, such as plyometric programs, can enhance the performance of fast twitch fiber. The proportion of slow twitch muscle fibers, the backbone to the muscle function in endurance sports such as marathon running and cycling, will increase in proportion to fast twitch fibers when the athlete undergoes vigorous endurance training.

Endurance exercise; Fitness; Metabolic response; Sport performance.

SEE ALSO

Physiotherapist A physiotherapist is a healthcare professional whose work is directed to the improved movement and function of persons who have sustained a musculoskeletal injury. The physiotherapist is most often a part of a larger healthcare team, as physiotherapists work closely with the physicians who provide a diagnosis with respect to a particular physical condition, which the physiotherapists seek to either correct or improve through treatment. In a sports setting, physiotherapists work closely with athletic trainers and sport coaches to assist injured athletes. The general role of the physiotherapist is the treatment of physical disorders through the manipulation of the joints and other components of the musculoskeletal system. Physiotherapy is now recognized as a distinct branch of the medical sciences. In most countries, the academic training required for a career in physiotherapy is a course of university study, where the physiotherapy school is most often affiliated with a medical faculty. The chief components of a physiotherapy curriculum are biology (including anatomy and kinesiology), psychology, biomechanics, and pharmacology (the study of how drugs interact with bodily function). In many jurisdictions, physiotherapy is a freestanding and accredited profession, with independent control over its membership regarding licensing, education, and professional standards. In a sports setting—particularly with respect to elite competitive programs—the physiotherapist plays a key role with respect to the development of preseason training programs, especially for those athletes who have previously sustained a particular injury, as well as acting as an ongoing training and educational resource for athletes and coaches. Highlevel athletes, in conjunction with their coaches, will

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Physiotherapists treat physical disorders through the manipulation of the joints and other components of the musculoskeletal system. ª L WA-S TE PH EN WEL ST EAD/ COR BIS

develop a year-long segmented training regimen, a process often referred to as the periodization of training; the physiotherapist will often have significant input as to how the periods should be structured. The role of the physiotherapist is also vital in terms of collecting data about a recovering athlete regarding performance and the ability of the athlete to achieve defined results during rehabilitation. The overriding objective of the physiotherapist extends beyond the recovery of the athlete into the broader concepts of restoration of physical health and the prevention of a similar occurrence. The progress made in the athlete’s rehabilitation will often dictate what other professional steps are taken to preserve recovery, such as the use and design of orthotics or other protective equipment.

Disabled individuals and regular physical exercise; Fitness; Massage therapy; Musculoskeletal injuries.

SEE ALSO


PHYTOCHEMICALS

Phytochemicals Phytochemicals are an important aspect of human diet and consequent athletic performance. ‘‘Phyto’’ is a Greek work for plant life, and the phytochemicals are a very broad range of substances that are ingested through food, but that do not themselves possess any nutritional value, in terms of energy, vitamin, or mineral contribution. Most foods, except those that are heavily refined such as sugar, contain one form of phytochemical or another. The primary sources of these substances are fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and most beans. The phytochemicals are substances that influence the function and the outcome of various bodily systems, as opposed to directing or dictating that function. The phytochemicals that are of most interest to humans are those that act to protect the body from illness or disease. Phytochemicals have long been recognized by various cultures throughout the world as possessing special qualities in relation to human health. The ancient system of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), and its reliance upon herbs such as ginseng, is an example of the extent to which various phytochemicals have been used. A more recent phytochemical medicinal application was the synthesis of salicylic acid, first extracted from the bark of a willow tree, in the manufacture of the most commonly used of aspirin, the nonsteroidal anti-drugs (NSAIDs), created in 1899. As phytochemicals enter the body as the components of a broad range of plant products consumed as food, each with its own chemical complexity, the action of the various phytochemicals on the human systems is equally diverse. No phytochemical is believed to be essential to optimal body function as, in many cases, the action of the phytochemical is a counteraction of an unrelated environmental impact on the body. The following are the more common types of desirable actions and related food sources for each phytochemical: Antibacterial agents: Allicin, the active ingredient of garlic and other plants that provides this vegetable with its characteristic strong odor, is well known as a substance that acts as an effective agent against harmful bacteria entering the body. Antioxidants: This term is broadly and often incorrectly applied to a variety of plant sources. An antioxidant is a substance that tends to act against molecules in the body that have an unpaired electron, known as free radicals, which WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

themselves tend to form cells that often contribute to the formation of cancer-causing cells. The phytochemicals present in items such as fruits, carrots, onions, and other vegetables are well-regarded antioxidants. Lycopene is the phytochemical compound found in the skin of tomatoes, and it is a powerful antioxidant, particularly with respect to preserving the health of the cells in the cardiovascular system. Alkaloids: The most important alkaloid is caffeine. Caffeine is the world’s most consumed stimulant, possessing a powerful effect on the central nervous system. In excess amounts, caffeine is counterproductive to the health of the body. Digoxin: This is found naturally in the foxglove plant, which grows in various parts of North America and Europe. It is a well regarded as a medication in the treatment of heart failure, as it acts to regulate and to strengthen a failing heart rate. Flavanoids: The flavanoid group, which are present in a number of fruits, such as cranberries, raspberries, grapes, and blueberries, often act as antioxidants. Flavanoids also work to inhibit the progress of low-density lipoproteins in the cardiovascular system, the form of cholesterol that causes plaque and contributes to the narrowing of arteries and the development of arteriosclerosis. Red wine has been long regarded as possessing this antioxidant quality. Beta-sitosterol; This substance is found in peanuts, wheat germ, and various rice products; these agents tend to reduce cholesterol levels, especially in men with prostate problems.

While phytochemicals can be added to an existing diet by way of supplements, the best and most absorptive fashion that such chemicals can be introduced into the body is through a balanced diet that has significant fresh fruits and vegetables. As a general rule, the closer to the natural or whole food state, the more likely the food is to possess phytochemicals. An example is whole grain products; much of the phytochemical presence is contained in the grain or kernel shell. When the grain is removed during processing, a large measure of the phytochemicals in the grain are removed. Two food types that are sometimes overlooked by those seeking the advantages of phytochemicals are dried fruits, which lose little of their natural phytochemical effect in this state, and various herbs and spices commonly employed in food preparation.

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Most dried herbs such as basil, thyme, and oregano are rich in various phytochemicals. The active ingredient in many types of red pepper, capsicum, is an effective antioxidant agent. SEE ALSO

Caffeine; Diet; Nutrition.

Pilates Pilates refers to an exercise regimen that emphasizes stretching and balance. A series of specific movements is performed while breathing in a focused way. In contrast to more vigorous workouts such as aerobics, Pilates does not need to be strenuous to the point of sweating. Nonetheless, Pilates is a strenuous activity that increases flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular capacity. Pilates is named after its originator, Joseph Hubertus Pilates. In the decades prior to World War I, he studied the physical aspects of yoga, Zen, and exercises practiced in ancient Greece and Rome. During the war, when he and other German nationals were interned in a camp in Lancaster, England, he taught other detainees these exercises. As well, he incorporated these exercises into an original series of exercises that were done while lying on the floor. Pilates called these exercises ‘‘contrology’’; today, they are called ‘‘matwork.’’ Later in World War I, Pilates was transferred to another internment camp on the Isle of Man, where he helped in the medical care and physical rehabilitation of sick and injured detainees and soldiers. He modified his exercise regimen for those who were too infirmed to get out of bed by using bedsprings to create devices that offered resistance when pulled. Today, Pilates is done essentially the same way. Instead of bedsprings, participants use elastic cords that can be gripped and slipped over the feet to provide resistance in the stretching movements. The resistance-based exercises that form Pilates are directed first at the core area of the body, which include the muscles in the stomach, buttocks, lower back, and thighs. These muscles are strengthened before exercises that involve other areas of the body are introduced, the idea being that a stronger core will enable the expanded series of exercises to be done with a lesser risk of injury. Pilates consists of a flowing series of connected movements. Although different from tai-chi in execution, Pilates is similar in that movements are rarely

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held for long. Rather, each movement should flow gracefully into the next. Pilates is also similar to taichi in that correct form is essential to attain the benefits of the exercise. In each Pilates exercise session, the core muscles are worked on first, followed by exercises directed at other muscles in the arms, legs, and neck. Movements are performed slowly, always with the emphasis on maintaining form. Focus is on the abdominal muscles. When done correctly, the abdominal muscles are pulled slightly upward toward the navel and slightly inward, and the spine is kept straight. This posture is maintained while breathing, which is done by expanding the rib cage rather than the stomach. This style of breathing can be challenging for those beginning a Pilates program, requiring concentration. Once mastered, however, the concentration required in rhythmic breathing pattern, combined with the flowing exercise movements, can be meditative, providing an added benefit to the exercises. Resistance is another key of Pilates. Instead of modified bedsprings, a device called the Reformer is now used. The Reformer, which is similar in appearance to a low table, uses various cable, springs, pulleys, and sliding boards to provide the resistance. Pushing and pulling will move the sliding platform in a motion similar to that of a conventional rowing machine. Another piece of equipment resembles a half barrel attached to a short ladder. By positioning the feet under a low rung of the ladder and lying at an angled, stomach-down position on the barrel, the back can be gently arched forward and backward. A large air-filled ball called a Swiss Ball can also be used to achieve the same effects. Smaller exercise balls can be positioned between the feet and the groin while sitting on the floor. By pushing against the ball, gentle resistance is provided to the inner muscles of the legs and the groin. Another, more exotic, piece of equipment is called the trapeze table (or Cadillac). A low-slung table forms the base for a horizontal end supports and vertical parallel bars. Springs and supports positioned on the horizontal and vertical bars permit a variety of acrobatic stretches and movements to be done. A device called a Chair resembles a bench with handles positioned near the ground. Users press down on the handles while in a sitting or lying position, to stretch muscles on the sides of the body. When done correctly, Pilates is claimed to restore the proper equilibrium between various muscle WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PIRIFORMIS SYNDROME

spine where it connects with the top of each femur (thigh bone). The sciatic nerve is a major nerve pathway that extends from the spine to the pelvis and travels directly beneath the piriformis, as it continues into each leg and foot. The piriformis is a part of the muscle complex that permits the hip to rotate. Piriformis syndrome is characterized by pain that is experienced deep in the buttock, often radiating into the lower back and the legs, occasionally as far as the foot on the affected side of the body. Until recently, piriformis syndrome was not widely accepted as a distinct physical condition within the sports medicine community, as it was believed to be a type of sciatica, the wellknown inflammatory condition of the sciatic nerve. Sciatica has a cause distinct from that of piriformis syndrome in that it occurs due to pressure on the nerve canal where the sciatic nerve exits the spine at the top of the pelvis. The piriformis syndrome is most evident to an affected person when walking, running, sitting for extended periods of time, climbing multiple sets of stairs, or performing any movement involving a squat or deep knee bend.

Pilates instructors and their class members demonstrate proper form. P HO TO COUR TESY OF T HE P I LAT ES M ETH OD ALLIA NCE FOR BU SINESS WIRE VIA GETTY I MA GE S.

groups, which reduces stress on over-utilized muscles. Restoration of equilibrium can prevent injury or speed recovery from injury. Because these benefits can be attained in a low-impact workout, Pilates has become a popular part of the training regimen for athletes as diverse as dancers, rugby players, soccer players, runners, and track and field competitors. SEE ALSO Aerobics; Balance training and proprioception; Yoga and Pilates.

Ping pong

SEE

Table tennis

Piriformis syndrome The piriformis muscle is a structure that lies beneath the larger gluteus maximus muscle in each buttock. The piriformis extends from the base of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Piriformis syndrome results from either a tightness developing in the muscle structure itself, or through the combined effects of muscle tightness and pressure being applied to the underlying sciatic nerve. A number of other musculoskeletal conditions may exist concurrently with piriformis syndrome, the most common of which are unequal leg length, which directs unequal pressures into each leg, and weak abductor muscles, which control the ability of the legs to spread apart. When piriformis syndrome is identified, the first course of treatment prescribed to an athlete is usually rest for a period of two to three weeks. During the rest period, specialized stretches will often be recommended, movements that are designed to reduce the tightness of the piriformis in relation to the surrounding muscle structures. On a permanent basis, athletes often find that a commitment to a rigorous stretching and flexibility program is essential to prevent a recurrence of piriformis syndrome. Yoga and Pilates are two exercise systems that emphasize a number of different stretches that specifically target the buttocks and hips. In more severe cases, a corticosteroid may be injected directly into the affected piriformis to provide an antiinflammatory effect. Ultrasound therapy may also be engaged. Surgery is a procedure that is rarely employed, given the position of the muscle and its proximity to the sciatic nerve.

Back anatomy and physiology; Back injuries; Hip and pelvis anatomy and physiology; Nervous system.

SEE ALSO

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PITCHING MACHINES AND RELATED DEVICES

Pitching machines and related devices Baseball is a sport in which success is built on the ability of the athlete to replicate specific movements. Many baseball drills are situational; throwing, fielding, and batting practice are directed toward the player being conditioned to react to specific defensive and offensive situations. The physical attributes of hand-eye coordination, reaction time, and agility may be more important to success in baseball than in almost any other sport. Pitching machines are a training aid designed to permit players to practice, hone, and refine their batting stroke without requiring the presence of a pitcher, or otherwise requiring a catcher to receive the batting practice pitches. Pitching machines are similar in their purpose to the simulators used in other sports, such as computer-supported bobsled trainers. The pitching machine is more limited in its application than some other sports simulators because the athlete is focused on one narrow aspect of baseball training in facing pitches thrown by the machine. The pitching machine does not require the athlete to engage in the entire sport skill set as would be required in an actual competition. The history of the automated pitching machine suggests that there are a number of contenders for the title of inventor of the world’s first such device. Many authorities confirm that Lorenzo Ponza (1918–2004) was the developer of the first portable on field pitching machine; Ponza created his machine in 1952 to assist in the development of Little League players (age 14 and under). Baseball is a game with the fundamental objective of scoring more runs than the opponent. Two means to meeting this objective are batting practice, to enable players to hit the ball more effectively, and pitching, to limit the hitting of the opponent. No sport depends to a greater degree on the repetition of the elements of both pitching and hitting. The physical requirements of pitching are such that pitchers are the most injured players in baseball. At the youth level, when the pitching arm is not fully developed, serious injuries that result from overuse are common. The strain created by the forces directed into the pitcher’s throwing elbow and shoulder, from the twist necessary to deliver a curve ball or a slider, restrict the number of pitches that

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should safely be thrown in any given training period at any age. The striking with a bat of a round ball thrown at a significant velocity with spin imparted to it is a difficult task; at a major league level, a batter is deemed to be competent if he or she is able to hit safely three times out 10. For this reason, the most important feature of batting practice is the ability to replicate the game day swing of the bat as many times as possible. Pitching machines safely permit this replication without wear and tear on the pitcher’s arm. A pitching machine is typically employed with a related piece of equipment—the batting cage, an enclosed area usually forming a 90 angle with the apex behind the batter. The cage is entirely enclosed so as to prevent any batted balls from striking other persons. The pitching machine is positioned at precisely the same distance from the batter as would be the pitcher, to precisely simulate the pitched ball. Pitching machines are constructed as one of two types: a machine with an overhand arm delivery or one constructed with two horizontally opposed wheels, with the ball delivered by their rotation effect. The machine may be configured to simulate a baseball pitch, delivered overhand, or a softball delivery, delivered underhand. Pitching machines permit both the speed and the spin imparted to the ball to be varied. For youth players, the ball might be delivered at speeds in the vicinity of 40 mi (64 km) per hour; for a professional player, the ball would be thrown at the speeds expected in major league play, a range from 80 to 100 mi (129–160 km) per hour. The machine can also be configured to throw fastballs, curveballs, sliders, and screwballs, the most common pitches thrown in the game. The practicing batter can face the same pitch for an indefinite period, practicing against it and endeavoring to remove any perceived flaws in the batting stroke. The pitching machine and the companion batting cage are also an excellent venue for the batter to combine the physical work on the batting stroke with the mental sports training known as visualization. As each pitch is delivered by the machine, the athlete can imagine being in various game situations and attempt to strike the ball thrown by the machine in the same fashion as he or she would react to each pitch. The athlete can


PLANTAR FASCIITIS

also visualize where various base runners might be at that point in the game, the number of outs, or the ball and strike count, to make the batting practice more realistic.

Computer simulations as a training tool; Cross training; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO

Plantar fasciitis Plantar fasciitis is a condition of the foot that results from the repetitive overstretching and irritation of the plantar tissue, a relatively stiff, fibrous material that connects the calcaneus (heel bone) to the ball of the foot. The term plantar fasciitis is often used interchangeably with another foot and heel condition, heel spurs, and while the two have a similar origin, they are not always the same ailment. Plantar fasciitis occurs during athletic activity as a result of how the foot responds to the stresses of either walking or running. During either motion, movement begins with a pushing off from the pads at the ball of the foot and a lifting of the heel. The heel is connected to the calf muscles (the gastrocnemius and the soleus) through the Achilles tendon. If the lower leg structure is overly tight, the plantar cannot move easily and it becomes more rigid along its length. The repetitive nature of this tension imbalance between the calf muscles and the plantar is the most common cause of plantar fasciitis. The condition will often cause significant pain, which is chiefly experienced on the sole of the foot closest to the heel. In many cases, the pain is sufficiently acute to limit the training of an athlete, as full intensity running is not possible. Other factors that may contribute to plantar fasciitis are poor support for the arch of the foot (combined with either high arches or low arches in the subject foot), inadequate cushioning in the footwear used for running on hard surfaces, a sudden increase in either training intensity or workloads, and being overweight. Each of these factors acts on the plantar structure in the same fashion as the lower leg muscle imbalance. In as many as 70% of plantar fasciitis cases, heel spurs will develop on the affected foot. A heel spur is a deposit of bony material that accumulates on the surface of the heel; in most cases the heel spur is not the cause of pain in the affected foot. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Once the condition of plantar fasciitis has been determined, the person will often notice that the pain is more pronounced in the early morning than at any other time. This is due to the fact that, at night, the plantar tends to contract during sleep, and the tissue takes time, through movement and stretching, to become more pliable and less restricted. The most effective manner of dealing with plantar fasciitis is a modified version of the RICE (rest/ice/ compression/elevation) treatment. The first and most important component in the treatment of plantar fasciitis is to rest from the activities that have contributed to its formation. Runners and other athletes for whom the striking of a surface with their foot is the essence of their training often cross train through swimming, a sport that does not aggravate the plantar tissue, until the condition has resolved itself. Ice on the affected area will assist in management of the condition, and should be applied as soon as there is pain, with the icing repeated up to eight times per day, for a maximum of approximately 15 minutes per session (the ice pack should be applied so that the skin is not at any risk of freezing, but the pack should be cold enough to promote the reduction of swelling and to reduce the risk of scar tissue formation. As plantar fasciitis is commonly caused by calf muscles that are too tight, a daily stretching program involving those muscle, the Achilles tendon, and the foot is an excellent rehabilitative and preventive step. Also, pressure, or compression, by applying athletic tape or compression bandages over the affected area provides both support for the plantar tissue but also assists in keeping the foot stable through movement. The application of pressure will also combat any lingering tightness present in the calf muscles that tends to counter the rehabilitation of the plantar. The foot and heel can be taped so as to provide one contiguous support structure. There are measures to be taken once the plantar fasciitis has been controlled. In some cases, an investigation of how the person’s foot moves during athletic activity will suggest that either an arch support or an orthotic be crafted to stabilize the motion of the foot when it strikes the ground. Only in the rarest of circumstances will surgery be recommended to correct plantar fasciitis. This procedure involves making an incision into the plantar tissue, with a goal of making the plantar less rigid; such procedures are not a guarantee of improved, painfree motion. SEE ALSO Bone, ligaments, tendons; Foot: Anatomy and physiology; Heel spurs; Musculoskeletal injuries.

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JOSEPH JACQUES PLANTE

Joseph Jacques Plante 1/17/1929–2/27/1986 CANADIAN ICE HOCKEY PLAYER, GOALTENDER

Joseph Jacques Plante, who was more commonly called Jacques Plante, or by his nickname of ‘‘Jake the Snake,’’ was a professional ice hockey goaltender from 1947–1975. A solid journeyman goaltender, Plante is best remembered for his influence on the style of goaltending and most especially for his use of the facemask and protective gear to reduce facial and head injuries. Like many of his generation who were born in the Canadian province of Quebec, Jacques Plante grew up playing hockey. Before he left high school his talent as a goaltender was considered of professional caliber, and after his graduation in 1947 he joined the Quebec Citadels of the Quebec Junior A League. He played for the Citadels and the Montreal Junior Canadians for two years. In 1949, he joined the Montreal Royals of the Quebec Senior Hockey League. He played for the Royals into the 1952–1953 season, when he joined the Montreal Canadians of the National Hockey League (NHL). With the exceptions of a few brief stints playing for the Buffalo Bisons in the American Hockey League, Plante remained with the Montreal NHL squad through the 1962–1963 season. Prior to the 1963–1964 season, Plante was traded from Montreal to the New York Rangers. Then 34, he was judged by the Montreal coaching staff to be too old to be a reliable starting goalie. As well, his hockey skills had seemingly begun to diminish. Indeed, the next two seasons with the Rangers proved to be difficult and his play was substandard. This prompted his retirement in 1965. The retirement proved to be short–lived, as the following year he was convinced to return to the NHL. He reported to the preseason training camp of the newly formed California Golden Seals. However, he left training camp early and retired once again. Plante’s second retirement was also short–lived. Two seasons later, he accepted an offer to join the St. Louis Blues. In the 1968–1969 NHL season, he shared goaltending duties with another veteran, Glenn Hall. Plante’s play was splendid, and he and Hall led the Blues to the league finals. The goaltenders jointly received the Vezina Trophy that season, an award recognizing the best goaltending in the league. After another solid season with the Blues, Plante was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs, with whom he enjoyed two good seasons. In particular, during

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his first year with the team, he led the league in allowing an average of less than two goals per game. Late in the 1972–1973 season, Plante was traded to the Boston Bruins. At the conclusion of the playoffs, he officially retired from the NHL, though not yet from professional hockey. In 1974, Plante played one final season of competitive hockey, this time for the Edmonton Oilers of the newly formed World Hockey Association. At the season’s conclusion, at the age of 45, he retired for the last time. Plante’s accomplishments as a goaltender were significant. For five consecutive seasons beginning in 1955, he won the Vezina Trophy. He was named to NHL All-Star teams in seven seasons, three of these as the starting All-Star goalie. These and other accomplishments as a player led to his admission to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1978. As impressive as his play was, Plante’s greatest impact on hockey came during the 1959–1960 season when, after being hit in the face by a shot, he donned a goalie mask. While he had been wearing the mask during team practices, the attitude of players and coaches at that time was that such protection had no part in a real game. By continuing to wear the mask in subsequent games, even despite the early disapproval of his coach, he convinced other goaltenders to try out the protective face gear (which Plante designed for them). Plante’s continued use of the face mask changed the nature of hockey. Before then, wearing a protective mask was unheard of, and was considered to be unmanly. Players and coaches began to realize that protective gear could enhance the game, rather than detract from it after watching Plante in action. This change in attitude led to the acceptance of helmets as required playing gear. Other goaltending innovations that Plante introduced included skating behind the net to retrieve the puck and initiate another play, and a stand-up style of hockey in which he would move out of the net as an opposing puck-carrier neared, making it more difficult for the player to shoot the puck into the net (‘‘cutting down the angle’’). Prior to Plante’s career, goalies tended to stay within the zone of the goal and would sprawl on the ice to make a save. Plante’s innovations, which gave his teammates an offensive advantage, are now a standard part of hockey. Jacques Plante died of stomach cancer at the age of 57. Posthumously, his Montreal Canadians jersey number was retired. As well, the award for the leading WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PLYOMETRICS

goaltender in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League was renamed the Jacques Plante Trophy.

Gary Player 11/1/1935– SOUTH AFRICAN PROFESSIONAL GOLFER, GOLF COURSE ARCHITECT

Gary Player is a professional golfer, golf course designer, and marketer of golf-related products. During the peak of his career from the 1950s to the 1970s, he was one of the best golfers in the world. His golf career is also notable because the American Professional Golfers Association (PGA) was dominated by Americans during these years. Player was one of the first non-American and non-European golfers to both play and dominate on the PGA tour. Player was also one of the first to emphasize general fitness exercises for golfers and devoted parts of his golf lesson videos to general training and fitness. Throughout his career, Player has been a global golfer, traveling an estimated 14 million miles to compete in tournaments and conduct golf exhibition matches all around the world. This globetrotting produced at least one tournament victory each season for 27 years in a row. Now 71 years old and with his tournament-level golf behind him, Player’s career victory tally over five decades of competitive golf stands at 166, the best of any golfer. Nicknamed ‘‘The Black Knight’’ for the intimidating all-black golf attire he typically wore, Player brought a fiercely competitive nature to his golf. This approach enabled Player to become one of golf’s elite despite his small size of 5 ft 8 in and weight of 150 lb (1.7 m and 68 kg). Player became a professional golfer in 1953, at 18 years of age. He joined the PGA tour in 1957. From then until 1985, when he began to play regularly on the Champion’s tour (a PGA-sanctioned tour reserved for professional golfers aged 50 and older), Player won numerous PGA events. As well, he was victorious in nine of the so-called ‘‘Majors,’’ including three Masters championships (1961, 1974, and 1978), three British Opens (1959, 1968, 1974), two PGA championships (1962 and 1972), and a U.S. Open (1965). The last major victory was especially memorable, as Player came from seven shots behind in the beginning of the final round of the 1978 Masters to win by a single stroke, recording a birdie on seven of the final 10 holes. A birdie is one shot less than par (the number of shots a hole is designed to be played in). WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

He is the first non-American to win the Masters; is one of a handful of golfers to have won more than one major in the same competitive season; and is one of only five golfers to have won all four of the major tournaments during their careers. Player’s career grand slam was achieved by the time he was 29 years of age. Only Jack Nicklaus and Tiger Woods have won more major golf tournaments. He is also the only golfer to have won the British Open in three different decades. On the Champion’s tour, Player proved to be no less competitive, winning his first senior tour event and going on the win 19 in total. He has amassed nine Senior Major titles, including the Senior Players Championship (1987), and three each of the Senior PGA championships (1968, 1988, 1990), Senior U.S. Opens (1987, 1988), and Senior British Opens (1988, 1990, 1997). He was able to maintain a high level of play into his senior career, exemplified by his qualification for the final two rounds of the British Open (in 1995 at 59 years of age) and the Masters (in 1998 at 62 years of age). In a golf tournament, players who shoot better than a set score during the first two rounds ‘‘make the cut’’ and can participate in the final two rounds. Player made the cut at the Masters for 23 consecutive years. His career earnings exceed $12 million. In 1961, he was the leading money winner on the PGA tour. Player is now known more for his golf course design than for his tournament play. Over the past several decades, he has designed more than 200 courses around the world. He is also a breeder of racehorses. Having grown up in South Africa when racial disparity was the norm, Player uses his recognition and international celebrity to promote racial equality in South Africa. He established The Player Foundation, which promotes education for underprivileged South Africans, in 1980. The foundation has raised in excess of $100 million. The foundation-built Blair Atholl School, located in Johannesburg, provides education to more than 500 students each year. Among the honors he has received, Player was one of the original inductees to the World Golf Hall of Fame on its founding in 1974. SEE ALSO

Golf.

Plyometrics Plyometrics is the science examining the explosive movement generated by muscle power, with particular application to sport training and performance.

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PLYOMETRICS

As power is the product of speed plus strength, the ability of an athlete to generate force in a short period of time is at the root of developing greater explosive effect. It is an anatomical fact that muscles in the human body contract in order to generate force, a process known as concentric contraction. Further, if the muscle is lengthened in the period immediately prior to contraction, the muscle will develop greater power. The lengthening process is known as an eccentric contraction. The shorter the time period between eccentric and concentric muscle contractions, the greater the power capable of being generated by the muscle. Plyometrics training is designed to develop rapid alterations of eccentric and concentric contractions, while constant resistance is applied to the target muscle or muscle group. Plyometrics was first popularized by the former East Germany state sport trainers in the 1970s, as a method of building the myotactic reflex, the term used to describe this stretch reflex in the muscle that enhances the power of contraction. As an example, when a person performs repeated forward jumps, there will be stretch of the quadriceps (located on the front of the thigh) muscles in the first jump. The subsequent contraction of this muscle will make the jump immediately following more powerful. Sports in which explosive speed and power are at a premium are those in which plyometrics training techniques are often employed—the delivery of an effective punch in boxing, various positions in American football, basketball, and volleyball are examples. A typical plyometrics workout for a sport in which explosive lower body power is key might include ground-level jumping on soft surfaces such as padded mats or grass, with a progression to jumping over cones or foam barriers. As a general rule, lower body plyometrics are performed on semi-resilient surfaces. Advanced plyometrics jumping often involves bounding exercises, both in straight lines and in patterns. The exercise routines emphasize speed, not endurance, with a number of repetitions typically performed quickly. When accompanied by both an active warm up, designed to elevate the athlete’s core body temperature, as well as a stretching program and other weight training to build an overall strength base, there is considerable evidence that plyometrics will improve the explosive movement capabilities of an athlete.

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However, plyometrics training has generated debate regarding athlete safety in the sport science community. A number of experts have criticized plyometrics as being compared to high-impact aerobics, a fitness activity that fell into disfavor due to the risk of injury to participants’ lower body joints from excess stress on the musculoskeletal system. There is little question that some athletes, because of their physical structure, fitness level, and related factors, are poor candidates for a plyometrics training program. Any training method that builds strength through an explosive movement, such as a plyometrics jump program, carries with it an greater inherent risk of injury. This danger can be minimized if the athlete incorporates the plyometrics drills into a broad-based weight training and stretching program. The strength of the muscles of the lumbar (lower) back, the gluteal muscles (the buttocks and pelvic muscles), and the abdominals is important in providing stability to the body both at the moment of moving explosively into a jump, as well as upon the body landing. These long-term injury concerns underscore a number of critical safety factors to be applied to all plyometrics training programs. Given the intensity of the training techniques, extreme caution should be employed before a young athlete participates in plyometrics. The stresses of the exercises create a potential for injury to a young athlete’s skeletal growth plate (the epiphysis). Further, an introduction to and maintenance of a plyometrics regime must be progressive in nature. Even where there is little by way of equipment, and the exercises appear simple, the stresses on the body must be introduced over time. In this regard, an athlete must also assess the effect of any previous injury or physical condition on the ability to benefit from plyometrics. Other critical safety factors that should form a part of any plyometrics program are the use of foam or other soft barriers, boxes or jumping surfaces that will not twist on impact, and the provision for built-in rest periods of at least 48 hours between training sessions. The ultimate measure of the success of any athletic training program is directly related to an athlete’s success in competition. However, to directly assess the benefits of a plyometrics program, as well as planning further training, the athlete or the coach must determine an appropriate baseline through periodic field testing. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

POLE VAULTING

Ankle: Anatomy and physiology; Foot: Anatomy and physiology; Lower leg anatomy; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch.

SEE ALSO

Pole vaulting The pole vault is a sport where the successful competitor must combine a high level of athletic prowess with the development of unerring and fluid technique. Pole vaulting also involves a consideration of the advanced technologies used to construct the pole; the physical characteristics of the pole will be critical to the generation of the lift necessary to take the athlete over the bar. As with many of the disciplines that are predominately in the public eye only during Olympic competition, the pole vault is a relatively simple event. The vaulters must clear a bar, positioned above a landing mat, using a long pole with which to propel themselves upward for leverage to assist in the clearing of the bar. The event commences with a run up along a track. The athlete runs as fast as possible, holding the long pole. The pole is thrust into a pre-positioned box on the track surface, and the athlete converts the forward motion along the track into vertical lift. The pole provides considerable flexion, as it absorbs and then releases the energy of the athlete generated by the approach as the pole is straightened. As the vaulter nears the bar, the pole is used for balance as the vaulter angles his or her body across the bar, falling onto the landing mats below. In international and Olympic competition, each athlete is provided with three opportunities to clear the determined heights. The winner of the competition is the last vaulter to have cleared a height; in the event of a tie, where one or more competitors have each missed three jumps at a height, the tie is broken through determining the least number of misses at the earlier heights. The pole vault has been an Olympic sport since the inaugural modern Games of 1896. It is also an event at the World Track and Field championships, held every two years. Women have competed for their pole vault championship at the Olympics since the 2000 Games. The pole vault is also one of the 10 disciplines that make up the Olympic decathlon, often referred to as the competition that determines the world’s greatest athlete. The object of the pole vault is to clear the greatest height possible; this object may also be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Rens Blom of Netherlands competes in the men’s pole vault final during the Athens 2004 Summer Olympic Games. P HO TO B Y DO NA LD M I RAL LE/ GE TTY IM AGES .

stated as how to best optimize the energy of the athlete created by the run up and the planting of the pole prior to take off. The technology of the pole has been central to the progression of vaulters in achieving greater heights in the past 100 years. As a physical proposition, the greater the amount of energy that can be released from the pole as it is flexed by the athlete on the path up toward the bar, the further the athlete will be able to travel. This property of the bar is known as its coefficient of restitution; similar considerations apply to how far a golf ball will travel when struck by a club. In 1896, the Olympic champion used a pole constructed of bamboo; he jumped 10 ft 6 in (3.2 m). With aluminum poles in the early 1950s, vaulters could achieve heights of 15 ft 6 in (4.7 m), due in part to the more flexible nature of the aluminum construction, one that absorbed greater amounts of energy when struck into the ground by the vaulter, and which then released the stored energy to the body of the vaulter as the pole uncoiled. In 1994, Sergey Bubka of Russia set a pole vault world record of 20 ft 1.75

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RICHARD W. POUND

in (6.15 m), using a pole constructed of a carbon fiber/fiberglass composite, materials that are both lighter and possessed of a greater coefficient of restitution than the aluminum model. For safety reasons, the poles are rated for use by athletes of a minimum weight to prevent a larger than rated athlete falling as a result of a pole that snaps under an excess weight. Vaulters use as light a pole as possible to ensure that they carry as little weight as possible on the run up, permitting the fastest approach possible, and the corresponding greatest amount of energy to be directed into the pole. Most high jumpers, who are also attempting to leap as high as possible over a stationary bar, are tall and very slim and lithe. Pole vaulters tend to be heavier and much stronger athletes. The worldclass pole vaulter will often possess sprinting capability not far removed from that of an elite sprinter, as the more speed the vaulter can develop on the runway approaching the jump, the more energy can be directed into the pole and then transferred into the vertical movement of the athlete to the bar. The vaulter must also have a strong upper body, particularly in the shoulders, to generate additional forces on the push of the pole into the ground on takeoff. The vaulter must also be extremely coordinated, able to contort their body in midair on the approach to the bar. SEE ALSO

Cross training; Decathlon; High jump.

Polo, water

SEE

Water polo

Popping joints SEE Joint noise: Popping and cracking

Richard W. Pound 3/22/1942– CANADIAN CHAIRMAN OF THE WORLD ANTI-DOPING AGENCY, MEMBER OF THE INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTEE, LAWYER

Richard (Dick) Pound is the chairman of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which is responsible for monitoring athletes for the use of banned substances. Pound is an outspoken advocate of fair play in sports and the need to detect and punish those who use illegal drugs to increase their competitive advantage.

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Pound was born in St. Catharines, a small city in Ontario located between Toronto and Niagara Falls. The area is well known as a competitive rowing center. However, Pound pursued swimming. He became the Canadian champion of freestyle in 1958, 1960, 1961, and 1962, and in the butterfly in 1961. Pound was a member of the Canadian Olympic swimming team that competed at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. There, he was a finalist in the 100-m freestyle, where he finished sixth, and a member of the 4 x 400 m relay team that finished fourth. Two years later, at the Commonwealth Games held in Perth, Australia, Pound was victorious in the 110-m freestyle, captured silver medals as a member of the 440-m and 880-m relay teams, and was a member of the bronze medal winning 440-m medley relay team. These swimming accomplishments were recognized by his induction in the Canadian Swimming Hall of Fame. Following his retirement from competitive swimming, Pound became involved in the administrative side of sports. By 1968, he had become Secretary General of the Canadian Olympic Association, a post he held until 1976. During this time, he acted as the chef de mission of the Canadian team at the infamous 1972 Munich Olympics. From 1977–1982, he served as President of the Canadian Olympic Association. Finally, when WADA was created in 1979, Pound began as its first President, a position he continues to hold as of early 2006. Pound is also well known for his involvement in the highest levels of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). He was elected to the IOC in 1982 as a member of the executive board. His first term expired in 1991. He served another term from 1992– 1996. He also served as vice president of the IOC from 1987–1991 and 1996–2000. While on the executive board of the IOC, Pound was responsible for negotiations of the broadcast deals for several Winter and Summer Olympics. The lucrative television and sponsorship deals he secured helped transform the IOC into a powerful and influential sports organization. Pound unsuccessfully pursued the presidency of the IOC in 2001. His outspoken views regarding drugs in sports and the need to reform the IOC proved unpalatable with some delegates, and he finished third in the voting. He subsequently resigned as vice president to devote his energies to his post at WADA. As of 2006, he is still an IOC member. In his everyday life, Pound is a partner in the Montreal-based law firm Stikeman Elliott LLP, where he WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PREGNANCY AND EXERCISE

practices tax law. Since 1991, he has also been Chancellor of McGill University, his alma mater, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Commerce degree in 1962. As the chairman of WADA, Pound is responsible for the agency that monitors urine and blood samples for the presence of drugs that have been banned from use, according to the World Anti-Doping Code. This includes the random, unannounced testing of elite athletes outside of competition, and the testing that takes place during competitions such as the Olympics. As well, WADA provides funding to develop or refine technologies to enable the detection of substances that are currently undetectable. The organization is also involved in determining which drugs will be banned from use by athletes, and which substances are permissible. Under Pound’s leadership, WADA has changed the face of sports. Efforts to restrict the illicit use of drugs as a boost to athletic performance have become popular. Despite this turnabout in society’s attitude toward drugs in sport, Pound’s often blunt criticism of ‘‘doping’’ continues to be provocative. As one example, his public comments in late 2005 on the prevalence of performance-enhancing drugs in the National Hockey League have been harshly denied by league executives and player representatives. In recognition of his accomplishments as an Olympian athlete and executive, Pound became an Officer of the Order of Canada in 1992 and an Officer of the National Order of Quebec in 1993.

Anabolic prohormones; Cortisone steroid injections; Nasal sprays; Therapeutic use exemption.

SEE ALSO

Pregnancy and exercise Pregnancy is a physical condition that brings with it profound changes to the function of the female body. The growth of another living being within the uterus creates a remarkable organic partnership between the mother and the developing fetus. The maintenance of physical health in the mother, both through adherence to strong dietary and nutritional practices, as well as through exercise consistent with the physical changes brought by pregnancy, are the most important factors in the corresponding healthy development of the unborn child. Pregnancy begins the moment that the female ovum (egg cell) has been fertilized by a male sperm cell; this fertilization is the act of conception. The cell division that propels the growth of the embryonic WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

fetus begins approximately 30 hours after conception. The cell division and growth continue from the embryonic stage until the fetus (as the unborn child is often referred from the fourth month of pregnancy until birth) is delivered into the world as a newborn infant. From the moment that cell division begins, any environmental impacts on the mother, such as exercise activities, will impact how the fetus will develop within the uterus. In many cultures throughout the history of the world, pregnant women were expected to carry on with their daily chores in both the home and the community. Any physical work that was usually required of women continued through their pregnancy, almost until the moment that birth was imminent. Many industrialized societies adopted a different view of the capacities of pregnant women in the later 1800s; in the middle classes of England and North America, it was common for pregnant women to be virtually confined to their homes for the duration of the pregnancy, with pregnancy regarded with the same precautions as would have been taken with an illness. Modern medical science clearly endorses the proposition that both the health and the overall well-being of both mother and unborn child is enhanced by exercise, so long as the physical activity is proportionate to the physical condition of the mother. The general benefits gained by a pregnant woman through a structured exercise program include: A healthy body is better prepared for the possible difficulties of the labor and delivery process. In the same fashion that aerobic training is a recovery tool for athletes who participate in anaerobic sports like boxing or sprinting, exercise assists a mother in her recovery from the birth of the child. Exercise, which has positive, stress-relieving capabilities, will also assist a new mother in successfully assuming the demands of motherhood. Exercise will aid a pregnant woman in maintaining a strong lumbar (low back) structure, which will assist her in the support of her abdomen as it grows through the course of the pregnancy. Exercise places energy and overall nutritional demands on the body, as does the growing fetus; by the fifth week of pregnancy, the embryonic fetus has its own heartbeat and it is receiving nutrition directly through the wall of the uterus. As the fetus grows, its own nutritional demands on the mother’s reserves of

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The health and the overall well-being of both mother and unborn child are enhanced by exercise.

vitamins and minerals increase. The mother must be conscious of these two separate demands on her system and structure her diet accordingly. The exercise selected by the mother must be comprised of activities that avoid any significant physical risk. Sports where a fall is possible are important to avoid, especially as the female center of gravity while pregnant will affect normal balance. The generation of or exposure to excessive heat is also dangerous for both mother and fetus, as activities that cause dehydration will often trigger such dangerous conditions as lower blood volumes. A pregnant woman’s resting pulse is elevated from her normal resting rate, which creates a further reason to avoid excess heat. As a general rule, the more stable the body of the pregnant woman during exercise, the better the activity. Due to the hormonal changes that occur during pregnancy, ligaments and other connective tissues become softer and more prone to joint injury if the tissue absorbs a trauma or if it is subjected to overstretching. The additional weight gained as the pregnancy progresses also can impact joint health.

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ª A RI EL S KELL EY/ COR BI S

The intensity and the volume of the exercise undertaken by a pregnant woman can be moderated to suit her personal medical circumstances and her previous level of fitness. Activities such as walking, yoga, Pilates, and stationary cycling are generally safe. Swimming and a variant of aerobic exercise, aquarobics, are both excellent exercises for pregnant women.

Diet; Female exercise and cardiovascular health; Stretching and flexibility; Yoga and Pilates.

SEE ALSO

Prescription medications and athletic performance Prescription medications are those drugs that are only capable of being obtained by way of a written order from a physician or other medical professional. Prescription medication is an expression that is commonly used as a contrast to over the counter medications that may be purchased without restriction at pharmacies and other commercial outlets. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PRESEASON STRENGTH TRAINING

Athletic performance is defined as the physical ability of the athlete to perform in a desired way. The physical abilities of an athlete may often be impacted by non-physical factors, such as the psychological state of the athlete. There are a variety of different ways that prescription medications can impact upon athletic performance. In many cases, medications are prescribed to assist an athlete in overcoming an identified physical limitation. In other circumstances, the medication is intended to counter a non-athletic condition, but the medication has either known or unforeseen consequences upon performance. Insulin, prescribed to counter diabetes in some persons, is an example of a medication that impacts upon an athlete. In many cases the athlete who is prescribed insulin must carefully adjust their dosage to ensure that the body’s natural response to exercise does not interfere with the intended effect of the insulin. In all circumstances, the fact that a medication was prescribed by a licensed doctor is not a defense to a charge against an athlete for using a banned substance. International athletic organizations are bound by the rules of the World Ant-Doping Agency (WADA). The agency requires athletes to obtain therapeutic use exemptions in circumstances when medication is required for an athlete to maintain his or her normal health. Of the medications prescribed to specifically assist an athlete, the various types of asthma medications are most readily associated with improved athletic performance. There are many different asthma medications that may be prescribed, all having bronchodilator effects, serving to open the otherwise constricted passages of the airways. Corticosteroids are available as an asthma medication; these are steroid formulations that assist in reducing the inflammation of the airways that often occurs in conjunction with an asthma attack. Beta 2 agonists are another common group of asthma drugs. These substances act to relax the muscles in the vicinity of the affected areas of the airways. For millions of people around the world, physical exercise would be difficult if not impossible but for these prescribed medications. In a similar fashion, prescription anti-inflammatories aimed at relieving the effects of joint pain are often the only means by which an athlete can continue to compete pending either surgical intervention or retirement from the activity. Steroid based cortisone and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are prescribed for this purpose. These anti-inflammatory medWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ications are sometimes taken in conjunction with prescription analgesics (pain killers), particularly among professional or elite level athletes. These medications, as they do not treat the underlying cause but address only the symptoms, may permit the athlete to perform in the short term. Prescription painkillers have become a frequent source of addiction. National Football League quarterback Brett Favre was one of many athletes in recent years to become addicted to prescription painkillers, initially prescribed to assist him in his play. OxyContin (oxycodone hydrochloride) is a very powerful prescription painkiller where dependency is a risk if the athlete is attempting to compete and ‘‘play through pain.’’ The prescription of painkilling medication can, in some circumstances, lead to more significant injuries for the user. Painkillers tend to entirely mask the normal pain signals that are produced by the body when a tissue or structure experiences pain. Particularly in cases of soft tissue injury that has been the subject of an analgesic treatment, an athlete can do significantly greater damage to their body while the pain sensors are masked. In intricate structures, such as the groin muscles, or ones that are subjected to significant ongoing stress, such as the knee, serious tears of the tissue can be masked by the administration of a pain killer. The number of prescription medications that are likely to impair performance or otherwise present a risk to an athlete is almost endless. Many of the medications are seemingly innocuous in a nonathletic context. Examples of a common prescription medication with possible athletic ramifications are oral contraceptives prescribed to women. In some women, the contraceptive tends to regulate menstrual periods, which can be an advantage to competitive athletes who wish certainty as to the extent and timing of their menstrual cycle.

Beta-2 agonists; Cortisone steroid injections; Glucocorticoids; Sport performance.

SEE ALSO

Preseason strength training For all competitive athletes, whether they participate in a team sport, or whether they are active in an individual sport, the competitive season is composed of a number of distinct but related segments. Persons who enjoy sport on a purely recreational or fitness level may approach their training regimes in the same fashion day to day and week to week; the goal of the recreational athlete is often a mixture of personal

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enjoyment and general fitness. When the athletic goal is to achieve the highest possible competitive standard, the sport season will be approached from the perspective of maximizing the training benefit of each segment to enhance overall competitive success. Competitive athletic training is usually divided into training periods, an approach known as the periodization of training. Every sport will have its own distinct approach to how the length of each period is determined; the length and the extent of the competitive season, the fitness level of the athlete, and the personal and team goals are all factors in this determination. As a general rule, an athletic calendar year will be divided into three training periods: the preseason (the preparatory period), the competitive season (with its own sub-periods timed around key competitions), and the off-season (a period of rest, recovery, and rebuilding). Preseason strength training will have a different purpose than the work carried out in the other two seasons of the athletic year. Depending on the sport, preseason weight training will include aspects of buildup (increasing overall physical strength) and a special emphasis (weight training that is isolated to develop a particular sport-specific maneuver or application). As with the other elements of athletic training, the preseason is a bridge from the off-season to the competitive season. Prior to the advent of specialized sports science approaches in the 1960s, it was common for athletes to use the preseason period as their primary conditioning period; the off-season was usually a time of complete inactivity on the part of the athlete. Today, periodization means that the offseason is when the athlete will establish a weight training foundation, the preseason will usually be a period of increased intensity, if not weightlifting volume, and the competitive season lifting is designed to maintain, not necessarily build, strength. The preseason weight training must also be periodized; the coordination of workouts versus rest periods is essential to preseason development. In most cases, the preseason training period is not a time to experiment with different lifting techniques or dietary supplements; those are matters for the offseason, when the athlete is not bound by a particular or finite training schedule. Preseason is often one where the athlete must take his or her body in a number of different directions. The preseason program of a competitive 200-m and 400-m sprinter is an example. The athlete knows that to achieve success, the technical aspects of this

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discipline must be executed with the utmost precision, or the hundreds of a second that may determine a race will be lost. In these races, the explosive start, a powerful drive from the blocks, the ability to reach top speed, stride length and form, the approach to each bend or turn, and the finish are all matters that demand intense practice and attention to detail. None of these crucial techniques can be executed to the highest standard unless the athlete is very strong. One of the great challenges of the preseason weight training program is to maintain the same high level of training intensity in the weight room as will be required of the athlete in the track work that is directly related to the actual competition. The intensity of all aspects of preseason training makes the inclusion of a well-planned and integrated stretching and flexibility program most important. In the preseason training period, it is common for the athlete to be subjected to the stresses of activity in addition to that provided in the weight room. A musculoskeletal system that is flexible and limber will respond more favorably to these diverse physical requirements. In many sports, the preseason is the time when coaches make decisions about the composition of a particular team for the coming competitive season. The mental pressure that athletes either impose on themselves or absorb from the preseason environment will often compel them to put specific weight training goals ahead of overall body fitness. Athletes who feel compelled to impress a coach with their commitment to weight training could risk injury unless they have laid the appropriate foundation for the preseason in the off-season period.

Muscle mass and strength; Range of motion; Skeletal muscle; Strength training; Weightlifting.

SEE ALSO

Prohibited substances (competition bans) Athletes have employed different substances throughout the history of sport to improve performance. Doping is the term universally understood to describe the use of performance-enhancing drugs by athletes. While certain doping practices were first seen as more unsportsmanlike than illegal, the ingestion of performance-enhancing drugs or dietary supplements was not a significant part of the science of sport until the 1950s, when anabolic steroids were WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PROHIBITED SUBSTANCES (COMPETITION BANS)

example. A key objective of the WADA anti-doping initiatives is the harmonization of global approaches to doping detection and sanctions. A cornerstone of the WADA based approach is its Anti-Doping Code, which sets out the Prohibited List, the precise summary of all prohibited substances, updated on an annual basis. The Prohibited List is well publicized in the international athletic world to ensure that all athletes know precisely what substances will be the subject of doping tests, both in competition as well as through out-of-competition testing. A prohibited substance is a broader concept than that of a prohibited drug, although in sport the two expressions are often used interchangeably. A drug is any substance that is not a food that produces or induces a change in the body; a substance is any element, compound, or mixture. WADA expresses in its Code the underlying philosophy to the prohibition as ‘‘The use of any drug should be limited to medically justified indications.’’

Preseason strength training is imperative.

The broader expression ‘‘substance,’’ as opposed to the narrower term ‘‘drug,’’ is illustrated by the prohibition against the use of erythropoietin (EPO), the hormone that stimulates erythrocyte (red blood cell) production and aids in the better transportation of oxygen in the body. EPO is a naturally occurring substance, but it is the method in which this substance is employed by athletes that leads to the prohibition. PH OTO B Y ROS S LA ND/

G ET T Y I MA GE S.

first determined to provide significant benefits to strength athletes. In 1963, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) first prohibited the use of a wide range of substances in Olympic competition. It took approximately 30 years for the combination of scientifically indisputable testing methodology and global support in the athletic community for comprehensive legislative anti-doping frameworks to be erected. This convergence led to the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which has fostered a unified approach to the battle against the use of illegal performance-enhancing substances in athletic competition. WADA is the supervisory organization that develops and enacts the regulations to be followed in the administration of its anti-doping practices. Every significant world sporting organization and international sports federation is a member of WADA. Virtually every nation in the world has its own national anti-doping agency with membership in WADA, of which the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency is an WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Generally, all governing bodies in sport have enacted their own specific rules regarding the consequences for a violation of the prohibited substances rules. A competition ban, also known as a suspension, is a specific penalty imposed on the athlete as a consequence of a positive test for a prohibited substance. The length of the ban will depend on a number of factors, some of which tend to mitigate the penalty, others of which may be perceived as an aggravating circumstance. Those factors include: Evidence that the prohibited substance may have been ingested on an innocent basis, such as a contaminated supplement. Evidence that the athlete took the prohibited substance at the direction of a coach or trainer while being provided assurances of the legality of the substance. When the athlete is a first-time violator of the substance rule. When the athlete is a previous offender. When the athlete has been deemed to have failed the doping test because the athlete failed or refused to attend for an out-of-competition test.

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Professional sports leagues generally enforce their respective prohibited substance policies within the framework of a collective bargaining agreement (CBA) with a players association. Such CBAs uniformly provide for appeals of any decision respecting a suspension from play. Professional sport substance testing will often extend to substances generally regarded as recreational drugs, such as marijuana and alcohol, drugs with limited athletic performance applications. Professional sports have become much more sensitive to its collective public image in relation to the enforcement of all rules regarding prohibited substances. In the United States, a notable example was the Congressional hearings convened in 2004 regarding the use of performance-enhancing substances in major league baseball. One of the players who testified before the Congressional committee, Rafael Palmeiro, vehemently denied his personal involvement in any steroid use in the course of a successful playing career; Palmeiro later tested positive for the substance and was subject to both a competition ban and broad public scorn. Major league baseball enacted its own rules regarding prohibited substances in 2005, banning not only steroids and similar substances, but also the stimulant amphetamine, whose use had been an accepted part of professional baseball culture for decades.

Blood doping; Doping tests; Out-ofcompetition testing; Stimulants; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Bulgaria’s Izabela Dragneva won the gold 2000 Olympic Games, but was later disqualified and stripped of medal after traces of a banned substance were found in a urine sample. ª R EUT ERS /C ORB I S

Proprioception

SEE

Balance training

and proprioception

Prosthetic research and sport A prosthetic device is an artificial replacement for a part of the body that has been removed. A prosthetic may be a limb or a joint; the purpose of the prosthetic may be entirely functional, cosmetic, or both. The term prosthetic is derived from a Greek word, meaning to add to or to add on. Prosthetics have existed throughout history. In earlier times, when a leg or a hand was lost through war or misadventure, the artificial limb was a simple peg leg or a hand hook. The U.S. Civil War (1861– 1865) was the first great impetus to prosthetic research; the Union army had over 30,000 amputations in the course of conflict.

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A prosthetic is closely related to another common sport device, the orthotic. While a prosthetic is a replacement device for a component of the musculoskeletal system, an orthotic is designed to support a weakened area or to correct a structural misalignment. For example, foot orthotics are designed to equalize leg length. Research has taken modern prosthetic devices far beyond simple peg legs and hooks. The development of effective prosthetic devices for use in sport engages a number of scientific disciplines, including kinesiology (the science of human movement), biomechanical engineering (the relationship between the mechanisms and the living function of the body), structural engineering (design and construction principles), materials and fabrication experts (optimal metals and composites), coaching input (regarding WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PROTEIN INGESTION AND RECOVERY FROM EXERCISE

the specific demands of the sport), and the athlete. Once operative, a prosthetic used in sport will involve the ongoing support of experts from the sports medicine, orthopedic medicine, physical therapy, and athletic therapy disciplines. The design and construction of a modern abovethe-knee prosthetic device illustrate the science that supports the application. Where the residual limb of the person ends, the prosthesis begins. A socket, with its fit adjustable to the wearer by means of an inflatable pouch, is the component that connects to the leg. Below the socket, encased in a protective lightweight plastic structure, is the artificial knee, constructed of aluminum, titanium, and other metals. The knee is connected to the lower portion of the prosthesis through a device that both reduces shock and suppresses torque, which is the force generated by the turning of the knee during running motion, which would otherwise be absorbed by the person. The prosthetic is supported by an artificial foot constructed from polyurethane, with the foot carefully oriented to ensure that the individual is not misaligned during a running or walking motion so as to direct unequal forces into the opposite leg. Such prosthetics have benefited from the development of materials that are both lighter and stronger. The artificial leg used by Terry Fox, the cancer patient who endeavored to run across Canada in 1981 before succumbing to his disease, was approximately 50% heavier than modern prosthetics, which also have sophisticated cushioning that the Fox version lacked. The Paralympic movement has fostered many technological developments in sports prosthetics. The Paralympic competitions each have separate classification rules, with the degree of the disability of the athlete determining the competition class. The lighter and more functional the prosthetic is, the greater the ease of movement experienced by the athlete. Athletes now benefit from prosthetic devices such as the gait-adaptive knee, an artifical limb that can be modified to suit the particular variations and idiosyncrasies of its user.

has been carried out on the development of devices that are hardwired into the nervous systems of the athlete. The connection between the user and the machine is referred to as the neural linkage. The ability of science to develop the necessary interface between user and machine depends to a considerable degree on the nature of the amputation: the more extensive the loss of limb, the more difficult the proposition to connect the artificial component to the body, as there will be a greater degree of connectivity required. Both direct connections of existing muscle to machine and those of bone and machine have been attempted, with limited success. The best success in achieving a true interface between the prosthesis and the body have been with respect to artificial hands, where very simple muscular commands have successfully been obeyed through the prosthetic.

Musculoskeletal injuries; Orthotics; Paralympics.

SEE ALSO

Protein ingestion and recovery from exercise Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats are the three food groups that comprise the human diet. For a healthy and active person, with no specialized dietary needs, protein should be approximately 12-15% of the total food consumed every day. The ingestion of proteins, both in terms of the timing and the quantity consumed, is critical to an athlete’s quick and efficient recovery from the stresses imposed on the body by exercise.

One testament to technology is found in the results achieved by Paralympic athletes who use prosthetics in the 100-m sprint. In the various classifications based on the degree of limitation, the slowest of the winning times at the 2004 Athens Paralympics in the men’s categories was 12.1 seconds, a result that compares favorably to the ablebodied elite time of slightly under 10 seconds.

The ingestion of proteins is the first step in the conversion of these foods into a form that the body can utilize. Ingestion is the act of physically consuming food; digestion is the conversion of the food to a form that the body can assimilate and absorb; and synthesis is the process of using the absorbed protein to create a functional substance. The key components of proteins are various amino acids, which are the building blocks for the construction and repair of muscles within the body. Protein is also an essential aspect of the ability of the nervous system to transmit impulses. They are also a part of the chemistry of many hormones secreted by the endocrine system and are essential to the functioning of the immune system.

In addition to the advances made in the material composition of sport prosthetics, significant research

The ingestion of dietary proteins is important to the health of the skeletal muscles, one of the three


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different types of muscle in the body. The other muscle types, the cardiac muscles that power the heart and the smooth muscles that work within the interior portions of many of the internal organs, are maintained and restored by other internal means. A healthy athlete should consume protein in the diet on a relatively steady basis throughout the day. Steady consumption usually ensures an equally steady and continuous protein synthesis. All forms of exercise will place demands on the body that deplete the levels of proteins and their constituent amino acids; the intensity of exercise, particularly resistance exercises such as weight training and other explosive movements, will have a correspondingly greater effect in the reduction of protein levels. Muscles cannot grow in either mass or strength unless they are stressed and then provided the opportunity to be repaired. As a very general guideline to how much protein a healthy person should consume on a daily basis, one gram of protein per pound (0.5 kg) of lean body weight (the total body weight less body fat) is an accepted figure. A blood test can assist in determining precisely how much protein should be consumed by a specific athlete. The blood urea nitrogen test is a measurement of the amount of urea on the blood. Nitrogen is one of the elements present in all forms of protein; nitrogen will exist in its elemental state as a byproduct of protein breakdown. Urea is also a byproduct of protein synthesis, in which excess proteins will lead to the generation of excess amino acids that must be broken down and processed by the liver for ultimate excretion from the body by the kidneys as urine. If protein consumption is too high for the body to use in the synthesis process, this fact is revealed through an elevated urea level. Long-term excess protein consumption may place significant stress on the liver and kidney functions. Amino acids made available to the body from digested protein also require significant amounts of water to become metabolized in the liver; amino acid molecules require twice as much water to be broken down as does a glucose molecule. High protein consumption can easily lead to dehydration for this reason. When the amount of protein consumed into the body is too low to meet the needs of repair and restoration of muscles, these tissues will ultimately break down, without any corresponding build up. This process, known as muscle catabolism, is dangerous to the long-term health of the musculoskeletal system, as the body does not have an alternative means with which to sustain these structures.

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Research studies with respect to the optimum timing of protein replacement suggest that proteins should be ingested between 30 minutes and one hour after the muscle resistance or other strenuous activity. It is generally agreed that a series of smaller meals, each with a protein component, will be digested more agreeably by the body than one large meal. A number of amino acids necessary to human function must be obtained through food, and certain types of foods are superior protein sources in this regard: eggs, most fish, milk, and other dairy products are known as complete protein sources for this reason. Incomplete or complementary proteins are found in beans, nuts, and many vegetables. SEE ALSO

Diet; Exercise recovery; Muscle protein

synthesis.

Protein supplements Protein supplements have gained favor with athletes as a means of increasing their body’s ability to develop and maintain skeletal muscle. Protein is one of the three essential components of the human diet, along with carbohydrates and fats. Protein, which is composed of various types of amino acids, provides the raw material for both muscle construction and repair, as well as playing an important role in the immune system, the endocrine (hormone production) system, and the transmission of nerve impulses throughout the nervous system. A supplement is any addition to an athlete’s regular diet to achieve a particular nutritional goal; a supplement may be a natural or a synthetic product. Supplements are available in fluid, powder, and solid food formulations. The issue of whether an athlete requires protein supplements is hotly debated in the sports nutrition industry. Many nutritional experts contend that the best way to ingest protein is by way of a properly constituted, well-balanced natural food diet. This position is supported by the fact that the body is well suited to receive proteins through natural digestive processes, and that supplementation is never as strong a dietary option as whole food sources of any nutrient, including protein. Whole foods will often contain phytochemicals, the components of food that do not possess any caloric or other nutritional value, but that act as important trace substances to promote healthy functions within the body, such as anti-oxidization and the bolstering of the immune system. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Protein supplements were first popularized by bodybuilders, weightlifters, and strength athletes. One appeal of the supplement was the fact that the quality of the proteins contained could be consistently high; the second appeal was the ability of the supplement to shore up any protein deficiencies that might arise after a particularly demanding workout or if the athlete was not able to consume requisite amounts of dietary protein at a given time. The third appeal of the supplement is that an athlete may be limited by lifestyle pressure, such as school, employment, or family, in the preparation of protein-rich foods in the best possible fashion. Supplements offer a quick and nutritionally effective alternative; some protein supplements are marketed as meal replacements, a nutritional concept that is a further extension of protein supplements. The pro-supplement constituency also advances the argument that high quality, concentrated protein products will repair the muscles stressed from a demanding workout more quickly than proteins consumed through food. Among the proteins that are popular for this reason are whey protein (a byproduct of cheese), and soy protein, extracted from the soya bean. Glutamine, a specific type of amino acid, is another well-regarded component in many protein supplements. There is no question that from a biological perspective, if the body has a shortage of protein, a supplement will assist in the correction of the deficiency. Protein deficiency will prohibit the body from affecting the repairs necessary to maintain muscles structure. The consumption of additional amounts of protein, over and above the amount necessary to promote healthy muscle development, must be approached with caution. Many approaches to protein supplementation have been advocated on the premise that if a little extra protein is beneficial to muscle repair and growth, greater amounts of protein supplements must be even better. The error in this premise is revealed by the chemistry of how the body processes excess amounts of protein. Unlike carbohydrates, which have a particular series of storage mechanisms, such as muscle glycogen and liver glycogen, or the fats ingested in the body, which are stored in the adipose tissues designed for fat storage, excess proteins are broken down into their amino acid components for elimination. The deconstruction of amino acids produces several byproducts, particularly urea which must be subjected to further processing in the liver before it can be excreted through urine. The process of filtering additional amounts of urea from the body creates the potential to place a significant strain on renal (kidney) function. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

There are particular times when the body is better equipped to digest and utilize nutrients of all types. Proteins are best provided to the athlete’s body nearer a competitive or training event that resulted in muscle stress. As a general rule, the ingestion of a protein supplement is likely to be more effective if consumed 30 to 60 minutes after the event, rather than at a later time. Protein supplements will always serve to address a deficiency, but optimal absorption through the digestive processes of the small intestine occurs in a timeframe closer to the activity. In sports such as the triathlon, where the athlete requires significant carbohydrate recovery at the end of competition, as well as the need for muscle repair and recovery, competitors will often consume a carbohydrate/protein mix of supplements to achieve this dual purpose. The effect of the supplement, taken immediately or within 30 minutes of the end of the event, is to ‘‘jump start’’ the bodily process of restoration. There are further issues regarding the use of protein supplements and the precise method by which the supplement is consumed. The human digestive tract is constructed to most efficiently process foods into useable substances when the particular material reaches the digestive system in a food-like condition. The consumption of amino acid pills and similar formulations, a product that essentially bypasses the digestive process, as amino acids are a product of protein digestion, do not speed the absorption of these substances into the system. SEE ALSO Diet; Muscle protein synthesis; Nutrition and athletic performance; Protein ingestion and recovery from exercise.

Psychological disorders A psychological disorder is a mental health condition that disrupts the normal feelings, mood, or ability of one person to interact with others. A psychological disorder may be caused by genetic or inherited characteristics, or it may result from environmental factors. Psychological disorders are distinct from physical illnesses or injury, although a physical condition may be a contributing factor to the progress of a psychological condition. A healthy relationship between mind and body is fundamental to optimal athletic performance. Any disturbance in the equilibrium between physical and mental performance will usually create a cause and effect relationship: impaired mental health will lead inexorably to an equivalent physical result. A body of

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science, sport psychology, has grown dramatically in recent years as the demand to better understand the mind/body relationship in all sports has increased.

often present as anxious. Anxiety is a sense of fear, upset, and dread, and is a condition that is often closely related to depression.

There are common psychological disorders that influence athletic performance. These conditions are not limited to sports, but are frequently the source of problems for athletes. Some of the disorders are interrelated in that they may occur concurrently in the athlete. Others exist alone, but are found to arise when more generalized factors such as the mental stress of competition also exist. The athletic environment is a fertile breeding ground for many disorders, as traditionally, an athlete who failed to maintain the level of training or competitive skills due to psychological reasons was perceived as weak and unsuited to high-level sports. For this reason, athletes would often keep secret any psychological problems they found themselves experiencing.

Eating disorders are the most common of psychological disturbances in athletes and include anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Both anorexia and bulimia are more prevalent among female athletes, particularly those participating in sports where one’s weight and personal appearance are important components of competitive success. Figure skating and gymnastics are the prime examples of sports where eating disorders can arise. Anorexia is a condition where the athletes believe themselves to be too large or otherwise overweight, while to an objective observer, such persons are usually at least of normal build and sometimes quite slim. Bulimia is motivated by the same psychological belief, but it is characterized by the binge/purge cycle, where the bulimic athletes will eat, often to excess, and then deliberately vomit or use laxatives to empty their body.

There are common psychological disorders affecting athletes. Overtraining syndrome is a condition that affects athletes who appear to overreach with their training, attempting either to gain too much, too fast, or who otherwise fail to maintain a healthy balance between workout intensity, workout volume, and rest. In its initial phases, this condition manifests itself as one of simple physical or mental fatigue, circumstances that are often dismissed as correctable through the athlete either reducing training or competition loads. Overtraining syndrome is separated from simple physical fatigue by the mindset of the athlete toward the condition: the athlete tends to lose all interest in even basic fitness. The athlete will invariably feel lethargic about both athletic activities and other social aspects of life. This syndrome is also known as ‘‘unexplained underperformance syndrome,’’ where the athlete quite suddenly loses interest in attaining performance goals. Depression is another very common and debilitating condition in athletes. Depression as a clinically diagnosed illness does not simply describe a person who is sad or otherwise in poor spirits for a brief period of time. Depression is defined as a disorder where the person experiences the symptoms of depressions for two weeks or longer. Mental stress, a loss of self-esteem, or similar events can trigger a depressive episode. The disruption in the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, or conduit of signals in the brain, is a physiological contributor to this illness. Depression will significantly reduce the mental outlook of the subject; athletes suffering from depression often are uninterested in training or competition, they sustain a loss of appetite, and they

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Substance-induced psychological disturbance is the most common disorder precipitated by the use of a training substance, as in the infamous ‘‘roid rage,’’ the well-documented side effect from the consumption of anabolic steroids. Steroids have the potential to become psychologically addictive; once the athlete has developed a larger and more muscular body, the athlete will regard the steroid consumption as a psychological crutch. Steroids can contribute to violent mood swings and uncontrollable bursts of anger. The desire to relieve physical pain can sometimes create a dependency, or addiction, in the athlete for painkillers and anti-inflammatories. Alcohol, marijuana, and various stimulants are common substances that are abused by athletes, consumed as stress-relieving substances.

Eating disorders in athletes; Mental stress; Sport psychology; Sports medical conditions.

SEE ALSO

Psychology

SEE

Sport psychology

Pulls and strains, groin

SEE

Groin

pulls and strains

Pulmonary edema

SEE

High altitude

pulmonary edema


Q Quadriceps pulls and tears The quadriceps, the short-form reference for the quadriceps femoris, is the group of four muscle structures positioned at the front of the thigh that are commonly described as the ‘‘quads.’’ The quadriceps extends from below the patella (kneecap) on the tibia (shin), over the entire length of the thigh. The quadriceps is also connected to the patella by way of the quadriceps tendon. Three of the four quadriceps muscles originate at the top of the femur and the fourth, the rectus femoris, is connected to the pelvis. The quadriceps is a large, stable muscle structure whose function is to permit the extension of the knee, and as a result the quadriceps is crucial to the movement of the leg. The quadriceps is so integral a part of human movement that it is frequently injured, although rarely in a fashion that causes permanent muscle damage. The exposure of the quadriceps to sports injury is governed by two separate factors: the stability and structure of the entire leg structure, and the nature of the athletic activity. The action of the quadriceps, powering the extension of the leg from the front of the thigh, is countered by the hamstring tendon and muscle complex at the back of the thigh. The hamstrings are attached to the pelvis underneath the gluteal muscles of the buttocks, and like the quadriceps, the hamstrings extend past the knee joint to the tibia. The hamstrings provide flexion to the knee, permitting the lower leg to bend as well as facilitating the ability of the hip to be extended. All movement of the leg, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

whether walking, running, or jumping, require the harmonious and balanced action of the quadriceps and the hamstrings. Imbalances between the relative strengths or flexibility of the hamstring versus the quadriceps are a major contributing factor in quadriceps injuries. It is a generally accepted proposition of sport science that the relative strength of the quadriceps to the hamstring should be a ratio of 3:2. This balance ensures that neither muscle group dominates the other; one of the chief causes of knee injury generally, and anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury in female athletes in particular, has been the structural imbalance between these muscle groups. When the hamstring is unable to counter the power of the quadriceps, the ACL is subjected to excessive stress. In the quadriceps itself, such imbalances are manifested as a pull or a tear to the muscle fibers. A pull, also known as a muscle strain, is an overextension of the muscle fibers, which may involve tiny or micro tearing of the structure. A tear is a progressive injury from that of a pull, where the muscle structure sustains a significant separation of the fibers and a resultant loss of muscle function. The most serious form of a muscle tear is a rupture, which is the complete severing of muscle fibers. Overuse and repetitive motion are the most common causes of quadriceps pulls or tears. All running, cycling, and kicking sports athletes such as soccer and rugby often experience quadriceps tears or pulls. Weightlifting is another sport where quadriceps pulls and tears are common, especially in the lifting of

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Chicago Cubs’ Aramis Ramirez lies face down in pain after stumbling trying to beat out a throw at first base; he was forced to leave the game with a strained left quadriceps muscle. AP PH OTO/ JEFF R OBE RS ON

free weights, when the ability of the legs to support the explosive lifting movement is an integral part of the activity. Another common injury of the quadriceps occurs in jumping sports such as basketball or in athletics events such as the high jump, where the athlete repetitively places stress upon the quadriceps in the generating of lift. The quadriceps tendon, the connective tissue between the quadriceps muscle and the patella, and the patella tendon, leading from the patella to the tibia, are the frequent sites of the tendinitis known as ‘‘jumper’s knee.’’ This condition causes significant and often immobilizing pain to the athlete. Jumper’s knee may also cause swelling in and around the tendon. The most serious tear that can be sustained to the quadriceps is that of a quadriceps tendon rupture. This form of injury can occur as a progression from an existing pull or tear that an athlete sustains, or it may occur spontaneously when the quadriceps sustains a sudden overloading force, such as a effort to drive the leg forward with as much power as possible. The loss of the connection between the

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quadriceps and the patella creates a buckling effect in the knee, because the leg cannot be straightened. The only treatment for such an injury is surgical repair, where the quadriceps tendon is physically reconnected to the patella. Most quadriceps pull or tear injuries are resolved through the application of RICE (rest/ice/compression/ elevation) treatments, initiated immediately after the onset of any pain. For more serious occurrences, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, or more powerful prescription medications may assist in the recovery process. The recovery from a quadriceps pull or tear should be a gradual one. The return of the athlete to regular training must be managed to ensure both the compete recovery of the injury, as well as an emphasis on flexibility, stretching, and the balance between the relative strengths of the quadriceps and hamstring structures.

Musculoskeletal injuries; Sprains and strains; Thigh and upper leg injuries.

SEE ALSO


R Racquetball The sport of racquetball is one of recent origins in comparison to most athletic activities that enjoy a popular following. Joseph Sobek (1918-1998), a tennis professional with the Greenwich, Connecticut, Young Men’s Christian Association in the late 1940s, is recognized as the inventor and the developer of racquetball. Sobek, who was also an active four wall handball player, sought to create an indoor activity that would save his hands from the significant stresses of competitive handball, while preserving handball’s fitness benefits. Sobek used the available YMCA handball courts to create what he referred to as ‘‘paddle racquets,’’ a game that combined many of the features of squash and handball. The paddle racquets concept gained significant measure of popularity in the northeastern United States, with a governing association created in 1952. The modern name for the sport, racquetball, was confirmed with the formation of the International Racquetball Association in 1968. The sport sustained explosive growth in the late 1970s in the United States, as racquetball became a fashionable recreational sporting activity. In addition to a biennial world championship, racquetball is a medal sport at the quadrennial Pan-American Games; it is also a recognized National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) sport. The country with the greatest participation in racquetball remains the United States, where approximately two thirds of the world’s 15 million racquetball players reside. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The rules of racquetball are relatively simple. Played in a four-walled court, the object of the sport is to strike the ball to create a rebound from the front wall (or by a combination of a front wall and side wall carom, or angled rebound), that cannot be returned by the opponent after the first bounce from the floor. The court dimensions are identical to those used in the sport of four wall handball, an enclosed area 40 ft long, 20 ft wide and 20 ft high (6 m by 12 m by 6 m); the rear wall of the court must be at least 12 ft high (3.5 m). Racquetball may be played in a singles (two player) or doubles (four player) format. In racquetball clubs, players will often play an unofficial version known as ‘‘cut-throat,’’ where one player serves against the other two players, with the serve rotating among all three players. Racquetball players use a racquet that is constructed from a combination of lightweight composite materials that is strung with a mesh similar in appearance to a tennis racquet. The ball is constructed from a rubber compound, with a hollow center that makes the ball capable of being compressed and generating a resultant velocity on a hard serve or a strong forearm shot at speeds that may exceed 150 mph (250 km/h) when struck by an elite player. The speed of the ball, and not its spin, is the most important characteristic of the racquetball both in flight and after a carom from the walls of the court. The ball is put into play through a serve, delivered by the serving player from a designated service zone. The opposing players station themselves behind a receiving line. A legal serve is one that

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German racquetball championships, 2002.

P HOT O B Y AN J A H EI N EM AN N/ BON GA RTS / GE TTY I M AG ES .

strikes the floor of the court before making contact with the front wall; the ball must then bounce into an area marked by the ‘‘short line,’’ where it may be played by the opponent. A legal serve may also strike one of the walls, including the back wall of the court, prior to being returned by the opponent. Points are scored on the serve only, with a game concluded when the first player achieves a score of 15 points. Once the ball is put in play with a legal serve, both players may use all of the walls in their shot making. As a general proposition, the ball remains in play until the ball strikes the floor of the court twice. Racquetball is a game played with one hand on the racquet; players are not permitted to change their hands on the racquet during a rally. Where one player unintentionally impedes the movement of an opponent in making a shot, the opponent may call a ‘‘hinder,’’ which results in the serve being replayed without penalty to either player. Deliberate obstructions (in competitive racquetball a referee is empowered to make such determinations) usually result in a point being awarded the hindered party.

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The fundamental tactic employed in racquetball is to obtain the control of the center of the court. From the center position, a player can best react to shots struck by the opponent. The center is the position from which the angle of the carom of any shot that strikes any of the walls may best be judged. The player with center position will force the opponent to travel a longer distance to get to shots, as the center positioned player presents a legal obstruction to the opponent. Rcaquetball is a fast paced sport, with an anaerobic fitness emphasis. A rally often continues with intense physical effort for periods of between 5 seconds and 20 seconds; the interval between rallies is also short, averaging approximately 10 seconds. Aerobic fitness assists in the body’s recovery mechanism, especially after long games or during multigame tournaments. Most racquetball shots are executed by players who assume a low, crouched position, from which they can both move dynamically in all directions on the court, and which permit them to strike the ball with power from a stable physical platform. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PAULA JANE RADCLIFFE

For these reasons, muscle strength and an ability to strike the ball with great power is sometimes helpful, but it is not an essential element of racquetball success. Lateral quickness, flexibility, and core body strength (the inter-related function of the abdominal, gluteal, lumbar (low back), and groin muscles to provide stability) are important fitness considerations. SEE ALSO

Handball; Squash; Tennis.

Paula Jane Radcliffe 12/17/1973– BRITISH LONG-DISTANCE RUNNER

Paula Jane Radcliffe is a British long-distance runner who, as of 2006, is still in the prime of her running career. In early 2006 she held the women’s world record for the marathon (a running race that is 26.2 mi, or 42 km, in length) in a time of 2 hours, 15 minutes, 25 seconds. The record, set at the 2003 London Marathon, represents an average pace of 5 minutes, 10 seconds per mile. Born in Northwich, England, in the county of Cheshire, she grew up in Bedfordshire, and is still a member of a local running club in that community. She attended Loughborough University, graduating in 1996 with first-class honors in French, German, and economics. During this period, competing in distances ranging from 5,000 m to 10,000 m, she won the 1992 World Junior Cross County Championships. She also placed seventh at the 1993 World Championships at the age of 19. In 1995, Radcliffe returned to form after a lengthy recuperation from a foot injury, placing fifth in the 5,000-m competition at the World Championships. The next year, she was fifth at the Atlanta Olympic Games 5,000 m. In the 2000 Summer Olympics held in Sydney, Australia, she was a finalist in both the 5,000-m and 10,000-m events, but failed to win a medal. In the latter event, she finished fourth after leading the race until the final lap of the track. The late race fade was the result of Radcliffe’s race strategy. She is not known for her blazing speed in the closing stages of track races. Indeed, at the 1999 World Championships, she finished second in the 10,000 m after being overtaken in the final 200 m of the race. Thus, her strategy has been to surge to the front of the pack right from the start of a race and, by establishing a sizable lead, attempt to hold off the other competitors. As a result, scientific analysis WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

of hydration and endurance strategies are a key element of Radcliffe’s race planning. Prompted by the knowledge that her competitive strength as a runner lay in her endurance, Radcliffe began to train for the marathon following the 2000 Olympics. The effort was worthwhile, as she was victorious in her first marathon, the 2002 London Marathon. Her time was over four minutes faster than the existing women’s record for the course, and she finished over three minutes ahead of the second place competitor. In her next marathon in Chicago, she set a new women’s world record with a time of 2 hours, 17 minutes, 18 seconds. Her 2003 London Marathon victory chopped nearly two minutes off this record Chicago time. As of 2006, Padcliffe has won six of the seven marathons she has run, and has compiled four of the five fastest recorded women’s marathon times. A blemish on this exemplary record came in the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. She was forced to end her run after 22 mi (36 km), suffering from the effects of the high temperature and, it was revealed later, the lingering effects of both a leg injury and the anti-inflammatory therapy for the injury. The therapy had upset her stomach and affected her diet in the weeks preceding the marathon. The lack of food energy proved to be her undoing. Later in the Olympic Games, her weakened physical condition forced her to withdraw from the women’s 10,000-m final. Her disappointment at these performances has been tempered by subsequent victories in the 2004 New York Marathon, 2005 London Marathon, and the 2005 World Championships. In addition to her marathon prowess, Radcliffe is the holder of the women’s world records for road races of 10, 20, and 30 km (in contrast to track events, road races are run on varying terrain and surfaces). She also won the World Cross-Country Championships held in 2001 and 2002. For her athletic accomplishments, Radcliffe was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire in June 2002. Radcliffe is a staunch advocate of drug-free competition and has been a vocal critic of the use of illicit performance-enhancing drugs. As an example of this resolve, at the 2001 World Athletic Championships held in Edmonton, Canada, she publicly protested the reinstatement of a Russian competitor who had previously tested positive for the banned substance erythropoietin (which increases the number of red blood cells, and so

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Paula Radcliffe.

ª K IE RA N DOHE RTY /RE UTE RS /COR BIS

the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood). She competes with a red ribbon attached to her racing singlet, a symbol of her support of blood testing of athletes. As of 2006, Radcliffe is still training and competing. She intends to compete in the women’s marathon at the 2008 Summer Olympics to be held in Beijing. SEE ALSO

Exercise and thermotolerance.

Range of motion Range of motion (ROM) is an aspect of sports science that assists in the determination of how far a particular joint can move. Joint flexibility as defined by the ROM of the particular structure is essential to both injury prevention, as well as measuring rehabilitative progress after an injury. Joints that are capable of an additional range of motion typically permit the athlete to move with greater grace and power. The archetypal ‘‘loose-limbed’’ athlete is the person who possess a greater ROM than the average individual.

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ROM is measured by the number of degrees that a joint can be moved without the application of external force from a determined position. The common tool used to perform the measurement is a doublearmed goniometer, an instrument used to calculate geometric angles. Each joint, by virtue of its unique structure, has a different optimum ROM. Particular attention is paid by sports scientists to the ROM of the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle; all joints in the body are capable of ROM measurement. The measurement of shoulder ROM is a complex one, due to the variety of ways that the shoulder is called on to move in different sports. The ROM of the shoulder of a baseball pitcher will bear different considerations than the ROM of the shoulder of a crosscountry skier. The forces directed into the shoulder joint in each sport are significantly different, both in terms of the degree of the force as well as the direction that the shoulder is required to move. For this reason, the shoulder ROM will be determined from a variety of perspectives: abduction, with the arm extended from the body; adduction, with the arm WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RECREATIONAL SPORTS

pulled in toward the body; flexion, in a bending motion; extension, in a straightening or extending motion; hyperextension, extending the joint past 180 of motion; and rotation, the movement of the joint in a circular motion, in both clockwise and counterclockwise directions. With the ROM determined in each of the aspects of shoulder movement, a definitive picture can be drawn regarding the laxity or flexibility of the joint. In a hinge joint such as the elbow or the knee, the ROM measurement is simplified. The key determination in these joints is the relationship between the flexion (bending) and the extension (stretching). In the elbow, a normal person can bend the elbow sufficiently back that the wrist approximately reaches the ear. If the wrist is moved from a position with the arm extended parallel to the floor, the angle created by the flexion is approximately 140 . If the person is able to extend the wrist past the point where the arm is parallel to the floor, this is described as a hyperextension of the elbow. A small degree of hyperextension is common; any further flexibility in the joint is often described as ‘‘double-jointed.’’ A hyperextension of a joint can also occur through physical contact and result in an injury to the joint, particularly to the ligaments. A hyperextended position is generally an unstable position for a joint, one where the ability of the joint to sustain the forces of movement or a direct blow is much reduced. Given the structure of the knee joint, with six sets of ligaments providing support to the joint, a hyperextension of the knee is often one that compromises the strength of the ligament structures, as the joint is forced through a ROM that the ligaments cannot sustain. Wrist ROM, like that of the shoulder, is measured in more than one direction. The flexibility of the wrist is assessed first from the perspective of wrist flexion, the degree by which the wrist can extend and flex from a position where the wrist is palm down, parallel to the ground. The joint is also observed from the same position, with the movement measured on the ulnar side (the side opposite the thumb, the location of the ulnar bone), and the radial side (the thumb side). The ROM in the foot is assessed in terms of the joint’s dorsi flexion, the amount by which the front of the foot may be flexed upward, and the plantar flexion, the corresponding measurement of how far the toe may be pointed downward. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Physical therapist examines range of motion of an athtlete’s knee. P HO TO BY EZR A SH AW/ GE TTY IM AG ES .

ROM will be improved in all joints through a focused and dedicated stretching and flexibility program. All athletes will suffer tightness and reduced joint laxity if muscles are subject to forces but the connective tissues to the joints are not adequately stretched. Reduced ROM will tend to limit both the explosive ability of the athlete as well as the agility in the execution of an athletic movement. In strength training, greater ROM is achieved through work with free weights as opposed to those carried out with stationary machines that limit the ROM required to carry out the exercise. Free weights, used properly, will compel the athlete to value form, which is an alternative expression of greater ROM.

Musculoskeletal injuries; Skeletal muscle; Strength training; Weightlifting.

SEE ALSO

Recreational sports Recreational sports are those activities where the primary purpose of the activity is participation, with the related goals of improved physical fitness, fun, and social involvement often prominent. Recreational

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sports are usually perceived as being less stressful, both physically and mentally, on the participants. There are lower expectations regarding both performance and commitment to the sport in the recreational sphere. In theory, there is a clear demarcation between purely recreational pursuits and competitive sports, where emphasis will be centered on the achievement of success and the attainment of physical skills through rigorous training. Competitive sport involves not only contests, but it also advances as a central tenet that the athlete or team will continually seek progress and advancement to a higher level. Professional, international, national, and regional championships and university competitions are exclusively competitive activities. In practice, the division between the concepts of recreation and competition at all other levels is often blurred. Recreational sports are the most popular type of athletic activity undertaken throughout the world. While elite professional leagues and glamorous international sport festivals are the events on which the media focuses its attention, for every professional athlete there are thousands of participants who use the same sport for the satisfaction of their personal fitness needs. Recreational sport enthusiasts include individual athletes, such as persons who run, cycle, or participate in aerobics; this sport category also extends to those who play a sport as a member of a community-based league, such as master’s (over 40 years) age soccer or mixed (male and female) slowpitch baseball. Recreational sport is the aspect of overall fitness often promoted by government health agencies in the larger societal quest for better health and consequent reductions in the strain on public health care costs. Recreational sports, at both youth and adult levels, is advanced as a component of the healthy lifestyle that leads to less incidence of serious disease (particularly diabetes and cardiovascular diseases associated with obesity), and greater longevity in the population generally. The distinction between competitive and recreational sport is more often a matter of degree, as opposed to the application of a descriptive label. Competitive sport is not always an elite athletic activity; the attitude of the individual athlete toward the sport is an important aspect of how to define it. The best examples of this categorization are found in the mass participation sports such as marathon running and the triathlon, which are invariably further subdivided into age group classifications. These age group distinctions, in contrast to the elite, often professional, competitors, are where the recreational/compet-

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itive boundaries are challenged. If a marathoner runner, who has achieved a four-hour time for the event at age 40, decides that he would like to qualify for the prestigious Boston Marathon, that runner must improve to the Boston standard in his age group, 3 hr 15 min. A four-hour marathon time is faster than the approximate median time of most mass participation marathons (those races with over 5,000 participants); the four-hour runner could take some justifiable pride in that accomplishment. The reduction of 45 minutes from the previous personal best will require an improvement of over 1.7 minutes per mile; the winner will conquer the hilly Boston course in approximately 2 hr 10 min or faster, approximately two-thirds the time the prospective qualifier must run. There is a huge competitive gap between the winner and the qualifier; most objective observers would classify the qualifier as a recreational runner. To improve his qualifying time by 45 minutes, the recreational runner will be required to make significant changes to his training workload, training intensity, and perhaps diet. This athlete will have to consider the tactics of running the racecourse most effectively and economically, with special attention to hydration and supplementation. At his athletic level, the prospective Boston Marathon qualifier must increase the level of his competition, even if that competition is essentially with himself. The Football Association (FA) of England organizes the annual FA Cup, the world’s oldest soccer championship. Unlike the professional league championships, the FA Cup is open to any registered man’s team, amateur or professional. The teams are drawn at random in the first number of rounds to play a home and home series. It is not uncommon for a ‘‘minnow,’’ the English expression for an entirely unheralded side, to advance deep into the competition. The minnows are often teams composed entirely of amateurs. From the heights of English football, such teams would be seen as no more than recreational players when compared to the elite, multimillionaire professionals of the sport. When a team or an athlete seeks to compete at their highest level, the recreational aspect becomes secondary to the competitive dimension. An aspect of recreational level sport that is often overlooked is the importance of a proper warm-up and cool-down period. While the body may not be put to the same degree of muscular stress in a recreational event as in a high level competition, the nature of demands on the musculoskeletal system in recreational sport are similar. A failure to properly stretch the muscles, joints, and connective tissues often WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RECURRENT STRESS FRACTURES

Recreational sports, such as kayaking, are an important component of the healthy lifestyle. R AYM ON D K. G EH MA N/ NA TI ON AL G EO GR AP HI C/ G ET T Y I MA GE S

leads to serious injury for the recreational athlete. In a related way, when there is a failure to wear proper footwear or protective gear in an environment where the activity is seen as being ‘‘for fun,’’ preventable injuries are common.

Diet; Fitness; Health; Longevity; Warm up/ Cool down.

SEE ALSO

Recurrent stress fractures A stress fracture is a localized breakdown of a bone, that occurs when the forces directed into the bone tissue exceed the ability of the bone to repair itself. A stress fracture is distinct from the fractures caused by the direct, one-time application of a force to the bone, such as created by a fall or a blow. When bone sustains damage, it mobilizes its reserves of minerals, primarily calcium and phosphates, to repair the bone damage; repetitive stress prevents the repair effort from being effective. Stress fractures occur most often in the tibia and fibula (the bones of the lower leg), the ankle, and the foot. Stress fractures WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

are less common in other parts of the body, but may occur in any sport where repetitive motion isolates forces into a specific skeletal region. Distance running, running-oriented sports, and traditional track and field events such as the high jump and the long jump are the most common activities leading to the development of stress fractures. Stress fractures recur for a number of reasons, some of which are caused by the structure of the athlete’s body, others of which are related to the athlete’s preparation, equipment, and attitude toward training. Sports science research confirms that approximately 60% of all athletes who have sustained a single stress fracture will later sustain at least one other. Female athletes are somewhat more likely to suffer a stress fracture than male athletes. Unlike a direct fracture, stress fractures are more often a progressive condition, identified by the onset of pain while participating in the sport, a sensation that disappears when the athlete is at rest. Stress fractures are observable on an x ray; bone scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are also commonly employed diagnostic techniques. The recovery from a stress fracture is will primarily require rest, with appropriate

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stretching or activities that do not direct forces or apply resistance into the fractured bone. There are two general sets of factors that are typically present to cause a stress fracture. The structure and manner of movement of the body, often referred to as biomechanical factors, will significantly influence how the forces directed into the skeletal structure are distributed and absorbed. The risk of an athlete developing a stress fracture in the lower leg will be increased when different factors are present, such as any sport that requires repetitive leg movement that places stress upon the lower leg. Also, unequal leg length in which the difference in the length of legs of the athlete are greater than 0.25 in (0.5 cm), causing the forces generated by the strike of the foot on the ground to be uneven. The greater force will be repeatedly directed into a region of the foot or the lower leg, causing the formation of the stress fracture. Another structural factor is a high-arched foot that causes the forces directed into the foot on impact with the running surface to radiate unevenly. High arches are a key contributing factor to stress fractures of the metatarsal bones (the connective bones between the ankle and the toes). The different manners in which the foot contacts the surface during running are other structural problems. Athletes are generally classed as either ‘‘forefoot strikers,’’ where the ball and toes of the foot strike first, or ‘‘rearfoot strikers,’’ where the force is first absorbed by the heel, and the foot rotates forward to generate force to push off from the forefoot. Forefoot strikers tend to direct greater amounts of force through the foot into the lower tibia and fibula, in a region located above the ankle, often to the medial (inside) aspect of the lower leg. Biomechanical deficiencies are unlikely to cause stress fractures alone. A recreational runner who enjoys an easy 3 mi (5 km) run four days per week, will most likely not be affected by any one of these structural factors. It is the combination of greater workout and competitive intensities, training methods, and equipment that elevate the biomechanical factors from the background to prominence. Stress fractures recur as a result of both a failure on the part of athlete to counter the biomechanical factors, as well as through the imposition of factors personal to the athlete. When an athlete has sustained a stress fracture, aggressive steps must be taken to ensure that the footwear is sufficient protection. An orthotic is often prescribed to correct leg length imbalance of high arch irregularity; a failure to take such steps is often a guarantee of a recurrent

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Gymnast Dominique Moceanu was not expected to participate in the 1996 Olympic Team Trials because of a stress fracture in her right tibia. AP PH OTO/ S USA N WALS H

injury. Many athletes, especially those with competitive aspirations, feel significant pressure to return to high level training too quickly. The body, after an injury of this nature, is not equipped to bear the stress of high training volume and is more prone to break down again in the same physical area. Other training basics must be addressed to prevent a recurring stress fracture. The overall nutrition of the athlete must be examined to ensure that the proper daily intakes of calcium, its companion vitamin D, and related bone-building materials are being ingested. The athlete must ensure that stretching, flexibility, and general warm-up procedures are followed; poor flexibility will create biomechanical problems of its own. In the initial recovery stages from a stress fracture involving running, the athlete must select the training surfaces with care, as uneven or angled ground and roadways creates uneven distribution of forces into the feet and lower legs. Extreme caution must be exercised in the treatment of a stress fracture that occurs in a young athlete. The long bones, such as the femur, tibia, and fibula, are constructed with a growth plate, located next to the end of the bone, known as the epiphysis. Any damage to the growth plate by way of a stress fracture may compromise the ability of the bone to grow to maturity.

Growth plate injuries; Lower leg injuries; Overtraining; Running injuries; Stress fracture of the foot.

SEE ALSO


RENAL FUNCTION

Renal function Renal function is the assessment of the health and the viability of the kidneys, with a particular focus on the kidneys’ ability to filter out waste products and toxins from the blood system. When the kidneys are functioning in an optimum fashion, there will generally be electrolytic balance in the body (sodium and potassium levels will be constant), and fluid levels will be balanced between blood volume and urine production by the kidneys for the excretion of wastes. The body has two kidneys that perform equal and identical functions within the body, each located on either side of the spine; one kidney is positioned next to the liver, the other adjacent to the spleen. The adrenal glands, important in the production of the hormone adrenaline, are positioned at the top of each kidney. Humans possess an overcapacity of kidney function, in that a person may live a normal and healthy life with only one functional kidney. The kidney is an integral part of the urinary, or excretory systems, part of a continuous process that extends from the kidney to the bladder to the urethra. Renal failure is the condition that arises when the kidney is unable to filter wastes; when this inability becomes irreversible, end stage renal failure is the consequence, which results in the need for dialysis treatment to mechanically perform the required toxin filtering. End stage renal failure will ultimately necessitate a kidney transplant, or death will result. The study of the various diseases that impact on renal function is nephrology, named for the portion of the kidney where the filtering function is carried out. In their function as a filter, the kidneys receives all of the circulating blood within the cardiovascular system. There are a number of methods to assess whether the kidneys are adequately filtering wastes and toxins from the blood. The two most prominent of these tests are the blood urea nitrogen test, sometimes referred to as the BUN test, and analysis to determine the levels of the substance creatinine within the body. Both tests involve a chemical analysis of the person’s blood. The BUN test centers on the presence of urea in the blood stream. Urea is a compound composed of nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, described by the chemical equation (NH2)2CO. Urea occurs in the bloodstream as waste produced by the body through the digestion of protein and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Angiogram of kidney.

ª HOWA RD S OC HUR EK/ CORB I S

its constituent amino acids. The normal range of urea in the bloodstream is well established to be between 7 mg and 25 mg/100 ml of blood. When the test reveals significant excess in the urea level, a reading in excess of 100 mg/100 ml of blood, there are three possible causes. The first is renal failure, with its very serious physical consequences. The second possible cause of a excessive urea reading is dehydration, which occur during sport when the athlete has failed to properly hydrate either during the workout or the competition. When a person is dehydrated, the ratio of normal urea presence in the blood volume is disturbed. This condition is usually one that may be remedied through the improvement of fluid levels in the body. The third possible cause of excess urea is the consumption of excess proteins, such as occurs with weightlifters and other strength athletes who are seeking to develop greater muscle mass and strength. As with dehydration, this condition is remedied through correction of diet. Prolonged excess protein consumption tends to place a greater strain on renal function. Creatinine is a byproduct of the metabolism of phosphocreatine (creatine phosphate), the compound

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essential to the production of energy in skeletal muscles. Creatinine is a waste product that is of no use to the body once it is created, and it must be eliminated through the kidneys. As phosphocreatine is present in all skeletal muscles, and creatinine is produced at a relatively constant rate through muscular activity, creatinine levels are a reliable indicator of renal efficiency. Males have a greater amount of skeletal muscle than do females, and the normal creatinine level for men varies between 0.7 mg and 1.4 mg per 100 ml of blood; the corresponding range for women is 0.5 mg to 1.0 mg per 100 ml of blood. Readings in excess of those levels indicate an inability in the kidneys to carry out normal filtration of the blood. The reasons for diminished renal function are many. When a kidney becomes enlarged, it will not properly function. Due to the continual exposure to the blood system and all of the potential toxins that are transported through it, the kidney is vulnerable to the development of tumors, both benign and malignant. The kidney is also vulnerable to infections that originate in the urinary tract, which may diminish its filtering capacity.

Diuretics; Hormones; Hydration; Sodium (salt) intake for athletes.

SEE ALSO

Resistance exercise

SEE

Variable

resistance exercise

Resistance exercise training Resistance exercise is that which focuses on the development of musculoskeletal strength. This type of exercise includes weight training or strength training, as a resistance program seeks the enhancement of muscle strength, endurance, and power. A wellrounded and well-balanced athlete will incorporate resistance exercises, aerobic conditioning, and flexibility exercises into an overall training program. Resistance exercise commonly, although not exclusively, utilizes weight training to generate the forces necessary to create resistance against which the working muscles can act; weightlifting, as a competitive sport, is distinct from resistance exercise. The essence of resistance exercise is the principle of overload. The progressive increase of the load (or the resistance) applied to a muscle, will cause the muscle to become fatigued. Through the combination

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of overloading during workouts and the repair initiated by the body on its muscle fibers when at rest, the muscles grow stronger. Resistance training, in addition to being an essential component of total fitness, is a specific contributor to stronger and denser bones. A body with a greater percentage of lean muscle mass will consume greater amounts of energy at rest, as muscles place greater demands on the body’s metabolism than do fat cells. Resistance exercise training can be started at almost any age, although considerable caution must be taken with young athletes (persons under the age of 18 years). As the bodies of these persons are not yet mature, the growth plates present on the long bones of the juvenile athlete are not yet ossified, or hardened into their final adult form. Overly vigorous resistance training can place unhealthy levels of stress on these structures, causing the bone to either grow incompletely or to become vulnerable to later bone damage. Any resistance exercise training program must be accompanied by a comprehensive stretching and flexibility routine, both as a part of the warm up/cool down aspect to a particular workout, as well as those stretching exercises conducted on a daily basis. Resistance training, especially those exercises involving free weights, will emphasize a complete range of motion to obtain the maximum resistance benefit. The more flexible the joints of the athlete, the greater the range of motion is achieved. The types of stretches that are central to yoga and Pilates are a very effective counterbalance to the stresses placed on the body in resistance exercise training. Conversely, when the range of motion in the athlete is more limited, the desired form necessary to execute the particular routine may be absent, which will both limit the effectiveness of the exercise and increase the risk of musculoskeletal injury. Successful resistance exercise depend upon a number of factors, including the level of fitness of the athlete at the beginning of the program. When a person is new to resistance training, or otherwise does not possess a moderate level of general fitness, the resistance program must be advanced gradually. Also, the warm up should involve both stretching and flexibility exercises as well as a light aerobic workout, such as an easy run or a short session on a treadmill, elliptical machine, or other stationary trainer. Resistance training will ultimately require the involvement of all muscle groups. For this reason, the workout should begin with the larger muscle groups, such as the back and chest muscles, and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RESTRICTED SUBSTANCES

repetitions, or decreasing rest, will contribute to the overall intensity and volume. As all resistance training is anaerobic in nature, the efficient production of muscle energy is important to training success. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the ultimate fuel used to generate energy in working muscles; ATP functions in an energy cycle with phosphocreatine (creatine phosphate). Persons engaged in serious resistance training often consume creatine supplements to assist in this energy process. While resistance training most often involves the use of weights to provide the necessary resistance, other training aids can be effective. Sprinters use either parachutes or similar devices to create additional drag on their bodies to increase the resistance to their leg muscles; the blocking sleds used for many years in American football by linemen to simulate line play against an opposing team are a similar device.

Cross training; Exercise, high intensity; Free weights; Muscle mass and strength; Variable resistance exercise; Weightlifting.

SEE ALSO

Rest treatment for injuries

SEE

RICE (Rest/Ice/Compression/Elevation) treatment for injuries Resistance and strength training can be done with free weights, for example, or with an exercise band, as shown here. ª B ROOK E F A SA NI / CORB I S

progress to the smaller arm and shoulder muscles. The first several resistance sessions should be devoted to the development of proper form; the training should cover all of the muscle groups of the body. Once the person is comfortable with the movements to complete the exercises, the training should become more focused, with planned sessions that move from one exercise to another with defined recovery periods between each set. Finally, the cooldown phase should involve the easy stretching of the entire body, as well as a gentle aerobic exercise. Like any form of training, resistance exercises develop greater muscular strength, endurance, and power by virtue of their progressive nature. The training progression is accomplished through increases in both training intensity and training volume. The variables in any resistance program are the amount of resistance (often the weight to be lifted), the number of repetitions, and the rest period between exercise; increasing resistance or WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Restricted substances The concept of placing restrictions upon the use or possession of certain substances is a familiar one in many countries in the world. Restricted is a term that is generally applied in the sense of a limitation, as opposed to a prohibition. In the criminal law context, many countries have regulated the possession and consumption of certain drugs by restriction as opposed to prohibition. In Holland and Canada, cannabis marijuana possession is not the subject of prosecution, when it is possessed in small quantities or where required for medicinal purposes. Alcohol is the most popular restricted drug in the world, as most countries tend to regulate the age and places where alcohol may be consumed, with significant penalties for a breach of such rules. It is with these notions in mind that the regulation of certain substances in an athletic context should be examined. In sport, restricted substance is a broad concept. A restricted or prohibited

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substance also includes certain practices undertaken by athletes. Restrictions and prohibitions have a potential application to any substance that might be ingested by an athlete to enhance performance. Restricted substances may include conventional drugs and narcotics used by society as a whole, such as alcohol. Drugs specifically manufactured to achieve improved athletic performance are almost invariably prohibited substances; anabolic steroids are a prominent example. Naturally occurring substances that can be consumed without resort to any chemical process, such as caffeine (through coffee, tea, and guarana among other sources) or ephedra (present in a wide variety of herbs) are proven stimulants and are regulated at most levels of international athletic competition. The general classes of restricted drugs for the purpose of international sport are: local anesthetics; asthma and respiratory ailment/breathing dysfunction drugs; glucocorticosteroids, usually prescribed to treat arthritis or other osteoinflammatory diseases; caffeine; beta blockers, prescribed as heart medication; alcohol; cannabanoids such as marijuana. The definition of what substances will be classed as restricted as opposed to prohibited is never closed. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), in consultation with both its own national anti-doping agencies and the scientific community, reviews its definition of both restricted and prohibited classifications on an annual basis. In 2006, WADA embarked upon a review of the technology used by athletes known as hypoxic tents to determine whether these devices should be classed as a form of restricted or prohibited substance. Hypoxic tents create an artificial atmosphere that simulates the lower percentage of oxygen found in the air at higher altitudes. In these conditions the body’s production of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) is stimulated, triggering the production of a greater number of red blood cells. The increase in red blood cells will permit the athlete to transport greater amounts of oxygen during exercise. WADA embarked on its investigation regarding the hypoxic tents to determine whether they were a performance enhancing practice that ought to be restricted or banned. Conversely, naturally occurring hormones manufactured within the human body, such as testosterone and EPO, are invariably used in furtherance of illegal purposes in sport (muscle development and oxygen transport) and are prohibited substances.

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The modern regulatory regimes promulgated by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and administered by the national anti-doping agencies throughout the world recognize that athletes may require certain substances to preserve and maintain heir own health, with very little if any true competitive advantage gained. The most prominent example of such substances is the various asthma and respiratory medications available by prescription through a medical professional. For an otherwise healthy person competing in an aerobic sport, medication that tended to open the airways might produce a competitive advantage for that athlete. However, a healthy, asymptomatic person could not legally obtain such a medication. The WADA-sanctioned approach concerning restricted substances is known as the Therapeutic Use Exemption, or TUE. Most sports now administer a schedule of out of competition testing for their national team athletes, in conjunction with the national anti-agency (in the United States the national agency is the United States Anti-Doping Agency, USAGA); in some sports the testing is administered to a broader classification of athletes by the sport governing body. As out of competition testing may occur at any time, athletes are required to make a formal declaration in advance of the testing year as to what medications if any they may be taking and whether that medication is prescribed for a particular physical or mental health condition. In every year, or so often as the national antidrug agency may determine, every athlete is required to apply for a TUE for any prescribed substance that they are taking or that they may take in future (if known); if the TUE is approved, any subsequent test that reveals the subject substance is a deemed negative test. If the athlete fails or refuses to apply for a TUE, and fails a doping test as a result, the general approach of WADA is to treat the result as one attracting a competition ban.

Doping tests; Prohibited substances (competition bans); Therapeutic Use Exemption; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Retro running Retro running is a lesser known term for a wellestablished athletic activity: running backward. Retro running has a number of significant applications throughout sport, both as a training aid and as a rehabilitative tool in the management of various leg WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RICE (REST/ICE/COMPRESSION/ELEVATION) TREATMENT FOR INJURIES

injuries. In some sports science commentaries, the broader expression ‘‘retro locomotion’’ is used to describe both retro running and the gentler version, retro walking.

or knee damage, retro walking can be substituted to eliminate any additional degree of impact being directed into the injured area. Retro running is a powerful sport specific training tool. Athletes such American football cornerbacks, basketball players, and tennis players must all be able to move powerfully and decisively through backward motion. Maximum speed in a retro position is essential to success in each of these sports. Training programs such as shuttle run drills, where the athlete is required to move backward and forward at a high speed within a short period of time, are effective in developing retro running skills specific to the sport.

The value of retro running in training is rooted in the mechanics of the running motion. The development of an optimal running stride depends on the ability of the athlete to power the quadriceps (thigh) muscles forward to create extension in the knee joint. As the knee extends, the lower leg muscles respond through the contraction of the calf muscles, which in turn direct the Achilles tendon and the muscles of the foot to complete the stride. The counter movement, the flexion, or bending, of the knee, is a movement that originates with the hamstring muscles and tendon located at the back of the thigh behind the knee. To generate an efficient and powerful stride, the strength of the quadriceps relative to the hamstrings should be in approximate ratio of 3:2; when the quadriceps is too powerful, the knee will sustain forces it is not constructed to bear, a circumstance that may lead to overstress and ultimately damage to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), the connective tissue essential to knee stability. If the quadriceps is weak, the hamstrings tend to dominate the running muscle motion, often becoming overstretched through the repetitive movement of running. This circumstance will often result in hamstring pulls or tears. Distance runners are often susceptible to an overly strong quadriceps structure and resultant hamstring injury.

When retro running is incorporated into a training program, the athlete can expect to obtain the musculoskeletal benefits: higher leg turn over (increased stride rate); increased stride length due to the better strength ratio between the hamstrings and the quadriceps muscles; an improved range of motion in the knee joint, which permits freer and more powerful movements in both running and jumping; creation of optimal balance between the function of the knee in the generation of the power necessary to create running motion, and the ankle/foot as the absorber of the forces generated through the running motion. Retro running requires more energy than does forward running motion; and both the ability of athlete to utilize oxygen, the VO2max as well as the heart rate of the athlete are increased through retro running training.

Other injury sites created by the structural imbalances that are accentuated by the natural running motion are lumbar (low back) region, hip, and groin. Shin splints, compartment muscle injuries of the lower leg, and Achilles tendon injuries are all most often connected to either structure or muscle imbalances created by running programs that provide insufficient stretching and flexibility exercises in relation to the distances covered in training.

The incorporation of retro running into an interval running or intermittent exercise program places positive stresses on both the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular systems. Additionally, retro running stimulates the fast-twitch fibers present in the muscles of quadriceps, hamstrings, and calf. Sports science research confirms that the introduction of movements that represent a variation from regular training tend to reduce training injury rates.

The first benefit of retro running is that it tends to counteract the forces that produce musculoskeletal pain. The body is designed to move more efficiently forward than backward; the maximum speed of the retro runner is no more than 80% of maximum forward speed. When the retro running is performed on a treadmill or stationary exercise machine, the muscles of the legs are required to move in coordination with the abdomen and lower back without risk that the structural imbalances of the body will cause the forces of movement to be misapplied. When the athlete is recovering from an injury such as a stress fracture WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Cross training; Exercise, intermittent; Hamstring injuries; Running strength training and exercises.

SEE ALSO

RICE (Rest/Ice/Compression/ Elevation) treatment for injuries RICE (Rest/Ice/Compression/Elevation) treatment is a system of soft tissue injury treatment that is both a first aid application as well as an ongoing

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approach to injury management. The individual components of RICE have been well recognized for many years as effective in managing athletic injury; since the 1970s, sport science has endorsed the RICE method as the most effective method to deal with ankle and knee sprains, muscle and tendon pulls or strains, and the bruising that results from the physical contact of sport. The component of rest of RICE begins at the time of the injury. The injured player must be removed from competition to permit an assessment of the nature and extent of the injury; many types of musculoskeletal injuries become worse if the athlete is permitted to play through the problem. In many cases, the use of topical painkillers to permit continued play will deaden the athlete’s ability to sense further physical injury. When the injury is determined to be sufficiently serious that continued play would likely cause further structural damage, the athlete should immediately be subjected to the second part of RICE, the application of ice or a similar cold product to the site of the injury is recommended. Damage to the soft tissues of the body will invariably create swelling in these structures. Swelling is caused by the release of intracellular fluid at the point of the injury, coupled with an increase in blood flow to the site. Swelling will slow the healing process, as it is the body’s natural mechanism to impair joint movement as a signal to the body not to use the injured joint. If these natural healing processes took priority, the recovery from injuries such as an ankle sprain or a twisted knee (a sprain of the knee ligaments) would be slow. The application of ice to the area of swelling serves to constrict the flow of blood to the affected area, thus reducing swelling. The ice has a secondary effect of deadening the pain receptors in the area of the affected structure. There are considerable differences in scientific opinion as to how and for how long ice may be applied to a soft tissue injury. The nature, location, and the extent of the injury are significant factors; ice applied to a bony area such as the knee has a less insulating soft tissue beneath the skin than a contusion (bruise) sustained to the thigh. As a general guideline, the less soft tissue that is present at the injury site, the shorter the period that the area should be iced; 10 minutes would be a minimum application, with 25 to 30 minutes representing the upper end of a safe icing range. The application of ice for too long a period can cause permanent damage to the underlying tissue not unlike that caused by frostbite. Further, some chemical ice products available for sports

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first aid purposes are colder than ice, and the application time must be adjusted accordingly. Ice can be applied on a regular basis after the onset of the injury. For a tendinitis injury such as jumper’s knee, a strain often experienced by jump sport athletes and basketball players, the injury site might be iced three times per day. When the athlete has sustained a more serious ankle sprain, the joint could be iced every two hours throughout the day. Ice will typically be most effective within the first 72 hours of the occurrence of a soft tissue injury. The third RICE element, compression, is the physical application of pressure to the location of a soft tissue injury. Compression is useful as a first aid treatment, as the application of pressure will reduce the effect of any internal bleeding or swelling that may result from the injury. Compression has two separate roles in the course of RICE treatment: first, as a companion to the icing of the injury, and second, as the day-to-day maintenance of the injured structure. Elastic bandages and athletic tape are both used to provide compression, as are sleeves that are designed to fit over an entire joint and surrounding limb, such as in knee or elbow injuries. In ideal circumstances, the injured portion of the body will be maintained at an elevation above that of the heart. Such elevation serves to both reduce swelling as well as to promote the healthy action of the veins of the cardiovascular system to return blood from the injured area to the heart (a process known as venous return), which counters the pooling of blood near the injury. RICE works best when it is implemented immediately from the time of injury. However, even the delayed application of the treatment (for example, the day after the injury occurred) will promote better healing than if the injury is untreated. Various studies of recovery time experienced by athletes who sustained ankle sprains suggest that RICE treatment reduces time lost to injury by over 40%, as well as contributing to a reduction in scar tissue formation. SEE ALSO Ankle sprains; Calf strain or pull; First aid kits for sports; Knee injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Quadriceps pulls and tears; Sprains and strains.

Road rash Road rash is the slang term used to describe the abrasions and small cuts that often result from a crash or other accident involving the skin of an WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ROAD RASH

athlete and an unforgiving asphalt or road surface. Road rash is most common in cycling, with similar injuries also occurring to in-line skaters and skateboarders who lose their balance and fall on a hard surface. Virtually every cyclist or in-line skater will sustain at least one fall that produces road rash at some point in their career; given that impact between the cyclist and the road surface may occur at speeds in excess of 30 mph (50 km/h), the extent of skin damage can be considerable. There are three general kinds of skin injuries sustained by athletes: abrasions, cuts, and lacerations. Road rash is usually an abrasion, an injury that will appear as a bright red series of blotches or marks caused by the body being dragged across rough pavement as the athlete falls. Road rash will impart a bumpy, cracked texture to the damaged skin that will be tender to the touch, due to the fact that many nerve endings over a relatively wide area of skin are exposed through the rash. In more serious falls, the athlete may sustain a cut to the skin that involves damage to the blood vessels beneath the surface of the skin and an accompanying loss of blood. The most serious of skin injuries, a laceration, is a deep wound that damages both the skin and a significant portion of the underlying tissue. Road rash most commonly occurs in the sport of cycling when a rider miscalculates the angle of approach entering into a corner of a roadway or race course, causing the bicycle to slide out from under the rider’s body. In this angled position, the rider and the bicycle slide together on the road surface, often at significant speed. Road rash will result on the exposed position of the cyclist’s body; the most frequent injury sites are the outside portion of the lower legs, the knee, the outside of the quadriceps and ilio band (thigh), the palm of the hands, the arm, and the shoulder. The hip is also subject to road rash, even where it is usually covered by the cyclist’s clothing; the abrasion created on the hip is usually caused by the clothing being pulled across the skin surface during the slide along the road surface. When the force of striking the paved surface is severe, the road rash may overlay a more serious bruising or fracture. While road rash is most common to cyclists who experience a fall on a paved road surface, mountain bikers who fall on gravel road ways and trails can also sustain this injury; given the greater cushioning of an unpaved surface, the consequences tend to be less severe that those on a paved road. In-line skaters tend to sustain their road rash in the same general regions of the body as the road cyclists. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The skin is the largest human organ. It has two major components: the epidermis, the outer layer, and the dermis, the underlying layer. The epidermis is the protective shell for the body, repelling harmful and infectious organisms from entering the muscles or internal organs. The epidermis has no blood vessels within its structure; it is nourished through its proximity to the denser dermis, which contains the nerves, hair follicles, blood vessels, and sebaceous and sweat glands of the skin. Most road rash is damage to the epidermis; where a cyclist sustains significant bleeding as a result of a fall, it is likely that the skin has been cut or lacerated into the dermis. Road rash carries with it three major potential consequences. The first is that continued riding may be painful until the injury is treated; road rash often affects one or both of the legs, where the repetitive extension of the limb through pedaling is painful. A first aid kit with appropriate cleansing and antibiotic products should be immediately available to treat this injury. The other consequences are longer term, such as the potential for the skin to be come scarred as a result of the fall and the risk of infection developing in the affected area. Road rash has a greater potential for long-term damage to the body than do other types of sports abrasions such a skinned knee that results from a fall on the basketball floor. The road surface has various kinds of loose dirt, small pieces of gravel, engine oils, and chemicals, all of which may enter the skin on impact. The careful cleaning of the injury is essential to the long-term health of the skin. The time-honored remedy for road rash was the cleaning of the affected area with mild soap or an antiseptic, with the area kept dry; more modern treatment options favor the physical cleaning of the rash, including a gentle scrubbing of the injury, followed by the application of a nontoxic cleaner (where the active ingredient is sodium chloride), with the area covered by a semipermeable bandage. A more serious road rash injury, especially where there is any degree of bleeding, should be attended to by a physician. Tetanus and other infection diseases can occur as a result of an improperly treated road rash injury. Simply permitting the road rash to ‘‘scab over,’’ without properly cleaning, abrading (removal of debris), and protecting the injury is an invitation to the promotion of infection.

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; Cycling; First aid kits for sports; Roller skates.

SEE ALSO

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Rock climbing and wall climbing Rock climbing is the sport of climbing sheer rock faces and outcroppings, using specialized equipment and climbing techniques. The principles of rock climbing are similar those of mountain climbing; rock climbing is not directed at an ascent to the peak of a mountain, and the suitable rock formations for sport climbing can occur in any elevation. Wall climbing is a sport that is a man made creation; wall climbing is a miniaturized form of rock climbing, where the participants climb artificial surfaces constructed from wood or other materials and built either indoors or outdoors. Both rock climbing and wall climbing are a part of the growing group of activities often classed as extreme sports. Rock climbing first began as an organized activity in the hills of England’s Lake District in the 1880s, with the climbs attempted on the face of the sheer 115 ft rock (35 m) outcropping called ‘‘Nap’s Needle.’’ The sport also became popular as a training aid for mountaineers intent upon climbing various peaks in the European Alps in the later part of the nineteenth century, as the mountaineers sought out very difficult individual sections of boulder or rock face upon which to train for their expeditions. The primary object of both rock climbing and wall climbing is simple—to move safely from the ground to a desired objective on the climbing surface, and return. The techniques employed to achieve the climbing objectives vary according to the difficulty of the climbing surface (including the presence of overhangs and crevices) and the skill level of the climber. In rock climbing the essential equipment includes specialized shoes to provide extra grip on the rock surface, a harness to attach the ropes that will be used in the climb, and various types of anchors to be inserted into the rock face into which the ropes are secured or the climber’s body may be positioned. All climbers carry a chalk manufactured from magnesium carbonate, a chemical that dries a climber’s hands and fingers from the perspiration generated during a climb. Rock climbs are divided into two general categories, free climbing and aid climbing. Free climbing is performed without assistance, as the climber ascends a particular section of rock using their hands and feet only, which entirely support their body weight. The climber is usually secured to a safety line, known as the belay line. The belay line is secured at a point on the rock face to prevent the climber from falling more than a short distance in

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the event of an accident or misadventure. In an aid climb, the climber uses artificial devices such as extra ropes, slings, pulleys and other hardware to assist in the movement of both themselves and any other equipment upwards along the rock face. The sling permits the climber to rest as they move along the climbing route. As with any sport, rock climbing has developed a number of systems to grade the level of difficulty that a climber may encounter from a particular climb. The degree of difficulty attributed to a climbing route is determined both in terms of the decimal ratings, scored between 5.0 and 5.14 (easiest to most difficult), and the commitment rating, a measure of how long a climber of a particular level of ability would take to finish the climb. Wall climbing involves the ascent of a structure that is generally smaller than the typical rock climb. The climbing wall used also has pre drilled holes and grips built into the surface for ease of use by the climbers. The fundamental movement in rock climbing is the pull up, where the climber pulls their body weight upwards using the fingers and arms above, and the legs positioned below. The position of the climber’s center of gravity (the place in the body where its mass is equally balanced) is a fundamental element to rock climbing. As a general proposition, the closer to the rock face the climber positions their body, the greater the importance of the larger leg muscles below the body in support, as the center of gravity is positioned over the climber’s feet. As the climber moves away from the rock face, the smaller muscles of the arms and shoulders will be required to provide a greater amount of the necessary support to the body. Brute muscular strength is not as important to rock climbing as is excellent over all fitness, well developed endurance capabilities, both aerobic and muscular, and a combination of balance and flexibility. In rock climbing, the concept of strength to weight ratio is especially important, as the larger the body mass of a climber the greater the muscular effort required to successfully ascend the obstacle. The constant demands that climbing places upon the fingers, wrists and forearms require specialized training for these muscle structures. A periodized approach to training is necessary to assist the climber in building each of these fitness areas; each period is directed to a specific climbing fitness need, and the subsequent periods build to the establishment of the necessary base to climb safely. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

KNUTE KENNETH ROCKNE

(abdominal, lumber [low back], and groin muscles), the muscle groups essential to the maintenance of balance during the climb. The final training stage is that referred to by athletic trainers as active recovery, where the climber continues with vigorous workouts that avoid undue stress on the muscles subjected to repetitive strain during rock climbing, such as the fingers and forearms. Swiss ball training and other abdominally focused exercises are useful. The four periods of training can be used as a training cycle in preparation for an actual outdoor climb.

Balance training and proprioception; Extreme sports; Wrist injuries.

SEE ALSO

Knute Kenneth Rockne 3/4/1888–3/31/1931 NORWEGIAN AMERICAN COLLEGE FOOTBALL COACH

In the over 75 years since his death, the name Knute Rockne remains synonymous with both Notre Dame University and football coaching excellence. Rockne combined innovative approaches in both game strategy and practice techniques to become the best known college coach of his era. Rock climber on ascent.

ª LIN DA/ZE FA/ CORB I S

The first training period is directed to climbing endurance. In addition to cardiovascular training such as running, the climber seeks to build over all fitness by performing repetitions up and down a particular segment of a climbing wall. These segments have the same physiological effect as any other interval training. The second training period builds upon the first by developing exercises specifically aimed at the climbing motion. These exercises include finger and wrist strength grip actions, pushups, and squats performed without extra resistance, to take the hips, thighs, and abductor muscles through a range of motion similar to that to be encountered on a climb. The athlete also extends the degree of training difficulty through the addition of a weight belt to the climber when using a climbing wall. The third phase is a blending of power and endurance concepts, replicating the sport itself. Using the methods of the first two phases, the climber incorporates further core strength training WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Knute Rockne’s legendary coaching career was founded upon a number of remarkable and almost improbable sequences. Born in Norway, Rockne immigrated with his family to the United States at age 7. Rockne was a very proficient high school athlete, but he did not graduate from high school in the usual course; he left school at age 17 to work in a series of different jobs in the Chicago area. It was only at the urging of friends that Rockne enrolled at Notre Dame University in South Bend, Indiana in 1910, when Rockne was 22 years old. Rockne joined the Notre Dame football team, know as the ‘Fighting Irish’ in 1911, where he played both running back and offensive end. Rockne captained the Notre Dame team during his senior year in 1914, helping the team to its third undefeated season. The Fighting Irish were one of the first college teams to incorporate the forward pass into their regular offensive strategies (a tactic that had only be legalized in 1909), as the Notre Dame offence was described in the national media as possessing football’s first all out air attack. Rockne was 26 years old when he graduated from Notre Dame magna cum laude in pharmacy.

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When his application to enter medical school was rejected, Rockne took an assistant professor position in chemistry at Notre Dame, where he also worked as an assistant football coach. Rockne assumed the Notre Dame head coaching duties in 1917, and by the 1919 season he had directed the Fighting Irish to an unbeaten season. In the course of his coaching career at Notre Dame, the team would enjoy five such unbeaten campaigns. It was Rockne’s various innovations that propelled Noter Dame’s success during this period. Rockne introduced the box formation and the technique known as influence blocking, the coordinated line blocking schemes where the offence uses a variety of stratagems to maneuver the defensive players into a particular position on the field, as opposed to simply attempting to overpower the defense with strength. In this fashion, Rockne helped to make football a much more exciting game for its spectators, as his strategies emphasized deception and speed. Rockne also instituted what came to be called the Notre Dame shift, also known as the precision backfield move, where the running backs would adjust their positions in a synchronized fashion prior to the snap of the ball in an effort to confuse the defense. The most enduring of the Rockne innovations may be platoon football, a technique later perfected by coaches such as Paul Brown and a standard procedure in football at every level today. Rockne was the first coach to organize groups of players, or platoons, into specific formations in an attempt to wear down the opposing team. The innovations implemented by Rockne were so popular with spectators and so effective in neutralizing Notre Dame’s opponents that other prominent college football coaches banded together in an attempt to limit some of these strategies by having them declared illegal, without success. In the course of his tenure at Notre Dame, Rockne proved to be as skilled at the promotion of his team and program as he was a football tactician. By the time of Rockne’s death in 1931, Notre Dame was the most recognizable and the most popular football team in the United States. Rockne was known by the nickname ‘Rock’, and he possessed the ability to turn a colorful and effective phrase when ever he was interviewed by the media. Rockne was held in considerable affection by the sports writing fraternity, who generally celebrated his coaching abilities in favorable articles in newspapers and magazines across America.

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Rockne was, in many respects, both the coach and the equivalent of the modern sports information director at Notre Dame, as he promoted star players to ultimately promote his team. Rockne was one of the first coaches to cultivate and publicize star players as he did with George Gipp, an outstanding all purpose running back. During the 1924 season, the first in which Notre Dame finished with a national championship title, Rockne relied heavily on a quartet of players that he had trumpeted to the national media as the Four Horsemen of Notre Dame: Harry Stuhldreher, Don Miller, James Crowley, and Elmer Layden. This nickname has endured as one of the most evocative in the history of American college sports. The most intense rivalry enjoyed by any of Rockne’s teams was that with the United States Military Academy, the Army football team. It was during the half time of a game against Army that Rockne delivered one of the most famous of half time speeches, where he is reputed to have urged the Notre Dame team to go out and, ‘‘Win one for the Gipper,’’ a reference to the then deceased former Notre Dame star and captain. This phrase was made famous through a 1940 film that starred future American President Ronald Reagan as George Gipp. Rockne took on the duties of athletic director as well as his coaching duties in 1925. One of his major projects in this role was to direct the construction of a large on campus football stadium. In 1930, Rockne’s final season as the Notre Dame coach, the Fighting Irish captured their third national championship under Rockne. Rockne was a multi-dimensional personality and he was one of the most celebrated Americans of his time. Rockne wrote a regular newspaper column and authored two books during his Notre Dame career. By 1931 he had also begun a second career as a motivational speaker under contract with the Studebaker Corporation, a South Bend auto maker, to deliver inspirational speeches to its sales force. Rockne capitalized on his football fame in the launch of his own automobile company in 1931. Rockne was on his way to Los Angeles to discuss a movie project when the plane carrying him crashed in a Kansas wheat field on March 31, 1931, an event that President Herbert Hoover described as a national loss. Rockne’s enduring legacy is cemented by the fact that his winning percentage as a coach, .881, remains the best ever record among major college programs. Rockne was inducted into the National Football Foundation Hall of Fame in 1951. His statute stands in front of the College Football Hall of Fame. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ROLLER HOCKEY

Portugal vs. France in the 2003 World Roller-Skate-Hockey Championship.

Football (American); National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA); Sports Coaching.

SEE ALSO

Roller hockey Roller hockey has a long tradition as sport with a cult following in North America and in the various parts of Europe where ice hockey has long been established. Today the game, with two distinct variants, is far closer to the mainstream, with an international championship in each of its formats contested by both men and women, and national governing bodies for roller hockey established in over 20 countries. Roller hockey was first played using the fourwheeled roller skates invented by James Plimpton (1828–1911) in New York in 1863, a successor to roller skate inventors whose work dated from the mid-1700s. Plimpton’s invention lead to the development of the ‘‘quad’’ or ‘‘box’’ skate, with two wheels forward, capable of making a pivot, and two wheels on the rear of the skate. The first application of the roller skate in another sport was that of roller polo, a game played in the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JOAO ABREU M IRANDA/AFP/GETTY IM AGES

eastern United States in the 1870s, when ice hockey was in its infancy. A game similar to modern roller hockey began in England in the early 1900s, and it was played internationally both before and after World War II. It was this form of roller hockey that was contested as a demonstration sport at the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympic Games. It is variously known as rink hockey, hardball hockey, quad hockey, or international-style ball hockey. It has specialized rules and tactics. With the development of the inline skate technology in the late 1980s, which permitted a skater to travel faster than was possible with the traditional quad skates, roller hockey evolved in a new direction. This variant of roller hockey, also known as inline hockey, has spawned leagues across North America and Europe that acted to create both high level competitions as well as those with a recreational sports focus. The Inline International Hockey Federation (IIHF) convened a world championship in 2005 that attracted 16 countries, including nations not associated with ice hockey success, such as Namibia and Taiwan.

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ROLLER SKATES

The traditional roller hockey game played with the quad roller skate traced elements of its lineage to the sport of field hockey. The players use a stick, referred to as a ‘‘cane,’’ that is similar in construction and design to that of a field hockey stick, with the object being to drive a hard rubber ball into the opposing goal. There are four players and the goaltender per team on the playing surface at any given time. The playing surface, which is enclosed by a barrier, may be of variable sizes but tends to be approximately 145 ft long (40 m). Inline roller hockey is played on a surface similar in dimensions to a standard ice hockey rink, approximately 200 ft (60 m) by 100 ft (30 m). Given the characteristics of the inline skate, which has similar performance capabilities to that of an ice skate, the tactics and the dynamics of inline roller hockey are very similar to those of ice hockey. As with the traditional roller hockey version, inline hockey is played with four players a side, plus a goaltender; the players use conventional ice hockey sticks and the game is played with a ball or a puck, depending on the region where the sport is played.

Roller skates It is likely that the first roller skate was invented in the mid-1700s. The modern roller skate, a device with four wheels, two attached to the forefoot capable of making a pivot, and two wheels attached to the rear, was introduced in 1863 by American James Plimpton (1828–1911). The subsequent development of wheels that rolled easily, using internal ball bearings, greatly enhanced the performance of the roller skate. This design would become known as the ‘‘quad’’ skate, to differentiate it from the later and very popular inline skate. Dedicated roller skating rinks became popular places of recreation in the 1930s, reflecting a corresponding public interest in various musical genres such as disco into the 1980s. Roller hockey, a game played on an enclosed surface with skaters who used a stick to direct a ball into a goal, also acquired a measure of international status. In the 1950s, roller derby, a sport that blended roller skating and physical, often contrived, contact, gained a solid fan base through the medium of television in North America.

Both versions of roller hockey require well-developed skating skills, with a premium placed on speed, agility on the skates, and an ability to change directions rapidly. Body checking of the type permitted in ice hockey is illegal in both forms of roller hockey, although the angling of an opposing player away from the ball or puck often leads to significant incidental physical contact.

The skateboard was created through the attachment of a wooden platform to roller skate wheels. Skateboarding is a hugely popular recreational activity, especially among young males, throughout the world. Skateboarding is also a competitive sport, with its athletes performing often extremely risky jumps, half pipe maneuvers, and other tricks; competitive skateboarding is often referred to as an extreme sport.

The physical training necessary to succeed in either variant of roller hockey is similar in many respects to ice hockey strength and training exercises. Roller hockey is a sport contested in short bursts of activity, which places demands on the anaerobic energy systems. The ability to accelerate and turn quickly requires both explosive muscle power as well as the development of available fast-twitch muscle fibers. Interval training, where the athlete must work to a maximum level and then recovers, is essential to this sport, as is a measure of aerobic fitness, to provide the player with a base against which recovery can be made.

The advent of the inline skate changed roller skating, both in terms of the competitive sporting opportunities it afforded the participant, as well as the recreational opportunities it made available. The inline skate was first developed in the 1980s as a possible off-season training aid for ice hockey players. The skate was constructed in a fashion similar to that of the hockey skate, with four or five wheels aligned in a row, each constructed of a frictioneduced plastic compound. An inline skater could travel much faster that a quad skater and users found that the inline design permitted a skater to cross rougher surfaces, such as pockmarked asphalt roads or sidewalks with relative ease. The American company, Rollerblade, Inc., became the industry leader by the mid-1990s, to the point where the company name became synonymous with the skating activity.

Both forms of roller hockey are played on a recreational level in North America, with inline hockey the more likely type of unstructured, or ‘‘pick up,’’ game. Like ball hockey, the casual form of hockey played without skates in all ice hockey nations, roller hockey can be played wherever there is a hard, smooth surface. SEE ALSO

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Ice hockey; Recreational sports; Roller skates.

Inline skates became standard equipment in several sports, including inline hockey, which is a game played where similar tactics and strategies to those of ice hockey are employed, as the inline skate has similar turning, stopping, and acceleration WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ROWING

Roller skating requires efficient function of all of the muscle groups that form the leg structure; the gluteal (buttocks), groin, and abdomen are also important to the skating function as the skater must continually maintain balance. The ideal skating posture is similar to the stance often described as an athletic stance, or crouch with the body’s center of gravity lowered through the bending of the legs, and the arms positioned for balance and the head erect. Roller skating is also a sport that places emphasis on a flexible and limber body. Stretching exercises that involve the entire body will assist the athlete in develop the requisite form to achieve speed and to maintain balance through cornering, turning, and any changes of direction. The most common forms of injury due to roller skating are the form of abrasions known as road rash, caused when the skater slides along the road surface or ground after a fall, and the variety of muscle pulls and strains that may occur through either overexertion or a lack of flexibility in a muscle group.

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; Endurance exercise; Recreational sports; Road rash; Roller hockey.

SEE ALSO

The inline skate was first developed in the 1980s as a possible off-season training aid for ice hockey players. ª H . SP I C HT I NG E R /

Rowing

characteristics to those of the ice hockey skate. Another sport is speed skating, where the inline competitor races on an oval similar to that of the ice skaters, using identical race tactics. Distance races, conducted on courses such as those used by distance runners, ranging from 2-mi (5 km) routes to the marathon (26.2 miles, or 42.2 km). Skaters in these races use the same techniques concerning drafting, the formation of the skating pack, breaks and teamwork as are employed in cycling road races.

Rowing is one of the oldest forms of water transportation known to man. Rowing is the act of propelling a boat through the use of oars, long, bladed levers that are directed against the water for movement. Rowing evolved from the even more ancient methods of canoeing and kayaking, where the water craft was powered by a single person, using a single instrument, the paddle. Over time, ancient peoples, including the Egyptians, developed techniques where one person could use two paddles attached to the gunwales (sides) of the boat by a device later known as an oarlock, or two persons could each use a paddle working in synchronized fashion on opposite sides of a boat for propulsion.

For fitness and recreational purposes, inline skating became a means of transport, using urban cycling paths, and as a summer training aid for cross-country skiers, particularly those athletes who employ the skating method of cross-country racing. The inline wheels are attached to a modified ski, and the athlete can replicate the skiing motion with poles and leg action on a road or other hard surface.

Later cultures, particularly the Romans and the Viking Norsemen, advanced more sophisticated rowboats into an important part of their military campaigns. Rowing has been a means of support for fishermen and other water-related labor for more than 2,000 years. The rowboat remains a staple of transportation in many water-oriented communities today, for both commerce and as a pleasure craft.

Roller skating in all forms can be an aerobic or an anaerobic exercise, depending on the application.

Rowing as a sport competition first occurred along the Thames River in London. Rowboats had

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ROWING

Sculling (rowing) in a single racing shell on the calm waters of Lake Union in Seattle, Washington.

been employed to ferry people and goods across the river as there were very few bridges constructed at that time. Competitions arose as to which oarsman was the fastest in crossing the river, out of which the first rowing race, the Doggett and Coach Badge Race, was held in 1716. The event was open to single competitors, conducted over a 5-mi (8 km) course along the Thames; this race remains an annual event. Rowing as a competitive sport has a number of traditional events, including the Oxford University/ Cambridge University Boat Race (inaugurated in 1829), the numerous rivalries between American university teams, or crews, a biennial World Championship, and the pinnacle of competitive rowing, the Olympic Games. With competition came technology and different competitive classes. Among the important developments in racing craft and oar design was the innovative rowing outrigger, first employed by Oxford in 1864. This device permitted the oars of the boat to be mounted farther from the gunwales, which made the boat more stable and permitted the hull of the

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ª JOEL W. ROGERS/CORBI S

boat to become narrower and more hydrodynamic. Another innovation was the sliding seat. In 1870, the Yale University crew developed a seat that slid back and forth with the motion of the oarsmen; this device permits the crew to better use their leg power to drive their bodies and the oars through the water. The traditional wooden boats gave way to increasingly lighter fiberglass and carbon fiber composite materials, making the boats faster and the oars more responsive. The rowing classifications begin with the two different methods for the propulsion of the boat, sweep oar races where each rower powers one oar, and sculling, where each rower uses a pair of oars. In the sculling competitions supervised by the international rowing governing body, FISA, races are held in categories known as single scull (one rower), double sculls (two rowers), and quad sculls (four rowers). There are precise regulations as to the permitted dimensions of the boat, the oar specifications, and the material weight of the craft. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ROWING: HYDRODYNAMICS

In the sweep oar categories, there are similar regulations regarding the boat equipment. Races are held with crews of two, four, and eight athletes. The sweep oar categories may also include a coxswain, or cox, the navigator of the craft who is also responsible for dictating and calling out to the crew of the desired stroke rate. In international competition, there are men’s and women’s divisions in each rowing category, as well as open weight and lightweight divisions. At an elite level, the ideal rower will possess a tall frame, to best extend the oar over the water, with a good strength-to-weight ratio, as the rower must propel his or her own mass most efficiently. The standard international racing distance is 1.3 mi (2,000 m) in all racing divisions, with as many as eight boats racing in each heat. The competition is progressive, with the winner of a heat advancing to the next round, and the losers taking part in the repechage, a form of playoff among the unsuccessful heat competitors for a reentry into the main competition. Races are most often conducted on water that is protected to some degree from wind and wave action, to permit greater boat stability.

Canoe/kayak; Endurance exercise; Exercise, intermittent; Rowing: Strength and training exercises.

SEE ALSO

Rowing: Hydrodynamics Hydrodynamics is the study of the characteristics and movement of an object in water; hydrodynamics is a branch of the physical science known as fluid dynamics. The hydrodynamics of a craft used in rowing is critical to both the speed of the boat as well as the efficiency with which it can be propelled. Rowing hydrodynamics involves an examination of two separate but related components: the movement of the hull in water and the movement of the oars through the water. An important aspect in the assessment of the optimum movement of a boat hull through water is the determination of the drag, or the resistance exerted by either the oars or the hull of the boat during propulsion. Drag has three separate components that may be physically calculated: skin drag, or frictional resistance, the drag created between the hull and the water moving past it; foam drag, the turbulence created in the water as the hull passes through it; and wave drag, the loss of energy due to the creation of waves by the movement of the hull. In determining the ideal hydrodynamics for a rowing shell, consideration must also be given to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

how the shape or contours of the hull will effect the resistance on the boat due to the air passing over it; the hull of the shell, the bodies of the rowers that extend above the hull, and the oars all are subjected to wind resistance. As a general design consideration, the hull of a racing boat accounts for 90% of the drag created against the boat, while the air resistance accounts for the balance. The object of racing shell design is to achieve the greatest possible speed, while permitting the rowers to move with a measure of stability across the water. Speed is the product of the power generated to move the boat, less the resistance created by the boat. To generate greater speed, power is the variable; to double boat speed, the boat must receive eight times as much power. For these reasons, in a human-powered craft (such as a rowing shell), it is the resistance of the boat that is the focus of the boat design. As a general rule, a longer and slimmer boat will create less resistance in the water, as it creates less displacement (the shell will ride higher in the water), less turbulence, and less wake. Such designs are also less maneuverable, and subject to the design of the hull and the presence of a keel on the underside of the hull, the craft will be less stable. As hydrodynamics are determined with the optimal rowing techniques in mind, any variation from proper rowing form will have a dramatic impact on the performance characteristics of the boat. The rowing stroke has three distinct components—the drag, the catch, and the finish—and any variation that tends to create an up and down force on the hull will make it more resistant in the water. Smooth, level, and rhythmic strokes ensure that the power is applied evenly to the shell, making it move more efficiently. The finish used on the hull surface is also a factor in the creation or elimination of excess drag. Hydrodynamics is often the subject of extensive testing with scale models operated in water tanks to simulate race course effects, and computer simulation to test both the hull materials and the finish to be applied in terms of the drag created. The oars are subject to the same design considerations as the hull. A large flat-shaped oar might be a useful tool to move a large amount of water on each stroke, but the oar will create additional drag as it moves through the water, and it will create a lesser but significant amount of air resistance on each stroke when the rower drives the oar backward prior to the stroke. As a general rule, the blade surface area should be as large as the individual rower can manipulate.

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Whether the athlete rows alone as a single sculler, or as a part of an eight-person crew, an effective rowing stroke is a well-balanced combination of technique, power, and endurance. The sometimes contradictory physical demands of strength and endurance result from the repetitive nature of the basic rowing stroke. The rower is positioned on a sliding seat, with the feet of the athlete affixed to the frame of the racing shell through straps. The slide back and forth by the rower is accomplished through the push generated on each stroke by the rower’s legs, and a pull back to the starting position that results from the actions of the oars and the resistance of the stroke in the water. A much as 60% of the power generated in a rowing stroke is developed in the legs and core (trunk) of the body.

U.S. Olympic rower Jennifer Devine rows her single racing shell into the sunrise on the calm waters of Lake Whatcom in Bellingham, Washington. ª JOEL W. ROGERS/C ORBIS

Further physical considerations that stem from the material used in the construction of a racing shell that impact its hydrodynamics are the torque and flex of the hull. The stiffer the hull, the less the boat will tend to flex or bend on the delivery of each stroke; the bigger the boat, the larger the crew, the greater that these forces can be. Any deviation from the direction of the craft due to flex or torque will diminish its potential speed.

Canoe/kayak: Hydrodynamics; Cricket: The physics of how the ball is bowled; Rowing; Soccer: Bending the ball; Water.

SEE ALSO

Rowing strength and training exercises Rowing is a demanding sport that requires a very high level of overall fitness from its participants.

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An ideal rower will be tall and powerful, so as to both obtain the best leverage on the oar as it extends through the rowing stroke. A typical male Olympic rower in the men’s eight will be over 6 ft 3 in tall (1.8 m) and weigh over 230 lb (105 kg). Height usually will provide the rower with a more optimum strength-toweight ratio; the lighter the boat crew, the faster the boat will go provided the amount of power remains constant. The speed of the boat is the product of the available power, less the resistance to the boat as it moves through the water; the heavier the craft, including its occupants, the generally greater the degree of resistance against the water. While rowing may present to the uninitiated as a relatively simple contest of human muscle power versus water, the mechanics of the rowing stroke are highly technical, especially when considered as part of a larger rowing crew that must move with complete synchronicity. Sole training and group training must be coordinated to achieve this end. The specific parts of the rowing stroke can be exercised on the water; one example is the use of a bungee cord or similar device to slow the progress of the oar and make the effort of rowing more difficult. Many rowers use interval training principles while on the water to develop both strength as well as recovery. Rowing exercises must be broadly based to achieve these various performance goals. The development of technical rowing skills will be done primarily upon the water. A solo sculler or a crew can practice such aspects of a competition as the start, changes in cadence, and general unified strokes. Crews will sometimes use a large indoor swimming pool as a simulator, with the boat tethered, as a practice facility. Rowers can also use a stationary WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RUGBY

training device known as an ergometric rowing machine to simulate the resistance encountered in the rowing motion; these machines have the advantage of having a variable resistance. The training that is nonspecific to the rowing stroke must be specific to the enhancement of the balance of power and endurance. The amount of the total training volume that a rower should devote to weight training is the subject of debate. In some countries, the national rowing program directs its athletes to engage in a hard weight workout two times per week; in others, the weight training may constitute up to one-third of the total training volume. There is no question that strength training cannot be left to the natural consequences of rowing participation, if the athlete is to improve on the water. The power aspect of the power/endurance continuum can be developed through a focused totalbody weight training program, one that combines free weights, exercise machines, plyometrics exercises, and leg training exercises such as squats, which mimic the drive of the legs forward and backward during the rowing stroke. Endurance training will focus on cardiovascular fitness, which includes the various aspects of the body’s ability to both row at a high speed, which is a function of the rower’s stroke rate, as well as the rower’s recovery from high intensity effort. One important component for the rower is the ability to use oxygen at the highest possible level, the VO2max of the athlete. In addition to rowing, running, both over distances as well as through interval sprints, and cycling are cross training devices that will aid the rower in this respect. As rowing places significant and often explosive stresses on a number of large muscle groups, often while the athlete is in a seated position, stretching and flexibility exercises are essential to the maintenance of balance throughout these muscle groups.

Canoe/kayak; Cross training; Exercise, intermittent; Rowing; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Rugby Rugby is the only major sport in the world named not for the nature of its primary element, but for the place where the game is reputed to have been invented. In 1823, near the English town of Rugby, the version of the soccer game then being played at WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Rugby School was varied to permit a player to handle the ball and carry it toward the opponent’s goal. The sport quickly evolved to include the tackling of any ball-carrying opponents. The rules of rugby were not entirely formalized until approximately 1845, and by 1871, an association known as the Rugby Football Union was created and the rules of the sport were codified. Rugby, or a game very similar to it, was first exported to North America by the British soldiers of the Quebec military garrison in the 1860s. Through games played against McGill University of Montreal, rugby became popular with the universities of the northeastern United States. The American form of rugby evolved once more into the sport now known as American football. Rugby, cricket, cross-country running, and soccer (in its organized form) represent four great English sports exports of the late 1800s. It is said that the essential difference between soccer and rugby may be stated as a credo, that ‘‘soccer is a gentleman’s game played by toughs, and rugby is a tough’s game, played by gentlemen.’’ Rugby permits and encourages significant physical contact, and one of the noteworthy features of the sport is that unlike American football and its specialized play, every player on the rugby field must have a basic command of all physical aspects of the sport: running, tackling, passing, kicking, and carrying the ball. The basic rules of rugby are that the game is most commonly played with 15 players to a side; the game of seven per side employs the same rules of play regarding scoring and physical contact, with necessary modifications. The game is composed of two 40-minute halves. The rugby field (pitch) is 110 yd (100 m) from goal to goal, and a maximum of 75 yd (68 m) wide; the area behind the goal is a maximum of 24 yd deep (20 m). Due to the nature of the sport and the fact that the players wear very little protective equipment, natural grass surfaces are preferred. The rugby ball is a rounded oblong shape, approximately 12 in (between 280 cm and 300 cm) long and 26 in (620 cm) in circumference; the chief objects of the game are to either advance the ball across the opponent’s goal line for a ‘‘try,’’ worth four points, or to kick the ball through the uprights of the opponent’s goal for either a penalty, worth three points, or a drop goal, also worth three points. When a team scores a try, they may kick for a conversion worth two points. The shape of a rugby ball makes it conducive to the dropkick. The 15 players play positions that are divided into two general groups, determined by their

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respective roles on the field. There are eight forwards, who are responsible for much of the effort to gain territorial advantage on the field, and seven backs, who tend to be the chief ball handlers and kickers. The player responsible for much of the coordination of the rugby team’s attack is the ‘‘scrum half’’; the fastest player on a rugby team is often the wing, who plays on the outside of the team formation. The players are permitted to advance the ball towards the opposing goal line by running with the ball, kicking the ball, and passing the ball, so long as their teammate is behind them, as no player can be ahead of a teammate with the ball, the concept known as being onside. When the referee determines that a minor violation of the rules has occurred, the teams will form a ‘‘scrum,’’ where the eight forwards on each team, known as the ‘‘pack,’’ lock onto each other and attempt to obtain control of the ball that is placed into the scrum by one of the scrum halfbacks. The line of scrummage, the imaginary boundary between the two scrums, became the well-known expression in the line play in American football that is similar to the formation of the two rugby scrums. When the ball goes out of bounds, the ball is returned to the field of play through a formation known as a ‘‘line out,’’ where the forwards from each team form a line facing the in-bounding player, who throws the ball down the line, where the forwards attempt to either catch the ball or tip it to one of the teammates. Although a rough and often fiercely physical game, rugby has strict rules regarding tackling. A player may tackle another player only when he has possession of the ball, and blocking or other types of physical interference are illegal. The tackle must not be delivered to the head or otherwise be done with a clothesline or spearing mechanism. Tripping, holding, or otherwise striking another player beyond the scope of a proper tackle will usually result in a penalty at the spot of the infraction. More serious breaches of the rule, such as kicking or punching an opponent, will commonly result in the offender’s ejection. If ejected, a player may not be replaced for the balance of the game. As with other English sport exports, rugby first flourished in the countries of the former British Empire. In addition to American football, Australian Rules Football is also a derivative of rugby. Rugby has been played for a considerable period in professional leagues centered in England, France, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Rugby League, in contrast to the international game that is sometime referred to

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Rugby Union, is a form of professional rugby popular in Great Britain, with 13 players per side and a modified scoring system for tries, penalties, and convert kicks. Rugby first became prominent as an international sport through elite regional championships. The first of these was the Four Nations Cup, which began as an annual competition in 1882 between England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. France joined the group in 1910, and the current Six Nations Cup championship includes Italy. Rugby is played professionally in various parts of Europe, South America, and Australasia. Most of the world’s competitive players tend to belong to rugby club teams, affiliated with a university or an adult volunteer-based amateur organization. The Tri Nations Cup became an annual fixture between the rugby powers of Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa in 1996. In addition to these formal regional championships, the concept of the rugby tour is a sporting endeavor not replicated in other major sports. In a rugby tour, one of the acknowledged powerhouses of international rugby will play a series of games, often including strong local teams as well as the national team of the host country. The 2004 tour of Australia and New Zealand by the British Lions, an aggregation of some of the top English and British Isles players, is typical of the high level rugby played by touring national teams assembled by the international rugby powers. As with many other championships, the World Cup of rugby has become the premier contest in the sport. Rugby is played officially in over 100 countries, and the World Cup, inaugurated in 1987 as a quadrennial event, is fiercely contested. In addition to the traditional powers of the sport whose roots extend to England, countries such as Argentina, Italy, Fiji, the United States, and Western Samoa all are usually ranked among the top 15 rugby nations. The World Cup and all aspects of international competition are governed by the International Rugby Board (IRB), founded in 1886. The IRB has vigorously promoted women’s rugby, played according to the same rules as the men’s game. Women’s rugby has enjoyed significant growth throughout the traditional rugby world, also making inroads in North America, where rugby has been primarily a club sport as opposed to a league-structured competition. Seven-a-side rugby is also contested as a separate World championship event. Seven a side places a greater emphasis on speed and ball handling than does the 15-a-side game, as the two sports are played on identically sized surfaces. The Hong Kong Sevens WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RUGBY: THE MECHANICS OF THE DROPKICK

Rugby player scoring a try.

ª RO YAL TY-FRE E/ CORB I S

is a longstanding and prestigious championship in seven-a-side rugby. Many players, particularly the smaller backs, play both versions of rugby. The two general classes of players needed for rugby, forwards and backs, tend to encourage two distinct physical specimens to pursue the sport. The backs, who must perform the bulk of the ball handling and offensive thrusts, tend to be smaller and more compact in build. A back must possess sufficient muscle mass and strength to absorb the physical contact, with speed and agility. Forwards must possess the size to be assertive in scrum play, and yet be able to run up and down the field. Sports science analyses of elite rugby competitions suggests that a member of a forward pack will run over 3,000 yd (2,700 m) in an 80minute contest, in addition to the expenditure of energy necessary to push in the scrum and tackle opponents. The physical and hard-hitting nature of rugby is a sport paradox, in that the injury rate in contrast to sports such as American football and ice hockey is relatively low. Rugby produces a significant number of minor injuries, such as abrasions, cuts, bruising, and a variety of soft tissue injuries; the nature of scrum WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

play often causes external injuries to the ears of the forwards (long-time forwards often exhibit the lumps of the surface of the ears similar to a boxer’s ‘‘cauliflower ear’’) and broken noses are not uncommon. Significant physical damage such as a fractured leg or seriously damaged knee joints is relatively rare. The strict limits as to how an opponent may be tackled, coupled with the defined rules for scrum play, contribute to this relative degree of safety for the participants, as does the fact that, unlike American football and ice hockey, rugby does not permit protective gear that can be used as a offensive weapon.

Cross training; Football (American); International federations; Rubgy: Strength training and exercises; Soccer.

SEE ALSO

Rugby: The mechanics of the dropkick The rugby dropkick is a technique that may be employed at any time on any part of the field by a

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player seeking to either score or to create an advantageous field position for the team. The dropkick is most effective as an offensive weapon when employed to attempt a drop goal, a kick that results in the ball traveling through the goalposts for three points. There are no rules limiting who on the rugby field may attempt a drop goal. Typically, as the backs tend to handle the ball more often in the course of a game, they will be most proficient in this technique. Teams will often create offensive sets where they can put the ball in the hands of their best dropkicker to attempt a drop goal at an appropriate time. The dropkick is distinct from placekicking—when the ball is placed in a stationary position and the kicker runs up to kick it. Generally placekicks occur during conversions taken after a try or a penalty. The mechanics of the dropkick begin with an understanding of the ball and its dynamics as it travels through the air. A rugby ball is oblong shaped, approximately 12 in (300 cm) long and 25 in (620 cm) in circumference, constructed of leather or a similar synthetic composite, with four separate panels and a stitched seam. The rugby ball is distinct from the round soccer ball and the less oblong, narrower American football. When kicked correctly, the rugby ball will spin on its axis in an aerodynamic spiral, and it is capable of being sent over 60 yd (52 m) by a skilled dropkicker. The primary object of a dropkick is to strike the ball with the kicking foot the instant after the ball has been dropped to the playing surface. The progression made by the kicker to deliver an effective dropkick begins with the kicker holding the ball with two hands, positioned on either side of the ball, with the seam of the ball away from the kicker’s body, toward the intended target. If the kicker is moving with the ball prior to the intended kick, the player will come to a stop, even for a brief period of time, to ensure that the mechanics of the kick can be executed from a stable body position. The ball ideally will be angled away from the kicker at an approximate 45 position, with the kicker’s arms extended from the body. The kicker will seek to swing the kicking foot through the ball; for this reason, the kicker will first firmly plant the nonkicking foot into the playing surface, so as to maintain maximum stability on impact. As the kicking foot will usually follow a slightly sweeping motion, as opposed to a straight-on approach, the body of the kicker may be leaning at a slight angle away from perpendicular to the surface just before impact. The ball is dropped to the ground, with care that the angle at which it was held by the kicker is

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Rugby player attempting a drop goal.

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G ET T Y IM AG ES .

preserved in its downward flight. The kicker will try to ensure that the point of the oblong makes contact with the surface, and not any greater portion of the ball. The kicker will then endeavor to strike the ball with the kicking foot the instant after the point of the ball has struck the ground. At this moment, the kicker’s foot will be positioned in a downward (planter flexion) position to permit the length of the foot from the approximate point of the big toe joint through the instep to make contact with the ball. To achieve the desired height, trajectory, and distance on the dropkick, the kicking foot and leg will be in a smooth, powerful motion to generate a follow-through; the kicker’s arms are generally positioned away from the body, once the ball is dropped, to provide balance. Unlike the American football placekicker, the dropkicker will often resolve to attempt a drop goal in the open field due to an advantageous game circumstance. The kicker must develop a kicking rhythm that can be employed almost instantaneously. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RUGBY STRENGTH TRAINING AND EXERCISES

The dropkick remains a legal tactic in American football, a reminder of the rugby roots of that sport. In 2006, quarterback Doug Flutie successfully executed a football dropkick for the first time in over 60 years, from a distance of 20 yd (17 m). Flutie’s feat attracted significant media attention in North America. However, such a dropkick is entirely routine in rugby. SEE ALSO

Football (American); Rugby; Soccer: Bending

the ball.

Rugby strength training and exercises As a multidimensional sport that places a variety of physical demands on the athletes, rugby training must be comprehensive in its scope. Every player on the field must possess a basic level of ability in the five major physical components of the of rugby: running, tackling, ball carrying, passing, and kicking. The various rugby-specific techniques needed to advance the abilities of the player cannot exist without these fundamentals. Each of these fundamental skills must be developed in relation to the position played by the athlete. Rugby has 15 players per team (often referred to as a side), of whom eight are ‘‘forwards,’’ who play in the more physical ‘‘pack’’ that scrums the ball. The forwards are primarily responsible for creating a territorial advantage for the team on the field. The remaining seven players are the ‘‘backs,’’ who are aligned behind the forwards, starting with the scrum half who handles the ball most frequently, fanning out to the wing. As a general rule, the forwards are the largest and strongest rugby players, and the backs are the most adept in ball handling, kicking, and running. While no successful rugby player can be a one-dimensional player, responsible for a limited series of physical tasks, the strength training and exercises devised for rugby athletes must balance the overall skills required by all players with those that are position-specific. The strength training applicable to all rugby players will require overall muscular explosiveness, both in delivering a tackle, as well as in developing the acceleration necessary to sprint effectively. Players also need muscular endurance both to compete throughout an 80-minute game and to effectively recover from that exertion. Besides coordination and agility, musculoskeletal flexibility is important for the players. The better the range of motion the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

athletes can develop in the joints, the more responsive and the less likely they are to sustain a serious joint injury. For flexibility, conventional free weight training and dedicated stretching and flexibility exercises are most useful. Another critical component for players is muscular balance, particularly between the quadriceps and the hamstrings, which are subjected to both the stresses of running as well as the forces of tackling. A balance of the respective strengths of the quadriceps to the hamstrings in the approximate ratio of 3:2 is the goal. The specific training needs of the forwards begin with their considerable size. At an international level, a forward may run over 3,000 yd (2,700 m) in the course of a contest. It is not uncommon for an elite forward to weight over 240 lb (109 kg); the larger the athlete, the more difficult the player will be to either tackle or to push in the opposing scrum. Comprehensive rugby forward training is an application of the principles of developing an ideal strength-to-weight ratio. Endurance training that is less stressful on the athlete’s legs and joints is cycling or swimming. For the large player interval running achieves the dual effect of both running training and building the speed and explosiveness necessary on the field. The forwards must possess overall muscular strength; much of the physical efforts they expend during a game are in the scrum, where significant energy is delivered through the drive of the athletes’ legs to move the scrum forward. Leg training, such as squats, is provided by a scrum machine—a device constructed on a weighted sled—and replicates the forces experienced in the scrum. The scrum machine employs the same training principles as the American football blocking sled; it is a useful strength trainer because the athlete may derive the benefits of resistance and the opportunity to practice particular physical techniques used in scrum play. The success of a rugby back will blend focused strength training, particularly in developing both speed and running power, with the muscular strength to combat tackles delivered by fast-moving or much larger players. Running training must emphasize the explosive nature of rugby, with both straight ahead and lateral movement. Plyometrics training and interval running assist in this development. Agility training may be incorporated into basic running movements through zig zag drills, where the athlete follows a predetermined pattern on a field or playing surface. Intervals that require the player to move backward, to simulate the fielding of a rugby kick (retro running), also build strength, reaction, and leg muscle balance.

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The strength training applicable to all rugby players will require overall muscular explosiveness.

The backs must also possess an appropriate strength to weight ratio, for reasons counter to those of the forwards. A rugby back may run upward of 5,000 yards (4,500 m) in a game, much of the distance covered at a significant speed. The back must be light enough to move quickly, yet strong enough to sustain the multitude of blows encountered during an 80minute game.

Cross training; Exercise, intermittent; Free weights; Muscle mass and strength; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Runner’s stitch Runner’s stitch is the one condition that almost certainly befalls every runner at some time in either

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training or competitive circumstances. Known as a side stitch, or by the technical term exercise-related transient abdominal pain, runner’s stitch is a painful but entirely transient and correctable physical problem. There are many explanations tendered through sports science as to its cause. Runner’s stitch is a painful cramping or stabbing sensation that is experienced by a runner during the course of the activity. The pain usually is felt most sharply under the rib cage, in the vicinity of the diaphragm and upper abdomen. In some cases, the pain will also seem to radiate to the runner’s shoulder. Sometimes, the stitch will either slow the runner or immobilize him or her for a brief period while he or she endeavors to recover from the effects of the stitch. Although precise data on the point has never been gathered, there is strong anecdotal evidence in the running WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RUNNING: CROSS COUNTRY

community that suggests that runner’s stitch is more common among inexperienced or novice runners than among veteran athletes. While the stitch manifests itself as a cramp, the accepted possible causes of the condition are wide ranging. It could occur due to impaired blood flow, or ischemia, to the abdomen and diaphragm during exercise. Another condition is the irritation of the muscle walls of the abdomen through the repetitive movements of running (the nerve structure from the abdomen ultimately radiates to the shoulders, accounting for the sensation sometimes felt there with the onset of a stitch. Stress placed on the connective tissues that support the diaphragm through movement occurs when the athlete has been breathing quickly, introducing short or shallow breaths into the lungs, and the diaphragm muscles may become stressed. In a related fashion, it is also believed that running will particularly affect the ligaments that hold the liver in place relative to the diaphragm (the liver is positioned immediately below the diaphragm), the repetitive bouncing motion created by the running stride creates undue tension on these ligaments that may create a source of stitch pain. Another possible cause of runner’s stitch is cramping or muscle spasm directly within the muscles of the diaphragm. In addition to the causes that have been identified as the potential reasons for a runner’s stitch, cold weather running is often cited as an aggravator of this condition, as is the consumption of food within one hour of a race or workout. A runner’s stitch can often be remedied during the course of the run. The most effective approach is to stretch the diaphragm structure, which may be accomplished in a number of ways. The first effective diaphragm stretch is alter the breathing pattern; short, shallow breaths place a different stress on the diaphragm than do deep regular breaths. Often, a period of slower speed running or walking while taking very pronounced deep breaths will correct a stitch. Another effective treatment is the application of manual pressure to the affected area. While the runner slows to a walk, he or she can firmly grasp the location of the stitch below the rib cage, pressing hard into the abdomen. While pressing against the muscles, the runner may then bend at the waist briefly to generate further pressure on the stitch location. The combined effect of the manual pressure with that of the bending of the runner’s body often provides an immediate remedy that will permit the runner to resume the pace without recurrence of the stitch. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Biomechanical studies reveal that most runners instinctively coordinate their breathing with the rhythm of their foot strike. When the runner makes a deliberate effort to ensure that the inhalation and exhalation of breath are coordinated with their footwork, the diaphragm will then move in a more synchronized fashion with the body and be less likely to bounce as the runner moves, thus reducing any additional stress on it or the connective tissues that support it. As with any other type of muscle difficulty, the overall strength of the abdominal muscles may contribute to the formation of a runner’s stitch; improved overall fitness is the best prevention for runner’s stitch. The runner’s stretching program should include exercises directed to the lumbar (low back) and abdominal muscles, which ultimately support the efforts of the diaphragm.

Cramps; Exercise and fluid replacement; Hydration strategy in distance running; Muscle cramps; Sodium (salt) intake for athletes; Water.

SEE ALSO

Running: Cross country While humans have run on natural trails since the dawn of time, cross-country running began as a competitive sport in England in the early 1800s. With competition centered around both running clubs, known as ‘‘harriers,’’ as well as universities, the sport was exported to the United States in the 1870s, where it quickly became a university competition. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) has convened national cross-country running championships since 1938. The International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) has organized the world crosscountry championships since 1967. Cross-country running is not an Olympic event, although a 3-mi (5-km) cross-country run is the last of the five events in the Olympic modern pentathlon. Unlike other forms of running, cross country lends itself to team as well as individual competition. In the team format, points are awarded for the position achieved by each team member in the overall race standings. In IAAF competition, there are no standardized world records or course lengths, given the variability of terrain and conditions from course to course. An IAAF championship race course for men must be a minimum of 7.5 mi (12 km) in length; the women’s race course must be a minimum of 3.1 mi (5 km).

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The significant difference between cross-country running and the running that takes place on the road or the track is the variability of both weather and footing. For this reason, the training for cross-country running events is quite specialized. Many runners will compete in cross-country, road racing, and track events, but it is a rare and exceedingly talented runner who can win on a national or international basis in all three disciplines. To effectively deal with the combination of terrain and elements, cross-country runners tend to develop a shorter stride than they might employ in a road or track event. By having the heel of the lead foot strike the ground closer to the body, the runner sacrifices stride length for greater stability and balance. The physics of the cross-country running’s surface, and the corresponding effect on stride, also differ from those of the road and the track. A harder running surface will produce greater elasticity in the return of energy from the ground into the runner’s legs; the softer, off-road trails where cross-country running takes place are less elastic, requiring the athlete to use more energy to cover the same distances. In addition to being more inefficient, in terms of the relationship between the energy expended by the runner and the distance traveled, cross-country running requires greater thigh muscle action and a resulting greater overall effort from the abdominal muscles and the lumbar (lower back) to support the leg action. Unlike the stride cadence into which a road or track runner will quickly settle to assist in the delivery of an efficient and uniform stride, the crosscountry runner must continually adjust the stride length to the terrain and weather conditions. The precise planting of the foot of the cross-country runner is often variable throughout the race. For these reasons, cross-country running is the most difficult of the running sports. Cross-country runners tend to be more versatile and adaptive athletes as a result. Cross-country running training reflects the diversity of the conditions that an athlete might encounter. As a sport that primarily requires endurance, training that tends to strengthen the cardiovascular system will form a large part of the weekly training volume, particularly those exercises that enhance the body’s capacity to process oxygen, the indicator known as VO2max. To address the variability of the terrain, cross-country runners also devote significant time to hill training and interval repeat running. Cross-country running does not place significant emphasis on resistance training in the form of free weights, but

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some weight training is often relied on as a way of ensuring overall muscular balance and stability. Stretching and flexibility exercises are an important component of all running training programs. Such exercises assist the cross-country runner in developing optimal range of motion, especially in the hip and leg joints, which assists the athlete in countering the effects of uneven terrain. Stretching also assists the cross-country runner in both warm up and cool down periods when the weather is cold and the muscles more prone to becoming tight. Runners often suffer injuries that are caused by weather and the running surface. Cross-country running has tactical considerations that differ from other forms of racing. Most cross-country courses require a mass start for all competitors, which often lead directly into a narrow trail where passing a lead runner is difficult. To counter these circumstances, many successful cross-country competitors are front runners, athletes who can get to an early lead and hold their advantage for the entire race. SEE ALSO Cold weather exercise; Exercise, intermittent; Running injuries; Stretching and flexibility.

Running hurdles From sprint races through the marathon and beyond, running is one the most elemental and instinctive of human movements. The musculoskeletal structure has evolved to permit power and efficiency in the body as it runs forward or backward. Running as fast as is possible, at any distance, is a demanding athletic goal. Running the hurdles is the most difficult and the most technically challenging form of running because it involves both the athletic ability to generate muscle power and the science of integrating the speed of maximum forward movement with the efficient grace necessary to clear the hurdles. The elite hurdler has evolved in the past 100 years from a pure sprinter to an accomplished technician. Hurdling is an ancient sport that was given prominence through its inclusion in the first modern Olympics in 1896; the rules on the competition are simple. Portable barriers are erected at predetermined locations on the track; the runner who reaches the finish line first after clearing the hurdles is the victor. Each runner must remain entirely within his or her own assigned lane of the track, and any interference with WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RUNNING HURDLES

Liu Xiang of China crosses the finish line as he finished first in the men’s 110-m hurdle final during the Athens 2004 Summer Olympic Games. PH OTO BY S TUA RT HA NN AG AN /G ET TY I MA GE S

the efforts of another competitor will result in disqualification. A runner is not obligated to successfully jump over every one of the hurdles, and it is common for one or more hurdles to be struck by the athlete during the course of a race; the athlete must not deliberately knock down a hurdle or he or she will be disqualified. In outdoor hurdles races, a variety of distances may be contested; the most common are the 110 m, 200 m, and 400 m distances for men, while women race the 100 m and 400 m hurdles. Sixty meters is the most common indoor distance. In the sprint hurdles (races 200 m and under), the barrier is 42 in (1.2 m) high for men, and 33 in (0.8 m) for women; for the 400 m distance, the respective hurdle heights are 36 in (0.9 m) and 30 in (0.75 m). It is a testament to the difficulty of the hurdles that both the men’s decathlon and the women’s heptathlon include the hurdles as a component in competition; each is universally regarded as determinative of the title ‘‘world’s greatest athlete.’’ All hurdles races begin with a traditional sprint start from the starting blocks. The same techniques employed by a conventional sprinter are those used WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

by the hurdler, each emphasizing an explosive drive with the legs pushed against the fixed starting blocks, with the hips positioned above the hurdler’s shoulders in the starting crouch. Explosive power and reaction to the starter’s pistol are of primary importance to the athlete. Hurdlers develop the physical abilities to achieve a strong start by the use of plyometrics exercises, repeat start training (where the starts are practiced in an interval fashion), and similar combinations of power and speed. The hurdler has other considerations that must be built into start training. In the sprint hurdles, the hurdler must plan from the position in the blocks how to run the first hurdle, fixed 15 yd (13.7 m) away, at full speed. In the 400 m hurdles, the first barrier is positioned 49.5 yd (45 m) from the starting blocks. Hurdlers coordinate their start by determining which leg will be the first leg over the first barrier; the first leg is defined as the lead leg, and the second leg the trail leg. Through practice, the hurdler will know precisely how many strides he or she will take to travel from the starting blocks to the first hurdle; the hurdler will start with the lead leg positioned

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furthest back in the blocks to ensure the necessary pattern of strides culminating with the predetermined lead leg first over the first hurdle. To achieve maximum running efficiency, the typical hurdler will take three strides between each sprint hurdle; as a general rule, given that all hurdlers at an elite level have excellent sprinting speed, the more efficient the runner and the fewer strides between hurdles, the more likely the success of the athlete. The 400-m hurdles is generally regarded as one of the most difficult of races, as it combines the demands of the longest of the sprints with the necessary hurdling skill. The hurdles are spaced farther apart in the 400 m event than in the shorter distances, but the principles of efficiency and economy of stride remain the same. An elite international male hurdler will train to take between 13 and 15 strides between each of the 400 m hurdles; arguably, the greatest of these athletes, Edwin Moses of the United States, two- time Olympic champion who won over 100 consecutive international 400 m hurdles events between 1976 and 1987, raced taking 12 strides between the hurdles. Hurdlers describe successful racing to require ‘‘attacking’’ the hurdles. The attack is the conversion of sprinting speed into fluid movement over the barrier; too high over the hurdle, and precious time is lost, and too low an approach to the barrier will result in contact with the hurdle and a disruption of the athlete’s rhythm. Hurdlers spend significant portions of their training at work on the individual components of the event. The start requires total body strength, including free weight training, squats, lunges, plyometrics exercises, and the enhancement of explosive speed. Flexibility, to both uncoil from the starting blocks as well as the movement of the body over each hurdle, necessitates stretching and flexibility exercises to promote joint health and the recovery from high intensity exercise. Additionally, the hurdler should perform knee lifts to be able to produce the lift necessary to take the lead leg consistently over the bar, with the trail leg smoothly clearing behind. Plyometrics exercises and bounding drills assist the hurdler in this aspect of the event, as it is the fast-twitch fibers of the leg muscles that are relied upon. Finally, the hurdler must practice take off and landing at each hurdle. The movement should be smooth and incorporated into each stride, with no bounce or deviation.

Exercise, high intensity; Hurdles; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch; Plyometrics; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

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Running injuries Running is a sport that, due to its diverse nature, presents a significant risk of injury to an athlete. The typical injuries encountered by a 100-m sprint specialist, where the focus of the athlete is the development of explosive power, may differ from those of the cross-country specialist or the marathoner. The sprinter, with a greater preponderance of fast-twitch fibers and likely greater muscular development, will undertake training regimes involving resistance training or other cross training that will likely differ significantly from those of the distance runner, thus exposing each group to different injury risks. All running disciplines have injuries that result from the presence of one or more common factors. In almost every case of a running injury, one or more of these factors is present as a primary cause or as a contributor to the injury. Overtraining is the increase of training intensity or training volume, which often includes a sudden increase in the use of a particular training technique, such as interval running or hill training. Another contributor to injury is the nature of the training surface; as a very general proposition, hard artificial surfaces contribute to running injuries more often than do softer or natural surfaces. A switch to an unfamiliar surface may also contribute. Important to preventing injury to the athlete is the quality of the running shoes used, either in terms of the condition of the shoes or with respect to the suitability of the footwear relative to the size and the physical characteristics of the athlete. Approximately 80% of all runners’ feet strike the ground with ‘‘pronation,’’ where the ankle and foot roll inward on impact; the remaining 20% of runners exhibit ‘‘supination,’’ where the foot and ankle move outward. The shoe worn by the athlete must be one designed to accommodate the appropriate motion, or the athlete risks an unhealthy distribution of forces from the foot into the rest of the body on impact. Structural misalignment, which directs unequal forces into a particular joint or bone, can cause a significant number of injuries. The most common misalignment is unequal leg length. Also, injuries can result from musculoskeletal imbalance, particularly between opposed muscle groups such as the quadriceps and the hamstrings. This imbalance is typically created through poor stretching and flexibility training. In sprint running, including the hurdles events, the focus of the athlete in both the training that takes place on the track as well resistance training, is the development of explosive power, which the runner seeks to harness as speed. The tremendous forces WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RUNNING INJURIES

The diverse nature of running events (sprints and hurdles, to marathons) can put runners at a high risk for injuries.

P HOT O B Y RAL PH

CR AN E/T I ME LIF E P I CTUR ES /G ET TY IMA G ES

generated by a sprinter out of the starting blocks place significant stress upon the knee joint, the hamstrings, and the quadriceps. From the crouched position of the start, where the hamstrings hold the knee in the flexed position, the quadriceps will extend the knee explosively at the start and drive the legs forward. It is a well-accepted principle of biomechanics that the ideal proportion in the relative strength of the quadriceps to the hamstring will be approximately 3:2. When this ratio is not observed WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

(generally the hamstring will be weaker of the two structures), the risk of a serious hamstring pull or tear is significant. Other possible impacts on the sprinter that arise due to the power of the start are injuries to the Achilles tendon. Repeated movements from the starting blocks when the athlete has a structural imbalance due to muscle power or inflexibility will often irritate the tendon fibers, causing the painful condition of tendonitis, or may, in a worst case, rupture the

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tendon. The muscles of the lower leg, the gastrocnemius and soleus, are also at risk due to the movement delivered at the instant of the push off from the blocks, but in most cases the Achilles tendon bears the greater brunt of stress that may be magnified through a muscular imbalance. The groin muscles also have exposure to similar injury due to the function that they perform in sprint starts, the stabilizing of the body as it bursts forward. Middle distance runners who train and compete primarily on hard surfaces as opposed to the newer cushioned track surfaces often develop plantar fasciitis, the connective tissue injury often diagnosed in conjunction with the formation of heel spurs on the bone of the affected foot. Research has determined that this condition is often a function of the hard training surface, inadequate attention to footwear (often lightweight racing shoes with less than optimal support through the arch of the foot, the location of the plantar tissue), and poor foot-specific stretching practices. The popularity of distance running and the marathon that began in the later 1970s has directed corresponding attention to the specific injuries caused in distance running. Repetitive strain injuries, to all aspects of the musculoskeletal structure of the hips, legs, ankles, and feet of runners, are the most common running injuries. All five of the noted common causes of running injuries play a role in the formation of distance runner repetitive strain injuries. Of particular significance to distance runners are the issues of structural imbalance and stretching and flexibility training. What may present as a minor physical problem for the runner who accumulates a total weekly training mileage of 20 miles (35 km) will almost certainly become a full-blown and potentially chronic issue when the training reaches 50 miles (80 km). The best way to avoid a significant running injury is to develop a comprehensive training plan. Planning requires preparation, which leads to a comprehensive assessment of physical needs. The identification of structural problems to be addressed by footwear selection, possible orthotic use to correct any imbalance, and the devotion to stretching and flexibility as a prevenatative measure are the most important parts of the runner’s planning/injury prevention process.

Achilles tendonitis; Common foot injuries; Groin pulls and strains; Iliotibial(IT) band friction; Knee injuries; Lower leg injuries; Osteoarthritis; Thigh and upper leg injuries.

SEE ALSO

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Running: Marathon There is no more storied event in the modern Olympics than the marathon, a symbol of both ancient Greece and the heroism of Phillipides, the fabled messenger returning to Athens from battle. The ability of a runner to conquer both the marathon distance as well as the environmental conditions that often accompany such events has an appeal that transcends sport. It was fitting that another Greek, Spiridon Louis (1873-1940), won the first modern Olympic marathon competition in 1896. His time of 2 hours 50 minutes was achieved on a 24-mile course (40 km); the modern standard distance of 26.2 miles (42.2 km) was established at the London Olympics of 1908, where the race course was lengthened to accommodate the wishes of the reigning monarch, King Edward VII (1841-1910), who wished to view the finish of the race from the balcony of his Windsor Castle home. Paralleling the interest generated by the first modern Olympic competition, the inaugural Boston Marathon was run in 1897. Arguably the world’s most famous road race, the expression ‘‘qualifying for Boston’’ has been a part of the distance-running lexicon for decades. The Boston Marathon is both an elite running championship, as well as a performance goal for the serious recreational runner. Both the Boston Marathon and the Olympics have crowned and created running legends. Emil Za´topek (1922-2000) won the at the Helsinki Olympics marathon in 1952, only a few days after capturing the 5,000-m and 10,000-m championships; Abebe Bikila (1932-1973) won the 1960 Rome Olympic race running barefoot, and then repeated as champion in 1964 at Tokyo; Bill Rogers won the Boston Marathon four times between 1975 and 1980, and along with countryman and 1972 Olympic champion Frank Shorter, Rogers became an American running icon. Marathon running has never been far from the public consciousness, given the attention paid to the Olympics and the Boston Marathon, even where recreational marathon participation was low in comparison to other sports. Consequently, information concerning equipment and training methods was not widely circulated beyond the hardcore running community. The first great running boom in North America in the late 1970s brought the marathon and its associated training systems into the mainstream. Running generally, and marathon running particularly, has experienced a remarkable growth due to a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RUNNING: MARATHON

Abebe Bikila of Ethiopia won the marathon at the 1960 Rome Olympics, achieving a new Olympic record at 2 hours, 15 minutes, 16 seconds. P H OTO BY CE NTR AL P RES S /G ETT Y I MAG E S.

number of factors, the chief of which were a general increase in societal interest in personal fitness, the increased popularity of running among women, much improved running shoe technology and designs, including the waffle sole pioneered by Bill Bowerman, all joined with the social aspects of organized races. Training for and completing a marathon became a recognized athletic achievement, one that had a certain cachet for the recreational athlete. The advent of the professional runner and prize money races also contributed to the marathon boom. London, New York, Rotterdam, Chicago, and numerous other major cities sought to attract large fields to their races by offering significant prizes to the elite racers, while creating an ‘‘event’’ atmosphere, designed to induce the recreational runner to attend. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The worldwide marathon boom is reflected in the data regarding the best times achieved in the marathon by men and women. From a best of 2 hours 50 minutes in 1910, the men’s world record in 2005 had fallen to 2 hours 4 minutes. From 1967, when Kathryn Switzer became the first woman to participate in the previously male-only Boston Marathon, the best female marathon times have steadily fallen as participation levels have risen. The 2 hours 48 minutes standard set in 1979 has been reduced to the 2005 world record of 2 hours 15 minutes. One of the attractions of the marathon is that, with training, almost anyone can physically complete the distance. Unlike team sports, the recreational runner and the elite racer are physically competing in an identical race; only the competitive result is different. Each is exposed to the same physical and

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mental stresses over the marathon distance, and each must approach their respective regimes in a similar fashion. Overuse injuries, brought on by excessive training or improper attention to rest and recovery, are the cause of the greatest number of physical problems for each group. Training methods aside, the ability to run a marathon in a world-class time will be determined to a large degree by body type and related physiological factors such as oxygen uptake. Variables such as strength to weight ratio, stride length, individual biomechanics, and body fat percentage all factor into marathoning success. Sport scientific research conducted over the past 20 years confirms that the ideal male marathoner will typically be 5 ft 8 in (1.70 m) to 6 ft (1.80 m) tall, with weights between 120 lb (55 kg) to 145 lb (66 kg). For women, the ideal build will range between 5 ft 2 in (1.6 m) and 5 ft 10 in (1.75 m) in height, with weights between 90 lb (41 kg) and 125 lbs (56 kg). These optimum builds are ones that are significantly smaller and slighter than those of the typical North American or European male or female; the Olympic and world championship dominance of African marathoners in recent years, particularly those runners from Kenya and Ethiopia, is confirmation of the importance of size and physique in this demanding sport.

Hydration strategy in distance running; Resistance exercise training; Running shoes; Running strength training and exercises.

SEE ALSO

Running: Middle distance events Middle distance races are not the subject of a hard and fast definition. Until approximately 30 years ago, the middle distances were thought to be all track races of between 400 m and the mile. Today, most observers regard a middle distance runner as one who competes in the races that range between 800 m and 5,000 m. The middle distance runner is an athletic hybrid. These runners must possess excellent aerobic capacity, coupled with the power to drive forward for a finishing kick that may be as long as 300 m to 400 m, the point where almost all middle distance races are decided. The middle distances also require the greatest degree of tactical sense and intelligence in the runner, as the decisions that must be made concerning concepts such as front running, pack

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position, or the timing of an accelerating burst will all be determinative. The absolutely fastest or strongest runner does not always win a middle distance race. While the men’s 100-m Olympic championship is the most glamorous running event in the world, and the Boston Marathon is likely the best-known race, the one-mile race has a fabled history. The pursuit of the four-minute barrier in the mile by Roger Bannister of England, challenged by John Landy of Australia and Wes Santee of the United States, captured international sporting attention through the early 1950s, as did the later battles of Sebastian Coe and Steve Ovett in the late 1970s. American world record holder Jim Ryun and John Walker of New Zealand were two of the most famous international athletes when at the peak of their respective careers. It is a measure of the regard for the one-mile race distance that when the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) determined in 1976 that all of its records would be maintained in metric measure only, the mile was exempted. The middle distances place physiological emphasis on a number of factors. The distribution between fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle fibers in an elite middle distance runner is usually close to a 50% pattern, in keeping with the hybrid qualities of these athletes. To utilize this balance, most middle distance training programs combine aerobic and anaerobic training, with the anaerobic aspect often-intense speed training. In the 1980s, the successful middle distance runners of Africa, often athletes from the Rift Valley region, with an altitude of approximately 7,000 ft (2,200 m), pioneered a middle distance training program. In the program, the runners would warm up by running at a relaxed pace (7 minutes per mile) for approximately 4 mi (6.4 km). They would then run 40 400-m circuits of the track; each 400 m would be run in less than 60 seconds, with no more than one minute rest permitted between the 400 m intervals. Then the athletes would conclude the workout with another 4-mi run similar to that that began the session. The focus of the African workout, which is extreme for any runner except those who are highly trained, is the mutual development of anaerobic strength (through the short recovery period), with the aerobic training that is supported by the significant volume of running (10 mi/16 km of high intensity track running, with 8 mi/12.8 km of easier unstructured running). Sprint racing has no particular tactics to be employed; the runners go all out for as long as they WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RUNNING PHYSICS

can maintain speed. Marathon runners (as well as triathlon and Ironman participants) must employ tactics, but the nature of the event permits such race planning to be made over a relatively long period of time; instantaneous decisions are rare in such races. Middle distance races are often decided by tactical decisions. In the 800-m race, the runners begin in lanes and they are allowed to get to the inside of the track oval, and thus run the shortest distance possible, after 100 m. The 1 mi/1,500 m begins with all runners behind a gently arcing start line. The runner must make a number of important decisions, each based primarily on the runner’s physical attributes. A front running middle distance competitor is one who often tries to wear down the rest of the field with a strong early pace. Racers who possess a welldeveloped finishing kick will often wait in the pack of runners and attempt to push to the lead over the last 200 m to 300 m. Many athletes will feint a move out of the pack to test the resolve of the other racers. As with any sport that engages a high level of tactical consideration, the successful middle distance runner must spend considerable time developing a resilience and hypercompetitive attitude. In middle distance races, each lap time is called out to the runners to orient their pace. In some middle distance events, particularly the mile (or the 1,500 m), race promoters may sometimes employ the services of a runner known as a ‘‘rabbit,’’ often an accomplished 800-m runner who can take the runners into the second half of the mile at the highest possible pace. Rabbits have a long history in elite races.

Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch; Running strength training and exercises; Sport performance.

SEE ALSO

Running physics Running, a sporting event and aerobic exercise, is the series of rapid leg movements—coordinated with arm motions—through long strides while on foot. To be considered an act of running, both feet must be held off the ground at regularly spaced brief intervals. Running is considered the fastest means for a human to move while on foot. Organized running events are part of the sport called track and field— those events performed on a running track. Such running events include the 100-, 200-, 800-, 1,500-, and 5,000-m runs. Longer running events include marathon races that are often run as a distance of 26.2 mi (42.2 km) and in other events as distances of 50 mi (80 km) or longer. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The runner’s objective is to travel a given distance in a certain amount of time. When competing in a race, that amount of time becomes the least amount of time possible. In any case, to maximize the efficiency of running, the application of physical concepts is helpful. For instance, the speed of a runner is determined by the distance traveled with each stride (stride length) and the number of strides taken in a given amount of time (stride frequency, sometimes also called cadence). Stride length times stride frequency equals speed. For instance, five ft (1.5 m) per stride times three strides per second equals a speed of 15 ft (4.5 m) per second. To increase one’s speed, a runner must simply increase one parameter without causing the other parameter to be reduced by a (more) comparable amount. For instance, to increase the stride frequency to four strides per second by reducing the stride length to 4 ft (1.2 m) per stride would result in a speed of 16 ft (4.8 m) per second—a good tradeoff between stride length and stride frequency. The length of each stride taken by a runner is considered the sum of three separate distances. The takeoff distance is the horizontal distance that the body’s center of mass (CoM) is ahead of the toe of the front (leading) foot at the instant the rear (trailing) foot leaves the ground. The flight distance is the horizontal distance that the body’s CoM travels while the runner is in the air. The landing distance is the horizontal distance that the toe of the leading foot is ahead of the CoM at the instant the runner lands. These distances can also be further broken down to speed of release, height of release, angle of release, and air resistance. The frequency of each stride involves the time of the stride, which can be further broken down to time on the ground and time in the air. During running, each foot contacts the ground for only a brief amount of time. At that moment, an impulsive force powers the body along a parabolic trajectory until the opposite foot touches the ground. At the instant that the foot leaves the ground, the vertical (upward) component of velocity for the body’s CoM should be equal to its horizontal (forward) velocity in order to produce maximum range before the opposite foot hits the ground. Energy is depleted in raising the body’s CoM for each stride. This energy is not recovered when the CoM is lowered again. The more that the up and down movement is minimized, the smaller amount of energy will be expended in motion that is not used to move forward. Up and down movement can be minimized by leaning the body forward while running. Such movement adds more horizontal

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component to the energy usage and, thus, contributes to a faster running speed with less energy expended. In order to further minimize expenditure of wasted energy, both the arms and legs should be bent as much as possible. Hands and arms are swung from the shoulders and feet and legs are swung from the hips, similar to the swinging of a pendulum (from fingertip to shoulders and toe to hip). This arrangement is based on the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. As a result, the speed of a runner is directly related to the height of swinging objects (such as the length of arms and legs). If the arms and legs are bent while running, such positioning moves the CoM upward, which translates to a faster pace without increasing the amount of energy expended. This application of physics is the reason why runners run with their arms bent at the elbows, while holding their hands close to their waists, and why knees are bent as much as possible and shins are positioned parallel to the ground whenever the legs are swung forward. The Nike Air Max running shoe.

P H OTO BY J A MES KEY SE R/T I ME

LIFE PICT URES/ GE TTY IMA G ES

Running hurdles; Running strength training and exercises; Running: Marathon; Running: Sprinting.

SEE ALSO

Running shoes Running shoes are the single most important piece of equipment in both track and distance running. A well-constructed shoe, that balances protection of the athlete from undue physical stress with lightweight construction and responsiveness, will assist runners in the achievement of their ultimate goal: to run as fast as possible. An effective running shoe must combine the features of shock absorbency, motion control when the foot strikes the ground, flexibility and responsiveness, and a measure of durability. Running shoe science began a remarkable progression that included the work of Adi Dassler (1900–1978) of Germany, the founder of Adidas, and the later creations of Bill Bowerman (1911–1999), the American track coach who developed the Nike ‘‘waffle’’ outsole in the early 1970s. Each component of the modern running shoe has a specific function. The outsole is the outer tread of the shoe; it is usually made from a carbon rubber compound and provides traction for the runner. The midsole is the part of the shoe construction that provides both cushioning and stability to the runner. The midsole will appear to be made of a foam material, usually ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), an extremely lightweight material, or polyurethane. It is common for running shoes to have a post implanted in the

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midsole to provide further stability. Running shoes often have different densities of materials in the midsole construction, with the medial part of the midsole (inner) composed of a harder EVA, and the lateral (outer) side made of a softer material. This design is intended to counter the effects of ‘‘pronation,’’ the inward movement of the foot on the contact with the running surface; 80% of runners tend to pronate. The midsole may also include a liquid or semi-gel, air, or specialized plastic compound to further absorb shock. Most distance runners will generate forces that are approximately three times their body weight on impact with each foot strike. The upper is the part of the running shoe that encases the foot. It is padded and it is usually a synthetic material and typically washable. The heel counter is a hard, cup-shaped device set against the heel of the runner to promote stability and to limit the movements of the heel on impact (both laterally and vertically). Many modern running shoes are built to accommodate a foot orthotic, used to correct the structural imbalances that are a primary cause of running injuries. With each stride, the runner delivers a force through the shoe into the ground, as with classic Newtonian physics, every such action produces an equal and opposite reaction, with forces of impact directed into the foot. The more efficiently such forces may be distributed through shoe construction, the more responsive the shoe to the next stride and the less likely the musculoskeletal structure will be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

RUNNING: SPRINTING

to unduly absorb these forces. The construction of the quintessential perfect running shoe is a marriage of the contrasting features of cushioning and responsiveness.

stride. There is no perfect stride length, as the height and build of the runner will be the determining factor; but as a general proposition, a taller, powerful runner will tend to be more efficient in the sprints than a shorter, powerful runner.

Basketball shoes; Foot: Anatomy and physiology; Lower leg injuries; Plantar fasciitis; Running injuries.

The essential tactic in sprinting is to go as fast as one can for as long as one can. There are some important sprinting techniques, all of which are applications of the principles of physics, which will often determine sprint success. The first and most important technique is the development of a fluid, yet explosive start. Runners begin from a starting block, positioned to permit the runner to place both feet against a fixed mechanism and generate maximum force. Optimum effect is achieved where the runner’s strongest leg is placed in the front block, with the hips raised above the level of the shoulders, for maximum thrust effect. The runner must also react to the starting gun; the starting blocks at elite levels are actually coordinated to the starter; in IAAF competitions, where the runner leaves the blocks less than 0.1 seconds after the gun, the runner is deemed to have committed a false start. Sprinters combine physical and mental training in their start techniques by replicating the start conditions and honing their concentration skills to block out all sounds but that of the starter giving instructions and sounding the gun.

SEE ALSO

Running: Sprinting Sprinting includes all races where there is no variation in the effort or the output of the athlete: the common phrase ‘‘all-out sprint’’ is a redundancy— the sprint is the maximum running effort. Race distances may be as short as 60 m for indoor competition; the 400-m race is generally regarded as the longest of the sprints. While technique is important to the success of a sprinter, muscle strength and the ability to generate power are the overriding considerations. Beginning with the thrust of the runner out of the starting blocks, the entire body of the sprinter will be used to achieve maximum speed—the legs are the primary source of muscle power, with the arm motion an important thrust and counterbalance to the leg action. This desire to generate power means that all elite-level sprinters tend to possess a well-developed, muscular physique. Sprinters also invariably possess a greater number of fast-twitch muscle fibers as opposed to slow-twitch fibers; fast-twitch fibers are those where the neuron, the component of the nervous system that regulates an individual group of muscle fibers within a muscle structure, are ‘‘firing,’’ or directing the fibers to move 10 times more quickly than those in the adjacent fibers. The strength of the runner has a secondary consideration once the runner has left the starting blocks. The start is virtually instant acceleration, which continues for approximately 30 m to 40 m. After 60 m, the runner cannot accelerate any further and success in the race is then determined by how long the runner can maintain top speed, attempting to defeat the forces of deceleration acting on the body. The runner must continue to fully extend their stride without over-striding; the optimum placing of the feet with each stride is at a point in relation to the runner’s body where the center of gravity of the runner remains exactly midway between the runner’s feet. A shortened stride to endeavor to drive the legs harder and generate greater power will be counter-effective, due to the loss of distance covered by the shorter WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The speed of a sprinter is a function of stride length as opposed to stride frequency; every sprinter will determine the appropriate relationship between those two factors, depending on the size of the runner. Stride frequency, also described as stride turnover, is the cadence that the runner can establish once top speed after the start is established. Runners who over-stride sacrifice the distance achieved with each stride for running efficiency. The shoes worn by a sprinter are designed to assist in the maintenance of the balance between power and efficiency. A sprinter will wear spikes with a spike pattern on the forefoot only. Most sprinters do not run exclusively on the forefoot, but land on the side of the foot and roll forward to the forefoot for a powerful push off with each stride. Spikes on the rear of the shoe sole would create additional adhesion with the track surface and potentially slow the runner. The runners’ ability in the 200-m and 400-m sprints to run smoothly and effectively through the turns on the track are essential to success. In the 200m race, the runners must start, proceed through what is the final turn of the 400-m oval, and then finish along a straight. ‘‘Running the bend’’ is the technique for 200-m racing; it is essentially a means in which

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Yuliya Nesterenko of Belarus (left) runs to take the gold medal in the 100-m dash at the 2004 Olympics in Athens. ª S. CA RM ONA /CO RBIS

the runner maintains maximum speed into the turn, with the track then acting much as a slingshot to propel the runner through the bend into the remaining straight. As the runner enters the bend, the runner will drop the shoulder closest to the inside of the oval slightly, to counter the effect of the centrifugal acceleration acting on the body. Four hundred meter racing has similar considerations as 200-m running with respect to running through the turns. Sprints are often decided by fractions of seconds; lunging for the finish line is inefficient, compared to a thrust with the torso and head that is performed in rhythm with the cadence of the running stride.

Plyometrics; Running strength training and exercises; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Running strength training and exercises Running strength training and exercises were regarded as an oxymoron as recently as 50 years

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ago. The relationship between running success and overall physical strength was poorly understood; it was believed that intense running workouts, conducted using varying speeds and surfaces, was the key to better performance. A prominent example of this approach is the career of Roger Bannister, the English runner who was the first athlete to break the 4-minute mile barrier; Bannister perfected interval and tempo run training, and he never participated in resistance or free weight training of any kind. Modern sports science has confirmed the significant benefits of strength training in running, across all running disciplines. Sprinters require the development of maximum explosive power to drive themselves from the starting blocks, and the strength to maintain their speed through to the finish. They will look to resistance training that facilitates the development of overall muscular strength. The arms and the shoulders of a sprinter are essential to maintaining the counterbalance to the thrust of the legs on each stride as the athlete powers through to the finish. A hurdler has similar strength requirements to those of a sprinter in relation to an effective start, with the additional need for a powerful, yet fluid knee WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE


Training including intense running workouts, conducted using varying speeds and surfaces, aids in the development of the athlete’s strength and endurance. ª M L SI N I BA LDI /CO RBI S

lift and thrust necessary to efficiently clear the barriers. The technical training for hurdles races will also combine the exercises that will enhance speed with the coordination of developing the precision of taking the same number of strides between each hurdle every time. Middle distance runners, whose events may range in length from the 800 m to the 5,000 m distances, require strength balanced with aerobic endurance. For these athletes, the relationship between strength and weight is an important factor. Middle distances runners will employ training exercises that strike a balance between the fast-twitch muscle fiber speed capabilities and the slow-witch endurance component of these events. The strength training undertaken by a marathoner is the converse to the approach of the sprinter; muscular power is subordinate to stride efficiency, oxygen uptake (VO2max), and cardiovascular power, but muscle strength in the core muscles of the body will enhance the marathoner’s form and the ability to have an effective countering mechanism to the operation of the legs. In every physical WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

endeavor, the human body operates best when it is in balance. Strength training will achieve balance for the marathoner. Strength training must also be assessed in terms of how the runner will be approaching the competitive season. All sports training, to be effective, should be ‘‘periodised.’’ The athletic season, typically assessed with reference to the entire calendar year, is subdivided into the competitive season, the preseason, and the postseason, or off-season. Each of these periods may be further defined to take into account any factor that might impact on the quality or extent of training or competition. A period of travel, or academic or employment obligations are such factors. Within each period, the athlete sets training or competitive objectives. As a general proposition, strength training for running will be more important in the off-season and preseason than during the competitive season, but importance will be balanced against all other physical requirements. The strength exercises useful to the sprinters and the hurdlers will be emphasized during the buildup and preseason; given the importance of strength to

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success, most athletes in these disciplines will continue with a modified degree of strength training throughout the year. These athletes will generally embark on strenuous free weight and resistance machine programs that engage the upper and lower body. Traditional routines such as bench press, curls, squats, leg press, and various extension exercises are useful. Sprint athletes also use resistance training in the form of stationary starts pulling a weighted object or employing the drag of a small parachute. These exercises have the additional advantage of simulating an aspect of competition while providing strength development. All sprint athletes benefit from plyometrics exercises to assist with the development of explosive power in the start blocks. Hurdlers obtain a specific benefit from bounding plyometrics training to provide greater knee lift in clearing the hurdle and landing efficiently. World-class 800 m and 1500 m races are run at lap times that average between 50 seconds and 60 seconds. The strength to generate a powerful kick over the final 200 m to 300 m is essential to success. These runners cannot be as bulky as a sprinter and expect to move a larger mass efficiently around the track. Middle distance runners seek to balance speed

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with efficiency through intense interval training, to replicate the kick distance, with high repetition/low weight resistance training; the middle distance runner requires excellent core strength (torso, gluteal, and abdominal muscles) to provide musculoskeletal balance. Distance runners also benefit from whole body weight training at reduced work volumes. The stronger that the body may be constructed as an integrated unit, the less likely the chance that a muscle injury due to muscle imbalance will occur. For all runners, strength training must be accompanied by flexibility and stretching exercises. Running, due to its precise and repetitive nature, creates a naturally inflexible muscle environment. Ideally, the runner should stretch before and after all runs; the same routines should be completed before and after all strength training.

Cross training; Free weights; Resistance exercise training; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Ruptured tendons SEE Tendinitis and

ruptured tendons


S Sailing Sails translates the movement of wind into thrust that propels the boat. Sailing has a place in human civilization that likely extends as far back in time as man has possessed the ability to make crafts that could float on water. Sailing has a shorter history as a competitive sport, but it has been one of the most popular and intensely contested of sporting activities throughout the world. People have engaged in the organized racing of sailboats, crafts that range in size from dinghies (small open boats with one sail), to very large, multi-masted ocean going vessels for over 200 years. Modern competitive sailing is governed by the International Sailing Federation (ISF), whose predecessor organization was founded in 1907. The chief purpose in the formation of the ISF was to bring standardization to the rules of international sailing. Today sailing is a vibrant Olympic sport; there are 11 different Olympic sailing events. In the international arena, the ISF sanctions racing in 81 different categories of sailboats, the largest of which are the multi these boats may be over 60 ft (18 m) in length. Sailing is one international sport where the racing activity on the club and regional levels throughout the world attracts greater interest than Olympic competition. The best known of the international sailing races, the America’s Cup, has been contested since 1851. The racing boats are classed as America’s Cup class yachts and adhere to a complicated mathematical formula that considers boat length, beam (width), sail WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

area, hull depth, keel size and dimensions, and other physical characteristics of the boat. Sailors, the sailor’s home club, and syndicates that are formed in support of a particular boat, commence an America’s Cup competition through the issuance of a formal challenge to race the Cup holder, known as the defender. The technology involved in the design and construction of these crafts is so sophisticated that challenges are mounted and races staged for the Cup in several year intervals. The beauty and the enduring appeal of the sport of sailing springs from the fact that the principles of sailing are universal, applicable from the smallest of open sail boats, to the most sophisticated America’s Cup challenger. The propulsion of a sail boat is achieved through the effect of the wind and combined function of the sails, the hull, and the keel (or centerboard). The techniques employed by a sailor to sail the boat in a particular direction are determined by the force and the direction of the wind. The function of the sail in powering a boat is simple when the wind is directly behind the sailboat and the intended direction of travel is the same as the wind direction. The sail is positioned to permit the wind to strike it at angle perpendicular to the line of the sail. In this position the wind pushes the sail, and consequently the boat. It is for this reason that when the boat and the wind are moving in the same direction, the boat can never travel faster than the wind. Enlarged billowing sails called spinnakers, provide maximum surface area to catch the following winds.

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Key West Race Week.

ª S HA RON G RE EN /C OR BI S

When the wind is moving in a direction that is angled to the direction of the boat, the sail no longer functions simply as a surface against which the force of the wind acts. The sail on a boat, with a curvature similar to an aircraft wing, now has the same relationship to the wind as does an aircraft wing to the air flowing both over and under it. As the wind strikes the leading edge of the surface of a sail at an angle, the airflow separates. The faster moving air naturally creates a pocket of lower air pressure in contrast to the higher air pressure formed on the opposite side of the sail that is in contact with the slower airstream. The sail, and, consequently, the boat will move into the region of lower air pressure. Sails are airfoils in accord with Bernoulli’s equation, which states that static pressure plus dynamic pressure equals total pressure. The sails are designed to maximize lift and minimize drag. The upper surface of a typical airfoil has a curvature greater than that of the lower surface. This extra curvature is known as camber. The straight line, joining the front tip or the leading edge of the airfoil to the rear tip or the trailing edge, is known as the chord line. The

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angle of attack is the angle that the chord line forms with the direction of the air stream. The stagnation point is the point at which the stream of air moving toward the wing divides into two streams, one flowing above and the other flowing below the wing. Air flows faster above a wing with greater camber since the same amount of air has to flow through a narrower space. According to Bernoulli’s principle, the faster flowing air exerts less pressure on the top surface, so that the pressure on the lower surface is higher, and there is a net upward force on the wing, creating lift. A sail is a wing oriented along the axis defined by the mast of the boat and so lift becomes a horizontal driving force, a form of thrust, to propel a boat through the water. The camber of a sail is varied by devices that slightly alter the shape of the sail. A sailboat can be sailed into the wind (upwind) to within approximately 30 of a direct upwind position. So long as the wind direction permits the creation of the two pressure regions on the sail, the wind will power forward movement. Any attempt to sail closer to the direction of the wind causes turbulence WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SAILING PHYSICS

and a loss of air contact with the sail surface. Lift, and hence the driving force of the sail, is lost. The hull of the boat is the physical outer structure that is in contact with the water. The front or nose of the hull is the bow; the rear is the stern. Attached to the hull in the approximate center of the boat is the keel, a larger structure that extends from the hull into the water. The general function of the keel is to provide stability to the boat. The specific purpose of the keel in relation to the function of the sails is to resist any lateral forces created by the wind as it pushes against the sails. If the sailboat did not have a keel, when the wind struck the sails from an angle the boat would be pushed both forward and laterally. The keel operates to convert the lateral forces of the wind into forward motion. Tacking is the most common steering technique used in sailing. Tacking is the maneuver employed when the destination of the sailboat is in an upwind direction. The sailboat is steered in a series of angular courses forming a zigzag pattern across the water into the wind, to maximize the wind power available. Tacking requires the sailor to use the rudder to change direction, while making a simultaneous shift in the position of the sail to capture the maximum available wind. The boat moves into the wind by taking turns to the left and right of the wind to maintain a proper angle of attack for the sail. The tacking results in net forward motion into the wind with the movement to the left and right of the desired direction of travel offset by the opposing tacks. The hull of the sailboat and its characteristics are also subject to intense scientific testing as the basis for the hull designs used in racing craft. The performance of a hull in water is a branch of the science known as hydrodynamics. Computer technology permits a significant level of design testing to be done by way of computer simulation, where an infinite manner of variables, including different sail configurations, weight, wind, lake or ocean current, and material design may be examined and tested at a relatively low cost.

Computer simulations as a training tool; Sailing and steering a sailboat; Windsurfing.

SEE ALSO

Sailing physics Sailing is the control of a vessel moving across a body of water that uses wind power for propulsion. The physics of sailing has many subtleties, and the act of successfully sailing a boat is a combination of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

art, scientific principles, and the experience of the sailor. Those subtleties will be grounded in three distinct aspects of sailing—the function of the sails, the shape and the configuration of the hull, and the function of the keel. The sails are the most distinctive physical feature of any wind-powered vessel. The sail is designed to act as a foil, with similar physical properties to those of an aircraft wing. As wind moves across the surface of a sail, the air moves at a higher speed where the wind strikes the surface. The faster moving air produces lower pressure upon the sail than does the slower moving air on the opposite side of the sail. It is a rule of physics, referred to as the Bernoulli principle, that the vessel will move into the area of lower air pressure, in the same fashion that an aircraft wing, angled upwards, will lift when air is directed against it. If the wind striking a sail is coming from directly behind a sailboat, the boat will travel in the same direction as the wind and at the same speed as the wind. The boat cannot travel faster than the wind speed because the sails block the path of the wind, an act that decelerates the wind. When the wind is striking the sails at an angle toward the direction of travel of the boat, the power of the wind is directed into forward motion through the stabilizing effect of the keel. The keel is the device attached to the hull that extends below the water surface and provides both ballast as well as a counterforce to the wind. The wind force that strikes the sails at an angle to the path of the boat does not take the boat in a lateral direction, because the keel counters all such direction through the creation of opposite pressures in the water. The function of a sail as a foil means that a boat can be steered upwind (into the wind), so long as the boat is not headed directly into the wind. The degree to which a boat can be sailed upwind varies with the construction of the boat and the type of sails. As a general rule, sails will not act as a wind foil if the wind direction is less than 30 from the centerline of the boat, with the bow first. Applying these principles, the sailboat is sailed upwind using a combination of the rudder and wind direction to traverse a zigzag path across the water, a technique known as tacking. Sails on boats large and small are generally controlled by one or more pulleys. A pulley is a type of lever, that may both change the direction of a force applied, or when used in combination, the pulleys may multiply the forces applied to it. The rope found

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in a common pulley is the lever, and the grooved wheel in which the rope rests is the device used to change the forces. When a single pulley is employed to move a sail, the amount of force required to move the mass of the sail is unchanged. The pulley makes the action of applying the force easier, as the direction from which the force is applied is adjustable to the convenience of the user. Normally, the more pulleys used to move a sail, the less force required. As a general rule (although different physical considerations apply to vessels such as windsurfers), the larger the sailboat, the faster it will be able to travel. Where boats are designed to displace water, as in the case of a keel boat, the length of the boat is an important component in determining the physics of the maximum boat speed. The maximum boat speed is referred to as hull speed, calculated using the formula 1.34 multiplied by the square root of the length of the waterline (in feet). The waterline is the location of the hull where the boat rests on the surface. The result provides a maximum hull speed in knots, the measure of speed in nautical miles per hour. (A nautical mile is 1.15 miles, the distance described by 1 minute of 1 degree of longitude.) As an example, the hull speed of a sailboat with a hull that is 25 ft long at the waterline would be calculated as 1.34 5, or 6.7 knots. The boat cannot travel faster than the wave created by the bow of the boat as it moves through the water. Windsurfers are not subject to these considerations because they do not displace water like a keelboat does, but are intended to plane on top of the water. Windsurfers do not push water aside, as does a large keel boat, but skips along the water in the fashion of a stone that is thrown to bounce across the surface of the water.

Sailing; Sailing and steering a sailboat; Windsurfing.

SEE ALSO

Sailing and steering a sailboat Sailing is the movement of a boat powered by wind across a body of water. The science of steering a sailboat is the application of a series of physical principles that underlie the fundamental relationship between wind speed and direction, the size and shape of the boat, and the characteristics of moving water. The wind forces acting upon a sail are often compared to the effect of wind upon the wing of an

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aircraft. A boat may be thought of as possessing two wings, one above the water (the sail), and one below the water (the keel). As wind strikes the sail, the sail acts as a foil, causing the air current striking the sail to move at different speeds on each side of the sail. The side of the sail exposed to slower moving air is subject to greater air pressure, creating lift. Lift is a force that acts perpendicular to the direction of the force created by the air, as lift causes the boat to move in the direction of the higher speed air, which results in lower air pressure on the sail. This effect above water is counterbalanced by the water forces acting upon the keel, the portion of the boat that extends below the waterline to provide both ballast (counterweight) to the boat and to prevent the boat from moving sideways. The steering of the boat is performed through the combined action of the positioning of the sail, using the sheet (the rope or ropes that control the sail position), and the rudder, an airfoil shaped board attached by a hinge to the stern (rear) of the boat where it immersed in the water. The rudder is controlled by the helmsman (the sailor responsible for steering the boat) through a tiller extension, a mechanism that permits the turning of the rudder by either a steering wheel or on a smaller sailboat, by direct linkage to the rudder called a tiller. The steering of the sailboat, as a part of the setting and the maintenance of a particular course across the water involves four fundamental sailing manouvers—tacking, jibing, heading up, and bearing away. The combined effects of the sail and the keel mean that the boat may be steered in any direction except directly into the wind. The fastest and most nimble racing vessels can only sail as close to the wind direction by as much as approximately 35% into the wind. The rudder and the tiller operate as a large lever. A turn is accomplished by pushing the rudder through the water. To turn the boat to the right, the tiller must be pushed to the right; a left turn requires a push to the left. The foil design of the rudder creates a pressure differential that steers the stern of the boat into the low-pressure zone. The bow swings to the opposite direction. Tacking (also known as ‘‘coming about’’) is a steering concept that recognizes that the boat cannot sail directly into the wind. Tacking to achieve a change in direction is distinct from the ‘‘tack’’ (the direction that a boat may travel). Tacking is the maneuvering of the boat in an upwind direction (against the wind), creating a zigzag motion across WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ULRICH SALCHOW

the direction of the wind, without ever proceeding directly into the wind, where the sails would be ineffective. The bow of the boat is at all times facing the direction of the wind when the boat is tacked. As the wind moves in a direction across the boat into the sails that is perpendicular to the boat’s direction of travel, the boat is not pushed in the direction of the wind due to the drag force exerted by the keel. The drag force acts to negate the wind effect, and as the keel is aligned with the hull of the boat, the boat is directed forward and not sideways. A sailboat will often perform a number of tacking movements to achieve a desired steering result across a body of water. At each tack, the sails are brought from one side of the boat to the other, through the movement of the boom, the pivoting hardware to which the sails are attached, mounted perpendicular to the mast to redirect the force of the wind; the rudder is correspondingly adjusted. In many tacks, depending upon the wind speed, the size and construction of the boat, or the condition of the water, the boat may heel, the crew of the boat will have to move from one side of the boat to the other to stabilize the boat against the forces of the wind during the tacking process. Jibing (also spelled in various authorities as gybing and gibing) is a steering technique that is similar to tacking, except that jibing is performed when the boat is being steered in the same direction as the wind, with the stern at all times facing the wind. Jibing is often a more dynamic steering movement than a tack, because the sails remain full of wind throughout the maneuver. A boat moving on a downwind path is able to navigate more directly to an intended destination; variations in course direction a downwind course are achieved through jibing. As with a tack, the crew will usually move to the side of the boat opposite the sails to maintain the balance of the boat (a movement that recalls the old expression ‘‘maintaining an even keel’’). Heading up the boat means to steer the boat closer to the direction of the wind. To achieve this result, the sails must be brought closer to the centerline of the craft; if boat is too close to a position directly opposed to the wind direction, the sails will flutter, or luff, without power and the boat will not move. Heading up the boat is the preliminary aspect of tacking. Bearing away the boat is to direct the boat to permit the wind to come from the stern; jibing is the steering technique that will follow an effort to bear away. SEE ALSO

Sailing; Sailing physics; Windsurfing.


Ulrich Salchow 8/7/1877–4/19/1969 SWEDISH FIGURE SKATER

Ulrich Salchow was a notable contributor to the sport of figure skating. His name has been preserved in modern times through the skating jump that bears his name, the Salchow, a standard maneuver that forms part of the repertoire of every competitive figure skater. Salchow won a total of 10 world championships in his long skating career; he was runner-up on three other occasions. Salchow also captured the gold medal for figure skating in the 1908 Summer Olympics (figure skating was then a summer competition as the first Winter Olympics was not held until 1924). After his retirement from the competitive arena, Salchow was a key figure in the rise of the International Skating Union (ISU), acting as the president of the ISU from 1925–1937. Salchow is one of the most successful athletes in the history of Sweden. The Salchow jump was first performed by Ulrich Salchow in 1909. It represented a remarkable athletic technique for the time, as it requires the skater to take off into the jump from the back inside edge of one skate, landing on the back inside edge of the opposite skate. The skater uses the free leg (the leg not involved in the take off into the jump) in a wide, sweeping motion, to provide the rotation to carry the skater’s body through the air. If the skater is able to generate both sufficient lift and a powerful free leg rotation, he or she can execute a multiple number of rotations in the air prior to landing on the opposite foot. The various jumps are therefore classed as a single, double, or triple Salchow, depending upon how many rotations are performed. A quadruple Salchow has been successfully completed on only a very few occasions in competition. The Salchow is one of the first jumps that an aspiring figure skater learns to perform, in part because the footwork necessary to execute the Salchow takes the skater naturally into other defined skating maneuvers. The judging in figure skating is based in part on purely subjective considerations, and in part on international standards for jumps such as the Salchow. Despite efforts by skaters to use the Salchow as a two-footed take-off jump, the ISU has remained true to the original Salchow, and skaters are carefully scrutinized in competition to ensure that the Salchow is performed with a one-footed takeoff,

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regardless of how many rotations that the skater seeks to include before landing.

Figure skating, ice; Motor Control; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO

Salt Salt is one of the best-known and most important substances ingested by the human body. Essential systems regarding the hydration of the body, the maintenance of the acid/base balance essential to human survival, and production of muscular energy cannot occur without the consumption of dietary salt and its regulated presence in every cell. Salt, often described as table salt given its widespread use as a condiment, is the chemical compound created by the union of two elements, sodium, a metal, and chlorine. Their product, sodium chloride, is expressed as the chemical formula NaCl. While in popular speech salt is commonly used in an interchangeable fashion in description of sodium’s characteristics, sodium represents only 40% of the composition of table salt by weight. Salt is a mineral, a substance that is mined underground in various parts of the world; salt is also easily extracted from seawater. The term salt is used to describe both the sodium chloride compound as well as the more generic class of metals that are capable of replacing an existing hydrogen atom in an acid. Potassium, calcium, and magnesium are classified as salts in this respect. Salt is the most common flavoring added to food in the world. Salt has been used as a food preservative for thousands of years, and it is today employed, either in its common form or in a similar chemistry such as monosodium glutamate (MSG), in thousands of food preparation processes. Sodium nitrate, a preservative, and sodium bicarbonate, used in food preparation, are also common sources of sodium in compounds similar to salt. Salt that is sold commercially as a flavoring or condiment is usually distributed with iodine added; iodine is an essential element to human function that assists in the prevention of various thyroid gland conditions, including goiter, a pronounced enlargement of the gland which can restrict its operation, leading to an impairment of the regulation of the body’s entire metabolic function. Throughout the industrialized world, salt is consumed through food in amounts far in excess of the body’s actual requirements for either sodium or chlorine. In the United States, the recommended

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daily allowance (RDA) of sodium for an adult is between 1,100 to 3,300 mg per day; the average American adult consumes between 4,000 and 5,000 mg of sodium. Many foods have salt or sodium in their composition, including all milk products, green vegetables such as celery, root vegetables such as beets, and others. Salt is commonly added to meats and all manner of prepackaged or processed food products. Paradoxically, no matter what amount of salt is ingested by the body through regular diet, additional salt is essential to athletic performance, and most sports drinks and other nutritional supplements will have salt or simple sodium added. Sodium and chlorine play distinct roles in effective human function. Each element is absorbed into the body through the digestive processes of the small intestine, where the elements are broken into their single elemental forms. The key processes to which sodium is directed from the point of absorption into the body include water (fluid) balance within the body; acid/base balance in the body, known as the pH level; the specific relationship between sodium and the element potassium creates what is often referred to as a potassium/sodium ‘‘pump,’’ a fluid pressure system essential to the generation of energy within each cell; and a related role in the effective transmission of impulses through out the central nervous and peripheral nervous systems. The most common negative impact of excessive salt consumption is the generation of excessive levels of sodium within the body. Excess sodium is a negative impact on the rather delicate fluid balance levels within the body, the most direct effect of which is hypertension, or high blood pressure. Hypertension is a critical factor in reduced cardiovascular health, including significantly increased risk of stroke and other forms of system failure. Conversely, an overly restricted dietary salt consumption can lead to the relatively common condition experienced by endurance athletes, hyponatremia, a disruption of the sodium balance that interferes with the body’s ability to regulate fluid levels under the stresses imposed by endurance sport. Chlorine is not given any where near the critical scrutiny of that afforded excess sodium consumption. Chlorine comprises only 0.15% of the body weight of an adult person, and it is stored by the body almost entirely within the intracellular fluids. Chlorine is also important to the body’s ability to regulate the acid/base balance. Chlorine is important to the body’s ability to absorb potassium, as well as being a part of the function performed by the blood in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SALT TABLETS

transporting waste carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled. Chlorine is essential to the digestive process, in that chlorine joins with hydrogen to form hydrogen chloride, the major component of stomach bile. Unlike sodium, excess chlorine is not believed to present any significant problems to overall body function.

Diet; Hydration; Minerals; Sodium (salt) intake for athletes.

SEE ALSO

Salt intake

SEE

Sodium (salt) intake for

athletes

Salt tablets In the modern era where sport technology has played such an important role in the training programs formulated for both elite competitors and recreational athletes seeking a personal best, sophisticated sports drinks and gel products abound in the nutritional supplement market. The simple salt tablet is a decidedly ‘‘old school’’ athletic supplement. Salt in its natural mineral form is one of the oldest known diet supplements. The effect on the function of the body of one of salt’s constituent elements, sodium, has been well understood for at least two centuries. Formed into salt tablets, salt was used by laborers in warm, heavy industrial environments of North America in the late 1800s; it was also provided to soldiers by a number of national armies during World War II to assist combatants in dealing with dehydration in hot jungle and desert environments. For more than 50 years, salt tablets have been a staple in North American preseason football training camps, which are often held in the heat of July and August. Unlike some of the modern-age training supplements that are marketed with little scientific backing for the claims advanced as to effectiveness, there is no scientific question concerning the benefits of salt, and particularly sodium, for athletes involved in warm weather sports. Sodium is directly related to the body’s ability to perform. Sodium is of primary importance in its role as a regulator of how much fluid is present in the body at any time, both in terms of volume, which ultimately will impact on the blood volume available to the cardiovascular system for all of its processes WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

associated with human performance, as well as sodium’s role in relation to the maintenance of the acid/base (pH) balance throughout the body. Muscle energy is developed through a complex series of processes in the individual cells, a portion of which is tied to the ‘‘pump’’ mechanism established through the proper balance between potassium and sodium in the intracellular fluids that support each cell. A sodium deficit can have a catastrophic effect on one or all of these human systems. The condition known as hyponatremia is the ultimate result of a sodium deficit, in which the body’s sodium imbalance is so severe that even when dehydrated, the body will not absorb available water from the stomach through the small intestine because the sodium level has triggered the body to take no more water without sodium being available. Sodium is lost to the body during exercise through perspiration and urine excretion. Sodium can only be replaced through dietary sources or supplements; the body has no independent mechanism to warehouse sodium. In warm weather exercise, the amount of sodium that an athlete may lose through perspiration is varied. Athletes who are acclimatized to warm environmental conditions of high temperatures and humidity will generally lose less sodium per volume of perspiration than those who are not so accustomed to the conditions. A typical adult will lose sodium at a rate ranging between 100 mg and 700 mg per liter, and the athlete will lose between 1.0 l to 2.5 l of fluid to perspiration per hour, subject to variables such as intensity and body type. Most commercial sport drink products contain sodium, but the typical quantity ranges between 50 mg and 170 mg of sodium per 8 oz (250 ml) bottle, meaning that the consumption of sport drinks, while a benefit, in terms of fluid replacement, is not necessarily a solution to sodium deficit. To achieve sodium replacement through the sports drink, the formulation might taste more like seawater than a sports drink. Five hundred milligramsized salt tablets, which are chemically 40% sodium and thus provide approximately 200 mg of sodium to the athlete, might assist the athlete in counteracting a sodium deficit. Salt tablets present problems for athletes if taken orally to correct sodium deficiencies. In their raw form, salt tablets are often difficult to digest, causing gastric irritation, with accompanying nausea and diarrhea a common side effect. The stomach has difficulty in the immediate digestion of salt tablets, meaning that the benefit of the sodium is delayed; sports drinks, and their nutrients, are far easier for

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the body to absorb. Swallowed alone, without significant fluid to accompany the salt tablet, the sodium will act to further accelerate the dehydration of the body. In endurance races, such as triathlons, the Ironman, marathon, and ultra-marathon running, and ultra cycling events, salt tablets have been successfully employed as a supplement to the sports drink supplements. Salt tablets, taken either with sports drinks (that have their own sodium component) or fruit drinks that naturally contain potassium, serve to increase the sodium levels in a form that is far easier to digest and therefore be of more immediate use to the fluid level and acid/ base balance of the body. Salt tablets, even when consumed with a volume of sports drink, should be tested; the athlete can ingest the tablets during training to determine how the athlete’s body will react after they are consumed.

Hyponatremia; Salt; Sodium (salt) intake for athletes; Sodium and sodium deficits.

SEE ALSO

Scottish Highland Games competition The Scottish Highland games, part cultural festival and part athletic competition, are the modern-day embodiment of the war games and contests that were held in ancient Scotland. Highland Games are at least as old as the ancient Olympic Games of Greece. In the modern variant, Highland Games are held all over the world; Scottish music, particularly bagpipes, is a common feature. In the modern Highland Games, women and men compete in separate athletic divisions. The athletic competitions are generally divided into light athletics, including highland dancing, sprint races, and jumping events, and heavy athletics, a series of demanding strength events that, to the sports world, are the essential Highland Games competitions. Unlike the ancient Highland Games, where membership in a Highland clan was a precondition to competition, the modern competitions are open to anyone who can match the set qualification standards. The heavy events at a typical Highland Games competition will include the ‘‘caber toss,’’ officially known as turning the caber. A caber is a long, tapered wooden pole with a shape similar to that of a ship’s mast or a telephone pole and a weight between 100 and 180 pounds (45–82 kg). The caber is placed upright, then picked up at the smaller end by the competitor;

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Highland Games athlete in the ‘‘caber toss.’’

B OB BI R D /G ETT Y

I MA G E S

the thrown caber must pass through the vertical (90 degrees from the ground) to be considered ‘‘turned.’’ A valid throw will fall away from the competitor within a 180-degree semi-circle, and the closer to a straight line from the competitor the end of the caber is turned when it lands, the more successful the toss. Another heavy event is the stone put, an event similar to the shotput, in that the stone, weighing 22 lb (10 kg) is thrown from behind a line for the furthest distance. The hammer throw, another event similar to the Olympic competition, is a competition in which a hammer is attached to a line and thrown, with the athlete using the principles of centrifugal force to assist in generating speed. The weight toss is an event in which a 56-lb (25.4 kg) weight is thrown for the furthest distance. Finally there is sheaf tossing, whereby a heavy sheaf of grain, encased in a burlap type sack, is thrown using a pitchfork. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SEX TESTING

These seemingly rustic events are exceedingly demanding. The ideal Scottish Highland Games heavy athlete will be powerful; the throwing of heavy weights often is facilitated by a relatively low center of gravity. Leg strength, particularly the development of required muscular power needed for the explosive force to deliver thrust in all five of the heavy events, is essential to success. Highland Games circuits have developed in the past 20 years, in Scotland and across North America, mirroring the increasing popularity of the heavy events. World championships have been held in Scotland, as have world master’s Highland Games (for those over 40 years of age). A number of successful heavy athletes have also competed in other strength competitions, most notably the ‘‘World’s Strongest Man’’ events made popular through the television media. SEE ALSO

Hammer throw; Short, high intensity exercise;

Shotput.

Sex testing Sex testing, also known as gender verification testing, was employed in various types of athletic competition as a means of ensuring that all of the female competitors in a particular sport were in fact, biologically women. There is a significant chorological gap between the first documented case of gender subterfuge in international sport and a scientific response. At the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, Herman Ratjen competed in the women’s high jump competition under the first name of Dora. Ratjen finished fourth. Ratjen concealed his masculine identity by, among other measures, binding his genitals. Ratjen’s subterfuge was not confirmed until 1955, when he stated that he had been forced to compete as a female by the Nazis. In the early 1960s, there were suspicions that a number of Eastern Bloc athletes who competed as females may have been men. Other than physical examination, there existed at that time only primitive scientific technology to confirm gender. In 1966, the first gender verification testing was performed at the European Track and Field championships. The testing procedure was simple; female athletes were required to either undress before a panel of medical doctors, or otherwise be examined manually. In 1968, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) introduced an element of science to the sex WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Examining a karyotype.

ª RO YAL TY-FR EE/ CORB IS

testing process. Female athletes at the Olympics that year were required to provide a buccal swab (a cellular sample form the inside of the cheek) that was analyzed to confirm the presence of a sex chromatin (a portion of the nucleus of the cell that could be identified as female). By the time of the 1992 Olympics, the IOC employed DNA testing that accurately identified the presence of the Y chromosome present in the genetic material contained in the cell of all females. Even with scientifically verifiable testing procedures, it was accepted in the scientific community that a very small number of females possessed a genetic structure that might provide a result that suggested that the female was a male. Such athletes might be disqualified from participation even though they were actually women. The International Amateur Athletics Federation eliminated sex testing in 1992 as being of no value in the present day. The IOC followed suit in 1999. The only female athlete ever permitted to compete at the Olympics without submitting to sex testing was

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Britain’s Princess Anne, daughter of Queen Elizabeth, who competed in the equestrian events.

Gender in sports: Female athletes; International Olympic Committee (IOC); Sports psychology.

SEE ALSO

Sexual and reproductive disorders Sexual disorders are those conditions, both physiological and psychological, that affect the sexual function, desire, or performance of any person, male or female. Reproductive disorders are related to sexual disorders, in the sense that the function of the same general bodily systems may be affected. Reproductive disorders are those that interfere with or limit the ability of persons to produce the cellular material required to conceive a fertilized ovum (egg) within the female reproductive system, or otherwise permit the natural development of the ovum to fetus and ultimately birth as a child. Public discussion and awareness regarding both sexual disorders and reproductive disorders is a relatively recent phenomenon. Throughout most of human history, such circumstances were considered to be private issues, discussed only between adult partners, if at all. The level of understanding among typical adults as to the function of their reproductive systems and the related sexual organs did not extend to how sexual disorders were caused or how such conditions might be treated or prevented. The limited public information concerning such matters was generally restricted to physical conclusions—a male might experience ‘‘impotence,’’ a woman was often said to be ‘‘frigid’’. Married couples who were not able to conceive were not generally able to access any scientific resources to treat the underlying cause of such conditions. An example of the greater public willingness to discuss matters pertaining to sexual dysfunction is the widespread success of the erectile dysfunction medications Viagra, Cialis and their pharmaceutical competitors. These medications are marketed in a fashion that both promote a general knowledge of the medical condition that underlies the sexual disorder, as well and the resulting benefit to the user. Sexual disorders can take one of many forms for both men and women; a number of causes are applicable to both sexes. The sexual organs in both men and women are controlled to a significant degree by the body’s endocrine system, whose major glands, the thy-

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roid, pituitary, and adrenal glands, influence and coordinate the production of estrogen and testosterone, the female and male sex hormones. Where the production of these chemicals is reduced within the body, due to injury or disease, sexual function will invariably decline. Reproductive disorders may affect any part of the glands, organs, or external genitals. Such disorders may impact the course of reproduction from conception (the fertilization of the female ovum with male sperm in the fallopian tubes, the portion of the female reproductive system leading to the uterus). In addition to the sexual dysfunctions that would prevent fertilization of the ovum, a number of conditions will potentially prevent reproduction. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are a common cause of infertility. STDs are a broad class of infectious diseases, which includes infectious diseases such as gonorrhea and acquired immune deficiency syndrome, AIDS. The consumption of a number of varieties of both prescription and non-prescription drugs can significantly affect sexual function. SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), a class of anti-depressant drug of which the brand names Zoloft and Prozac taking the medication. Alcohol, a central nervous system depressant, reduces sexual drive in the same fashion. The long term usage of both SSRIs and alcohol have been demonstrated to inhibit sexual drive in both men and women. In the athletic community, various types of anabolic steroids have been established as having both pronounced physiological and physiological effects on the user that detract from sexual performance. One of the most studied side effects of anabolic steroids is the physical effect of the primary male sexual organs, the penis and the testicles, and the secondary sexual organs, the male breasts. The consumption of anabolic steroids will often cause the testes, the glands located in the male scrotum which produce testosterone, to shrink. There exists a clear correlation between anabolic steroid usage and diminished sexual function, while promoting uneven moods and breast development. Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is a genetic condition that affects the development of male testicles and external genitalia. This condition is genetic in origin, caused by the presence of a mixture of male and female chromosomes within the body. In it most common manifestation, a baby may be born with a sufficient quantity of male chromosomes that a require a verification test (sex test) to confirm that the subject is male, even where the subject is female in appearance. In the complete form WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CRAIG SHARP

female triad is often observed among athletes in sports where body image and physical appearance form a part of the competitive basis of the sport; gymnastics and figure skating are two such examples. The individual medical conditions that constitute the triad are osteoporosis (reduced bone density), eating disorders (where the subject seeks to improve their self image and to lose weight through either binging and purging or reducing calorie consumption to unsafe levels), and ammorhea, the loss or disruption of the menstrual cycle. Ammorhea in particular can contribute to reproductive health difficulties for women, as the long term disruption of regular menstruation cycles may be difficult to reestablish. SEE ALSO

Health; Hormones; Musculoskeletal injuries.

Craig Sharp 7/5/1930– BRITISH SPORTS SCIENTIST, DOCTOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, DISTANCE RUNNER

Brazilian judo competitor, Edinanci Silva, at the 2000 Olympics. Silva suffers from androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS). A NTO NI O S COR ZA/ AF P/ G ETT Y I M AG ES

of AIS, the child will be born with testes that are subsequently removed through surgery. At the 1992 Summer Olympics, five female athletes tested as male from a total of over 2,400 people. At the 1996 Games, eight women tested as males due to AIS. It is to be noted that persons with AIS, a genetic condition, are distinct from transgendered persons, whose decision to undergo gender altering surgery is usually rooted in the presence of a psychological condition, a gender identification disorder. Renee Richards, the transgendered tennis player who was the first such athlete to compete in the United States Open in 1977, is the best known example of a transgendered person participating in a sport in their new gender. Among female athletes, the medical community recognizes a set of physical and psychological conditions that are referred to as the female triad. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Craig Sharp is hailed within the international sports science community as the founder of sports science in Great Britain. In 1971, Sharp commenced his academic work in the field as a Professor of Physical Education at the University of Birmingham, the only British institution to then offer what is now referred to as a sports science degree. In the following years, Sharp established a reputation as a respected academic who was skilled in taking sports science theory and developing useful practical applications. Sharp founded the Birmingham Human Motor Performance Laboratory in 1973, an innovative step in the advance of the study of high-performance athletes. Sharp later co-founded the British Olympic Medical Center in 1987, an institution which functions as a support facility to the British Olympic program. Through the efforts of Sharp and others in Great Britain, sports science is now a recognized and wellregarded course of academic study, with numerous universities offering undergraduate, masters, and doctoral programs. In his many published articles on sports science, Sharp has emphasized several recurring themes. He has long advocated the expansion of the sports science knowledge base to make knowledge more broadly available to both athletes and coaches. Sharp is a believer in the ongoing physical testing of athletes, using methods such as detailed treadmill and

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other physiological research as a tool to improve performance. A noteworthy feature concerning the contribution of Sharp to the development of sports science is his remarkably diverse background and personal range of interests. Sharp was a capable distance runner as a young man, at one time holding the record for the fastest run to the peak of Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa. He was also a professional squash player. Sharp is likely the only prominent sports scientist to have begun his professional career as a doctor of veterinary medicine, a profession that he pursued with some distinction for 14 years. Sharp is also an authority on Scottish poetry. SEE ALSO

Sports medicine education.

Shoes

SEE

Athletic shoes

Shoes, running

SEE

Running shoes

Shooting Shooting, also known as sport shooting has been a competitive sport in a variety of forms since the mid-1800s. Competitions that involved pursuits such big game hunting, target shooting, and the hunting of a wide variety of birds were all contested in various parts of the world. The first prominent organization created to advance the interest of serious sport shooters and marksmen was the National Rifle Association, formed in the United States in 1871. Throughout its history as a competitive sport, shooting has encompassed many different types of firearms. ‘‘Gun’’ is a term used interchangeably with firearm. At its most basic, a firearm is any barreled device capable of discharging a projectile. By the time of the first modern Olympics in 1896, competitive shooting was conducted in separate divisions for three types of firearms; rifles, pistols, and shotguns. A rifle is a long barreled firearm that has spiral grooves machined along the interior of the barrel; the spiral grooves, or rifling, create a rotary motion when the bullet is fired. The spin imparted to the bullet by the rifling tends to produce a more accurate shot. A rifle is typically discharged from the shoulder position of the shooter. A pistol is small firearm designed to be held and discharged from a single hand of the shooter. Both pistols and rifles may be

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powered by the force of conventional gunpowder contained in the cartridge that contains the bullet to be fired. The explosive force of the gunpowder is initiated when the trigger on the firearm is pulled by the shooter. Other types of both pistols and rifles are powered by systems that employ either compressed air mechanisms or pressurized gases. A shotgun has a long barrel, one typically shorter and thicker than that of a rifle. The inside of the shotgun barrel is smooth, as the projectiles discharged are not a single object, as with a rifle bullet, but are numerous tiny projectiles, referred to as ‘‘shot’’. Shotguns are not as accurate as either rifles or pistols, but are an effective device in covering a wider area with the discharged ammunition. The International Sport Shooting Federation, ISSF, is the governing body for shooting competitions through out the world. There are 17 different categories of shooting recognized at the Olympic games, seven open to women and 10 restricted to male competitors. Until 1996, a number of shooting categories at the Olympics were designated as mixed events, open to competitors of either gender. In addition to the various types of rifle and pistol shooting where the marksman attempts to shoot at a distant target, there are two general classes of moving target competitions involving trap and skeet. The trap is a device that propels specially constructed clay targets into the air at a specified distance from the shooter. In Olympic competition, the shooter must attempt to shoot 125 of the targets, from a total of five different shooting positions. In the event called double trap, two clay targets are released simultaneously at differing angles, requiring the shooter to make successive shots on the targets. Skeet is also an event involving shot guns. The shooters assume a series of positions during the competitions, attempting to strike the targets, sometime referred to as ‘‘clay pigeons’’ after they are propelled into the air. Shooting also is an important element of a winter sports discipline, the biathlon, where the competitors complete a series of laps on a cross country ski course, with intervals in which the athletes are required to shoot at set targets with a rifle from both prone and standing positions. The combination of endurance, strength, and precise marksmanship, accomplished while the athlete attempts to steady their body from the rigors of skiing, make the biathlon one of the most difficult Winter Olympic sports. As with many sports where muscle power is not a prerequisite, shooting appears deceptively simple. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SHORT, HIGH INTENSITY EXERCISE

Female athletes shooting air pistols as part of 2000 Olympic Games (pentathlon).

The ability to steady hand and mind to deliver a sequence of shots requires well-developed powers of concentration and emotional control. Elite shooters spend considerable training time developing skills in visualization, where they direct their mental powers to the entire sequence of a successful shot, as an aid in coordinating their physical and mental efforts. The greater the level of physical fitness possessed by a competitive shooter, the more likely they are to achieve competitive success. Many shooters attempt to fire at a target between heartbeats, when the body is at its most stable. The more fit the athlete, generally, the lower the heart rate. A lower heart rate will provide the shooter with a greater window within which to deliver the shot. The breathing exercises that are often performed by shooters during competition to relax the body have a more pronounced effect on a body that has both a fit cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory system. Shooting has known its share of performance enhancing drug concerns. The best known of the drugs used by shooters to relax themselves and potentially slow their heart rate are alcohol and beta WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª JACQ UES L ANGE VIN/ SY GM A/ CORB IS

blockers, both banned substances on the World AntiDoping Agency (WADA) Prohibited List. Beta blockers are drugs used to treat a number of cardiovascular conditions; they have the effect of slowing heart rate and reducing blood pressure, an advantage in shooting. SEE ALSO Motor Control; Skiing, Nordic (cross-country skiing); Visualization in sport.

Short, high intensity exercise Short, high intensity exercise can take many forms, but it has certain constants—the exercise will be purely anaerobic in its nature (usually activities or individual segments of a longer exercise of fewer than 90 seconds duration), and it will require the athlete to perform at between 75% and 85% of the maximum physical capability. Short, high intensity exercise can be the component of a longer and otherwise aerobic program; running high speed intervals in the middle of a longer slower run is a common example. Common short,

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high intensity exercise will include sprinting, weightlifting, and the traditional field athletics such as the shotput, hammer throw, high jump, and discus. In each case, there is a very large expenditure of energy within the short time period. The intense effort required of the athlete is also highly focused toward the athletic goal, with very little extraneous effort. For this reason, short, high intensity exercise activities tend to be ones where technique, economy of movement, and execution are as important as the energy that the body is able to generate to complete the physical actions involved. Short, high intensity exercise has a number of physiological attractions to the recreational athlete who is interested in fitness and weight loss, as these activities tend to require the body to expend a greater number of calories than medium or low intensity pursuits. The average adult person who runs three miles at a rate of eight minutes per mile will expect to expend approximately 300 calories; the same person who runs the same distance over the same terrain at a pace of 6.5 minutes per mile will expect to expend 350 calories. There is also a greater benefit derived by the athlete after the workout is concluded; high intensity exercise provides a greater boost to the metabolic rate for up to 24 hours after the activity is completed, where the corresponding low or medium intensity exercise creates a negligible difference in metabolic rate. For short, high intensity exercise that is added as a component to an ongoing fitness program, the athlete can expect overall body fat to be reduced by between 3% to 5% over a six-month period, assuming that there are no other variables. The other crucial benefits of short, high intensity training are the improvement of the person’s VO2max, the measure of the ability to process oxygen, and a generally greater strength built throughout the musculoskeletal system. The resistance inherent in short, high intensity exercise that is directed to the body will both build muscular strength and prevent bone density reduction. Most short, high intensity exercises place significant emphasis on explosive movement at some point in the activity. Success in these disciplines will ultimately involve the specific training of the fast-twitch fibers in the target muscle groups. Plyometrics is the type of training engaged to enhance fast-twitch muscle response and to generally develop an explosive ability that may be sustained throughout the duration of the exercise. The relative brevity of the exercise requires the athlete to pay even greater attention to the warm up/ cool down cycle. A warm up will permit both the

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musculoskeletal system and the cardiovascular system to be brought to the operational status necessary to work at the body’s maximum rate; stretching and flexibility components to the warm up that address the muscle groups to be used at high intensity tend to reduce injury by as much as 50%. Cool down serves to gently reduce the body’s heart and respiration rates, while keeping the muscles loose. Short, high intensity exercise is sometimes viewed as a weight loss panacea by persons with poor fitness who wish to lose weight. Such persons are at significantly greater risk of injury as short, high intensity exercise, by its nature, places demands on the body to which an unfit person will be unaccustomed. Unless the person possesses excellent fitness, short, high intensity exercises or training must be approached incrementally. SEE ALSO Exercise, high intensity; Exercise, intermittent; Plyometrics; Running: Sprinting; Variable resistance exercise.

Shot put Unlike most of the traditional Olympic athletic events that were first contested at the modern Games in 1896, the shot put most likely owes its lineage to the Scottish Highland games competition, the stone put. The shot put is contested in both men’s and women’s categories at the Summer Olympics as well as the biennial World Track and Field championships. As with all other field events, the shot put is a deceptively simple sport. The competitor is required to throw a 16 lb (7.2 kg) steel ball, using a prescribed method where the ball is held in one hand, in a position under the competitor’s chin. From a 7 ft (2.2 m) circle, within which the athlete must remain during the throw, the ball is thrown in a thrusting motion; the ball must land within a sector of the field whose apex begins at the throwing circle. In Olympic competition, each shot putter is given six throws, with the best effort counting as the athlete’s score. The shot put is primarily a strength event, but the technique used to generate the efficient and powerful movement of the athlete in the throwing circle will usually determine success. Two different techniques are employed by shot putters to deliver the shot. The first is known as the glide technique, where the thrower moves across the throwing circle quickly to develop speed, and with one fluid motion throws the shot, twisting the body at the point of the delivery to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SHOT PUT

The combination of the athlete’s speed as they move across the throwing circle and the angle of projection determines the horizontal motion of the shot after it is release. P H OTO BY F RIE DEMA NN V OGEL/ BON GART S/ GETTY IM AGES .

ensure not to end up outside the throwing circle and fault, which will void the throw. The second technique is described as the spin, where the thrower begins the movement with the back to the target area. The athlete then takes a quick step and turns the hip as quickly as possible to generate maximum velocity in the throwing circle. The thrower then transfers the weight as forcefully as possible to the foot closest to the edge of the circle, thrusting the throwing arm to release the shot while the body is moving forward.

always a parabola, due to the influence of the force of gravity on the horizontal speed of the shot.

The angle at which the shot is delivered is also crucial. Unlike objects such as a discus or a javelin, which must be thrown with the aerodynamics of their intended flight considered, the shot put angle of projection will be the ideal combination of the speed of the shot as obtained from the movement of the thrower across the circle, and that will defeat the effect of gravity the longest.

A successful shot putter will possess a very strong and well-developed upper body, powerful legs with which to drive across the throwing circle, and a measure of agility necessary to execute this maneuver in a confined 7 ft (2.1 m) circle. It is a testament to the difficulty of the shot put that it is one of the 10 events that form the ultimate track and field athletic challenge, the decathlon.

It is the combination of the speed of the athletes as they move across the throwing circle and the angle of projection that will determine the horizontal motion of the shot after it is released. The vertical effects on the shot are determined by the force of gravity on the ball, which is a constant. The flight of the shot is

While there is significant differences in the technical approaches to each discipline, the training that is required to develop a shot put athlete is similar to that employed by a hammer throw specialist or a discus thrower. Intensive weight training that emphasizes the chest and the shoulders of the athlete will be stressed.


Other than specialized track spikes, which give the throwers additional stability as they move through the throwing circle and then plant their feet to deliver the throw, and the chalk, which is permitted to improve the athletes’ grip on the steel ball, the shot putters are not permitted to use any other aid or equipment to deliver the throw.

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Leg exercises such as squats, lunges, leg presses, and other forms of exercise to heighten the explosive ability of the thrower’s legs to deliver upward thrust at the time of the release of the shot are crucial to success. As with many Olympic athletics events, the limelight is on these competitors only once every four years. Shot putters and other field competitors toil in anonymity in other regional or collegiate competitions. It is noteworthy that in this strength event, unlike other Olympic competitions, the world records for men and women have not fallen since 1990 and 1987, respectively. This stagnation in record progress tends to coincide with the greater ability of the sport scientists to detect anabolic steroid use.

Decathlon; Hammer throw; Plyometrics; Short, high intensity exercise.

SEE ALSO

Shot put: Throw mechanics The shot put is a track and field event that involves throwing a heavy metal ball called a shot as far as possible using only one arm in a pushing motion, what is called putting. The shot put athlete (or shot-putter) needs strength, but must also be quick and coordinated in order to create momentum and maximum force during the throwing motion. The shot-putter begins at the back of a marked circle that is 7 ft (2.1 m) in diameter. The shot-putter faces away from the throwing direction while positioning the shot against the shoulder and under the chin. In two quick steps, the shot-putter turns, moves quickly to the front of the circle while launching the shot by thrusting the arm forward. The throw mechanics of the shot put involve primarily four factors. Projection speed (v) is measured from the point the shot-putter releases the shot; projection angle (y) is the angle between the horizontal and the initial shot direction, range (R) is the horizontal distance from the release of the shot to where it lands; and height difference (h) is the distance from the ground to the vertical release point. The projection speed (v) is the most important of these factors. It is determined by the magnitude and direction of the forces applied to the shot and by the distance over which these forces act. The optimum projection angle (y) for achieving maximum horizontal range (R) depends on the size, strength, and throwing technique of each particular athlete. The optimum projection angle usually ranges from 26 to 38 . The projection speed (v) and the launch height

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The throw mechanics of the shot put involve primarily four factors: projection speed, projection angle, range, and height difference. PH OTO B Y I A N WALT ON/ GE TTY IM AGES .

(h) are dependent on the projection angle. Experiments have shown that the projection speed generated by an athlete steadily decreases with increasing projection angle. The decrease in projection speed with the increase in projection angle is the result of two factors. As the projection angle increases, the shot-putter must expend a greater effort to overcome the weight of the shot, and so less effort is available to accelerate the shot (or produce the projection speed). The muscular and skeletal systems of the human body is better able to exert forces in the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction. In the end, the release height of the shot put is determined by the athlete’s body position at the moment of release. If all other factors are equal, the athlete who attains a position in which the throwing arm, trunk, and legs are fully extended at the instant of release will achieve greater distances than the athlete who is in a less-desirable position. SEE ALSO

Shotput; Skeletal muscle. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SHOULDER ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Shoulder anatomy and physiology The omni-directional shoulder is the most mobile and the most versatile of the human joints. The shoulder, in conjunction with the elbow joint and the ulnar and radial bones of the forearm, may be operated to create a powerful lever to perform lifting or prying movements. The ability of the shoulder to rotate is essential to all throwing, catching, or shooting actions in a multitude of sports. The construction of the shoulder permits the arm to be rotated 360 from every position relative to its connection to the shoulder. The inherent flexibility and the range of motion present in the shoulder is due to the unique structure of the joint. Virtually every joint in the body brings two or more bones into close, one-on-one contact. The musculoskeletal framework of the shoulder mechanism relies to a much greater degree on the connective tissues of the shoulder, as opposed to its bones, to provide the joint with its strength as well as its ability to absorb significant force. The shoulder has the greatest risk of soft tissue injury of any of the joints that propel human limbs. The skeletal components of the shoulder include humerus, the long bone of the upper arm that is a part of the elbow and the shoulder joints; the scapula, or the shoulder blade, positioned on the posterior (rear) of the shoulder on the upper back; the clavicle, or the collarbone, aligned between the neck and the outer limit of the shoulder; and the sternum, or breastbone, which is not a primary bone in the formation or function of the shoulder joint. The sternum is a bone that supports the opposing end of the clavicle from the shoulder. Each of the shoulder bones has articular cartilage covering the head of the bone that comes into contact with another bone, reducing the degree of friction created by two bones moving against one another. Articular cartilage also provides a measure of cushioning between the bones. Osteoarthritis is a common form of disease in the shoulder region among athletes who, through the wear and tear of repetitive motions such as throwing, sustain a gradual thinning or wearing away of the articular cartilage. Shoulder movement and any corresponding injuries are commonly described with reference to the shoulder joint, as if the structure had a single means of flexion, extension, and rotation. The shoulder comprises four separate joints, each an integrated device that is capable of a degree of independent movement. The glenohumoral joint is the largest and the most prominent of the joints that contribute to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

shoulder movement. It is this part of the shoulder that is most commonly described as the shoulder joint. The glenohumoral structure is created by the meeting of the head of the humerus and the portion of the scapula known as the glenoid. These two bones create a ‘‘ball and socket’’ mechanism, which permits the shoulder to rotate freely. The flexibility of the glenohumoral joint is the result of its own intricate ligament structure as well as the position of the rotator cuff relative to the glenohumoral structure. The joint is powered in part through its connection to the biceps tendon, which provides the linkage to the biceps muscle. The remainder of the joint’s movement is directed through the muscles and tendons of the rotator cuff. The entire glenohumoral joint is enclosed in a loose membrane capsule that contains a small quantity of synovial fluid that also assists in the movement of the joint. The acromioclavicular (AC) joint is formed between the clavicle and the region of the scapula known as the acromion. It is the AC joint that is subject to injury when a shoulder is said to become ‘‘separated,’’ which refers to the clavicle becoming detached within the AC joint. The sternoclavicular joint is created at the junction between the sternum and the clavicle, at the base of the neck. The scapulothoracic articulation is not a joint in the technical sense of two or more bones in conjunction; this structure is a muscle and tendon mechanism that permits the scapula to slide without obstruction along the upper back as the arm is raised or extended during the movements of the shoulder. The rotator cuff is the most important soft tissue structure in the shoulder. The rotator cuff is essential to any action in relation to the throwing or catching of objects in sport. The rotator cuff, positioned on the top of the glenohumoral joint, provides the muscle power to assist the shoulder in movement, permitting circular motion. The rotator cuff also limits the joint from being overextended when the arm is extended upward. Of the four muscles and tendons that form the rotator cuff, the supraspinatus muscle and its tendon, which extends from the rotator cuff to the top of the humerus, are the most frequently injured of the rotator cuff tissues. Baseball pitchers, athletes who often sustain an injury described generally as a rotator cuff tear, most often sustain a specific injury to the supraspinatus tendon. The next most important of the soft tissue features of the shoulder are the two bursa, located at the highest part of the shoulder. The bursa, which are

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X-ray of a shoulder.

ª MAX I NE HA LL/ CORB I S

small, fluid-filled sacs constructed of fibrous material, provide cushioning to the joint; the bursa work particularly to protect the rotator cuff from excessive contact with the acromion, a bony extension of the scapula. Overuse of the shoulder, most often through repetitive throwing, will often irritate the bursa fibers, creating an often chronic condition known as bursitis.

Back anatomy and physiology; Bone, ligaments, tendons; Musculoskeletal injuries; Shoulder injuries.

SEE ALSO

Shoulder injuries The shoulder joint is exposed to as broad a range of forces as is any other joint in the body. Every sport requires the full function of the shoulder, whether to throw an object, strike an opponent or a target, the propulsion of the athlete, or to provide balance in

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movement. No matter how extensively an athlete works to protect and to strengthen the shoulder and its supporting structure, the joint is constantly exposed to a variety of sports injury. The shoulder joint is both powerful, flexible, and fragile, as there is less bone-on-bone contact within the shoulder joint than other joints of the body, such as the hinges created at the knee or the ankle. Less bone means a correspondingly greater reliance on the muscle and the connective tissue to support the stresses of joint movement, and a greater risk of soft tissue injury. The skeletal components of the shoulder are the humerus, the long bone of the upper arm, the scapula (shoulder blade), and the clavicle (collarbone). In a technical sense, the sternum (breastbone) is also a shoulder bone as it supports the end of the clavicle that is opposite to the shoulder. Each of these bones is covered at the end with articular cartilage, with reduces the friction that otherwise results from movements where bones make contact against one another within the joint. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SHOULDER INJURIES

The shoulder is commonly referenced as if it were a single entity; the shoulder structure is in fact four distinct joints, each an integrated unit that functions within the shoulder. The four joints include the glenohumoral joint, which is the largest of the shoulder joints and is the most exposed to injury; it is the ‘‘ball and socket’’ created between the head of the humerus and the portion of the scapula known as the glenoid; the acromioclavicular (AC) joint, formed between the meeting of the clavicle and the portion of the scapula called the acromion; the sternoclavicular joint, created where the opposite end of the clavicle is secured to the sternum, providing the shoulder with stability; and the scapulothoracic articulation, a structure that is often classified as a joint, when it is more accurately described as a muscle and tendon configuration that permits the scapula to slide along the back as the shoulder is raised and lowered.

occurrence, but all sports where the shoulder and arm are moved forcefully and repetitively create an environment for an entire range of shoulder cuff problems. American football quarterbacks, swimmers, golfers, and volleyball players commonly experience these injuries.

Each of the individual shoulder joints has its own supporting network of ligaments. The entire shoulder is encased in various muscles and tendon groups to power the variety of movements of which the shoulder is capable. One of the most important of the connective tissues is the rotator cuff, an assembly of four muscles and tendons positioned on top of the shoulder, under a portion of the scapula, that serves to both permit the arm to be raised and used in a powerful fashion, as well as hold the shoulder joint in place. The joint capsule that surrounds the glenohumoral (ball and socket) joint is also commonly examined in cases of shoulder injury. A further soft tissue component of the shoulder structure is the bursa, located between the glenohumoral joint and the rotator cuff. The bursa is a gel-filled fibrous cushioning device that absorbs some of the forces directed into the shoulder.

A rotator cuff injury may also present as an impingement of the shoulder motion. In such cases, often in repetitive movements such as throwing, swimming, or the motion to deliver a tennis serve, the acromion region of the scapula repeatedly rubs against the surface of the rotator cuff. Impingements, while a less serious form of rotator cuff injury than a tear of one of the four soft tissue components, represent a significant problem for an athlete because impingements are a present limitation in the athlete’s range of motion in the joint, and also tend to become progressively worse.

A rotator cuff injury will most often be the result of a wearing against the surface of the rotator cuff structure, creating a tear to the rotator cuff tendon. The same repetitive movement can create a pinching between the cuff and the overlying scapula bone of the shoulder joint. The injury may reveal itself as either a sudden onset of significant pain and reduced shoulder movement, or a more gradual decline in apparent joint function. The inability of a pitcher to throw as hard as previously, or a loss of power in a volleyball player’s spike are the type of diminution caused by a damaged rotator cuff.

Shoulder injuries are most often caused by one of three general mechanisms. The first is overhead motion, during which the hand and forearm are extended through shoulder movement to a point furthest away from the body, the point where the shoulder is at its most vulnerable to overload. The second cause is that of repetitive movement, which places a strain on the shoulder structure. The repetitive strain injuries may be in the form of tendonitis, bursitis, rotator cuff injury, or over the longer term, osteoarthritis. The third class of injury is that caused by a blow absorbed by the joint, caused through a fall or by trauma. These injuries may take the form of a fracture to one or more of the bones of the shoulder, or soft tissue damage such as a joint dislocation.

Rotator cuff injuries are revealed through the use of x rays (often by way of an arthrogram, the injection of a dye into the joint for a better x-ray image), or through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Physio therapy, with a particular emphasis on the preventative strengthening of the surrounding shoulder muscle structures, is the preferred remedy in over 90% of rotator cuff injuries. Stretching and flexibility exercises are essential to maintain an optimal range of motion in the recovering joint. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have also been proven as effective in the management of shoulder pain arising from both the rotator cuff injury as well as the discomfort experienced in rehabilitation. In more extreme cases, especially where there has been a degree of tearing to the rotator cuff, corticosteroid injections are used to manage the inflammation. Rotator cuff surgery is decidedly a last resort, as it is invasive and depending on the extent of the rotator cuff tear, surgery is successful in only 80% of all cases.

Rotator cuff injuries are very common in sports. Baseball pitchers may have the highest incidence of

A separated shoulder is a common injury that results from physical contact to the shoulder region.


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Mid-way through this match, Carlos Moya (returning the shot) ended the match due to an injury to his right shoulder.

NI CO LAS

AS F OURI/ AF P /G ETT Y IM AG ES

The injury is actually sustained to the AC joint on the top of the shoulder, where the force of a blow, often a fall on the shoulder, causes a tearing of the ligaments that joint the clavicle and the scapula. The injury is immediately noticeable to an athlete, as there is significant pain and a bump forms at the site of the injury. The degree by which the bones are separated at the AC junction dictates the severity of the injury. Most separated shoulders heal with rest, the frequent application of ice in the first 48–78 hours after the event, and the use of a sling to permit the arm to be rested. A dislocated shoulder is the coming apart of any of the joints of the shoulder, but is most common in the ball and socket joint. In contact sports such as American football, rugby, or ice hockey, the shoulder, as the body’s most mobile joint, can be struck from almost any angle with great force. In competitions such as downhill skiing and gymnastics, an athlete can fall awkwardly with significant force and dislocate the joint. The force of dislocation may cause the humerus bone to become detached from the joint capsule in which it is held;

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the surrounding ligaments or tendons may also be torn on impact. The rehabilitation for such injuries is similar to that of the separated shoulder, with a likelihood that the progress will be slower as the injury is usually more serious. A fractured clavicle (collarbone) is the most common type of fracture to any of the bones of the shoulder joints. Usually the result of a hard fall, a fracture will result in the immediate impairment of the athlete’s ability to use the arm. There is most often a noticeable sharp lump under the skin in the immediate vicinity of the break. Subject to related damage such as a ruptured blood vessel or nerve damage, the clavicle will heal cleanly within six to eight weeks of the injury. In cases where the shoulder has been subjected to the progressive wearing away of the articular cartilage of the shoulder bones, the resulting osteoarthritis may require joint replacement surgery. This procedure is most common as a result of osteoarthritis in the glenohumoral joint. An artificial socket is the remedy, permitting the humerus bone to move against a synthetic surface. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SIDA CORDIFOLIA

Baseball injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Shoulder anatomy and physiology; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

William A. Shroyer 1888–1944 AMERICAN INVENTOR, BASEBALL PLAYER

In the early days of American baseball, prior to 1890, the rules regarding the length, width, and configuration of a baseball bat were yet to be standardized. It was a common practice for players to manufacture their own wooden bats. Because bats broke, or became rough, with use rather frequently, players had to switch to a new, homemade bat. The replacement bat would often create a different ‘‘feel’’ in the hands of the batter, creating a period of adjustment for the player with the new bat. The first technological advance in the manufacture of baseball bats occurred in 1884, when John Hillerich (1867-1946), an aspiring professional player who was also employed in his father’s wood working factory, manufactured a bat from white ash, a very strong and durable wood, for a player on the local Louisville, Kentucky professional team. The new bat was found to be very well made, and soon the ‘‘Louisville Slugger’’ became a highly prized piece of baseball equipment. The Louisville Slugger is the world’s best known baseball bat, designated the official bat of Major League Baseball. The Louisville Slugger, and the various models of bats that followed it were functional and effective. The market for baseball bats and all other type of baseball equipment expanded in the twentieth century throughout America. Wooden bats remained prone to breakage and splintering no matter how well the bat was made. The ‘‘sweet spot’’ on wooden bats, the point in the barrel of the bat where the ability to strike the ball was most consistent, varied in both location and size on a wooden bat. It was in this era that a former baseball player turned inventor in Dayton, Ohio, William Shroyer, developed his ideas regarding a long lasting, economical and perhaps indestructible bat, the metal bat. By way of patent number 1,499,128, as filed with the United States Patent and Trademark Office in June, 1924, Shroyer filed detailed diagrams and a description of the proposed metal bat design. Shroyer described the purpose of his design as one that would provide the lightness, springiness, and resiliency of the current wood construction. Shroyer sought to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

avoid the wood splitting and splintering that commonly occurred with wood. Shroyer also set out in his patent diagrams a threaded aperture in the head of the bat, a device that provided a place for the insertion of additional weight in the bat barrel if desired by a batsman. It is evident from the patent office records that Shroyer had directed considerable care to his invention. It is equally apparent that Shroyer never commercially marketed his all-metal bat, and there is little evidence to suggest that he was ever able to manufacture a model beyond that of a prototype. No example of the Shroyer bat exists today; its inventor and patent holder died in relative obscurity. The Shroyer metal bat patent is significant in the history of sport science for its prescience. The first aluminum baseball bat sold as a mass marketed item was produced by the Worth Sports Company in 1970. From that point, large baseball equipment companies such as Easton established significant markets for their aluminum bats in the softball, lob ball, and collegiate baseball markets. Major league baseball banned the aluminum bat from competition almost from the moment it was available. Aluminum possesses a significantly higher coefficient of restitution than does wood, resulting in a correspondingly greater ability in the aluminum bat to return the energy of a pitched ball to the ball with the swing of the bat, causing the ball to travel further on a hit. Aluminum bats would render most professional baseball parks as home run derbies. Studies conducted by both the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and private research groups confirm that an aluminum bat will send a baseball a minimum of 10% farther when hit with equal force by a wooden bat. SEE ALSO

Baseball.

Sida cordifolia Sida cordifolia, more commonly known as the mallow plant, is a small, green, seed-bearing plant that has been prized for over 5,000 years for its medicinal properties. Sida cordifolia is widely used in the Indian alternative medicine philosophy called Ayurveda, ‘‘the science of life.’’ Ayurveda is a series of concepts that are rooted in the Hindu religion, with principles that are believed to be even older than those of the traditional Chinese medicines. Ayurveda remains a prominent part of modern Indian medicine, with designated schools that instruct students in

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applications of Ayurveda healing techniques. Ayurveda advocates a whole mind/whole body approach regarding the treatment of physical ailments; yoga and meditation are also components of the holistic philosophy that is Ayurveda. Sida cordifolia is not of the same botanical family as the well-known medicinal herbs ephedra or the North American variant Mormon tea, but Sida cordifolia shares a common medicinal component with each: the alkaloids (plant-based substances) that include ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and vasicinone. Sida cordifolia and ephedra have a similar amounts of ephedrine present within their structures. While all parts of the Sida cordifolia plant have ephedrine present in them, the seeds of the plant possess the greatest percentage of the stimulant. Ephedrine is a well-known stimulant, which when consumed in any form, will tend to have an immediate effect on a number of the processes of the body. The most pronounced of these effects is an increased heart rate, and a corresponding increase in blood pressure. Ephedrine has been used for many years and in many forms as a stimulant for athletes to assist with concentration and to reduce fatigue. It is also prized as a catalyst to facilitate weight loss (often described in various applications as ‘‘fat burning’’). Ephedrine, like every other stimulant, will increase the body’s metabolic rate. Persons who are engaged in significant weight training or other muscular strength and development activities often consume dietary supplements that contain varying proportions of Sida cordifolia to obtain the effect created by its ephedrine properties, caffeine (often present through the natural plant root guarana), and either willow bark or aspirin, each valued for the anti-inflammatory qualities of its chief ingredient, salicylic acid. These training products are known to strength athletes as the ‘‘ECA stack.’’ This particular type of formulation is designed to provide the athlete with the stimulation of the ephedrine and caffeine, coupled with the analgesic effect of the aspirin, desirable for those who train hard and with great frequency. Sida cordifolia was first determined to possess ephedrine in 1930, and for this reason it was subsequently recommended in India by physicians as a heart stimulant. In Ayurveda practices, Sida cordifolia had three common applications: Mashabaladi Kvatha, where the plant seeds were mixed with other ingredients to relieve muscular pain; Balataila, a process for the treatment of nervous system complaints, stomach problems, and as a cardiac tonic; and the crushed leaves of the plant as an astringent

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for the treatment and dressing of wounds or skin injuries. Sida cordifolia has another alkaloid present within its structure that also has a pronounced effect on the body. Vasicinone, a substance formed from carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, is expressed as the chemical equation C11H12N2O. Vasicinone is an effective bronchodilator, tending to assist the body in the opening of restricted breathing passages. Ephedrine poses risks to the body based on its chemical structure. The increase in heart rate and blood pressure creates an increased risk of heart attack. There are no formulations in which ephedrine is contained that reduce those risks. Ephedrine, coupled with the ingestion of a companion stimulant such as caffeine, can serve to accelerate the effects of ephedrine. All stimulants create a risk of both dependency for the user, and a danger that the user will feel compelled to increase the amounts consumed, risking toxicity. The legal restrictions on the use of Sida cordifolia are not entirely clear in North America. Ephedrine, the subject of considerable debate in international sport as to its impact as a stimulant, given its broad availability and popular use in various cold and decongestant remedies, remains a prohibited substance in any competition that is subject to the control of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), where the concentration of ephedrine found in the system of an athlete exceeds 10 mcg per milliliter of urine when tested. In the United States and a number of other Western world countries, the ephedra plant and its herbal products have previously been the subject of bans by regulatory agencies; Sida cordifolia (and other ephedra containing herbs such as bitter orange) are not similarly restricted.

Dietary supplements; Ephedra; Herbs; Mormon tea; Stimulants.

SEE ALSO

Skateboarding The sport of skateboarding has undergone significant changes since it was introduced in the United States in the early 1950s. Originally a land based offshoot of surfing, the original skateboards were wooden boards attached to roller skates. Skateboarding at that time was an activity primarily carried out on streets and sidewalks. Skateboarding is today a multi-dimensional sport that includes persons who ride their boards in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SKELETAL MUSCLE

the 1970s was significant innovation. Urethane permitted the rider to obtain greater traction on a paved surface, and the wheels ran much more smoothly, making the skateboard safer to operate. Many skateboard tricks have acquired their own name. the most notable is the ‘‘ollie,’’ regarded as the foundation to the majority of jump maneuvers performed in skateboarding. The ollie is executed by the rider applying a sudden force to the rear of the skateboard, and moving their feet forward to counteract the rear force, and sequence that propels the board into the air. Another common skateboard technique is ‘‘grinding,’’ where the bottom of the board is made to slide along a hard surface. There are many examples recorded in the media where a skateboarder has sustained a spectacular fall when endeavoring to grind their board along a handrail or similar structure. Skateboarding has significant safety concerns, particularly when the rider attempts a jump from a ramp, or any other stunt that takes the rider above the ground. Helmets, knee pads, wrist protection (to prevent injury to the hands and wrists in a fall), and elbow protection are common. World Cup Skateboarding is the organization that sanctions professional skateboard events through out the world. Professional skateboarder Andy Macdonald performs a trick above the half pipe while professional skateboarder Tony Hawk (R) looks on. PH OTO B Y MAT SZWAJKO S/GETTY IMAGES.

public areas as well as the boarders who use specialized skateboard parks equipped with ramps and half pipes in which they can perform elaborate and often dangerous stunts. Skateboarding has a close connection to street fashion of young people and it has encouraged an easygoing attitude toward participation, in contrast to other more traditional sports. Skateboarding is a world wide sport, most actively pursued by youths and young adults. Skateboarding has received a significant boost in its world wide popularity due to the combined effect of its inclusion in the X Games, the profile of professional skateboarders such as American Tony Hawk, and various videogames that have served to promote skateboarding and the extreme sports nature of the stunts that can be executed. From the flat plywood board attached to a set of roller skate wheels that constituted the first skateboards, the invention of the first urethane wheels in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Extreme sports; Snowboarding; Wakeboarding; Youth Sports Injuries.

SEE ALSO

Skates, roller

SEE

Skating, figure

Roller skates

SEE

Figure skating

Skating leaps and throws

SEE Figure skating dynamics of leaps and throws

Skeletal muscle The skeletal muscles are those tissues that are attached to the bones of the body beneath the skin. As the muscles on examination appear to be constructed of varying lengths of strips, due to the manner in which the muscle fibers are situated, these muscles are also known as striated muscle.

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they may be positioned, irrespective of the muscle function. The prime place of attachment between a skeletal muscle and the adjacent bone is the point of origin for the muscle. The muscle will taper at its opposite end into a more slender connective tissue, the muscle tendon, to the connection with the bone, the point of insertion. Imbalances between the strength of the skeletal muscle, the laxity or otherwise in the tendon, and the connection to the bone surface are common causes of muscle injury in athletes. Skeletal muscle can only exert its desired force on the skeleton to produce movement when the muscle is contracted. Almost all joints in the body are comprised of muscles that operate in pairs: one muscle acts as an extensor, to extend or straighten the joint, and the other muscle in the pair acts as a flexor, to facilitate the bending of the joint. The biceps and triceps muscles of the upper arm are an extensor/flexor pair for the elbow joint, as are the quadriceps (extensor) and the hamstrings (flexor) in the movements of the knee.

Human musculo-skeletal system.

C ARLY N I VER SO N/ PH OTO

RES EA RCH ER S, INC .

Skeletal muscle is a distinct type of specialized muscles found within the body. Cardiac muscle (heart muscle) is used only to power the contractions of the heart. Cardiac muscles are controlled through the function of the autonomic nervous system, the aspect of human function regulated by the hypothalamus region of the brain. Smooth muscles are located within every hollow organ in the body, with the exception of the heart. Smooth muscles are also controlled involuntarily, performing such functions as the pushing of blood within the arteries of the cardiovascular system and the movements of ingested foods within the digestive system. All skeletal muscles are positioned relative to the bone in a similar fashion no matter where in the body

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The muscle fibers that are the substance of each muscle are of similar construction throughout all skeletal muscles. The fibers are generally long, slender cylinders that extend from the point of origin to the tendon that connects at the point of insertion. The fibers are bundled, in quantities ranging from a few fibers to several hundred. The contraction of each muscle fiber bundle is controlled through the nerve impulses directed into the fiber bundle by a neuron, a type of electrical relay that is connected to the larger nervous system. The speed with which the neurons communicate impulses to the muscle fiber group determine whether the fibers will be a fast-twitch fiber (useful in sports that require, power, strength, and reaction time), or a slow-twitch fiber (best suited to endurance sports). In fine motor control muscles, such as the eyelid, the neuron may only control a group of 10 muscle fibers or fewer. In a large muscle such as the quadriceps or the gastrocnemius, each neuron may be connected to as many as 2,000 fibers. The fibers are made up of myofibrils, filaments that run the length of the muscle fiber. The operation of the nervous system and its relation to the skeletal muscular system is sometimes referred to as the neuromuscular system. When nerve impulses are communicated to the muscle, a complex series of electrochemical reactions convert the impulse into a muscle contraction. Central to the reaction is the balance between sodium and potassium in the muscle membrane fluid. Sodium floods the membrane at the time the impulse is registered, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SKELETAL MUSCLE FUNCTION AND ENERGY METABOLISM

replaced by potassium to return the membrane to a rest state. The reactions occur very quickly, and a muscle can be restored to its rest position after the activity generated by an impulse in approximately one millisecond. Muscle fibers require resistance to grow stronger; an inactive muscle cannot ever become stronger. The act of applying resistance to the muscle, such as is achieved through weight training, is not itself an immediately strengthening act; the muscle repairs itself during rest between resistance training sessions. As the body rests, the muscle fibers attract cells known as myoblasts, which fuse with the existing fiber, causing the muscle fibers to become denser and stronger. Muscle size is not limitless, and the fibers will not attract unlimited numbers of myoblasts for repair, due to the presence of myostatin in the muscle cells. Myostatin is the hormone produced by the body that regulates muscle size, a natural limit on how large muscles can grow. The actual muscle contraction generate within the muscle is fueled by the chemical reaction that occurs involving the compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which participates in a series of energy-producing reactions that involve creatine phosphate, present in the muscle cell, and gylcogen, transported to the cell through the blood as glucose.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch; Musculoskeletal injuries; Skeletal muscle function and energy metabolism.

SEE ALSO

Skeletal muscle function and energy metabolism Skeletal muscles are the mechanism for powering human movement. While individual muscles are typically regarded as distinct organic structures, the skeletal muscles are the largest organ grouping in the body (the skin is the largest contiguous organ). Virtually all joints are moved by pairs of muscles working in contrasting but complimentary ways, one set providing the extension of the joint (extensors), the opposing, or antagonist, set countering with flexion, or bending capability. All muscles are composed of specialized muscle fibers. While the fibers are made up of the similar kinds of cells, fluids, blood vessels, and nervous system components, muscle fibers have certain key physical distinctions that create two distinct kinds of fibers, fast-twitch (type II fibers) and slow-twitch WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Skeletal muscle fiber (magnified 220 times).

ª VIS UA LS

UN LIMIT ED/C ORB IS

(type I fibers). Some fibers exhibit characteristics that place them between the two broad types, but closer to the fast-twitch variety; these fibers are often classed as the type IIa group. The fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers are distributed throughout the muscles of the body. The percentage distribution is determined genetically and it is unique to every human being. There is considerable scientific authority for the proposition that, through specific training such as intense endurance training, the composition of muscle fibers in an athlete’s legs can be altered, converting fast-twitch fibers for use as slow-twitch fibers to better support the endurance activity. Whether a muscle fiber functions as a fast-twitch or slow-twitch fiber is subject to a number of physical and neurological factors. Slow-twitch fibers are governed by slow conduction neurons, the relay switch of the nervous system that governs a group of muscle fibers ranging in size from as few as 10 to as many as 2,000 fibers. Fast-twitch fibers are governed by fast-acting neurons, which are capable of transmitting or firing the nerve impulses that command movements by the muscle 10 times more frequently than the slow-twitch neurons will fire.

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The energy metabolism characteristics of each type of fiber also contribute to the function of each type. Fast-twitch fibers store glycogen within the cells of the muscle fiber. Glycogen, the storage form of the carbohydrate product glucose, is then utilized at the muscle in the cycle of electrochemical reactions that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the source of energy within the muscle. To utilize this store of energy, a process known as glycogenosis occurs within the cell, where glycogen is converted to a compound, glucose-1-phosphate, which then participates in the energy production cycle within the cell involving creatine phosphate and ATP. The muscles store glycogen in quantities that total approximately 1% of the muscle mass, a reserve that is quickly depleted through intense exercise; the muscles can only produce ATP through glycogenosis for an approximate maximum of 90 seconds. As the ability of the fast-twitch cells to produce ATP and energy is limited, the fast-twitch cells quickly become fatigued. Examples of this energy metabolism frequently occur in sports such as sprinting. Races such as the 400 m and 800 m events are often described as the toughest of the running distances, because optimum performance is demanded of the body as it is running out of the energy stores capable of being generated in its fast-twitch fibers. Slow-twitch fibers require glycogen, broken into its constituent glucose, before energy can be produced in its cells. The requisite glycogen is transported to the cells through the circulatory network that ends in the capillaries that service the cells of each muscle fiber. Because the energy production process in slow-twitch fibers is much slower, it can be sustained for much longer periods, and the slowtwitch fibers do not fatigue as readily as the fasttwitch fibers. The mitochondria is the portion of the muscle cell where the energy production occurs. The mitochondria in the anaerobic fast-twitch fibers are significantly larger than that of the slow-twitch aerobic fibers. It is within the mitochondrial membrane that, depending on the energy sources available, either fatty acids are reduced for energy production, or glucose is ultimately converted to lactate as a part of the ATP energy cycle. The skeletal muscles also perform important roles relative to the body’s energy system while the body is fasting or otherwise not ingesting foods to be converted into useful energy sources. The skeletal muscles release amino acids during periods of fasting, particularly alanine and glutamine. These acids work in the bloodstream to maintain the body’s blood

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glucose levels, stimulating the conversion of glycogen stored in the liver into glucose. SEE ALSO Glycogen level in muscles; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch; Muscle glycogen recovery; Skeletal muscle.

Ski area avalanche control An avalanche is the most destructive and dangerous event that can occur in a ski area. The torrent of snow that obliterates everything in its path is the ultimate natural disaster in a mountain region. The famed St. Bernard dogs of the Swiss Alps acquired their legendary reputation from the rescue of travelers caught in snow falls and avalanches. Death from exposure, injuries, or suffocation are a common fate for a skier caught in an avalanche. Avalanches have a measure of predictability in that they can only occur on certain types of mountain terrain. An avalanche will rarely occur on a slope that is angled at less than 30 ; these events similarly almost never occur on slopes greater than 45 , as it difficult for snow to accumulate in sufficient volumes on a steeper angle to precipitate a descent. As avalanches typically occur year after year in the same places, the force of the avalanche creates a welldefined path on a mountainside. New avalanche sites are often inadvertently created through the removal of forest cover for development or road construction. A large volume of snow on a mountain side is not the sole cause of an avalanche. The type of snow, the layers of snow that may be created by a series of snowfalls, and the degree of adhesion between each layer of snow are all factors. Avalanches will take one of two forms: movement that involves loose snow, the less serious type of avalanche, and those that are known as a slab advance, created when various layers of the season’s snowfall adhere and create a single wall of snow moving down a slope. The slab advance avalanche is the most destructive form, commonly extending over hundreds of feet/ meters in width. An avalanche can move along the terrain in three distinct fashions. The snow can move through the air, as occurs when the avalanche moves over a cliff or rock outcropping. Avalanches most often move along the ground; in some circumstances, the movement may be a combination of ground and air. An avalanche may be triggered by natural and artificial, or external, means; avalanches are often WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SKI AREA AVALANCHE CONTROL

Men shoot recoilless rifles at snow formations to control avalanches at the 1960 Winter Olympic Games at Squaw Valley. One of the men works for the Forest Service as an avalanche control expert. ª COR BIS

To control the ski area from the consequences of an avalanche, the first preventative step is to ensure that avalanche forecasting can be performed with some measure of precision. The forecast will include daily examinations of the current snow cover, including its type and its apparent density as well as meteorological forecasts.

Terrain modification may entail a number of physical changes to the avalanche area. These steps are taken after the terrain has been carefully assessed and the most common avalanche pathways have been mapped. A common modification is the erection of snow sheds in the vicinity of road ways, buildings, or other structures that potentially fall in the path of an avalanche. A snow shed is commonly constructed of concrete, to withstand the force of thousands of pounds of advancing snow. The shed is not designed to stop the avalanche so much as to deflect the advancing snow away from the protected structure or feature.

Avalanche control has two essential components: the modification of the terrain where the avalanche is expected to occur prior to the ski season, and physically redirecting the snow once it has fallen and accumulated in a potentially dangerous fashion.

Steps may also be taken to alter the physical terrain through earthmoving or the placement of barriers to divert the path of a future avalanche. A mountainside will often be divided into segments for the purpose of avalanche control, to prevent one

triggered intentionally for control purposes. The most common natural precipitating event is the fall of new snow on an already unstable snow mass. Skiers moving across or in the vicinity of an area of unstable snow are the most frequent cause of an inadvertent avalanche.


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avalanche from triggering companion slides on adjacent ski areas. Lightweight but strong metal fencing is often placed high on a mountainside to prevent the formation of the snow slabs that cause the most avalanche damage. Once the snow has fallen and begins to accumulate in a manner that may precipitate an avalanche, the danger may be controlled by a number of artificial means. Through avalanche forecasting, the fracture zone, the place on the snow surface where the slab is most likely to break off from the existing snow cover, is capable of being identified. Explosives can be placed in the fracture line to trigger an artificial and more manageable event; mortar shells are sometimes fired from a distance into the fracture line to reduce the risk associated with a person physically skiing to the desired area for this purpose. A technique known as ski-cutting is also employed, where ski patrollers, working in pairs, use their skis to ski along the area of the fracture line and cause a limited and predictable avalanche.

Cold-related illnesses and emergencies; Exposure injuries; Ski conditions; Skiing, Alpine; Skiing, Nordic (cross-country skiing).

SEE ALSO

Ski conditions Ski conditions are defined as the amount and the state of the snow for the purpose of skiing. For this reason, the expressions ski conditions and snow conditions are often used interchangeably. An assessment of the applicable ski conditions is an important, sometimes primary consideration in both Alpine skiing and Nordic (cross-country) skiing as to how the athlete will approach the tactical decisions required for a particular course. In the third of the skiing disciplines, freestyle skiing, ski conditions are less important to the performance of the athlete because the freestyle skier competes on a manicured snow surface on a generally much shorter race course. The condition of the snow will dictate how the skis will perform on the snow surface. The altitude at which the skier is performing, the temperature of the snow, and the effect of sunlight and wind will all play a role in how the snow surface will react to the forces directed against it. Snow conditions often vary dramatically from the top of the mountain to the bottom in Alpine skiing; on a 12-mi (20 km) Nordic course, temperatures may change by as much as 20 F (8 C)

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from the beginning of the event to the end, causing the snow to physically change as the race progresses. How snow falls will determine how it initially forms on the ground. Snow is classified into various types. Powder refers to the softest form of snow, and usually accumulates in a dense, packed formation, and when untracked, powder is a surface on which Alpine skiers find that they can execute turns, control their downhill speed, and generally hold their edges with greater ease. When powder has been skied on, it is described as ‘‘tracked out,’’ where the surface has various lumps and ruts that reduce some of the cushioning. When the snow has been subjected to a freeze and thaw cycle over a period of time, the snow surface may often have a crust of ice form on top, which also becomes more granular in its texture. The same freeze and thaw temperature cycle in reverse can produce an opposite result, slush, where the snow becomes wetter and heavier and makes skiing movement more difficult. The most challenging snow condition faced by both Alpine and Nordic skiers is ice, created where a soft or wet surface freezes; icy ski conditions are not 100% solid water, but are sufficiently hard to create an extremely slick ski terrain. Ski conditions will dictate the type of ski wax applied to the equipment of both Nordic and Alpine skiers, although the purpose of the wax is specific to each ski discipline. Ski waxes tend to be one of two general types: glide wax and kick wax. Wax for skis has a dual purpose, the primary of which is to create an optimum sliding surface between the snow and the ski. The secondary purpose behind the application of wax is to protect the surface of the ski from damage caused by the contact between the ski and the icy ruts and imperfections of the course. Glide waxes, in an almost infinite variety of formulations, are used by both Alpine and Nordic skiers. Most skis are subjected to some form of factory prewaxing; the skis will be subjected to very high-end waxing treatments in preparation for all training and competition runs. A number of glide waxes are applied through a heat process to create a better adhesion between the ski and the wax. The glide wax is generally composed of a mixture of either hydrocarbon (oil) byproducts, or a fluorocarbon base. Glide waxes function by creating a microscopically thin cushion of water between the ski and the surface as the skier races over the snow, which reduces the amount of friction between the ski and the surface. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SKIING, ALPINE

Knowing the current ski conditions enables skiers (downhill and cross-country) how to prepare for and approach the tactical decisions required for a particular course. AP PH OTO /THE LIVINGS TO N ENTERPRISE, ERIK PE TERSEN

Kick wax is a substance used exclusively by Nordic skiers to create a more effective skiing motion. The longer and thinner cross-country ski has two distinct areas that are often treated with different kinds of wax; how extensively the two types of wax are applied depends on whether the skier will be skiing in the classic style, where the skier moves the skis forward in alternating strides, or the modern skating style. Kick wax is applied to the ski surface under the boot bindings to make the ski move easily over the snow. On cold or very firm surfaces, the wax will be a hard wax, which permits a degree of grip onto the icy surface necessary to permit the skier to get the traction necessary to kick forward with every stride. When the snow is soft or wet, the wax substance will be a softer ‘‘klister’’ wax, which permits the skier to glide more efficiently in the heavier snow. In elite-level Nordic racing, the ski technician is a very valuable member of a ski team. The technician will often be required to change the waxes a number of times during an event to counter the changes in weather or snow conditions. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Skiing, Alpine; Skiing, freestyle; Skiing, Nordic (cross-country skiing).

SEE ALSO

Skiing, Alpine Alpine skiing includes all forms of the sport that involve skiing in mountain settings; the Alpine classification is derived from the Alps mountains of south central Europe where this form of skiing originated. Alpine skiing today is a popular recreational activity in any mountainous area of the world where there is snow. The competitive forms of Alpine skiing are especially popular in North America, in the Rocky Mountains and the ski areas of the northeastern United States, and throughout many European countries. Alpine skiing has a worldwide following through the annual World Cup ski circuit. The Alpine events at the quadrennial Winter Olympics are among the most popular of that competition.

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Due to the speed of the event, injuries in the downhill are often catastrophic in nature; concussion and serious knee injuries are common. AP P HO TO/ RUDI B LA HA

Competitive Alpine skiing is divided into a number of distinct pursuits, each of which has its own technical, equipment, and training requirements. There are few subjective aspects to any of the Alpine events—subject to the skier successfully negotiating preset gates placed on the course, the fastest competitor down the mountain will win the race. Alpine skiing comprises five separate events; many elite racers will compete in all of them. Alpine skiing is contested in both men’s and women’s categories. The downhill, like the 100-m sprints in track and field, is the most glamorous of the Alpine events. Dominated for decades by European skiers such as Jean Claude Killy of France and Franz Klammer of Austria, Canadian downhillers such as Ken Read and Steve Podborski, and American Picabo Street made the downhill a more international competition. An event that typifies courage, the downhill requires an intense adherence to technical form to both maximize speed (usually in excess of 60 mi/100 km per hour) and to keep the skier on the course.

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Due to the speed of the event, injuries in the downhill are often catastrophic in nature; concussion and serious knee injuries are common if the skier falls. The downhillers must be adept at three separate components of ski movement: starts, getting a strong push from the start gate at the top of the hill to obtain the highest speed as quickly as possible; turning, often on icy surfaces at high speeds as the skier takes an optimal line down the course; and gliding, where the skier creates an aerodynamic body position, known as a ‘‘tuck’’ to maintain speed and balance through the flatter sections of the course. The downhill racers often must land from jumps on the course, a technique that requires skiers to relax their body to absorb the force of the high-speed landing, while maintaining an efficient position and not compromising speed. The super giant slalom, known as the ‘‘super g,’’ is an Alpine skiing event that is a combination of the speed of the downhill and the more technical requirements of balance and negotiating gates that are WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SKIING, FREESTYLE

essential to the shorter slalom events. This race, like the downhill, will consist of one run down the mountain.

Skiing, freestyle

The giant slalom is a race course where the skier must negotiate a series of gates that require the skier to maintain speed, while in a low position to cut through the gates with a minimum of wasted effort. A missed gate is a disqualification. The race will be composed of two runs, with the skier’s total time the basis of the score.

It is a paradox of the world of winter sports that freestyle skiing, the most seemingly unstructured of the skiing disciplines, is judged almost entirely on a subjective basis. However, the Alpine and Nordic events, much more restricted in terms of technique and approach, are assessed by the most objective of measures: the clock.

The slalom is the shortest of the Alpine courses and the most technically demanding. The gates are placed closer to one another, and the skier must execute high-speed turns back and forth through each gate. Slalom skis are shorter than those used in super g and the downhill, to improve the maneuverability of the skier through the gates. Skiers are allowed to make contact with the gates so long at they do not avoid the gate: slalom skiers often use their shins and forearms to power through the obstacle with the minimum distance traveled, and they wear significant padding along the shins and forearms, as well as a full-face masked helmet to permit the skier to pass close to the gate without being injured by the contact. All Alpine ski events are relatively short in duration. For this reason, all Alpine disciplines have certain common training features. As with many elite disciplines, especially those where the competitive season is dictated by environmental conditions such as cold and snow fall, Alpine skiers have a well-defined training calendar of preseason and post-season training. Alpine skiers must have a strong upper body to generate drive with their poles and to counter the very powerful forces of the skis. Downhill racers will encounter significant g forces, the force of acceleration due to gravity, as they descend the course and execute turns; physical strength is required to adequately counter this effect. The leg movements made at high speed on the course require considerable explosive muscular ability, developed by various types of plyometrics exercises. The recovery time of alpine skiers is promoted through an aerobic exercise component. The ability of the skier to absorb the often extreme forces of the jumps and bounces created on an alpine course mandates intense attention to flexibility exercises. Stiff or otherwise unresponsive joints, particularly in the ankles, knees, and pelvis, will mean more force being directed into the body and detracting from the desired forward and efficient motion of the skier.

Cold-related illnesses and emergencies; Plyometrics; Range of motion; Ski conditions; Skiing, Nordic (cross-country skiing).

SEE ALSO


Freestyle skiing can trace its roots in the rebellion against the established structure of Alpine skiing in the 1960s. There arose a movement among skiers, particularly in North America, to have a competitive ski environment that permitted far greater freedom of expression among its athletes. Freestyle skiing first grew in a cult fashion in the northeastern United States’ mountains and the resorts of Quebec. The Canadian Freestyle Skiing Association was the first governing body in the nascent sport, formed in 1974. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) had been resistant to the inclusion of freestyle skiing in the Winter Olympics; the IOC expressed reservations that the sport was too dangerous. Nevertheless, the first Olympic freestyle competition was held in 1992, for both men and women, with the number of events available within the sport growing with each Olympics. Over 30 countries now have national governing bodies in freestyle skiing. Freestyle skiing has two general types of competition, and athletes tend to specialize in one area only. Moguls competition is a series of events where the competitor descends a steep hill that has a pitch of as much as 30 and has been artificially groomed with an asymmetrical series of bumps of unequal dimensions. The snow surface for the course is packed to make the skis move with as little friction as possible. As the skiers move down the hill, they are required to execute a series of jumps, twists, and other acrobatic maneuvers. Each maneuver is scored in terms of its degree of difficulty and complexity, as well as the speed with which the jump was executed. The total time taken to cover the entire course is also a factor in the mogul scoring system. Dual moguls events are conducted in the same fashion as single moguls, with two competitors descending side by side on the hill. Given the nature of the scoring for the jumps and other maneuvers, the first freestyler to descend the hill is not necessarily the winner of the event. The second freestyle ski discipline is that of aerial freestyle, or aerials. Aerial events require the skier to descend a steep hill and leap from a ramp to perform a predetermined maneuver. The skier is

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Freestyle ski jumping.

ª R AN DY F A RI S /COR BI S

judged by the level of difficulty of the jump, the technical execution of the jump, the quality of the landing, and artistic factors. Aerial freestylers are generally heralded as the glamour athletes in the freestyle world, as they will perform their routines in the air having left the ramp at speeds approaching 60 mph (100 km/h), with twisting body movements that may take them 50 ft (15 m) above the ground. The aerialist is required to land on a steep hill without losing balance. Freestyle skiers do not require a high level of classic skiing ability. An ideal mogul skier will possess excellent balance, leg and core strength to successfully negotiate the moguls, and an extremely well-developed sense of body control, to complete jumps and land on the uneven mogul surface in rapid fire succession. Aerial skiers must possess similar physical attributes as those in moguls, with an additional emphasis on extremely well-developed flexibility. The training required of a freestyle skier differs dramatically from that in which either Nordic or Alpine competitors will engage. Both forms of free-

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style skiing are high intensity sports, the moguls typically lasting as long as 90 seconds, and the aerial event approximately 20 seconds. The development of the athlete’s anaerobic energy systems is crucial. The range of motion required in the joints of a freestyle skier is profound. The ability to both generate the power necessary to jump explosively, coupled with making a soft landing to permit the skier to move on to the next element is essential. All freestyle skiers engage in significant stretching and flexibility training. Freestyle skiing is a sport where simulation is an essential training aid. An athlete can practice the various aerial maneuvers contemplated in both moguls and aerials on a trampoline; the trampoline represents a very safe and cost-effective way for an athlete to work on the performance components in a warm indoor environment. In a number of countries, summer freestyle ski training sites have been constructed, using an artificial snow surface on the jumping hill, with the skier landing in a pond of water. As with the trampoline training, the athlete may practice intensively with a reduced risk of injury. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SKIING, NORDIC (CROSS-COUNTRY SKIING)

Exercise, high intensity; Ski conditions; Skiing, Alpine; Skiing, Nordic (cross-country skiing); Plyometrics.

SEE ALSO

Skiing, Nordic (cross-country skiing) Modern Nordic skiing traces its roots to the ancient forms of transportation employed by Scandinavian people to travel across their snow-covered landscapes. Nordic skiing evolved into a series of distinct competitive disciplines in the late 1800s. Cross-country skiing is at the heart of Nordic competition; in both international and the Olympic Winter Games, the Nordic events also include the biathlon (skiing and rifle target shooting), ski jumping, and the Nordic combined event (cross-country skiing and ski jumping). Nordic skiing is administered through the international governing body for all skiing disciplines, the International Ski Federation (FIS). At its essence, cross-country skiing requires long, narrow skis with bindings that permit considerable flexibility in the movement of the foot, lightweight boots, ski poles, and clothing appropriate to the conditions; cross-country skiing can take place in conditions where the air temperature is above freezing, to those where the effect of wind chill may approach 40 F ( 40 C). The skis are designed to support the weight of the skier over their greater length, creating efficiency in movement through less resistance against the surface of the snow. The skis are not fixed boards, but each is constructed with a degree of flex, which permits the skier to push with the foot and receive energy from the ski in return; unlike a flat solid surface, the ski has a significant coefficient of restitution, a physical measure as to how much energy is returned by an object from an applied force. Modern cross-country skis are made of lightweight, composite carbon fiber and fiber glass materials for this reason. Ski conditions will vary tremendously from day to day, and occasionally from hour to hour, on a Nordic ski course, as temperatures and sunlight striking the snow fluctuate. Snow will generally be either a hard, icy surface or a softer, wetter compilation sometimes tending to slush. Specialized waxes are applied to the running surface of the skis to provide more efficient movement across the surface as well as providing the skiers with the ability to obtain a degree of traction against the surface as they stride forward. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Glide wax is often applied to the ski by way of a heat process to create maximum adhesion between the ski surface and the wax. Where the wax is applied to the surface of the ski and in what quantity it is applied are dictated by the ski conditions and the style of the skiing to be done, either classic technique or skating. Glide waxes are formulated to reduce the friction between the ski and the snow surface. Kick waxes are applied to provide the skier with grip against the snow surface. In classic ski technique, the skier strides forward with the skis moving parallel to one another. The skier strides with a kick motion, and the kick wax permits the ski to adhere to the surface long enough to create resistance, which in turn allows the skier to generate force to produce propulsion along the surface. In extremely icy conditions, a very thick wax called ‘‘klister’’ will be applied to the skis. Elite skiers and cross-country ski teams will have ski technicians, whose sole responsibility is to maintain the proper type of waxes for the prevailing conditions. Classic skiing represents the original means of cross-country skiing. The skier moves with the ski propelled in parallel; the binding permits the heel of the boot to be raised with each stride. Classic skiing is sometimes referred to as ‘‘kick and glide,’’ with the kicking motion of each foot complimented by the skier’s double pole technique, with the poles being pushed into the surface with each stride for extra forward movement and for balance. The modern form of cross country technique is the skating style. Skating skiers employ shorter skis and poles, and a motion where the skis, each positioned at approximately 30 of angle from the direction of travel, are pushed into the snow surface in a skating motion, with the poles driven into the surface in coordination. Skating permits the skier to go faster than in the classic discipline; most elite racers will compete in both types of events and, in international competition, there are races where the skier must use both techniques, with ski and equipment changes at a midway point. The biathlon requires the skier to complete a prescribed number of laps on a course with target shooting required between laps. There is a considerable physiological and mental challenge posed in this sport, as the skier, whose heart rate may exceed 170 beats per minute while skiing, must, through coordinated deep breathing, reduce the heart rate to permit accuracy in shooting at a target positioned 55 yd (50 m) distant. Ski jumping embraces an entirely different set of physical considerations. The athletes launch from a ramp that descends from the hill; the take-off

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Men skiing on the cross-country ski run during the first stage of the 2005 Nordic Skiing World Cup, in the western town of Du¨sseldorf, Germany. VO LKER H AR TMA NN /A FP /GE TTY IMA GE S

speed for an elite jumper will exceed 55 mph (90 km/h). The skiers then extend as far over the ski tips, positioned in a ‘‘V’’ formation. This aerodynamic body position maximizes the skiers’ degree of lift in the air; depending on the hill and the wind conditions, an elite jumper may travel as far as 135 yd (120 m) in the air. Cross-country skiing engages a number of important physiological considerations for the competitive racer. Fitness is crucial since cross-country skiing is a very demanding sport, requiring primarily welldeveloped endurance capabilities, including oxygen uptake, VO2max, to service the significant energy demands of movement. Strength-to-weight ratio is also important. Cross-country skiers are often relatively tall, to obtain a longer, more efficient stride and to secure optimal leverage with the ski poles. Crosscountry skiers must possess excellent overall muscular strength, with a measure of explosive sprint capability to sprint at the end of the races. Hydration is an important consideration as crosscountry skiers will build up significant heat production and corresponding perspiration loss through the demands of the sport even in very cold temperatures. Also, acclimatization to cold and difficult conditions is essential.

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Nordic cross-country ski competitions have a variety of events, from relay races to shorter sprint distances 5 km and 10 km, to the longest World Cup and Olympic event, 20 km. The courses are often designed to include significant uphill and downhill segments. Most elite cross-country skiers will compete in both classic and skating disciplines. Norway has won the most championships of any country in cross-country skiing, with Finland, Sweden, Russia, Germany, and Italy all recognized world powers in both men’s and women’s racing. While cross-country skiing is at one level an elemental battle between skier and snowy course, there have been a number of doping incidents in international championships. Blood doping is the artificial enhancement of the athlete’s erythrocyte (red blood cell) levels to create a greater ability to transport oxygen within the blood stream. Common techniques involve either the administration of a synthetic version of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), which governs red blood cell production within the body, or through the intravenous transfusion of another person’s enriched blood. Blood doping was the cause of a disqualification of members of the Finnish Nordic team at the 2002 Winter Olympics. In 2006 at the Turin Olympics, Russian skier Olga Pyleva was WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SKIN AND MUSCLE BLOOD FLOW DURING EXERCISE

stripped of her silver medal in cross country when the banned stimulant carphedon was detected in her system.

Blood doping; Ski conditions; Skiing, Alpine; Skiing, freestyle.

SEE ALSO

Skiing, water Skin injuries

SEE

SEE

Water skiing

Abrasions, cuts,

lacerations

Skin and muscle blood flow during exercise The skin is the body’s largest organ, accounting for approximately 15% of the body mass of the average adult. The skeletal muscles are the largest collection of common structures, totaling 40% of the body mass. The skin and the skeletal muscles are each significantly affected by blood flow during exercise. The skin is composed of two defined parts, the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis is the outer covering of the body, acting as both a shield against foreign objects that might enter the various bodily systems, as well as insulation and support for the internal organs and tissues. The dermis is located below the epidermis, and contains the capillaries, the blood vessels that provide the tissue with its necessary nutrients, the subcutaneous glands that release oils and perspiration from the skin, and the roots for human hair. During exercise, the dermis is immediately affected by changes in blood flow. Skeletal muscles are the source of power for all skeletal movement by the body through their contraction, which is stimulated through a complex interplay of nerve impulses. Skeletal muscles also assist in the support of the entire bodily structure. The individual muscles are each composed of a series of fibers, arranged into bundles of various sizes. The muscle fibers contain cells where the energy-to-power movement is produced. These cells are supplied with oxygen and nutrients, such as glucose or fatty acids, through the capillaries that extend directly into the muscle. The blood also removes the waste products that occur through energy production in the muscle cells. Each muscle fiber is encircled with three or four capillaries. When the body is performing with efficiency, oxygen and nutrients are carried to the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

muscle cells by the blood at the same rate with which waste carbon dioxide and other metabolites are removed. An increase in blood flow is described as active hyperemia. The effect of exercise on the flow of blood within the body is progressive. To accommodate the demands for oxygen, the heart will begin to beat faster and to pump more powerfully. An increased heart rate will stimulate increased blood pressure within the cardiovascular system as well as increased blood volume to counter the demands of exercise. Depending on external factors such as temperature and other environmental conditions, the thermoregulatory system of the body will seek to achieve a balance between the maintenance of the body’s core temperature and the release of perspiration to cool the body. These functions cause blood to be directed toward the surface of the skin. The warm blood from the internal areas is cooled through this exchange; perspiration causes a reduction in blood volume over time unless the fluids are replaced. In warm weather conditions, as much as 30% of the cardiac output goes to direct the flow of blood to the skin for cooling; the evaporation of perspiration will act to reduce body temperature. The control of the capillaries that expand and contract in the process of increasing and decreasing blood flow to the skin is determined through the nerve structures connected to the autonomic nervous system, the specialized regulation by the brain of a number of essential body functions. In cold conditions [when the body is exposed to temperatures that fall below 40 F (4 C), the autonomic nervous system will seek to maintain the warmth of the vital internal organs, and blood will correspondingly be directed away from the extremities and the skin surface to the internal organs. In such circumstances, the skin temperature will fall and the skin, both the epidermis and the underlying dermis, becomes vulnerable to freezing, leading to the injury known as frostbite. When the body is at rest, approximately 20% of the cardiac output is directed to the maintenance of blood flow to the skeletal muscles. The rate of skeletal muscle blood flow in the body’s resting state is 3 ml/minute per 100 mg of muscle mass. Very shortly after the start of exercise, the blood flow rate to the muscle will increase by as much as 20 times the resting rate. In sports such as swimming, cross-country skiing, or running, where the entire body and almost all skeletal muscles are working in some capacity, the cardiac output directed to the skeletal muscles approaches 80%. There is a rough correlation

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between blood flow increases and the increase in the amount of oxygen consumed during exercise.

speeds approaching 700 mph (1,100 km/h) over a desert in New Mexico.

The increased blood flow is directed through a cardiovascular device known as the skeletal muscle pump. The veins that direct the spent arterial blood back to the heart and lungs are constructed with a one-directional valve that promotes venous return, permitting the body to recycle and recharge the blood more quickly.

Sky diving requires primary importance to be placed upon the safety of every participant. In the United States, a prospective skydiver must be a minimum of 18 years of age (16 years of age if they have the permission of a parent or guardian to make a jump). The subject must also obtain a certificate of physical fitness from a physician, and all sky divers must complete a training program known in most jurisdictions as a first jump course. The first jump will generally take one of two training formats, a tandem free fall jump, or an instant opening/static line jump. In a tandem free fall jump, the student and instructor jump together from the aircraft at an altitude of approximately 10,000 ft (3,000 m), attached to the same parachute system. The two persons enter free fall (where they are pulled without restriction towards the earth by the force of gravity) for approximately 30–50 seconds, when the parachute is activated. In a instant opening jump, the student jumps and the parachute opens immediately upon the student exiting the aircraft.

Blood volume; Cardiovascular system; Cold weather exercise; Muscle cramps.

SEE ALSO

Sky diving Sky diving is the sport form of parachuting, an activity defined as the controlled descent of a person to the surface of the earth from an aircraft, using a parachute to control the rate of descent. Sky diving is often grouped with sports such as bungee jumping and para-gliding, activities which are often described as the aerial extreme sports. The history of parachute jumping pre-dates the modern concept of extreme sport by several hundred years. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), the noted Renaissance inventor and artist, designed a parachute intended for use in the rescue of persons from burning buildings. A number of French balloonists experimented with parachutes from heights of over 2,000 ft (600 m) beginning in the late 1780s. With the advent of powered aircraft in the early part of the twentieth century, parachuting became a important component of military troop deployment, tactics, and aircrew safety. The paratrooper is a specialized soldier used in a wide number of combat roles in present day military operations. The first sport parachuting competition was held in Yugoslavia in 1951. Sky diving, like most extreme sports, places a far greater emphasis upon the personal experiences of the participant, as they seek to achieve a personal goal, rather than focusing on the attainment of a competitive objective. Sky divers have established a number of records that are a testament to human endurance. The most notable example is that of the parachute jump from the greatest height ever recorded. In 1960 Col. Joseph Kittinger of the United States Air Force traveled 102,800 ft (31,000 m), a fall that lasted approximately 4.8 minutes, in which Kittinger reached

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A significant aspect of sky diving is the execution of group parachute jumps, where the participants seek to create different shaped formations in the air as they fall. The group formation divers wear skin-tight jump suits to reduce the effect of drag on their bodies as they fall through the air. During the period prior to the activation of their parachutes by the sky divers, the formation moves in a group free fall. Drag is the force created upon any body moving through the air; skydivers will also reduce the effect of drag in the creation and maintenance of the shape of the desired formation during descent, by altering the profile of their bodies as they descend. These sky divers will reach speeds of approximately 100 mph (190 km/h) prior to the deployment of their parachutes. At several locations through out the world, wind tunnels are utilized by sky divers to simulate the conditions experienced by a skydiver as they descend in free fall. Sky divers often describe their sport with any number of adjectives that convey the excitement of the rush towards the earth’s surface; exhilarating and breath-taking are two that are commonly employed. The determination of the physical fitness of the participants centers on the healthy function of the subject’s cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems. The risks associated with sky diving are WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SLEEP

Two men skydiving.

ª DAVID MADIS ON /ZE FA /CO RB IS

more often identified with substandard safety practices both in flight and at the drop zone, such as the proximity of trees or power lines to the descending sky diver. In the United States, there are approximately 15 sky diving fatalities for every one million jumps annually. An important physical skill learned by sky divers is the absorption of the forces generated on landing. A favored technique is the entering into a sideways roll immediately upon impact, with the hands and arms kept close the sky diver’s torso. This technique is known as the parachute roll; if the landing forces are not absorbed effectively, the skydiver risks serious injury to the feet and lower legs. If the skydiver is overweight, the risk of forces at impact causing injury are magnified accordingly.

Balance training and proprioception; Environmental conditions and training; Motor control.

SEE ALSO


Slam dunk

SEE

Basketball: Slam dunk

Slapshot

SEE Ice hockey: Slapshot velocity and hockey stick technology

Sleep Sleep is as essential to health as air, food, and water. Human performance, in everyday life and in sports, will depend on the quality and the regularity of sleep. From a technical perspective, sleep may be defined as the natural state of rest where the person sustains a partial or complete loss of consciousness. The body during sleep is less responsive to external stimuli, and the brain activity is altered during sleep, where the brain sometimes engages in dreams.

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The second factor governing sleep patterns is the circadian biological clock, sometimes referred to as the body’s circadian rhythms. The circadian biological clock tells the body when it is most alert and when it is required to sleep. These rhythms are governed by the hypothalamus, the region of the brain that governs a diverse group of functions, including body temperature, hormonal release, and how the body responds to light and darkness. Most adults experience their most powerful desire to sleep between 2:00 a.m. and 4:00 a.m., with a lesser rhythm present between 1:00 p.m. 3:00 p.m. daily. Circadian rhythms are not constant; external factors such as prior sleep quality and jet lag will disrupt the rhythms. The desire to nap during the course of a given day is tied in part to the presence of the rhythms; the afternoon siesta that is a part of the culture of many warm-weather countries is consistent with these natural rhythms.

Stanford University student being monitored for heart rate and temperature during a flight from California to Tokyo as part of a study on jet lag. ª LOU IE P S I HOY OS/ COR BI S

The primary purposes of sleep are to rest the body, to permit the repair of musculoskeletal tissues, and for the body to generally recover from the stresses imposed on it during the waking hours. The amount of sleep that an individual requires will vary from person to person; as a general proposition, an adolescent will requires over nine hours of sleep per day, a consequence of their body’s growth. An adult typically requires between seven and nine hours of sleep per night. Persons who are active in sports will generally require a greater quality, if not quantity, of sleep each night. The effectiveness and the duration of sleep is governed by two distinct factors. Sleep/wake homeostasis is balance that the body strives to maintain between its wakefulness and sleep as a restorative process. When the body has been subjected to a very demanding period of activity, it will seek to have the sleep period be one of corresponding quality and duration to achieve homeostasis (balance).

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Sleep can be disrupted by a multitude of conditions, some of which are a consequence of physical illness or disease, others more transient and often environmental in nature. Snoring, which disrupts the quality of sleep for both the snorer and any sleep partner, can be caused by a number of physical factors; overweight persons tend to snore more frequently. Medications, particularly those that have a steroid in their formulation, may disrupt sleep. Caffeine consumption (or other stimulants) artificially counters the effects of fatigue, the body’s natural signal to rest. Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant, creating an artificial desire to sleep and a disruption of the body’s cycle. Jet lag is the well-known expression for the effect on the circadian biological clock caused by travel to different global time zones. Jet lag can be particularly disruptive to the achievement of peak athletic performance. The athlete’s body, which may be accustomed to afternoon or evening performance times, is essentially tricked by the imposition of a lengthy time difference. Jet lag generally affects athletes who are competing in a time zone more than four hours apart from their home time zone. Restless leg syndrome is a nervous system condition where the legs move spasmodically through sleep, affecting sleep quality. Another condition, sleep apnea, is a breathing disorder that creates temporary obstructions of breath as the sleeper inhales and exhales. In a rare worst-case scenario, sleep apnea could lead to a cardiopulmonary disruption; sleep apnea contributes to poor quality sleep. Nocturia is a need to urinate at night; a number of kidney WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SLEEP DEPRIVATION AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE

disorders and medication side effects will disrupt the sleep of persons in this fashion.

impaired operation of a motor vehicle in most countries of the world.

Sleep inertia is a condition that may arise in persons who enjoy a full night’s sleep. In some persons, sleep inertia can create a state where the person suffers from an impairment of the cognitive abilities that may last as long as two hours upon awakening. The portion of the brain responsible for the formulation of plans and the solving of problems, the prefrontal cortex, does not reach an active level at the same speed as other parts of the brain. Caffeine, through coffee, is the typical manner in which people counter the effects of sleep inertia.

The physiological effects of sleep deprivation on athletic performance are profound. They include an impairment of the athlete’s motor function. The inability of the athlete to control all aspects of muscular movement will result almost invariably in substandard sports performance. Examples include races such as the hurdles, which depends on the fluid combination of power and the striding over each hurdle, or sports where the athlete must coordinate a series of movements in rapid succession, a drive to the basket in basketball or the pole vault. As a consequence, the risk of injury to the sleep-deprived athlete is significantly greater than normal.

Exhaustion; Fatigue; Fitness; Health; Sleep deprivation and sports performance.

SEE ALSO

Sleep deprivation and sports performance All humans are biologically programmed to require sleep, as essential as air, food, and water. The demands of sports training and competition make good, regular, and restful sleep even more important. No athlete can ever realize his or her true sport potential unless their sleep is as vigorously pursued as all other aspects of the athletic life. Sleep deprivation is not one or two nights of inadequate rest. Sleep deprivation is also referred to as a cumulative sleep debt, the product of ingrained sleep habits. Adolescents who normally require over nine hours of sleep per night to accommodate the growth processes ongoing in their bodies will often desire even more sleep if they are participating in sports. Athletic adults of all ages require more sleep than the general requirement for inactive persons of between seven and nine hours of sleep per night. The physical effects of sleep deprivation have been the subject of considerable scientific study, particularly as the condition might affect shift workers, or doctors and nurses working very long shifts in an environment when an error due to fatigue might have fatal consequences. As a general rule, when a person has remained awake for periods of 24 hours, the ability to perform relatively basic mathematic problem solving and memory skills will diminish by over 20%. Another comparison is the condition of a sleepdeprived person and someone whose motor skills are significantly impaired by the consumption of alcohol; sleep deprivation is similar to a blood alcohol level reading that will support the criminal offense of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Another effect is an impairment of the athlete’s visual reaction time. In sports where the athlete must react to an object, such as a hockey goaltender or a cricket batsman, this impairment will mean the difference between success and failure. Until 2005, major league baseball turned a blind eye to the widespread use by its players of stimulants such as amphetamines. These drugs were a preferred method through which players could combat the sleep deprivation and fatigue caused by back-to-back games and extensive travel, that would otherwise impair reaction time. Sleep deprivation also causes delays in an athlete’s auditory reaction, such as the reaction to a starter’s pistol or a teammate calling out information during a game. There is general impairment of an athlete’s tactical and decision-making capabilities. As for aerobic performance and endurance, the storage, conversion and metabolism of glucose as an energy source are decreased through sleep deprivation. It is estimated that glucose metabolism will deteriorate in a period of seven to 10 days of limited sleep by as much as 30% to 40%. In addition to the limitations that sleep deprivation will impose on physical performance, this condition will impair the ability of the body to properly store the glycogen necessary to provide the body with reserves to use during vigorous training or competition. The psychological effects of sleep deprivation on an athlete are as profound as its impacts on the body. A sleep-deprived athlete will often believe he or she is even more fatigued than they actually demonstrate, with all of the usual symptoms of fatigue exaggerated in the mind of the athlete. Absence of sleep will also trigger the endocrine system to produce greater levels of cortisol, the hormone sometime referred to as the stress hormone, an adverse effect on mood. With cortisol, and the other physiological consequences of

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sleep deprivation, the athlete will often feel irritable and short-tempered.

supplement by various factions of the weight training and body building community.

Overtraining is a well-known athletic condition where an athlete overreaches in the training objectives for a period of time, either through excessive training volume, intensity, or both. If an athlete is deprived of proper sleep, the overtraining syndrome may occur on a much smaller work volume or intensity, because the body’s lack of proper sleep reduces the maximum that it can safely endure.

Smilax also contains various flavanoids, which are phytochemicals with antioxidant properties, substances that protect the body from the actions of free radicals. These radicals are commonly oxygen molecules (O2) that have one or more pairs of electrons absent from their structure, making them chemically unstable. The radicals seek to obtain their absent electrons from otherwise stable cells, rendering that cell unstable and in turn forcing it to ‘‘steal’’ necessary electrons from a neighboring cell, a process that will touch off a chain reaction in a larger group of cells, resulting in permanent damage to the cell structure. Antioxidants act as scavengers among the free radicals they encounter. Through the donation of their own electrons, the antioxidants render the radical neutral.

When sleep deprivation has affected an athlete, the remedy is not so simple as one or two good sleeps, although such a development is a start. The athlete must incorporate sleep in properly defined measures into the training program as with any other training component. In typical cases, sleep deprivation can be completely addressed within a few weeks of proper attention. SEE ALSO

Exhaustion; Fatigue; Motor control; Sleep.

Slow pitch

SEE

Softball: Slow pitch vs.

the fast pitch

Smilax Smilax is the name given to a number of different varieties of climbing vines that grow throughout South America, the Caribbean, and parts of North America. The variant known as Smilax medica produces a root that is widely reputed as a highly effective herbal medicine. Smilax is also known as sarsaparilla, which is distinct from the well-known flavoring for root beer; the smilax root is essentially tasteless if consumed in its natural form. Among the indigenous peoples of South America, smilax was employed in the treatment of headaches, and as a counter to general physical weakness, sexual impotence, joint pain, and skin diseases such as dermatitis. Smilax was later regarded as a powerful blood purifier by European explorers who had contact with native medicines; smilax was particularly renowned as a cure for syphilis. Modern scientific research with respect to smilax have confirmed the presence of saponin, a type of plant steroid, which is believed to be theoretically capable of synthesis by the body into either testosterone or estrogen, the male and female sex hormones. Saponin is also found in the tribulus herb, which is also touted as a strength

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Smilax became known as a dietary supplement on the basis of the erroneous belief that it would be converted into testosterone within the body. Smilax is marketed extensively in the strength training and bodybuilding community on this premise. There is currently no scientific evidence in support of the theory of testosterone or estrogen conversion; smilax has no known side effects associated with its use.

Chinese ginseng; Dietary supplements; Ephedra; Herbs.

SEE ALSO

Snowboarding Snowboarding is a winter sport in which a person glides, turns, and jumps on snow using a board that is reminiscent of a surfboard. Unlike a surfer, the snowboarder remains attached to the board by wearing special boots that are secured to the board via bindings. Snowboarding has its roots in the 1960s, when a popular winter toy called the ‘‘Snurfer’’ was invented. Essentially a very wide, short ski with an attached rope handle, the Snurfer enabled the rider to balance and ride downhill. One of the early users of the Snurfer was Jake Burton. His refinements of the Snurfer produced today’s version of the snowboard. Burton snowboards remain one of the sport’s most popular brands. In the early 1980s, snowboarding had appeared, but was still a fringe pastime. By the middle of the decade, the sport exploded in popularity. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SNOWBOARDING

Snowboarding first appeared in the 1998 Olympic Games in Nagano.

There are a variety of snowboard styles. The typical recreational snowboarder moves down the hill in a series of S-shaped curves, alternately shifting his or her body weight forward and backward to carve through the snow using the edges of the board. This type of snowboarding is known as alpine snowboarding. Many snowboarders will also incorporate jumps into their run. Most snowboarding facilities have a terrain park, an installation that houses snow mounds that are used as jumps and various types of rails that the snowboarders can ride up on and attempt to maintain their balance as they traverse. A terrain park is similar to a skateboard facility, where the rails and jumps allow for various jumps, spins, and other maneuvers. The latter include a 360 spin performed while sliding along the snow, a spin done while airborne, and grabbing the raised tail of the snowboard while airborne. This more adventurous snowboarding is called freestyle. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª M I KE P OWELL /COR BI S

Still other snowboarders called freeriders will forgo the prepared terrain of a resort for the natural challenge of snowboarding down unprepared slopes. Snowboarding through glades of trees and through deep powder snow adds to the challenge of freeriding, which is usually the domain of accomplished snowboarders. Competitive snowboarding events now include high-speed runs down the mountain, similar to downhill or giant slalom races in skiing, as well as events where the aim is to successfully accomplish as many jumps, spins, and flips as possible while negotiating a ‘‘half-pipe’’—a bowl-shaped run with steep-walled sides. Snowboarders can also race down a prepared course as a group with the object of not only completing the course in the quickest time, but also avoiding collisions with fellow competitors. All these forms of snowboarding are now Olympic medal sports. As with skis, the design of snowboard equipment reflects their intended use. A freestyle snowboard

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tends to be shorter, wider, and more flexible along its length than other boards, to make maneuvers easier to do. The board is symmetrical, with both ends being the same. Either end can be the leading end. An alpine snowboard is meant to proceed in a certain orientation, similar to a ski. The board is not symmetrical in design; the tail is narrower than the tip. Still, the board can be ridden with the tail pointed downhill (a position referred to in the jargon of the sport as ‘‘Fakie’’). Those snowboarders who crave a high-speed run will tend to use a narrower snowboard. These socalled race boards look much like a very wide ski. Their narrower design allows the rider to quickly shift weight from one edge to the other, which is essential to maintain control when moving quickly down the hill. The placement of the feet can differ also. Freestyle snowboarders often opt to position both feet parallel to each other and perpendicular to the long axis of the board, to permit either end of the board to initiate a turn. In contrast, alpine snowboarders will tend to use one foot preferentially as the leading foot, angling that foot with the toes pointed slightly toward the front of the snowboard to provide more stability and control. Alpine snowboarders typically wear boots that are stiffer than other snowboard boots, also to provide increased stability. Snowboard boots are fixed to the board by means of bindings. There are two binding designs. Both have a back plate that extends upward to provide support to the back of the foot and lower leg. In one design called the strap binding, the boots are physically strapped in after being positioned in the binding. This binding provides a very stable support. Strap bindings differ in rigidity and height of the back plate, depending on their use. For example, the increased control provided by a higher back plate is desirable for higher speed turns. The second binding design automatically secures the boot in place as the snowboarder steps down. While eliminating the need to manually strap in the boots, the step-in binding does not provide as much stability and control of the snowboard. Another recommended piece of snowboard equipment is a helmet. Indeed, many resorts no longer permit snowboarders access to the hill unless they wear a helmet. Optional equipment includes padding on the knees, wrists, hips, and gluteus. SEE ALSO

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Snowboarding injuries.

Snowboarding injuries The sport of snowboarding can be traced to the invention of a device known as a snurfer, created in the United States in the 1960s. By the 1990s, the snowboarding was the fastest growing winter sport in North America. With the growth in snowboard popularity, there was a parallel rise in the incidence of snowboard injuries. Most snowboard injuries are caused by mechanisms unique to the characteristics of the snowboard and the corresponding movement of the user (often referred to as a ‘‘boarder’’). As many people who take up snowboarding are attracted to its apparently freewheeling and less structured style, there has been traditionally less attention paid to both snowboard instruction and the use of safety equipment. Snowboarding also has a decidedly acrobatic element; many ski resorts have constructed specially designed half pipes and similar layouts to permit snowboarders to practice aerial maneuvers. Snowboarding has been a popular Winter Olympics sport since its introduction in 1998, with a variety of individual disciplines contested in men’s and women’s categories. Events such as the half pipe competition are scored subjectively; the giant slalom and snowboarder cross are races where the winner is the athlete with the fastest time to complete the course. Contemporary snowboards are usually constructed from a fiberglass or composite material board that has two defined edges. The board surface has a measure of flexibility in its construction, and the board is accordingly capable of absorbing a degree of the forces directed into it. Unlike a conventional Alpine ski binding, the snowboard bindings do not release to permit the boarder’s foot to become detached from the board during a run. The boots worn by the boarder are one of three styles–hard, soft, and hybrid. The soft boot is the most common style worn by recreational snowboarders, as it permits the boarder a measure of flexibility in their ankles as they maneuver the board. Hard boots are favored for performance and elite racing; the hybrid includes characteristics of both hard and soft boots. The most common snowboard injury are those sustained to the wrist and surrounding bone structure. As the bindings of the snowboard do not permit the feet of the boarder to be released if the boarder loses their balance during a run, many boarders instinctively react by thrusting out their hand and arm as they fall, causing a significant force to be directed into the wrist. It is this mechanism that causes almost all of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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(upper arm) and the scapula (shoulder blade)], may become dislocated. This injury arises when the force of the impact directed into the boarder’s outstretched arm radiates into the shoulder. The boarder may also sustain a separation of the clavicle (collarbone) and the acromion, the bony segment located at the top of the scapula, a circumstance known as an AC joint injury, or separated shoulder. Ankle and lower leg injuries are relatively common in snowboarding; the nature of the injury will depend to a large degree upon the type of boot worn. Boarders who favor soft boots will sustain ankle injuries, usually sprains of the ligament sets that connect the talus (ankle bone) to the tibia, fibula (the bones of the lower leg), or calcaneus (heel bone). Fractures of the ankle are not common in snowboarding unless the boarder strikes another object while riding. When the boarder wears hard boots, the twisting forces sustained by the ankle joint that can cause an ankle injury to the soft boot boarder are directed by the hard boot into the boarder’s knee, exposing the boarder to knee ligament injury. In most cases, the knee is not a prime injury target; unlike Alpine skiing, there is little independent twisting motion in the knee as the board is propelled; the boarder’s entire body tends to twist in unison with the board as it moves across the snow. In the 1990s, snowboarding was the fastest growing winter sport in North America—along with that came a growing incidence of snowboarding injuries. ª JONNY LE F ORTUNE /ZEFA/C ORBIS

the wrist injuries that occur in snowboarding. The typical damage sustained to the wrist in a fall ranges from a sprain of the ligaments that connect the ulnar and the radius bones of the forearm at the wrist joint, to a single or multiple fracture of one of the many small bones of the wrist joint. One bone that is particularly vulnerable to fracture in this fashion is the scaphoid bone, located in the wrist immediately below the thumb joint. Scaphoid injuries are sometimes not discernable from x ray; due to its structure, if the scaphoid is fractured there will be a disruption of the blood supply to the bone, with the potential result of necrosis, or bone death. It is the same type of fall with an outstretched arm and resulting impact that is the cause of the second most common type of snowboard injury, those occurring in the shoulder joints. The largest of the shoulder joints, the scapulohumeral joint [the structure created by the meeting of the humerus WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Spinal injuries are not common in snowboarding beyond the bruising of the buttocks due to hard falls. In extreme cases, snowboarders have sustained compression fracture injuries to the spine, where the forces of falling have been directed into the lumbar (low back) vertebrae with sufficient force to fracture the vertebrae. Head injuries most commonly occur when a snowboarder strikes another object, such as a tree or natural obstruction, or where the boarder fails to properly execute an aerial maneuver and lands on their head. Helmets, which are not always worn by recreational boarders, reduce much of the risk of serious head injury. In addition to the different types of boots, a number of different kinds of specialized snowboard safety equipment have been devised in recent years. Wrist protectors, fashioned as a support and guard for each hand, protect snowboarders from wrist and shoulder injuries in the event of a fall. Along with the use of wrist protection, snowboarders are encouraged to use the ‘‘parachute roll’’ where the boarder learns to fall with their hands and arms close to the body, to reduce the degree of force directed into the wrist and shoulder.

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As important as the safety equipment is the level of physical fitness of the boarder. Snowboarding, with its absence of many of the formal rules and conventions of other sports, possesses one common element with other sports with respect to injury prevention—fitness, particularly as developed through strength and flexibility. Fitness is the best protection a boarder has in avoiding injury.

In cricket, each batsman faces a bowler for the segment of the match known as an over, an interval in which six balls are bowled at the same wicket, after which the bowler delivers the balls at the opposite wicket to the other batsman. Sobers was the first man to hit all six balls in an over beyond the boundary of the playing field, scoring six for each ball, the maximum score available in a single hit.

Musculoskeletal injuries; Ski conditions; Skiing, Alpine; Wrist injuries.

Sobers was also regarded as one of the finest athletes ever to play cricket, possessed of excellent reflexes and speed in the field when ever he was called upon to make a play on a batted ball.

Sir Garfield St. Aubrun Sobers

Sobers reputation was strongest as a batsman, but he also had a significant reputation as a bowler. Sobers, who was left handed, was generally regarded as a medium to fast bowler, with mastery over a number of different deliveries. Sobers best type of ball was the bowling referred to as a ‘chinaman,’ a variation of the googly. The googly is a deceptive ball, as opposed to one that is intended to overpower a batsman. It is thrown by a right handed bowler in a manner that upon striking the pitch, the ball appears as if it will make a leg break (a break in the direction away from a right handed batsman); the googly instead breaks in towards the body of the batsman (an off break).

SEE ALSO

7/28/1936– BARBADIAN (BAJAN) CRICKET PLAYER

Garfield Sobers is one of the great players in the history of cricket. An all rounder, Sobers was an able batsman, bowler, and fielder who could adapt his style of play to any circumstance. Sobers was the lynch-pin of the West Indies international teams from 1952 to 1974. As a batsman, Sobers was renowned as an aggressive player who was not afraid to play an attacking game. In cricket, batsman are usually classified as those that produce runs and those that bat defensively, working to protect the wicket while their batting partner produces runs. Sobers often positioned himself at the very edge of the batsman’s crease when awaiting the ball, standing as close to the bowler as is legally permitted. Sobers batting technique was so well developed that the shortened distance between himself and a very fast bowler did not impair his ability to stroke a fast bowled ball. A common tactic in cricket bowling is to begin a match with the team’s fast bowlers, (the pace bowlers) and follow their speed with the changes of paces and unpredictable ball movement that is in the arsenal of the spin bowlers. Sobers was the rare cricket batsman who could hit fast bowling and spin bowling with equal ability. Sobers prowess as a batsman is reflected in the cricket record books. In 1960 versus Pakistan, Sobers scored a record 365 runs not out (meaning that Sobers was not out when the last run of the game had been scored). This record was not broken for 24 years. Sobers was known primarily as a powerful batsman, with the dexterity generated by supple wrists to use a flick type stroke to control the direction in which the ball was hit with considerable precision.

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A chinaman (the term is a reference to the first player ever to thrown this type of ball) is the same type of ball as a googly, except it is thrown by a left handed bowler. The ball is thrown with the fingers of the bowler placed across the single seam of a cricket ball to impart the desired spin. The chinaman is thrown with a medium velocity (approximately 70 mph (110 km/h), in contrast to the fast bowling speeds of over 100 mph (160 km/h). It is similar in its movement to that of a screw ball in baseball. Sobers, as an all rounder, made contributions to his teams in every respect. While playing for South Australia as a professional, Sobers once batted over 1000 runs and took 50 wickets as a bowler in two seasons, a double that has never been achieved on one occasion by any other player in the elite Australian league. He was the captain of the West Indies cricket sides for 16 years during his career. He was a cricketer who seemed to inspire awe tinged with immense respect, as Sobers was regarded as a consummate sportsman. On number of occasions during his career, Sobers called himself out on a play where the umpire had not made such a signal, as Sobers knew that he had made a play that the umpire could not have observed. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Sobers status in the cricket world was the basis for his knighthood by Queen Elizabeth in 1975. Sobers was declared a National Hero by the country of Barbados in 1998.

Cricket; Cricket batting; Cricket: The physics of how the ball is bowled.

SEE ALSO

Soccer To its worldwide following of fans who number in the hundreds of millions, soccer is ‘‘the beautiful game.’’ Soccer is the world’s most popular sport, the only game is played at an elite competitive level in every country on Earth. A large measure of soccer’s appeal is its simplicity. Played on a large field, with 11 players per side, the object of soccer is straightforward: to direct the ball with either the feet or one’s head into the opponent’s goal. The rules of the game are equally direct, establishing in the single referee the absolute and final authority for matters on the field. While physical size and speed are useful attributes in a soccer player, another aspect of the popularity of soccer is that anyone can play the game, and while age may diminish a player’s speed or ball-handling skills, soccer can be a competitive pursuit at any age. Soccer has likely been played in one form or another in many cultures over the centuries, as the act of kicking an object is a natural one. Soccer as an organized sport began in England in the mid-1800s, both as a school competition and among workingmen for recreation. The Football Association, the world’s oldest governing body for soccer, was formed in England in 1872. The Laws of the Game, as propagated by the Football Association, have remained the rules bedrock on which soccer has enjoyed its worldwide development. The first international play took place among the countries of the British Isles, and by 1900, the game was being played widely throughout Europe. Soccer enjoys the tradition built in many very prestigious professional leagues, particularly in Europe; the European soccer governing body, UEFA, is a very influential organization in its own right, with over 50 member countries and their national soccer associations. All of the interest in international soccer reaches a crescendo in the glamorous and intense, often super-heated environment created through the quadrennial World Cup, and the over two years of qualifying play downs that precede the selection of the 32-team field. The interWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

national game, both at the World Cup as well as in any regional championships such as the European Cup or African Cup, is ultimately conducted in accordance with the rules of the Federation Internationale de Football Associations (FIFA). The governing body of international soccer rivals the International Olympic Committee (IOC) for the claim to being the most powerful sports governing body in the world. The field on which soccer is played is as simply configured as the game itself. The field, or pitch as it is called in Europe, is a rectangular shape; in international play, the field must measure a minimum of 110 yd to 120 yd in length (100–110 m), with a minimum width of 64 yds to a maximum of 75 yd (70–82 m). Each of the outside boundaries is patrolled by a linesman, who determines whether the ball has gone out of play. These officials also advise the referee as to whether a particular play is offside. The goal is also rectangular, 24 ft wide by 8 ft high (7.3 m by 2.4 m). An 18 yd (16.5 m) penalty area is marked in another rectangle on the field adjacent to the goal; for fouls committed by a defensive player within this area, a penalty kick is awarded and the ball placed for a single penalty shot from a mark 12 yd (11 m) from the goal. By FIFA rule, international soccer has been played on natural turf surfaces only. Earlier generation artificial surfaces tended to cause the ball to bounce more than was desirable; the plastic turf also posed the significant risk of abrasions to players who slid to make a tackle or goalkeepers making a save. FIFA have authorized the testing of the softer, newer generation artificial surfaces, with a view to integrating these surfaces into FIFA competitions, as FIFA recognizes that natural turf cannot be properly maintained in some climates. Soccer, like rugby and basketball, is a sport where the successful player must have command of a broad athletic skill set, irrespective of the position played. The player must have a base level of endurance that will permit the athlete to run for a full 90minute game, with often intense bursts of running and other physical activity interspersed within that period. The goalkeeper is often a tall and very agile athlete, with well-developed hand-eye coordination and the ability to anticipate offensive strategy. The defenders are often the largest players on the field; they must be able to run with the position’s speedy forwards, to clear the ball from the defensive zone with either a ‘‘header’’ or a clearing kick, as well as being able to make a strong and accurate pass while under opposing player pressure.

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Soccer is a sport where the individual technical components can be broken down into discrete parts for training and improvement. Those basic areas are dribbling, in which the control of the ball by the individual player is a precondition to success in a dynamic 11-player team concept. Dribbling a soccer ball is all of the techniques used to control the ball when it is at the feet of a player, both while the player is stationary and when the player is moving with the ball. Soccer demands that a skilled player be able to make a multitude of different passes, all of which are dictated by the circumstances with which the player is faced. Soccer passes range from delicate touches of the ball that merely change its direction to a teammate, to huge 60 yd (55 m) kicks to reach a teammate attempting to outrun the opposing defense. Receiving a pass can be required in a similar variety of circumstances from almost any place on the field; the key aspect to receiving a pass is the control of the ball with the feet, legs, torso, or head.

U.S. midfielder Brandi Chastain celebrates her winning penalty kick to defeat China at the 1999 Women’s World Cup soccer final. ª R EUTE RS/CO RB IS

The midfielder must possess the best all-round skills on a soccer team, capable of breaking up offensive sorties by the opponent, as well as moving forward to join the attack against the opposing goal. The forwards, often given the designation ‘‘the striker,’’ have a primary responsibility to carry the attack to the opponent, seeking to create opportunities to score goals. Unlike rugby and American football, the sports that have their origins in soccer, soccer games are typically low scoring. A striker who can convert the relatively few chances to score is a valuable soccer commodity. One of the great attractions of soccer is that no matter how sublimely talented a player may be, teams are only successful when they are working in unison. Team concepts such as the spacing of the players and the determination with which they move the ball into an attacking position as a team will usually trump an outstanding individual player who attempts to monopolize the ball.

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Shooting the soccer ball is elevated to an art form in a game where scoring chances are relatively few. Kicks directed at the goal are rarely taken from a stationary position; offensive players are often on the move, and they are required to make instantaneous decisions concerning both the direction and the speed of the intended kick. The header is an essential skill for every player on a soccer field. Heading the ball is used to clear the ball away from a player’s own goal to control and to maintain possession of the ball through the midfield, and to direct the ball, often in remarkable feats of agility and coordination, into the opposing goal. When the ball is kicked out of bounds by a player, the opposing team is permitted to throw the ball onto the field of play. The throw must be made with both feet on the ground and an overhead motion. The corner kick is when the ball is kicked out of bounds behind the goal line by the defensive team, and the attacking team is awarded a corner kick, taken from the corner of the field and directed into the goal area to create an offensive chance for the attackers, either as a header or a kick. The corner kick is usually struck by the player to create spin on the ball, causing the ball to bend. All high-level teams attempt to run a set play from a corner kick, often with an offensive player running into the goal area as the ball is delivered by the kicker. The penalty kick is an important feature of soccer, both as an award for a foul committed in the goal area during the game, and as the tie-breaking device at the end of regulation play. Soccer was the first major sport to provide for a series of penalty shots WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SOCCER: BENDING THE BALL

as its tie breaker, as opposed to the continued play of the game until a sudden death goal was scored (Olympic ice hockey now has a penalty shot tie breaker). Like basketball, soccer is nominally a non-contact game as well as an extremely physical sport. ‘‘Marking’’ is the well-known European term for the actions of a defender to keep an opposing forward for either getting free to take a pass or to deliver a shot if the forward received the ball. The closer the action comes to the goal, the more prominent the battles for physical position between forwards and defense. In international soccer, the referee often will not call an obvious foul if there was no advantage gained to the player in question. Speed and anticipation are essential to both control the defensive end of the field and to make attacks on the opponent. Technical skill will usually take a team a great way toward success. The pinnacles of the game are reached by teams that play with a particular and welldefined style. Brazil has dominated World Cup play since the 1950s with a quick, highly entertaining brand of soccer, while countries such as France and Germany have been successful with a more measured and deliberate approach. Decisions regarding the style of play to be employed are often a combination of philosophy and athleticism. While the world market for soccer is immense and continually growing, North America represented in many ways an unassailable fortress against which soccer could not secure a foothold. The North American Soccer League flourished in a few cities in the early 1970s, when the league secured the star power of one of the game’s legendary players, the Brazilian Pele´. Soccer could never penetrate the professional sports consciousness on the North American continent, and the interest in professional soccer appeared to fade. A vibrant youth soccer movement that began in the 1980s, coupled with both the success of the American women’s national team and the securing of a place in the 2006 World Cup by the American men’s team, have created a positive image for the sport. In Canada, youth soccer registrations now outnumber those for ice hockey, the national game.

FIFA: World Cup Soccer; Musculoskeletal injuries; Soccer injuries; Soccer: (U.S.) Strength and training exercises.

SEE ALSO


Soccer: Bending the ball ‘‘Bend it like Beckham’’ is both an offbeat title to a feature motion picture, as well as a universal catchphrase recognizing the superlative skills possessed by David Beckham, the English national captain, and soccer icon. Using both his innate feel for the ball and through the application the principles of physics as they relate to objects traveling through the air, David Beckham has demonstrated throughout his career an unsurpassed ability to kick a soccer ball around a wall of free kick defenders, charting an elliptical route to the goal. David Beckham is not the only noteworthy practitioner of the bending art in soccer—Roberto Carlos of Brazil and the legendary Pele´ were equally adept at driving the ball from seemingly impossible angles on free kicks for a score. Bending the ball is a technique practiced by all soccer players who seek to develop comprehensive ball skills. The ‘‘bend’’ is soccer jargon for the curve of the ball as it travels through the air on a free kick. Like the curve ball thrown by a baseball pitcher, or a volleyball when served, the spinning soccer ball when kicked tends to deflect the air moving past it, and the air responds by deflecting the ball on its path. This physical principle is referred to as the Magnus force. When the ball is spinning after being kicked, the air through which the ball travels tends to follow a longer path around one side of the ball than the other, as the air is dragged along by the turning surface of the ball. The air following this longer path will bend more sharply, which results in a significant drop in air pressure on that side of the ball. The ball will then be pushed toward its lowpressure side, causing deflection. A further physical consideration in understanding the bend of the soccer ball in flight is the wake deflection force. As a moving ball will leave a turbulent wake of air behind it, the spin of the ball will deflect the wake to one side. This deflection will shift the air stream flowing around the ball; the air stream will in turn push back on the ball. The Magnus and wake deflection forces operate in the same direction, contributing to the remarkable curvature on free kicks from players such as Beckham. In a relatively low scoring game like soccer, the ability to take advantage of every offensive opportunity is critical to success. The ‘‘bending’’ power of a

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Player (L) bends the ball around the Manchester United wall to score.

GE RRY P EN NY /AF P /G ET TY I MA GE S

skilled player has the effect of extending a teams effective scoring range.

There are three specialized situations in which goaltender angle play is of particular importance: the corner kick, the free kick, and the breakaway.

SEE ALSO

Baseball curve ball.

Soccer goalie geometry The geometry of the soccer goalkeeper, or goalie, position can be summarized by the expression ‘‘playing the angles.’’ Other than possessing the ability to catch a ball struck toward the net, as well as being sufficiently agile to dive to block or cover shots, a goalie’s understanding of the angles at which balls will be directed at the goal will usually decide goaltending success or failure. The goalkeeper, the last line of defense on the soccer field, is responsible for the protection of a goal that is 24 ft wide and 8 ft high (7.3 m and 2.3 m). As a basic geometric proposition, the closer the goalie can get to the shooter, the less net area the shooter has available as a target. The understanding of goalie geometry is not restricted to the horizontal angles of a shot toward the goal. The goalie must also appreciate the vertical geometry of the flight of the ball, an understanding of the fact that the ball can be directed along a horizontal and a vertical axis. When the goalie may cut down a shooter’s angle by moving closer to the shooter, the goalie may then become vulnerable to a shot lofted above the goalie, known as a ‘‘chip.’’

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A corner kick arises on a number of occasions in the course of a soccer game, where the ball is kicked or directed past the goal line by a defender. The corner kick is an offensive set piece, with the offensive players moving in a coordinated attack as soon as the ball is struck. The goalie must be positioned at the place in the goal crease where he/she can move most efficiently to block either a kick, a volley, or a header that will be attempted on the corner kick. A free kick is awarded on a defensive foul that occurs outside of the penalty area. A defending team will usually set up a wall of five or six defenders; the offensive player will either attempt to bend the ball with a spinning kick around the wall for a direct shot on goal, or fake the direct kick and pass to a teammate who has a better shooting angle on the goal, avoiding the wall. The goalie’s optimum position will depend on the angle between the ball placement and the goal; commonly, the goalie takes up a position where he/she can see around the wall, without entirely eliminating his/her ability to move laterally along the goal line to respond to the kick. A breakaway is the greatest challenge faced by a soccer goalie. If the goalkeeper is positioned at the goal line waiting for the shooter to make a move, the shooter will control the angle and be able to move to his/her most desired position to take a shot. If the goalie rushes at the shooter to cut down the angle, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Soccer goalie trying to block a goal.

ª ROY ALT Y-FRE E/C ORB I S

the shooter may elect to ‘‘chip’’ the ball over the onrushing goalie’s head. A goalie must take a position that reduces the shooter’s angle without entirely compromising the goalie’s ability to stop a lofted shot.

Basketball shot dynamics; Soccer; Soccer: Bending the ball.

SEE ALSO

Soccer injuries As a dynamic, high speed game where physical contact occurs both incidentally and deliberately, soccer creates many circumstances where injury may result. Most soccer injuries are relatively minor in terms of the degree of disability created; more serious injuries often result through the execution of a hard sliding tackle or other sudden physical collisions between players. Data from researchers WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

regarding soccer injuries indicates that there are over 150,000 soccer injuries reported annually in the United States, among a playing population of over three million athletes; approximately 45% of these injuries occur in players under the age of 15 years. As would be expected in a sport that centers on kicking a ball, injuries to the lower legs are the most common injuries in soccer. Ankle sprains are another common occurrence, often created by either an awkward plant of one of the feet while running or changing direction, or by stepping on another player’s foot, causing the ankle to twist forcefully. Most soccer players wear a cleat that is low cut to permit greater maneuverability, and this footwear is not naturally supportive of the ankle. The Achilles tendon is vulnerable to two kinds of injury. Given the explosive movement required of a soccer player, the Achilles must instantly respond to the impulses of musculoskeletal movement. If the Achilles tendon is imbalanced in terms

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Injuries to the lower legs, ankles, and feet are the most common injuries in soccer.

of either its strength relative to the connected muscles of the calf, or if the tendon is not sufficiently flexible, the fibers of the tendon can become overstretched or subjected to micro tears. The second type of injury to the Achilles results from the tendon being kicked from behind by an opposing player. The resulting trauma can significantly damage the tendon fibers. Soccer players are subjected to numerous varieties of accidental kicks from an opponent in the course of play. Most of these kicks result only in contusions, as the players wear relatively durable shin guards. More serious injuries to the lower leg may occur as a result of a defender’s sliding tackle, where the defender slides forcefully along the turf to strip the ball from an opponent. If the tackle is not executed cleanly, the offensive player’s leg may be caught and twisted, the mechanics necessary for either a significant ankle sprain or a fracture of the tibia/fibula bones in the lower shin.

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ª LIN DSE Y PA RNA BY /E PA /COR BIS

The knee can also be injured by a sliding tackle, if the offensive player’s leg is planted on impact and the knee joint is forced laterally (sideways); this type of collision prevents any of the force of impact being directed and absorbed anywhere but the knee joint. In such circumstances, the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), a large connective tissue between the femur and the tibia in the knee joint, is at the greatest risk of injury. Other knee injuries occur in the same fashion as ankle injuries, where the leg is planted forcefully on an uneven surface, and the ultimate stress radiates directly into the knee. Thigh injuries in soccer are typically one of two types. The first are contusions, as the thigh is exposed to all manner of physical contact in the course of a game. The second type of injuries are those common to all other running sports, muscle strains and pulls caused by repetitive and often explosive acceleration. Soccer players who have an imbalance in the function of the hamstring, which WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SOCCER TACKLING MECHANICS

provides flexion to the knee, and that of the quadriceps, which gives the knee its ability to extend, will often experience injuries to these muscle and tendon groups. Groin injuries are often the bane of the high-level soccer player. The structure of muscles, tendons, and ligaments in the upper thighs and the lower abdomen is complex; these tissues are also vulnerable to injury in soccer due to the almost constant lateral and stop and start movements that place stress on them. The abdominal injury that has attracted attention throughout the sports world that is popularly called a sports hernia is, in fact, a tear of the groin inguinal hernia, first identified among English professional soccer players in 1980. Such injuries require surgical repair. Other than contusions, injuries to the upper body in soccer are less common. The collisions in the sport will occasionally cause a shoulder separation, which is damage to the acrimoclavical (AC) joint, the connection between the shoulder blade and the collarbone. Soccer goalies are more exposed to shoulder injury as a result of diving across the crease to make saves and striking the goal post. Head injuries may occasionally arise due to collisions with opponents—concussion and damage to the player’s teeth are the greatest risk. Many players wear mouth guards to protect their teeth, which has the additional benefit of reducing the effect of concussions by keeping the tempomandibular joint (TMJ) from being driven upward into the skull. Since the mid-1990s, there has been controversy in the international sports science community as to whether the repeated heading of a soccer ball will cause damage to the brain or to the muscles and structure of the neck. Various studies initiated by soccer nations have not yet resolved this question.

Soccer players tackling.

ª H. SP ICHT INGER/ZEFA/CO RBI S

upright tackle. The defensive player approaches the opponent from a front-on position, and while maintaining a low, crouched stance to ensure stability, the defender plants one foot and drives the other low, seeking to strike the ball with the inside of the foot and then secure it from the opposition player. A shoulder charge is a more aggressive challenge brought by the defender, where the defender will make shoulder-to-shoulder contact with the offensive player in the effort to take the ball. The player is not allowed to use the shoulder to knock over or push aside the offensive player, but contact incidental to the challenge is permitted.

In soccer, a tackle is a defensive maneuver where the defender endeavors to take the ball from the opponent’s possession. Unlike the tackling that is at the heart of American football and rugby, a legal soccer tackle must be executed so that any physical contact is incidental to the play on the ball.

The slide tackle is the most dramatic and the most dangerous form of tackle permitted in soccer. By rule, the defensive player is permitted to slide along the playing surface to attempt to take the ball from the offensive player. A sliding tackle will generally be both ineffective and dangerous if the offensive player has the ball in their feet. The sliding tackle is best employed when the offensive player is running with the ball out in front of the body. When executed correctly, the defender begins the approach in a crouched position, beginning the slide with one leg extended. The defender slides across the path of the offensive player to make contact with the ball, knocking it from the possession of the offensive player; there is often quite significant incidental contact with the offensive player being knocked down after the ball has been contacted by the tackler.

A tackle may take various forms, with each technique known by different names in different parts of the world. A block tackle is the most basic form of

When performed in a careless or reckless manner, the sliding tackle has a significant potential for injury to the player being tackled, as the offensive

Ankle sprains; Groin pulls and strains; Lower leg injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Soccer.

SEE ALSO

Soccer tackling mechanics


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player’s knees and lower legs are exposed to the sliding force. The defender will be penalized if the sliding tackle is attempted from an angle where the offensive player cannot see the defender; the defender is subject to ejection from the game if the tackle is made from behind or if, in the opinion of the referee, there was no legitimate attempt to play the ball.

Soccer; Soccer injuries; Soccer (U.S.) Strength and training exercises.

SEE ALSO

Soccer (U.S.) strength and training exercises The simplicity of soccer disguises the intense physical requirements to succeed in the sport. Simply playing soccer by the hour will make a player better, but it is the focused and specialized training, directed at every segment of the player’s necessary skill set, that will take a good player to the next level of ability and accomplishment. Soccer training is intended to build the individual skills of the athlete, while creating a bridge to team tactics and coordinated play. All soccer players will participate in strength and training that enhances some physical aspects of the sport; the degree with which any one or more of these discrete abilities is emphasized will depend on the individual player and the position played. The physical aspects of the game include speed, including acceleration and explosiveness; agility and balance; body control, particularly in jumping and heading the ball; leg strength; and endurance. The development of each of these physical capabilities must be incorporated into the training required to build the individual technical components of play. Those technical areas are dribbling the ball; passing the ball and receiving a pass, using the feet, legs, torso, or head to control the ball as may be necessary; shooting the ball; heading the ball; inbounds thrown in; corner kicks; the penalty kick; and defensive marking and tackling techniques. The speed required for soccer can be developed as with all other running sports. Interval running is used for this purpose, especially that which incorporates an agility component. Intervals that simulate game conditions, such as those that replicate the explosive bursts of between 10 yd and 60 yd (10 m and 55 m) to run to a ball, or the acceleration required to run down an opponent are examples.

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Interval training is a primary means for the soccer player to stimulate fast-twitch muscle fibers. Interval repeats simulate game conditions, where the player may be required to accelerate quickly many times in a 90-minute match. Endurance training is the backbone to the physical capabilities required in soccer. As with sports such as boxing, rugby, or basketball, where the primary means of gaining an advantage in competition will be through the shorter, anaerobic bursts of muscle energy, strong aerobic capacity assists the player in making a speedier recovery between the intervals, which in a game setting may be from 10 seconds to 30 seconds in duration. Muscle mass alone is not a highly prized physical attribute in the soccer player, unless the athlete is able to move efficiently. Soccer does require a measure of physical strength to assist the player in maintaining a position obtained on the field. There is a significant amount of physical contact between opponents, some of it inadvertent such as two players contesting a ball in the air. Other physical contact is either reckless or deliberate, such as the hard sliding tackle by a defender. Weight training that emphasizes strength, but not the development of mass, is valued. High repetition/low-to-medium resistance training achieves this end. To develop the leg strength necessary for jumping and driving the ball powerfully, a variety of exercises are employed. Plyometrics programs, emphasizing explosive jumps, are directed to the ability of the player to go as high as possible to head a ball. Weight training that is leg-specific, including leg presses, leg squats, and lunges, build the quadriceps, the muscle group that extend the knee joint to deliver a kick. Calisthenics and other flexibility training assist the athlete in developing an optimal range of motion in all joints. The greater the degree of flexibility, the more agile the player and the better the player will be equipped to move responsively. Due to the repeated lateral movements required of soccer players during games, these athletes are especially vulnerable to groin strains and pulls. Soccer strengthening and flexibility exercises will stress this region of the body, in conjunction with the neighboring abductors, which assist in the lifting and powering of the thigh, and the abdominal muscles. For competitive players who compete either regionally or internationally, acclimatization to both heat and altitude may be incorporated into a player or team training schedule. Soccer is played throughout WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SODIUM (SALT) INTAKE FOR ATHLETES

during high altitude competition, the more efficient the player’s cardiovascular system.

Exercise, intermittent; Motor control; Plyometrics; Soccer; Soccer injuries; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Sodium (salt) intake for athletes Every person in the Western world consumes more than sufficient quantities of salt through their diet to satisfy their bodily needs for sodium, one of the two elements that form salt; 90% of all dietary salt consumed is excreted through the urine as excess. In the pre-industrialized world, the reliance on whole, non-processed foods created a natural balance in the body between sodium and potassium, present in most fruits and vegetables. Salt is one of the most important substances consumed by athletes, as salt is crucial to the proper function of a number of bodily systems, all of which are essential to athletic performance. Salt is composed of the elements sodium and chlorine, with sodium comprising 40% of the total weight of salt. Sodium is chemically classified as a metal of the type known as an electrolyte, capable of carrying and transmitting an electrical charge.

Soccer player performing step-climbing strengthening exercises during training camp. AP P H OTO/ AZIZ SH AH

areas of the world that experience intense heat and humidity; there are many stadiums that host international matches located at altitudes greater than 5,000 ft (1,500 m), an environment that tends to tax the aerobic capacity of the player through the reduced amount of oxygen available in the air. In ideal circumstances, soccer teams playing at altitude will arrive a minimum of seven days prior to the competition to permit the athletes to acclimatize, a process that begins with the body’s increased production of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO). EPO will trigger the production of a greater number of erythrocytes, the red blood cells that transport oxygen. The greater amount of red blood cells available to the player WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Sodium is essential in many bodily processes, including the maintenance of optimal fluid levels within the body; sodium levels are the key determination of how much water will be retained within the body and how much water will be excreted as urine. Sodium is a substance that is very soluble in water and virtually all sodium ingested into the body will be absorbed through the small intestine. The hormone aldosterone, which is produced in the adrenal gland, is the chemical that regulates sodium levels. Sodium also maintains the acid/base level within the body, usually expressed as the pH balance. Additionally, it helps in the relaying of nerve impulses into the skeletal muscles, through a mechanism known as the sodium/potassium pump, where sodium and potassium act in concert to maintain the electrochemical balance within the muscle cells that permits the impulse to reach the muscle fiber. Sodium is depleted in exercise through a number of mechanisms within the body. Approximately 85% of the sodium in the body is contained within the bloodstream. Sodium levels are constantly influenced by the generation of perspiration and urination. A healthy person requires a maximum of 3,000 mg of sodium per day to maintain proper sodium/fluid

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balance. The body does not possess an organic facility in which sodium can be stored and accessed at a later time. In vigorous exercise, or in warm weather conditions, an athlete may lose more than 1,000 mg of sodium per day. The primary cause of sodium loss is through perspiration and resultant fluid loss. When sodium and fluids are depleted together, a chain reaction is triggered. The sodium in the bloodstream that is necessary to maintain the body’s balance will be depleted as fluids are lost, which creates a reduced blood volume. Lower blood volumes will result in lowered blood pressure in the cardiovascular system, which generally will reduce the ability of the system to function at an optimal level. A common physiological result of this sodium loss progression is muscle cramps, particularly in the lower leg and calf muscles. When an athlete replenishes the fluids lost through perspiration with water only, producing an unequal replacement of water versus sodium, the desired sodium balance, or osmolarity, present when the body is in homeostasis (balance) is correspondingly reduced. This condition is known as hyponatremia, or water intoxication. This conditions renders the athlete extremely fatigued, uncoordinated, and at risk of significant further dehydration, as the water ingested into the body will flood the cells, and it will not be absorbed into the bloodstream to boost blood volume, as the body will involuntarily seek to maintain as high a sodium level in the body’s fluids as possible. This condition also causes poor carbohydrate metabolism, which reduces the ability of the body to generate musculoskeletal energy.

sport drinks do not possess sufficient amounts of sodium to assist in the replacement required by an athlete in warm or physically taxing conditions; to achieve total sodium replacement the drink would have to have the composition and the taste of seawater. As an athlete should ideally consume sufficient fluids to replace all perspiration lost, the amount of sodium contained in that lost fluid must be replaced as well. Salt tablets are often used to bolster sodium levels because they contain a far greater concentration of sodium than does any sports drink. Athletes who compete in ultra-marathons or Ironman competitions, events that take place over many hours, sometimes employ low-tech strategies in the consumption of additional sodium. Eating salty pretzels is a favorite among some members of the ultra-marathon community to increase sodium consumption during an event or lengthy training session.

Diet; Hyponatremia; Renal function; Salt; Sodium and sodium deficits.

SEE ALSO

Sodium and sodium deficits Sodium is an essential component to many aspects of human performance. Sodium is readily available to the body through the consumption and digestion of the salt, the mineral composed of sodium and chloride. Salt is expressed as the chemical equation NaCl, of which sodium is 40% of the composition.

The body excretes excess sodium through the urine processed by the kidneys. Excess sodium to the extent of causing toxicity in the body is rare among athletes. The greater risk of excess sodium is the creation of either transient high blood pressure or hypertension, an indefinite condition that places undue stress on the function of the entire cardiovascular system.

The usual concern regarding sodium and its impact on health is the consumption of excess sodium, given the dietary practices prevalent throughout many parts of the world. Most commercially prepared foods have salt or a similar sodium compound in their formulation. Elevated levels of sodium place significant stresses on the body’s fluid and blood volume balance. Sodium is the major underlying cause of transient high blood pressure and chronic hypertension present in a significant proportion of the adult population of most Western countries. As the body does not store water-soluble sodium for lengthy periods, the sodium must be disposed of and excreted through the production of urine in the renal system. The kidneys are placed under additional stress to process and excrete the additional sodium.

The sodium levels necessary for an athlete to perform are maintained entirely through diet; it is during and immediately after competition that additional sodium is beneficial. Almost all conventional

Sodium’s properties as an electrolyte (a substance capable of carrying an electric charge) make it invaluable to the ability of the body to transmit nerve impulses to its muscles; sodium and potassium

The opposite state experienced by athletes who consume too much sodium relative to their fluid levels is hypernatremia, created when the body senses that the ratio of sodium to fluid is too high. The body releases the anti-diuretic hormone, ADH (vasopressin), to chemically trigger a shutdown in the production of urine, in an effort to keep the level of fluid higher in relation to the increased sodium level.

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operate in a form of chemical partnership at the cellular level to facilitate the transmissions. The level of sodium within the bloodstream, which is the body’s measure in the regulation of fluid levels, is maintained at a constant proportion of water versus sodium. The sodium level is maintained by the regulation provided to the body by the autonomic nervous system, an involuntary control mechanism centered in the hypothalamus region of the brain. For an inactive person, a sodium deficit is not likely to be noticed immediately; for an athlete, any significant deficit in sodium levels will have an embedded and pronounced and negative impact on the body’s performance both in muscle function and with respect to the ability of the athlete to maintain a healthy fluid level. A deficit is a pronounced reduction in the optimal amount of a substance within the body, a gap between ideal and actual that is not capable of compensation by any other process. A sodium deficit, which often occurs in a gradual and cumulative fashion as a training session or a competition progresses, will most profoundly impact various aspects of athletic performance, including insufficient or incomplete rehydration, which occurs when sodium levels are below optimum. The body will not absorb all of the required water to bring fluid levels to the desired level, because the body will not absorb water into the bloodstream to create a ratio of sodium to fluid that is much below the recommended operating range. This incomplete rehydration will have its greater impact on performance the day following the creation of the sodium deficit, as the fluid level to support activity the next day will be inadequate, which often leads to dehydration at a far earlier point than would otherwise be expected. Muscle cramps tend to occur in the larger working muscles of the body, particularly in the gastrocnemius and soleus (calf) muscles, and the quadriceps. Muscle cramps are a direct result of reduced sodium levels, as the nerve impulses that direct the muscles to function during sport are not transmitted to the muscle. The transmission of the impulse is facilitated through the sodium/potassium pump, an electrochemical reaction involving the electrolytes sodium and potassium, which alternate in an ebb and flow through the cells of the muscle, a part of the electrical current that carries the impulse to its intended cellular target. When sodium is deficient, the pump is not in balance and the transmission of the impulse cannot be completed. The end result for the athlete is a painful, often disabling muscle cramp. Unless sodium is absorbed into the body, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

proportionate to additional fluid as the body loses sodium through perspiration, cramping will persist. The condition of hyponatremia is the most serious of the consequences of sodium deficit. When sodium levels become reduced through the perspiration created through athletic activity, the body may block the absorption of any additional fluids to preserve the existing sodium balance. Water may remain in the stomach, or, if it is passed through the small intestine, the water is stored in the cells of the body. Known as water intoxication, hyponatremia can quickly lead to significant neurological dysfunction, including drowsiness, a lack of coordination, and ultimately to unconsciousness. The solution to the sodium deficit is often an intravenous injection of a hypertonic saline solution with 3% sodium chloride, administered in regular intervals over a 24- to 48-hour period. Poorly treated, hyponatremia is fatal.

Hydration; Hyponatremia; Minerals; Salt; Sodium (salt) intake for athletes.

SEE ALSO

Softball Softball, a variant of baseball, was invented as an indoor recreation in Chicago in 1887 by newspaper reporter George Hancock. In the period prior to 1900, the game began to be played outdoors, using a larger ball than employed in baseball, and on a smaller playing field. Variously known throughout the American Midwest and Canada as ‘‘kitten ball’’ and ‘‘pumpkin ball,’’ the name softball was formally adopted in 1926. Women had participated in organized softball since the early 1900s. The United States has been the dominant force in softball since the game’s invention. The National Softball Association became the governing body in the United States for the sport, an organization that led to the standardization of the rules of the sport (which had varied significantly from region to region) in 1933. Softball began to slowly develop an international constituency following the end of World War II, which spurred the formation of the world governing body for softball, the International Softball Federation. The first world championships were convened for both men and women in 1966. While men’s softball continued to be played in various countries around the world, softball became more closely associated with female competition. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) sponsored its first-ever American intercollegiate women’s national softball championship in 1982; over

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600 institutions now participate in one of three competitive divisions. Softball has the distinction, along with the sport of field hockey, of being one of only two sports exclusively reserved for female competition in the NCAA. The culmination of the progress of women’s softball as a world sport occurred with the designation of softball for inclusion as a full medal sport at the 1996 Olympic Summer Games in Atlanta; softball was also contested in the 2000 and 2004 Summer Olympics. However, in 2006, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) voted to discontinue both softball and men’s baseball as Olympic competitions after the 2008 Olympics in Beijing. The IOC decision was a curious one, given the stated goal of the IOC to ensure that in time, the Olympics would have an equal number of men’s and women’s competitions. Softball, as regulated by the National Softball Association, developed two distinct variants: fastpitch softball and slow-pitch softball, a game sometimes described as simply slow-pitch or lob-ball. The chief distinction between the two games is with respect to the speed with which the pitcher is permitted to deliver the ball to the batter, and the corresponding response of the defensive team to the batted ball. Slow-pitch is an extremely popular game in North America, played by men, women, and in coed formats, in both recreational and competitive leagues. The rules of fast-pitch softball create a game that is similar to baseball in terms of the number of players, the shape of the field, equipment, and the general strategies to be employed both offensively and defensively. The game is played with nine players in the field, including four infielders, three outfielders, a pitcher, and a catcher. Each team is permitted to bat until they make three outs. When each team has been to bat for three outs each, an inning is concluded. There are seven innings in a softball game. Softball is played on a field popularly known as a diamond, given its shape; the field may not be any longer than 225 ft (68 m) from home plate to the outfield fences. The field is divided into an infield, which is defined by the positioning of four bases, and the outfield, the area between the infield and the outfield fences. The infield is comprised of four bases, commencing at home plate. The bases are 60 ft apart (18 m). The pitcher delivers the ball toward home plate from a pitcher’s plate (often referred to as ‘‘the pitching rubber’’), which is 43 ft (13 m) from home plate. The pitch must be delivered in an underhanded

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motion, known as a ‘‘windmill’’ motion. The pitcher’s rear foot must remain in contact with the pitcher’s plate throughout the delivery. Women’s softball does not permit a hop or jump in the pitching motion, while men’s softball permits a hop movement, which permits the pitcher to deliver the ball with greater velocity. All players wear cleated shoes and uniforms; all defensive players use a fielding glove designed for the particular position played. The catcher wears equipment for safety, including shin guards, a chest protector, helmet and face mask, and heavily padded glove. Players may be substituted, but once a player is replaced in the course of the game they are not permitted to return to play. The ball, at 12 in (30 cm) circumference, must have a coefficient of restitution (COR) of a maximum 0.47. This characteristic comes into clearer focus when contrasted with the legal COR for a baseball, which by rule must be between 0.514 and 0.578. The lower the COR of any material, the less energy is returned to any object coming into contact with it. The lower COR of a softball is an important distinguishing factor in the distances traveled by it when compared to a baseball when struck with a bat. The bat has regulated dimensions of length, weight, and circumference; the most important aspect of a softball bat is its construction, which typically is aluminum or a composite metal material. Unlike baseball, where a base runner is permitted to lead off from the base in preparation for either attempting to steal the next base or to secure a advantage if the ball is put into play, the softball base runner may not leave the base until the ball is struck by the batter. The general offensive and defensive strategies employed in softball are similar to those used in baseball. Offensively, the team attempts to advance its players around the bases to score runs by hitting, running the bases, and advancing their base runners through devices such as when a batter ‘‘sacrifices’’ an out to permit a teammate to gain an extra base. Another strategy is drawing a walk, the one-on-one battle with a pitcher where the pitcher throws four balls before he or she is able to either throw three strikes over the plate or otherwise induce the batter to hit the ball until he or she is out. It is the differing role of the pitcher in each sport that defines the strategic differences. In both baseball and softball, a talented pitcher is the key to team success. In softball, that importance is magnified by a number of factors. The pitching WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SOFTBALL: BAT SPEED AND HITTING

distance between the two opponents, the ability to hit the ball to a vacant area on the field is correspondingly reduced. The game of slow-pitch is also governed in the United States by the National Softball Association, but the game has taken a developmental path that is strikingly different than that of its fast-pitch cousin. Slow-pitch has a tremendous recreational appeal due to the fundamental distinction as to the role of the pitcher: in slow-pitch, the unstated premise of the game is that the ball will be put into play by every batter. Given the greater emphasis on offense in slow-pitch, the game provides for 10 players, with an additional outfielder. The other equipment used by the players is similar to that of fast-pitch. At the elite levels of slow-pitch, the bases may be set 65 ft or 70 ft (20–21 m) apart.

Baseball; Exercise, intermittent; Motor control; Softball: Slow pitch vs. the fast pitch.

SEE ALSO

Softball: Bat speed and hitting Female softball player waiting for a throw.

A P PH OTO /P ARK ERS -

B URG NEWS & S ENT INE L, J EF F B AUG H AN

mechanism permitted in softball places a lesser amount of stress on the pitcher’s shoulder and elbow than does the overhand mechanism of the baseball pitcher, who is the most player most injured in baseball. Softball pitching and its fluid, natural rotation of the shoulder, coupled with a forward stride, permit the softball pitcher to pitch with less risk of either injury or fatigue, while maintaining pitch velocity. In baseball, it is common for modern pitchers to be relieved after six or seven innings of the standard nine inning game, with the pitcher resting for three days following the game. In softball, a dominant pitcher can often pitch with less rest. In the 1970s, the softball world’s most dominant pitcher, Canada’s Pete Landers, regularly pitched complete games in both ends of a doubleheader (two games played consecutively in a single day). Pitching dominance and a less lively ball place a premium on what is sometimes referred to as ‘‘small ball.’’ Batters seek to get the ball in play, where the fielder must make a throw and the batter hopes to cover the 60-ft (18 m) distance to first base in advance of the throw. With the same number of players on a surface that is at least 35% smaller than in baseball, coupled with the greater ability of the pitcher to dominate the hitter due to the reduced WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Within softball, the bat is generally made out of hardwood, metal (aluminum), or composite materials (polymer arrangement usually of glass, carbon, and Kevlar fibers). International regulations dictate that a softball bat be no more than 34 in (86 cm) in length, 38 oz (1 kg) in weight, and 2.25 in (6 cm) in diameter. Bat speed is defined as how fast a bat moves through its arc when a softball batter swings it. It is generally determined at the bat’s center-of-mass. The softball varies in size depending on the type of softball play. The International Softball Federation generally permits a ball to have a circumference of 11 in (28 cm) or 12 in (30 cm). When swinging a bat at a softball thrown from the pitcher—either delivered at maximum speed with a flat arc, as in fast-pitch softball, or at slower speeds with an steeper arc, as in slow-pitch softball—the batter will either miss the ball or hit it. Hitting a softball is defined as striking a ball with a bat so that the ball lands in fair territory (either in the infield or the outfield) within a softball playing field. In preparation for swinging a bat with a particular speed and hitting a softball, the batter will stand facing the pitcher inside a batter’s box—either on the first-base side box for a left-handed hitting batter or on the third-base side box for a right-handed hitting batter. The bat is held with both hands near the handle-end while positioned over the shoulder and away from the pitcher. The batter hits the ball by

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Torque is the other major force and is the application of a rotational force at the bat’s handle by the combined efforts of the hands, arms, and shoulders. Torque is generally defined as the force applied to an object multiplied by the distance from the axis of rotation to the point on which the force is acting. When the path of the hands makes a circular arc as the batter’s body rotates during the bat swing, the body’s angular momentum is transferred to the bat in the form of accelerated motion (acceleration). This transference of momentum is generated as the arms swing the hands in a circular arc and as the barrelend of the bat swings around the hands. Torque is the result of two forces being applied to an object from opposite directions so that the object is forced to rotate about a point. Torque is applied to the barrel-end of the bat in the swing by the pushing and pulling actions of the forearms and hands.

When swinging, rotational (angular) mechanics rather than linear (straight-line) mechanics are primarily involved. ª ROY ALT Y-FRE E/ CORB IS

stepping forward with the front foot while making a swinging motion with the bat. When a ball it hit by the batter within fair territory, it is designated as different terms depending on the result. A batted ball that is hit high in the air is generally called a fly ball. However, when a fly ball is hit at an angle greater than 45 (based on the angle between the horizontal ground and the ball’s initial angle-of-flight), then it is considered a pop fly. A batted ball is called a line drive if it is hit into the infield at a height above the ground where an infielder could possibly catch it. However, a batted ball that hits the ground within the infield is considered a ground ball. When swinging a bat to hit a softball, rotational (angular) mechanics rather than linear (straight-line) mechanics are primarily involved. Although the effects of gravity, airflow drag, and other minor considerations occur during swinging and hitting, there are two major forces acting on the bat to create bat speed. Angular momentum is the transfer of the body’s rotational momentum to the bat that occurs when the hands are quickly swung in a circular arc. Angular momentum is generally defined as the crossproduct of the position of an object and the linear momentum of the object.

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To maximize bat speed, the softball batter must apply torque throughout the swing and maintain the hands in a circular path. In order to accomplish these actions most effectively, the upper body (shoulders, arms, and hands) should rotate around a fixed axis (the spine). For a well-hit bat, the collision occurs over a period of about one-thousandth of a second. The effect of this brief collision—that of the ball reversing direction—is brought on entirely because of the bat swing. The bat applies force to the ball, which compresses it, and the ball then exerts force on the bat upon regaining its original contours. The recoil action from this exerted force drives the ball quickly away from the bat. However, the recoil force is less than the compressive force because some of the collision energy is absorbed by frictional forces. In essence, a softball travels farther if it is struck by a bat that is swung faster. SEE ALSO Baseball bat speed; Baseball bats: Sweet spots and tampering; Softball; Softball: Slow pitch vs. the fast pitch.

Softball: Slow pitch vs. the fast pitch From its invention in 1887 as an indoor game, softball grew rapidly in the United States and Canada through the early part of the twentieth century. Fastpitch softball had its rules codified in 1933, and the game acquired an international following, precipitating the formation of the International Softball WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SOFTBALL: SLOW PITCH VS. THE FAST PITCH

Federation (ISF) in 1952. By the time of the 1996 Summer Olympics, when women’s softball made its debut as an official Olympic competition, the ISF had approximately 90 member nations. Slow-pitch softball, also known as ‘‘lob ball,’’ also grew in popularity across the United States beginning in the early 1950s. The manner in which the ball is delivered by the pitcher is the key distinguishing feature between the two types of softball. Where the fast-pitch game depends on a powerful pitcher who can deliver the ball with either great velocity or with deceptive ball movement, slow-pitch encourages the batter to hit the ball, put the ball in play, and force the defensive team to make strong fielding plays to generate outs, as opposed to strikeouts by the pitcher. There is a third variant of softball, modified pitch softball, that has a more limited following. Played with nine players in the field, the ball must be delivered by the pitcher underhanded in a prescribed manner, similar to slow-pitch. In slow-pitch, the pitcher must deliver the ball underhanded, with a minimum arc of 6 ft (1.8 m) and a maximum arc of 12 ft (3.6 m). The umpire has the discretion to rule a pitch as illegal due to insufficient or excessive arc. Most pitchers attempt to deliver the ball in such a fashion that the ball is dropping in an arc that is as close to perpendicular to the ground as possible. The closer to perpendicular the path of the ball, the more the hitter will be inclined to swing at the ball with an uppercut, as opposed to a level swing. When the player swings with an uppercut stroke, the player tends to use only the arms and the shoulder muscles, limiting the power and the speed with which the bat will strike the ball. An uppercut stroke is also less likely to make maximum contact between the bat and the ball surface. When the ball is delivered with a flatter arc, a capable hitter will swing with a more level stroke, striding forward from the plate, driving the ball with both arms and shoulders, as well as the torque generated by the twist of the batter’s torso, hips, and legs. A poorly thrown slow-pitch ball will often be delivered for a homerun. Prodigious homerun hitters in slow-pitch softball take advantage of two physical principles inherent in the batter’s stroke: the fact that an aluminum bat can be swung faster, thus generating greater bat force upon the ball, and the ‘‘trampoline effect,’’ which is the physical reaction of the ball when it makes contact with the aluminum bat barrel. Slow-pitch softball and fast-pitch softball are played on fields with similar dimensions. In addition WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Slow-pitch softball is very popular in recreational leagues throughout North America. ª WALLY M CNA ME E/ CORB I S

to the methods of pitching the ball, there are other rules that have a significant impact on how the two games are played. Fast-pitch is played with nine players in the field, including the pitcher and the catcher; slow-pitch is played with 10 players, with the additional player almost always positioned in the outfield, either in a relatively fixed location or as a rover. The additional player in slow-pitch is intended to counter to some degree the additional hitting and offense that is invariably a part of the slow-pitch game. Fast-pitch softball is played with virtually all of the rules of traditional baseball and therefore employs very similar strategies. A strategy common to both games is the use of the bunt, the deliberately restricted swing and contact with a pitch by the batter to place the ball in the infield to either permit the batter to reach first base or to advance a teammate as a ‘‘sacrifice.’’ The bunt is not permitted in slow-pitch; it is umpire’s discretion as to rule a poorly

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hit ball that rolls a short distance in front of home plate as intentionally played. Another tactical limitation placed upon slowpitch is the prohibition against base stealing, a strategy available in both fast-pitch and baseball. The rationale for this limit is the fact that the offensive team has better opportunities to advance a runner through the batter. The most striking difference between fast-pitch and slow-pitch softball may demographical. Through the removal of the high-speed offering from the pitcher to the batter, slow-pitch by definition is both a safer and an easier game to play. It is very popular in recreational leagues throughout North America for this reason; it is one the few sports that enjoys significant popularity as a mixed gender sport, both recreationally and competitively. Slow-pitch is also well suited to age group competition.

Baseball; Exercise, intermittent; Softball; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Annika Sorenstam 10/9/1970– SWEDISH PROFESSIONAL GOLFER

Annika Sorenstam is one of the most accomplished golfers, male or female, in the history of the sport. Sorenstam’s career has been one of ceaseless achievement on both the Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA) tour and on a broader international level. Sorenstam was born into a family with pronounced athletic interests. After taking up golf at age 12, she joined the Swedish junior national program at age 14. Sorenstam ascended to the Swedish national team at age 17, in 1987. Sorenstam was one of the first foreign born players recruited to National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) women’s golf when she accepted a golf scholarship to the University of Arizona in 1990. Arizona had produced a number of highly successful professional players, the most noteworthy being Masters champion Phil Mickleson. Sorenstam won the NCAA women’s title in 1991. After the 1992 college season Sorenstam left Arizona to become a professional golfer. Sorenstam joined the LPGA Tour in 1993, and by the end of the 1994 season she had finished in the top ten at LPGA events five times. Sorenstam earned her first victory

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on the LPGA tour in 1995, at the U.S. Women’s Open, a victory that touched off a remarkable run of success. By the end of the 1996 LPGA season Sorenstam had won four more tournaments, as well as capturing the LPGA Player of the Year award. Notwithstanding the challenges mounted in individual tournaments from notable players such as Kerrie Webb and Lori Kane, Sorenstam continued to be the player all other LPGA players aspired to match. Sorenstam was never a competitor to be perceived as resting upon her hard earned playing laurels, and she forged a reputation as one of the hardest practicing players in golf, male or female. Sorenstam’s hard work in practice paid off in both the 2001 and the 2002 LPGA seasons, as she became a breathtakingly consistent golfing machine. In 2001 Sorenstam reclaimed the Vare Trophy, awarded to the player on the LPGA tour with the lowest scoring average, with a 69.42 scoring average, only one one-hundredth of a point below Webb’s record breaking 1999 average, and then in 2002 Sorenstam shattered the record with a 68.70. Sorenstam hit the green from the fairway 80% of the time that season, making her the most accurate golfer, male or female, in the world. Sorenstam remained committed to a total fitness and strength training regimen notwithstanding her success. In 2001, armed with her new strength and her consistency, Sorenstam shot the best single round of golf ever by a woman on the LPGA Tour. At the Standard Register Ping tournament in 2001, Sorenstam shot a 59, something that only six male golfers have done in the history of the sport. In the 2002 year, Sorenstam tied another longstanding LPGA record by winning 13 tournaments in a single season, matching the standard set by LPGA Hall of Fame player Mickey Wright. Sorenstam’s achievement was all the more impressive because she compiled her 13 wins in only 25 LPGA tournaments, where Wright played in 33 events in setting the record in 1963. The process for admission into the LPGA Hall of Fame is unique in professional sport. Unlike those sports where Hall of Fame status is first advanced by a nomination and followed by a subsequent vote by a committee tasked to determine the eligibility of the prospective member, the LPGA adopted a points system as a more objective standard for Hall of Fame inclusion. LPGA major wins are worth a set number of points towards the Hall of Fame total, as are lesser amounts for regular LPGA tour event wins. In addition to points accumulated on the LPGA tour, the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ALBERT GOODWILL SPALDING

player must have won at least one Vare award, and have played on the LPGA tour for at least 10 years. Sorenstam became the earliest inductee into the LPGA Hall of Fame in 2003, as she accumulated her 49th tour victory and easily surpassed the requisite point total for Hall of Fame admission.

Albert Goodwill Spalding

From the commercial perspective of women’s professional golf, Sorenstam’s career winnings of over 18 million dollars as of the commencement of the 2006 season was the record for the most money ever won on the LPGA tour.

Albert Goodwill (A.G.) Spalding used his fame, acquired as a stand-out pitcher for the Boston Red Stockings of the fledgling National League, to create the world’s first sporting goods empire. The Spalding company pioneered the sale of baseballs, footballs, basketballs, and other newly developed sports equipment beginning in the late 1870s.

An enduring question in competitive women’s golf is that of the comparison between the elite women’s players, such as Sorenstam, and the best of the men’s PGA tour. At 5 ft 6 in (1.7 m) tall, Sorenstam is much smaller than most male players, and there is little question that her average driving distance off the tee of approximately 260 yd (200 m) pales in comparison to that of many capable male amateur players, let alone a elite level PGA touring professional. In 2003, in an event designed for a television audience, Sorenstam competed against leading male professionals Fred Couples, Phil Mickleson, and Mark O’Meara in an event called the Skins Game. Sorenstam’s most controversial participation in a men’s golf tournament occurred in May, 2003, when she was invited to play through the device of a sponsor’s exemption in the PGA Colonial tournament at Fort Worth, Texas. Sorenstam’s entry attracted some stinging commentary from a number of male professionals, most notably that of elite player Vijay Singh, who was so aggravated by the Sorenstam entry into the tournament that he declared that he would not play if he were paired with Sorenstam during the event. At the Colonial, Sorenstam became the first woman since Hall of Famer Babe Zaharias in 1945 to play in a men’s event. Although she failed to make the cut, Sorenstam’ creditable play against an elite male field placed her at the 96th position, out of 111 golfers. Sorenstam has another distinction on the LPGA circuit, as her sister Charlotte has toured for a number of seasons as very capable professional in her own right. Two sisters playing on the LPGA tour at the same time is a rarity. In golf, given the influence of technological advances in both clubs and golf balls, it is difficult to compare the performance of players from one era to another. Sorenstam is demonstrably one of the greatest player in the history of women’s golf. SEE ALSO

Golf; Golf swing dynamics.


12/2/1850–9/9/1915 AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL BASEBALL PLAYER, SPORTING GOODS MANUFACTURER

The A.G. Spalding Company was built by its namesake and founder beginning in 1878. Al Spalding had been a dominant pitcher with the Boston Red Stockings between 1871 and 1876. In those six seasons, Spalding led the league in victories each year. He was the first pitcher to win more than 200 games, playing in an era when relief pitchers were virtually unknown and a starting pitcher was expected to complete the games that he begun. Spalding finished his playing career with the Chicago White Stockings, later known as the Chicago White Sox, where he both pitched and played first base. Spalding was such a skilled pitcher that he could have been elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame strictly on the strength of his playing career. Spalding was enshrined in the Hall as an executive and builder in 1939. Spalding combined his growing sporting goods business with his work as the team president of the White Sox, a position that he held for ten years. Spalding’s teams won three league championships during his presidency. In 1888, Spalding organized a world tour to promote the game of American baseball to other countries, with mixed success; the tour also served to promote the Spalding sporting goods line. Baseballs were the most important product manufactured by the Spalding Company in its early years of operation. Baseball was a rapidly growing pastime throughout America, and baseballs were a commodity in great demand. Spalding, as White Sox president, had little difficulty in persuading the other National League teams to use the Spalding baseball as the league’ official baseball. Spalding provided the balls at no cost to the league, and used the endorsement provided by the National League to nationally market his product. At that time, the National League was the only major league, as the American League was not operational until 1901. Baseball players in the early 1870s did not wear gloves when playing in the field, nor did catchers

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wear masks or protective equipment. Baseball players were expected to be hard men who could play with a measure of pain, and gloves were seen as a sissified aspect of the sport that ought to be discouraged. The earliest documented use of a glove by any player was a catcher with the Cincinnati team, Doug Allison, in 1870. While playing first base for Chicago in 1877, Spalding designed for his own use a padded, but fingerless glove, that had the appearance and dimensions of a modern cyclist’s glove. The Spalding glove proved to be very popular with catchers, as there were no specialty gloves designed for use at a particular position until after 1890. In the early 1880s, Spalding began the manufacture of an all leather baseball shoe, constructed with steel cleats. He incorporated very soft and supple kangaroo leather into the uppers of the shoe to improve fit and performance; kangaroo leather was also used by ice hockey skate manufacturers in their early products for this reason. In 1887, Spalding perceived that the new sport of American football was likely to expand, creating a further need for its own specially designed products. Spalding developed a leather football, with rawhide laces; his ball became a standard by which others were measured. Spalding’s success with his baseball product spurred other sports equipment manufacturing innovations. In 1894, at the request of James Naismith, the inventor of basketball, Spalding developed a distinct ball for use in the sport. Since the invention of basketball in 1891, Naismith had used a soccer ball for his basketball games. Spalding created a leather covered ball with a rubber bladder, designed to be both durable and with sufficient grip that it could be easily handled by the players. In 1895, Spalding again designed and manufactured a ball for a newly developed American sport, volleyball. The first volleyball was of leather construction. Spalding solidified his hold on sporting goods manufacture in this period through his publication of various official rule books and guides with respect to a number of sports. Baseball, as the game Spalding knew best, was the most documented. By 1901, Spalding had established 14 sporting goods stores that sold his products exclusively; the bulk of the Spalding business was by way of mail order. Spalding extended his manufacturing processes to include any equipment required for any sport being played in America. After Spalding’s death in 1915, his company continued to expand its merchan-

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dise base; golf clubs and related golf products became a Spalding mainstay. With the exception of soccer, the equipment produced today by Spalding are traditional American sports-basketball, football, volleyball, baseball, and softball. SEE ALSO

Baseball; Basketball; Football (American).

Special Olympics The Special Olympics Athlete’s code is ‘‘Let me win. But if I cannot win, let me be brave in the attempt.’’ Those words are perhaps the clearest expression of what the Special Olympics movement is about. The Special Olympics concept was given its initial momentum in the early 1960s by American Eunice Kennedy Shriver, who wished to create opportunities for persons with intellectual disability in the wider world through their participation in organized sport. The first Special Olympic Games, modeled to a large degree on the format of the traditional Summer Olympics, was held in New York in 1968. Since that time, the Special Olympics have become both a winter and summer quadrennial sports festival open to participants worldwide. Other Special Olympics competitions are convened in a wide range of team and individual sports throughout the world on both a local and a regional basis. It is a measure of the global interest in Special Olympics activities that the Special Olympics Law Enforcement Torch Run, first run in the United States in 1981, is now a fundraising event organized in 35 countries around the world. It is the stated mission of the Special Olympics movement that its participants obtain the advantages of year-round sport training in Olympic-type sports, with an emphasis on fitness, participation, and friendship within a competitive atmosphere. The Special Olympics seeks to be a part of the life of persons with intellectual disabilities in assisting them to be as productive as possible in society at large. It is this point that distinguishes the Special Olympics from both the Paralympics and Olympics movements, where competition at the highest possible level is an overarching objective of the participating athletes. The Paralympics, competitions standard for the participation of persons with intellectual disability, are similar to those established by the Special Olympics; there is no formal overlap between the two organizations. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SPECIAL OLYMPICS

Special Olympics International (SOI) is the governing body of worldwide Special Olympics programs. SOI is composed of representatives of its various member nations, which in turn are composed of regional and state Special Olympics bodies. The Special Olympics movement advances its mission through inclusivity. The intellectual disabilities of the Special Olympians render these athletes indistinguishable from 90% of the general population. Special Olympics competition is open to any athlete who is a minimum of eight years of age and who meets certain criteria, including the athlete has been identified by an appropriate professional or agency as a person with a mental disability, or the athlete has been similarly identified as a person with cognitive delay, often referred to as a ‘‘slow learner’’; a slow learner is usually considered to be a person who is more than two years behind their peers in their educational progress. Another criterion is that the athlete has been determined to possess a significant learning disability or vocational problem. The Special Olympics movement uses adaptive skill areas, aspects of life such as social skills, self-care, and vocational abilities, to assess athlete eligibility. Certain individuals who might otherwise qualify for admission to all Special Olympics programs are restricted in the extent of their participation for safety reasons. An example is certain athletes with the genetic disease, Down syndrome, which often imposes a companion condition, atlantoaxial instability, which renders the cervical vertebrae located immediately below the skull (vertebrae C-1) vulnerable to injury with physical contact. The Special Olympics include a broad range of sports that are inspired by the Olympics format, with appropriate modification. The Winter Special Olympics has two events, snowshoeing and floor hockey, added to suit the requirements and the skill set of the athletes. The Special Olympics variety of floor hockey is also modified for broader participation, a six-player per side indoor game played with a pole and a felt disc with the center removed; the disc is advanced through its propulsion through the insertion of the pole into the disc center. One Special Olympics sport that does not require significant modification form the standard Olympic format is power lifting. Special Olympic athletes lift weights in squat, bench press, and dead lift competitions. Special Olympics equestrian competition preserves the Olympic format in that male and female athletes compete in the same events. Unified Sports WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The 400-m run at the 35th Annual Summer Games of the Special Olympics. A P PH OTO /RIC F RA NCIS

is a feature unique to the Special Olympics equestrian competition. Unified Sports pairs a Special Olympics athlete with an athlete who is not intellectually disabled, and these athletes compete on their mounts as a team in various relay and drills events. Another feature of Special Olympics team events are the individual skills competitions. Examples are basketball dribbling and passing events, and floor hockey shooting contests. In most skills competitions, all of the members of the team are able to participate regardless of ability. In regional or state Special Olympics competitions, the skills competitions are used to seed teams into their appropriate level of play. The team sports such as basketball or floor hockey will generally provide for up to four competitive divisions. Basketball, a very popular Special Olympics sport, uses the same rules of play as would a regular competition at its highest ability level, with modifications to accommodate the level of intellectual disability in the remaining divisions. Such aspects of the Special Olympics are another

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component of the inclusivity that is desired in all aspects of the competition.

International federations; International Olympic Committee (IOC); Paralympics; Sports coaching.

SEE ALSO

Speedskating Speedskating is a sport in which the object is to skate around an oval ice track for various, defined distances in as quick a time as possible. Athletes’ times are often separated by only a few hundredths of a second. The course can be either a long course 400-m oval (the same dimensions and shape as is used in track and field competitions) or a short course of 200 or 250 m. The latter course can be accommodated on a conventional ice hockey surface. The sport can be carried out on ice ovals that are located outdoors or indoors. For competitions such as the World Championships and the Winter Olympics, all speedskating events are held indoors, where the ice temperature can be precisely controlled and where wind is not an issue. Long course speedskating has a lengthy competitive history. The first recorded event took place in Oslo, Norway, in 1863. The sport’s governing body, The International Skating Union (ISU), was formed in the nineteenth century, and has been the organizer of world championships since 1893. Short course (or short track) speedskating also has a long history. Originally conducted as a race with a mass start by a larger group of participants, this type of speedskating made its Olympic debut at the 1932 Lake Placid Olympics. The ISU officially adopted the short course version as a competitive sport in 1967; international competition began in 1976, and the first world championships were held in 1981. The event became a demonstration sport at the 1988 Calgary Olympics, where its combination of speed and ever-present danger of crashes immediately proved to be a crowd and broadcast favorite. By the next Olympics, short course speedskating had become a medal event. The standard 400 m long course speedskating oval consists of two lanes. The turns at either end of the course have a diameter of 54–56 yd (50–52 m). Even though athletes race against the clock instead of one another, each race in a speedskating competition involves two skaters. Typically, the skater who begins the race in the inside lane wears

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an arm band of a designated color, while the skater who begins in the outside lane wears a differently colored arm band. To ensure that each covers the same amount of distance each lap of the oval, the skaters must cross from their starting lane to the other lane at a defined point in the race (the first straightaway after the first turn). Each skater is allowed one false start (when the skater begins the forward motion before the starting signal has been given). If the athlete incurs another false start in the same race, he or she is disqualified from the competition for that distance. Other reasons for disqualification include entering the adjacent lane other than in the designated crossover zone, not changing lanes, and interfering with the other skater during the lane change. Long course speedskating distances most often include sprints of 500 and 1,000 m, where an explosive start and quickness throughout the race are paramount (elite athletes can exceed 37 mph/60 km/h), to longer distances (1,500, 5,000, and 10,000 m) where the ability to maintain form and a steady pace are keys to success. Women may also participate in a 3,000-m event. Typically, the sprint events are run as two races, with the time for each race tallied to produce the overall time. Pursuit races—where teams of skaters compete, each skater alternately assuming the lead for a time, in an effort to catch up to another team—can also be run, particularly in short course competitions. All races are run in the counterclockwise direction. In both the long and (especially) short course competitions, falls can occur. When skaters fall, they can get up and continue the race, although the added time will almost certainly eliminate them from the medal podium. If a fall in a long course event disrupts the other competitor, the race can be appealed and run over again. Speedskating is an aerodynamic event. Skaters wear tight-fitting lycra suits that include hoods to allow them to move as quickly and efficiently as possible through the air. The suits must follow the natural contours of the body. Many skaters wear goggles or glasses to prevent their eyes from watering during a race. Posture is also important. Racers adopt a hunched position to cut down on wind resistance and increase the power of the leg muscles applied to each stride and, in longer races, hold the inside arm behind the back and rhythmically swing the outside arm to make movement as efficient as possible. Swinging the arm also helps a skater maintain balance and direction through the turns. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SPEEDSKATING

Competitors at the 1000-m final during the U.S. Short Track Speedskating Championships, 2005.

P HO TO BY MA TTH EW S TOCKM AN /

G ET T Y I MA GE S.

Another distinctive speedskating gear is the longbladed skate. The 15–17 in (38–45 cm) blade is much longer than the boot, providing more surface to dig into the ice and power the athlete forward (the blade is sharpened to be flat to allow for a long gliding stride, in contrast to hockey skates, which have two edges on the underside of the blade to assist in rapid stopping and direction change). The blade length comes at a cost; turns need to be carefully executed so that a skate blade does not catch as one foot is crossed over the other. Until the mid-1990s, the boot was designed with the blade fixed to the underside of the boot along its entire length. Then, a new design was introduced, in which the blade is fixed to the boot only near the toe. This hinged design allows the boot to flex forward while still maintaining the blade in contact with the ice. As the foot moves downward after a skating stroke, the blade snaps back into position. The distinctive sound had given the ‘‘clap skate’’ its name.


Both designs are available for use, depending on an athlete’s preference. The clap skate is used by the majority of competitors in longer distance events, where the added assist from the blade becomes important during the tiring late stages of a race. Elite speedskaters will have their skates custom built to the dimensions of their feet. Some skate barefoot, in an effort to maximize their control. Speedskating was long dominated by European and Canadian athletes. However, the sport is now truly international, with elite competitors from around the globe attaining world-class performances. A noteworthy American performance occurred at the 1980 Lake Placid Olympics, when Eric Heiden won gold in all five of the men’s events. SEE ALSO

Figure skating, ice.

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Spike, volleyball

SEE

Volleyball: Set

and spike mechanisms

Sport nutrition Human nutrition and sport nutrition are closely related concepts. Nutrition is the process of nourishment of the human body through food, and whether in a non athletic, day-to-day existence, or for the purposes of high performance sport, proper nutrition has the same basic principles. Diet, as distinct from nutrition, is the composition of the various foods that are ingested into the body. Nutritional benefits may be derived from whole foods or through dietary supplements. The difference between regular nutritional practices and those that pertain to sport is the fact that even the most minor departures from optimal nutritional practice can have a significant impact on sport performance; greater latitude in nutrition will not necessarily be noticed in circumstances where human performance is not measured. The nutrients consumed through food are divided into two broad classifications: macronutrients and micronutrients. The macronutrients are carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. For the past 40 years, the generally accepted proportion of each of the macronutrients in a healthy diet was 60–65% carbohydrates, 12–15% proteins, and less than 30% fats. Sports-focused research has provided significant data about the ratio of carbohydrate, proteins, and fats for optimum macronutrient consumption for athletes. This research has confirmed that different sports will dictate different macronutrient consumption patterns for their participants. Nutritional research has also been motivated by secondary factors in relation to sport performance. Nutritional guidelines are sometimes varied in consideration of health and fitness developments that indirectly impact on sports performance. The rapid rise in obesity rates in many countries, related in part of the equally dramatic rise in both juvenile and adult (type 2) diabetes, has spurred further examination of what constitutes optimal nutritional. Carbohydrates are essential to athletic performance; athletes simply require more energy than do sedentary persons. A carbohydrate-restricted diet and effective athletic participation are incompatible concepts. Further, carbohydrates provide the energy for all brain and central nervous system activity. Carbohydrate consumption by athletes that is out of

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proportion to other macronutrients is also not necessarily a healthy choice. High-carbohydrate and lowfat diets, as are sometimes engaged in by endurance athletes such as marathon runners or by athletes seeking to remove the perceived weight gaining properties of dietary fat from their diet, will tend to reduce the production of high density lipoproteins, the so-called ‘‘good’’ cholestrol that negates the effect of the lower density, plaque-causing cholesterol that contributes to cardiovascular disease. Dietary fats are crucial to athletic performance, as the fats, stored within the body as triglycerides and released into the bloodstream as the energy source, fatty acids, are also essential to the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A and vitamin D. Without the proper absorption of vitamin D into the body, the companion absorption of the mineral calcium, essential to the formation and repair of bones, will be impaired. Proper sport nutrition requires a supply of fat in the athlete’s diet; the adjustment of the precise quantity and quality of fats into the body is often essential. Dietary fats present in many diets are both saturated fats, the cause of the ‘‘bad’’ cholesterol, and the trans fats, created through the use of partially hydrogenated vegetable oils that make liquids solid. While a non-athletic person should limit consumption of these products, which have no nutritional value and which present wellestablished health risks, these fats in significant quantities will impair athletic cardiovascular performance. Conversely, the fats can provide an athlete with a significant macronutritional benefit beyond the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. Polyunsaturated fats are essential to the function of the body; there are two primary polyunsaturates, better known as omega-3 acid omega-6. In the formulation of a diet that addresses specific needs, the athlete should become familiar with food package labeling; in most countries in the Western world, and in regions such as Australasia, the identification of both the quantity and the quality of food ingredients such as trans fats and the relative percentages of other product components must be clearly marked. Protein was long misunderstood in its application to sport performance, particularly in activities where musculoskeletal strength is crucial. Protein is the essential macronutrient in the building and repair of muscle and connective tissues, as well as essential to the formation of certain hormones and enzymes. The classic weight training programs encouraged the consumption of large amounts of dietary protein, such as animal meats, to contribute to muscle WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SPORT NUTRITION

development. Modern sport research confirms that it is the type of proteins that consequently supply the correct essential amino acids that are as important as protein quantity. A healthy, non-athletic person will require a certain amount of daily consumption of protein to maintain muscle health; an athlete may consume only slightly more protein, even during intensive training, so long as the amino acid composition within the protein is correct. Strictly speaking, fiber is not a macronutrient or a micronutrient, as it is not digested into the body; fiber tends to be present in both nutritional groups and it possesses significant sports nutritional benefits as a facilitator of the digestion and absorption of both types of nutrition sources. Dietary fiber has profound benefits in the proper and orderly digestion of foods and processing of waste products; regularity in both areas is essential to athletic performance. Dietary fiber is of particular benefit to the body in the maintenance of its blood glucose levels. Fiber that is not naturally occurring in a food product is described as functional fiber; studies confirm that while any fiber will assist in the digestive processes, dietary fiber is preferable. The micronutrients are those components of diet that occur in smaller amounts than the broader carbohydrate, proteins, and fats that form the macronutrients. While no athlete will be able to compete at any significant sporting level if he or she does not consume proper proportions of the macronutrients, it is the effect of the micronutrients that often attract considerable sports science attention. It is the adjustment of micronutrient levels that may spell the difference between adequate and superb performance. Micronutrients include all vitamins, most minerals, and the class of substances known as the phytochemicals, or phytonutrients, which are present in many foods. Vitamins are present in foods in one of two categories. Fat-soluble vitamins, which include vitamins A, D, and E, require the presence of fatty acids to be absorbed into the body. Fat-soluble vitamins are capable of being stored in the liver. Water-soluble vitamins, the most prominent of which are vitamin C and the vitamin B complex, are absorbed through the digestive process by the small intestine. Watersoluble vitamins cannot be stored within the body and each must be replenished through diet each day. Each vitamin is necessary to the function of one or more of the multitude of bodily systems. A key example of vitamin absorption and athletic performance is that of the water-soluble vitamin B group. Different vitamins within the complex are WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

essential to the regulation and function of carbohydrate absorption and the orderly storage of glycogen. Similarly, the presence of adequate levels of vitamin D is fundamental to the processes by which the bones are built, maintained, and repaired. Although the mineral calcium, along with phosphorous, is the prime construction material in bone cells, vitamin D must be present for the cell formation to occur. Both optimal glycogen storage and bone repair are fundamental to sport success. Minerals, generally defined as substances that are produced from the Earth, are present in a wide variety of foods. Many minerals have a significant impact on general performance; many different mineral deficiencies are potentially catastrophic to effective athletic performance. There are over 20 minerals present in varying amounts in the body; key minerals are calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, and iron. A separate class of minerals with electrolytic properties includes sodium and potassium. A sodium deficiency will create a chain reaction of increasingly serious problems in athletic performance. Sodium is essential to the maintenance of fluid levels and the acid/base balance within the body, as well as with respect to the transmission of nerve impulses into the muscles, in an electrochemical partnership with potassium. Calcium deficiencies will contribute to a loss of bone density and related structural problems, especially given the stresses of sport on the musculoskeletal system. Iron performs a number of important functions within the body, none more important than its presence within the hemoglobin of erythrocytes, the compartment of the red blood cells that transport oxygen. The phytochemicals, like the fiber they are often contained within, have no caloric or energy value. Some common types of phytochemical actions and related food sources include antibacterial agents, the best known of which is allicin, the active ingredient of garlic that provides the vegetable with its characteristic strong odor. Allicin is a chemical that acts as an effective agent against bacteria entering the body. Antioxidants are found in a variety of plant sources. An antioxidant is a chemical that tends to seek out any molecules in the body that have an unpaired electron, known as free radicals, molecules that tend to form cancer-causing cells. Phytochemicals sources such as fruits, carrots, onions, and other vegetables are well-regarded antioxidants. Lycopene is a powerful antioxidant found in the skin of tomatoes that acts effectively in preserving the health of the cells in the cardiovascular system.

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College football players enjoying a meal on the eve of a game.

AP PH OTO/ P AT CH RIST MA N, MA NKA TO FRE E P RE SS

Alkaloids have phytochemical actions as well. The most important alkaloid is caffeine, the world’s most consumed stimulant, possessing a powerful effect on the central nervous system. Digoxin is found naturally in the foxglove plant, and is used as a medication in the treatment of heart failure, as it acts to regulate and to strengthen a failing heart rate. Flavanoids are chemicals found in a number of fruits, such as cranberries, raspberries, grapes, and blueberries that often act as antioxidants. Flavanoids also work to inhibit the progress of low-density lipoproteins in the cardiovascular system, the form of cholesterol that causes plaque and contributes to the narrowing of arteries and the development of arteriosclerosis. Red wine has been long regarded as possessing flavanoids. Beta-sitosterol is a substance found in peanuts, wheat germ, and various rice products; these chemicals tend to reduce cholesterol levels, especially in men with prostate problems.

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While phytochemicals can be added to an existing diet by way of dietary supplements, these substances are best absorbed into the body through a balanced diet that contains significant fresh fruits and vegetables. Two food types that are often overlooked concerning phytochemical benefits are the consumption of dried fruits, which lose little of their phytochemical effect in this form, and the liberal use of herbs and spices with meals. Most dried herbs, such as basil, thyme, and oregano, are rich in various phytochemicals. The active ingredient in many types of red pepper, capsicum, is an effective antioxidant agent.

Diet; Minerals; Nutrition; Phytochemicals; Sodium (salt) intake for athletes; Vitamin C; Vitamin E.

SEE ALSO

Sport performance Sport performance is the manner in which sport participation is measured. Sport performance is a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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complex mixture of biomechanical function, emotional factors, and training techniques. Performance in an athletic context has a popular connotation of representing the pursuit of excellence, where an athlete measures his or her performance as a progression toward excellence or achievement. There is an understanding in sport that athletes interested in performance tend to the competitive or elite level; athletes interested in simple participation, for broader purposes such as fitness or weight control, are most often recreational athletes who do not set specific performance goals. On one level, the determination of sport performance in most sport disciplines is a simple matter. In those activities where the result is measurable and defined, such as a race, a jump, or an object to be thrown, the end result is quantifiable. In these sports, it is the quest for performance improvement that drives the analysis of the individual components of performance. When an athlete and the coach can isolate areas on which to focus in training, the ultimate result is likely to be improved. Sport performance has four distinct aspects, each of which has a number of subcategories, some of which are rooted in physical certainty, others of which tend to the highly variable. The four areas include neuromuscular factors, the relationship between the nervous system and its dimensions and the musculoskeletal system; mental control and psychological factors; environmental conditions; and coaching and external support for the athlete. The neuromuscular factors that impact sports performance are typically the most comprehensive and represent those aspects of performance that occupy the greatest degree of focus and preparation time. In many sports, no matter how devoted to training the athlete may be, if he or she is not physically equipped to compete, the performance will not improve. The neuromuscular component of sports performance is subdivided into its own discrete elements. Each of these elements must be the subject of specific training approaches, including body type. Many sports lend themselves to a particular, generically predetermined physical frame or stature; American football linemen and rugby forwards must have a significant degree of physical size. Unless the athletes have a natural predisposition to having a large build, they cannot competitively succeed at these positions. Similarly, large-build athletes will not be successful distance runners or high jumpers as their genetics are essentially a disqualification from the serious pursuit of such sports; they will be limited, no matter what WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

passion they may possess for the sport, to more recreational participation in such pursuits. In many sports, such as gymnastics and basketball, athletes with desirable natural physical attributes are directed into these pursuits. Another neuromuscular component is muscular strength, both in terms of muscle mass and muscle power. While body type will tend to significantly influence the ability of an athlete to develop muscle strength, training will permit strength development in all athletes; strength, whether in terms of discernable power or as a function of the core strength, the neatly counter-balanced relationship between the upper body and lower body musculoskeletal structures when in movement. Endurance, which is the ability of the body to perform over time, is essential to success in all sports. In high-intensity sports of a short duration, such as sprinting and weightlifting, endurance is similar to a backbone to the activity, assisting in the speedy and efficient recovery from the stress of the event or training. In sports where endurance is a central aspect, such as distance running or crosscountry skiing, maximal endurance, as reflected in the ability of the athlete to consume and process oxygen, expressed as the athlete’s VO2max, is of prime importance. Flexibility is the counterpoint to muscular strength; the greater the range of motion present in the joints of an athlete, the greater the ability to move dynamically. An inflexible athlete is unlikely to ever achieve outstanding athletic performance. Inflexibility in human joints creates imbalance in the connective tissues and muscle structures, which will reduce the ability of the muscle to achieve maximum power, and will increase the risk of injury. The ability of the body to respond to external stimuli in sport, such as the movement of an opponent or the starter’s gun, requires the development of aspects of the athlete’s motor control. These specific neuromuscular abilities include the feature of reaction time. Agility, balance, and coordination are three interrelated concepts. These aspects of sport performance are also influenced by heredity and body type to a significant degree, but all can be enhanced through training. Most sports have specific drills developed to further each of these areas, such as the simple running drills where an athlete must run through a pattern laid out on the running surface. When the drills are run in reverse or in varying sequences, the drill is intensified. Each of these neuromuscular features of

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sport performance is less influenced by the strength of the musculoskeletal system, and more impacted by technique and repetition. Speed is built by training that is focused on the development of the fast-twitch fibers of the skeletal muscles. The distribution of fast-twitch fibers through the muscles of the body is also regulated by genetics, but training can maximize the fast-twitch effect. In many sports, the ability of the athlete to develop a rhythm to the performance will be crucial to success. Running, cross-country skiing, cycling, and speed skating are sports where the establishment of an effective rhythm or cadence will keep the athlete organized and physically efficient. The development of a rhythm is the imposition of a cadence on musculoskeletal activity. Mental control and the related psychological factors in sport performance are intangibles that are reflected in the final result of an athlete’s effort. In many respects, the mental elements of sport are the most difficult to master, as they usually require a high level of athletic experience and maturity to reach fruition. Examples abound in every sport of the supremely physically gifted athlete who is said to ‘‘choke’’ or ‘‘fold under pressure,’’ because the athlete was not able to master emotions during competition. This development of athletic emotional control is capable of being examined from a number of perspectives, including intelligence, which is a valued commodity in an athlete. Logic and analytical power assists an athlete in any sport to dispassionately review where they must improve. The ability of an athlete to self-motivate is essential to success, both in competition and training. Additionally, creativity is also an intangible that will separate the successful athletes from the merely talented. Creativity manifests itself in team games through clever or well-conceived tactics. In individual sports, creativity is often reflected through the athlete’s approach to training routines. Discipline is a factor in both practice and games. Undisciplined performance will inevitably lead to error; a failure to adhere to practice schedules by the athlete will usually result in substandard performance. The level of alertness and mental acuity that the athlete brings to performance is a function of a number of combined factors, including physical fatigue or stresses unrelated to sport, such as personal circumstances, education, or employment pressures.

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Environmental factors are rarely within the athlete’s personal control; the ability of the athlete to adapt to unexpected environmental factors is often determinative of performance success. There are important environmental factors that can affect success. Playing conditions are the same for all competitors, be it the surface of an Alpine ski run, a sudden rainstorm soaking a rugby pitch, or unexpected heat in a distance race. An athlete seeking to maximize performance must not only exercise the mental control to avoid being upset by weather or the condition of a playing surface, the athlete must examine ways to make the conditions work in the positive. Equipment will sometimes impact performance. A broken hockey stick or a baseball bat that fractures on impact in a tied baseball game can dramatically affect an outcome; deficient equipment can also take a psychological toll on an athlete. The 2006 Winter Olympics provided a remarkable example of an equipment failure becoming a motivating factor for an athlete, when Canadian cross-country skier Beckie Scott had a ski pole break during the women’s relay, mentally deflating Scott and crippling her efforts. As Scott fell behind the pack, the Norwegian national director of cross-country skiing ran out to Scott and provided her with an extra pole. Scott raced ahead with renewed vigor; Canada ultimately won the silver medal. Coaching and external support for the athlete is as important as any factor in sport performance. For young athletes, if there is not a parent or organized sport group providing direction and assistance to the aspiring competitor, success is unlikely. In certain disciplines, such as skiing or figure skating, when there are significant expenses with respect to securing practice time and specialized coaching, an athlete’s opportunity to progress absent parental or other support is highly unlikely. Coaching will impact sport performance, either positively or negatively, in two separate ways. Coaches provide the primary direction to an athlete in terms of training, tactics, nutrition, and sport technique. It is the coach who must keep current with respect to all advances in the sport. A lack of appropriate coaching direction in any of these aspects will prevent the athlete from achieving the best result. As importantly, a coach is one of the athlete’s primary emotional support, due to the intensity and the immediacy of the relationship.

Fitness; Health; Motivational techniques; Sport psychology; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO


SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Sport psychology Psychology is the study of the nature and function of the mind, with particular emphasis placed on the relationship between thought and physical action. Psychology has become increasingly important in sports, particularly with respect to the improvement and maintenance of athletic performance. Sport psychology is an aspect of sport training and preparation; this science is primarily directed at assisting individual athletes and teams maintain an optimal balance between mind and body, both in terms of the physical execution of the technical aspects of the sport and the related functions of emotion and mood. Many athletes who possess superior physical gifts are rarely able to seemingly combine athletic talent and mental control; sport psychology is directed at the building and reinforcement of that connection. Sport psychology is a separate but related study from sports medicine. Formal psychological training is a combination of intense academic study and practical applications; sport psychology is an accepted subscript of the science. Sport psychologists typically are persons with an interest in and an understanding of the mechanics and the dynamics of both sport and sport coaching. At an elite competitive level, the athlete/coach/psychologist triangle is usually very tightly formed, particularly in support of athletes who compete in individual sports. Sports psychology was not generally accepted as a formal science until the 1970s, when a body of knowledge began to develop concerning how athletes could be motivated to train harder and to maintain a peak emotional level prior to competition. Modern sport psychology is a multifaceted science, covering a broad and sometimes contradictory range of professional opinions about how to best stimulate the mind of the athlete to assist in the achievement of a desired result. There is no single sports psychology approach. Team sports and the dynamics of group interaction are entirely different than the pursuits of individual competition. The nature of the sport itself will play a significant role in how the athlete may be assisted; certain sports, by their nature, are likely to attract certain types of personalities. A cross-country skier and the object of the sport are a polar opposite to the goals of a weightlifter or a boxer. While individuals in their sport may require varying psychological approaches, the science of sports psychology is founded on a number of constants. Sport psychology, as a support to the athlete, will invariably include WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

work in three general areas: goal setting, imagery and simulation, and development of better powers of concentration. Goal setting is a planning process that occurs as a part of an assessment of the overall needs and abilities of an athlete. Goals must ultimately be realistic; to set objectives that are unattainable for an athlete is to guarantee failure. Goal setting involves the determination of such issues as the athlete’s ability to self-motivate and the personal measure of self-confidence. The sports psychologist, along with the athlete and the coaches, can play a role in the prioritizing of competitive events within the training year; effective coaches will create a schedule that is often referred to as periodization of training, when the year is divided into the constituent parts of competitive season, off-season and preseason. Sport psychology principles are of particular application in the athlete’s development of a feedback loop, where the constant analysis, reevaluation, and refocusing of training and competitive direction, occurs regarding performance. Imagery and simulation training and techniques form the second branch of sport psychology. Although commonly treated as a single entity, imagery and simulation are two distinct psychological approaches to sport training and preparation. The physical training undertaken by any athlete requires the development of the athlete’s brain and the pathways of the nervous system, particularly those of the peripheral system that extend to the musculoskeletal structure that is directed and powered to achieve movement. The more specific and focused the nerve impulses initiated by the brain in respect of the intended physical movements of the sport, the more effective the athlete will be in execution of the required movements of the sport. Imagery is a psychological technique where the athlete is conditioned to prepare for sport through the use of the mind. Imagery includes the development of set thought patterns, composed of often abstract words or images that the athlete finds helpful in reinforcing the focus on the activity. Images are developed between the athlete and the psychologist to trigger certain types of emotions that the athlete may wish to harness at appropriate times. The common emotions that are tied to imagery are those that calm the athlete in a tense environment, ones that motivate the athlete to increase intensity where the athlete may be at a lower level of intensity than is desired, or images to heighten the ability to block out all extraneous activity or distraction.

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The images may be personal to the athlete’s experience, or they may be created to spur a particular reaction. Once taught, imagery is a self-motivational tool, portable in that the images and their keys are carried in the athlete’s mind. An example is the use of the word ‘‘wind’’ and words associated with the performance and the nature of wind in relation to how a distance runner might imagine his or her own performance. The abstract wind is connected to the reality of what the athlete seeks to achieve. Simulation is a mental training process that is a direct linkage between mental control and the sport. Simple simulations include the mental rehearsal of sport-specific techniques such as the mental review of all aspects of a foul shot in basketball, from the first approach to the foul line to the ball falling through the cylinder. An important component of effective simulation is the appreciation of all of the senses that the athlete would expect to engage at the time of the actual event being simulated. Using the basketball foul shot as an example, the player would be encouraged to think not only of the mechanics of the shot, but how the ball feels in the shooter’s hand, the sensation of the player’s shoes on the floor, and the sound made by the ball as it swishes through the mesh of the basket on a successful attempt. Simulation seeks to build the entire act and its surrounding physical circumstances in the mind, to better equip the athlete to deal with those related sensations during competition. Simulation is the mental companion to the physical training involved in sports practice. The live drills used by teams to prepare for competition are the mirror to the mental training and psychological preparation of simulation. The overriding purpose of both imagery and simulation in sport is to assist in the development of confidence in the athlete. The development of the athlete’s powers of concentration is the third general component of sport psychology. In many respects, the maintenance of concentration powers is the most difficult mental effort extended by an athlete, as concentration is influenced by both physical circumstances such as fatigue or injury, as well as the mental aspects of competitive pressure and other distracting variables. Sports psychologists often seek to develop a number of specific attributes to mental performance as a general increase in the powers of concentration in an athlete. The first of these qualities is focus. In both training and competitive situations, an athlete must maintain a relentless attention on the matters at hand. Focus is applicable to both the mechanics of

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the sport, as well as the maintenance of the required intensity to perform at the desired level. Mood is the next factor to be controlled in the enhancement of concentration powers. Sport psychology provides for an intensely individualized analysis when determining the ideal mood suitable for the best performance in any given athlete. As a general proposition, the psychologist will seek to assist the athlete in attaining the desired mood. Imagery is sometimes employed, as are external stimuli such as music. The athlete’s activation level is a concept closely related to the mood of the athlete, as every athlete has an emotional point where he or she is sufficiently mentally stimulated to possess the desire and the drive to perform, without being so excited by the prospect of competition that the athlete loses concentration regarding the execution of the required physical aspects of the sport. The phrase ‘‘to get psyched up’’ is a simple example of words that are used to take the athlete to the activation level. Another tool to maintain activation level in an athlete is positive self-talk, where the athlete is encouraged to talk silently for constant self-encouragement throughout an event. Sports psychologists will also seek to equip the athlete with personal stress management tools; if an athlete succumbs to the stress of competition, he or she will not be able to succeed. The control of stressful factors by the athlete, especially when the athlete is able to direct some of the energy that is created by stress into positive performance, is among the goals of the psychologist. Pressure is a more generalized emotional factor that is closely related to stress. Pressure is often driven by external circumstances, such as the expectations of a parent, a team, or a coach. It is a factor that tends to undermine the power of concentration. Pressure is often subtle and more diffuse than the stress that is associated with a specific event. Pressure may often be related to insecurity or a poor selfimage on the part of the athlete. Sports psychologists often work with athletes to establish reasonable expectations to assist with the ability to deal with the variables of sport performance. The overall maintenance of mental and emotional balance on the part of the athlete’s mental outlook is a powerful weapon against overtraining. The science of psychology has long recognized two general classifications of personalities, labeled type A and type B. Type A persons are those who are intense, perfectionist, and demanding individuals; WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SPORTS COACHING

Muhammad Ali engaged psychological as well as physical skills in his fights.

Type Bs are relaxed and easygoing people. Type A athletes are the most vulnerable to overtraining syndrome, as these persons will tend to push themselves past healthy physical and emotional limits in their pursuit of excellence.

Motivational techniques; Sport performance; Sports coaching; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO

Sports coaching Sport coaching is as difficult and as demanding as any other aspect of sport. Good coaching and poor coaching often have impacts on the individual athlete or a team and can become magnified out of proportion to the coaching direction itself. The complete and well-trained sports coach is seemingly a multiWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª BE TTM AN N/ CORB IS

dimensional personality, possessing a wide range of technical, communication, and interpersonal skills. There is no one source from which strong sports coaches are produced. Many successful coaches were sports players with average physical talents; others developed coaching skills through formal academic or sports institute education. All sports coaches must possess certain attributes, some in greater measures than others, to provide effective direction to their athletes or teams. An important attribute is a technical knowledge of the sport. A passion for the sport is a coaching asset on its own, but a love of the game standing in isolation is not a sufficient grounding for coaching effectiveness. While it may not be essential that the coach possess tactical genius (although the further one moves to elite competition, the more important tactics will be to a primary coaching consideration), the coach must have a thorough grounding in the fundamentals of the

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sport, or the coach will not be able to provide the necessary direction to the athletes in either training programs or competitive events. In North America, the knowledgeable technical coach is sometimes referred to as one who understands ‘‘the Xs and Os,’’ a reference to the visual aids often used by coaches to diagram a play or a maneuver. Other coaching skills include preparing physical training programs and practice planning. Technical sports knowledge permits the coach to plan how the athletes will best develop their skills for competition. A critical part of coaching is the establishment of realistic overall performance goals. To achieve such goals, the thorough coach develops training programs that build on the concept of the periodization of training. Through periodization, the coach will plan a training year that is divided into the general periods of preseason, competitive season, and off season, with each of these periods divided into subperiods to take into account such events as a special competition or injury rehabilitation. The macro planning of the athletic season works in tandem with the micro planning that a coach will employ to prepare individual practice and training sessions. All training is directed toward a training objective, which in turn must be focused toward a distinct competitive or performance goal. A coach must have a solid understanding of performance and the function of the body in every respect, as the coach must appreciate the limits of human capabilities if training is to be maximized without exceeding athletic capabilities. Mental and psychological training for the athletes is critical. The coach is the prime motivational support for both individual athletes and teams. It is the coach who sets the tone for the quality of training sessions. Coaches also lead the effort to motivate and to maintain the athlete’s emotional control during competition. A coach needs to impart tactical ability in competitive situations. Many coaches are very skilled at scouting an opponent and devising a strategy, commonly described as the development of a game plan. The execution of the game plan by a team often depends on the coach’s ability to make tactical adjustments during the course of the competition. A coach must develop a resolute emotional control to minimize the influence of external competitive forces, such as officiating and crowd noise, to implement the game plan or to make such adjustments to the plan as circumstances may demand. An effective coach in a game situation will usually be able to detach to a certain degree from these influences without losing touch with the emotional state of the

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team or individual athlete. Tactical success also requires the coach to remain current with every development and performance trend in the sport. In an overarching way, the coach will be the primary personal support for the athlete in many cases. Coaching is, at its heart, a trust relationship between coach and athlete. At its best, the coach is a supremely influential figure for good in the life of the athlete, a sporting mentor with whom the athlete has a powerful emotional bond. The successful coach puts the interests of the athlete ahead of his or her own in every circumstance. In rarer cases, the often well-intentioned coach becomes a Svengali, a hypnotist who controls the athlete in every aspect of his or her life. Such coaches often lose sight of their primary duty to develop the skills of the athlete, rendering the athlete a part of the coach’s personal agenda instead. Such situations are ultimately self-defeating for both athlete and coach.

Computer simulations as a training tool; Motivational techniques; Sport performance; Sport psychology; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO

Sports injuries The treatment and management of sports injuries has become a multi-faceted and highly visible aspect of sports science. Sports medicine is a distinct area of professional study within the broader field of medical science because sports injuries frequently engage concepts not relevant to the treatment of any other type of physical injury. An injury is defined as any form of harm or hurt sustained by the human body, no matter how it may have been caused. An injury may be precipitated through one’s own actions, such as a sprained ankle sustained while playing basketball, or through the impact of an environmental force, such as heat or cold. Injuries may be accidental, they may be caused by the deliberate actions of a third party, or the harm may be self-inflicted. The body makes no physiological distinction between sport and non-sport injuries; the body responds to any damage sustained to a tissue, bone, organ, or system no matter how the injury was caused. When employed as an adjective to describe a type of injury, the term sports is defined as any game, competition, exercise or training program that requires physical activity. At one time, sports injuries were deemed to be only those that occurred in the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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course of competition. Injuries sustained while the athlete is practicing are equally sports injuries. Sports injuries are best understood as a part of a cycle or a continuum of physical activity. Sports injuries do not occur in a vacuum, where the injury leads in a progressive fashion to treatment and then recovery. Sports injuries occur against a complex backdrop that includes the athlete’s level of ability, the athlete’s experience in the sport, general health and fitness history, and the athlete’s desire to return to the sport after recovery. The background factors will often dictate the approach taken by an athlete and medical personnel to treatment and rehabilitation. Injuries are a fact of a sporting life. In most sports, it is not a question of if an athlete will ever sustain an injury, but rather when an injury will occur and to what degree of severity. Athletic injuries may result from participation in the sport itself, as with a boxer sustaining a concussion as a result of absorbing an opponent’s punch to the head, or a basketball player sustaining a tear of her anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in a knee. Alternatively, participation in a sport may reveal the existence of a pre-existing or underlying physical condition. Examples of a sports injury acting as an agent that exposes a pre-existing physical condition include the presence of an unequal leg length in a runner; unequal leg length contributes to the unequal foot strike forces that commonly result in a stress fracture of the tibia. Other latent physiological conditions that are revealed by exercise include weaknesses in the cardiovascular system, such as an irregular heart beat. There are a number of sports where the typical participant in the activity brings a particular mental outlook to the sport that carries with it a greater likelihood of injury. An example is the training approach adopted by many endurance athletes, such as marathoners and triathletes, one that is often expressed as ‘‘no pain, no gain.’’ At its most basic articulation, this approach advances the proposition that if the athlete is not suffering to some considerable degree in workouts, the athlete will never achieve competitive success. Numerous studies have confirmed that such athletes fall victim with far greater frequency than any other to overuse and over-training injuries, such as stress fractures and serious joint damage. It is a significant challenge to dissuade an athlete with this fundamental training mindset from this approach with the intent of reducing their personal risk of injury. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

In a similar way, the external mental pressures that may be directed towards an athlete often contribute to an over zealous approach to training that results in a sports injury. The parental pressure upon a young athlete to excel, or the similar pressure directed from coaches towards athletes may create a mindset that makes the likelihood of injury greater. The chief distinction in the treatment of sports injuries as opposed to the injuries sustained in the general population is the extent and the purpose of the rehabilitative treatment directed to each. The medical profession, whether in general practice or in a sports specialty, has an over riding obligation to treat any debilitating physical condition. The imperative behind sports injury treatment is a combination of speed, a desire to return the athlete to action as quickly as possible, and to work towards the prevention of a similar injury in future. In professional sport, there is usually an additional factor, the often significant financial incentive for both a team and an individual athlete to make a speedy recovery. An example of the speed that typically attaches to both the diagnosis and the commencement of treatment of a sports injury is found in the nature of the diagnostic tools employed by the treating medical personnel—x rays, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology, and computer tomography (CAT) scans. Most professional sports teams and many collegiate programs, such as the elite Division I schools participating in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) competition in the United States have immediate access to these tools. Arthroscopic surgery is the single most important development in sports injury treatment since 1980. The arthroscope is a small surgical device equipped with a camera that permits the surgeon to examine the interior of an injured joint through a small incision. Arthroscopic procedures revolutionized the treatment of injuries to the knee, elbow, and shoulder, as the surgeon was not required to perform an invasive procedure to achieve a modest surgical objective. Many technological advances in arthroscopic techniques since 1980 have been driven by the desire to fully rehabilitate an athlete to their former athletic productivity and income generating potential. The now standard operation to repair the elbow ulnar cruciate ligament (UCL), often damaged as a result of the stresses inherent in baseball pitching, was first developed by Dr. Frank Jobe, a California sports medicine orthopedic specialist, in 1973. Many arthroscopic procedures used in shoulder and knee repair

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were initiated by American sports medicine expert James Andrews, commencing in the mid-1980s. The frequency of sports injuries is often described in terms of an injury rate, a term that carries different meanings in different contexts. As an example, the National Football League has often had attributed to it a 100% injury rate, meaning that every player in the league is in injured at one time or another during a season. However, the expression of an injury rate in such broad terms is misleading if the data does not make reference to other factors, such as the severity of the injuries sustained, the days lost or games missed by an injured players, and in what context the injury occurred (preseason training camp, practice, games, or in the player’s personal off season conditioning program). In 2003, a comprehensive study into the incidence of sports injuries was undertaken in the United States entitled the SuperStudy of Sports. The study was directed to the establishment of clear definitions of sport injury. In addition to considerations of classifying severity of injury, the study sought to demarcate the boundary between sport and non-sport activities. As an example, a 15-year-old boy who falls from his skateboard and fractures his wrist has sustained a sports injury; his mother who accidentally trips over the same skateboard and falls in her driveway, breaking her wrist, has not sustained a sport injury. The SuperStudy set out four general classifications of sport injury, where each class of injury is tied to the amount of time the athlete was required to spend away from the sport due to injury. A Level I injury will not interrupt the athlete’s participation in the sport or activity, and there is no subsequent problem resulting from the injury. Examples of Level I injuries include a soccer player with a bruised shoulder that does not affect his or her mobility. A Level II injury is one that requires the athlete to miss at least one training session or competitive event, but no more that 1 month of activity (practices or competitions). A Level III injury can sideline the athlete for a minimum of 1 month of activity. A Level IV injury has the same definition as a Level III occurrence, except that the athlete was require dot obtain medical treatment at a hospital emergency room, undergo surgery or other medical intervention. The European Community authorized a sports injury study that employed a similar methodology in 2004.

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In most sports, it is not a question of if an athlete will ever sustain an injury, but rather when an injury will occur and to what degree of severity. ª SH AWN F RE DERICK /CO RBIS

The rehabilitation undertaken to recover from a sports injury will often engage a number of allied professionals. To correct or protect an injured joint or structure, orthotics and other protective devices may be constructed to assist the athlete in achieving optimal physical function. The physical work required of the athlete to return to their pre-injury fitness often requires the athlete to learn a variety of stretching and flexibility exercises to rebuild or to improve an existing range of motion in a joint. This rehabilitation is often supervised by either a physiotherapist, an athletic trainer, or both. In some cases, the most profound consequences of a sports injury are psychological. In many sports, the difference between success and failure is razor thin; if the athlete has lost consequence or acquired doubts as to their abilities to perform as a result of the injury sustained, the mental training will become as important as physical rehabilitation. This phenomenon is often observed in athletes who race in high WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SPORTS MEDICAL CONDITIONS

speed or other inherently dangerous circumstances. Alpine skiing, particularly the down hill event, is one where if the athlete makes a complete physical recovery from an injury, but cannot mentally sustain the willingness to ski to the very edge of physical control, the skier is unlikely to regain their top racing form. The ability of an athlete to psychologically recover from an injury is sometimes as demanding a process as the physical rehabilitation. There is an extensive body of academic material on this aspect of sports injury recovery alone. When one distills the various psychological approaches to this problem, the result is that the athlete must be encouraged to participate as they did before the injury, as opposed to participating in such a fashion that their goal is to avoid the circumstance that lead to their injury.

Musculoskeletal injuries; Sport Performance; Sports Medical Conditions; Sports Medicine Education.

SEE ALSO

Sports medical conditions Medical conditions have a relationship to two related, but distinct, sport issues—the ability of an individual athlete to generally participate in sport, and the more refined pursuit of sporting excellence. Depending on the nature of the condition, medical circumstances will either influence or dictate sport outcomes. The consideration of medical conditions that affect sport is not made in a uniform manner. Child and adolescent athletes are subject to different considerations than are adults, particularly with respect to the general musculoskeletal development of young persons, and with regard to growth plate considerations in particular. Conditions that are directly related to the aging process such as osteoarthritis and other physiological considerations will influence the relationship between medical conditions and sport participation for older persons. The determination of what effect, if any, a medical condition may have on the performance of a prospective sport by an athlete will first require an assessment of the relative risk posed by participation to the athlete. The American Pediatrics Association developed a useful categorization formula in 1994 that is now widely employed in pre-participation sport assessments made by physicians. In this method, the risk of participation is examined with reference to the degree of physical contact in the activity. Sports are classified as contact or collision WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

sports, limited/incidental contact sports, and noncontact sports. Contact or collision sports include ice hockey, American football, rugby, and Alpine skiing (due to the risk of high speed falls or collisions with fixed objects on the ski hill). Limited or incidental contact sports include basketball, soccer, cycling (risk of falls), inline skating (risk of falls), baseball and softball (base runner collisions), and various athletics field events where contact is made with a landing area, such as the high jump. Sports that are of limited risk to the athlete when performed in isolation may present a more significant risk where there are repetitions required in training. Non-contact sports include all running disciplines, volleyball, sailing, athletics field events such as the shotput, and archery. In any circumstance where there is an issue as to the physical durability of the person proposing to participate in a particular sport, these classifications are useful. However, the degree of risk to a particular participant is not limited to the degree of physical contact created in the sport. An equally important consideration is the level of physical intensity with which the participant is expected to perform in the sport. Intensity can be weighed in most sports through the impact that participation imposes on the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems and their related functions. Intensity is a measure that itself has a number of different dimensions. Intensity has been defined as a combination of the dynamic demands on the cardiovascular system, or the volume of work imposed on it by a sport activity, and the static demands, the pressure placed on these systems. Intensity is also affected by the related factors of training levels and the emotional level of the competitive environment and those required of the athlete to compete. A sport that places the athlete at moderate risk of injury caused by physical contact, such as volleyball, places significant mental and emotional demands on the competitor when the venue is a state championship or an international tournament. Emotional considerations apart, high-intensity sports include running, rowing, cycling, cross-country skiing, and lacrosse. Moderate-intensity sports include volleyball, sailing, baseball, and cricket. Curling, golf, and archery are examples of low-intensity sports, With the two different methods of defining the relationship between sport and a known medical condition, the athlete can be cross-referenced against two valid standards. Some common medical

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conditions have two means of comparison to explain how the impact of a medical condition can be assessed in a particular sport. Skeletal and structural conditions are often revealed through sport participation and not before. Factors such as uneven leg length, a congenital weakness in a bone formation or reduced bone density, the onset of osteoarthritis, and similar medical conditions are made apparent through sport when they were not necessarily apparent in daily life. The assessment of these conditions from a contact/collision perspective is very important; in some high-intensity sports, the stress of repetitive action may pose significant problems for the athlete. When the preexisting skeletal condition is known, sports posing physical risk should be avoided. In some cases, when the assessment reveals a structural imbalance, the athlete will be encouraged to obtain an orthotic or other corrective device. Identified cardiovascular system problems will require an intense physical assessment as a part of the participation analysis. Potential cardiovascular conditions that have a significant impact on athletic participation include self-induced conditions such as hypertension and arteriosclerosis, usually precipitated by poor dietary practices, as well as congenital problems such as a heart murmur, heart arrhythmia, and various types of irregularities in the heart muscle wall. The true extent of these conditions is sometimes impossible to define; common tools to assist in the determination are stress tests involving heart monitors and related assessments. Eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia often occur among young female athletes in sports where there exists considerable pressure, both among peers and coaches, as well as that imposed by the nature of the sport itself to possess a particular body type. When such disorders are identified, the athlete should be removed from the competitive and training environment in which the disorder arose until the disorder has been entirely resolved. An eating disorder is well recognized in the medical community as a serious mental illness that requires thorough medical attention; sport participation should not be renewed until the athlete is well. Diabetes is increasingly common in both adolescents and adults; in most circumstances, a diabetic condition can be properly controlled through diet. Many athletes have succeeded in high-intensity settings with a diabetic condition with proper monitoring and support. Neurological conditions, such as a history of concussion caused by blows to the head or jaw, can produced cumulative effects; each successive blow

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to the head represents a progressively greater risk of permanent brain injury than the previous incident. The athlete must be assessed not only from the perspective of the general risks of the particular sport, but what level of risk within the sport remains for the particularly vulnerable athlete, if the maximum amount of protection were available. In most cases, the safety of the athlete is of lesser consideration when a partial loss of vision will be primarily a performance issue. An example is American ice hockey player Bryan Berard, who lost all of the sight in one eye playing in a National Hockey League (NHL) game in 2000. Berard continued his career after satisfying league officials that he could perform at a professional level with one fully functional eye. As a neurological condition, epileptic seizures will require a careful assessment of the seizure history of the athlete and the effect of available antiseizure medication on different types of sportimposed physical stress. People who are either clinically obese or who are significantly overweight must proceed with a physical training program with considerable caution. The chief risks associated with sport in these circumstances are the additional stresses placed on the joints of the body, as well as the pressures created for the cardiovascular system. People who have had a kidney removed must approach sports involving significant fluid losses and rehydration with caution; warm weather and endurance exercise require the kidneys to operate at maximum capacity in the maintenance of optimal sodium/fluid balance. On the other hand, damaged internal organs, such as a damaged kidney or an enlarged spleen, are almost always a condition that will exclude participation in sports that involve even a slight risk of physical contact. Further assessment must be made of the organ capacity in relation to its function relative to the demands of the relevant noncontact sport. Existing skin disorders, such as herpes simplex I, are contagious. Sports where the athlete will have significant skin contact with apparatus or floor mats, such as gymnastics, or where there is significant skinto-skin contact required in the sport, such as wrestling and boxing, should be those where participation is excluded until the skin condition is definitively cleared. Asthma and related breathing conditions are among the most common of medical conditions that affect sports participation. The cause of asthma, which is an inflammation and a consequent WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SPORTS MEDICINE EDUCATION

narrowing of the bronchial passages and airways leading to the lungs, is both hereditary and environmental in nature. Certain types of people have a predisposition to asthma; other persons are susceptible to a condition known as sport-induced asthma. Almost all forms of asthma can be treated for the purpose of permitting an athlete to fully participate in any sport with appropriate and carefully monitored medical support. Other asthma conditions are those that the young athlete tends to outgrow. The most common medication used to treat asthmatic conditions are inhaled corticosteroids, which are generally taken on a daily basis. When the athlete feels the distress from the onset of an asthma attack during competition or training, a bronchodilator is employed, such as Albuterol, a beta2 agonist (a chemical that mimics the effect of adrenaline and tends to work to open the affected passages).

Eating disorders in athletes; Health; Psychological disorders; Sport psychology; Sports medicine education.

SEE ALSO

Sports medicine education Sports medicine is a relatively recent medical specialty. Until the 1980s, the team physician in a high-level sport program was often an orthopedic specialist with an interest in sport; there was no defined training or educational programs to support sport medical practices. The primary focus of the physician was reactive, as opposed to preventative, in nature. The diagnosis, treatment, and repair of injuries was the most important ongoing function in sport medicine. The increasing sophistication with which athletes and their coaches approached training and competition was the impetus in the development of the sports medicine as a recognized discipline within the medical profession. Sports medicine education today embraces a wide range of sciences, each of which contributes to the healthy training, diagnostics, treatment, repair, and rehabilitation of athletes. A sports medicine practitioner will be a part of a coordinated treatment effort involving a number of allied experts. Modern sports medicine is not directed simply to the treatment and repair of injuries; the ultimate goal with respect to an athletic injury is the promotion of healing, recovery, and a limitation-free, pain-free return to sport. Sports medicine education is directed toward all of these objectives. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Sports medicine is influenced by a number of forces, some of which are within the traditional realm of the physician, with others rooted in various applications of sport performance. Those forces include medicine, with particular emphasis on the orthopedic specialties, both surgical and non-surgical treatments, and physiatry, the rehabilitative and physical medicine specialty. Anther discrete medical specialty that is a part of sport medicine education is the subscript of orthopedics, joint reconstruction. Medical research, with which all sport medicine education must be closely allied, is an ongoing, dynamic field that is driven by the study of disciplines such as biomechanics and bone biology. Other sports medicine application are podiatry, the medicine of the foot and its processes, and exercise science (kinesiology), the study of human movement. The effective treatment and management of sports injuries requires a solid grounding in the mechanics of the body. A sports medicine expert may not physically direct a day-to-day course of athletic therapy; an understanding what the therapist can accomplish is fundamental to the prescription of treatments for the injury. However, how an athlete is coached is an important component to the understanding of the likely course of rehabilitation and recovery to be experienced by the athlete. A large and important aspect of general nutrition, health promotion, and wellness is the counseling and direction of athletes concerning the use of dietary supplements, and the dangers of contaminated or otherwise illegal performance-enhancing substances. Sports medicine education will embrace each of the sports science fields. No one specialist is likely to possess the skills and the training to act as the primary treatment professional in each component; many sports medical professionals act as coordinators of care programs that are directed to each aspect of the science. As with all sports science disciplines, the professional will have sufficient knowledge to know when to engage the input of another specialist. Sports medicine education places a primary emphasis on the need to provide athletes with a physical assessment prior to their participation in a sport. This assessment will often be provided in conjunction with coaches or athletic therapists, if there are concerns regarding a preexisting injury or condition, or when the medical personnel are seeking to identify a congenital condition such as heart arrhythmia (irregular heart beat). In many sports, the sports medicine professional will be engaged to provide

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ingly sophisticated micro-surgery techniques that are a less invasive repair of joints such as the knee or elbow, are a rapidly developing specialty within orthopedic medicine. Since the year 2000, advances in the preservation of articular cartilage in the joints have included Cartrell cartilage implants and other procedures to rebuild cartilage and corresponding joint function. Physiatry, the rehabilitative and physical medicine specialty is an important aspect of sport medicine education. Related to all rehabilitative efforts is the direction of all efforts that support the recovery of the athlete beyond the scope of traditional medical training—the creation of appropriate orthotics, and the utilization of alternative treatments such as physiotherapy and massage.

Chiropractic medicine and sport; Sports medical conditions.

SEE ALSO

Sports security and terrorism

Noelle Pikus-Pace of the U.S. Olympic Skeleton Team, using the AquaCiser as part of her physical rehabilitation after a broken leg. PH OTO B Y E ZRA S HA W/GETTY I MAGES

in-season assessments and testing of the athlete. In professional sport, when the athlete is often a party to a guaranteed contract and remunerated whether or not he or she is sufficiently healthy to play, the preseason medical assessment, known in as the physical, is a mandatory clearance for the athlete to enter competition. Subsequent physicals will be conducted by a team’s sports medicine personnel when an athlete proposes to return to competition from injury. Given the demands of sports competition on the body, a significant component of sports medicine education will invariably be devoted to the diagnosis and testing of athletes in relation to injury. These processes often focus on the mechanics of movement, engaging the combined principles of both exercise science and medicine. Orthopedic medicine, the science of the diagnosis and treatment of musculoskeletal injuries, is a central aspect of sports medicine. Developments concerning arthroscopic surgical techniques, increas-

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Terrorism is the deliberate and systematic use of violence and intimidation in anywhere the actions are intended to achieve or to influence a political result. Terrorist acts have been perpetrated for as long as there have been political disputes. The term was first employed by British statesman Edmund Burke (1729–1797) to describe the actions of the Jacobins during the French Revolution in the late 1790s. Notable terrorist actions in recent history include those of the Irish Republican Army against Britain at various times throughout the twentieth century, the efforts of various terrorist groups that have been directed against the state of Israel since its founding in 1948, and the coordinated attacks upon various American targets made by Al-Qaeda agents on September 11, 2001, the events collectively known as the 9/11 attacks. Sporting events, particularly those with global appeal, are an obvious terrorist target, as such attacks will attract the attention of the world to the particular terrorist cause. The capture and the subsequent murder of 11 Israeli Olympic team members at the 1972 Summer Olympics was such an act. Members of the Palestinian group ‘‘Black September’’ sought the release of 200 Palestinian prisoners held by Israel through these means. The deaths of the Israeli athletes is regarded the one of the most significant terrorist acts ever committed prior to the 9/11 attacks. A related issue that remains controversial was that made by International Olympic Committee WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SPRAINS AND STRAINS

president Avery Brundage with respect to the continuation of the Games in the wake of the Israeli team killings. Brundage directed that the Games would continued as scheduled, after a one day delay. Prior to 1972, the Olympics had not previously been the target of any significant terrorist activity. The murder of the Israeli athletes at Munich altered the nature and extent of sports event security forever. At every Games held since the 1972 Olympics, security has been a significant and highly visible presence. In addition to on site protection, the police forces of the host nation seek and obtain information from other nations with respect to any possible terrorist risk that might manifest itself at the Olympics. While terrorism on the level of the Munich killings has never been replicated at an international sporting event, a number of terrorist acts have been perpetrated with an indirect impact upon international sport. A notable example was the destruction of a Korean Airlines jet by a terrorist bomb in 1987. Subsequent investigation revealed that the perpetrators intended to disrupt the lead up to the 1988 Summer Olympics that was ultimately hosted by South Korea. In 1996, a bomb planted by a domestic terrorist was detonated in the Atlanta Games Olympic Park, with one person killed and over 100 injured. In 1997, the Olympic stadium in Stockholm was severely damaged by a terrorist bomb, planted by a group who were opposed to a Swedish bid for the 2004 Olympic Games that were ultimately awarded to Athens. The 9/11 attacks served to further heighten security concerns, especially with respect to both the potential threat to American athletes competing abroad and the staging of events on American soil. Teams representing the United States in events as diverse as the Ryder Cup golf championship and international tennis tournaments have been the subject of close security protection for this reason. At the 2002 Winter Olympics at Salt Lake City, the American organizers of the Games instituted two measures then unique to Games security. A 52 mile no-fly zone was imposed around the entire Games site, and sharpshooters were placed on various mountain top positions to protect specific competition venues. The Maccabiah Games are often referred to as the ‘‘Jewish Olympics,’’ a quadrennial sports festival that attracts Jewish athletes from around the world to Israel to compete in an Olympic styled format. The Maccabiah Games are held in Jerusalem, and the proximity of the Games to Israel’s Arab neighbors, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

particularly the nearby Palestinian population, has been a point of significant friction since the Games were first held in 1950. Threats from various terrorist groups directed towards the Maccabiah Games and its competitors are common. The Maccabiah Games attracts approximately 7,500 athletes and many thousands of visitors; at the seventteenthMaccabiah Games in 2005, over 2,000 Israeli soldiers were deployed at the competition venues, with larger numbers at the opening and closing ceremonies. All athletes were assigned a nontransferable identification card, with several built in security features, including encryption to prevent counterfeiting. The World Cup of soccer is a 32 nation championship that is contested in a number of different stadiums in the host country. While international soccer has been plagued in recent years by ‘‘hooliganism,’’ the excessive fan behavior made most notorious by the supporters of English soccer. FIFA, the world governing body of the sport has implemented security measures, including the deployment of police and private security forces en masse at every game, coupled with an extensive behind the scenes security work up, including the obtaining of lists of every known undesirable person who might attend the World Cup from any of the participating countries. Prior to the 9/11 attacks, the level of security present at most North American sporting events was relatively modest, as the security concerns were chiefly directed to spectator behavior, such as the prevention of spectators from interfering with the event, or entering the stadium without a ticket. As an example of heightened concerns regarding terrorist activities, the organizers of the 2006 Major League Baseball All Star game held in Pittsburgh, utilized 100 trained bomb detection dogs as a part of an enhanced security program developed for the event.

FIFA: World Cup Soccer; International Olympic Committee (IOC); Maccabiah Games.

SEE ALSO

Sprains and strains Sprains and strains are common soft tissue athletic injuries. These two terms are often used interchangeably, when in fact each is a distinct injury both in causation and effect.

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A sprain is an injury to a ligament, the connective tissue that joins two bones together in a joint. The injury is the result of the ligament fibers being overstretched, often causing a micro-tear, as opposed to the severing or the rupture of the fibers. The overstretching is most often caused by a movement of one beyond the possible range of motion of the joint, either through a hyperextension (overextension), or by a twisting action. Hyper-extended and twisted knees are examples of knee sprains. Ligaments are composed of a type of collagen, which is formed from specific amino acids ingested in the body through dietary protein. Collagen is a naturally elastic substance found in various formations in all of the connective tissue within the body. Collagen provides the overstretched fibers that constitute a ligament sprain with the ability to heal through the action of the body’s restorative processes; vitamin C is essential to ligament strength and elasticity. A strain is an injury that occurs to a muscle or a connecting tendon. A muscle strain is an injury caused to the fibers of skeletal muscle; the other types of muscle, cardiac muscle and smooth organ muscles are not susceptible to strain because they are not controlled by voluntary nervous system impulse. Skeletal muscle is composed of long, thin, cylindrical fibers that are arranged in bundles; a strain is an overstretching or micro-tear of the fiber. Tendons are also formed from a type of collagen, although a tendon is generally a less elastic tissue than a ligament.

World number one Amelie Mauresmo of France returns a shot to Lindsay Davenport of the U.S. during 2004 match. Mauresmo later withdrew with a recurring left-thigh strain. OLIVE R LAN G /AFP / GE TTY IM AGES

Sprains commonly result from a twisting motion in a joint that creates either overextension or overflexion of the supporting ligaments. A common example of this injury mechanism is a sprained knee caused by contact in sports such as soccer, American football, or rugby. These sprains result from circumstances where the athlete is moving in a forward direction, when the knee is twisted, either through physical contact with an opponent or through a sudden change of direction by the athlete, sometimes accompanied by irregularity or unevenness on the playing surface. The forces that directed the knee forward are suddenly directed laterally, creating torque (a force that causes rotation in the joint), causing the ligaments to stretch. The same mechanism, with a greater degree of force applied, will result in the more serious tear or rupture injury to the ligament.

A muscle strain, often referred to as a pull, is most often caused by either repetitive motion that overtaxes the muscle, or through an imbalance in a set of muscles. Almost all joints in the body operate through the function of a muscle pair: one muscle, the extensor providing the joint with the ability to extend or straighten, the other, the flexor, permitting the joint to bend. The knee, with the extensor quadriceps and the flexor hamstring is such a joint. A general ideal ratio of strength between the four muscles of the quadriceps and the hamstring is 3:2; muscle and tendon strains are common in both muscle groups when there is an imbalance, which creates additional stress on the weaker of the pair when the forces of motion are applied.

Another common sprain is to the individual fingers or the wrist, due to an object such as a ball forcefully striking the body and bending the specific structure past its normal range of motion.

The groin, given its location within the body, is a set of tissues connecting to the abductor muscles of the upper thigh and the lower abdominals, is a common site for a strain injury, as imbalances between

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the groin and the muscle groups connected to the groin can lead to injury. Groin pulls are very common in sports requiring sudden lateral movement. Ligament injuries are most often a result of the nature of the physical movement associated with a particular sport, and as such these injuries are not always preventable. Muscle strains are more often caused by a preexisting structural imbalance. A focused and whole body stretching and flexibility regime, where the muscle groups throughout the body are balanced with one another, is the most effective way to minimize muscle and tendon strains. The overriding goal in the treatment of sprains and strains is the avoidance of a recurring injury. For both injuries, the application of the RICE (rest/ice/ compression/elevation) treatment for the first 48 to 72 hours after the occurrence will reduce swelling in the injury and will facilitate healing. Most strains and sprains will not require any external support other than wrapping; crutches may sometimes be necessary when the athlete has sustained a significant strain of a knee or ankle ligament that is short of being torn or ruptured.

Groin pulls and strains; Hamstring pull, tear, or strain; Musculoskeletal injuries; Quadriceps pulls and tears; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

Sprinting Spurs

SEE

SEE

Running: Sprinting

Heel spurs

Squash Squash is a fast paced indoor court racquet sport whose evolution has been largely independent of any other sport, including racquetball, which bears some superficial similarities to squash. The central object of squash, which may be played in a singles or doubles format, is to play shots off the walled court with a racquet in such a fashion that the ball strikes the floor twice before the opponent can make a return. Squash was first played in its modern form at Harrow, an English boy’s school, in the years after 1850. Squash was descended from rackets, an outdoor walled game itself descended from early forms of tennis. Squash became a popular game at various English schools, and its appeal spread to North America and various parts of Europe in a short time. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

first international squash competition took place between teams from the United States and Canada in 1922. The governing body of international squash, the World Squash Federation, (WSF) has over 120 national organization in its current membership. As squash is actively played in over 150 countries, the WSF has made a concerted effort to secure the inclusion of squash as an Olympic Sport, without success. Squash is a medal sport in both the Commonwealth Games and the Pan American Games. The Professional Squash Association sanctions a vibrant professional squash series for both male and female competitors, with events staged throughout the world. The squash court is a four walled rectangle, divided into sections through the placement of dividing lines that govern the placement of shots. A singles court is approximately 32 ft long and 21 ft wide (9.75 m by 6.4 m); the front wall is 15 ft high (4.57 m). Service boxes are laid out of the floor of the court, the area from which a player must make their serve. A doubles squash court is approximately 50% longer and 20% wider than the singles court. The front wall has three lines marked across it. Closest to the floor of the court is the tin; approximately half way up the wall is the service line, and near the top of the wall is positioned the out line. A legal serve must strike the area between the tin and the service line, and land in the opponent’s half of the court behind the service boxes. Once a legal serve has been made, both players may drive shots that strike the front wall between the tine and the out line. Players may use any of the walls to make shots, so long as the shot does not strike the wall above the out line. There are two scoring systems used in squash. In the first system, known as the English system, points are only scored on the player’s service. A typical match is the best of five games, with each game determined by the first player to reach nine points. The alternate scoring system, used most frequently in professional squash, awards a point to the successful player in every rally, with a game won at 11 points. The most important pieces of squash equipment are the racquet and the ball. The racquets used today are invariably light weight (some are as light as 4 oz (110 g), with a very strong construction. The racquets are made from composite materials such as carbon fiber and are usually 27 in (68 cm) long. The materials used in the construction of the racquet create a degree of flex in the racquet that permits the player to transfer a greater measure of muscular power through the racquet into the ball on a stroke.

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Men playing at squash championships (2005).

FAROO Q N AE EM /A FP /G E TTY IMA GE S

There are five different kinds of squash balls approved for various types of competition by the WSF. As a general proposition, the more experienced the players, the less lively the ball used will be; conversely, inexperienced players who have difficulty returning shots will enjoy the game more if the ball is livelier and is capable of bouncing higher from the court surface. The speed and resilience of the balls sanctioned by the WSF are classified by the color of the ball, ranging from ‘‘blue’’ (fast) to ‘‘double yellow’’ (super slow). At the highest levels of squash competition, the double yellow ball is the standard ball. The ball characteristics dictate the warm-up between the players prior to a match. The warm-up shots of each player heats the ball to make it more responsive to shots made during the match. During the course of play in the relatively close quarters of the squash court, if one of the payers is not able to reach a ball to make a shot due to the body position of the opponent, the hindered player is

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permitted to call ‘‘let,’’ which, if legitimate, results in a replay of the serve. As with other racquet sports, the fundamental tactic employed by a successful squash player is to seek control of the center of the court. In squash, given the location of the markings on the court, this desirable center position is called the ‘‘T.’’ In this position, the player can respond more efficiently to any shot placed by the opponent. Squash is a sport that requires continuous and effective movement. The successful squash player builds a strong aerobic base of fitness, to both support the player in a sport where the rallies are often demanding, as an aid to player recovery between serves. Squash is a sport that lends itself to a periodized approach to training, with a preseason focus upon building aerobic capacity, coupled with plyometric training to enhance explosive movement on the court, particularly in a lateral direction. The squash preseason may also include circuit training WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

STATIONARY BICYCLES, ELLIPTICAL TRAINERS, AND OTHER CARDIO TRAINING MACHINES

to develop overall muscular strength. The bending and turning motions associated with squash place a premium upon flexibility and optimal range of joint motion in every player. Comprehensive stretching programs are essential for this purpose in squash.

Badminton; Handball; Racquetball; Tennis serve mechanics.

SEE ALSO

Stationary bicycles, elliptical trainers, and other cardio training machines Stationary bicycles are one of a group of machines commonly used for the purpose of cardiovascular exercise and training. Elliptical trainers, rowing machines, and a multitude of equipment variations that incorporate features from each type are all classed as cardio training machines. While possessing a similar fitness purpose, these total-body cardio training machines differ from the treadmills and stair climbing machines that are designed for leg exercise only.

athlete regardless of weather conditions. These machines are widely used as an effective rehabilitation tool, especially for those persons recovering from leg injuries who wish to gradually rebuild both strength and range of motion. The motion associated with all variations of the cardio training machines is one of low impact on the musculoskeletal system; the lower extremities, and particularly the ankle and knee joints, are exposed to less stresses than those of conventional running-oriented sports activity. Stationary bicycles are manufactured widely throughout the world, each with its own specific features. Some models are equipped with levers that permit the athlete to exercise the biceps, triceps, and shoulder structure in a manner that does not occur with a regular bicycle. The bicycles most suited to the simulation of a road bicycle are those with a variable resistance where the rider can keep track of the rate at which the bicycle is being pedaled. A variation of the stationary bicycle that achieves the same effect is the mounting of an actual bicycle on a trainer that provides resistance to the rear wheel, simulating the effects of a ride.

Cardio training machines generally, and the stationary bicycle and the rowing machines in particular, offer the athlete an opportunity to simulate aspects of competition. Either alone, or with the aid of computer programs that regulate the intensity associated with a race course or practice, the athlete can practice stroke or cadence in a regulated fashion.

An elliptical trainer positions the athlete on two parallel foot pads, usually fixed or mounted on ramps, with the leg action mimicking either a running motion or a classic cross-country skiing action, depending on the angle to the floor at which the parallel foot ramps are set. Most elliptical machines permit the athlete to vary the inclination of the ramp, and thus control the intensity level of the exercise. Some elliptical machines, like the stationary cycles, have arm levers in place of a handle bar for an additional upper body workout, as the athlete is required to pull on each lever in concert with the leg motion. The elliptical machine is not capable of providing a precise replication of the physical motion associated with the mechanics of a particular sport. The elliptical’s chief training benefit is the ability of the user to reverse the motion of the machine, creating a mechanized form of retro running. This feature permits the athlete to build greater strength and to develop optimal balance between the desired strengths of the hamstring and quadriceps muscles, an important factor in the limitation of upper leg and knee injuries. The generally accepted ratio of strength between these two muscle groups is a 3:2 proportion in favor of the quadriceps; when a specific weakness in either muscle is identified in an athlete, the reverse motion of the elliptical trainer will form a part of the training solution.

All cardio training machines represent an excellent cross training tool that can be utilized by an

Rowing machines are used in two different formats. The first are simple rowers with a fixed seat,

While the various cardio training machines each permit the user a distinct physical workout due to its unique construction, all possess similar features. The intensity of the workout is both variable as well as being entirely within the control of the athlete. Most advanced models of these machines have sophisticated computer programs that assist the user in the control and direction of workout intensity level. The machines all provide the athlete with an opportunity to closely monitor and regulate performance. The assessment of various biofeedback indicators, such as heart rate, can be connected directly to the machine’s built-in workout indicators, such as time, intensity level, caloric output, and others. For persons with preexisting cardiovascular problems, the cardio training machine permits them to exercise safely within their known permitted limits of exertion.


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Stimulants Stimulants is a generic term used to describe various substances that are ingested by athletes into the human body for the purpose of increasing alertness or general physical performance. Common stimulants that have been typically utilized by athletes in various disciplines are caffeine, amphetamines (including benzedrine, ephedrine and methamphetamine), and cocaine in its various forms. Stimulants may be legally prescribed by a physician to counter medical conditions such as narcolepsy, a disorder where the subject sleeps uncontrollably, as well as certain brain dysfunctions occurring in children. Caffeine is a mild stimulant that occurs naturally in numerous types of plants, the most common of which is coffee. Caffeine has been scientifically determined as effective in reducing fatigue in athletes, as well as having a role in the slowing the rate of glycogen depletion in the body in the course of endurance events such as the marathon, thus potentially increasing the efficiency of the athlete. Caffeine is also a powerful diuretic, reducing the body’s ability to retain fluid during performance.

Stationary bikes are used for cardiovascular exercise and can be adjusted to meet the training needs of the individual athlete. ª JIM CU MM IN S/CORBIS

usually built into a stationary weight training machine. The simple rowers are limited in their benefit as, absent the seat sliding action, they do not replicate a true rowing motion. The second and far more useful sport training device is the ergometric rower. This machine takes its name from the ergometer, a device that measures the amount of work done by a group of muscles. It is equipped with a sliding seat and a motion that is very similar to that experienced by a sculler (two-oar rower). These rowing machines are also designed with variable intensity, allowing a very accurate simulation of the rowing motion. Rowing machines are also an excellent cross trainer; over 50% of the power in a properly executed stroke will be derived from the rower’s legs. SEE ALSO

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Cross training; Jump rope training; Treadmills.

Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates, increase blood pressure, dilate the pupils of the eyes, and decrease appetite. These substances will tend to reduce fatigue over a short term period, as well as tending to increase the self confidence of an athlete during competition. Cocaine is a powerful central nervous stimulator, manufactured through extraction from the naturally occurring coca plant. Although more commonly used as a recreational drug, it has been used by athletes seeking additional mental sharpness and concentration. A notable example of cocaine use in elite competition is that of Cuban high jumper Javier Sotomayor, the world champion who was stripped of a Pan American Games championship in 1999 after testing positive for cocaine. All stimulants tend to be psychologically addictive, which will cause pronounced ‘‘down’’ periods when the athlete ceases taking the stimulant. Other side effects, which vary from person to person, include anxiety, blurred vision, sleeplessness, and dizziness. Abuse of amphetamines can cause irregular heartbeat and even physical collapse; a number of deaths in long distance cycling have been attributed to the abuse of stimulants. All amphetamines and cocaine are banned substances in any amount if detected in the blood of an WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

STRENGTH TRAINING

athlete at virtually any type of international competition. Caffeine is prohibited in amounts greater than 12 mcg/ml in athlete urine samples at Olympic competition, an amount approximately equal to the ingestion of eight cups of coffee in a two hour period. SEE ALSO

Stitch

Caffeine; Doping tests; Ephedra.

SEE

Strains

Runner’s stitch

SEE

Sprains and strains

Strength, muscle SEE Muscle mass and strength

Strength training The development and maintenance of musculoskeletal strength are essential to athletic performance and the overall fitness of any individual. In general terms, fitness is achieved through the combination of strength, speed and lateral quickness, power, endurance (both cardiovascular and muscular), and flexibility, represented by the optimal range of motion in the joints. Different sports may demand greater or lesser proportions of each of these fitness components. The fundamental principles of strength training are tied to both the role that strength plays in the overall fitness and performance capabilities of an athlete, as well as the connection to the biology regarding muscle growth. Muscle fibers contract in response to a nerve impulse directed to a muscle through the network of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Each muscle fiber contraction is the means by which the muscle produces movement; the rate of contraction is dependent on the muscle type and the activity to which the muscle energy is being directed. Strength training is intended to develop three separate but interrelated types of muscle strength: maximum muscle strength, which represents the greatest amount of force that a person is capable of generating in a single muscle contraction; elastic strength, which is the ability in the muscle to contract quickly in response to a event; and strength endurance, which is the ability to repeat an action WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

or to sustain a force through a greater number of repetitions. The development of each of these three types of muscle strength is achieved through the principle of overload training. Overload is the taking of a muscle past its present capacity without damage to the structure. In overload training, the muscle fibers will sustain minor injury, which the body naturally repairs by directing the formation of myoblast cells, which thicken and strengthen the damaged fiber when the body is at rest. The repeated breaking down and building up of muscle fiber will lead to larger and more powerful muscle fibers over time. Overload training can be achieved in several ways. The first method is the increase in the number of repetitions of any strength exercise. The second aspect of overload training is the increase in the amount of weight lifted or resistance otherwise applied to the muscles. The third overload tool is the increase in the intensity of the work being done by the targeted muscles, through a reduction in the recovery interval between the repetitions. Strength training that employs the overload principle will tend to achieve a number of musculoskeletal and neuromuscular results. The first are those known as myogenic changes; these are structural changes to the dimension and composition of the overloaded muscle. These changes induce a state of hypertrophy, meaning the muscle becomes larger and denser. The second results are neurogenic changes, when the rate of response by the nervous system is increased due to repetition of each muscular effort. Overload training will also create capillarisation in the vicinity of the muscle, where the increased workload imposed upon the muscle forces the body to increase blood flow to the region through the formation of new capillaries, which results in a greater ability in the muscle to store both adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy fuel in each cell, and glycogen, the cellular storage form of glucose. There are a number of training methods that will develop each of the three different types of muscular strength. Weight training, using both resistance machines and free weights, is the type of strength training that has the broadest application, as it will aid in the development of maximum strength, elastic strength, and muscle endurance. Elastic strength is also enhanced through a combination of plyometrics, Swiss ball routines that stress core body strength, and flexibility exercises. Muscle endurance can also be achieved through circuit training, where the athlete does series of exercises that stress different muscle groups in sequence, as well as running that

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emphasizes resistance, such as hill workouts or running with a harness or parachute. Strength training must also be tailored to the sport for which it is intended to be applied. All sports require a measure of strength, to put the body into balance; the strength requirements and resultant strength training for an American football lineman, who is responsible for the generation of explosive forces to be directed against opposing players, will be entirely different than the strength training of a marathon runner or a tennis player. Sports where maximum muscle strength is of primary importance include American football, rugby, wrestling, and ice hockey. Elastic strength is essential in baseball, volleyball, and cricket. Sports in which all three of the strength aspects will be relied on are those that require the athlete to master a number of differing techniques, such as the triathlon and cross-country skiing, when the entire body is engaged in the propulsion of the athlete.

Dietary supplements; Muscle mass and strength; Resistance exercise training; Strength training for children and young athletes; Strength training: Nutrition.

SEE ALSO

Strength training for children and young athletes The involvement of young athletes in strength training programs has attracted a significant degree of commentary in the world of sports science in recent years. With young athletes seemingly more physically able to perform at a higher athletic level at ever younger ages, there is often an assumption that strength training will make the talented young athlete even more effective. There are significant physiological and emotional factors that affect youth strength training that are not present in similar adult programs. Strength training for young people must be approached with caution. Defining who is a young athlete is a variable proposition. The age of puberty, the phase in physical development when a person grows to physical and sexual maturity, has been determined to have fallen significantly over the past 100 years, particularly among females in North America. A modern female can begin to exhibit the physical changes associated with puberty as ages as young as eight years old, or as old as 13. The modern age for the onset of male puberty ranges from 10 years of age to 14 years.

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The determination of puberty is fundamentally important to the consideration of what, if any, weight training a young athlete may safely undertake. Puberty is a genetically determined process for every individual; it is the period when the body grows faster than at any other time in a person’s life, other than during infancy. Puberty may last between 18 months and four years or more. During puberty, as the bones grow, the stresses on both the bone structure and the connective tissue in the related joints can become significant. The long bones of the body, particularly the tibia and fibula (lower leg), femur (thigh), and the humerus (upper arm), have growth plates located at the epiphysis, a segment located near the end of each of these bones. The growth plate is fundamental to the healthy and orderly growth of the bone to maturity. Until adulthood, the growth plate remains softer than the other regions of the bone, and it is far more vulnerable to physical damage from a direct trauma, as well as that caused by repetitive stress or the application of excessive forces that may occur through weight training, excessive training mileage, or other forms of resistance. During puberty, there are also significant imbalances in the body between bone and connective tissues growth rates in specific places. The well-known adolescent knee ailment, Osgood Schlatter disease (OSD), occurs when the growth of the tibia is at a different rate than that of the patella (kneecap) tendon to which the tibia is connected. OSD causes swelling and pain in the area below the patella because the repetitive extension of the tendon through running takes place with an imbalance between the tendon and the tibia, causing strain on the tendon. OSD will often make running or weightbearing exercise difficult until the relative growth of the two structures is equal. Strength training in adults is usually intended to develop the three separate but related aspects of strength: maximum strength, the greatest amount of force that can be produced in a single muscular contraction; elastic strength, which is the ability of the muscles to respond and contract quickly; and strength endurance, the ability to sustain a level of force through a number of repetitions. Overload training is the most common form of strength training in adults, where muscles are built up and sustained through a repeated cycle of overload and recovery. For children who have not yet reached puberty, any form of weight training is dangerous to the child’s long-term musculoskeletal health. There is little benefit to be derived from such programs until puberty has determined more definitively the adult WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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shape and characteristics of the person. Focused stretching and flexibility exercises will benefit all active persons of any age; the introduction of resistance and weight training is of little benefit to a child. Training to develop maximum strength is a dangerous process for a pubescent athlete. Overload resistance training, plyometrics jump programs, intense resistance running, or any repetitive weightbearing training activity carries with it significant structural risks. Sports science research confirms that any strength training done by persons whose bodies have not reached maturity should be confined to the exercises that focus on endurance and elastic strength; strength training should not be maximal weight training for these persons. The components of a healthy and useful strength training program for a young athlete will include a number of components, all of which emphasize athlete safety and long-term physical development. Any youth training program must entail active supervision; young people will test themselves when permitted, and risk injury by lifting an excessive amount of weight or otherwise attempting a resistance movement that is dangerous to them. There must be a focus on instruction and the development of technique; the young athlete must have detailed instruction regarding any weight-bearing motion, with the emphasis at all times on smooth movements that take the weight or object through a full range of motion in the applicable joints. The companion to smoothness of motion is control of motion, to permit the young athlete to proceed with safety and confidence. To best enhance the range of motion desired in these programs, stretching and flexibility exercises should be incorporated with the strength training.

Growth plate injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Strength training; Youth sports performance; Youth sports training.

SEE ALSO

Strength training: Nutrition Strength training is a component of every athlete’s training regimen. Strength training also places additional nutritional demands on the body; the extent of those demands will depend on the intensity and the volume of the strength training program. Strength training has three essential aspects: the development of maximum strength, the ability to generate the greatest possible force in a single repetition; the building of elastic strength, the ability to direct the muscles to respond quickly and dynamiWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

cally; and endurance strength, which will involve the promotion of both cardiovascular and muscular endurance. Proper nutrition, the nourishment of the body through foods and dietary supplements, is essential to general health and well-being. Athletes must pay particular attention to nutrition, given that the body requires a steady, properly proportioned supply of macronutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, as well as numerous micronutrients, substances essential to the function of many human systems, including all vitamins and most of the minerals absorbed into the body. The maintenance of proper fluid levels, dependent on the mineral electrolyte sodium, and the absorption of sufficient calcium and vitamin D for bone maintenance are two examples of areas where a nutritional deficit will have a negative impact on strength training. Strength training imposes stresses and impacts on the body that must be addressed through careful attention to nutrition. The most fundamental of these impacts is the need for additional energy to participate in the training itself. Whether strength training is the only form of athletic activity undertaken by a person, or when it is supplemental to other sports training, strength training carries with it the need to ensure that the body has sufficient energy to train and to properly recover. Most persons will obtain sufficient energy from a diet that is proportioned as 60–65% carbohydrates, 12–15% proteins, and less than 30% fats. Protein consumption is another aspect of nutrition that is of particular interest in strength training, as dietary proteins, and their constituent amino acids, are the building blocks of muscle. There are 20 different amino acids, 10 of which are produced within the body, 10 of which must be obtained through diet. These dietary amino acids are also known as the essential amino acids. Unlike carbohydrates, stored as glycogen, and fats, stored as triglycerides, amino acids cannot be stored within the body and must be replenished on a daily basis. Myoblasts, the muscle cells that repair the cellular damage caused by training, are created from amino acids. Conventional sports science wisdom once held that extra protein consumption would speed muscle development; modern science supports the view that while there may be circumstances in the case of an individual athlete to support short-term increases in protein consumption, these are exceptional circumstances; the typical strength training athlete requires only fractionally more than the protein requirements of a healthy non-athlete.

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All protein sources do not provide an equal protein value when ingested into the body. The amino acid pattern in an egg is the standard for the measurement of protein quality in all foods. Plant proteins are generally inferior in amino acid quality to dairy, soya, and meat products. The healthiest and the surest way to ensure that the optimal amount of micronutrients are absorbed into the body is through diet; dietary supplements are a second choice, to be utilized when a dietary source is not available. The exceptions to this rule are with regard to the consumption of sport drinks and creatine supplementation. Sport drinks are useful to assist a strength training athlete to maintain carbohydrate, sodium, and potassium levels, especially as a recovery tool after a hard workout. Creatine is a supplement that attracted wide ranging attention in the 1990s when notable professional athletes, including baseball homerun hitter Mark McGuire and English sprinter Linford Christie, were adding the substance into their training diets. Creatine is a naturally occurring chemical, found in every cell in the body as creatine phosphate, or phosphocreatine. Creatine is essential to the production of energy through an electrochemical reaction involving the creation and reduction of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Creatine supplementation, when conducted according to manufacturer specification, has been proven to assist athletes in the maintenance of the short-term energy stores essential for the explosive movements in strength training. Excess amounts of creatine are not known to produce any toxic effect on the body, as creatine is processed and excreted through the urine by way of the kidneys. Creatine does not contribute to the building of muscle, as might an anabolic steroid or human growth hormone; creatine supplementation is directed to the production and storage of the fuel the body needs for anaerobic activity such as strength training.

Diet; Dietary supplements; Free weights; Nutrition; Resistance exercise training; Strength training.

SEE ALSO

Stress

SEE

Mental stress

Stress fracture of the foot A stress fracture is a localized area of bone damage where the cells that comprise the bone have

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become damaged due to repeated forces. The forces effect is cumulative, creating a circumstance where the speed with which the body produces bone-building cells, osteoblasts, is less than the bone-reducing, or osteoclastic, activity. Next to stress fractures of the lower tibia (shin bone), the stress fracture of the foot is the second most common location for this type of injury, accounting for approximately 25% of all such fractures. The most common location among the 26 bones of the foot and ankle for a stress fracture are the five metatarsal bones, the structures that are the skeletal connection between the tarsal bone (ankle) and the toes on each foot. The second and third metatarsals are the most common bones of the foot to sustain a stress fracture; the fifth metatarsal (the bone connecting the ankle to the little toe) is the least common location for a stress facture of the foot. There are number of factors that inevitably lead to the creation of a stress fracture of the foot in an athlete. Stress fractures of the foot occur slightly more often in female athletes than in males, a fact that is attributable to the difference in the shapes of male versus female athletes. The proportionately wider pelvis and shorter femur and tibia in a female athlete lead to a proportionately different distribution of forces throughout the female musculoskeletal structure. For both men and women, there is often more than one risk factor operating to produce the fracture, many of which are tied to the concepts of either overuse or repetitive motion. Sports that involve repetitive motions such as running (particularly on hard surfaces) and jumping, or training on angled surfaces, where the force of each foot strike is distributed unevenly, are a leading contributing factor in the cause of stress fractures in the foot. Similarly, when the athlete has suddenly increased either training intensity or training volume, or when the athlete embarks on a running or training program that is too vigorous for the current level of fitness, the foot is the recipient of forces to which it is unsuited. Physiological and nutritional factors also play a role in the formation of these fractures. When the athlete has a previously undetermined dietary mineral deficiency (calcium, vitamin D, or phosphorus) that has created a corresponding bone density deficit, the bone becomes more vulnerable to injury. Structural imbalances such as unequal leg length will result in forces being generated when the athlete’s foot strikes the ground. Footwear that is inappropriate to the foot strike motion of the athlete will accentuate all structural deficiencies present in the lower WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

STRESS FRACTURE OF THE FOOT

College players during basketball game; defense play resulted in broken foot of one of the players.

limbs of the athlete. An example is the wearing of a running shoe that is suited to a runner whose foot pronates (the ankle rolls inward) on impact, when the foot of the runner in fact supinates (rolls outward) on impact. This footwear will improperly absorb the forces and may permit the force of impact to be excessively directed into the foot. Athletes with poor flexibility tend to be more susceptible to stress fractures of the foot because their bodies do not move as fluidly or as responsively as those athletes who possess a greater range of motion in the joints. From a psychological perspective, athletes with a strong desire to reach or exceed their training objectives, the so-called type A personality, often fall victim to stress fractures. These athletes are the most WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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likely individuals to return to training too quickly after an injury, or to excessive training intensity. These circumstances often do not permit a previously injured metatarsal bone to heal properly, resulting in a recurrent stress fracture of the foot. Stress fractures of the foot are first noticeable through the development of a sharp, almost debilitating pain at the location of the fracture. A stress fracture will often not reveal itself while the person is at rest, but only in the course of the sports activity that caused the fracture. A regular x ray will often not reveal the location of the injury; a nuclear bone scan will almost always reveal the location of the fracture. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is another technology that will usually reveal the location of the fracture.

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The treatment of a stress fracture of the foot is similar to that sustained at any other bone: rest and a complete cessation of the sport for a period of at least six to eight weeks. The RICE (rest/ice/compression/elevation) treatment is also often recommended, as are the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce inflammation. In more extreme cases, the foot may be placed in a cast for approximately six weeks. The preventative measures to reduce the risk of recurrence of this injury to the foot are primarily a very gradual return to training, with careful attention paid to the elimination of the stress fracture risk factors noted. High level young athletes, who move from sport to sport throughout the year, are especially vulnerable to stress fracture, because the young athlete is not provided with a period of rest and general down time from high level training.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Lower leg injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Recurrent stress fractures.

SEE ALSO

Stress fractures

SEE

Recurrent stress

fractures

Stretching and flexibility Stretching and flexibility are a cornerstone to building and maintaining athletic success. Without a properly stretched musculoskeletal structure, sports performance will be hampered and the risk of injury to muscles and connective tissues of the athlete is greatly increased. While the concepts are used interchangeably, stretching and flexibility are the beginning of a sport continuum; a strong and focused stretching program that emphasizes the principle of balance between the various parts of the body will create greater flexibility in the body of the athlete. Flexibility itself over time produces a greater range of motion in the joints of the athlete; these structures permit the body to move and react, while under control, with increased dynamism and explosiveness, all with a reduced risk of injury as the flexible joint is better equipped to bear and distribute the stress of athletic movement than is a more rigid, poorly, or infrequently stretched joint. There are numerous examples of the relationship between poorly stretched regions of the body and performance. In most sports, the athlete must adopt

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a version of the ‘‘athletic crouch,’’ a position where the athlete’s legs are slightly bent to permit the athlete to move quickly in any direction. The body’s center of gravity is also lower and positioned above the feet, which are approximately shoulder width apart, to provide greater balance in movement. The head of the athlete is level and the arms are slightly extended for balance and participation in movement. The basketball dribbler and defender, the American football and rugby tackler, batsmen in both cricket and baseball, and all runners and skiers perform the movements necessary to their respective sports in a variation of this fundamental athletic position. In moving from the fundamental athletic stance, an athlete with poor flexibility and correspondingly limited range of joint motion will experience limitations on performance. The first such limitation is a reduced ability to jump; if the lower leg muscles and joints are not properly stretched, the muscle power created in the calf muscles will not be completely converted to the jumping action. The second restriction on athletic movement will be observed in the stride length of the athlete; runners with inflexibility in their hips and lower back tend to have a shorter, less economical stride than do more flexible athletes. The third impact of reduced range of motion is noticed in the reduced ability of the athlete to move laterally, a fundamental aspect of all ball sports. Lateral movement becomes limited through the lack of flexibility in the groin, upper leg, and the abdominal muscles and tissues. Impaired or ineffective throwing motions are also a common result of poor flexibility and resulting range of motion. Any limitation or impingement on the range of motion in the shoulder, elbow, or wrist joints will result in a reduced ability to throw an object. The companion benefit to a stretching program is the reduction of the risk of injury due to muscle and structural imbalance. All joints in the body are powered by pairs of muscle groups, one of which is responsible for the extension of the joint, the opposing pair being responsible for the flexion, or bending, of the joint. The most prominent example of such muscle group pairs is the knee joint, where the quadriceps is the extender and the hamstring is the flexor. Inflexibility between muscle pairs will often create a circumstance where one muscle will overpower the actions of the other, creating an imbalance and injury. Imbalances due to inflexibility can also occur in a structure such as the lower leg; if the calf muscles and the Achilles tendon are not in balance, an overextension injury to one or the other is likely. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Without proper stretching prior to activity, athletes run a higher risk of injury.

Similar harmony between the muscle groups of the lower back, groin, and abdominal muscles is necessary to prevent strains and tears in these tissues. To be effective, stretching must form a part of the daily athletic routine. A series of stretches aimed at loosening the entire body is an essential part of every athletic warm up. In sports that emphasize the effectiveness of the leg function, such as distance running, the athlete will often run very easily for a short period, to generate increased heart rate and blood volume into the muscles before beginning the serious stretches. Hard, vigorous stretches should not be attempted at the beginning of the warm up; as with all athletic preparation, the body must move progressively from passive stretching, where the athlete stretches using the effect of his or her own body weight and gravity, to active stretches where the body is manipulated to achieve a particular desired result, the most demanding aspects of any routine. Stretching is equally important as a cool down mechanism in both the completion of a training session as well as a competition. To return to a normal and rested state, the body requires a bridge from the higher intensity levels created by the demands of the sport. Stretches that stimulate all muscle groups will WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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have such an effect; to stop the sport activity ‘‘cold’’ will promote muscle and joint stiffness. Stretching and resulting flexibility are inherent in all calisthenics programs, yoga, and pilates. Each of these disciplines is both a self-contained exercise program, as well as a complement to the development of increased flexibility in any other sport.

Calisthenics; Fitness; Hamstring injuries; Hip and groin injuries; Lower leg injuries; Quadriceps pulls and tears; Range of motion; Swiss ball training techniques; Yoga and Pilates.

SEE ALSO

Stroke, heat

SEE

Heat stroke

Substance, classification The term restricted substances is one that is widely employed throughout the sports world; there are a number of meanings given this expression, depending on the sport and the substances referred to. The use of the expression is more common in everyday speech than it is in the formal regulations

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passed by national and international sports governing bodies. Restricted substances may also be variously described in the media as banned substances, prohibited substances, or controlled substances. Each of the terms used for restricted substances has a distinct meaning, including: Restricted substance: A drug, chemical, or other performance-enhancing compound that is not generally permitted for use by athletes, but which may be used if advance permission is obtained from the appropriate sport governing body by the athlete. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has a protocol for the obtaining of such permission, known as the Therapeutic Use Exemption. A positive doping test for a restricted substance that is used by an athlete without the requisite permission is treated for sanction purposes as a positive test for a prohibited substance. Prohibited substance: Such substances are illegal in every respect, with no allowance available in any circumstances for their use by an athlete. Anabolic steroids are the most wellknown prohibited substance pursuant to the WADA Prohibited List, published on an annual basis. Prohibited substances may also relate to a prohibited procedure such as blood doping, which is a process that includes the ingestion of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), itself a prohibited substance. Banned substance: This expression has the same meaning in the context of performanceenhancing substances as prohibited substance. The National Football League drug policy refers to ‘‘banned substances’’; Major League Baseball references ‘‘prohibited substances,’’ both to the same effect. Controlled substance: These are generally pharmaceutical products whose availability is subject to government regulation, as opposed to the rules of a sports governing body. Most countries have a statutory framework governing the distribution of such drugs similar to that of the United States’ Controlled Substances Act, which defines, by way of schedules, the manner in which various substances are to be legally possessed and consumed. The schedules move progressively from the most controlled and ostensibly the most dangerous of substances, such as heroin (which has a medicinal use as a painkiller), to the least controlled substances, prescription medications such as hydrozodone, an active ingredient in the nonsteroidal anti-

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inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that include Cox-2 inhibitors in their formulation. Restricted substances in sport are similar as a concept to the government controlled substance legislation. WADA is now the dominant regulatory agency in the battle against performance-enhancing substances as directed by all international sports bodies. The WADA Prohibited List, which is adopted as the law by all national Olympic organizations and virtually all international sports bodies, is comprehensive in its scope. An athlete must submit the Therapeutic Use Exemption to obtain permission to use an otherwise prohibited drug. A prominent example occurred prior to the 2006 Winter Olympics when a dispute arose regarding American skeleton racer Zach Lund, who used a hair restorative product that contained the prohibited substance finasteride, a prohibited steroid-masking agent. Although the WADA rules make no specific mention of the term restricted substance, proof of the universal understanding of this shade of meaning is found in a number of national governing body interpretations of the WADA rules. The U.S. Track and Field Association (USTAF) guidelines refer to the WADA Therapeutic Exemption as ‘‘required for athletes who use Restricted Substances.’’ One of the most common restricted drugs approved for athletic use in international competition are the asthma medications, including beta-2 agonist, medications that assist in opening the airways to permit ease of breathing for the athlete. Glucocorticoids, a powerful class of painkilling medications that have other therapeutic uses, impact many of the human systems; these drugs are frequently the subject of exemption.

Anabolic steroids; Diuretics; Doping tests; Ephedra; Glucocorticoids; Stimulants.

SEE ALSO

Substances, restricted

SEE

Restricted substances

Sumo Sumo is an ancient form of Japanese wrestling that traces its history over many centuries. It is the national sport of Japan, a contest originally intended as an earthly entertainment to appease the gods of the Shinto religion. Sumo today continues many of the traditions that are rooted in religious observance, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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style is of legendary strictness, where the young trainees or less accomplished sumo wrestlers are expected to be subservient to the more experienced wrestlers within their training group until they have achieved a measure of success in competition. At first appearance, the typical sumo wrestler is the antithesis to a fit, accomplished athlete. Most champion sumo wrestlers weight over 350 lb (155 kg), with large and pronounced stomachs and heavy thighs the physical norm. Success in sumo is an application of the basic laws of physics: the lower the center of gravity of the wrestler and the more powerful the initial drive into the opponent, the more likely the opponent will be knocked out of the ring. Most sumo matches are concluded within 30 seconds. Sumo training is directed to the strengthening of the low back to support the very large body mass of the athlete and to facilitate the short two- to threestep explosive burst made by the wrestler at the start of the match to engage the opponent. SEE ALSO

Sumo wrestler.

ª P AT RI K GI A RD I NO/ COR BI S

such as, for purity, the tossing of salt onto the ring surface by the competitors before the match begins. Unlike the familiar forms of Olympic wrestling, each with rules that govern how the competitors may physically engage one another, sumo is a very simple sport. The two wrestlers face one another in the designated ring, the dohyo. The ring is approximately 15 ft (5 m) in diameter. Each competitor wears only a loincloth, and the hair pulled back into a ceremonial top knot. At the start of the match, the first wrestler who touches the floor of the ring with any part of his body other than the soles of his feet or the first wrestler who leaves the ring by any means is disqualified. The most common means of winning a match is to execute a hold using the opponent’s loincloth to propel the opponent from the ring. The wrestlers are not permitted to punch, choke, or kick one another. Sumo has only one category for competition, with no distinct weight divisions. A sumo champion holds an exalted status in Japanese society. Sumo wrestlers are ranked in a strict hierarchy, the banzuke; the grand champion of sumo is a yokozuna, a title that is retained by the champion at the conclusion of the wrestler’s professional career. The sumo wrestler training and lifeWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Judo; Karate; Taekwondo; Wrestling.

Supplement contamination A supplement is any product that is added to an existing formulation to address a deficiency. In sports science, the expressions dietary supplements, nutritional supplements, sports supplements, and similar terms are often used interchangeably. Whatever expression may be used, supplements are consumed for one of two reasons: nutritional benefit or to enhance performance. Nutritional supplements are sometimes added to a diet to ensure that the athlete is consuming the proper quantities of all of the dietary macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) and micronutrients (chiefly vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals) essential to both general health and optimal physical performance. An athlete may also consume supplements to obtain a training or performance advantage. The commercial market for sport-related dietary supplements is immense. It is expected that the global revenues from the sale of such products will reach in excess of $4.5 billion by 2007. The extent of this market, coupled with uneven regulation of manufacturers and distributors of supplements directed at the athletic market, is a significant contributing factor to the problems associated with supplement contamination.

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Contamination of a supplement can occur in one of two general ways. Some manufacturers adulterate their product with what they know to be illegal performance-enhancing substances to create a seemingly greater beneficial impact of the supplement on the user. A common example of supplement adulteration has been the addition of unlisted or hidden stimulants such as caffeine or ephedrine to various herbal tonics to enhance supplement effect. In other cases, protein supplements, intended for purchase by athletes seeking to build muscle or to gain weight, have been contaminated by steroids. The second type of contamination is through the carelessness of the manufacturer. Many supplement producers do not make any of the constituent ingredients of the supplement, but instead they purchase these substances in bulk and mix them into a desired formulation, with little or no testing beforehand as to the exact chemical composition of the mixture. A number of international studies have confirmed the likely extent of supplement contamination and the consequent risks to athletes, both in terms of their health as well as the legal consequences of an inadvertent positive doping test. An International Olympic Committee-approved laboratory at the University of Cologne, Germany, determined in a 2004 study that between 14% and 25% of the supplements that were tested were contaminated with either steroids or other illegal performance-enhancing substances. There is no question as to the efficacy of sports drinks that are directed to rehydration, mineral and electrolyte replacement, or carbohydrate source. Similarly, a number of supplements, such as those that contain creatine, vitamin and mineral complexes, or other well-defined nutritional compounds have been proven as either beneficial to general health or mildly helpful to athletic performance. Beyond these types of supplements, there is considerable difficulty in ever being certain as to the composition of the supplement formulation, due to an absence of strict labeling guidelines throughout the world. An example is the United States Dietary Supplement Health Education Act, 1994, which does not impose specific legal obligations on the manufacturers of supplements aimed at the sports market so long as no claims are made concerning the impact on athletic performance. A lack of knowledge as to the presence of substances such as ephedrine or steroids poses a significant health risk to the consumer. Each of these substances has a significant effect on the function of the body. Stimulants such as ephedrine are

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intended to increase heart rate and blood volume; for such events to occur without the athlete intending them is a dangerous circumstance. If an athlete is not aware of an anabolic agent such as steroid being consumed, the athlete would be unprepared for the many side effects of those substances, including mood swings, weight gain, and decreased sexual function. There are also significant competitive risks posed by contaminated supplements. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has identified supplement contamination as a serious concern in sport. WADA officially consider that athletes who counter a positive doping test with the defense that they were unaware of the precise contents of the supplement due to improper labeling or contamination are guilty. In the resolution of any dispute as to whether the athlete ought to have known the composition of the supplement, WADA will seek adherence to the legal principle of strict liability as the correct standard, entirely shifting to the athlete the responsibility for what he or she ingests.

Creatine supplementation; Dietary supplements; Ephedra-free supplements; Glutamine supplementation; Protein supplements.

SEE ALSO

Surfing Surfing is a sport whose origins may be traced to the ancient Polynesian cultures of the Pacific Ocean. In 1788, Captain James Cook, the English explorer, observed the indigenous people of both Tahiti and the Hawaiian Islands using long wooden boards to move through the waves near shore. American author Mark Twain described his own adventures with Hawaiian surfing in his book Roughing It published in 1871. California, the place most often associated with surfing, first became a hotbed of the sport in the 1920s and 1930s. The California surfing community helped propel the sport into the cultural mainstream in the late 1950s; surfer expressions such as ‘‘stoked,’’ ‘‘hot dogging,’’ and ‘‘wipeout’’ became a part of modern speech. Surfing has attained a worldwide appeal due in large part to its utter simplicity. A surfer paddles out into the ocean on a surfboard, and awaits a suitable sized breaking wave on which to ride back to the shore using the wave’s energy for propulsion. The more ambitious and talented the surfer, the larger the wave or the greater number of tricks the surfer can execute as the wave travels towards the shore. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SURFING

Competitive surfing is a subjectively judged and the variability of wave height and speed may impact upon the competitive result. P HO TO BY P IERR E TOS TEE /A SP V IA GE TTY IM AGES .

Although surfing pre-dates the popularity of extreme sports, surfing’s inherent physical dangers and its potential for high levels of personal satisfaction, as opposed to achieving a competitive result, warrant its inclusion in the extreme sports category. The modern surfboard has undergone many changes since the days of the Polynesians. Early surfboards were often as long as 16 ft (5 m), weighing over 100 lb (45 kg), and each was built to support the surfer. Modern surfboards are constructed from synthetic materials such as epoxy, fiberglass, and carbon fiber composites and the boards are usually a shorter length, designed to suit the style of the surfer but also intended to be highly maneuverable in the water. An inexperienced surfer is often directed to a wider and longer board, as the greater the surface area in contact with the water, the greater the stability of the board. In colder weather or water temperatures below 68 F (20 C), surfers will often wear a wetsuit to protect themselves from the combined effects of cold water and cold air. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Surfing is unique among sports in that the ride on a surfboard is powered by water and the resultant force of gravity alone. The physical object of surfing is to slide down the surface of the wave at the same speed at which the water is moving upwards. If the surfer moves took quickly along the wave surface, the surfer proceed to the bottom of the wave and end the ride as the surfer will no longer be affected by the wave motion. If the surfer moves slower than the wave, the wave will out run the surfer, creating a wipeout. It is for this reason that a surfer can maintain a stable position while riding below the crest of a mammoth ocean wave. The surfer and the surfboard are balanced on the water surface when the force of gravity acting downwards upon the surfer is precisely equal to the hydrostatic effect, or buoyancy, directed upwards. The center of mass of the board is its balance point; when the surfer moves towards the front or the rear of the board, the board will become oriented accordingly, with the nose or back moved upwards or down to reflect to shift in position by the surfer. A surfer executes a turn on the board by shifting body

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position to the rear of the board, a movement that creates torque (twisting effect in the motion of the board). The forces of gravity and buoyancy are now directly under the surfer, permitting the turn to be executed. When the surfer pushes downwards on the board, the force of the push is greater than the force of gravity, causing the turn to occur more quickly. As the surfer moves through the water on the board, the surfer maintains a low, bent leg position, to maximize balance on the board and to respond to any forces directed against the board with subtle changes of position. A shorter surfboard provides the surfer with greater maneuverability, as the shorter the board, the shorter the axis upon which the surfer is required to turn. A longer surf board possesses an inherently greater moment of inertia, the time period within which an object resists the forces directing it to turn. Conversely, a longer surfboard will tend to travel faster across the surface of the water, due to the relationship between drag and the volume of water displaced by the board. The fins attached to the rear of the surfboard, known as the ‘‘skeg’’ act in a similar fashion to that of a keel on a sail boat, as the fins extending downwards into the water aid in preventing the surfboard from being pushed too far sideways by the force of the moving water. The International Surfing Association (ISA) is the world governing body of surfing; surfing is also a member of the International Olympic Committee, although surfing is not an Olympic sport. There are also various professional surfing events held in various parts of the world on an annual basis sanctioned by the ISA. Competitive surfing is a subjectively judged and the variability of wave height and speed may impact upon the competitive result. SEE ALSO

Sailing; Sailing physics; Windsurfing.

Sweat secretion

SEE

Eccrine sweat

secretion

Swimming Swimming is one of the world’s oldest forms of competitive sport. Swimming ability was valued in a number of ancient cultures, including Greece and Japan. As swimming became established as a sporting activity in the early 1800s in Europe, the most com-

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mon type of swim stroke employed was a variation of the breaststroke, where the swimmer used both arms below the water and the head positioned above water. In 1844 at a competition held in London, a number of Native American entrants from the United States used a stroke that was similar in style to the modern front crawl, where the swimmer’s head was submerged from time to time and the arms directed in a windmill motion. Although superior to the breast stroke, the Europeans saw the innovation as undignified and did not adopt it at that time. The first successful attempt to swim the English Channel, a distance of 21 mi (32 km) occurred in 1875. Swimming pools were built in London, and in other European cities, prior to 1900 and the first European swimming championships were held in Vienna in 1889. Swimming was included as a sport in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 as a men’s sport; the first women’s Olympic swimming was contested in 1912. The most famous of swimming strokes was developed in the early years of the twentieth century by Australian Frederick Cavill (1839–1927), who adapted the Native American overhand swim stroke and added a flutter kick (a repetitive kicking motion). This stroke was known as the Australian crawl; it is now designated in international swim rules as the crawl, the stroke used in freestyle swimming events. Swimming has produced some athletes who became the subject of international recognition. American Johnny Weissmuller (1904-1984) won a total of five Olympic medals in the 1924 and 1928 Summer Games. Weissmuller parlayed his swim fame into a Hollywood movie career as ‘‘Tarzan.’’ American Mark Spitz won seven gold medals in the 1972 Olympics. Australian Ian Thorpe, the 6 ft 7 in (1.98 m) ‘‘Thorpedo,’’ won a total of nine medals in the 2000 and 2004 Olympics, the most ever by an Australian athlete. Yona Klochvova of the Ukraine won successive gold medals in the 2000 and 2004 Olympics, in addition to being named the world’s top 400-m medley swimmer for seven successive years. The Federation Internationale de Natation de Amateur (FINA), was founded in 1908. FINA is one of the widest ranging of the international governing bodies in sport, as it is the authority in the distinct disciplines of swimming (races up to 10,000 m staged in swimming pools), water polo, open water swimming, diving, and synchronized swimming. The global popularity of swimming is illustrated by the fact that over 200 national swimming associations comprise the FINA membership. Swimming is the most popular of the sports directed by FINA; there are state, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SWIMMING

regional, intercollegiate, national, and international swimming competitions, in a number of different formats and age groups, available in every region of the world in a given calendar year. Swimming competitions are held in one of two settings sanctioned by FINA. A short course is a swimming pool 25 m in length; a long course is a 50-m pool. The 50-m facility is the standard distance for international and Olympic competition. The pool is divided into lanes, typically eight in total, with each lane divided by floating markers extending the length of the pool; to assist the swimmers in maintaining their orientation and to permit them to swim in as straight a line as is possible, the center line beneath each lane is marked along the bottom of the pool. In North America and Europe, most competitive swimming competitions are held in indoor facilities; in countries such as Australia, a world power in the sport, the climate permits the extensive use of outdoor swimming pools. Swimming races range in length from the 50-m sprint (one length of the pool in Olympic competition) to 10,000-m events. The physiological demands of swimming are similar to those of running, in the sense that a 50-m sprint specialist will not likely succeed in a long distance race, and the various distances and specialized strokes demand specialized training approaches. There are four general types of swimming races, each defined by the stroke that the swimmer is required to employ–, freestyle (where all swimmers use the crawl), the breaststroke, the backstroke, and the butterfly. One event, the individual medley, requires the swimmer to use each of the four stroke types for a designated portion of the course. There are also relay races at various distances, including the medley relay where the four team members use a different stroke in their successive relay legs. All types of swim strokes have five general components: the arm stroke, the kick, the timing and coordination of the body movements, the body position relative to the surface of the water, and the breathing rhythm. All swim performance theory is predicated on the fact that the human body and its composition (over 90% water), is only slightly less buoyant that the substance in which the athlete is racing. A swim race has three distinct components, the start, the swim, and the turns. Each aspect has its own distinct technique, founded upon a body of practical racing results and scientific research as to the most efficient methods to move through and over water. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Swimmers are permitted to wear a variety of different styles of swim suits during competition. For many years, the standard was a tight fitting suit that exposed most of the body to the water; the tighter the fit, the less likely air bubbles would become trapped between the skin and the suit, causing a less sleek profile in the water. Swimmers would remove all body hair, to reduce the resistance of the water upon their skin, including the wearing of a tight race cap and hydronamically contoured swim goggles. There have been several advances in swim suit technology. One notable example was the development of the Speedo ‘‘Fastskin,’’ a material modeled to a significant degree after the skin characteristics of sharks. The swim suit material, like the shark skin, has a series of dermal denticles, which form a series of V shaped ridges across the surface. The denticles reduce the drag that otherwise occurs from the passage of any object under water, by creating a series of tiny deflection points that force the water to pass more readily over the suit surface. These suits are often worn as a full body device, with the arms and feet uncovered. Freestyle swimming is the fastest form of competitive swimming, as the combined function of the arms moving in an over hand and a constant kick keep the body on a relatively even and efficient plane as it moves through the water. By rule, the swimmer may only remain under water for 15 m (50 ft) at the start and at each turn; otherwise the swimmer must be on top of the surface. The breaststroke is a swimming stroke performed with the swimmer facing downward on the water. The swimmer’s shoulders must remain in line with the water at all times. With their head above the surface, the swimmer extends their arms directly ahead, with the palms facing outwards, making a sweeping stroke with both arms remaining underwater at all times. On the repeat of the stroke, the arms are permitted, by FINA rule, to break the surface of the water. The swimmer performs a ‘‘frog kick,’’ where the legs are brought towards the torso, and then extended outwards underwater. The swimmer’s arms and legs must move in unison; flutter kicks, dolphin kicks, and scissor kicks are prohibited, as are flip (‘‘tumble’’) turns. The butterfly evolved as a swim form from the breaststroke, when swimmers brought their hands and arms out of the water to drive themselves forward. The butterfly, as the name suggests, is executed by a sweeping motion of the arms above the water, accompanied by a dolphin kick. The swimmer is face down on the water, coordinating breath with

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Australian Giaan Rooney in the women’s 50-m backstroke at the 2005 FINA World Cup.

the arm strokes. The butterfly is a very physically taxing event. The swimmer is permitted to be underwater for 15 m at each turn and at the start. The backstroke is performed with the swimmer’s head and stomach facing upward in the water. The stroke is an alternating windmill type motion with each arm, as the swimmer drives their body forward with a flutter kick. Swimming is a sport that requires the athlete to develop total fitness–cardiovascular endurance, muscle strength, flexibility, and power. A schematic analysis of a typical swim race illustrates why each of these fitness elements is important. The race start requires an explosive entry into the water, employing a measure of body control and finesse to enter the water at an optimal angle for efficient movement. A powerful leg drive at the start will translate into significant benefits for the racer; if the start takes the swimmer either too deep into the water, or so shallow that additional water resistance is create by their body on entry, the benefits of a powerful start are lost. As the swimmers move in their lanes, they seek a stable and efficient position. In shorter races (200 m

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and under), the demands placed upon the body’s energy systems are primarily anaerobic; in the longer races, the body utilizes its aerobic systems, with anaerobic capability needed at the swimmer’s drive to the finish. On the approach to the opposite wall to make the turn, the swimmers will seek to maintain their speed by timing the execution of the turn. Each swim discipline has specific rules about the type of turn that may be employed (either open, where the swimmer changes direction at the wall, or a flip turn, where the swimmer executes a somersault and uses the wall to obtain a push in the opposite direction). Similarly, there are limits as to how long a swimmer may remain underwater after executing a flip turn; it is a general principle of swim mechanics that the body tends to move most efficiently under water as opposed to on the surface. Swimming is a sport where the body’s entire musculoskeletal system is engaged. For this reason, swim training is directed to the building and maintenance of all muscle groups. Swimming presents a lower risk of musculoskeletal injury than many sports; the chief causes of injury are related to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SWIMMING: OPEN WATER

Competitors at the men’s 25-m open water event at the 2005 FINA World Championships in Montreal, Canada.

PH OTO B Y

A L EXA ND E R HAS S EN ST EI N/ BO NG AR TS/ G ETT Y IM AG ES .

training, and the repetitive nature of the swim strokes which may lead to a variety of over use syndromes. Shoulder injuries, particularly those in relation to the function of the rotator cuff (the small four muscle and tendon structure positioned at the top of the shoulder, the tissues that control the amount of rotation possible in the joint), are relatively common.

The generally low incidence of injury, and the popularity of swimming generally has fostered a vibrant international master’s competitive swimming community. Master’s swimming is sanctioned by FINA, and master’s competitive events, commencing at age 35 for both men and women, are staged throughout the world.

The nature of swimming and the timing of the competitive swim schedule for any athlete make the development of a periodized training schedule a priority for a swimmer. As with a competitive runner, there will be readily identifiable events in the year that will be of greater importance to the athlete. It is these events that should be identified as ones for which the athlete will ‘‘peak,’’ with training intensity adjusted accordingly. Dry land training particularly focused stretching programs to enhance optimal range of motion in the joints, weight training, and plyometric work to build explosive leg drive in both kicks and starts, will be components of this aspect of training.

SEE ALSO


Diving; Swimming strength training and exercises; Synchronized swimming; Triathlon.

Swimming: Open water Open water swimming is one of the five aquatic sports governed by Federation Internationale de Natation de Amateur (FINA). Swimming, water polo, synchronized swimming, and diving are the others within FINA’s mandate. Open water swimming is defined by FINA as any competition that takes place in rivers, lakes, or oceans. Open water swimming is also an important part of both the Olympic triathlon

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(swim/cycle/run segments, with the swim 0.9 mile (1.5 km) in length) and the longer version, the Ironman, which has a 2.4 mile (4 km) open water swim. FINA sanctions two forms of open water swimming. Long distance swimming is an open water event with a maximum distance of 10 km (6 miles); marathon swims are any races of a greater distance. The open water world championships are sanctioned for distances of 5 km, 10 km, and 25 km. The FINA rules regarding the race venue are uncomplicated, with the chief requirements being a race time water temperature of at least 16 C (60 F), and a minimum depth on the course of 1.4 m (4 ft 8 in). FINA championships may be conducted in either salt or fresh water. Open water swimmers are prohibited from using any device which may aid in their buoyancy or propulsion, including wet suits. A wet suit, if constructed from materials such as polypropylene, will add as much as 5% to the buoyancy of a competitor. Grease or other similar products may be used in a FINA event; such materials are often employed by open water swimmers to provide an extra layer of insulation to the swimmer’s body in cold water. Aside from the competitive issues relating to open water swimming, the activity is often described as having the type of relationship to swimming in a pool that trail or cross country running has with respect to track. Open water swimming permits the swimmer to move without the boundaries imposed by a pool and the consequent interruption of the swimmer’s stroke and rhythm. Successful open water swimmers, both in those FINA styled disciplines and the triathlon swims, place significant training emphasis upon efficiency, and the corresponding ability to conserve energy and maintain an even pace. The most important variables to be considered in open water venues are the potential impacts of waves or currents. SEE ALSO

Ironman competitions; Swimming; Triathlon.

Swimming pool chemistry Swimming pools are used recreationally and for competitive events. Since a participant is often fully immersed in the water, the water’s hygiene is important. Water that is contaminated can cause illness. In contrast to many natural water courses, the circulation and turnover of water in swimming pools can be slow. While the water in most below-ground

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pools is drawn, pumped through a filter and even a heater, and circulated back to the pool at a legislated rate, the time to replace the entire volume of water can still be less than in a free-flowing stream, pond, or lake. Additionally, the number of people using the limited water volume can be much greater than in a natural setting. If steps are not taken to keep microorganisms and other contaminants under control, the water can become a dangerous medium for the growth of the microbes, and for the continued presence of noxious compounds. One approach to maintaining swimming pool water quality involves filters, which can remove microbes and larger debris from the water. The latter are removed by a filter basket that acts as a strainer. This process is purely physical; water enters the open end of the filter, and debris that is too large to pass through the mesh basket remains trapped. A second filter utilizes physical and chemical means to trap smaller material. The filter contains a bed of special-grade sand or diatomaceous earth. Incoming pool water enters at the top of the sand. Typically, the water is then allowed to percolate down through the sand under the influence of gravity. During the slow downward journey, microorganisms and other particles stick to the sand or earth grains. The size, surface charge, and surface chemistry of water contaminants determines how avidly they associate with the sand or earth particles. Over time, as debris collects, the ability of the filter bed to bind particles decreases. Then, by forcing water back through the bed in the reverse direction in a process called backwashing, the collected debris can be driven out. Once the sand or earth grains have settled, the filtering action of the bed is restored. Today, the filter bed is sometimes replaced by a synthetic filtering material packaged in a cartridge that can be inserted and removed from the water flow. Chemicals are also added to swimming pools to aid in keeping the microorganisms at permissible levels, and to maintain a balance of inorganic parameters. Disease-causing (pathogenic) bacteria are controlled by the use of disinfectants. The most popular swimming pool disinfectant is chlorine, which is typically introduced in the form of a solid (calcium hypochlorite) or a liquid (sodium hypochlorite). (Instead of chlorine, a chemical called bromide can be used. Since it tends to be more expensive than chlorine, bromide is not the typical disinfection method of choice.) Less routinely, chlorine gas can be added to the source water. Predetermined amounts of the materials are added, based on the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SWIMMING RESISTANCE

volume of water in the pool, to produce a final free chlorine concentration in the water when the solid dissolves and the liquid or gas disperses. The final chlorine concentration is important. If too little chlorine is added, for example, the chemical reaction that occurs can generate various forms of a compound called chloramine. Chloramines have an objectionable smell and can irritate the skin and mucous membranes such as the eyes.

ance is a concept closely related to drag, the hydrodynamic principle of resistance created by a fluid to forward motion. The resistance met by a swimmer in their forward progress caused by the water is passive drag; the resistance against which the swimmer is exerting a force is active drag.

Addition of the proper amount of chlorine will produce mainly hypochlorous acid in the ensuing chemical reaction. Hypochlorous acid kills bacteria by disrupting the structure of their cell walls and destroying the activity of enzymes inside the cells that are vital for life.

Frontal resistance occurs when the swimmer adopts a body position that exposes a greater than necessary body surface to the water, thus increasing the effect of the water’s resistance force. To limit the effect of frontal resistance, swimmers may seek to position themselves as high on the water surface as possible, to produce an effect similar to that of a hydrofoil. This technique is sometimes useful for swimmers with a smaller body mass. Alternatively, the swimmers will roll their body from side to side as the swim strokes are executed; the turning movement keep the body higher in the water.

Hypochlorous acid is unstable and tends to lose its potency in sunlight. Thus, many outdoor pool operators will also add cyanuric acid to the water. Cyanuric acid associates with hyochlorous acid and stabilizes its structure, while not affecting its antimicrobial potency. Another aspect of swimming pool chemistry concerns the pH level of the water—the acidity or alkalinity of the water. The level is measured on a logarithmic scale (each division on the scale is ten times different from the preceding or subsequent value) that indicates the balance between acid and alkaline molecules in the water. The pH scale ranges from 0 (extreme acidity) to 14 (extreme alkalinity). Swimming pool water should have a pH of 7.2 to 7.8; within this range, the antimicrobial action of chlorine is most efficient and the water is most comfortable to the user. Water that is too acidic can damage metal surfaces and is too harsh to skin, whereas water that is too alkaline causes build-up of deposits on surfaces and becomes objectionably cloudy. The pH of swimming pool water can be easily measured using a number of portable devices. If necessary, adjustments to pH can be made by the addition of sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate, which raises the pH, or muriatic acid, which lowers the pH. A swimming pool is an ever-changing environment. Thus, swimming pool chemistry needs to be frequently monitored and, if necessary, altered throughout the day.

There are three types of resistance that affect swimming function, namely frontal resistance, skin friction, and eddy resistance.

Swimming research has established that for a freestyle swimmer, a body position of between 30% and 40% angle in the water allows the swimmer to generate optimum speed. Swimmers keep their head as close to the surface of the water while breathing to counter act the natural tendency of the lower part of the body to sink, producing greater swim resistance, when the swimmer raises their head to breath. Skin friction is the type of drag created when the swimmer’s body and swim suit pass through water. The most time honored technique to counter skin friction is the shaving of the swimmer’s body hair on any places that have contact with the water. The shaving of body hair may have a slight impact on the hydrodynamic characteristics of the swimmer’s body. A similar physical result is achieved through the design of the racing suits that mimic the characteristics of shark skin. The suit surface is constructed with a series of ridges that tend to reduce the drag created when a suit passes through water, as the ridges act to deflect water away from the surface of the suit.

Swimming resistance

The full body racing suit is also designed to preserve the symmetry and sleekness of the body as it moves through the water, by limiting the amount of movement in the swimmers muscles that is not required for propulsion. The suits maintain a constant body silhouette without affecting muscle function.

In general terms, swim resistance is the effect of water upon the motion of a swimmer. Swim resist-

Eddy resistance is caused when a swimmer creates eddies and water turbulence through poor stroke


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technique. Whenever a swimmer executes a front crawl stroke, an eddy, shaped as a vortex or whirlpool, forms at the water surface. If the stroke is executed inefficiently, the vortex will remain. If the vortexes accumulate around the body of the swimmer, the water resistance is increased.

Resistance exercise training; Swimming; Swimming strength training and exercises.

SEE ALSO

Swimming starts and turns The starts and the turn techniques employed in a swim race are the subject of intense practice by all competitive swimmers. Starts and turns are movements that are distinct from both the strokes used by a swimmer and from one another. The start has three components, each of which can be broken down for discrete analysis—the starting block, the dive, and the pullout (breakout). All swim events, except the backstroke, begin on the elevated starting block situated at the edge of the pool. The backstroke commences with all swimmers in the water, facing the edge of the pool, grasping handles that permit a push off into the lane. To achieve maximum speed from the start block, the swimmers seek to keep their center of gravity as close to the edge of the block as possible. At the sound of the start, the swimmers employ a combination of explosive leg drive and a push with the toes from the surface of the block. The dive is intended to be one that creates as little water resistance on entry as possible. The swimmer, depending upon the stroke to be employed during the race, will endeavor to take an angle of entry that balances speed through the water and an ability to seamlessly begin the stroke cadence. The transition between the dive and the stroke itself is the pullout, where the swimmer moves dynamically to the racing position in the water. There are two general classifications of turns: the open turn and the flip turn, or tumble turn. The use of a particular type of turn, and the accompanying period of time in which the swimmer may remain underwater (in a desirable hydrodynamic position) after the completion of the turn, are specified in the rules of the sport as determined by FINA. The flip turn is an important component of freestyle swimming. The turn is intended to permit a coordinated change of direction that allows the swimmers to maintain both their speed and the

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cadence of their stroke. A flip turn begins with a somersault, with the swimmers bringing their arms forward to create a long, slender upper body profile. As the upper body is being extended, the swimmers use the wall of the pool to push as powerfully as possible. In this position, the swimmers will often remain under the surface, propelling themselves with an efficient dolphin kick (legs together, moving in the manner of a dolphin). The distance in which the swimmers are permitted to remain underwater after a flip turn is also regulated in each swimming discipline. The open turn is also used to preserve speed and form. In an open turn, the swimmers seek to coordinate their approach to the wall and the stroke rhythm; the swimmers use one hand to effect a push off from the wall, while bringing their feet and legs into a tuck position. The swimmers push off from the wall, with the entire body under the surface, extending from the tuck into a streamlined body position, from which they resume their stroke.

Motor Control; Plyometrics; Swimming; Swimming timing.

SEE ALSO

Swimming strength training and exercises Effective strength training for the competitive swimmer requires an approach that may be summarized by the expression, ‘‘the three Cs’’ —careful, considered, and comprehensive. Swim strength training must be carefully planned. The regular training required of a swimmer is demanding on its own, with many hours per week spent in the pool in a variety of endurance and sprint drills. The physical requirements of swimming are such that strength training is essential to both the improvement and the maintenance of strong swimming form. The balance between regular swim training and additional strength training can only be achieved through attention to the swimmers competitive schedule and intervals of scheduled ‘‘down time.’’ The swimming strength program must take into consideration the precise nature of the event to be supported and enhanced. All swimming involves the use of every part of the musculoskeletal structure, from the start of a race until the finish. Swimmers must place particular emphasis upon their shoulders, core strength (abdominal, gluteal, groin, and lower WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SWISS BALL TRAINING TECHNIQUES

back muscles), and legs. As an example, for a freestyle swimmer, the strength exercises to advance the full range of shoulder motion necessary to perform the stroke may include the pull down motions of a cable machine or an overhand medicine ball throw. Core strength muscles can be isolated using a Swiss ball or similar device to create resistance during push ups or other stretching motions that require the movement of the entire body, as does the swim motion. The leg power utilized by a swimmer from the starting block is developed by various forms of plyometric training, techniques which aid in the development of the fast twitch muscle fibers in the legs, with a goal of more explosive movement. Comprehensive strength exercise programs include not only specific strength exercises, but also stretching exercises that permit the swimmer to both utilize all available muscle strength developed in the gym. Stretching exercises are essential to the maintenance of the athlete’s range of motion in all joints. If the athlete is hindered in the ability to take a particular structure through its natural range of motion, it is doubtful that the athlete can achieve the best athletic success. Swimming, as a sport of significant repetition of movement, requires the combined excellent joint strength and range of motion to prevent injury.

Resistance exercise training; Swimming; Strength training; Triathlon: Exercises for triathlon.

SEE ALSO

Swimming timing The precise recording of swimmer’s times in competition was a difficult task in the pre-electronic era. As swimmers raced to the finish in an event where there might be four or five competitors within inches (centimeters) of one another, the splash created by each racer as they drove for the end of the pool made the visual determination of whose hand touched first to be a very difficult and occasionally inaccurate exercise. In 1967, the Omega company of Switzerland developed the first electronic timing system for swimming that attempted to coordinate the physical position of the individual swimmers in the pool with the recorded time. This new system placed contact pads (known as touch pads) in each lane of the pool, calibrated in such a fashion that the incidental water movement of the competitors or wave action did not WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

trigger the pad sensors; the pad was only activated by the touch of the swimmer at the end of the race. The touch pad technology was refined after 1967. The pads themselves are now constructed from a series of very thin vertical sheets, which extend underwater the width of a competitor’s lane, so as to permit a recorded touch no matter where in the lane the swimmer may finish the race. The starting block is also integrated into the over all timing system. The starting block is equipped with a speaker system to permit the starters horn to be directly communicated to each competitor as they await the start. When the swimmer leaves the starting block, the motion of the athlete signals the individual start by its registration on a sensor device in the block. The timer and the judge of the race can instantly determine, through the coordination of the starter’s signal and the athlete movements as recorded on the block, whether there was a false start, and in which lane. In the same fashion, the timing system is coordinated with the video recording of each race, to permit judges by replay to determine the order of result in the event of any dispute. Swimming results in international competition are now resolved to an accuracy of one thousandth of a second. In the 1988 summer Olympics at Seoul, six competitors in the men’s 100-m breaststroke finished within 0.5 seconds of one another. Since 2000, the results of most major international swim meets have been available in real time by the Internet.

International federations; Sport performance; Swimming.

SEE ALSO

Swiss ball training techniques The Swiss ball, also known as an exercise ball or a gym ball, is a training aid aimed primarily at the stretching and strengthening of the abdominal, groin, lumbar (lower) back, and upper leg muscles of the body. The development of these structures is often referred to as the building and maintaining of core strength, an important stabilizing feature in any sport. Swiss balls are inflatable, and they are typically filled approximately 80-90%. The ball is constructed from a thick rubberized compound, available in differing sizes. For optimum effect, a Swiss ball should stand approximately 2 in (5 cm) above the user’s knee from the surface.

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The Swiss ball permits a range of exercises that are based on the ability of the user to move with the motion of the ball while performing the exercise, using the ball to both support the body during the movement as well as to provide a measure of resistance to the muscles employed in the movement. The classic Swiss ball exercises involve the abdominal muscles, with corresponding responses from the groin and the stabilizers of the lower back, the oblique muscles that run parallel to the spine above the pelvis. The athlete, positioned on top of the Swiss ball, can take the abdominals through a complete range of motion through the performance of crunches (a motion that brings of the upper thighs and the sternum [breastbone] toward one another, to strengthen the abdominals); twisting crunches, where the upper body twists in opposite directions during the crunch to extend the muscular effect across the abdomen; and the flexion of the thoracic spine, the vertebrae of the mid-back to improve overall flexibility. Swiss ball movements require a greater degree of coordination by the user than do conventional floor stretches. The Swiss ball also permits the execution of both static stretches (where the target body part is fully extended), as well as more demanding dynamic stretches, where the user directs force into or through the extended joint.

guises the competition.

significant

physical

demands

of

Synchronized swimming was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1907; the first organized synchronized swimming competition took place in Montreal in 1923. A series of Hollywood films produced in the late 1930s and early 1940s that featured former United States Olympic swimmer Ester Williams in a variety of choreographed swimming displays publicized the sport in North America. After a protracted campaign to secure Olympic status for the sport, women’s synchronized swimming became a part of Olympic competition at the 1984 Summer Games. Men’s synchronized swimming is a regional competition only. Synchronized swimming is one of the five aquatics disciplines governed on a world basis by Federation Internationale de Natation de Amateur (FINA). FINA convenes annual world synchronized swimming championships, and it sanctions a variety of events on a regional basis. Synchronized swimming is organized on a club basis in most countries, as opposed to organization in school or university programs. Competitions are staged in Olympic standard swimming pools, with underwater cameras to permit viewing of the movements of the swimmers from all angles.

Synchronized swimming

The competitive categories of synchronized swimming are solo, duet, team, and free combination. Synchronized swimming requires the athletes to complete a series of routines, some of which are predetermined, and others of which are performed in the manner determined by the athlete or the team. A typical competition will include a series of performance segments that represent a progression from ‘‘figures’’—a series of ‘‘required elements,’’ concluding with a free routine, where the routines contain FINA approved figures choreographed to music as selected by the team or the athlete. The team competitions (with up to 10 swimmers permitted on the team) may commence with the first portion of the routine on the pool deck, with a progression of movements to take the team into the water for the next segments of the team’s presentation.

Synchronized swimming is a water sport that combines elements of swimming, ballet, and gymnastics that are performed by individual athletes as well as by teams of athletes that perform as a coordinated unit. The swimmers complete a program of movements choreographed to music that are executed both on the surface and underwater. Like sports such as figure skating and rhythmic gymnastics, the aesthetics and the grace of synchronized swimming dis-

The judging of synchronized swimming is subjective. Judges are provided with various guidelines established by FINA as to the respective difficulty of certain figures and required elements. Judges use two general categories within which performances are assessed—technical merit (including degree of difficulty, degree of synchronicity, and execution of the movements) and artistic expression (choreography and manner of interpretation by the athletes).

While a Swiss ball routine may have both aerobic and anaerobic benefits, depending on the intensity, duration, and the frequency with which the exercises are performed, Swiss ball training is not a substitute for either type of exercise. The Swiss ball is an ideal supplement to an existing training program, such as yoga or Pilates, which promote greater strength and flexibility in a safe and controlled physical setting.

Calisthenics; Stretching and flexibility; Yoga and Pilates.

SEE ALSO

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SYNCHRONIZED SWIMMING

tions in time with the music and the movements of their teammates. The athletes swim with their eyes open to both assist in maintaining their balance, and to maintain their orientation to both the walls of the pool and to their teammates. Muscle memory, also known as proprioception, is a physical skill developed by the synchronized swimmer through repetition of each element to a routine. When a particular routine has been practices hundreds of times, the athlete acquires an internal sense of where all parts of the body should be in relation to one another without significant conscious thought about each movement.

Team synchronized swimming was first added to the Olympic Games in 1996. AP P HOT O/GE RRY B ROOM E

Technical marks represent 60% of the score awarded, with artistic marks accounting for the remaining 40%. Competitive synchronized swimming routines vary in length. The shortest routines, the figures portion of the competition, are 2 minutes long; the team free routine may be as long as 5 minutes. It is the nature of the sport that the swimmers may be underwater performing various choreographed movements for as long as 1 minute at a time, with some routines creating a cumulative underwater period of up to 3.5 minutes for each athlete. The sport imposes significant demands upon the athlete’s cardiovascular and energy systems, both aerobic and anaerobic. In addition to the often attention attracting swim suits worn by the competitors, the most important item of equipment worn by the synchronized swimmers are their nose plugs, to prevent water from entering their nose and lungs as they spin underwater. Balance and motor control skills are of prime importance to the synchronized swimmer. The swimmers are constantly changing their body posi-


The demands associated with the execution of gymnastics movements in a water environment poses unique training challenges for the synchronized swimmer. To build for a competitive season, the athletes must develop a broad range of cardiovascular and musculoskeletal strength. Running, cycling, and free swimming are the aerobic sports that satisfy this aspect of the training demands of synchronized swimming. Many athletes engage in Pilates or Swiss ball training that focuses upon the development of the strength and the flexibility of the core area of the body, as the abdominal, lumbar (low back), groin, and gluteal muscles are subject to constant stresses in a synchronized swimming routine. The ability of the athlete to maintain perfect balance and physical symmetry while executing underwater somersaults and flips requires significant core strength. Off season weight training, using free weights, machine circuit training, and plyometric routines to enhance leg strength prepare the athlete to move decisively and explosively in the water. Many synchronized swim routines require dynamic movement, where the athletes must power themselves from a significant distance below the water surface to perform a movement at the surface, and descend as quickly to the next element. Stretching and flexibility training is a year round essential to all synchronized swimming training programs; the sport demands optimal range of motion in the body’s joints, as every musculoskeletal structure will be utilized in a synchronized swimming routine.

Balance training and proprioception; Stretching and Flexibility; Swimming; Swimming strength training and exercises.

SEE ALSO

709

T Table tennis Table tennis, sometimes known as ‘‘ping pong’’ is a miniaturized version of outdoor or lawn tennis. A dynamic indoor racquets sport played world wide, table tennis had an inauspicious beginning; the sport had its origins in England in the late 1800s as a parlor game known as ‘‘Whiff Waff,’’ an activity played on dining room tables for recreation. The first table tennis balls were fashioned from champagne corks. In the late 1920s, the popularity of table tennis led to the formation of the International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF). Various national associations were also founded, such as the United States Table Tennis Association (now USA Table Tennis), established in 1933. Table tennis is played today in virtually every country of the world, with sanctioned competitions in age group categories ranging from under 10 years of age to 80 yeas and over. Table tennis is an official Paralympics wheelchair sport. As with tennis, there are men’, women’, doubles, and mixed doubles categories of play. The rules of table tennis have been standardized for many years. The playing surface is a 9 ft by 5 ft rectangular table (2.7 m by 1.5 m), usually dark blue or green in color. The surface of the table is positioned 30 in (76 cm) above the floor; the playing surface is divided by a 6 in (15 cm) high net. Each half of the court is marked with a white line to create the two equal surfaces used in doubles play. The table must be constructed of a material that posWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

sesses a high coefficient of restitution, to ensure that the ball is sufficiently lively when it is struck off the table surface. The ball used in table tennis is very light weight and hollow, manufactured from celluloid material. The ball measures 1.6 in (4 cm) in diameter, with an approximate weight of 0.1 oz (2.7 g). The table tennis racquet is most commonly called a paddle. The paddle is oval shaped, covered on both sides by a thin layer of rubber, sponge, or other similar synthetic material. There are no restrictions placed upon the size or weight of the paddle by the ITTF; the type of paddle surface will dictate the nature of the spin that can be generated by the player on the ball. The rules of table tennis are relatively straightforward. Play commences with a serve—the ball must strike on the serving players side of the court first, and then make contact with the any part of the surface of the opponent’s court. The serve must be made from behind the edge of the serving player’s side of the table. The ball must be fully exposed to the sight of the opponent during the serve, with a toss that travels a minimum of 6 in (15 cm) in the air. The server is not permitted to impart any spin on the ball as it is tossed into the air to commence service. The opposing player must return the ball using the paddle only, where the ball makes contact with any portion of the opponent’ side of the playing surface, including the corners and sides of the table. A point is scored if the serve fails, or where one player fails to return the ball onto the opponent’s court, or if the ball is struck into the net.

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motion to produce speed, and defensive shots carry backspin to counter the offensive shot. Table tennis is a sport that does not require significant athletic size or strength; many world champion caliber players achieve success through the development of their quickness, hand eye coordination, balance, and a sophisticated tactical appreciation of the game. The physical training needed to support a competitive table tennis player will include significant focus on footwork, especially through workouts that have elements of lateral movement and plyometric training. A degree of strength training, to create over all body balance, is also helpful in table tennis training. The athlete must build their aerobic fitness levels to enable the athlete to shorten recovery times in a long match or series of matches. Table tennis players also must devote significant time to stretching and flexibility exercises, both to achieve the ability to move and react explosively, as well as to prevent injury; table tennis players spend a great deal of time running and moving on les absorbent hard surfaces that place greater stress on the player’s lower legs, ankles and feet. Table tennis players are vulnerable to over use injuries to these structures, such as plantar fasciitis and muscle strains. SEE ALSO

Tie Yana of Hong Kong competes against Fukuhara Ai of Japan, during the women’s the 2005 Women’s Table Tennis World Cup.

Motor control; Racquetball; Squash; Tennis.

Tackling, soccer

SEE

Soccer tackling

mechanics

PH OTO B Y C HIN A P H OTOS /GE TTY IMA G ES

Table tennis games are scored to 11 points, with the players alternating serves every two points scored. A typical table tennis match will be either a best of five games or a best of seven games series. The athleticism of the modern elite table tennis player is light years removed from the old English parlor game. Players routinely deliver the ball at speeds approaching 100 mph (160 km/h), often with significant spin. The shape of the paddle permits a great deal of player creativity with respect to both imparting spin as well as the placement of the ball. The players will at times be in very close quarters, separated only by the 9 ft (3 m) length of table; in other circumstances, such as responding to a lob shot or a smash delivered at high speeds, the players might be 20 ft (6m) or more behind the table surface. Rallies in table tennis for this reason are often very high paced and dynamic segments of the game. Attacking shots are generally struck with a top spin

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Taekwondo Taekwondo is a form of empty hand martial arts combat that requires the athlete to use all parts of the body in competition. Taekwondo is a self defense discipline; the name is derived from the Korean words ‘‘tae’’, meaning kick, ‘‘kwon’’, a punch or other blow with the hand or fist, and ‘‘do’’, which is a way or method of operation. Among the general public, taekwondo is distinguished from other martial arts by its high speed, sweeping kicks and emphatic punches. As with judo, taekwondo was developed as a sport that is also representative of a moral code, where principles of loyalty, faithfulness, respect and the preservation of an indomitable spirit form a significant part of taekwondo training. Taekwondo is a sport that originated from the ancient Korean forms of martial arts. It was significantly influenced in its development by elements of the Japanese martial art of karate, which were WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

TAEKWONDO

Two men practicing taekwondo.

L UI S ACO ST A/ AF P/ G ETT Y I M AG ES

reflected in taekwondo after the occupation of Korea by Japan in 1910. The sport was exported to the United States after the Second World War through its exposure to American military personnel who had observed taekwondo in Korea. Taekwondo became popular as a global sport. The World Taekwondo Federation, the sports international governing body, has a membership of over 150 national bodies. There are an estimated 35 million taekwondo participants world wide. Taekwondo was made an official Olympic sport in 2000, with four weight class categories of both men and women. World championship taekwondo competitions have eight separate weight categories. Taekwondo proficiency is recognized through the award of different classifications of belt, with each belt color signifying a level of taekwondo ability. As with the sports of judo and karate, the black belt classifications are the highest levels that may be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

attained in taekwondo. There are four aspects to competitive taekwondo—sparring, style, self defense, and a break test, where objects are shattered through a blow delivered with the hand or foot. The basic competitive uniform worn in taekwondo is the dobok, a loose fitting white colored jacket and trousers. Athletes wear protectors to shield the torso, groin, shins, forearms, as well as a helmet for head protection. Footwear is not permitted in taekwondo. A taekwondo match (or bout) commences with two competitors facing one another across the mat surface. The match is scored by officials, who assess points for both particular types of blows delivered as well as the style of execution by a competitor. Points are awarded for kicks delivered to the front or side of the head, and for punches to the head or the body of the opponent. Throwing or attempting to hold an

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opponent will attract the imposition of a penalty, as will any attack with the open hands to the head of the opponent. Each bout in taekwondo is three rounds in length (three minutes each for men, two minutes in length for women); a winner is determined through either the accumulation of points or by scoring a knockout (defined by the inability of the athlete to resume their fighting stance within 8 seconds of being knocked down). The dynamic punches and kicks delivered in taekwondo represent the application of different physical principles, the most important of which is the generation of force, which is a product of the mass of the object used to deliver the blow, and the acceleration of the object towards the target. Punches delivered both at a human opponent as well as in the breaking of a board must be precisely executed; the arm and hand will produce maximum effect if the hand is still accelerating at the time of the impact. The successful breaking of a board or a brick in taekwondo is directly correlated to the speed and the precision of the strike. Depending upon the size of the hand of the taekwondo practitioner and the material being struck, the hand must strike the object at a speed of approximately 20 ft per second (6 m per second) to produce the force necessary to shatter a 1 in (2.5 cm) board. Experts who are able to break five boards simultaneously strike the targets with hand speeds of over 40 ft per second (12 m per second). Unlike boxing, where the fighter endeavors to punch through the target to cause maximum damage to an opponent, the taekwondo expert seeks to deliver a blow with maximum speed and no appreciable follow through. This technique means that the force of the strike to the object is directed without interference to the surface. Studies conducted with respect to why a taekwondo expert is able to readily break one or more boards or bricks have centered on the concept of oscillation —if the blow is delivered as if the hand is directed through the board, like a boxer, to a point on the opposite side of the board, the target material will oscillate, which tends to negate the impact of the force intended to break the target. With a precise taekwondo strike, the hand or foot does not follow through, eliminating oscillation in the target and permitting the force of the strike to pass unimpeded through the target, creating the fractured target. SEE ALSO

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Boxing; Judo; Karate; Sumo.

Taping techniques SEE Wrapping and taping techniques

Anatoly Tarasov 12/10/1918–6/23/1995 RUSSIAN ICE HOCKEY COACH

Anatoly Tarasov is widely regarded as the father of modern Russian ice hockey (Russian ice hockey also describes the sport as played in the Soviet Union, or USSR, until 1989). Tarasov began coaching in the Russian club leagues in the late 1940s, at the conclusion of his successful playing career. As a young man Tarasov had also been a well regarded soccer player as well as a proficient bandy player, a game with some similarities to field hockey. Tarasov first attracted the attention of the leadership of the national Soviet ice hockey program through his success as the coach of the Moscow club team CSKA in the early 1950s. Tarasov became the national team coach in 1958, a position he held until 1972; he continued to coach CSKA until his retirement in 1974. In the early 1950s, Canada was recognized as the dominant world ice hockey power. Canadian teams comprised of second- and third-tier ice hockey talent had regularly won both world championships and Olympic gold medals both before and after the Second World War (1938–1945). During this period, the team sent to represent Canada at a world championship was the men’s senior amateur championship team from the previous season. National Hockey League professionals were prohibited from participating in these events due to the strict rules in that era concerning the division between amateur and professional international sports. The first inkling that USSR teams had moved to a position where Canadian hockey dominance could be successfully challenged was at the World Championships in 1954, when the Soviet national team won a decisive victory over the Canadian representatives. By the time Tarasov assumed control of national team in 1958, the foundation had been established for a powerful international Soviet hockey presence. The political leadership of the Soviet Union had determined that ice hockey success would be a primary objective of the national sport program. Tarasov was one of the first hockey coaches to appreciate the importance of the comprehensive physical condition of his players to achieve team success. In the 1950s, the standard fitness program WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CHARLES H. TAYLOR

for North American ice hockey players was to ‘‘skate their way into shape’’ at a preseason training camp in September, in advance of the October start to the professional season; little or no attention was paid by athletes or coaches to the concept of year-round fitness. Tarasov believed that dry-land training, the general expression for all physical training conducted away from the playing surface, was the most important part of his program. Tarasov incorporated various forms of aerobic and anaerobic exercises into the team practices through out the entire year. The players were provided specialized weight training programs, customized for the individual, and there was formal practice time devoted to sports such as soccer and handball, because Tarasov believed that the cross-training benefits of these sports were ideally suited to the development of hockey excellence. Tarasov also furthered the interest of his own club, CSKA, throughout this period. CSKA had strong ties to the Soviet Red Army. Through Tarasov’s active recruitment of hockey players who would first be drafted into the army, high-quality hockey talent was directed by the Red Army to the CSKA. Tarasov won a further 16 national championships with CSKA during his coaching career. Between 1958 and 1972, the methods of Tarasov paid remarkable dividends to Soviet hockey. The national team won Olympic ice hockey gold medals in 1964 and 1968, in addition to the nine world championships captured during that period; Tarasov was deposed as national team coach when the Soviets failed to win gold at the 1972 Olympics. The hallmark of Tarasov-coached teams were the speed and the skating ability of the players, combined with a precision passing style that valued the creation of quality scoring opportunities, as opposed to simply taking as many shots as possible at the opposing goal. Tarasov’s methods are proof that the sincerest form of flattery is by imitation; his revolutionary approaches to hockey training in the 1950s are now standard procedure today throughout the entire ice hockey world. The coaching influence of Tarasov became evident in a different direction when his coaching career ended in 1974. His daughter, Tatiana Tarasova, is regarded as one of the most successful Russian figure skating coaches in the history of that sport. Tarasova has coached skaters who have won a total of eight Olympic gold medals in various figure skating disciplines. Trasov’s coaching brilliance has been recognized throughout the world of ice hockey. He was inducted into both the International Ice Hockey Hall of Fame WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

(1977) and the Canadian Hockey Hall of Fame (1974). Tarasov was also named a Master of Sport, the Soviet Union’s highest athletic honor.

Cross training; Ice Hockey; Ice hockey strength and training exercises.

SEE ALSO

Target heart rate

SEE

Heart rate:

Target heart rate

Charles H. Taylor 6/24/1901–6/23/1969 AMERICAN BASKETBALL PLAYER

Chuck Taylor became one of the most famous names in the history of basketball, not through his play, but through his contributions to the development of the Converse All Star basketball shoes for over 40 years. Chuck Taylor achieved fame as the name associated with Converse basketball shoes without ever playing college basketball. Taylor had been a capable high school player in Indiana, and foregoing university, Taylor embarked upon an undistinguished professional playing career with a succession of teams in the Midwestern United States in 1919 that ended in 1930. In 1917, Marquis Converse, a shoe manufacturer located in Chicago, Illinois, developed the first in a line of rubber-soled basketball shoes. Prior to the entry of Converse into this market, there were few shoes specifically available for any particular sport. The shoes worn for indoor or gymnasium pursuits tended to be constructed from lightweight products that did not stand up to excessive strain, such as thin leather. The Converse shoes were unusual for the time in that they had a relatively thick sole. In 1921, Taylor attended at the Converse offices to discuss their basketball shoe; Taylor had worn the shoes in his games and he had suggestions as to how the product might be improved. As a result of this meeting, Converse hired Taylor to run a series of basketball clinics to promote the shoe; ironically, Taylor playing for a team called the Akron Firestone Non-Skids at the time he was hired by Converse. The first of the Taylor clinics on behalf of Converse was held at North Carolina State University in 1922; Taylor would subsequently organize Converse clinics for over 30 years. Unlike notable sports products spokesmen of the modern age, such as

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basketball legend Michael Jordan, Taylor was at best a journeyman-level player in his time.

sport specific shoes, in the sports of football, track, and wrestling.

Basketball grew significantly in popularity throughout the United States into the 1930s. The demand for basketball shoes increased dramatically during this period. In 1932, Converse added the signature of Chuck Taylor to its existing Converse All Star five-star logo. The precise reason for adding the name of Chuck Taylor to the Converse label is now unclear, given his lack of acclaim as a player. For the next 40 years, ‘Chucks.’ as the shoes were known, were the best selling basketball shoe in the world. In 1936, Converse All Stars became the official basketball shoes for the Olympic Games, a distinction Converse would hold until 1968.

Converse All Stars were supplanted as the best selling basketball shoe by the combined effects of improved basketball shoe technology and the growth of Nike, and the influence of its advertising campaign built around Michael Jordan. Today marketed as a retro-styled shoe, the Chuck Taylor Converse All Stars are sold worldwide, bearing the signature of Chuck Taylor.

Taylor became involved in all promotional aspects of the Converse operation. He spearheaded the Converse All Star yearbook, an annual publication highlighting the year in basketball in the United States. Taylor edited the Converse yearbook from 1932 until 1968. Beginning in 1932, Taylor was a selector of the annual collegiate All-American teams. On the first team that he selected, Taylor chose John Wooden, the UCLA coaching legend and member of the Basketball Hall of Fame. Taylor was himself enshrined in the Hall of Fame as a contributor to the development of basketball in 1969. The style and the construction of Converse All Stars were not significantly varied until after 1970. By modern standards, the shoe is a decidedly low technology product; during the time of its greatest popularity, Converse All Stars were considered well suited to the game of basketball. The original versions were available in one of two styles, high top or low top, and in one of two colours, black or white. Players would note the distinctive rubber smell that attached to the Converse All Stars long after they had been purchased and significantly used. The most significant feature of the shoe was its double reinforced rubber sole that was designed to provide traction in the various kinds of quick multidirectional movement required in basketball. Converse All Stars were shoes with a deserved reputation for having the uppers wearing out before the soles. The high top models were especially valued for providing ankle support without restricting the movement of the joint. The canvas uppers were relatively light weight. Taylor was the face of all Converse basketball shoe marketing until the time of his death in 1969. Converse built upon the success fostered by Taylor’s clinics and promotional work to introduce other

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SEE ALSO

Basketball; Basketball shoes; Running shoes.

Temperature regulation

SEE

Ther-

moregulatory system

Tendinitis and ruptured tendons Tendinitis (also spelled tendonitis) is one of the most common and debilitating of musculoskeletal injuries, in both the athletic world and among the general population. Given the structure of the human body—where tendons are engaged in the execution of virtually every type of muscular action—tendons are subjected to ongoing physical stress rendering them vulnerable to injury. Tendons are the strong, fibrous, connective tissues that are the linkage between skeletal muscle and the bones that are powered by muscular contraction. Tendons are primarily constructed with collagen, which comprise 85% of the mass of the tendon. Collagen is a form of protein that provides the tendon with its elasticity in movement. Most tendons are constructed so that the structure glides over the adjacent bone, synchronized with the extensions and contractions of the powering muscle. Tendinitis is an inflammation of the fibers that form the tendon, resulting in pain in varying degrees, and often some restriction of movement, usually most noticeable during and immediately after the activity. Tendinitis is a condition that may be caused through a number of mechanisms, including overuse of the of the tendon, commonly the result of a repetitive motion; an absence of ‘‘glide’’ between the tendon and the bone; and inflexibility in either the tendon or the connected muscle. In older athletes, collagen tends to lose some of its elasticity, causing the tendon to be more vulnerable to injury. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

TENDINITIS AND RUPTURED TENDONS

A ruptured tendon is a more serious and debilitating event than a strain. In a rupture, the tendon fibers will be either partially torn or completely severed, creating the rupture. The injury will be immediately apparent to the athlete as the rupture, either partial or full, will produce sharp and significant pain in the region of the injury, as well as immediate swelling. This injury will either significantly reduce or eliminate the function of the tendon. A ruptured tendon most commonly occurs through an explosive movement by an athlete, such as a jump, or a very sudden pivoting or accelerating movement. The common musculoskeletal regions for tendon injuries are vulnerable to both the onset of tendonitis as well as ruptured tendon. The wrist is one such area, at the point where the tendons that connect the forearm muscles meet the bones of the wrist. These tendons that assist in the rotation, flexion, and extension movements of the wrist are particularly vulnerable to tendinitis, especially in sports that require the throwing of an object, or repetitive grappling and grasping movements. The elbow is susceptible to tendon injury at both the medial (inside) and the lateral (outside) epicondilytis, the tissues that surround the elbow joint, providing a connection between the humerus (upper arm) and the radial and ulnar bones (forearm). In sports that involve considerable repetitive motion, such as tennis, golf, and baseball pitching, these structures are exposed to overuse and resulting tendinitis. The rotator cuff is an assembly of four muscles connected by tendons to the bones of the shoulder joint, the humerus, and the scapula (shoulder blade). The rotator cuff tendon is vulnerable to both tendinitis through repetitive strain, as well as a rupture in a single act of excessive force. The rotator cuff, positioned at the top of the shoulder mechanism, is also particularly susceptible to damage due to imbalances between the muscles surrounding the shoulder, particularly the biceps and the muscles that power the movement of the scapula. The patellar tendon and the quadriceps (thigh muscles) tendon are tissues that connect the patella (kneecap) above and below the knee. Repetitive jumping, as in basketball, volleyball, or the high jump, can result in a tendinitis known as jumper’s knee. In more rare occasions, often when the tendon has been already weakened through tendinitis, either of these tendons may rupture in the course of a single movement. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Achilles tendon injury is of particular athletic concern. The longest and the strongest tendon in the body is the connection between the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles (calf muscles) of the lower leg, and the calcaneus (heel bone). The Achilles tendon is particularly vulnerable to injury because this structure is exposed to stresses with every upright movement of the body. All sports where the athlete walks, runs, or jumps can create circumstances where tendinitis may arise. The Achilles tendon is the most vulnerable tendon in the body for tearing or rupture, given its length and the frequency of movement. With the Achilles tendon, complete recovery from a rupture, in the sense of healing in the tendon fibers, will often result in a degree of permanent loss of some flexibility in the tissue. A tendon rupture will usually involve surgical repair, and the requirement of a cast on the damaged area for a number of weeks following. Tendinitis is treated in a variety of ways, subject to the severity of the condition. All types of tendinitis benefit from the RICE (rest/ice/compression/elevation) treatment, which serves to reduce the swelling and the inflammation of the injury. In some circumstances, lightweight and inflatable air casts have been used to assist with protection and the rehabilitation of the injury. The return to activities must be gradual, with stretching and a focused effort to ensure balance between the adjacent musculoskeletal groups essential. The use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen will often assist in managing pain. For a jumper’s knee condition, an infra-patellar strap, an orthotic that is a flexible band-shaped device wrapped securely around the patellar tendon to support the jumping movement, is also used. There are a number of preventative measures to be taken by athletes regarding the onset of tendinitis. Shoe selection is important. A proper fit, suited to the characteristics of the athlete, will reduce the structural problems that may lead to the development of Achilles tendinitis. For runners, scouting out the training surfaces is important. Running intervals on hard, angled, or hilly routes without proper buildup or stretching may magnify the risk of Achilles tendon injury.

Achilles tendon rupture; Achilles tendonitis; Elbow injuries; Hamstring pull, tear, or strain; Lower leg injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; RICE (rest/ice/ compression/elevation) treatment for injuries.

SEE ALSO

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Tendonitis Tendons

SEE

Achilles tendonitis

Achilles tendon rupture; Bones, ligaments, tendons SEE

Tennis Tennis is a sport played within a defined rectangular zone called the court. The court is divided into two equal portions by a net that runs across the width of the court. Tennis is played between two players (singles) or between two teams each consisting of two players (doubles). The object of the game is to hit the ball over the net into the opposition zone such that the ball is not successfully returned. The player or team that has hit the un-returnable shot scores a point. A game is decided by a set number of points, with a determined number of games constituting a set, and a defined number of winning sets determining the overall winner of the match. In its present form, tennis originated in France in the sixteenth century. A precursor to the modern game, which used a racquet that was more similar to a squash racquet, was played even earlier. Records date back to the twelfth century. Once a game restricted to the wealthy and privileged, the appeal of tennis grew in the twenty-first century. Now, municipally operated and maintained tennis courts are a recreational mainstay of most communities. Tennis is a medal sport of the Summer Olympics and the various professional tours are a popular spectator pastime. As with the sport of golf, professional tennis has four tournaments that are considered to be paramount in prestige to the others. Winning one of these tournaments is a career accomplishment. Winning all four of the tournaments in the same competitive season—a feat called the ‘‘Grand Slam’’—has been accomplished by only a handful of players. The tennis court can be made of different surfaces, including concrete or wood (‘‘hard court’’), grass, or pressed clay. The surface affects the way the game is played. The tennis ball will rebound with greater energy off a hard court, since less energy is absorbed on impact. Conversely, a ball that is hit so that it spins through the air after it leaves the racquet face will tend to move more following impact with clay or grass, whose increased friction grabs the ball more than a hard court. As well, the surface character of concrete will be much more uniform than either grass

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or clay, whose surfaces can be marred during play. The changing character of the latter surfaces can add to the appeal and challenge of the tennis match. The set-up of a player for a shot will be different on concrete, where he or she cannot slide into the shot, versus grass or clay, where sliding to meet the ball is the desirable way to achieve the best shot. Players who are successful on the various surfaces must have an ability to alter their style of play to match the conditions. Of the four Grand Slam tournaments, the United States Open and Australian Open are hard court competitions, the French Open utilizes a clay court, and Wimbleton (an English tournament) is a grass court event. Whatever the composition of the playing surface, the dimensions of a tennis court are standard. In a singles match, the rectangular surface is 78 ft (almost 24 m) long and 27 ft (slightly over 8 m) wide. For a doubles match, the length of the court is the same, but the width increases to 36 ft (almost 11 m). The different widths are denoted by an outer set of lines running the length of the court and two other lines parallel to these that define the width of the singles area. Another line runs parallel to the length of the court. This line begins at the center of the court and extends 21 ft (6.4 m) to either side of the net. This line helps create the zones where the first shot of each point (the service) must land. Horizontal lines are also present. A central line divides the court in half. A mesh-like net with a reinforced top is placed over this line. A rope strung through the top of the net connects the net with support posts at either side of the court. A properly positioned net should be 3 ft 6 in (slightly over 1 m) off the ground at each post and 3 ft (slightly less than 1 m) high at center court. Two other horizontal lines positioned 21 ft (6.4 m) on either side of the net join the central line to complete the service zones (which, if viewed from overhead, look like four smaller rectangles positioned within the main rectangle of the court). Finally, two other horizontal lines (the baselines) define either end of the court. In singles play, one competitor is on either side of the net. In doubles play, the two teammates are on the same side of the net. Typically, one of the doubles teammates will be closer to the baseline, with the other teammate positioned closer to the net. Play begins in the same way in singles or doubles competition, with the server, who is positioned behind the baseline, hitting the ball to the receiver. Recreational WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Tennis has broad appeal as a recreational and competitive sport.

ª JOE M CBRIDE/CORBIS

level players may elect to hit the ball with an underhand motion or after tossing the ball slightly up into the air to improve their changes of making contact with the ball. Elite players will toss the ball about 10 ft (3 m) above them, giving time to position their body to make an aggressive movement toward the descending ball in such a way that a great deal of energy from the body movement and swinging of the racquet is transferred to the ball. If properly done, the ball can rocket off the racquet face at over 100 mph (160 kmp). If the ball does not land in the same rectangular service area on the other side of the net, or does not make it to the net, or hits the net on its way to the other side of the court, the server must hit another shot. If the second shot is unsuccessful, the competitor is awarded the point for that part of the game. The receivers’ task is to make contact with the ball and send it back over the net before or after it has bounced. Only one bounce is allowed. If the ball bounces twice or more before being returned, the server is awarded the point for the play. Sometimes the ball moves so fast that contact is not made. This is called an ‘‘ace’’ and is worth a point to the server. Sometimes the receiver is successful in sending the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ball back to the server’s side of the court. Play then continues, with the ball being hit back and forth across the net (a rally) until one player is unable to return the ball. Then, the other person or team is awarded the point for that portion of the game. A complete tennis game is called a match. The match is divided into sets, and each set consists of games. Finally, each game is decided by the number of points accumulated. Each player begin each game with zero points (also called ‘‘love’’). As serves are won, a player or team accumulates points in the order 15, 30, 40, 41, 42 (game point). One player or team serves for an entire game. The next game, the service shifts to the other player or team. As one or the other competitor wins games, a point is reached where one player or team has won the predefined number of games necessary to win the set. A new set then begins, with the tally of games won shifting back to zero. A complete match is won when a player or team wins a defined number of sets. Depending on the experience and athleticism of the competitors, a match can be relatively sedate and relaxing, or a fast-paced and serious contest. Recreational contests typically involve just the players, who

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govern play and interpret results by themselves. More competitive contests may involve an umpire (who is the ultimate authority should disputes arise and who sits in an elevated seat, permitting a view of the entire court), other umpires who determine if serves and other shots land in bounds or out of bounds, and helpers who retrieve the balls and keep play moving at a brisk pace. Tennis is played using a specially designed racquet and a ball constructed of rubber that is hollow and is covered by a felt layer. The felt imparts some resistance to the ball, allowing it to be hit so as to give it spin, and so it will not bounce wildly high or wide on impact. Elite players can hit the ball such that it rotates clockwise or counterclockwise while moving through the air, or has a vertically oriented, downward spin (topspin). The different spins will cause the ball to move differently on contact with the court. In top-flight tennis, the felt is worn out quickly, and a new ball will be put into play after a designated number of games (typically nine) or when both players or teams agree that the ball in play is worn out. In singles tennis, each player must roam over the entire half of the court to try to return shots that have landed close to the net, far back on the court, or near each sideline. In doubles competition, the teammates will coordinate their movements so that they most efficiently cover the territory of the court. This is important since, in doubles, the play can be very fast, with the ball often cannoning back and forth over the net without touching the ground. A tennis ball can be hit with a forehand or a backhand motion, and can be returned very close to the net at higher speeds or high up in the air at a slower speed (a lob). The choice of shot depends on the player’s ability and the position of the competitor. For example, if a competitor is very close to the net, a prudent shot can be to hit a lob that lands far back in the court, since it may be difficult for the competitor to reach the shot and return it. Part of the appeal of tennis is played for a lifetime and by people abilities. Millions of people around active participants and millions more of watching the game.

that it can be of all physical the world are enjoy the thrill

Badminton; Racquetball; Squash; Tennis racquet construction.

SEE ALSO

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Tennis racquet construction The sport of tennis has been played for centuries. Over hundreds of years, the technology of the game has changed dramatically. In the fourteenth century, a tennis racquet was more like a presentday squash racquet, having a long handle and small hitting surface shaped like a teardrop. Furthermore, with strings made of animal gut, the racquets’ construction was quite different from their modern-day counterparts. By the end of the nineteenth century, the shape of the tennis racquet head was more similar to the present-day design, although the head was flatter at the top rather than being rounded. Also, the size of the head was smaller than the present-day racquet head. This design did not change appreciably until almost a century later, during the 1960s. Structural innovations that were introduced prior to the 1960s included laminated construction (where thin layers of wood are glued together, instead a using a single piece of wood to form the racquet) and the use of fabric strings instead of sections of gut. A metal racquet existed prior to the twentieth century, but it was considered a novelty and was not well-received. In 1967, the Wilson sporting goods company introduced a steel racquet that proved to be popular. The racquet was lighter and less cumbersome than the existing wood racquets. Use of the racquet by Jimmy Connors—then a top-flight professional—brought the metal tennis racquet into the mainstream. In 1976, Howard Head designed a racquet whose hitting surface was over 50% larger than the existing racquets. The use of aluminum as the frame material allowed the increased hitting surface to be incorporated into a racquet that was as light as the existing versions. The Prince Classic and Prince Pro racquets immediately became popular among recreational players, who found the greater hitting surface made it easier to make contact with the ball. However, elite players found that the larger surface area could make the ball more difficult to control, as the racquet head would pivot slightly during the hitting stroke and at the point of impact. In contrast to strings, which rebound to their original configuration very quickly after contact with the tennis ball, the aluminum racquets required several milliseconds to resume their original shape. This reduced the energy that is transferred to the ball, and affected the accuracy of the shot. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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To remedy this, a racquet material that was light but more resistant to torque, and was more efficient as energy transfer was needed. The answer proved to be a combination of carbon fibers and plastic resin that was dubbed graphite. One of the well-known tennis players who helped popularize the composite racquet was the late Arthur Ashe. Tennis racquets are now constructed either of graphite or aluminum. Wooden racquets are a rarity.

and then taper in diameter towards the top (or toe) of the racquet face. This acts to direct the most efficient hitting zone (the ‘‘sweet spot’’) more to the toe, which is the region where most recreational players tend to make contact with the tennis ball. By altering the string design, tennis racquet manufacturers can produce a racquet that is easier and more pleasurable for a recreational player to use.

Badminton; Golf: Why graphite-shafted clubs produce longer drives; Racquetball; Tennis serve mechanics.

SEE ALSO

Beginning in the 1980s, racquets with thicker frames were marketed. Designed to lessen the vibration felt when hitting a tennis ball, ‘‘wide-body’’ racquets did not achieve great popularity as they felt very stiff. However, some present-day players still prefer the increased power that these racquets produce. During the 1990s, a tennis racquet was introduced that, at 28 in (71 cm) in length, was 1 in (2.5 cm) longer than the conventional racquet. The extra length enabled a shorter player to stretch slightly higher at the moment of impact with the tennis ball during the serve, producing a harder shot. Nowretired tennis professional Michael Chang used the longer racquet with great success. Another aspect of tennis racquet construction that has changed over time is the grip—the portion of the racquet that a person holds to make a shot. The grip was originally made of wound leather. However, this material would become slippery when covered with sweat and would become brittle with age. Modern-day grips are synthetic, which provide moisture absorption and cushioning. Strings have also evolved. Modern-day strings are also synthetic. Nylon is a popular material. Some strings are made of synthetic threads of material that are spun together to produce a string that is very strong yet flexible. These strings are very elastic; they deform when contacting a ball but quickly resume their normal length. This transfers a great deal of energy to the tennis ball very quickly, causing the ball to rocket off the racquet face. The tendency of the strings to deform is beneficial to the recreational player, since even an off-center shot will still tend to rebound back in the intended direction. Elite players will stretch the strings tauter and under greater pressure, to produce a harder return. This reduces the deformation of the strings, increasing the need for a player to precisely and accurately strike the ball. Some strings are not of uniform diameter along their length. Instead, strings that run parallel to the racquet handle can increase in diameter from the bottom of the racquet to the racquet central region WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Tennis serve mechanics The tennis serve is the most important single shot in the game of tennis. The serve permits the player to assert control over how the game unfolds, as the serve dictates how a particular return shot must be made. The successful service of the tennis ball is the product of a kinetic linkage that begins with the player’s feet, extending through the legs, hips, shoulders, and wrist to the racquet on impact with the ball. The first step in the proper mechanics of a tennis serve is the establishment of proper footwork. The player must begin the serve sequence from a stable position, where at the conclusion of the serve the player will be in a stance that permits an effective response to the next shot from the opponent. For a right handed player, the left foot will be placed immediately behind the boundary line, and the right foot behind. The player will ideally assume a balanced stance with the knees bent as the player prepares to execute the serve. The most effective serve is one where the ball is struck by the player with elbow slightly bent, but the arm otherwise fully extended, making contact with the ball directly above the server’s body. As the ball is tossed in the air to begin the serve sequence, the body is positioned to uncoil itself, with the full extension of this imaginary coil being achieved at contact with the ball. To achieve maximum power through this uncoiling mechanism, the twist of the player’s torso, the swing of the racquet, and the drive upwards of the legs towards the ball all combine to generate greater speed in the racquet. As a general proposition of physics, the faster the racquet is moving upon impact with the ball, the faster the tennis ball will travel, as the greater racquet velocity translates into greater force directed into the ball and consequent velocity achieved by the ball on impact.

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ascent, at the moment the ball has reached the peak of its flight. The concluding position of the player is also an important mechanical issue. As the player strikes the ball, the right foot of a right handed player will power through the stance, taking the player inside the court surface. The player must complete the serve in a bent knee (crouched) stance, in order to best react to the next shot of the opponent.

Stretching and flexibility; Tennis; Tennis strength and training exercises.

SEE ALSO

Tennis strength and training exercises

Lleyton Hewitt of Australia serves during his match against Jurgen Melzer of Austria. P H OTO BY CA ME RON S P ENC ER/ GE TTY IM AGES .

The racquet must be held securely but not tightly in the wrist and hand of the player. If the player grips the racquet too tightly, seeking to apply significant muscle power from the arm to the serve, the effective flow of energy generated by the movements of the rest of the body to the racquet will be defeated. The precise point at which the ball is struck is also an important aspect of the mechanics of a tennis serve. If the ball is tossed too low, the player will not be able to fully extend the arm at impact. An incomplete extension of the arm and racquet decreases the amount of force directed into the ball on impact. A further consideration of a low service toss is that the lower the point of contact between ball and racquet, the greater chance that the ball will be delivered into the net. If the ball is tossed too high, studies have shown that the player will also hit the ball at a lower than optimal point; in visually tracking the ball thrown to a point above them, players tend to allow the ball to fall too far before striking it with the racquet. To preserve serve mechanics, the ball should be tossed to the desired height and struck on its

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Tennis strength and training exercises are directed to a number of distinct but interrelated physical aspects of the sport. Tennis is primarily a game of short, dynamic bursts of running action and lateral movement, separated by brief recovery intervals. These anaerobic features of the sport are coupled with game and practice situations where the player might be active for two to three hours at a time, a circumstance that requires the promotion of cardiovascular endurance. The mechanics of the tennis serve and the various types of volleys executed by a player place an emphasis upon the development of balance and coordinated movement, to both move laterally and to deliver effective shots from a variety of positions. Tennis does not require overwhelming upper body strength, but the ability to combine shoulder and arm strength with an effective core muscle structure (abdominal, gluteal, groin, and lumbar muscles) is required to strike the ball with power. As with any sport, a proper tennis exercise program will be periodized; the competitive, pre season and off season periods should be identified with training organized accordingly. As tennis is a sport that is played year round by many athletes (the tennis year is often divided between the outdoor and the indoor seasons), elite players will identify those competitions or those periods of the year in which they will seek to achieve their competitive peak, with other periods designated as the off season, or periods of recovery and rebuilding. It is in the preseason that a tennis player can pay most particular attention to cardiovascular training, to develop endurance. Exercises such as running, cycling, indoor cardiovascular machines, and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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swimming all achieve the necessary goal for the tennis player. A failure to develop a reasonable level of endurance will limit the ability of the player to recover between rallies and between the sets of a match. Where the cardiovascular training takes the form of running, the athlete can also achieve a degree of acclimatization to the heat of outdoor competitive tennis. Tennis not only taxes the body’s ability to maintain a healthy fluid level through the exertions of competition, the outdoor surfaces typically radiate additional heat into the player’s environment, a circumstance which accelerates the dehydration of the athlete. Acclimatization to warm weather tennis can occur within approximately 10 to 14 days of the commencement of warm weather training. Pre season anaerobic fitness can be developed in a variety of methods for tennis. Footwork exercises that replicate the length and the intensity of court movements are ideal. The shuttle drill is one such device, where the player moves in distances that replicate the distance from baseline to net and back in a number of sequences; the drill can also be executed moving laterally, sideline to sideline, or backwards. Tennis training is also ideally suited to ladder drills, which are similar to hopscotch, the children’s schoolyard game. Ladder drills require the player to move explosively from square to square, all while maintaining balance and focus upon the next part of the drill. Given that tennis court surfaces are often constructed from hard and unyielding material, continuous play presents a greater risk of stress injuries to the feet or lower legs of the athlete. Hard running drills of this nature can be performed on any softer surface. Core strength exercises will contribute to the effective delivery of a serve and the making of a return. Exercises that include the simplicity of sit ups and abdominal crunches, to more involved Swiss ball routines, where the body’s own mass is the resistance provided to the muscles, are all effective. In tennis the body is subjected to a significant range of movement. In a single sequence of shots, a player may be required to run in every direction, lunge from side to side, and to reach up or jump to play overhand shots. Stretching and the development of maximal joint flexibility is essential to tennis success. Of particular importance is the preservation of the range of motion in the shoulder, elbow, and wrist of the player’s dominant hand, as these joints in particular are subjected to the repetitive stresses in every swing of the racquet. Increased muscle mass is not usually a desired goal in a tennis player, as increased mass may hinder WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

the important qualities of quickness, balance, and lateral movement. Tennis players will use strength training to maximize shoulder strength and to ensure that they have a reasonable balance between all muscle groups. Circuit training, with the emphasis upon high repetition, low weight routines, is commonly employed to achieve this result. SEE ALSO Stretching and Flexibility; Tennis; Tennis serve mechanics.

Terrorism

SEE

Sports security and

terrorism

Testosterone Testosterone is the male sex hormone. Testosterone is a steroid hormone, with a chemical structure closely resembling that of the anabolic steroids used to produce increases of mass and strength among athletes. Testosterone is chemically classified as an androgen, one of the group of hormones that promote the growth and development of the male body characteristics, including greater muscle mass. The contrasting female growth hormones are estrogens, chemically similar to the male hormone. Because testosterone promotes the growth of male characteristics, it has been long desired as a muscle and strength building agent. While testosterone is essential in the creation of the physical distinctions between the male and female structures, the female endocrine system also produces testosterone, though in much lesser quantities than males. Like all steroids, testosterone is constructed from four carbon rings; it is the location of various oxygen and hydrogen molecules within the ring structure that distinguishes testosterone from other wellknown steroids used by athletes, including stanozolol, dianabol, and nandrolone. Testosterone formation begins within the body as a process-utilizing cholesterol, itself a byproduct of the fats ingested through diet and absorbed for storage within the body as triglycerides. Within the body, cholesterol is used to form testosterone and numerous other hormones. As a hormone, testosterone is a product of the body’s endocrine system, a sophisticated series of glands that are subordinate to the functions of the thyroid gland, which is itself directed in its actions by the region of the brain known as the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus/pituitary gland/testes glandular relationship is referred to

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as the gonadal axis. The testes produce between 4 mg and 7 mg of testosterone each day in a healthy male. Hormones function as chemical signals directed by the brain to compel bodily organs or systems to function in a particular way. The release of adrenaline when a threat to the body is perceived and the production of the growth hormone during the period of adolescence are two common examples of hormone secretion and function. With testosterone, any disruption of the signals delivered along the gonadal axis will interfere with testosterone production. Within the endocrine system, the primary source of testosterone production is the testes, the pair of male glands located inside the scrotum. The adrenal glands, positioned above each kidney, are a secondary source of this hormone. Testosterone is of fundamental importance to human function in a number of areas. Testosterone influences the development of all primary and secondary sexual characteristics in males, including their sexual function, and appearance attributes such as voice characteristics and the growth of body hair. The general speed and quality of male tissue growth is influenced by testosterone, as is the overall development and maintenance of muscle mass and strength. Adequate levels of testosterone production are necessary for the formation and preservation of bone structure and bone density. Testosterone contributes to effective brain activity, including learning and memory skills. Finally, testosterone contributes to the maintenance of the body’s general energy levels necessary for effective function in all physical activities. For males over 50 years of age, there is a natural decline in the amount of testosterone produced by the testes. This decline can present a significant difficulty for older male athletes, as reduced testosterone production will contribute to muscle weakness, a potential decrease in sexual function, as well as the decreased bone density that typically contributes to osteoporosis, the bone-thinning disease. The most widely used treatments for testosterone deficiency involve a hormone replacement therapy, which provides replacement testosterone to the body either through a transdermal (skin-applied) patch, or intramuscular injection. In international athletic competition governed by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), testosterone is specified as a banned substance on the Prohibited List of all illegal performance-enhancing substances. Testosterone is classed as an anabolic androgenic steroid, an illegal steroid that is intended to produce or facilitate male growth and physical characteristics in an athlete. Prior to the ascendancy of WADA in the

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late 1990s as the foremost drug regulatory agency in athletics, a number of notable world-class athletes had been the subject of positive testosterone tests, among them American sprinter Dennis Mitchell, American middle distance runner Mary Decker Slaney, and Dutch shot putter Erik de Bruin. Unlike other chemically produced performance-enhancing substances, testosterone is present in the body of all athletes in varying degrees. Testosterone testing is based on whether the hormone appears to be present in an unnatural amount, beyond the range that would typically be expected in that person. The WADA standard for the testosterone range is generally where the amount of testosterone present through testing is greater than 4:1 ratio to the expected levels; at those levels, a positive drug test is deemed to have resulted. WADA have developed similar testing standards for all potentially endogenous substances (like testosterone, those capable of originating within the body), as opposed to the stricter limits defined for exogenous substances (those that can only originate outside of the body, such as most anabolic steroids and stimulants).

Anabolic steroids; HGH; Hormones; Nandrolone.

SEE ALSO

Therapeutic Use Exemption The Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) is a part of the comprehensive anti-doping strategy developed and promoted by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) for implementation in all Olympic sports, Paralympics and international athletic competition. Upon the founding of WADA in 1999, a series of protocols were developed by WADA to assist in the world wide combat of doping in sport. A cornerstone of the anti-doping campaign has been the creation and the maintenance of the WADA Prohibited List, which sets out in a definitive fashion every substance that is prohibited for use by athletes in WADA compliant events. The Prohibited List is published annually, after consultation with sports scientists, sport administrators, and national anti-doping agencies. Many of the substances included on the Prohibited List have legitimate medical and therapeutic uses, often available as prescription medication. WADA established the TUE to allow athletes to participate in competition who were required to take an otherwise prohibited substance for a legitimate medical purpose. A successful TUE application has WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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three aspects: one, that the athlete would experience significant health problems if the subject medication were not taken; two, the athlete would obtain no significant performance benefit from the prohibited substance; three, there is no reasonable therapeutic alternative to the prohibited substance. The athlete’s national anti-doping agency is responsible for the determination to grant or refuse the TUE application, with WADA reserving its right to either review the grant of the exemption, or to consider an appeal from an athlete who was refused a TUE. The Court of Arbitration for Sport is usually the final venue of appeals made in relation to TUE applications. TUE applications are commonly advanced by athletes who use substances such as beta-2 agonists, the active ingredients in the bronchodilator medications used to treat conditions such as upper respiratory tract infections and asthma. In the lead up to the 2006 Winter Olympics, two prohibited substance cases received prominence in the international media. Jose Theodore, a Canadian ice hockey goaltender, and American skeleton racer Zach Lund each tested positive for the use of a banned substance, finasteride, which each had ingested through their use of a hair restoration product, Propecia. Both Theodore and Lund had used the restorative for a number of years; had these athletes availed themselves of the TUE process, the likelihood of an exemption being granted was high, given that finasteride is only a prohibited substance through its other uses as a diuretic, the substances frequently associated with the masking of steroid use. As neither had applied for a TUE, each was subject to sanction as the WADA philosophy is that athletes must know what they are placing in their bodies, and a failure to take all reasonable steps to confirm the nature of all substances consumed in any fashion, or alternatively, a failure to us the TUE process, will not constitute a defense to a doping allegation.

Athlete Location Form; Out-of-competition testing; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Thermoregulation, exercise, and thirst Thermoregulation is the manner in which the body is able to maintain a consistent internal temperature, notwithstanding significant fluctuations in external temperatures caused by the environment. Thermoregulation is a primarily involuntary function, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

with the controls centered in the hypothalamus, the region of the brain that controls many other important systems, including the production of hormones, the chemical signals generated throughout the body in the endocrine system, as well as the function of the heart. Humans have evolved to function best at an internal temperature that can be maintained at approximately 98.6 F (37 C). Exercise may be broadly defined as any exertion of the musculoskeletal system that goes beyond the involuntary functions of basic human metabolism, such as eating, breathing, or sleeping; exercise levels will naturally place a correspondingly greater impact on the body’s ability to regulate temperature. The impact of exercise on the thermoregulatory system will also vary subject to the presence or absence of environmental conditions such as heat or humidity. Thirst is a universal human experience. All humans, when their fluid levels are low, will crave water or other fluids. The thirst mechanism is also progressive in its signal from the involuntary system to the human senses, a sensation that cannot be shut out or deactivated through any means. It is the timing of the activation of the thirst mechanism that is of interest. Unlike other mammals, the human thirst mechanism does not activate until the body supply of water is depleted by approximately 15 oz (500 ml). Although a person cannot survive for more than three or four days without water, it is ironic that a person may survive as long as 30 days without food, even though the hunger craving is a more powerful one than that of thirst. There is a crucial component of the osmoregulation of the body, the control of the body’s levels of water and mineral salts, particularly those of sodium and potassium. Osmoregulation, thermoregulation, and the maintenance of the body’s blood glucose levels, are the three main aspects of homeostasis, or the balance achieved by the body in its involuntary operating functions. The thirst mechanism must also be considered in contrast to the daily fluid requirements of the body. Of the water consumed daily in various forms, a sedentary person will eliminate 45 oz (1,500 ml) as urine, 15 oz (500 ml) through evaporation and perspiration, 10 oz (300 ml) through the lungs, and 6 oz (200 ml) through the digestive and other gastrointestinal processes. An athlete engaged in a demanding workout or who is active in a warm weather environment may lose between 1 qt (1 l) and 4 qt (4 l) of fluid through perspiration in less than 90 minutes of activity. The fluid losses in such circumstances outpace the thirst mechanism, putting athletic performance

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and athlete health in jeopardy. It is entirely possible for an athlete to begin to sustain the adverse effects of dehydration, which include impaired cardiovascular function, impaired muscle function, and loss of coordination and motor control, before the thirst mechanism has been signaled. The gap between the triggering of the thirst mechanism and fluid levels is also a factor at the beginning of the activity. If an athlete relies on the thirst sensation to determine hydration, the athlete will often begin the activity in a mildly dehydrated state. The warm weather activation of the anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) is also an important factor when assessing the function of the thirst mechanism. ADH is released when the body senses, through the hypothalamus, that it is becoming dehydrated and that the blood volume has been reduced through additional perspiration. ADH is the signal conveyed to the kidneys to produce less urine, and to direct greater amounts of water into the blood. This process also may be triggered in advance of any thirst experienced by the athlete. Because the thirst mechanism is an unreliable indicator of the body’s true thermoregulatory and osmoregulatory condition during exercise, an athlete must develop a fluid replacement/hydration strategy that permits optimal function irrespective of the thirst sensation. The consumption of water in the period prior to, during, and subsequent to performance is essential. When the athlete will be involved in significant exercise for periods greater than one hour, the consumption of sport drinks that will assist in maintaining the sodium level, a key component in how the body maintains fluid levels, is important. In warm weather circumstances, the consumption of water to address dehydration, absent proper sodium levels, can lead to a state where the water will not be absorbed into the body as the involuntary systems strive to maintain a desired sodium balance with the sodium remaining. This condition is hyponatremia, a state of water intoxication. Urine color is a useful general indicator of hydration. When urine is a light yellow color, it signals a proper fluid level; when urine is dark yellow, it is evidence of dehydration, as the urine is too concentrated, a result of the body is secreting greater amounts of ADH to limit fluid outflow.

Cold-related illnesses and emergencies; Heat stroke; Hydration.

SEE ALSO

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Thermoregulatory system Thermoregulation, and the bodily system that performs this function, is the maintenance of a consistent internal body temperature, even when there are significant fluctuations in the external environmental temperature. The thermoregulatory system operates within two general boundaries: hypothermia, the condition where the body becomes so cold that its systems will not properly function, and hyperthermia, the corresponding opposite physical state where the body is overheated. The thermoregulatory system performs one of the three major homeostatic, or overall balancing functions within the body, all of which are interrelated. Osmoregulation is the internal mechanism that controls the level of water and mineral salts, chiefly sodium and potassium, within the body. The third of the key homeostatic functions is that performed by the liver, through the operation of the cardiovascular system in the maintenance of glucose (blood sugar) levels. Thermoregulation is primarily achieved through physiological processes, as a function of the autonomic nervous system. The processes of the body are controlled involuntarily through various stimuli transmitted through the body that originate at the hypothalamus, the region of the brain that regulates much of the body’s functions, such as heart rate and hormone production in the endocrine system. The brain processes the multitude of external signals that it receives through the sensory organs to direct the bodily systems in appropriate ways to control temperature. Body temperature is automatically regulated in one of four ways: conduction, convection, evaporation, and radiation. Conduction is the process whereby a warm surface transfers heat to an adjacent cooler surface. If a warm body dives into a colder lake while swimming, there will be a conduction of some of the heat on the surface of the person’s body to the surrounding water. Convection is created when a passing air current removes heat from the surface of the skin as it passes over it. Evaporation occurs with respect to the perspiration produced through the actions of the capillaries, the small vessels of the cardiovascular system located near the surface of the skin. As the body releases the perspiration, a byproduct of the body’s increased internal temperature raised by the energy created to produce movement, the conversion of the fluid perspiration from liquid into a gas as it evaporates on the surface of the skin tends to produce a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

THG

cooling effect on the body. The extent of the cooling effect achieved through perspiration is subject to both the temperature and the level of the humidity in the surrounding air. Radiation is the effect on body temperature as a result of heat received from external sources, primarily solar radiation. Heat may also radiate from the body to a limited extent. Thermoregulation can also be achieved through the voluntary regulation of human behaviors; the seeking of shade on a warm day or shelter on a cold one are examples. The mechanism of thermoregulation is centered on the fact that the ideal temperature for the healthy function of the internal organs of the body is approximately 98.6 F (37 C); the body will not tolerate significant variation from this standard, as hypothermia begins at approximately 95 F (35.5 C) or below; hyperthermia will begin at 103 F (40 C) and above. Both conditions can cause irreparable damage to the internal organs if not remedied quickly, as the body’s involuntary response in each situation is to shut down organ function. The involuntary mechanisms triggered when either hypothermic of hyperthermic conditions are sensed by the hypothalamus begin at the surface of the skin. When the body seeks to maintain body heat, the small hairs at the skin surface will be pushed into an upright position to better retain heat; if the body temperature is too high, the hairs will lie flat on the skin surface as a heat-release mechanism. The subcutaneous glands (sweat glands) are located in the dermis, the second of the layers of the skin, a part of the endocrine system responsible for the release of perspiration. The sweat glands will be activated when the body seeks to cool itself. The blood vessels located next to the surface of the skin are also activated whether the body seeks to cool or to warm itself. When the body is overheated, the cardiovascular system automatically directs the flow of additional blood into these vessels to permit the blood warmed by the body activity to be cooled. The vessels expand to accommodate the additional blood flow, a process known as vasodilation. In circumstances where the body senses an unhealthy low temperature, blood flow closest to the surface is restricted to permit all available blood to be directed to the internal organs and the brain, which is the contrasting process of vasoconstriction. It is the action of vasoconstriction that renders the warming of the extremities for a person who has sustained hypothermia. When a person has suffered WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

this cold weather illness, there is the temptation on the part of the helpers to quickly warm the feet and hands of the victim. This action upsets the body’s thermoregulatory efforts and results in a potential wave of cold blood from those extremities flooding into the heart and internal organs. This cold blood can cause a shock to the heart function and trigger a heart attack. The thermoregulatory function is a powerful one and, in such circumstances, the entire body must be warmed slowly.

Acclimatization; Cold weather exercise; Hydration; Thermoregulation, exercise, and thirst.

SEE ALSO

Thermotolerance

SEE

Exercise and

thermotolerance

THG THG is the acronym for tetrahydrogestinone, an anabolic steroid first developed in the early 1990s. THG came to prominence as a so-called ‘‘designer’’ steroid, a steroid formulation that was alleged to have been specifically created to defeat the thencurrent testing processes available in international sport. The existence of THG was first confirmed in 2003, when an individual anonymously provided the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) with a used syringe containing traces of a product that was ultimately linked to San Francisco-based BALCO (Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative). BALCO was operated by Victor Conte, a sports entrepreneur who sold athletic supplements and training aids to a number of prominent professional athletes, including American shot putter C.J. Hunter, sprinters Marion Jones and Tim Montgomery, and baseball slugger Barry Bonds. There was evidence gathered in the subsequent investigations into the legitimacy of THG which suggested that THG was being represented and marketed as a legitimate supplement. One such claimant was European sprint champion Dwaine Chambers of Great Britain. He received a two-year suspension from international competition as a result of a positive doping test that revealed the presence of THG in his system. Chambers stated that Conte and BALCO had expressly represented to him that the purported nutritional supplement was compliant with all international standards regarding its formulation. World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has long taken the position that positive drug tests

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invoked the legal doctrine of strict liability, where the burden of proof to establish innocence was very high and rested entirely with the athlete; innocent error as to the supplement content, in the eyes of WADA, is no defense. In 2003 the WADA released a formal statement indicating that THG was not a supplement, but a banned anabolic steroid. It has the same four-ring carbon structure of all steroids, and THG bears a close chemical similarity to nandrolone (a WADAprohibited substance). THG and variants of the substance are expressly listed on the WADA Prohibited List. Professional sports leagues, including the National Football League (NFL) and Major League Baseball (MLB), also moved to ban THG in 2003. The revelations concerning BALCO and THG usage raise the issue of retrospective drug testing in sport. When an athlete has provided a blood or urine sample that has been preserved by the testing authority, and a performance-enhancing substance that the athlete may have consumed at the time prior to the testing is subsequently determined to be illegal, the question is whether the athlete should be punished retrospectively. In 2003 and 2004, international rugby, track and field, and swimming bodies all determined that retrospective testing was appropriate, even if the substance was not determined to be illegal at that time of testing.

Anabolic steroids; Nandrolone; Testosterone; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Thigh and upper leg injuries The thigh and upper leg muscles are a critical component to the overall musculoskeletal structure of the body. The upper leg is composed of the femur (thigh bone), the longest and the heaviest bone in the skeleton, which forms a part of the hip joint at one end, and the knee joint at the opposing end. The femur supports the quadriceps (thigh muscles), a group of four powerful muscles positioned on the front of the thigh that are primarily responsible for the extension motion of the knee. The quadriceps is attached at the knee joint to the tibia (shin bone) by way of the quadriceps tendon. The muscle and tendon that are responsible for the knee’s opposing flexion (bending action) are the hamstrings. The hamstring tendon is also connected to the tibia, immediately below the rear of the knee joint. In most sports, the ideal ratio in the relative strength of the quadriceps to the hamstring is 3:2.

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Significant imbalances in this strength ratio can lead to significant injury in one or both of the muscle groups. The upper thigh muscles are connected to the abductors (located at the upper and inner aspect of the thigh) and the groin muscles of the lower abdomen, which assist in both the stabilization of the body and the movement of the upper legs; the strength in these muscles forms a significant part of the core strength of any individual. At the rear of the upper thigh, the femur and connective tissues are supported by the gluteal muscles (buttocks). From the illiol bone of the hip to the tibia of the lower leg, the iliotibial (IT) band extends, constructed of a fibrous and thickened soft tissue material, called fascia, that provides stability to the entire upper leg. One of the most common upper leg and thigh injury is a muscle or tendon strain, which can occur in any of the large muscle structures between the knee and the hip. A strain is an overextension of the muscle fibers that comprise the muscle organism, caused by either a repetitive movement or an imbalance in the relative strengths of the hamstring and the quadriceps. A strained tendon, often referred to as a ‘‘pull,’’ frequently occurs in the hamstring, especially when the athlete moves explosively to accelerate. In some cases, certain of the long, cylindrical muscle fibers, which may number in the thousands, may be microscopically torn, without a rupture or other more serious damage to the muscle. Muscle strains are categorized according to their severity. A grade 1 strain produces a cramping or tightening sensation in the affected muscle. An athlete can often continue in a competition if the injury is immediately treated, provided that the athlete understands that the strain may become aggravated with continued stress directed into the tissues. A grade 2 muscle strain will produce an immediate and pronounced pain in the region of the injury, and the athlete will usually not be able to continue in competition after the injury is sustained. A grade 3 strain is characterized by an immediate and direct stabbing sensation in the injured muscle. This injury will incapacitate the athlete until the damage to the tissue is healed. Another common injury to the quadriceps is caused by a direct blow to the muscle. As a large prominent structure, the thigh is exposed to a considerable variety of traumas, most of which result in a contusion, creating swelling, bruising, and a limitation of movement and flexibility. Athletes in sports that involve the blocking or tackling of an opponent, and those sports that create incidental contact WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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between opponents, such as soccer and basketball, frequently sustain these injuries.

against opposing pitchers throughout his major league career.

All soft tissue injuries in the thigh or upper leg can be effectively treated in their initial stages with the RICE (rest/ice/compression/elevation) treatment method. Given the size of the quadriceps and hamstrings, the compression element to the RICE progression must be especially thorough. It is estimated that over 90% of these injuries can be resolved conclusively through RICE, or using the treatment in conjunction with the administration of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) to relieve pain and inflammation.

At 6 ft 5 in tall (1.95 m) and a weight of approximately 265 lb (120 kg), Thomas was a much sought after American football player at the conclusion of his high school career. He accepted a football scholarship to Auburn University in Alabama; after playing both varsity football as a tight end and baseball in his freshman year, Thomas devoted his athletic attentions to baseball for the balance of his university career. Over 50 major league baseball players at one time played for Auburn; the university has a reputation as a collegiate baseball powerhouse.

The most serious injury to the thigh or upper leg is a facture of the femur. In an adolescent person, this injury can be particularly worrisome if it affects the growth plate, the soft area of bone located at the epiphysis near the head of the femur, as the fracture may interrupt the proper growth of the bone. In an adult, a fracture is a debilitating injury that will often require surgery to insert one or more pins into the bone to provide it with support. Both injuries are caused by significant force being directed into the bone, such as may occur in a high speed collision. Sports science research regarding the incidence of thigh and upper leg injuries has repeatedly identified a lack of stretching and flexibility in the athlete as a significant contributing factor to their causation. Stretches that promote harmony between the quadriceps, hamstrings, IT band, gluteal muscles, and groin will provide both greater inherent stability in movement and reduced risk of musculoskeletal injury in the structures.

Groin pulls and strains; Hamstring injuries; Iliotibial (IT) band friction; Musculoskeletal injuries; Quadriceps pulls and tears; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

Thirst

SEE

Thermoregulation, exercise,

and thirst

Frank Edward Thomas 5/27/1968– AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL BASEBALL PLAYER

Frank Thomas is one of the most effective and most feared baseball hitters in the history of the sport. His nickname, ‘‘The Big Hurt’’ is an accurate description of the damage that he has directed WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

While at Auburn, Thomas was named the South East Conference baseball player of the year among other athletic distinctions in 1989. After being selected the seventh player overall in the 1989 baseball amateur draft by the Chicago White Sox of the American League, Thomas opted to sign with the White Sox and end his college playing career. Most major league baseball players serve an apprenticeship in the American minor leagues, no matter how talented they may be. Thomas minor league career was short and emphatic, as he impressed the Chicago White Soc management with his power hitting abilities. Thomas was called up to the major league team in 1990, where he made an immediate impact against major league pitching. By 1992, Thomas was established as one of the most potent all round hitting threats in all of baseball. Thomas played first base when in the field, but his defensive play was never more than average. Later in his career he would seldom be called upon in a defensive role, as he was usually listed in the lineup as a designated hitter, the player who may be entered in place of any other player as a hitter, with no obligations in the field. Thomas was the rare slugger who could consistently get on base through the drawing of a walk from the opposing pitcher. A number of baseball experts, including those known as sabermetricians, regard the performance of Thomas throughout the 1990s as one of the finest periods of sustained offensive play in the history of baseball. Sabermetrics is the analysis of baseball performance through statistical means; the term was coined using the acronym for the Society for American Baseball Research, SABR, an organization made famous through its promotion of a better understanding of baseball performance through statistics. The SABR was founded by baseball writer and statistician Bill James in 1977.

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Thomas’s level of play, as supported by his statistics through the 1990s was remarkable. Using the sabermetrics statistical device known as Runs Created, Thomas was the most dominant hitter of this decade. Runs created is a statistical measure of baseball performance, expressed by the equation (Total Hits þ Total walks [Base on balls]) (Total bases) (Total number of at bats þ Total walks). Sabermetricians believe that the runs created calculation is the most accurate assessment of a player’s true offensive value to a team, as the more runs a player creates (as opposed to scores), the greater the player’s contribution to the overall offensive success of the team.

he could be released as a free agent if certain performance standards were not attained by Thomas.

Using the more conventional baseball standards of batting average, runs scored, walks, and home runs, Thomas established a major league record in the 1990s, with seven straight seasons where he exceeded .300 in batting average, drew more than 100 walks, scored over 100 runs, and hit more than 20 home runs. Thomas broke the record of five consecutive seasons at this level of excellence, established by the legendary Ted Williams in the 1940s.

SEE ALSO

In the 1993 and 1994 seasons, Thomas became only the second first baseman in the history of the game to win successive Most Valuable Player awards. The 1994 season remains one of the great speculative questions about precisely how much Thomas might have been to achieve had the season not been shortened by almost 50 games in mid-August of that year by a player strike. At age 25, Thomas was entering his physical prime and through 113 games (of a 162 game regular season), Thomas had posted a .353 batting average and amassed 38 home runs. He also had 101 RBIs, leading the league with runs scored (106), walks (109), slugging percentage (.729), and on-base percentage (.487). Sports Illustrated was one of a number of sports publications that concluded, barring the strike, Thomas may have broken Babe Ruth’s long standing records for runs, walks, and extra-basehits in a single season. Given his demonstrated skills as a hitter, it is not surprising that Thomas was a hero to the Chicago White Sox faithful through out the early and mid1990s. Off the field, Thomas made contributions to charity, particularly those directed to his own foundation established in honor of his younger sister, who had died of leukemia at an early age. Thomas was periodically bedeviled by weight problems, as he weighed close to 300 lb (136 kg) on occasion. He was injured in April of the 2001 season and did not play for the remainder of the year, after which the White Soc exercised a clause in his contract where by

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After Thomas re-signed with the White Sox in 2002, he was frequently injured, missing most of both the 2004 and 2005 seasons. The most serious of his injuries was sustained to his left foot, which was fractured. In 2005, the Chicago White Sox won the major league World Series for the first time since 1917; the greatest irony of the White Sox triumph was that Thomas, the White Sox best offensive player in the club’s over 100-year history, was on the disabled list and did not play any of the championship games.

Baseball; Baseball Bat Speed; Baseball Bats: Sweet spots and tampering; Baseball Injuries.

Tinea pedis

SEE

Athlete’s foot (tinea

pedis)

Title IX and United States female sports participation Title IX is the most influential legislation ever passed in the United States with respect to female sport. Title IX is a freestanding section of the United States Civil Rights Act, passed by the United States Senate in 1975, with a built-in implementation date of 1978. Title IX has been the subject of considerable litigation, all of which has turned on the interpretation of the following fundamental statement of Title IX principles: ‘‘No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, to be denied benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving Federal Assistance.’’ By definition, American professional sports leagues were exempt from Title IX. From the outset of the passage of the legislation, the notion of athletic equality between the sexes contemplated by Title IX was most prominently debated in the context of inter collegiate athletics, the largest part of which is governed by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), which has over 1,000 institutions competing at three different competitive levels; a smaller number of schools are members of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). The issues concerning the usefulness and impact of Title IX remain most keenly felt at the NCAA level. It is to be noted that the NCAA, in its corporate capacity, is WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

TITLE IX AND UNITED STATES FEMALE SPORTS PARTICIPATION

not liable for the actions of its member institutions concerning Title IX compliance; the United States Supreme Court ruled in 1999, in the case of National Collegiate Athletic Association v. Smith, as the NCAA only receives dues from some members that are recipients of federal funds and therefore these institutions would attract responsibility, the NCAA cannot be sued for any purported Title IX breach. ‘‘Equal’’ in the context of the legal relationship between an academic institution and its male versus female athletic programs pursuant to Title IX has been determined to possess three distinct aspects in its meaning. The first meaning is equal in the number of athletic scholarships granted to women as opposed to men, proportionate to enrollment. The second branch of intercollegiate athletic program equality is equal participation in the sports offered at individual institutions, in both the total numbers of participants, as well as the number of opportunities, specialized athletic programs, and experiences available to female athletes. The third equality marker is that regarding the treatment and benefits available to female athletes at a given institution. Further policy directives from the federal government in the period following the enactment of Title IX clarified the government position as to what precise measures would be expected of an educational institution to achieve compliance with Title IX; these directives have often included a number of specific examples. The key features of the federal government position regarding the specific components of Title IX compliance have both subjective and objective components. The first specific requirement is that an institution must have sports programs that accommodate both sexes. As an example, where a school prior to 1978 had a 90-member football team, a 15member men’s basketball team, a 20-member men’s baseball team, and a 15-member men’s volleyball team, the institution would be required to offer either the same sports to female athletes, or more commonly, offer female sports that permitted female participation proportionate to the total enrollment of women in the institution. A parallel expectation is the provision of the same quality of equipment and supplies to both male and female sports participants. It is also expected that institutions will ensure that both men’s and women’s teams have similar competitive scheduling, as far as could be accommodated, both in terms of games scheduled and quality of competition. Further, female teams should have the same quality of travel arrangements as the men’s teams, with similar arrangements for the per diem expenses for all athletes. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

There exists an expectation of administrative equality as well. Both the athletic coaching as well as any related academic tutoring provided to scholarship athletes would be of an equal quality for both male and female athletes. The policies regarding the hiring, selection, or assignment of coaches to work with female teams would be equitable. The locker room facilities, practice fields or gymnasiums, and competitive facilities used by female athletes would be of the same quality as those used by male athletes. It was stressed by the federal government that Title IX assures that female athletes would have the same access to medical, rehabilitative, and training services as the male athletes at the institution. Equality of the quality of student athlete housing and dining facilities for female athletes to those of the male athletes was stressed. Lastly, when the institution publicized its athletic programs, the publicity generated would equally reflect the male and the female sports programs at the institution. Raw participation data regarding female sports participation in the United States since the passage of Title IX confirms that there are far greater numbers of women active in sport that were participating prior to its enactment. A 2005 study confirmed that since 1975, there had been an 875% increase in sports participation levels in American female high school athletics, and a 435% increase in corresponding college athletics. (‘‘College’’ is the American term used to describe all four-year, post-high school, degree-granting institutions, including those designated as colleges and universities. An American junior college is a two-year program institution). The quality of play in women’s sports has increased dramatically through the period in which Title IX has been in force. Female teams have fulltime coaching staffs in many sports, with a corresponding attention to year-round training and fitness. The same study revealed additional data that tends to suggest that Title IX’s implicit purpose has not yet been achieved. While female athletes constitute over 45% of all student athletes (210,000 male athletes to 150,000 female athletes), only 37% of athletic scholarship monies and 33% of institutional expenses devoted to recruitment of prospective student athletes are directed towards female athletes. These figures become more starkly outlined when other demographic information is considered. As of 2006, female students represented approximately 55% of the general college student population in America. In addition, female student athletes had on average higher Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores (the SAT is prerequisite to college admission in the United

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States), as well as higher grade point averages upon graduation from high school than did male student athletes. Some of the disparity between the expenses associated with each gender can be explained through the nature of the sports typically played by male and female NCAA athletes. In team sports, women compete in the greatest numbers in volleyball, basketball and soccer. Each of these sports is far less expensive a proposition than a sport such as football, where the cost to equip a single player may exceed $2,000; a typical NCAA Division I football team may have as many as 80 players. The commercial issues surrounding Title IX are more difficult to incorporate into an analysis of whether Title IX has achieved its equality goals. NCAA-organized men’s sports championships such as those in football and basketball are remarkably profitable events for both the NCAA and its member institutions. Each of these sports enjoys massive media coverage, supported by multi-billion dollar revenues generated by television. Female sports do not receive any comparable coverage, nor do they generate any significant commercial benefits for either the NCAA or the participating institutions. No matter what Title IX may dictate to any entities in receipt of federal monies, the marketplace, as reflected by consumer demands, has plainly stated that male sports are a far more profitable venture than those involving female athletes at the college level. Critics of Title IX have repeatedly argued that the legislation is simply an effort to alter basic human nature. The impact of Title IX has also been felt in an ironic fashion: some traditional and non-revenueproducing male sports have been eliminated at a number of American colleges, to reduce the number of male teams or athletes, to create a more desirable ratio of male to female athletes without adding more female programs. Male sports such as wrestling, tennis, and gymnastics have been casualties of this approach to Title IX compliance since the 1980s. An equal irony flowing from the substantial increase in the total number of female college athletes since the passage of Title IX is the well-documented upwards spiral in obesity rates among young people, accompanied by parallel increases in serious eating-related diseases such as diabetes. While greater- than-ever numbers of female athletes compete at an elite college level, there is no conclusive evidence that the overall health of American society has benefited.

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One significant area of litigation has been with respect to equality of facilities available to female athletes in public high schools. A notable example was the action initiated by Alabama high school teacher and girls’ basketball coach Roderick Jackson, who sued his school for wrongful dismissal in 2001, when he complained that the high school provided significantly inferior equipment and practice resources to his female team than those enjoyed by the boys’ program. The Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Jackson was entitled to continue with his action, citing the need to protect those like Jackson, who was a whistleblower on a Title IX discrimination issue. There have been a number of successful Title IX actions initiated against local town and municipal governments over the quality of girls’ municipal softball diamonds versus comparable boys’ baseball facilities. Another common issue at the municipal sports level has been equality of access by girl’s team and boy’s teams to publicly owned facilities during the most desirable practice and games times. American courts have generally been sympathetic to Title IX claims advanced on these issues.

Female exercise and cardiovascular health; Women and sports: Exercise data, goals, and guidelines.

SEE ALSO

Topical corticosteroids Corticosteroids are a commonly prescribed class of medications used to treat a wide variety of inflammations occurring within the body. The most prescribed corticosteroids are those used to treat asthma, the inflammation of the airways and lungs. In a topical formulation, corticosteroids are used to treat and to resolve inflammations and related skin conditions. Corticosteroid substances include both natural and synthetically produced hormones, the chemicals employed within the body through production in the glands that form the endocrine system. Hormones are primarily messengers, whose glandular secretion and directions throughout the body are controlled in the hypothalamus, a region of the brain responsible for many of the body’s involuntary regulatory actions. Natural corticosteroids are an end product of a system described as the hypothalamus/anterior pituitary/ andrenocortical axis (the HPA axis); these hormones are manufactured within the adrenal glands, each located above a kidney. Corticosteroids in general WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

TOTAL DAILY ENERGY EXPENDITURE

have a similar chemical composition to that of the male sex hormone, testosterone.

psoriasis affect the elbows, knees, groin, and the fingernail structure.

Corticosteroids are also known as glucocorticoids, as they impact the utilization and metabolism of the fats ingested into the body through diet. Cortisol, the natural hormone that gives it name to the group, is referred to as the stress hormone. When the synthetic form of the hormone, cortisone, is injected into the body, it is converted into cortisol for effective anti-inflammatory use.

In addition to the discomfort caused to the skin through the presence of the infection, the rubbing and chafing of sports equipment, coupled with the effect of perspiration and drying of the skin make sports participation an often uncomfortable proposition for the athlete. As many inflammatory skin conditions are unsightly, a long-term visible infection can also present psychological problems.

Steroids are naturally occurring, fat-soluble substances, chemically defined by the 17 carbon atoms that form four carbon rings in the structure. The word steroid was invented in the 1920s to better describe the sterol group of proteins, of which cholesterol is the most prominent. In contrast to musclebuilding anabolic steroids, whose notoriety through their performance-enhancing use by athletes has skewed much of the popular perception as to how a steroid functions, the steroids’ designation is a part of a very broad classification, including substances as diverse in their function as vitamin D, testosterone, and the phytosteroids, the steroids present in plants and consumed in food products.

Topical steroids are manufactured in a variety of formulations, including ointments, creams, gels, and lotions. The type of topical application will be determined by the nature of the skin where the inflammatory condition is present. The anti-inflammatory properties of the topical corticosteroids are not universal in strength; the potency of these medications is rated in seven separate categories, from those with ultra-high potency to the lowest potency. An example of a low potency topical corticosteroid is hydrocortisone, used to treat the sensitive skin of young children or the facial or groin areas of adults. The ultra-high potency formulation is often prescribed to counter inflammations such as chronic eczema lesions on the thicker skin of the elbow or palms of the hand.

The skin is the body’s largest and most exposed organ, comprising approximately 15% of body weight. The skin functions as a component of immune system, the frontline defense against the entry of a multitude of pathogens into the body. The skin is composed of two distinct parts: the epidermis, which is the thin, flexible outer layer, and the dermis, the thicker second layer, where the subcutaneous (below skin surface) glands, such as the sweat glands and sebaceous (oil) glands, and hair follicles are located. The epidermis does not have any direct supply of nutrients by way of the capillary network of the cardiovascular system; the epidermis receives its necessary nutrition through the diffusion of these substances from the dermis.

Topical corticosteroids have a number of wellknown side effects, each of which must be considered at the time of the prescription. It is for this reason that topical corticosteroids are not available as over-the-counter (OTC) medications, but by prescription only. These effects include two types of temporary skin damage, reversible skin atrophy (a loss of health in the epidermis), and striae, the formation or lines or marks on the surface of the skin. These medications may also cause a distension of the capillaries in the area of the application of the corticosteroid, the appearance of bruising, and temporary acne. In a naturally dark skinned person, the corticosteroid may cause hypopigmentation, a temporary lightening of the natural color of the skin.

Inflammatory skin conditions tend to affect the epidermis only. The conditions commonly treated by way of a topical corticosteroid include eczema, a non-contagious skin disease that may persist for an indefinite period, which presents as an uncomfortable itching, a red rash, and, in some instances, lesions on the epidermal surface. Psoriasis is a similar skin condition in its effect on the skin to that of eczema. The precise cause of psoriasis is undetermined; psoriasis is evidenced by a red-colored inflammation with a rough, uneven surface, which in some cases starts with the appearance of silver-colored scales formed on the skin surface. Various forms of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; Anabolic steroids; Glucocorticoids; Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); Prescription medications and athletic performance.

SEE ALSO

Total daily energy expenditure The total daily energy expenditure (TEE) is an important calculation in the determination of the overall dietary and exercise practices of any person. The amount of energy needed by anyone to meet the

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daily physical demands will have two components: the amount of energy needed to maintain the body’s needs at rest, the basal energy expenditure, expressed as the base metabolic rate (BMR), and the needs generated by the daily activity levels, which include employment, sport, and any other activities. In general terms, the body will function at a reasonably efficient level where the amount of energy-producing foods consumed is equal to the amount of energy expended. The macronutrients consumed in all diets are the carbohydrates, proteins, and fats present in varying amounts in all foods. As a rule of thumb, a healthy diet will be approximately 60–65% carbohydrates, 12–15% proteins, and less than 30% fats; this standard is subject to deviation to suit individual dietary requirements necessitated by the particular demands of a sport or an existing physiological condition, such as diabetes. In calculating the total energy expenditure for a given person or the impact of a particular dietary practice on the energy value of the foods consumed, different types of foods have differing values. One gram of a carbohydrate will produce four calories of energy. One gram of a protein will also produce four calories of energy. One gram of fat produces nine calories of energy. The BMR represents the total daily energy requirements to permit the function of all of the essential body systems, including heart rate, brain function, cardiovascular function, and the work of the thermoregulatory system. The BMR is the energy used by the body at rest. A component of the BMR is the thermic effect, the energy consumed through the ingestion and digestion of food. Five critical factors will most significantly influence the BMR value for any individual. The first such factor is the body type and body composition of the individual. Heredity plays a role in the determination of the metabolic rate of every person. The second BMR factor is the presence of lean muscle within the body. The body’s lean muscle mass has an inherently greater level of metabolic activity than does corresponding body fat tissue. Age is the third factor; the BMR slows by a rate of approximately 2% per decade after age 30. Gender is the fourth factor; females, primarily due to the fact of their typically greater percentage of body fat than males, tend to have a BMR approximately 10% lower than males of similar age and level of fitness. The final BMR factor is a reduction in the body’s caloric consumption. When the body is forced to operate on a reduced calorie diet, the body becomes more efficient in the use of the energy sources available to it.

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There are a number of methods to determine how many calories of food energy a person requires to simply maintain their BMR. One method, the HarrisBennet calculation, provides an equation that factors height, weight, and age into a fixed formula, with certain constants provided, calculated in metric measure. This calculation is premised on the fact that a larger person will tend to consume a greater number of calories at rest than would a smaller person. For example, using the Harris-Bennet calculation, a 47-year-old male who is 6 ft 4 in (1.93 m) tall and weighs 190 lb (86 kg) could estimate his BMR as: 66 þ (13.7 86) þ (5 193) (6.87 47) % 2,660 calories per day. While the BMR will vary from person to person, the daily physical activities of an individual are the greatest single factor in energy expenditure. It is an indisputable factor of human function that the more active the individual, the more energy will be expended and the more calories burned from the body’s dietary stores. There is significant evidence that the BMR, which is elevated by exercise, will remain elevated from a period of time after the exercise has ceased, causing the body to use more energy than it would otherwise require at rest. The amount of energy expended during an athletic activity will be determined by the size of the person, the duration, and the intensity of the activity. The total daily energy expenditure will be significantly influenced by these factors. When a person seeks to maintain a particular weight, the total daily energy expenditure can be variable, so long as the caloric consumption remains no greater than the BMR and the TEE combined. One pound of stored body fat (0.5 kg) represents 3,500 calories of potential energy, thus any increase in the TEE or decrease in the daily physical activities that represents a net difference of 500 calories will result in a 1 lb weight loss per week (500 calories per day over seven days).

Carbohydrates; Diet; Fat utilization; Lowcarbohydrate diets and athletic performance; Nutrition; Weight gain; Weight loss.

SEE ALSO

Tour de France

SEE

Cycling: Tour de

France

Track and field The various disciplines that come under the umbrella of the sport of track and field are among the oldest of the world’s athletic contests. Track and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

TRACK AND FIELD

field is a North American term; these sports are better known in most of the world as athletics; the original athletes were those who competed in the events governed by the motto of the ancient Olympics, ‘‘higher, faster, stronger.’’ The events staged in the venues of the equally historic Scottish Highland Games were conducted with the same simple goals and passions. The Olympics Games have retained the most prominent connection with track and field competition of any sports event. When Baron Pierre de Coubertin (1863–1937) revived the modern Olympic Games in 1896, the track and field events were the most prominent of the competitions. To be crowned an Olympic champion in any athletics discipline remains the most prestigious prize that a track and field athlete can capture. The gold medalist in the 100-m sprint or the decathlon at the Olympics is inevitably dubbed the World’s Fastest Human, or the World’s Greatest Athlete, respectively, each with considerable justification. Track and field also enjoys international prominence by virtue of the biennial World Track and Field championships, as governed by the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF). The IAAF also sponsor an annual world championship that is based on the participation of athletes in a Grand Prix competition circuit, with event venues primarily centered in Europe, where track and field competitions enjoy a considerably greater public following than is the norm in North America. Track and field on an international level has two seasons, the outdoor summer season where competition takes place in large outdoor stadiums, and the winter season, where the events are modified to accommodate the smaller confines of the indoor arenas. National track and field championships are held in virtually every country of the world on an annual basis. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the governing body for most college and university sports in the United States, sanctions an extensive series of yearly competitions, in both indoor and outdoor formats. With necessary modifications given the nature of athletes who compete in spite of physical or mental disabilities, track and field forms a very important part of both the Summer Paralympic Games, as well as the quadrennial Special Olympics competitions. Track and field includes all of the events that are designed to take place either on the standard 400-m outdoor track, or on the track infield. The distances that define the Olympic and international track and field events have been calculated exclusively in metWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ric measure since 1976, with the exception of the onemile race. The disciplines that comprise track and field may be broadly grouped into the running, throwing, and jumping events. The running events span a significant range of distances, ideal body types, and requisite training approaches. The sprints include the 100 m, 200 m, and 400 m races, as well as 110 m, 200 m, and 400 m hurdles. The sprint relays include the 4 100 m, and the 4 400 m races, where each runner of the team passes a baton to the next runner within a prescribed passing area on the track. Sprint racing is a combination of tremendous power, an ability to accelerate explosively, coupled with a smooth and efficient stride. The middle distance events in track and field span the 800 m, the 1,500 m (often referred to as the metric mile), and the 5,000 m events. In these races, speed, especially as it is generated by the runner to deliver a closing ‘‘kick’’ over the final 200 m to 300 m of these races, is of significance. However, pure running speed is one of a combination of talents required of the middle distance runner. The nature of the distances to be run requires that the successful runner combine muscular strength and optimal weight, a proposition known as the strength to weight ratio. For this reason, middle distance runners are generally lighter with a more slender build than that of the powerful sprinters. The only track and field race that is categorized as a long distance event is the 10,000 m competition. Marathon running is sometimes classed as a track event, as the marathon competition usually begins and ends at the 400-m track in an Olympic competition, with the balance of the race contested over the roads of the host city. The event that is a running event and yet an exception to the other track disciplines is the steeplechase, a 3,000-m race where the athletes are required to negotiate both hurdles and a water jump over the 7.5 lap course. The various running disciplines of track and field are the subject of continuous changes in the training techniques used by the athletes. The constant refinements in technique lead to incremental improvements in performance. Some of the most notable scientific advances in sport have arisen in the context of track and field competition. As an example, in 1964, at the Tokyo Olympics, electronic timing was first used in track racing at the finish line, replacing the less reliable hand-held stop watch. The most profound technical developments in track and field centered on the nature of the running

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TRACK AND FIELD

Runners sprinting from starting line of event.

ª M I CHA EL WON G/ COR BIS

surface of the track itself. Until the 1960s, most running surfaces used in track and field were composed of cinder, a coal residue, or clay materials. In wet weather, these surfaces were very difficult to maintain. Plastic and rubberized surfaces began to be developed in the 1960s, and the modern tracks used for most national and international competitions are built from a combination of plastic rubber, principally styrene and polyurethane. These composite tracks are resistant to ultraviolet light radiation damage

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and maintain both their qualities of traction and compression in poor weather. Most importantly to the runner, the plastic composite surface provides a much better return of the runner’s energy that is delivered with each stride into the track surface. This rebound effect tends to produce greater running efficiency and faster times. The throwing competitions in track and field share a number of similarities in both training approaches and the physical type in their WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

TRAMPOLINE

respective successful athletes. The discus, the javelin, the shotput, and the hammer throw each place a significant premium on muscular strength and power. Each sport has relatively simple mechanics within which to deliver the requisite object; it is the honing of those mechanical features that ultimately determines competitive success in each of these sports. In simple terms, many athletes can become incredibly strong through weight training, but success in the throwing events comes with a combination of strength and a mastery of the footwork, weight shifts, and release points unique to each discipline. The jumping events in track and field competition, the high jump, the long jump, the triple jump, and the pole vault, are the most dissimilar among the track and field groupings. While each of the sports requires jumping ability, the body types best suited to each sport and the training required to achieve success in each sport are quite distinct. The high jump, a test of vertical leaping ability and technique, and the long jump, a measure of the furthest horizontal leap, are as simple to perform as any sports that have ever existed. The triple jump, while similar to the long jump in its execution, requires greater attention to the mechanics of the ‘‘hop, skip, and jump’’ routine that is at the heart of a successful jump. The pole vault is the only track and field event where the athletes use an object to assist themselves in selfpropulsion. The pole manufactured for use in the pole vault is another example of sports science development. The first poles used in the Olympics by vaulters were made from bamboo or steel. The modern pole, manufactured from fiberglass and other composite plastics, permits the vaulter to transfer the energy in the speed of the run-up into the lift toward the bar when the pole is planted. There are two track and field events that encompass the entire range of running, jumping, and throwing. The men’s decathlon is a two-day, 10-event competition, including the 100 m, 400 m, 110-m hurdles, and the 1,500 m as its running events. The high jump, long jump, and the pole vault are the jumping events. The shotput, the javelin, and the discus are the decathlon field events. The seven-event women’s heptathlon is also contested over two days, with the 100-m hurdles, the high jump, the shotput, and the 200-m race the events of day one; the long jump, the javelin, and the 80-m race are contested on the second day. Each of these competitions demands all-round athletic technical brilliance with strength, speed, and endurance. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Track and field at the highest level is the pursuit of excellence, usually measured by razor-thin margins of distance or time. It was the pursuit of those tiny advantages that led to the widespread use of anabolic steroids and other performance-enhancing substances by a wide range of track and field athletes. The publicity that surrounded the positive steroid test of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson in the 1988 Olympics served to make the steroid issue a far more important matter to both government and national sports governing bodies than had previously been the case. A large measure of the efforts of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and its national representative agencies continues to be directed to track and field athletes. SEE ALSO

Decathlon; High jump; Pole vaulting; Shotput.

Trampoline The trampoline is a gymnastics device, constructed from a very strong, tightly stretched material, attached with springs to a frame. The trampoline was invented by American George Nissen in the period after 1930, when as a 16-year-old he observed circus performers rebounding from their nets after performing an acrobatic stunt. Prior to any athletic applications, trampolines were used by World War II pilots, and later astronauts, to simulate the movement of their bodies in a weightless environment. In recent years, trampolines built for recreational and home use have increased in popularity, both as a recreational device and for fitness training. Trampoline became a popular part of gymnastics training, and later established itself as a distinct competitive sport. The first world championship in Trampoline was held in 1964. Trampoline competition made its debut as an Olympic sport in the 2004 Summer Games; the sport is governed under the international umbrella of FIG, the Federation Internationale de Gymnastiques, where trampoline is a separate division of the gymnastics competition, along with artistic and rhythmic gymnastics. Trampoline is organized as an individual competition. The trampolinists are required to execute a number of pre-determined movements in each routine, with no set time limit prescribed within which to perform. Competitors generate sufficient height from the surface of the trampoline within which they perform somersaults, flips, and other movements where they are subjectively judged on their technical execution of each movement and their presentation.

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TREADMILLS

Trampoline has acquired a reputation as one of the more dangerous sports available, especially among young people. Most trampoline accidents arise where there is either a lack of supervision over young people using the device, or where a trampolinist lands on the supporting framework to the trampoline and not the landing area within the trampoline. The trampoline poses special risks of young persons under the age of 15, given the stresses of landing on a musculoskeletal structure that is not fully mature. In addition to the aesthetic qualities of Olympic styled trampoline competition, the trampoline has a number of positive physical training benefits. The actions associated with bounding from the trampoline surface are a form of resistance exercise, meaning that the musculoskeletal structures associated with the bounding motion are subjected to weight bearing stress that tends to strengthen the human frame. Various studies have determined that a persons exercising upon a trampoline uses approximately 15% more energy per minute than does a runner. The trampoline and its associated exercises are also useful tools to develop better balance and proprioception (muscle memory). As the athlete is both rising and falling in a bounding movement, they are weightless. In this state the athlete can practice different body positions and thus condition the body to move instinctively through the course of a rehearsed routine. Athletes who participate in gymnastics vaulting, aerial skiing, ski jumping, and snow boarding all use the trampoline as a part of their training programs for this reason.

Balance training and proprioception; Gymnastics; Gymnastics landing forces.

SEE ALSO

Treadmills A treadmill is a stationary exercise machine designed to promote cardiovascular fitness and leg strength. Treadmills are commercially available in a number of different designs, all of which accommodate both walking and running at a variety of speeds. The stair climbing machines, often referred to by the Stairmaster trade name, are similar in their training purpose to the treadmill, as each provides for continuous forward motion. Treadmills were first developed in the 1800s as a means of producing power; animals were employed on treadmills to power grain threshing machines and other agricultural equipment. The first treadmill

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designed for an athletic purpose was built in the early 1950s in the United States, so that medical doctors could perform accurate heart monitoring on patients with known cardiovascular problems. Modern treadmills and stationary exercise bicycles are the most common method for performing electrocardiogram (ECG) and blood-pressure testing on persons at risk for heart disease. A treadmill is typically constructed with a set of rollers or other repetitive motion devices overlaid with a rubber compound running surface. The modern treadmill is equipped with a computerized digital screen and various monitors that display the controls that govern the speed and the incline or decline of the running surface. Most treadmill control mechanisms are compatible with various brands of heart monitors and biofeedback devices, which permit the treadmill users to obtain a comprehensive reading as to their workout quality. It is for this reason that the highly controlled exercise obtainable through a treadmill is very useful for persons with a predetermined cardiovascular condition, where the user can operate the device at a rate consistent with a known safe limit. The treadmill is not a low impact exerciser in the fashion of an elliptical machine or a stationary bicycle, in that the running motion performed on a treadmill is identical to that of an athlete running anywhere. The surface of the treadmill, as a rubber construction, is often more forgiving than that of the roads used by distance runners, but there will be significant forces directed into the lower legs and feet in a treadmill running session. More sophisticated treadmill models will permit both the significant adjustment of the ramp elevation on which the user runs, as well as a reverse motion, which permits forms of running training. Reverse action on any stationary machine is most effective in maintaining the proper distribution of muscle power between the quadriceps and the hamstrings of the upper leg; an imbalance in their typical optimal ratio of quadriceps to hamstring, 3:2, is a primary factor in the cause of muscle pulls and strains in these structures. Stair climbing machines are often used by persons seeking general cardiovascular fitness benefits as well as a more specific cross training effect. Stair climbers are built with similar computerized control equipment to those provided on treadmill machines, permitting the user to vary the speed and the intensity of each workout. Stair climbers also have a reverse motion available in their operation, for the same benefits as created by the treadmill reverse feature. Other than the day-to-day act of climbing a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

TREADMILLS

Exercising on a treadmill can be good cardiovascular exercise and is an alternative to running outdoors.

set of stairs, the stair climbing machine does not replicate the movements of any particular sport. The chief distinction between the treadmill and the stair climber is the true low impact nature of the stair climber exercises. On a stair climber, the contact between the user’s foot and the machine is constant, limiting the impact directed into the foot and leg to those of the force generated in the climbing motion. On all such devices, hand rails are constructed along the area where the user is positioned to perform the exercises. The most demanding workouts on both a treadmill and a stair climber are those where the user does not hold the handrail during exercise. The less external balance provided to the user by the rigid machine, the more reliance that the user must place upon the abdominal, lumbar (low back), and groin muscles to maintain balance. The development of these muscle and tissue structures is the building of the core strength of the athlete. Both stair climbers and treadmills provide a beneficial resistance training effect for the musculoskeletal structure of the legs, hips, and pelvis. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª P ET ER B ARR ETT /COR BI S

There are differences in the fitness benefits obtained between running outdoors and a treadmill workout. All other factors being equal, a runner exercising outdoors will expend a greater amount of energy than a similarly situated athlete on an indoor treadmill. The treadmill, in a controlled, indoor environment, eliminates external factors such as cold air and wind resistance. For an outdoor runner, wind resistance may account for up to 5% of the energy expended by the runner. The treadmill runner derives a benefit from the manner in which the machine operates, as the rotating motion of the treadmill will pull the runner’s feet slightly backwards with every stride, reducing the energy the runner requires to push off the running surface with each step. At greater running speeds, the outdoor runner will expend as much as 9% more energy than the treadmill runner. For runners who desire a controlled environment, either for health reasons or to avoid adverse environmental conditions, the treadmill and the stair climber are excellent cardiovascular options.

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TRIATHLON

Tri-athlete in the waves.

ª RICK GOME Z/C ORB IS

Cross training; Fitness; Health; Stationary bicycles, elliptical trainers, and other cardio training machines.

SEE ALSO

Triathlon While three sport athletic competitions had been held prior to the 1970s, the first triathlon that included a sequence of swim, bicycle, and run events over set distances took place in Mission Bay, California, in 1974. With its easy access to the Pacific Ocean and excellent bicycling opportunities, the Mission Bay event had grown as a natural extension from the local athletic training scene. The triathlon became a fast-growing international sport, especially after the longest of the triathlon-styled events, the Hawaii Ironman, achieved international prominence in the early 1980s. The ever-expanding number of races spurred the growth of a corresponding triathlon bureaucracy. The sport’s governing body in the United States, USA Triathlon, was founded in 1982, with the corresponding international federation, the International Triathlon Union (ITU), formed in 1989. The world wide popularity of the triathlon was confirmed when the sport was made an Olympic event for both men and women in 2000. The ITU has over 150 nations as members, and hundreds of participatory as well as

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elite-level triathlon competitions are held annually throughout the world. The basic swim/bike/run pattern is essential to the triathlon; there are five recognized distance formats used in official triathlon competitions. The swim portion is contested over an open body of water, and the cycling and running sections utilize open roads or, less frequently in the run stage, crosscountry courses. The first type of triathlon is more informal, an introductory level race where each of the three segments are short, so as to encourage participation in the sport. Introductory level triathlon events are sometimes held in conjunction with a longer-sanctioned triathlon competition. A typical entry level triathlon will consist of race segments comprised of a 250-yd swim (250 m), a 5-mi (8 km) bicycle segment, and a 2-mi (3 km) run. The remaining four triathlon distances are sanctioned by the ITU and each is subject to the ITU rules regarding the nature of the race course in each segment and other similar regulations. The sprint triathlon is a 0.5-mi swim (800 m), a 13-mi cycle (21 km), and a 3.2-mi run (5 km). Sprint triathlons are attractive to athletes both as a progression from an introductory triathlon, as well as a training mechanism for more advanced competitors in which to work on their speed in each segment. The Olympic triathlon is the most popular international format, representing the standards used at the Olympic WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

TRIATHLON: EXERCISES FOR TRIATHLON

Games; it is a 0.9 mi swim (1.5 km), 24.8 mi cycle (40 km), and a 6.2 mi run (10 km). The longest of the triathlon competitions are the Ironman events, which take their name from the original Hawaii Ironman competition. The full Ironman competition is a grueling 2.4 mile (4 km) swim, 112 mile (180 km) cycle, and a marathon run of 26.2 miles (42.2 km). Where the Ironman originated, on the big island of Hawaii, the heat and prevailing winds are as demanding an environmental factor as a triathlete would ever likely face. The half Ironman event is precisely 50% the length of the Ironman: 1.2 mile (2 km) swim, 56 mile (90 km) bike, and 13.1 mile (21 km) run. Triathlon training is limited by fitness level, not age or gender. While an elite triathlete is usually very strong in one of the disciplines (most commonly, swimming, the most technically demanding of the three sports, where 70% of all ITU champions had their competitive sports background), successful triathlon participation will be built primarily on an understanding of the principles of cross training. Triathlon training will combine the development of muscle balance, as all musculoskeletal groups within the body must function optimally. Implicit in effective triathlon cross training will be the enhancement of the flexibility of the joints and muscles through a focused and consistent stretching program. The majority of injuries sustained in triathlon are overuse or repetitive strain injuries, particularly in the legs and shoulders, given the nature of the triathlon’s three components. Effective and consistent stretching, and a corresponding greater range of motion, serve to protect from overuse conditions to a degree; strains and other minor muscle or tendon ailments are a natural risk of the sport. With the rise in the international popularity of the triathlon, there have been a number of sportspecific technological developments designed to increase athletic performance. In 1984, the Timex Ironman, a relatively inexpensive and durable timepiece, was created to assist the triathlete in the digital management of the split times in all three segments of the race, coupled with elapsed time capability. Hydrodynamic neoprene wetsuits were also developed to provide both additional buoyancy to the athlete (within permitted ITU regulation), as well as reducing the effect of drag created by the water on the swimmer. These suits are also built with closures to permit the swimmers to make a speedy exit from the suit as they prepared to proceed to the cycling portion in the transition area. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The triathlon also sparked changes in the design of bicycles built for triathlon racing. The high mounted seat and lowered handlebars of the ‘‘tri bikes,’’ with the addition of aerodynamic extensions from the bars, permit the cyclist to take an extremely low and aerodynamic position on the road. With gear shifts mounted at the end of the extension, the rider is not required to change body position as often during the course of the race. The rider gains the additional advantage of being able to rest the upper body against the longer handle bars, a significant benefit to the athlete after the conclusion of the swim portion and the resulting demands on the upper body.

Cross training; Cycling; Environmental conditions and training; Ironman competitions.

SEE ALSO

Triathlon: Exercises for triathlon Like the decathlon and the heptathlon, the triathlon represents an ultimate cross training, multidisciplinary challenge for the athlete. The individual triathlon segments of swimming, cycling, and running each present distinct training issues: swimming requires strength, endurance, and an adherence to proper, efficient technique; cycling also demands efficient form and stamina; and running training will be directed to optimal stride, running form, and cardiovascular fitness. Integrated with these macro-training features will be triathlon-specific race training, such as interval training in each discipline, and hill workouts necessary for cycling and running success. It is the nature of the sport that every part of the musculoskeletal system must be trained if the athlete is to be a successful triathlete. In the Olympic distance, the most popular of triathlon competitions, the 1.5-km (1 mile) swim, 40-km (24 mile) cycle, and the 10-km (6.2 mile) run are relatively equal in their relative importance to overall race success. The training time devoted to each event at a base level should also be equal, subject to the preexistence of a greater level of ability or training in one or more of the events. The demands of the three triathlon events creates the ultimate training requirement to develop each of the foundation parts of total fitness: speed, power, endurance, flexibility, and strength. Exercises that integrate more than one of these components will be an asset to the triathlete.

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TRIATHLON: EXERCISES FOR TRIATHLON

imum flexibility and corresponding range of motion in each joint. The triathlete can utilize specific exercises drawn from basic calisthenics stretches to ensure the proper extension of the working tissues, coupled with flexibility-enhancing stretch routines common to yoga and gymnastics. The shoulder is an example of the importance to enhanced joint flexibility in triathlon. In the swim, the triathlete will be using the shoulder in a rotational motion to power through the water. During the cycling portion, the shoulder will assume a relatively rigid position, absorbing the forces of the road through the handlebars and upper body. In the 10-km run, the shoulders are part of the balancing mechanism needed to offset the power of the legs driving forward. Exercises that put the shoulder through the full range of those anticipated motions will assist in triathlon performance.

Triathlon competitors.

P HO TO BY B ARR Y H AR COURT /G ET TY

I MA GE S .

Much of triathlon training will be directed to the three principle activities. The training exercises must support the athlete with respect to the development of the basic parts within each event, but in the advancement of the athlete’s overall abilities. A fundamental aspect of the training in each event segment is that of overload, the universal sports training theory that an athlete must do more training than he or she may expect to face in competition. The cycling training is an example of how overload principles apply to the triathlon. Triathletes will not train to finish 40-km on the cycle portion; they will train to finish the 40-km course in a physical condition that they may easily move to the next segment, without undue fatigue. The overload can be accomplished in two ways: the triathlete will organize a training program where distances in excess of 40-km are easily covered in single training sessions, coupled with weekly or monthly mileage totals that build significantly greater endurance over time. The second of the fundamental approaches to triathlon exercises will be the development of max-

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The third fundamental is the development of training intensity. Intensity will be a factor in both the event training as well as general strength, training, and flexibility sessions. Interval training, which can occur in swimming, cycling and running training, is an excellent intensity developer. It is impossible for an athlete in any sport, particularly one as demanding as the triathlon, to continually train at a lesser intensity level and compete at a higher intensity level. The enhancement of physiological qualities such as oxygen uptake, the ability of the body to process oxygen efficiently (expressed as VO2max), require periods of maximum training intensity. Much of the event training in the triathlon is geared to the overall development of the triathlete’s aerobic fitness. However, there are a number of instances in a triathlon where anaerobic fitness, in support of the ability to surge or sprint, is of critical importance. The start of the swim, often in a mass start, with hundreds of swimmers attempting to get away quickly, is an example of where sprinting speed is important. To be able to sprint up hills on the bicycle or to finish the run section with a kick are also examples of anaerobic fitness requirements. Hilltraining on both foot and bicycle and the swimming of 100 m to 200 m repeats both develop this capability in each of the three competition segments. Weight training or other resistance training is an essential component to a well-rounded triathlon program. While the swim portion requires a measure of upper body strength, it is the maintenance of an optimal strength to weight ratio that will best assist the athlete, the balancing of the desired amount of mass versus the requisite power and necessary energy to move the body efficiently. In both cycling WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

TRIBULUS

and running, the development of the athlete’s core strength, the capacity of the interconnected muscles of the gluteal (buttocks), abdomen, groin, and upper legs will assist in the provision of both balance and stability in movement. Circuit weight training— emphasizing sets comprising a high number of repetitions using lighter weights—tends to achieve the desired balance, as does vigorous Swiss ball workouts, which combine the resistance of the ball and stretches of these muscle groups through exercises such as abdominal crunches and extensions. A training exercise unique to triathlon competitions is that of transition, where the triathlete practices the steps necessary to transform from swimmer to cyclist, and from cyclist to runner. Each of these transitions requires the triathlete to change or remove clothing and footwear in a designated area known as the transition area. The competitor’s time to complete a triathlon begins when the swim race portion commences, and ends when the triathlete crosses the run course finish line; all time in transition is counted, and the faster the competitor can move through the transition stages, the more efficient the athlete shall be. Triathletes will specifically rehearse how they will move from one event to another, with all requisite equipment carefully organized at the transition station for ease of access. Modern triathlon clothing such as wetsuits and cycling clothing has been designed to be removed with greater ease for this reason.

Cross training; Cycling strength training and exercises; Ironman competitions; Running strength training and exercises; Swimming.

SEE ALSO

Tribulus The puncture vine is the green climbing plant known as tribulus, the abbreviated form of its botanical name, Tribulus terrestris, a leafy green climbing plant that grows in various parts of the United States, as well as in warm weather climates such as those of India and Sri Lanka. The tribulus is regarded as a noxious weed for agricultural purposes in most U.S. states. Tribulus, or its regional variations, has been held in high regard in the ancient medical practices of India (where the herb is known as Gokshura in the Ayurveda holistic medical teachings) and the traditional Chinese medicines for many centuries. In both cultures, tribulus leaves were valued for their use in herbal formulations and tonics for the purpose of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

elevating mood, as well as to ease the discomfort caused to the digestive and urinary tracts by conditions such as colic. Tribulus was also believed to act as a remedy for male impotence in both cultures, as well working as an agent to alleviate the symptoms of menopause in women. It is the connection believed to exist between the ingestion of tribulus and the increase in male sexual potency that has fueled a more recent interest in tribulus as a weight training supplement. The active chemical ingredient contained in the leaf of the tribulus plant is steroidal saponins, also known as furostanol. There has been a significant analysis of this chemical with respect to its impact, if any, on increased levels of testosterone within the body. Testosterone, the male sex hormone, is a key regulator of many important functions within the body, including the formation, development, and maintenance of muscle mass. Taken as a freestanding supplement to build greater strength, testosterone is a banned performance-enhancing substance in almost all international athletic competitions. Testosterone, when ingested as a training supplement, is classed as an illegal anabolic steroid by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), given its musclebuilding properties. Tribulus and its active ingredient furostanol are not anabolic substances, as tribulus itself does not directly affect the growth of human muscle. The tribulus research has been focused on the relationship between tribulus ingestion and its impact on the chemical that occurs naturally in the human body, the luteinizing hormone (LH). LH plays an important role in the regulation and maintenance of testosterone levels in the body, which provided the theoretical basis for the proposition that a positive impact by tribulus on LH might itself increase levels of testosterone production. There has not been any conclusive scientific research to support the proposition that tribulus consumption will definitively increase testosterone production within the body. The chief difficulty with any determination that tribulus consumption raises testosterone levels is connected to the fact that all exercise will temporarily increase the production of testosterone. It is therefore difficult to scientifically differentiate between the purported effect of tribulus and the known effect of the exercise. Tribulus adherents believe that the herb functions within the body in a similar fashion to that of creatine, in the sense that each substance acts as an agent that works to stimulate or precipitate a positive physiological effect in training, without acting

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directly on the targeted body system. No side effects have been identified in research with respect to tribulus usage. Many bodybuilders and strength athletes consume tribulus in a formulation known as a ‘‘stack,’’ where it is believed that a number of supplements, taken together, will produce a beneficial effect where the sum is greater than its constituent parts. A well-regarded stack in the strength training community consisted of tribulus, DHEA (dehydroepiandosterone, a hormone-building raw material within the body), and androstenedione (or andro, a substance known as a prohormone, and one which will be converted into testosterone within the body, a muscle-building supplement). Andro was proven to cause significant side effects among its users, including cardiovascular problems, and it has somewhat fallen from favor in the strength training and fitness community. Persons engaged in strength training who use tribulus are now more likely to stack tribulus with a mineral supplement known by the acronym ZMA, a compound that is commercially available in several formulations. The most popular ZMA mixture is generally constituted with zinc, magnesium, and vitamin B-6; zinc is a component of over 3,000 different proteins within the body, and magnesium is essential to both nervous system function and bone formation. The popularity of this tribulus stack is rooted in word-of-mouth endorsements from users than it is supported by hard science. There are few side effects that have been identified from the use of the combination of tribulus and ZMA.

Dietary supplements; Ephedra; Herbs; Muscle mass and strength; Strength training.

SEE ALSO

Triple jump The triple jump is one of the most exacting and physically demanding of the field events in modern track and field competition. The triple jump has been a part of the modern Olympics since its inception in 1896, and it has also been a part of the competitions sanctioned by organizations such as the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) of the United States. As with many sports that form the broader world of athletics, the triple jump does not enjoy a significant public appeal except at a world championship or at the Olympic Games. The triple jump is also known by the simple expression that defines the mechanics of the sport,

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The triple jump is also known by the simple expression, the ‘‘hop, step, and jump.’’ ª JEAN-YVES R USZNIEWSKI; TEMPSPORT/ CORB IS

the ‘‘hop, step, and jump.’’ The object of the sport is to travel the furthest along a straight line that begins at a defined takeoff board, culminating with a landing in a jumping pit, using the hop, step, and jump footwork pattern of the sport. The successful triple jumper must seamlessly mesh the distinct physical attributes of running speed, strength, and explosive jumping capability, and a well-developed sense of balance and coordination. For this reason, triple jump training exercises are employed to develop a wide range of athletic skills. The triple jump is divided into four distinct phases for training and coaching purposes; these phases are the approach, the hop, the step, and the jump. In the approach, the athlete seeks to develop as much speed as possible, much as a long jumper will sprint with maximum power to spring from the jump. As with the long jump, the athlete must make the initial movement from behind a predetermined mark, typically a takeoff board. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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The second phase begins with the athlete making a hop as a takeoff. The jumper will maximize lift in the hop through the full extension of the takeoff leg, followed by a powerful drive through the air with the second leg. Much of the focus in triple jump coaching and training is the precise coordination of this movement; the more supple and smooth the takeoff, the greater the amount of approach energy directed into the hop. The athlete will also seek to be as streamlined in the air as is possible, with the legs positioned as nearly one behind the other in flight as is possible to emphasize maximum forward movement and to reduce drag. The landing of the hop phase is the essential linkage to the step phase. The athlete will seek to drive the landing leg on the hop downward with force, to create a steady landing and to ensure the maximum return of energy to the landing foot from the ground that will power the step phase. As the athlete enters the step, there is again a powerful drive forward with the planted leg and a corresponding stride in the air with the second leg. The second leg will be the landing leg to provide a takeoff for the jump phase. To create an effective jumping lever, the athlete will extend this lead foot as far forward as is possible. The jump phase commences with the takeoff leg being extended by the athlete as forcefully as possible, accompanied by a drive with the second leg forward to the waist height of the jumper. This movement is designed to ensure a maximum forward thrust of the body as the jump continues into the landing area. In a coordinated motion, the jumper will seek to drive the arms forward and upward, with the legs positioned in a seeming kneeling position in the air. As the athlete prepares to complete the jump, the arm and the legs simultaneously drive forward, with the hips elevated as far as possible. Triple jumping is a sport where there is an increased importance in the core strength, the body’s ability to balance the action of the muscles of the abdomen, gluteal (buttock), lumbar region (low back), groin, and upper legs. The weight training typically used to develop the core strength of a triple jumper includes shoulder presses, abdominal crunches, and squats. Plyometrics and bounding drills are essential to develop leg strength as well as the explosiveness required in the approaches and takeoffs between each triple jump phase. It is not uncommon for a male triple jumper to possess a vertical jump exceeding 30 in (0.7 m). Effective triple jump drills will also emphasize the rhythm necessary to coordinate the four phases of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

sport. Exercises that incorporate continuous hops or bounding in various sequences achieve this end.

Cross training; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch; Plyometrics; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Two-a-day practice sessions The two-a-day practice session is a part of both the folklore and the reality of American football training camps. It is a regimen and a rite of passage imposed on players competing at the high school level through to the professionals of the National Football League. At every competitive level, the American football season begins in September. Given the intensely physical nature of the sport and the technical demands of integrating distinct positions into a team concept, it is common for the preseason practices to provide both training volume and training intensity, all of which tends to occur in the warm weather months of July and August. Two-a-day practice sessions are designed to achieve those sometimes disparate training objectives. The purpose of the two-a-day practice must first be considered with respect to the larger concept of season planning, known as the periodization of training. All competitive teams and individual athletes cannot train at a constant maximum level for an entire calendar year; the athlete and the team perform best when they are trained to peak for certain periods during the year, with an appropriate build-up to the peak performance, and a recovery and rebuilding phase to follow. To properly account for the physical demands of American football, a properly periodized training schedule for a football team will consist of three general subdivisions: the preseason, the competitive season, and the off-season. Each of these segments will be further subdivided to address specific training or competitive issues that are anticipated to arise within each individual training period. As an example, an American college football team will commence its competitive season on approximately September 1 of a given year; the team may have aspirations of playing in a season-ending championship game in late December or early January, a competitive period of approximately four months. Once the season is completed, the players will be encouraged to reduce the level of their physical activities for four to six weeks to permit physical recovery. The players will then be expected to begin ever-increasing weight training and running workouts in preparation

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for spring practice in May. The players would return to individual weight and running workouts in the summer, to commence the preseason two-a-days in early August, with a new season beginning in September. The lead-up to the beginning of the two-a-day workouts would include a period of acclimatization to any expected warm weather conditions at the practices. Heat acclimatization is usually achieved for an individual player within 10 to 14 days of commencement of the player’s exposure to unaccustomed warm weather conditions. If plotted on a graph, the training periods would reflect both the amount of time and the intensity to be devoted to each workout segment. With proper periodization of training, one of the key dangers of two-a-day football practices is reduced: the dramatically increased risk of injury due to improper conditioning leading up to the commencement of such practices. The second danger, a failure on the part of both athletes and coaching staff to ensure the proper hydration of the athletes during practices, is also one that may be minimized, if not prevented, through adherence to basic hydration principles. It is essential that the athletes engaged in such vigorous exercise be encouraged to consume water or appropriate sport drinks before, during, and after practice. The body’s thermoregulation system is constructed in such a fashion that the thirst mechanism, located in the hypothalamus region of the brain, is activated after the body has become dehydrated. Encouraging athletes to consume fluids even where they are not thirsty combats this mechanism. The death of Minnesota Vikings football lineman Kory Stringer in 2003 at a two-a-day practice session as a result of heat stroke served as a warning to all teams conducting any type of warm weather training.

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As a general rule, water, water with sodium or other electrolytes added, or sports drinks with a maximum of 6% to 8% carbohydrate are the most effective fluid replacement products in two-a-day practice environments. Sport drinks with greater than 8% carbohydrate tend to be absorbed more slowly in the body through the small intestine. The consumption of caffeine or alcohol during or after the practice period will contribute to dehydration as each of these substances acts as a diuretic, creating additional urine production and fluid loss. Urine color is a useful indicator as to whether the body is properly hydrated; light yellow urine is an indicator of proper fluid levels, and dark-colored urine is a symptom of dehydration, as the urine is overly concentrated. The total amount of fluid to be consumed as a part of a sound hydration strategy at a two-a-day practice schedule will vary from person to person. As a general rule of thumb, most players should consume between 28 oz (800 ml) and 40 oz (1.3 l) of fluids for every hour they are involved in a practice or a game in the course of such workouts. Two-a-day workout effects are also reduced if the players have access to a cool area between practices, where they can reduce their body temperatures. Two-a-day practices are not unique to American football; many endurance athletes, such as marathoners and triathletes, will train twice a day. Sports that are popular in warm weather countries, such as soccer, cricket, and rugby, will engage similar training issues. The football two-a-day in American football is of particular interest, given the inherent combination of intense physical contact, overall exertion on the part of the athletes, and warm weather environments.

Acclimatization; Heat exhaustion; Hydration; Warm weather exercise.

SEE ALSO


U U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) The U.S Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) was formed in October 2000, as a part of a concerted worldwide effort to combat drug cheating, popularly known in sport as ‘‘doping.’’ The founding of the USADA was of acute importance to the credibility of drug testing and enforcement mechanisms in the United States, as the international sport community had been vocal concerning the perceived lack of interest in American sport to police the use of steroids and similar performance-enhancing products. The USADA is legally associated to the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), through the WADA AntiDoping Code, to which the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is a signatory. Through this relationship, it is the stated mission of the USADA to preserve the well-being of Olympic sport. The USADA seeks to advance this mission on four separate bases: research, education, the conduct of doping tests (both in-competition and out-of-competition), and the provision of an adjudication system, where disputes as to the outcome of a particular test may be arbitrated on the model provided by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). From October 2000, the USADA has possessed the full authority to regulate all aspects of the United States Anti-Doping programs. In its most visible function, the conduct of doping tests, the USADA conducted 8,175 tests in 2005, of


which almost 5,000 were a part of the USADA’s comprehensive out-of-competition testing program. Most out-of-competition tests were conducted at either the home or the training facility of the athlete. All such tests were conducted in accordance with the protocols developed by WADA. Approximately 25% of the out-of-competition testing was performed as a leadup to the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin. Most of the testing conducted was with respect to American athletes; the USADA also conducted tests at the request of other national anti-doping agencies or WADA. Of the tests conducted, 22 produced a positive result— either directly determined through scientific analysis or through the refusal of the athlete to provide a sample—resulting in a deemed positive result. The second most prominent aspect of the work of the USADA is the research that it funds into new or improved methods of performance-enhancing substance detection. Two recent projects have included the refinement of a steroid-detecting technology, a gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry, and the development of a marker for the enhanced detection of the presence of a synthetic human growth hormone (hGH) in bodily fluid test samples. The USADA mandate extends to United States Olympic team athletes, athletes who are seeking a place on the Olympic team, athletes participating in the Pan American Games, and athletes who are a part of the quadrennial Paralympics teams. The other prominent aspects of the American sports landscape, such as the National Football League (NFL), the

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National Basketball Association (NBA), Major League Baseball (MLB), or the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), each provide for their own antidoping procedures, to which the USADA is not necessarily a party. The most high profile illegal substance case in which the USADA has been involved did not involve any tests conducted by the organization. In 2003, an anonymous party forwarded a used syringe to the USADA that was subsequently determined to contain the so-called designer steroid nandrolone, a steroid formulation that had been distributed by the San Francisco-based athletic supplement company, the Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative (BALCO). The investigation conducted by the USADA linked a number of prominent American athletes to the illegal use of this anabolic steroid. As an agency with a direct relationship to WADA, the USADA has endorsed the principle that the defense of ‘‘mistake,’’ as it may be advanced by an athlete in a positive doping test scenario, will be difficult to maintain. The ‘‘I didn’t know’’ has been routinely dismissed by WADA as a legitimate answer to a positive test since the late 1990s. The 2006 case of American skeleton racer Zach Lund tested this issue. Lund tested positive for the presence of a drug known as finasteride, a substance contained in a hair restoration formulation used by Lund for a number of years. In 2005, finasteride was added to the WADA Prohibited List, rendering it a banned substance; finasteride is often employed as a steroid-masking agent. After Lund was initially suspended by the FIBT, the international federation that governs bobsled and skeleton racing, he appealed to the USADA to permit his reinstatement to the American Winter Olympics team for 2006. The USADA took the unusual step of warning Lund, as opposed to imposing a suspension from international competition. WADA appealed the USADA decision to the CAS, which handed Lund a one-year suspension, while criticizing WADA for the manner in which finasteride appeared on the Prohibited List.

Doping tests; International Olympic Committee (IOC); Prohibited substances (competition bans); World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

United States Olympic Committee (USOC) Baron Pierre de Coubertin of France announced his plans to revive the Olympic Games in 1892, with a

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projected date for the staging of the first modern Games in the summer of 1896. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was created in 1894 to lead the organization of the Games. As countries around the world came to embrace the notion of an international sports festival, national organizations within the participating Olympic nations were created to advance the Olympic dream in their respective countries. The American Olympic Committee (later known as the United States Olympic Committee, or USOC) was founded in 1894. The future USOC was the American product of this initial revivalist effort, and the USOC has remained the official voice of the Olympic movement in the United States since that time. The IOC is the ultimate authority in all matters pertaining to the conduct of both the Summer and Winter Olympic Games. Although the IOC is the ultimate authority in all aspects of the governance of the Olympic Games, the structure of Olympic administration is best understood as a series of concentric rings of authority emanating outward from the IOC, with each successive outward circle representing the national Olympic committees, the Olympic Games organizing committees, and the international federations responsible for every individual Olympic sport. National committees such as the USOC have a measure of influence in the overall conduct of the affairs of the IOC. In its role as the official representative of the Olympic movement in the United States, the USOC seeks to provide leadership and guidance to athletes, sports organizations, and the public at large regarding Olympic competition. The USOC is bound by the principles enunciated in the Olympic Charter, which stress the role of sport in the advancement of a peaceful world, emphasizing friendship, solidarity, and fair play in international sport. The USOC operates a number of training centers throughout the United States, chiefly those located at Colorado Springs, Colorado, Lake Placid, New York, and Chula Vista, California. The most notable member of the USOC to occupy a position of influence in the IOC was Avery Brundage (1887–1975), elected to the IOC in 1936, and assuming its presidency from 1952 to 1972. Brundage is the only American ever to preside over the IOC. Brundage was famed for his many pronouncements regarding the role of professional athletes within the Olympic movement. He was a lifelong opponent of any form of Olympic professionalism. It was Brundage who determined that the 1972 Summer Games competitions in Munich would WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION

continue notwithstanding the terrorist capture in the Olympic Village and the subsequent murder of 11 Israeli athletes, a decision that remains controversial today. An example of the nature of the leadership lent to American sport in general by the USOC is the 2005 publication of its comprehensive Coaching Code of Ethics. This document emphasizes the overarching coaching principles of competence, integrity, and professional responsibility. The Code develops the notion of ‘‘responsible coaching’’ in the context of respect for all participants, the elimination of harassment in all of its forms, and an understanding of the potential negative influence that poor coaching may have on impressionable athletes. The USOC Coaching Code of Ethics makes particular reference to the obligation of coaches to seek drug-free sport. It is this issue that caused the USOC particular difficulty in terms of the international reputation of American sports in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In the period between scandals created at the 1988 Summer Olympics when Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson tested positive for the steroid stanozolol and the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in the late 1990s, the USOC administered the Olympic drugdetection program. The USOC was widely criticized for its maintenance of an ineffective anti-doping program. Dr. Wade Exum of the USOC, who was responsible for the direction of the program, was terminated from his position in 2001. Exum revealed at that time that the USOC had recorded 18 positive drug tests among its tested athletes between 1984 and 2000, but it had not published the names of these athletes nor had the USOC imposed any sanctions regarding the participation of the offending athletes in international competition. The positive tests ranged from the presence of stimulants such as ephedrine, as well as banned steroids. These athletes were permitted by the USOC to participate in the Olympics; Carl Lewis, gold medalist in the 1988 Olympics 100 m, was among those that tested positive. Since 2000, with the creation of the international anti-doping strategy that is headed by WADA, the national anti-doping agencies work with their respective Olympic committees to advance the goal of drugfree sport. The United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) performs that function in the United States, providing information to the USOC of relevance to selection of athletes.

International federations; International Olympic Committee (IOC); Prohibited substances (competition bans); U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA).

SEE ALSO


Upper respiratory tract infection Upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) are defined as non-specific infections of the breathing mechanism of the body. The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, mouth, sinus, throat, and the upper portion of the bronchial passages that lead to the lungs. The respiratory tract is a common location for the entry of pathogens by way of airborne microorganisms. It is estimated that as many as 10,000 such foreign bodies enter the body in this fashion each day. Most of these organisms are trapped by the immune system’s first line of defense, the layer of sticky mucus that lines the interior of the nasal and throat passages. Most of the particles are stuck to the mucus layer, and ultimately swallowed and destroyed in the stomach. The second line of defense in the immune system located in the upper respiratory system are the adenoids and the tonsils. Positioned at the back of the throat between the nasal passages and the larynx, these small organs are a part of the lymphatic system, designed to protect the body from harmful organisms by trapping any such bodies that pass over them. URTIs generally occur when either bacteria are able to bypass the immune system defenses, or by airborne virus. The most frequent of URTIs is the common cold, which is transmitted by way of viruses that are spread from person to person, with a greater frequency in the winter months. The typical adult person in North America will develop between two and four colds in the course of a year. The most severe form of these viruses is influenza, which can cause significant communitywide health problems. Nasal congestion, sneezing, a sore throat, and a generalized feeling of weakness are the most frequent symptoms of the common cold. Although a cold by itself is rarely a completely debilitating event, the negative effect of a cold on athletic performance can be dramatic. The mouth may be the means by which a cold virus enters the body. The URTIs that affect the mouth specifically are trench mouth (a very painful and progressive infection of the lining of the mouth and throat) and herpes simplex type 1 (an infection that causes lesions and sores inside the mouth). This condition is unrelated to herpes simplex type 2, a sexually transmitted disease.

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Pharyngitis is the term that includes a broad range of infections of the throat. The sore throat is a condition linked to the presence of a common cold. Because the condition is viral in nature, the sore throat cannot be eradicated in the body through antibiotics, which are only effective against bacteria-based conditions. The bacterial agent that does cause a serious throat infection is the streptococcal organism, the precipitator of strep throat. Strep throat is a progressive condition usually accompanied by fever and significant headaches. Infections can also attack other specific locations with in the upper respiratory tract. The most common of these are sinusitis, laryngitis, and tonsillitis. Sinusitis is an infection that presents itself with symptoms of facial pain in the area of the sinus passages, toothache as a result of excess pressure from the infected passage upon the upper teeth, and large amounts of discolored mucus from the nose. Laryngitis is an infection of the larynx, commonly referred to as the voice box, which impairs the person’s ability to speak clearly. Tonsillitis is a condition affecting the tonsils, whose function as a part of the lymphatic system is to filter bacteria out of the body; tonsillitis occurs when the tonsils become overwhelmed by the bacteria. When the condition is caused by bacteria, such as

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streptococcal, antibiotics are prescribed and the typical course of healing is between 10 to 14 days. In severe cases, the tonsils are surgically removed. The tracheobrochial area, located between the trachea (throat) and the bronchial tubes leading to the lungs, is another common site for URTIs. Tracheobronchitis is an infection that causes a significant cough and wheezing sensation in the person; this condition can persist for one to three weeks. The mechanism by which bacterial agents are able to establish themselves within the upper respiratory tract is complex. The nasal passages have a natural complement of bacteria, which compete with any bacterial invaders for space within the passages. Without such space, the foreign bacteria cannot multiply sufficiently to pose any threat to the healthy function of the respiratory system. To infect the upper respiratory system, the invading bacteria must be both airborne and alive at the time that it enters the body. The bacteria must then be deposited in a susceptible host tissue, and once established in the respiratory tract, the variant illness will be developed within anywhere from 12 to 36 hours, depending on the speed with which the condition spreads.

Asthma, exercise induced; Cardiorespiratory function; Immune system.

SEE ALSO


V Variable resistance exercise Muscular strength is defined as the maximum force that can be developed by a muscle or muscle group against resistance. Resistance can take one of two forms in athletic training: constant resistance or variable resistance. Constant resistance is a form of training where the resistance directed against the target muscle or muscle group does not vary through the range of athletic movement. The lifting of free weights is an example of constant resistance. In an exercise involving constant resistance, the muscular power generated and the effect of the resistance on the muscle are not constant. An example of the effect of constant resistance is found in the simple curl of a free weight using a conventional dumbbell. At the start of the exercise, the muscles of the arm, primarily the bicep, pull the weight upward. There is a point, as the dumbbell is lifted, where the resistance on the muscle is greatest; at the movement before and after that maximal point, the resistance force is much less. At the conclusion of the exercise, there is little or no resistance being applied to the bicep. Variable resistance requires differing degrees of force to be applied to the target muscle to create constant resistance, compelling the muscle to work harder to meet the demands of the exercise. In a variable resistance arm curl, the forces applied to the bicep are variable at each stage of the curl in order to maintain the same resistance throughout the trajectory of movement. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Variable resistance exercise is designed to achieve maximum muscular involvement. Inherent in the effectiveness of variable resistance exercise is the relationship between the intensity required of the athlete and the volume of resistance work involved. Resistance exercises are typically carried out through the use of specialized machines that are designed to permit control of the entire forcegenerating movement. The machines may be designed for the training of any muscle group in the body. Machines that isolate the pectoral muscles through a seated bench press, deltoid machines, and shoulder extension machines are three of a multitude of models commercially available. The common features of variable resistance training machines are the presence of cables, pulleys, or other devices to create variability, coupled with the placement of the user in a fixed position to ensure that the user cannot recruit other muscle groups to assist in the completion of the prescribed movements. Variable resistance training also endeavors to capitalize on the fact that the force that is inherent in the development of greater strength has itself two aspects: the internal forces that are generated within the joint to produce strength and the external force produced by the resistance. Variable resistance training success is predicated on the principle of regulating the amount of work per unit of training time. The variable resistance training is intended to harness the strength of the user in a coordinated movement. Repetition of those

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coordinated movements is a means of refining the relationship between the brain and the muscles it directs in the exercise. The repetitions also serve to help exclude the interference by external stimuli in the performance of the movement. This progression through the exercise that subjects the body to variable forces ultimately enhances athletic skill.

ship between the ability to jump and the running speed that the athlete will develop over short distances. The National Football League, where prospective players are subjected to various physical tests, requires every player to be tested for both vertical leaps and 40-yd (37 m) sprints, irrespective of the position played.

One of the world’s best known variable exercise machines is the Universal line, developed in the early 1970s by Dr. Gideon Ariel, a specialist in biomechanics. The Universal machines are constructed on the basis of two principles that guide their application in muscle development. The first principle is that resistance exercise is most effective when a multiple number of joints are required to complete the exercise. The second principle is the notion of explosive repetitions—to achieve the maximum level of mental concentration and to obtain the maximum firing levels of muscle fiber for optimal performance.

The vertical jump is defined as the highest point that the athlete can touch from a standing jump, less the height that the athlete can touch from a standing position. The measurement of the jump is flawed if the athlete is permitted to take one or more steps before jumping, as the athlete will convert some of the energy developed in the step taken into the force of propulsion that generates upward lift. Basketball has numerous legends and other urban myths concerning the seemingly superhuman leaping ability attributed to certain players; one such player, former University of Louisville star Darrell ‘‘Dr. Dunkenstein’’ Griffith, was reputed to possess a 42 in (1 m) vertical leap. It is likely that the average National Basketball Association player 6 ft 6 in (1.97 m) or shorter has a vertical leap of between 25 and 30 in (0.63 and 0.75 m); taller and heavier players will usually not be able to jump as high.

The engagement of a multiple number of joints in resistance training requires the body develop the strength to counteract the forces applied by the machine throughout the entire range of motion in each repetition. When those repetitions must be performed as rapidly as possible, without sacrificing adherence to proper form or otherwise compromising the desired range of motion, the athlete will be compelled to react with greater speed. The faster that the athlete must react to the resistance directed into the target muscle, the faster the individual muscles will fire. This approach mirrors the other training methods that are used by athletes to develop the capabilities the fast-twitch fibers present in each muscle.

Exercise, high intensity; Muscle mass and strength; Preseason strength training; Range of motion; Resistance exercise training.

SEE ALSO

Vaulting

SEE

Gymnastics vaulting

Vertical jump The vertical jump is one of the most explosive physical movements executed in sport. In a number of sports, the higher the athlete is able to jump, the greater the prospects of success in that discipline. Basketball and volleyball are the two most prominent examples of sports where that correlation is plain. The jumping ability of an athlete is also an indicator of overall athletic ability, as there is a clear relation-

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Because jumping ability is a combination of leg strength and explosive power, jumping can be developed in the same fashion as any other muscular activity. The ultimate limit to how high any athlete can jump will be determined to a significant degree by the distribution of fast-twitch versus slow-twitch fibers present in the muscles of the legs. This distribution is a genetic determination. Fast-twitch fibers are those whose governing neurons, the component of the nervous system that receives the impulses generated by the brain to direct muscular movement, fires more rapidly, which in turn creates the more rapid muscle contractions required for speed. As a general proposition, an athlete with a greater distribution of fast-twitch fibers will be able jump higher than one with a preponderance of slow-twitch fibers. Plyometrics is the best known of the jumping development exercise programs. Plyometrics training emphasizes speed and explosive movement, and a plyometrics program will typically consist of a series of bounding, hopping, and jumping drills. The object of a plyometrics program is to perform the exercises at maximum intensity. For this reason, plyometrics training must be approached with caution, and the athlete must progress slowly from one level to the next to reduce the risk of injury. Proper rest intervals must also be incorporated in to plyometrics training, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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as the exercises are intended to place significant stress on the target muscle groups. A common, low-tech plyometrics method is performing box jumps, where the athlete jumps repeatedly from the floor to the top of the box and back again. By concentrating on the mechanics of the jump, directing propulsion from the balls of the feet and thrusting with an explosive extension of the legs, the ability of the athlete to land lightly and immediately return to the floor enhances motor control over the movement. To build strength in the legs that will be compatible with the speed developed through successful plyometrics drills, squat and lunge exercises are important components. Squats are performed with free weights, where the athlete uses a weighted bar to carry out the exercise. The additional weight will be supported by the body through the abdominal, lumbar (low back), and gluteal muscles, in addition to the legs. This form of exercise permits the strengthening of the legs in conjunction with enhancing the core strength of the body, essential to the balance necessary to have the several muscle groups involved in leaping work in harmony. Lunges, also performed with the athlete lifting free weights in each hand that are within the athlete’s capabilities, will significantly strengthen the legs, without the risk of injury that may exist in the squat or plyometrics movements. Muscular strength and explosiveness must be developed in conjunction with flexibility if the athlete is to maximize the jumping ability and reduce the risk of injury to structures such as the Achilles tendon and knee ligaments. Flexibility, when achieved through focused stretching programs, will serve to increase the range of motion in the joints essential to jumping: the ankles, knees, and hips. A common muscular deficiency that plagues athletes who require well-developed leaping ability is a lack of flexibility and resultant strength imbalance between the quadriceps (thigh) muscles and the hamstrings, the pair of muscles responsible for the flexion and the extension of the knee. Proper stretching will assist the athlete in the maintenance of an approximate 3:2 ratio in the relative strength of the quadriceps to the hamstring. When there is a significant deviation from that proportion, the knee and the muscles themselves are at greater risk of injury. When the athlete proceeds with caution, with emphasis on the form of the training exercise, it is not uncommon to gain between 4 in and 9 in (0.1 and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

0.2 m) in vertical jumps in periods as short as three months.

Basketball: Strength and training exercises; Lower leg anatomy; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch; Plyometrics.

SEE ALSO

Lasse Viren 7/22/1949– FINNISH RUNNER, POLICE OFFICER, POLITICIAN

Lasse Viren was a middle distance runner from Finland who won gold medals in the 5,000 m and 10,000 m races at both the 1972 Olympics in Munich, Germany, and the 1976 Olympics in Montreal, Canada. Viren epitomized the concept of training with a specific goal and a specific competition in mind. In sport jargon, this is known as ‘‘peaking,’’ and means that an athlete trains with the intent of reaching maximum fitness at the time of a certain competition. In Viren’s case, the competitions were the Olympics. In the years preceding the 1972 and 1976 Olympics, his running accomplishments were relatively minor. Instead, he dedicated himself to training, seldom participating in non-Olympic competitions. Viren began to run as a hobby in his youth. His training continued after he became a police officer in Helsinki. By 1971, his running had progressed to the point where he was of international caliber. Prior to the 1972 Munich games, Viren was a talented runner but seemingly not world-class. For example, in the 1971 European Championships, he placed seventh in the 5,000-m final and seventeenth in the 10,000-m final. However, reflecting his training philosophy, just a month prior to the start of the Olympics he established a new world record for two miles in a time of 8 minutes, 14 seconds (an average of 4 minutes, 7 seconds per mile). His performance inspired the then 23-year-old to compete in both the 5,000-m and 10,000-m events at the 1972 games. Originally, he had intended to enter only the shorter distance. In the 10,000 m final at the 1972 games, Viren became entangled with another competitor and fell down. Even with this mishap, he managed to win the race, finishing 6 m ahead of the next competitor. In the process, he set a new world record of 27 minutes 38.4 seconds. In the 5,000-m final, held one week

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later, Viren outsprinted the other runners, including the late American runner Steve Prefontaine. Fours days later, Viren set a new world record for the 5,000 m in a time of 13 minutes 16.4 seconds. Then, true to form, he relaxed his training regimen. At his next competition, held later that year, Viren finished nearly 20 seconds behind the winner. By 1974, with the next Olympics only two years away, Viren’s times had improved, as he began to ratchet up his training schedule. Viren’s training regimen was done alone and consisted of thousands of kilometers of runs through the woods around Helsinki. He maintained that running through the undergrowth of the forest floor sharpened his mental focus and created opportunities to alter the pace of his run. A factor in Viren’s training was his continuing obligation as a fulltime police officer. In contrast to the situation for elite athletes in 2006, athletes received little if any compensation for training and no prize money. In the spirit of the times, Olympic competition was reserved for amateur athletes; rules then in place by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) discouraged participation by those who benefited financially from their sport. Viren experienced the IOC’s wrath when, after his 10,000 m victory in the 1976 games, he removed his shoes and carried them during a post-race lap of the track. IOC members felt that this action was done to display the shoes’ logo. According to Viren, he had removed his shoes to relieve the pain of a blister. In the 1976 Montreal games, Viren easily won the 10,000-m competition, finishing almost 30 m in front of the field. The 5,000 m was a sterner test, with the top six runners separated by only a few meters heading into the final stretch. Viren prevailed only by outsprinting a trio of runners that included New Zealanders Dick Quax and Rod Dixon. Viren attempted to win the marathon after having secured gold in the 5,000 m and 10,000 m events, a feat not done since Emil Za´topek’s triple gold medal performance at the 1952 games held in Helsinki. He was not successful, but finished the race in a very respectable fifth place. Viren competed at the 1980 Olympics held in Moscow (an event that was boycotted by 65 nations, including the United States, in protest of the Soviet Union’s 1979 invasion of Afghanistan). There he placed fifth in the 10,000 m and did not complete the marathon.

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Lasse Viren wins the 5,000-m run during the 1976 Olympic Games held in Montreal, Canada.

He retired from competition following the 1980 Olympics. After his athletic career, Viren continued to work as a police officer in Helsinki. His running became confined to sporadic recreational outings. In 1999, his political interests culminated in his election as a member of Parliament in Finland’s Conservative Party.

Visualization in sport Visualization in sport is a training technique that forms a part of the larger science of sports psychology. Visualization is also known as mental imagery and rehearsal. Visualization is used primarily as a training tool, one that improves the quality of athletic movement, increases the power of concentration, and serves to reduce the pressures of competition on the athlete while building athletic confidence. Visualization occurs when athletes are able to create an image or a series of images relevant to their sport, without any external prompts or stimulation; the images are mentally generated by the athlete alone. Visual images are usually the most important to athletic training and may be employed as the sole mental training method. Athletes may also depend on auditory images (sounds), kinesthetic WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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images (movements), tactile sensations (touch), and purely emotional stimulation, in combination with visualization or as freestanding training aids, as may be appropriate to the effort to elevate the performance of the athlete. There is a powerful relationship between mental and physical performance in sport. The development of a wide range of mental powers, such as focus and concentration, elevates athletic performance; overanalyzing detracts from the athlete’s ability to react instinctively, an attribute that is usually a more desirable quality than the ability to reason through every sporting circumstance. Visualization is intended to take the athlete to an image that conveys what perfection represents in the particular aspect of the sport. During visualization, the brain is directing the target muscles to work in a desired way. This direction creates a neural pattern in the brain, a pattern identical to the network created by the actual physical performance of the movements. A neural pattern is similar to diagramming the specific wiring and circuits necessary to transmit an electrical current. Alexander Bain (1818–1903) of Great Britain was the first scientist to develop a theory as to how the brain built such patterns to direct and control repeated physical movement. Numerous researchers since that time have expanded on the concept. Visualization alone will not develop the most effective mechanisms in the brain to later perform the desired action, but physical training coupled with visualization will create better recognition of the required nervous system response than physical training alone. During organized athletic training, sports psychologists will commonly direct the visualization techniques employed by an athlete to be utilized in a quiet, secluded area, so as to eliminate distractions. It is common for athletes who are employing visualization training to participate in three such sessions per week. The first application of visualization tools is the mental rehearsal or practice of the specific techniques required in a sport. Every sport has such training opportunities; the mental rehearsal of the precise footwork that a high jumper will take in an approach to the bar prior to takeoff, or the steps and delivery of a soccer player attempting a corner kick can be replayed by the athlete indefinitely. The mental replay of the image of a successfully executed maneuver is a tool used by athletes to reinforce athletic confidence. When this type of visualization is used in conjunction with other sports WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

psychology tools, such as positive self-talk, the selfencouragement that athletes direct inward for motivation, they can connect to an actual past success as a means of enhancing their future prospects. Visualization is also a useful tool to contemplate the appropriate tactics the athlete might employ in a given competitive situation. A middle distance runner can visualize where in a particular 1,500-m race the closing kick ought to be employed; for an ice hockey player or a lacrosse defenseman, game situations such as defending a two-on-one break by opposing forwards can be analyzed. In a similar fashion, the athlete can reenact circumstances where an error was made or a breakdown occurred, making the image an educational tool. Visualization is also useful while the athlete is recovering or rehabilitating from an injury. Positive images of either competition or healthy athletic movement can be employed, particularly while the athlete is using a stationary trainer or otherwise exercising, to mentally remove the athlete from the mundane training room or gym to the exciting athletic life. The beauty of visualization as a training tool is its portability; this form of mental training can be used during the athlete’s off hours, during training, rehabilitation, or in the course of actual competition, particularly in those sports where there are intervals between event segments. The delivery of a tennis serve and the throwing of a javelin are acts that permit athletes to engage their powers of visualization and, when coupled with a positive mental outlook, assist in achieving their best form.

Motor control; Sport performance; Sport psychology; Sports coaching.

SEE ALSO

Vitamin C Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is one of the many micronutrients consumed through diet that is essential to life. Vitamin C is an organic (carbon-based) compound, with a chemical structure expressed as C6H8O6. Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound, which permits it to be absorbed into the body directly through the small intestine. Unlike the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, vitamin C is not stored for indefinite periods in the body’s tissues. Vitamin C is stored for temporary periods within the liver, and any

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excess amounts are excreted as urine through the renal system.

acids, from oxidation as they are transported throughout the body.

Vitamin C performs two critical functions within the body, both of which are of the utmost importance to athletic performance. First, it is a facilitator in the absorption of iron by the body, the mineral necessary to the transport of oxygen within the bloodstream. Second, vitamin C is an important component in the ability of the body to manufacture collagen, the protein with elastic properties that is employed in the formation and maintenance of all bones, teeth, and connective tissues. Vitamin C also assists in the maintenance of the capillaries, the smallest vessels of the cardiovascular system.

A diet lacking vitamin C may cause various negative effects including oxidative stress (exposure of the cells to the adverse effects of oxidation). Those whose bodies are subjected to greater than normal oxidative stress for various reasons, including strenuous exercise, tobacco and alcohol consumption, dialysis, viral illness and fever, or other stressful conditions, require correspondingly greater quantities of vitamin C. Severe vitamin C deficiency may lead to scurvy, a debilitating condition, characterized by a lack of energy, tooth decay, gum inflammation, and bleeding problems, that has been generally eradicated in modern western society other than in alcoholics, some elderly people, or those whose diets do not contain fresh fruits and vegetables.

Vitamin C is present in large quantities in many varieties of citrus fruits, green vegetables, and potatoes. Many of these foods are excellent sources of the vitamin, a standard often defined as one serving of the food has at least 10% of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of the vitamin. The generally accepted international minimum standard for vitamin C intake is 90 mg per day for an adult male and 75 mg per day for an adult female, with nursing mothers requiring between 100 mg and 120 mg per day. A good dietary source for vitamin C or any other micronutrient is also one where the caloric content is appropriate; the benefits of excellent vitamin C content in a particular food must be weighed against the number of calories otherwise contained in it. Vitamin C is often described as an antioxidant, as it inhibits the actions of oxygen on cells. Contact with oxygen, called oxidation, degrades human cells and tissues, much in the same fashion that bare metal will rust if exposed to the air and elements. The oxidation process creates a multitude of compounds known as free radicals, electrically charged and unstable compounds, which are possessed of one or more electrons that are not paired within the molecule. These compounds are so named because they will seek out otherwise chemically stable molecules from which to remove electrons necessary to bring their own structure into balance. The removal of an electron from a previously stable nearby molecule creates a chain reaction that causes cellular damage, whereby that previously stable compound will itself seek to obtain a replacement. Vitamin C acts as an antioxidant through the provision of one of its own available charged particles, giving up an electron to stop cycle of cell damage. Vitamin C also protects the fat-soluble vitamins A and E, and accompanying fatty

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Care must be taken in food preparation to preserve the amount of vitamin C present in a particular food. Vitamin C is water soluble, so actions such as cooking a vitamin C source in water or otherwise soaking the product in water will reduce its vitamin C content. Whole food sources, such as a potato with its skin intact, will preserve greater quantities of vitamin C than processed foods. Due to its water solubility, vitamin C is not known to create any adverse effects if consumed in larger than recommended quantities, although vitamin C dosages in excess of 2,000 mg per day are not recommended. Linus Pauling (1901–1994), Nobel prize winner in chemistry, was at the forefront of the movement advocating massive daily supplements of vitamin C (amounts in excess of 5,000 mg), as both a potential cold preventative and as an anticancer agent. It was the view of Pauling and others that, because the body does not have the ability to synthesize its own stores of vitamin C (unlike other mammals), large doses would in essence fill a genetic gap. While modern research has confirmed that vitamin C’s antioxidant properties will prevent and possibly counteract cell damage, evidence of any greater capabilities is inconclusive. SEE ALSO

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Diet; Liver function;

Nutrition.

Vitamin E Vitamin E is the name given to a group of eight chemicals with similar properties that are essential to health. Vitamin E was first isolated as a distinct WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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substance in various green leafy vegetables in 1922. Vitamin E is classed as a micronutrient, a substance that is not required in large quantities through diet but which is otherwise essential to the maintenance of good health. In all of its forms, vitamin E is an organic (carbon-based) compound, of which alpha tocopherol is the most prolific. Vitamin E is often referred to as nature’s antioxidant, a testament to the important function of these chemicals within the body. Vitamin E, as with all micronutrients, is required in trace amounts for bodily function. The recommended daily requirement for adults of this substance is 15 mg per day. The consumption of dietary supplements to ensure the ingestion of the required quantities of vitamin E is unnecessary if the person is consuming a well-balanced diet, as the best sources of the chemical are commonly available food products, such as wheat and its large number of byproducts, many green leafy vegetables, and most nuts, seeds, and their oils. Vitamin E is the least toxic of all fat-soluble vitamins; the recommended upper daily limit of vitamin E consumption is 1,000 mg. Vitamin E is a fat-soluble compound. It is processed for entry into the body at the small intestine, where the vitamin is parceled into chemical packages made from both high density lipoproteins (HDLs) and low density lipoproteins (LDLs) to facilitate the absorption of vitamin E into both the lymphatic system and the liver. From these locations, vitamin E then is released directly into the bloodstream. With either its HDL or LDL transportation in the bloodstream, vitamin E is carried to various cells within the body. As a fat-soluble vitamin, vitamin E can be stored within the cell mitochondria (often described as the cellular powerhouse) of the adipose tissue, the cells designed for the storage of triglycerides (fats), for an indefinite period. Once utilized as an antioxidant, the spent vitamin E is disposed of by the body through the stomach bile; it is ultimately excreted from the body as feces. Oxidation is a biological concept that is readily understood with reference to many daily life examples. Rusted metal, food that turns rancid, and the various aging processes observable within the body are examples of oxidation, which is the decay or the degradation of a cell due to the effect of oxygen. An antioxidant, such as vitamin E, is any substance that by its presence or its operation, serves to specifically delay, prevent, or reverse the rate of deterioration caused in the cells by oxygen. Antioxidants are classed as one of two types: metal sequestrants, which prevent metals from reacting with oxygen, and free radical scavengers, which operate to interWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

rupt the destructive chain reactions that occur within the body that are precipitated by the compounds known as free radicals. Vitamin E and, in certain circumstances, vitamin C, are free radical scavengers within the body. Free radicals are the most common cause of oxidation within the body. Occurring throughout the body, these chemical compounds are inherently unstable, as their electron structure is unbalanced due to one or more electrons within the structure not being paired, which creates either a positive or negative electric charge within the free radical. The free radical therefore seeks to obtain the necessary electrons to create electrical balance from nearby stable compounds. This ‘‘theft’’ of electrons by the free radicals renders the previously stable compound unstable and reactive. This use precipitates a chain reaction of electron use that is the essence of the oxidation that causes cell damage. As an antioxidant, vitamin E traps the free radicals that it encounters, through its donation of a hydrogen atom to the free radical molecule, rendering it chemically neutral. Vitamin E ranges throughout the tissues of the body, and it provides its antioxidant benefits to all aspects of the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems. Vitamin E does not differentiate between the types of free radicals it may encounter, nor does vitamin E restrict its actions based on the place of origin of the target free radical. There is no question from a scientific perspective that vitamin E is a very important compound within the body, as it protects the tissues from decay and degradation. The companion issue of whether megadoses of vitamin E, by daily supplement or otherwise, will provide enhanced health protection has not been conclusively determined. The actions of vitamin E must also be considered separately from the healing and repair of tissue that occurs within the body. Antioxidant function is separate from the cell repair that occurs within the body at all cell production points—bone, connective tissue, muscles, and blood cells may be degraded by the actions of free radicals. Vitamin E does not play a role in cell production. SEE ALSO

Diet; Free fatty acids in the blood; Nutrition;

Oxygen.

Volleyball Invented in 1895, volleyball has grown from its roots as a non-contact recreational exercise to its current status as one of the world’s most popular

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sports. It is a remarkable irony of sports history that volleyball’s inventor, a Massachusetts Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) instructor, William G. Morgan (1870–1942), developed this sport in same American town where James Naismith had created basketball four years earlier. Originally known as ‘‘mintonette,’’ Marshall intended his game to be played by an older age group, persons who sought the benefits of an exercise that did not present significant physical risks. Marshall envisioned the new game to be one that would strictly avoid any potential for body contact between opponents and thus be less demanding than the recently developed, but locally popular, basketball. The popularity of the newly named volleyball spread throughout the United States and overseas in the early 1900s due to the worldwide influence of the YMCA, which introduced the sport at its local gyms. In 1916, the style of the sport changed forever when the offensive tactic of the set and spike was first developed in the Philippines, where it was known by the colorful description, la bomba. Other than subsequent technical refinements to the manner of play, the rules of volleyball have been unchanged since their codification in 1920. The United States Volley Ball Association (later known as USA Volleyball) was formed in 1928, the world’s first national governing body in the sport. The first variant of volleyball, beach volleyball, was first played and developed in California after 1930. The international growth of volleyball was impeded only by World War II, and in 1946 the international federation governing the sport, Federation Internationale de Volley-Ball (FIVB), was chartered. FIVB sanctioned the inaugural world volleyball championships in 1949, and the sport was included for the first time as both a men’s and women’s sport in the 1964 Olympics. The first professional volleyball league was formed in 1983, and other professional leagues were established in a number of other nations in the succeeding years. Beach volleyball developed its own following, which resulted in both a first FIVB world beach championship in 1987, followed by the inclusion of beach volleyball as an Olympic sport in 1996. Volleyball in both forms is played in every country of the world. The rules of volleyball are relatively simple; it is the precision with which a team can execute within this uncomplicated rules framework that defines success in the sport. The object of both indoor volleyball and outdoor volleyball is to direct the ball over the

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net without the ball being safely returned by the opposing team. A team is permitted a maximum of three contacts with the ball after receiving the ball from the opposing team, in addition to any contact with the ball at the net if one of the team attempted to block the ball. Outdoor volleyball is played with two players per side, the indoor game with six per side. If the team can combine to deliver the ball over the net so as to prevent its return by the opposing teams, either by directing into the floor within the playing surface, or when the opponent cannot return the ball after three contacts, a point is scored. Games are scored by the first team to reach 25 points, and a match usually will consist of a best-of-five-games format. When a fifth game is necessary to decide the match that game will be played to 15 points. Height is an important, but not determinative, physical attribute in volleyball. While tall players typically will dominate in the play at the net, smaller and more agile players are essential in covering open areas of the court, to both keep the ball in play after an opponent’s attack, and to coordinate the offensive attack by putting the ball into play as a part of a set offensive sequence. The setter is such a player, the team member responsible for putting the ball into a position where it can be delivered with an authoritative spike into the opponent’s court. In elite international volleyball, it is not uncommon to have male players at 6 ft 9 in (2.06 m) or taller playing in the frontcourt, and on women’s teams, 6 ft 2 in or taller (1.87 m). However, unlike basketball, where the game has evolved so as to require a significant degree of muscular strength at the forward positions, volleyball players are often very lean of build, with tremendous leaping ability. The net is positioned midway on a court that is 59.6 ft long, and 29.6 ft wide (18 m by 9 m). The net is 7.95 ft high for men’s play, and 7.4 ft high for women (2.43 m and 2.24 m, respectively). The ball used for all players is constructed from synthetic materials, with a circumference of between 25.5 in and 27 in (65 and 67 cm), and a weight of between 9 oz and 10 oz (260 g and 280 g). The court is marked by lines to define the side defended by each team. As a general rule, the ball may be hit by a player from anywhere on the team’s side of the net, including what would otherwise be an out-of-bounds position. Each court has an attack line placed 9.9 ft (3 m) behind the net; this is the boundary that determines the frontcourt from the backcourt. Players in the backcourt are not permitted to attack, or spike, the ball unless they are positioned behind that line. The attack line also assists in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Volleyball is played at many levels worldwide.

TORU YA MA NA KA/ AFP /GETT Y IM AGE S

defining the role of a specialist known as the ‘‘libero.’’ The libero is a player who can be substituted for any player in a team’s backcourt. The libero is not permitted to serve the ball nor may the libero spike the ball or rotate into the frontcourt. The libero was a position invented in the mid 1990s to create an additional role for the shorter volleyball player. A volleyball game commences with a serve of the ball, a shot delivered from behind the end line of the court. A serve may be made with any arm action, provided that the fundamental rule of ball contact and handling is observed—a volleyball may not be thrown, lifted (typically with a cupped hand), or struck twice in one motion (double hit). A hard serve WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

will often be delivered as a jump serve, where the power of the jump is converted into arm speed and consequently a greater force is imparted to the ball. The manner in which the player’s hand is applied to the serve will determine how the ball will travel through the air. Like a soccer ball or a baseball, the spin imparted to a volleyball creates the Magnus effect, where the ball moves in the direction of the lower air pressure created by the spin. A hardspinning serve is a difficult ball to handle for an opposing team. A float serve is designed to achieve the opposite effect from a spike serve. The float serve is delivered with little or no spin, making its path through the air unpredictable.

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There are many specific methods for handling the ball once it has been served. The basic movements are the bump, set, and spike. The bump is usually performed with both arms held together and the hands as fists held together, and the ball then directed upward; the bump is usually made to keep the ball live and to establish an offensive maneuver. The set is a pass directed by a player with the intention that it will be delivered for a score by a teammate. The setter is the person who is designated to perform the bulk of the setting duties for a team. The spike is the ultimate effort by a team to score a point, representing an attack on the ball above the height of the net. A successful spike will result in a ‘‘kill,’’ a point for the team where the ball could not be returned. As a general rule, no player is permitted to touch the net while the ball is in play. The rules regarding the manner in which the ball may be handled are essentially the same for the outdoor beach volleyball game. The presence of two players versus six makes the tactics of beach volleyball relatively simple; the sand playing surface makes jumping much more difficult. The outdoor court is slightly smaller than that used indoors: 52.5 ft by 26.2 ft (16 m by 8 m). In a curious way, the most significant difference between the indoor and outdoor games is the flash and the glamour that quickly became associated with the beach version. The sunny venues and the form-fitting uniforms worn by players gave the newcomer sport tremendous international television appeal at every Olympics since its introduction in 1996. Volleyball training must be oriented to the objects of the game. It is a game that is primarily anaerobic in the manner in which athletic movement is required and energy produced in support. On any given point contested during a game, the athletic movement demanded of a player may be of between five seconds and 30 seconds duration. The typical rest interval between each point is approximately 10–20 seconds. Exercises that assist in the development of explosive leaping ability, quick lateral movement, and hand-eye coordination are of primary importance to the volleyball player. Aerobic training is also important to overall volleyball performance. Aerobic strength will permit the players to sustain their energy levels through games that may last as long as two hours, as well as to facilitate physical recovery. Physical strength in the sense of developing maximum muscular power is not as important as the achievement of balance and

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flexibility. Volleyball success requires that the player possess an optimum range of motion, to permit the greatest degree of lift in the leaping required, as well as to enhance the cushioning of the forces repeatedly directed into the body through jumps and landing. One appeal of volleyball, beyond the nature of the game itself, is that it is a sport that can be played by any body type at any age. It can also be played safely and without significant rule changes by men and women, mixed, or co-ed settings.

Plyometrics; Stretching and flexibility; Volleyball strength training and exercises; Volleyball: Set and spike mechanisms.

SEE ALSO

Volleyball: Set and spike mechanisms Volleyball is a sport with a simple object: the ability to deliver a ball over a net against the efforts of an opposing team. The manner in which this object is achieved is defined by rather rigorous rules as to how the ball may be struck and handled by a player. A premium is placed on the offensive team’s ballhandling efficiency by the limitations on touching the ball, particularly the maximum of three hits (including unintentional contacts) for returning the ball over the net. The set and spike mechanism is the most effective offensive series that can be executed in volleyball. The set and spike are a progression from the simple return of that ball safely to the opposing side of the net. The set and spike are designed as an aggressive sequence of maneuvers, with the goal of striking the ball with sufficient force into the opposing court that it cannot be returned. An understanding of the proper execution of the set and spike mechanism begins with how the volleyball is directed into a position where the mechanism may be initiated. Although there are many variations as to how the ball may be received when hit into the defensive team’s court, in most cases the ball will be bumped by a defensive player. The bump is the first of the three permitted touches by a team upon receiving the ball from an opponent. In the rules of volleyball there is no prohibition against the first touch of the ball being a return over the net, but the accepted tactic to ensure the most effective attack is to ensure that the ball is handled so as to permit an optimal and powerful delivery with the spike. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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the ball is set, moving from a crouched position to perform the set, and then maintaining a low position to anticipate a return from the opponent. The spike culminates the offensive set piece that is the pass, set, and spike. The player designated as the hitter will start the spike mechanics before the ball has been set. The hitter will first get positioned behind the place where the ball will be set. As the ball is set and begins to move upward, the hitter begins a short run up approach and launches the body into the air, driving both arms upward to create as much lift as possible. An ideal set and spike will result in the ball being struck at the peak of the parabolic path taken by the ball. The hitter transfers the kinetic energy created by the approach to the ball with a powerful arm swing. The greater the height at which the ball is struck on a spike, the more acute the angle at which the ball will travel toward the opponent, making the ball more difficult to handle.

Fabiana Claudino of Brazil (L) spikes the ball.

T OS HI F UMI

KIT AM URA/ AFP /GET TY IMA GE S

The bump is usually employed as a pass to the setter, the player with the primary responsibility for setting the ball up in such a fashion that the third contact with the ball will be the spike. The player who delivers the spike will usually be a hitter, predetermined in the team’s offensive strategy. The set is usually executed in one of two ways, depending on the height and the position of the ball relative to the floor. The setter must possess welldefined agility and lateral quickness to obtain the proper body position relative to the ball in order to set it. The bump set is employed when the ball is delivered to the setter at a height where the player is not able to use the fingertips to handle the ball as is permitted by the rules; the setter places both arms together to direct the ball upward for the intended spike. An attempt to place the palms of the hands under the ball in such a position will almost inevitably result in a lift violation being called by the umpire. The second type of set performed is the overhand set. In this maneuver, the setter uses a hand to better control the direction and the spin of the ball during the set, to permit maximum control over the ball by the hitter on the spike. When possible, the setter endeavors to have the body ‘‘square to the ball’’ when WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The spike combines the force of the leap into the spike with the more delicate hand-eye coordination demanded to place the ball where required in the opposing court. To maintain balance in the air prior to contact with the ball, the hitter’s body remains relatively perpendicular to the floor throughout the jump, with the hitting hand positioned between the ear and the shoulder of the hitter. The ball is then struck with the heel of the palm at the center of the ball, with the wrist extended so as to ensure that the player follows through on the spike motion to maximize hitting power. The Magnus effect is a physical phenomenon that occurs when a spinning object moves through a fluid (liquid or gas like air), where the spin creates areas of lower air pressure to which the ball will turn, causing a deviation in its path. The volleyball serve is subject to this principle, and, though the spike generally travels a shorter distance, the Magnus effect still occurs, but is less pronounced.

Range of motion; Stretching and flexibility; Volleyball; Volleyball strength training and exercises.

SEE ALSO

Volleyball strength training and exercises Volleyball is a sport that involves a number of distinct strength training and conditioning considerations. As with sports such as cricket, running, and slow pitch softball, any healthy person can participate in a game of volleyball. It is generally safe, being

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a sport played in a regimented fashion with a limited number of contacts permitted with the ball when delivered across the net, with no physical contact permitted between the participants. It is not necessarily physically demanding in terms of exertion, as there are significant rest intervals between each point scored in a game. Volleyball shares similarities with softball and cricket on another level. To succeed as a volleyball player in elite competition, the athlete must develop a wide range of physical skills. The ideal volleyball player is often tall and very physically limber. All players, irrespective of their height, will be agile, possessed of explosive leaping ability, a superior vertical jump, and balance. Volleyball players invariably possess outstanding reaction time and hand-eye coordination. The techniques involved in successful volleyball play are built on repetitive drills and the simulation of various game situations to hone a combination of physical and mental skills. The distinct skills of bumping, blocking, setting, spiking, digging, and receiving the ball are those practiced at every volleyball training session. Effective volleyball strength training is premised on building the best musculoskeletal structure possible to perfect these game skills. Volleyball training, as with any sport, will be designed through the application of the periodization of training principle. This principle is founded on the broader concept that no athlete can train at the same high level for indefinite periods, as the body requires both physical and mental down time (rest) to recover from periods of intense exertion or competition. The training year for the volleyball player will be divided into three general segments, with further subdivisions within each segment to accommodate a particular training or competitive objective. Typical periodization would include a preseason, a competitive season, and an off-season. The physical training performed by the player will be tailored to the respective seasons. For adolescent athletes, periodization and the specific exercises performed must also be modified to properly account for the differences in the adolescent musculoskeletal structure. When a young athlete has not yet reached physical maturity, excessive repetitions of particular exercises or excessive resistance training may cause significant damage to the epiphysis regions of the long bones of the body, which contain the growth plates. Such training may

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also place unhealthy stress on the growing connective tissues. The training program, once properly segmented into training periods, will focus on four general types of physical development essential to the successful execution of the various volleyball techniques: increased jumping ability through plyometrics exercises; the core strength of the player; stretching and flexibility training; and general aerobic fitness. Leaping ability and volleyball are inextricably linked. The ability of a player to rise above the floor, either to deliver a spike or to block an opponent’s attack, is an essential of the game. At an elite level, much of the game is played well above the net, which is approximately 8 ft (2.4 m) high. Plyometrics is a collection of leaping and bounding exercises designed to stimulate the fast-twitch muscle fibers of the legs to produce a correspondingly greater and more dynamic vertical jump. The stresses placed on the leg structure through plyometrics training are significant, especially when regular volleyball training involves a significant number of jumps by a player in any given training session. Plyometrics is a common feature of both off-season and preseason training for this reason, with less focus on plyometrics drills in the competitive season. Core strength is the generic term used to describe the functions of the abdominal, gluteal, lumbar (lower back), and groin muscles. Well-developed core strength will provide any athlete with greater balance in movement, especially in actions requiring the athlete to move quickly from a crouched position, a common feature in volleyball. Volleyball players will train aggressively in the development of core strength during both off-season and preseason training periods, with reduced intensity in the competitive period for the purpose of strength maintenance. Focused weight training, such as squats and lunges (both of which develop the upper thighs and hamstrings), and various types of abdominal crunches, including forms of Swiss ball training, are effective in the enhancement of core strength. Stretching and flexibility exercises, both through traditional calisthenics and using devices such as a Swiss ball, are essential to performance and to the reduction of the risk of injury. Stretching is an integral part of the entire volleyball training regimen, in all three general training periods. It provides protection to the musculoskeletal structure against imbalances that often lead to muscle strains and pulls, as well as maximizing the range of motion in all joints, encouraging greater flexibility and correspondingly more effective movement. A stiff player will not be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE


responsive on the volleyball court. Exercises that assist the player with recovery from the potential repetitive strains on the shoulder from the practice of serves and spikes are emphasized. Aerobic fitness is a less emphasized but important aspect of volleyball training. Endurance acts as a platform on which the more spectacular leaping and athletic movements in the sport may occur. A fivegame volleyball match, played in a warm gymnasium,


may take two hours to complete. In the same fashion that running provides a boxer with the stamina to recover from the exertions of each round with an opponent, aerobic fitness permits the volleyball player a speedy recovery after a particularly intense series of points.

Plyometrics; Stretching and flexibility; Volleyball; Volleyball: Set and spike mechanisms.

SEE ALSO

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W WADA

SEE

World Anti-Doping Agency

(WADA)

Grete Waitz 10/1/1953– NORWEGIAN RUNNER

Grete Waitz is a former world-class track and distance runner. Among her accomplishments, she may be best known for her success in the marathon. Her victories included nine of the New York City Marathon. Waitz is a pioneer in women’s track events. She was one of the first women to compete at 3,000 m. Her world records attained at that distance reinforced the idea that women could successfully compete in track at a high level internationally. Waitz was born in Oslo in 1953. Despite displaying a childhood aptitude for athletics, she was discouraged from training by her parents. At that time, athletics in general, and track in particular, were not considered a proper pursuit for a woman. As a result, Waitz’s early training was selffinanced. Even when she competed at the 1972 Summer Olympics held in Munich, the first time women were allowed to compete in the 1,500-m, Waitz supported herself by studying at a teachers college in Norway. By then, she had gained her parents’ acceptance for the serious development of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

her obvious running talent. Nonetheless, her teachers’ training represented her safeguard occupation. While at college, Waitz began to train twice a day and increased her training mileage to an average of 75 mi (121 km) per week. Her dedication and diligence paid off. Her running career blossomed and by the end of the 1970s, with the acceptance of women’s running, running had become a lucrative fulltime pursuit. In 1975, she twice set new world record times for the women’s 3,000-m. Despite her success on the track, the high weekly training mileage had convinced Waitz that her calling lay in longer distances. She focused on the marathon, a 26.2-mi (42 km) event. During the 1970s and 1980s, she enjoyed great success in the marathon. Beginning in 1978, Waitz won the New York Marathon nine times, an accomplishment that has not been matched by any other woman, or man. As well, she was victorious in the 1983 and 1986 London Marathon, and at the 1983 World Championships. Prior to her first marathon victory, Waitz had never run more than 13 mi (21 km) in training or competition. She not only won the race, but set a women’s world record in the process. Her best showing in the Olympic women’s marathon was in the 1984 Olympics held in Los Angeles, the sole time she competed, where she placed second behind American Joan Benoit Samuelson. She was denied a chance to compete in the 1980 Olympics,

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as Norway was one of the 65 countries that boycotted the Moscow Olympics in protest of the Soviet Union’s 1979 invasion of Afghanistan. In addition won the World years in a row another victory,

to her marathon successes, Waitz Cross-Country Championships four beginning in 1978 and followed by this time in 1983.

Among the tributes accorded Waitz are ‘‘Grete’s Great Gallop’’ (a race held in her honor each year by The New York Road Runner’s Club), a statue outside Oslo’s famed Bislett Stadium, and a set of stamps issued in her honor by the Norwegian government. Although she is no longer a competitive runner, Waitz continues to contribute to the sport by participating and organizing corporate running events. Her focus now is to inspire others to adopt a more healthy lifestyle and to raise funds for charities that include CARE International and the International Special Olympics. Her emphasis on health has become especially poignant since she began therapy for cancer in mid-2005 at the age of 51. As of 2006, her therapy continues.

Wakeboarding Wakeboarding is one of a number of sports that have attained world wide popularity in recent years through their association with the class of activities generally described as extreme sports. Wakeboarding is performed using a specially designed item of equipment built to support a rider that is towed behind a relatively powerful motorboat, called a wakeboard. The equipment and the techniques employed to ride the wakeboard are a hybrid created from a number of sports, notably water skiing, surfing, and snowboarding. When wakeboarding was first developed as a water sport in the early 1980s, the signature equipment at that time was a ‘‘skurfer,’’ built as a cross between a surfboard and a water ski. Unlike water skiing, where the skier uses stationary ramps constructed on a water ski course to execute jumps, wakeboarding requires the tow boat to generate a large wake that the boarder uses to ride across and generate lift from the action of the wake. Similar to the construction of a snowboard, the rider’s feet are attached to the wakeboard by way of non-release bindings.

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The physics of riding a wakeboard are similar to both snowboarding and surfing. The rider seeks to maintain a low body position over the board, to permit both greater stability and to facilitate quick weight shifts to change the direction of the wakeboard. The wakeboard has sharp edges along its entire perimeter, permitting the rider to carve turns in the manner of a slalom skier on snow. Once airborne, as the boarder is attached to both the wakeboard and the two rope, the rider can execute any number of aerial tricks, including flips, rolls, and other sequential moves. Wakeboarding has been a featured sport throughout the history of the X Games, the annual extreme sports festival. The World Wakeboard Association is the international body that sponsors competitions, where the athletes are subjectively judges on the quality and creativity of the tricks performed. Although wakeboarding is itself a recently developed sport, it has given rise to another distinct sporting activity, wakeskating. Wakeskating is a form of wakeboarding that has been significantly influenced by skateboarding. The rider’s feet are not attached to the board, one that is typically shorter than a conventional wakeboard. The surface of the wakeskating board is coated with a gripping material, and the rider seeks to operate the board using similar techniques to those employed by skateboarders on the ground. Kneeboarding is another wakeboard variant, where the rider kneels on the board as it is pulled. SEE ALSO

Extreme sports; Snowboarding; Water skiing.

Wall climbing

SEE

Rock climbing and

wall climbing

William Ernest Walsh 11/30/1931– AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL COACH

Bill Walsh was the coaching genius behind the successes of the San Francisco 49ers football team during the 1980s. Walsh combined technological advances such as computer assisted play development to script an entire game, with his deep understanding of how to maximize effectiveness of the most important offensive player, the quarterback. These innovations were a part of the style of play pioneered by Walsh later known as the West Coast offence. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WARM-UP/COOL-DOWN

Like many successful coaches in any sport, Bill Walsh was a good but not outstanding athlete in his own competitive athletic career. As a high school and as a college quarterback, he was never regarded as a professional football prospect, and Walsh, a realist, secured his university degree in physical education. Bill Walsh was one of the many successful NFL head coaches who served a lengthy and somewhat tortured apprenticeship before landing his desired place. Walsh began his coaching career at Monterey Peninsula College in 1959, an otherwise undistinguished California junior college program. He served in a succession of NFL assistant coaching positions before being named head coach at prestigious Stanford University. Walsh had been pegged as a specialist assistant coach as a result of his work with various NFL quarterbacks, particularly as a result of his coaching with the Cincinnati Bengals staff. In Cincinnati, Walsh had the opportunity to serve under one of the greatest minds to ever coach in football at any level, Paul Brown. Walsh stayed in Cincinnati hoping to be appointed head coach there when Brown retired in 1975; he was passed over and Walsh was bitterly disappointed with the NFL, prompting his search for a suitable college head coach position. Walsh’s acceptance of the head coaching position at Stanford was an important bridge in his ultimate NFL success. Stanford was a major college program in the Pacific Athletic Conference that had fallen on difficult times in its football program. Walsh served for two successful years at Stanford, commencing in 1977. Walsh guided a previously lackluster Stanford team to a 9-3 season in 1977 and an 8-4 season in 1978. He also won the 1977 Sun Bowl and the 1978 Bluebonnet Bowl, further endearing him to the Stanford administration. Walsh was in a position to remain for an extended tenure at Stanford. Walsh moved into the NFL with San Francisco in 1979, in the dual capacity of coach and general manager. Walsh’s reputation in NFL circles as developed from his various assistant coaching stints around the league was that Walsh possessed a highly developed intelligence for football, that he was a thinker and a teacher, qualities that were not always held in high regard in the fast paced, results driven world of NFL football. Walsh had one advantage inherent in this new coaching position—the 49ers had been so bad for so long that very little was expected of Walsh. The installation of Walsh as the head coach coincided with the most fortuitous player event in the history of the 49er organization, the arrival of future WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Hall of Fame quarterback Joe Montana. Walsh began to assemble players who complimented Montana’s controlled but aggressive quarterbacking style, and by 1981, Walsh had built the first of his three Super Bowl champions. His 49ers were a threat to win every year, and the subsequent Super Bowl victories in 1985 and 1989 cemented Walsh’s reputation as one of the NFL’s greatest coaches. The West Coast offence implemented by Walsh at San Francisco has been imitated by many coaches and teams in subsequent years, at both the NFL and collegiate levels. Walsh, using first Montana and later Steve Young at quarterback, endeavored to control the ball with a short, precision passing game where the quarterback was given specific options once the ball was in play; both Montana and Young, Hall of Fame performers, were brilliant in this role. Walsh employed computer technology to assist in the breakdown of an opponent’s defensive tendencies. Once the tendencies were determined Walsh endeavored to ensure that his quarterback had defined options available on every play. With pre-determined options, Walsh could limit the risks of the quarterback being sacked or otherwise forced into a decision that was not supported by the game plan. Walsh purported to retire from football in 1989, the highest paid coach in the history of the NFL. He returned to the head coach position at Stanford in 1992 for two seasons. Walsh rejoined the 49ers as the club’s General Manager from 1999 to 2001, without achieving the same level of success as he did as a coach. Walsh was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1993.

Football (American); National Football League (NFL); Sports Coaching.

SEE ALSO

Warm-up/Cool-down Proper and comprehensive athletic warm-up and cool-down protocols are essential to short-term exercise performance, as well as long-term injury prevention and general physical health. The warmup/cool-down sequences are as important to athletic performance as the athlete’s abilities in the sport itself. While each is a part of the exercise and training continuum, different principles are at play in these training phases. A warm-up is intended to ready the athlete for either a training session or a competition. While a

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warm-up routine may take many forms, subject to the sport or the training goals of the athlete, the warm-up will both physically and mentally prepare the athlete for the intended task. From a physiological perspective, the first objective of the warm-up is the increased flow of blood through the cardiovascular system, preparatory to the heart being engaged in more vigorous and demanding effort. The increase in blood flow serves to make the skeletal muscles supple and more prepared to stretch. Increased blood supplied to the muscles correspondingly increases the amount of oxygen and other nutrients available to the muscles during exercise. The start of a warm-up is a signal to the body that exercise is about to commence, a form of mental preparation. The warm-up also is a trigger to the neuromuscular system that the linkages between the nervous system and various muscle groups will be utilized shortly. While a lack of available training time and a desire to begin the substantive parts of the training or activity are the most common reasons as to why some warm-ups are not thorough, numerous sports science studies have confirmed that a thorough warm-up will reduce the rate of injury while increasing overall athletic performance. While the intensity and the duration of a warmup will vary due to individual circumstances, evidence that the desired increase in cardiovascular activity and an increase in internal body temperature consistent with muscle warmth is the generation of a light-to-moderate degree of perspiration. A minimal warm-up, where the athlete is not engaging in a specific or targeted activity, will generally last from eight to 10 minutes. This warm-up might include very easy jogging or vigorous walking, with a pronounced arm swing to increase the heart rate. When the warm-up is conducted in cold weather, the body may require a longer period of time to produce the desired cardiovascular and thermoregulatory effects. The athlete may conduct some sport-specific warm-up movements to provide benefits. Once the body has been activated through a basic warm-up, the athlete may engage in a stretching program. All skeletal muscle groups are more vulnerable to strain and tearing if the muscles are aggressively stretched without a warm-up. The most effective method of stretching, the static stretch, requires the athlete to maintain the muscle structure in the extended position for between 20 and 30 seconds. It is particularly important to conduct the static stretches for the muscles that will be primarily engaged in the activity ahead.

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The primary goal of the cool-down phase is to gradually reduce the level of activity achieved by the body during either training or competition. An effective cool-down program will gradually reduce the person’s heart rate to its normal level, and it will assist in the efficient removal of metabolic wastes, such as lactic acid produced by the cardiovascular system. Just as importantly, a proper cool-down will ready the muscles for the next training session or activity. There is no conclusive scientific proof that cooling down necessarily reduces a condition known as delayed onset muscle soreness. This condition frequently occurs to athletes whose muscles have been subjected to a strenuous workout, with the onset of muscle discomfort not present for between 24 to 48 hours after the event. However, overall muscle health is promoted through the cool-down process whether or not the muscle subsequently becomes sore. A simple and effective means of cooling down is to continue to exercise at a low intensity level for approximately 10 minutes for every hour of vigorous exercise, immediately at the conclusion of the primary exercise. A gap between the higher intensity levels is counterproductive to the goals of a gradual return to resting levels. A stretching routine of the same extent and intensity level to that employed in the warm-up is also useful, as the muscles are properly warm from the activity.

Calisthenics; Exercise recovery; Fitness; Musculoskeletal injuries; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Warm weather exercise Warm weather is a term familiar to most people as a phenomenon that can be defined in subjective terms—individuals have differing perceptions as to what will constitute warm versus cold weather conditions. The establishment of warm weather conditions suitable for exercise is not simply a function of temperature; it is a combination of the air temperature, humidity, wind, air pollution, and other environmental factors. The physical conditions affecting warm weather exercise are diverse. For example, the surface on which a sport is played may change with varying conditions; sports such as marathon running, in which the race is run over heat-radiating pavement, have additional warm weather factors that would otherwise be reduced or absent. Warm weather is a training and competitive issue that must be overcome by most athletes at some WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WATER

stage in their careers, from those at the recreational level to elite competitors. While increased physical fitness will usually better equip an athlete to combat the effects of warm weather, the principles of warm weather exercise are applicable to all fitness levels. The consideration of the impacts and consequences of warm weather exercise are of vital importance to sport performance and athlete safety. In the course of the long-term planning for an athlete’s competitive and training season, referred to as the periodization of training, the season will be divided into the preseason, the competitive season, and the off-season. When known climatic conditions will be a factor at various points of the season, the athlete can plan the training accordingly. In the same fashion, when the athlete is aware of particular competitions in warm weather climates, specific steps can be taken in advance to best prepare for the event. A failure to anticipate warm weather factors in training can lead to competitive disaster. When an athlete, particularly in a sport with a significant aerobic component, is unaccustomed to the impacts of warm weather and the collateral impacts of insufficient hydration and fluid replacement, it is highly unlikely that the athlete can compete effectively at the accustomed cool weather training levels. Once the appropriate training periods are determined through preseason analysis, the athlete can progressively build warm weather exercise components into training sessions. The first step is the incorporation of acclimatization training into regular workouts. Acclimatization is the process through which the body adapts itself to the stresses of warm weather. As a general rule, when the body is exposed to warm weather conditions (often accompanied by humidity), there will be a pronounced and cumulative effect of the local environment on three interrelated bodily processes: the cardiovascular system, particularly through decreased blood volume; the thermoregulatory system, which will strive to maintain a constant internal temperature of approximately 98 F (37 C); and the osmoregulatory system, which preserves fluid levels in relation to the presence of sodium and other minerals. Although individual athletes will respond in different ways to the effects of warm weather, as a general rule, an athlete’sbody will be over 90% acclimatized to the presence of heat within 10 to 14 days of first exposure to the new conditions. Acclimatization is best achieved at the location where warm weather is anticipated during competition. Warm weather can also be simulated; indoor workouts in increased temperatures are an example. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The second step to be taken by an athlete to develop warm weather exercise ability is the implementation of a hydration strategy. Hydration is the process by which an athlete seeks to maintain a relative constant fluid level within the body throughout exercise. As a general rule, hydration requires the athlete to consume fluids before, during, and after the exercise activity, sufficient to replace all fluids lost through perspiration and other bodily functions (primarily breath and urine production). It is a wellaccepted sports science proposition that when an athlete loses between 1% to 2% of body weight through fluid loss (an amount that is classed as a slight degree of dehydration), athletic performance may decrease by up to 10%. As slight levels of dehydration may not necessarily trigger the body’s thirst mechanism, regular fluid consumption is crucial to proper hydration. A failure to observe proper and timely hydration will often trigger a progressive series of increasingly dangerous heat-related illnesses, including muscle cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. There are a variety of fluids available to the athlete to achieve hydration. Water is the most common fluid used, although a significant science has developed with respect to the formulation of various sports drinks, each designed for specific sports and usages. Most sports drinks contain amounts of sodium and potassium to aid in the body’s ability to maintain proper osmoregulation. For hydration, as opposed to the replenishment of carbohydrate stores, sports drinks do not generally contain more than 6% to 8% carbohydrate, to ensure ease of absorption of the fluid into the body by way of the small intestine. During the acclimatization phase, the athlete and coaches must carefully monitor the twin performance keys of intensity and duration. Failure to observe the appropriate balance between these factors can create significant physical consequences for the athlete. It is imperative that all warm weather exercise be conducted with ready access to appropriate first aid equipment.

Acclimatization; Heat exhaustion; Hydration; Thermoregulation, exercise, and thirst; Two-a-day practice sessions.

SEE ALSO

Water Water, along with air and food, is one of the three cornerstones of the physical element to human existence. In its pure state, water is transparent,

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tasteless, and colorless. The water molecule is comprised of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, as described by the chemical equation H2O. Water is the most prominent substance found within the body, and its importance to human structure and function is borne out by the relationship of water relative to the size and the composition of the body as a whole. Water constitutes approximately 92% of the volume of blood plasma, the fluid component of blood, as well as forming 60% of the mass of the erythrocytes (red blood cells) present in the bloodstream. A further 80% of the mass of skeletal muscle tissue is water, and the water molecule constitutes over 95% of the total molecules within the body. Water is also classified by commercial purposes as ‘‘hard’’ and ‘‘soft.’’ Hard water is a fluid substance that naturally contains significant quantities of the minerals, calcium and magnesium; these minerals are absent in soft water. Depending on the geological characteristics of the location where the water originates, water may contain other minerals such as sodium and potassium, as well as compounds such as chlorides and sulphides. Many of these mineralladen waters are reputed to possess health-giving qualities. From an athletic perspective, water has been described as ‘‘nature’s original sports drink.’’ All persons, both sedentary and athletic, must consume water on a daily basis, preferably at regular intervals throughout the day, for the body to function properly. Water is lost from the body through the processes of perspiration, through the discharge of breath from the lungs (the breath when exhaled includes water vapor present in the lungs), and through the elimination of the waste products urine and feces. The recommended daily amount of water to be consumed will be subject to the significant variables of age, body size, level of fitness, environmental conditions, type of exercise, the duration and the level of intensity required in exercise, and other related physiological factors. For persons whose physical exercise in any given day is at a moderate level, defined as running 3 mi (4.8 km) or working out 30 minutes on a cardio machine, they will generally be required to consume approximately 3–5 qt (approximately 4 l) of water daily to maintain efficient overall bodily function. In sports science, the terms water and fluid are often used interchangeably when issues regarding the proper approach to the hydration of athletes is considered. Fluids are those substances that are primarily water, with other substances added to create an effect on the body that is designed to assist with

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respect to a particular physiological or chemical function in the body. Water with minerals or other additives, milk, sport drinks, and energy drinks are all examples of fluids commonly used by athletes to maintain fluid levels. The hydration strategy referred to as fluid replacement may include consideration of the relative merits of both pure water as well as any other fluid. The essential role of water in the function of the body is best illustrated in three systems that are central to athletic performance: the cardiovascular system, the osmoregulatory system, and the thermoregulatory system. It is a commonly stated sports science proposition that, if the body loses as little as 1% to 2% of its fluids through dehydration, athletic performance may decline by as much as 10%. The all-pervasive power of cardiovascular function within the body is felt in every aspect of physical performance. The bloodstream, through the movement of its erythrocytes, carries oxygen and nutrients to working cells to facilitate the further production of energy. As a general proposition, when the body becomes dehydrated, the blood volumes within the system are reduced, which slows the efficiency of both the transport of oxygen and nutrients, as well as a delay in the corresponding removal of metabolic wastes through the blood. The cardiovascular system cannot function effectively if the system is dehydrated, no matter what other steps may be taken by the athlete to assist in performance in any other respect. Osmoregulation is the built-in mechanism that seeks to ensure the levels of bodily fluids and the electrolytes throughout the body. When the ratio between water and electrolytes fluctuates too far from optimal levels, the body’s ability to maintain overall fluid levels and to transmit nerve impulses into muscular action is affected. The proportion of sodium to water is the most important of the ratios sought to be maintained through osmoregulation. The sodium level directly impacts the organ functions that relate to hydration, such as blood pressure and the production of urine by the kidneys. The kidneys excrete urine in accordance with the hormonal signals triggered by fluctuations in sodium levels; when the sodium level is too low, the kidneys will tend to produce more urine to decrease the proportion of water to sodium in the body, with the converse action of limiting urine production when the sodium level is too high. Thermoregulation is the body’s control of its internal temperature in response to all external environmental forces. The most effective regulator of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WATER (OXYGEN ENHANCEMENT)

internal temperature is the cooling of the body through the production and release of perspiration. In warm weather exercise, an athlete may lose up to 32 oz (1 l) of fluid per hour; perspiration is not pure water, as it includes both water and minerals, primarily sodium. The body’s thirst mechanism, triggered in the hypothalamus region of the brain, is not activated until the body has lost approximately 1 to 2 qt (1 to 2 l) of fluid. It is for this reason that athletes must hydrate on a regular basis during both training and competition, whether or not they have experienced thirst. With the importance of fluid replacement paramount for every athlete, the quality and the precise formulation of the replacement fluid is a critical issue. The overall goal of fluid replacement is to replace the amount of fluid lost to perspiration and other bodily functions during athletic activity. While pure water will often provide a solution for dehydration, the consumption of large quantities of water for this purpose creates risks for the athlete. Water consumed alone may dramatically affect the desired proportion of sodium to water within the body, signaling the body to prevent the absorption of further water into the bloodstream, directing the excess instead to the tissues of the body. This condition, hyponatremia, is potentially fatal, as the person will become further dehydrated. For longer periods of exercise, there is considerable scientific support for the proposition that a sports drink, primarily water, with no more than 8% carbohydrate, that also provides sodium and potassium in the mixture, will adequately address the hydration needs of an athlete. The carbohydrate will provide an athlete with another fuel source during exercise; carbohydrate in excess of 8% is more difficult to absorb into the body and may cause cramping. Energy drinks are a poor hydration choice. Although most of these beverages are over 90% water, all contain stimulants that are also powerful diuretics, primarily caffeine. Recent studies have illustrated that many energy drinks contain over 120 mg of caffeine per 16 oz (500 ml) serving; the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has limited soda to 65 mg of caffeine per 12 oz (350 ml) serving. If the body has begun to sustain the effects of dehydration, the consumption of energy drinks will likely accelerate the process.

Blood volume; Cardiovascular system; Hydration; Renal function; Sodium and sodium deficits; Thermoregulation, exercise, and thirst; Water (oxygen enhancement).

SEE ALSO


Water (oxygen enhancement) In recent years, water that has been treated with additional oxygen has been marketed as both a sports drink and as a general nutritional supplement. These oxygen-enhanced water products are popularly known as oxygenated water or oxygenized water, depending on the particular manufacturer. The substances are marketed commercially under a variety of trade names. Oxygenated water is a product whose appeal can be traced to the rise of the marathon and the triathlon as mass participation sports in the late 1970s and early 1980s, developments that sparked the formation of the international sports drink industry. By the late 1990s, sports drinks had established a significant niche in the health and nutrition marketplace as a whole, with advertising campaigns that took clear aim at both athletic and non-athletic consumer targets. Sports drinks have been subsequently marketed not simply as a rehydration tool for the active athlete, but also for the inherently healthy formulations that is claimed by their producers. In a similar fashion, oxygenated water, like mineral water, is claimed to promote better general health among its users. Its proponents also advocate oxygenated water as a supplement that will significantly enhance athletic performance, particularly in endurance sports. Water, both in its pure laboratory form and in its natural state, is a fluid, a molecule created through the binding of two hydrogen atoms and a single oxygen atom. The chemistry of water is expressed as the formula H2O. Oxygen in its elemental state is a constituent of water, but that oxygen is tightly bound to the hydrogen atoms within the water molecule; this oxygen is not capable of any release from the chemical structure in a sports drink in a fashion that the body can use in the production of energy, in the manner that oxygen inhaled through the lungs is subsequently transported by the erythrocytes (red blood cells) in the bloodstream. The oxygen added to an oxygenated sport drink is injected into the fluid under pressure and bottled. The theory in support of oxygenated water as a training aid is the more oxygen that a person can consume, through any means, the more oxygen will be directed into the cells of the body. Once it enters the stomach, oxygenated water will be ingested through the small intestine. The cardiovascular system will transport the additional oxygen to the cells that need it, as with any other nutrient. As a result, the oxygenated water will enhance athletic

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performance, stamina, and overall energy levels, because the cells have more oxygen available to them to metabolize its energy stores. A number of scientific studies conducted since the late 1990s concerning the benefits of oxygenated water have reached conclusions that counter the claims of the water manufacturers. All of these studies confirm the physiological proposition that oxygen carried into the stomach through the water consumed will not enter the bloodstream, as this oxygen will never pass beyond the membranes of the intestine. None of the studies conducted found any observable difference in the heart rate or overall cardiovascular function in persons using oxygenated water. The American Council in Exercise was one research group to conclude that the only method by which oxygen could reach an energy-producing cell would be by way of the hemoglobin present in each erythrocyte, or by way of the tiny amounts that might be dissolved in blood plasma. Hemoglobin is the oxygen carrier present in every red blood cell. As the hemoglobin is at all times saturated with oxygen (as much 95% capacity) through the normal oxygen transport processes centered in the exchange mechanism situated in the alveoli, the tiny air sacs within the lungs, the oxygenated water has no delivery mechanism available to it. Confirmation of the research critical of the oxygenated water industry claims is also supported, in a more oblique way, through the controversies regarding the illegal use of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) by endurance athletes. EPO is the natural hormone that spurs the production of greater numbers of red blood cells to increase the body’s oxygencarrying capacity. The considerable body of science concerning EPO confirms that the only method by which oxygen capacity can be increased in an athlete is through increasing the number of erythrocytes available in the bloodstream. While the athletic performance-enhancing claims made with respect to oxygenated water may be of questionable scientific validity, there is also the placebo effect of such products to be considered. Unlike many other sports supplements, pure water is not inherently harmful, and the consumption of oxygenated water is safe. The cost of these products aside, oxygenated water is a proper method with which to obtain the daily recommended water consumption levels. If the athlete believes that he or she is obtaining a physical advantage through the consumption of oxygenated water, the athlete may have created a personal psychological edge.

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Cardiovascular system; Hydration; Oxygen;

Water.

Water polo Water polo has a reputation as one of the toughest, most physically demanding team sports in the world. It is a game that combines the tactical elements and the physicality of such diverse sports as swimming, soccer, basketball, ice hockey, and rugby. The object of water polo is to throw a ball into a net defended by a goal keeper and six teammates who use physical means to hinder the offensive team’s attack. The ball is advanced using passing plays and other offensive tactics. All of this takes place in water that is 6 ft (1.8 m) deep. Players move in the water at all times and are without swimming aids. Water polo was born as an aquatic version of rugby in England in the 1870s. The early versions of the game were brutal contests that permitted almost any tactic in the stopping of an opponent, including blows, kicks, and grappling maneuvers. Eventually, water polo evolved to a greater emphasis being placed on the swimming abilities of the players; speed and passing ability gained a corresponding importance in the game. Water polo has the distinction of being the first team sport included in the Olympic Games, played for the first time in 1900 as a men’s sport; women’s water polo was added to the Olympics in 2000. The Federation Internationale de Natation Amateur (FINA) is the international body responsible for the governance of water polo and sponsors a popular World Water Polo League, where national water polo teams compete for an annual championship. In the United States, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) has sanctioned a water polo championship since 1969, an event historically dominated by Californian universities. Water polo is played in an pool that is generally between 66 ft and 100 ft (20–30 m) long, and 33 ft to 66 ft (10 m to 20 m) wide. In international play, the pool must be at least 6 ft (1.8 m) deep. There are six players per side plus a goalkeeper, who defends a net that is 10 ft (3 m) wide and 3 ft (90 cm) high. The water polo ball has the approximate dimensions of a soccer ball; it may only be carried in, or thrown with, one hand by the players. Within the 5 m line (16 ft) of the goal, the goalkeeper may play the ball with two hands. The goalkeeper may also use a fist to strike the ball. The other players may move WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Gold match at the 2005 Men’s World Water Polo Championships.

with the ball pushing ahead of them in the water, an action described as ‘‘dribbling’’ the ball. The ball may be passed between the players using one hand on the throw and the catch. To succeed in water polo, the player must have a number of physical skills, the most important of which is strong swimming ability. The player must be able to tread water using their legs only, to maintain a consistent body position above the water, for minutes at a time. The player must also have extremely well developed hand eye coordination, in order to both follow and handle the ball from a variety of angles and positions. The offensive tactics employed in water polo require precise perimeter passing and accurate shooting. The ‘‘point’’ is the player with the most offensive responsibility, this player functions much like a point WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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guard directing a basketball offence. The point distributes the ball to teammates, seeking to create advantageous angles in which a shot may be delivered. Shots in water polo may be a power shot, where the player delivers the ball with maximum velocity towards the goal, or as a skip shot, where the ball is fired to create a deflection off the water near the goal, making the ball difficult to handle for the goalkeeper. The defensive tactics used in water polo are at the heart of its deserved reputation as a rugged, physical sport. There is virtually continuous body contact as the ball is played, much of it occurring below the surface of the water. A minor foul will result in possession of the ball to the opposing team. A major foul, such as holding or ‘‘sinking’’ an opponent, will result in a 20-second penalty, where the

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player must leave the play and remain at the side of the pool, in a fashion similar to an ice hockey infraction. If a penalty is committed against an offensive player within the 5 m area of the goal, the offensive player will be awarded a penalty shot. The nature of water polo requires a comprehensive off season physical training regime. In an Olympic level game, composed of four 8 minute quarters, a water polo player will swim as far as 3 mi (4 km to 5 km). Elite players will usually divide their fitness programs between aerobic training, anaerobic training, and weight workouts, with stretching and flexibility training incorporated into each division. A useful training technique designed to build the player’s ability to tread water for extended periods is to hold a weight over the players head while they tread water for minutes at a time. SEE ALSO

Endurance; Ice hockey; Soccer; Swimming.

Water skiing Water skiing is a sport that combines the grace and power of alpine skiing with the acrobatic flair of gymnastics and aerial skiing. Water skiing, the action of pulling a skier across a body of water by a motor boat, was invented by American Ralph Samuelson (1903–1977) in Minnesota in 1922. In its early period, the sport of water skiing was limited to the simple demonstration of balance by the athlete as they were transported across the water. With the development of increasingly powerful motorboats, water skiers could be pulled at significantly greater higher speeds. As skier speeds increased, water skiing expanded to include three distinct components—slalom skiing, where the skier navigates through a series of buoys set at irregular intervals on the water, creating obstacles similar to the gates used in Alpine slalom skiing; trick skiing, including the use of a single ski, barefoot skiing, and different types of acrobatic tricks; ski jumping, where the skier is pulled by a tow boat towards a ramp that is approximately 21 ft (6.5 m) long and 6 ft high (1.8 m); the ramp is anchored in a fixed position in the water. The winning jump in competition is determined by the distance achieved by the skiers, as there are no marks awarded for style or form. Elite water ski jumpers can attain distances of over 150 ft (45 m) in the air. From its creation in the United States, water skiing was introduced to parts of Europe; it gained a particular popularity in areas such as the French Riviera. The International Water Ski Federation

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(IWSF) was founded in 1949. Today, water skiing is popular in all countries that possess access to any significant bodies of water. The IWSF sponsors a World Cup water ski tour that attracts professional competitors. The IWSF is a member of the Olympic movement; water skiing is not an Olympic sport. The IWSF is also the governing body for the related sports of wakeboarding and kneeboarding. A wakeboard is a device with a construction similar to that of a snowboard, and the sport incorporates elements of surfing, snowboarding, ice skating, and waterskiing. As the name suggests, the wakeboarder rides in the wake generated by the towing motorboat; a knee boarder is positioned on their knees. Each discipline is particularly suited to the performance of tricks, including high speed turns, and a variety of somersaults and flip movements. In water skiing, the prospective skier is generally introduced to the sport through the use of two skis. Once the skier establishes the desired degree of balance and proficiency, the skier will often develop further skills using a single ski, particularly in the execution of more demanding turns and slalom techniques. The basic principle of physics that explain how the water skier is kept afloat while being towed is the same principle involved in the motion of the boat itself across the water. Planing is the application of the physical law that provides that all action will produce an equal and opposite reaction. With the water ski, designed with the ski tip tilted slightly upwards from the surface of the water, the water strikes the ski as the skier moves forward, creating a rebound downward from the ski. The rebound creates an upward force on the ski and the skier. So long as the upward water force is equal to the downward force of gravity (the weight of the skier), the skier must remain afloat. When the skier is traveling in a straight line behind the boat, the two forces acting upon the skier are the force of the tow rope, as created by the movement of the tow boat, and the force of the water upon the skis. Assuming a constant tension in the tow rope, the skier will travel at the same speed as the boat when positioned directly behind the boat. When the skier endeavors to move in a perpendicular direction from the path of the tow boat (across the wake, the wave turbulence produced on the water’s surface by the boat and its engine), a centripetal force is added to those forces directed against the skier. Centripetal force means to ‘‘seek the center.’’ The skier who moves in a path perpendicular to the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Chinese water skiing team.

GOH C HAI HIN/AFP/GETTY IMAGES

direction of boat travel will be subjected to a force that produces acceleration upon the body of the skier toward to the center of the circular path, which is the boat. It is for this reason that the skier can move faster than the tow boat when all three forces acting upon the skier are combined. Water skiers often travel at speeds in excess of 50 mph (80 km/h) if the tow boat is sufficiently powerful. If the skier falls at such speeds, the force of the impact into the water can cause significant injury. The equipment used by water skiers in competition is regulated by the IWSF. The skis may be manufactured from wood, metal, or composite material products. Skis may not exceed 39.3 in (1 m) in length, with a maximum width of 9.75 in (25 cm). In cooler temperatures, most water skiers wear a full body wetsuit, which provides insulation to the skier as well as a degree of cushioning in a fall. A sleek, form-fitting life jacket is also mandatory. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The most common water ski injury are those sustained to the lower legs, including the knee joint. Research has established that 35% of water ski injuries occur in the lower extremities, with one half of those injuries sustained to the knee. The execution of high speed jumps and twisting movements directs significant and often irregular forces into the knee, as do the high speed falls that create awkward angles of collision between the water skier’s body and the water surface. Strength and conditioning exercises for water skiing are directed to both physical performance and the reduction of injuries. Skier leg strength is developed through exercises such as lunges or squats that assist in maintaining an appropriate strength ratio between the two sets of muscles that govern knee flexion and extension, the hamstrings and the quadriceps. A 3:2 ratio in the relative strength of the quadriceps to the hamstrings is generally accepted as one that will ensure balance in knee movement. Exercises such as calf raises develop the gastrocnemius

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and soleus muscles (the calf muscles) of the lower leg, which are important to maintain the skier’s balance on the water. As with many sports where the athlete operates in the air, as with a water ski trick or jump, the development of the skier’s balance and perception skills is vital to competitive success. A Swiss ball is an effective tool for these purposes, as the skier can replicate many water ski movements and sensations through balance exercises with the Swiss ball; in essence, these exercises permit the skier to practice at being stable in a variety of positions. Large muscle mass is not an essential aspect of water skiing. High repetition/low resistance weight exercises, designed to promote a well balanced physique, are an important part of the comprehensive dry land training of the water skier.

Balance training and proprioception; Skiing, Alpine; Surfing; Windsurfing.

SEE ALSO

Weight categories Weight categories have been employed for centuries as a method of equalizing competition in a number of different sports. In sports where the physical strength of the combatants was understood to be crucial to their ultimate success, weight categories recognized the fundamental principle that, all things being equal, in strength sports the larger athlete was likely to be the stronger athlete. Stated in the alternative, where two athletes possess equal technical skill in a strength-oriented sport, the larger athlete is more likely to overpower the smaller athlete. Weight categories are fundamental to the organization of competition in the individual sports of boxing, wrestling, and weightlifting. Each of these sports requires the athlete to build a dynamic, powerful body that possesses explosive power capabilities, all of which are integrated into a physical structure with a strong aerobic foundation. The only prominent team sport where weight divisions are employed is in rowing, which is divided into lightweight and heavyweight competitions. Boxing is perhaps the best known of the sports in which weight divisions define the extent of the competition. The definition of each weight class varies slightly between those used at the Olympic Games and the common professional weight designations and some amateur competitions. The same weight categories are used with different weight limits for

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women’s boxing. Boxers compete in divisions that range from the straw weight division for men up to 105 lb (46 kg), through the heavyweight division for men over 200 lb (91 kg). Throughout the history of professional boxing, certain weight divisions have garnered greater degrees of public attention and acclaim, particularly the heavyweight and the welterweight divisions (140–147 lb, or 66.6 kg limit). In all sports where there are weight categories, the limits provided are not merely guidelines; they are inflexible limits. An inability on the part of the athlete to ‘‘make the weight’’ will disqualify the athlete from competition. Strategies have often been devised by athletes to assist in meeting a particular weight category standard, many of which compromise both the ability of the athlete to compete at the optimal level, in addition to placing significant adverse stresses on the function of many bodily systems. There are two general approaches with respect to how an athlete should achieve and maintain a competitive weight standard. The first is the development of a training program in which the athlete seeks to develop maximum strength and fitness while at all times maintaining the target weight for competition. The second strategy is to develop maximum strength and fitness without a primary concern for the weight limit, with a concerted weight loss effort immediately prior to competition to come under the standard. The second strategy is premised on the theory that the athlete can bring a level of strength to competition that would otherwise only be attainable at a higher weight. The number of times during a competition that an athlete will be tested for compliance with the weight category limits varies from sport to sport. In amateur boxing and wrestling, in which the competitions may span a number of bouts over a period of several days, the athlete will be weighed at the beginning of the competition and then prior to each succeeding match. Once the athlete has achieved a desired weight, it must be maintained throughout the competition. All weight category sports place significant demands on the body during both competition and in training with respect to sufficient caloric intake, proper nutrition, and hydration. Whatever strategy is employed concerning the achievement of the requisite weight standard, sports scientists and nutritionists generally recommend that the athlete maintain a year-round weight that never exceeds the competitive weight limit by more than 10%. The management of weight targets is another WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Weight categories have been established in boxing and other sports to equalize competition.

aspect of how the athlete will plan the training for a competitive season, a process known as the periodization of training. In these sports, weight management is as important to athletic success as the development of sport-specific technique, for without making the proper weight, there is no competition. There are no additional risks to an athlete who maintains competitive weight year-round. Athletes who must dramatically cut weight before competition create potential physical and psychological risks that must be carefully considered. Weight cutting strategies should first be implemented in the dietary choices made in training, where nutrition-rich, and relatively low-calorie, low-fat foods will reduce the accumulation of excess weight. The body’s ability to repair itself during the rest intervals between workouts is founded on its nutritional intake; when athletes are monitoring their weight, they must seek maximum nutritional return for reduced caloric value. When the athlete seeks to lose weight through a ‘‘crash’’ diet in the period leading up to competition, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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nutrients that are not stored in the body, including the water-soluble vitamin B complex and vitamin C, may not be present in sufficient quantities to perform their respective maintenance and repair functions. Vitamin C, as an example, is essential to the production of collagen, a building block of bone, ligaments, and tendons. When the athlete must lose 5 lb (2.2 kg) or more on the eve of competition, it is common to dehydrate to make the desired weight. The sudden loss of fluids, which must be maintained through the entire competition, will likely impair the performance of the athlete. The loss of significant quantities of body fluid will directly impact blood volume, which limits the ability of the cardiovascular system to function at peak efficiency. When the athlete competes in successive bouts at reduced fluid levels, the risk of a heat-related illness triggered by dehydration is significant, as the body’s thermoregulatory system will not be able to cool itself as efficiently through perspiration.

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Peak athletic performance will require a complete commitment to the employment of competitive strategies and the execution of demanding physical maneuvers. The additional stress imposed on the competitor to make weight or be disqualified may serve as a significant distraction to the efforts of the athlete to maintain competitive focus prior to the event. The most common dehydration techniques used in weight category sport are the use of ‘‘sweat boxes,’’ or similar artificial heating of the athlete to induce perspiration, and taking diuretics. The use of diuretics is a time-honored practice in sports such as boxing; these are substances that stimulate the increased production of urine by the kidneys. Many diuretics are prohibited in international competitions that are regulated by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), although this ban is aimed more at the use of diuretics as a steroid-masking agent than for their use by athletes to achieve a weight. Diuretic use for any purpose will lead to disqualification. In some youth sports, weight categories are a means of ensuring safety for all participants; American football for players below high school age is an example. SEE ALSO

Boxing; Rowing; Weight gain; Weight loss;

Wrestling.

Weight control SEE Body composition

and weight control

Weight gain Humans have had a fascination with their weight throughout the course of history. The perfect weights, ideal weights, and optimal weights of the human body have been the subject of both social and scientific study for centuries. For non-athletic people, weight is not determined with reference to science or physiology, but by the appearance of the individual. ‘‘If you look good, you feel good’’ is a rule of life for many throughout the world, and these people view ideal weight as one at which they can function as they wish, in terms of the clothing that they may comfortably wear and the daily activities in which they may participate. Ideal weight from a social or personal perspective is unrelated to science.

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Sports science approaches weight considerations from a far more rigorous perspective. Ideal weights are not determined with any reference to appearance, but are tied to the analyses of human performance and capabilities achievable at a particular weight to achieve a desired result. The scientifically sanctioned ideal weight for an individual may engage a multitude of physiological, nutritional, training, and competitive considerations, a product of analysis as opposed to personal preference. Weight gain is a physical process that is diametrically opposed to that of weight loss. These two familiar concepts are positioned on either side of a flexible standard that represents the ideal body weight of an individual. A weight gain strategy is not effective if it later results in the implementation of a corrective weight loss strategy. Western society in general, and North American culture in particular, has been swamped with weight loss strategies in seemingly ever-increasing numbers, with a paradoxical rise in levels of obesity and the numbers of overweight persons; weight gain is a less common concern for the general population. Weight gain among athletes will be observed in one of three general scenarios: an intentional weight gain, as a part of a structured training and dietary program to achieve a defined athletic goal; a careless or negligent weight gain, when the athlete fails to pay proper attention to diet and nutrition relative to the body’s physical demands; and unavoidable or involuntary weight gain, such as those triggered by prescription medication or pregnancy. It is the intentional and the carelessly triggered weight gains that are of prime concern in sports science. From a scientific perspective, weight gain and weight loss are straightforward scientific propositions. When the attainment of a particular body mass, without reference to physical performance or athletic capability, is the goal of any individual, weight gain or weight loss is readily achievable. One pound of excess body fat represents the storage of 3,500 calories of unused and convertible energy in the body. If a person increases the amount of calories consumed over the amount of energy expended by an amount of 500 calories per day, whether through increased food consumption, decreased physical activity, or a combination of these actions, the individual will gain one pound of body mass per week (7 days 500 calories), where all other physiological factors remain constant. The same proposition, calculated in reverse, applies to weight loss. For an athlete, the stark mathematical calculation in support of weight gain is not so straightforward. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Ideal weight in any athlete must first be broadly considered with reference to the physical attributes of the athlete with reference to the broader demands of the sport. To reference an extreme example, an 18-year-old female athlete stands 5 ft 6 in tall (1.67 m), and is a strong and fit 135 lb (61 kg). This athlete enjoys throwing the shotput, and wishes to pursue this sport in university competition. An understanding of both the physics of the shotput, and the type of physique needed to compete at a higher level would suggest that the 40–50 lb (20–23 kg) weight gain this athlete would have to achieve to continue with her competitive objectives is likely a physical impossibility. If the athlete wished to be a shot putter for her pleasure, she could do so at her present healthy weight. The ideal weight for this athlete relative to the desired activity is unlikely to be achieved through healthy means. Once the ideal weight for the specific athlete to compete in the sport has been broadly determined, a number of factors are engaged. The first is the physical composition of the athlete. It is common for persons in the general population and athletes alike to possess a body weight that falls within the apparent ideal range for their participation in a sport. The amount of that ideal weight that is useful lean body mass versus body fat is an important consideration. The lean body mass is the weight of the musculoskeletal structure; the total mass of an individual less the amount of body fat provides the total musculoskeletal weight. Body fat has been the subject of considerable scientific study. It is generally the fat, stored in the form of triglycerides, that is contained within the specialized adipose tissues of the body; excess fat is simply mass that creates an additional physical demand on the body in the course of athletic performance; leaner bodies tend to be more efficient. The best assessment as to the impact of body fat on performance is to determine the percentage of body fat. A general tool to predict body fat percentages is the body mass index (BMI). The BMI is a formula that estimates the percentage of body fat in an individual through a consideration of the current height, weight, and age of an individual. The BMI is depicted as a chart that permits people to place themselves accordingly. The BMI is not a determinative measure of body fat. A more accurate analysis of body fat percentage is achieved through the physical examination of the person. Measurements of the skin folds at the upper arm, abdomen, thighs, and buttocks (the most WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

common storage areas of fat), and submersion in a specially designed water displacement tank will provide accurate measurement of body fat. The other physiological issues that must be considered in the development of a weight gain strategy are any pertaining to the underlying health of the person. Preexisting conditions, such as diabetes, including prior physical injuries, may influence the manner in which the weight gain program is implemented. Weight gain will occur whenever the amount of food energy consumed through diet exceeds the amount of physical energy expended. On the simplistic level, an increase in food intake will result in a weight gain. It is the well-managed and carefully directed weight gain program for an athlete that will create a stronger, fitter, more capable athlete. It is for this reason that, once the needs and the person of the athlete has been properly assessed, the diet and the training schedule of the athlete can be coordinated. Examples of the managed weight gain for a specific athletic purpose are common in elite sports, particularly among athletes seeking to achieve a future professional career. The style of play in the National Football League (NFL) of the United States requires very large and very strong linemen, both in the offensive and defensive formations. Modern football has spawned an evolutionary process at this position, where the offensive linemen are often tall, at heights in a range of 6 ft 4 in to 6 ft 7 in (1.82 m to 1.90 m), with an average weight of over 300 lb (135 kg). The long arms and significant weight permit the linemen to extend their arms to drive back to the somewhat smaller but faster defensive ends; conversely, the most desirable interior defensive linemen outweigh their offensive counterparts, and the defenders seek to secure the lowest possible position and leverage in line play against their opponents. It is common in NFL football for an aspiring offensive lineman competing at the college level to be encouraged to gain as much as 30 lb (14 kg) in the six months between the end of university football and the commencement of the NFL training camps. Unlike the example of the high school female shot putter, this encouraged weight gain for an athlete 6 ft 4 in and 280 lb (127 kg) is readily achievable. With careful attention to body fat and other efficiency factors, the prospective football player will combine intense resistance training, a moderate amount of cardiovascular conditioning, and balanced diet to manage a weight gain where there is also an increase in his muscle mass.

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Careless or unstructured weight gains are often problematic for an athlete. At the conclusion of a long and demanding competitive season, many athletes enjoy a period of deliberate and unfocused rest away from the demands of training. This phenomenon is of particular interest in sports where the athlete competes in a defined weight category. In these circumstances, if the athlete overindulges, consuming food in excess to the regular diet, with a lesser nutritional value, the resumption of training will be hindered by the dual presence of possible nutritional deficiencies and excess weight. Numerous sports scientists and nutritionists advocate that the weight of an athlete who competes in a defined weight class sport should not vary by more than 10% from the ideal competitive weight; these athletes include boxers, lightweight rowers, wrestlers, and many martial arts athletes. Once an ideal weight has been attained through a healthy and focused weight gain program, it must be maintained at a consistent level. When the athlete no longer competes at either the same competitive level, or on retirement, the basis on which the weight gain was sought will no longer exist. The ideal weight for the athlete will likely be reduced, with appropriate strategy to manage the healthy reduction of body mass to the new desired level.

Diet; Eating disorders in athletes; Fat burners; Metabolic response; Muscle mass and strength; Weight loss. SEE ALSO

Weight loss Weight loss and the strategies advertised as achieving weight loss are a remarkable example of human nature at its most capricious. It seems that a large percentage of the adult population of modern Western culture is prepared to seek and pursue a weight loss solution, in the midst of societies where fast foods rich in saturated fats, sugared beverages, and generally unhealthy physical habits reign supreme. The advertising campaigns in support of commercially advocated weight loss schemes that regularly appear in North America appeal primarily to the vanity of the individual. The scientific imperatives behind weight loss are far starker and far more compelling than if one looks attractive. Excess body weight impacts human performance in a multitude of ways, all of which are serious. There has been a flood of statistical data in recent years to support

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various campaigns aimed at addressing the lack of fitness people of all ages. Governmental and private organizations throughout the world have highlighted the rise in the incidence of overweight and obese children, and the predicted crippling public cost of the additional health care that will be necessitated by the consequences of obesity in adults. Weight loss strategies are compelling in the face of this data. Aircraft, movie theater, and sports stadium seating is now too narrow to accommodate the typical modern North American adult. The incidence of diabetes, osteoarthritis, cardiovascular illnesses (including high cholesterol), coupled with the doubling of rates of adult and juvenile obesity (generally defined as when the percentage of body fat in a given individual exceeds 30%), have lead researchers to conclude that the present generation of young people (those born after 1985) may be the first generation in recorded history to experience a shorter lifespan than that of their parents. The Office of the Surgeon General of the United States estimated in 2006 that 300,000 Americans die every year as a result of complications stemming from obesity, with childhood obesity increasing 230% since 1980. It is further estimated that 62% of all Americans are overweight. From a physiological perspective, weight loss is a simple proposition, and the negative health consequences of excess body weight are consequently significantly reduced. The body has two basic structural components when assessing the ideal weight for any individual. Lean body mass is the weight of the body’s skeleton, organs, and muscle. Body fat is the product of the food consumed through diet that is not immediately required by the body for energy. Stored as triglycerides in the specialized fat storage cells known as adipose tissue, body fat plays an important role as a reserve energy source, as well as insulation for the more vulnerable internal organs. While excess body fat is an unhealthy physical state, small percentages of body fat are desirable; healthy males, depending on their age, physical build, and the nature of sports activities, will possess a body fat percentage of between 10% and 15%, while females naturally possess greater amounts of body fat, and a healthy woman may possess between 16% and 20%. One pound of body fat represents stored energy in the body of 3,500 calories. To lose weight at a rate of 1.5 lb per week (a figure often cited as a safe rate of weight loss), the person must either reduce food consumption or increase the level of physical activity by a total of 750 calories per day (5,250 7). WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WEIGHT LOSS

The weight loss issues faced by athletes are not generally as dramatic as those for members of the general population. Most athletes who perceive a need to reduce their weight have a specific athletic objective that is measurable, such as being able to finish a training run, or lift a specific amount of weight. When the athlete is actively engaged in a sport, but seeks to reach a perceived ideal weight for competitive purposes, the formulation of a weight loss plan must include the following components: targeted ideal weight; current weight; and level of fitness, including body fat and lean muscle mass, physical conditioning factors (such as preexisting health concerns), and the anticipated competitive schedule. For active athletes seeking to achieve a reduction in their current weight to a desired weight, rapid reductions in weight are usually not healthy nor do they enhance their present athletic ability. To maintain a minimum level of fitness, the athletes must continue to train at their current level, or even harder during an active period of weight loss. Training requires careful attention to the athletes’ nutritional needs, and a reduction in food intake. Additionally, increased training creates a risk of nutritional deficits. Using the calculation of the energy contained in one pound of body fat, an athlete could continue with a normal diet (subject to an analysis of the nutritional issues that may have lead to the weight gain), and lose weight through increased training alone. The multitude of commercial diets, particularly those that promote low carbohydrate intake, must be approached with considerable caution by an athlete seeking to lose weight. In a typical balanced diet, the body will receive 60–65% of its energy sources in the form of carbohydrates, 12–15% as proteins, and less than 30% as fats. Carbohydrates are the preferred energy source for many types of human functions, including those of the brain and the nervous system. Purported low-carbohydrate diets proceed on the proposition that when the body has limited carbohydrates available, it will naturally turn to its fat stores as an alternative. If the only concern were the accessing of fats, this diet might operate as intended. However, athletes and the energy pathways (anaerobic, anaerobic alactic, and aerobic) used by the body to power muscular function only operate optimally when the energy stores are compatible. A further difficulty for the athlete on the lowcarbohydrate diet is the fact that many micronutrients (including all vitamins and most minerals) and phytochemicals tend to be most prolific and readily absorbed into the body through carbohyWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

drates such as fruits and vegetables. Weight loss without a corresponding maintenance of nutritional health is an undesirable state of any athlete. There are a number of specific weight loss scenarios that carry significant psychological issues. Eating disorders are prevalent among young females, a demographic where concerns over body image are often a motivation to extreme diets. Among female athletes, the sports of gymnastics, diving, and figure skating emphasize physical presentation and appearance, to the extent where, in some circumstances, the athletes will convince themselves that their body is inadequate for competition. The mental illnesses of bulimia and anorexia nervosa are the best known of these disorders. Bulimia is a condition where the athlete will commonly eat and purge, apparently consuming regular quantities of food, but eliminating meals through either vomiting or the use of laxatives. Anorexia nervosa is a self-imposed starvation to achieve thinness; anorexia can be fatal. Weight loss supplements, fat burners, and socalled diet pills are sometimes touted as fast-acting remedies to assist in the elimination of excess weight. As with many of the products sold commercially as weight loss supplements, there are nuggets of factual science-based material buried among the claims of speedy, effortless weight loss. The first of the common and truthful representations made is that the determination of the basal metabolic rate (BMR) for every individual is important in the development of a weight loss strategy. The BMR is an expression of how much energy an individual consumes in a given day. The BMR will fall within a range for all persons, generally in relation to their body type. There are three generally recognized body types: the ectomorph (thin, smaller bones build), the endomorph (the rounder, stouter build), and the mesomorph (larger, more muscular build). Many of the fat burner supplements have thermogenic qualities, meaning that they will increase the BMR of an individual to a limited degree by increasing the energy generated by the body and stimulate the metabolism. As with any nutritional supplement, knowing exactly what is contained in the formulation will indicate whether the product will promote or assist in weight loss in a safe manner. A number of weight loss products include known stimulants such as ephedra or ma huang (containing ephedrine), caffeine (including herbs such as guarana), bitter orange, and similar substances. Stimulants tend to act as an appetite suppressant through their action

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Weightlifting The origins of weightlifting as a sport are primal, with the main goal the ability to lift more weight than an opponent. The competitive sport of weightlifting is a separate discipline from the athletic training that is defined by the umbrella term weight training. Weight training is used by athletes to build muscle mass, strength, and endurance; to improve performance in a particular sport; or to generally enhance overall fitness. In weightlifting, as in boxing and wrestling, there is a well-defined correlation between the size of the athlete and the amount of weight that the athlete is capable of lifting. Competitive weightlifting is a sport in which the competition is organized into weight categories, with defined limits that are confirmed by a weigh-in of each athlete prior to competition.

In 2003, the popular dietary supplement/weight-loss aid, Metabolife 356, was shown to cause potentially dangerous heart effects. PH OTO B Y J U STIN S ULL I VAN /GET TY I MA GE S.

on the central nervous system, with a corresponding elevation of blood pressure and heart rate. An athlete engaged in physical activity must be cautious regarding the consumption of such products, given the stress produced by training alone on various bodily systems. Ephedrine has been the subject of worldwide controversy in all manner of herbal formulations, as there is considerable evidence that ephedrine played a role in a significant number of cases involving heart attacks, increased high blood pressure, and strokes. It is clear that ephedrine and caffeine consumed together heighten user risk. There is little question from a scientific standpoint that the best weight loss programs are those that simply combine exercise and a reduction of calories in diet, without compromising nutrition. SEE ALSO Diet; Eating disorders in athletes; Fat burners; Metabolic response; Muscle mass and strength; Obesity; Weight gain.

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Weightlifting competitions were known to have occurred in both the ancient Olympics as well as the traditional Scottish Highland Games. Weightlifting has been a part of the modern Olympic Games since 1896. Women’s weightlifting, using similar principles in the determination of weight categories, became an Olympic sport in 2000. The eight categories used in Olympic men’s weightlifting begin at 123 lb (56 kg), continuing to the heaviest category for competitors weighing more than 231 lb (105 kg). The women’s categories range from 105 lb (48 kg) to those competitors heavier than 165 lb (75 kg). Olympic weightlifting includes two different forms of competition at each of the weight categories, the snatch and the clean and jerk. All Olympic weightlifting is conducted using a bar that is loaded with the requisite weight to be attempted in the lift. Each event has a prescribed technique that the athlete must apply; each technique serves as proof that weightlifting is far more than an exercise in simple brute strength. Successful lifters in the snatch event will endeavor to generate maximum muscle power with their hands grasping the bar, the back held erect, and legs bent in a low, crouched position in front of the bar. With a movement that coordinates the entire musculoskeletal structure, athletes first generate maximum possible force with pushing their feet and calf muscles into the floor to act as a counterbalance to the lift of the bar upward. Lifters then bring the bar approximately level to the thighs, at which point they lift the weight with a powerful coordinated thrust to move the bar above the head. At this position, the bar is thrown slightly upward, to permit the lifters to place their body directly under the bar; when the bar is judged to have been held in a steady position, the lift is deemed legal. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WEIGHTLIFTING

Iranian Ibrahim Asghar competes in the 94-kg weightlifting category at the 2005 West Asian Games.

The clean and jerk is a two-step maneuver. The clean portion of the lift refers to the lifting of the bar from the ground. The bar is lifted into a position where the athlete may then crouch with the bar approximately across the chest in a pronounced squat position, with the weight of the bar directly above the lifter’s hips. The jerk sequence requires the lifter to forcefully drive the legs and hips upward, and with a coordinated exertion of the arms, the bar is lifted above the head. The closer to a perpendicular body position the lifter can maintain, the more efficient the action of the muscles employed on the bar. A form of competitive weightlifting outside the Olympic format is power lifting. Power lifting is comprised of the individual disciplines of the bench press (the traditional technique of lifting a weighted bar while lying on a training bench), the squat (a maneuver similar to the first part of the clean and jerk event), and the dead lift, the lifting of a weighted bar off the floor. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

KA RIM J AA FAR/ AFP /GET TY I MAG E S

As with many strength disciplines, such as the shot put or the hammer throw, the successful weightlifter is the athlete who can harness great muscular strength with efficient technique. As weightlifting requires all muscle groups to work in a coordinated effort, the weight training required to support competitive weightlifting must develop all muscle groups. No sport places greater importance on the development of core strength, the ability of the abdominal, lumbar (lower back), and groin tissues to stabilize the body during a lift, particularly as the weights are moved forcefully upward in both the snatch and the clean and jerk. Significant portions of weightlifting training are devoted to the stretching, flexibility, and development of these core strength structures. As weightlifting requires explosive movement in the execution of all lifts, especially in the legs and hips, plyometrics training is also an important tool. Unlike the plyometrics that would be employed by a basketball player or a long jumper, the weightlifter

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seeks to develop the fast-twitch muscles fibers to move the bar upward once positioned. In the 1970s and 1980s, weightlifting was perceived by many observers as a sport much corrupted by anabolic steroid use. As a strength sport, there is no question that anabolic steroids could create a significant competitive advantage for a user. Weightlifters are now subjected to the same types of performance-enhancing substance testing as all other athletes. As a sport where adherence to weight categories is required, weightlifters must also comply with the prohibitions concerning the diuretics that are listed on the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Prohibited List; diuretics mask anabolic steroid use, and they are an illegal method by which to lose weight in advance of competition to meet a required weight limit. Whether the sport has been entirely made clean of the use of anabolic agents is unclear. At the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the world’s second largest sports festival after the Olympics, a large cache of doping paraphernalia was found; its use was attributed to the members of the Australian weightlifting team.

Anabolic steroids; Free weights; Muscle mass and strength; Muscle protein synthesis; Protein supplements; Resistance exercise training; Weight categories.

SEE ALSO

Weights, free

SEE

Free weights

Wetsuits The wetsuit is a protective garment worn by athletes who participate in any water sports where either warmth or greater buoyancy are desired. Wetsuits are constructed in a variety of styles, with neoprene rubber the common construction material used. A wet suit provides insulation to the wearer in two separate ways. Neoprene is a compound that contains tiny air bubbles in its structure, a characteristic that insulates the wearer against the effect of cold water or air. As its name suggests, the wetsuit permits water to enter between the wetsuit material and the skin of the user. The thin layer of water created is warmed by body heat, forming a second insulating layer between the skin and the neoprene. In contrast, a drysuit is constructed with rubber seals at the neck, wrists, and legs of the suit, to prevent water from contact with the skin.

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A surfer in a wetsuit rides a wave.

PH OTO B Y ROY TOF T /

NAT I ONA L GE OGRAP HIC /GETT Y IM AGE S.

The originator of the wetsuit cannot be determined with absolute precision. The weight of historical evidence suggests that Hugh Bradner, a physicist employed at the University of California Berkley developed the first wetsuit for use by United States Navy ‘‘frogmen’’ in 1952. Bradner hoped to make these divers more efficient in their underwater movements through his one piece wetsuit. After manufacturing a few prototypes, the project was abandoned and Bradner never patented his creation, which employed neoprene its design. Wetsuits are worn by participants in virtually every outdoor water sport; the protective properties of the wetsuit are of particular importance to surfers, water skiers, kayakers, and other athletes who are exposed to the effects of cold water and air for a considerable period. In the triathlon and Iron man competitions, the wetsuit affords both protection to the athlete in cold water, as well as providing an extra degree of buoyancy in swim segments that may be as long as 2.4 mi (4 km). In internationally sanctioned competition, a triathlon wetsuit may not exceed 5 mm in thickness to prevent an athlete from gaining an undue buoyancy advantage with the suit. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WHEELCHAIR SPORTS

Swimmers who compete in the traditional Olympic races held in a 25-m or a 50-m pool may also utilize wetsuits of a highly specialized nature. These suits are designed not for protection or buoyancy, but to provide the swimmer with a more hydrodynamic profile in the water. Designed to mimic the effect of a shark’s skin in water, these swim wetsuits are manufactured with tiny v-shaped ridges that create differing regions of water pressure across the suit surface, reducing the effect of drag on the swimmer as they move through the water. Wetsuits are now manufactured in specific styles for particular sports; the triathlon wetsuit, as an example, has a number of carefully positioned zippers and releases to permit the athlete to remove the suit very quickly as they make a transition to the bicycle segment of the events. Wetsuits are generally available in three distinct styles—a full coverage suit that exposes the head, hands, and feet; the ‘‘Farmer John’’, where the shoulders and arms are also exposed for greater freedom of movement; the ‘‘shortie’’, styled to expose the legs as well as the arms.

Ironman competitions; Swimming; Triathlon; Water skiing.

SEE ALSO

Wheelchair sports The first organized sports competition for persons competing in wheelchairs was a part of the Stoke-Mandeville Games, the forerunner to the modern Paralympics movement, held in England in 1948 for persons with physical disabilities. The wheelchair technology then available to the competing athletes was crude; the wheelchairs were not modified from their intended purpose of basic hospital transport for persons who lacked motor control of their legs. Modern wheelchair design and the ever-increasing range of sports available to disabled persons create a symbiotic relationship. As sports in which a wheelchair can be adapted for athletic use have been proposed and developed, technology and design have kept abreast of athletic interests. The modern international Paralympics movement, supported by the efforts of over 150 national Paralympics organizations, has created a structured wheelchair sports environment that continues to grow with every Paralympic Games. The Summer Paralympic Games provide for wheelchair sports WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

across a range of disciplines, the best known of which are within those sports that comprise track and field. Wheelchair athletes compete in a variety of races, ranging from the 100 m track event to the marathon (26.2 mi, or 42.2 km). The wheelchairs currently used by disabled athletes are remarkable feats of engineering. The sleek frames are composed of a combination of lightweight titanium and composite carbon fiber materials. The two larger rear wheels and the smaller lead wheels are configured for both aerodynamic effect as well as the propulsion efficiency of the athlete. The athlete is usually tightly strapped into the wheelchair, to eliminate any bounce on the part of the body that would detract from the efficient forward motion of the wheelchair. The combination of wheelchair technology and the muscular power developed by the racer has resulted in the elite wheelchair-powered racers being faster than able-bodied runners at all distances greater than 800 m. The wheelchair team sports of the Summer Paralympics represent both modified traditional Olympic summer sports and adaptive events. The best known of the wheelchair team sports is basketball, which has been played in various parts of the world since the late 1940s. Wheelchair technology has greatly improved the range of techniques available to the wheelchair basketball player; a three or four wheel, lightweight chair is now used, with two built-in antitipping devices used to stabilize the chair on contact with another competitor. The wheelchairs used by forwards are constructed with an elevated seat; those used by the guards are lower seated, permitting the player to move and react more quickly to the play. The other summer Paralympics team sports employ wheelchairs specifically modified for each event. Dance sport, fencing, rugby (an indoor variant of the outdoor game), and tennis could not be performed without the technological benefits in modern wheelchair construction. As an example, the lightweight tennis wheelchair employs a pivoting front wheel to permit the player to move quickly in any direction to make a return to an opponent. The Winter Paralympics do not provide as many competitive opportunities for the wheelchair athlete, given the presence of snow and the nature of the Alpine terrain. Curling was introduced as a winter wheelchair sport at the 2006 Winter Paralympics, with specialized chairs adapted to permit both the throw of the curling stones as well as to facilitate the sweeping of the ice to control the speed and the direction of the stones.

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In recent years, there have been incursions into the realm of extreme sports by wheelchair athletes. Examples of these activities include hang gliding and use of a wheelchair that approximates the all-terrain experience of mountain biking, using a very durable, well-cushioned frame equipped with a braking system.

Endurance exercise; Exercise, high intensity; Hydration strategy in distance running; Paralympics.

SEE ALSO

Whole-body heat cramping Whole-body heat cramping is a progressive and debilitating physical state, one that tends to afflict athletes who are training or competing in warm weather conditions. Cramping that affects the function of muscle groups throughout the entire musculoskeletal system is a result of the same mechanisms that trigger more localized and painful muscle cramping, which is typically isolated in the calf and hamstrings.

Israeli archer Amit Dror, 50, practices from his wheelchair. PH OTO B Y U RIEL S I NAI/ GETT Y I M AGES .

Wheelchair racing has continued to enjoy popularity beyond the scope of the Paralympics. Many international marathon races have provided for a wheelchair division for many years. These specialty machines are built with larger than typical wheels for propulsion, and a small lead wheel built on an elongated structure extending from the wheelchair. The athlete is seated as low to the ground as is possible, while still permitting the athlete to direct maximum muscular power to the wheels. The large wheels are very thin, to create a more aerodynamic profile. Many competitors also race with the wheels of the chair aligned in a negative camber, where the top of the wheel is angled toward the chair. This alignment permits the racers to corner more aggressively at high speeds, a significant benefit on marathon road courses with a number of turns, as well as permitting the athlete to direct maximum muscular power from the arms positioned as closely as possible to the wheel.

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Muscle cramps are caused by the combined operation of sodium deficit, muscle fatigue, and dehydration. The primary cause of muscle cramps is a deficit in sodium, the essential mineral and electrolyte that is obtained from a variety of dietary sources. In hot weather, sodium is lost through the increased levels of perspiration generated by exercise, as the body endeavors to maintain a healthy internal temperature through the cooling release of sweat. When the body perspires, sodium (and trace amounts of other minerals, such as calcium and magnesium) and water are passed together from the body. Muscle cramps rarely occur in a strong and rested muscle. Cramps invariably become a factor in athletic performance after the muscle has endured significant stress. When the factors of sodium depletion, dehydration, and muscle fatigue are combined, muscle cramping is a real risk. The cramps occur because the body requires sodium to perform two critical tasks that are especially relevant to warm weather athletic performance: the maintenance of fluid levels, particularly blood volume, throughout the body (the process of osmoregulation), and the ability of the nervous system to transmit the nerve impulses that are required to initiate the muscular contraction necessary to produce movement. The ratio between total body fluid volume and sodium is the key marker relied on by the body to determine how much fluid should be present. When the proportion of sodium to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WILD YAMS

body fluid is too low, the body will resist the absorption of further water or other fluids, which can initiate a dangerous physical condition known as hyponatremia. When there is too great a level of sodium relative to fluids present in the body, the body senses that it is dehydrated, which will signal the kidneys to reduce the production of urine. The thirst mechanism is also activated at this time. The athletes most prone to whole-body cramping are those who have a relatively low body fat percentage, with a relatively high proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers. All athletes who become dehydrated to the relatively modest amount of 2% of their total body weight during the course of a warm weather activity are at risk of developing muscle cramps. Muscle cramping that occurs to any extent in the body, also referred to as heat cramps, is the least serious of the well-recognized heat illnesses that may befall athletes in warm weather conditions. Heat exhaustion is the cumulative effect of heat exposure that prevents the body’s thermoregulatory mechanism from effectively dispersing the internal heat generated by exercise. Heat stroke is the most serious and the potentially fatal failure of the body to prevent overheating, leading ultimately to a shutdown of organ function, and a significant risk of permanent damage to the heart or liver. Sodium depletion that leads to whole-body cramping takes place even though most athletes consume far in excess of the required and recommended daily allowance of dietary sodium. The body does not store sodium for indefinite periods, as it does fatsoluble substances such as vitamin D. Excess sodium, while capable of unduly stressing the cardiovascular system, primarily through the high blood pressure that is a byproduct of the osmoregulatory process in sedentary persons, is excreted as urine. The first line of defense to whole-body heat cramping is built in the period prior to the start of warm weather sports. The introduction of any athlete to an unaccustomed warm environment must be gradual, both in terms of training volume and training intensity, to permit the acclimatization of the athlete to the environment. For most athletes, the heat acclimatization process will be over 90% complete within 10 to 14 days of its commencement. The more efficient the function of the cardiovascular system in warm weather, the better the body will maintain the necessary blood volumes during exercise, subject to proper hydration practices. The second component to the prevention of debilitating whole-body cramps is the implementaWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

tion of a rigorous hydration strategy. Athletes must be directed and encouraged to consume appropriate levels of fluids prior to, during, and subsequent to all training and competitions. Fluids that contain sodium, or water consumed along with a salt tablets (regular salt is 40% sodium by weight), are a preferred rehydration choice to that of water alone during warm weather, due to the actions of the body to preserve its desired osmoregulation. A defined hydration strategy is of supreme importance in sports that employ a two-a-day practice regime in warm weather training. American football is a prime example; football carries with it an additional cramping risk, due to the full equipment, which has a significant additional weight and covers the body from the knees to the top of the player’s head, preventing heat from dissipating. The most effective remedy for whole-body cramping is immediate rest from the activity, the placement of the athlete in a cool environment, and the consumption of appropriate replacement fluid. Playing through these often-debilitating cramps is likely impossible, and if the athlete attempts to force further strenuous movement from tissues that have sustained sodium depletion, the athlete is at risk of causing more serious muscular injury.

Cramps; Heat cramps; Muscle cramps; Sodium and sodium deficits; Thermoregulation, exercise, and thirst.

SEE ALSO

Wild yams Wild yams are a trailing vine whose natural habitat includes most of the eastern and southern United States. The roots of this plant were valued by ancient cultures for their medicinal properties. Wild yams were also known as colic root and rheumatism root among the early American settlers of these regions in the 1800s. This herbal form of the wild yam has no horticultural relationship to the sweet potatoes and yams sold as vegetables in North American food stores. The root of the wild yam is typically harvested in autumn. It is consumed either as a tea made by boiling the dried root, or from a manufactured fluid extract. Wild yam has been reputed to possess powerful curative properties with respect to female reproductive system disorders of all kinds, including menstrual pain, the regulation of the menstrual cycle,

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Recent scientific study has provided some support for the proposition that wild yams may assist in the reduction of low density lipoproteins, the cholesterol that contributes to the clogging of blood vessels. Diosgenin increases the rate of stomach bile production. Stomach bile requires cholesterol, which in turn reduces the amount of cholesterol that otherwise would remain a danger to the effective function of the blood vessels. The properties of wild yam have been shown in some settings to alleviate the symptoms of joint inflammation and menstrual difficulties. The amount of benefit to be derived from the consumption of wild yam products will vary from person to person. Unlike many herbs and dietary supplements, there are no known significant side effects or potential for harmful interaction with other substances when wild yams are consumed. SEE ALSO

Dietary supplements; Herbs; Phytochemicals;

Tribulus.

Wind tunnel testing

Wild yam fruit and flowers.

ª H AL HO RWI TZ/C ORB I S.

SEE

Cycling:

Wind tunnel testing

REP RO DU CED BY P ERM I SS I ON .

and the pain caused through child birth. These particular medicinal effects are connected to the presence of chemicals in the wild yam root that possess anti-spasmodic properties. The herb is also valued as a general revitalizing agent for both men and women; it is used to treat joint inflammations, stomach cramps, and it is effective as a vasodilator (chemicals that stimulate opening of the blood vessels to promote greater blood flow, and a resultant lowering of blood pressure). Much of the recent scientific interest in wild yams stems from the presence of a number of different steroid saponins, substances which may be converted to hormones, as well as a number of phytochemicals that assist in the promotion of good health when ingested into the body. Diosgenin is a steroid saponin that is easily converted to the female hormone progesterone; for a considerable period diosgenin was extracted from the wild yam root to manufacture progesterone and female birth control pills. There is no scientific evidence in support of the proposition advanced by some commercial promoters of wild yams as a herbal remedy that the human body will naturally convert diosgenin into progesterone.

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Windsurfing Windsurfing (also known as boardsailing) is a sport that evolved from a desire to combine the exhilaration and the freedom of movement inherent in surfing, with the precision and the techniques of wind powered sailing. In a remarkable historical development, three groups have at one time or another laid claim to the invention of the windsurfer. Peter Chilvers of Great Britain developed a prototypical windsurfer in the late 1950s, Pennsylvania inventor Newman Darby first published his designs for a windsurfer in the early 1960s, and Californians Jim Drake and Howard Schweitzer had independently designed and patented their craft, featuring an articulated mast and featuring a u-joint attachment between mast and board in 1968. The windsurfer became a very popular recreational device, as it was very portable and less cumbersome to transport and assemble than a conventional sail boat. Windsurfing is also not particularly restricted to any particular type of water body, as a windsurfer is nimble enough to navigate larger rivers, lakes, and oceans. With the rise in the popularity of the windsurfer rose the number of opportunities to race these craft. Racing brought significant WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WINDSURFING

The Sail Melbourne 2005 Formula Windsurfing World Championships, Melbourne, Australia.

PH OT O B Y MA RK DADSWE LL/

G ET T Y I MA GE S.

technological developments to both the boards and the sails used by elite and recreational competitors. A modern windsurfer can attain speeds of over 50 mph in the appropriate winds. The world wide popularity of windsurfing prompted the formation of various national and international windsurfing organizations. The International Sailing Federation (ISAF), is the world body responsible for the convening of world championships in various windsurfing categories. Windsurfing has been an Olympic sport since 1984. A windsurfer is a very simple type of boat. A standard windsurfer is constructed with a mast, a sail, and a board. The board has foot straps built into its surface to provide the surfer with a stable base upon which to maneuver the craft, and all boards are equipped with a skeg, a type of fin positioned on the rear that provides additional stability to the craft while it is being steered. Some models of windsurfers are equipped with a daggerboard that functions much as a keel operates in relation to a sailboat, as a stabilizing force to counter the force of wind, which WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

might otherwise send the windsurfer sideways. The upper portion of the windsurfer is the sail, mast, and boom, a wishbone shaped attachment fixed perpendicular to the mast, the primary means used by the windsurfer to control the craft. The U-joint is the hardware component that is critical to the function and the maneuverability of the windsurfer. In many ways, the u-joint is what distinguishes the windsurfer from any other sailboat, as the surfer can manipulate the mast in any direction, permitting the windsurfer to be turned quickly in any weather. There are two basic types of wind sailing boards. Long boards are approximately 10 ft (3 m) long, and sufficiently wide that the sailor can stand on the board when the board is at rest and remain afloat. This type of stable board is popular among persons learning how to windsurf. The predominate competition board in use today is referred to as a short board, with a length of less than 10 ft, but a significant width, featuring large fins at the rear of the board and no daggerboard. Sailing a windsurfer requires the application of many of the principles involved in sailing a boat.

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When the wind is directly behind the intended path of travel of the windsurfer, the sails of windsurfer can be positioned to perpendicular to the path of the wind, thus capturing the maximum wind effect. When the surfer intends to travel in a direction generally into the wind, the windsurfer can be tacked in the same fashion as a sailboat, where the sail, positioned at approximately 45 angle to the direction of the wind, operates as a foil, creating two different wind speeds on each side of the sail. The result is the creation of high pressure and low pressure effects on the sail, and the windsurfer is pulled in the direction of the lower pressure. Tacking will take a windsurfer along a zig zag path across the surface of the water. A windsurfer can also jibe to steer the craft, when the wind is from the rear of the windsurfer. The boom is maneuvered from side to side to permit the maximum amount of wind to be captured the sail. The surfer changes body positions during both the tacking and jibing techniques to balance his or her body weight with the effect of the wind to keep the craft on an even plane. The windsurfer design is such that the craft will readily plane in the water in relatively light winds (some models will plane in winds of less than 12 mph (20 km/h). The board can plane is achieved when the nose and forward portion of the windsurfer rises above the water surface, reducing the friction between the bottom of the board and the water. It is for these reasons that the windsurfer is the fastest of all sailing craft. While windsurfing is usually raced as a competitive event on marshaled courses, it has an extreme sport edge. Many windsurfers seek out the worst wind and weather they can find to challenge themselves to conquer the elements and to attain the highest speeds possible. Other windsurfers have taken on extreme endurance challenges, such as windsurfing around the British Isles, or sailing the huge waves that form off the island of Maui in the Hawaiian Islands. SEE ALSO

Sailing; Sailing and steering a sailboat; Surfing.

Women and sports: Exercise data, goals, and guidelines The history of the participation of women in sport is long, extending at least to the female competitions established in Greek mythology by Hera as an alternative to the male-only Olympics of Greek antiquity. Yet, as with many histories of activities that

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were regarded as secondary to the more publicized male sports events, hard data concerning female sports participation in many athletic disciplines prior to 1900 is nonexistent. In many respects, the 1928 Summer Olympics are a point of commencement in the data and goals of women in sport. This event represented the introduction of female sports at the world’s most prestigious athletic event. The competition was as global as the era could have ever permitted, and the athletes who competed in the relatively limited number of track and field events open to women at the 1928 Games set definable standards for the women who followed. The women’s sports that further entered the public consciousness in the decades that followed the 1928 Olympics were an extension of individual competitions that served as the trailblazers in 1928. Figure skaters such as Sonja Henie of Norway and tennis players like American Althea Gibson became prominent athletes, although there is no particular evidence that their successes attracted greater female athletic participation in either sport. Until the 1960s, female athletics on the prominent national stages of the United States and Europe, and that of the Olympic world, tended to be those engaged in individual sporting events only. Significant data concerning female sports began to be accumulated in the 1960s, when women began to participate on a larger scale in team sports. Volleyball was introduced for both men and women at the 1964 Olympics; basketball was introduced as a women’s sport in 1976, and field hockey, a popular women’s competition in Europe and Asia, was added in 1980. The advancement of female sports in the United States paralleled Olympic developments. In 1972, the federal government of the United States passed an amendment to its existing civil rights legislation that became universally known as Title IX. Title IX established a legislative framework that mandated that all institutions in the United States that received federal funding for sports of any type were obligated to offer equal athletic opportunities for women as were offered for men. Title IX has proven to be a significant stimulus to the expansion of female sport in America, with its influence felt at every level and sports age group. The most profound example of Title IX’s effect on athletics has been in the growth of female participation at the intercollegiate level; in 2005, the National Collegiate Athletic Association published the results of its own studies that illustrated an increase in intercollegiate female sports participation of over 825% since the passage of Title IX. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WOMEN AND SPORTS: EXERCISE DATA, GOALS, AND GUIDELINES

The top seeded women start the 2003 New York City Marathon.

Studies conducted in nations such as Great Britain and Australia confirm that, like the United States, there are more women participating in competitive sports than ever before. Canadian studies identified a similar trend in the numbers of competitive female athletes. Yet since 1990 there was a parallel reduction in recreational female sports participation for women over the age of 18 years, from 61% to 48%; participation was broadly defined as an exercise or sporting activity in which the person participated at least one time per week. The running boom of the late 1970s and the early 1980s sparked a corresponding increase in female running participation on a recreational and fitness level. The United States Track and Field Association (USTAF), the sanctioning body for all marathons held in the United States, determined that in 1980, approximately 10% of all marathon participants were women; by 2005, over 40% of marathoners were female, in an environment where overall marathon participation had increased by over 300% over the 25-year period. An example of the significant growth of the marathon as a female sport of choice is the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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2005 Nike Marathon for Women, held in San Francisco, where 15,000 female runners entered the race. Of statistical interest is the median finishing time for the 1980 female marathon group versus the modern runners. In 1980, the USTAF determined that the median female time to be approximately 4 hours, 3 minutes. In 2005, the median was determined to be over 4 hours, 20 minutes. It is clear that marathon participation has been fueled by female interests other than seeking to improve performance as measured on an absolute scale. When the examples of increased Olympic participation and increased female participation generally are considered together, there is no ready conclusion as to whether increased participation has proven to be indicative of a widespread desire to achieve better female fitness or sport competence. Australia and other nations have identified a persistent gap, often referred to as an under representation, of females in sports coaching, officiating, and administration. Paradoxically, the increased rate of female competitive sports participation has been paralleled by

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the rapid global rise in chronic health problems in both genders at all ages. In the Western world especially, poor dietary habits and a lack of exercise are significant contributors to obesity, diabetes, osteoarthritis, and various cardiovascular diseases, and each are as great a health risk for women as they were traditionally for men. The impact of each of these identified conditions is significantly reduced by exercise and good nutritional practices, which suggests that while a minority of the female population participates in sport to a significant degree, increasing numbers of women may lead entirely sedentary lives.

Female exercise and cardiovascular health; Genetics; International Olympic Committee (IOC); National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA); Sport performance.

SEE ALSO

Women’s ice hockey Women’s ice hockey is a relative latecomer among the female sports to achieve internationally sanctioned status. Played informally in Canada since the latter part of the nineteenth century, and in various other northern cold weather nations as early as 1920, women’s ice hockey did not attract a significant following outside of North America until the 1980s. The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) is the governing body for ice hockey played on an international level, including the women’s game. The first sanctioned women’s IIHF championships were held in 1990 in Ottawa, Canada. From 1990 to 2005 the dominance of the United States and Canada was so profound that either the Canadian or American team won the gold medal, with the other taking the silver, at each championship event. During these years, no other team ever mounted a significant challenge in any single game to either program, despite the competition including the same countries that traditionally have very strong mens’ international and Olympic championship entries, including Sweden, Finland, Russia, and the Czech Republic. The respective women’s teams from these nations were never competitive at the world championships. A similar competitive imbalance has been evident in the shorter history of women’s Olympic ice hockey, introduced at the Nagano Games of 1998. Going into the 2006 Winter Games, Canada and the United States had only one another country as rival for the gold medal. In a 2006 semi-medal game, Sweden beat the United States in what was the greatest upset in the history of women’s ice hockey.

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It is difficult to determine what the future of international competition will hold in women’s ice hockey. Canada has both a definitive hockey culture (where ice hockey is the national winter sport) as well as established women’s elite-level leagues within which to develop a pool of national talent that is both broad and deep. The United States does not have women’s leagues that rival the Canadian examples, but National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) women’s ice hockey continues to expand, especially as athletic scholarships are offered by many hockey– playing institutions. The Swedish upset in 2006 notwithstanding, the prospect of the competitive level of women’s ice hockey rivaling that of the men’s game, where at least eight nations can enter an international championship with a reasonable chance of success, is likely remote in the years to come. Other than Canada, the United States, Sweden, and Finland, no other nation has any system of organized national training camps or coaching hierarchy for the women’s game. The reasons as to why women’s ice hockey has lagged in apparent popularity, even in countries with a strong hockey tradition, are difficult to ascertain. The speed of the women’s game does not compare to that generated by larger and stronger male athletes, but in relative terms to virtually every other team sport, women’s ice hockey is a very fast and dynamic game. Like men’s ice hockey, passing, the ability to move up and down the ice in transition from offense to defense, and strong goalkeeping are essential to success. The premium on hand-eye coordination generally, and shooting and playmaking ability specifically, are also consistent in both versions of the sport. The only significant rule difference between men’s and women’s ice hockey is one regarding body checking. In men’s ice hockey, a body check is defined as the general physical contact permitted by a defensive player against an offensive player who has control of the puck, or who has, immediately prior to the contact, lost control of the puck. A body check may be delivered with the hip or shoulder, and it is a devastating defensive tactic. In women’s ice hockey, body checking is prohibited; a defensive player is permitted to angle an offensive player off the puck through the body position and skating motion, which leads to incidental contact between the players. For this reason, the women’s game does not include the physical features that often excite hockey spectators. Conversely, the deemphasizing of physical contact in the women’s game would theoretically make the game open to players of more disparate sizes, provided they possessed strong skating and playmaking skills. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WOMEN’S SPORT CLOTHING AND PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

The U.S. women’s ice hockey team won the silver medal (to Canada’s gold) during the Torino Ice 2005 playoffs match.

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Two female ice hockey players made history when each secured a place on a competitive men’s teams. Goaltender Manon Rheaume earned a wellpublicized tryout with the National Hockey League Tampa Bay Lightening in 2001; Hayley Wickenheiser, a forward regarded as the finest female ice hockey player ever produced in Canada, played for a season in the second tier of the Finnish men’s professional league in 2003. Neither player was able to sustain a career with either male team, and the criticism of both Rheaume and Wickenheiser was that their efforts to participate in men’s hockey served to detract from the perceived strengths of the women’s game.

the number of women engaged in both competitive sport as well as numerous other forms of exercise activities such as aerobics, yoga, and Pilates.

Female exercise and cardiovascular health; Ice hockey; Ice hockey strength and training exercises.

The breasts are a region of the female athlete’s body frequently exposed to injury. The inadequate covering of and lack of support for the breasts are also common causes of physical interference in athletic performance. The human breast is composed primarily of fatty tissues, which enclose the mammary glands (designed for nurturing an infant), and the capillary network that supplies nutrients to the breast tissue. There are thin ligaments that intersperse the breast tissue and provide a limited

SEE ALSO

Women’s sport clothing and protective equipment Specialized women’s sports clothing is an industry that has sustained a growth paralleling the rise in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The growth of the women’s sport fashion industry is also related to an increase in marketing exercise clothes specifically made for women, in terms of both style and the intended specialized fit for the female body. Items such as shorts and tights for exercise or training purposes are designed to take into account the wider female pelvis relative to leg length; additional clothing items, such as sports bras, take other female physical characteristics into account.

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Sports clothing for women is a growing industry, paralleling the rise in the number of women engaged in both competitive sport (such as skiing) and specialized exercise (such as yoga, aerobics, and Pilates). ª AND R EAS ME IE R/ REUT ERS / CORB I S

measure of support to the breast; these ligaments are not strong enough to provide structural support to the breast during athletic movement. The muscles that underlie the breasts are not constructed to assist with the support of these tissues during movement. As a general physical proposition, the larger the athlete’s breasts, the greater the forces that will be directed into the supporting muscle structures of the shoulder, upper back, and upper chest through the undulating movements of the breasts. This repetitive movement can cause significant discomfort for the athlete if the breasts are not properly supported, as the result will be an imbalance between the breasts and the function of the upper back and shoulder muscles. The female breasts are often a source of irritation and interference in the desired athletic function. If breasts are incorrectly supported or placed in repeated contact with material that creates irritation, the condition known as jogger’s nipple (intense soreness, dryness, inflammation and/or bleeding of the

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nipple) will occur. This condition may also occur in male athletes for the same reasons. Additionally, with the female athlete, the risk of a permanent stretching of the ligaments in the breast tissue is present. For these reasons, the sports bra is the most important female sports clothing essential. The specialized bra did not exist until the 1990s; previously, female athletes typically improvised a supportive bra from commercially available products. Popularized by the successes of the 1996 U.S. women’s soccer team, the sports bra is a product of both form and function. The most important aspect of the selection of a sports bra is the fit; the bra must be tight to the athlete’s body, without being constricting, and sufficient to ensure that the breasts have minimal movement during exercise. There are hundreds of different sports bra styles; for all sports where the athlete will be perspiring to any extent, sports bras are constructed of a variety of polypropylene and Lycra -based fabrics, which permit both stretching and the ability of the material to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JOHN ROBERT WOODEN

‘‘wick’’ away moisture (remove perspiration from the skin surface through the material) to keep the skin relatively dry through competition.

practice environment, rigorous attention to the execution of fundamentals, and cohesive team play will produce champions.

The type of support required by the sports bra is a function of the breast size of the particular athlete. Support is provided in varying degrees in each of three general types of construction. A compression sports bra is designed to pull the breasts into the body during motion; the compression model is best suited to women with smaller breasts. An encapsulated-style sports bra fits around each breast to secure the tissue against excess movement; this model is usually recommended for women with larger breasts. Underwire sports bras are the third type; this construction is found as a distinct style or it can be used in combination with the encapsulated style.

As a coach, John Wooden was the sainted Wizard of Westwood, a name bestowed in reference to the location of the home court of his dynastic UCLA Bruins. It is sometimes forgotten that Wooden was first an accomplished high school player in Indiana, leading his team to a coveted Indiana state championship in 1930. Wooden then proceeded to Purdue University in Indiana, where he led Purdue to a 1932 national championship, a season in which Wooden was named national player of the year.

The breasts are also vulnerable to injury in sports where a direct trauma is possible. As a sensitive glandular structure, a direct blow can cause a contusion, with resultant discomfort, swelling, and bleeding within the tissue. Some models of sports bras have additional padding that can be inserted into the bra cups for protection. In a number of sports, including martial arts, fencing, boxing, and rugby, specialized chest guards can be worn by female athletes. In both rugby and soccer, some jersey manufacturers have designed built-in chest protectors for female athletes In sports such as ice hockey, field hockey, and lacrosse, where players, particularly the goaltenders, are exposed to an object directed at them at high speed, female athletes can wear a specialized groin protector (known as a ‘‘jill,’’ in contrast to the wellknown male equipment used to protect the genitals, the ‘‘jock’’ strap). This protector is fashioned consistent with the structure of the female body.

Athletic shoes; Female exercise and cardiovascular health; Heart rate monitors; Jump rope training; Orthotics; Yoga and Pilates.

SEE ALSO

John Robert Wooden 10/14/1910– AMERICAN COLLEGE BASKETBALL COACH

John Wooden is regarded as the quintessential basketball coach in the history of American college competition. Wooden’s achievements at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) are the standard by which all college basketball coaches are likely to be judged for many decades to come. Wooden’s success stands as an example that a challenging WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

After a brief stint in the poorly organized professional basketball leagues that endeavored to secure a foothold in the consciousness of the American sporting public in the 1930s, Wooden became a high school basketball coach. Wooden built a scholastic coaching record of 218-42 at Dayton, Kentucky, and South Bend, Indiana, before taking the head job at Indiana State University, a school later famous as the alma mater of Hall of Fame player Larry Bird. Wooden achieved a record of 47–14 over two seasons at Indiana State before moving to the head coaching position at UCLA in 1948. One of the most remarkable features of the career of John Wooden at UCLA is that while Wooden won ten national championships, more than any other college basketball coach in history, he did not win any national championships during his first 15 seasons at UCLA. Wooden, in those first seasons at UCLA, was undeniably successful, winning the accepted benchmark success, 20 games, on six different occasions. Wooden achieved employment stability in a position that by modern standards would represent a remarkably lengthy tenure. It was during this period that Wooden laid the groundwork for what would become the dynasty of all dynasties in American college basketball. Wooden was an advocate of lengthy practices for conditioning and endless drills to perfect fundamental skills. Wooden placed the athletic principles of conditioning, skill development, and teamwork at the core of any team’s success. Wooden preached a mantra that basketball is a game of threes: forward, guard, center; shoot, drive, pass; and ball, you, man. Wooden was pleased to develop outstanding individual basketball talents, of whom Lew Alcindor (later known as Kareem Abdul-Jabbar) and Bill Walton are two of the best known. However, Wooden never permitted individual player excellence to overshadow or to skew his team-centered approach to tactics and execution at both ends of the floor.

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When Wooden and his UCLA teams captured their first national championship in 1964, the UCLA roster did not have a starting player taller than 6 ft 5 in (1.95 m). UCLA compensated for its lack of frontcourt size with a stifling zone press defense; Wooden’s players had the physical conditioning to execute it effectively. The 1964 national championship title gave the Bruins a national visibility in an era that preceded all-sports cable networks, 24-hour access to game stories and the innumerable sport recruiting resources of the Internet. In 1964, scores from the West Coast seldom made the following day’s morning newspapers in the East. Two seasons after repeating as champions in 1965, the Bruins corralled the most prized recruit in the United States, Alcindor, out of Power Memorial High School in New York. With Alcindor in the middle, the Bruins sported an 88-2 record from 1968 through 1970 and won three consecutive national titles. One of the losses was arguably the most publicized college basketball game to that point in the game’s history. UCLA fell in a memorable 71-69 defeat to the University of Houston Cougars and its standout player, Elvin Hayes, before a record crowd of 52,693 at Houston’s Astrodome. Basketball games played in domed stadiums are commonplace today, but the UCLA/Houston clash was the first such contest. UCLA avenged this defeat later that season, routing the Cougars 101-69 in the NCAA semifinals. In the nine championship seasons that followed, Wooden’s coaching genius is best illustrated by the fact Wooden and UCLA were successful playing a variety of different styles, as dictated by their available manpower. When UCLA had Alcindor, they could utilize the most dominant player in the game, a lithe and athletic 7 ft 2 in (2.15 m) presence who was virtually impossible to defend with a single opponent. In the latter period of the Wooden dynasty, UCLA had the 6 ft 11 in (2.08 m) Bill Walton, who was less of a power player than Alcindor but a formidable defender and passer. Each of these players was ultimately named to the National Basketball Association Top 50 players of all time list. With success came an almost inevitable desire on the part of UCLA’s rivals to discredit the hyper successful program. In the early 1970s, the activities of UCLA supporter, or booster, Sam Gilbert were subjected to the most significant of these attacks. Gilbert, a Los Angeles area businessman, was regarded as a father figure by many UCLA players and sat at a prominent courtside seat during the Bruins’ home games at Pauley Pavilion. Rival coaches such as Jerry

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Tarkanian and Dale Brown called UCLA’s program corrupt, citing cash and gifts from Gilbert to UCLA players, though the NCAA investigated and cleared Wooden’s program and Wooden personally of any wrongdoing or impropriety. The stark statistical summery of Wooden’s career at UCLA is remarkable. Between 1948 and his retirement in 1975, Wooden directed UCLA to an overall record of 620–147, with four undefeated seasons. In the midst of that success came an 88 game undefeated streak, a record never likely to be matched in modern Division 1 college basketball, as no other team has enjoyed even a single undefeated season since the 1976 Indiana Hoosiers, let alone the equivalent of almost three straight seasons. The UCLA run of 10 national championships between 1964 and 1975 is also unlikely to be duplicated. In part, this accomplishment is a testament to Wooden and his UCLA teams. It is also a reflection of the greater number of Division 1 programs now competing at the NCAA level (there are now over 330 Division 1 basketball programs, an increase of over 70 schools since Wooden retired). The increase in the number of talented players leaving university before the expiration of their college eligibility to seek an NBA career has also dramatically limited the ability of any team to dominate in the fashion of Wooden and UCLA for even a two- or three-year period. There are few records in sport that may be said to be unassailable; the UCLA national championship record may be the exception. Wooden’s coaching genius has been recognized both by his peers in the basketball community and the American sports media. Wooden is one of only two players to be inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame as both a player and a coach (the other is Atlanta Hawks star and NBA coach Lenny Wilkins). Wooden was named NCAA coach of the year on six occasions. The sports television network ESPN named Wooden the Coach of the Century in 1999.

Basketball; National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA); Sports coaching.

SEE ALSO

Lynette Woodward 1959– AMERICAN BASKETBALL PLAYER

Lynette Woodward is one of the most successful female basketball players in the history of the sport. Born in 1959 in Wichita, Kansas, Woodward’s first WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WORLD ANTI-DOPING AGENCY (WADA)

brush with fame occurred during her high school playing career, when she lead her team to a Kansas state championship. Woodward then attended the University of Kansas from 1978 to 1981, where she was one few athletes in the history of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) competition in any sport to be named an All-American for all four years of her collegiate career. In addition to graduating as the NCAA’s all-time career female scoring leader, Woodward lead the nation in the key statistical categories of points scored, steals, and rebounds in at least one of those four seasons. On graduation from the University of Kansas, Woodward was recruited to play in the Italian women’s professional basketball league, where she starred. In 1984, Woodward was named captain of the United States Women’s Olympic basketball team, which won a gold medal at the Los Angeles Summer Olympics. In 1985, Woodward made history as the first female player ever signed to play by the Harlem Globetrotters, the famous African-American basketball team that traveled the world playing exhibitions. Woodward was a member of the Globetrotters until 1987. The Globetrotters mixed a measure of showmanship, comedy, and basketball tricks in their games, and Woodward participated as a full member of the Globetrotters entourage. After her tenure with the Globetrotters, Woodward returned to Italy where she played professionally for an additional two seasons and led the league in scoring. Woodward also played for one season in the Japanese women’s professional league. At the age of 38, Woodward joined the newly established Women’s National Basketball League (WNBA) as a member of the Cleveland Rockers. Woodward retired after completing two seasons in the WNBA in 1998. Woodward was never the biggest or the strongest competitor. But her natural athleticism, leadership, and floor sense were the attributes that separated Woodward from her contemporaries. Woodward was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 2004. She was also named by Sports Illustrated magazine as one of the greatest athletes in the history of the state of Kansas. SEE ALSO

Basketball.

World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was founded in 1999 as a result of what had been a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

growing international effort to counter the effects of performance-enhancing substances in sport. Headquartered in Montreal, Canada, WADA is the supreme international authority with respect to both doping test procedures and the determination of what substances will be the subject of athletic sanction when detected. The stated mission of WADA is the international monitoring, promotion, and coordination of the international fight against doping in sport in all of its forms. The use of various substances by athletes to improve performance is likely as old as competitive sport itself. Competition has often spurred athletes to seek any edge—however slight, and at their own physical risk—that might separate them from their rivals. In 1928, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) banned the use of doping, which in that era was primarily the use of stimulants such as amphetamines and strychnine (also a well-known poison). The history of formal doping tests can be traced to the late 1960s, when the properties of certain substances, particularly anabolic steroids and stimulants, began to raise concerns among athletic governing bodies that a level competitive field be preserved. In 1968, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) formally banned a wide range of performance-enhancing substances from Olympic competition and established formal doping tests. In 1976 the IOC was able to formally ban anabolic steroids as a test had been developed to detect the presence of these compounds in the body. As the IOC did not possess the comprehensive or foolproof detection technologies necessary to rigorously enforce the doping rules, both the Olympic movement and international sport generally remained the subject of significant public concern regarding drug use in sport in the following 20 years. Doping became a more serious problem, with the rise of professionalism in many previously amateur disciplines, such as track and field. The testing procedures employed by the IOC became more accurate and more reliable, as was evidenced by the disqualification of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson in the 1988 Summer Olympics for a positive anabolic steroid test, after he won the 100-m sprint final. However, the competitions held in a number of international sports, most notoriously cycling, appeared to be significantly affected by doping practices. A police seizure of various doping products during the 1998 Tour de France gave further publicity to the use of both stimulants and the then-recently synthesized

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World Anti-Doping Agency Chairman Richard Pound at podium during WADA symposium, 2004.

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hormone, erythropoietin (EPO), which was administered to increase the ability of the body to produce a greater number of erythrocytes (red blood cells), which permitted a correspondingly increased transport of oxygen in the bloodstream during competition. In 1999 worldwide public concerns regarding doping culminated in the creation of WADA, established with the full support of both the IOC and numerous national governmental and sport-governing bodies. Through the regulatory instrument known as the WADA Anti-Doping Code, a worldwide sport consensus was forged in the years following the founding of WADA. International sports federations, national sport-governing bodies, national Olympic committees, and independent sports leagues that agreed to be bound by the terms of the WADA Code became correspondingly obligated to enforce all of the WADA rules concerning the administration of doping tests (both in-competition and out-of-competition), to abide by the enforcement of the WADA Prohibited

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List (the annual publication of all illegal performanceenhancing substances), and to participate in comprehensive doping education strategies. The influence of WADA and the efforts of its constituency to create a drug-free sport have resulted in an international sport climate where the failure of a sport to properly administer transparent antidoping practices will ensure that the sport will not be included in the Olympic Games. In 2006, baseball was removed from the roster of sports to be contested at the 2012 Summer Games by the IOC. The International Baseball Federation (IBF) was vigorous in both its objections to the removal of its sport from the Summer Games, as well as advancing its claim for reinstatement in advance of the 2016 Olympics, and beyond. WADA investigated the dope-testing practices of the IBF, particularly as they applied to Major League Baseball (MLB), whose professional players would be eligible for participation in an Olympics; MLB is not a signatory to the WADA Code. WADA determined that unless the IBF demonstrated WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WRAPPING AND TAPING TECHNIQUES

compliance with WADA practices, WADA would declare the sport noncompliant, an act that would all but eliminate baseball from any Olympic reinstatement. Over 200 countries, through their national sportsgoverning bodies, are signatories to the WADA Code. In addition, most of those countries have created a national anti-doping agency as the instrument to further the work by WADA on their national level; the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) is an example. The chief work conducted by the national agencies is the coordination of national doping testing among all of the national sports federations in a particular country. In virtually all sporting nations, both the ability to participate in international competition as well as the receipt of government or private sponsor funding will be dependent on the athletes’ compliance with all doping testing as mandated by the national anti-doping agency, consistent with overall WADA direction. The most visible aspect of WADA is the combined effect of the annual Prohibited List and the resultant competition bans that are imposed when a positive doping test is registered. The Prohibited List is updated by WADA on an annual basis to reflect any scientific developments with respect to newly discovered substances that are deemed to represent drug cheating. The emergence of nandrolone in 2003, the so-called designer anabolic steroid, is an example of a discovery that resulted in its inclusion on the List. WADA, through various accredited laboratories, actively researches what it anticipates as the next cutting edge in the battle against doping. An effective system to determine whether an athlete has participated in gene doping, the modification of the athlete’s genetic structure to develop better muscle structure, is an example. Another recent area of WADA-authorized research has assisted in the creation of a marker to be used in urine tests to prevent the switching of urine samples for the purpose of deceiving a test administrator. The sanctions imposed by WADA are generally significant: a two-year ban from all competition for a first offense positive doping test is common. In many cases, the athlete advances a defense that centers on either his or her personal ignorance of the substance (often as a component in a dietary supplement), or that he or she was advised by a coach or trainer that the substance was legal for use. The general position of WADA is one of strict liability, an application of the legal proposition that the responsibility rests with the atheletes to ensure they know at all times that anything they ingest into their bodies is both safe and legal for use. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

SEE ALSO Anabolic steroids; Doping tests; International Anti-Doping Agreement; Nandrolone; Prohibited substances (competition bans); Stimulants; U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA).

World Cup Soccer

SEE

FIFA: World

Cup Soccer

Wrapping and taping techniques Wrapping and taping are terms that are often used interchangeably in the consideration of athletic training and sports injury rehabilitation, though each has a distinct meaning. Wrapping is the procedure used both in administration of first aid to an injury, as well as ongoing treatment. Wrapping is the compression aspect of the RICE (rest/ice/compression/elevation) treatment commonly administered in the event of a soft tissue injury. RICE treatment is designed to immediately limit the consequences of injuries such as an ankle sprain, a strained hamstring, or groin pull, or a shoulder joint injury. Any strain, sprain, or suspected tear or tissue rupture should be treated with the RICE technique. Wrapping a soft tissue injury is often done in conjunction with the application of ice. The wrap is applied to permit the ice bag or cold pack to be properly positioned on the surface of the injury, and also provide the desired compression to the surface. Compression, when properly administered, will be tight without restricting blood flow. The compression is used in combination with the application of ice to prevent the joint from swelling, a natural process that tends to lengthen recovery. While any material could be used as a wrap in an emergency, first aid wraps are typically made of an elastic substance, to permit the wrap to be stretched over the injured joint and any ice being applied. The technique used to apply the wrap will depend on the location of the injury; the wrap must be applied in a fashion that ensures compression, but permits some degree of movement. Taping is generally a preventative measure taken to protect an athlete from further injury to a previously damaged joint or tissue. Taping is a temporary device, where the applied material functions in the same fashion as an orthotic, providing support and a

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Wrestling Wrestling is one of the world’s oldest forms of athletic competition. Many cultures had forms of wrestling as a component of their military preparation. The ancient Olympics included wrestling, with the competition first recorded as taking place in the Games of 708 BC. The recognized sport of wrestling is an athletic event, sanctioned by the International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles (FILA), and it is included as both an international and Olympic competition. In North America, a variant to the FILA-styled competition is popular in both high schools and at a university level. In a number of countries in the modern world, wrestling, referred to as pro wrestling, is the name given the entertainment exemplified by the shows staged by the World Wrestling Federation, but this type of wrestling is not FILA-related.

Boxer wrapping his wrist with athletic tape.

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measure of protection to the desired area. Tape is generally applied in two stages; the first is an underlay of a thin, porous, and foam-like material, often referred to as pre-wrap. The tape, an adhesive, is then applied over the pre-wrap in thin strips. There are a multitude of taping methods, each individually designed to suit a specific athletic need. As a general proposition, the primary goal of athletic taping is to provide additional support for the specific joint, while not unduly hindering the degree of movement. Taping seeks to achieve the same physical result as a brace. Due to the combined effects of movement and perspiration, the athletic tape will not maintain its degree of rigidity for extended periods; it is not uncommon to see an athlete being re–taped at a break in play to ensure that the joint is still well supported.

Ankle sprains; First aid kits for sports; Hamstring injuries; Knee injuries; Orthotics; RICE (rest/ ice/compression/elevation) treatment for injuries; Sprains and strains.

SEE ALSO

800

Wrestling is a sport involving two athletes engaged in a physical competition that is limited to a specified area defined on a mat. The general object of all types of wrestling is one wrestler attempts to force the shoulders of the opponent to the floor in a prescribed manner. The contest, a bout, is generally two rounds, each three minutes in duration. A wrestler wins a bout by either scoring a fall against the opponent, or by accumulating points through the successful execution of various maneuvers. In all forms of wrestling, a referee will supervise the contest, and judges positioned near the mat will score the progress of the contest. The two different types of wrestling competition are freestyle (in which men and women compete in separate divisions) and Greco-Roman. Freestyle wrestling is the most popular form of the sport throughout the world. In freestyle, the wrestler is permitted to use his entire body in the execution of any of the permitted techniques. Holds of the opponent, including the use of the legs and the tripping of an opponent, are a part of freestyle. The Greco-Roman discipline restricts the competitors to holds applied to an opponent from the waist up, and the use of the legs to hold or throw the opponent is prohibited. North American collegiate freestyle wrestling is similar to that of FILA competition; the chief differences are variations in the rules with respect to the definition of a fall and the length of a bout. In all forms of wrestling, there are a variety of methods in which to score against an opponent. When the wrestler places the opponent in a position in which the opponent’s back is pressed to the mat, points are scored. In the course of a maneuver that WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

WRESTLING

Competitors wrestling at the 2003 Titan Games.

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appears to have the wrestler in a position of control by the opponent, the wrestler will score if he is able to execute an escape from the disadvantageous position. A reversal is scored when a wrestler turns a scoring position for the opponent into a scoring position for himself. The best-known wrestling maneuver, a takedown, is when the wrestler takes the opponent from a standing position to the mat. Wrestling in all of its forms is a demanding and highly athletic sport. As with many sports where physical strength and size are important competitive factors, wrestling competitions are divided into specific weight categories. Wrestling training must be comprehensive to produce a successful athlete, and all of the traditional attributes of complete physical fitness are engaged in the sport: strength, power, speed, flexibility, and endurance. The primal nature of wrestling, and the requirement that a single opponent be conquered, also demand the development of a very rigorous mental approach to training and competition. The foundation of successful wrestling training is the development of a strong cardiovascular system. Like boxing, wrestling places demands on both the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

anaerobic energy system, due to the short, intense nature of the competition segments, as well as the aerobic system, necessary to facilitate recovery by the athletes. Traditional means of developing anaerobic fitness, such as interval training, are of benefit to the wrestler. Most comprehensive wrestling programs will ensure that the athlete obtains significant aerobic exercise, including running and cycling or the use of cardio machines when the athlete wishes to minimize the stress directed into legs, since they are the subject of very pronounced stresses in other aspects of training and competition. The development of core strength is perhaps as important to a wrestler as any other physical attribute. Successful wrestling techniques each apply basic principles of physics, especially those relevant to the establishment of leverage, necessary to successfully throw an opponent, and the maintenance of a low center of gravity, to ensure stability in all movements. Successful wrestlers seek to develop their core strength to permit the maximum utility of the muscles of the abdomen, lumbar (lower back) region, groin, and gluteal area.

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A characteristic of all successful wrestlers is the combined effect of flexibility and agility. Wrestling is a dynamic sport where the athlete must be able to respond to an opponent’s attacks from a variety of physical positions. The rules of wrestling permit a multitude of different applications of force in which the greater the flexibility and resultant range of motion in the joints of the athlete, the more likely a positive response can be made and the less likely an injury will be sustained.

Exercise, high intensity; Muscle mass and strength; Stretching and flexibility; Weight categories.

SEE ALSO

Wrestling, Sumo

SEE

Sumo

Wrist injuries The wrist is a joint that is vulnerable to a wide variety of injuries, due to its exposure to an equally broad range of potential impacts, both with respect to trauma received from external forces, as well as the considerable extent of damage sustained through flexion, extension, and compression of the nerves radiating through the structure.

backwards in an emphatic fashion, the ligaments may become stretched. Similarly, when the wrist is engaged in a grappling or grasping movement, such as often occurs in sports such as wrestling, American football, or rugby, and the forces directed into the wrist joint exceed the strength of the joint, the ligament will become stretched or, in a worst case scenario, the ligament will tear. The same mechanism that produces a sprain of the wrist joint may also lead to a fracture of a number of different carpal bones. Most fractures of the wrist are caused in one of two ways: a direct blow to the joint, usually centered in the top of the wrist, or when a fall causes a force to radiate from the hand into the joint. In sports such as lacrosse, hockey (both ice and field), or baseball, where the wrist is exposed to a forceful blow from an object such as a stick or a ball, the bones of the wrist are consequently vulnerable to fracture. There is very little covering muscle or tissue on the top of the wrist, and all significant external forces are absorbed by the underlying bone.

The wrist is a joint that if considered with respect to its bone alignment alone, the structure would be regarded as a rather delicate and vulnerable joint. The chief bones that create the wrist joint are the bones of the forearm (the ulnar and the radial bones), which meet the carpal bones (the assembly of eight small bones that separate the hand from the forearm at the joint). The various bones of the hand, including the metacarpals, which extend from the wrist to the fingers, are connected to the wrist through a series of ligaments at each metacarpal bone. There are also ligaments that connect the ulna and the radius to the carpal bones, and the resulting joint is capable of 360 movement. The main nerve root that passes through the bones of the wrist to coordinate the movements of the hand and the fingers is the carpal nerve, which radiates from the forearm into the palm of the hand through the tunnel created by the assembly of the bones and tendons of the wrist.

A common cause of wrist fracture is any circumstance in which the person falls and puts out the nearest hand to prevent the body from striking the ground. These types of falls, which often occur without warning, frequently occur in sports such as cycling, where the athlete moves instinctively to break a fall. When the hand and arm are thrust out from the athlete’s body, the force sustained will radiate into one of three joints: the wrist, the elbow, or the shoulder. As the smallest of the joints of the arm, the wrist is least capable of bearing a weight that produces a force that often exceeds two times the mass of the athlete. The small bones of the wrist are most vulnerable to this injury, particularly the scaphoid bone (located directly below the thumb), also known as the navicular bone. The scaphoid bone is often extremely slow to heal, and fractures of these small components of the wrist are not always readily observed in a regular x ray. Bone necrosis (a death of the bone cells in the vicinity of an untreated fracture) is a risk more often associated with scaphoid fractures than any other type of fracture, as the injury disrupts the blood flow to the bone.

The most common athletic injury sustained to the wrist is a sprain, in which one of the ligaments of the wrist is either overextended or twisted. Sprained wrists are caused in a number of different fashions. When the ligaments of the wrist are subjected to a force applied by the hand being pushed

A fall can also produce a condition known as triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC). The small cartilage that acts as a spacing device between the ulnar bone and the carpal bones can become torn in a fall where the hand is extended, causing both pain and a lack of mobility in the joint.

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usually require any manipulation to straighten the bone; healing will occur if the joint is immobilized for a period of weeks. The most frequent injury to the nerve roots that pass through the wrist is the condition known as carpal tunnel syndrome. The causes of this syndrome are varied, but the most prominent of these is the irritation of the nerve in the bone and tendon tunnel immediately adjacent to the palm of the hand, accompanied by significant repetitive use of the hand. Rest and immobilization of the wrist are the first line of attack to resolve this injury, coupled with the appropriate use of anti-inflammatory medications to reduce pain and swelling. In severe cases, when the wrist cannot be used for any significant period without pain and limitation of movement, surgery may be employed to create additional space between the radial nerve and the tunnel.

X-ray of a wrist.

ª ROYA LTY -FREE /CO RBIS

Falls or other impacts in which the thumb is forcibly separated from its normal spacing on the hand will often result in a tear of the ligament connecting the thumb to the base of the wrist. Skier’s thumb, so named to reflect a common cause of the injury, can also result from a ball or object being directed into the thumb. This injury may commonly require surgery. In young athletes whose bones are not fully developed and hardened (the process known as ossification), when the athlete sustains a fall and extends an arm, the bones of the wrist are exposed to a specific type of fracture known as a buckle or greenstick fracture. In this injury, the bone does not break, due to the softness of the still-developing structure; the bone bends on impact. Such fractures do not


The tendons that assist in the operation of the muscles of the hand extend from immediately below the elbow to connect with the muscles at the wrist. Tendonitis is a common wrist injury. The mechanics of its causation may be those that would otherwise lead to a sprain of the wrist. In most cases, the tendonitis is caused through repetitive strain of the tissue that causes the fibers of the tendon to both overstretch and to become the subject of micro tears. In rare cases, the tendons may rupture; given their relatively small size and the fact that all tendons work in concert through the wrist, forces sufficient to tear the tendon are rare. Tendonitis of the wrist occurs with frequency in athletes playing sports such as tennis, baseball pitching, cricket, bowling, wrestling, and various martial arts, which require strong and constant wrist action. As with any other soft tissue injury, wrist sprains and tendonitis are most effectively treated with the application of RICE (rest/ice/compression/elevation); a failure to quickly and aggressively address a wrist injury of any kind is an invitation to the onset of a chronic wrist condition. It is for this reason that wrist orthotics, particularly supportive sleeves and partial splint-type braces, are required.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Hand injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Sprains and strains.

SEE ALSO

803

Y Yams

SEE

Wild yams

Yoga and Pilates Yoga and Pilates are two separate forms of exercise that share common origins and philosophies. Both yoga, and to a lesser extent, Pilates, are popular worldwide as both freestanding health and conditioning programs and as components of comprehensive stretching, flexibility, and injury rehabilitation techniques employed by physical therapists. The principles of yoga developed as a part of the Buddhist religion in India over 5,000 years ago. Yoga incorporated eight different philosophies, of which physical training was only one part; yoga adherents were also directed to abstain from violence, to develop an inward focus, to work in harmony with the universe as whole, and to practice meditation. The physiological aspects of yoga included the execution of the physical exercises and the development of breath control. Yoga formed a part of a number of the traditional alternative medicines of India and was believed by its adherents to assist in the progression along a pathway to better spiritual enlightenment. The essence of yoga exercises is the emphasis on the use of the entire musculoskeletal system to perform the movements. Yoga is predicated on the body supporting its own weight in the course of all of the positions, both standing and prone, where multiple muscle groups must act in unison to successfully WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

sustain the movement. The resistance against which the muscles must act is constant, given that the individual’s body weight is the source of the resistance; the longer that the particular movement is sustained, the greater the potential muscular development and corresponding anaerobic effect. In a one-hour yoga session, the practitioner may require the expenditure of as many as 600 calories, subject to the difficulty of the movements. Yoga stresses correct posture, precise movement, and efficient breathing that assists the body in controlling both heart rate and mental control. Because yoga places emphasis on tranquility and peacefulness in the exercises, it has a deceptively gentle appearance. Most yoga beginners find that it takes a significant measure of practice in a number of the established yoga positions before any of the more demanding yoga routines is attempted. It is common in a yoga position to stretch a muscle group in a static fashion (body weight only generating the resistance), and then to move to a dynamic stretch, where the subject is generating greater resistance through the movement. Pilates, the exercise program named for its developer, Joseph Hubertus Pilates (1880–1967), is rooted in similar physical principles to yoga. Pilates originally named his program contrology to stress his determination to enhance mind, body, and spirit through his system. Pilates looked to the traditions of yoga, the calisthenics associated with gymnastics training, and his own research to develop a series of over 500 exercises, with progressive increases in

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The essence of yoga exercises is the emphasis on the use of the entire musculoskeletal system to perform the movements.

ª S I MO N

TAP LIN /COR BIS

difficulty. He intended his program to function primarily as a set of therapeutic movements; Pilates’s first clientele were dancers working in the New York entertainment industry in the 1950s. Pilates exercises employ either a floor mat, a simple roller/pulley machine, called a Reformer, for the extension of the arms and legs, or a Swiss ball, sometimes referred to as a fit ball.

primary means of fitness, and Pilates is a popular feature in North American health and fitness clubs. The beauty of both yoga and Pilates is that once the user is introduced to and is comfortable with the required movements, the exercises can be performed anywhere that there is space to spread out a mat. There are numerous video presentations available for both yoga and Pilates to be used for programs in the home.

All Pilates exercises emphasize the building of core strength, the ability of the body to maintain balance, flexibility, and control of movements through a strong abdomen, groin, and lumbar (lower back) structure. These muscle groups tend to work in a coordinated fashion in most forms of human movement, and a demonstrated imbalance in any single aspect of core strength will generally impair efficient and capable movement. Like yoga, a vigorous Pilates session carries a low risk of injury to the user, and may require the expenditure of over 600 calories per hour of training.

SEE ALSO Bone, ligaments, tendons; Calisthenics; Range of motion; Stretching and flexibility; Warm-up/cooldown.

There are no competitive forms of either yoga or Pilates. Yoga is commonly enjoyed by people as a

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Yohimbine Yohimbine is a product made from the bark of the yohimbe tree, a species native to west Africa. Yohimbine is an alkaloid, one of a group of nitrogen based compounds present in plants that acts as a base, a substance that combine with acids to form salts. Many alkaloids have a pronounced effect upon the function and performance of the human body; WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

YOHIMBINE

Pilates is a strenuous activity that increases flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular capacity.

prominent alkaloids include caffeine, cocaine, and nicotine. Yohimbine has a chemical composition that is expressed by the equation C21H26N2O3. Among native African cultures, the bark of the yohimbe tree was renowned as an aphrodisiac. Modern medical science has recognized the value of Yohimbine in the treatment of erectile dysfunction. Yohimbine is classed as one of the medications known as sympatholytics, those drugs or other pharmaceutical agents that act against the sympathetic nervous system, the portion of the autonomic nervous system that regulates the ‘‘flight or fight response’’, as well as the function of various glands. Yohimbine is a vasodilator, a chemical that causes the blood vessels to expand. This action results in an increase in the amount of blood flowing to the peripheral parts of the body. In a similar fashion, yohimbine acts to trigger the release of noradrenalin from the adrenal gland, a hormone which produces an accelerated heart beat and tends to dilate the airways in the lungs, making breathing easier. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª RO B & S AS /C ORB IS

Modern scientific research has focused on the potential use of yohimbine as an anti-oxidant, the molecular scavengers that operate within the body to neutralize the effects of free radicals, those substances that are electrically unstable and consequently seek to balance themselves by preying upon otherwise stable cells within the body. Free radical activity is a contributing factor to the spread of cancers within the body. Similar research has also illustrated the potential for yohimbine as a weight loss product. When consumed, yohimbine tends to increase the conversion of stored fats to triglycerides, the fatty acids used by the body as an energy source. Yohimbine has few side effects; given its effect upon heart rate, it is not recommended for use by persons with a prior history of heart disease or other known cardiovascular irregularities. The most common side effect attributed to yohimbine in an otherwise healthy person is dizziness.

Dietary supplements; Herbs; Sexual and reproductive disorders.

SEE ALSO

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YOUTH SPORTS INJURIES

Youth sports injuries Youth has a variety of meanings in the world of sport. As a description of the relative physical maturity of an athlete, youth represents the progression from childhood to adulthood. A youth is an adolescent whose body is continuing to grow into its adult state. A youth possesses all of the physical attributes of an adult, but not yet fully formed. A youth is also someone whose emotional development is not complete; it is not uncommon for athletes to reach their adult musculoskeletal development in advance of the completion of corresponding emotional growth. Youth is usually associated with the biological process known as puberty, which begins at different times for both males and females. The general commencement of puberty for females in North America is age 10; for males, puberty often begins at age 12 or 13. In the three to four years that follow the onset of puberty, the human body undergoes its most rapid growth, second only to the growth rate experienced in a newborn child. It is the rapidity of physical growth that necessitates a specific consideration of the injuries commonly sustained in youth sports. All youth athletes who participate in sport are exposed to the same physical forces and the same general types of injury as are adult athletes. The mechanics of the execution of the various maneuvers in any sport do not particularly change when the sport is played at a younger age; given the smaller athletes, there are often lesser amounts of mass making contact with one another, resulting in lesser forces in sports where contact is either desired or incidental. The risk of injury to a youth athlete in both contact sports and non-contact sports will usually stem from one of three causes—poor technique, often a function of substandard coaching, growthrelated weaknesses in the youth musculoskeletal structure, and overuse or repetitive strain. During adolescence, the bones, skeletal muscles, and connective tissues continue to grow. The most prominent aspect of this phase is the presence of growth plates near the epiphysis, the end of the long bones of the body, including the femur (thigh), the tibia and fibula (shin), and the humerus (upper arm). The growth plate is a softer, cartilage-like region of growing bone cells; at maturity, the growth plate will entirely ossify, or harden, into a permanent and seamless component of the entire bone. The growth plate is at elevated risk of injury during contact sport, as it is more prone to fracture if it receives significant trauma. A damaged growth plate that is not repaired may disturb future growth in the limb.

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A related condition common to young athletes is Osgood-Schlatter disease (OSD), which is a condition where the patellar tendon, which attaches the kneecap to the tibia, is growing at a different rate than the bone structure. OSD becomes painful to athletes who are engaged in repetitive motions such as running. The condition is usually treated with rest; OSD will ultimately be outgrown by the athlete. Concussion is an injury caused by the receipt and absorption of a blow to the head, often causing damage to both the skull and the surface of the brain. A concussion can cause pain, dizziness, and nausea, and an athlete who has sustained a concussion should have a through neurological examination prior to the resumption of a contact sport. Concussions are often the result of both poor coaching technique in contact sports such as American football and ice hockey, where the player is improperly instructed to position their body with the head leading the body on contact with an opponent. A further coaching-related athletic injury among youths is the wide range of problems associated with overuse and repetitive strains placed on the not yet mature bodies of the athlete. In sports such as track running, distance running, and figure skating, where the legs of the athlete are subjected to continual stress, the athlete’s training program must be carefully constructed to avoid the excess training volumes and intensities that lead to stress fractures; over 60% of stress fractures sustained by young athletes occur in the lower leg, commonly in the tibia (shin) between 1 in to 3 in (3–10 cm) above the ankle. Although not strictly a physical injury, these circumstances are also ripe to produce the debilitating mental state referred to as burn out, when the young athlete loses interest in training due to the combination of physical and mental overload. The most common of the unavoidable athletic injuries in youths is the buckle or greenstick bone fracture. These fractures most often result when the young athlete puts out a hand to avoid a fall, with the impact radiating into the small carpal bones of the wrist; the bone, not yet fully formed or as dense as it will be in adulthood, does not fracture completely, but bends under the forces on impact. Most buckle fractures will heal through immobilization, by splint or cast. A common carpal bone to sustain fracture is the scaphoid (navicular) bone, located below the thumb joint in the wrist. Throwing sports place significant forces on all of the muscle and skeletal structures involved in generating the forces necessary to throw the desired object. The most common and the most significant of these injuries with respect to the long-term health WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

YOUTH SPORTS PERFORMANCE

of the athlete are those caused to either the throwing shoulder or the elbow of young baseball pitchers. The development of a curve ball, a pitch that requires a vigorous overhand shoulder motion, accompanied by a forceful twisting of the elbow, places particular stress on the rotator cuff, the four muscles that are positioned on the top of the shoulder, providing strength and stability to the joint; the elbow motion creates powerful forces in very small tissues, the ulnar cruciate ligament, and the epicondyle tissues that encapsulate the elbow joint. The repetitive stress of throwing these pitches often leads to the development of strains or tears in one or more of the shoulder and elbow joints. A common and dangerous injury to young athletes is environmental in nature. In outdoor sports played in warm weather, young athletes are exposed to heightened risk of the development of one of the progressive heath illnesses, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, or heat stroke. As young athletes may not possess the maturity to abide by a self-directed hydration plan, no warm weather youth sports should ever be undertaken without both ample and appropriate fluids, as well as heat-combative first aid materials.

Genetics; Growth plate injuries; Knee: Genetic and non-athletic conditions affecting performance; Musculoskeletal injuries; RICE (Rest/Ice/ Compression/Elevation) treatment for injuries.

SEE ALSO

Youth sports performance Youth sports performance is a multidimensional concept. At a participatory sports level, performance is focused on teaching the basic skills necessary to play a particular game, with the emphasis on the personal enjoyment of the youth, as an incentive to continue participation at either a higher level or as the athlete grows. At an elite-performance level, a range of issues are engaged, most of which center on the fact that a young athlete is not a miniature adult athlete, but rather an individual with needs that are unique to youth sports. A youth is a person in the midst of physical and emotional transformations from child to adult. In virtually any sport, it is physically impossible for the youth to replicate adult performance, as the adolescent body is not fully developed in all aspects of the musculoskeletal system. For these reasons, the performance of a young athlete will be founded on a number of factors. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Young athletes are bombarded with media representations of professional athletes and how a particular sport should be played. Coaching a young athlete, in both individual and team sports, to train and to perform within their physical limitations is fundamental to ensuring sport enjoyment, a progressive skill improvement, and a reduction in the risk of injury. Young athletes are less likely than adults to be able to self-motivate. Young athletes are more likely to become frustrated if they are unable to quickly master a particular sports technique. Motivation for the young person, particularly the correction of errors accompanied by positive reinforcement from coaches or supportive adults, is a useful method to keep the young athlete inspired to continue, particularly with training. Stress is in many respects a far more debilitating factor with respect to the sports performance of the young athlete than with respect to an adult. Young people are subjected to stresses that emanate from a variety of sources—the stereotypical over-zealous parents and demanding, tyrannical coaches are not caricatures, but all too common examples of stressgenerating forces. The peers of the athlete are also a part of the young athlete’s environment that may exert an influence over how the athlete views his or her own performance as well as how he or she in fact performs. These stress factors do not always present themselves directly, but in the manner in which the athlete responds to stress over time. Eating disorders, particularly among female athletes, are a common result of the negative self-image created in the athlete’s mind concerning the ability to successfully compete. It is estimated that as many as 10% of all male high school athletes in the United States, and a lesser number of female athletes, experimented with anabolic steroids to improve their physical ability to perform. When performance is overemphasized in a young athlete, the risk of burn out is heightened; burn out is a combination of physical and mental fatigue, usually induced in young athletes by a combination of competitive pressure and over-training. Various scientific studies concerning how to ensure optimal youth sports performance suggest that making sure the athlete has an opportunity to play a number of different sports in adolescence is important. The thesis supporting a youth engaging in multiple sports applies to both the physical and mental aspects of sport. When youth have been encouraged to diversify their sports performance, there exists a much higher prospect of adult sports participation. When the young person plays a number of

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Youth sports training The training and preparation of young athletes for sports competition involves a wide-ranging series of considerations. Training is a concept involving both the physical preparation of the athlete, as well as the teaching and the implementation of sportspecific techniques through coaching and practice. The physical elements of training must be delivered in a coordinated fashion, as a part of a comprehensive mental preparation of the athlete, including the use of a variety of sports psychology tools to focus and to motivate the athlete in training and competition.

Coaching a young athlete to train and to perform within their physical limitations is fundamental to ensuring sport enjoyment. ª M I CH AEL P RINC E/C ORB IS

sports through the course of the year, he or she is mentally refreshed and each sport is regarded as something of a new challenge. Athletes who play multiple sports also tend to develop a more balanced musculature, with less risk of injury due to repetitive stress or the overuse of a particular muscle structure. Scientific research also reveals that in multidimensional sports such as the triathlon, while the elite-level athletes may come from one of the three particular disciplines of the sport, the athletes competing in the triathlon at a master’s level (age 40 years and over) rarely specialized in swimming, cycling, or running as young athletes. In a similar fashion, studies conducted with respect to the typical participants in a marathon, over 40% of men and over 60% of female entrants did not run in any organized fashion prior to age 20. It is important that the young athlete not be directed into one sporting interest at the exclusion of all others to avoid a competitive plateau in the main activity, injury, or a change of interests.

Motivational techniques; Sport performance; Sports coaching; Youth sports training.

SEE ALSO

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Youth sports involve the consideration of physical and mental training issues that are absent in adult athletic training. As a youth, by definition, is an adolescent person, typically one who has entered puberty, a young athlete is generally in the midst of the most rapid physical growth cycle that he or she will ever experience, with the exception of infancy. All youth sports training must take into account the fact that as the athlete’s body is growing, the bones and connective tissues are especially vulnerable to injury, particularly those related to overuse of a particular joint, or the forces generated by the repetitive stress of various sports accumulating to cause injury to an immature musculoskeletal structure. The training of young athletes must also make provision for the fact that an athlete in the 12 to 16year-old age range is unlikely to have the same level of emotional maturity as an adult athlete with respect to the reaction to coaching criticism, or the impact of the demands of high-level competition. Effective communication between the young athlete and coach is fundamental to successful training. The coach must engender an environment that encourages the athlete to raise any question or concern regarding training. The unique features of the training programs developed for young athletes place a primary importance on the creation and implementation of a program that is based on the principle known as the periodization of training. The division of the training year (or any other significant period) is a recognition that athletes generally cannot train at a constant level; there are natural cycles to a training period that usually are tied to a specific goal or objective, and subsequent periods of rest or reduction in training intensity. All athletes, irrespective of their talent level, tend to benefit from training that provides a specific focus, with an opportunity to reflect on progress at the conclusion of the training segment to permit a readjustment on future training. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE


unique physical and mental training circumstances of young athletes make periodization of the utmost importance. The periodization of the training schedule for a young athlete with respect to a single sport will include designated preseason, competitive season, and off-season periods. Given that many young athletes may participate in more than one competitive sport, both the preseason and the off-season for one sport may represent the opposite segments respecting the athlete’s other sports. The periods may also be further subdivided based on either known competitions or a desire to peak for them. In team sports, the usual competitive season is a progression from an opening game of the year to a season-ending playoff. In individual sports, such as track and field events, the competitive season may be a series of peaks, depending on the relative importance of the individual meets that form the season. The determination of appropriate training periods provides the younger athletes with a measure of structure to their training that they might not be able to direct on their own. This issue is of paramount importance when the young athlete may be engaging in significant training intensity and training volume, such as that contemplated by two-a-day workouts in sports such as football or track and field. The provision of effective direction to a young athlete with respect to diet and proper nutritional habits, including hydration, is an essential aspect of youth training. While all athletes are subject to dietary temptations, especially if they are training at a high level, young athletes have the dual concerns of proper nutrition to support their regular adolescent growth, coupled with the additional physical stresses of training. The successful motivation of young athletes to maintain proper diet will include the education of both the youth and their parents regarding nutritional practices, including the designation of a meal during the week when the athlete can go beyond the usual dietary boundary to a limited extent. Of critical importance to the formulation of training periods is the insertion of periods of downtime, especially with respect to competition. The risk of mental fatigue, associated with high-level competition, travel to competition, and intense training to prepare for competition can be difficult for a young person to bear. This concern is especially pronounced in young athletes who either play more than one competitive sport, or who play a competitive sport on a year-round basis. Even for the competitive youth athlete, sport must remain fun. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

In North America, the youth year-round sports trend is a relatively recent phenomenon. Until the 1980s, the American high school sports seasons had both a rhythm and a regularity that tended to encourage young athletes to play more than one sport. In the fall, the key boys’ sports were football, volleyball, cross-country running, and soccer; for girls, it was soccer and volleyball. In the winter months, basketball was the primary sports for both genders, with other individual sports such as wrestling and swimming. In the spring months, a wide variety of sports were played, including lacrosse, track and field, and other outdoor activities. The summer months were typically devoted to organized sports such as baseball. The rise of organizations such as AAU (Amateur Athletic Union) basketball in the summer months and year-round soccer training, or the increase in summer skills camps and schools in sports such as ice hockey have distorted the previous rhythm of the youth athletic year in North America. The drive to secure an athletic scholarship for a university education has placed a premium on year-round play. The risk of developing single-sport specialists at age 15 is that the athlete may not be competitive at age 20, and give up sports entirely. Once the training periods and the related objectives are established, the training must be progressive, but at all times connected to the overarching notion that young athletes are not to be trained like adults, with simple reductions in training volume to account for their younger age. The development of the physical fitness of a young athlete, separate from the sport-specific skill development, must ensure that the characteristics of the musculoskeletal system of the young athlete are respected. All aspects of this physical training, in each of the components of strength, flexibility, endurance, and speed, must be addressed using less intensity and less volume that would be applied to a corresponding adult. Keeping in mind the need to protect against injury to the young athlete, the training sessions must have a measure of fun. Young athletes are especially susceptible to burn out, the accumulation of physical demands and mental stress, when the sport takes on the aspects of classic 9-to-5 drudgery. A burned out athlete is a damaged athlete; the successful coach and corresponding training program will provide opportunities for the young athlete to have fun without the pressures of achieving a training goal. In individual sports, a day off to play an entirely different game is a common technique; in team sports, fun competitions are used.

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Technique is essential to any sport success at any age; the teaching of the proper techniques to young people is critical for both safety and ultimate success. Technical instruction with young players must begin with a reinforcement of the particular rules of the sport. Rules instruction is of particular importance in contact sports, where the young players may have seen professional level competition and seek to emulate the actions of those players in their own training and play. American football has numerous opportunities to make contact with an opponent, within prescribed rules. Once the rules are entirely understood, the young player can be taught to execute the physical maneuvers in a safe manner. With most athletes, physical techniques are not ideally taught through the simple demonstration of the entire sequence, with a direction to imitate it. Young players inevitably require progressive instruction, with the overall technique broken into its physical components, such as footwork, body position, hand position, and the sequence of movements to reach a result. An example is the basketball

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technique known as the box out, where a defensive player moves his or her body to prevent an offensive player from securing a rebound on a missed shot at the defender’s goal. Instruction in the proper execution of the box out would begin with what the rules of the game permit by way of bodily contact; the coach would then identify any gray areas concerning what a referee might regard as incidental physical contact. Once an understanding of the appropriate rule is established, the players would be taken through a series of non-contact drills to assist them in developing the necessary spatial sense to the relationship between their position on the floor, the likely position of an opponent, and that of the goal and backboard. The next stage in the progression is the reinforcement of their desirable body position as the ball is being shot toward the goal. The teaching sequence culminates with a live practice of the technique involving an opponent if every other component has been executed correctly.

Genetic prediction of performance; Growth; Youth sports injuries; Youth sports performance.

SEE ALSO


Z Frank Joseph Zamboni Jr. 1901–7/27/1988 AMERICAN MANUFACTURER, MOBILE ICE RESURFACING EQUIPMENT

The Zamboni is one of the most identifiable pieces of equipment used in the sporting world. The mobile and mechanized ice resurfacing machine is a fixture at virtually every artificial ice surface in North America. While the Zamboni is closely associated with ice hockey and the resurfacing of the rink between the periods of a professional game, the machine was created out of powerful commercial need to keep artificial ice functional in the southern California climate. Frank Zamboni and ice making became associated with one another in 1921, when the 20 year old Frank entered the refrigeration business in Paramount, California, supplying ice for the then state of the art domestic ice box, soon to be supplanted by the more modern refrigerator.

made and scrap automotive parts. In 1949, he succeeded in constructing a functional machine that was the forerunner to the modern Zamboni. People magazine described the device as a hideous, Rube Goldberg contraption with a wooden bin, a maze of pulleys, and crude four-wheel drive. Aesthetics aside, the Zamboni could clean ice well enough to resurface the Iceland rink in fifteen minutes. The function of the Zamboni was simple. The purpose in ice resurfacing was to smooth out the ridges and divots created in the ice surface by skaters. The Zamboni machinery consists of a sharp blade, designed to shave the ice to a consistent and uniform surface; once shaved, the ice scrapings are scooped into a vat located within the Zamboni to be melted for reuse. The machine then sprays a fine layer of hot water over the ice. The surface then melts and is refrozen, creating a smooth skating surface through one pass of the Zamboni.

Frank used his experience gained in the ice manufacturing business to open the Iceland Skating Rink in Paramount. At that time, artificial ice rinks were resurfaced by the manual labor of a team of men who scraped and then hosed down the surface by hand. Frank determined that there must be a more efficient way to resurface the ice.

Other than securing a patent for his creation, Zamboni made no effort to market the device until 1950, when skating star Sonja Henie rented Iceland as a practice rink for her touring ice show. Henie was so impressed with the new machine that she paid Frank $5,000 to build her one. A short time later, the Ice Capades figure skating show put in an order for a machine, and Zamboni suddenly found himself in the business of manufacturing ice machines.

Between 1942 and 1948, Frank built three primitive ice resurfacing machines using a variety of home-

The machine manufacturing company business exploded into an international business concern


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EMIL ZA´ TOPEK

when the U.S. Olympic Committee placed an order for four custom built machines for the 1960 Winter Olympics held at Squaw Valley, California. During the Olympic telecasts, the newly christened Zamboni was seen chugging its way across the world’s television screens. The Zamboni has proven to be a highly durable ice resurfacer—a 1955 Zamboni is still in use at a New Hampshire skating rink. Although there are commercial competitors, the Zamboni is regarded as the best ice resurfacing technology in the world. The Zamboni has achieved the status of a sport legend, all the more remarkable given that the Zamboni is a supporting actor in the world of ice sports, and not a prime actor. Ice hockey teams in particular have elevated the Zamboni; contests are often staged where the winner is given a Zamboni ride. The Zamboni, a product of the determination of Frank Zamboni to bring efficiency to his ice skating business, is now a sports icon. SEE ALSO

Figure skating; Ice hockey rinks.

Emil Za´topek 9/19/1922–11/22/2000 CZECH LONG DISTANCE RUNNER

Emil Za´topek was an outstanding long distance runner during the 1940s and 1950s. He is most famous for his triple gold medal performance in the 1952 Summer Olympics held in Helsinki, Finland. There, he was first in the 5,000-m and 10,000-m events and, in his first attempt at distance running, the marathon. Born in Czechoslovakia, now the Czech Republic, Za´topek began his running career in 1940, at the age of 16. Then, he was employed at a Bata shoe factory. The company sponsored a 1,500 m race, which Za´topek entered. Having never trained before, he finished second out of 100 competitors. His interest in running was sparked. Only four years later, he broke his country’s records for 2,000 m, 3,000 m, and 5,000 m events. In 1946, he was a member of the Czech national track and field team that competed at the European Championships. There, he finished fifth in the 5,000 m in a national record time. Za´topek truly came into international prominence at the 1948 Olympics in London, England,

814

where he won the gold medal in the 10,000 m (only the second time he had raced at that distance) and the silver medal in the 5,000 m. This began a remarkable decade of running. In 1949, Za´topek twice set new world records at 10,000 m. He bettered his own record three more times during the next four years. In 1949, he won eleven 10,000 m races in succession, part of a streak of thirty-eight consecutive 10,000 m victories. During the 1950s, he established world records at 5,000 m (in 1954), 20 km (two times during 1951), 25 km (in 1952 and 1955), and 30 km (in 1952). Za´topek was the first person to run 10,000 m in less than 29 minutes. As well, during 1951, he twice established world records for the distance run during 60 minutes, exceeding 20 km each time (a pace of 3 minutes per kilometer, or slightly over 4.5 minutes per mile). His triple gold medal-winning effort in the 1952 Olympics was all the more remarkable as it came after he had been advised by a doctor not to compete due to possible lingering effects of a gland infection two months earlier. His 10,000 m victory was impressive; he passed all but two runners in the field during the race and won by 50 m. Three days later, in the 5,000 m, he came from 50 m behind in the final lap to win by several meters. Finally, he won the marathon by more than 2.5 minutes; his winning time of 2 hours, 23 minutes, 3 seconds was an Olympic record. His three victories came within a span of eight days. And, on the afternoon when Za´topek captured the 5,000 m, his wife Dana won a gold medal for the Czech Republic in the javelin throw. The 1956 Olympics held in Melbourne, Australia, was Za´topek’s last. Running the marathon only weeks after a hernia operation, he finished sixth. The following year, he retired from competition. In his last year of life his health declined, and he was hospitalized for a broken hip and pneumonia. Following a stroke on October 30, he was hospitalized yet again, where he died on November 22 at the age of 78. He received full state honors at his funeral, which was attended by thousands of Czech citizens. At only 5 ft 8 in (1.7 m) and 145 lb (65.7 kg), Za´topek had an unusual running style. In contrast to the smooth and steady cadence of most other elite runners, he ran in a style that even today is considered to be inefficient. His head would roll WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

EMIL ZA´ TOPEK

Emil Za´topek (right, shown here winning an event in the 1952 Olympics) was the first triple Olympic record holder, taking gold in the 5000 m, 10,000 m, and marathon events.

and his upper body would pivot horizontally about his waist as he ran. As well, he often grimaced and made loud wheezing and panting noises during a race. The latter noises earned him the nicknames ‘‘The Czech Locomotive’’ and ‘‘bouncing Czech.’’


However at odds with running dogma Za´topek’s running style may have been, his results spoke volumes about his excellence as a runner. Moreover, his training regimen, which consisted of running laps at near-race speed, introduced the concept of speedwork into track training.

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GENERAL INDEX

Bolded page numbers refer to the main entry on the subject. Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations.

A

AAA (American Arbitration Association), 1:23–24 AAFC (All-American Football Conference), 1:108, 277, 2:497 AAU (Amateur Athletic Union), 2:811 ABA (American Basketball Association), 2:466 Abbott, Senda Berenson, 1:1–2, 70, 2:488 ABC (American Broadcasting Company), 2:462 Abdominal muscles, 2:538, 762 Abdominal pain, exercise-related transient, 2:588–589 Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, 1:2–4, 4, 71 Adidas shoes, 1:185 Wooden, John Robert, 2:795 Abrasions, cuts, lacerations, 1:4–6, 5 aging, 1:19 boxing, 1:104 road rash, 2:573 Abscess, 1:402 Acceleration gymnastics landing force, 1:332–333 motorcycle, 2:478 tackling techniques, 1:282–283 Acclimatization, 1:6–7, 7, 223 altitude illness, 1:22 cold weather, 1:224 erythropoietin, 1:7, 2:655 exercise physiology, 2:535 heat, 1:6–7, 224, 241, 2:746, 769


high altitude, 1:6–7, 224, 2:523, 596 hydration, 1:235, 378 Ironman competitions, 1:409 Nordic skiing, 2:636 soccer, 2:654–655 tennis, 2:723 ventilatory, 1:366 Accredited testing facilities, 1:232 Acetaminophen, 2:517 Acetazolamide, 1:22, 203 Acetylsalicylic acid, 1:209, 2:503–504 Achilles (Greek warrior), 1:8 Achilles tendon injuries, 2:651–652, 717 Achilles tendon rupture, 1:7–9, 96, 451, 2:717 American football, 1:280 ankle injuries from, 1:31 basketball injuries, 1:73 foot injuries from, 1:152 from running, 2:593–594 Achilles tendonitis, 1:9, 9–10, 451, 2:593–594, 717 ACL injuries, 1:10–12, 12, 96–97 basketball, 1:74 cycling, 1:178 in female athletes, 1:10–12, 74, 96–97, 257, 297, 431 figure skating, 1:268, 269 football (American), 1:280, 281–282 gymnastics, 1:332 hamstring imbalance in, 1:341, 430, 2:557 knee braces for, 2:514 soccer, 2:652 tendonitis, 1:269, 280 Acquired immunity, 1:400 Acromegaly, 1:325

Acromioclavicular joint, 2:619, 621, 653 ACTH (Adrenocorticotropin), 1:143, 372 Acting career, 1:107 Activation level, 2:674 Active hyperemia, 2:637 Active ingredients, 1:12–13 Active recovery, 2:575 Active stress, 1:7 Acupressure, 2:459 Acupuncture, 1:13–14, 14 achilles tendonitis, 1:10 herniated disks, 1:363 Adams, Victoria, 1:79 Adaptogens, 1:143–144 Addiction, 2:556, 688 Adenosine, 1:112 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) carbohydrate stores, 1:126, 127, 128–129 cramps, 1:159 creatine supplements, 1:160, 161 fat oxidation, 1:253 fluid replacement, 1:134 free fatty acids, 1:290–291 glycerol, 1:307 glycogen, 1:308 lactic acid, 1:437–438 low-carbohydrate diet, 1:192 oxygen, 2:523 phosphocreatine, 2:532–533 role of, 2:531–532 in skeletal muscle, 2:627, 628 slow twitch vs. fast twitch fibers, 2:480–481 ADH (Antidiuretic hormone), 1:202–203, 2:656, 726

821

GENERAL INDEX

Adhesive capsulitis, 1:14–15 Adidas, 1:185 Adipose tissue, 1:15–17, 16, 95–96 distribution of, 1:94 fat oxidation, 1:253 free fatty acids, 1:291 glycerol, 1:307 utilization of, 1:253–254 See also Body fat Adolescents habitual physical activity, 1:337 medical conditions, 2:679 nutrition for, 2:507 obesity, 1:421–423, 422 Osgood-Schlatter disease, 2:515 protein synthesis in, 2:483 sleep for, 2:640 See also Young athletes Adrenal glands, 1:372–373, 374, 2:724 Adrenaline. See Epinephrine Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), 1:143, 372 Advertising, 1:75 Advil. See Ibuprofen Aerial freestyle skiing, 2:633–634 Aero bar, 1:440 Aerobic exercise. See Aerobics Aerobic range, 1:221 Aerobic system cardiopulmonary function, 1:132 defined, 1:78 endurance, 1:220 fluid replacement, 1:134 glucose/ATP conversion, 1:128 high altitude, 1:365 wrestling, 2:801 Aerobics, 1:17, 17–19, 18 alpine skiing, 2:633 archery, 1:35 boxing, 1:105 caffeine for, 1:112 cardio-boxing, 1:130 cricket, 1:168 football (American), 1:278 high-impact, 1:130, 2:544 high intensity, 1:236–237 ice hockey, 2:715 low-impact cardiovascular, 1:448 middle-distance races, 2:596 motocross racing, 2:475 racquetball, 2:560 recovery from, 1:239–240 squash, 2:686 tennis, 2:722–723 triathlon, 2:742 volleyball, 2:760, 763 wrestling, 2:801 Aerodynamics automobile, 1:47–48, 48 bicycle handlebars, 1:440 bobsled, 1:93 computer simulations, 1:153 cycling, 1:183 football passing, 1:283–284, 284

822

Formula 1 auto racing, 1:285 golf ball, 1:312–313 javelin, 1:412–414 NASCAR auto racing, 2:491, 492 speedskating, 2:666 See also Drag; Lift African American women athletes, 1:303–304 African workout, 2:596 A.G. Spalding Company, 1:2, 2:663–664 Age-related response to injuries, 1:19–20, 20 Agents, 1:418 See also Free agency Agility, 2:671–672 Agility training baseball, 1:68 basketball, 1:79 rugby, 2:587 wrestling, 2:802 Aging athletic performance, 1:20–21 back injuries, 1:55 mature athletes, 2:460, 460–461 medical conditions, 2:679 process of, 1:19 protein synthesis, 2:484 skin, 1:19 testosterone, 2:724 See also Mature athletes AHS (American Heart Association), 1:117 AIAW (Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women), 2:495–496 Aid climbing, 2:574 AIDS/HIV, 1:402 Air dams, 2:492 Air Jordan, 1:417 Air quality, 1:6–7 Airfoils, 2:604 AIS (Androgen insensitivity syndrome), 2:612–613, 613 Alactic anaerobic system, 1:128, 129 Alanine, 1:26, 2:628 Alaska, Iditarod race, 1:397 Alcindor, Lew. See Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem Alcohol benefits of, 1:197 CNS depressant effect, 1:235 diuretic effect, 1:203 in energy drinks, 1:222–223 for hydration, 1:375 hypothermia, 1:383 nutritive value, 2:506 restricted use of, 2:569 sexual disorders from, 2:612 for shooting, 2:615 sleep disturbances from, 2:640 Aldosterone, 1:372–373 Alertness, 2:672 Alfalfa, 1:361

Ali, Muhammad, 1:104, 2:675 Alkaloids, 1:112, 2:537, 670 All-American Football Conference (AAFC), 1:108, 277, 2:497 Allen, Forrest (Phog), 1:71, 2:488 Allergies, 2:490 Allicin, 2:537, 669 Allison, Doug, 2:664 Ally-oop pass, 1:77 Aloe vera, 1:361 Alpha lipoic acid, 1:132 Alpine skiing, 2:631–632, 632 Paralympics, 2:526 ski conditions, 2:630–631 steel edged skis, 1:442 wax, 2:630 Altitude acclimatization, 1:6–7, 7, 224, 2:523, 596 See also High altitude Altitude illness, 1:21–22, 23, 365–366, 366 Altitude training. See Altitude acclimatization Aluminum baseball bats, 2:623 bicycle frames, 1:172, 428 tennis racquets, 2:720 Alveoli, 1:133–134 Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), 2:811 Amateur Athletics Federation, International (IAAF). See International Amateur Athletics Federation Amateur sports arbitration, 1:24 recreational, 2:563–565 Amber-tinted lens, 1:154 Amenorrhea, 1:98, 298, 2:613 Ameri-I-Can, 1:107 American Arbitration Association (AAA), 1:23–24 American Basketball Association (ABA), 2:466 American Bowling Congress, 1:99 American Broadcasting Company (ABC), 2:462 American Council in Exercise, 2:772 American football. See Football (American) American Football League, 1:277, 2:497 American Heart Association (AHS), 1:117 American League (Baseball), 1:61 American Pediatrics Association (APA), 2:679 American Professional Football Association (APFA), 2:496 American Sports Medicine Institute, 1:67


GENERAL INDEX

American Tennis Association (ATA), 1:303 America’s Cup, 1:405, 2:603 AMF-Voit, 1:414 Amino acid supplements, 1:24–25 Amino acids, 1:25–26 deconstruction of, 2:555 dehydration, 2:554 essential, 1:24–25 in fasting, 2:628 glutamine supplements, 1:306 in strength training, 2:691–692 Aminoglycosides, 1:212 Ampex Corporation, 1:304 Amphetamines doping tests, 1:205 for sleep deprivation, 2:641 stimulant action of, 2:688 Tour de France use, 1:183 Amputee disability classification, 1:198, 2:526 Anabolic prohormones, 1:26–27, 146–147 Anabolic steroids, 1:27–29, 28 American football use, 2:497 CASPER, 1:146–147 doping tests, 1:205, 2:519–520 East German athletes, 1:219 Ender, Cornelia, 1:219 Francis, Charlie, 1:287–288 Johnson, Ben, 1:28, 28–29, 287–288, 520, 2:737 protein synthesis, 2:484 roid rage, 1:29, 2:556 sexual disorders from, 2:612 weightlifting use, 1:27–28, 2:784 Anabolism, 1:26, 2:484 Anaerobic exercise basketball, 1:78 ice hockey, 2:715 middle-distance races, 2:596 recovery from, 1:239–240 resistance training, 2:569 short, high intensity, 2:615 tennis, 2:723 triathlon, 2:742 volleyball, 2:760 See also Plyometrics Anaerobic system alactic, 1:128, 129 canoeing and kayaking, 1:123–124 endurance, 1:220, 221 fluid replacement, 1:134 football (American), 1:278 freestyle skiing, 2:634 intermittent exercise, 1:238 jump rope training, 1:420 lactic, 1:123–124, 220, 309 phosphocreatine, 2:532–533 wrestling, 2:801 Analgesics, 1:209, 401, 2:549, 696 Anaphylactic reaction, 1:401–402 Andrews, James R., 1:29–30


Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS), 2:612–613, 613 Androstenedione, 1:27, 146, 2:744 Anemia, 1:228 Angiotensin, 1:380–381 Angular momentum, 1:279, 334, 2:660 Ankle anatomy and physiology, 1:30–31, 274, 450 popping and cracking noises, 1:415 Ankle braces, 1:11, 31 Ankle fractures, 2:645 Ankle injuries, 1:30–31 cheerleading, 1:141 gymnastics, 1:331, 332 incidence, 2:485 snowboarding, 2:645 Ankle sprains, 1:30–31, 31–33, 32 basketball, 1:72–73 football (American), 1:280 RICE for, 2:572 soccer, 2:651 Anne (Princess), 2:612 Anorexia nervosa, 1:142, 212–213, 2:556, 781 Anterior cruciate ligament anatomy, 1:430 Anterior cruciate ligament injuries. See ACL injuries Anti-depressants, 2:612 Anti-Doping Agreement. See International Anti-Doping Agreement Anti-inflammatory medications, 1:401, 2:549 Antibiotics ear, 1:211–212 eyedrop, 1:247 phytochemical, 2:537 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 1:202–203, 2:656, 726 Antifungal agents, 1:43–44 Antigens, 1:400 Antihistamines, 1:402, 2:490 Antioxidants, 1:33–34, 83 as cardioprotection, 1:132 phytochemical, 2:537 in sport nutrition, 2:669 See also Free radicals APFA (American Professional Football Association), 2:496 Apnea competitive, 1:289 sleep, 2:640 Appetite suppressants, 1:193 Aquapacer, 2:466–467 Arbitration American Arbitration Association, 1:23–24 Court of Arbitration for Sports, 1:24, 157–158 Archery, 1:35–36, 36

Archimedes principle, 1:95 Ariel, Gideon, 2:752 Arledge, Roone, 2:462 Arm exercises, 1:105 Arm injuries, 1:332 Armstrong, Lance, 1:36–39, 38, 39, 175 blood-doping investigation, 1:91 femur size, 1:97 physiological tests of, 1:182, 182–183 popularity in France, 1:181 slow twitch fibers, 1:39, 182, 220 Tour de France victories, 1:173 Army football team, 2:576 Around Oahu Bike Race, 1:149–150, 408 Arrhythmia, 1:132–133, 188 Arrows, 1:35 Arteries, 1:136 Arthritis, 1:415 Arthroscopy, 1:40–41, 41, 2:677–678 development of, 1:29–30 osteoarthritis, 2:517 osteochondritis dissecans, 2:518 Samuelson, Joan Benoit, 1:81 Articular cartilage. See Cartilage Artificial legs, 2:553 Artificial limbs. See Prosthetics Artificial turf, 1:250, 262, 2:647 Artistic gymnastics, 1:328 Ascorbic acid. See Vitamin C ASDA (Australian Sports Drug Agency), 1:46–47 Asghar, Ibrahim, 2:783 Ashe, Arthur, 2:721 Aspirin, 1:209, 2:503–504, 537, 624 Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW), 2:495–496 Astaphan, Jamie, 1:288 Asthma exercise-induced, 1:41–42, 42 exercise-induced bronchospasm in, 1:106 medications, 1:82, 2:549, 570, 696, 725 sports participation, 2:680–681 AstroTurf, 1:250 ATA (American Tennis Association), 1:303 Athens Paralympics, 2:527, 531 Athlete Location Form, 1:42–43 Athlete’s foot, 1:43–44 Athletic injuries. See Sports injuries Athletic performance aging, 1:20–21 defined, 2:506, 549 genetic prediction of, 1:300–301, 301 glycogen and, 1:308

823

GENERAL INDEX

high altitude, 1:364–365, 365 knee conditions, 1:430–432 nutrition, 2:506–507 prescription medications, 2:548–549 sleep deprivation, 2:641–642 Athletic Research Laboratory, 1:320 Athletic shoes, 1:44–46, 45 baseball, 2:664 basketball, 1:74–75, 75, 416–417, 2:715–716 blisters from, 1:89 bowling, 1:99 foot stress fractures from, 2:692–693 golf, 1:312, 2:511–512 history, 1:185 orthotic inserts for, 2:514 rock climbing, 2:574 running, 1:45, 98, 2:592, 594–595, 598, 598–599 sprinting, 2:599 tendon injuries from, 2:717 track and field, 1:185 waffle sole, 1:98, 2:598 Athletic trainers, evidence-based practice by, 1:233–234 Atkins diet, 1:129 ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate Atrioventricular (AV) node, 1:353 Auditory clues, 1:87 Australian crawl, 2:700 Australian Sports Drug Agency (ASDA), 1:46–47 Autoimmune system, 1:400 Automobile aerodynamics, 1:47–48 Automobile racing, 1:48–52, 51 aerodynamics, 1:47, 47–48 physics of banks and curves, 1:52, 2:533–534 qualification, 1:49 See also Formula 1 auto racing; NASCAR Auto racing Autonomic nervous system, 1:86–87, 2:502–503 Autotransfusion, red blood cell, 1:90 AV node, 1:353 Avalanche control, 2:628–630, 629 Avascular necrosis, 1:157, 411 Ayurvedic medicine, 2:623–624, 743

B

B-complex vitamin deficiency, 1:54, 2:458 B-complex vitamins, 1:53–54, 2:669 See also specific vitamins B2 agonists. See Beta-2 agonists BAA (Basketball Association of America), 1:295 Back anatomy and physiology, 1:54–55

824

Back braces, 1:446 Back injuries, 1:55–56, 56 cervical spine fractures, 1:137–139, 138 golf, 1:313–314 gymnastics, 1:332 incidence, 2:485 orthotics for, 2:514 popping and cracking noises, 1:415 See also Low back pain Backstroke, 2:701, 702 Backswing, 1:316–317 Backward running. See Retro running Badminton, 1:57, 57–58 Baggataway, 1:435 Bagpipes, 2:610 Bain, Alexander, 2:755 Balance components of, 1:59 gymnastics, 1:330–331, 331 in sport performance, 2:671–672 Balance beam, 1:328–329 Balance training, 1:58–59, 59 judo, 1:420 synchronized swimming, 2:709 volleyball, 2:760 water skiing, 2:776 Balataila, 2:624 BALCO (Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative), 1:158, 288, 2:727–728, 748 Ball throwing. See Throwing technique Balls baseball, 2:663–664 basketball, 2:664 bowling, 1:99 football, 2:664 golf, 1:310–311, 312–313, 313 soccer, 2:649–650 softball, 2:658 squash, 2:686 tennis, 2:720 See also Swiss Ball training Bank shot, 1:76 Bankart repair, 1:40 Banks, physics of, 1:52, 2:533–534 Banned substances, 2:696 Bannister, Roger Gilbert, 1:60, 60, 2:596, 600 Banting, Frederick, 2:510 Barbells. See Free weights Barbiturates, 1:205 Bariatrics, 2:509 Bars, horizontal and parallel, 1:331, 412 Basal energy expenditure, 2:734 Basal metabolic rate, 1:19, 2:734, 781 BASE parachute jumping, 1:245 Baseball, 1:60–62 arbitration, 1:23–24 batting cage, 2:540–541

batting technique, 1:68, 2:729–730 creatine supplements, 1:160 curve ball, 1:65, 65–66, 67 doping penalties, 2:521 free agency, 1:23–24 high altitude, 1:365 history, 1:61 Jackson, Vincent Edward (Bo), 1:411 Jordan, Michael, 1:417 Negro League, 2:458–459 pitching machines, 2:540–541 shoes, 2:664 sleep deprivation, 2:641 Spalding, Albert Goodwill, 2:663–664 strength training and exercises, 1:68–69 Thomas, Frank Edward, 2:729–730 See also Softball Baseball bats corked, 1:64–65 speed, 1:63–64 sweet spots and tampering, 1:64–65, 2:623 wooden, 1:64–65, 2:623 Baseball injuries, 1:66–68, 67, 2:621 Basedow, John, 1:328 Basket toss, 1:141 Basketball, 1:69–72, 70 24-second clock rule, 1:83–84, 2:466 Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, 1:2–4, 4, 71, 185 average player size, 1:73 average segment of play, 1:78 balls, 2:664 box out technique, 2:812 coaching, 2:795–796 FIBA, 1:259–260 goaltending rule, 2:465 history, 1:69–71 intercollegiate history, 2:493–494 international federations, 1:405 invention of, 1:69–70, 2:487–488 Jordan, Michael, 1:77, 416–417 jump shot, 1:76, 77, 294–295 key size rule, 2:466 March Madness, 2:496 Mikan, George Lawrence, 2:465–466 muscle mass and strength in, 2:482 referee whistles, 1:287 rules, 1:71, 259, 2:465, 466, 498 shot-clock rule, 1:71, 84 shot dynamics, 1:75–77, 76 slam dunk, 1:3, 77, 78, 440, 441 Special Olympics, 2:665 strength training and exercises, 1:78–79 vertical jump, 2:752 wheelchair, 2:526 women’s, 1:1–2, 70, 74, 440–442, 2:796–797 Wooden, John Robert, 1:3, 2:716, 795–796 See also National Basketball Association


GENERAL INDEX

Basketball Association, National (NBA). See National Basketball Association (NBA) Basketball Association of America (BAA), 1:295 Basketball Hall of Fame, 1:2, 4 Basketball hoop, 1:75–76 Basketball injuries, 1:72–74, 73, 215, 217 Basketball shoes, 1:74–75, 75 Converse, 2:715–716 Nike, 1:416–417, 418 Bats baseball, 1:63–65, 2:623 cricket, 1:162 softball, 2:658, 659 Batting cage, 2:540–541 Batting technique baseball, 1:68, 2:729–730 cricket, 1:162–163, 164–166, 165, 168, 2:646 softball, 2:658, 659–660, 660 Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative (BALCO), 1:158, 288, 2:727–728, 748 Beach volleyball, 2:758 Beamon, Bob, 1:365, 365, 444 Bearing away (Sailing), 2:607 Beckham: Both Feet on the Ground (Beckham), 1:79 Beckham, David Robert Joseph, 1:79–81, 80, 2:649 Behavior modification, dietary, 1:192–193 Belts judo, 1:419 karate, 1:425 Bending the ball, soccer, 2:649–650, 650 Benoit, Joan. See Samuelson, Joan Benoit Berard, Brian, 2:489, 680 Berenson, Senda. See Abbott, Senda Berenson Bernoulli principle automobile aerodynamics, 1:47, 49 discus, 1:201 Formula 1 auto racing, 1:285 frisbee sports, 1:293 sailing, 2:604, 605 Bertuzzi, Todd, 1:393 Best, Charles, 2:510 Beta-2 agonists, 1:81–82 for asthma, 1:82, 2:549 for exercise-induced bronchospasm, 1:106 therapeutic use exemption for, 2:696, 725 Beta-blockers, 1:82–83, 209, 2:615 Beta-carotene, 1:83, 83 Beta-sitosterol, 2:537, 670 Biasone, Daniel, 1:83–84


Biathlons, 1:84–85 intermittent exercise for, 1:238–239 Nordic skiing, 2:635 shooting, 2:614 Biceps, 1:215 Biceps femoris, 1:340 Bicycle kick, 2:528–529 Bicycles aluminum frames, 1:172, 428 BMX, 1:85–86, 246 component parts design, 1:120–121 derailleurs, 1:121, 172, 177, 181 development of, 1:172 gears, 1:176, 176–177 handlebars, 1:440 quick release rear hub, 1:121 shifters, 1:177 stationary, 2:687–689, 688 triathlon, 2:741 wind tunnel testing, 1:183 Bicycling. See Cycling Big East Conference, 2:495 The Big Hurt. See Thomas, Frank Edward Big Ten Conference, 2:494–495, 496 Bikila, Abebe, 2:594, 595 Bile, 1:443 Bindings, snowboard, 2:644 Biofeedback, 1:86–87, 2:687 Biological clock, 2:640 Biomechanics athletic shoes, 1:45 computer simulations, 1:153 figure skating leaps and throws, 1:267 gymnastics, 1:329 Biotin, 1:54 Bird, Larry, 2:795 Bitter orange, 1:227, 228, 251 Bixler, Barry, 1:87–88, 249 Black Cata-Pole, 1:414 Black September, 2:682–683 Black Sox scandal, 1:61 Blackouts, shallow vs. deep water, 1:290 Blades, figure skate, 1:263 Blanda, George, 1:445 Blanks, Billy, 1:18–19 Blisters, 1:88–89, 89, 346 Blocking techniques, 1:281 Blom, Rens, 2:545 Blood blisters, 1:88–89 Blood-borne diseases, 1:402 Blood doping, 1:89–91, 91 cycling, 1:175 event testing, 1:232 Nordic skiing, 2:636–637 Blood flow, skin and muscle, 2:637–638

Blood pressure biofeedback, 1:86–87 blood volume, 1:92 exercise physiology, 2:534 normal, 1:380, 382–383 See also Hypertension; Hypotension Blood pressure measurement, 1:379–380, 383 Blood tests, protein ingestion, 2:554 Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), 2:554, 567 Blood volume, 1:92–93 dehydration, 1:356 gender differences, 1:256–257 hydration, 1:375 immunity, 1:400 whole-body heat cramps, 2:787 BMI. See Body mass index BMX bicycles, 1:85–86, 246 Boards, breaking, 2:713 Boat hull design, 2:581–582, 605, 606 Bobsleds, 1:93–94, 94, 245 computer simulations, 1:87, 94, 153 runs, 1:93 Boccia, 2:526 Body checks, 1:388, 390–391, 391, 393, 2:792 Body composition, 1:94–95 basal metabolic rate, 2:734 exercise physiology, 2:535 ideal weight, 2:779 Body fat, 1:94, 95–96 body mass index, 1:16–17 calories per pound, 2:778, 780 conjugated linoleic acid, 1:154 exercise physiology, 2:535 exhaustion, 1:242 fat burners for, 1:250–251, 2:624, 781–782 gender differences, 1:299 in high intensity exercise, 1:236, 237 insulation value, 1:254 intermittent exercise, 1:238 in obesity, 2:780 oxidation, 1:252–253 percentage, 1:94–95, 254, 421–422, 2:509, 779, 780 utilization of, 1:253–254 whole-body heat cramps, 2:787 See also Adipose tissue Body height, 1:450 Body mass index (BMI) defined, 1:95 gender differences, 1:16–17 ideal weight, 2:779 obesity, 1:422, 2:509 See also Muscle mass Body temperature core, 1:155, 359, 376, 383, 2:637 in exercise, 1:234 fatigue, 1:255 ideal, 2:727 regulation of, 2:726–727

825

GENERAL INDEX

warm-up for, 2:768 water, 2:770–771 See also Thermoregulation Body type basal metabolic rate, 2:734 body composition, 1:94 genetics, 1:300 metabolic response, 2:464 motor control, 2:475 sport performance, 2:671–672 weight loss, 2:781 Body weight, ideal, 1:432, 2:778, 779, 780 Bodybuilding deconditioning, 1:188 glutamine supplements, 1:306 Nautilus machines, 1:416 See also Weightlifting Bogataj, Vinko, 2:462 Boitano, Brian, 1:263 Boldenone, 1:27 Bonds, Barry, 2:727 Bone chips, 1:152 Bone density aging, 1:19 caffeine, 1:113 calcium, 1:113 deconditioning, 1:188 dietary protein, 2:464 glucocorticoids, 1:305 gymnastics landing force, 1:334 knee conditions, 1:432 low-carbohydrate diet, 1:447 musculoskeletal injuries, 2:485 in osteoporosis, 2:518 skeletal health, 1:97 Bone marrow, 1:96 Bone mineralization patterns, 1:97–98 Bones, 1:96–97 broken (See Fractures) exercise physiology, 2:535 formation of, 1:113, 323, 327, 2:456, 518 See also Long bones Boots soccer, 1:185 speedskating, 2:667 See also Athletic shoes Boston Marathon, 1:81, 2:563, 594, 595 Bounding drills, 2:592, 745 Bow-legs, 2:516 Bowerman, William J., 1:98, 2:595, 598 Bowl Champion Series, 1:276 Bowling, 1:98–100, 100 See also Cricket Box jumps, 2:753 Box lacrosse, 1:396, 436–437 Box out technique, 2:812 Boxing, 1:101–103, 103 cardio-, 1:129–131, 448 corner men, 1:103–104 cross training, 1:169

826

cut man, 1:104 eating disorders, 1:213 elbow injuries from, 1:216 jump rope training, 1:105, 420, 421 muscle mass and strength, 2:482 strength training and exercises, 1:104–105 weight categories, 2:776–778, 777 Boycotts, Olympic Games, 1:407 Braces ankle, 1:11, 31 back, 1:446 knee, 2:514 neck, 2:514 Brachial artery, 1:215 Brachialis, 1:215 Brachioradialis, 1:215 Bradner, Hugh, 2:784 Brain, 2:500–502, 503 Bras, sports, 2:467, 794–795 Breakaway, 2:650–651 Breaking boards/bricks, 2:713 Breasts, 2:793–794 Breaststroke, 2:700, 701 Breathing. See Respirations Breathing techniques deep, 1:36, 87 foot strike, 2:589 Pilates, 2:538 shooting, 2:615 yoga, 2:805 Bricks, breaking, 2:713 The Brickyard. See Indianapolis Motor Speedway Broken bones. See Fractures Bronchodilators, 1:81–82, 106, 2:681, 725 Bronchospasm, exercise-induced, 1:41–42, 105–106 Brown, Dale, 2:796 Brown, James Nathaniel, 1:106–107, 109, 435–436 Brown, Paul Eugene, 1:107–109, 2:767 Browning Sky Pole, 1:414 Bruins (UCLA), 2:795–796 Brundage, Avery, 1:408, 2:683, 748–749 Bubka, Sergey, 2:545–546 Bucks. See Milwaukee Bucks Building, Antenna, Span and Earth (BASE) parachute jumping, 1:245 Bulimia, 1:212–213, 2:556 body fat percentage, 1:422 cheerleaders, 1:142 compulsive exercise, 1:152 weight loss, 2:781 Bullae, 1:88 Bump (Volleyball), 2:760 BUN (Blood urea nitrogen), 2:554, 567 Bunions, 1:150, 269

Burdock, 1:361 Burke, Edmund, 2:682 Bursa elbow, 1:215 role of, 1:414 shoulder, 2:619–620 Bursitis elbow, 1:218 hip (trochanteris), 1:368 iliopsoas, 1:398 shoulder, 1:315 Burton, Jake, 2:642 Butterfly stroke, 2:701–702

C

Caber toss, 2:610, 610 Cade, James Robert, 1:111–112 Caffeine, 1:112–113 athletic use of, 1:205 cramps from, 1:159 diuretic effect, 1:203, 235 in energy drinks, 1:222–223, 2:771 in ephedra-free supplements, 1:227 ergogenic effect, 1:231 in fat burners, 1:251 free fatty acids, 1:291 for hydration, 1:375 hypothermia, 1:383 magnesium in, 2:456 nutritive value, 2:506 restricted use of, 2:570, 689 sida cordifolia with, 2:624 sleep disturbances from, 2:640 for sleep inertia, 2:641 stimulant action of, 2:688 withdrawal, 1:112 Calcaneus (Heel bone), 1:151, 152, 359–360, 450 Calcium, 1:113–114, 2:468 bone development, 1:113, 323, 2:518 bone mineralization, 1:97–98 for cramp prevention, 2:480 dietary intake of, 1:191 glucocorticoids, 1:305 knee conditions, 1:432 magnesium, 2:456 for menstrual cramps, 1:197 osteoporosis, 1:197 in sport nutrition, 2:669 stress fractures, 2:566 Calcium deficiency, 1:113, 2:518 cramps from, 1:159, 160 malnutrition, 2:458 in sport nutrition, 2:669 Calcium oxalate, 1:113–114 Calcium phosphate, 1:96, 113, 2:531, 532 Calf muscle anatomy, 1:450 cramps, 1:114, 159, 356, 2:479 plantar fascitis from, 2:541 strain or pull, 1:114–116, 115 Calisthenics, 1:115–116 cycling, 1:174


GENERAL INDEX

flexibility from, 2:695 as low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448 soccer, 2:654 triathlon, 2:742 volleyball, 2:762 weight training, 1:291 Caloric intake, 1:116–117, 118, 190 basal metabolic rate, 2:734 carbohydrates, 1:116–117, 127 fats, 1:251–252 malnutrition, 2:457 protein, 2:553–554 recommendations, 1:127 for weight loss, 2:781 Caloric output, 1:118–119, 181 Calories, 1:117–120 defined, 1:116, 190 per pound of body fat, 2:778, 780 Cameras, on-board, 1:439 Camp, Walter Chauncy, 1:120, 275, 276 Campagnolo, Tullio, 1:120–121, 181 Canada ice hockey, 1:387, 388, 389–390 women’s ice hockey, 2:792 Canada Food Guide, 2:506–507 Canadian canoes, 1:123 Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES), 1:121 Canadian Football League (CFL), 1:278 Canadian Freestyle Skiing Association (CFSA), 2:633 Cancellous bones, 1:96 Cancer treatment, exercise for, 1:239 Cannabis, 2:569 Canoes, 1:122–124 flat-water, 1:125 hydrodynamics, 1:124–126 whitewater, 1:122, 123–124, 125, 126, 246 Canola oil, 1:252 Canseco, Jose, 1:401 Capacity, 1:255, 271 Capillaries, 1:136, 2:756 Capillarization, 2:689 Capsicum, 2:538 Capsulitis, adhesive, 1:14–15 Carbohydrates, 1:127–129, 129 adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 1:126, 127, 128–129 caloric intake, 1:116–117, 127 complex, 1:126, 127–128, 129 cramps, 1:159 dietary intake, 1:190, 192 energy density, 1:118 energy production, 1:119, 128–129, 437–438 in exercise recovery, 1:240–241 glycogen levels, 1:308, 2:481–482 growth, 1:324


hydration, 1:375 lack of, 1:242 liver function, 1:442–443 loading, 1:308, 447, 2:482 nutritive value, 2:505 in protein supplements, 2:555 protein synthesis, 2:484 recommendations, 1:120, 2:507 simple, 1:126, 127 sources of, 1:190 in sport nutrition, 2:668 in sports drinks, 1:111, 112, 309, 377, 2:769 stores of, 1:126–127 Carbon dioxide, free diving and, 1:289 Carbon fiber bicycle frames, 1:172 field hockey sticks, 1:260 pole vault poles, 2:546 Cardiac arrest. See Heart attacks Cardiac muscle, 2:480, 534, 626 Cardio-boxing, 1:129–131, 448 Cardio-kickboxing, 1:129, 131 Cardioprotection, 1:131–132 Cardiopulmonary function, 1:132–133, 135 Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), 1:133 Cardiorespiratory function, 1:133–134, 135 in cold weather, 1:148 exercise physiology, 2:535 gender differences, 1:256–257 musculoskeletal injuries, 2:485 recovery of, 1:240–241 Cardiovascular disease, 1:256 fitness, 1:272 habitual physical activity, 1:337 obesity, 2:510 Cardiovascular exercise low-impact, 1:448–449, 449, 2:739 treadmills, 2:738–740 See also Aerobics Cardiovascular health aging, 1:20–21 cardioprotection for, 1:131–132 deconditioning, 1:188 diet and exercise for, 1:136 endurance, 1:219 exercise, 1:131–132, 136 female exercise, 1:255–257, 256 habitual physical activity, 1:337 pedometers for, 2:528 Pilates for, 2:538 sports participation, 2:680 treadmill for, 2:738–740 Cardiovascular response fluid replacement, 1:134–135 warm-ups, 2:768 Cardiovascular system, 1:135–136 in cold weather, 1:148 in energy production, 1:234 exercise physiology, 2:534 gender differences, 1:256–257

hydration, 1:375, 378 hyperthermia, 1:244 mature athletes, 2:460 oxygenated water, 2:771–772 recovery of, 1:240–241 in warm weather, 2:769 water, 2:770 wrestling, 2:801 Cardiovascular training machines, 2:687–689, 688 Carlos, Roberto, 2:649 Carnitine, 1:253 Carotenoids, 1:33 Carpal fractures, 2:802 Carpal tunnel syndrome, 1:136–137, 346, 2:803 Carphedon, 2:637 Cartilage elbow, 1:214 knee, 1:414, 429 osteoarthritis, 2:515–517 osteochondritis dissecans, 2:517 repair and replacement, 2:682 shoulder, 2:619 Cartilage injuries arthroscopy, 1:81 basketball, 1:73 knee, 1:415, 431 CAS (Court of Arbitration for Sports), 1:24, 157–158, 158, 2:725 CASPER (Coalition for Anabolic Steroid Precursor and Ephedra Regulation), 1:146–147 CAT scan, 1:439–440, 2:677 Catabolism, 2:484, 554 Catchers, 1:62, 63 Cavill, Frederick, 2:700 CBA (Collective bargaining agreements), 2:520, 521, 552 CCES. See Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport Center of gravity, 1:97, 330, 2:697 Center of mass (CoM), 2:597–598 Central nervous system, 1:255, 376, 2:502 Central nervous system depressants, 1:235 Centripetal force automobile racing, 1:51–52 banks and curves, 2:478, 533–534 water skiing, 2:774–775 Cerebral edema, 1:22 Cerebral hypoxia, 1:290 Cerebral palsy disability classification, 1:198, 2:526 Certification, coaching, 2:498 Cerumen, 1:212 Cervical spine, 1:54, 55 Cervical spine injuries, 1:55, 2:499–500

827

GENERAL INDEX

fractures, 1:137–139, 138, 393, 2:499 gymnastics, 1:332 The Chair (Pilates), 2:538 Chalk, rock climbing, 2:574 Chambers, Dwaine, 2:727 Chamomile, 1:361 Champ Car series, 1:50 Change of Plan Form, 1:43, 139 Chastain, Brandi, 2:648 Cheer teams. See Cheerleading Cheerleading, 1:139–141, 140 Cheerleading injuries, 1:141–142, 142, 143 Chemgrass, 1:250 Chest exercises, 1:396 Chicago Cubs, 1:320 Chicago Gears, 2:465–466 Children dehydration, 1:375 habitual physical activity, 1:337 iliopsoas syndrome, 1:399 malnutrition in, 2:457 medical conditions, 2:679 obesity, 1:421–423, 422, 2:780 strength training, 2:690–691 See also Young athletes Chilvers, Peter, 2:788 Chinaman (Cricket), 2:646 Chinese ginseng, 1:142–144, 144 Chinese medicine. See Traditional Chinese medicine Chiropractic, 1:144–146, 363 Chlorine role of, 2:468 sodium, 2:608–609, 655 swimming pool, 2:704–705 Chlorophyll, 2:456 Cholesterol, 1:17–18, 191 Christie, Linford, 1:160, 2:489, 692 Chronic dry eye, 1:246 Cialis, 2:612 Circadian rhythms, 1:6–7, 2:640 Circuit training for endurance, 2:689–690 synchronized swimming, 2:709 tennis, 2:723 triathlon, 2:743 Cirrhosis, 1:443 Citrus aurantium. See Bitter orange CLA (Conjugated linoleic acid), 1:153–154 Clap speed skates, 1:371–372, 2:667 Claudino, Fabiana, 2:761 Clavicle fractures, 1:331, 2:622 Clay courts, 2:718 Clean and jerk event, 2:782, 783 Cleveland Browns, 1:108–109

828

Cliff diving, 1:145, 146 Climbing, rock and wall, 2:574–575, 575 Clinical trials, 1:208 Closed circuits, 1:49 Clothing cold weather, 1:149, 224 cycling, 1:183 GORE-TEX, 1:318–319 women’s sports, 2:793–795, 794 Clubs, golf, 1:310, 311–312 Coaching. See Sport coaching Coaching Code of Ethics, 2:749 Coalition for Anabolic Steroid Precursor and Ephedra Regulation (CASPER), 1:146–147 Cobalt, 2:468 Cocaine, 2:688 Coe, Sebastian, 2:596 Coefficient of restitution (COR) ice hockey skates, 1:395 pole vault poles, 2:545–546 skis, 2:635 softballs, 2:658 Cold-related illnesses and emergencies, 1:147–148 exposure injuries, 1:243–244 heat cramps, 1:356 runner’s stitch, 2:589 See also Hypothermia Cold weather exercise, 1:148–149, 149 acclimatization, 1:224 adipose tissue insulation for, 1:15 cardiovascular system in, 1:148 clothing, 1:149 energy metabolism in, 1:147 first aid kits, 1:271 surfing, 2:699 thermoregulation in, 2:637 training for, 1:224, 225 warm-up, 2:768 Collagen amino acid supplements, 1:24–25 in bones, 1:96 musculoskeletal injuries, 2:485 vitamin C, 2:756 Collarbone fractures, 1:331, 2:622 Collective bargaining agreements (CBA), 2:520, 521, 552 College sports. See Intercollegiate sports Collins, John, 1:149–150, 408 Collins, Judy, 1:408 CoM (Center of mass), 2:597–598 Comaneci, Nadia, 1:328, 329, 427 Common cold, 2:749 Commonwealth Games, 1:47, 404, 2:784 Compartment syndrome, 1:451 Competition bans, 2:550–552

Competition doping tests, 1:206 Competitive apnea, 1:289 Competitive sports, 2:563 Complex carbohydrates, 1:126, 127–128, 129 Compression bandages achilles tendonitis, 1:10 use of, 2:572 wrapping techniques, 2:799–800 See also PRICE (Protection, rest, ice, compression, elevation); RICE (Rest, ice, compression, elevation) Compulsive exercise, 1:152 Computational fluid dynamics, 1:87–88, 249 Computer axial tomography (CAT) scan, 1:439–440, 2:677 Computer models, 1:153 Computer simulations bobsled, 1:87, 93, 153 mental stress, 2:463–464 of swimming strokes, 1:87–88 for training, 1:152–153 Concentration, 2:674 Concentric muscle contractions, 2:544 Concussion, 1:350–351 boxing, 1:102–103 football (American), 1:20 ice hockey, 1:392 motor control, 2:476 young athletes, 2:808 Conduction, heat, 1:358 Conflict resolution, 1:23–24 Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), 1:153–154 Conjunctivitis, 1:246–247 Connors, Jimmy, 2:720 Constant resistance exercise, 2:751 Constant weight diving, 1:290 Constructor’s championships, 1:49 Contac lens, 1:154–155 Contact pads, 2:707 Contact sports American football injuries, 1:281 cervical spine fractures, 1:138–139 elbow injuries, 1:216 medical conditions, 2:679 neck injuries, 2:499, 500 osteochondritis dissecans, 2:517 quadriceps injuries, 2:728–729 shoulder injuries, 2:622 for young athletes, 2:812 youth sports injuries, 2:808 See also specific sports Contamination of dietary supplements, 2:697–698 Conte, Victor, 2:727 Contraction. See Muscle contractions Controlled substances, 2:696 Convection, heat, 1:358


GENERAL INDEX

Converse All Star shoes, 2:715–716 Cook, James, 2:698 Cool-down, 2:767–768 cold weather, 1:149 DOMS prevention, 1:189 gymnastics injury prevention, 1:332 hamstring injury prevention, 1:342 recreational sports, 2:564–565 resistance training, 2:569 short, high intensity exercise, 2:616 stretching, 2:695 Cooling, radiational, 1:358, 2:727 Cooper, Kenneth, 1:17–18 Cooper Aerobics Center, 1:18 Coordination judo, 1:420 jump rope training, 1:420 in sport performance, 2:671–672 COR (Coefficient of restitution), 1:395, 2:545–546, 635, 658 Corbet, Jim (Gentleman Jim), 1:101 Core body temperature, 1:155 in heat stroke, 1:359 hydration, 1:376 in hypothermia, 1:155, 383 perspiration, 2:637 Core strength balance training, 1:59 boxing, 1:105 cheerleading, 1:141 field hockey, 1:260 figure skating, 1:268 gymnastics, 1:329 rock climbing, 2:575 swimming, 2:707 tennis, 2:722, 723 triathlon, 2:743 triple jump, 2:745 volleyball, 2:762 weightlifting, 2:783 wrestling, 2:801 Corked baseball bats, 1:64–65 Cornea injuries, 1:247 Corner kick, 2:648, 650 Corner men, boxing, 1:103–104 Coronary artery disease, 1:17–18, 131–132 Cortical bones, 1:96 Corticosteroids. See Glucocorticoids Cortisol, 1:305, 372, 2:641, 733 Cortisone, 1:305, 2:733 Cortisone injections, 1:155–157, 156, 402 for heel spurs, 1:360 therapeutic use exemptions for, 2:549 Costs, gender differences, 2:731, 732 Costumes, figure skating, 1:263 Counterpunch, 1:102 Couples, Fred, 2:663 Court of Arbitration for Sports (CAS), 1:24, 157–158, 158, 2:725


COX (Cyclooxygenase), 2:503 COX inhibitors, 2:504 CPF. See Change of Plan Form CPR (Cardiopulmonary resuscitation), 1:133 Cramps, 1:158–160, 159 See also Muscle cramps Cranston, Toller, 1:262 Crash diet, 1:213, 2:777 Crawl (Swim stroke), 2:700 Creatine phosphate, 1:161 Creatine supplements, 1:13, 160–161, 161 ergogenic effect, 1:230 phosphocreatine, 2:533 for strength training, 2:692 Creatinine, 2:533, 567–568 Cricket, 1:161–164, 163 ball bowling, 1:162, 166–167, 167, 168, 2:646 batting, 1:162–163, 164–166, 165, 168, 2:646 elbow injuries, 1:215 Sobers, Garfield, 1:166, 2:646–647 strength training and exercises, 1:167–168 Cromolyn sodium, 2:490 Cross checks, 1:393 Cross-country running, 2:469–470, 589–590 Cross-country skiing. See Nordic skiing Cross-country tours, equestrian, 1:230 Cross punch, 1:102 Cross training, 1:169–170, 170 decathlon, 1:187 ice hockey, 1:396 Ironman competitions, 1:409 motor control, 2:475 for muscle recovery, 1:240 triathlon, 2:741–743 women’s pentathlon, 2:529 Crouch position, 1:334, 2:694 Crowd noise, 1:224–225 Crowley, James, 2:576 Crunches, 1:115 CSKA (Club), 2:714, 715 Cummings, William Arthur (Candy), 1:66 Cumulative sleep debt. See Sleep deprivation Curling, 1:170–172, 171, 2:785 Curve ball, 1:65, 65–66, 67, 217 Curves, physics of, 2:533–534 Cut man, 1:104 Cuts. See Abrasions, cuts, lacerations Cyanocobalamin, 1:53 Cyanuric acid, 2:705

Cycling, 1:172–175, 175 Campagnolo, Tullio, 1:120–121 drafting, 1:37–38 Hawaii Ironman, 1:409 heat stroke from, 1:358 for ice hockey training, 1:396 iliotibial band friction from, 1:399 as low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448 performance-enhancing drugs in, 1:174–175 road racing, 1:173, 174, 177–178, 179 road rash from, 2:573 strength training and exercises, 1:179–180, 180 track racing, 1:173 triathlon, 2:740–741 wind tunnel testing, 1:183 See also Armstrong, Lance; Mountain biking; Tour de France Cycling injuries, 1:177–178, 178 Cyclooxygenase (COX), 2:503

D

da Vinci, Leonardo, 1:172, 2:638 Dallas Cowboy cheerleaders, 1:139 Dan, Zhang, 1:266 Dancing, ice, 1:263, 267 Dandelion root, 1:203 Danilova, Olga, 1:157 Darbepoetin, 1:91, 157 Darby, Newman, 2:788 Dassler, Adolph, 1:185, 2:598 Dassler, Rudolph, 1:185 Dawkins, Darryl (Chocolate Thunder), 1:77 Daylight saving time, 1:6–7 de Bruin, Erik, 2:724 de Coubertin, Pierre female athletes, 1:297 modern pentathlon, 2:468–469 Olympic Games, 1:406 track and field, 2:735 USOC, 2:748 de Mestral, George, 1:186 De Quervain’s disease, 1:314 de Vivie, Paul, 1:172 Death spiral, 1:265, 265 Deca-Durabolin. See Nandrolone Decathlon, 1:186–187, 187, 2:737 cross training, 1:170 pole vault in, 2:545 Deceleration, 1:282 Deconditioning, 1:188 Decongestants, 2:471, 490 Deep breathing techniques, 1:36, 87 Deep water blackouts, 1:290 Deflection, 2:649 Deford, Frank, 1:189 Degenerative disk disease, 1:446

829

GENERAL INDEX

Degenerative joint diseases, 2:517–518 Dehydration, 1:375–377 adrenal glands in, 1:374 aldosterone, 1:372–373 amino acids, 2:554 from blood doping, 1:90 in cold weather, 1:149 cramps from, 1:159, 356, 2:480 from cycling, 1:178 fluid replacement for, 1:135 heat stroke, 1:358 hyperthermia from, 1:244 hyponatremia from, 1:381–382 hypotension from, 1:383 immunity, 1:400 physiology of, 1:375–377 renal function, 2:567 sports drinks for, 1:111 symptoms, 1:235 thirst sensation, 1:372–373, 375 urine color, 2:726, 746 water for, 2:771 for weight loss, 2:777, 778 whole-body heat cramps from, 2:786–787 Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHT), 1:27, 146–147, 230–231, 2:744 Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), 1:189, 2:768 Denver, Colorado stadium, 1:365 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 1:300, 301–302 Department of Agriculture (USDA), 1:118 Department of Health and Human Services, 1:118 Depression, 1:422, 2:556 Derailleurs, 1:121, 172, 177, 181 Dermabond. See Octylayanoacrylate Dermis, 2:637, 733 Desgrange, Henri, 1:180 Detached retina, 1:247 Deutsche Turnkunst (Jahn), 1:412 DHEA. See Dehydroepiandrosterone DHT (Dehydroepiandrosterone), 1:27, 146–147, 230–231, 2:744 Diabetes athlete’s foot, 1:44 obesity, 2:510 type 1 (Juvenile), 2:510 type 2 (non-insulin dependent), 1:422, 2:511 Diagnostic imaging, 2:677 Diaphragm stretch, 2:589 Diary, food, 1:193 Diastolic blood pressure, 1:383 Diet, 1:190–192, 192 antioxidants, 1:34 athletic performance, 2:506–507 balanced, 2:464, 504–505, 506–507 behavior modification of, 1:192–193

830

caloric intake, 1:116–117 carbohydrates, 1:126 cardiovascular health, 1:136 crash, 1:213, 2:777 defined, 2:668 growth, 1:323, 324 health, 1:352 high-carbohydrate, 2:668 high-fat, 1:447 for hypertension, 1:380 juvenile obesity, 1:422–423 knee conditions, 1:431–432 longevity, 1:445 magnesium, 2:456 meal patterns, 2:506 metabolic response, 2:464 muscle glycogen recovery, 2:482 muscle mass, 2:483 nutrition, 2:504–506 protein, 1:25 sodium intake from, 2:656 in sport nutrition, 2:668–670 for strength training, 2:691–692 for the Tour de France, 1:181 yo-yo, 1:193 for young athletes, 2:811 See also Low-carbohydrate diet Diet pills. See Weight-loss products Dietary fats. See Fats (Dietary) Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 1:118 Dietary protein. See Protein (Dietary) Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA), 1:193–195, 196, 2:698 Dietary supplements, 1:195–198 active ingredients of, 1:13 amino acid, 1:24–25 calcium in, 1:113–114 for cardioprotection, 1:132 contamination of, 2:697–698 defined, 1:194 vs. dietary intake, 1:192 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act, 1:194 dose and dosage, 1:208–209 vs. drugs, 1:196 ephedra in, 2:471–472 ergogenic, 1:230 metabolic response to, 2:464 nutritive value, 2:506 phosphate, 2:532 phytochemicals in, 2:537 prohormones in, 1:27 Digoxin, 2:537, 670 Dimethylaminoethanol (DMAE), 1:227 Diosgenin, 2:788 Dirt track racing, 2:478 The Dirty Dozen, 1:107 Disability classification, 1:198–199 Disabled individuals classification of, 1:198–199, 2:526 exercise for, 1:199–200, 200 track and field events for, 2:735 See also Paralympics

Disc Golf, 1:293 Discipline, 2:672 Discus, 1:100–201, 201, 202, 2:737 Displacement tanks, 1:421, 2:509, 779 Distance running foot strike, 2:598 heart rate monitors, 1:353–354 heat stroke, 1:358 high intensity exercise, 1:237 hydration, 1:377–379, 378 injuries from, 2:594 knee injuries from, 1:433 low-carbohydrate diet, 1:447 middle-distance races, 2:569, 594, 596–597 musculoskeletal injuries from, 2:485 Radcliffe, Paula Jane, 2:561 whole body weight training, 2:602 Za´topek, Emil, 2:814–815, 815 Diuretics, 1:202–203 caffeine as, 1:235 doping tests, 1:24, 205 energy drinks as, 1:222–223 for hydration, 1:375 for hypertension, 1:380 hypothermia, 1:383 for weight loss, 2:778 Diving, 1:203–205, 204 cliff, 1:145, 146 constant weight, 1:290 eating disorders in, 1:212 free, 1:245, 288, 288–290, 289 neck injuries, 2:499 platform, 1:204 sky, 1:245, 2:638–639, 639 springboard, 1:204 swimming races, 2:706 synchronized, 1:204 variable weight, 1:290 Dixon, Rod, 2:754 DMAE (Dimethylaminoethanol), 1:227 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), 1:300, 301–302 Dobroskok, Dmitry, 1:204 Doby, Larry, 2:458 Dog sled races, Iditarod, 1:397, 398 DOMS (Delayed onset muscle soreness), 1:189, 2:768 Donahue, Jack, 1:3 Doping blood, 1:89–91, 91, 175, 232, 2:636–638 Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport, 1:121 Congressional hearings on, 2:552 Court of Arbitration for Sports, 1:157–158 cycling, 1:174–175 defined, 1:205 dietary supplements as, 2:698 Ender, Cornelia, 1:219 ergogenic products, 1:230–231 event testing, 1:231–233


GENERAL INDEX

gene, 1:208, 302–303, 2:486, 799 Griffith-Joyner, Delorez Florence, 1:321 in ice hockey, 2:547 injections of, 1:401 International Anti-Doping Agreement, 1:403 International Intergovernmental Consultative Group on AntiDoping in Sport, 1:405–406 penalties, 2:521 prohibited substances, 2:550–552, 552, 696, 724–725, 798, 799 restricted substances, 2:569–570, 695–696 USADA, 2:747–748 USADA research on, 2:747 See also Erythropoietin; Therapeutic use exemption; specific drugs Doping control officer, 1:207 Doping control station, 2:521 Doping tests, 1:205–208, 207, 228 anabolic steroids, 1:205, 2:519–520 arbitration in, 1:24 Athlete Location Form for, 1:42–43 Australian Sports Drug Agency, 1:46–47 Change of Plan Form, 1:139 competition, 1:206 Court of Arbitration for Sports, 1:157–158 cycling, 1:174–175 for erythropoietin, 1:90–91 event testing, 1:231–233 history, 2:797 in-competition, 2:519 Lund, Zach, litigation, 1:24 nandrolone, 2:489, 520–521 out-of-competition, 1:206–207, 2:519–521, 570, 747 Paralympics, 2:526–527 professional sports associations, 2:520, 521 random, 2:520 standards, 2:520–521 testosterone, 2:724 See also World Anti-Doping Agency Dose and dosage, drug, 1:208–209 Doubleday, Abner, 1:61 Down force, 1:47, 49, 285, 2:491 Down syndrome, 2:665 Downhill skiing, 1:349, 442, 2:632–633 See also Alpine skiing Downswing, 1:317 Dr. Dunkenstein. See Griffith, Darrell Drafting cycling, 1:37–38, 173–174 NASCAR auto racing, 2:492 Drag aerodynamics of, 1:47 bobsled, 1:93 canoe and kayak, 1:122 cycling, 1:183 discus, 1:201


Formula 1 auto racing, 1:285 parachute, 2:638 resistance training, 2:569, 602 rowing hydrodynamics, 2:581 sailboat, 2:607 swim suit, 1:88, 249 swimming, 2:705–706 Drag racing, 1:50, 154, 2:478 Dragneva, Izabela, 2:552 Dragon boat racing, 1:123, 125 Drake, Francis, 1:98 Drake, Jim, 2:788 Draw stroke, 1:124 ‘‘Dream team,’’ 1:72, 417 Dressage, 1:229 Drive shots, cricket, 1:166 Driver’s championship, 1:49 Dropkick, rugby, 2:585–587, 586 Drug testing. See Doping tests Drugs active ingredients of, 1:12–13 asthma, 2:549, 570, 696, 725 vs. dietary supplements, 1:196 dose and dosage, 1:208–209 effectiveness of, 1:209 over-the-counter, 1:208–209 prescription, 2:527, 548–549 restricted use of, 2:569–570 sexual disorders from, 2:612 sleep disturbances from, 2:640 therapeutic use exemption, 2:527, 549, 570 therapeutic use exemption for, 2:696, 724–725 tolerance to, 1:209 See also Doping; specific drugs Dry land training canoe and kayak, 1:124 ice hockey, 1:396, 2:715 swimming, 2:703 Drysuits, 2:784 DSHEA. See Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act Dual moguls, 2:633 Dubin Inquiry, 1:287–288 Dueling swords, 1:257 Dundee, Angelo, 1:104 Dunk shot. See Slam dunk Dunkenstein, Dr. See Griffith, Darrell Dynamic stretching, 2:805

E

Ear drops, 1:211–212 Ear infections, 1:211–212 Ear wax, 1:212 Earnhardt, Dale, 2:491 East German athletes, 1:219 Eastern healing therapies, 1:13–14, 14 Eating disorders, 1:212–213, 213 cheerleaders, 1:142

compulsive exercise with, 1:152 in female athletic triad, 1:152, 298, 2:613 gymnastics, 1:212, 213, 329–330, 428, 2:556 sports participation with, 2:680 weight loss, 2:781 in young athletes, 2:809 ECA stack, 2:624 Eccentric muscle contractions, 1:189, 2:544 Eccrine gland sweat secretion, 1:213–214 Echinacea, 1:361 ECO Challenge, 1:246 Ectomorphs, 1:94, 2:464 Eczema, 2:733 Eddy resistance, 2:705–706 Edema cerebral, 1:22 pulmonary, 1:22, 365–366, 366 Education, sports medicine, 2:681–682, 682 Eformoterol, 1:82 Eggs, 1:25 Einhoven, William, 1:353 Elastic muscle strength, 2:689, 690 Elbow anatomy and physiology, 1:214–216, 216 golfer’s, 1:218, 314 Little Leaguer, 1:217 range of motion, 2:563 tennis, 1:218, 314 Elbow fractures, 1:217 Elbow injuries, 1:216–218, 217 baseball, 1:66–68 contact sports, 1:216 football (American), 1:281 golf, 1:314 gymnastics, 1:331 osteochondritis dissecans, 2:517 from strength sports, 1:216 from striking motions, 1:216 tendinitis, 2:717 from throwing technique, 1:215 in young athletes, 2:809 See also Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries Electrocardiograms, 1:353, 353–354, 2:738 Electroencephalography, 1:86 Electrolyte balance/imbalance heat cramps, 1:356 sports drinks for, 1:111 water, 2:770 Electrolyte replacement, 1:271, 356 See also Fluid replacement Electromyelography, 1:86 Electronic timing, 2:707, 735 Eleutherococcus senticosus, 2:522 Elevation. See RICE

831

GENERAL INDEX

Elliptical trainers, 2:687–689 Ellis, William Webb, 1:218 Emergencies, cold-related, 1:147–148 Emotional control, 2:672 End stage renal failure, 2:567 Ender, Cornelia, 1:218–219 Endomorphs, 1:94, 2:464 Endorphins, 1:199, 239 Endurance, 1:219–220 cardiovascular, 1:219 gender differences, 1:299 glycogen levels in, 1:309 lactic anaerobic system, 1:123–124, 220, 309 muscular, 1:219 in sport performance, 2:671 strength, 2:689 Endurance exercise, 1:220–221, 221 blood volume, 1:92 caffeine for, 1:112 circuit training for, 2:689–690 cross-country running, 2:590 fast-slow twitch ratio, 1:300 football (American), 1:278 glutamine supplements, 1:306 low-carbohydrate diet, 1:447 protein intake, 1:117 rock climbing, 2:575 rowing, 2:583 rugby, 2:587 for slow twitch fiber development, 2:481 soccer, 2:654 VO2 max, 1:134 volleyball, 2:763 Endurance sports first aid kits, 1:271 glycerol, 1:307 injuries from, 2:677 intermittent exercise for, 1:238 Paris to Dakar rally, 1:51, 2:478 second wind, 1:438 Endurance training. See Endurance exercise Energy, kinetic, 1:279–280, 316 Energy bars, 2:461 Energy density, 1:118 Energy drinks, 1:222, 222–223, 2:771 Energy expenditure basal, 2:734 ephedra for, 1:226 fat burners for, 1:250–251 gymnastics, 1:329 running, 2:597–598 total daily, 2:733–734 Energy production caffeine, 1:112 carbohydrates, 1:119, 128–129, 437–438 in cold weather, 1:147 in exercise, 1:234 fat burners in, 1:251 fat oxidation in, 1:252–253 fluid replacement, 1:134–135

832

glycogen, 1:309 lactic acid, 1:128, 129, 437–438 liver function, 1:442–443 muscle contractions, 1:135, 2:627 nutrition, 2:507 overtraining, 2:522 oxygen, 2:523 phosphates, 2:531–532 phosphocreatine, 2:532–533 skeletal muscle, 2:627–628 slow twitch vs. fast twitch fibers, 2:480–481 Energy sources, 1:15–16, 95, 309 Energy stores, 1:240–241, 2:778 See also Adipose tissue; Body fat Enforcers, 1:389 Enswell, 1:104 Environmental conditions growth, 1:323 sport performance, 2:672 training for, 1:223–225, 225 See also Cold weather exercise; High altitude; Warm weather exercise Enzymes, 1:26 E´peé, 1:258 Ephedra, 1:14, 225–226, 227, 362 doping tests, 1:206 energy drinks, 1:222 fat burners, 1:251 Food and Drug Administration, 1:195 restricted use of, 2:570 weight loss formulas, 2:471–472 See also Mormon tea Ephedra-free supplements, 1:226–228 Ephedra sinica. See Ephedra Ephedrine ephedra, 1:206, 226–227 Mormon tea, 2:470–471 nasal spray, 2:490 sida cordifolia, 2:624 weight loss products, 2:782 Epicondylitis. See Lateral epicondylitis; Medial epicondylitis Epidermis, 2:637, 733 Epilepsy, 2:680 Epinephrine for bronchospasm, 1:42 caffeine, 1:112 exercise, 1:373 in fight-or-flight response, 2:465 mental stress, 2:463 role of, 1:323, 374 testosterone, 2:724 EPO. See Erythropoietin Epsom salts, 2:456 Equestrian events, 1:229, 229–230 modern pentathlon, 2:469, 469–470 Special Olympics, 2:665 Equipment failures, 2:672 Erectile dysfunction, 2:612 Ergogenic products, 1:230–231

Ergometric rowing machine, 2:583 Erving, Julius (Dr. J), 1:77, 2:466 Erythrocytes. See Red blood cells Erythrocythemia. See Blood doping Erythropoietin (EPO), 1:90–91, 228–229 acclimatization, 1:7, 2:655 blood volume, 1:92 in cycling, 1:175 doping tests, 1:90–91, 205 event tests, 1:232 in exercise, 1:373 high altitude performance, 1:364 high altitude pulmonary edema, 1:366 hypoxic tents for, 2:570 in Nordic skiing, 2:636–637 oxygen, 2:523 oxygenated water, 2:772 role of, 1:323, 374 Tour de France use, 1:183 water content, 2:770 Eskimo roll, 1:125 Essential amino acids, 1:24–25 Essential fatty acids, 1:252, 290 Essential nutrients, 1:118 Estrogen, 1:256, 2:642 ESWT (Extracorporeal shock wave therapy), 1:360 Ether, 1:205 Ethics Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport, 1:121 Coaching Code of Ethics, 2:749 Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), 2:598 Etonic Company, 2:511–512 Eustachian tube blockage, 1:211 EVA (Ethylene vinyl acetate), 2:598 Evans, Lee, 1:365 Evaporation, 2:726–727 Event testing, 1:231–233 Eversion, 1:30–31 Evidence-based practice, 1:233–234 Exercise aerobic (See Aerobics) asthma from, 1:41–42 blood flow during, 2:637–638 for cancer treatment, 1:239 cardioprotective role, 1:131–132, 136, 255–257, 256 compulsive, 1:152 diet, 1:193 for disabled individuals, 1:199–200, 200 endurance, 1:220–221, 221 fitness, 1:272 fluid replacement for, 1:234–236 health, 1:352 high-impact, 1:130, 448 hormonal response to, 1:372–373 for hypertension, 1:380 intermittent, 1:238–239


GENERAL INDEX

low-impact cardiovascular, 1:448–449, 449, 2:739 for obesity prevention, 1:422 physiology, 2:534–536 pregnancy, 2:547–548, 548 protein synthesis, 2:484 recovery from, 1:239–241, 240 repetitions per set, 2:483 short, high intensity, 2:615–616 sleep, 1:200 for stress, 1:199 thermoregulation, 2:725–726 thermotolerance, 1:241 variable resistance, 2:751–752 See also specific types Exercise balls. See Swiss Ball training Exercise-induced asthma, 1:41–42, 42 Exercise-induced bronchospasm, 1:105–106 Exercise intensity. See Intensity Exercise machines Nautilus, 1:415–416 stair climbing, 2:738–739 Universal line, 2:752 Exercise-related transient abdominal pain, 2:588–589 Exercise science, 2:681 Exercise tubing, 1:69 Exhaustion, 1:241–243, 242 heat, 1:135, 241, 242, 356–358, 357 mental, 1:242, 243 Exposure injuries, 1:243–244 Extensor muscles, 1:54–55 External force sports, 1:216 Extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT), 1:360 Extreme sports, 1:244–246 Exum, Wade, 2:749 Eye chronic dry, 1:246 infections, 1:247 pink, 1:246–247 Eyedrops, 1:246–247, 247

F

F1. See Formula 1 auto racing FA. See Football Association Face gear, protective, 2:542 Fade-away shot, 1:76, 77 Fairhurst, Fiona, 1:249 Falls elbow injuries from, 1:217 figure skating, 1:268 pregnancy and, 2:548 wrist fractures from, 2:802 Faria, James M., 1:250 ‘‘Farmer John’’ wetsuits, 2:785 Farragut Club, 1:343–344 Fascial massage techniques, 2:459–460 Fasciotomy, 1:451


Fast bowling technique, 1:166–167 Fast food, 1:194 Fast-pitch softball, 1:344, 2:658, 660–662 Fast twitch fibers, 2:480–481 Armstrong, Lance, 1:39, 182, 220 development of, 2:481 distribution of, 2:627 endurance training, 1:300 energy production, 2:628 exercise physiology, 2:535–536 fatigue, 1:255 function of, 2:627–628 gymnasts, 1:329 jumping, 1:77 middle distance racing, 2:596 muscle glycogen recovery, 2:482 sprinters, 2:599 sub-categories of, 2:480 vertical jumps, 2:752 whole-body heat cramps, 2:787 Fasting, 2:628 Fastskin FSII, 1:88, 249, 2:701 Fat (Body). See Body fat Fat burners, 1:250–251, 2:624, 781–782 Fat oxidation, 1:252–253 Fat-soluble vitamins, 1:254, 290, 2:507, 668, 669 Fat stores. See Body fat Fat utilization, 1:253–254 Fatigue, 1:254–255 mental, 1:241 musculoskeletal, 1:241–243 whole-body heat cramps from, 2:786–787 Fats (Dietary) caloric intake, 1:117, 127 consumption, 1:251 dietary intake, 1:190–191, 192 energy density, 1:118, 2:507 fat oxidation, 1:253 high-fat diet, 1:447 hydrogenated, 1:290 intake, 1:251–252 nutritive value, 2:505 polyunsaturated, 2:668 recommendations, 2:507 role of, 1:127 saturated, 1:252, 254 in sport nutrition, 2:668 unsaturated, 1:252, 254 Fatty acids as ATP sources, 1:128 caffeine, 1:112 diet, 1:191 essential, 1:252, 290 fat oxidation, 1:253 free (bloodstream), 1:290–291 glycerol, 1:307 omega-3, 1:191, 290, 2:668 omega-6, 2:668 oxygen, 2:523 sources of, 1:127

trans, 1:252, 290 Favre, Brett, 2:549 FDA. See Food and Drug Administration Federation Internationale de Basketball Amateur (FIBA), 1:72, 405 Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), 1:261–262, 405 artificial turf, 1:250, 2:647 security, 2:683 Federation Internationale de Gymnastiques (FIG), 1:328, 2:737 Federation Internationale de L’Automobile (FIA), 1:49, 50, 284 Federation Internationale de Natation de Amateur (FINA) diving, 1:203–205 open water swimming, 2:703–704 swimming, 2:700–701 synchronized swimming, 2:708 water polo, 2:772 Federation Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB), 1:405, 2:758 Federation Internationale d’Escrme (FIE), 1:257 Federation Internationale Motorcycliste (FIM), 2:474, 477 Federation Nationale des Quilleurs (FIQ), 1:99 Federations, international, 1:403–405, 2:498 Feeding stations, 1:379 Feet. See Foot FEI (International Federation of Equestrian Sports), 1:229 Felicien, Perdita, 2:531 Female athletes, 1:297–298, 298 ACL injuries, 1:10–12, 74, 96–97, 257, 297, 431 aging, 1:21 bone mineralization, 1:98 cardiovascular health, 1:255–257, 256 compulsive exercise by, 1:152 eating disorders, 1:212–213, 2:556 foot stress fractures, 2:692 knee structural imbalances, 1:431 marathoners, 2:595, 596 participation by, 2:731 postmenopausal, 1:256 television coverage of, 2:732 weight loss by, 2:781 See also Gender differences; Women and sports Female athletic triad, 1:152, 298, 329–330, 2:613 Femur fractures, 2:729 Femur size, 1:97 Fencing, 1:257–259, 258 Ferguson, Alex, 1:80 Ferrari, 1:49–50

833

GENERAL INDEX

FIA (Federation Internationale de L’Automobile), 1:49, 50, 284 FIBA (Federation Internationale de Basketball Amateur), 1:72, 259–260, 405 Fiber (Dietary) cramps from, 1:160 dietary intake, 1:191 malnutrition, 2:457 in sport nutrition, 2:669 supplements, 1:197 Fiberglass poles, 1:414 FIBT (International Bobsled and Toboggan Federation), 1:93, 2:748 Fibula, 1:450 FIE (Federation Internationale d’Escrme), 1:257 Field goals, American football, 1:279–280 Field hockey, 1:260–261, 261 Field lacrosse, 1:435–436 Fielders, cricket, 1:168 FIFA. See Federation Internationale de Football Association FIG (Federation Internationale de Gymnastiques), 1:328, 2:737 Fight-or-flight response adrenaline, 1:373, 374 epinephrine production, 2:465 from mental stress, 2:463 sympathetic nervous system in, 2:503 Fighting, ice hockey, 1:389, 393 Fighting stance, 1:102, 105 Figure skating, 1:262–264, 264, 267, 267–268 death spiral, 1:265, 265 dynamics of leaps and throws, 1:266, 266–267 eating disorders in, 1:212, 2:556 ice resurfacing, 2:813 judging, 1:264, 267–268 Lutz jump, 1:267, 453–454 pairs, 1:262, 264, 266–267, 267, 268 Salchow jump, 1:266, 267, 2:607–608 singles, 1:263, 267 triple axel, 1:410 Figure skating injuries, 1:268–269, 269 FIH (International Field Hockey Federation), 1:260 FILA (International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles), 2:800 Filters, swimming pool, 2:704 FIM (Federation Internationale Motorcycliste), 2:474, 477 FINA. See Federation Internationale de Natation de Amateur Finasteride, 1:24, 2:696, 725, 748 Fine motor control, 2:475, 626

834

Finger anatomy, 1:345 popping and cracking noises, 1:415 Finger injuries, 1:345, 345 basketball, 1:74 dislocation, 1:281, 346 football (American), 1:281 FIQ (Federation Nationale des Quilleurs), 1:99 Firearms, 2:614 First aid kits, 1:269–271, 270 FITA (Archery association), 1:35 Fitness, 1:271–273, 272 deconditioning, 1:188 health and, 1:352 for hypertension, 1:380 longevity, 1:445 obesity, 2:780 vs. obsession, 1:338 recreational sports for, 2:563 short, high intensity exercise for, 2:616 weight loss for, 2:781 FIVB (Federation Internationale de Volleyball), 1:405, 2:758 Flat-water canoes, 1:125 Flavanoids, 1:34, 2:537, 642, 670 Flexibility, 2:694–695, 695 alpine skiing, 2:633 calf muscle, 1:115 cheerleading, 1:141 cross-country running, 2:590 for disabled individuals, 1:199–200 fencing, 1:258 foot stress fractures, 2:693 football (American), 1:278 freestyle skiing, 2:634 golf, 1:315 gymnastics, 1:329, 332 hurdles, 2:592 ice hockey, 1:396 Ironman competitions, 1:409 judo, 1:420 motocross racing, 2:475 for piriformis syndrome, 2:539 preseason training, 2:550 rugby, 2:587 running, 2:602 short, high intensity exercise, 2:616 soccer, 2:654 in sport performance, 2:671 synchronized swimming, 2:709 table tennis, 2:712 tennis, 2:723 triathlon, 2:741, 742 volleyball, 2:760, 762–763 wrestling, 2:802 Flexor muscles, 1:55 Flip turn, 2:706 Flo Jo. See Griffith-Joyner, Delorez Florence Floor hockey, 2:665 Fluid balance diuretics, 1:203

in exercise, 1:234–235 sodium, 2:608 thirst sensation, 2:725–726 Fluid dynamics, computational, 1:87–88, 249 Fluid loss. See Dehydration Fluid replacement cardiovascular response to, 1:134–135 defined, 2:770 for distance running, 1:379 for exercise, 1:234–236 first aid kits for, 1:271 for heat exhaustion, 1:357–358 for heat stroke, 1:359 intravenous, 1:359 recommendations, 1:120 rule for, 1:235 thirst, 1:235, 2:771 for two-a-day practice sessions, 2:746 in warm weather, 2:769 for whole-body heat cramps, 2:787 See also Hydration; Water Fluids, defined, 2:770 Flutie, Doug, 2:587 Flying discs. See Frisbee sports Flying Dutchman class, 1:273 FMX motorcycles, 2:474–475, 476, 476–477 Fogh, Hans, 1:273 Foil (Fencing), 1:257 Folic acid, 1:54 Food, fast, 1:194 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) active ingredients, 1:13 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act, 1:194, 195 energy drinks, 2:771 ephedra, 1:195, 226, 2:472 ephedrine, 1:227 Nutritional Facts label, 1:118 Food diary, 1:193 Food Guide Pyramid, 2:504–505, 506–507 Food labeling, Nutritional Facts label, 1:118, 119 Foot anatomy and physiology, 1:273–275, 274, 450 high-arched, 2:566 range of motion, 2:563 Foot injuries, 1:150–152, 151 blisters, 1:89 figure skating, 1:269 fractures, 1:151–152 gymnastics, 1:331, 332 incidence, 2:485 orthotics for, 2:514, 552 stress fractures, 1:351, 2:692–694, 693 Foot strike ankle anatomy, 1:30 breathing with, 2:589


GENERAL INDEX

distance running, 2:598 force generated, 2:598 running injuries, 2:592 stress fractures from, 2:566 Football (American), 1:275–278, 277 agents, 1:418 athletic shoes for, 1:45–46 average player weight, 1:280 ball development, 2:664 Brown, James Nathaniel, 1:106–107 Brown, Paul Eugene, 1:107–109 Camp, Walter Chauncy, 1:120 cervical spine fractures from, 1:138–139 coaching, 1:107–110, 120, 2:575–577, 766–767 concussion from, 1:20 cross training, 1:169 doping penalties, 2:521 dropkick mechanics, 2:587 field goals, 1:279–280 high altitude, 1:365 history, 1:275, 276–277, 2:493 injury rate, 2:678 intercollegiate, 1:276, 2:493 Jackson, Vincent Edward (Bo), 1:411 mass, momentum and collisions, 1:282–283, 283 Monday Night Football, 2:462 muscle mass and strength in, 2:482 passing aerodynamics, 1:283–284, 284 platoon, 2:576 Rockne, Knute Kenneth, 2:575–577 rules, 1:275 sports drinks for, 1:111 strength training and exercises, 1:278–279 Super Bowl, 1:277–278, 2:496, 497 tackling techniques, 1:138–139, 282–283, 283 two-a-day practice sessions, 2:745–746 Walsh, William Ernest, 2:766–767 weight gain for, 2:779 West Coast offense, 2:767 See also National Football League Football Association (FA) amateurs in, 2:563 history, 1:261, 2:647 role of, 2:498 Youth Cup team (1992), 1:79 Football injuries, 1:278, 280–282, 281 fatalities, 2:493 heat stroke, 1:358 neck injuries, 2:499 Footwork exercises, tennis, 2:723 Force in body checking, 1:390–391 defined, 1:332–333 down force, 1:47, 49, 285, 2:491 foot strike, 2:598 landing, 1:311, 322–334, 331, 332–334, 335, 2:639 See also Centripetal force; G force Forearm injuries, gymnastics, 1:332


Forefoot strikers, 2:566 Formula 1 auto racing, 1:49–50, 284–286, 286 Fosbury, Richard Douglas, 1:286–287, 368 Fosbury flop, 1:368 Foul shot, 1:76, 77 Four Horsemen of Notre Dame, 2:576 Four minute mile, 1:60 Four Nations Cup, 2:584 Four wall handball, 1:348 Fox, Terry, 2:553 Fox 40 whistles, 1:287 Foxcroft, Ronald, 1:287 Fractures aging, 1:19 ankle, 2:645 carpal bone, 2:802 cervical spine, 1:137–139, 393, 2:499 collarbone (clavicle), 1:331, 2:622 elbow, 1:217 femur, 2:729 foot, 1:151–152, 2:692–694, 693 greenstick, 2:803, 808 growth plate, 1:327, 431 hip, 1:369, 369 from osteoporosis, 2:518 scaphoid bone, 2:645, 802 shoulder, 2:621 stress, 1:151, 451–452, 2:565–566, 566, 808 tibia, 1:451–452 wrist, 2:645, 802, 803 Francis, Charlie, 1:287–288 Free agency baseball, 1:23–24 basketball, 1:72 football (American), 2:497–498 Free climbing, 2:574 Free diving, 1:245, 288, 288–290, 289 Free fall jump, tandem, 2:638 Free fatty acids, 1:290–291 Free kick, 2:650 Free radicals antioxidants, 1:33–34, 83 smilax, 2:642 vitamin C, 2:756 vitamin E, 2:757 yohimbine, 2:807 Free weights, 1:292, 292–293 baseball training, 1:69 muscle mass, 2:483 resistance training, 2:568 rugby, 2:587 running, 2:602 synchronized swimming, 2:709 Freeriders, 2:643 Freestyle events BMX bicycle, 1:86 frisbee, 1:293–294 snowboarding, 2:643 swimming, 2:701

wrestling, 2:800 Freestyle (FMX) motorcycles, 2:474–475, 476, 476–477 Freestyle skiing, 2:633–635, 634 Friction physics of banks and curves, 2:533–534 skin, 2:705 tires, 2:478 Friction blisters, 1:88, 89 Frisbee sports, 1:293–294, 294 Frontal resistance, 2:705 Frostbite, 1:147, 148, 244, 383 Frozen shoulder. See Adhesive capsulitis Fulks, Joe Franklin, 1:294–295 Funakoshi, Gichin, 1:425–426 Furostanol, 2:743

G

G force bobsled, 1:94 Formula 1 auto racing, 1:285 Gait, Gary, 1:436 Gait, Paul, 1:436 Galindo, Rudy, 1:269 Galperin, Gleb, 1:204 Gambling, 1:417, 2:497 Gamekeepers thumb, 1:345 Gamow bag, 1:22 Garlic, 1:361 Gatorade, 1:111 Gears, bicycles, 1:176, 176–177 Gender differences ACL injuries, 1:11, 96–97 adipose tissue, 1:16 athletic performance, 1:21 blood volume, 1:256–257 body fat, 1:94–95, 299 cardiovascular system, 1:256–257 endurance, 1:299 fat utilization, 1:254 foot stress fractures, 2:692 growth plate injuries, 1:327 gymnastics landing force, 1:334 hemoglobin, 1:257 motivation, 1:299 musculoskeletal injuries, 2:485 musculoskeletal system, 1:257 Osgood-Schlatter disease, 2:515 physiological, 1:299 recurrent stress fractures, 2:565 sports expenses, 2:731, 732 in sports participation, 2:791 strength, 1:299 VO2 max, 1:257, 299 See also Female athletes; Male athletes Gender verification testing, 2:611, 611–612, 613 Gene doping, 1:302–303

835

GENERAL INDEX

myostatin, 2:486 testing for, 1:208 WADA ban of, 1:303, 2:799 Genetic traits, 1:300 Genetics, 1:301–303 endurance, 1:219–220 in motor control, 2:475 obesity, 1:422 in performance prediction, 1:300–301, 301 Geoffrion, Bernie (Boom Boom), 1:395 Giant slalom, 2:633 Giantism, pituitary, 1:325 Gibson, Althea, 1:303–304, 2:790 Gilbert, Sam, 2:796 Gilmour groin, 1:322 Ginger, 1:361 Ginsburg, Charles P., 1:304 Ginseng Chinese, 1:142–144, 144 energy drinks, 1:222 ephedra-free supplements, 1:227 traditional Chinese medicine, 1:14, 361 Ginsenoside, 1:143 Gipp, George, 1:276, 2:576 Giro d’Ilaia, 1:173 Glenohumoral joint, 2:619, 621 Glide wax, 2:630, 635 Global positioning system (GPS), 1:353–354 Globetrotters, 1:71, 2:797 Gloves, baseball, 2:664 Glucagon, 1:373 Glucocorticoids, 1:305 for adhesive capsulitis, 1:15 for asthma, 2:549 for ear infections, 1:212 growth, 1:324 for heel spurs, 1:360 nasal spray, 2:490 for osteoarthritis, 2:517 for piriformis syndrome, 2:539 therapeutic use exemption for, 2:696 topical, 2:732–733 Glucose carbohydrate stores, 1:126–127, 128 in cold weather, 1:148 fluid replacement, 1:134–135 free fatty acids, 1:291 glycogen, 1:307 homeostasis, 2:725 insulin, 1:373 insulin resistance, 2:510–511 low-carbohydrate diet, 1:192 oxygen, 2:523 skeletal muscle, 2:628 sleep deprivation, 2:641 Glutamine, 2:628 Glutamine supplementation, 1:306

836

Glutathione peroxidase, 1:34 Glycerol, 1:95, 291, 307 Glycogen, 2:510 carbohydrate stores, 1:126–127 carbohydrates, 1:117, 127–128 depletion, 1:307–308 lactic acid, 1:438 level in muscles, 1:126–127, 308–309 muscle recovery, 2:481–482 musculoskeletal injuries, 2:485 skeletal muscle, 2:628 Glycogenesis, 2:628 Glycogenolysis, 1:308 Glycolysis, 1:307 Goal ball, 1:198–199 Goal setting, 2:472–473, 673, 676 Goalkeepers. See Goaltenders Goaltenders ice hockey, 1:388, 393, 396, 2:542 soccer, 2:647, 650–651, 651 Goaltending rule, basketball, 2:465 Goldsmith, Fred, 1:66 Golf, 1:309–312, 311, 319 African American women in, 1:304 disc, 1:293 handicapping system, 2:511–512 history, 1:310 women in, 2:662–663 Golf balls, 1:310–311, 313 construction and flight dynamics, 1:312–313 gutta-percha, 1:311, 312 Golf clubs design, 1:310, 311–312 graphite, 1:311, 318 steel, 1:318 swinging, 1:315–316, 316 Golf courses, 2:543 Golf injuries, 1:216, 313–315, 314 Golf shoes, 1:312, 2:511–512 Golf swing dynamics, 1:316–318, 317 golf shoes for, 2:512 injuries from, 1:313–314 psychology of, 1:315–316, 316 Golfer’s elbow, 1:218, 314 Golgi organ, 1:58 Googly, 2:646 Gore, Robert W., 1:318–319 GORE-TEX, 1:318–319, 2:512 Governing bodies, national, 2:498–499 Goyko No Waza, 1:419–420 GPS (Global positioning system), 1:353–354 Graham, Otto, 1:108, 109, 277 Grains, whole, 2:537 Gramge, George (Red), 2:496 Grange, Harold (Red), 1:276 Granite, curling stone, 1:172

Graphite golf clubs, 1:311, 318 tennis racquets, 1:350, 2:721 Grass. See Turf Grass courts, 2:718 Gravity center of, 1:97, 330, 2:697 cornering, 2:478 See also G force Greco-Roman wrestling, 2:800 Greenstick fractures, 2:803, 808 ‘‘Grete’s Great Gallop,’’ 2:766 Griffith, Coleman Roberts, 1:319–320 Griffith, Darrell (Dr. Dunkenstein), 2:752 Griffith-Joyner, Delorez Florence (Flo Jo), 1:320–321, 418 Groin anatomy, 1:368 Groin injuries, 1:368–369 figure skating, 1:269 football (American), 1:280 pulls and strains, 1:68, 321–322, 322, 369, 2:684–685 soccer, 2:653 Groin protectors, 2:795 Gross motor control, 2:475 Growth, 1:323–324 Growth factors, 2:486 Growth hormone supplement. See Human growth hormone Growth hormones, 1:323, 324–326, 326 exercise, 1:372 growth plate, 1:327 secretion of, 1:374 Growth plate development of, 1:323, 326–327 strength training, 2:690 volleyball training, 2:762 Growth plate injuries, 1:326–327 fractures, 1:431 knee, 1:431 from plyometrics, 2:544 stress fractures, 2:566 in young athletes, 2:808 Guarana, 1:251, 361 Gutta-percha golf balls, 1:312 Guttmann, Ludwig, 2:525 Gymnastics, 1:328–330, 330 artistic, 1:328 balance, 1:330–331, 331 eating disorders in, 1:212, 213, 329–330, 428, 2:556 founder of, 1:412 iliopsoas syndrome from, 1:398 Karolyi, Bela, 1:427–428 landing force, 1:331, 332–334, 333, 335 rhythmic, 1:328 vaulting, 1:334–335, 335, 412 Gymnastics injuries, 1:329, 331–332, 332, 333


GENERAL INDEX

H

Habitual physical activity, 1:337–338 Haines, Jackson, 1:262 Hair restoration products, 2:696, 725, 748 Half pipe layout skateboarding, 1:349 snowboarding, 2:643, 644 Haliburton, Thomas, 1:387 Hall, Glenn, 2:542 Hamilton, Tyler, 1:91 Hamm, Mariel (Mia) Margaret, 1:338–339 Hammer throw, 1:339, 339–340, 2:737 computer simulations, 1:153 Scottish Highland Games, 2:610 Hammer toe, 1:150, 269 Hamstring injuries, 1:340–342, 341 ACL injuries, 1:341, 430, 2:557 heat cramps, 1:356 soccer, 2:652–653 Hamstring pulls, tears, or strains, 1:340–341, 342–343, 343 football (American), 1:280 running injuries, 2:593 Hamstring/quadriceps ratio, 2:775–776 Hancock, George, 1:343–344, 2:657 Hand anatomy, 1:344 Hand-eye coordination, 1:79, 258 Hand injuries, 1:344–346, 345 basketball, 1:74 golf, 1:314 incidence, 2:485 Handball, 1:346–348, 347 Handlebars, bicycle, 1:440 Hang gliding, 1:245 HANS system, 1:285 Hao, Zhang, 1:266 Hard ball. See Baseball Hard water, 2:770 Harlem Globetrotters, 1:71, 2:797 Harriers, 2:589 Harris-Bennet calculation, 2:734 Hats, 1:149 Hawaii cliff diving, 1:146 Hawaii Ironman, 1:149–150, 170, 408–410, 2:741 Hawk, Tony, 1:245, 348, 348–349, 2:625 Hawthorne, 1:361 Hayes, Elvin, 2:796 HDL. See High density lipoproteins Head, Howard, 1:349–350, 442, 2:720 Head injuries, 1:350–351, 351 cycling, 1:178 snowboarding, 2:645 soccer, 2:653 Head Ski Company, 1:349


Heading up (Sailing), 2:607 Health, 1:351–352, 352 longevity, 1:444, 445 sports participation, 2:791 See also Cardiovascular health; Fitness Healthy stress, 2:463 Heart attacks cardiopulmonary function, 1:132–133 prevention of, 1:131–132 women, 1:256 Heart beat, 1:136 Heart function. See Cardiopulmonary function; Cardiorespiratory function Heart health. See Cardiovascular health Heart rate aerobic range, 1:221 aging, 1:21 in archery, 1:35, 36 Armstrong, Lance, 1:38 biofeedback, 1:86–87 cardio-boxing, 1:131 cool-down for, 2:768 description of, 1:353 intermittent exercise for, 1:238–239 overtraining, 2:522 oxygenated water, 2:771–772 in shooting, 2:615 target, 1:353, 354 training effect, 1:134 Heart rate monitors, 1:353, 353–354, 354 biofeedback, 1:86 cardio-boxing, 1:131 Heat acclimatization, 1:6–7, 2:769 football (American), 2:746 thermotolerance, 1:241 training for, 1:224 See also Warm weather exercise Heat cramps, 1:355, 355–356 fluid replacement, 1:135 whole-body, 2:786–787 Heat dissipation, 1:358 Heat energy, 1:118 Heat exhaustion, 1:135, 241, 242, 356–358, 357 Heat-induced injuries cycling, 1:178 from exposure, 1:243 football (American), 1:280 pregnancy and, 2:548 in young athletes, 2:809 Heat shock proteins, 1:131, 241 Heat stress, 1:241 Heat stroke, 1:135, 242, 358–359, 359, 2:787 Heat therapy, 1:399 Heat training. See Heat acclimatization Heel counter, 2:598 Heel spurs, 1:151, 359–360, 2:541, 594

Heffelfinger, William (Pudge), 1:276 Heiden, Eric, 2:667 Height, body, 1:450 Heinrich, Christy, 1:212 Helmets football (American), 1:281 snowboarding, 2:644 Helms Committee, 2:493–494 Hemoglobin, 1:136, 257, 2:523, 772 Henje, Sonja, 2:790, 813 Hepatitis, 1:443 Hepatitis B, 1:402 Hepatitis C, 1:402 Heptathlon, 1:186, 417–419, 2:529–530, 737 Herbs, 1:360–362, 361 as dietary supplements, 1:195, 197 phytochemical effect, 2:537, 538 traditional Chinese, 1:13–14, 360–361, 361 Heredity. See Genetics Hernia inguinal, 2:653 sport, 1:322 Herniated disks, 1:55, 362–363, 446, 2:500 Herpes simplex type 1, 2:749 Hewitt, Lleyton, 2:722 HGH (Human growth hormone), 1:321, 323–324, 325–326, 326, 363, 363–364 High altitude acclimatization, 1:6–7, 224, 2:523, 596 altitude illness, 1:21–22, 23 effect on athletic performance, 1:364–365, 365 endurance, 1:219–220 oxygen, 2:523 pulmonary edema, 1:365–366, 366 soccer, 2:655 High ankle sprain, 1:31 High-arched foot, 2:566 High blood pressure. See Hypertension High-carbohydrate diet, 2:668 High density lipoproteins (HDL) fat utilization, 1:254 hypertension, 1:380 prohormones effect, 1:27 vitamin E, 2:757 High-fat diet, 1:447 High-impact exercise, 1:130, 448, 2:544 High intensity exercise, 1:236–238 interval training, 1:438 medical conditions, 2:679 Nautilus machines for, 1:416 short, 2:615–616 High jump, 1:367, 367–368, 2:737 cross training, 1:170

837

GENERAL INDEX

Fosbury, Richard Douglas, 1:286–287 women’s pentathlon, 2:529 High school athletics, 2:732, 811 See also Young athletes High velocity sports, 1:138 Hill, Albert, 1:21 Hill, Ron, 1:445 Hill climbs, motorcycle, 2:478 Hill running, 1:179, 398, 2:590 Hill training techniques, 1:6–7 Hillerich, John, 2:623 Hindfoot, 1:274 Hip anatomy and physiology, 1:368, 369–371, 398 Hip fractures, 1:369, 369 Hip injuries, 1:368–369 figure skating, 1:269 golf, 1:314–315 gymnastics, 1:331 Hip replacement, 1:369, 411 Histamine, 1:246, 2:490 Hitting technique. See Batting technique ‘‘Hitting the wall,’’ 1:308, 309, 2:461 HIV/AIDS, 1:402 Hockey elbow injuries from, 1:216 field, 1:260–261 floor, 2:665 inline, 2:577 roller, 2:577, 577–578 See also Ice hockey Hockey League, National (NHL). See National Hockey League Hoffman, Felix, 2:503–504 Hol, Diederick, 1:371–372 Homeostasis, 2:725, 726 Hong Kong Sevens, 2:584–585 Honolulu Marathon, 1:149–150, 408 Hook punch, 1:102, 130–131 Hoop, basketball, 1:75–76 Horizontal bars, 1:331, 412 Horizontal momentum, 1:266 Hormonal response to exercise, 1:372–373 Hormone replacement therapy, 2:724 Hormones, 1:24–25, 323, 373–374 See also Growth hormones; Human growth hormone Horses, 1:229, 230 Hot environments. See Warm weather exercise Houston AstroDome, 1:250 Howe, Gordie, 1:445 Hull, Bobby, 1:395 Hull design rowboat, 2:581–582

838

sailboat, 2:605, 606 Human Genome Project, 1:300, 302 Human growth hormone (HGH), 1:321, 323–324, 325–326, 326, 363, 363–364 Human Performance Laboratory, 1:182 Human pyramid, 1:141 Humerus bone, 1:214 Hunter, C. J., 2:727 Hurdles, 1:374–375, 375, 2:590–592, 591 strength training and exercises, 2:600–602 women’s pentathlon, 2:529 Hydration, 1:375–377, 377 acclimatization, 1:235, 378 for cramp prevention, 2:480 distance running, 1:377–378, 378 event, 1:379 Formula 1 auto racing, 1:285 heat exhaustion, 1:357 hyper-, 1:235–236, 307 Nordic skiing, 2:636 plan, 1:235 recommendations, 1:120 sports drinks for, 1:111 two-a-day practice sessions, 2:746 urine color, 2:726, 746 warm weather, 2:769 whole-body heat cramps, 2:787 See also Dehydration; Fluid replacement Hydrodynamics canoe and kayak, 1:122, 124–126 neoprene wet suits for, 2:741 rowing, 2:581–582, 582 sailing, 2:605 swim suit, 1:249 wetsuit, 2:741, 784 Hydrogenated fats, 1:290 Hydrolysis, 1:126, 128, 290 Hydrostatic mechanics, 1:125 Hydrostatic weighing, 1:95 Hydroxyapatite, 1:97 Hyper-hydration, 1:235–236, 307 Hyperemia, active, 2:637 Hyperextension, knee, 1:331, 434, 2:563 Hyperglycemia, 1:127, 2:511 Hypernatremia, 2:656 Hypertension, 1:379–381, 380 exercise physiology, 2:534 juvenile obesity, 1:422 Hyperthermia body temperature in, 2:727 eccrine gland sweat, 1:214 exposure-induced, 1:244 in heat exhaustion, 1:243 thermoregulation, 2:726 Hyperventilation, 1:289 Hypochlorous acid, 2:705 Hypodermic needles, 1:401

Hypoglycemia, 1:127, 2:511 Hyponatremia, 1:381, 381–382 cramps from, 1:160 fluid replacement for, 1:235–236 in heat exhaustion, 1:358 from over-hydration, 1:376–377 salt intake for, 2:608, 656 from sodium deficit, 2:657 thirst sensation, 2:726 water for, 2:771 Hypotension, 1:382–383 Hypothalamic-pituitary axis, 1:143 Hypothalamus core body temperature, 1:155 exercise, 1:372 hyponatremia, 1:381 in motor control, 2:475 role of, 1:373 thermoregulation, 2:725, 727 Hypothermia, 1:147–148, 243–244, 383–385, 384 body temperature, 2:727 core body temperature, 1:155, 383 fatigue, 1:255 thermoregulation, 2:726 Hypoxia cerebral, 1:290 high altitude pulmonary edema from, 1:365–366 Hypoxic tents, 2:570

I

IAAF. See International Amateur Athletics Federation IAAUS (Intercollegiate Athletic Association), 1:276, 2:493 IAFD (International Association of Free-Divers), 1:289 IBA (International Boxing Association), 1:101 IBF (International Badminton Federation), 1:57 IBF (International Baseball Federation), 2:798–799 Ibuprofen, 2:504 Ice Capades, 2:813 Ice dancing, 1:263, 267 Ice hockey, 1:387–390, 389 average player size, 1:391, 396 body checks, 1:388, 390–391, 391, 393, 2:792 cross training, 1:169 doping, 2:521, 547 fighting in, 1:389, 393 goaltenders, 1:388, 393, 2:542 international federations, 1:405 Russian, 2:714–715 slapshot velocity, 1:394–395, 395 strength training and exercises, 1:395–396, 397 women’s, 2:792–793, 793 See also National Hockey League Ice hockey injuries, 1:391–393, 396


GENERAL INDEX

Ice hockey rinks, 1:388, 393–394, 394, 2:813–814 Ice hockey sticks, 1:388, 392–393, 394–395 Ice packs, 1:271, 2:572 See also RICE Ice resurfacing, 1:393, 2:813–814 Ice skates, 1:262–263, 269, 371–372, 2:667 Ice skating. See Figure skating; Speedskating ICU (International Cycling Union), 2:521 Iditarod, 1:397, 398 IGF-1 (Insulin-like growth factor-1), 1:324, 325, 2:486 IHIF (Inline International Hockey Federation), 2:577, 792 IICGADS (International Intergovernmental Consultative Group on AntiDoping in Sport), 1:405–406 IIHF (International Ice Hockey Federation), 1:388, 393, 405, 2:792 IJF (International Judo Federation), 1:419 Iliopsoas syndrome, 1:398–399 Iliotibial (IT) band friction, 1:341, 399–400 Illiol band, 1:369 Imagery, 2:673–674 See also Visualization Immune system, 1:400–401, 401, 2:522 Immunity, innate vs. acquired, 1:400 Impingement, shoulder, 2:621 In-competition tests, 2:519 Indianapolis Motor Speedway, 1:50 Individual skills competition, 2:665 Indoor atmospheric conditions, 1:224–225 Indurain, Miguel, 1:173, 182 Inertia law of, 1:282, 2:533 sleep, 2:641 Inflammation, 1:156, 305 Influenza, 2:749 Inguinal hernia, 2:653 Injections, 1:401–403, 402 See also Cortisone injections Injuries. See Sports injuries Injury rate, 2:678 Inline hockey, 2:577 Inline International Hockey Federation (IHIF), 2:577, 792 Inline skates, 2:512–513, 573, 578–579, 579 Innate immunity, 1:400 Instant opening/static line jump, 2:638 Insulin, 1:127, 291, 373, 2:549


Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), 1:324, 325, 2:486 Insulin resistance and obesity, 2:510–511 Intellectual disability disability classification, 1:198 Paralympics, 2:526 Special Olympics, 2:664–666 Intensity cardiovascular training machines, 2:687 defined, 1:236, 2:679 fatigue, 1:255 low, 2:679 of low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448 medical conditions, 2:679 metabolic response to, 2:465 moderate, 2:679 triathlon training, 2:742 in warm weather, 2:769 See also High intensity exercise Intercollegiate Athletic Association (IAAUS), 1:276, 2:493 Intercollegiate sports, 2:493–496 Abbott, Senda Berenson, 1:1–2 conferences, 2:494–495 divisions, 2:494 football (American), 1:276 history, 2:493–494 student athlete model, 2:496 Title IX, 1:297, 299, 2:730–732 women’s, 2:495–496 See also National Collegiate Athletic Association Intermittent exercise, 1:238–239 International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) arbitration, 1:24 cross-country running, 2:589 decathlon, 1:187 doping ban, 2:797 doping tests, 1:205 javelin, 1:412, 413 middle-distance races, 2:596 out-of-competition testing, 2:520 Paralympics rules, 2:526 role of, 1:404 sex testing, 2:611 softball, 2:658 track and field championship, 2:735 women’s pentathlon, 2:530 International Anti-Doping Agreement, 1:403, 2:520, 798 International Association of FreeDivers (IAFD), 1:289 International Badminton Federation (IBF), 1:57 International Baseball Federation (IBF), 2:798–799 International Bobsled and Toboggan Federation (FIBT), 1:93, 2:748 International Boxing Association (IBA), 1:101

International Cycling Union (ICU), 2:521 International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles (FILA), 2:800 International Federation of Equestrian Sports (FEI), 1:229 International federations, 1:403–405, 2:498 International Field Hockey Federation (FIH), 1:260 International Handball Federation (IHF), 1:346 International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), 1:388, 393, 405, 2:792 International Intergovernmental Consultative Group on Anti-Doping in Sport (IICGADS), 1:405–406 International Judo Federation (IJF), 1:419 International Luge Federation (ILF), 1:452 International Olympic Committee (IOC), 1:406–408, 407 anabolic steroid use, 2:519–520 Court of Arbitration for Sports, 1:157 diuretics, 1:203 doping tests, 1:205 freestyle skiing, 2:633 history, 1:404, 406 human growth hormone, 1:363 nandrolone, 2:489 Pound, Richard W., 2:546 prohibited substances policies, 2:551 prohormones, 1:27 role of, 1:404, 406 sex testing, 2:611–612 USOC, 2:748 Viren, Lasse, 2:754 women’s pentathlon, 2:529 See also Olympic Games International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 1:403 International Paralympics Committee (IPC), 2:525 International Racquetball Association (IRA), 2:559 International Rugby Board (IRB), 2:584 International Sailing Federation (ISF), 2:603, 789 International Skating Union (ISU) clap speed skate, 1:371 figure skating, 1:262, 264, 267–268 Salchow jump, 2:607 speedskating, 2:666 International Sled Sports Federation (ISSF), 1:452 International Softball Association (ISA), 2:659, 660–661 International Sport Shooting Federation (ISSF), 2:614

839

GENERAL INDEX

International Standards for Doping Control (ISDC), 1:403 International Stoke Mandeville Games Committee (ISMGC), 2:525 International Surfing Association (ISA), 2:700 International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF), 2:711 International Triathlon Union (ITU), 1:409, 2:740 International Water Ski Federation (IWSF), 2:774, 775 Internet research, 1:233, 234 Interval training baseball, 1:69 canoe and kayak, 1:124 cricket, 1:168 cross-country running, 2:590 cycling, 1:174, 179 high intensity, 1:237, 438 vs. intermittent exercise, 1:238 middle-distance races, 2:602 overtraining, 2:522 roller hockey, 2:578 soccer, 2:654 triathlon, 2:742 Intervertebral disk injuries, 2:500 Intravenous fluids, 1:359 Intravertebral disk herniation. See Herniated disks Inversion, 1:30–31 IOC. See International Olympic Committee Iodine, 2:468 IPC (International Paralympics Committee), 2:525 IRB (International Rugby Board), 2:584 Iron, 2:468, 669, 756 Iron deficiency, 2:458 Ironman competitions, 1:408–410, 410, 2:741 Hawaii, 1:149–150, 170, 408–410, 2:741 Timex timepiece for, 2:741 wetsuits, 2:784 Irving, Bob, 1:381 Irving, Washington, 1:98–99 ISA (International Surfing Association), 2:700 ISDC (International Standards for Doping Control), 1:403 ISF (International Sailing Federation), 2:603, 789 Isle of Man TT, 2:478 ISO (International Organization for Standardization), 1:403 Isometric training, 2:481 Israeli Maccabiah Games. See Maccabiah Games Issell, Dan, 2:466

840

ISSF (International Sport Shooting Federation), 2:614 ISU. See International Skating Union IT band friction, 1:341, 399–400 Ito, Midori, 1:410 ITTF (International Table Tennis Federation), 2:711 ITU (International Triathlon Union), 1:409, 2:740 IWSF (International Water Ski Federation), 2:774, 775

J Jabs (Boxing), 1:102, 130–131 Jackson, Bo. See Jackson, Vincent Edward Jackson, Donald, 1:454 Jackson, Phil, 1:417 Jackson, Roderick, 2:732 Jackson, Vincent Edward (Bo), 1:369, 411 Jacobins, 2:682 Jahn, Frederich Ludwig, 1:328, 412 James, Bill, 2:729 Jaundice, 1:443 Javelin, 1:153, 412–414, 413, 2:737 Jazzercise, 1:18 Jenks, Herbert, 1:414 Jet lag, 2:640 Jibing, 2:607 ‘‘Jill’’ (Groin protector), 2:795 Jobe, Frank, 1:29, 68, 217, 2:677–678 Jogbras, 2:467 Jogger’s nipple, 2:794 John, Tommy, 1:68 Johnson, Ben anabolic steroid use, 1:28, 28–29, 287–288, 2:520, 737 disqualification of, 1:121 USOC, 2:749 WADA, 2:797 Johnson, Ervin (Magic), 1:4 Johnson, Junior, 2:491 Johnson, Magic. See Johnson, Ervin Johnson, Michael, 1:355 Joint diseases degenerative, 2:517–518 obesity, 2:510 Joint dislocation, shoulder, 2:622 Joint injuries arthroscopy, 1:29–30, 40–41 cortisone injections for, 1:155–157 figure skating, 1:268–269 hyperextension, 2:563 physiotherapy, 2:536 pregnancy, 2:548 wild yam for, 2:788 See also specific injuries

Joint noises, popping and cracking, 1:414–415 Joints anatomy, 1:414–415 flexibility, 2:562 Jones, Arthur, 1:415–416 Jones, Marion, 1:444, 2:727 Jordan, James, 1:417 Jordan, Michael, 1:77, 416–417, 445 Joules, 1:117 Joyner, Al, 1:418 Joyner-Kersee, Jackie, 1:42, 42, 321, 417–419 Judging figure skating, 1:264, 267–268 synchronized swimming, 2:708–709 Judo, 1:419–420, 420 Judogi, 1:420 Jump rope training, 1:105, 420, 421, 2:475 Jump shot, 1:76, 77, 294–295 Jumper’s knee, 1:73–74, 433, 2:558, 717 Jumping, 2:737 ACL injuries from, 1:11 BASE parachute, 1:245 basketball training for, 1:79 bungee, 1:245 equestrian, 1:229, 229, 2:469–470 fast twitch fibers in, 1:77 figure skating, 1:263–264, 266, 266–267, 268–269 flexibility, 2:694 injuries from, 1:268–269 patella tendon injuries from, 1:73–74 plyometric, 2:544 show, 1:229, 229 ski, 2:635–636, 774 track and field events, 2:737 triple jump, 2:734, 744, 744–745 vertical jump, 2:752–753 See also High jump; Long jump Jumping jacks, 1:116 Juvenile diabetes. See Type 1 diabetes Juvenile obesity, 1:421–423, 422, 2:780 Juveniles. See Adolescents; Young athletes

K

K1 craft, 1:123 Karate, 1:425–426, 426 Karolyi, Bela, 1:427–428 Kastor, Deena, 1:307 Kata, 1:426 Kayaks, 1:122–124, 124 hydrodynamics, 1:124–126 paddle shapes, 1:126 sea, 1:125 Keds, 1:44


GENERAL INDEX

Keel, 2:605, 607 Keratoconjunctivitis sicca, 1:246 Kersee, Bob, 1:320–321, 418 Kersee, Jackie Joyner. See JoynerKersee, Jackie Ketoacidosis, 2:532 Kick field goal, 1:279–280 scissor, 1:367–368 Kick wax, 2:630, 631, 635 Kickboxing, cardio-, 1:129, 131 Kidney function. See Renal function Kidney stones, 1:113–114 Killy, Jean-Claude, 1:349 Kilocalories, 1:116, 117–118 Kinesiology, 2:681 Kinesthetic senses, 1:58 Kinetic energy golf swing, 1:316 linear, 1:279–280 Kittinger, Joseph, 2:638 Klein, Gary Gordon, 1:428 Klein Bike Company, 1:428 Klister wax, 2:631, 635 Klochvova, Yona, 2:700 Knee anatomy and physiology, 1:10, 428–430, 429, 433, 449–450 genetic and non-genetic conditions of, 1:430–432 popping and cracking noises, 1:415 structural imbalances, 1:431, 433 Knee braces, 2:514 Knee injuries, 1:432, 432–434, 433 arthroscopy, 1:29–30 basketball, 1:73–74 cartilage, 1:415 cheerleading, 1:141 cycling, 1:178 in female athletes, 1:297 figure skating, 1:268 football (American), 1:278, 281–282 gymnastics, 1:331 hyperextension, 1:331, 434, 2:563 ice hockey, 1:392 incidence, 2:485 jumper’s knee, 1:73–74, 433, 2:558, 717 osteoarthritis, 2:516 osteochondritis dissecans, 2:517, 518 overuse, 1:433 soccer, 2:652 sprains, 2:684 water skiing, 2:775 See also ACL injuries Knee lifts, hurdles, 2:592 Knee prosthetics, 2:553 Knee replacement, 2:516 Kneeboarding, 1:245–246, 2:766, 774 Knight, Phil, 1:98


Knockouts, 1:101 Knuckles, 1:415 Kodokan judo. See Judo Korbut, Olga, 1:328 Korda, Petr, 2:489 Kostadinova, Stefka, 1:368 Kumite, 1:426 Kuzenkiova, Olga, 1:339 Kwan, Michelle, 1:269

L

Lacerations. See Abrasions, cuts, lacerations Lacrosse, 1:435–437, 436, 437 box, 1:396, 436–437 Brown, James Nathaniel, 1:106–107 elbow injuries from, 1:216 field, 1:435–436 Lactate. See Lactic acid Lactic acid athletic performance, 1:437–438 buildup, 1:39, 114, 183 cramps from, 1:160 energy production, 1:128, 129, 437–438 glycogen, 1:438 intermittent exercise for, 1:238 liver function, 1:443 Lactic anaerobic system, 1:123–124, 220, 309 Ladder drills, 2:723 Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), 1:304, 2:662–663 Landers, Pete, 2:659 Landing forces gymnastics, 1:331, 332–334, 333, 335 sky diving, 2:639 Landy, John, 1:60, 2:596 Laryngitis, 2:750 Lateral epicondyle tendon, 1:215 Lateral epicondylitis, 1:218, 314, 2:717 Lateral movements, 2:694, 712 Lauterbur, Paul Christian, 1:438–439 Law of inertia, 1:282, 2:533 Laws of motion, 1:282–283, 2:533 Laxatives, 1:213 Layden, Elmer, 2:576 Lazutina, Larissa, 1:157 LDL. See Low density lipoproteins Lean muscle mass, 1:94, 2:734, 779, 780 Leaps figure skating, 1:266, 266–267 See also Jumping Learning disabilities, 2:665 Leavitt, J. Noxon, 1:439 Ledley, Robert Steven, 1:439–440 ‘‘Leg before wicket,’’ 1:164, 166

Leg exercises ice hockey, 1:396 shot put, 2:618 swimming, 2:707 synchronized swimming, 2:709 treadmill, 2:738–740 vertical jump, 2:753 water skiing, 2:775–776 Leg injuries cycling, 1:178 incidence, 2:485 lower leg, 1:450–452, 451, 2:485, 566, 645, 651, 775 upper leg, 2:728–729 See also Foot injuries; Knee injuries Legs artificial, 2:553 bow, 2:516 lower leg anatomy, 1:449–450, 450 strength training, 1:105, 179 unequal length of, 2:552, 566, 592 upper leg anatomy, 2:728 Lemond, Greg, 1:38, 173, 440 Lennon, Boone, 1:440 Lens, contact, 1:154–155 Leslie, Lisa Deshaun, 1:77, 440–442 Lettner, Rudolph, 1:442 Leucine, 2:484 Leukemia, 1:400 Leukocytes. See White blood cells Leukotriene, 1:157 Level I injuries, 2:678 Level II injuries, 2:678 Level III injuries, 2:678 Lewis, Carl, 2:749 LH (Luteinizing hormone), 2:743 ‘‘The Libero,’’ 2:759 Licorice, 1:362 Lidocaine, 1:13 Life expectancy, 1:444 Life, quality of, 1:444 Lifestyle juvenile obesity, 1:422–423 recreational sports, 2:563 Lift automobile racing, 1:47 discus, 1:201 golf ball, 1:313 sailboat, 2:606 Lifting figure skating, 1:268 injuries from, 1:446 power, 2:665, 783 Ligament injuries from artificial turf, 1:250 gymnastics, 1:331 popping and cracking noises from, 1:415 wrist, 2:802 See also ACL injuries; Sprains

841

GENERAL INDEX

Ligament sprains. See Sprains Ligaments, 1:96–97 elbow, 1:214–215 foot, 1:274 knee, 1:429–430 shoulder, 2:621 wrist, 2:802 Lignan, 1:34 Linear kinetic energy, 1:279–280 Linear momentum, 1:266 Lineman, 1:279, 281, 2:779 Linoleic acid, conjugated, 1:153–154 Lipase, 1:291 Lipids, 1:15–17 Lipolysis, 1:16, 253, 307, 325 Lipoproteins. See High density lipoproteins; Low density lipoproteins Litigation doping, 1:24 Title IX, 2:731, 732 ‘‘Little brother of war’’ game, 1:435 Little League World Series, 1:61 Little Leaguer elbow, 1:217 Liver diseases, 1:443 Liver function, 1:442–443, 2:489 Liver glycogen, 1:126–127 Llewellyn, Sidney, 1:303 Lob ball. See Slow-pitch softball Lob pass (Basketball), 1:77 Location forms. See Athlete Location Form Lofted shot, cricket, 1:166 London Marathon, 2:561 Long bones, 1:96, 323, 325, 450 Long-distance running. See Distance running Long jump, 1:443–444, 444, 2:737 biofeedback for, 1:86–87 Joyner-Kersee, Jackie, 1:417–418 Longevity, 1:444–445 Loop diuretics, 1:203 Los Angeles Lakers, 1:4 Louisville Slugger, 2:623 Low back pain, 1:55–56, 445–446, 446 golf, 1:313–314 gymnastics, 1:332 herniated disks, 1:362–363, 446 Low back stabilization exercises, 1:56 Low blood pressure. See Hypotension Low-carbohydrate diet, 1:129, 192, 447 in sport nutrition, 2:668 for weight loss, 1:447, 2:781 Low density lipoproteins (LDL) antioxidants, 1:34 cardiovascular disease, 2:510 diet, 1:191 dietary balance, 2:464 in fat utilization, 1:254 free fatty acids, 1:290

842

vitamin E, 2:757 Low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448–449, 449, 2:739 Low intensity sports, 2:679 Lower leg anatomy, 1:449–450, 450 Lower leg injuries, 1:450–452, 451, 2:485 snowboarding, 2:645 soccer, 2:651 stress fractures, 2:566 water skiing, 2:775 LPGA (Ladies Professional Golf Association), 1:304, 2:662–663 Ludington, Ron, 1:266 Luge, 1:452–453, 453 Lumbar spine anatomy, 1:54, 55, 445–446 exercise in pregnancy, 2:547 herniated disks, 1:362–363 See also Low back pain Lund, Zach, 1:24, 2:696, 725, 748 Lunges ice hockey, 1:396 vertical jump, 2:753 Lungs, 1:134 Lutein, 1:34 Luteinizing hormone (LH), 2:743 The Lutz (Skating), 1:267, 453–454 Lutz, Alois, 1:267, 453–454 Lycopene, 1:34, 2:537, 669 Lycra, 2:794 Lymph system, 1:400–401 Lymphocytes, 1:400

M

Ma huang. See Ephedra Maccabee, Judah, 2:455 Maccabiah Games, 2:455, 683 Macrominerals, 2:468 Macronutrients, 2:457, 668–669 Magic Johnson. See Johnson, Ervin Magnesium, 2:456 for cramp prevention, 2:480 for menstrual cramps, 1:197 role of, 2:468 in ZMA, 2:744 Magnesium carbonate, 2:574 Magnesium deficiency, 1:159, 160, 2:456 Magnesium sulphate, 2:456 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 1:438–439, 2:677, 693 Magnus, Heinrich Gustav, 1:66, 313 Magnus force baseball, 1:66 golf ball, 1:313 soccer balls, 2:649 volleyball, 2:761 Maillot jaune, 1:181

Major League Baseball (MLB), 2:798–799 Male athletes, 1:298–299, 299 See also Gender differences Mall walkers, 2:528 Mallow. See Sida cordifolia Malnutrition, 2:457, 457–458 Manchester United soccer team, 1:79–80 Manley, Abe, 2:458 Manley, Effa, 2:458–459 Mansfield, Peter, 1:438 Manzano, Jesus, 1:91 Marathons, 2:594–596, 595 cross training, 1:169–170 energy bars for, 2:461 ‘‘hitting the wall,’’ 1:308, 309, 2:461 Honolulu Marathon, 1:149–150, 408 ideal physique for, 2:596 injuries from, 2:594 mass marathons, 2:563 Radcliffe, Paula Jane, 2:561 recreational, 2:563 Samuelson, Joan Benoit, 1:81 sodium intake for, 2:656 strength training and exercises, 2:601 as a track and field event, 2:735 ultra, 1:246 Waitz, Grete, 2:765–766 women in, 2:791 March Madness, 2:496 Marijuana, 2:569 Mashabaladi Kvatha, 2:624 Mass in body checking, 1:390–391 center of, 2:597 gymnastics landing force, 1:332–333 physics of banks and curves, 2:533–534 tackling techniques, 1:282–283, 283 See also Muscle mass Massage therapy, 2:459–460 herniated disks, 1:363 iliopsoas syndrome, 1:399 Massillon High School, 1:107–108 Master’s competition, 2:460–461, 484 Mathias, Bob, 1:187 Mature athletes, 2:460, 460–461, 724 See also Aging Mauresmo, Amelie, 2:684 Maximum ability to consume oxygen. See VO2 max Maximum muscle strength, 2:689 Maxwell, Brian, 2:461 Maya cliff diving, 1:146 McDonald, Patrick, 1:21 McGill University, 1:387 McGuire, Mark, 1:160, 2:692 McKay, Jim, 2:461–462


GENERAL INDEX

McNabb, Donovan, 1:322 Meal patterns, 2:506 Medial collateral ligament, 1:430 Medial collateral ligament injuries basketball, 1:74 figure skating, 1:268 ruptured, 1:434 Medial epicondyle tendon, 1:215 Medial epicondylitis, 1:218, 314, 2:717 Median nerve, 1:136–137, 215 Mediation American Arbitration Association, 1:23–24 Court of Arbitration for Sports, 1:157 Medical conditions, sports, 2:679–681, 779 Medications. See Drugs Medicine ball training, 1:69 MedX, 1:416 Melatonin, 1:374 Memory, muscle, 2:475 Meniscus. See Cartilage Menopause, 1:16, 2:518–519 Menstrual cramps, 1:160, 197 Menstruation disorders, 1:298, 2:787–788 Mental acuity, 2:672 Mental conditioning. See Mental training Mental control, 2:672 Mental disabilities exercise, 1:199–200 Special Olympics, 2:664–666 track and field events for, 2:735 See also Intellectual disability Mental disorders. See Psychological disorders Mental endurance, 1:220, 301 Mental exhaustion, 1:241, 243 Mental health, 1:352, 445 Mental stress, 2:462–464, 463 exercise for, 1:199 healthy, 2:463 overtraining, 2:522 in young athletes, 2:809 Mental training archery, 1:35 baseball, 1:69 bowling, 1:100 coaches, 2:676 equestrian events, 1:230 fencing, 1:258–259 figure skating, 1:268 golf swing, 1:315 simulation for, 2:674 sports injuries, 2:678–679 visualization for, 2:755 Mercyz, Miguel Eddie, 1:173 Mesomorphs, 1:94, 2:464


Metabolic rate basal, 1:19, 2:734, 781 exercise physiology, 2:534 See also Energy production Metabolic response, 2:464–465 Metabolic response modifiers, 2:464 Metabolic syndrome, 2:511 Metatarsal fractures, 2:692 Metatarsalgia, 1:151 Metatarsalphlangeal (MTP) joint injuries, 1:150 Mexico City Olympics, 1:364–365 Meyer, Ray, 2:465 Mickleson, Phil, 2:663 Microminerals, 2:468 Micronutrients low-carbohydrate diet, 2:781 malnutrition, 2:457 in sport nutrition, 2:668, 669–670 Middle-distance races, 2:596–597, 735 injuries from, 2:594 strength training and exercises, 2:569, 601 Viren, Lasse, 2:753–754 Midfielders, 2:648 Midfoot, 1:274 Midsole, 2:598 Mikan, George Lawrence, 1:71, 84, 2:465–466 Mile, four minute, 1:60 Mile High Stadium (Denver, CO), 1:365, 2:523 Miley, Patrick, 2:466–467 Miliaria rubra, 1:214 Military training biathlons, 1:84 Milk of Magnesia, 2:456 Miller, Don, 2:576 Miller, Hinda, 2:467 Miller, Shannon, 1:333 Milwaukee Bucks, 1:3–4 Mind/body relationship, 2:556 Mineral deficiencies, 1:191–192, 2:458, 692 Mineral supplements, 1:196, 197 Minerals, 2:467–468 defined, 1:194–195 dietary intake of, 1:191–192 nutritive value, 2:505 in sport nutrition, 2:669 Minneapolis Lakers, 2:466 Missett, Judi Sheppard, 1:18 Mitchell, Bobby, 1:109 Mitchell, Dennis, 2:724 Mitochondria fat oxidation, 1:253 free fatty acids, 1:291 skeletal muscle, 2:628 in slow twitch vs. fast twitch fibers, 2:480–481

vitamin E, 2:757 Moceanu, Dominique, 2:566 Modell, Art, 1:109 Models, computer, 1:153 Moderate intensity sports, 2:679 Modern pentathlon, 2:468–470, 469, 530 Modified pitch softball, 2:661 Moguls, 2:633, 634 Momentum angular, 1:279, 334, 2:660 conservation of, 1:282–283 horizontal, 1:266 linear, 1:266 Monday Night Football, 2:462 Monosaccharides, 1:127 Monosodium glutamate, 1:306 Montana, Joe, 2:767 Montgomery, Tim, 1:158, 288, 2:727 Mood, 2:674 Moore, Steve, 1:393 Morgan, William G., 2:758 Mormon tea, 1:225, 226, 2:470–472, 471 Moses, Edwin, 2:592 Motion, Newton’s laws of, 1:282–283, 2:533 Motion, range of. See Range of motion Motivational techniques, 2:472–473, 473 gender differences, 1:299 in sport performance, 2:672 sport psychology, 2:674 young athletes, 2:809 Motley, Marion, 1:108 Motocross (Moto X), 2:474–475 MotoGP, 2:478 Motor control, 2:475–476, 709 Motor neurons, 2:475 Motorcycle racing, 2:477–478 motocross, 2:474–475 Tourist Trophy, 2:478 Motorcycles, freestyle (FMX), 2:474–475, 476, 476–477 Motrin. See Ibuprofen Mount Everest, 1:22 Mountain biking, 1:173, 174, 174, 246 as high-impact exercise, 1:448 injuries, 1:177–178 strength training and exercises, 1:179 wheelchairs, 2:786 Mountain climbs, 1:181 Mouth guards, 1:350, 2:653 Moya, Carlos, 2:622 MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging), 1:438–439, 2:677, 693 MTP joint injuries, 1:150

843

GENERAL INDEX

Multivitamins, 1:197, 209 Munich hostage crisis, 1:404, 2:462, 682–683 Muscle building amino acid supplements, 1:25 creatine supplements, 1:160–161 cricket, 1:168 Nautilus machines, 1:415–416 protein intake, 1:117 protein supplements, 2:464 Muscle contractions concentric vs. eccentric, 2:544 eccentric, 1:189 energy production, 1:135, 2:627 Muscle cramps, 1:158–160, 159, 2:478–480, 479 calf muscle, 1:114, 159, 2:479 from creatine supplements, 1:161 from dehydration, 1:375 vs. DOMS, 1:189 heat, 1:135, 355, 355–356 menstrual, 1:160, 197 runner’s stitch from, 2:589 from sodium deficit, 2:657 whole-body heat, 2:786–787 Muscle fibers, 2:480–481, 483, 627 energy production, 2:628 exercise physiology, 2:535–536 function of, 2:627–628 middle-distance racing, 2:596 skeletal muscle, 2:626–627 sprinters, 2:599 See also Fast twitch fibers; Slow twitch fibers Muscle glycogen, 1:126–127, 308–309 Muscle glycogen recovery, 2:481–482 Muscle mass, 2:482–483, 483 anabolic steroids for, 1:27–29 exercise physiology, 2:535–536 growth hormones, 1:325 human growth hormone, 1:364 lean, 1:94, 2:734, 779, 780 soccer, 2:654 in sport performance, 2:671 water content, 2:770 Muscle protein synthesis, 2:483–484 Muscle soreness, delayed onset (DOMS), 1:189, 2:768 Muscle strains. See Strains Muscle strength, 2:482–483, 483, 671 defined, 1:219 elastic, 2:689, 690 gender differences, 1:299 maximum, 2:689 See also Core strength; Strength-toweight ratio; Strength training Muscles, 2:625–627, 626, 627 abdominal, 2:538, 762 back, 1:54–55 blood flow during exercise, 2:637–638 cardiac, 2:480, 534, 626 deconditioning, 1:188 energy production, 2:627–628 exercise physiology, 2:535

844

fatigue, 1:255 foot, 1:274 function of, 2:627 lactic acid buildup in, 1:437–438 memory, 2:475 recovery, 1:240–241 size of, 2:486 smooth, 2:480, 626 twitches, 2:479 See also Skeletal muscle Musculoskeletal injuries, 2:484–485 massage therapy, 2:459–460 retro running, 2:571 swimming, 2:702–703 weight training, 2:486 wrapping and taping techniques, 2:799–800 Musculoskeletal system exercise physiology, 2:535–536 gender differences, 1:257 in sport performance, 2:671–672 Musimu, Patrick, 1:290 Myoblasts, 2:627, 691 Myocardial infarction. See Heart attacks Myostatin, 2:485–486 Myostatin blockers, 2:486 Myotactic reflex, 2:544 MyPyramid, 2:504–505, 506–507 Myrtle, 2:503

N

NAIA (National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics), 2:493 Naismith, James, 1:69–71, 2:487–488 Abbott, Senda Berenson, 1:1, 70, 2:488 ice hockey, 1:387 Spalding, Albert Goodwill, 2:664 Nandrolone, 1:27, 2:488–489 testing for, 2:489, 520–521 USADA testing, 2:748 WADA ban of, 2:799 Nap’s Needle, 2:574 Narcotics, 2:570 Nasal sprays, 2:490, 490–491 NASCAR auto racing, 1:51, 2:491–493, 492 on-board cameras, 1:439 qualification for, 1:50 television coverage of, 1:49 Nascimento, Edson Artantes do. See Pele´ National Association for Girls and Women in Sports (NAGWS), 1:2 National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing. See NASCAR Auto racing National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), 2:493 National Basketball Association (NBA)

24-second clock rule, 1:83–84, 2:466 average player size, 1:73 free agency, 1:72 history, 1:71 vs. international federations, 1:405 Jordan, Michael, 1:416–417 key size rule, 2:466 rules, 1:71, 259 USADA testing, 2:748 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), 2:493–496, 495 Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, 1:3 American football program, 1:277 average basketball segment of play, 1:78 basketball players from, 1:72 basketball rules, 1:71, 259 Camp, Walter Chauncy, 1:120 cheerleading injuries, 1:141 diving, 1:203 formation of, 1:120 goaltending rule, 2:465 gymnastics injuries, 1:331 high altitude sports, 1:365 history, 2:493–494 ice hockey, 1:389 Jordan, Michael, 1:416 lacrosse, 1:436 softball, 2:657–658 Title IX, 2:730–731 track and field events, 2:735 USADA testing, 2:748 water polo, 2:772 women’s golf, 2:662 women’s ice hockey, 2:792 National Collegiate Athletic Association v. Smith, 2:731 National Football League (NFL), 2:496–498, 497 Brown, James Nathaniel, 1:106–107 Brown, Paul Eugene, 1:108 description of, 1:275 injury rate, 2:678 television, 1:277 USADA testing, 2:747–748 vertical jump test, 2:752 weight gain for, 2:779 National governing bodies, 2:498–499 National Hockey League (NHL) average player size, 1:391, 396 decongestant use, 2:471 doping in, 2:547 ephedra use, 1:226 establishment of, 1:387 fighting, 1:389 rink size, 1:393 women in, 2:793 National Hot Rod Association (NHRA), 1:50, 2:478 National Invitational Tournament (NIT), 2:493–494 National Lacrosse League (NLL), 1:437 National League (Baseball), 1:61 National Softball Association (NSA), 2:658, 659


GENERAL INDEX

Nationalism, 1:407 Native Americans lacrosse, 1:435, 437 Mormon tea, 2:470 Nature vs. nurture, 1:300 Nautilus, 1:415–416 NCAA. See National Collegiate Athletic Association Neck braces, 2:514 Neck injuries, 2:499–500, 500 cervical spine fractures, 1:137–139, 138 popping and cracking noises, 1:415 whiplash, 1:285 Necrosis, avascular, 1:411 Needles, hypodermic, 1:401, 402 Negro League, 2:458–459 Neoprene wetsuits, 2:741, 784 Nerve compression injuries, 2:476, 499–500 Nervous system, 2:500–503, 501, 502 autonomic, 1:86–87, 2:502–503 central, 1:255, 376, 2:502 in musculoskeletal injuries, 2:485 parasympathetic, 2:503 peripheral, 2:502–503 skeletal muscle, 2:626–627 somatic, 2:475, 502–503 in sport performance, 2:671–672 sympathetic, 2:503, 807 Nesterenko, Yuliya, 2:600 Neurological disorders, 2:680 Neuroma, foot, 1:150–151 Neurons, 2:475, 502, 626 Nevers, Ernie, 2:496 New York Marathon, 2:765–766 Newcombe, Don, 2:458 Newton, Isaac, 1:282–283, 2:533 NFL. See National Football League NHL. See National Hockey League NHRA (National Hot Rod Association), 1:50, 2:478 Niacin, 1:53 Nicklaus, Jack, 1:21, 2:543 Nike shoes Jordan, Michael, 1:416–417 PLAY program, 1:418 waffle sole, 1:98, 2:598 Nipple, jogger’s, 2:794 Nissen, George, 2:737 NIT (National Invitational Tournament), 2:493–494 NLEA (Nutrition Labeling and Education Act), 1:118, 119 No-limit free diving, 1:290 Nocturia, 2:640–641 Noise, crowd, 1:224–225 Non-contact sports, 2:679


Non-insulin dependent diabetes. See Type 2 diabetes Nonessential nutrients, 1:118 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), 2:503–504 for achilles tendonitis, 1:10 for foot stress fractures, 2:694 for low back pain, 1:446 for quadriceps injuries, 2:558 for rotator cuff injuries, 2:621 for tendon injuries, 2:717 therapeutic use exemptions for, 2:549 for upper leg injuries, 2:729 Noradrenalin, 1:82–83, 2:807 Nordic combined event, 2:635 Nordic skiing, 2:635–637 in biathlons, 1:84–85 inline skates, 2:513 as low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448 ski conditions, 2:630–631 wax for, 2:630–631 North American Soccer League (NASL), 2:649 Notre Dame, University of, 2:575–576 Nowitski, Dirk, 1:72 Nutrition, 2:504–506, 505 athletic performance, 2:506–507 defined, 2:668 sport, 2:668–670, 670, 681 for strength training, 2:691–692 stress fractures, 2:566 for young athletes, 2:811 See also Diet Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA), 1:118, 119 Nutritional Facts label, 1:118, 119 Nutritional supplements. See Dietary supplements Nylon, 2:721

O

Oars, 2:579–580, 581 Obesity, 2:509–510 fitness, 2:780 insulin resistance, 2:510–511 juvenile, 1:421–423, 422, 2:780 osteoarthritis, 2:516 sports participation, 2:680 Title IX, 2:732 Oblique muscles, 1:55 O’Brien, Dan, 1:187 Obsession, 1:338 Octylayanoacrylate, 1:6 Oerter, Al, 1:185, 200–201 Off-ice training, 1:268 O’Grady, Patrick, 2:511–512 Ohio State University football, 1:108 Older athletes. See Mature athletes

The ollie, 2:625 Olson, Brennan, 2:512 Olson, Scott, 2:512–513 Olympic Committees, national, 2:498 Olympic Games aging, 1:21 anabolic steroids use, 1:28–29 archery, 1:35 banned from, 2:798–799 baseball, 2:798–799 basketball, 1:71–72, 259, 2:488 biathlons, 1:84–85 bicycle road racing, 1:173 bobsleds, 1:93 boxing, 1:101 boycotts, 1:407 caffeine, 1:112 decathlon, 1:186–187 discus, 1:200–201 diving, 1:203 equestrian, 1:229–230 event testing, 1:231 fencing, 1:257 figure skating, 1:264 Griffith-Joyner, Delorez Florence, 1:321 hammer throw, 1:339–340 high altitude, 1:364–365 high jump, 1:367 history, 2:748 ice hockey, 1:388, 2:715 Joyner-Kersee, Jackie, 1:418 judo, 1:419 karate, 1:425 Karolyi, Bela, 1:427 long jump, 1:443, 444 luge, 1:453 Lund, Zach, 1:24 marathons, 2:594 middle-distance races, 2:753–754 modern pentathlon, 2:468–470 Munich hostage crisis, 1:404, 2:462, 682–683 pentathlon, 2:529 pole vault, 2:545 revenues, 1:408 sailing events, 2:603 security, 2:682–683 sex testing, 2:611–612, 613 shooting, 2:614 shot put, 2:616, 618 softball, 2:658, 661 speedskating, 2:666 swimming, 2:700 synchronized swimming, 2:708 taekwondo, 2:713 track and field, 2:735 trampoline, 2:737 triathlon distances, 1:409 USADA, 2:747 weightlifting, 2:782 women in, 1:297, 2:790 women’s ice hockey, 2:792 women’s marathon, 2:765–766 wrestling, 2:800 Za´topek, Emil, 2:814, 815

845

GENERAL INDEX

See also International Olympic Committee; United States Olympic Committee O’Meara, Mark, 2:663 Omega-3 fatty acids, 1:191, 290, 2:668 Omega-6 fatty acids, 2:668 Omega Company, 2:707 On Any Sunday, 1:85 On-board cameras, 1:439 O’Neal, Shaquille, 2:466 Open turn, 2:706 Open water swimming, 2:703–704 Oral contraceptives, 2:549 Orange, bitter. See Bitter orange Orthopedic medicine, 2:681–682 See also Arthroscopy Orthostatic hypotension, 1:383 Orthotics, 2:513–514 achilles tendonitis, 1:10 jumper’s knee, 2:717 knee injuries, 1:433 plantar fascitis, 2:541 vs. prosthetics, 2:552 running injury prevention, 2:594, 598 stress fractures, 2:566 Oscillation breaking boards, 2:713 javelin, 1:413–414 Osgood, Robert Bayley, growth plate and, 2:514 Osgood-Schlatter disease, 1:431, 440, 2:514–515 CAT scan, 1:327 strength training, 2:690 in young athletes, 2:808 Osmolarity, 1:307, 2:656 Osmoregulation thermoregulation, 2:725, 726 in warm weather, 2:769 water, 2:770 Ossification, 1:327 Osteoarthritis, 2:515–517, 516 hip, 1:369, 371 obesity and, 2:510 shoulder, 2:619, 622 Osteoblasts, 1:96, 113, 323 Osteochondritis dissecans, 2:517–518 Osteochondroses, 1:431 Osteoclasts, 1:96 Osteocytes, 1:96, 113 Osteoporosis, 1:97–98, 2:518–519, 519 calcium, 1:197 from cortisone injections, 1:157 dietary protein, 2:464 in female athletes, 1:298 from female athletic triad, 2:613 glucocorticoids, 1:305 hip, 1:371 juvenile obesity, 1:422 magnesium, 2:456

846

phosphates, 2:532 Otitis externa, 1:211 Out-of-competition testing, 1:206–207, 2:519–521 therapeutic use exemptions, 2:570 USADA, 2:747 Outsole, 2:598 Ovaries, 1:373 Over-hydration, 1:376–377, 382 Over-the-counter drugs, 1:208–209 Overhead motions, 2:621 Overload principle of, 1:291–292 resistance training, 2:568 strength training, 2:689 triathlon training, 2:742 young athletes, 2:691 Overtraining, 2:521–522, 556 high intensity exercise, 1:237 injuries, 2:677 metabolic response to, 2:465 running injuries from, 2:592 sleep deprivation from, 2:642 sport psychology for, 2:674–675 Overuse injuries. See Repetitive motion injuries Ovett, Steve, 2:596 Owens, Jesse, 1:185, 299 Oxidation, 1:33, 2:756, 757 Oxycodone hydrochloride, 2:549 OxyContin. See Oxycodone hydrochloride Oxygen, 2:522–523 acclimatization, 1:6–7 aerobics, 1:17–18, 19 altitude illness, 1:22 Armstrong, Lance, usage, 1:38 erythropoietin, 1:228 high altitude performance, 1:364 Oxygen delivery, 1:89–91, 182 Oxygen transport aging, 1:20–21 blood doping for, 1:89–91 blood volume, 1:92 mechanism of, 1:136 See also VO2 max Oxygen uptake, 1:89–91 Oxygenated water, 2:771–772

P Packer, Kerry, 1:164 Paddles, 1:126 Paddling, 1:124 Pain, ‘‘playing through,’’ 1:20 Pairs skating, 1:262, 263, 264, 266–267, 268 Palmeiro, Rafael, 2:552 Palmer, Daniel David, 1:144 Pan American Games, 1:404, 2:747

Pan American Sports Organization, 1:404 Panax ginseng. See Chinese ginseng Pantothenic acid, 1:54 Parachute jumping BASE, 1:245 sky diving, 2:638–639, 639 Parachute roll, 2:639, 645 Parallel bars, 1:331, 412 Paralympics, 2:525–527, 527 disability classification, 1:198–199, 2:526 Petitclairc, Chantal, 2:530–531 prosthetics in, 2:553 track and field events, 2:735 USADA, 2:747 wheelchair sports, 2:525, 526, 785–786 Parasailing, 1:245 Parasympathetic nervous system, 2:503 Paris to Dakar rally, 1:51, 2:478 Parsley, 1:203 Participate in the Lives of American Youth (PLAY) program, 1:418 Partrana, Travis, 2:476–477 Passing, American football, 1:283–284, 284 Passive stress, 1:7 Patella, 1:429 Patellar tendon injuries, 1:73–74, 433, 2:717 Pauling, Linus, 2:756 Paulsen, Axel, 1:266 Pea whistles, 1:287 Pedometers, 2:528 Pele´, 2:528–529, 649 Pelizzari, Umberto, 1:290 Pelletier, David, 1:264 Peloton, 1:177, 179 Pelvis anatomy and physiology, 1:369–371, 370 gender differences, 1:257, 297 Penalty kicks, 2:648–649 Pentathlon ancient, 2:469, 529 Joyner-Kersee, Jackie, 1:418 modern, 2:468–470, 469, 530 women’s, 2:529–530 Performance rhythm, 2:672 sport, 2:670–672, 809–810, 810 See also Athletic performance Performance-enhancing drugs. See Doping Performance-enhancing products, ergogenic, 1:230–231 Periodization of training football (American), 1:278


GENERAL INDEX

Ironman competition, 1:409 motivation, 2:472 preseason training, 2:550 rock climbing, 2:574–575 running, 2:601 squash, 2:686–687 swimming, 2:703 tennis, 2:722 two-a-day practice sessions, 2:745–746 volleyball, 2:762 weight categories, 2:777 for young athletes, 2:810–811 Peripheral nervous system, 2:502–503 Personality types, 2:674–675 Perspiration. See Sweat Peterson classification, 1:327 Petitclairc, Chantal, 2:527, 530–531 Petty, Richard, 2:491 PGA (Professional Golfers Association), 1:21, 2:543 pH value, swimming pool, 2:705 Phalen test, 1:137 Pharmaceuticals. See Drugs Pharyngitis, 2:750 Phelps, Michael, 1:249 Phenyalanine, 1:26 Phillipides, 2:594 Phosphate, 2:531–532 Phosphocreatine, 2:532–533, 567–568 Phosphorus, 2:468 Photosynthesis, 1:128 Physiatry, 2:682 Physical activity, habitual, 1:337–338 Physical disabilities, 1:199–200, 2:735 Physical education, 1:1 Physical examination, 2:681–682 Physical exhaustion, 1:241–243 Physical fitness. See Fitness Physics banks and curves, 1:52, 2:533–534 basketball shot dynamics, 1:75–77, 76 figure skating leaps and throws, 1:266–267 football (American) field goals, 1:279–280 golf swing, 1:316–318, 317 running, 2:597–598 sailing, 2:605–606 water skiing, 2:774–775 Physiology Armstrong, Lance, 1:182, 182–183 exercise, 2:534–536 gender differences, 1:299 of mental stress, 2:463 Physiotherapists, 2:536, 536 Phytochemicals, 2:537–538 antioxidant effect, 1:34 dietary protein, 2:554


sport nutrition, 2:669–670 Pikus-Pace, Noelle, 2:682 Pilates, 2:538–539, 539, 805–806, 807 cycling, 1:174 flexibility from, 2:695 low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448 for piriformis syndrome, 2:539 resistance training, 2:568 Swiss Ball training, 2:538, 806 synchronized swimming, 2:709 Pilates, Joseph Hubertus, 2:805–806 Pin setting machines, 1:99 Pinched nerves, 2:499–500 Pineal gland, 1:374 Ping pong. See Table tennis Pink eye, 1:246–247 Pippin, Scottie, 1:417 Piriformis syndrome, 2:539 Pistol shooting, 2:469–470, 614, 615 Pitching curve ball, 1:65, 65–66, 67, 217 injuries from, 1:66–67, 2:621 softball, 1:344, 2:658–659, 660–662 by young athletes, 2:808–809 Pitching machines, 2:540–541 Pituitary gland, 1:324, 372, 373, 374 Placebo effect, 2:772 Planing (Water skiing), 2:774 Plantar fascia, 1:274 Plantar fascitis, 1:150, 151, 2:541 from figure skating, 1:269 with heel spurs, 1:359–360, 2:541 massage therapy for, 2:459–460 Plante, Joseph Jacques (Jake the Snake), 2:542–543 Plaque, coronary artery, 1:17–18 Plasma composition of, 1:136 defined, 1:92 hydration, 1:375 water content, 2:770 Plasma expanders, 1:92 Plastic tracks, 2:736 Platelets, 1:92 Platform diving, 1:204 Platoon football, 2:576 PLAY (Participate in the Lives of American Youth) program, 1:418 Playback, 1:304 Player, Gary, 2:543 ‘‘Playing through’’ pain, 1:20 Plimpton, James, 2:577, 578 Plimsolls, 1:44 Plyometrics, 2:543–545 alpine skiing, 2:633 badminton, 1:58 baseball, 1:69

basketball, 1:79 boxing, 1:102, 105 canoe and kayak, 1:124 cricket, 1:168 cycling, 1:174 for fast twitch fiber development, 2:481 football (American), 1:278 hurdles, 2:591, 592 jump rope training as, 1:420 rugby, 2:587 running, 2:569 for short, high intensity exercise, 2:616 soccer, 2:654 strength training, 2:689 synchronized swimming, 2:709 table tennis, 2:712 triple jump, 2:745 vertical jump, 2:752–753 volleyball, 2:762 weightlifting, 2:783–784 young athletes, 2:691 Podiatry, 2:681 Pointer, hip, 1:369 Pole vault, 2:545, 545–546, 737 computer simulations, 1:153 in decathlons, 1:187 poles for, 1:414, 2:545–546, 737 Politics, 1:407 Pollard, Frederick (Fritz), 2:496 Polo roller, 2:577 water, 2:772–774, 773 Polypropylene, 1:149, 224, 2:794 Polysaccharides, 1:127 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTEE), 1:318–319 Polyunsaturated fats, 2:668 Polyurethane, 2:598 Ponza, Lorenzo, 2:540 Pools, swimming, 2:700, 701, 704–705 Poona, 1:57 Post-concussion syndrome, 1:351 Posterior cruciate ligament, 1:430 Postmenopausal women, 1:256 Potassium dietary intake of, 1:191 salt tablets, 2:610 skeletal muscles, 2:626–627 sport nutrition, 2:669 sports drinks, 2:769 Potassium deficiency, 1:159 Pound, Richard W., 2:546–547, 798 Power in endurance, 1:219 fatigue and, 1:255 muscular, 2:482 Power lifting, 2:665, 783 Power walking, 1:448 PowerBar, 2:461 Pre-hydration, 1:375, 379

847

GENERAL INDEX

Prednisone, 1:305 Prefontaine, Steve, 1:98 Pregnancy and exercise, 2:547–548, 548 Prescription medications athletic performance, 2:548–549 therapeutic use exemption, 2:527 See also Drugs Preseason strength training, 2:549–550, 551 Pressure, 2:674 PRICE (Protection, rest, ice, compression, elevation), 1:32 Prickly heat, 1:214 Prince tennis racquets, 1:349–350, 2:720 Principle of overload. See Overload Pro Bowlers Tour, 1:99 Pro Skater, 1:349 Pro Stock Bike series, 2:478 Pro wrestling, 2:800 Professional Golfers Association (PGA), 1:21, 2:543 Professional sports event testing, 1:232–233 International Olympic Committee on, 1:407 rehabilitation programs, 2:677 Professional sports associations, 2:498–499 doping tests, 2:521 out-of-competition testing, 2:520 prohibited substances policies, 2:552 Title IX, 2:730 Progesterone, 2:788 Prohibited substances, 2:550–552, 552 defined, 2:696 therapeutic use exemption for, 2:724–725 WADA list, 2:798, 799 Prohormones, anabolic, 1:26–27, 146–147 Proline, 1:26 Pronation, 1:45, 2:598 Proprioception, 1:58–59, 59 gymnastics, 1:331 synchronized swimming, 2:709 Prostaglandins, 1:157 Prosthetics, 2:552–553 Protection, rest, ice, compression, elevation (PRICE), 1:32 Protective equipment. See Safety equipment Protein (Dietary) bone density, 2:464 caloric intake of, 1:117, 127, 190, 192 energy density, 1:118 ingestion and recovery, 2:553–554

848

nutritive value, 2:505 phytochemicals in, 2:554 vs. protein supplements, 2:554–555 protein synthesis, 2:484 recommendations, 2:507 sources of, 1:190, 2:554 in sport nutrition, 2:668–669 for strength training, 2:691–692 Protein energy malnutrition, 2:457–458 Protein supplements, 1:196, 197, 2:464, 554–555 Protein synthesis, muscle, 2:483–484 Proteins amino acid supplements, 1:24–25 glutamine supplements, 1:306 heat shock, 1:131, 241 recovery of, 2:553–554 See also Amino acids Prozac, 2:612 Pseudo-ephedrine ephedra, 1:226 Mormon tea, 2:470–471 sida cordifolia, 2:624 Psoriasis, 2:733 Psychological disorders, 2:555–556 Psychological factors dog sled racing, 1:397 golf swings, 1:315–316 sleep deprivation, 2:641–642 sport performance, 2:672 sports injuries, 2:678–679 Psychological recovery, 1:241 Psychology, sport, 1:319–320, 2:673–675, 675 Psychology of Athletes (Griffith), 1:320 Psychology of Coaching (Griffith), 1:320 PTEE (Polytetrafluoroethylene), 1:318–319 Puberty, 2:690, 808 Pucks, ice hockey, 1:388 Pull stroke, cricket, 1:166 Pulls, muscle. See Strains Pulmonary edema, high altitude, 1:22, 365–366, 366 Pulmonary function. See Cardiopulmonary function Pulse rate. See Heart rate Puma Shoes, 1:185 ‘‘Punch drunk,’’ 1:103 Push-ups, 1:116 Putters, 1:312 Pyleva, Olga, 2:636–637 Pyramid, human, 1:141 Pyridoxine, 1:53

Q

Q-line angle, 1:96–97 Qi, 1:13

Quad skates, 2:577, 578 Quadriceps muscle anatomy, 2:557 direct blow injuries, 2:728–729 hamstring ratio, 2:775–776 heat cramps, 1:356 pulls and tears, 2:557–558, 558 Quadriceps tendon injuries, 2:558, 717 Quadruple jumps, 1:267 Qualification, automobile racing, 1:50, 285 Quality of life, 1:444 Quarterback, 1:280, 283–284, 284 Quarterback-sneak, 1:282 Quax, Dick, 2:754 Queensbury rules, 1:101 Quick release rear hub, 1:121

R

R group, 1:25–26 Rabbits (Runners), 2:597 Racetracks. See Tracks Racing automobile (See Automobile racing) wheelchair, 2:526, 786 Racing slicks, 1:51 Racquetball, 2:559–561, 560 Racquets squash, 2:685–686 tennis, 1:349–350, 2:720–721 Radcliffe, Paula Jane, 2:561–562, 562 Radial collateral ligament (RCL), 1:215 Radial nerve, 1:215 Radiational cooling, 1:358, 2:727 Radiohumeral joint, 1:214, 215 Radius bone, 1:214 Rafting, whitewater, 1:246 Rain, 1:6–7 Rally car racing, 1:50–51 Random doping tests, 2:520 Range of motion, 2:562–563, 563 flexibility, 2:694 hip joint, 1:370 judo, 1:420 for muscle recovery, 1:240 reduced, 2:694 tennis, 2:723 triathlon, 2:742 wrestling, 2:802 Rash, road, 1:178, 2:572–573, 579 Ratjen, Herman, 2:611 RCL (Radial collateral ligament), 1:215 RDA. See Recommended daily allowance Reaction time aging, 1:21 sleep deprivation, 2:641 in sport performance, 2:671


GENERAL INDEX

Reagan, Ronald, 2:576 Real Madrid (Soccer team), 1:80 Rear hub, quick release, 1:121 Rear spoilers, 2:492 Rearfoot strikers, 2:566 Receiver, wide, 1:279 Recommended daily allowance (RDA) calcium, 1:113 dietary supplements, 1:208 magnesium, 2:456 salt, 2:608 vitamin and mineral supplements, 1:197 vitamin C, 2:756 Recovery active, 2:575 from exercise, 1:239–241, 240 in football (American), 1:279 protein, 2:553–554 Recreational sports, 2:563–565, 565 Rectal thermometers, 1:155 Red blood cells acclimatization, 1:6, 7 autotransfusion, 1:90 blood doping of, 1:89–91 defined, 1:92 erythropoietin, 1:228 gender differences, 1:257 high altitude performance, 1:364 role of, 1:136, 400 Referee whistles, 1:287 The Reformer, 2:538, 806 Rehabilitation achilles tendon rupture, 1:8 MedX machines, 1:416 physiotherapists, 2:536 sports injuries, 2:677, 678 visualization, 2:755 Rehydration, 1:357–358, 375 See also Fluid replacement; Hydration Relaxation techniques, 1:86–87, 2:459 Renal failure, end stage, 2:567 Renal function, 2:567, 567–568 blood volume, 1:92 cardiovascular health, 1:136 diuretics, 1:202–203 hyponatremia, 1:381 protein digestion, 2:555 sports participation, 2:680 Repetitions per set, 2:483 weight training, 1:292 Repetitive motion injuries, 2:677 baseball, 1:66–67, 68 canoe and kayak, 1:124 carpal tunnel, 1:137 cheerleading, 1:141 elbow, 1:218 figure skating, 1:268 foot, 1:150, 151 foot stress fractures, 2:692 football (American), 1:280


glucocorticoids for, 1:305 gymnastics, 1:331 knee, 1:433 marathons, 2:596 Osgood-Schlatter disease, 2:515 quadriceps, 2:557 running, 2:594 shoulder, 2:621 stress fractures, 1:151, 451–452 triathlon, 2:741 wrist, 2:803 in young athletes, 2:808, 809 Reproductive disorders, 2:612–613, 787–788 Research, evidence-based, 1:233–234 Resistance swimming, 2:705–706 wind, 1:356, 2:739 See also Drag Resistance exercise training, 2:568–569, 569 constant, 2:751 cycling, 1:174, 179 for disabled individuals, 1:199 drag for, 2:569, 602 iliopsoas syndrome from, 1:398 for osteoporosis, 2:518 Pilates, 2:538 running, 2:600, 602 skeletal muscle, 2:627 soccer, 2:654 trampoline, 2:738 triathlon, 2:742–743 variable, 2:751–752 yoga for, 2:805 Respirations biofeedback, 1:86–87 fluid replacement, 1:235 process of, 1:134 Respiratory diseases, 2:680–681 Respiratory rate, 1:134 Respiratory system, 1:133–134, 2:523 Respiratory tract infections, upper, 2:749–750 Rest intervals, 2:522 Resting state, 1:309 Restless leg syndrome, 2:640 Restricted substances, 2:569–570, 695–696 See also Doping Restrictor plates, 2:492 Retina, detached, 1:247 Retro running, 2:570–571 Retton, Mary Lou, 1:328, 427 Reynolds, Butch, 1:24 Rheaume, Manon, 2:793 Rheumatism, 2:516 Rhythm, sport performance, 2:672 Rhythmic gymnastics, 1:328 Riboflavin, 1:53

RICE (Rest, ice, compression, elevation), 2:571–572 calf muscle strains, 1:114 compartment syndrome, 1:451 elbow injuries, 1:218 first aid kits for, 1:271 foot stress fractures, 2:694 groin injuries, 1:322 hamstring injuries, 1:341, 342 iliopsoas syndrome, 1:399 muscle cramps, 2:479 plantar fascitis, 2:541 quadriceps injuries, 2:558 shin splints, 1:451 soft tissue injuries, 2:571–572, 729 sprains and strains, 2:685 tendon injuries, 2:717 upper leg injuries, 2:729 wrapping and taping techniques for, 2:799 wrist injuries, 2:803 Richards, Renee, 2:613 Riddle, Libby, 1:397 Rifle shooting, 1:84–85, 238–239, 2:614 Rift Valley, 1:300, 2:596 Rinks, ice hockey, 1:388, 393–394, 394, 2:813–814 Rip Van Winkle (Irving), 1:98–99 Road racing bicycle, 1:173, 174, 177–178, 179 Formula 1, 1:49, 285 motorcycle, 2:478 Road rash, 1:178, 2:572–573, 579 Robinson, Darrell, 1:321 Robinson, Jackie, 1:61, 2:458 Robinson, Ray (Sugar), 1:303 Rock climbing, 1:245, 2:574–575, 575 Rockne, Knute Kenneth, 1:276, 2:575–577 Rodnina, Irina, 1:265 Rogers, Bill, 2:594 Roid rage, 1:29, 2:556 Rolfing, 2:459 Roller derby, 2:578 Roller hockey, 2:577, 577–578 Roller polo, 2:577 Roller skates, 2:578–579, 579 Rollerblades, 2:512–513, 578–579 Rooney, Giaan, 2:702 Roosevelt, Theodore, 2:493 Rope, jumping. See Jump rope training Rose hips, 1:362 Rotation. See Spin Rotator cuff anatomy and physiology, 2:619, 621 strength training, 1:69 Rotator cuff injuries, 2:621 arthroscopy, 1:40 canoe and kayak, 1:124 golf, 1:315 swimming, 2:703 tendinitis, 2:717

849

GENERAL INDEX

RowBike, 2:513 Rowboat hull design, 2:581–582 Rowing, 2:579–581, 580 creatine supplements, 1:160 eating disorders in, 1:213 hydrodynamics, 2:581–582, 582 for ice hockey training, 1:396 iliopsoas syndrome from, 1:398 strength training and exercises, 2:582–583 weight categories, 2:776 Rowing machines, 2:583, 687–688 Rowing shell, 2:581–582, 582 Rozell, Pete, 2:497 Rubberized tracks, 1:98, 2:736 Rudder, 2:606 Rugby, 2:583–585, 585 American football and, 1:275, 281 dropkick mechanics, 2:585–587, 586 Ellis, William Webb, 1:218 high altitude, 1:365 strength training and exercises, 2:587–588, 588 wheelchair, 1:199 Rugby injuries, 2:585 Runner’s stitch, 2:588–589 Running aging, 1:21 boxing training, 1:105 cross-country, 2:469–470, 589–590 cross training, 1:169 first four-minute mile, 1:60 football (American) training, 2:745–746 high-impact exercise, 1:448 hill, 1:179, 398, 2:590 hurdles, 1:374–375, 375, 2:529, 590–592, 591, 600–602 by mature athletes, 2:460 orthotics for, 2:514 outdoors vs. treadmill, 2:739 physics of, 2:597–598 retro (backward), 2:570–571 rugby training, 2:587 sports bras for, 2:467 strength training and exercises, 2:600–602, 601 structural imbalances in, 2:514 track and field events, 2:735 triathlon, 2:740–741 women in, 2:791, 791 See also Distance running; Marathons; Middle-distance races; Sprinting Running the bend technique, 2:599–600 Running injuries, 2:592–594, 593, 598 achilles tendonitis, 1:9–10 iliotibial band friction, 1:399 knee conditions, 1:432 muscle cramps, 2:479 stress fractures, 2:566 Running interval training. See Interval training

850

Running shoes, 1:45, 2:598, 598–599 Bowerman, William J., 1:98 marathons, 2:595 running injuries from, 2:592, 594 sprinting, 2:599 Runs, bobsled, 1:93 Rupp, Adolph, 1:294 Ruptured tendons, 2:716–717 Russia anabolic steroids, 1:27–28 cross training, 1:169 ice hockey, 2:714–715 Ryun, Jim, 2:596

S

SA node, 1:353 SABR (Society for American Baseball Research), 2:729–730 Sacral spine, 1:54, 55 Safety equipment ice hockey, 2:542 snowboarding, 2:645 soccer, 2:653 women’s, 2:793–795 See also Helmets Sailboats hull design, 2:605, 606 steering, 2:606–607 Sailing, 2:603–605, 604 Americas Cup, 1:405, 2:603 Fogh, Hans, 1:273 physics of, 2:605–606 science of steering, 2:606–607 Sails, 2:603–604, 605–606 Salazar, Alberto, 1:223 Salbutamol, 1:82 Salchow, Ulrich, 1:266, 267, 2:607–608 Salchow jump, 1:266, 267, 2:607–608 Sale, Jamie, 1:264 Salicylic acid, 2:503–504, 537 Saline solutions, 2:490 Salt, 2:608–609 See also Sodium Salt intake, 2:655–656 Salt tablets, 1:377, 2:609–610, 656 Salter-Harris system, 1:327 Samuelson, Joan Benoit, 1:81 arthroscopy, 1:40, 81 asthma, 1:42 Los Angeles Olympics, 2:765 Samuelson, Ralph, 2:774 Santee, Wes, 1:60 Saponin, 2:642, 788 Sarsaparilla. See Smilax Sassler, Adi, 1:44 SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test), 2:731–732 Saturated fats, 1:252, 254 Savchenko, Aliona, 1:264

Scaphoid fractures, 2:645, 802 Scapholunate ligament rupture, 1:345–346 Scapulohumeral joint, 1:15 Scapulothoracic articulation, 2:619, 621 Scelzi, Gary, 1:154 Schenk, Christian, 1:187 Schlatter, Carl B., 2:514 Scholarships football (American), 1:276 NCAA, 2:494 Title IX, 2:731 young athletes, 2:811 Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 2:731–732 School for Christian Workers, 1:69 Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 1:416 Schweitzer, Howard, 2:788 Schwikert, Tasha, 1:335 Sciatica, 1:55–56, 2:539 Scientific data, evidence-based, 1:233–234 Scott, Becky, 1:157, 2:672 Scott, Dave, 1:408 Scottish Highland Games, 2:610, 610–611, 735 shot put, 2:616 weightlifting, 2:782 Scrum machine, 2:587 Scrum play, 2:584 Sculling, 2:580, 580, 581–582, 582 Scurvy, 1:196, 2:756 SDRCC (Sports Dispute Resolution Center of Canada), 1:121 Sea kayaks, 1:125 Sea level performance, 1:7 Second wind, 1:438 Security for sporting events, 2:682–683 Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 2:612 Selenium, 1:33, 34 Self-confidence, 1:299 Semimembranosis, 1:340 Semitendinosus, 1:340 Seniors tour, PGA, 1:21 Senna, Ayrton, 1:50 Senses, kinesthetic, 1:58 Serving tennis, 2:721–722, 722 volleyball, 2:759 Set (Volleyball), 2:760–761, 761 Seven-a-side rugby, 2:584–585 Sex testing, 2:611, 611–612, 613 Sexual disorders, 2:612–613 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 2:612


GENERAL INDEX

Shallow water blackouts, 1:290 Sharkskin, 1:249 Sharp, Craig, 2:613–614 Sheaf tossing, 2:610 Shell, rowing, 2:581–582 Sherwood, James, 1:65 Shifters, bicycle, 1:177 Shin splints, 1:451 Shock wave therapy, extracorporeal, 1:360 Shoes. See Athletic shoes Shooting, 2:614–615, 615 pistol, 2:469–470, 614, 615 rifle, 1:84–85, 238–239, 2:614 trap, 2:614 Short high intensity exercise, 2:615–616 Shorter, Frank, 2:594 Shot-clock rule, 1:71, 84 Shot dynamics, basketball, 1:75–77, 76 Shot put, 2:616–618, 617 decathlon, 1:187 throwing mechanics, 2:618, 618 women’s pentathlon, 2:529 Shotguns, 2:614 Shoulder anatomy and physiology, 1:15, 2:619–620, 620, 621 frozen (See Adhesive capsulitis) osteoarthritis, 2:619, 622 range of motion, 2:562–563 strength training and exercises, 1:124 Shoulder injuries, 2:620–623, 622 arthroscopy, 1:40 baseball, 1:66–67, 68 canoe and kayak, 1:124 dislocation, 2:622 football (American), 1:280, 281 golf, 1:314–315 gymnastics, 1:331 impingement, 2:621 incidence, 2:485 snowboarding, 2:645 soccer, 2:653 swimming, 2:703 See also Rotator cuff injuries Shoulder instability, 1:40 Shoulder pads, 1:390–391 Show jumping, 1:229, 229 Shriver, Eunice Kennedy, 2:664 Shriver, Pam, 1:350 Shroyer, William A., 2:623 Shuttle drill, 2:723 Sida cordifolia, 2:623–624 Silva, Edinanci, 2:613 Simple carbohydrates, 1:126, 127 Simpson, Tom, 1:183


Simulation freestyle skiing, 2:634 mental training, 2:674 See also Computer simulations Singh, Vijay, 1:315–316, 2:663 Singles skating, 1:263, 267 Sinoatrial (SA) node, 1:353 Sinusitis, 2:750 Sit-ups, 1:115 Six Nations Cup, 2:584 Skateboarding, 1:245, 348–349, 2:624–625, 625, 625 Skates clap speed, 1:371–372, 2:667 ice, 1:262–263, 269 inline, 2:512–513, 578–579, 579 quad, 2:577, 578 roller, 2:578–579, 579 speedskates, 2:667 Skating ice dancing, 1:263, 267 pairs, 1:263, 264, 266–267, 268 speedskating, 1:371–372, 2:579, 666–667, 667 See also Figure skating; Ice hockey Skeet, 2:614 Skeletal muscle, 2:480, 625–627, 626, 627 blood flow during exercise, 2:637–638 energy production, 2:627–628 function of, 2:627–628 Skeletal muscle pump, 2:638 Skeleton, 1:97 Ski area avalanche control, 2:628–630, 629 Ski conditions, 2:630–631, 631, 635 Ski jumping, 2:635–636, 774 Skier’s thumb, 2:803 Skiing alpine, 1:442, 2:526, 630–631, 631–632, 632 cross-country, 2:513 downhill, 1:349, 442, 2:632–633 freestyle, 2:633–635, 634 super giant slalom, 2:632–633 water, 1:245–246, 2:774–776, 775 See also Nordic skiing Skills competition, individual, 2:665 Skin abrasions, cuts, lacerations of, 1:4–6 aging, 1:19 anatomy, 2:573, 637, 733 blood flow during exercise, 2:637–638 road rash, 1:178, 2:572–573 Skin diseases, 2:680, 733 Skin fold measurement, 1:95, 2:509, 779 Skin friction, 2:705 Skins Game, 2:663

Skinsuits, cycling, 1:183 Skipping rope. See Jump rope training Skis metal laminate downhill, 1:349 Nordic, 2:635 steel edged, 1:442 wax for, 2:630–631, 635 Skull anatomy, 1:350 Sky diving, 1:245, 2:638–639, 639 Slalom, 2:633 Slam dunk, 1:77, 78 Leslie, Lisa Deshaun, 1:440, 441 NCAA ban on, 1:3 Slaney, Mary Decker, 2:724 Slapshot velocity, ice hockey, 1:394–395, 395 Sleep, 1:200, 2:638–641, 640 Sleep apnea, 2:640 Sleep deprivation, 2:641–642 Sleep inertia, 2:641 Slicks, racing, 1:51 Sliding seats, 2:580 Slingshot, cycling, 1:173–174 Slipped disk. See Herniated disks Slow-pitch (Lob) softball, 1:62, 2:658, 659, 660–662, 661 Slow twitch fibers, 2:480–481 Armstrong, Lance, 1:39, 182, 220 development of, 2:481 distribution of, 2:627 endurance, 1:220, 300 energy production, 2:628 exercise physiology, 2:535–536 fatigue, 1:255 function of, 2:627–628 middle distance racing, 2:596 Smilax, 1:362, 2:642 Smilax medica. See Smilax Smith, Dean, 1:416 Smith, Mike, 1:187 Smith, National Collegiate Athletic Association v., 2:731 Smith College, 1:2 Smooth muscle, 2:480, 626 The snatch, 2:782 Sneakers, 1:44 Snow ski conditions, 2:630–631, 631, 635 unstable, 2:628–629, 629 Snow shed, 2:629 Snowboarding, 1:245, 2:642–644, 643 Snowboarding injuries, 2:644–646, 645 Snowshoeing, 2:665 Snurfer, 2:642, 644 Sobek, Joseph, 2:559 Sobers, Garfield St. Aubrun, 1:166, 445, 2:646–647

851

GENERAL INDEX

Soccer, 2:647–649, 648 artificial turf, 1:250 athletic shoes, 1:44 Beckham, David Robert Joseph, 1:79–81, 80, 2:649 bending the ball, 2:649–650, 650 bicycle kick, 2:528–529 goalkeeper geometry, 2:647, 650–651, 651 governing body, 2:498 Hamm, Mariel (Mia) Margaret, 1:338–339 heat stroke from, 1:358 history, 1:261, 2:647 for ice hockey training, 1:396 international federations, 1:405 Pele´, 2:528–529, 649 strength training and exercises, 2:654–655, 655 tackling mechanics, 2:653, 653–654 World Cup, 1:261–262, 405, 2:529, 683 See also Football Association Soccer boots, 1:185 Soccer injuries, 2:651–653, 652 Society for American Baseball Research (SABR), 2:729–730 Socks, blisters from, 1:89 SOD (Superoxide dismutase), 1:34 Sodium, 2:656–657 blood volume, 1:92 for cramp prevention, 2:480 in dehydration, 1:375 diuretics, 1:203 fluid replacement, 1:235 in heat exhaustion, 1:358 in hyponatremia, 1:377, 381–382 intake of, 1:191, 2:655–656 role of, 2:468, 608 salt tablets for, 2:608–609 in skeletal muscle, 2:626–627 sources of, 2:656 sports drinks, 1:111, 2:608, 769 in sweat, 1:214 See also Hyponatremia Sodium chloride. See Salt Sodium deficits, 2:656–657 from malnutrition, 2:458 in sport nutrition, 2:669 whole-body heat cramps from, 2:786–787 Sodium intake, 2:655–656 Soft tissue injuries RICE for, 2:571–572, 729 wrapping and taping techniques, 2:799–800 See also Musculoskeletal injuries Softball, 1:62, 2:657–659, 659 bat speed and hitting, 2:658, 659–660, 660 fast-pitch, 1:344, 2:658, 660–662 history, 1:343–344, 2:657–658 modified pitch, 2:661 slow-pitch, 2:658, 659, 660–662, 661

852

SOI (Special Olympics International), 2:665 Soling class, 1:273 Somatic nervous system, 2:475, 502–503 Sorenstam, Annika, 2:662–663 Sotomayor, Javier, 2:688 Spalding, Albert Goodwill, 2:663–664 Special Olympics, 2:664–666, 665, 735 Special Olympics International (SOI), 2:665 Special Olympics Law Enforcement Torch Run, 2:664 Speed in body checking, 1:390–391 defined, 1:219 in sport performance, 2:672 Speed bag, 1:105 Speed training, baseball, 1:68 Speedo swim suits, 1:87–88, 249, 2:701 Speedskating, 1:371–372, 2:579, 666–667, 667 Spike (Volleyball), 2:760–761, 761 Spin (Rotation) bowling technique, 1:166–167 curve ball, 1:66 figure skating, 1:263, 266 football passing, 1:283–284 golf ball, 1:312, 313 golf swing, 1:316 gymnastics landing force, 1:334 Spinal cord anatomy, 2:502 Spinal cord injuries, 2:500 gymnastics, 1:332 motor control, 2:476 snowboarding, 2:645 Spine anatomy, 1:54–55 Spinnaker, 2:603 Spirit sports. See Cheerleading Spitz, mark, 2:700 Spoilers, rear, 2:492 Sport clubs, basketball, 1:72 Sport coaching, 2:675–676 certification, 2:498 Coaching Code of Ethics, 2:749 football (American), 1:107–110, 120, 2:575–577, 766–767 in sport performance, 2:672 Title IX, 2:731 young athletes, 2:808, 810 Sport hernia, 1:322 Sport nutrition, 2:668–670, 670, 681 See also Diet; Nutrition Sport performance, 2:670–672 See also Athletic performance; Youth sport performance Sport psychology, 1:319–320, 2:673–675, 675 Sport shooting. See Shooting Sports bras, 2:467, 794–795

Sports Dispute Resolution Center of Canada (SDRCC), 1:121 Sports drinks caffeine, 1:112 carbohydrates, 1:111, 112, 309, 377, 2:769 development of, 1:111 electrolytes, 1:356 vs. energy drinks, 1:222, 223 lactic acid, 1:438 oxygenated water, 2:771–772 potassium, 2:769 recommendations, 1:120 sodium, 1:111, 2:608, 769 for strength training, 2:692 for two-a-day practice sessions, 2:746 in warm weather, 2:769 water, 2:771 vs. water, 1:377 Sports Illustrated, 1:189 Sports injuries, 2:676–679, 678 age-related response to, 1:19–20, 20 MRI for, 1:438–439 youth, 2:803, 808–809 See also specific injuries Sports massage, 2:459 Sports medical conditions, 2:679–681, 779 Sports medicine education, 2:681–682, 682 Sports science theory, 2:613–614 Sports security and terrorism, 2:682–683 Sports supplements. See Dietary supplements Spot reducing, 1:254 Sprains, 2:683–685, 684 ankle, 1:30–31, 31–33, 32, 72–73, 280 cheerleading, 1:141 defined, 1:114 foot, 1:150 wrist, 2:684, 802 Sprint racing canoe and kayak, 1:122–124, 125 cycling, 1:179 Sprinting (Running), 2:599–600, 600 anabolic steroid use, 1:287–288 creatine supplements, 1:160 cross training, 1:170 Griffith-Joyner, Delorez Florence, 1:320–321 human growth hormone for, 1:364 iliopsoas syndrome in, 1:398 injuries from, 2:592–594, 593 preseason training, 2:550 relays, 2:735 resistance training, 2:569 strength training and exercises, 2:600–602 triathlon, 2:740 women’s pentathlon, 2:529


GENERAL INDEX

Square cut, cricket, 1:166 Squash, 2:685–687, 686 Squats baseball, 1:69 calisthenics, 1:115–116 ice hockey, 1:396 vertical jump, 2:753 SSRIs (Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), 2:612 St. Andrews Society of Golf, 1:310 Stability, canoe and kayak, 1:122, 125 Stair climbing machines, 2:738–739 Stairmaster, 2:738–739 Stanley Cup, 1:387 Stanozol, 2:749 Starting blocks, 2:599, 706, 707 Static line jump, 2:638 Static stretching, 2:768, 805 Stationary bicycles, 2:687–689, 688 STDs (Sexually transmitted diseases), 2:612 Stealth cameras, 1:439 Steel golf clubs, 1:318 Sternoclavicular joint, 2:619, 621 Steroid flare, 1:156–157 Steroids Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative scandal, 1:158 defined, 2:503, 733 event testing for, 1:232 psychological disorders from, 2:556 Reynolds, Butch, litigation on, 1:24 role of, 1:373 See also Anabolic steroids; Glucocorticoids ‘‘Sticking the landing,’’ 1:331, 332, 335 Sticks field hockey, 1:260 ice hockey, 1:388, 392–393, 394–395 Stimulants, 2:688–689 in dietary supplements, 2:698 doping tests for, 1:205 in energy drinks, 2:771 in fat burners, 1:251 for sleep deprivation, 2:641 in weight loss products, 2:781–782 Stitch, runner’s, 2:588–589 Stojko, Elvis, 1:269 Stoke Mandeville Games, 2:525, 785 Stomach cramps, 1:160 Stomayor, Javier, 1:368 Stone, curling, 1:172 Stone put, 2:610, 616 Stored fats. See Adipose tissue; Body fat Strains, 2:683–685, 684 calf muscle, 1:114–116, 115 canoe and kayak, 1:124 cheerleading, 1:141


cycling, 1:178 figure skating, 1:269 groin, 1:68, 321–322, 322, 369, 2:684–685 gymnastics, 1:331 hamstring, 1:280, 340–341, 342–343, 343, 2:593 low back pain from, 1:446 upper leg, 2:728 Street courses, Formula 1, 1:285 Strength. See Core strength; Muscle strength Strength-to-weight ratio cycling, 1:182 eating disorders, 1:213 figure skating, 1:268 gymnastics, 1:329 Iditarod race, 1:397 middle-distance races, 2:601 Nordic skiing, 2:636 rock climbing, 2:574 rugby, 2:588 Strength training, 2:689–690 aerobics with, 1:19 amino acid supplements for, 1:25 anabolic prohormones, 1:26–27 baseball, 1:68–69 basketball, 1:78–79 boxing, 1:102, 104–105 cheerleading, 1:141 for children and young athletes, 2:690–691 cricket, 1:167–168 cycling, 1:179–180 deconditioning, 1:188 football (American), 1:278–279 free weights, 1:291 high intensity, 1:236–237 ice hockey, 1:395–396 leg, 1:105, 179 as low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448 motivation, 2:473 nutrition, 2:691–692 Pilates, 2:538 preseason, 2:549–550, 551 range of motion in, 2:563 rowing, 2:582–583 rugby, 2:587–588, 588 running, 2:600–602, 601 shoulder, 1:124 soccer, 2:654–655, 655 swimming, 2:702–703, 706–707 synchronized swimming, 2:709 table tennis, 2:712 tennis, 2:722–723 volleyball, 2:761–763 water skiing, 2:775–776 wrist, 1:124 Streptococcal infections, 2:750 Streptomycin, 1:212 Stress (Mental). See Mental stress Stress (Physiological) active vs. passive, 1:7 massage therapy for, 2:459 Stress fractures, 1:451–452

foot, 1:151, 2:692–694, 693 recurrent, 2:565–566, 566 in young athletes, 2:808 Stress management, 2:674 Stress test, 2:738 Stretching, 2:694–695, 695 achilles tendonitis, 1:10 adhesive capsulitis, 1:15 ankle injuries prevention, 1:31 back injuries, 1:56 badminton, 1:58 baseball, 1:69 calf muscle, 1:114, 115 cheerleading, 1:141 cool-down, 2:768 cross-country running, 2:590 cycling, 1:174, 179 by disabled individuals, 1:199–200 dynamic, 2:805 fencing, 1:258 freestyle skiing, 2:634 gymnastics, 1:332 hamstring injury prevention, 1:342 heel spur prevention, 1:360 hurdles, 2:592 ice hockey, 1:396, 397 iliopsoas syndrome, 1:399 Ironman competitions, 1:409 judo, 1:420 low back pain prevention, 1:446 as low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448 motocross racing, 2:475 muscle cramps, 2:479 Osgood-Schlatter disease, 2:515 Pilates, 2:538 piriformis syndrome, 2:539 plantar fascitis, 2:541 with plyometrics, 2:544 preseason training, 2:550 resistance training, 2:568 rotator cuff injuries, 2:621 rugby, 2:587 runner’s stitch prevention, 2:589 running, 2:602 short, high intensity exercise, 2:616 squash, 2:687 static, 2:768, 805 swimming, 2:707 Swiss balls for, 2:708 table tennis, 2:712 tennis, 2:723 triathlon, 2:741 vertical jump, 2:753 volleyball, 2:762–763 warm-up, 2:768 yoga, 2:805 Striated muscle. See Skeletal muscle Stride length and frequency, 2:597, 599, 694 The striker, 2:648 Striking motions, 1:216 Stringer, Kory, 1:242, 2:746 Structural imbalances foot stress fractures from, 2:692 hamstring, 1:341, 430, 2:557, 651–652

853

GENERAL INDEX

knee, 1:431, 433 in running, 2:514 Strug, Kerri, 1:332, 428 Student athlete model, 2:496 Stuhldreher, Harry, 2:576 Substance abuse, 2:556 Substances banned, 2:696 classification of, 2:695–696 controlled, 2:696 prohibited, 2:550–552, 552, 696, 724–725, 798, 799 restricted, 2:569–570, 695–696 Sudafed, 1:226 Sudden cardiac arrest, 1:132 Sugars, 1:127, 128, 222 Sullivan, John L., 1:101 Sulphur, 2:468 Summit Series, 1:169 Sumo, 2:696–697, 697 Sunburn, 1:244 Sundance Gym, 1:427–428 Sunscreen, zinc oxide, 1:13 Super Bowl, 1:277–278, 2:496, 497 Super Cross, 2:474 Super giant slalom skiing, 2:632–633 Superior radiohumeral joint, 1:214 Superoxide dismutase (SOD), 1:34 SuperStudy of Sports, 2:678 Supplements. See Dietary supplements Supreme Court (United States) free agency in baseball, 1:23–24 Title IX, 2:731, 732 Surfing, 1:245, 2:698–700, 699 Surgeon General (United States), 2:780 Surgery ACL injuries, 1:11–12 hamstring, 1:343 heel spur, 1:360 herniated disks, 1:363 piriformis syndrome, 2:539 See also Arthroscopy Surlyn, 1:312 Sweat composition of, 1:382 core body temperature, 2:637 eccrine gland, 1:213–214 fluid replacement for, 1:135, 234– 235 heat cramps, 1:356 hydration, 1:376 sodium loss from, 2:608 in thermoregulation, 2:726–727 water content, 2:770 Sweat boxes, 2:778 Sweat glands, 1:213–214, 2:727 Swedish massage, 2:459 Sweep oar races, 2:580, 581 Sweep stroke, cricket, 1:166

854

Sweet science. See Boxing Swim rate monitors, 2:466–467 Swim suits hydrodynamics, 1:249 neoprene, 2:741 properties of, 2:701 resistance, 2:705 Speedo, 1:87–88, 249, 2:701 synchronized swimming, 2:709 See also Wetsuits Swimming, 2:700–703, 702 aging, 1:21 for cycling training, 1:179 eating disorders in, 1:212 Ender, Cornelia, 1:218–219 Hawaii Ironman, 1:409 as low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448 modern pentathlon, 2:469–470 open water, 2:703–704 Paralympics, 1:198 Pound, Richard W., 2:546 resistance, 2:705–706 simulation of, 1:87–88 starts and turns, 2:706 strength training and exercises, 2:706–707 synchronized, 2:708–709, 709 timing, 2:707 triathlon, 2:740, 740–741 Swimming pools chemistry of, 2:704–705 FINA, 2:701 history, 2:700 Swing bowling technique, 1:167 Swiss ball training, 2:707–708 Pilates, 2:538, 806 rock and wall climbing, 2:575 in strength training, 2:689 synchronized swimming, 2:709 triathlon, 2:743 volleyball, 2:762 water skiing, 2:776 Switzer, Kathryn, 2:595 Swords, dueling, 1:257 Syers, Madge, 1:262 Sympathetic nervous system, 2:503, 807 Synchronized diving, 1:204 Synchronized swimming, 2:708–709, 709 Syndesmosis, 1:31 Synephrine, 1:227 Synovial fluid, 1:414, 429 Syracuse Nationals, 1:83–84 Systolic blood pressure, 1:383 Szolkowy, Robin, 1:264

T

T3 (Triiodothyronine), 1:372 T4 (Thyroxine), 1:372 Table salt. See Salt Table tennis, 2:711–712, 712

Tacking (Sailing), 2:605, 606–607 Tackling techniques football (American), 1:138–139, 282–283, 283 rugby, 2:584 soccer, 2:652, 653, 653–654 Tactical ability, 2:676 Tae-Bo, 1:18–19 Taekwondo, 1:425, 2:712–714, 713 Taekyon, 1:425 Tandem free fall jump, 2:638 Taping. See Wrapping and taping techniques Tarasov, Anatoly, 2:714–715 Tarasova, Tatiana, 2:715 Tarkanian, Jerry, 2:796 Taurine, 1:222 Taylor, Charles H., 2:715–716 Taylor, William, 1:310–311 TCM. See Traditional Chinese medicine Team handball, 1:346–347, 347 Team sports computer simulations, 1:153 event testing, 1:232 Technology, juvenile obesity and, 1:422 Television camera technology, 1:439 female athletes on, 2:732 football coverage, 1:277, 2:497 McKay, Jim, 2:461–462 videotape recorders, 1:304 Temperature, body. See Body temperature Temperature regulation. See Thermoregulation Tendinitis, 2:716–717 achilles tendon, 1:9, 9–10, 269, 280, 451 from cycling, 1:178 from golf, 1:314 hand, 1:346 iliopsoas, 1:398 patellar tendon, 1:433 RICE for, 2:572 wrist, 2:717, 803 See also Achilles tendon rupture Tendon injuries golf, 1:314 jumper’s knee, 1:73–74 popping and cracking noises from, 1:415 quadriceps, 2:558 ruptured tendons, 2:716–717 See also Achilles tendon rupture; ACL injuries; Strains Tendonitis. See Tendinitis Tendons, 1:96–97, 215 Tendulkar, Sachin, 1:166


GENERAL INDEX

Tennis, 2:718–720, 719 African American women in, 1:303–304 elbow injuries from, 1:216 serve mechanics, 2:721–722, 722 strength training and exercises, 2:722–723 table, 2:711–712, 712 wheelchairs, 2:785 Tennis balls, 2:720 Tennis courts, 2:718, 719 Tennis elbow, 1:218, 314 Tennis racquets, 1:349–350, 2:720–721 Tents, hypoxic, 2:570 Terrian parks, 2:643 Terrorism, 2:682–683 Testes, 1:373, 2:724 Testicular cancer, 1:38 Testing. See Doping tests Testing facilities, accredited, 1:232 Testosterone, 2:723–724 anabolic prohormones, 1:147 anabolic steroids as, 1:27 doping tests, 2:724 nandrolone, 2:489 overtraining, 2:522 prohormones, 1:27 smilax, 2:642 tribulus, 2:743 Tetrahydrogestinone (THG), 2:727–728 TFCC (Triangular fibrocartilage complex), 2:802 Theodore, Jose, 2:725 Therapeutic use exemption, 2:549, 724–725 Paralympics, 2:527 restricted substances, 2:570, 696 Thermogenesis. See Energy expenditure Thermometers, rectal vs. tympanic, 1:155 Thermoregulation, 2:726–727 blood flow, 2:637 in cold weather, 2:637 core body temperature, 1:155 exercise, thirst, 2:725–726 exercise physiology, 2:535 heat stroke, 1:358 hydration, 1:375–376, 378 thirst, 1:235, 2:725–726 in warm weather, 2:769 water, 2:770–771 Thermotolerance and exercise, 1:241 THG (Tetrahydrogestinone), 2:727–728 Thiamine, 1:53, 196 Thiazides, 1:203 Thigh injuries, 2:728–729 heat cramps, 1:356 soccer, 2:652–653 Thirst dehydration, 1:372–373, 375


fluid replacement, 1:235, 2:771 thermoregulation, 1:235, 2:725–726 Thomas, Frank Edward, 2:729–730 Thompson, Daley, 1:187 Thoracic spine, 1:54, 55 Thoracic spine injuries, 1:55 Thorpe, Ian, 2:700 Thorpe, Jim, 1:186–187, 276, 407, 2:496 Three-day event, 1:229–230 Throwing injuries, cheerleader, 1:141, 143 Throwing technique cricket, 1:162, 166–167, 167, 168 curve ball, 1:65–66, 67 discus, 1:201 elbow injuries from, 1:215, 217 figure skating, 1:266, 266–267 flexibility, 2:694 football (American), 1:283–284, 284 frisbee, 1:294 shot put, 2:618, 618 track and field events, 2:736–737 for young athletes, 2:808–809 Thumb gamekeepers, 1:345 skier’s, 2:803 Thurber, James, 1:352 Thyroxine (T4), 1:372 Tibia, 1:450, 2:514–515 Tibia fractures, 1:451–452 Tiller, 2:606 Time zone changes, 1:6–7 Timex Ironman, 2:741 Timing swimming, 2:707 track and field, 2:735 Tinea pedis, 1:43–44 Tinted lens, 1:154 Tires automobile racing, 1:51–52 BMX bicycle, 1:85 motorcycle, 2:478 Title IX, 1:297, 299, 2:495–496, 730–732, 790 Toe hammer, 1:150, 269 turf, 1:250 Tolerance, drug, 1:209 Tomography, computer axial, 1:439–440, 2:677 Tonsillitis, 2:750 Topical corticosteroids, 2:732–733 Torque, 2:660 Torso, 1:97 Total body weight training, 2:583, 602 Total daily energy expenditure, 2:733–734 Touch pads, 2:707

Tour de France, 1:180–183 Armstrong, Lance, 1:36, 37–38, 38, 39 doping in, 1:174–175 doping tests, 2:521 erythropoietin and, 1:91 history, 1:172, 180–181 mountain climbs, 1:181 prologues, 1:181 as road racing, 1:173 Tour of Spain, 1:173 Tourist Trophy motorcycle racing, 2:478 Tracheobronchitis, 2:750 Track and field, 2:734–737, 736 anabolic steroid use, 1:287–288 Paralympics, 1:198 shoes for, 1:185 timing, 2:735 See also specific events Tracks bicycle, 1:173, 177–178 physics of banks and curves, 2:533–534 plastic, 2:736 rubberized, 1:98, 2:736 running injuries from, 2:592 Traditional Chinese medicine, 1:13–14, 14, 360–362, 361 phytochemicals in, 2:537 tribulus in, 2:743 Training coaches, 2:676 for mature athletes, 2:461 sport psychology, 2:673–674 youth, 2:810–812 See also Periodization of training; specific training techniques Training effect, 1:134 Trampoline, 1:328, 2:634, 737–738 Trans fatty acids, 1:252, 290 Transfusions, autotransfusion, 1:90 Transgendered persons, 2:613 Transition training, triathlon, 2:743 Trap (Shooting), 2:614 Trapeze table, 2:538 Treadmills, 2:738–740, 739 Trench mouth, 2:749 Triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC), 2:802 Triathlon, 2:740, 740–741 aero bars for, 1:440 Collins, John, 1:149–150 cross training, 1:169, 170 distances, 1:409 sprint, 2:740 training for, 2:741–743, 742 wetsuits, 2:784, 785 young athletes in, 2:810 See also Ironman competitions Tribulus, 2:743–744 Tribulus terrestris. See Tribulus Triceps development, 1:105

855

GENERAL INDEX

Triglycerides in adipose tissue, 1:15–16, 95 fat oxidation, 1:253 liver function, 1:442–443 Triiodothyronine (T3), 1:372 Trillant, Andrew, 1:29 Triple axel, 1:266–267, 410 Triple jump, 2:737, 744, 744–745 Triple lutz, 1:454 Triplett, Norman, 2:472 Trochanteris bursitis, 1:368 Tubing, exercise, 1:69 Turf, artificial, 1:250, 262, 2:647 Turf toe, 1:250 The Turners, 1:412 Turns, swimming, 2:706 Turnverein, 1:412 Twain, Mark, 2:698 12 Rules of the Marquees, 1:101 24-second clock rule, 1:83–84, 2:466 Twitches, muscle, 2:479 Two-a-day practice sessions, 2:745–746 Tympanic thermometers, 1:155 Type 1 diabetes, 2:510 Type 2 diabetes, 1:422, 2:511 Type A personality, 2:674–675, 693 Type B personality, 2:674–675 Type I fibers. See Slow twitch fibers Type II fibers. See Fast twitch fibers

U

U. S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA), 2:727, 747–748 UCL injuries. See Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries UCLA Bruins, 2:795–796 UEFA (Union of European Football Associations), 1:233, 405, 2:647 Ulanov, Alexei, 1:265 Ulnar bone, 1:214 Ulnar collateral ligament anatomy, 1:96, 215 Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries, 1:217 arthroscopy, 2:677 baseball, 1:67, 68 football (American), 1:280 Ulnar nerve, 1:215 Ulnohumeral joint, 1:214, 215 Ultimate Frisbee, 1:293 Ultra marathon running, 1:246 Ultrasound, 1:10, 363, 2:539 Ultraviolet (UV) rays, 1:149 UNESCO (United Nations Education, Science and Cultural Organization), 1:406

856

Unexplained performance syndrome, 2:556 Union Internationale de Pentathlon Modern et Biathlon, 1:84 Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 1:233, 405, 2:647 United Nations Education, Science and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 1:406 United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA), 2:729, 747–748, 799 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2:504–505, 506–507 United States Golf Association, 1:310, 312 United States Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA), 1:303 United States Olympic Committee (USOC), 1:24, 2:748–749 United States Postal Service Pro Cycling Team (USPSPCT), 1:37–38 United States Track and Field Association (USTAF) hydration guidelines, 1:379 marathons, 2:791 therapeutic use exemptions, 2:696 United States Volley Ball Association (USVBA), 2:758 Universal line machines, 2:752 University sports. See Intercollegiate sports University of Texas, Human Performance Laboratory, 1:182 Unsaturated fats, 1:252, 254 Upper leg injuries, 2:728–729 Upper respiratory tract infections, 2:749–750 Uppercut, 1:102, 130–131 Urine color, 2:726, 746 Urine production, 1:202–203 USA Table Tennis Association (USATTA), 2:711 USA Volleyball, 2:758 USADA (U. S. Anti-Doping Agency), 2:727, 747–748, 799 USDA (United States Department of Agriculture), 1:118, 2:504–505, 506–507 USLTA (United States Lawn Tennis Association), 1:303 USOC (United States Olympic Committee), 1:24, 2:748–749 USTAF (United States Track and Field Association), 1:379, 2:696, 791

V

Vaccination, 1:400 Variable resistance exercise, 2:751–752 Variable weight diving, 1:290

Vasicinone, 2:624 Vasoconstriction, 2:727 Vasodilation, 2:727, 807 Vasodilators, 1:381 Vault, pole. See Pole vault Vaulting, gymnastics, 1:334–335, 335, 412 Vegas line, 2:497 Velcro, 1:186 Velocio, 1:172 Velocity banks and curves, 2:533–534 tackling techniques, 1:282–283 Velodrome, 1:173, 177 Ventilatory acclimatization, 1:366 Ventricular fibrillation, 1:132 Venture (Aerodynamics), 1:48 Vertebrae alignment, 1:144–146 Vertical jump, 2:752–753 Vesicles, 1:88 Vestibular system, 1:58 Viagra, 2:612 Viatu, Casey, 1:416 Videotape recorders, 1:304 Villeneuve, Giles, 1:50 Viren, Lasse, 1:89, 2:753–754, 754 Vision-impaired disability classification, 1:198, 2:526 Vision loss, 2:680 VISTA conferences, 2:526 Visualization, 2:754–755 biofeedback, 1:87 bowling, 1:100 shooting, 2:615 sport psychology, 2:673–674 Vitamin A, 1:33, 83 Vitamin A deficiency, 2:458 Vitamin B-complex, 1:53–54, 2:669 Vitamin B-complex deficiency, 1:54, 2:458 Vitamin B1, 1:53 Vitamin B2, 1:53 Vitamin B3, 1:53 Vitamin B6, 1:53, 197, 2:744 Vitamin B9, 1:54 Vitamin B12, 1:53 Vitamin C, 1:33, 132, 2:755–756 Vitamin C deficiency, 1:196, 2:458, 756, 777 Vitamin D bone development, 1:98, 323, 2:518 calcium with, 1:113, 2:468 cortisone injections, 1:157 glucocorticoids, 1:305 phosphates, 2:532 in sport nutrition, 2:669 stress fractures, 2:566


GENERAL INDEX

Vitamin D deficiency, 2:458, 518 Vitamin deficiencies, 2:458 Vitamin E, 1:33, 132, 2:756–757 Vitamin supplements, 1:196, 197, 209 See also Dietary supplements Vitamins defined, 1:194 dietary intake of, 1:191 fat-soluble, 1:254, 290, 2:507, 668, 669 nutritive value, 2:505 in sport nutrition, 2:669 VO2 max Armstrong, Lance, 1:38, 182 in cycling, 1:179 endurance training, 1:134 exercise physiology, 2:535 gender differences, 1:257, 299 genetics, 1:300 in high intensity exercise, 1:236, 237 in intermittent exercise, 1:238 in mature athletes, 2:460 musculoskeletal injuries, 2:485 phosphates, 2:532 rowing, 2:583 short, high intensity exercise, 2:616 test results, 1:134 Volleyball, 2:757–760, 759 international federations, 1:405 set and spike mechanisms, 2:760–761, 761 strength training and exercises, 2:761–763 vertical jump, 2:752 women’s, 2:790

W

WADA. See World Anti-Doping Agency Waikiki Rough Water Swims, 1:149–150, 408 Waitz, Grete, 2:765–766 Wakeboarding, 1:245–246, 2:766, 774 Wakefullness, 2:640 Wakeskating, 2:766 Walker, John, 2:596 Walking low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448, 449 pedometers for, 2:528 power, 1:448 Wall climbing, 2:574–575 Wall handball, 1:347–348 Wallace, Rusty, 2:491 Walsh, William Ernest, 2:766–767 Walton, Bill, 2:795, 796 Warm-up, 2:767–768 calf muscle strain prevention, 1:115 cold weather, 1:149, 2:768 cramp prevention, 2:480 DOMS prevention, 1:189 golf, 1:315


gymnastics injury prevention, 1:332 hamstring injury prevention, 1:342 low back pain prevention, 1:446 recreational sports, 2:564–565 resistance training, 2:568 short, high intensity exercise, 2:616 stretching for, 2:695 Warm weather exercise, 2:768–769 acclimatization, 1:6–7, 224, 241, 2:746, 769 biofeedback, 1:87 blood volume, 1:92 exposure injuries, 1:243 hamstring injuries, 1:342 heat cramps from, 1:355–356 heat exhaustion from, 1:242 hydration for, 1:379 salt tablets for, 2:608 soccer, 2:655 sports drinks for, 1:111 tennis, 2:723 thermoregulation in, 2:726 thermotolerance, 1:241 training for, 1:223–225 whole-body heat cramps, 2:787 young athletes, 2:809 Washington Wizards, 1:417 Water, 2:769–771 for fluid replacement, 1:235 for heat exhaustion, 1:357–358 in hydration, 1:375–377, 377 oxygenated, 2:771–772 recommended consumption, 2:770 vs. sports drinks, 1:377 for two-a-day practice sessions, 2:746 in warm weather, 2:769 Water intoxication. See Hyponatremia Water polo, 2:772–774, 773 Water skiing, 1:245–246, 2:774–776, 775 Wax, ski, 2:630–631, 635 Weather. See Cold weather exercise; Warm weather exercise Weighing, hydrostatic, 1:95 Weight (Body), ideal, 1:432, 2:778, 779, 780 Weight categories, 2:776–778, 777, 780 Weight control, 1:94–95 hypertension, 1:380 weight categories, 2:778 Weight gain diet, 2:504 in disabled individuals, 1:199 hamstring injuries from, 1:342 managed, 2:779 metabolic response to diet for, 2:464 Weight loss, 2:780–782, 782 dehydration, 2:777, 778 ephedra, 1:226 laxatives, 1:213 low-carbohydrate diet, 1:447, 2:781

metabolic response to diet, 2:464 short, high intensity exercise, 2:616 sida cordifolia, 2:624 for weight categories, 2:777 Weight loss products, 2:781–782, 782 ephedra, 1:195, 251, 2:471–472 ephedrine, 2:782 stimulants, 2:781–782 use of, 1:193 Weight machines, 1:291, 292 Weight training back injuries from, 1:55 basketball, 1:79 boxing, 1:102 as cross training, 1:170 cycling, 1:174, 179–180 for fast twitch fiber development, 2:481 football (American), 2:745–746 glutamine supplements for, 1:306 golf, 1:315 ice hockey, 1:396, 2:715 Ironman competitions, 1:409 muscle tears in, 2:486 with plyometrics, 2:544 preseason, 2:550 protein for, 2:668–669 repetitions, 1:292 resistance training, 2:569 rowing, 2:583 shot put, 2:617–618 soccer, 2:654 for strength training, 2:689 synchronized swimming, 2:709 three components of, 1:291 total body, 2:583, 602 triathlon, 2:742–743 triple jump, 2:745 volleyball, 2:762 vs. weightlifting, 2:782 for young athletes, 2:690–691 See also Free weights Weightlifting, 2:782–784, 783 anabolic steroid use, 1:27–28, 2:784 elbow injuries from, 1:216 high intensity, 1:237 human growth hormone for, 1:364 iliotibial band friction from, 1:399 quadriceps injuries from, 2:557–558 weight categories, 2:776–778 Weights, free. See Free weights Weissmuller, Johnny, 2:700 WESCAM system, 1:439 West Coast offense, 2:767 Wetsuits, 2:784, 784–785 hydrodynamics of, 2:741, 784 neoprene, 2:741, 784 open water swimming, 2:704 WFDF (World Flying Disc Federation), 1:293 Wham-O Company, 1:293 WHDF (World High Diving Federation), 1:146 Wheelchair rugby, 1:199

857

GENERAL INDEX

Wheelchair sports, 2:785–786, 786 basketball, 2:526 disability classifications, 1:198 Paralympics, 2:525, 526, 785–786 Petitclairc, Chantal, 2: 530–531 racing, 2:530–531, 786 Wheelchairs mountain biking, 2:786 racing, 2:526, 531, 786 technology of, 2:785 tennis, 2:785 Wheelies, 2:478 Whey protein, 2:555 Whiplash injuries, 1:285, 2:499 Whistles, 1:287 White adipose tissue, 1:16 White blood cells, 1:92, 400 Whitewater racing, 1:122, 123–124, 125, 126, 246 Whitewater rafting, 1:246 WHO (World Health Organization), 1:402 Whole-body heat cramps, 2:786–787 Whole grains, 2:537 Wickenheiser, Hayley, 2:793 Wicking blisters, 1:89 for cold weather, 1:149, 224 Wide receiver, 1:279 Wide World of Sports, 2:461–462 Wild yams, 2:787–788 Wilkins, Dominique, 1:77 Williams, Ester, 2:708 Williams, Serena, 1:433 Willow bark, 1:227, 2:503, 537, 624 Willow bats, 1:162 Wind chill factor, 1:147, 148, 149, 244, 383 Wind resistance, 1:365, 2:739 Wind speed, 1:6–7 Wind tunnel tests automobile, 1:47 cycling, 1:183 Windsurfing, 2:606, 788–790, 789 Wings, automobile, 1:48, 285 Withdrawal, caffeine, 1:112 WKF (World Karate Federation), 1:425 WNBA (Women’s National Basketball Association), 1:441 Women and sports Abbott, Senda Berenson, 1:1–2 African Americans, 1:303–304 Boston Marathon, 2:595 exercise data, goals and guidelines, 2:790–792, 791 figure skating, 1:262 golf, 2:662–663 gymnastics, 1:328–329 increased participation by, 2:790–792

858

intercollegiate sports, 2:495–496 International Olympic Committee on, 1:406 marathoners, 2:791 running, 2:791, 791 scholarships, 2:731 soccer, 1:338–339 softball, 1:344, 2:657–658 tennis, 1:303–304 Title IX, 1:297, 299, 2:495–496, 730–732, 790 volleyball, 2:790 See also Female athletes; Gender differences Women athletes. See Female athletes Women’s basketball Abbott, Senda Berenson, 1:1–2, 70 ACL injuries, 1:74 Leslie, Lisa Deshaun, 1:440–442 Woodward, Lynette, 2:796–797 Women’s Basketball Guide, 1:2 Women’s ice hockey, 2:792–793, 793 Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA), 1:441 Women’s pentathlon, 2:529–530 Women’s protective equipment, 2:793–795 Women’s sports clothing, 2:793–795, 794 Women’s United Soccer Association (WUSA), 1:388 Wooden, John Robert, 1:3, 2:716, 795–796 Wooden baseball bats, 1:64–65, 2:623 Woods, Tiger, 1:316, 2:543 Woodward, Lynette, 2:796–797 World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 2:797–799, 798 anabolic prohormones, 1:27 Athlete Location Form, 1:42–43 bans, 2:799 beta-2 agonists as, 1:82 blood doping, 1:89–91 caffeine, 1:112 Change of Plan Form, 1:43, 139 dietary supplements, 2:698 diuretics, 1:203, 2:778 ephedra, 1:226, 362 ephedrine, 1:227 establishment and role of, 1:24, 46, 206 event testing, 1:231–232 gene doping, 1:303, 2:799 glycerol, 1:307 human growth hormone, 1:324, 326 International Intergovernmental Consultative Group on AntiDoping in Sport, 1:406 Mormon tea, 2:471 out-of-competition testing, 2:520 Pound, Richard W., 2:546–547 prohibited substances policies, 2:551, 552, 798, 799 restricted substances, 2:570

sida cordifolia, 2:624 testosterone, 2:724 tetrahydrogestinone, 2:728 therapeutic use exemption, 2:527, 549, 724–725 USADA, 2:747 World Anti-Doping Code, 1:206, 231–232, 233 World Cup rugby, 2:584 soccer, 1:261–262, 405, 2:529, 649, 683 World Flying Disc Federation (WFDF), 1:293 World Health Organization (WHO), 1:402 World High Diving Federation (WHDF), 1:146 World Karate Federation (WKF), 1:425 World Masters Games, 2:461 World Series (Baseball), 1:61 World Series of Cricket, 1:164 World Squash Federation (WSF), 2:685 World Touring Car Championship (WTCC), 1:50 World Track and Field Championships, 2:735 World Triathlon Corporation, 1:409 World Wakeboard Association (WWA), 2:766 World Wrestling Federation (WWF), 2:800 Worth Sports Company, 2:623 Wound healing, 1:5 Wrapping and taping techniques, 2:799–800, 800 Wrestling, 2:800–802, 801 eating disorders in, 1:213 elbow injuries from, 1:216 muscle mass and strength in, 2:482 sumo, 2:696–697, 697 weight categories, 2:776–778 Wright, Robert Ted, 1:250 Wrist anatomy, 1:344, 2:802 strength training, 1:124 Wrist injuries, 2:802–803, 803 basketball, 1:74 bowling, 1:100 carpal tunnel, 1:136–137, 346, 2:803 figure skating, 1:268 fractures, 2:645, 802, 803 golf, 1:314 range of motion, 2:563 scapholunate ligament rupture, 1:345–346 snowboarding, 2:644–645 sprains, 2:684, 802 tendinitis, 2:717, 803 WSF (World Squash Federation), 2:685 WTCC (World Touring Car Championship), 1:50


GENERAL INDEX

X X Games, 2:625, 766 X rays, 2:677 Xiang, Liu, 2:591

Y Yacht racing, 1:405, 2:603 Yams, wild, 2:787–788, 788 Yana, Tie, 2:712 Yellow dock, 1:362 YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association), 2:487 Yo-yo dieting, 1:193 Yoga, 2:805–806, 806 cycling, 1:174 flexibility from, 2:695 low-impact cardiovascular exercise, 1:448 for piriformis syndrome, 2:539 resistance training, 2:568 Yogurt, 1:197 Yohimbine, 2:806–807 Young, Steve, 2:767


Young athletes contact sports for, 2:812 defined, 2:808, 809 diet for, 2:811 eating disorders in, 2:809 foot stress fractures in, 2:694 football-related concussion, 1:20 medical conditions of, 2:679 motivational techniques, 2:809 nutrition for, 2:507 Osgood-Schlatter disease, 2:515 participation by, 2:731 periodization of training for, 2:810–811 plyometrics for, 2:544 resistance training, 2:568 scholarships, 2:811 sleep for, 2:640 sport coaching for, 2:808, 810 sport performance of, 2:808, 810 sports training, 2:810–812 strength training for, 2:690–691 stress in, 2:809 throwing technique for, 2:808–809 volleyball training, 2:762 warm weather exercise, 2:809 See also Adolescents; Children

Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), 2:487 Youth sport performance, 2:809–810, 810 Youth sports injuries, 2:803, 808–809 Youth sports training, 2:810–812 Yurchenko, 1:335

Z Zamboni, Frank Joseph, 1:393, 2:813–814 Zamboni machines, 1:393, 2:813–814 Za´topek, Dana, 2:814 Za´topek, Emil, 1:237, 2:594, 814–815, 815 Zinc, 1:197, 2:468, 744 Zinc oxide, 1:13 ZMA, 2:744 Zmelik, Robert, 1:187 Zoloft, 2:612 Zsivoczky, Attila, 1:367

859

World of Sports Science

Dictionary of Sports Science

Science and Racket Sports 2 (Science and Racket Sports)

Sports Nutrition (Handbook of Sports Medicine and Science)

Science and Racket Sports III: The Proceedings of the Eighth International Table Tennis Federation Sports Science Congress and The Third World Congress of Science and Racket Sports

Dictionary of Sports and Exercise Science

Gold Medal Physics: The Science of Sports

Science and Racket Sports IV

World Of Forensic Science

World of Earth Science

World of Earth Science

World of Earth Science

World of Earth Science

World Of Forensic Science

World of Earth Science

Sports (Experimenting With Everyday Science)

Rourkeis Enciclipaedia World of Science. Earth Science

Textbook of Sports Medicine: Basic Science and Clinical Aspects of Sports Injury and Physical Activity

Textbook of Sports Medicine: Basic Science and Clinical Aspects of Sports Injury and Physical Activity

Saving the World: And Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving The World And Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving The World And Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Sports Turf: Science, construction and maintenance

World of Sports Science

Dictionary of Sports Science

Science and Racket Sports 2 (Science and Racket Sports)

Sports Nutrition (Handbook of Sports Medicine and Science)

Science and Racket Sports III: The Proceedings of the Eighth International Table Tennis Federation Sports Science Congress and The Third World Congress of Science and Racket Sports

Dictionary of Sports and Exercise Science

Gold Medal Physics: The Science of Sports

Science and Racket Sports IV

World Of Forensic Science

World of Earth Science

World of Earth Science

World of Earth Science

World of Earth Science

World Of Forensic Science

World of Earth Science

Sports (Experimenting With Everyday Science)

Rourkeis Enciclipaedia World of Science. Earth Science

Textbook of Sports Medicine: Basic Science and Clinical Aspects of Sports Injury and Physical Activity

Textbook of Sports Medicine: Basic Science and Clinical Aspects of Sports Injury and Physical Activity

Saving the World: And Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving The World And Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Saving The World And Other Extreme Sports

Saving the World and Other Extreme Sports

Sports Turf: Science, construction and maintenance

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